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242371 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Gough%20%28antiquarian%29 | Richard Gough (antiquarian) | Richard Gough (21 October 1735 – 20 February 1809) was a prominent and influential English antiquarian. He served as director of the Society of Antiquaries of London from 1771 to 1791; published a major work on English church monuments; and translated and edited a new edition of William Camden's Britannia.
He is not to be confused with the Richard Gough who wrote a "History of Myddle", Shropshire, in 1700.
Life
Gough was born in London, where his father, Harry Gough, was a prosperous director of the British East India Company and also a member of parliament. In 1751 he entered Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where he began his work on British topography, eventually published in 1768. Leaving Cambridge in 1756, without a degree, he began a series of antiquarian excursions in various parts of Great Britain.
Gough was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1767, and was its director from 1771 to 1791. As director, he urged the Society to increase the scope of its publications, especially as a means of recording England's Gothic architecture; as the intermittent series Vetusta Monumenta was the only record of its research. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1775. His books and manuscripts relating to Anglo-Saxon and northern literature, all his collections in the department of British topography, and a large number of his drawings and engravings of other archaeological remains, were bequeathed to the University of Oxford. One notable item in the bequest is the so-called Gough Map, an outstanding medieval map of Britain, which is now known by Gough's name.
Works
Gough was a precocious child, and at twelve had translated from the French a history of the Bible, which his mother printed for private circulation. Aged fifteen he translated Abbé Claude Fleury's work on the Israelites; and at sixteen he published an elaborate work entitled Atlas Renovatus, or Geography modernised. In 1773 he began an edition in English of William Camden's Britannia: this was published in 1789, with a second edition appearing in 1806.
Meantime he published, in 1786, the first volume of his work the Sepulchral Monuments in Great Britain, applied to illustrate the history of families, manners, habits and arts at the different periods from the Norman Conquest to the Seventeenth Century. This volume, which contained the first four centuries, was followed in 1796 by a second volume containing the 15th century, and an introduction to the second volume appeared in 1799.
Among Gough's minor works are An Account of the Bedford Missal (in manuscript); A Catalogue of the Coins of Canute, King of Denmark (1777); History of Pleshey in Essex (1803); An Account of the Coins of the Seleucidae, Kings of Syria (1804); and "History of the Society of Antiquaries of London," prefixed to their Archaeologia.
References
Further reading
Catalogue
External links
See https://archive.org/stream/antiquitiesmemo00gouggoog#page/n0/mode/1up
1735 births
1809 deaths
18th-century antiquarians
19th-century antiquarians
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
Gough-Calthorpe family | [
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242376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad%20Barre | Siad Barre | Mohamed Siad Barre (, Osmanya script: ; ; 1910 – 2 January 1995) was a Somali general who served as the President of the Somali Democratic Republic from 1969 to 1991 and the third overall President of Somalia. He was given the childhood nickname Afweyne roughly referring to extrovertedness. Barre, a major general of the gendarmerie by profession, became President of Somalia after the 1969 coup d'état that overthrew the Somali Republic following the assassination of President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke. The Supreme Revolutionary Council military junta under Barre reconstituted Somalia as a one-party Marxist–Leninist communist state, renaming the country the Somali Democratic Republic and adopting scientific socialism, with support from the Soviet Union.
Barre’s early rule was characterised by attempts at widespread modernization, nationalization of banks and industry, promotion of cooperative farms, a new writing system for the Somali language, and anti-tribalism. The Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party became Somalia's vanguard party in 1976, and Barre started the Ogaden War against Ethiopia on a platform of Somali nationalism and pan-Somalism. Barre's popularity was highest during the seven months between September 1977 and March 1978 when Barre captured virtually the entirety of the Somali region. It declined from the late-1970s following Somalia's defeat in the Ogaden War, triggering the Somali Rebellion and severing ties with the Soviet Union. Somalia then allied itself with the United States.
Opposition grew in the 1980s due to his increasingly dictatorial rule, growth of tribal politics, abuses of the National Security Service including the Isaaq genocide, and the sharp decline of Somalia's economy. In 1991, Barre’s government collapsed as the Somali Rebellion successfully ejected him from power, leading to the Somali Civil War, and forcing him into exile where he died in Nigeria in 1995.
Early years
Mohamed Siad Barre was born in Shilavo, Ogaden which is now present-day Ethiopia in 1910. Barre’s parents died when he was ten years old, and after receiving his primary education in the town of Luuq in southern Italian Somalia he moved to the capital Mogadishu to pursue his secondary education. He was given the childhood nickname Afweyne, refererring to extrovertedness. According to senior Somali dipomat, Abdullahi Dool, one of his Brothers had died as a result of a raid by Habr Yunis nomads in the early twentieth century and this event he posits may have shaped his negative view of the Isaaq clan as a whole.
Barre later on participated as a Zaptié in the southern theatre of the Italian conquest of Ethiopia in 1936, and then joined the colonial police force during the British Somaliland military administration, rising to major general, the highest possible rank. In 1946, Barre supported the Somali Conference (), a political group of parties and clan associations that were hostile to the Somali Youth League and were supported by the local Italian farmers. The group presented a petition to the "Four Powers" Investigation Commission in order to allow that the administration of the United Nations Trust Territory could be entrusted for thirty years to Italy. In 1950, shortly after Italian Somaliland became a United Nations Trust Territory under Italian administration for ten years, Barre (who was fluent in Italian) attended the Carabinieri police school in Florence for two years. Upon his return to Somalia, Barre remained with the military and eventually became Vice Commander of the Somali Army when the country gained its independence in 1960 as the Somali Republic.
In the early 1960s, after spending time with Soviet officers in joint training exercises, Barre became an advocate of Soviet-style Marxist-Leninist government, believing in a socialist government and a stronger sense of Somali nationalism.
Seizure of power
In 1969, following the assassination of Somalia's second president, Abdirashid Ali Shermarke, the military staged the 1969 coup d'état on 21 October, the day after Shermarke's funeral, overthrowing the Somali Republic's government. The Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC), a military junta led by Major General Barre, Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Ali Korshel, assumed power and filled the top offices of the government, with Kediye officially holding the title of "Father of the Revolution," although Barre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC. The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic, arrested members of the former government, banned political parties, dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.
Presidency
Barre assumed the position of President of Somalia, styled the "Victorious Leader" (Guulwade), and fostered the growth of a personality cult with portraits of him in the company of Marx and Lenin lining the streets on public occasions. Barre advocated a form of scientific socialism based on the Qur'an and Marxism-Leninism, with heavy influences of Somali nationalism.
Supreme Revolutionary Council
The Supreme Revolutionary Council established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. Barre began a program of nationalising industry and land, and the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the Arab world, eventually joining the Arab League in 1974. That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of the African Union (AU).
In July 1976, Barre’s SRC disbanded itself and established in its place the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP), a one-party government based on scientific socialism and Islamic tenets. The SRSP was an attempt to reconcile the official state ideology with the official state religion. Emphasis was placed on the Muslim principles of social progress, equality and justice, which the government argued formed the core of scientific socialism and its own accent on self-sufficiency, public participation and popular control, as well as direct ownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged private investment on a limited scale, the administration's overall direction was proclaimed to be Communist.
A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's Assembly were held. However, the Politburo of Barre’s Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party continued to rule. In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place.
Slogans
On a more symbolic level, Barre had repeated a number of times, "Whom do you know? is changed to: What do you know?", and this incantation became part of a popular street song in Somalia. He also promoted a number of favored greetings, such as the singular jaalle (comrade) or the plural jaallayaal (comrades).
Nationalism and Greater Somalia
Barre advocated the concept of a Greater Somalia (Soomaaliweyn), which refers to those regions in the Horn of Africa in which ethnic Somalis reside and have historically represented the predominant population. Greater Somalia encompasses Somalia, Djibouti, the Ogaden in Ethiopia, and Kenya's former North Eastern Province, regions of the Horn of Africa where Somalis form the majority of the population to some proportion. In July 1977, the Ogaden War broke out after the Barre’s government sought to incorporate the various Somali-inhabited territories of the region into a Greater Somalia, beginning with the Ogaden. The Somali national army invaded Ethiopia, which was now under communist rule of the Soviet-backed Derg, and was successful at first, capturing most of the territory of the Ogaden. The invasion reached an abrupt end with the Soviet Union's shift of support to Ethiopia, followed by almost the entire communist world siding against Somalia. The Soviets halted their previous supplies to Barre’s regime and increased the distribution of aid, weapons, and training to the Ethiopian government, and also brought in around 15,000 Cuban troops to assist the Ethiopian regime. In 1978, the Somali troops were ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden.
Foreign relations
Control of Somalia was of great interest to both the Soviet Union and the United States due to the country's strategic location at the mouth of the Red Sea. After the Soviets broke with Somalia in the late 1970s, Barre subsequently expelled all Soviet advisers, tore up his friendship treaty with the Soviet Union, and switched allegiance to the West, announcing this in a televised speech in English. Somalia also broke all ties with the Eastern Bloc and the Second World (except China and Romania). The United States stepped in and until 1989, was a strong supporter of the Barre government for whom it provided approximately US$100 million per year in economic and military aid, meeting in 1982 with Ronald Reagan to announce the new relationship between the US and Somalia.
In September 1972 Tanzanian-sponsored rebels attacked Uganda. Ugandan President Idi Amin requested Barre's assistance, and he subsequently mediated a non-aggression pact between Tanzania and Uganda. For his actions, a road in Kampala was named after Barre.
On 17 and 18 October 1977, a Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) group hijacked Lufthansa Flight 181 to Mogadishu, holding 86 hostages. West German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt and Barre negotiated a deal to allow a GSG 9 anti-terrorist unit into Mogadishu to free the hostages.
In January 1986, Barre and the Ethiopian dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam met in Djibouti to normalise relations between their respective countries. The Ethiopian-Somali agreement was signed by 1988 and Barre disbanded his clandestine anti-Ethiopian organisation the Western Somali Liberation Front. In return, Barre hoped that Mengistu would disarm Somali National Movement rebels active on the Ethiopian side of the border, however did this not materialise since the SNM relocated to Northern Somalia in response to this agreement.
Domestic programs
During the first five years, Barre’s government set up several cooperative farms and factories of mass production such as mills, sugar cane processing facilities in Jowhar and Afgooye, and a meat processing house in Kismayo.
Another public project initiated by the government was the Shalanbood Sanddune Stoppage: from 1971 onwards, a massive tree-planting campaign on a nationwide scale was introduced by Barre’s administration to halt the advance of thousands of acres of wind-driven sand dunes that threatened to engulf towns, roads, and farmland. By 1988, 265 hectares of a projected 336 hectares had been treated, with 39 range reserve sites and 36 forestry plantation sites established.
Between 1974 and 1975, a major drought referred to as the Abaartii Dabadheer ("The Lingering Drought") occurred in the northern regions of Somalia. The Soviet Union, which at the time maintained strategic relations with the Barre government, airlifted some 90,000 people from the devastated regions of Hobyo and Aynaba. New settlements of small villages were created in the Jubbada Hoose (Lower Juba) and Jubbada Dhexe (Middle Juba) regions, with these new settlements known as the Danwadaagaha or "Collective Settlements". The transplanted families were introduced to farming and fishing, a change from their traditional pastoralist lifestyle of livestock herding. Other such resettlement programs were also introduced as part of Barre’s effort to undercut clan solidarity by dispersing nomads and moving them away from clan-controlled land.
Economic policies
As part of Barre’s socialist policies, major industries and farms were nationalised, including banks, insurance companies and oil distribution farms. By the mid-to-late-1970s, public discontent with the Barre regime was increasing, largely due to corruption among government officials as well as poor economic performance. The Ogaden War had also weakened the Somali army substantially and military spending had crippled the economy. Foreign debt increased faster than export earnings, and by the end of the decade, Somalia's debt of 4 billion shillings equaled the earnings from seventy-five years' worth of banana exports.
By 1978, manufactured goods exports were almost non-existent, and with the lost support of the Soviet Union the Barre government signed a structural adjustment agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) during the early 1980s. This included the abolishment of some government monopolies and increased public investment. This and a second agreement were both cancelled by the mid-1980s, as the Somali army refused to accept a proposed 60 percent cut in military spending. New agreements were made with the Paris Club, the International Development Association and the IMF during the second half of the 1980s. This ultimately failed to improve the economy which deteriorated rapidly in 1989 and 1990, and resulted in nationwide commodity shortages.
Car collision
In May 1986, President Barre suffered serious injuries in a life-threatening automobile collision near Mogadishu, when the car that was transporting him smashed into the back of a bus during a heavy rainstorm. He was treated in a hospital in Saudi Arabia for head injuries, broken ribs and shock over a period of a month. Lieutenant General Mohammad Ali Samatar, then Vice President, subsequently served as de facto head of state for the next several months. Although Barre managed to recover enough to present himself as the sole presidential candidate for re-election over a term of seven years on 23 December 1986, his poor health and advanced age led to speculation about who would succeed him in power. Possible contenders included his son-in-law General Ahmed Suleiman Abdille, who was at the time the Minister of the Interior, in addition to Barre’s Vice President Lt. Gen. Samatar.
Human rights abuses
Part of Barre’s time in power was characterized by oppressive dictatorial rule, including persecution, jailing and torture of political opponents and dissidents. The United Nations Development Programme stated that "the 21-year regime of Siyad Barre had one of the worst human rights records in Africa." In January 1990, the Africa Watch Committee, a branch of Human Rights Watch organizational released an extensive report titled "Somalia A Government At War with Its Own People" composing of 268 pages, the report highlights the widespread violations of basic human rights in the northern regions of Somalia. The report includes testimonies about the killing and conflict in northern Somalia by newly arrived refugees in various countries around the world. Systematic human rights abuses against the dominant Isaaq clan in the north was described in the report as "state sponsored terrorism" "both the urban population and nomads living in the countryside [were] subjected to summary killings, arbitrary arrest, detention in squalid conditions, torture, rape, crippling constraints on freedom of movement and expression and a pattern of psychological intimidation. The report estimates that 50,000 to 60,000 people were killed from 1988 to 1989." Amnesty International went on to report that torture methods committed by Barre’s National Security Service (NSS) included executions and "beatings while tied in a contorted position, electric shocks, rape of woman prisoners, simulated executions and death threats."
In September 1970, the government introduced the National Security Law No. 54, which granted the NSS the power to arrest and detain indefinitely those who expressed critical views of the government, without ever being brought to trial. It further gave the NSS the power to arrest without a warrant anyone suspected of a crime involving "national security". Article 1 of the law prohibited "acts against the independence, unity or security of the State", and capital punishment was mandatory for anyone convicted of such acts.
From the late 1970s, and onwards Barre faced a shrinking popularity and increased domestic resistance. In response, Barre’s elite unit, the Red Berets (Duub Cas), and the paramilitary unit called the Victory Pioneers carried out systematic terror against the Majeerteen, Hawiye, and Isaaq clans. The Red Berets systematically smashed water reservoirs to deny water to the Majeerteen and Isaaq clans and their herds. More than 2,000 members of the Majeerteen clan died of thirst, and an estimated 50,000 to 200,000 Isaaq were killed by the government. Members of the Victory Pioneers also raped large numbers of Majeerteen and Isaaq women, and more than 500,000 Isaaq members fled to Ethiopia.
Clannism
After the Ogaden War, Barre adopted a "clannism" ideology and abandoned his "socialist facade" to hold onto power. A 120,000 strong army was built for internal repression of the public and to encourage rural clan based conflicts in addition to urban clan directed massacres by specialised armed forces. Barre also singled out the Isaaq clan for a "neo-fascist" type punishment resulting in a "semi-colonial" type subjugation which fuelled collective self assertion to supporters of the Somali National Movement.
By the mid-1980s, more resistance movements supported by Ethiopia's communist Derg administration had sprung up across the country. Barre responded by ordering punitive measures against those he perceived as locally supporting the guerillas, especially in the northern regions. The clampdown included bombing of cities, with the northwestern administrative center of Hargeisa, a Somali National Movement (SNM) stronghold, among the targeted areas in 1988. The bombardment was led by General Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan, Barre’s son-in-law, and resulted in the deaths of 50,000 people in the north.
Rebellion and ouster
After fallout from the unsuccessful Ogaden campaign, Barre’s administration began arresting government and military officials under suspicion of participation in the 1978 coup d'état attempt. Most of the people who had allegedly helped plot the putsch were summarily executed. However, several officials managed to escape abroad and started to form the first of various dissident groups dedicated to ousting Barre's regime by force.
A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's Assembly were held. However, Barre and the Politburo of his Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party continued to rule. In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place. By that time, the moral authority of Barre’s ruling Supreme Revolutionary Council had begun to weaken. Many Somalis were becoming disillusioned with life under military dictatorship. The regime was further weakened in the 1980s as the Cold War drew to a close and Somalia's strategic importance was diminished. The government became increasingly totalitarian, and resistance movements, supported by Ethiopia's communist Derg administration, sprang up across the country. This eventually led in 1991 to the outbreak of the civil war, the toppling of Barre’s regime and the disbandment of the Somali National Army (SNA). Among the militia groups that led the rebellion were the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), United Somali Congress (USC), Somali National Movement (SNM) and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), together with the non-violent political oppositions of the Somali Democratic Movement (SDM), the Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG). Siad Barre escaped from his palace towards the Kenyan border in a tank.
Many of the opposition groups subsequently began competing for influence in the power vacuum that followed the ouster of Barre’s regime. In the south, armed factions led by USC commanders General Mohamed Farah Aidid and Ali Mahdi Mohamed, in particular, clashed as each sought to exert authority over the capital.
Exile and death
After fleeing Mogadishu on 26 January 1991 with his son-in-law General Morgan, Barre temporarily remained in Burdhubo, in southwestern Somalia, his family's stronghold. The former dictator fled in a tank filled with reserves from the Somalian central bank. This included gold and foreign currency estimated to have been worth $27 million.
From there, he launched a military campaign to return to power. He twice attempted to retake Mogadishu, but in May 1991 was overwhelmed by General Mohamed Farrah Aidid's army and forced into exile. Barre initially moved to Nairobi, Kenya, but opposition groups there protested his arrival and the Kenyan government's support for him. In response to the pressure and hostilities, he moved two weeks later to Nigeria. Barre died of a heart attack on 2 January 1995, in Lagos. He was buried in Garbahare, Somalia.
Honours
Order of the National Flag, First Class, of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea – 1972
See also
Mohammad Ali Samatar
Hussein Kulmiye Afrah
Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed
Muse Hassan Sheikh Sayid Abdulle
Ali Matan Hashi
Abdullahi Ahmed Irro
Mohamed Osman Irro
Aden Abdullahi Nur
Dahir Adan Elmi
References
Further reading
Shire, Mohammed Ibrahim, Somali President Mohammed Siad Barre: His Life and Legacy, (Cirfe Publications, 2011).
External links
Mohamed Siad Barre biographical website (in Somali)
1910 births
1995 deaths
Italian military personnel of World War II
Leaders who took power by coup
Presidents of Somalia
Somalian military leaders
Somalian Muslims
Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party politicians
Communist rulers
Communism in Somalia
Somalian generals
Somalian communists
People from Somali Region
People of the Cold War
Darod
Genocide perpetrators
Muslim socialists | [
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242379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peronism | Peronism | Peronism, also called justicialism, is an Argentine political movement based on the ideas and legacy of Argentine ruler Juan Perón (1895–1974). It has been an influential movement in 20th and 21st century Argentine politics. Since 1946, Peronists won 10 out of the 13 presidential elections in which they have been allowed to run. The main Peronist party is the Justicialist Party. The policies of Peronist presidents have differed greatly, but the general ideology has been described as "a vague blend of nationalism and labourism" or populism.
Perón became Argentina's labour secretary after participating in the 1943 military coup and was elected president of Argentina in 1946. He introduced social programs that benefited the working class, supported labor unions and called for additional involvement of the state in the economy. In addition, he helped industrialists. Perón was hugely popular and gained even more admiration through his wife Eva, who championed for the rights of migrant workers and was beloved by the people.
Eva was so beloved that, in 1949, Juan Perón formed the Female Peronist Party, a new wing within his own party under her leadership. Due to rising inflation and other economic problems and alleged political repression, the military overthrew Perón in 1955. The Peronist party was banned and it was not until 1973 that open elections were held again in which Perón was re-elected president.
Perón died the next year; his widow and vice president Isabel took over the presidency.
Perón's death left an intense power vacuum and the military promptly overthrew Isabel in 1976. Following the return to democracy in 1983 Peronist candidates dominated the presidency. In 37 years of democracy, Peronists held the presidency for 24 years.
Carlos Menem was elected in 1989 and served for two consecutive terms over ten years. His main focus was the privatization of state run enterprises, the adoption of free-market policies and good international relations with the United States. After the De La Rúa administration collapsed, two interim Peronist leaders took over: Adolfo Rodríguez Saá and later Eduardo Duhalde. Left-wing Peronist Néstor Kirchner, elected in 2003, served for only one term, while his wife, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, served two (having been elected in 2007 and re-elected in 2011), and is, since 2019, the current vice president with Alberto Fernández as president.
Overview
The pillars of the Peronist ideal, known as the "three flags", are social justice, economic independence and political sovereignty. Peronism can be described as a third position ideology as it rejects both capitalism and communism. Peronism espouses corporatism and thus aims to mediate tensions between the classes of society, with the state responsible for negotiating compromise in conflicts between managers and workers.
Peronism gained popularity in Argentina after the failure of its government to listen and recognize the needs of its middle class. As president of Argentina, Hipólito Yrigoyen did not listen to the workers' pleas for better wages and better working conditions after World War I. Yrigoyen was notorious for failing to oppose Argentina’s oligarchy. According to Teresa Meade in A History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present, Yrigoyen failed "to establish a middle-class-based political system from 1916 to 1930 – mainly because his Radical Civic Union had neither the will nor the means to effectively oppose the dominance of the oligarchy". Many in power did not work to change the way things were. However, Juan Perón, at that time a military officer, used his experiences in Europe and his admiration for certain leaders like Mussolini to create a new political atmosphere that he felt would better the lives of citizens in Argentina.
Unlike Yrigoyen, Perón "recognized that the industrial working class was not necessarily an impediment, and could be mobilized to serve as the basis for building a corporatist state that joined the interests of labor with those of at least a large section of the national bourgeoisie to promote a nationalist agenda".
From the perspective of its opponents, Peronism is an authoritarian ideology. Perón was often compared to fascist dictators, accused of demagoguery and his policies derided as populist. Proclaiming himself the embodiment of nationality, Perón's government often silenced dissent by accusing opponents of being unpatriotic, especially noticeable in his second term from 1952 to 1955, where these policies were intensified as a form of control in the face of crisis. The corporatist character of Peronism drew attacks from socialists who accused his administration of preserving capitalist exploitation and class division. Conservatives rejected its modernist ideology and felt their status threatened by the ascent of the Peronist apparat. Liberals condemned the Perón regime's arbitrariness and dictatorial tendencies.
The Economist has called Peronism "an alliance between trade unions and the "caudillos" of the backward north".
Chilean senator Ignacio Walker has criticized Peronism as having "Fascistoid", "authoritarian" and "corporative" traits and a "perverse logic" considering this "the real wall between Chile and Argentina" and "not the Andes".
Defenders of Peronism also describe the doctrine as populist, albeit in the sense that they believe it embodies the interests of the masses and in particular the most vulnerable social strata. Admirers hold Perón in esteem for his administration's anti-imperialism and non-alignment as well as its socially progressive initiatives. Amongst other measures introduced by Perón's governments, social security was made universal while education was made free to all who qualified and working students were given one paid week before every major examination. Vast low-income housing projects were created and paid vacations became standard. All workers (including white-collar employees) were guaranteed free medical care and half of their vacation-trip expenses and mothers-to-be received three paid months off prior to and after giving birth. Workers' recreation centers were also constructed throughout the country.
Ideology
Twenty Peronist Tenets
From Peron's "Peronist Philosophy":
"A true democracy is that one in which the government does what the people want and defends only one interest: the people's."
"Peronism is essentially of the common people. Any political elite is anti-people, and thus, not Peronist."
"A Peronist works for the movement. Whoever, in the name of Peronism, serves an elite or a leader, is a Peronist in name only."
"For Peronism, there is only one class of person: those who work."
"Working is a right that creates the dignity of men; and it's a duty, because it's fair that everyone should produce as much as they consume at the very least."
"For a good Peronist, there is nothing better than another Peronist." (In 1973, after coming back from exile, in a conciliatory attempt, and in order to lessen the division in society, Peron reformed this tenet to: "For an Argentine, there is nothing better than another Argentine.")
"No Peronist should feel more than what he is, nor less than what he should be. When a Peronist feels more than what he is, he begins to turn into an oligarch."
"When it comes to political action, the scale of values of every Peronist is: Argentina first; the movement second; and thirdly, the individuals."
"Politics are not an end, but a means for the well-being of Argentina: which means happiness for our children and greatness for our nation."
"The two arms of Peronism are social justice and social help. With them, we can give a hug of justice and love to the people."
"Peronism desires national unity and not struggle. It wants heroes, not martyrs."
"Kids should be the only privileged class."
"A government without doctrine is a body without soul. That's why Peronism has a political, economic and social doctrine: Justicialism."
"Justicialism is a new philosophy of life: simple, practical, of the common people, and profoundly Christian and humanist."
"As political doctrine, Justicialism balances the right of the individual and society."
"As an economic doctrine, Justicialism proposes a social market, putting capital to the service of the economy and the well-being of the people."
"As a social doctrine, Justicialism carries out social justice, which gives each person their rights in accordance to their social function."
"Peronism wants an Argentina socially 'fair', economically 'free' and politically 'sovereign'."
"We establish a centralized government, an organized State and a free people."
"In this land, the best thing we have is our people."
Perón's policies
Socialism, nationalism, and populism
Perón's ideas were widely embraced by a variety of different groups in Argentina across the political spectrum. Some of Perón's personal views later became a burden on the ideology, such as his anti-clericalism, which did not strike a sympathetic chord with upper-class Argentinians.
Peronism is widely regarded as a form of corporate socialism, or "right-wing socialism". Perón's public speeches were consistently nationalist and populist. It would be difficult to separate Peronism from corporate nationalism, for Perón nationalized Argentina's large corporations, blurring distinctions between corporations and government. At the same time, the labor unions became corporate, ceding the right to strike in agreements with Perón as Secretary of Welfare in the military government from 1943–1945. In exchange, the state was to assume the role of negotiator between conflicting interests.
Peronism also lacked a strong interest in matters of foreign policy other than the belief that the political and economic influences of other nations should be kept out of Argentina—he was somewhat isolationist. Early in his presidency, Perón envisioned Argentina's role as a model for other countries in Latin America and proposed economical unions with the countries of this region, which was expressed with his phrase: "The 2000s will find us unionized or dominated", but such ideas were ultimately abandoned. Despite his oppositional rhetoric, Perón frequently sought cooperation with the United States government on various issues.
Attitudes towards Jews
Argentina has had the largest Jewish population in Latin America since before Perón came to power. After becoming president, he invited members of the Jewish community to participate in his government. One of his advisors was José Ber Gelbard, a Jewish man from Poland. Peronism did not have an antisemitic bias. The Jewish Virtual Library writes that while Juan Perón had sympathized with the Axis powers, "Perón also expressed sympathy for Jewish rights and established diplomatic relations with Israel in 1949. Since then, more than 45,000 Jews have immigrated to Israel from Argentina".
In the book Inside Argentina from Perón to Menem, author Laurence Levine, also former president of the U.S.–Argentine Chamber of Commerce, writes that "although anti-Semitism existed in Argentina, Perón's own views and his political associations were not anti-Semitic".
While Perón allowed many Nazi and other WWII-era Axis criminals to take refuge in Argentina, he also attracted many Jewish immigrants. Argentina has a Jewish population of over 200,000 citizens, one of the largest in the world.
Criticism of Perón's policies
Political opponents maintain that Perón and his administration resorted to organised violence and dictatorial rule; that Perón showed contempt for any opponents, and regularly characterised them as traitors and agents of foreign powers.
Perón subverted freedoms by nationalising the broadcasting system, centralising the unions under his control and monopolising the supply of newspaper print. At times, Perón also resorted to tactics such as illegally imprisoning opposition politicians and journalists, including Radical Civic Union leader Ricardo Balbin; and shutting down opposition papers, such as La Prensa.
Perón's admiration for Benito Mussolini is well documented. Many scholars categorise Peronism as a fascist ideology. Carlos Fayt believed that Peronism was "an Argentine implementation of Italian fascism". Hayes reaches the conclusion that "the Peronist movement produced a form of fascism that was distinctively Latin American".
One of the most vocal critics of Peronism was the Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges. After Perón ascended to the presidency in 1946, Borges spoke before the Argentine Society of Writers (SADE) by saying: Dictatorships breed oppression, dictatorships breed servility, dictatorships breed cruelty; more loathsome still is the fact that they breed idiocy. Bellboys babbling orders, portraits of caudillos, prearranged cheers or insults, walls covered with names, unanimous ceremonies, mere discipline usurping the place of clear thinking[...] Fighting these sad monotonies is one of the duties of a writer. Need I remind readers of Martín Fierro or Don Segundo that individualism is an old Argentine virtue.
Peronism after Perón
Fall of Perón
A military and civilian coup, the Revolución Libertadora, led by General Eduardo Lonardi, overthrew the Perón regime in 1955. During the coup, Lonardi drew analogies between Perón and Juan Manuel de Rosas. Lonardi used the quote "neither victors nor vanquished" (), which was used by Justo José de Urquiza after deposing Rosas in the battle of Caseros. The official perspective was that Perón was "the second tyranny", the first one being Rosas; and that both ones should be equally rejected and conversely both governments that ousted them should be praised. For this end, they draw the line of historical continuity "May – Caseros – Libertadora", matching the coup with the May Revolution and the defeat of Rosas. This approach backfired. Perón was highly popular and the military coup unpopular, so Peronists embraced the comparison established between Rosas and Perón, but viewing him with a positive light instead. Nationalist historians draw then their own line of historical continuity "San Martín – Rosas – Perón".
The absence of Perón, who lived for 16 years in exile in Francoist Spain, is an important key to understanding Peronism. After he went into exile, he could be invoked by a variety of Argentine sectors opposed to the current state of affairs. In particular, the personality cult of Eva Perón was conserved by supporters while despised by the "national bourgeoisie". In the 1960s, John William Cooke's writings became an important source of left-wing revolutionary Peronism. Left-wing Peronism was represented by many organizations, from the Montoneros and the Fuerzas Armadas Peronistas to the Peronist Youth, the Frente Revolucionario Peronista and the Revolutionary Peronist Youth, passing by Peronismo en Lucha or Peronismo de Base.
On the other hand, older Peronists formed the base of the orthodox bureaucracy, represented by the Unión Obrera Metalúrgica (Augusto Vandor, famous for his 1965 slogan "For a Peronism without Perón" and declaring as well that "to save Perón, one has to be against Perón", or José Ignacio Rucci). Another current was formed by the "62 Organizaciones 'De pie junto a Perón'", led by José Alonso and opposed to the right-wing Peronist unionist movement. In the early 1970s, left-wing Peronism rejected liberal democracy and political pluralism as the mask of bourgeois domination. The anti-communist right-wing Peronism also rejected it in the name of corporatism, claiming to return to a "Christian and humanist, popular, national socialism".
Perón restored
By 1970, many groups from opposite sides of the political spectrum had come to support Perón, from the left-wing and Catholic Montoneros to the fascist-leaning and strongly antisemitic Tacuara Nationalist Movement, one of Argentina's first guerrilla movements. In March 1973, Héctor José Cámpora, who had been named as Perón's personal delegate, was elected President of Argentina, paving the way for the return of Perón from Spain. A few months after Perón's return and the subsequent Ezeiza massacre during which the Peronist Left and Right violently clashed, new elections were held in September with Perón elected president and his third wife Isabel vice president.
José Cámpora, a left-wing Peronist, had been replaced temporarily by interim President Raúl Alberto Lastiri while Perón had chosen to openly support the Peronist right. On 1 October 1973, Senator Humberto Martiarena, who was the national secretary of the Superior Council of the National Justicialist Movement, publicized a document giving directives to confront "subversives, terrorist and Marxist groups" which had allegedly initiated a "war" inside the Peronist organizations. From then on, the Superior Council took a firm grip on the Peronist organizations to expel the Left from it.
On that same day, a meeting took place among President Raúl Lastiri, Interior Minister Benito Llambí, Social Welfare Minister José López Rega, general secretary of the Presidency José Humberto Martiarena and various provincial governors, which has been alleged to have been the foundational act of the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance death squad.
Perón's health was failing throughout his third and final term, which ended abruptly with his death and the succession of his wife to the presidency on 1 July 1974, but she was ousted by the military in another coup d'état in 1976, paving the way for the ensuing dictatorship's '"National Reorganization Process" and the subsequent "Dirty War" against everyone deemed subversive, especially leftists, including left-wing Peronists.
Menem years
The official Peronist party is the Justicialist Party (PJ), which was the only Peronist party for a long time. During the government of Carlos Menem, a group of legislators led by Carlos Álvarez known as the "Group of 8" left the party, claiming that the government was not following Peronist doctrines. They created a new party, the Broad Front.
A short time later, José Octavio Bordón left the PJ as well, fearing that he might lose a primary election against Menem and thus he created his own party to take part in the 1995 elections and allied with Álvarez' Broad Front in the Front for a Country in Solidarity (Frepaso) coalition. Similar breakaway movements followed frequently after that, creating many small parties which were led by single politicians claiming to be the authentic inheritors of Peronism.
Kirchnerism
The PJ did not participate as such during the 2003 elections. The party allowed all three precandidates to run for the general elections, using small parties created for that purpose. Néstor Kirchner won the elections running on a Front for Victory ticket. As he did not disband his party after the election, Kirchnerism relies on both the PJ and the Front for Victory.
See also
Argentine nationalism
Justicialist Party
Operation Condor
Kemalism
Notes
References
Bibliography
Tomas Eloy Martinez, El Sueño Argentino' (The Argentine Dream, 1999) and Memorias del General'' (Memoirs of the General, 1996).
Daniel James, Resistance and Integration: Peronism and the Argentine Working Class, 1946–1979. NY: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Félix Luna, Perón y Su Tiempo, Vol I–III.: Sudamericana, 1990.
External links
Argentine nationalism
Justicialist Party
Eponymous political ideologies
Political theories
Populism
Types of socialism
State ideologies
Syncretic political movements | [
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242380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mojave%20National%20Preserve | Mojave National Preserve | Mojave National Preserve is a United States National Preserve located in the Mojave Desert of San Bernardino County, California, USA, between Interstate 15 and Interstate 40. The preserve was established October 31, 1994, with the passage of the California Desert Protection Act by the US Congress. Previously, it was the East Mojave National Scenic Area, under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Land Management. At , it is the third largest unit of the National Park System in the contiguous United States.
Natural features include the Kelso Dunes, the Marl Mountains and the Cima Dome, as well as volcanic formations such as Hole-in-the-Wall and the Cinder Cone Lava Beds. The preserve encloses Providence Mountains State Recreation Area and Mitchell Caverns Natural Preserve, which are both managed by the California Department of Parks and Recreation.
Impressive Joshua tree forests are found in parts of the preserve. The forest covering Cima Dome and the adjacent Shadow Valley is the largest and densest in the world. In August 2020 a wildfire destroyed 1.3 million Joshua Trees around Cima Dome. The ghost town of Kelso is found in the preserve, with the defunct railroad depot serving as the Visitor Center. The preserve is commonly traversed by 4 wheel drive vehicles traveling on the historic Mojave Road.
Climate in the preserve varies greatly. Summer temperatures average , with highs exceeding . Elevations in the preserve range from at Clark Mountain to near Baker. Annual precipitation varies from near Baker, to almost in the mountains. At least 25% of precipitation comes from summer thunderstorms. Snow is often found in the mountains during the winter.
Mojave Wilderness
The California Desert Protection Act of 1994 (CDPA) designated a wilderness area within Mojave National Preserve of approximately . The National Park Service manages the wilderness in accordance with the Wilderness Act, the CDPA, and other laws that protect cultural and historic sites in the wilderness.
Features
Beale Mountains
Cima, California
Cima Dome & Volcanic Field National Natural Landmark
Clark Mountain
Devils Playground
Granite Mountains
Ivanpah, California
Ivanpah Mountains
Kelso, California
Kelso Depot
Kelso Dunes
Kelso Mountains
Kelso Wash
Lanfair Valley
Marl Mountains
Mid Hills
Mojave phone booth
Mojave Road
New York Mountains
Old Dad Mountain
Providence, California
Providence Mountains
Vanderbilt, California
Vontrigger Hills
Climate
The following climate data is for a higher elevation area in the preserve. See also Climate of the Mojave Desert.
See also
Mojave Memorial Cross
References
External links
Photo tour of Mojave National Preserve - from USGS
Mojave Desert
National Preserves of the United States
Protected areas of the Mojave Desert
Protected areas of San Bernardino County, California
Protected areas established in 1994
National Park Service areas in California
Geography of San Bernardino County, California
Nature reserves in California
1994 establishments in California | [
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242385 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Henri%20Mallet | Paul Henri Mallet | Paul Henri Mallet (20 August 1730 – 8 February 1807) was a Genevan writer.
Life
He was born and educated in Geneva. He became tutor in the family of the count of Calenberg in Lower Saxony. In 1752 he was appointed professor of belles lettres to the academy at Copenhagen. He was naturally attracted to the study of the ancient literature and history of Denmark, his adopted country, and in 1755 he published the first fruits of his researches, under the title Introduction à L'histoire du Danemarch où l'on traite de la religion, des moeurs, des lois, et des usages des anciens Danois.
A second part, more particularly relating to Danish literature, Monuments de la mythologie et de la poesie des Celtes, et particulierement des anciens Scandinaves, was issued in 1756, and was also translated into Danish. A translation into English, with notes and preface, by Bishop Thomas Percy, was issued in 1770 under the title of Northern Antiquities (republished with additions in 1847).
The book had a wide circulation, and attracted much attention on account of its being the first (though a very defective) translation into French of the Edda. The king of Denmark showed his appreciation by choosing Mallet to be preceptor of the crown prince. In 1760 he returned to Geneva, and became professor of history in his native city. While there he was requested by the czarina to undertake the education of the heir-apparent of Russia (afterwards the Czar Paul I), but declined. A more appealing invitation led to his accompanying Lord Mountstuart in his travels through Italy and thence to England, where Mallet was presented at court and commissioned to write the history of the house of Brunswick. He had previously received similar commission from the landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) for the reparation of a history of the house of Hesse, and both works were completed in 1785.
The quietness of a literary life was rudely broken by the French Revolution, to which he was openly hostile. His leanings to the unpopular side were so obnoxious to his fellow-citizens that he was obliged to quit his native country in 1792, and remained in exile till 1801. He died at Geneva.
Works
A memoir of his life and writings, by Sismondi, was published at Geneva in 1807. Besides the Introduction to the History of Denmark, his principal works are:
Histoire du Danemarch (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1758–1777)
Histoire de la maison de Hesse (4 vols., 1767–1785)
Histoire de la maison de Brunswick (4 vols., 1767–1785)
Histoire de la maison et des etats du Mecklenbourg (1796)
Histoire des Suisses ou Helvetiens (4 vols., Geneva, 1803) (mainly an abridgment of Johannes von Müller's great history)
Histoire de la ligue hanseatique (1805).
References
Mallet, Paul-Henri, in the Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
1730 births
1807 deaths
Writers from the Republic of Geneva
18th century in Geneva
18th-century Swiss writers
Old Norse studies scholars | [
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242394 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplexus | Amplexus | Amplexus (Latin "embrace") is a type of mating behavior exhibited by some externally fertilizing species (chiefly amphibians and horseshoe crabs) in which a male grasps a female with his front legs as part of the mating process, and at the same time or with some time delay, he fertilizes the eggs, as they are released from the female's body. In amphibians, females may be grasped by the head, waist, or armpits, and the type of amplexus is characteristic of some taxonomic groups.
Amplexus involves direct contact between male and female, distinguished from other forms of external fertilization, such as broadcast spawning, where sperm and eggs are freely shed into water without direct contact by individuals. In order for amplexus to be initiated, male frogs must first find a mate by attracting one through calls, typically in the evening. Once a male has successfully attracted a mate, the process of amplexus begins, while the unsuccessful males are forced to continue their search for a mate through further calls.
The competition for a female mate among males is considered intense, and it is not uncommon for a male amphibian to attack an already-amplexed pair of amphibians. When a male amphibian attacks an amplexed pair of amphibians, he is trying to force the other male to release its grasp of the female, so he can then mate with her. Male amphibians are also known to show mate-guarding behaviour, which is shown after amplexus, and it is the male's attempt to prevent the female amphibian from mating with other males.
The duration of amplexus has been found to vary across species. In some species it may last for many days, while in others it may last a few hours. Despite the variation in the duration of amplexus across species, typically all species that exhibit this behaviour have to use their forelimb muscles for the duration of amplexus. Studies have found that this reproductive behaviour of amplexus can come with different fitness costs, due to the fact that amplexus can occur for prolonged periods of time. For instance, a study found that when a male amphibian is grasping and holding onto a female amphibian, this can lead to the impairment of the female's ability to move or to feed. After conducting experiments, researchers confirmed that amplexus does decrease a female's locomotor performance (e.g., swimming, walking) as well as the feeding rates. With regard to the cost to the male engaged in amplexus, male amphibians have been found to not feed at all during amplexus.
Types
Many types of amplexus are identified in the literature. However, two types of amplexus are more common than others, known as inguinal and axillary amplexus. These two types of amplexus have been classified based on the position of the male amphibian relative to the female. When a male amphibian clasps a female around her waist (inguinal region) using his forelimbs, this is considered inguinal amplexus. By contrast, when a male amphibian clasps behind the forelimbs (axillary region) of the female, this is considered axillary amplexus.
Physiological and hormonal function
Physiology
Amplexus has been found to involve different muscles in both male and female amphibians. The forelimb muscles in both males and females have been identified as the key muscles for amplexus that most species use. These forelimb muscles that are used during amplexus are typically larger in males than females, and for males these muscles contain more oxidative fibers, which could mean that amplexus involves an increased rate of aerobic metabolism. In addition to those forelimb muscles being larger in males, male frogs also typically have keratin pads or nuptial pads, which are located on their thumbs and contribute to the success of amplexus by assisting in gripping the female for the duration of amplexus. This amplexus behaviour allows the amphibians' cloacae to be in close contact, while gametes are released. Additionally, amplexus is thought to help with the alignment of the reproductive tracts of both males and females, which furthermore contributes to successful fertilization. A female amphibian may not always be receptive to a male amphibian who is trying to initiate amplexus, as the female may not be ready to produce eggs. When the female is not ready to engage in amplexus, she will simply vibrate her body, which will then be felt by the male who is clasped to her and he will then stop the amplexus behaviour.
Hormones
Two major hormones have been identified to be involved in amplexus. The hormone arginine vasotocin (AVT) has been identified as having an effect on the calling behaviours produced by these male amphibians when searching for a female mate, as AVT increased the amount of calling behaviour produced in male amphibians. Additionally, it is believed that the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) has an influence on amplexus in amphibians, as it has been found to produce or initiate this behaviour in many anuran amphibians. Furthermore, both arginine vasotocin and gonadotropin-releasing hormone have been found to be involved in the sexual behaviour of male amphibians. The stress hormone corticosterone has also been identified as associated with the sexual behaviour of amplexus. A study conducted on red-spotted newts found an acute increase in corticosterone for both males and females who were engaged in the behaviour of amplexus. However, overall it was found that males have a higher level of corticosterone compared to females, as amplexus is seen as more energetically costly to males. The increase in corticosterone found in females could be attributed to amplexus preventing them from foraging for food.
Amphibians
Anurans
Amplexus chiefly occurs aquatically, but some terrestrial anurans (frogs and toads) like the disc-tongued frogs (Discoglossidae) perform amplexus on land. In crown-group anurans, like the true frogs (Ranidae), the tree frogs (Hylidae), and the true toads (Bufonidae), amplexus is axillary (in the armpits). Other anurans (the Archaeobatrachia, Sooglossidae and Myobatrachidae), show the ancestral state which is inguinal or lumbar amplexus (abdominal, in front of the hindlegs). Some species show cephalic amplexus where the head of the female is held while others show complete lack of amplexus. Additionally, anurans species have been observed to engage in multiple amplexus, which can also be referred to as a mating ball, as many toads attach themselves to a female trying to initiate amplexus. However, multiple amplexus is not common among anurans, which could indicate that the costs associated with multiple amplexus are higher than the advantages associated with it. For female anurans, the idea of multiple amplexus would probably be more advantageous, because mating with more than one male would increase fertilization chances or increase offspring genetic diversity. Multiple amplexus would typically be common in explosive breeding amphibians, when there is a larger number of adults ready to breed at a breeding site in a short period of time. When this occurs female amphibians are viewed as a very important resource for males, as there are typically more males present than females, thus leading to more chances for multiple amplexus to occur.
In most anurans, the males deposit sperm onto the eggs as they are being laid, however males of the genus Ascaphus possess an intromittent organ, unique among anurans, for internal fertilization. Internal fertilization does occur in a few other genera, including Nectophrynoides, Mertensophryne, and Eleutherodactylus.
Newts
In the case of newts, the process of amplexus is often observed soon after the newts become seasonally active. In the Western USA, for example, this time is typically soon after the onset of the winter rainy season, when intermittent streams and vernal pools become available as a breeding habitat. The rough-skinned newt is a specific widespread example of a newt in the western USA that can be observed in quiet stream pools and shallow ponds engaging in amplexus. During amplexus in newts, males will typically show the behaviour of tail fanning and chin rubbing which is thought to prompt the mating receptivity of the female newt. Studies have shown that male newts who have deeper tail-fins have better control of females during amplexus and are also more successful in catching the females for amplexus. Additionally, it has been found that the probability of a male newt who has a deeper tail-fin to achieve amplexus is greater than those newts who do not contain a deeper tail-fin, as male newts tend to use their tails during male-male competition. When a male newt, who is unpaired, encounters a female and male newt engaged in amplexus, the unpaired newt will try to displace the paired male newt by using wrestling tactics. A study examining the wrestling behaviour of newts found that of the observed wrestling encounters, 90% were "won" by the paired male, meaning he would retain the female newt. The study found that the invading unpaired newt rarely successfully displaces the paired male newt, engaged in amplexus.
Horseshoe crabs
Amplexus occurs in all four species of horseshoe crab. Horseshoe crabs typically go ashore for amplexus in high tide, and end up on beaches where the eggs are more protected. The first pair of walking legs is used to tightly clasp the female in all species, and the second pair is also employed in all but Limulus polyphemus. A male horseshoe crab develops modified claspers during sexual maturity when the male moults; these modified claspers can then help during the process of amplexus. The male's pair of posterior claspers are known for having the ability to maintain long-term amplexus which have been found to always attach to the female's opisthosoma during amplexus. In contrast, the male's anterior claspers have been found to attach to the female's opisthosoma as well, but on the lateral edges of the opisthosoma and function to resist displacement from environmental factors. Uniquely, amplexus is most likely to occur between horseshoe crabs when the female horseshoe crab has a hard shell. Additionally, males who inhabit a clean shell are more likely to enter amplexus, compared to males who contain a dirty shell, as it seems that females have a preference for clean shells on males. A male horseshoe crab's claspers may also be an important factor of consideration for the initiation of amplexus. Since claspers are used for the attachment to the female, claspers that are in good condition are more successful for the initiation of amplexus. If a male horseshoe crab has a damaged or missing clasper, then that puts the male at a disadvantage and increases the probability of being displaced by other competing male crabs.
Other animals
Fossil evidence suggests that a certain euthycarcinoid (an extinct arthropod) from the Cambrian may also have mated by amplexus.
See also
References
External links
Amplexus in Action
Animal sexuality
Frogs
Mating
Sexual acts | [
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242397 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrema | Extrema | Extrema may refer to:
Extrema (mathematics), maxima and minima values
Extremities (disambiguation)
Extrema, Minas Gerais, town in Brazil
Extrema, Rondônia, town in Brazil
Extrema (band), Italian metal band | [
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242398 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Saint%20Pierre | Lake Saint Pierre | Lake Saint Pierre () is a lake in Quebec, Canada, a widening of the Saint Lawrence River between Sorel-Tracy and Trois-Rivières. It is located downstream, and northeast, of Montreal; and upstream, and southwest, of Quebec City. The end of the lake delimits the beginning of the estuary of Saint Lawrence.
This lake which is long (excluding Sorel Islands) and wide, is part of the St. Lawrence Seaway. Including its shoreline, islands, and wetlands, the lake is a nature reserve. The body of water is recognized as a Ramsar site and as a Biosphere Reserve, due to the presence of many marshes and wetlands that are frequented by waterfowl. Recreational activities on the river (such as fishing, boating, sailing, swimming, water skiing, nature observation) are active mainly in summer season. Sport fishing is particularly popular, including ice fishing, especially in the great bay of Pointe-du-Lac.
Around Lake Saint-Pierre, several recreational services are available including marinas, hotel services, restaurants, outfitters, docks, gas stations, and cruises.
Geography
Approximately 12,500 years ago, the retreat of the glaciers at the end of the last ice age resulted in a vast basin filled by the Champlain Sea. This sea extended from the city of Quebec to the east, and covered the Lower Mauricie, the Lower Laurentians, the lower part of the Ottawa Valley, Lake Ontario on the western side, and Lake Champlain USA) on the South side. The outline of the Champlain Sea is marked by ancient sandy shores where sand pits have been exploited. The water level has dropped some 8,000 years ago. The surface area of the watershed is (equivalent to more than 60% of the surface area of Quebec). 58% of the catchment area is located in the United States, 28% in Ontario and only 14% in Quebec (2.5% in direct tributaries, 0.07% in the littoral zone). Lake Saint-Pierre is linked to 11 administrative regions, 58 RCMs and 654 municipalities.
The lake is located in the Regional County Municipalities of Nicolet-Yamaska, Maskinongé, D'Autray, and Pierre-De Saurel, in addition to the city of Trois-Rivières. The shores of the lake affect several municipalities:
North shore: Berthierville, Maskinongé, Louiseville, Yamachiche and Trois-Rivières (Pointe-du-Lac sector)
South shore: Saint-Joseph-de-Sorel, Pierreville, Baie-du-Febvre and Nicolet.
Lake Saint-Pierre is fed by the St. Lawrence River (coming from the southwest) and the 14 main tributaries:
North bank (from the mouth): Maskinongé River, Rivière du Loup, Yamachiche River, Glaises Stream, Sable River
South bank (from the mouth): Yamaska River, Saint-François River, Colbert River, Landroche River, Des Frères River, Brielle River, Lemire River, Camille-Roy River, Nicolet River
The average depth of the lake is only three meters. The channel of the seaway that has been dredged has a maximum depth of 11.3 m.
Toponymy
The lake was named by Samuel de Champlain following its passage on 29 June 1603, the day of the Saint-Pierre. The Abenaki called Lake Nebesek, which means at lac. Jacques Cartier, during his second voyage to Canada in 1535, had given him the name of "Angoulême".
Natural environment
This seasonally-flooded area is an important stopping point for hundreds of thousands of migrating waterfowl. It is also an important nesting area for herons: more have been counted here than in any other place in North America. In 1998, it was recognized as a wetland of international significance under the Ramsar Convention.
The wildlife experts have identified 23 species of mammals around Lake Saint-Pierre, one of the most abundant species is the muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), which is found in abundance in the lake.
Biosphere Reserve
Lake Saint-Pierre was appointed Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in 2000. The biosphere reserve of Lac-Saint-Pierre has an area of , whose in core areas and in buffer zones. The core areas are composed of Wildlife Refuge Great Island and bird refuge Nicolet.
Nearly 290 species of birds, about 90 species of fish and 27 rare plants have been listed in this biosphere reserve.
Wildlife Sanctuary of Great Island
Wildlife Sanctuary of "Grande-Île" (Great Island) is located on Grande-île in the Archipelago of Saint-Pierre Lake. It has an area of . This wildlife refuge was created in 1992 is the protection of one of the largest heron colonies in North America. It houses more than 5,000 herons.
Nicolet Bird Sanctuary
The "birds Nicolet refuge" is a protected area of which protects a staging area for ducks and Canada goose and also a nesting area for waterfowl. National Defence has acquired the site in the 1950. The site was recognized as a rest area in 1969 and as a refuge in 1982.
History
Being the last freshwater basin of the St. Lawrence River and its geographical position, Lake Saint-Pierre has marked the history of French Canada in terms of the fishing industry, hunting, transportation including the St. Lawrence Seaway, pleasure boating, the settlement of surrounding lands, winter ice roads and ferries.
Samuel de Champlain wrote, in 1609: "On the south side, there are two rivers, one called the" Rivière du Pont (Nicolet) and the other of Gennes (Saint-François or Yamaska), which are very beautiful and in beautiful and good country. "
Environment
Disasters and tragedies
In popular culture
Lac Saint-Pierre is the setting of the poem, folk ballad, and animated short, "the Wreck of the Julie Plante", by William Henry Drummond.
It is not the lake sought after by Duddy Kravitz in The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz by Mordecai Richler. The lake in this book is clearly in walking distance of Lac des Sables.
See also
Saint Lawrence Lowlands
Archipelago of Saint-Pierre Lake
References
External links
Lac Saint Pierre Biosphere Reserve, Canada (UNESCO site)
Biosphere reserves of Canada
Saint-Pierre
Ramsar sites in Canada
Nature reserves in Quebec
Saint Lawrence River
Saint-Pierre
Saint-Pierre
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] |
242403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20caves | List of caves | This is a list of caves of the world that have articles or that are properly cited. They are sorted by continent and then country. Caves which are in overseas territories on a different continent than the home country are sorted by the territory's continent and name.
Africa
Algeria
Aïn Taïba
Anou Achra Lemoun
Anou Boussouil
Anou Ifflis
Anou Timedouine
Gueldaman caves
Ghar Boumâaza
Grotte de Cervantes
Kef Al Kaous
Rivière De La Tafna
Botswana
Gcwihaba
Rhino Cave
Cameroon
Gouffre de Mbilibekon
Grottes de Linté
Grotte de Loung
Grotte de Mfouda
Grotte Fovu
Grottes Ndemvoh
Kouo vu
Democratic Republic of Congo
Matupi Cave
Thysville Caves
Egypt
Cave of Beasts
Cave of Swimmers
Jabal al-Ṭārif
Sannur Cave
Magharet el Kantara
Ethiopia
Sof Omar Caves
Gabon
Abanda Caves
Caves of Lastoursville
Iroungou cave
Mbenaltembe cave
Faucon cave
Kenya
Enkapune Ya Muto
Grotte de Leviathan
Kitum Cave
Leviathan Cave
Mau Mau Caves
Njoro River Cave
Paradise Lost Caves
Lesotho
Kome Caves
Libya
Ain Zayanah
Bukarma-Habibi
Umm al Masabih
Haua Fteah
Madagascar
Ambatoanjahana
Ambatoharanana
Ambatomanjahana
Anjanamba cave
Ampandrianpanihy Nord
Andetobe
Andriafiabe
Anjohin'ny Voamboana
Anjohy Ambalarano
Anjohy Kibojenjy
Antsatrabonko
Riviere souterraine de Mananjeba
Marosakabe cave system
Mauritania
Agrour Amogjar
Morocco
Caves of Hercules
Friouato caves
Ifri N'hamed N'taouia
Ifri Oudadane
Jebel Irhoud
Kef Aziza
Kef Tikhoubaï
Kef Toghobeit Cave
Rhar Chara
Rhar Chiker
Taforalt
Wit Tamdoun
Namibia
Apollo 11 Cave
Arnhem Cave
Dragon's Breath Cave
The White Lady
Nigeria
Amanchor Cave
Ogbunike Caves
Réunion
Mussard cave
Somaliland
Dhambalin
Laas Geel
South Africa
Blombos Cave
Boesmansgat
Boomplaas Cave
Border Cave
Burchell's Shelter
Cango Caves
Cooper's Cave
Diepkloof Rock Shelter
Echo Caves
Gladysvale Cave
Gondolin Cave
Haasgat
Howieson's Poort Shelter
Die Kelders
Klasies River Caves
Kromdraai Fossil Site
Makapansgat
Malapa Fossil Site, Cradle of Humankind
Mapoch's Caves
Melkhoutboom Cave
Motsetsi Cave
Nelson Bay Cave
Onmeetbarediepgat
Pinnacle Point
Plovers Lake
Rising Star Cave
Sacred caves of the Basotho
Sibudu Cave
Sterkfontein
Sudwala Caves
Taung
Witsie's Cave
Wonder Cave
Wonderwerk Cave
Tanzania
Amboni Caves
Grotte de Nduli
Mumba Cave
Nandembo Cave System
Togo
Nok and Mamproug Cave Dwellings
Tunisia
Rhar Ain Et Tsab
Zambia
Kalemba Rockshelter
Mumbwa Caves
Zimbabwe
Bambata cave
Chinhoyi Caves
Mabura Caves
Mawenge Mwena Caves of Chimanimani
Asia
Afghanistan
Darra-e Kur
Tora Bora
Zhawar Kili
Cambodia
Laang Spean
Phnom Chhnork
Phnom Sampeau
Phnom Sorsia
China
Benxi Water Caves
Bezeklik Caves
Binghu Cave
Er Wang Dong
Fu Yuan Dong
Furong Cave
Fuyan Cave
Gebihe cave system
Hongqingsi Grottoes
Huanglong Cave
Jiangzhou Cave System
Jiguan Cave
Kizil Caves
Kumtura Caves
Lobster Cave
Longyou Caves
Luobi Cave
Macaque Cave
Reed Flute Cave
San Wang Dong
Sanmenhai
Seven-star Cave
Shanjuan Cave
Shuanghedong Cave Network
Shuanglong Cave
Silver Cave
Snowy Jade Cave
Taiji Cave
Tenglong Cave
Tianyuan Cave
Xianren Cave
Yilong Cave
Yiyuan Rong Cave Group
Yuchanyan Cave
Zhijin Cave
Zhong Cave
Zhoukoudian
Zengpiyan Cave
Zhiren Cave
East Timor
Lene Hara cave
India
Ajanta Caves
Amarnath Cave Temple
Badami Cave Temples
Bagh Caves
Barabar Caves
Belum Caves
Borra Caves
Caves of Meghalaya
Edakkal Caves
Elephanta Caves
Ellora Caves
Erravaram Caves
Guntupalli Caves
Jogeshwari Caves
Kailash Caves
Kanheri Caves
Karla Caves
Kotumsar Cave
Krem Liat Prah
Krem Synrang Pamiang
Lakhudiyar Caves
Lenyadri
Mahakali Caves
Mandapeshwar Caves
Moghalrajpuram caves
Pandavleni Caves
Patal Bhuvaneshwar
Robber's Cave
Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka
Siju Cave
Umachal rock cave
Undavalli caves
Varaha Cave Temple
Indonesia
Buniayu Cave
Caves in the district of Maros
Harimaru
Liang Bua Cave
Lokale
Lubang Jeriji Saléh
Maharani cave
Mirror Stone Cave
Pettakere cave
Pindul Cave
Iran
Ali-Sadr Cave
Bisitun Cave
Darband Cave
Dashkasan
Deragon Cave
Do-Ashkaft Cave
Eshkaft-e Salman
Eshkaft-e Siahoo
Ghar Parau
Ghar-e-Pariyan
Ghar-e-Roodafshan
Huto and Kamarband Caves
Kalahrod
Karaftu
Katale Khor
Mahi Kur Cave
Nakhcheer
Qaleh Bozi
Quri Qale Cave
Roodafshan Cave
Shafaq cave
Shapur cave
Shirabad cave
Wezmeh
Yafteh
Iraq
Shanidar Cave
Israel
Avshalom Cave
Ayalon Cave
Azekah Caves
Beit She'arim (moshav)
Cave of Elijah
Cave of Horror
Cave of Letters
Cave of Nicanor
Es Skhul
HaYonim Cave
Horvat Midras
Kebara Cave
Keshet Cave
Komotayim cave
Kutim Cave
Malcham cave
Mankhir Cave
Manot Cave
Nahal Me'arot
Pa'ar Cave
Qesem Cave
Rosh HaNikra grottoes
Salt Colonel Cave
Tabun Cave
Tel Maresha
Japan
Abukuma-do (阿武隈洞)
Akiyoshi-do (秋芳洞)
Akkadō (安家洞)
Kyusen-do (球泉洞)
Reigandō
Uchimagi-do (内間木洞)
Shiraho Saonetabaru Cave Ruins
Jordan
Iraq ed-Dubb
Kazakhstan
Akbaur cave
Boj-Boulok
Rangkul'skaja Cave
Korea
Geomunoreum Lava Tube System
Gimnyeonggul
Gosu Cave
Gwangmyeong Cave
Hwanseon Cave
Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes
Komun Moru
Manjanggul
Songam Cavern
Laos
Chom Ong
Pak Ou Caves
Tam Pa Ling Cave
Tham Jang
Tham Kong Lo
Tham Non
Tham Pha
Tham Phu Kham
Tham Sang Triangle
Viengxay caves
Lebanon
Antelias cave
Jeita Grotto
Nachcharini
Kaukaba
Ksar Akil
Ras Baalbek I
Ras El Kelb
Malaysia
Batu Caves
Biocyclone Cave
Clearwater Cave
Deer Cave
Gomantong Cave
Gua Tempurung
Niah Caves
Sam Poh Tong
Sarawak Chamber
Mongolia
Dayan Deerh Cave
Galtai Cave
Khoit Tsenkher Cave
Taliin Cave
Tsagaan Cave
Myanmar
Padah-Lin Caves
Peik Chin Myaung Cave
Phowintaung
Pindaya Caves
Nepal
Chobhar caves
Gupteswor cave
Mahendra Cave
Maratika Cave
Mustang Caves
Siddha cave
Oman
Al Hoota Cave
Majlis al Jinn
Pakistan
Bazar Caves
Pir Ghaib Gharr Gharra
Kashmir Smast
Sanghao Cave
Papua New Guinea
Afawa Cave
Atea Cave
Diu Diu Cave
Kilu Cave
Tawali Skull Cave
Philippines
Adiangao Cave
Callao Cave
Caves in Misamis Oriental
Guyangan Cave System
Hinagdanan Cave
Huluga Caves
Kalanay Cave
Kutawato Caves
Lapuz Lapuz Cave
Libmanan Caves National Park
Lucsuhin Natural Bridge
Macahambus Cave
Minori Cave
Monfort Bat Sanctuary
Pamitinan Cave
Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park
Sohoton Cave
Tabon Cave
Qatar
Al Mukaynis
Dhal Al Misfir
Russia
Akhshtyrskaya Cave
Avilova Cave
Chertovy Vorota Cave
Denisova Cave
Ignatievka Cave
Kapova Cave
Kungur Ice Cave
Kurgazak cave
Marble Cave
Mezmaiskaya cave
Okladnikov Cave
Orda Cave
Salavat Yulayev Cave
Sugomak Cave
Syukeyevo Caves
Vorontsovka Caves
Vyalova cave
Sri Lanka
Andirilena Cave
Batatotalena Cave
Belilena Cave
Bogoda Cave
Dambulla Cave Temple
Fa Hien Cave
Hunugalagala Limestone Cave
Kuragala
Lahugala Cave
Nitro Cave
Pannila Cave
Rawana Ella Cave
Sithripura Cave
Wavulpone Cave
Thailand
Doi Nang Non
Emerald Cave
Naresuan Cave
Spirit Cave
Tham Hua Kalok
Tham Lot
Tham Mae Lana
Tham Phra Wang Daeng
Turkmenistan
Cave of Dzhebel
Koytendag Caves
Uzbekistan
Boybuloq Cave
Dark Star
Obi-Rakhmat Grotto
Teshik-Tash
Vietnam
Cát Bà Island
Con Moong Cave
Ngu Hanh Son
Sơn Đoòng Cave
Tam Cốc-Bích Động
Tham Pha Ka
Tú Làn Caves System
West Bank
Cave of the Patriarchs
Cave of the Ramban
Qumran
Warren's Shaft
Zedekiah's Cave
Europe
Armenia
Areni-1 Cave
Azokh Cave
Austria
Drachenhöhle
Eisriesenwelt
Gudenus cave
Lamprechtsofen
Lurgrotte
Salzofen cave
Schwarzmooskogel Cave System
Seegrotte
Spannagel Cave
Steinbrücken Cave
Tischofer Cave
Traungold Cave
Unicorn Cave
Azerbaijan
Allar Cave
Ashabi-Kahf in Nakhchivan
Azokh Cave
Buzeyir cave
Damjili Cave
Tağlar Cave
Zar Cave
Belgium
Caves of Han-sur-Lesse
Caves of Hotton
Goyet Caves
Grotte de Rosée
Neptune Caves
Naulette
Scladina
Spy Cave
Trou de l’Abîme
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Badanj Cave
Vjetrenica
Bulgaria
Bacho Kiro Cave
Devetashka cave
Kozarnika
Ledenika
Magura Cave
Orlova Chuka
Devil's Throat Cave
Prohodna
Saeva dupka
Snezhanka Cave
Uhlovitsa
Yagodinska cave
Croatia
Amfora Pit
Baredine Cave
Biserujka
Blue Grotto
Caves of Barać
Drakonjina špilja
Grabovača
Grapčeva cave
Jazovka
Red Lake
Vela Spila
Velebit caves
Vindija Cave
Vrtare Male
Czech Republic
Amatérská Cave
Býčí skála
Hranice Abyss
Klácelka
Koněprusy Caves
Kůlna Cave
Macocha Gorge in the Punkva Caves
Mladeč caves
Moravian Karst
Punkva Caves
Šipka
Zbrašov aragonite caves
Denmark
Sorte Gryde
Sorte Ovn
Våde Ovn
Finland
Halonen Cave
Wolf Cave
France
Aven Armand
Aven d'Orgnac
Caverne du Pont-d'Arc
Caves of Arcy-sur-Cure
Caves of Gargas
Chauvet Cave
Bournillon cave
Réseau de la Dent de Crolles
Font-de-Gaume
Gouffre Berger
Grotte des Demoiselles
Grottes du Cerdon
Grottes Pétrifiantes de Savonnières
Grottes de Presque
Jean Bernard System
La Mansonnière cave
La Verna cave
Lascaux Cave
Les Combarelles
Niaux Cave
Padirac Cave
Pech Merle
Rouffignac Cave
Vercors Cave System
Villars Cave
Georgia
Abrskil Cave
Cave of Bethlehem
Krubera Cave
New Athos Cave
Sarma cave
Satsurblia Cave
Tsona Cave
Germany
Aachtopf
Atta Cave
Balve Cave
Barbarossa Cave
Baumann's Cave
Bing Cave
Blauhöhle
Blautopf
Brillenhöhle
Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura
Daneil's Cave
Das verfluchte Jungfernloch
Dechen Cave
Devil's Cave
Easter Cave
Eberstadt Stalactite Cave
Erdmanns Cave
Geissenklösterle
Heimkehle
Hermann's Cave
Hohler Fels
Hohlenstein-Stadel
Iberg Dripstone Cave
Kleine Feldhofer Grotte
Lichtenstein Cave
Ofnet Caves
Riesending cave
Saalfeld Fairy Grottoes
Schellenberg Ice Cave
Sirgenstein Cave
Unicorn Cave
Vogelherd Cave
Volkmarskeller
Weingartenloch
Wimsener Höhle
Gibraltar
Gorham's Cave
Ibex Cave
Martin's Cave
St. Michael's Cave
Vanguard Cave
Greece
Alepotrypa cave
Apidima Cave
Arkaliospilio
Arkoudiotissa Cave
Blue Cave
Cave of Euripides
Cave of the Lakes
Corycian Cave
Davelis Cave
Dersios sinkhole
Doxa
Eileithyia Cave
Franchthi Cave
Gourgouthakas
Kleidi Cave
Megalakkos
Ossa cave
Petralona Cave
Phyle Cave
Propantes
Sacred caves of Crete
Stravomyti
Sykia (Voula)
Theopetra cave
Vari Cave
Hungary
Aggtelek Karst
Anna Cave
Baradla-Domica Cave System
Cave Bath
Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst
Gellért Hill Cave
István Cave
Molnár János Cave
Rákóczi Cave
Szelim cave
Iceland
Búri
The Caves of Ægissíða
Grjótagjá
Hellnahellir
Kverkfjöll
Landmannahellir
Surtshellir
Víðgelmir
Ireland
Aillwee Cave
Caves of Kesh
Cloyne Cave
Crag Cave
Doolin Cave
Dunmore Caves
Fintan's Grave
Kelly's Cave
Killavullen Caves
Marble Arch Caves
Mitchelstown Caves
Noon's Hole
Pollatoomary
Pollnagollum
Shannon Cave
St Patrick's Purgatory
Italy
Abisso Bonetti
Arene Candide
Blue Grotto
Borgio Verezzi Caves
Castelcivita Caves
Castellana Caves
Cave of Dogs
Coreca Caves
Deer Cave
Duino Mithraeum
Ear of Dionysius
Frasassi Caves
Grotta Bianca
Grotta del Castiglione
Grotta del Cavallo
Grotta del Cavallone
Grotta del Pisco
Grotta dell'Addaura
Grotta dell'Arco
Grotta dell'Arsenale
Grotta dell'Artiglieria
Grotta delle Felci
Grotta dello Smeraldo
Grotta di Ispinigoli
Grotta di Matromania
Grotte di Pilato
Grotta Gigante
Grotta Regina del Carso
Grotta Verde
Monte Kronio
Neptune's Grotto
Nereo Cave
Paglicci Cave
Pastena Caves
Pertosa Caves
Romito Cave
Toirano Caves
Kosovo
Marble Cave
Gryka e Madhe Cave
Shpella e Kallabes
Shpella e Karamakazit
Shpella e Radavcit
Latvia
Gutmanis Cave
Liv Sacrifice Caves
Macedonia
Alilica
Malta
Blue Grotto
Ghar Dalam
Għar ix-Xiħ
Ghar Lapsi
Ninu's Cave
Ras id-Dawwara
Xerri's Grotto
Norway
Greftkjelen
Greftsprekka
Grønligrotta
Jarlshola
Jordbrugrotta
Larshullet
Oskola-Kristihola
Radiohola
Raggejavreraige
Setergrotta
Svarthola
Tjoarvekrajgge
Trollkirka
Poland
Bańdzioch Kominiarski
Jaskinia Czarna
Jaskinia Kozia
Jaskinia Miętusia
Jaskinia Mylna
Jaskinia Niedźwiedzia
Jaskinia Raj
Jaskinia Wielka Śnieżna
Paradise Cave
Ptasia Studnia
Smocza Jama
Śnieżna Studnia
Portugal
Almonda Cave
Cave of Aroeira
Cave of Pedra Furada
Cave of Pego do Diabo
Cave of Salemas
Escoural Cave
Torres Cave
Moinhos Velhos Cave
São Vicente Caves
Furnas do Cavalum
Mira de Aire Caves
Romania
Bears' Cave
Coliboaia Cave
Cuciulat Cave
Movile Cave
Peștera cu Oase
Peștera Muierilor
Peștera Vântului
Scărișoara Cave
Tăușoare-Zalion Reserve
Topolnița Cave
Serbia
Brežđe
Cave Church
Cerje Cave
Degurić Cave
Hadži-Prodan's Cave
Kađenica
Lazareva Pećina
Pešturina
Petnica Cave
Potpeć Cave
Rajkova cave
Resava Cave
Risovača Cave
Stopića cave
Slovakia
Belianska Cave
Bystrianska Cave
Demänovská Cave of Liberty
Demänovská Ice Cave
Dobšiná Ice Cave
Domica Cave
Driny
Gombasek Cave
Harmanecká Cave
Jasovská Cave
Krásnohorská Cave
Ochtinská Aragonite Cave
Važecká Cave
Slovenia
Cross Cave
Divje Babe
Hell Cave
Krka Cave
Planina Cave
Postojna Cave
Potok Cave
Škocjan Caves
System Migovec
Vilenica Cave
Vrtoglavica
Weaver Cave
Spain
Altamira
Armintxe Cave
Canelobre Caves
Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain
Cave of Chufín
Cave of El Castillo
Cave of El Soplao
Cave of La Pasiega
Cave of Niño
Cave of the Barranc del Migdia
Cave of Valporquero
Caves in Cantabria
Caves of King Cintolo
Caves of Nerja
Caves of Valeron
Coves dels Hams
Cueva de la Fuente
Cueva de la Pileta
Cueva de los Casares
Cueva de los Murciélagos
Cueva de los Verdes
Cueva de Montesinos
Cueva del Viento
Cuevas de El Castillo
Cuevas de la Araña
Cuevas de Sorbas
Cuevas del Drach
Four Doors cave site
Fuentemolinos cave
Grotte Casteret
Gruta de las Maravillas
Las Caldas cave
Ojo Guareña
Ordesa Cascada
Painted Cave
Praileaitz Cave
Santa Cueva de Covadonga
Santuario de la Cueva Santa
Sidrón Cave
Tito Bustillo Cave
Sweden
Coral Cave
Hoverbergsgrottan
Lummelunda Cave
Switzerland
Grotte aux Fées
Hölloch
Saint-Léonard underground lake
Siebenhengste-Hohgant-Höhle
St. Beatus Caves
Wildkirchli
Turkey
Akhayat sinkhole
Ayvaini Cave
Ballıca Cave
Belbaşı
Beldibi Cave
Buzluk
Cave dwellings of Ahlat
Çayırköy Cave
Cehennem Cave
Cehennemağzı Cave
Cennet Cave
Cumayanı Cave
Damlataş Cave
Derebucak Çamlık Caves
Dupnisa Cave
Erçek Cave
Egma Sinkhole
Gilindire Cave
Gökgöl Cave
Ilıksu Cave
İnağzı Cave
Inkaya Cave
İnsuyu Cave
Karaca Cave
Karain Cave
Kızılelma Cave
Kocain Cave
Nimara Cave
Oylat Cave
Pınargözü Cave
Sofular Cave
Tilkiler Cave
Yarımburgaz Cave
Yenesu Cave
Zeytintaşı Cave
Ukraine
Atlantida
Near Caves
Odessa Catacombs
Optymistychna
Priest's Grotto
Vyalova cave
United Kingdom
Alum Pot
Aquamole Pot
Aveline's Hole
Badger Pot
Bakers pit
Bar Pot
Blue John Cavern
Boho Caves
Boxhead Pot
Cathole Cave
Charterhouse Cave
Chislehurst Caves
Clearwell Caves
Cleeves Cove cave
Cox's cave
Crackpot Cave
Creswell Crags
Crystal Cave
Dan yr Ogof
Death's Head Hole
Disappointment Pot
Dog Hole Cave
Ease Gill Caverns
Eastwater Cavern
Eden Sike Cave
Excalibur Pot
Father Foote's Cave
Fingal's Cave
Flood Entrance Pot
Gaping Gill
Gavel Pot
GB Cave
Giant's Hole
Goatchurch Cavern
Gough's Cave
Great Douk Cave
Great Masson Cavern
Great Rutland Cavern
Heathery Burn Cave
Ingleborough Cave
Jib Tunnel
Juniper Gulf
Kent's Cavern
Kirkdale Cave
La Cotte de St Brelade
Lamb Leer
Langcliffe Pot
Long Churn Cave
Long Drop Cave
Longwood Swallet
Lost John's Cave
Lost Pot
Manor Farm Swallet
Marble Arch Caves
Mossdale Caverns
Mother Ludlam's Cave
Mother Shipton's Cave
Nidderdale Caves
Noon's Hole
Ogof Agen Allwedd
Ogof Craig a Ffynnon
Ogof Draenen
Ogof Ffynnon Ddu
Ogof Hen Ffynhonnau
Ogof Hesp Alyn
Ogof Llyn Parc
Ogof y Daren Cilau
Otter Hole
Oxlow Cavern
Pate Hole
Peak Cavern
Pen Park Hole
Pierre's Pot
Poole's Cavern
Portbraddon Cave
Porth Yr Ogof
Pridhamsleigh Cavern
Rat Hole
Reed's Cave
Reservoir Hole
Rhino Rift
Rowten Pot
Rumbling Hole
Ryedale Windypits
Shannon Cave
Shatter Cave
Short Drop Cave
Sidcot Swallet
Simpson Pot
Skirwith Cave
Slaughter Stream Cave
Smoo Cave
Speedwell Cavern
St Cuthbert's Swallet
Stoke Lane Slocker
Stream Passage Pot
Stump Cross Caverns
Swildon's Hole
Swinsto Cave
Thor's Cave
Three Counties System
Thrupe Lane Swallet
Titan
Treak Cliff Cavern
Uamh an Claonaite
Upper Flood Swallet
Weathercote Cave
White Scar Caves
Wookey Hole Caves
Yordas Cave
Oceania
Australia
Abercrombie Caves
Abrakurrie Cave
Ashford Caves
Borenore Caves
Buchan Caves
Bungonia Caves
Camooweal Caves National Park
Capricorn Caves
Cave Gardens
Cliefden Caves
Cloggs Cave
Devil's Lair
Drovers Cave National Park
Engelbrecht Cave
Exit Cave
Fireclay Caverns
Fossil Cave
Gunns Plains Cave
Hastings Caves State Reserve
Hermit's Cave
Hippo's Yawn
Jenolan Caves
Koonalda Cave
Koongine Cave
Kutikina Cave
London Bridge
Mammoth Cave
Mermaids Cave
Moondyne Cave
Mount Etna Caves National Park
Murrawijinie Cave
Naracoorte Caves
New Guinea II cave
Niggly Cave
Ngilgi Cave
Old Homestead Cave
Pindar Cave
Princess Margaret Rose Cave
St Michaels Cave
Tarragal Caves
Tjunti
Wellington Caves
Willi Willi Caves
Wombeyan Caves
Wyanbene Caves
Yarrangobilly Caves
Cook Islands
Anatakitaki Cave
To'uri Cave
Vaitaongo Cave
Federal States of Micronesia
Tonotan Guns and Caves
Guam
Mahlac Pictograph Cave
Talagi Pictograph Cave
Yokoi's Cave
Nauru
Moqua Caves
New Caledonia
Pindai Caves
New Zealand
Aurora Cave
Broken River Cave
Bulmer Cavern
Cathedral Caves
Clifden Limestone Caves
Cracroft Caverns
Ellis Basin cave system
Gardner's Gut
Harwood Hole
Honeycomb Hill Cave
Metro Cave / Te Ananui Cave
Moncks Cave
Nettlebed Cave
Ngarua Caves
Rawhiti Cave
Riwaka Resurgence
Ruakuri Cave
Te Ana-au Caves
Waitomo Caves
Waitomo Glowworm Cave
Wiri Lava Cave
Samoa
Falemauga Caves
Tuvalu
Caves of Nanumanga
Vanuatu
Yeyenwu
North America
Belize
Actun Box Ch'iich'
Actun Tunichil Muknal
Barton Creek Cave
Che Chem Ha Cave
Chiquibul Cave System
Great Blue Hole
Midnight Terror Cave
Nohoch Che'en
Bermuda
Crystal Cave
Canada
Arctomys Cave
Artlish Caves Provincial Park
Bluefish Caves
Booming Ice Chasm
Cadomin Cave
Canyon Creek Ice Cave
Castleguard Cave
Cave and Basin National Historic Site
Cavernicole Cave
Charlie Lake Cave
Close to the Edge
Cody Caves
Gargantua
The "Hole in the Wall"
Horne Lake Caves Provincial Park
Nakimu Caves
Raspberry Rising Cave
Trou du Diable
Warsaw Caves
El Salvador
Holy Spirit Grotto
Guatemala
Actún Can
Candelaria Caves
Chiquibul Cave System
Cuevas del Silvino
Grutas de Lanquín
Naj Tunich
Honduras
Cuevas de Taulabé
Cuyamel Caves
Talgua caves
Mexico
Balankanche
Cacahuamilpa Cave
Cave of the Crystals
Cave of Swallows
Chan Hol
Chevé Cave
Chiquihuitillos
Choo-Ha
Coxcatlan Cave
Cueva de Villa Luz
Devil's Throat at Punta Sur
Frightful Cave
Guilá Naquitz Cave
Grutas de Cacahuamilpa National Park
Grutas de García
Jolja'
Juxtlahuaca
Loltun Cave
Ndaxagua
Sistema Dos Ojos
Sistema Nohoch Nah Chich
Sistema Ox Bel Ha
Sistema Sac Actun
Tolantongo
Zacatón
Panama
Bayano Caves
United States
Aeolus Cave, Vermont
Airmen's Cave, Texas
Alabaster Caverns State Park, Oklahoma
Antelope Cave, Arizona
Ape Cave, Washington
Arnold Lava Tube System, Oregon
Ash Hollow Cave, Nebraska
Baker Cave, Texas
Bandera Volcano Ice Cave, New Mexico
Bat Cave, Kentucky
Bat Cave mine, Arizona
Batcheller's Cave, New Hampshire
Beaver Valley Rock Shelter Site, Delaware
Bechan Cave, Utah
Bell Witch Cave, Tennessee
Big Bone Cave, Tennessee
Big Four Ice Caves, Washington
Black Chasm Cave, California
Blanchard Springs Caverns, Arkansas
Blowhole Cave, Utah
Blue Spring Cave, Tennessee
Bluespring Caverns, Indiana
Bluff Dweller's Cave, Missouri
Bobcat Trail Habitation Cave, Hawaii
Boone's Cave Park, North Carolina
Boyd Cave, Oregon
Boyden Cave, California
Bracken Cave, Texas
Bridal Cave, Missouri
Buckner Cave, Indiana
Bull Shoals Caverns, Arkansas
Bull Thistle Cave Archaeological Site, Virginia
Burnet Cave, New Mexico
Burro Flats Painted Cave, California
California Caverns, California
Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico
Cascade Cave, Kentucky
Cascade Caverns, Texas
Cass Cave, West Virginia
Cathedral Caverns State Park, Alabama
Cave-in-Rock, Illinois
Cave of the Bells, Arizona
Cave of the Mounds, Wisconsin
Cave of the Winds, Colorado
Cave of the Winds, New York
Cave Without a Name, Texas
Caverns of Sonora, Texas
Caves of St. Louis, Missouri
Charles Town Cave, West Virginia
Cheese Cave, Washington
Cherney Maribel Caves County Park, Wisconsin
Clarks Cave, Virginia
Clarksville Cave, New York
Cliff Cave, Missouri
Cold Water Cave, Iowa
Colossal Cave, Arizona
Colossal Cave, Kentucky
Conkling Cavern, New Mexico
Coronado Cave, Arizona
Cosmic Cavern, Arkansas
Coudersport Ice Mine, Pennsylvania
Craighead Caverns, Tennessee
Crystal Cave, Sequoia National Park, California
Crystal Cave, Kentucky
Crystal Cave, Ohio
Crystal Cave, Pennsylvania
Crystal Cave, Wisconsin
Crystal Cavern, Alabama
Crystal Grottoes, Maryland
Cumberland Bone Cave, Maryland
Cumberland Caverns, Tennessee
Current River Cavern, Missouri
Danger Cave, Utah
Decorah Ice Cave State Preserve, Iowa
Derrick Cave, Oregon
DeSoto Caverns, Alabama
Devil's Den Cave, Florida
Devil's Kitchen, Michigan
Devils Hole, Nevada
Diamond Caverns, Kentucky
Dixie Caverns, Virginia
Dunbar Cave State Park, Tennessee
Dust Cave, Alabama
Eagle Cave, Wisconsin
Ellenville Fault Ice Caves, New York
Eleven Jones Cave, Kentucky
Ellison's Cave, Georgia
Endless Caverns, Virginia
False Kiva, Utah
Fantastic Caverns, Missouri
Fern Cave National Wildlife Refuge, Alabama
Fern Grotto, Hawaii
Fisher Ridge Cave System, Kentucky
Florida Caverns, Florida
Fort Rock Cave, Oregon
Fox Cave, New Mexico
Franktown Cave, Colorado
Gap Cave, Virginia
Gardner Cave, Washington
Gillespie Cave, Tennessee
Glenwood Caverns, Colorado
Glover's Cave, Kentucky
Goochland Cave, Kentucky
Grand Caverns, Virginia
Grand Canyon Caverns, Arizona
Great Onyx Cave, Kentucky
Gypsum Cave, Nevada
Hall City Cave, California
Haynes Cave, West Virginia
Hellhole, West Virginia
Hendrie River Water Cave, Michigan
Hidden Cave, Nevada
Hobo Cave, Colorado
Hogup Cave, Utah
Horse Cave, Kentucky
Horse Caves, Massachusetts
Horse Lava Tube System, Oregon
Howe Caverns, New York
Hubbard's Cave, Tennessee
Humboldt Cave, Nevada
Ice Cave, Iowa
Illinois Caverns, Illinois
Indian Cave State Park, Nebraska
Indian Caverns, Pennsylvania
Indian Echo Caverns, Pennsylvania
Indian Jim's Cave, Virginia
Indiana Caverns, Indiana
Infernal Caverns, California
Inner Space Caverns, Texas
Jacobs Cavern, Missouri
Jacob's Well, Texas
Jewel Cave, South Dakota
Kartchner Caverns, Arizona
Kazumura Cave, Hawaii
Key Cave National Wildlife Refuge, Alabama
Kickapoo Cavern State Park, Texas
King Phillip's Cave, Massachusetts
Kingston Saltpeter Cave, Georgia
Kuna Caves, Idaho
Lake Shasta Caverns, California
Laurel Caverns, Pennsylvania
Lava Beds National Monument, California
Lava River Cave, Arizona
Lava River Cave, Oregon
Lechuguilla Cave, New Mexico
Lehman Caves, Nevada
Leon Sinks Geological Area, Florida
Lewis and Clark Caverns, Montana
Linville Caverns, North Carolina
Lockport Cave, New York
Logan Cave National Wildlife Refuge, Arkansas
Lookout Mountain Caverns, Tennessee
Lost Cove Cave, Tennessee
Lost River Cave, Kentucky
Lost River Caverns, Pennsylvania
Lost River Gorge Cave, New Hampshire
Lost World Caverns, West Virginia
Lovelock Cave, Nevada
Luray Caverns, Virginia
Makauwahi Cave, Hawaii
Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky
Mammoth Cave, Utah
Manitou Cave, Alabama
Mantle's Cave, Colorado
Maquoketa Caves State Park, Iowa
Marengo Cave, Indiana
Mark Twain Cave, Missouri
Marmes Rockshelter, Washington
Martin Ridge Cave System, Kentucky
Marvel Cave, Missouri
Mary Campbell Cave, Ohio
Mega Cavern, Kentucky
Meramec Caverns, Missouri
Mercer Caverns, California
Minnetonka Cave, Idaho
Mitchell Caverns, California
Moaning Cavern, California
Moqui Cave, Utah
Mud Caves, California
Mummy Cave, Wyoming
Mystery Cave, Minnesota
Mystic Caverns and Crystal Dome, Arkansas
Natural Bridge Caverns, Texas
Natural Tunnel State Park, Virginia
Neffs Cave, Utah
Nickajack Cave, Tennessee
Niter Ice Cave, Idaho
Nutty Putty Cave, Utah
Ogdens Cave Natural Area Preserve, Virginia
Ohio Caverns, Ohio
Old Spanish Treasure Cave, Arkansas
Olentangy Indian Caverns, Ohio
Oligo-Nunk Cave System, Kentucky
Onondaga Cave State Park, Missouri
Onyx Cave, Arizona
Onyx Cave, Arkansas
Onyx Cave, Missouri
Oregon Caves National Monument, Oregon
Organ Cave, West Virginia
Ozark Caverns, Missouri
Paisley Caves, Oregon
Paradise Ice Cave, Washington
Peacock Springs Cave System, Florida
Pellerito Cave, Michigan
Pendejo Cave, New Mexico
Penns Cave, Pennsylvania
Peppersauce Cave, Arizona
Petty John's Cave, Georgia
Pictograph Cave, Arkansas
Pictograph Cave, Montana
Pluto's Cave, California
Polar Caves Park, New Hampshire
Port Kennedy Bone Cave, Pennsylvania
Raccoon Mountain Caverns, Tennessee
Redmond Caves, Oregon
Research Cave, Missouri
Ricks Spring, Utah
Rickwood Caverns State Park, Alabama
Riverbluff Cave, Missouri
Robbers Cave State Park, Oklahoma
Rock Dove Cave, Texas
Ruby Falls Cave, Tennessee
Rushmore Cave, South Dakota
Russell Cave, Alabama
Samuels' Cave, Wisconsin
Sandia Cave, New Mexico
Sandy Glacier Caves, Oregon
Sauta Cave National Wildlife Refuge, Alabama
Sea Lion Caves, Oregon
Seneca Caverns, Ohio
Seneca Caverns, West Virginia
Shawnee Cave, Indiana
Shelta Cave, Alabama
Shelter Cave, New Mexico
Shenandoah Caverns, Virginia
Sinks of Gandy, West Virginia
Sitting Bull Crystal Caverns, South Dakota
Skeleton Cave, Arizona
Skeleton Cave, Oregon
Skull Cave, Michigan
Skylight Cave, Oregon
Skyline Caverns, Virginia
Smoke Hole Caverns, West Virginia
Snail Shell Cave, Tennessee
Snowy River Cave, New Mexico
Spook Cave, Iowa
Squire Boone Caverns, Indiana
Spring Cave, Colorado
Spring Creek Cave, Texas
Spring Mill State Park, Indiana
Spring Valley Caverns, Minnesota
St. John Mine, Wisconsin
Stay High Cave, Virginia
Talking Rocks Cavern, Missouri
Tears of the Turtle Cave, Montana
Thumping Dick Hollow, Tennessee
Timpanogos Cave National Monument, Utah
Toquima Cave, Nevada
Tory Cave, New York
Tory's Cave, Connecticut
Tory's Cave, Vermont
Tuckaleechee Caverns, Tennessee
Twin caves, Indiana
Tyson Spring Cave, Minnesota
Tytoona Cave, Pennsylvania
Unthanks Cave Natural Area Preserve, Virginia
Ursa Minor, California
Ventana Cave, Arizona
Wabasha Street Caves, Minnesota
Wakulla Cave, Florida
Warren's Cave, Florida
Weeki Wachee Springs, Florida
Wilson Butte Cave, Idaho
Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota
Wonder Cave, Texas
Wonderland Cave, Arkansas
Wyandotte Caves, Indiana
Zane Shawnee Caverns, Ohio
Caribbean
Aruba
Aruba Natural Bridge
Quadiriki Caves
Barbados
Animal Flower Cave
Harrison's Cave
Curaçao
Hato Caves
Cuba
Cuevas de Bellamar
Cueva de Saturno
La Gran Caverna de Santo Tomás
Dominican Republic
Cuevas Fun Fun
Pomier Caves
Los Tres Ojos
Cuevas de las Maravillas
Haiti
Bellony Cave
Kounoubwa Cave
Marie-Jeanne Cave
Jamaica
Bad Hole Cave
Belmont Cave
Carambie Cave
Coffee River Cave
Dunn's Hole
Gourie Cave
Green Grotto Caves
Hutchinson's Hole
Jackson's Bay Cave
Long Mile Cave
Morgans Pond Hole
Mouth Maze Cave
Oxford Cave
Smokey Hole Cave
Swansea Cave
Thatchfield Great Cave
Windsor Great Cave
Xtabi
Puerto Rico
Cueva de Los Indios
Cueva del Indio
Cuevas Las Cabachuelas
Cueva Lucero
Cueva Ventana
Parque Nacional de las Cavernas del Río Camuy
Pozo de Jacinto
Saint Lucia
Bat Cave
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Byahaut Bat Cave
Trinidad and Tobago
Aripo Cave
Crusoe Cave
Cumaca Cave
Dunston Cave
La Vache
Lopinot Cave
Tamana caves
Turks and Caicos Islands
Conch Bar Caves
South America
Argentina
Cave 3, Los Toldos (Santa Cruz)
Cueva de la Bruja
Cueva de Gualicho
Cueva de las Manos
Cueva del Tigré
Witches' Cave
Bolivia
Cavernas de Repechón
Ch'usiq Uta
Cueva del Diablo
Qala Qala
Brazil
Abismo Guy Collet
Abismo Ouro Grosso
Areado Grande
Buraco das Araras, Goiás
Buraco das Araras, Mato Grosso do Sul
Caverna Aroe Jari
Caverna da Pedra Pintada
Caverna da Tapagem
Caverna de Santana
Caverna dos Ecos
Cavernas do Peruaçu National Park
Conjunto Santa Rita
Conjunto São Mateus
Gruta Canabrava
Gruta Casa de Pedra
Gruta da Cabana
Gruta da Morena
Gruta da Torrinha
Grutas das Areias
Gruta de Maquiné
Gruta de Ubajara
Gruta do Centenário
Gruta do Janelão
Gruta do Lago Azul Natural Monument
Gruta do Padre
Gruta Olhos d'Água
Gruta Rei do Mato
Lapa da Mangabeira
Lapa do Convento
Lapa do Salitre
Lapa dos Brejões
Lapa Terra Ronca
Parque da Cascata
Poço Encantado
Serra do Ramalho
Toca da Barriguda
Toca da Boa Vista
Chile
Caves are ordered from north to south.
Cueva del Pirata
Cueva de los Pincheira
Catedral de Mármol
Cueva del Milodón
Cueva Fell
Colombia
Guacharos Cave
Ecuador
Cueva de los Tayos
Peru
Chivateros
Guitarrero Cave
Hatun Uchku
Killa Mach'ay
Pikimachay
Pumawasi
Qaqa Mach'ay
Shihual
Sima Pumacocha
Tampu Mach'ay
Toquepala Caves
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Cave Cove
Suriname
Werehpai
Uruguay
Palace Cave
Venezuela
Cueva Alfredo Jahn Natural Monument
Cueva de la Quebrada del Toro
Cueva del Fantasma
Cueva del Guácharo
Cueva del Saman
Cueva La Segunda Cascada
Cueva Los Encantos
Cueva Los Laureles
Cueva-Sumidero La Retirada
Haitón del Guarataro
Sima Aonda
Sima Aonda 2
Sima Aonda 3
Sima Auyantepui Noroeste
Sima Auyantepui Norte
Sima Humboldt
Sima Martel
Mars
seven putative cave entrances have been identified in satellite imagery of the planet Mars, all so far located on the flanks of Arsia Mons. A more recent photograph of one of the features shows sunlight illuminating a side wall, suggesting that it may simply be a vertical pit rather than an entrance to a larger underground space.
See also
List of deepest caves
List of longest caves
Show cave
Speleology
References
External links
Member Caves Directory from the *National Caves Association
World's Deepest Caves
World Longest Caves
World Cave Database
World Cave Wiki Database made by cavers
Famous Caves in the World
Lists of caves | [
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242406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia%20Messaging%20Service | Multimedia Messaging Service | Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) is a standard way to send messages that include multimedia content to and from a mobile phone over a cellular network. Users and providers may refer to such a message as a PXT, a picture message, or a multimedia message. The MMS standard extends the core SMS (Short Message Service) capability, allowing the exchange of text messages greater than 160 characters in length. Unlike text-only SMS, MMS can deliver a variety of media, including up to forty seconds of video, one image, a slideshow of multiple images, or audio.
The most common use involves sending photographs from camera-equipped handsets. Media companies have utilized MMS on a commercial basis as a method of delivering news and entertainment content, and retailers have deployed it as a tool for delivering scannable coupon codes, product images, videos, and other information.
The 3GPP and WAP groups fostered the development of the MMS standard, which is now continued by the Open Mobile Alliance (OMA).
History
Multimedia messaging service was built using the technology of SMS messaging, first developed in 1984 as a captive technology which enabled service providers to "collect a fee every time anyone snaps a photo."
The commercial introduction of MMS started in March 2002.
Between 2010 and 2013, MMS traffic in the U.S. increased by 70% from 57 billion to 96 billion messages sent. This is due in part to the wide adoption of smartphones.
Technical description
MMS messages are delivered in a different way from SMS. The first step is for the sending device to encode the multimedia content in a fashion similar to sending a MIME message (MIME content formats are defined in the MMS Message Encapsulation specification). The message is then forwarded to the carrier's MMS store and forward server, known as the MMSC (Multimedia Messaging Service Centre). If the receiver is on a carrier different from the sender, then the MMSC acts as a relay, and forwards the message to the MMSC of the recipient's carrier using the Internet.
Once the recipient's MMSC has received a message, it first determines whether the receiver's handset is "MMS capable" or not. If it supports the standards for receiving MMS, the content is extracted and sent to a temporary storage server with an HTTP front-end. An SMS "control message" containing the URL of the content is then sent to the recipient's handset to trigger the receiver's WAP browser to open and receive the content from the embedded URL. Several other messages are exchanged to indicate the status of the delivery attempt. Before delivering content, some MMSCs also include a conversion service that will attempt to modify the multimedia content into a format suitable for the receiver. This is known as "content adaptation".
If the receiver's handset is not MMS capable, the message is usually delivered to a web-based service from where the content can be viewed from a normal internet browser. The URL for the content is usually sent to the receiver's phone in a normal text message. This behavior is usually known as a "legacy experience" since content can still be received the user.
The method for determining whether a handset is MMS capable is not specified by the standards. A database is usually maintained by the operator, and in it each mobile phone number is marked as being associated with a legacy handset or not. This method is unreliable, however, because customers can independently change their handsets, and many of these databases are not updated dynamically.
MMS does not utilize operator-maintained "data" plans to distribute multimedia content, which is only used if the user clicks links inside the message.
E-mail and web-based gateways to the MMS system are common. On the reception side, the content servers can typically receive service requests both from WAP and normal HTTP browsers, so delivery via the web is simple. For sending from external sources to handsets, most carriers allow a MIME encoded message to be sent to the receiver's phone number using a special e-mail address combining the recipient's public phone number and a special domain name, which is typically carrier-specific.
Challenges
There are some challenges with MMS that do not exist with SMS:
Content adaptation: Multimedia content created by one brand of MMS phone may not be entirely compatible with the capabilities of the recipient's MMS phone. In the MMS architecture, the recipient MMSC is responsible for providing for content adaptation (e.g., image resizing, audio codec transcoding, etc.), if this feature is enabled by the mobile network operator. When content adaptation is supported by a network operator, its MMS subscribers enjoy compatibility with a larger network of MMS users than would otherwise be available.
Distribution lists: Current MMS specifications do not include distribution lists nor methods by which large numbers of recipients can be conveniently addressed, particularly by content providers, called Value-added service providers (VASPs) in 3GPP. Since most SMSC vendors have adopted FTP as an ad-hoc method by which large distribution lists are transferred to the SMSC prior to being used in a bulk-messaging SMS submission, it is expected that MMSC vendors will also adopt FTP.
Bulk messaging: The flow of peer-to-peer MMS messaging involves several over-the-air transactions that become inefficient when MMS is used to send messages to large numbers of subscribers, as is typically the case for VASPs. For example, when one MMS message is submitted to a very large number of recipients, it is possible to receive a delivery report and read-reply report for each and every recipient. Future MMS specification work is likely to optimize and reduce the transactional overhead for the bulk-messaging case.
Handset configuration: Unlike SMS, MMS requires a number of handset parameters to be set. Poor handset configuration is often blamed as the first point of failure for many users. Service settings are sometimes preconfigured on the handset, but mobile operators are now looking at new device management technologies as a means of delivering the necessary settings for data services (MMS, WAP, etc.) via over-the-air programming (OTA).
WAP Push: Few mobile network operators offer direct connectivity to their MMSCs for content providers. This has resulted in many content providers using WAP push as the only method available to deliver 'rich content' to mobile handsets. WAP push enables 'rich content' to be delivered to a handset by specifying the URL (via binary SMS) of a pre-compiled MMS, hosted on a content provider's web server. A consequence is that the receiver who pays WAP per kb or minute (as opposed to a flat monthly fee) pays for receiving the MMS, as opposed to only paying for sending one, and also paying a different rate.
Although the standard does not specify a maximum size for a message, 300 kB and 600 kB are the recommended sizes used by networks for compatibility with MMS 1.2 and MMS 1.3 devices respectively. The limit for the first generation of MMS was 50 kB.
Interfaces
MM1: the 3GPP interface between MMS User Agent and MMS Center (MMSC, the combination of the MMS Relay & Server)
MM2: the 3GPP interface between MMS Relay and MMS Server
MM3: the 3GPP interface between MMSC and external servers
MM4: the 3GPP interface between different MMSCs
MM5: the 3GPP interface between MMSC and HLR
MM6: the 3GPP interface between MMSC and user databases
MM7: the 3GPP interface between MMS VAS applications and MMSC
MM8: the 3GPP interface between MMSC and the billing systems
MM9: the 3GPP interface between MMSC and an online charging system
MM10: the 3GPP interface between MMSC and a message service control function
MM11: the 3GPP interface between MMSC and an external transcoder
See also
Enhanced Messaging Service (EMS)
Rich Communication Services (RCS)
Mobile marketing
Short code
Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language
References
External links
3GPP standards
Mobile telecommunication services
Mobile telecommunications standards
Open Mobile Alliance standards | [
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242409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vizier | Vizier | A vizier (; ; ), or wazir, is a high-ranking political advisor or minister in the near east. The Abbasid caliphs gave the title wazir to a minister formerly called katib (secretary), who was at first merely a helper but afterwards became the representative and successor of the dapir (official scribe or secretary) of the Sassanian kings.
In modern usage, the term has been used for government ministers in much of the Middle East and beyond.
Several alternative spellings are used in English, such as vizir, wazir, and vezir.
Etymology
The word entered into English in 1562 from the Turkish vezir ("counselor"), derived from the Persian vazīr ("viceroy"). Wazir itself has two possible etymologies:
The first etymology is that it is derived from the Arabic wazara ("to bear a burden"), from the Semitic root W-Z-R. The word is mentioned in the Quran, where Aaron is described as the wazir (helper) of Moses, as well as the word wizr (burden) which is also derived from the same root. It was later adopted as a title, in the form of wazīr āl Muḥammad ("Helper of the Family of Muhammad") by the proto-Shi'a leaders al-Mukhtar and Abu Salama. Under the Abbasid caliphs, the term acquired the meaning of "representative" or "deputy".
On the other hand, the presence of a Middle Persian word vizīr or vicīr (meaning "a legal document" or "decision"), cognate to the Avestan vīcira, meaning "decreer" or "arbitrator", could possibly indicate an Indo-European origin.
Historical ministerial titles
The office of vizier arose under the first Abbasid caliphs, and spread across the Muslim world.
The vizier stood between sovereign and subjects, representing the former in all matters touching the latter. The 11th-century legal theorist al-Mawardi defined two types of viziers: wazīr al-tanfīdh ("vizier of execution"), who had limited powers and served to implement the caliph's policies, and the far more powerful wazīr al-tafwīd ("vizier with delegated powers"), with authority over civil and military affairs, and enjoyed the same powers as the caliph, except in the matter of the succession or the appointment of officials. Al-Mawardi stressed that the latter, as an effective viceroy, had to be a Muslim well versed in the Shari'a, whereas the former could also be a non-Muslim or even a slave, although women continued to be expressly barred from the office.
Historically, the term has been used to describe two very different ways: either for a unique position, the prime minister at the head of the monarch's government (the term Grand Vizier always refers to such a post), or as a shared 'cabinet rank', rather like a British secretary of state. If one such vizier is the prime minister, he may hold the title of Grand Vizier or another title.
In Islamic states
The title was first used in the early Abbasid Caliphate, cf. Vizier (Abbasid Caliphate).
In Muslim Persia, the prime minister under the political authority of the Shahanshah was commonly styled Vazīr-e Azam ('Supreme -, i.e. Grand Vizier'; alternative titles include Atabeg-e Azam and Sardār-e Azam), and various Ministers held cabinet rank as vazir, including a Vazir-i-Daftar (minister for finance) and a Vazir-i-Lashkar (war portfolio).
In al-Andalus, the Umayyad Caliphs of Córdoba appointed a varying number of viziers, as heads of departments in the bureaucracy, ministers with specific tasks, and royal councillors; at one point, in 1008, there were as many as 29 viziers at the same time. Unlike the Islamic east, the senior office of the Umayyad state was that of the chamberlain (hajib). Under the Taifa kingdoms the title proliferated and became a generic court title. During the later Umayyads, viziers were also appointed outside the capital as provincial governors or commanders, a practice which continued until the fall of the Emirate of Granada in the 15th century. The Spanish word alguacil (governor, official with civil or criminal duties) derives from this.
In Muslim Egypt, the most populous Arab country:
Vizier under the Fatimid Caliphs.
Again since the effective end of Ottoman rule, remarkably since 1857 (i.e. before the last Wali (governor), Isma`il Pasha, was raised Khedive (circa Viceroy, on 8 June 1867), exchanged for the western prime ministers on 28 August 1878 (before the formally independent sultanate was proclaimed).
During the days of the Ottoman Empire, the Grand Vizier was the—often de facto ruling—prime minister, second only to the Sultan and was the leader of the Divan, the Imperial Council. "Vizier" was also the title of some Ottoman provincial governors, such as in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where usage of the title often indicated a greater degree of autonomy for the province involved and the greater prestige of the title holder (this was, for example, a major issue in the Bosnian uprising of 1831). Also, many of the viziers originated from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, as well as other countries and from various ethnicities.
In the Sherifian kingdom of Morocco (historically a sultanate till the incumbent assumed the higher royal style of Malik on 14 August 1957, shortly after the end of the simultaneous French and Spanish protectorates; the additional Islamic title Amir al-Mu´minin "Commander of the Faithful" stayed in use), a Sadr al-A'zam (Grand Vizier) was in office until 22 November 1955, replaced since 7 December 1955 a (part-political) Prime Minister; Vizier was the style of a minister of state (other titles for various portfolios).
In the Hashemite Kingdom of Hejaz (later merged into present-day Saudi Arabia), the sole Vizier was (10 June 19163 October 1924) the future second king Ali ibn Hussein al-Hashimi, under his father Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi (the first to assume the title Malik, i.e. King, instead of Grand Sharif), maintained after the assumption of the Caliphal style (only 11 March 19243 October 1924)
In the 'regency' of Tunisia, under the Husainid Dynasty, various ministers of the Bey, including:
Wazir al-Akbar (or El Ouzir El Kébir): 'great minister', i.e. grand vizier, chief minister or prime minister.
Wazir al-'Amala (or El Ouzir El Amala): Minister for the Interior.
Wazir al-Bahr (or El Ouzir El Bahr): Minister 'of the Sea', i.e. for the Navy/ Marine.
Wazir al-Harb (or El Ouzir El Harb): Minister for the Army or Minister for War.
Wazir al-Istishara (or El Ouzir El Istichara): Minister-Counsellor.
Wazir al-Qalam: Minister of the Pen.
Wazir ud-Daula (or El Ouzir El Dawla): Minister of State.
Wazir us-Shura (or El Ouzir Ech Choura): Privy Counsellor.
In Oman the Hami/Sultan's chief minister was styled Wazir till 1966, but in 1925–1932 there was also or instead a chairman of the council of Ministers; since 1970 the style is prime minister.
In the Bengal Sultanate, many local officials had the title of Wazir/Uzir
Viziers to the Sultans of Zanzibar (a branch of the Omani dynasty); since 1890 filled by British, also known as first ministers, (1 July 191323 February 1961) the British Resident (Minister)s, an extremely direct form of indirect rule (before and after chief- or prime ministers, generally native).
Grand Viziers to the Sultan of Sokoto – however, this is disputed. The title "Waziri" is apparently a derivative of this word, and is a highly regarded chieftaincy title in most of northern Nigeria. Indeed, most of the emirs in northern Nigeria have a "Waziri", who is usually a high-ranking adviser to the emir.
In pre- and colonial (notably British) India many rulers, even some Hindu princes, had a vizier as chief minister – compare Diwan, Nawab wasir, Pradhan, etc.
In the (former) sultanate of the Maldives (Divehi language), the prime minister was styled Bodu Vizier, and various Ministers held cabinet rank as vazierin (plural), including Hakura'a (portfolio of Public Works), Shahbandar (Navy portfolio, also admiral in chief), Vela'ana'a (Foreign Affairs).
In Afghanistan, under the Durrani dynasty, the chief minister was styled Vazīr-e Azam or Wazir-i-azam (1801–1880); the Vazīr-e Darbār or Wazir al-durbar was the ('House') Minister of the Royal Court.
List of Ghaznavid Viziers
In the Medang Kingdom and subsequent sultanates, a wazir was a chief minister to the sultan.
Modern post-monarchy use
Wazīr is the standard Arabic word for a government minister. Prime ministers are usually termed as Ra'īs al-Wuzara (literally, president of the ministers) or al-Wazīr al-'Awwal (prime "first" minister). The latter term is generally found in the Maghreb, while the former is typical of usage in the Mashriq (broadly defined, including Egypt, Sudan, Levant, Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula). Thus, for example, the Prime Minister of Egypt is in Arabic a wazīr.
In Brunei the vizier is known as Pengiran Bendahara.
In Iran the ministers of government are called Vazir in Persian (e.g. foreign/health Vazir), and prime minister of state before the removal of the post, was called as Nokhost Vazir.
In Pakistan, the prime minister (de facto ruling politician, formally under the president) is called Vazīr-e Azam (Persian for Grand vizier), other Ministers are styled vazirs.
In India, Vazīr is the official translation of minister in the Urdu language, and is used in ministerial oath taking ceremonies conducted in Urdu.
In East Africa – Kenya and Tanzania, ministers are referred to as Waziri in Swahili and prime ministers as Waziri Mkuu.
In the Nation of Islam, Louis Farrakhan is sometimes given the honorific title of Wazir
In Brunei, Viziers are divided into 5 titles, although two remain vacant since Brunei independence.
The current head of vizier or Perdana Wazir of Brunei is Prince Mohamed Bolkiah. His full title is His Royal Highness Perdana Wazir Sahibul Himmah Wal-Waqar Prince Haji Mohamed Bolkiah.
His Royal Highness Pengiran Bendahara Seri Maharaja Permaisuara Prince Haji Sufri Bolkiah
His Royal Highness Pengiran Digadong Sahibul Mal Prince Haji Jefri Bolkiah
Pengiran Pemancha Sahibul Rae' Wal-Mashuarah – vacant
Pengiran Temanggong Sahibul Bahar – vacant
Anachronistic historical use
It is common, even among historians, to apply relatively contemporary terms to cultures whose own authentic titles are (or were when the habit took root) insufficiently known, in this case to pre-Islamic antiquity.
In ancient Egypt the highest-ranking government official, appointed by the pharaoh and acting as his chancellor (chief administrator; Egyptian: taty), is called vizier by modern researchers. The term is also used for the chief administrators of Upper and Lower Egypt during the times when the administration of the country was headed by two officials; thus, there was a vizier for the North (Lower Egypt, the Nile Delta), and a vizier for the South (Upper Egypt). However, at times, the viceroy of Nubia (a military governor general, sometimes a prince of the Pharaoh's blood) and/or the High Priest of Amun (the temple complex at Thebes gradually amassed sufficient possessions and income to rival the crown) rose to equal or even superior power; some pharaohs are even believed to have lost real political preeminence to the 'kingmakers'.
Thus, in modern language translations of the Bible, in Genesis chapter 41, Joseph, the eleventh son of Jacob, is called Vizier to Pharaoh. In this same chapter of Genesis, Pharaoh changed his newly appointed Vizier's name to Zaphenath-paneah.
The term is used to designate the highest official of the kingdom of Ebla (head of the administration; Eblaite: lugal sa-za).
Princely title
In the rare case of the Indian princely state of Jafarabad (Jafrabad, founded c. 1650), ruled by Thanadars, in 1702 a state called Janjira was founded, with rulers (six incumbents) styled wazir; when, in 1762, Jafarabad and Janjira states entered into personal union, both titles were maintained until (after 1825) the higher style of Nawab was assumed.
Art
In contemporary literature and pantomime, the "Grand Vizier" is a character stereotype and is usually portrayed as a scheming backroom plotter and the clear power behind the throne of a usually bumbling or incompetent monarch. A well-known example of this is the sinister character of Jafar in the Disney animated film Aladdin, who plots and uses magic to take over the entire Kingdom of Agrabah under the nose of the nation's naïve sultan, just as Jaffar in the 1940 movie The Thief of Bagdad dethroned his master, caliph Ahmad. Others include Zigzag from The Thief and the Cobbler (the original inspiration for the character of Jafar in Disney's Aladdin), the comic book character Iznogoud, Prince Sinbad's advisor Yusuf in the DC Vertigo series Fables, and the villains of the video games Prince of Persia and King's Quest VI: Heir Today, Gone Tomorrow.
Perhaps the origin of this character archetype is the biblical account of Esther. The book details the rise of a Jewish woman to Queen of Persia, and her role in stopping the plot of Haman, chief advisor to the Persian king, to wipe out all Jews living in Persia.
Throughout history the notion of the sinister Grand Vizier has often been invoked when a political leader appears to be developing a cozy relationship with a spiritual advisor of questionable scruples or talents. This stereotype is frequently mentioned in Terry Pratchett's Discworld series, as for example in both Sourcery and Interesting Times. Another instance of a sinister Grand Vizier in entertainment can be found in the science fiction series Lexx, the primary antagonist in the second season being Mantrid, the self-proclaimed "greatest Bio-Vizier of all time."
Some famous viziers in history
Yahya ibn Khalid of Harun al Rashid (Whose son Jafar bin Yahya was an inspiration for the aforementioned Arabian Nights Jafar)
Amir Kabir of the Qajar dynasty in Iran history
Hasanak vazir of the Ghaznavid dynasty in Iran history
Almanzor of the Caliphate of Córdoba was the de facto ruler of Islamic Spain
Nizam al-Mulk of Malik Shah I in Seljuks history
Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha of the Ottoman Empire.
Sokollu Mehmed Pasha of the Ottoman Empire.
Köprülü Mehmed Pasha and his son Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed Pasha of the Ottoman Empire.
Influence on chess
In Shatranj, from which modern chess developed, the piece corresponding to the modern chess "queen" (though far weaker) was often called Wazīr.
Up to the present, the word for the queen piece in chess is still called by variants of the word "vazīr" in Middle Eastern languages, as well as in Hungarian ("vezér", meaning "leader") and Russian ("ferz' (ферзь)").
See also
Vaziri (disambiguation), a surname
List of Grand Viziers of Persia
Wazir (Pashtun tribe)
Waziri language
Waziristan
Wasita (title)
Wuzurg framadar
Notes
References
Sources
Etymology OnLine
Executive ministers
Heads of government
Government of the Mughal Empire
Noble titles
Ottoman titles
Titles of national or ethnic leadership
History of Iran
Titles in Afghanistan
Titles in Pakistan
Titles in Egypt
Titles in Iraq
Titles in Iran
African noble titles
African traditional governments
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242411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%20von%20Caprivi | Leo von Caprivi | Georg Leo Graf von Caprivi de Caprara de Montecuccoli (English: Count George Leo of Caprivi, Caprara, and Montecuccoli; born Georg Leo von Caprivi; 24 February 1831 – 6 February 1899) was a German general and statesman who served as the chancellor of the German Empire from March 1890 to October 1894. Caprivi promoted industrial and commercial development, and concluded numerous bilateral treaties for reduction of tariff barriers. However, this movement toward free trade angered the conservative agrarian interests, especially the Junkers. He promised the Catholic Center party educational reforms that would increase their influence, but failed to deliver. As part of Kaiser Wilhelm's "new course" in foreign policy, Caprivi abandoned Bismarck's military, economic, and ideological cooperation with the Russian Empire, which historians consider a major mistake. Even worse, Caprivi misjudged multiple opportunities to open good relations with Great Britain. Frustrated, London turned to Tokyo and Paris for agreements. His downfall came with trade agreements that favored German industry and urban workers over more powerful agricultural interests. Historians praise his refusal to renew the harsh restrictions on socialists, and his success in the reorganization of the German military.
Biography
Leo von Caprivi was born in Charlottenburg (then a town in the Prussian Province of Brandenburg, today a district of Berlin) the son of jurist Julius Leopold von Caprivi (17971865), who later became a judge at the Prussian supreme court and member of the Prussian House of Lords. His father's family was of Italian (Caprara Montecuccoli, from Modena) and possibly Slovene origin; it has been claimed that their original surname was Kopriva and they originated from Koprivnik (Nesseltal) near Kočevje in the Kočevje Rog (Hornwald) region of Lower Carniola (present-day Slovenia). However, other research states that this cannot be confirmed. The Caprivis were ennobled during the 17th century Ottoman–Habsburg wars, they later moved to Landau in Silesia. His mother was Emilie Köpke, daughter of Gustav Köpke, headmaster of the Berlinisches Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster and teacher of Caprivi's predecessor Otto von Bismarck.
On a personal level, Leo von Caprivi was an affable man with few close friends. He never married.
Military career
Caprivi was educated in Berlin. He entered the Prussian Army in 1849 and served in the Second Schleswig War of 1864, the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 as a major in the staff of Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia, and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/71, the latter as chief of staff of the X Army Corps. Backed by the Chief of the general staff Helmuth von Moltke, Caprivi achieved the rank of lieutenant colonel and distinguished himself at the Battle of Mars-la-Tour, the Siege of Metz and the Battle of Beaune-la-Rolande, receiving the military order Pour le Mérite.
After the war he served at the Prussian War Ministry. In 1882, he became commander of the 30th Infantry Division at Metz. In 1883, he succeeded Albrecht von Stosch, a fierce opponent of Chancellor Bismarck, as Chief of the Imperial Navy. The appointment was made by Bismarck and caused great dissatisfaction among the officers of the navy. According to historian Robert K. Massie, at the time of Caprivi's appointment, he "had no interest in naval affairs and did not know the names of his officers or the emblems of rank on the uniforms they wore." However, Caprivi showed significant administrative talent in the position.
Caprivi emphasized the development and construction of torpedo boats during his tenure as naval chief. This eventually led him into conflict with Emperor Wilhelm II, who favored larger battleships on the English model. After being overruled on the issue by the Kaiser, Caprivi resigned in 1888. He was briefly appointed to the command of his old army corps, the X Army Corps stationed in Hanover, before being summoned to Berlin by Emperor Wilhelm II in February 1890.
In Berlin, Caprivi was informed that he was the Kaiser's intended choice if Bismarck was resistant to Wilhelm's proposed changes to the government, and upon Bismarck's dismissal on 18 March, Caprivi became Chancellor. Though his exact motives are unknown, Wilhelm appears to have viewed Caprivi as a moderate who would make a sufficiently strong replacement for Bismarck, should the former chancellor make trouble in retirement, yet lacked the ambition to seriously oppose the throne. For his part, Caprivi was unenthusiastic, yet felt duty-bound to obey the Emperor. He said to one gathering, "I know that I shall be covered in mud, that I shall fall ingloriously".
Chancellor of Germany
Foreign Policy
Caprivi's administration was marked by what is known to historians as the Neuer Kurs ("New Course") in both foreign and domestic policy, with moves towards conciliation of the Social Democrats on the domestic front, and towards a pro-British foreign policy. Success was exemplified by the Anglo-German Agreement of July 1890, in which the British ceded the small island of Heligoland to Germany in exchange for control of Zanzibar and a large portion of East Africa.. This led to animosity from the colonialist pressure-groups like the Alldeutscher Verband. The treaty also gave Germany the Caprivi Strip, which was added to German South West Africa, thus linking that territory with the Zambezi River, which he had hoped to use for trade and communications with eastern Africa (the river proved to be unnavigable). In general, Caprivi did not believe that Germany should compete with other powers for overseas colonies but rather should focus on its position within Europe. In which the British wanted closer relations and Caprivi's government failed to make an agreement
Ending Reinsurance Treaty
Only a week into office, Caprivi was forced to choose whether to renew the Reinsurance Treaty, a secret alliance Bismarck had made with Russia. Caprivi opposed the ideas of a preventive war against Russia developed by General Alfred von Waldersee. Nevertheless, he conformed to the decision of officials of the Foreign Office around Friedrich von Holstein not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty and focus on a more straightforward alliance with Austria-Hungary. Unaware of the Foreign Office's determination, Wilhelm II had personally assured Russian Ambassador Count Pavel Andreyevich Shuvalov that the treaty would be renewed. When Caprivi discussed the issue with the Emperor, Wilhelm II yielded to his Chancellor, unwilling to dismiss another chancellor one week after dismissing Bismarck. The treaty was not renewed, and Shuvalov was shocked at the sudden reversal. In the years following this rejection, Russia forged the Alliance with France.
Trade policy
According to Andrew Carlson, Caprivi obtained commercial treaties with Austria, Italy, Switzerland, Spain, Serbia, Romania, Belgium, and Russia. The treaties reduced agricultural tariffs, which lowered the price of food in Germany. They also assisted the expansion of German trade exports of industrial products. Opponents were angry at the downplaying of German agriculture in favor of urban workers. Led by East Elbian Junkers, a coalition emerged that included peasant farmers, artisans, and conservative intellectuals hostile to the emerging industrial society. They demanded the Kaiser remove Caprivi. According to James C Hunt, the Agrarian League was launched in 1893 to protest the reduction in tariffs against imported grains. The league was organized nationally like a political party, with local chapters, centralized discipline, and a clear-cut platform. It fought against free trade, industrialization, and liberalism. Its most hated enemy was socialism, which it blamed on Jewish financial capitalism. The League helped establish grassroots anti-Semitism of the sort that flourished into the 1930s.
Domestic reforms
A number of progressive reforms were carried out during Caprivi's time as Chancellor. The employment of children under the age of 13 was forbidden and 13- to 18-year-olds restricted to a maximum 10-hour day, in 1891 Sunday working was forbidden and a guaranteed minimum wage introduced, and working hours for women were reduced to a maximum of 11. Industrial tribunals were established in 1890 to arbitrate in industrial disputes, and Caprivi invited representatives of trade unions to sit on these tribunals. In addition, duties on imported timber, cattle, rye, and wheat were lowered and a finance bill introduced progressive income tax under which the more one earned, the more tax that person paid. Other achievements included the army bills of 1892 and 1893, and the commercial treaty with Russia in 1894.
Clash with the Kaiser
Caprivi clashed with Wilhelm increasingly during his term as Chancellor, offering his resignation nearly a dozen times in four years. The Kaiser privately called him "a sensitive old fathead". The anger of the Conservatives intensified, accompanied by constant public attacks by retired Bismarck. Caprivi also lost the support of the National Liberals and Progressives in a legislative defeat of 1892 on an educational bill providing denominational board schools, a failed attempt to re-integrate the Catholic Centre Party after the Kulturkampf. Caprivi, although himself a Protestant, needed the 100 votes of the Catholic Centre Party but that alarmed the Protestant politicians. Caprivi had to resign as Prussian Minister President and was replaced by Count Botho zu Eulenburg, leading to an untenable division of powers between the Chancellor and the Prussian premier. When the two clashed over revisions to the criminal code in 1894, Wilhelm II required both to resign. They were succeeded by Prince Chlodwig von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst.
Following his resignation, Caprivi destroyed his papers. In retirement, he refused to speak or write publicly about his experiences as Chancellor or share his opinions on current events. He died in 1899 in Skyren in Germany (today known as Skórzyn, Poland).
Honours
He received the following orders and decorations:
Notes and references
Further reading
Carlson, Andrew R. German Foreign Policy, 1890-1914, and Colonial Policy to 1914: A Handbook and Annotated Bibliography (Scarecrow Press, 1970) pp 94–103.
Carroll, E. Malcolm. Germany and the Great Powers, 1866–1914; A Study in Public Opinion and Foreign Policy (1938).
Lebovics, Herman. "'Agrarians' Versus 'Industrializers': Social Conservative Resistance to Industrialism and Capitalism in Late Nineteenth Century Germany." International Review of Social History 12.1 (1967): 31-65 online.
Nichols, J. Alden. Germany after Bismarck: The Caprivi Era, 1890-1894 (1958) Online; the main scholarly book
Sempell, Charlotte. "The Constitutional and Political Problems of the Second Chancellor, Leo Von Caprivi," Journal of Modern History, (September 1953) 25#3 pp 234–254, in JSTOR
Tirrell, Sarah Rebecca. "The Fall of Caprivi." in German Agrarian Politics After Bismarck’s Fall the Formation of the Farmers’ League (Columbia University Press, 1951) pp. 299–334. oenline
Die Reden des Grafen von Caprivi im deutschen Reichstage, preussischen Landtage und besondern Anlässen "The Speeches of Count von Caprivi in the German Reichstag, in the Prussian Landtag, and on special occasions" in German (Google Books)
1831 births
1899 deaths
19th-century Chancellors of Germany
Politicians from Berlin
Chancellors of Germany
Counts of Germany
German Empire politicians
German military personnel of the Franco-Prussian War
German people of Italian descent
German people of Slovenian descent
German Protestants
Vice admirals of the Imperial German Navy
Independent politicians in Germany
People from the Province of Brandenburg
Generals of Infantry (Prussia)
Prussian politicians
Zambezi Region
Foreign ministers of Prussia
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)
Recipients of the Iron Cross (1870), 1st class
Recipients of the Iron Cross (1870), 2nd class
Grand Crosses of the Military Merit Order (Bavaria)
Recipients of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Grand Cordons of the Order of the Rising Sun
Recipients of the Order of the Medjidie, 1st class
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Star of Romania
Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 2nd class | [
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242414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jafar%20%28Aladdin%29 | Jafar (Aladdin) | Jafar is a fictional character and the main antagonist in Walt Disney Pictures' 31st animated feature film Aladdin (1992). He is voiced by American actor Jonathan Freeman, who also portrayed the character in the Broadway musical adaptation. Jafar also appears in the 1994 sequel to Aladdin, but he is not in the 1996 third film or the TV series.
An inspiration to the character is the villain Jafar, played by Conrad Veidt in The Thief of Bagdad, from which Aladdin borrows several character ideas and plot elements. The Jafar of Disney's Aladdin plays essentially the same part as the character from the 1940 film, and is drawn with notable similarity to Veidt's looks. He is loosely based on the real-life Persian Abbasid vizier Ja'far ibn Yahya.
Development
Animator Andreas Deja decided to design Jafar in a way he was contrasting to the other characters, with many vertical lines against the curvy designs based on Al Hirschfeld.
Jonathan Freeman, who composers Alan Menken and Howard Ashman met when he auditioned for Little Shop of Horrors and had previously invited Freeman to audition for both The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast, said that the artwork was what got him truly interested in the role. He stated that "once I saw those heavy lidded eyes, that long narrow face, I knew that Jafar was going to be something really special." He was the first actor cast, and spent one year and nine months recording dialogue; he went months without any other actors to interact, and later interrupted theater tours to fly to Los Angeles and record newly written lines. When Deja first met Freeman, he was surprised to see the lack of physical similarity to the character, but included some of Freeman's acting and gesturing into Jafar's animation.
Appearances
Aladdin
In the 1992 adaptation of Aladdin, where he is voiced by Jonathan Freeman, Jafar is the Grand Vizier of Agrabah, the Sultan's most trusted advisor. He is also an evil sorcerer who strongly dislikes being second best. Jafar secretly plots to obtain the Genie's magical oil lamp and rule Agrabah. Early in the film, Aladdin is imprisoned in the palace dungeons, as arranged by Jafar due to his influence over the guards. He lies to Princess Jasmine claiming Aladdin has already been executed while he pretends to be shocked that he had mistakenly believed that Aladdin abducted her. Jafar (disguised as a fellow prisoner) approaches Aladdin, striking a deal with him. In exchange for Aladdin's help in retrieving the lamp from the Cave of Wonders, Jafar reveals an escape route from the prison and promises him a reward if he succeeds, it is soon revealed that the reward is death. When the plan fails, Aladdin and the lamp are lost. The Sultan later scolds Jafar for supposedly executing an innocent life behind his back without consulting him, in which Jafar pretends to regret his actions and promises not to do it again. When his pet parrot Iago suggests an alternative plan, Jafar decides to use the hypnotic powers of his cobra-headed staff to manipulate the Sultan into mandating a marriage between himself and Jasmine. This plan also instigates Jafar's lust towards Jasmine and thus he genuinely wants to have her as his bride. However, he is impeded by Aladdin, who had discovered the Genie and used his first wish to become a Prince. Seeing “Prince Ali” as a potential threat to his plans and a rival for Jasmines’s hand in marriage, he plots to dispose of him. After a second attempt by Jafar on his life, Aladdin (with the help of the Genie and his second wish) survives and then exposes Jafar's plot against the Sultan; however, Jafar learns that Aladdin possesses the lamp before making his escape.
Iago steals the lamp from Aladdin and Jafar becomes the Genie's new master. Jafar uses his first two wishes to become Sultan and the world's most powerful sorcerer. Jafar assumes control of the palace (which is lifted off the ground and put on the main top of a mountain by Genie) and banishes Aladdin to a frozen wasteland. Jafar then turns the Sultan into a puppet, allowing Iago to torture the Sultan by force-feeding him crackers as revenge for the crackers the Sultan fed Iago. A horrified Jasmine begs Jafar to stop and Jafar does so. Jafar, seeking a queen to rule Agrabah alongside him, offers Jasmine his hand in marriage. Jasmine angrily refuses and throws a cup of wine in his face. An angered Jafar decides to use his final wish to wish for Jasmine to fall desperately in love with him. Genie tries to inform Jafar that he cannot use his magic to make people fall in love, but Jafar, grabbing him by the beard, demands him to do it anyway. Their argument causes him to not notice that Aladdin has returned and Jasmine decides to help Aladdin steal back the lamp by pretending that she is now in love with Jafar. Jafar, believing that Genie has somehow granted him his wish, goes up to Jasmine to seduce her without realizing she is tricking him. He notices Aladdin, however, from the reflection of Jasmine's crown, and he realizes the whole thing was a ruse.
Aladdin battles Jafar (who has turned into a giant cobra) and taunts him with the fact that he is only the second-most powerful being on Earth after Genie, who was the one who gave him his power in the first place and can very easily take it away. Realizing that what Aladdin says is true and that he’s still “second best”, Jafar, consumed by his hunger for power, uses his final wish to become an all-powerful genie, in an attempt to rule the whole universe. However, as Jafar revels in his newfound phenomenal cosmic power, he finds out too late that Aladdin has tricked him into wasting his wish on becoming a genie, since genies are not free beings, and becomes trapped in a magic lamp of his own, and the lamp is sent into the Cave of Wonders by the Genie.
The Return of Jafar
In The Return of Jafar, Jafar's lamp is found by Abis Mal, who releases Jafar from the lamp. Jafar plots to get revenge on Aladdin. He nearly succeeds at killing Aladdin and taking control of the palace, but Iago, who has changed sides, thwarts his plans and destroys his lamp with the lava, obliterating Jafar for good in the resulting explosion. As a result, Jafar was never seen again in Aladdin and the King of Thieves or in the television series, but was often referred to by name by the other characters.
Hercules (1998 TV series)
In an episode of Hercules: The Animated Series called "Hercules and the Arabian Night", Jafar makes another attempt at revenge and is temporarily resurrected by Hercules's arch-enemy, Hades. He has lost his status as an all-powerful immortal genie after dying, but Hades gives him a new cobra staff that makes him flesh and blood as long as he holds it, and the two villains team up to get rid of Aladdin and Hercules. However, due to Aladdin's wit and Hercules's strength, Jafar is defeated for the final time, being pulled into the River Styx forever.
Aladdin (2019 film)
Depicted younger in the 2019 live-action version, Jafar is still the grand vizer, but more emphasis is placed on his past as a thief in his youth and his ambition to use Agrabah to invade the kingdom of Shirabad out of revenge for his time in its dungeons. The Sultan's wife and Princess Jasmine's late mother, the Queen, was stated to have been a Princess of Shirabad prior to her marriage to the Sultan, and it is possible that Jafar arranged her murder as both revenge for his imprisonment and possibly to instigate war between the two kingdoms. The film also presents Jafar as a foil to Aladdin, the former explicitly comparing their thief backgrounds and desire to improve their social status. While Aladdin wants just enough to live comfortably, Jafar is shown to never be satisfied with what he has gained as long as there are those greater than himself. Aladdin uses that character flaw to trick Jafar into using his last wish to become a genie, resulting in his imprisonment and being thrown into the Cave of Wonders by the Genie. Marwan Kenzari played the role.
Kingdom Hearts
Jafar debuted in Kingdom Hearts as one of the members of Maleficent's inner circle. Here, he plans to use The Heartless and take over Agrabah while he attempts to locate both Jasmine (as she is one of the Princesses of Heart) and Agrabah's Keyhole. Jafar eventually manages to steal Genie's lamp from Aladdin and kidnap Jasmine in the process. Sora, Aladdin, Donald Duck and Goofy track him to the Cave of Wonders, where Jafar used his first wish to reveal the world's keyhole. Upon arrival in the lamp chamber, they engage Jafar in battle after he used his second wish to enlist Genie's help in the fight. Upon his defeat, Jafar uses his final wish to become a Genie and battles the team again, only to be defeated and sealed away in the lamp.
In Kingdom Hearts II, Jafar's lamp is found by the Peddler, making him a target for Pete as he reveals his intent to make Jafar into a Heartless under his control.
Once Pete is driven off, the lamp is placed within the palace for safe keeping. However, Jafar is later released by the Peddler and he threatens Iago into helping him get Sora and his friends on a wild goose chase to their death while he captures Princess Jasmine. After the heroes arrive, with Iago taking a hit meant for Aladdin, Sora defeats Jafar, causing him to implode with his lamp dissolving soon after. Facsimiles of Jafar appear in Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, based on Sora's memories, and Kingdom Hearts: Coded, based on the digitized data from Jiminy's Journal. Jonathan Freeman voiced Jafar in both games.
Descendants
Jafar appears in Descendants alongside Maleficent, Cruella de Vil, and the Evil Queen, as part of an Organization of Disney villains who are the parents of the film's four main characters, with Maz Jobrani playing the role.
Other appearances
In the Disney's Hollywood Studios version of Fantasmic! Nighttime Show Spectacular, Jafar is one of the villains the Evil Queen evokes to fight Mickey Mouse and ruin his imagination. Jafar appears with Maleficent, Ursula and Oogie Boogie in Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom Halloween-themed fireworks program
In the Starkid production, Twisted, Jafar is a main character and the storyline tells the Aladdin story from his point of view. Other main characters in the show include Prince Achmed, but no one remembers him.
HalloWishes at Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween Party. Jafar is featured in many episodes of Disney's House of Mouse where he is often found in the audience. In one episode "Donald's Lamp Trade", Jafar hypnotizes Donald Duck to steal a lamp for him, but it turns out that he only wanted a clock-like lamp and not the real magical one. Jafar also appears in another episode "Pete's House of Villains" in which he keeps the other Aladdin characters from coming into House of Mouse. He also appears briefly in Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse and appears in Mickey's House of Villains as the leader of Disney Villains.
A live-action version of Jafar appears in the Once Upon a Time spin-off Once Upon a Time in Wonderland. Naveen Andrews portrays the character, an ally of the Red Queen. In this continuity, Jafar is the illegitimate son of the Sultan, and his interest in genies stems from his mentor and lover, Amara, who discovered a ritual that could be used to rewrite the laws of magic using the power of three genies and two sorcerers. Jafar betrayed Amara by transforming her into his serpent staff so that he could have her power for himself. Andrews did not reprise his role in Once Upon a Time'''s sixth season due to a scheduling conflict, and he was replaced by Oded Fehr.
Characterization
Jafar is portrayed as a treacherous and amoral being who does not hesitate to destroy anyone he perceives as a threat to his sinister projects.
Jafar also exhibits narcissistic tendencies, but the most obvious are his obsessive desire for power. This is because the possibility of reaching omnipotence thanks to the lamp and desires, allows Jafar to let himself go to an attitude beyond the lines. From that moment on, Jafar only desires, as is now possible, the satisfaction of all his pleasures and uses the powers of a sorcerer and Jinn to play with the universe and with others. Despite his intelligence, his excessive thirst for power to gain control and authority clouds his judgment and leads him to act on impulse, as has been seen to be seduced by Jasmine and persuaded by Aladdin to become a jinn, as he forgets that there are things more important than power, such as freedom. In fact, the jinn are devoid of it and, when he becomes one of them, he is made a prisoner of his own lamp.
When he banishes Aladdin to the North Pole, Jafar laughs excessively and unbalanced, giving the idea that he is also a psychopath. He can be offensive, as evidenced by his interactions with Iago: during the climax of the first film, Jafar immediately used his sorcerer's skills to ruthlessly torment Jasmine, the Sultan, Aladdin and the Jinn through physical abuse, humiliation, slavery and other forms of sadistic torture, in which he openly displays fun. Jafar is attracted to Princess Jasmine, but mainly because of her body and not as a person. His last wish was originally for Jasmine to fall madly in love with him so that he could make her his queen (although he and Iago had previously planned to kill her once he became Sultan).
In the intentions of the authors, Jafar represents a dark mirror of Aladdin: they both wish to be more than they are and both use genius to achieve this higher social status. If on the one hand Aladdin behaves in a decidedly more noble and less selfish way than the vizier, the fact that he refuses to free the Jinn and plans to lie to Jasmine by masking who he really is suggests that, over time, and with temptation of power, Aladdin could have become like Jafar. The similarity between the two is further accentuated in the deleted Jafar Why Me'' song where it is revealed that, like Aladdin, he was born and raised very poor.
References
Aladdin (franchise) characters
Disney animated villains
Fictional Arabs
Fictional genies
Fictional hypnotists and indoctrinators
Fictional kidnappers
Fictional shapeshifters
Fictional viziers
Animated film characters introduced in 1992
Kingdom Hearts characters
Male characters in animation
Male film villains
Video game bosses
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242416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail%20Botvinnik | Mikhail Botvinnik | Mikhail Moiseyevich Botvinnik ( – May 5, 1995) was a Soviet and Russian chess grandmaster. The sixth World Chess Champion, he also worked as an electrical engineer and computer scientist and was a pioneer in computer chess.
Botvinnik was the first world-class player to develop within the Soviet Union. He also played a major role in the organization of chess, making a significant contribution to the design of the World Chess Championship system after World War II and becoming a leading member of the coaching system that enabled the Soviet Union to dominate top-class chess during that time. His pupils include World Champions Anatoly Karpov, Garry Kasparov and Vladimir Kramnik.
Early years
Botvinnik was born on August 17, 1911, in what was then Kuokkala, Vyborg Governorate, Grand Duchy of Finland, now the district of Repino in Saint Petersburg. His parents were Russian Jews; his father, Moisei Botvinnik (1878–1931), was a dental technician and his mother, Shifra (Serafima) Rabinovich (1876–1952), a dentist, which allowed the family to live outside the Pale of Settlement, to which most Jews in the Russian Empire were restricted at the time. As a result, Botvinnik grew up in Saint Petersburg's Nevsky Prospect. His father forbade the speaking of Yiddish at home, and Mikhail and his older brother Isaak "Issy" attended Soviet schools. Botvinnik later recounted, "I was asked once, “What do you consider yourself to be from the point of view of nationality?” My reply was, “Yes, my position is 'complicated'. I am a Jew by blood, a Russian by culture, Soviet by upbringing.”" On his religious views, he called himself an atheist.
In 1920, his mother became ill and his father left the family, but maintained contact with the children, even after his second marriage, to a Russian woman. At about the same time, Botvinnik started reading newspapers, and became a committed communist.
In autumn 1923, at the age of twelve, Botvinnik was taught chess by a school friend of his older brother, using a home-made set, and instantly fell in love with the game. He finished in mid-table in the school championship, sought advice from another of his brother's friends, and concluded that for him it was better to think out "concrete concepts" and then derive general principles from these – and went on to beat his brother's friend quite easily. In winter 1924, Botvinnik won his school's championship, and exaggerated his age by three years in order to become a member of the Petrograd Chess Assembly – to which its president turned a blind eye. Botvinnik won his first two tournaments organized by the Assembly. Shortly afterwards, Nikolai Krylenko, a devoted chess player and leading member of the Soviet legal system who later organized Joseph Stalin's show trials, began building a huge nationwide chess organization, and the Assembly was replaced by a club in the city's Palace of Labour.
To test the strength of Soviet chess masters, Krylenko organized the Moscow 1925 chess tournament. On a rest day during the event, world champion José Raúl Capablanca gave a simultaneous exhibition in Leningrad. Botvinnik was selected as one of his opponents, and won his game. In 1926, he reached the final stage of the Leningrad championship. Later that year, he was selected for Leningrad's team in a match against Stockholm, held in Sweden, and scored +1=1 against the future grandmaster Gösta Stoltz. On his return, he entertained his schoolmates with a vivid account of the rough sea journey back to Russia. Botvinnik was commissioned to annotate two games from the match, and the fact that his analyses were to be published made him aware of the need for objectivity. In December 1926, he became a candidate member of his school's Komsomol branch. Around this time his mother became concerned about his poor physique, and as a result he started a programme of daily exercise, which he maintained for most of his life.
When Botvinnik finished the school curriculum, he was below the minimum age for the entrance examinations for higher education. While waiting, he qualified for his first USSR Championship final stage in 1927 as the youngest player ever at that time, tied for fifth and sixth places and gained the title of master. He wanted to study Electrical Technology at the Leningrad Polytechnical Institute and passed the entrance examination; however, there was a persistent excess of applications for this course and the Proletstud, which controlled admissions, had a policy of admitting only children of engineers and industrial workers. After an appeal by a local chess official, he was admitted in 1928 to Leningrad University's Mathematics Department. In January 1929, Botvinnik played for Leningrad in the student team chess championship against Moscow. Leningrad won and the team manager, who was also deputy chairman of the Proletstud, secured Botvinnik a transfer to the Polytechnic's Electromechanical Department, where he was one of only four students who entered straight from school. As a result, he had to do a whole year's work in five months, and failed one of the examinations. Early in the same year he placed joint third in the semi-final stage of the USSR Championship, and thus failed to reach the final stage.
His early progress was fairly rapid, mostly under the training of Soviet Master and coach Abram Model, in Leningrad; Model taught Botvinnik the Winawer Variation of the French Defence, which was then regarded as inferior for Black, but which Model and Botvinnik analysed more deeply and then played with great success.
Botvinnik won the Leningrad Masters' tournament in 1930 with a score of 6½/8, following this up the next year by winning the championship of Leningrad by 2½ points over former Soviet champion Peter Romanovsky.
In 1935, Botvinnik married Gayane Davidovna Ananova, of Armenian descent, who was the daughter of his algebra and geometry teacher. She was a student at the Vaganova Academy of Russian Ballet in Leningrad and, later, a ballerina in the Bolshoi Theatre. They had one daughter, named Olga, who was born in 1942.
Soviet champion
In 1931, at the age of 20, Botvinnik won his first Soviet Championship in Moscow, scoring 13½ out of 17. He commented that the field was not very strong, as some of the pre-Revolution masters were absent. In late summer 1931, he graduated with a degree in electrical engineering, after completing a practical assignment on temporary transmission lines at the Dnieper Hydroelectric Station. He stayed on at the Leningrad Polytechnical Institute to study for a Candidate of Sciences degree.
In 1933, Botvinnik repeated his Soviet Championship win, in his home city of Leningrad, with 14/19, describing the results as evidence that Krylenko's plan to develop a new generation of Soviet masters had borne fruit. He and other young masters successfully requested the support of a senior Leningrad Communist Party official in arranging contests involving both Soviet and foreign players, as there had been none since the Moscow 1925 chess tournament. Soon afterwards, Botvinnik was informed that Alexander Ilyin-Genevsky, one of the older Soviet masters and a member of the Soviet embassy in Prague, had arranged a match between Botvinnik and Salo Flohr, a Czech grandmaster who was then regarded as one of the most credible contenders for Alexander Alekhine's World Chess Championship title. The highest-level chess officials in the Soviet Union opposed this on the grounds that Botvinnik stood little chance against such a strong international opponent. In spite of this attempt to dissuade him, Krylenko insisted on staging the match, saying that "We have to know our real strength."
Botvinnik used what he regarded as the first version of his method of preparing for a contest, but fell two games behind by the end of the first six, played in Moscow. However, aided by his old friend Ragozin and coach Abram Model, he leveled the score in Leningrad and the match was drawn. When describing the post-match party, Botvinnik wrote that at the time he danced the foxtrot and Charleston to a professional standard.
In his first tournament outside the USSR, the Hastings 1934–35, Botvinnik achieved only a tie for 5th–6th places, with 5/9. He wrote that, in London after the tournament, Emanuel Lasker said his arrival only two hours before the first round began was a serious mistake and that he should have allowed ten days for acclimatization. Botvinnik wrote that he did not make this mistake again.
Botvinnik placed first equal with Flohr, ½ point ahead of Lasker and one point ahead of José Raúl Capablanca, in Moscow's second International Tournament, held in 1935. After consulting Capablanca and Lasker, Krylenko proposed to award Botvinnik the title Grandmaster, but Botvinnik objected that "titles were not the point." However, he accepted a free car and a 67% increase in his postgraduate study grant, both provided by the People's Commissariat of Heavy Industry.
He later reported to Krylenko that the 1935 tournament made it difficult to judge the strength of the top Soviet players, as it included a mixture of top-class and weaker players. Botvinnik advocated a double round-robin event featuring the top five Soviet players and the five strongest non-Soviet players available. Despite politicking over the Soviet choices, both Krylenko and the Central Committee of the Komsomol quickly authorised the tournament. This was played in Moscow in June 1936, and Botvinnik finished second, one point behind Capablanca and 2½ ahead of Flohr. However, he took consolation from the fact the Soviet Union's best had held their own against top-class competition.
In early winter, 1936, Botvinnik was invited to play in a tournament at Nottingham, England. Krylenko authorised his participation and, to help Botvinnik play at his best, allowed Botvinnik's wife to accompany him – a privilege rarely extended to chess players at any time in Soviet history. Taking Lasker's advice, Botvinnik arrived ten days before play started. Although his Soviet rivals forecast disaster for him, he scored an undefeated shared first place (+6=8) with Capablanca, ½ point ahead of current World Champion Max Euwe and rising American stars Reuben Fine and Samuel Reshevsky, and 1 point ahead of ex-champion Alexander Alekhine. This was the first tournament victory by a Soviet master outside his own country. When the result reached Russia, Krylenko drafted a letter to be sent in Botvinnik's name to Stalin. On returning to Russia, Botvinnik discovered he had been awarded the "Mark of Honour".
Three weeks later, Botvinnik began work on his dissertation for the Candidate's degree, obtaining this in June 1937, after his supervisor described the dissertation as "short and good", and the first work in its field. As a result of his efforts, he missed the 1937 Soviet championship, won by Grigory Levenfish, who was then nearly fifty. Later in 1937, Botvinnik drew a match of thirteen games against Levenfish. Botvinnik challenged Levenfish, writing that Krylenko, angered by Botvinnik's absence from the tournament, ordered the match.
Botvinnik won further Soviet Championship titles in 1939, 1944, 1945, and 1952, bringing his total to six. In 1945 he dominated the tournament, scoring 15/17; however, in 1952 he tied with Mark Taimanov and won the play-off match.
World title contender
In 1938, the world's top eight players met in the Netherlands to compete in the AVRO tournament, whose winner was supposed to get a title match with the World Champion, Alexander Alekhine. Botvinnik placed third, behind Paul Keres and Reuben Fine. According to Botvinnik, Alekhine was most interested in playing an opponent who could raise the funds. After consulting the nearest available Soviet officials, Botvinnik discreetly challenged Alekhine, who promptly accepted, subject to conditions that would enable him to acclimatize in Russia and get some high-quality competitive practice a few months before the match. In Botvinnik's opinion, Alekhine was partly motivated by the desire for a reconciliation with the Soviet authorities, so that he could again visit his homeland. The match, including funding, was authorised at the highest Soviet political level in January 1939; however, a letter of confirmation was only sent two months later – in Botvinnik's opinion, because of opposition by his Soviet rivals, especially those who had become prominent before the Russian Revolution – and the outbreak of World War II prevented a World Championship match.
In spring 1939, Botvinnik won the USSR Championship, and his book on the tournament described the approach to preparation which he had been developing since 1933. One striking feature of this was emphasis on opening preparation in order to gain a permanent positional advantage in the middlegame, rather than seeking immediate tactical surprises that could only be used once.
Botvinnik took an early lead in the 1940 USSR Championship, but faded badly in the later stages, eventually sharing fifth place. He attributed this to the unaccustomed difficulty of concentrating in a party-like atmosphere filled with noise and tobacco smoke. Botvinnik wrote to a friendly official, commenting that the champion was to be the winner of a match between Igor Bondarevsky and Andor Lilienthal, who had tied for first place, but had no achievements in international competition. The official's efforts led to a tournament for the title of "Absolute Champion of the USSR", whose official aim was to identify a Soviet challenger for Alekhine's title. The contestants were the top six finishers in the Soviet Championship – Bondarevsky, Lilienthal, Paul Keres (whose home country, Estonia, had recently been annexed by the Soviet Union), future World Champion Vasily Smyslov, Isaac Boleslavsky and Botvinnik – who were to play a quadruple round-robin. Botvinnik's preparation with his second, Viacheslav Ragozin, included training matches in noisy, smoky rooms and he slept in the playing room, without opening the window. He won the tournament, 2½ points ahead of Keres and three ahead of Smyslov; moreover, with plus scores in the "mini-matches" against all his rivals.
In June 1941 Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union. Botvinnik's wife Gayane, a ballerina, told him that her colleagues at the Kirov Opera and Ballet Theatre were being evacuated to the city of Perm, then known as Molotov in honour of Vyacheslav Molotov. The family found an apartment there, and Botvinnik obtained a job with the local electricity supply organization – at the lowest pay rate and on condition that he did no research, as he had only a Candidate's degree. Botvinnik's only child, a daughter named Olya, was born in Perm in April 1942.
In the evenings, Botvinnik wrote a book in which he annotated all the games of the "Absolute Championship of the USSR", in order to maintain his analytic skills in readiness for a match with Alekhine. His work included wood-cutting for fuel, which left him with insufficient energy for chess analysis. Botvinnik obtained from Molotov an order that he should be given three days off normal work in order to study chess.
In 1943, after a two-year lay-off from competitive chess, Botvinnik won a tournament in Sverdlovsk, scoring 1½ out of 2 against each of his seven competitors – who included Smyslov, Vladimir Makogonov, Boleslavsky, and Ragozin. Chessbase regards this as one of the fifty strongest tournaments between 1851 and 1986.
Shortly afterwards, Botvinnik was urged to return to Moscow by the People's Commissar for Power Stations, an admirer and subsequent good friend. On his return, Botvinnik suggested a match with Samuel Reshevsky in order to strengthen his claim for a title match with Alekhine, but this received no political support. In December 1943, he won the Moscow Championship, ahead of Smyslov. At the same time, opposition to his plan for a match with Alekhine re-surfaced, on the grounds that Alekhine was a political enemy and the only proper course was to demand that he be stripped of the title. The dispute ended in Botvinnik's favor, and in the dismissal of a senior chess official, one of those to have opposed Botvinnik's plan, who was also a KGB colonel.
After Botvinnik won the 1944 and 1945 Soviet championships, most top Soviet players supported his desire for a World Championship match with Alekhine. However, the allegations that Alekhine had written anti-Semitic articles while in Nazi-occupied France made it difficult to host the match in the USSR. Botvinnik opened negotiations with the British Chess Federation to host the match in England, but these were cut short by Alekhine's death in 1946.
When the Second World War ended, Botvinnik won the first high-level post-war tournament, at Groningen in 1946, with 14½ points from nineteen games, ½ point ahead of former World Champion Max Euwe and two ahead of Smyslov. He and Euwe both struggled in the last few rounds, and Botvinnik had a narrow escape against Euwe, who he acknowledged had always been a difficult opponent for him. This was Botvinnik's first outright victory in a tournament outside the Soviet Union.
Botvinnik also won the very strong Mikhail Chigorin Memorial tournament held at Moscow 1947.
World Champion
Botvinnik strongly influenced the design of the system which would be used for World Championship competition from 1948 to 1963. Viktor Baturinsky wrote: "Now came Botvinnik's turn to defend his title in accordance with the new qualifying system which he himself had outlined in 1946." (This statement referred to Botvinnik's 1951 title defence.)
On the basis of his strong results during and just after World War II, Botvinnik was one of five players to contest the 1948 World Chess Championship, which was held at The Hague and Moscow. He won the 1948 tournament convincingly—with a score of 14/20, three points clear—becoming the sixth World Champion. While he was on vacation in Riga after the tournament, an eleven-year-old boy called Mikhail Tal paid a visit, hoping to play a game against the new champion. Tal was met by Botvinnik's wife, who said the champion was asleep, and that she had made him take a rest from chess. In 1950, Botvinnik was one of the inaugural recipients of the international grandmaster title from FIDE.
Botvinnik held the world title, with two brief interruptions, for the next fifteen years, during which he played seven world championship matches. In 1951, he drew with David Bronstein over 24 games in Moscow, +5−5=14, keeping the world title, but it was a struggle for Botvinnik, who won the second-last game and drew the last in order to tie the match. In 1954, he drew with Vasily Smyslov over 24 games in Moscow, +7−7=10, again retaining the title. In 1957, he lost to Smyslov by 9½–12½ in Moscow, but the rules then in force allowed him a rematch without having to go through the Candidates' Tournament, and in 1958 he won the rematch in Moscow; Smyslov said his health was poor during the return match. In 1960, Botvinnik was convincingly beaten 8½–12½ at Moscow by Tal, now 23 years old, but again exercised his right to a rematch in 1961, and won by 13–8 in Moscow. Commentators agreed that Tal's play was weaker in the rematch, probably due to his health, but also that Botvinnik's play was better than in the 1960 match, largely due to thorough preparation. Botvinnik changed his style in the rematch, avoiding the tactical complications in which Tal excelled and aiming for closed positions and endgames, where Tal's technique was not outstanding. Finally, in 1963, he lost the title to Tigran Petrosian, by 9½–12½ in Moscow. FIDE had by then altered the rules, and he was not allowed a rematch. The rematch rule had been nicknamed the "Botvinnik rule" because he twice benefited from it.
Though ranking as formal World Champion, Botvinnik had a relatively poor playing record in the early 1950s: he played no formal competitive games after winning the 1948 match tournament until he defended his title, then struggled to draw his 1951 championship match with Bronstein, placed only fifth in the 1951 Soviet Championship, and tied for third in the 1952 Géza Maróczy Memorial tournament in Budapest; and he had also performed poorly in Soviet training contests. However, he lost only five of over thirty games in the two tournaments; three of the four who finished ahead of him in the 1951 championship were future world champions Smyslov and Petrosian and a leading world championship contender (and winner in both tournaments) Paul Keres; and he finished ahead of Petrosian and even with Smyslov in 1952. Botvinnik did not play in the Soviet team that won the 1952 Chess Olympiad in Helsinki: the players voted for the line-up and placed Botvinnik on second board, with Keres on top board; Botvinnik protested and refused to play. Keres' playing record from 1950 to early 1952 had been outstanding.
Botvinnik won the 1952 Soviet Championship (joint first with Mark Taimanov in the tournament, won the play-off match). He included several wins from that tournament over the 1952 Soviet team members in his book Botvinnik's Best Games 1947–1970, writing "these games had a definite significance for me". In 1956, he tied for first place with Smyslov in the 1956 Alexander Alekhine Memorial in Moscow, despite a last-round loss to Keres.
Team tournaments
Botvinnik was selected for the Soviet Olympiad team from 1954 to 1964 inclusively, and helped his team to gold medal finishes each of those six times. At Amsterdam 1954 he was on board one and won the gold medal with 8½/11. Then at home for Moscow 1956, he was again board one, and scored 9½/13 for the bronze medal. For Munich 1958, he scored 9/12 for the silver medal on board one. At Leipzig 1960, he played board two behind Mikhail Tal, having lost his title to Tal earlier that year, but he won the board two gold medal with 10½/13. He was back on board one for Varna 1962, scored 8/12, but failed to win a medal for the only time at an Olympiad. His final Olympiad was Tel Aviv 1964, where he won the bronze with 9/12, playing board 2 as he had lost his title to Petrosian. Overall, in six Olympiads, he scored 54½/73 for an outstanding
74.6 percent.
Botvinnik also played twice for the USSR in the European Team Championship. At Oberhausen 1961, he scored 6/9 for the gold medal on board one. But at Hamburg 1965, he struggled on board two with only 3½/8. Both times the Soviet Union won the team gold medals. Botvinnik played one of the final events of his career at the Russia (USSR) vs Rest of the World match in Belgrade 1970, scoring 2½/4 against Milan Matulović, as the USSR narrowly triumphed.
Late career
After losing the world title for the final time, to Tigran Petrosian in Moscow in 1963, Botvinnik withdrew from the following World Championship cycle after FIDE declined, at its annual congress in 1965, to grant a losing champion the automatic right to a rematch. He remained involved with competitive chess, appearing in several highly rated tournaments and continuing to produce memorable games.
He retired from competitive play in 1970, aged 59, preferring instead to occupy himself with the development of computer chess programs and to assist with the training of younger Soviet players, earning him the nickname of "Patriarch of the Soviet Chess School" (see below).
Botvinnik's autobiography, K Dostizheniyu Tseli, was published in Russian in 1978, and in English translation as Achieving the Aim () in 1981. A staunch Communist, he was noticeably shaken by the collapse of the Soviet Union and lost some of his standing in Russian chess during the Boris Yeltsin era.
In the 1980s Botvinnik proposed a computer program to manage the Soviet economy. However, his proposals did not receive significant attention from the Soviet government.
During the last few years of his life he personally financed his economic computer project that he hoped would be used to manage the Russian economy. He kept actively working on the program until his death and financing the work from the money he made for the lectures and seminars he attended, despite prominent health problems.
Botvinnik died of pancreatic cancer in May 1995. According to his daughter, Botvinnik remained active until the last few months of his life, and continued to go to work until March 1995 despite blindness in one of his eyes (and extremely poor vision in the other).
Political controversies
The Soviet Union regarded chess as a symbol of Communist superiority, and hence the Soviet chess world was extremely politicized. As Botvinnik was the first world-class player produced by the Soviet Union, everything he said or did (or did not say or do) had political repercussions, and there were rumors that Soviet opponents were given hints that they should not beat him.
David Bronstein wrote that Boris Verlinsky had won the 1929 Soviet Championship and was granted the first Soviet Grandmaster title for this achievement, yet he was later stripped of it, when it was thought more politically correct to make Botvinnik the first official Soviet GM (as distinct from the then-nonexistent FIDE grandmaster title).
Botvinnik wrote that before the last round of the 1935 Moscow tournament, Soviet Commissar of Justice Nikolai Krylenko, who was also in charge of Soviet chess, proposed that Ilya Rabinovich should deliberately lose to Botvinnik, to ensure that Botvinnik took first place. Botvinnik refused, saying "... then I will myself put a piece en prise and resign". The game was drawn, and Botvinnik shared first place with Salo Flohr.
Botvinnik sent an effusive telegram of thanks to Joseph Stalin after his victory at the great tournament in Nottingham in 1936.
Botvinnik played relatively poorly in the very strong 1940 Soviet Championship, finishing in a tie for fifth/sixth places, with 11½/19, two full points behind Igor Bondarevsky and Andor Lilienthal. With World War II under way by this time, and the strong possibility of little or no chess practice for some time in the future, Botvinnik seems to have prevailed upon the Soviet chess leadership to hold another tournament "in order to clarify the situation". This wound up being the 1941 Absolute Championship of the USSR, which featured the top six finishers from the 1940 event, playing each other four times. After a personal appeal to the defence minister, Vyacheslav Molotov, Botvinnik was exempted from war work for three days a week in order to concentrate on chess preparations. He won this tournament convincingly, and thus reclaimed his position as the USSR's top player.
Bronstein claimed that at the end of the 1946 Groningen tournament, a few months after the death of reigning world champion Alexander Alekhine, Botvinnik personally invited Samuel Reshevsky, Reuben Fine, Max Euwe, Vasily Smyslov, and Paul Keres to join him in a tournament to decide the new world champion, but other evidence suggests that FIDE (the "governing body" of chess), had already proposed a World Championship tournament before the Groningen tournament began, and at this stage the Soviet Union was not a member and therefore took no part in framing that proposal.
Since Keres lost his first four games against Botvinnik in the 1948 World Championship tournament, winning only in the final cycle after the outcome of the tournament had been decided, suspicions have sometimes been raised that Keres was forced to "throw" games to allow Botvinnik to win the Championship. Chess historian Taylor Kingston investigated all the available evidence and arguments, and concluded that: Soviet chess officials gave Keres strong hints that he should not hinder Botvinnik's attempt to win the World Championship; Botvinnik only discovered this about half-way through the tournament and protested so strongly that he angered Soviet officials; Keres probably did not deliberately lose games to Botvinnik or anyone else in the tournament.
Bronstein insinuated that Soviet officials pressured him to lose in the 1951 world championship match so that Botvinnik would keep the title, but comments by Botvinnik's second, Salo Flohr, and Botvinnik's own annotations to the critical 23rd game indicate that Botvinnik knew of no such plot.
In 1956, FIDE changed the world championship rules so that a defeated champion would have the right to a return match. Yuri Averbakh alleged that this was done at the urging of the two Soviet representatives in FIDE, who were personal friends of Botvinnik. Averbakh also claims that Botvinnik's friends were behind FIDE's decision in 1956 to limit the number of players from the same country that could compete in the Candidates Tournament, and that this was to Botvinnik's advantage as it reduced the number of Soviet players he might have to meet in the title match.
Botvinnik asked to be allowed to play in the 1956 Candidates Tournament, as he wanted to use the event as part of his warm-up for the next year's title match, but his request was refused.
Mikhail Tal's chronic kidney problems contributed to his defeat in his 1961 return match with Botvinnik, and his doctors in Riga advised that he should postpone the match for health reasons. Averbakh claimed that Botvinnik would agree to a postponement only if Tal was certified unfit by Moscow doctors, and that Tal then decided to play. The 1961 world championship lasted 21 games and Botvinnik won ten of them, for a total score of +10−5=6, reclaiming the title he had lost a year earlier and becoming the oldest winner of a FIDE world championship match at 50.
In 1963, Botvinnik played his last world championship match against Tigran Petrosian, in a 22-game series. Petrosian, almost 20 years younger, wore out the 52 year old Botvinnik in a series of protracted games, most of them over 40 moves, including six consecutive draws. The defending champion played poorly in games 18 and 19, and the match ended with three short draws. Petrosian thus claimed the world championship with a score of +5−2=15.
In 1954, he wrote an article about inciting socialist revolution in western countries, aiming to spread communism without a third world war. And in 1960 Botvinnik wrote a letter to the Soviet Government proposing economic reforms that were contrary to party policy.
In 1976, Soviet grandmasters were asked to sign a letter condemning Viktor Korchnoi as a "traitor" after Korchnoi defected. Botvinnik evaded this "request" by saying that he wanted to write his own letter denouncing Korchnoi. By this time, however, his importance had waned and officials would not give him this "privilege", so Botvinnik's name did not appear on the group letter – an outcome Botvinnik may have foreseen. Bronstein and Boris Spassky openly refused to sign the letter.
Assessment
Playing strength and style
Reuben Fine, writing in 1976, observed that Botvinnik was at or near the top of the chess world for thirty years—from 1933, when he drew a match against Flohr, to 1963, when he lost the world championship for the final time, to Petrosian—"a feat equaled historically only by Emanuel Lasker and Wilhelm Steinitz". The statistical rating system used in Raymond Keene and Nathan Divinsky's book Warriors of the Mind concludes that Botvinnik was the fourth strongest player of all time: behind Garry Kasparov, Anatoly Karpov and Bobby Fischer but ahead of José Raúl Capablanca, Lasker, Viktor Korchnoi, Boris Spassky, Vasily Smyslov and Tigran Petrosian. The Chessmetrics system is sensitive to the length of the periods being compared but places Botvinnik third in a comparison of players' best individual years (1946 for Botvinnik) and sixth in a comparison of fifteen-year periods (1935–1949 in Botvinnik's case). In 2005, Chessmetrics' creator Jeff Sonas wrote an article which examined various ways of comparing the strength of "world number one" players, some not based on Chessmetrics; and Botvinnik generally emerged as one of the top six (the greatest exceptions were in criteria related to tournament results). FIDE did not adopt the Elo rating system until 1970, by which time Botvinnik's strength had been declining for several years. According to unofficial calculations by Arpad Elo, Botvinnik was the highest-rated player from 1937 to 1954, peaking about 2730 in 1946.
This may seem surprising in the light of Botvinnik's results in the 1950s and early 1960s, when he failed to win a world championship match outright (as reigning champion) and his tournament results were patchy. But after the FIDE world championship cycle was established in 1948, reigning champions had to play the strongest contender every three years, and successful title defenses became less common than in the pre-World War II years, when the titleholder could select his challenger. Despite this, Botvinnik held the world title for a longer period than any of his successors except Garry Kasparov. Botvinnik also became world champion at the relatively late age of 37, because World War II brought international competition to a virtual halt for six years; and he was 52 years old when he finally lost his title (only Wilhelm Steinitz and Emanuel Lasker were older when they were defeated). Botvinnik's best years were from 1935 to 1946; during that period he dominated Soviet chess; and the USSR's 15½–4½ win in the 1945 radio match against the USA proved that the USSR's top players were considerably better than the USA's (who had dominated international team competitions in the 1930s).
Botvinnik generally sought tense positions with chances for both sides; hence his results were often better with the Black pieces as he could avoid lines that were likely to produce draws. He had a strong grasp of long-term strategy, and was often willing to accept weaknesses that his opponent could not exploit in exchange for some advantage that he could exploit. He confessed that he was relatively weak in tactical calculation, yet many of his games feature sacrifices – often long-term positional sacrifices whose purpose was not to force an immediate win, but to improve his position and undermine his opponent's. Botvinnik was also capable of all-out sacrificial attacks when he thought the position justified it. Botvinnik saw himself as a "universal player" (all-rounder), in contrast to an all-out attacker like Mikhail Tal or a defender like Tigran Petrosian. Reuben Fine considered Botvinnik's collection of best games one of the three most beautiful up to the mid-1950s (the other two were Alexander Alekhine's and Akiba Rubinstein's).
Kasparov quotes Tigran Petrosian as saying, "There was a very unpleasant feeling of inevitability. Once in a conversation with Keres I mentioned this and even compared Botvinnik with a bulldozer, which sweeps away everything in its path. Keres smiled and said: 'But can you imagine what it was like to play him when he was young?'"
Influence on the game
Botvinnik's example and teaching established the modern approach to preparing for competitive chess: regular but moderate physical exercise; analysing very thoroughly a relatively narrow repertoire of openings; annotating one's own games, those of past great players and those of competitors; publishing one's annotations so that others can point out any errors; studying strong opponents to discover their strengths and weaknesses; ruthless objectivity about one's own strengths and weaknesses. Botvinnik also played many short training matches against strong grandmasters including Salo Flohr, Yuri Averbakh, Viacheslav Ragozin, and Semion Furman – in noisy or smoky rooms if he thought he would have to face such conditions in actual competition. Vladimir Kramnik said, "Botvinnik's chess career was the way of a genius, although he was not a genius", meaning that Botvinnik was brilliant at making the best use of his talents.
Botvinnik used almost exclusively pawn openings with the white pieces. In his eight World Championship matches, he never started a game with an e4-opening, and his usual choices as White were the English Opening or Queen's Gambit. When playing the black pieces, he preferred the French Defense or Sicilian Defense in response to 1.e4, and the Slav Defense or Nimzo-Indian Defence in response to 1.d4. While Botvinnik did not use a wide range of openings, he made major contributions to those he did use, for example: the Botvinnik Variation of the Semi-Slav Defense in the Queen's Gambit Declined, the Kasparov/Botvinnik system in the Exchange Variation of the Queen's Gambit Declined, the Caro–Kann Defence (both the Panov–Botvinnik Attack for White and various approaches for Black), the Winawer Variation of the French Defense, the Botvinnik System in the English Opening. In his openings research Botvinnik did not aim to produce tactical tricks that would only be effective once, but rather systems in which he aimed to understand typical positions and their possibilities better than his rivals. His advice to his pupils included "My theory of the openings fitted into one notebook" and "You don’t have to know that which everyone knows, but it is important to know that which not everyone knows." In fact he used different notebooks in different periods, and copied a few analyses from one notebook to the next. The "Soviet School of Chess" that dominated competition from 1945 to about 2000 followed Botvinnik's approach to preparation and to openings research; and, although Soviet players had their own preferred styles of play, they adopted his combative approach and willingness to ignore "classical" principles if doing so offered credible prospects of a lasting advantage.
In 1963, Botvinnik founded his own school within the Soviet coaching system, and its graduates include world champions Anatoly Karpov, Garry Kasparov and Vladimir Kramnik, and other top-class players such as Alexei Shirov, Vladimir Akopian and Jaan Ehlvest. Botvinnik was not an infallible spotter of chess talent: although he said of the 11-year-old Kasparov, "The future of chess lies in the hands of this young man", he said on first seeing Karpov, "The boy doesn't have a clue about chess, and there's no future at all for him in this profession." But Karpov recounts fondly his youthful memories of the Botvinnik school and credits Botvinnik's training, especially the homework he assigned, with a marked improvement in his own play. Kasparov presents Botvinnik almost as a kind of father figure, going some way towards balancing the common public perception of Botvinnik as dour and aloof; and Kasparov inherited Botvinnik's emphasis on preparation, research and innovation. Botvinnik was still playing a major teaching role in his late 70s, when Kramnik entered the school, and made a favorable impression on his pupil.
Other achievements
Electrical engineering
Engineering was as much of a passion for Botvinnik as chess – at Nottingham in 1936, where he had his first major tournament win outside the USSR, he said "I wish I could do what he's done in electrical engineering" (referring to Milan Vidmar, another grandmaster). He was awarded the Order of the Badge of Honour for his work on power stations in the Urals during World War II (while he was also establishing himself as the world's strongest chess player). He earned his doctorate in electrical engineering in 1951. In 1956, he joined the Research Institute for Electrical Energy as a senior research scientist.
Computer chess
In the 1950s Botvinnik became interested in computers, at first mainly for playing chess but he later also co-authored reports on the possible use of artificial intelligence in managing the Soviet economy. Botvinnik's research on chess-playing programs concentrated on "selective searches", which used general chess principles to decide which moves were worth considering. This was the only feasible approach for the primitive computers available in the Soviet Union in the early 1960s, which were only capable of searching three or four half-moves deep (i.e. A's move, B's move, A's move, B's move) if they tried to examine every variation. Botvinnik eventually developed an algorithm that was reasonably good at finding the right move in difficult positions, but it often missed the right move in simple positions, e.g. where it was possible to checkmate in two moves. This "selective" approach turned out to be a dead end, as computers were powerful enough by the mid-1970s to perform a brute-force search (checking all possible moves) several moves deep and today's vastly more powerful computers do this well enough to beat human world champions. However, his PIONEER program contained a generalized method of decision-making that, with a few adjustments, enabled it to plan maintenance of power stations all over the USSR. On September 7, 1991 Botvinnik was awarded an honorary degree in mathematics of the University of Ferrara (Italy) for his work on computer chess.
Writings
Chess
Computers
Tournament results
The following table gives Botvinnik's placings and scores in tournaments. The first "Score" column gives the number of points on the total possible. In the second "Score" column, "+" indicates the number of won games, "−" the number of losses, and "=" the number of draws.
Match results
Here are Botvinnik's results in matches. In the second "Score" column, "+" indicates the number of won games, "−" the number of losses, and "=" the number of draws.
Notable games
Botvinnik vs. Chekhover, Moscow 1935, Réti Opening, 1–0
Botvinnik vs. Capablanca, AVRO 1938, Nimzoindian Defense, 1–0 At first sight Botvinnik's opening play looks unpromising, but he knew how his attack would develop.
Keres vs. Botvinnik, USSR Absolute Championship 1941, Nimzoindian Defense, 0–1 Playing as Black, Botvinnik demolishes a world title contender in 22 moves.
Tolush vs. Botvinnik, USSR Championship 1944, 0–1 Long-term .
Denker vs. Botvinnik, US vs USSR radio match 1945, 0–1 Botvinnik uses the Botvinnik System in the Semi-Slav Defense to bulldoze US champion Arnold Denker.
Botvinnik vs. Keres, Alekhine Memorial Tournament Moscow 1966, 1–0 Botvinnik shows his superior understanding of , and when to open them.
Botvinnik vs Portisch, Monaco 1968, 1–0 A fireworks display starting with an exchange sacrifice on the c-file, a tactic on which Botvinnik wrote the book.
Notes
See also
List of Jewish chess players
References
Further reading
External links
Mikhail Moiseyevich Botvinnik – hundredth anniversary ChessBase.com
Film newsreel about a simultaneous display of Salo Flohr and Mikhail Botvinnik, Hilversum (NL), 1 January 1964
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242418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive%20advantage | Competitive advantage | In business, a competitive advantage is the attribute that allows an organization to outperform its competitors.
A competitive advantage may include access to natural resources, such as high-grade ores or a low-cost power source, highly skilled labor, geographic location, high entry barriers, and access to new technology.
Overview
The term competitive advantage refers to the ability gained through attributes and resources to perform at a higher level than others in the same industry or market (Christensen and Fahey 1984, Kay 1994, Porter 1980 cited by Chacarbaghi and Lynch 1999, p. 45). The study of this advantage has attracted profound research interest due to contemporary issues regarding superior performance levels of firms in today's competitive market. "A firm is said to have a competitive advantage when it is implementing a value creating strategy not simultaneously being implemented by any current or potential player" (Barney 1991 cited by Clulow et al.2003, p. 221).
Competitive advantage is the leverage a business has over its competitors. This can be gained by offering clients better and greater value. Advertising products or services with lower prices or higher quality piques the interest of consumers. Target markets recognize these unique products or services. This is the reason behind brand loyalty, or why customers prefer one particular product or service over another.
Value proposition is important when understanding competitive advantage. If the value proposition is effective, that is, if the value proposition offers clients better and greater value, it can produce a competitive advantage in either the product or service. The value proposition can increase customer expectations and choices.
Competitive strategy is defined as the long term plan of a particular company in order to gain competitive advantage over its competitors in the industry. It is aimed at creating defensive position in an industry and generating a superior ROI (return on investment ).
Michael Porter defined the two ways in which an organization can achieve competitive advantage over its rivals: cost advantage and differentiation advantage. Cost advantage is when a business provides the same products and services as its competitors, albeit at a lesser cost. Differentiation advantage is when a business provides better products and services as its competitors. In Porter's view, strategic management should be concerned with building and sustaining competitive advantage.
Competitive advantage seeks to address some of the criticisms of comparative advantage. Competitive advantage rests on the notion that cheap labor is ubiquitous and natural resources are not necessary for a good economy. The other theory, comparative advantage, can lead countries to specialize in exporting primary goods and raw materials that trap countries in low-wage economies due to terms of trade. Competitive advantage attempts to correct this issue by stressing on maximizing scale economies in goods and services that garner premium prices (Stutz and Warf 2009).
Successfully implemented strategies will lift a firm to superior performance by facilitating the firm with competitive advantage to outperform current or potential players (Passemard and Calantone 2000, p. 18). To gain competitive advantage, a business strategy of a firm manipulates the various resources over which it has direct control, and these resources have the ability to generate competitive advantage (Reed and Fillippi 1990 cited by Rijamampianina 2003, p. 362). Superior performance outcomes and superiority in production resources reflect competitive advantage (Day and Wesley 1988 cited by Lau 2002, p. 125).
The quotes above signify competitive advantage as the ability to stay ahead of present or potential competition. Also, it provides the understanding that resources held by a firm and the business strategy will have a profound impact on generating competitive advantage. Powell (2001, p. 132) views business strategy as the tool that manipulates resources and creates competitive advantage. Hence, viable business strategy may not be adequate unless it possesses control over unique resources that have the ability to create such a relatively unique advantage.
Johnson and Foss have provided a formal account of what constitutes an optimal business strategy. According to well-established variational methods, a business pursuing an optimal strategy will follow the shortest economic path that makes the most efficient use of resources.
The three forms of generic competitive strategy
Michael Porter, a professor at Harvard Business School, wrote a book in 1985 which identified three strategies that businesses can use to tackle competition. These approaches can be applied to all businesses whether they are product-based or service-based. He called these approaches generic strategies. They include cost leadership, differentiation, and focus. These strategies have been created to improve and gain a competitive advantage over competitors. These strategies can also be recognized as the comparative advantage and the differential advantage.
Cost leadership strategy
Cost leadership is a business's ability to produce a product or service that will be at a lower cost than other competitors. If the business is able to produce the same quality product but sell it for less, this gives them a competitive advantage over other businesses. Therefore, this provides a price value to the customers. Lower costs will result in higher profits as businesses are still making a reasonable profit on each good or service sold. If businesses are not making a large enough profit, Porter recommends finding a lower-cost base such as labor, materials, and facilities. This gives businesses a lower manufacturing cost over those of other competitors. The company can add value to the customer via transfer of the cost benefit to them.
Differential strategy
A differential advantage is gained when a business's products or services are different from its competitors. In his book, Michael Porter recommended making those goods or services attractive to stand out from their competitors. The business will need strong research, development, and design thinking to create innovative ideas. These improvements to the goods or service could include delivering high quality to customers. If customers see a product or service as being different from other products, consumers are willing to pay more to receive these benefits.
Focus strategy
Focus strategy ideally tries to get businesses to aim at a few target markets rather than trying to target everyone. This strategy is often used for smaller businesses since they may not have the appropriate resources or ability to target everyone. Businesses that use this method usually focus on the needs of the customer and how their products or services could improve their daily lives. In this method, some firms may even let consumers give their inputs for their product or service.
This strategy can also be called the segmentation strategy, which includes geographic, demographic, behavioral, and physical segmentation. By narrowing the market down to smaller segments, businesses are able to meet the needs of the consumer. Porter believes that once businesses have decided what groups they will target, it is essential to decide if they will take the cost leadership approach or differentiation approach. Focus strategy will not make a business successful. Porter mentions that it is important to not use all 3 generic strategies because there is a high chance that companies will come out achieving no strategies instead of achieving success. This can be called "stuck in the middle", and the business won't be able to have a competitive advantage.
When businesses can find the perfect balance between price and quality, it usually leads to a successful product or service. A product or service must offer value through price or quality to ensure the business is successful in the market. To succeed, it's not enough to be "just as good as" another business. Success comes to firms that can deliver a product or service in a manner that is different, meaningful, and based on their customers' needs and desires. Deciding on the appropriate price and quality depends on the business's brand image and what they hope to achieve in relation to their competition.
Underlying internal factors
Positioning is an important marketing concept. The main purpose of positioning is often to create the right perceptions in comparison to competitors. Thus, it creates competitive advantage. This positioning, or competitive advantage, is based on creating the right "image" or "identity" in the minds of the target group. This positioning decision exists of selecting the right core competencies to build upon and emphasize.
Therefore, both corporate identity and core competencies are underlying internal factors of competitive advantage.
Corporate identity
The operational model for managing corporate reputation and image of Gray and Balmer (1998) proposes that corporate identity, communication, image, and reputation are the fundamental components of the process of creating competitive advantage. Corporate identity through corporate communication creates corporate image and reputation, with an end result of competitive advantage.
Corporate identity is the reality of an organization. It refers to the distinct characteristics or core competencies of the organization. It is the mental picture of the company held by its audiences. Corporate communication refers to all the official and informal communication sources, through a variety of media, by which the company outsources its identity to its audiences or stakeholders. Corporate communication is the bridge between corporate identity and corporate image or reputation.
The above-stated process has two main objectives, namely to create the intended image in the minds of the company's principal constituents and managing the process to create a favourable reputation in the minds of the important stakeholders. Gray and Balmer (1998) say that a strong image can be built through a coordinated image-building campaign and reputation, on the other hand, requires a praiseworthy identity that can only be shaped through consistent performance.
Core competencies
A core competency is a concept introduced by Prahalad and Hamel (1990). Core competencies are part of the corporate identity; they form the foundation of corporate competitiveness. Core competencies fit within the "resource-based view of the firm" Resources can be tangible or intangible.
A firm's knowledge assets are an important intangible source of competitive advantage. For firm knowledge to provide competitive advantage, it must be generated, codified, and diffused to others inside of the organization. Many different types of knowledge can serve as a resource based advantage: manufacturing processes, technology, or market based assets such as knowledge of customers or processes for new product development. Firms with a knowledge-based core competency can increase their advantage by learning from "contingent workers" such as technical experts, consultants, or temporary employees. Those outsiders bring knowledge inside of a firm—e.g., understanding of competing technologies. Moreover, interactions with contingent workers can provoke the firm to codify knowledge that was tacit in order to communicate with the temporary employees. The benefits of these interactions with outsiders increases with the "absorptive capacity" of the firm. However, there is some risk that these interactions cause leakage or dilution of knowledge assets to others who later hire the same temporary employees.
The competitiveness of a company is based on the ability to develop core competencies. A core competency is, for example, a specialised knowledge, technique, or skill. Yang (2015) concluded, with the examination of a long-term development model, that developing core competencies and effectively implementing core capabilities are important strategic actions for any enterprise in order to pursue high long-term profits. In the end, real advantage can be created by the management's ability to unify corporate-wide technologies and production skills into competencies that capacitate individual businesses to adapt quickly to changing opportunities.
To sustain leadership in a chosen core competency area, companies should seek to maximize their competency factors in the core products like being important in positioning its values, distinctive (differentiated), superior, communicable (visibility), unique, affordable, and profitable. When a company achieves this goal, it allows it to shape the evolution of an end market.
See also
Comparative advantage
Core competency
Cost leadership
Differentiation (economics)
Economies of scale
Resource-based view
Tacit knowledge
Unfair Competitive Advantage
Value chain
References
Further reading
Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance by Michael E. Porter
Creating Competitive Advantage: Give Customers a Reason to Choose You Over Your Competitors by Jaynie L. Smith
Using MIS by David M. Kroenke pages 71–77
Unraveling The Resource-Based Tangle by Peteraf M. & Barney J (2003). Managerial and Decision Economics 24.
Erica Olsen (2012). Strategic Planning Kit for Dummies, 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Profit from the Core: Growth Strategy in an Era of Turbulence by Chris Zook and James Allen
Beyond the Core: Expand Your Market Without Abandoning Your Roots by Chris Zook
Unstoppable: Finding Hidden Assets to Renew the Core and Fuel Profitable Growth by Chris Zook
Value Migration: How to Think Several Moves Ahead of the Competition by Adrian Slywotzky
External links
Examples of Competitive Advantage
Competitive Advantage
Porter and Competitive Advantage
Competitive Advantage in Business
Strategic management
Marketing strategy
Competition (economics) | [
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242424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic%20winter%20of%20536 | Volcanic winter of 536 | The volcanic winter of 536 was the most severe and protracted episode of climatic cooling in the Northern Hemisphere in the last 2,000 years. The volcanic winter was caused by an eruption, with several possible locations proposed in various continents. Most contemporary accounts of the volcanic winter are from authors in Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, although the impact of the cooler temperatures extended beyond Europe. Modern scholarship has determined that in early 536 (or possibly late 535) the eruption ejected massive amounts of sulfate aerosols into the atmosphere, which reduced the solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface and cooled the atmosphere for several years. In March 536, Constantinople began experiencing darkened skies and cooler temperatures.
Summer temperatures in 536 fell by as much as 2.5 degrees Celsius (4.5 degrees Fahrenheit) below normal in Europe. The lingering impact of the volcanic winter of 536 was augmented in 539–540 when another volcanic eruption caused summer temperatures to decline as much as 2.7 degrees Celsius (4.9 degrees Fahrenheit) below normal in Europe. There is evidence of still another volcanic eruption in 547 which would have extended the cooler period. The volcanic eruptions, accompanied by the Plague of Justinian, which began in 541, caused crop failures, famine, and millions of deaths and initiated the Late Antique Little Ice Age, which lasted from 536 to 660.
Medieval scholar Michael McCormick has written that 536 was the worst year in history to be alive. "It was the beginning of one of the worst periods to be alive, if not the worst year."
Documentary evidence
Byzantine historian Procopius recorded in 536 CE in his report on the wars with the Vandals, "during this year a most dread portent took place. For the sun gave forth its light without brightness … and it seemed exceedingly like the sun in eclipse, for the beams it shed were not clear".
In 538, Roman statesman Cassiodorus described the following to one of his subordinates in letter 25:
The sun's rays were weak, and it appeared a "bluish" colour.
At noon, no shadows from people were visible on the ground.
The heat from the sun was feeble.
The moon, even when full, was "empty of splendour"
"A winter without storms, a spring without mildness, and a summer without heat"
Prolonged frost and unseasonable drought
The seasons "seem to be all jumbled up together"
The sky is described as "blended with alien elements" just like cloudy weather, except prolonged. It was "stretched like a hide across the sky" and prevented the "true colours" of the sun and moon from being seen, along with the sun's warmth.
Frosts during harvest, which made apples harden and grapes sour.
The need to use stored food to last through the situation.
Subsequent letters (no. 26 and 27) discuss plans to relieve a widespread famine.
Michael the Syrian (1126–1199), a patriarch of the Syriac Orthodox Church, recorded that during 536–537 the sun shone feebly for a year and a half.
The Gaelic Irish Annals recorded the following:
"A failure of bread in the year 536 AD" – the Annals of Ulster
"A failure of bread from the years 536–539 AD" – the Annals of Inisfallen
The mid-10th-century Annales Cambriae record for the year 537:
"The Battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut fell, and there was great mortality in Britain and Ireland."
Further phenomena were reported by a number of independent contemporary sources:
Low temperatures, even snow during the summer (snow reportedly fell in August in China, which caused the harvest there to be delayed)
Widespread crop failures
"A dense, dry fog" in the Middle East, China and Europe
Drought in Peru, which affected the Moche culture
There are other sources of evidence regarding this period.
Scientific evidence
Tree ring analysis by dendrochronologist Mike Baillie, of the Queen's University of Belfast, shows abnormally little growth in Irish oak in 536 and another sharp drop in 542, after a partial recovery. Ice cores from Greenland and Antarctica show evidence of substantial sulfate deposits in around 534 ± 2, which is evidence of an extensive acidic dust veil.
Possible explanations
It has been conjectured that the changes were caused by ashes or dust thrown into the air after the eruption of a volcano (a phenomenon known as "volcanic winter"), or after the impact of a comet or meteorite. The evidence of sulfate deposits in ice cores strongly supports the volcano hypothesis; the sulfate spike is even more intense than that which accompanied the lesser episode of climatic aberration in 1816, popularly known as the "Year Without a Summer", which has been connected to the explosion of the volcano Mount Tambora in Sumbawa.
In 1984, R. B. Stothers postulated that the event might have been caused by the volcano Rabaul in what is now New Britain, in Papua New Guinea.
In 1999, David Keys suggested that the volcano Krakatoa exploded at the time and caused the changes. It is suggested that an eruption of Krakatoa described as occurring in 416 by the Javanese Book of Kings actually took place in 535–536, there being no other evidence of such an eruption in 416.
In 2009, Dallas Abbott of Columbia University's Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory in New York published evidence from Greenland ice cores that multiple comet impacts may have caused the haze. The spherules found in the ice might originate from terrestrial debris ejected into the atmosphere by an impact event.
In 2010, Robert Dull, John Southon, and colleagues presented evidence suggesting a link between the Tierra Blanca Joven (TBJ) eruption of the Ilopango caldera in central El Salvador and the 536 event. Although earlier published radiocarbon evidence suggested a two-sigma age range of 408–536, which is consistent with the global climate downturn, the connection between 536 and Ilopango was not explicitly made until research on Central American Pacific margin marine sediment cores by Steffen Kutterolf and colleagues showed that the phreatoplinian TBJ eruption was much larger than previously thought. The radioactive carbon-14 in successive growth increments of a single tree that had been killed by a TBJ pyroclastic flow was measured in detail using accelerator mass spectrometry; the results supported the date of 535 as the year in which the tree died. A conservative bulk tephra volume for the TBJ event of ~84 km3 was calculated, indicating a large Volcanic Explosivity Index 6+ event and a magnitude of 6.9. The results suggested that the Ilopango TBJ eruption size, latitude, and age are consistent with the ice core sulphate records of Larsen et al. 2008. Later research suggested date 539/540 CE. However, a more recent study, examining other evidence, now dates the eruption to the year 431 CE.
A 2015 study further supported the theory of a major eruption in "535 or early 536", with North American volcanoes considered a likely candidate. It also identified signals of a second eruption in 539–540, likely to have been in the tropics, which would have sustained the cooling effects of the first eruption through to around 550.
In 2018, Harvard University researchers suggested the cause was a volcanic eruption in Iceland that erupted in early 536. However, the author of the previous study said to Science magazine that the evidence is insufficient to discard the North America hypothesis.
Historic consequences
The 536 event and ensuing famine have been suggested as an explanation for the deposition of hoards of gold by Scandinavian elites at the end of the Migration Period. The gold was possibly a sacrifice to appease the gods and get the sunlight back. Mythological events such as the Fimbulwinter and Ragnarök are theorized to be based on the cultural memory of the event.
A book written by David Keys speculates that the climate changes contributed to various developments, such as the emergence of the Plague of Justinian (541–549), the decline of the Avars, the migration of Mongolian tribes towards the West, the end of the Sassanid Empire, the collapse of the Gupta Empire, the rise of Islam, the expansion of Turkic tribes, and the fall of Teotihuacán. In 2000, a 3BM Television production (for WNET and Channel Four) capitalized upon Keys' book. The documentary, under the name Catastrophe! How the World Changed, was broadcast in the US as part of PBS's Secrets of the Dead series.
However, Keys and Wohletz's ideas lack mainstream acceptance. Reviewing Keys' book, British archaeologist Ken Dark commented that "much of the apparent evidence presented in the book is highly debatable, based on poor sources or simply incorrect. [...] Nonetheless, both the global scope and the emphasis on the 6th century AD as a time of wide-ranging change are notable, and the book contains some obscure information which will be new to many. However, it fails to demonstrate its central thesis and does not offer a convincing explanation for the many changes discussed".
The historian Andrew Breeze in a recent book (2020) argues that some King Arthur events including the Battle of Camlann are historical, happening in 537 as consequence of the famine associated with the climate change of the previous year.
See also
Tierra Blanca Joven eruption
Laki
1257 Samalas eruption
Fimbulwinter
Great Famine of 1315–1317
1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, largest ever recorded
Justinian I, Roman emperor at the time
Kuwae, a South Pacific volcano that erupted c. 1452–53
Minoan eruption
Year Without a Summer, 1816
946 eruption of Paektu Mountain
Volcanism of Iceland
Notes
References
Further reading
Levy, David (ed.), The Scientific American Book of the Cosmos, , 2000, (Google Print, p. 186)
External links
"536 and all that", from Real Climate, March 2008.
CCNet Debate: The Ad 536–540 Mystery: Global Catastrophe, Regional Event or Modern Myth?
535
536
6th century in Asia
6th century in Europe
6th century in North America
6th-century natural disasters
Anomalous weather
Events that forced the climate
Medieval weather events
6th-century famines
Volcanic winters | [
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242430 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single%20malt%20whisky | Single malt whisky | Single malt whisky is malt whisky from a single distillery. Single malts are typically associated with single malt Scotch, though they are also produced in various other countries. Under the United Kingdom's Scotch Whisky Regulations, a "Single Malt Scotch Whisky" must be made exclusively from malted barley (although the addition of E150A caramel colouring is allowed), must be distilled using pot stills at a single distillery, and must be aged for at least three years in oak casks of a capacity not exceeding . While the Scotch model is usually copied internationally, these constraints may not apply to whisky marketed as "single malt" that is produced elsewhere. For example, there is no definition of the term "single malt" with relation to whisky in the law of the United States, and some American whiskey advertised as "single malt whisky" is produced from malted rye rather than malted barley.
Production
All single malt goes through a similar batch production process, as outlined below. There are several types of single malts available from distilleries including single barrel single malts which are the product of a single batch that was stored for three or more years in a single oak barrel. These single barrel variants afford the opportunity for the consumer to see the influence of different types of storage on the same whisky (e.g., first use bourbon whiskey barrels, port pipes, etc.). The more common form of single malt is a marrying at bottling time of various batches that are mixed or vatted to achieve consistent flavours from one bottling run to the next.
Water
Water is first added to the barley to promote germination. At a later stage, prior to fermentation, it is mixed with ground barley grist to create a mash. Water is also used later in the production process to dilute most whisky before maturation and added once again before bottling.
Most new-make malt whisky is diluted to about 60% alcohol by volume (ABV) or so before it is placed in casks to mature (62.5% is specified as a maximum in U.S. law for making straight whisky). The aged spirit is then diluted with water to reduce it to bottling strength (typically 40-50% ABV). Since large amounts of water are used during the process of whisky production, water supplies are a key factor for the location of any distillery.
Malting
Barley, yeast, and water are the only ingredients required in the production of (barley-based) single malt whisky.
The barley used to make the whisky is "malted" by soaking the grain in water for two to three days and allowing it to germinate. This process releases enzymes, which convert unfermentable starch (which is insoluble in water and not available for fermentation by yeast) to fermentable sugars.
Traditionally in Scotland, each distillery had its own malting floor where the germinating seeds were regularly turned. The "pagoda roof" (many now false) which ventilated the malt kiln can still be seen at many distilleries both in Scotland and in other countries. However, most of the distilleries now use commercial "maltsters" to prepare their malt.
Drying in the kiln
The germination is halted (by heating) after three to five days, when the optimum amount of starch has been converted to fermentable sugars. The method for drying the germinated barley is by heating it with hot air.
In most cases, some level of smoke from a peat-heated fire is introduced to the kiln to add phenols, a smoky aroma and flavour to the whisky. Some of the more intensely smoky malts have phenol levels between 25 and 50 parts per million (ppm). Islay malts have a reputation for being the peatiest. More subtle malts can have phenol levels of around 2–3 ppm. Entirely non-smoked (non-peated, unpeated) malts are made by the Glengoyne Distillery, which only uses hot air for drying.
Mashing
The malt is milled into a coarse flour (grist) which is made of husks (70%), grits (20%), and flour (10%), to which three courses of hot water are added to extract the sugars.
The extraction is done in a large kettle (usually made of stainless steel) called a mash tun. At first, the hot water dissolves the sugars (maltose) and enzymes (diastase) in the grist. Then the enzymes act on the starch left over from the malting stage, continuing the conversion to sugar, and producing a sugary liquid called wort. Typically, each batch of grist is mashed three times or so to extract all the fermentable sugars. The first water is injected at approximately 60 °C, the second portion at approximately 72 °C and the third and final portion at approximately 88 °C. The wort from the first two water courses is drained into "washback" vessels for further processing, whereas the third course is retained as the first charge in the next batch.
Fermentation
Yeast is added to the wort in a large vessel (often tens of thousands of litres) called a washback. Washbacks are commonly made of Oregon pine or stainless steel. The yeast feeds on the sugars, and as a by-product, produces both carbon dioxide and alcohol. This process is called fermentation and can take up to three days to complete. When complete, the liquid has an alcohol content of 5 to 7% by volume, and is now known as wash. Up until this point the process has been quite similar to the production of beer.
Distillation
The wash is then distilled. The wash is heated, boiling off the alcohol, which has a lower boiling point than water; the vapour is collected and cooled to condense it back into a liquid form.
Scottish regulations require single malts to be distilled in pot stills. In other jurisdictions, column stills may be used.
The initial distilled spirit produced by a pot still, known as low wine has an alcohol content of about 20 to 30%. The low wines are then pumped into a second still, known as the spirit still, and distilled a second (and sometimes a third) time. The final spirit, called "new make spirit", generally has an alcohol content of 60 to 70%.
Dilution prior to aging
Most new-make malt whisky is diluted to about 62.5% a.b.v. before it is placed in casks to mature.
Maturation
The "new-make spirit" (above 60% a.b.v.), or unaged whisky, is then placed in oak casks to mature and to reduce its alcohol content to expedition levels (40-45% a.b.v.). By law, all Scotch whisky must be aged for a minimum of three years in oak casks, though many single malts are matured for much longer. The whisky continues to develop and change as it spends time in the wood. Typical maturation periods are in the range 10-15 years; longer periods of twenty years or more occur, but are rare and costly. During the time it spends in the wood, a significant percentage of each cask's content will evaporate. The lost part is known as the angel's share.
Reused casks
The selection of casks can affect the character of the final whisky. Outside of the United States, the most common practice is to reuse casks that previously contained American whiskey, as US law requires several types of distilled spirits to be aged in new oak casks. To ensure continuity of supply of used oak casks, some Scottish distilling groups own oak forests in the US and rent the new barrels to bourbon producers for their first use. Bourbon casks impart a characteristic vanilla flavour to the whisky.
Sherry casks are also commonly used. This practice arose because sherry used to be shipped to Britain from Spain in the cask rather than having been bottled, and the casks were expensive to return empty and were unwanted by the sherry cellars. In addition to imparting the flavours of their former contents, sherry casks lend maturing spirit a heavier body and a deep amber and sometimes reddish colour.
Stainless steel shipping containers, however, have reduced the supply of wooden sherry casks, to the extent that the Macallan Distillery builds casks and leases them to the sherry cellars in Spain for a time, then has them shipped back to Scotland.
Other casks used include those that formerly held port wine, madeira, rum or cognac.
Vatting, dilution and bottling
To be called a single malt whisky in Scotland, a bottle may only contain whisky distilled from malted barley and produced at a single distillery. The regulations of other countries may allow malted rye.
If the bottle is the product of malt whiskies produced at more than one distillery, the whisky is called a blended malt or vatted malt, or pure malt. If a single malt is mixed with grain whisky, the result is a blended whisky. Single malts can be bottled by the distillery that produced them or by an independent bottler.
The age statement on a bottle of single malt whisky is the age of the youngest malt in the mix, as commonly the whiskies of several years are mixed in a vat to create a more consistent house style. On occasion, the product of a single cask of whisky is bottled without being vatted with other casks, and released as a "Single Cask" offering. However, it is not always clear what the term "single cask" refers to. At least some producers release vattings of multiple barrels that have been matured together for one final period in a larger single cask as "single cask" whisky.
While cask strength, or undiluted, whisky (sometimes having an alcohol content upwards of 60%) has recently become popular, the vast majority of whisky is diluted to its "bottling strength" - between 40% and 46% ABV - and bottled for sale.
Chill filtration
Whisky can be "chill filtered": chilled to precipitate out fatty acid esters and then filtered to remove them. Most whiskies are bottled this way, unless specified as unchillfiltered or non chill filtered. Unchillfiltered whisky will often turn cloudy when stored at cool temperatures or when cool water is added to them, and this is perfectly normal. This cloudy appearance is aesthetic only and does not negatively impact the spirit.
Generally speaking, single malt whisky that is bottled at a proof =/> 46% ABV (92 proof) does not turn cloudy when cooled (other whiskies and spirits have differing thresholds). Most retail whiskies are bottled at or near 40% ABV for economic reasons, which has now become a modern custom, and therefore chill-filtering is common.
Unchillfiltered, cask-strength whisky (usually > 60% ABV or 120 proof) is generally regarded as whisky in its purest form.
Unlike wine, whisky does not continue to mature in the bottle.
Additives
E150A caramel colouring may be added to single malt Scotch whisky prior to bottling, to give the whisky a more rich and well-aged appearance. No other additives are allowed in Scotch whisky. This contrasts with the rules governing Canadian whisky production, which allows the addition of other flavourings as well as caramel, and with the rules governing American whiskey, which do not allow additives in "straight" whisky. The use of the caramel additive must be disclosed when the whisky is sold in some jurisdictions, although not in Scotland itself.
History
Distillation of whisky has been performed in Scotland and Ireland for centuries. The first written record of whisky comes from Ireland in 1405 in the Irish Annals of Clonmacnoise, where it was written that the head of a clan died after “taking a surfeit of aqua vitae” at Christmas. The production of whisky from malted barley is first mentioned in Scotland in an entry on the 1494 Exchequer Rolls: "Eight bolls of malt to Friar John Cor, by order of the King, wherewith to make 'aqua vitae'".
Single malt whisky is associated with the Scottish tradition, although there are also Irish single malts and others. Penderyn, the only whisky commercially produced in Wales, is also a single malt.
From the 15th century onwards, whisky was heavily taxed in Scotland, to the point that most of the spirit was produced illegally. However, in 1823, Parliament passed an act making commercial distillation much more profitable, while imposing punishments on landowners when unlicensed distilleries were found on their properties. George Smith was the first person to take out a licence for a distillery under the new law, founding the Glenlivet Distillery in 1824.
In the 1830s, Aeneas Coffey refined a design originally created by Robert Stein for continuous stills which produced whisky much more efficiently than the traditional pot stills. Quickly, merchants began blending the malt whisky with the grain whisky distilled in the continuous stills, making the first blended Scotch whisky. The blended whisky proved quite successful, less expensive to produce than malt with more flavour and character than grain. The combination allowed the single malt producers to expand their operations as the blended whisky was more popular on the international market.
However, during the latter part of the 20th century, single malt scotch whisky became more popular, owing thanks to individuals such as George Urquhart, second generation owner of Gordon & MacPhail, who was described by the whisky expert George McLean as "the father of single malt", writing in 2001 that "I believe that single-malt whisky would simply not be available today were it not for the work of George Urquhart. When others knew nothing of malt whisky, he was one of the handful of people who understood this great Scottish contribution to the pleasures of food and drink". In recent times, single malt has made up about 26% of the whisky exported to other countries from Scotland; bulk spirits constituted about 5% and the balance has been blended whisky.
Single malt distilleries also exist in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Czech Republic, England, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, India, Israel, Japan, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, USA, Wales and Norway.
Single malt is generally perceived to be a premium product. As of 2020 in all markets except Taiwan more blended whisky is sold than single malt whisky.
See also
Outline of whisky
The Scotch Malt Whisky Society
Japanese whisky
Irish whiskey
Single pot still whiskey
Bottled in bond – similar American designation
Indian Single Malt Whisky - Paul John
Notes
References
Broom, Dave (1998). Whiskey: A Connoisseur's Guide. London. Carleton Books Limited.
Broom, Dave (2000). Handbook of Whisky. London: Hamlyn.
Erskine, Kevin (2006). The Instant Expert's Guide to Single Malt Scotch. 2nd ed. Richmond, VA: Doceon Press.
Gabányi, Stefan (1997). Whisk(e)y. Trans. Russell Stockman. New York, NY: Abbeville Press.
Harris, James F., and Mark H. Waymack (1992). Single-malt Whiskies of Scotland. Peru, IL: Open Court Publishing Company.
Jackson, Michael (1999). Michael Jackson's Complete Guide to Single Malt Scotch. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Running Press Book Publishers.
MacLean, Charles (2003). Scotch Whisky: A Liquid History. London: Cassell Illustrated.
Murray, Jim (2000). The World Whiskey Guide. London: Carlton Books Limited.
Wishart, David (2006). Whisky Classified. 2nd ed. London: Pavilion Books.
External links
BBC Norfolk: England's only single malt whisky is put on the shelves
"American Single-Malt Whiskeys Serve Notice", Clay Risen, The New York Times, 15 January 2013
How is whisky made and where does its flavour come from? Distilling and Maturing whisky via Malt Mileage
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242431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blended%20whiskey | Blended whiskey | A blended whiskey (or blended whisky) is the product of blending different types of whiskeys and sometimes also neutral grain spirits, colorings, and flavorings. It is generally the product of mixing one or more higher-quality straight or single malt whiskey with less expensive spirits and other ingredients. This typically allows for a lower priced finished product, although expensive "premium" varieties also exist.
Some examples of blended whiskey include Canadian Club, Canadian Mist, Jameson Irish Whiskey, Seagram's Seven, Kessler Whiskey, Hibiki, and the various Scotch whisky blends sold under the Johnnie Walker brand, as well as Chivas Regal, another Scotch whisky blend.
Ingredients and uses
Higher proof spirits with less time aging are usually much less expensive to produce than straight whiskeys or single malt whiskeys and are often the primary spirits in blends, along with more premium whiskies and other ingredients added for flavoring.
Most cocktails and mixed drinks that contain whiskey are made using economically priced blended whiskeys rather than higher priced whiskeys, primarily because the presence of the other ingredients makes the subtleties of the taste of the whiskey less critical to the overall taste of the drink.
Age statements
Most blended whiskeys do not list an age, although the regulations governing its production in some countries specify a minimum aging requirement. All spirits in a Canadian, Scottish, or Irish whiskey must be aged at least three years, and any age statement refers to the minimum age of the spirits used in the blend. In the United States, the age statement only refers to the minimum age of the straight whiskey – which must comprise at least 20% of the content – used within the blend. As neutral spirits are not considered whiskeys, they do not have to be aged at all for the production of U.S. blended whiskey.
Other regulations by country
Canada
Most Canadian whiskies are blends. Any grain spirit aged for at least three years in Canada may be called Canadian whisky. Regulations do not specify any distillation limit, although in practice, it differs little from the Scottish and Irish limit of 94.8%, as the purity of neutral grain spirit has a practical limit of approximately that value. Whiskies with a lower distillation proof are also often included for flavor, with rye whisky being characteristically included. Canadian whisky may contain both caramel coloring and flavoring.
Ireland
Irish blended whiskey is defined by the Republic of Ireland's Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine as a blend of two or more different whiskey types among the pot still, malt, and grain whiskey categories. Its production usually includes Irish grain whiskey that is produced from a distillate that "is much less intense in flavor when compared to pot still distillates ... at a strength of 94.5% vol."
Scotland
Under Scotch Whisky Regulations, "'Blended Malt Scotch Whisky' means a blend of two or more single malt Scotch whiskies that have been distilled at more than one distillery; 'Blended Grain Scotch Whisky' means a blend of two or more single grain Scotch whiskies that have been distilled at more than one distillery; and 'Blended Scotch Whisky' means a blend of one or more single malt Scotch whiskies with one or more single grain Scotch whiskies. The regulations also allow the addition of caramel color, regardless of whether the final product is labeled as blended or not. A mix of single malts only, without other types of whisky such as those made from grains other than malted barley, may be called a blended malt (formerly known as a vatted malt, a term no longer permitted).
United States
American "blended whiskey" – alternatively labeled as "whiskey – a blend" – must contain a minimum of 20% straight whiskey. Blended whiskey that contains a minimum of 51% straight whiskey of one particular grain type (i.e., rye, malt, wheat, or bourbon whiskey) includes the grain type in its label description (e.g., "blended rye whiskey" or "blended bourbon whiskey"). Spirits containing less than 20% straight whiskey but greater than 5% whiskey of any kind can be labeled "spirit whiskey".
American "blended whiskey" is not to be confused with American whiskey labeled as a "blend of straight whiskeys". A "blend of straight whiskeys" is a mixture of one or more straight whiskeys that either includes straight whiskeys produced in different U.S. states or coloring and flavoring additives (and possibly other approved "blending materials") or both, but does not contain neutral grain spirits.
See also
Outline of whisky
References
External links
Dr. Whisky (on blended whisky)
L.A. Whiskey Society (reviews of blended whisky)
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242433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing%20myopia | Marketing myopia | Marketing myopia suggests that businesses will do better in the long-term if they concentrate on meeting the utility of a product or good, rather than just trying to sell their products.
Fundamental idea
Theodore Levitt postulated that myopic cultures would lead a business to fall, due to the short-sighted mindset and illusion that a firm is in a so-called 'growth industry'. This belief leads to complacency and a loss of sight of what customers want. It is said that these people focus more on the original product and refuse to adapt directly to the needs and wants of the consumer.
To continue growing, companies must ascertain and act on their customers’ needs and desires, not bank on the presumptive longevity of their products. In every case the reason growth is threatened, slowed or stopped is not because the market is saturated. It is because there has been a failure of management.
Some commentators have suggested that its publication marked the beginning of the modern marketing movement. Its theme is that the vision of most organizations is too constricted by a narrow understanding of what business they are in. It exhorted CEOs to re-examine their corporate vision and redefine their markets in terms of wider perspectives. It was successful in its impact because it was, as with all of Levitt's work, essentially practical and pragmatic. Organizations found that they had been missing opportunities which were plain to see once they adopted the wider view. The paper was influential. The oil companies (which represented one of his main examples in the paper) redefined their business as energy rather than just petroleum. By contrast, when the Royal Dutch Shell embarked upon an investment program in nuclear power, it failed to demonstrate a more circumspect regard for their industry.
One reason that shortsightedness is so common is that people feel they cannot accurately predict the future. While this is a legitimate concern, it is also possible to use a whole range of business prediction techniques currently available to estimate future circumstances as best as possible.
There is no such a thing as a growth industry. There are only companies organized and operated to create and capitalize on growth opportunities. There are 4 conditions of the self-deceiving cycle:
The belief that growth is assured by an expanding and more affluent population.
The belief that there is no competitive substitute for the industry’s major product.
Too much faith in mass production and in the advantages of rapidly declining unit costs as output rises.
Preoccupation with a product that lends itself to carefully controlled scientific experimentation, improvement, and manufacturing cost reduction.
Practical exercise
There is a greater scope of opportunities as the industry changes. It trains managers to look beyond their current business activities and think "outside the box". George Steiner (1979) is one of many in a long line of admirers who cite Levitt's famous example on transportation. If a buggy whip manufacturer in 1910 defined its business as the "transportation starter business," they might have been able to make the creative leap necessary to move into the automobile business when technological change demanded it.
People who focus on marketing strategy, various predictive techniques, and the customer's lifetime value can rise above myopia to a certain extent. This can entail the use of long-term profit objectives (sometimes at the risk of sacrificing short term objectives).
New marketing myopia
The “new marketing myopia” occurs when marketers fail to see the broader societal context of business decision making, sometimes with disastrous results for their organization and society. It stems from three related phenomena: (1) a single-minded focus on the customer to the exclusion of other stakeholders, (2) an overly narrow definition of the customer and his or her needs, and (3) a failure to recognize the changed societal context of business that necessitates addressing multiple stakeholders.
Customers in the “new marketing myopia” remain a central consideration, as in the traditional “marketing myopia”. However, academics that develop the “new marketing myopia” phenomenon state that it is essential to recognize that other stakeholders also require marketing attention. For business-to-consumer companies, these other stakeholders (e.g., employees) are sometimes customers too, but they need not be (e.g., nontarget market members of the firm's local community).
Similar terms
Kotler and Singh (1981) coined the term marketing hyperopia, by which they mean a better vision of distant issues than of near ones. Baughman (1974) uses the term marketing macropia meaning an overly broad view of your industry.
References
Marketing strategy
Strategic management | [
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242446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl%20of%20Lucan | Earl of Lucan | Earl of Lucan is a title which has been created twice in the Peerage of Ireland for related families.
History
Patrick Sarsfield was one of the senior commanders of James VII & II (deposed in 1688) in battles in Ireland with William of Orange which determined the latter's takeover with his co-regnant wife, Mary Stuart, of the English, Scottish and Irish thrones (the Glorious Revolution and First Jacobite Wars). In 1691, the deposed King James purportedly created him Earl of Lucan, Viscount of Tully and Baron Rosberry. Like all post deposition titles they have no recognition in UK law.
In 1795, the first legal creation of title was for Sarsfield's similarly landowning great-nephew, Charles Bingham, 1st Baron Lucan.
The subsidiary titles associated with the Earldom of Lucan are: Baron Lucan, of Castlebar in the County of Mayo (created 1776), and Baron Bingham, of Melcombe Bingham in the County of Dorset (created 1934). The first is in the Peerage of Ireland, whereas the second is in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, which allowed Earls of Lucan to sit in the House of Lords after the practice of electing representative peers from Ireland ceased. The Earl of Lucan also has a Baronetcy (of Castlebar, Co Mayo), created in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia (7 June 1634).
The title became notorious when the 3rd Earl, as cavalry commander in the Crimean War, was involved in the ill-fated Charge of the Light Brigade.
Its notoriety was renewed after the disappearance in 1974 of the profligate 7th Earl. In June 1975, in his absence, a coroner's jury found that he had murdered his children's nanny, Sandra Rivett. There have been no confirmed sightings of the 7th Earl since his disappearance, and he was declared legally dead for purposes of probate (debts and assets) in October 1999. This was, alone, insufficient to enable his son George, Lord Bingham to succeed to the titles – a death certificate for the 7th Earl was issued in February 2016 under the Presumption of Death Act 2013, and Lord Bingham's claim to the Earldom was formally accepted by the House of Lords on 7 June 2016.
The family seats were Castlebar House, near Gorteendrunagh, County Mayo, and from 1803 to 1922 Laleham House in Laleham, Surrey (until 1965 in the former county of Middlesex).
Bingham Baronets, of Castlebar (1634)
Sir Henry Bingham, 1st Baronet (1573–)
Sir George Bingham, 2nd Baronet (c. 1625–1682)
Sir Henry Bingham, 3rd Baronet (died c. 1714)
Sir George Bingham, 4th Baronet (died c. 1730)
Sir John Bingham, 5th Baronet (c. 1696–1749)
Sir John Bingham, 6th Baronet (1730–1750)
Sir Charles Bingham, 7th Baronet (1735–1799) (created Baron Lucan in 1776, and Earl of Lucan in 1795)
Earls of Lucan (1795)
Charles Bingham, 1st Earl of Lucan (1735–1799)
Richard Bingham, 2nd Earl of Lucan (1764–1839)
George Charles Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan (1800–1888)
Charles George Bingham, 4th Earl of Lucan (1830–1914)
George Charles Bingham, 5th Earl of Lucan (1860–1949)
George Charles Patrick Bingham, 6th Earl of Lucan (1898–1964)
Richard John Bingham, 7th Earl of Lucan (born 1934, missing since 1974, presumed dead; death certificate issued 2016)
George Charles Bingham, 8th Earl of Lucan (born 1967)
The heir apparent is the present holder's son Charles Lars John Bingham, Lord Bingham (born 2020).
See also
Baron Clanmorris
Notes
External links
Earldoms in the Peerage of Ireland
Extinct earldoms in the Jacobite Peerage
Noble titles created in 1691
Noble titles created in 1795
Earls of Lucan | [
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242451 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven%20churches%20of%20Asia | Seven churches of Asia | The Seven Churches of Revelation, also known as the Seven Churches of the Apocalypse and the Seven Churches of Asia, are seven major churches of Early Christianity, as mentioned in the New Testament Book of Revelation. All of them are located in Asia Minor, present-day Turkey.
Description
According to Revelation 1:11, on the Greek island of Patmos, Jesus Christ instructs John of Patmos to: "Write on a scroll what you see and send it to the seven churches: to Ephesus, and to Smyrna, and to Pergamum, and to Thyatira, and to Sardis, and to Philadelphia, and to Laodicea." The churches in this context refers to the community or local congregations of Christians living in each city.
The seven churches
The seven churches are named for their locations. The Book of Revelation provides descriptions of each Church.
Ephesus (Revelation 2:1-7): known for having labored hard and not fainted, and separating themselves from the wicked; admonished for having forsaken its first love (2:4)
Smyrna (Revelation 2:8-11): admired for its tribulation and poverty; forecast to suffer persecution (2:10)
Pergamum (Revelation 2:12-17): located where 'Satan's seat' is; needs to repent of allowing false teachers (2:16)
Thyatira (Revelation 2:18-29): known for its charity, whose "latter works are greater than the former"; tolerates the teachings of a false prophetess (2:20)
Sardis (Revelation 3:1-6): admonished for - in contrast to its good reputation - being dead; cautioned to fortify itself and return to God through repentance (3:2-3)
Philadelphia (Revelation 3:7-13): known as steadfast in faith, keeping God's word and enduring patiently (3:10)
Laodicea, near Denizli (see Laodicean Church) (Revelation 3:14-22): called lukewarm and insipid (3:16)
Seven messages
The letters follow a common pattern. For example: the Lord first addresses each church and identifies Himself, then defines things that He knows about the church in question. After this, a challenge or reproach is given, followed by a promise. In all seven cases the admonition is included, "He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches", although sometimes this comes before the promise and sometimes after.
Although the letters differ in length in accord with the needs of each community, all conclude with an appeal to hold fast and to listen to what the Spirit is saying to the churches. Each church is promised that everyone who conquers will be rewarded by Christ.
Some historicists typically interpret the seven churches as representing seven different periods in the history of the Western Church from the time of Paul until the return of Jesus Christ. Scofield states that "these messages by their very terms go beyond the local assemblies mentioned." He is of the opinion that the letters have a prophetic purpose disclosing the seven phases of the spiritual history of the Church. Other writers, such as Clarence Larkin, Henry Hampton Halley, Merrill Unger, and William M. Branham also have posited the view that the seven churches preview the history of the global Church.
Historicism has been criticized by the Eastern Orthodox Fr. Dimitri Cozby, who writes that historicists take a greatly oversimplified view of church history: "Since dispensationalism is Protestant in origin its 'Church history' is strictly Western. The dispensations take into account almost nothing of Orthodox history after the period of the early councils which we share with the West."
Angels of the churches
Chapters 2-3 of the Revelation have specific messages for each of the seven angels of the seven churches. The message of each of the seven letters is directed to the angel of the particular church that is mentioned.
Origen explains that these "angels" are the guardian angels of the churches, a view upheld by Henry Alford. But Epiphanius explicitly rejects this view, and, in accordance with the imagery of the passage, explains it as the bishops.
John sees a vision of the Son of man, who walks among seven lampstands and has seven stars in his right hand. states that "The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches, and the seven lampstands are the seven churches." The comparison of a teacher to a star is scriptural.
Augustine of Hippo's reason for interpreting angels of the churches as the prelates of the church is that St. John speaks of them as falling from their first charity, which is not true of the angels.<ref>Angels of the Churches, Catholic Encyclopedia</ref> Others would say that the falling away relates to the churches, not to the messengers, as each of the seven letters conclude with the words "He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches."
The Amplified Bible states that Revelation 2:2 through to 3:18, “your” and “you” are in the singular, referring to the angel of each church. Much of what is said is rebuke and admonishment, so if the angels are heavenly beings, they may serve in some way as representatives of the sinful people in their churches. Jewish tradition maintained that every nation and individual has a guardian angel, and that when God is about to punish a nation, He first punishes its angel. There is even a story of Michael, the guardian angel of Israel, being rebuked by God for the sins committed in the time of Ezekiel. So the original readers of Revelation might have assumed that the angels here are the guardian angels of the individual churches, sharing responsibility for the actions of the members.
In the New Testament, the Greek word for angels (άγγελος) is not only used for heavenly angels, but also used for human messengers, such as John the Baptist (, , ) and God's prophets () C.I. Scofield has noted that "The natural explanation of the 'messengers' is that they were men sent by the seven churches to ascertain the state of the aged apostle ... but they figure any who bear God's messages to a church."
The Seven Churches of Asia by Alexander Svoboda
In 1869, the London publishing firm Sampson Low, Son, and Marston published Alexander Svoboda's The Seven Churches of Asia. The Seven Churches of Asia is divided into three primary sections: an introduction written by English clergyman and Biblical scholar Reverend H. B. Tristram, Svoboda's personal travel account visiting the Seven Churches sites, and an itinerary detailing Svoboda's route. The book also includes twenty full-page photographs of the Seven Churches sites, photographed by Svoboda. These images are the first produced and published photographs of the Seven Churches. Photographs from Svoboda's Seven Churches project were exhibited in the rooms of the Arundel Society in London in 1868.
See also
Biblical numerology
Book of Revelation: chapter 1, 2, and 3
Christianity in Anatolia during Roman times
Classical planet
Early centers of Christianity
Eastern Christianity
Events of Revelation (Chapter 1)
List of Mesopotamian deities#Seven planetary deities
Seven Factors of Awakening
Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome
Seven Spirits of God
Summary of Christian eschatological differences
References
Further reading
Halley, H. H., Halley's Bible Handbook (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1978), p684
Scofield, C. I., The Scofield Reference Bible (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967), p1332
Hemer, Colin J. The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting'' (JSOT Press, 1989), p283
Clarance Larkin - The Book of Revelation Illustrated . A Study of the Last Prophetic Book of Holy Scripture (1919), P248
External links
Catholic Encyclopedia: Angels of the Churches
Catholic Encyclopedia: Asia Minor, see section titled "Spread of Christianity in Asia Minor"
Seven Churches of Revelation
Branham, W. M., An Exposition of the Seven Church Ages, Voice of God Recordings, Jeffersonville, Indiana, 1965.
The True Trend Of the Church As Viewed Through Revelation Chapters 2 & 3 by Pastor Rocky Veach
Seven Churches -Thoughts on the seven angels of Revelation
1st-century Christianity
Book of Revelation
Christian terminology
New Testament words and phrases
Prophets in Christianity
Seven in the Book of Revelation
Churches in Turkey | [
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242453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress%20of%20Troppau | Congress of Troppau | The Congress of Troppau was a conference of the Quintuple Alliance to discuss means of suppressing the revolution in Naples of July 1820, and at which the Troppau Protocol was signed on 19 November 1820.
The Congress met on 20 October 1820 in Troppau (modern Opava) in Austrian Silesia at the behest of Tsar Alexander I of Russia. Alexander and Francis I of Austria were present in person; King Frederick William III of Prussia was represented by the crown prince (afterward Frederick William IV). The three eastern powers were further represented by their foreign policy ministers: Austria by Prince Metternich, Russia by Count Capo d'lstria, and Prussia by Prince Hardenberg.
Britain objected, on principle, to the suggested concerted action against the Neapolitan Liberals. Therefore, she sent no plenipotentiary, but was represented by Lord Stewart, ambassador in Vienna and the half-brother of the Foreign Secretary at the time, Viscount Castlereagh. France, too, had given no plenary powers to her representatives, though her policy was less clearly defined. Thus, from the very beginning of the Congress, it was clear that a division between the eastern and western powers was growing.
The characteristic note of this congress was its intimate and informal nature; the determining fact at the outset was Metternich's discovery that he had no longer anything to fear from the "Jacobinism" of the emperor Alexander. In a three hours' conversation over a cup of tea at the little inn he had heard the tsar's confession and promise of amendment: "Aujourd'hui je deplore tout ce que j'ai dit et fait entre les annees 1814 et 1818 ... Dites-moi ce que vous voulez de moi. Je le ferai": Today I deplore everything that I have said and done between the years 1814 and 1818 ... Tell me what you want of me. I will do it.
Metternich's failure to convert Castlereagh to his views was now of secondary importance; the "free" powers being in accord, it was safe to ignore the opinions of Britain and France, whose governments, whatever their goodwill, were fettered by constitutional forms. In a series of conferences - to which the representatives of Britain and France were not admitted, on the excuse that they were only empowered to "report," not to "decide" - was drawn up the famous preliminary protocol signed by Austria, Russia and Prussia on November 8.
Troppau Protocol
The main pronouncement of the "Troppau Protocol" is as follows:
"States, which have undergone a change of government due to revolution, the result of which threaten other states, ipso facto cease to be members of the European Alliance, and remain excluded from it until their situation gives guarantees for legal order and stability. If, owing to such alterations, immediate danger threatens other states the powers bind themselves, by peaceful means, or if need be, by arms, to bring back the guilty state into the bosom of the Great Alliance."
No effort was made by the powers to give immediate effect to the principles enunciated in the protocol; and after it was officially announced the conferences were adjourned. It was decided to resume them at the Congress of Laibach the following January.
The Protocol was greeted with dismay in England. While the English Government was reluctant to attack it openly, they found it difficult to answer the Opposition's claims that on a literal reading, Russia or Austria were entitled to invade England to oppose her supposed misgovernment of Ireland. "Shall we see a horde of Cossacks encamped in Hyde Park?" asked one Opposition MP.
Notes
References
Post-Napoleonic congresses
19th-century diplomatic conferences
1820 in international relations
1820 conferences
November 1820 events
October 1820 events | [
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242458 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Watkins%20%28rugby%29 | David Watkins (rugby) | David Watkins (born 5 March 1942) is a Welsh former dual-code rugby international, having played both rugby union and rugby league football for both codes' national teams between 1963 and 1974. He captained the British and Irish Lions rugby union side, and made six appearances for the Great Britain rugby league team. With the Wales national rugby league team he played in every match of the 1975 World Cup, and with English club Salford he played more than 400 games over 12 seasons
Background
Watkins was born in Blaina, Monmouthshire, Wales, he played rugby union for Cwmcelyn Youth, as well as occasional games for Abertillery RFC Ebbw Vale RFC and Pontypool RFC, becoming a Wales Youth International.
Rugby career
Rugby Union
Joining Newport RFC in 1961, he made his début for Newport on 2 September that year against Penarth RFC. In his first season with Newport the team won the Welsh Championship. Watkins played for invitational team the Barbarians during his first season for Newport in 1962.
Watkins made his international début in 1963, at the age of 20 for Wales against England partnering Clive Rowlands. He was a key figure in Newport's epic win over Whineray's 1963 New Zealand All Blacks. He was vice captain of Newport under Brian Price in 1963–64 and went on to captain them for three seasons 1964–65, 1965–66 and 1966–67. He set the club dropped goal record of 14 in 1966–67, in all he scored 228 points including 55 dropped goals for Newport. He never played on the losing side for Newport at sevens. In 1967 Watkins assembled his own team to enter the first ever Glengarth Sevens at Davenport Rugby Club where he won the main competition.
Watkins led the Lions in two tests in Australia in 1966. He set up position for Uzzell's drop goal and kicked a penalty to draw with Australia in 1966. He played 21 times for Wales (including the 1964–65 Triple Crown) and was captain three times in 1967.
Rugby league
In October 1967 Watkins signed to play rugby league, joining English club Salford for £16,000, a then club record. He was signed the same day as outstanding young talent Jimmy Newbrook. He was Salford's captain in 1967 and also in the Challenge Cup Final in 1969 when they were beaten by Castleford.
Watkins became Salford's record points scorer and steered them to victory in the Lancashire Cup Final in 1972 by beating Swinton at Wilderspool Stadium, Warrington. In the 1972–73 season he kicked a world record 221 goals in a season. He also holds the longest scoring run record in 92 consecutive matches for Salford from 19 August 1972 to 25 April 1974. Watkins totalled 929 points from 41 tries and 403 goals. The record refers to scoring consecutively for one club and does not include representative matches.
During the 1972–73 Northern Rugby Football League season Watkins played at centre, i.e. number 3, and scored 2-conversions in Salford's 7–12 defeat by Leeds in the 1972–73 Player's No.6 Trophy Final at Fartown, Huddersfield on Saturday 24 March 1973.
Watkins played right-, i.e. number 3, and scored 1-try, and 5-conversions in Salford's 25–11 victory over Swinton in the 1972 Lancashire County Cup Final during the 1972–73 season at Wilderspool Stadium, Warrington on Saturday 21 October 1972, played right-, i.e. number 3, and scored 1-try, and 3-conversions in the 9–19 defeat by Wigan in the 1973 Lancashire County Cup Final during the 1973–74 season at Wilderspool Stadium, Warrington on Saturday 13 October 1973. During the 1973 Kangaroo tour, Watkins was selected to play for Great Britain against Australia in the 3rd Ashes Test as a reserve. He led Salford to the Championship in 1974.
Watkins did not play (Gordon Graham played ) in Salford's 0–0 draw with Warrington in the 1974 BBC2 Floodlit Trophy Final during the 1974–75 season at the Willows, Salford on Tuesday 17 December 1974, and played left-, i.e. number 4, and scored 2-conversions in the 10–5 victory over Warrington in the 1974 BBC2 Floodlit Trophy Final replay during the 1974–75 season at Wilderspool Stadium, Warrington on Tuesday 28 January 1975. He played in all eight of Wales' matches in the 1975 Rugby League World Cup tournament. For the 1975–76 Northern Rugby Football League season Salford won the Championship by finishing as League Leaders but lost the Premiership Final. Watkins played for Salford at , kicking two drop goals in the defeat by St. Helens. He finished that season as the League's top point scorer. Watkins' Testimonial match at Salford took place in 1977.
During the 1975–76 Northern Rugby Football League season Watkins played at fullback, and scored 2-conversions in the 7–16 defeat by Widnes in the 1975 Lancashire Cup Final at Central Park, Wigan on Saturday 4 October 1975.
Watkins retired having set Salford's "Most Career Points" record with 2,907 points, and is one of fewer than ten Welshmen to have scored more than 2,000 points in their rugby league career. Watkins' rugby league career ended in 1979 after playing for Swinton for a season. He'd also played six international rugby league matches against New Zealand, Australia and France, and both captained and coached Great Britain and Wales.
During the 1978 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain and France, Watkins was selected to captain Wales from fullback in their one-off Test match against the Australians, scoring all of the home side's points in their 3–8 loss at St. Helen's Rugby and Cricket Ground in Swansea.
In the 1986 New Year Honours, Watkins was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) for his services to rugby league.
Coaching career
International
After he'd stopped playing Watkins coached rugby league. He was the Wales national team coach and also coached Great Britain, taking them to the 1977 World Cup Final, which they lost by one point to the hosts, Australia. David had two stints in the Wales head coach role, separated by 7 years.
Cardiff City Blue Dragons
Watkins coached in Wales for the Cardiff City club.
Administration
Watkins was appointed Newport RFC team manager in 1992–93 and later became the club's chairman when he was awarded an MBE. In 2006 Watkins, along with Falklands War hero Simon Weston, was installed as a patron of the Welsh Rugby League at a ceremony held in the Welsh Assembly. He was managing director of the Cardiff City Blue Dragons. In 2009, Watkins took over the position of Crusaders president from Jonathan Davies.
References
External links
!Great Britain Statistics at englandrl.co.uk (statistics currently missing due to not having appeared for both Great Britain, and England)
(archived by web.archive.org) David Watkins at wales.rleague.com
(archived by web.archive.org) Smethurst stars for Wigan
(archived by web.archive.org) Salford legend makes his début
(archived by web.archive.org) Wasteful Wales Get A Roasting
1942 births
Living people
Abertillery RFC players
Barbarian F.C. players
British & Irish Lions rugby union players from Wales
British rugby league administrators
Cardiff City Blue Dragons coaches
Cardiff City Blue Dragons players
Crawshays RFC players
Dual-code rugby internationals
Ebbw Vale RFC players
Glamorgan County RFC players
Great Britain national rugby league team coaches
Great Britain national rugby league team players
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Monmouthshire County RFC players
Newport HSOB RFC players
Newport RFC players
Pontypool RFC players
Rugby league centres
Rugby league players from Blaina
Rugby union players from Blaina
Salford Red Devils captains
Salford Red Devils players
Swinton Lions players
Wales international rugby union players
Wales national rugby league team captains
Wales national rugby league team coaches
Wales national rugby league team players
Wales rugby union captains
Welsh rugby league coaches
Welsh rugby league players
Welsh rugby union players | [
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242464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Gould%20%28rugby%20union%29 | Arthur Gould (rugby union) | Arthur Joseph "Monkey" Gould (10 October 1864 – 2 January 1919) was a Welsh international rugby union centre and fullback who was most associated as a club player with Newport Rugby Football Club. He won 27 caps for Wales, 18 as captain, and critics consider him the first superstar of Welsh rugby. A talented all-round player and champion sprinter, Gould could side-step and kick expertly with either foot. He never ceased practising to develop his fitness and skills, and on his death was described as "the most accomplished player of his generation".
Following the withdrawal of their regular fullback, Newport RFC first selected Gould in 1882, when he was 18. He was never dropped from the side thereafter and played regularly until he retired in 1898. Gould played for Newport during their "invincible" season of 1891–92, when they did not lose a match, and scored a record 37 tries in Newport's 24-game 1893–94 season, a club record that still stands. Gould frequently travelled due to his job as a public contractor, and consequently turned out for a number of other sides during his career, including the clubs Richmond and London Welsh, and the county side Middlesex.
Gould was first selected for Wales in 1885 when he played at fullback against England. He was awarded the captaincy in 1889, by which time he was playing at centre, and led Wales to their first Home Nations Championship and Triple Crown titles in 1893; that tournament's match against England established Gould as a great player and captain. By the time Gould retired he was the most capped Welsh centre, a record he held until 1980, with 25 caps in the position. He ended his international career against England on 9 January 1897. The game, played in front of 17,000 supporters at Rodney Parade, was Gould's 18th as Wales captain – a record eventually broken by Ieuan Evans in 1994.
Towards the end of his career, Gould was at the centre of a controversy known as the "Gould affair" that saw Wales withdraw from international rugby for a year. The controversy centred on the support of the Welsh Football Union (WFU) for a testimonial for Gould on his retirement. The English Rugby Football Union and International Rugby Football Board (IRFB) argued that the testimonial constituted professionalism – which they claimed breached the sport's by-laws. The WFU withdrew from the IRFB in protest, rejoining a year later under the IRFB-imposed condition that Gould would not represent Wales again. He worked as a brewery representative after retiring from rugby, and died of an internal haemorrhage in 1919 at the age of 54.
Family and early years
Arthur Joseph Gould was born into a sporting family in Newport, Monmouthshire, on 10 October 1864 to Joseph and Elizabeth. His father, from Oxford, England, moved to Newport to find work, setting up his own brass foundry business. Joseph was also an ardent sportsman, playing for the local cricket team.
Gould's five brothers were all notable rugby players and athletes. His brother Bob was a forward who played 136 times for Newport Rugby Football Club, whom he captained in the 1886–87 season. Bob was also capped 11 times for Wales between 1882 and 1887, and captained his country once, versus Scotland in 1887. A younger brother, Bert, was a centre who played three times for Wales – he appeared with Gould in the Welsh team that won the Triple Crown for the first time in 1893. His other brothers – Harry, Gus and Wyatt – all played rugby for Newport. Wyatt captained Newport in 1905–06, and Harry played for them in their inaugural season of 1875–76. For the first 29 seasons of its existence, Newport RFC always had at least one of the Gould brothers in the team. Wyatt played for the club until 1907; he also ran the 400 m hurdles for Great Britain in the 1908 Summer Olympics.
The young Gould often climbed trees, and thus acquired the childhood nickname "Monkey", which was soon contracted by most to "Monk". Like his brother Wyatt, he was a keen athlete and made £1,000 during his years as a rugby player by entering track and field meets. A county champion sprinter and hurdler, Gould finished third in the Amateur Athletic Association 120-yard hurdles in 1887 and 1893.
Rugby career
Club and county history
At the age of 14 Gould captained the Newport Junior team, and later played a few games for the Third XV. Gould was drafted into the First XV – the senior team – as a fullback at the age of 18. On 18 November 1882 Newport had a home fixture against Weston-super-Mare at Rodney Parade. The Newport groundsman, John Butcher, had been sent by the club to collect the regular fullback who had not appeared for the game. Gould, who was returning from a youth match, saw Butcher outside the missing fullback's home and approached the groundsman to discover that the player was at a funeral. Butcher offered Gould the position instead, and then the groundsman successfully persuaded the club captain to play him. Gould ran in two of his team's three tries after disregarding the instructions of his captain, Charlie Newman, who kept shouting for Gould to "Kick, kick!" After this, he was not dropped by Newport until his retirement in 1898.
As rugby was then an exclusively amateur sport, Gould and his brother Bob travelled Britain working as public works contractors. During this time he entered open athletic meets and played for various English rugby teams including the Southampton Trojans, and from 1887 was a regular member of the London side Richmond. In 1885 Gould was invited to play for the newly formed Welsh exiles team London Welsh. London Scottish F.C. had been founded for Scottish players working or studying in the city, but until this time a London club for Welsh players had not existed. The side's first game, a trial match, was played on 21 October 1885 at Putney, and three days later the first team played London Scottish at the Saracens' Palmerston Road ground in Walthamstow. Gould played at half-back, and was joined in the team by Martyn Jordan, Thomas Judson, Rowley Thomas, Charles Taylor and T. Williams – all past or future Welsh internationals. During the 1885–86 season London Welsh were invited to form a combined "exiles" team with London Scottish, to face a London XV in a charity match at The Oval. Gould was one of six Welsh players selected to play in front of a crowd of 8,000 that included the Prince of Wales.
In the 1885–86 season he was moved up to play as a threequarter for Newport. As he was frequently travelling and playing in England between 1885 and 1890, Gould was not a regular member of the team. After playing just a handful games during the three seasons preceding it, in the 1889–90 season he managed 15 games for the club – scoring ten tries and five dropped goals.
In June 1890 Gould left Britain to complete a works contract in the West Indies, but returned to Newport in time for the 1891–92 season. Newport were unbeaten throughout that campaign, which was later dubbed their "invincible" season. Gould captained Newport between 1893–94, when the team lost only three games, and in the 1894–95 season, in which the club lost only to Llanelli. During his first period as captain, 1893–94, Gould scored 37 tries in 24 games, a club record that still stands as of 2013. Although records before 1886 are incomplete, Newport RFC acknowledge Gould's scoring record at the club between the 1882–83 and 1898–99 seasons as 159 tries, 66 conversions, 61 dropped goals and a single penalty, over 231 appearances.
Gould also turned out for the Middlesex county side, and was a mainstay during their "invincible" season of 1887–88. He also played for them against the New Zealand Native team in 1888. The match, hosted by the Earl of Sheffield, was an invitation only event. The Middlesex side won 9–0, and scored three tries in the match, the second one resulting from a smart pass by Gould. In addition to Gould, the Middlesex backline of the time regularly fielded a number of English and Scottish internationals – this earned the side the sarcastic nickname "the Imperial team".
International career
1885–89
Gould was first capped for Wales against England in the opening game of the 1885 Home Nations Championship. He joined his brother Bob in the side, and played at fullback, his preferred position at the time. Played under the captaincy of Newport teammate Charlie Newman, this was Wales' eighth-ever international and fourth encounter with England. The Welsh lost by a goal and a try to a goal and four tries. Wing Martyn Jordan of London Welsh scored both Welsh tries, with one successfully converted into a goal. Some accounts award the conversion to Charles Taylor, though it is now generally credited to Gould. Gould was selected for the second game of the tournament, an away draw to Scotland, in which both teams played a pair of brothers; George and Richard Maitland for Scotland, and Arthur and Bob Gould for Wales.
By 1886 the four threequarter system had spread throughout Wales. First instituted by Cardiff RFC in 1884, the system was designed to allow Cardiff centres Frank Hancock and Tom Williams to play at the same time, and involved dropping the ninth forward to include a second centre. Newport were reluctant to adopt this style of play, mainly due to Gould's excellent kicking and covering abilities, which allowed the club to continue with the advantage of the extra forward.
For the 1885–86 season Gould switched from fullback at Newport to the centre position; this tactic was adopted by Wales and Gould replaced Cardiff's Hancock at centre for their first match of the 1886 Home Nations Championship against England. The match resulted in a Welsh loss. In Wales' next game, against Scotland, Wales became the first country to trial the four threequarter system. They did this by bringing back Hancock as captain and having him play at centre alongside Gould. The experiment was a tactical disaster – the eight Welsh forwards struggled against the nine Scottish forwards. Hancock duly regrouped the team at half-time and readopted the standard formation, bringing Harry Bowen from fullback into the pack, and pushing Gould from centre into Bowen's vacant position. Wales lost by two goals to nil, the system was deemed a failure and Hancock never represented Wales again. The whole affair had a negative effect on Gould, who initially disliked the strategy, stating that he was "prejudiced against the four three-quarters." Gould even went as far as persuading the Welsh selectors to revert to the old formation. The next time Wales trialled the system was in the 1888 encounter with the touring New Zealand Natives, a match in which Gould was unavailable to play.
In the next season, Wales completed their first full Home Nations Championship; Gould played as the lone centre in all three games. It was a fairly successful Championship for the Welsh, with a draw, a win and a loss, leaving them second in the table. Of note during the series was Bob Gould's captaincy in the second match, against Scotland, and Gould's first ever international dropped goal – which gave Wales a win over Ireland and made up for him missing a dropped goal by just a yard in their draw against England. Due to work commitments, Gould only played one of the two Wales games of the 1888 Home Nations Championship, in the country's first victory over Scotland, thanks to a single try from Thomas Pryce-Jenkins. In the second game, played away to Ireland, George Bowen was given the centre position in the last match Wales would play with a three threequarter system. Gould then missed the first Welsh international against an overseas touring side, when the New Zealand Natives were beaten at St. Helen's in Swansea, and was still absent two months later for the opening game of the 1889 Championship. Gould returned in time for the clash with Ireland where he was given the captaincy and played alongside Llanelli centre Tom Morgan. Gould lost his first match as captain, losing by two tries to nil at home – this was the first of 18 caps he earned leading his country.
1890–93
Gould appeared in Wales' three matches of the 1890 Home Nations Championship where he partnered Dickie Garrett, a coal tipper who played for Penarth, at centre. Gould lost the team captaincy for the first match to Frank Hill, a game which Wales lost to Scotland 5–1, though Gould did score his first international try. The game is also notable for featuring the first appearance of Billy Bancroft, the Swansea all-round sportsman who would take over the captaincy from Gould on his retirement. Bancroft was fullback in Gould's next 18 international games. Gould regained the captaincy for the next game, an encounter with England at Crown Flatt in Dewsbury, and from that point held the captaincy whenever he represented Wales. The encounter was an historic day for Wales, with the country's first win over England, a single try from Buller Stadden giving Wales the victory. The campaign ended in a disappointing away draw with Ireland, which saw the introduction of Tom Graham, a Newport forward who would become Gould's club captain during the 1891–92 "invincible" season.
Gould missed the entire 1891 campaign as he and his brother Bob had travelled to the West Indies to conduct civil engineering work. Gould regained his international place and the captaincy on his return for the 1892 Home Nations Championship. The tournament was a failure for Wales; the team lost all three of their matches. There was little consistency for Gould at centre, with three different centre-pairings in each of the matches; Garrett against England, Conway Rees at home to Scotland and in the Irish encounter, Gould's younger brother Bert. The 1892 Championship was soured by the aftermath of the Wales–Scotland encounter, which was played in Swansea at St. Helen's. After Wales lost the game 7–2, members of the crowd, angered by Jack Hodgson's refereeing of the game, attacked him. The assailants by-passed the police and the referee had to be rescued by members of the Welsh team. In the struggle, Gould was struck on the chin, and it was reported that Hodgson only reached the Mackworth Hotel because Gould accompanied him on the coach.
The Welsh performance during the 1893 Home Nations Championship was in stark contrast to the previous year. Under the captaincy of Gould, Wales not only won the Championship for the first time, but also the Triple Crown. The first match of the campaign was against England, and played at the Cardiff Arms Park. The pitch had been kept from freezing over the night before by 500 braziers dispersed across the playing field. This led to a slippery ground, with play further hampered by a strong wind.
The English played the first half with the wind behind them and their nine-man scrum dominated the smaller Welsh pack. At half time Wales were 7–0 down following tries from Frederick Lohden and Howard Marshall and a conversion from England captain Andrew Stoddart. The second half started poorly for Wales when Marshall scored a second try following excellent English forward pressure. The game turned not long after: the English forwards could not maintain the pace they had set in the first half of the game, and began to slow. Then Welsh forward Charles Nicholl broke through a line-out with the ball, transferred it to Hannan, who passed to Gould at the halfway line. Gould evaded both Alderson and Lockwood before outpacing Edwin Field to score beneath the posts. Bancroft converted. A near identical move resulted in Conway Rees then releasing Cardiff wing Norman Biggs who scored with a run from the half-way line, though this time the conversion missed.
The Welsh backs repeatedly exposed the three threequarter system used by the English, as once the Welsh backs broke through the pack there was little defensive-cover to prevent run away scores. With the score at 9–7 to England, Marshall extended the lead with his third try of the match. This gave England an 11–7 lead with only ten minutes remaining. The game swung again when Percy Phillips received ball quickly before passing to Gould. Gould broke through the English defence and scored, though again Bancroft missed the conversion. With further Welsh pressure, a penalty was awarded to Wales on the English 25-yard line, but at a wide angle. Accounts differ as to what happened; some say that Gould tried to place the ball for Bancroft, but failed on the frozen ground, another states that Bancroft defied his captain to take the penalty as a drop kick, while other accounts mention Bancroft and Gould arguing on the pitch before Bancroft's attempt. Regardless, Bancroft kicked the penalty, the first penalty to be scored in an international match. It was the final score of the game and Wales were victorious, 12–11.
At the final whistle the pitch was invaded by Welsh fans and Gould was carried shoulder-high back to the Angel Hotel, cheered all the way. It was a defining moment for the Welsh style of play. England adopted the four threequarter system the following year.
Gould continued to captain the Wales team through victory over Scotland, with tries coming from Bert Gould, Biggs and William McCutcheon; all the result of precision handling from the backs. This left the final encounter with Ireland, played at Stradey Park in Llanelli, as the deciding match for a Welsh Triple Crown. Despite an unconvincing Welsh display, an enthusiastic crowd of 20,000 watched their country win the game and with it the title, decided by a single try from Bert Gould.
1894–97
The 1894 Championship began with a loss for the defending champions against England, during a game in which Welsh in-fighting affected the result. Before the game, Gould instructed his forwards to heel the ball from the scrums swiftly, so it would get to the backs quickly and allow them to run at the English. Frank Hill decided that this was the wrong option and put all his might into wheeling the scrums instead, which worked against the efforts of Jim Hannan, who was trying to follow his captain's wishes. In the next match Gould was partnered by Dai Fitzgerald in a win over Scotland, but was unavailable for the encounter with Ireland and was replaced by Jack Elliott from Cardiff RFC.
By 1895 the only backs remaining from the 1893 Championship-winning team were Bancroft and Gould. Gould was now partnered with Owen Badger, who kept his place for the whole campaign. As the other teams adopted the Welsh style of play, Wales lost their advantage; the livelier English forwards outplayed their Welsh counterparts to give England victory in the opening game of the 1895 Championship. This was followed by a close loss to Scotland at Raeburn Place and then a narrow win over Ireland at the Cardiff Arms Park.
1896 was Gould's last full international tournament. The Championship started badly for Wales with a heavy defeat by England, during which Wales were reduced to 14 men after Badger broke his collar-bone in the first 15 minutes. In the second game Wales beat Scotland 6–0, with a try each for Gould and Cliff Bowen. The final game of the Championship was an away loss to Ireland, in which Gould scored his last international points with a dropped goal. At the end of 1896 Gould decided to retire from rugby.
In 1897, Gould was enticed out of retirement for one last Championship. By now Gould was a household name throughout Britain, as much due to his personality and good looks as his brilliant centre play; a testimonial fund had been started with contributions being made by the public. This caused a stir among the other Home Unions, who viewed this as an effort to pay Gould for playing, which would constitute professionalism. As the arguments continued, Gould played his final international game, a solid 11–0 win over England in early January. Wales played no further matches that season after the events behind Gould's testimonial fund caused Wales to leave the International Rugby Football Board (IRFB), in a situation now referred to as the "Gould affair".
Matches played
Gould affair
By 1896 Gould had played more first class matches, scored more tries and dropped more goals than any other player on record. This led to South Wales Argus journalist W. J. Townsend Collins, to write in the paper: "... as Arthur Gould is as pre-eminent in football as W. G. Grace is in cricket, the footballing enthusiasts of Wales might recognise his services to the game ... by some national testimonial."
A Welsh shipbroker, W. J. Orders, organised a collection fund on the floor of the Cardiff Coal Exchange and floated a public testimonial of one shilling. The national response was considerable and within weeks the total was into hundreds of pounds. This drew the Welsh Football Union (WFU) into a confrontation with the IRFB, as rule 2 on professionalism stated that no player was allowed to receive money from his club, or any member of his club, for services rendered to football. The fund could have been seen as a professional fee to Gould, henceforth making him ineligible to play for his country. The WFU argued that the money raised was not given by the club, but rather an outpouring of thanks from the Welsh public to a national hero.
By April 1896 the Welsh Football Union had sanctioned a subscription of 1,000 shillings to be contributed to the Gould testimonial. The Rugby Football Union (RFU) complained and the IRFB reacted by informing the WFU that only a plate up to the value of a hundred pounds sterling could be given to Gould, and that the remaining funds should be donated to charity; otherwise Wales would lose their international fixtures. The WFU stood down and withdrew their subscription. The reaction in Wales was one of anger, with the people feeling that the WFU had bowed to English pressure, and had been bullied into a decision against the people's wishes.
In a move that was described as an act of hurt pride by social historian David Smith, but also as a manoeuvre to appease the Welsh supporters, in February 1897 the WFU wrote to the IRFB and withdrew their membership. The WFU claimed that they alone had authority over the matter because the IRFB did not have any rules regarding amateurism. The WFU then reinstated their subscription to Gould, and on Easter Monday 1897 a banquet was arranged at Drill Hall in Newport in Gould's honour. Many civic and sporting worthies were in attendance to witness the WFU president Sir John Llewellyn present Gould with the title deeds of a gift house. The 250 guests, including David A. Thomas, were joined by a reed and string orchestra, the band of the Fourth Battalion of the South Wales Borderers, and galleries packed by members of the public.
Wales did not field an international team until the IRFB, supported by the RFU, recommended that the WFU be readmitted into the organisation in February 1898. The WFU agreed that they would in future abide by all IRFB by-laws, and that Gould not be allowed to play in any future internationals. Gould accepted the ruling but returned to rugby as a referee and Welsh international selector. The compromise prevented a long term split in the sport, and by 1901 the IRFB added laws to the game banning professionalism to clarify their authority on the issue.
Later life and legacy
After retiring from rugby, Gould became a brewery representative around Newport. He was still a very popular figure and was followed during his work by fans; his image was still worth money, appearing on merchandise such as cigarette cards and matchboxes.
Gould died in 1919, at the age of 54. Falling ill at work on 2 January, he was rushed home where he died later that day of an internal haemorrhage. His funeral was reported as the biggest ever seen in Wales up to that time; it was surpassed three decades later by that of the former British Prime Minister David Lloyd George. Gould was buried at St Woolos Cemetery, Newport. In reporting his death, The Times stated:
In 1923 a memorial fund was raised in Gould's name, the donations of which were given to the Royal Gwent Hospital in Newport. The hospital recognised the gift with the Arthur Gould Memorial Bed, inscribed: "To the memory of Arthur Gould – Greatest of Rugby Football Players". The bed was lost, however, when a portion of the hospital was demolished. Donations for the memorial, which totalled £1,525, were received from all over the world, and several matches were staged to raise funds, including a fixture between Newport and Cardiff.
Gould has been described as the first superstar of his sport by rugby historian Terry Godwin while David Smith in the Official History of the Welsh Rugby Union described him as the first player to surpass national recognition, becoming in both meanings of the word "an international". The Welsh Academy's Encyclopedia of Wales, published over 90 years after his death, records Gould as "Welsh rugby's first superstar", while a 1919 obituary described him as "the most accomplished player of his generation". He set several long-standing records for his country, including captaining Wales 18 times, a number eventually surpassed by Ieuan Evans in 1994. Gould played 25 matches at centre for Wales, a record that stood until beaten by Steve Fenwick in 1980. He was also the most capped Welsh player, with 27, at the time of his retirement.
Gould was inducted into the Welsh Sports Hall of Fame in June 2007; members of Gould's family were in attendance including his granddaughter Mary Hales. When Newport RFC set up their own hall of fame in 2012 the first person inaugurated was Gould. Gould was inducted into the World Rugby Hall of Fame in November 2016.
Footnotes
Notes
References
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Welsh rugby union players
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Richmond F.C. players
Rugby union controversies
1864 births
1919 deaths
Sports scandals in Wales
Deaths from bleeding
Welsh people of English descent | [
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242465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Pierrepoint | Albert Pierrepoint | Albert Pierrepoint (; 30 March 1905 – 10 July 1992) was an English hangman who executed between 435 and 600 people in a 25-year career that ended in 1956. His father Henry and uncle Thomas were official hangmen before him.
Pierrepoint was born in Clayton in the West Riding of Yorkshire. His family struggled financially because of his father's intermittent employment and heavy drinking. Pierrepoint knew from an early age that he wanted to become a hangman, and was taken on as an assistant executioner in September 1932, aged 27. His first execution was in December that year, alongside his uncle Tom. In October 1941 he undertook his first hanging as lead executioner.
During his tenure he hanged 200 people who had been convicted of war crimes in Germany and Austria, as well as several high-profile murderers—including Gordon Cummins (the Blackout Ripper), John Haigh (the Acid Bath Murderer) and John Christie (the Rillington Place Strangler). He undertook several contentious executions, including Timothy Evans, Derek Bentley and Ruth Ellis and executions for high treason—William Joyce (also known as Lord Haw-Haw) and John Amery—and treachery, with the hanging of Theodore Schurch.
In 1956, Pierrepoint was involved in a dispute with a sheriff over payment, leading to his retirement from hanging. He ran a pub in Lancashire from the mid-1940s until the 1960s. He wrote his memoirs in 1974 in which he concluded that capital punishment was not a deterrent, although he may have changed his position after that. He approached his task with gravity and said that the execution was "sacred to me". His life has been included in several works of fiction, such as the 2005 film Pierrepoint, in which he was portrayed by Timothy Spall.
Biography
Early life
Albert Pierrepoint was born on 30 March 1905 in Clayton in the West Riding of Yorkshire. He was the third of five children and eldest son of Henry Pierrepoint and his wife Mary ( Buxton). Henry had a series of jobs, including butcher's apprentice, clog maker and a carrier in a local mill, but employment was mostly short-term. With intermittent employment, the family often had financial problems, worsened by Henry's heavy drinking. From 1901 Henry had been on the list of official executioners. The role was part-time, with payment made only for individual hangings, rather than an annual stipend or salary, and there was no pension included with the position.
Henry was removed from the list of executioners in July 1910 after arriving drunk at a prison the day before an execution and excessively berating his assistant. Henry's brother Thomas became an official executioner in 1906. Pierrepoint did not find out about his father's former job until 1916, when Henry's memoirs were published in a newspaper. Influenced by his father and uncle, when asked at school to write about what job he would like when older, Pierrepoint said that "When I leave school I should like to be public executioner like my dad is, because it needs a steady man with good hands like my dad and my Uncle Tom and I shall be the same".
In 1917 the Pierrepoint family left Huddersfield, West Riding of Yorkshire, and moved to Failsworth, near Oldham, Lancashire. Henry's health declined and he was unable to undertake physical work; as a result, Pierrepoint left school and began work at the local Marlborough Mills. Henry died in 1922 and Pierrepoint received two blue exercise books—in which his father had written his story as a hangman—and Henry's execution diary, which listed details of each hanging in which he had participated. In the 1920s Pierrepoint left the mill and became a drayman for a wholesale grocer, delivering goods ordered through a travelling salesman. By 1930 he had learned to drive a car and a lorry to make his deliveries; he later became manager of the business.
As assistant executioner, 1931–1940
On 19 April 1931 Pierrepoint wrote to the Prison Commissioners and applied to be an assistant executioner. He was turned down as there were no vacancies, but received an invitation for interview six months later. He was accepted and spent four days training at Pentonville Prison, London, where a dummy was used for practice. He received his formal acceptance letter as an assistant executioner at the end of September 1932. At that time, the assistant's fee was per execution, with another paid two weeks later if his conduct and behaviour were satisfactory. The executioner was chosen by the county high sheriff—or more commonly delegated to the undersheriff, who selected both the hangman and the assistant. Executioners and their assistants were required to be discreet and the rules for those roles included the clause:
He should clearly understand that his conduct and general behaviour should be respectable, not only at the place and time of the execution, but before and subsequently, that he should avoid attracting public attention in going to or from the prison, and he is prohibited from giving to any person particulars on the subject of his duty for publication.
In late December 1932 Pierrepoint undertook his first execution. His uncle Tom had been contracted by the government of the Irish Free State for the hanging of Patrick McDermott, a young Irish farmer who had murdered his brother; Tom was free to select his own assistant as it was outside Britain, and took Pierrepoint with him. They travelled to the Mountjoy Prison, Dublin for the hanging. It was scheduled for 8:00 am, and took less than a minute to perform. Pierrepoint's job as assistant was to follow the prisoner onto the scaffold, bind the prisoner's legs together, then step back off the trapdoor before the lead executioner sprang the mechanism.
For the remainder of the 1930s Pierrepoint worked in the grocery business and as an assistant executioner. Most of his commissions were with his uncle Tom, from whom Pierrepoint learned much. He was particularly impressed with his uncle's approach and demeanour, which were dignified and discreet; he also followed Tom's advice "if you can't do it without whisky, don't do it at all."
In July 1940 Pierrepoint was the assistant at the execution of Udham Singh, a Punjabi refugee who had been convicted of shooting the colonial administrator Sir Michael O'Dwyer. The day before the execution, Stanley Cross, the newly promoted lead executioner, became confused with his calculations of the drop length, and Pierrepoint stepped in to advise on the correct measurements; Pierrepoint was added to the list of head executioners soon after.
As lead executioner, 1940–1956
In October 1941 Pierrepoint undertook his first execution as lead executioner when he hanged the gangland killer Antonio "Babe" Mancini. He followed the routine as established by Home Office guidelines, and as followed by his predecessors. He and his assistant arrived the day before the execution, where he was told the height and weight of the prisoner; he viewed the condemned man through the "Judas hole" in the door to judge his build. Pierrepoint then went to the execution room—normally next to the condemned cell—where he tested the equipment using a sack that weighed about the same as the prisoner; he calculated the length of the drop using the Home Office Table of Drops, making allowances for the man's physique, if necessary. He left the weighted sack hanging on the rope to ensure the rope was stretched and it would be re-adjusted in the morning if necessary.
On the day of the execution, the practice was for Pierrepoint, his assistant and two prison officers to enter the condemned man's cell at 8:00 am. Pierrepoint secured the man's arms behind his back with a leather strap, and all five walked through a second door, which led to the execution chamber. The prisoner was walked to a marked spot on the trapdoor whereupon Pierrepoint placed a white hood over the prisoner's head and a noose around his neck. The metal eye through which the rope was looped was placed under the left jawbone which, when the prisoner dropped, forced the head back and broke the spine. Pierrepoint pushed a large lever, releasing the trapdoor. From entering the condemned man's cell to opening the trapdoor took him a maximum of 12 seconds. The neck was broken in almost exactly the same position in each hanging—the Hangman's fracture.
War-related executions
During the Second World War Pierrepoint hanged 15 German spies, as well as US servicemen found guilty by courts martial of committing capital crimes in England. In December 1941, he executed the German spy Karel Richter at Wandsworth prison. When Pierrepoint entered the condemned man's cell for the hanging, Richter stood up, threw aside one of the guards and charged headfirst at the stone wall. Stunned momentarily, he rose and shook his head. After Richter struggled with the guards, Pierrepoint managed to get the leather strap around Richter's wrists. He burst the leather strap from eye-hole to eye-hole and was free again. After another struggle, the strap was wrapped tightly around his wrists. He was brought to the scaffold where a strap was wrapped around his ankles, followed by a cap and noose. Just as Pierrepoint pushed the lever, Richter jumped up with bound feet. As Richter plummeted through the trapdoor, Pierrepoint could see that the noose had slipped, but it became stuck under Richter's nose. Despite the unusual position of the noose, the prison medical officer determined that it was an instantaneous, clean death. Writing about the execution in his memoirs, Pierrepoint called it "my toughest session on the scaffold during all my career as an executioner". The broken strap was given to Pierrepoint as a souvenir; he used it occasionally for what he thought were meaningful executions.
In August 1943 Pierrepoint married Anne Fletcher after a courtship of five years. He did not tell her about his role of executioner until a few weeks after the nuptials, when he was flown to Gibraltar to hang two saboteurs; on his return he explained the reason for his absence and she accepted it, saying that she had known about his second job all along, after hearing gossip locally.
In late 1945, following the liberation of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp and the subsequent trial of the camp's officials and functionaries, Pierrepoint was sent to Hamelin, Germany to carry out the executions of eleven of those sentenced to death, plus two other German war criminals convicted of murdering an RAF pilot in the Netherlands in March 1945. He disliked any publicity connected to his role and was unhappy that his name had been announced to the press by General Sir Bernard Montgomery. When he flew to Germany, he was followed across the airfield by the press, which he described as being "as unwelcome as a lynch mob". He was given the honorary military rank of lieutenant colonel and, on 13 December, he first executed the women individually, then the men two at a time. Pierrepoint travelled several times to Hamelin, and between December 1948 and October 1949 he executed 226 people, often over 10 a day, and on several occasions groups of up to 17 over 2 days.
Six days after the Belsen hangings in December 1945, Pierrepoint hanged John Amery at Wandsworth prison. Amery, the eldest son of the cabinet minister Leo Amery, was a Nazi sympathiser who had visited prisoner-of-war camps in Germany to recruit allied prisoners for the British Free Corps; he had also broadcast to Britain to encourage men to join the Nazis. He had pleaded guilty to treason. On 3 January 1946 Pierrepoint hanged William Joyce, also known as Lord Haw-Haw, who had been given the death sentence for high treason, although it was established at trial that he was not a British citizen, and therefore questionable whether he was subject to the charge. The following day Pierrepoint hanged Theodore Schurch, a British soldier who had been found guilty under the Treachery Act 1940. Joyce was the last person to be executed in Britain for treason; the death penalty for treason was abolished with the introduction of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998. Schurch was the last person to be hanged in Britain for treachery, and the last to be hanged for any offence other than murder.
In September 1946 Pierrepoint travelled to Graz, Austria, to train staff at Karlau Prison in the British form of long-drop hanging. Previously, the Austrians had used a shorter drop, leaving the executed men to choke to death, rather than the faster long-drop kill. He undertook four double executions of prisoners, with his trainees acting as assistants. Despite Pierrepoint's expertise as an executioner and his experience with hanging the German war criminals at Hamelin, he was not selected as the hangman to carry out the sentences handed down at the Nuremberg trials; the job went to an American, Master Sergeant John C. Woods, who was relatively inexperienced. The press was invited to observe the process, and pictures were later circulated which suggested the hangings had been poorly done. Wilhelm Keitel took 20 minutes to die after the trapdoor opened; the trap was not wide enough, so that some of the men hit the edges as they fell—more than one person's nose was torn off in the process—and others were strangled, rather than having their necks broken.
Post-war executions
After the war, Pierrepoint left the delivery business, and took over the lease of a pub, the Help the Poor Struggler on Manchester Road, in the Hollinwood area of Oldham. In the 1950s he left the pub and took a lease of the larger Rose and Crown at Much Hoole near Preston, Lancashire. He later said that he changed his main occupation because:
I wanted to run my own business so that I should be under no obligation when I took time off. ... I could take a three o'clock plane from Dublin after conducting an execution there and be opening my bar without comment at half past five.
In 1948 Parliament debated a new Criminal Justice Bill, which raised the question of whether to continue with the death penalty or not. While the debates were proceeding, no executions took place, and Pierrepoint worked solely in his pub. When the bill failed in the House of Lords, hangings resumed after a nine-month gap. The following year, the Home Secretary, Chuter Ede, set up a Royal Commission to look into capital punishment in the UK. Pierrepoint gave evidence in November 1950 and included a mock hanging at Wandsworth prison for the commission members. The commission's report was published in 1953 and resulted in the Homicide Act 1957 which reduced the grounds for execution by differentiating between capital and non-capital charges for homicide.
From the late 1940s and into the 1950s Pierrepoint, Britain's most experienced executioner, carried out several more hangings, including those of prisoners described by his biographer, Brian Bailey, as "the most notorious murderers of the period ... [and] three of the most controversial executions in the latter years of the death penalty." In August 1949 he hanged John Haigh, nicknamed "the Acid Bath Murderer", as he had dissolved the bodies of his victims in sulphuric acid; Haigh admitted to nine murders, and tried to avoid hanging by saying he drank the blood of his victims and claiming insanity. The following year Pierrepoint hanged James Corbitt, one of the regular customers at Pierrepoint's pub; the two had sung duets together and while Pierrepoint called Corbitt "Tish", Corbitt returned the nickname "Tosh". In his autobiography, Pierrepoint considered the matter:
As I polished the glasses, I thought if any man had a deterrent to murder poised before him, it was this troubadour whom I called Tish, coming to terms with his obsessions in the singing room of Help The Poor Struggler. He was not only aware of the rope, he had the man who handled it beside him, singing a duet. ... The deterrent did not work. He killed the thing he loved.
In March 1950 Pierrepoint hanged Timothy Evans, a 25-year-old man who had the vocabulary of a 14-year-old and the mental age of a ten-year-old. Evans was arrested for the murder of his wife and daughter at their home, the top floor flat of 10 Rillington Place, London. His statements to the police were contradictory, telling them that he killed her, and also that he was innocent. He was tried and convicted for the murder of his daughter. Three years later Evans's landlord, John Christie, was arrested for the murder of several women, whose bodies he hid in the house. He subsequently admitted to the murder of Evans's wife, but not the daughter. Pierrepoint hanged him in July 1953 in Pentonville Prison, but the case showed Evans's conviction and hanging had been a miscarriage of justice. The matter led to further questions on the use of the death penalty in Britain.
In the months before he hanged Christie, Pierrepoint undertook another controversial execution, that of Derek Bentley, a 19-year-old man who had been an accomplice of Christopher Craig, a 16-year-old boy who shot and killed a policeman. Bentley was described in his trial as:
a youth of low intelligence, shown by testing to be just above the level of a feeble-minded person, illiterate, unable to read or write, and when tested in a way which did not involve scholastic knowledge shown to have a mental age between 11 and 12 years.
At the time the policeman was shot, Bentley had been under arrest for 15 minutes and the words he said to Craig—"Let him have it, Chris"—could either have been taken for an incitement to shoot or for Craig to hand his gun over (one policeman had asked him to hand the gun over just beforehand). There has been scant discussion of the possibility that the words were not said. Bentley was found guilty by the English law principle of joint enterprise.
Pierrepoint hanged Ruth Ellis for murder in July 1955. Ellis was in an abusive relationship with David Blakely, a racing driver; she shot him four times after what her biographer, Jane Dunn, called "three days of sleeplessness, panic, and pathological jealousy, fuelled by quantities of Pernod and a reckless consumption of tranquillizers". The case attracted great interest from the press and public. The matter was discussed in Cabinet and a petition of 50,000 signatures was sent to the Home Secretary, Gwilym Lloyd George, to ask for a reprieve; he refused to grant one. Ellis was the last woman to be hanged in Britain. Two weeks after Ellis's execution, Pierrepoint hanged Norman Green, who had confessed to killing two boys in his home town of Wigan; it was Pierrepoint's last execution.
Retirement and later life
In early January 1956 Pierrepoint travelled to Manchester for another execution and paid for staff to cover the bar in his absence. He spent the afternoon in the prison calculating the drop and setting up the rope to the right length. That evening the prisoner was given a reprieve. Pierrepoint left the prison and, because of heavy snow, stayed overnight in a local hotel before returning home. Two weeks later he received from the instructing sheriff a cheque for his travelling expenses, but not his execution fee. He wrote to the Prison Commissioners to point out that he had received a full fee in other cases of reprieve, and that he had spent additional money in employing bar staff. The Commissioners advised he speak to the instructing sheriff, as it was his responsibility, not theirs; they also reminded him that his conditions of employment were that he was paid only for the execution, not in the case of a reprieve. Shortly afterwards he received a letter from the sheriff offering £4 (approximately £100 in 2020) as a compromise. On 23 February he replied to the Prison Commissioners and informed them that he was resigning with immediate effect, and requested that his name be taken from the list of executioners.
There were soon rumours in the press that his resignation was connected with the hanging of Ellis. In his autobiography he denied this was the case:
At the execution of Ruth Ellis no untoward incident happened which in any way appalled me or anyone else, and the execution had absolutely no connection with my resignation seven months later. Nor did I leave the list, as one newspaper said, by being arbitrarily taken off it, to shut my mouth, because I was about to reveal the last words of Ruth Ellis. She never spoke.
Pierrepoint's autobiography does not give any reasons for his resignation—he states that the Prison Commissioners asked him to keep the details private. The Home Office contacted the Sheriff of Lancashire, who paid Pierrepoint the full fee of £15 for his services, but he was adamant that he was still retiring. He had received an offer for £30,000 to £40,000 from the Empire News and Sunday Chronicle to publish weekly stories about his experiences. The Home Office considered prosecuting him under the Official Secrets Act 1939, but when two of the stories appeared that contained information that contradicted the recollections of other witnesses, they did not do so. Instead pressure was put on the publishers, who stopped the stories.
Pierrepoint and his wife ran their pub until they retired to the seaside town of Southport in the 1960s. In 1974 he published his autobiography, Executioner: Pierrepoint. He died on 10 July 1992, aged 87, in the nursing home where he had lived for the last four years of his life.
Views on capital punishment
In his 1974 autobiography, Pierrepoint changed his view on capital punishment, and wrote that hanging:
... is said to be a deterrent. I cannot agree. There have been murders since the beginning of time, and we shall go on looking for deterrents until the end of time. If death were a deterrent, I might be expected to know. It is I who have faced them last, young lads and girls, working men, grandmothers. I have been amazed to see the courage with which they take that walk into the unknown. It did not deter them then, and it had not deterred them when they committed what they were convicted for. All the men and women whom I have faced at that final moment convince me that in what I have done I have not prevented a single murder.
In a 1976 interview with BBC Radio Merseyside, Pierrepoint expressed his uncertainty towards the sentiments, and said that when the autobiography was originally written, "there was not a lot of crime. Not like there is today. I am now honestly on a balance and I don’t know which way to think because it changes every day." Pierrepoint's position as an opponent of capital punishment was questioned by his long-time former assistant, Syd Dernley, in his 1989 autobiography, The Hangman's Tale:
Even the great Pierrepoint developed some strange ideas in the end. I do not think I will ever get over the shock of reading in his autobiography, many years ago, that like the Victorian executioner James Berry before him, he had turned against capital punishment and now believed that none of the executions he had carried out had achieved anything! This from the man who proudly told me that he had done more jobs than any other executioner in English history. I just could not believe it. When you have hanged more than 680 people, it's a hell of a time to find out you do not believe capital punishment achieves anything!
Approach and legacy
Pierrepoint described his approach to hanging in his autobiography. He did so in what Lizzie Seal, a reader in Criminology, calls "quasi-religious language", including the phrase that a "higher power" selected him as an executioner. When asked by the Royal Commission about his role, he replied that "It is sacred to me". In his autobiography, Pierrepoint describes his ethos thus:
I have gone on record ... as saying that my job is sacred to me. That sanctity must be most apparent at the hour of death. A condemned prisoner is entrusted to me, after decisions have been made which I cannot alter. He is a man, she is a woman, who, the church says, still merits some mercy. The supreme mercy I can extend to them is to give them and sustain in them their dignity in dying and death. The gentleness must remain.
Brian Bailey highlights Pierrepoint's phrasing relating to hangings; the autobiography reads "I had to hang Derek Bentley", "I had to execute John Christie" and "I had to execute Mrs Louisa Merrifield". Bailey comments that Pierrepoint "never had to hang anybody".
The exact number of people executed by Pierrepoint has never been established. Bailey, in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, and Leonora Klein, one of his biographers, state it was over 400; Steven Fielding, another biographer, puts the figure at 435—based on the Prison Execution Books held at The National Archives; the obituarists of The Times and The Guardian put the figure at 17 women and 433 men. The Irish Times puts the figure at 530 people, The Independent considers the figure to be 530 men and 20 women, while the BBC states it is "up to 600" people.
In addition to his 1974 autobiography, Pierrepoint has been the subject of several biographies, either focusing on him, or alongside other executioners. These include Pierrepoint: A Family of Executioners by Fielding, published in 2006, and Leonora Klein's 2006 book A Very English Hangman: The Life and Times of Albert Pierrepoint. There have been several television and radio documentaries about or including Pierrepoint, and he has been portrayed on stage and screen, and in literature.
On Pierrepoint's resignation, two assistant executioners were promoted to lead executioner: Jock Stewart and Harry Allen. Over the next seven years they carried out the remaining thirty-four executions in the UK. On 13 August 1964 Allen hanged Gwynne Evans at Strangeways Prison in Manchester for the murder of John Alan West; at the same time, Stewart hanged Evans's accomplice, Peter Allen, at Walton Gaol in Liverpool. They were the last hangings in English legal history. The following year the Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965 was passed, which imposed a five-year moratorium on executions. The temporary ban was made permanent on 18 December 1969.
See also
Locations of executions conducted by Albert Pierrepoint
List of executioners
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
Books
Journals
News articles
Websites
External links
BBC story on the qualities needed of an executioner
BBC radio interview with Albert Pierrepoint (25 minutes, Real Audio)
1905 births
1992 deaths
British publicans
English executioners
People from Clayton, West Yorkshire
20th-century British businesspeople
English autobiographers | [
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242469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opava | Opava | Opava (; , ) is a city in the Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 56,000 inhabitants. It lies on the river Opava. Opava is one of the historical centres of Silesia. It was a historical capital of Czech Silesia.
Administrative division
Opava is made up of eight self-governing boroughs in the suburbs, and of central part which is administered directly. The city is further divided into 14 administrative parts (in brackets):
Opava (Město, Předměstí (larger part), Kateřinky, Kylešovice and Jaktař (larger part))
Komárov
Malé Hoštice
Milostovice
Podvihov (Komárovské Chaloupky and Podvihov)
Suché Lazce
Vávrovice (Vávrovice, Předměstí (smaller part) and Jaktař (smaller part))
Vlaštovičky
Zlatníky
Geography
Opava is situated about northwest of Ostrava.
Most of its territory is located in the Opava Hilly Land within the Silesian Lowlands, but it also extends to the Nízký Jeseník geomophological unit in the southeast and in the northwest. The highest point of the municipal territory is Hůrka at above sea level.
Opava lies at the confluence of the Opava and Moravice rivers. The Opava River flows through the city centre.
Stříbrné Lake is an artificial lake on the outskirts of the city created by the flooding of the former gypsum mine. It is used for recreational purposes.
History
The first written mention of Opava si from 1195. In 1224, Opava received town privileges. After the Duchy of Troppau was established, Opava became its capital.
In 1427–1431, the duchy was ruled by the Hussites. In 1485, it was acquired by Matthias Corvinus and ruled by the Hungarians until 1526. In 1613, Karl I of Liechtenstein became Duke of Opava and merged the duchy with the Duchy of Krnov.
After the majority of Silesia was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia during the War of the Austrian Succession after 1740, the remaining Silesian territory still under the control of the Habsburg Monarchy became known as Austrian Silesia, with its capital in Opava (1742–1918). The Congress of Troppau took place here from 24 October to 23 December 1820.
According to the Austrian census of 1910, the town had 30,762 inhabitants, 29,587 of whom had permanent residence there. The census asked people for their native language, which showed that 27,240 (92%) were German-speaking, 2,039 (6.9%) were Czech-speaking and 274 (0.9%) were Polish-speaking. Jews were not allowed to declare Yiddish, and most of them thus declared German as their native language. The main religious group was Roman Catholics with 28,379 (92.2%), followed by Protestants with 1,155 (3.7%) and Jews with 1,112 (3.6%).
After the defeat of Austria-Hungary in World War I, Opava became part of Czechoslovakia in 1919.
In 1938, Opava was ceded to Nazi Germany as a result of the Munich agreement. It was administered as a part of Reichsgau Sudetenland. On April 22 1945, Opava was liberated by the Soviet Red Army at the cost of enormous war damage. In 1945–46, the German population was expelled under terms of Beneš decrees and the city was resettled with Czechs. On 1 January, the municipalities of Jaktař, Kateřinky and Kylešovice were joined to Opava. After the war, entire new residential areas and industrial plants were built.
While the Duchy of Opava has ceased to exist, the title of Duke of Troppau continues, with Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein being the current incumbent.
Demography
Economy
Opava is home especially to the engineering, food, paper and pharmaceutical industries. The largest company is Teva Czech Industries, a manufacturer of medicinal products, whose predecessor was founded in Opava in 1883. It employs about 1,600 people.
The largest non-industrial employers are the hospital and the psychiatric hospital.
Culture
Opava is an important cultural centre of Opavian Silesia. The Silesian Theatre in Opava was founded in 1805.
Education
Opava is home to the Silesian University, the only public university in the country not situated in a regional capital. It was established in 1991.
Sport
The city's football club SFC Opava currently plays in the Czech National Football League, the second tier of the Czech football league system.
Sights
One of the two main landmarks of Opava is the city hall on the Horní Square and its white tower, known as Hláska. A one-storey city hall and the tower were built in 1614–1618. However, the less representative town hall building around the tower was demolished in 1902 and replaced with a new one in Neo-Renaissance style.
The second landmark is the Co-cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary. It is the largest building in the Czech Republic, built in the so-called Silesian Brick Gothic style. A solid prismatic tower was built in the late 13th century and a higher south tower was built in the early 14th century, both towers were originally intended as part of a city hall. The church building between the towers dates from the mid-14th century. In 1996, the church became the second Episcopal church of the Ostrava-Opava diocese, and therefore a co-cathedral. With , the southern church tower is the highest tower in Silesia.
The Silesian Museum, founded in 1814, is the oldest public museum in the Czech Republic. It has about 2,400,000 exhibition items and is the third largest museum in the country.
Notable people
Martin of Opava (?–1278) historian and cleric
Johann Palisa (1848–1925), Austrian astronomer
Eduard von Böhm-Ermolli (1856–1941), Austrian field marshal
Joseph Maria Olbrich (1867–1908), Austrian architect
Petr Bezruč (1867–1958), poet
Max Eschig (1872–1927), French music publisher
Franz Bardon (1909–1958), occultist
Joy Adamson (1910–1980), naturalist and author
Helmut Niedermeyer (1926–2014), Austrian businessman
Josef Gebauer (1942–2004), historian
Boris Rösner (1951–2006), actor
Pavel Složil (born 1955), tennis player
Bohdan Sláma (born 1967), film director
Kamil Mrůzek (born 1977), kayaker
Zdeněk Pospěch (born 1978), footballer
Zuzana Ondrášková (born 1980), tennis player
Libor Kozák (born 1989), footballer
Twin towns – sister cities
Opava is twinned with:
Katowice, Poland
Kearney, United States
Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovakia
Racibórz, Poland
Roth, Germany
Zugló (Budapest), Hungary
Żywiec, Poland
References
External links
Regional news
Old postcards
Cities in Silesia
Cities and towns in the Czech Republic | [
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242470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luke%20McShane | Luke McShane | Luke James McShane (born 7 January 1984) is an English chess player. A chess prodigy, he was awarded the title of Grandmaster by FIDE in 2000, at the age of 16. McShane has become one of England's leading players and a member of the national team. He also worked as a trader in London's financial sector, and has previously been described as the world's strongest amateur chess player.
Early career
McShane won the World Under 10 Championship in Duisburg at the age of eight. Shortly afterwards he found a sponsor in the form of computer company Psion and played Garry Kasparov at a simultaneous exhibition in 1995. At sixteen he became the youngest ever Briton to achieve the title Grandmaster, gaining the three results required ("norms") in tournaments in Germany, Iceland and the Politiken Cup in Copenhagen, Denmark. He held the record until David Howell broke it in January 2007. In January 2004 McShane was ranked second in the world among junior (under 21) players behind Teimour Radjabov.
Grandmaster
Among McShane's more notable results are joint first in the 1998 Bunratty Masters in Ireland with John Nunn, winning five of his six games, and joint winner with Stuart Conquest and Bogdan Lalić of the Iona Technologies International Masters in Kilkenny. McShane led the 2002 British Championship in Torquay, and was in a good position in the final round before blundering and losing to the tournament's winner, Ramachandran Ramesh. McShane finished tied for fourth.
From around 2002, McShane has been facing stiffer opposition, including players from the world's top ten. He played for England in the Chess Olympiad in Bled, scoring 6½/11 points, and won the silver medal at the World Junior Championship in Goa. In 2003 he finished fifth in the Hrokurinn tournament in Reykjavík, finishing ahead of Britain's number one player Michael Adams and drawing games against Viktor Korchnoi and Alexei Shirov. Shortly afterwards, he beat Shirov in a Reykjavík blitz tournament. In the 2003 Sigeman & Co tournament in Malmö, he finished third with a score of 5½/9, drawing his game with the tournament winner, Vasily Ivanchuk. Also in 2003, McShane finished 27th out of 207 with 8/13 in the European Individual Championship in Silivri in Turkey, 1½ points behind the winner, Zurab Azmaiparashvili. Shortly afterwards he tied for first with Alexei Dreev and Krishnan Sasikiran in the North Sea Cup played in Esbjerg in Denmark with 6½/9, finished tied for second in the Politiken Cup in Copenhagen with 8½/11 and won the Malmö Masters with 7½/9, a point and a half ahead of his nearest rival. In 2009/10 he tied for first through fifth place with Eduardas Rozentalis, Pavel Ponkratov, Radosław Wojtaszek and Igor Lysyj at the 39th Rilton Cup in Stockholm. In 2010 he won the third Remco Heite tournament in Wolvega.
McShane is a strong blitz chess player. He won the 136-player Kuppenheim tournament in 2003 ahead of Vladimir Epishin and former German blitz champion Robert Rabiega, finishing with a score of 50½/53 points. In this tournament he played his games over the Internet, while all other participants were in the playing hall in Germany. In 2003 he won the British Blitz Championship held at Uxbridge with a score of 14½/16 and the Greenland Open rapid tournament with 8½/9.
In 2009 and 2010 McShane participated in the London Chess Classic. He finished mid-table at the tournament's inaugural showing and took the best game prize for his win against Hikaru Nakamura. The 2010 tournament included Viswanathan Anand (reigning world chess champion), Magnus Carlsen (rated number one for most of 2010) and Vladimir Kramnik (former world champion). Under a scoring system of 3 points for a win, 1 for a draw and 0 for a loss, McShane finished joint second with Anand, behind Carlsen, whom McShane had beaten in their individual encounter, and ahead of Kramnik. Undefeated, his event performance rating was 2838 – higher than Carlsen's or Anand's. In the January 2011 rating list, he briefly topped Nigel Short to become the UK's second highest ranked player after Michael Adams.
In January 2011 McShane came joint first with David Navara in the 'B group' of the Tata Steel tournament, winning on tie break and qualifying, with Navara, for the 2012 'A group' but did not play, owing to work commitments.
McShane participated in the Tal Memorial in Moscow in June 2012. Seeded in last place, he beat Levon Aronian, then the world ranked number two, in a game where he sacrificed the exchange for the initiative. He then followed up with wins against Alexander Morozevich and Vladimir Kramnik, his combative performances rewarding voters of the online poll responsible for securing his wildcard place, ahead of Alexei Shirov and Shakhriyar Mamedyarov. However, he finished last but one (tied eighth), after losing to Magnus Carlsen, Fabiano Caruana, Teimour Radjabov and Alexander Grischuk.
McShane was particularly active in the USA during 2015. In June, he won the (Arlington) DC International with 7/9. The following month, he finished the World Open on 6½/9, a half-point behind the leading group. In October, he returned for the Las Vegas Millionaire Chess event, and narrowly failed to qualify for the knockout phase, but completed the Open event with 7/9, leaving him tied equal first with Wesley So, Fabiano Caruana and Evgeniy Najer.
He was booked to give a simultaneous display at the 2015 London Chess Classic, but also entered two of the Festival events. The first was the inaugural British Knockout Championship, where he was eliminated by Nick Pert in the semi-final. At the Super Rapidplay Open, in a field that included 33 grandmasters, he was the winner with 9½/10, a full point clear of second place.
In Katowice 2017, he took the silver medal at the European Blitz Championship, with a score of 17.5/22, a half-point behind Sergei Zhigalko. McShane's finish placed him ahead of the highly rated Jan-Krzysztof Duda and David Navara, with the total number of participants being in excess of one thousand.
McShane participated in the 2019 World Team Championship, held in Astana, as a member of the English team. England took the silver medal and he also won the individual gold on board two.
Education and part-time status
McShane attended Westminster Under School and then City of London School, before entering Oxford University in 2003, where he read philosophy and mathematics at University College. In the summer of 2006 he interned at Goldman Sachs in FICC. After graduating in the summer of 2007, he worked there as a trader. A brief increase in his chess activity occurred when he subsequently left his job, but he was forced to decline his invitation to the 2011 British Championship when he later returned to full-time employment. He continues to play in a reduced capacity and has been referred to as the world's strongest amateur.
Columnist
Luke McShane has been the chess columnist of The Spectator since October 2019.
References
External links
A short interview with McShane about his win at Kuppenheim, 2003
An interview conducted by Geoffrey D Borg at the 2003 European Individual Championship (retrieved from the Internet archive)
1984 births
Living people
Chess grandmasters
English chess players
World Youth Chess Champions
People educated at the City of London School
Alumni of University College, Oxford | [
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242471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel%20Planer | Nigel Planer | Nigel George Planer (born 22 February 1953) is a British actor, comedian, musician, novelist and playwright. He played Neil in the BBC comedy The Young Ones and Ralph Filthy in Filthy Rich & Catflap. He has appeared in many West End musicals, including original casts of Evita, Chicago, We Will Rock You, Wicked, and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. He has also appeared in Hairspray. He won a BRIT award in 1984 and has been nominated for Olivier, TMA, WhatsOnStage and BAFTA awards.
Early life
Planer's father's Hungarian-Romanian family left Nazi Germany in 1933 and settled in Mortlake, London. He established a medical equipment company, which pioneered technology in controlled-rate freezers, IVF and stem cells. Nigel, who has two brothers, was born in Westminster, London. He attended King's House School in Richmond and Westminster School in central London, where he wrote a satirical play about the school with fellow pupil Stephen Poliakoff. Having failed to gain a place on a drama course at university, he instead began a degree course in African and Asian Studies at the University of Sussex but dropped out and went travelling. After becoming ill, he applied and was accepted to study acting at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art, where he met and began working with Peter Richardson.
Career
Planer was a founding member of the London Comedy Store and original member of The Comic Strip – pioneers of the alternative comedy movement in the United Kingdom. Planer appeared with Peter Richardson as part of the double act "The Outer Limits". Planer and Richardson also wrote the That's Life! parody on Not the Nine O'Clock News. Over the next 20 years he went on to star in film, theatre and television. With Christopher Douglas, he created the spoof actor character "Nicholas Craig", who appears in book, radio, TV and articles as well as live; most recently at the Royal Festival Hall, London, in Stewart Lee's At Last the 1984 show. Planer is also the author of several books, plays, radio plays, and TV scripts as well as a small volume of poetry. He was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Arts degree from Edinburgh Napier University in June 2011.
Television
Planer is best known for his role as Neil, the hippie housemate in the BBC comedy The Young Ones, which ran for two series broadcast in 1982 and 1984. He has starred in The Comic Strip Presents..., a series of short films sporadically broadcast from 1982 onwards, as various odd outsiders.
In 2003, Planer played Professor Dumbledore in a Harry Potter parody, Harry Potter and the Secret Chamber Pot of Azerbaijan. He appeared on a BBC4 programme in the guise of Nicholas Craig in 2007, in which he was interviewed by Mark Lawson.
Planer guest-starred in "The Pale Horse", a 2010 episode of Agatha Christie's Marple. In 2011's The Hunt for Tony Blair, he played Peter Mandelson.
Planer's guest appearances include programmes such as The Bill, French and Saunders, Jonathan Creek, Blackadder III, The Last Detective, The Paul Merton Show, The Lenny Henry Show, Death in Paradise and Gary Wilmot's Songs from the Shows. He also guest-starred in an episode of This is Jinsy entitled "Nameworm", and in the BBC series Boomers. Planer played Matt LeBlanc's lawyer in the TV series Episodes.
Leading roles on television include Shine on Harvey Moon, Filthy Rich and Catflap, The Grimleys, King and Castle, Bonjour La Classe and Roll Over Beethoven. He also starred in Michael Palin's Number 27, Simon Gray's Two Lumps of Ice, Emma Tennant's Frankenstein's Baby, and Blackeyes by Dennis Potter.
Theatre
His first break in the theatre was understudying David Essex as Che Guevara in the original West End run of Evita.
In 1990, he replaced Michael Gambon in Alan Ayckbourn's Man of the Moment in the West End. Leading roles followed in other productions at the Bush Theatre, the Lyric Theatre, the Traverse, the Young Vic, the West Yorkshire Playhouse, Regent's Park Open-Air Theatre, Chichester Festival Theatre, Plymouth Drum and the Hampstead Theatre.
Planer was in the original cast for the 1997 London revival of Chicago as Amos Hart. He was a member of the original West End cast of Ben Elton's Queen musical We Will Rock You as Pop.
From 10 to 15 July 2006 he played the part of the narrator in The Rocky Horror Show, taking on the role in Manchester and Bromley. He then starred as The Wizard in the original West End production of Wicked alongside Idina Menzel. The show opened at the Apollo Victoria Theatre on 27 September 2006. Planer ended his run on 7 June 2008 and was replaced by Desmond Barrit.
He took over the role of Wilbur from Ian Talbot in the West End production of Hairspray on 2 February 2009.
In 2010, Planer returned to the role of the Narrator in the UK Tour of The Rocky Horror Show, playing in Cambridge and Northampton, before also reprising the role of Wilbur in Manchester and Leeds. He also featured in Doctor Who: Live touring the UK, as Vorgenson The Inter-Galactic Showman, before appearing in Pantomime as Captain Hook at the Lyceum Theatre in Sheffield.
Planer went on to star as Grandpa Joe in the original production of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, which opened in London's West End in 2013.
From September 2018 to November 2018, Planer toured with Ade Edmondson in a play that they wrote together called Vulcan 7.
Film
Planer has appeared in films, including Flood, Virgin Territory, Bright Young Things, Hogfather, The Colour of Magic, The Wind in the Willows, The Land Girls, Clockwork Mice, Carry On Columbus, Brazil, The Supergrass, I Give It a Year, The Apple Picker and Yellowbeard.
Music
Planer played Den Dennis, one of the four members of the 1980s spoof rock band Bad News, which made two albums produced by Brian May. The band performed at the Hammersmith Apollo as well as the Donington and Reading Rock Festivals.
As Neil from The Young Ones, Planer gained a number two hit single in 1984 in the form of "Hole in My Shoe" (originally a hit for 1960s band Traffic). A cover of Tomorrow's "My White Bicycle" was a less successful follow up, only reaching No.97 in the charts. After that, an album was produced, entitled Neil's Heavy Concept Album. Planer also took Neil's stage act on the road in that year as Neil in the "Bad Karma in The UK" tour. This culminated in a month-long run at St. Mary's Hall at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe. The Young Ones also appeared on Cliff Richard's 1986 charity rerecording of "Living Doll", which spent three weeks at number one in the UK. He has a silver and a gold disc and has a Brit award from his musical career. In 2015 he started a new music project called Rainsmoke with Chris Wade (Dodson and Fogg) and Roger Planer.
In 2017 he recorded two songs for the album Wit & Whimsy – Songs by Alexander S. Bermange (one solo and one featuring all of the album's 23 artists), which reached No. 1 in the iTunes comedy album chart.
In 2021, Planer released several of his own musical projects. "Five Songs Left" and "Four Songs More", collaborations with Chris Wade, are Nick Drake-inspired folk songs that he wrote in 1971, when we was eighteen. He also released two singles written more recently, "City in the Summer", a jazz song about the hot summer of COVID-19, and "Love Strikes". He also wrote lyrics for "Commit No Nuisance", a music collaboration with Neil Avery. Described as a "labour of love", "Talk it Out", one of the songs from the album, aims to encourage male mental health awareness. He has also written lyrics for Matts Lindblom.
Voice acting
Planer was the initial main reader for the first unabridged audiobook editions of many of Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels. He also appeared in the television adaptations of Terry Pratchett's Hogfather and The Colour of Magic, and performed as a voice artist in the games Discworld 2 and Discworld Noir. Discworld Audiobooks narrated by Planer include (with number in parentheses indicating order of the book in the Discworld series):
The Colour of Magic (1)
The Light Fantastic (2)
Mort (4)
Sourcery (5)
Wyrd Sisters (6)
Pyramids (7)
Guards! Guards! (8)
Moving Pictures (10)
Reaper Man (11)
Witches Abroad (12)
Small Gods (13)
Lords and Ladies (14)
Men at Arms (15)
Soul Music (16)
Interesting Times (17)
Maskerade (18)
Feet of Clay (19)
Hogfather (20)
Jingo (21)
The Last Continent (22)
Carpe Jugulum (23)
Other voice roles include the narrator of Grizzly Tales for Gruesome Kids (and the audiobook narrator for Fearsome Tales for Fiendish Kids), the title character of Romuald the Reindeer, and Dr. Marmalade in an episode of SpongeBob SquarePants (alongside Young Ones co-stars Christopher Ryan and Rik Mayall). Planer has also been the narrator of many of BBC Four's Britannia series of documentaries, including Prog Rock Britannia, Blues Britannia and Heavy Metal Britannia. In addition he voiced Frodo in The Adventures of Tom Bombadil from the 1992 radio series Tales from the Perilous Realm. He was a narrator in a direct-to-video version of Val Biro's Gumdrop book series in 1994. He also narrated two short surreal monologues on the album In A Strange Slumber, by Dodson and Fogg, Chris Wade's progressive folk rock project. He narrated as a thirty-something Adrian Mole in the radio adaptation of Adrian Mole: The Cappuccino Years.
In 2018, he voiced the character of Henry Davenant Hythe in the Big Finish Productions original production, Jeremiah Bourne in Time, which he also wrote. Planer also narrated an audiobook written by Chris Wade called Raymond's Room, released by Wisdom Twins Books.
Writing
Planer has written books, stage plays, TV shows, radio plays and newspaper articles as well as penning 105 episodes of The New Magic Roundabout.
Books
Neil’s Book of the Dead 1984 (with Terence Blacker)
I an actor: Nicholas Craig 1988 (with Christopher Douglas)
A Good Enough Dad 1992
Let’s Get Divorced 1994 (with Terence Blacker)
Therapy and How to Avoid it 1996 (with Robert Llewellyn)
Unlike The Buddha 1997
The Right Man 2000
Faking It 2003
Plays
On the Ceiling 2008
Death of Long Pig 2009
The Magnificent Andrea 2011
Game of Love and Chai 2018
Vulcan 7 2018 (with Adrian Edmondson)
All Above Board 2021
Credits
His television comedy and satire work includes:
Boom Boom...Out Go The Lights (1981, TV Special) as Self
Shine on Harvey Moon (1982–1995, TV Series) as Lou Lewis
The Young Ones (1982–1984, TV Series) as Neil / E.T. Fairfax / Famine / Dino / Fly #2
Yellowbeard (1983) as Mansell
The Comic Strip Presents… (1983–2012, TV Series)
Roll Over Beethoven (1985, TV Series) as Nigel Cochrane
Brazil (1985) as Charlie – Dept. of Works
King and Castle (1986–1988, TV Series) as David Castle
Filthy Rich & Catflap (1987, TV Series) as Ralph Filthy
Eat the Rich (1987) as DHSS Manager
Blackadder the Third (1987) as Lord Smedley, fop
Blackeyes (1989, TV Mini-Series, by Dennis Potter) as Jeff
French & Saunders (1990, TV Series) as Andy
Frankenstein's Baby (1990, TV Series) as Paul Hocking
Nicholas Craig – The Naked Actor (1990–1992, TV Series) as Nicholas Craig
Nicholas Craig's Interview Masterclass (1990, TV Series) as Nicholas Craig
Oh, No! Not THEM! (1990, TV Movie) as Neil
Nicholas Craig's Masterpiece Theatre (1992) as Nicholas Craig
The Nicholas Craig Masterclass (1992) as Nicholas Craig
Carry On Columbus (1992) as The Wazir
The Magic Roundabout (1992, English adaptation and narrator on previously unseen episodes)
Bonjour la Classe (1993, TV Series) as Laurence Didcott
Sherlock Holmes (1993, TV Mini-Series) as Inspector Hopkins
Let's Get Divorced (1994)
Wake Up! With Libby And Jonathan (1994, TV Special short) as Jonathan Hughes
Clockwork Mice (1995) as Parkey
Diana & Me (1997) as Taxi Driver
The Grimleys (1997–2001, TV Series) as Baz Grimley
Jonathan Creek (1997–2013, TV Series) as Franklin Tartikoff / Shelford
The Land Girls (1998) as Gerald
Grizzly Tales for Gruesome Kids (2000–2007, TV Series) as Narrator (voice)
Bright Young Things (2003) as Taxi Driver
Wicked (2006–2008, TV Series)
SpongeBob SquarePants (2006) – Dr. Marmalade (voice)
Terry Pratchett's Hogfather (2006, TV Movie) as Mr. Sideney
Flood (2007) as Keith Hopkins
Virgin Territory (2007) as Uncle Bruno
Terry Pratchett's The Colour of Magic (2008, TV Mini-Series) as Arch Astronomer
Hairspray (2009)
M.I.High (2009, TV Series) as Prime Minister
Episodes (2012–2015, TV Series) as Sanford Shamiro
I Give It a Year (2013) as Brian
The List (2013) as Ted Rove
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (musical) (2013)
Boomers (2014–2016, TV Series) as Mick
Cockroaches (2015, TV Series) as Stevie
Burn Burn Burn (2015) as Henry
Grantchester (2016, TV Series) as Giles Montgomery
Seven Days in Never (2017) (voice)
Ratburger (2017, TV Movie) as Headmaster
The Apple Picker (2017) as Narrator
Loaded (2017, TV Series) as Mr. Young
Death in Paradise (2018, TV Series) as Eugene Sutton
Inside No. 9 (2018, TV Series) as Frank
Marcella (2018, TV Series) as Reg Reynolds
Vulcan 7 (2018)
There She Goes (2018–2020, TV Series) as Gandalf
Father Brown (2019, TV Series) as Ronnie Grunion
Grandpa’s Great Escape Arena Tour (2019)
Discography
"Hole in My Shoe" (1984)
Neil's Heavy Concept Album (1984)
"Living Doll" (1986)
"Rough with the Smooth" (1986)
Bad News (1987)
Bad News Bootleg (1988)
Bad News The Cash in Compilation (1992)
The Last Night (1993)
Chicago cast recording (1995)
The Dreaded Lurgie (1998)
Three Men in a Boat (1999)
Adrian Mole the Cappuccino Years (2000)
There was also a soundtrack to The Grimleys (2000), Planer's character appearing on the album.
We Will Rock You (The Original London Cast Recording) (2002)
Cabaret (2005)
The Robe of Skulls (2008)
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (The Original London Cast Recording) (2013)
Dodson and Fogg – In A Strange Slumber (2014)
Five Songs Left (2020)
City in the Summer (2020) – single
Four Songs More (2021)
Love Strikes (2021) – single
Phoning Home From Away (2021) – single
The Last Ten Yards (2021) – single
References
External links
September 2006 article about Planer
as Neil
1953 births
Living people
20th-century English comedians
20th-century English male actors
20th-century English male writers
20th-century English novelists
21st-century English comedians
21st-century English male actors
21st-century English male writers
21st-century English novelists
Alumni of the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art
Alumni of the University of Sussex
Audiobook narrators
English dramatists and playwrights
English male comedians
English male dramatists and playwrights
English male film actors
English male novelists
English male singers
English male stage actors
English male television actors
English male voice actors
Fathers' rights activists
People educated at Westminster School, London
People from Westminster
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242476 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Straw | Jack Straw | John Whitaker Straw (born 3 August 1946) is a British politician who served in the Cabinet from 1997 to 2010 under the Labour governments of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown. He held two of the traditional Great Offices of State, as Home Secretary from 1997 to 2001 and Foreign Secretary from 2001 to 2006 under Blair. He was Member of Parliament (MP) for Blackburn from 1979 to 2015
Straw was born in Essex and educated at Oaklands School, where his mother worked as a teacher, and later at Brentwood School. He studied Law at the University of Leeds before having a career as a barrister. He served as an adviser to cabinet minister Barbara Castle and was selected to succeed her as MP for the Blackburn constituency when she stood down at the 1979 general election.
From 2007 to 2010 he served as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain and the Secretary of State for Justice throughout the Brown ministry. Straw is one of only three individuals to have served in Cabinet continuously during the Labour governments from 1997 to 2010, the others being Brown and Alistair Darling. After the Labour Party lost power in May 2010, he briefly served as Shadow Deputy Prime Minister and Shadow Secretary of State for Justice, with the intention of standing down from the frontbench after the subsequent 2010 Labour Party Shadow Cabinet election.
Early life
Jack Straw was born in Buckhurst Hill in Essex, the son of (Walter) Arthur Whitaker Straw – an insurance clerk and salesman and former industrial chemist born at Worsbrough near Barnsley, and raised in Woodford Green – and Joan Sylvia Gilbey, a teacher at the independent Oaklands School, whose father was a Loughton bus mechanic and shop steward, and who was distantly related to the gin-making family. After his father (with whom, by the time of his death, Straw and his siblings were reconciled) left the family, Straw was raised by his mother on a council estate in Loughton. Known to his family as John, he started calling himself Jack while in school, in reference to Jack Straw, one of the leaders of the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. Straw is of 1/8th Jewish descent (his maternal grandfather's mother came from an Eastern European Jewish family). He himself is a Christian.
Straw was educated at the school at which his mother taught, Oaklands, and when she left there, at Staples Road Primary School, Loughton, then Brentwood School and the University of Leeds. He graduated with a 2:2 degree in Law. He was alleged by the Foreign Office to have disrupted a student trip to Chile to build a youth centre. They branded him a "troublemaker acting with malice aforethought".
Straw was then elected president of the Leeds University Union, during which time he reluctantly supported a sit-in lasting four days in June 1968. At the 1967 National Union of Students (NUS) Conference, he unsuccessfully ran for office in the NUS. In April 1968 he stood unsuccessfully for election as NUS President, but was defeated by Trevor Fisk. However, he was elected as NUS President in 1969, holding this post until 1971. In 1971, he was elected as a Labour councillor in the London Borough of Islington, a position he held until 1978.
Straw qualified as a barrister at Inns of Court School of Law, practising criminal law for two years from 1972 to 1974. He is a member of The Honourable Society of the Inner Temple and remains active in lecturing to fellow members and students. Between 1971 and 1974, Jack Straw was a member of the Inner London Education Authority, and Deputy Leader from 1973 to 1974. He served as a political adviser to Barbara Castle at the Department of Social Security from 1974 to 1976, and as an adviser to Peter Shore at the Department for the Environment from 1976 to 1977. From 1977 to 1979, Straw worked as a researcher for the Granada TV series World in Action.
Member of Parliament from 1979 to 2015
Early parliamentary career (1979–1997)
Straw stood unsuccessfully as the Labour parliamentary candidate for the safe Conservative Tonbridge and Malling constituency in the February 1974 election. In 1977, he was selected to stand for Labour in its safe Blackburn seat at the subsequent general election, after Barbara Castle decided not to seek re-election there. He won the seat at the 1979 general election.
Straw's first Shadow Cabinet post was as Shadow Education Secretary from 1987 to 1992 and he briefly served as Shadow Secretary of State for the Environment under John Smith from 1992 to 1994. When Tony Blair became leader after Smith's death, he chose Straw to succeed him as Shadow Home Secretary. Like Blair, Straw believed Labour's electoral chances had been damaged in the past by the party appearing to be "soft on crime", and he developed a reputation as being even more authoritarian than the Conservative Home Secretary Michael Howard. Straw garnered particular attention for comments condemning "aggressive beggars, winos and squeegee merchants" and calling for a curfew on children.
Home Secretary (1997–2001)
Appointed as Home Secretary after the 1997 general election, he brought forward the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, increased police powers against terrorism and proposed to remove the right to trial by jury in certain cases. These policies won praise from Margaret Thatcher who once declared "I would trust Jack Straw's judgement. He is a very fair man." They were deemed excessively authoritarian by his former students' union, which in 2000 banned him from the building—a policy which lapsed in 2003. However, he also incorporated the European Convention on Human Rights into British law, finalising the de jure abolition of the death penalty with the passage of the Human Rights Act 1998.
In June 1997, Straw appointed Lord Justice Stuart-Smith to conduct a review of the need for a new public inquiry into the Hillsborough disaster. He indicated to the judge at the outset that in the view of his officials "there was not sufficient evidence to justify a new inquiry". In contrast he had told parliament "I am determined to go as far as I can to ensure that no matter of significance is overlooked and that we do not reach a final conclusion without a full and independent examination of the evidence." He had given the families of the victims full assurance that he intended a thorough examination of the matter.
He apologised in both 2012 and 2016 for the failures of his review.
On 31 July 1997, Straw ordered a public inquiry, to be conducted by Sir William Macpherson and officially titled "The Inquiry into the Matters Arising from the Death of Stephen Lawrence". Its report, produced in February 1999, estimated that it had taken "more than 100,000 pages of reports, statements, and other written or printed documents" and concluded that the original Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) investigation had been incompetent and that officers had committed fundamental errors, including: failing to give first aid when they reached the scene; failing to follow obvious leads during their investigation; and failing to arrest suspects. The report found that there had been a failure of leadership by senior MPS officers and that recommendations of the 1981 Scarman Report, compiled following race-related riots in Brixton and Toxteth, had been ignored and concluded that the force was "institutionally racist". It also recommended that the double jeopardy rule should be abrogated in murder cases to allow a retrial upon new and compelling evidence; this became law in 2005. Straw commented in 2012 that ordering the inquiry was "the single most important decision I made as Home Secretary".
As Home Secretary, Straw was also involved in changing the electoral system for the European Parliament elections from plurality to proportional representation. In doing so, he advocated the use of the d'Hondt formula on the grounds that it produces the most proportional outcomes. The d'Hondt formula, however, is less proportional than the Sainte-Laguë formula which was proposed by the Liberal Democrats. Straw later apologised to the House of Commons for his misleading comments, but the d'Hondt formula stayed in place.
In March 2000, Jack Straw was responsible for allowing former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet to return to Chile. There were requests from several countries for Pinochet to be extradited and face trial for crimes against humanity. Pinochet was placed under house arrest in Britain while appealing the legal authority of the Spanish and British courts to try him, but Straw eventually ordered his release on medical grounds before a trial could begin, and Pinochet returned to Chile.
The Rotherham child sexual exploitation scandal continued at this time, and according to the Telegraph, Straw had highlighted the problem four years prior to the Jay Report being published, saying there was a "specific problem" in some areas of the country where Pakistani men "target vulnerable young white girls". White girls were, he said, viewed as "easy meat".
Also in 2000, Straw turned down an asylum request from a man fleeing Saddam Hussein's regime, stating "we have faith in the integrity of the Iraqi judicial process and that you should have no concerns if you haven't done anything wrong."
He worried, along with William Hague, about the possibility of English nationalism: "As we move into this new century, people's sense of Englishness will become more articulated and that's partly because of the mirror that devolution provides us with and because we're becoming more European at the same time."
Foreign and Commonwealth Secretary (2001–2006)
Straw was appointed Foreign Secretary in 2001 to succeed Robin Cook. Within months, Straw was confronted by the 11 September attacks in the United States. He was initially seen as taking a back seat to Tony Blair in Her Majesty's Government's prosecution of the "war against terrorism". In late September 2001, he became the first senior British government minister to visit Iran since the 1979 Revolution.
In 2003, the governments of the US and UK agreed a new Extradition Treaty between them, intended to speed up extradition of terrorist suspects. The provisions of the treaty were enacted in the Extradition Act 2003. The treaty later attracted controversy with opponents alleging it to be one-sided: a British request to the USA needed to provide a prima facie case against a suspect while a US request to Britain needed only to provide reasonable suspicion for an arrest. There have been a series of causes célèbres involving the treaty, including the NatWest Three who later pleaded guilty to fraud against the US parent company of their employers, and Gary McKinnon who admitted hacking US defence computers. An inquiry into extradition arrangements by retired Judge Sir Scott Baker reported in September 2011 that the treaty was not unbalanced and "there is no practical difference between the information submitted to and from the United States".
In a letter to The Independent in 2004, he claimed that Trotskyists "can usually now be found in the City, appearing on quiz shows or ranting in certain national newspapers," and recommended "Left-Wing" Communism: An Infantile Disorder by Vladimir Lenin.
In the 2004 Equatorial Guinea coup d'état attempt, Straw was personally informed months in advance of the plans for the takeover attempt and failed to accomplish the duty under international law of alerting the country's government. The involvement of British oil companies in the funding of the coup d'état, and the changing of British citizens evacuation plans for Equatorial Guinea before the attempt, posed serious challenges for the alleged ignorance of the situation. Later on, British officials and Straw were forced to apologise to The Observer after categorically denying they had prior knowledge of the coup plot.
In the run-up to the 2005 general election, Straw faced a potential backlash from his Muslim constituents over the Iraq War – the Muslim Public Affairs Committee UK (MPAC) attempted to capitalise on anti-war sentiment with 'operation Muslim vote' in Blackburn. The swing to the second placed Conservatives was less than 2%, much lower than the national average; the Liberal Democrat's increase in vote share (+12.5%) surpassed Labour's loss (−12.1%) . Craig Murray, who had been withdrawn as the ambassador to Uzbekistan, stood against his former boss (Straw was then Foreign Secretary) on a platform opposing the use of information gathered under torture in the "War on Terror"; he received a 5% vote share. Straw was re-elected, and following his victory called MPAC an "egregious group", and criticised their tactics during the election.
At the 2005 Labour Conference, the then Foreign Secretary Jack Straw was heckled by Walter Wolfgang, a German Jew who had suffered persecution under the Nazis, and a prominent Labour Party member. At a point when Straw claimed his support for the invasion of Iraq was solely for the purpose of supporting the Iraqi government, 82-year-old Wolfgang was heard to shout "Nonsense", and was forcibly removed from the auditorium by several bouncers. The incident gained considerable publicity, with party chairman Ian McCartney initially supporting the right to remove hecklers by force. McCartney, PM Tony Blair and other senior Labour members later issued apologies; Wolfgang was later elected to the National Executive Committee of the Labour Party.
On 13 October 2005, Straw took questions from a public panel of individuals in a BBC Newsnight television special on the subject of Iraq, addressing widespread public concerns about the exit strategy for British troops, the Iraqi insurgency and, inevitably, the moral legitimacy of the war. On several occasions Straw reiterated his position that the decision to invade was in his opinion the right thing to do, but said he did not 'know' for certain that this was the case. He said he understood why public opinion on several matters might differ from his own—a Newsnight/ICM poll showed over 70% of respondents believed the war in Iraq to have increased the likelihood of terrorist attacks in Britain, but Straw said he could not agree based on the information presented to him.
In February 2006, Straw attracted publicity after he condemned the publication of cartoons picturing Mohammed in the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten.
Straw voiced concern over the 2006 Lebanon War. Straw warned that Israel's military action "could further destabilise the already fragile Lebanese nation", while noting that "Israel has clear rights to defend itself proportionately".
In August 2006, it was claimed by William Rees-Mogg in The Times that there was evidence that Straw was removed from this post upon the request of the Bush administration, possibly owing to his expressed opposition to bombing Iran. This would be ironic, as Richard Ingrams in The Independent wondered whether Straw's predecessor as Foreign Secretary, Robin Cook, was also removed at Bush's request, allowing Straw to become Foreign Secretary in the first place. It has also been alleged that another factor in Straw's dismissal was the large number of Muslims amongst his Blackburn constituents, supposedly considered a cause for concern by the US. Some Iranian dissidents mocked Straw as "Ayatollah Straw" after his frequent visits to Tehran in the aftermath of the 11 September attacks.
Straw gave evidence to the Iraq Inquiry on 21 January 2010, making him the second member of Tony Blair's cabinet to do so. He told the inquiry that the decision to go to war in Iraq had "haunted him" and that it was the "most difficult decision" of his life. He also said that he could have stopped the invasion, had he wanted to.
In July 2017, former Iraqi general Abdulwaheed al-Rabbat launched a private war crimes prosecution, in the High Court in London, asking for Straw, Tony Blair and former attorney general Lord Goldsmith to be prosecuted for "the crime of aggression" for their role in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The High Court ruled that, although the crime of aggression was recognised in international law, it was not an offence under UK law, and, therefore, the prosecution could not proceed.
Rendition and torture allegations
Despite repeated denials about his complicity in extraordinary rendition—he once dismissed the suggestion of UK involvement in the practice as a "conspiracy theory"—Straw had been dogged for years over his alleged leading role in it, with specific accusations about the case of Libyan politician Abdel Hakim Belhadj arising in April 2012. In October 2012, The Guardian reported on the filing of court papers, which alleged that MI6 alerted Muammar Gaddafi's intelligence services to the whereabouts of dissidents, co-operated in their rendition, sent officers and detailed questions to assist in their interrogation, and that Straw attempted to conceal this from MPs.
The high court in London agreed in January 2017, against the wishes of the Conservative government, to hear a judicial review against the decision to not prosecute Straw and former head of MI6 Mark Allen in the case of the abduction and alleged torture of Belhadj and his pregnant wife were abducted in Bangkok in 2004 after a tip-off from Mi6 and were held for seven years in Tripoli where, Belhaj alleges, he and his wife were repeatedly tortured. The English Crown Prosecution Service had decided in June 2016 to not prosecute any members of the UK government citing a "lack of evidence" and the challenge to that decision resulted in the decision to allow a judicial review.
After a successful action by the Conservative government the high court announced in July 2017 that the judicial review would be held in private and that evidence relating to the defence by the government and security services would neither be made available to Belhaj or his legal team nor made public. Criticising the decision Belhaj was quoted as saying that "I went through a secret trial once before, in Gaddafi's Libya. It took about a half hour, and I never saw any of the evidence against me. Later a guard came to my cell and tossed in a red jumpsuit – that was how I found out that the secret court had sentenced me to die" and continued "what kind of a trial will it be if we put in a mountain of evidence and government officials can simply refuse to answer us". In response, Straw stated that he was opposed to extraordinary rendition and had not been complicit in it.
Leader of the House of Commons (2006–2007)
After the Labour Party suffered major defeats in local elections on 4 May 2006, losing 317 seats in balloting for 176 councils, Tony Blair acted the following day with a major reshuffle of his ministers during which he moved Straw from Foreign Secretary to Leader of the House of Commons and Lord Privy Seal. Straw had apparently requested a break from high ministerial office after serving in two of the four great departments of state for nearly ten years. To lessen the apparent demotion, Blair gave Straw responsibility for House of Lords reform and party funding, issues which had been part of the portfolio of the Department for Constitutional Affairs. In addition, Straw was given the chairmanship of the Constitutional Affairs cabinet committee where he was responsible for attempting to force through a flat-fee charge for Freedom of Information requests.
On 25 March 2007, Straw announced he was to run Gordon Brown's campaign for the Labour leadership. This was the first official confirmation the Chancellor would stand.
2006 debate over veils
In October 2006, Straw attracted controversy by suggesting to a local newspaper, The Lancashire Evening Telegraph (now The Lancashire Telegraph), that Muslim women who wear veils that cover their faces (the niqab) can inhibit inter-community relations, though he denied the issue was raised for political gain, stating that he had raised it in private circles in the past and it had never progressed beyond discussions. Although he did not support a law banning a woman's right to choose to wear the veil, he would like them to abandon it altogether.
Asked whether he would prefer veils to be abolished completely, Straw said: "Yes. It needs to be made clear I am not talking about being prescriptive but with all the caveats, yes, I would rather." He said that he had asked women visiting his constituency surgeries to consider uncovering their noses and mouths in order to allow better communication. He claimed that no women had ever chosen to wear a full veil after this request.
Straw's comments kicked off a wide-ranging and sometimes harshly worded debate within British politics and the media; Straw was supported by some establishment figures and castigated by others, including Muslim groups. There is an ongoing debate within the Muslim community whether the Qur'an and hadith (traditions of Muhammad) require the use of the full face veil. Straw apologised for these comments regarding the veil on 26 April 2010 at a private hustings organised by Engage in the buildup to the 2010 United Kingdom general election.
Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice (2007–2010)
Straw was appointed Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain and Secretary of State for Justice on the first full day of Gordon Brown's ministry, 28 June 2007. He was the first Lord Chancellor since the sixteenth century to serve in the role whilst a member of the House of Commons. His appointment meant that he continued to be a major figure in the Labour Government. Only Straw, Brown and Alistair Darling served in the cabinet continuously during Labour's 13-year government from 1997 to 2010.
In February 2009, Straw used his authority as Secretary of State for Justice to veto publication of government documents requested under the Freedom of Information Act: in particular, those pertaining to early government meetings held in the run-up to the Iraq war in 2003.
Straw represented the government on a controversial edition of Question Time on 22 October 2009, against British National Party leader Nick Griffin on his first ever appearance. Griffin's first comment was to attack Straw's father's wartime record, to general disdain. As Griffin claimed that European laws prevented him from explaining his stance on holocaust denial Straw later offered his personal assurance as Secretary of State for Justice, which Griffin declined.
Alleged ambitions for premiership
Andrew Thorpe-Apps, writing in the Backbencher, states that Straw knew he would be defeated by Gordon Brown in a leadership contest as Brown was 'consumed by this one ambition'.
Expenses claims
Two months after learning that MPs' expenses were to be made public, Straw admitted to the fees office to using expenses to claim a full council tax bill despite only paying a 50% rate. Straw said he had acted in good faith and had repaid the erroneous claims once he was aware that MPs' expenses were to be made public. Included with the admission was a cheque for the amount he believed he had overcharged, which itself turned out to have been miscalculated leading Straw to send a further cheque with a note saying "accountancy does not appear to be my strongest suit".
Retirement from front-bench politics (2010–present)
In August 2010, Straw announced his plans to quit his role as Shadow Secretary of State for Justice and move to the backbenches, citing the need for a 'fresh start' for the Labour Party under a new leader. Straw has since described Gordon Brown's leadership as a "tragedy".
In December 2010, ahead of the UK Alternative Vote Referendum 2011, Straw was a signatory to a letter to The Guardian arguing in favour of the alternative vote.
In January 2011, Straw provoked controversy with comments made on Newsnight about Pakistani men. He said "there is a specific problem which involves Pakistani heritage men ... who target vulnerable young white girls." His comments came after two men of Pakistani origin were convicted of rape in Derby.
In April 2011, Straw was appointed as a consultant to E. D. & F. Man Holdings Ltd., a British company based in London specialising in the production and trading of commodities including sugar, molasses, animal feed, tropical oils, biofuels, coffee and financial services. Commenting on his appointment to ED&F Man on a salary of £30,000 per annum, Straw said, "There are 168 hours in the week, and I will work in Blackburn for a least 60 and maybe sleep for 50. Providing there's no conflict, I have long taken the view that I am not against people doing other things. I had two jobs as a minister. I think it's really important that politicians are involved with the outside world."
In late 2011, Straw was appointed to the role of visiting professor to University College London School of Public Policy. He later argued for the abolition of the European Parliament.
On 25 October 2013, Straw announced that he would stand down as an MP at the next election.
Allegation of antisemitism
In 2013, at a round-table event of the Global Diplomatic Forum at the UK's House of Commons, Straw (who has partial Jewish heritage) said, according to Einat Wilf, a former member of Israel's Knesset who was one of the other panelists, that among the main obstacles to peace in the Middle East was the amount of money available to Jewish organizations and AIPAC in the US, which was used to control US policy in the region. Another obstacle was Germany's "obsession" with defending Israel. Wilf stated: "It was appalling to listen to Britain's former foreign secretary. His remarks reflect prejudice of the worst kind... I thought British diplomats, including former ones, were still capable of a measure of rational thought." Wilf said that she was shocked to hear Straw's comments and that she responded in the debate by stressing that the origin and cause of the conflict was the Palestinian and Arab refusal to accept Israel's legitimacy as a sovereign Jewish state.
The Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland said that Straw's comments "echo some of the oldest and ugliest prejudices about 'Jewish power' and go far beyond mere criticism of Israel."
Speaking to The Jerusalem Post, Straw strongly denied claims that his criticism was antisemitic. In a statement to The Times of Israel, Straw did not relate to whether he had said what Wilf alleged he said, but did say that there was no justification in any of his remarks for claims that he was being antisemitic. He pointed out that Wilf did not claim that he had embarked on an antisemitic diatribe, as had been claimed in many of the media reports. He wrote a statement to the Israeli newspaper Haaretz, which was described as follows:
Straw wrote that he had voiced concerns at the seminar over Israel's "settlement-building ... on Palestinian land (in East Jerusalem, and the Occupied Territories). This is illegal, as the British Foreign Secretary William Hague has observed and in those terms. I said that this amounted to 'theft' of Palestinians' land." In addition, he said that he advocated at the seminar "a tougher stand on this (and on the related issue of goods exported from the Occupied Territories by Israelis) by the European Union."
He said that he had pointed out in the past that one of the obstacles to an EU policy on this had been "the attitude of Germany, who for understandable reasons have been reluctant to be out of line with the Government of Israel."
Responding to the claim by Wilf that he referred to "Jewish money", Straw said that he had spoken at the seminar of the "Israeli lobby" and "the problems which faced President Obama from AIPAC" and spoke of the way AIPAC spends large sums of money supporting pro-Israeli candidates in American elections. No article covering the allegations has quoted Straw's supposed comments referring to "Jewish money".
Cash for access
In February 2015, Straw was secretly recorded by journalists from The Daily Telegraph and Channel 4 News, who posed as representatives of a fictitious Chinese company that wanted to set up an advisory council. Straw was recorded describing how he operated "under the radar" and had used his influence to change EU rules on behalf of a firm which paid him £60,000 a year. Straw voluntarily withdrew from the Parliamentary Labour Party (but remained a member of the party itself) in February 2015 due to allegations from Channel 4 and The Daily Telegraph.
Straw denied any wrongdoing or any breach of the parliamentary rules and voluntarily referred himself to the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards and withdrew from the Parliamentary Labour Party pending the Commissioner's inquiry. He told the BBC, "[I have] acted with complete probity and integrity throughout my parliamentary career". He was exonerated by the Commissioner in September 2015 after a detailed investigation. The Commissioner for Standards dismissed all allegations that he had brought the House of Commons into disrepute, saying that "I have seen nothing which suggests that [Mr Straw's] conduct would have merited criticism if the approach made by PMR [the bogus company established by Channel 4] had been genuine." She said that "the evidence I have seen supports Mr Straw's assertions that he "neither exaggerated nor boasted" in what he said to the reporters."
The Commissioner was sharply critical of Channel 4 and The Daily Telegraph, saying "if in their coverage of this story, the reporters for Channel 4's Dispatches, and The Daily Telegraph had accurately reported what was said by these two members [the other was Sir Malcolm Rifkind] in their interviews and measured their words against the rules of the House it would have been possible to avoid the damage that has been done to the lives of these two individuals and those around them and to the reputation of the House."
Media regulator Ofcom, however, took a different view; it judged in December 2015 that the journalists had investigated a matter of significant public interest and that their presentation had been fair.
Personal life
Straw's first marriage, in 1968, to teacher Anthea Weston, ended in divorce in 1977. They had a daughter, Rachel, born on 24 February 1976, who died after five days because of a heart defect. On 10 November 1978, he married Alice Perkins, a senior civil servant. In 2006, Straw's wife joined the board of the country's largest airports operator BAA, shortly before it was taken over by the Spanish firm Ferrovial. The couple have two adult children, Will and Charlotte. Straw has suffered from depression and tinnitus.
Straw supports his local football team Blackburn Rovers, and was made an honorary vice-president of the club in 1998 by Jack Walker. In October 2015, he was given the Freedom of the Borough of Blackburn with Darwen.
A motion of Leeds University Union Council in 2000 revoked Jack Straw's life membership of the Union and removed his name from the Presidents' Board, citing his support for "the asylum and immigration bill" and for limits to trial by jury and legal aid. In 2007, the Union Council reinstated his life membership and place on the Presidents' Board.
Bibliography
Autobiography
Author or co-author
The English Job: Understanding Iran and Why It Distrusts Britain (2019)
Implementation of the Human Rights Act 1998: Minutes of Evidence, Wednesday 14 March 2001 (2001)
Making Prisons Work: Prison Reform Trust Annual Lecture (1998)
Future of Policing and Criminal Justice (Institute of Police & Criminological Studies Occasional Paper S.) (1996)
Policy and Ideology (1993)
Reports
Reform of the Race Relations Act 1976: Proposals for Change Submitted by the Commission for Racial Equality to the Rt Hon Jack Straw MP, Secretary of State for the Home Department, on 30 April 1998 (1998)
Notes
References
External links
and articles written by Jack Straw for The Guardian
Online exhibition of the May 1968 student protest in Leeds
'"Paris Today, Leeds Tomorrow!" Remembering 1968 in Leeds', Northern History journal, online 2020
Jack Straw, BBC News, Newsnight, 17 October 2002
ConvaTec, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Blair, Straw and Chilcot
1946 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Leeds
British Secretaries of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs
English Anglicans
English barristers
English people of Jewish descent
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Leaders of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom
Lord Chancellors of Great Britain
Lords Privy Seal
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People educated at Brentwood School, Essex
People from Buckhurst Hill
People from Loughton
Politics of Blackburn with Darwen
Presidents of the National Union of Students (United Kingdom)
Secretaries of State for the Home Department
Secretaries of State for Justice
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015 | [
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242479 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinong | Jinong | Jinong () was a title of the Mongols. It was derived from Chinese Jinwang (, a title for crown prince, similar to Prince of Wales) although some historians have suggested it originates from Qinwang (). Whatever its relation with the Chinese title, the Mongol title was rendered in Chinese as "jinong" () or "jinang" ().
The title of Jinong was first given to Kamala, a grandson of Kublai Khan in 1292. He served the mausoleum of Genghis Khan. Those who served the mausoleum were called the Ordus and Jinong came to mean the highest priest of the portable mausoleum. The Ordus lived on the Kherlen River but later moved to the area now known as Ordos. After Dayan Khan, whose father was the Jinong, unified the Mongolian Plateau, his descendants assumed the position until 1949. During the Qing dynasty the Jinong also served as the chief of the Yeke Juu League () or a banner in it.
See also
Mausoleum of Genghis Khan
Yuan dynasty
Chinese royal titles | [
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242483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SABCA | SABCA | SABCA (Sociétés Anonyme Belge de Constructions Aéronautiques) is a Belgian aerospace company. Its main sectors of activity are civil aviation, space and defence.
SABCA was established during 1920. Presently, it is owned by the French aircraft manufacturer Dassault Group and Dutch aerospace company Fokker, the latter in turn being a subsidiary of GKN.
History
During 1920, SABCA was founded with the purpose of locally designing and building aircraft to satisfy Belgium's emerging aviation requirements. Its first manufacturing site was adjacent to Haren Airport, in the suburbs of Brussels. During the Interwar period, the company produced a number of in-house designs, as well as engaging in the manufacture of both civil and military aircraft. Throughout its existence, SABCA has been a prolific user of production licenses, which have authorised the firm to build other manufacturers' aircraft. During 1926, the company constructed a total 15 Airco DH.4 light bombers.
While its operations were disrupted by the German occupation of Belgium during the Second World War, SABCA resumed operations shortly following the end of the conflict. In 1955, a new manufacturing plant was opened at Charleroi Airport. Around this same period, SABCA became involved in early European space programmes; the firm would be involved in the production of Spacelab as well as both the Ariane and Vega expendable launch systems. SABCA also cooperated with the Dutch manufacturer Fokker in the manufacture of its F27 Friendship and 50 short-haul airliners. Other civil programmes the firm was involved with include producing elements of the Dassault Mercure and VFW-Fokker 614 airliners.
Throughout the postwar era, the company was involved in the manufacturing of large numbers of licensed aircraft as well as associated upgrade programmes; such aircraft included the Hawker Hunter, the Republic F-84 Thunderjet, the Lockheed F-104G Starfighter, the Dassault Mirage 5, and the AgustaWestland AW109 helicopter. During the 1970s and 1980s, SABCA was responsible for operating one of the two European production lines for the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon; a total of 164 aircraft would be manufactured at its Gosselies facility. The European co-production initiative was officially launched on 1 July 1977; under this arrangement, Fokker-produced components were delivered to General Dynamics' Fort Worth facility for fuselage assembly, which were then shipped back to Europe for final assembly of the aircraft at the SABCA's facility; deliveries to the Belgian Air Force started in January 1979. During the following year, SABCA commenced deliveries to the Royal Norwegian Air Force.
During 1989, SABCA's involvement in the civil aviation sector received a significant boost via the first risk-sharing contract with the multinational aerospace conglomerate Airbus. It has since been a participant in all Airbus programmes, including the A380, the A400M Atlas, and the A350 XWB. SABCA also designs and manufactures subassemblies on behalf of other manufacturers, including Dassault Aviation and Gulfstream Aerospace. During 1992, demand for composite components had grown to the point where a dedicated subsidiary, SABCA Limburg, was established to focus specifically on this activity.
Products
SABCA-Julien SJ 1 - Monoplane
Gambier-SABCA
SABCA Castar - 1923 Monoplane, also known as the Poncelet Castar
SABCA Camgul - 1925 single-engine biplane
Airco DH.4 - (15 built in 1926)
SABCA S.2 - 1926 single-engine airliner
SABCA S.11 - 1931 trimotor airliner
SABCA S.12
SABCA S.20
SABCA S.30 - 1936
SABCA S.40 - 1939 trainer
SABCA S.45 - licence-built Caproni Ca.135
SABCA S.46 - licence-built Caproni Ca.310
SABCA S.47 - licence-built Caproni Ca.335
SABCA S.48 - licence-built Caproni Ca.312
SABCA S.60
Locations
SABCA has spread its operations across three locations:
Brussels - company headquarters and the main centre of operations.
Charleroi - military aircraft and helicopter maintenance, technical and logistic support to the customers, opened in 1955.
Limburg - high-performance composite component manufacturing subsidiary opened in 1989.
References
Citations
Bibliography
Grey John C.G. & Bridgman, Leonard. Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1938. Sampson Low, Marston & company, Ltd. London. 1938.
Jackson, A.J. De Havilland Aircraft since 1909. London: Putnam, Third edition, 1987. .
Peacock, Lindsay. On Falcon Wings: The F-16 Story. RAF Fairford, United Kingdom: The Royal Air Force Benevolent Fund Enterprises, 1997. .
Richardson, Doug. General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon. London: Salamander Books, 1990. .
External links
SABCA
Aircraft manufacturers of Belgium
Dassault Group
Belgian companies established in 1920
Companies based in Brussels | [
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242487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Straw%20%28rebel%20leader%29 | Jack Straw (rebel leader) | Jack Straw (probably the same person as John Rakestraw or Rackstraw) was one of the three leaders (together with John Ball and Wat Tyler) of the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, a major event in the history of England.
Biography
Little is known of the revolt's leaders. It has been suggested that Jack Straw may have been a preacher. Some have argued that the name was in fact a pseudonym for Wat Tyler or one of the other peasants' leaders; all of them appear to have used pseudonyms, adding to the confusion.
Several chroniclers, including Henry Knighton, mention Straw, though Knighton erroneously confuses him with Tyler.
Thomas Walsingham stated that Straw was a priest and was the second-in-command of the rebels from Bury St Edmunds and Mildenhall. This story is most likely a result of confusion with a John Wrawe, an unbeneficed priest who was formerly the vicar of Ringsfield near Beccles in Suffolk, and who seems to have led the Suffolk insurgency. Walsingham also states that Straw and his followers murdered both notable local figures in Bury and, after reaching the capital, several of its Flemish residents, an accusation also made by Froissart. However, according to information in the church of St Mary in Great Baddow, in Essex, England, Jack Straw led an ill-fated crowd from the churchyard there to the risings, and he is elsewhere referred to as the leader of the men from Essex (as opposed to Tyler, who led the rebels from Kent).
Straw is generally supposed to have been executed in 1381 along with the other main figures of the Revolt. Froissart states that after Wat Tyler's death at Smithfield, Straw (along with John Ball) was found "in an old house hidden, thinking to have stolen away", and beheaded. Walsingham gives a lengthy (and most likely invented) confession in which Straw states that the insurgents' plans were to kill the king, "all landowners, bishops, monks, canons, and rectors of churches", set up their own laws, and set fire to London.
The later chronicles of Raphael Holinshed and John Stow, in addition to detailing the confession, repeat a story, originating in the 15th-century account of Richard Fox, that Jack Straw, alias John Tyler, was provoked into his actions by an assault perpetrated on his daughter by a tax collector.
Jack Straw in English culture
Whether Straw was a real person, a pseudonym for Tyler, or simply a result of confusion on the part of chroniclers remote from the events they were describing, he went on to become a part of the popular narrative of the revolt.
Jack Straw and the other rebel leaders are introduced in John Gower's Vox Clamantis Book I Chapter XI. The defeat of the rebels is covered in Chapter IXX. Macaulay's notes to Vox include Thomas Fuller's translation of the Chapter XI passage.
Gower's lines were parodied by Geoffrey Chaucer. Straw is mentioned in The Nun's Priest's Tale of The Canterbury Tales, as the leader of a mob targeting foreign workers:
Straw was central to an anonymous 1593 play dramatising the events of the Rising, The Life and Death of Jack Straw. In the modern era, the rather confused reporting of events was briefly satirised in Sellar and Yeatman's parody of Edwardian-era popular history, 1066 and All That, stating that the peasants revolted "in several reigns under such memorable leaders as Black Kat, Straw Hat, John Bull and What Tyler?", with objectives including "to find out [...] which of them was the Leader of the Rebellion".
Straw was commemorated in the name of a pub on the edge of Hampstead Heath, London, which closed in 2002. The Jack Straw's Castle, reputed to be the highest pub in London, took its name from a story that Straw addressed groups of rebels on the Heath from a hay wagon which became known as "Jack Straw's Castle".
The British politician Jack Straw (born John Whitaker Straw, 1946) adopted the name "Jack", allegedly after the rebel leader.
References
External links
1381 deaths
14th-century English people
English rebels
English revolutionaries
Peasants' Revolt
People whose existence is disputed
Year of birth unknown | [
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242493 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramon%20Berenguer%20III%2C%20Count%20of%20Barcelona | Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona | Ramon Berenguer III the Great was the count of Barcelona, Girona, and Ausona from 1086 (jointly with Berenguer Ramon II and solely from 1097), Besalú from 1111, Cerdanya from 1117, and count of Provence in the Holy Roman Empire, from 1112, all until his death in Barcelona in 1131. As Ramon Berenguer I, he was Count of Provence in right of his wife.
Biography
Born on 11 November 1082 in Rodez, Viscounty of Rodez, County of Toulouse, Francia, he was the son of Ramon Berenguer II. He succeeded his father to co-rule with his uncle Berenguer Ramon II. He became the sole ruler in 1097, when Berenguer Ramon II was forced into exile.
Responding to increased raids into his lands by the Almoravids in 1102, Ramon counter-attacked, assisted by Ermengol V, Count of Urgell, but was defeated and Ermengol killed at the battle of Mollerussa.
During his rule Catalan interests were extended on both sides of the Pyrenees. By marriage or vassalage he incorporated into his realm almost all of the Catalan counties (except Urgell and Peralada). He inherited the counties of Besalú (1111) and Cerdanya (1117) and in between married Douce, heiress of Provence (1112). His dominions then stretched as far east as Nice.
In alliance with the Count of Urgell, Ramon Berenguer conquered Barbastro and Balaguer. He also established relations with the Italian maritime republics of Pisa and Genoa, and in 1114 and 1115 attacked with Pisa the then-Muslim islands of Majorca and Ibiza. They became his tributaries and many Christian slaves there were recovered and set free. Ramon Berenguer also raided mainland Muslim dependencies with Pisa's help, such as Valencia, Lleida and Tortosa. In 1116, Ramon traveled to Rome to petition Pope Paschal II for a crusade to liberate Tarragona. By 1118 he had captured and rebuilt Tarragona, which became the metropolitan seat of the church in Catalonia (before that, Catalans had depended ecclesiastically on the archbishopric of Narbonne).
In 1127, Ramon Berenguer signed a commercial treaty with the Genoese. On July 14, 1130, toward the end of his life, he became an associate member of the Templars. He gave his five Catalan counties to his eldest son Ramon Berenguer IV and Provence to the younger son Berenguer Ramon.
He died on 23 January/19 July 1131 and was buried in the Santa Maria de Ripoll monastery.
Marriages and descendants
Ramon's first wife was María Rodríguez de Vivar, second daughter of El Cid (died ca. 1105). They had one child.
María, married Bernat III, Count of Besalú (died 1111)
His second wife Almodis produced no children.
His third wife was Douce (Dolça de Gévaudaun), heiress of Provence (died ca. 1127). Their union produced at least seven children:
Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona (1113/1114–1162) married Petronilla of Aragon, daughter of Ramiro II, King of Aragón
Berenguer Ramon I, Count of Provence (ca. 1115–1144)
Bernat, died young
Berenguela or Berengaria (1116–1149), married Alfonso VII of Castile
Jimena (1117–1136), also known as Eixemena, married Roger III, Count of Foix
Estefania (b. 1118), married Centule II, Count of Bigorre
Almodis, married Ponce de Cervera, mother of Agalbursa, who married Barisone II of Arborea.
References
Sources
Counts of Barcelona
Counts of Provence
People from Rodez
1082 births
1131 deaths
Burials at Santa Maria de Ripoll
Christians of the 1113–1115 Balearic Islands expedition
House of Barcelona
11th-century French people
12th-century French people
11th-century people from the County of Barcelona
12th-century people from the County of Barcelona | [
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242495 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion%20%28business%29 | Diffusion (business) | Diffusion is the process by which a new idea or new product is accepted by the market. The rate of diffusion is the speed with which the new idea spreads from one consumer to the next. Adoption (the reciprocal process as viewed from a consumer perspective rather than distributor) is similar to diffusion except that it deals with the psychological processes an individual goes through, rather than an aggregate market process.
Theories
There are several theories that purport to explain the mechanics of diffusion:
The two-step hypothesis – information and acceptance flows, via the media, first to opinion leaders, then to the general population
The trickle-down effect – products tend to be expensive at first, and therefore only accessible to the wealthy social strata – in time they become less expensive and are diffused to lower and lower strata.
The Everett Rogers Diffusion of innovations theory – for any given product category, there are five categories of product adopters:
Innovators – venturesome, educated, multiple info sources;
Early adopters – social leaders, popular, educated;
Early majority – deliberate, many informal social contacts;
Late majority – skeptical, traditional, lower socio-economic status;
Laggards – neighbours and friends are main info sources, fear of debt.
Crossing the Chasm model developed by Geoffrey Moore – This model overlays the Everett Rogers' adoption curve with a 'chasm'. According to Moore, the marketer should focus on one group of customers at a time, using each group as a base for marketing to the next group. The most difficult step is making the transition between visionaries (early adopters) and pragmatists (early majority). This is the chasm that he refers to. Technologies or products that cannot cross this chasm will die or remain niche. If successful, a firm can create a bandwagon effect in which the momentum builds and the product becomes ubiquitous.
Technology driven models – These are particularly relevant to software diffusion. The rate of acceptance of technology is determined by factors such as ease of use and usefulness.
Rate
According to Everett M. Rogers, the rate of diffusion is influenced by:
The product's perceived advantage or benefit.
Riskiness of purchase.
Ease of product use – complexity of the product.
Immediacy of benefits.
Observability.
Trialability.
Price.
Extent of behavioural changes required.
Return on investment in the case of industrial products.
Models
There are several types of diffusion rate models:
Penetration models – use test market data to develop acceptance equations of expected sales volume as a function of time. Three examples of penetration models are:
Bass trial only model
Bass declining trial model
Fourt and Woodlock model
Trial/Repeat models – number of repeat buyers is a function of the number of trial buyers.
Deterministic models – assess number of buyers at various states of acceptance – later states are determined from calculations to previous states.
Stochastic models – recognize that many elements of the diffusion process are unknown but explicitly incorporate probabilistic terms.
See also
Bass diffusion model
Coolhunting
Diffusion (anthropology)
Diffusion of innovations
Early adopter
Marketing
Marketing management
Marketing plan
New Product Development
Percolation
Product life-cycle management
Technology Adoption Lifecycle
Technology lifecycle
References
Bass, F. M. (1969). "A new product growth model for consumer durables". Management Science, 15, 215–227.
Bass, F. M. (1986). "The adoption of a marketing model: Comments and observations". In V. Mahajan & Y. Wind (Eds.), Innovation Diffusion Models of New Product Acceptance. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Ballinger.
Moore, Geoffrey. Crossing the Chasm: Marketing and Selling Hightech Products to Mainstream Customers (1991, revised 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002) New York: Harper Collins.
Moore, Geoffrey. Dealing with Darwin: How Great Companies Innovate at Every Phase of Their Evolution (2005) New York: Penguin.
Rogers, Everett M. "New Product Adoption and Diffusion". Journal of Consumer Research. Volume 2 (March 1976) pp. 290–301.
Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations, (5th ed.). (2003) New York: Free Press.
Cultural trends
Innovation
Product development
Product management
Technological change
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242497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jarrow%20March | Jarrow March | The Jarrow March of 5–31 October 1936, also known as the Jarrow Crusade, was an organised protest against the unemployment and poverty suffered in the English town of Jarrow during the 1930s. Around 200 men (or "Crusaders" as they preferred to be referred to) marched from Jarrow to London, carrying a petition to the British government requesting the re-establishment of industry in the town following the closure in 1934 of its main employer, Palmer's shipyard. The petition was received by the House of Commons but not debated, and the march produced few immediate results. The Jarrovians went home believing that they had failed.
Jarrow had been a settlement since at least the 8th century. In the early 19th century, a coal industry developed before the establishment of the shipyard in 1851. Over the following 80 years more than 1,000 ships were launched in Jarrow. In the 1920s, a combination of mismanagement and changed world trade conditions following the First World War brought a decline which led eventually to the yard's closure. Plans for its replacement by a modern steelworks plant were frustrated by opposition from the British Iron and Steel Federation, an employers' organisation with its own plans for the industry. The failure of the steelworks plan, and the lack of any prospect of large-scale employment in the town, were the final factors that led to the decision to march.
Marches of the unemployed to London, termed "hunger marches", had taken place since the early 1920s, mainly organised by the National Unemployed Workers' Movement (NUWM), a communist-led body. For fear of being associated with communist agitation, the Labour Party and Trades Union Congress (TUC) leaderships stood aloof from these marches. They exercised the same policy of detachment towards the Jarrow March, which was organised by the borough council with the support of all sections of the town but without any connection with the NUWM. During their journey the Jarrow marchers received sustenance and hospitality from local branches of all the main political parties, and were given a broad public welcome on their arrival in London.
Despite the initial sense of failure among the marchers, in subsequent years, the Jarrow March became recognised by historians as a defining event of the 1930s. It helped to foster the change in attitudes which prepared the way to social reform measures after the Second World War, which their proponents thought would improve working conditions. The town holds numerous memorials to the march. Re-enactments celebrated the 50th and 75th anniversaries, in both cases invoking the "spirit of Jarrow" in their campaigns against unemployment. In contrast to the Labour Party's coldness in 1936, the post-war party leadership adopted the march as a metaphor for governmental callousness and working-class fortitude.
National Background
Unemployment in Britain between the wars
In the period immediately after the end of the First World War, Britain's economy enjoyed a brief boom. Businesses rushed to replenish stocks and re-establish peacetime conditions of trade, and while prices rose rapidly, wages rose faster and unemployment was negligible. By April 1920 this boom had given way to Britain's first post-war slump, which ushered in an era of high unemployment. Britain's adoption of generally deflationary economic policies, including a return to the gold standard in 1925, helped to ensure that the percentage of the workforce without jobs remained at around 10% for the rest of the 1920s and beyond, well above the normal pre-war levels. During the world recession that began in 1929 and lasted until 1932, the percentage of unemployed peaked at 22%, representing more than 3 million workers.
Unemployment was particularly heavy in Britain's traditional staple export industries—coal mining, shipbuilding, iron and steel and textiles—all of which were in a slow decline from their Victorian heyday. Because of the concentration of these industries in the north of England, in Scotland and in Wales, the percentage of unemployed persons in these regions was significantly higher, sometimes more than double, than in the south throughout the interwar period. The decline of these industries helped to create pockets of long-term unemployment outside the normal cyclical variations; some workers had no work for years.
Hunger Marches
In 1921, in reaction to the rising levels of unemployment, the newly formed British Communist Party set up the National Unemployed Workers' Movement (NUWM). From 1922 until the late 1930s, under its charismatic leader Wal Hannington, the NUWM organised regular marches in which unemployed workers converged on London to confront Parliament, in the belief that this would improve conditions. These became known as "hunger marches", reviving a name coined by the press in 1908, when a group of London's unemployed marched to Hyde Park.
The 1922 marchers sought a meeting with the new prime minister, Bonar Law, who refused to see them because of their undemocratic leadership. The march leaders were denounced in The Times as "avowed Communists ... who have been identified with disturbances in their own localities". The Labour Party and the TUC kept aloof, fearful of being tainted by association with the communist organisers. The same pattern was followed with subsequent NUWM marches; successive prime ministers—Stanley Baldwin in 1929, Ramsay MacDonald in 1930 and 1934—declined to meet the marchers' representatives, and the Labour Party and the TUC continued to keep their distance. In 1931 MacDonald became head of a Conservative-dominated National Government that imposed a means test on unemployment benefits. Anger at the means test was the rationale for the 1932 hunger march, in which a series of rallies and demonstrations across London broke out into considerable violence; the leaders provoked clashes with opponents and police in Hyde Park, Trafalgar Square and Westminster which led to the arrest and imprisonment of the march's leaders. Although women were not allowed to march on the Jarrow march, women's contingents were present at other hunger marches across the 1930s. These women, who were often the wives of unemployed men, were often faced with restrictions, such as being forced to stay in workhouses if the local Labour Party would not accommodate them.
Two additional national marches were held in 1934 and 1936. By this time the country had made a substantial recovery from the worst depression years of 1929–32. Unemployment was significantly down, annual growth was averaging 4%, and many parts of the country were enjoying a substantial boom in housing and consumer goods. The increasing prosperity was not, however, uniformly spread, and there were sharp contrasts between economic conditions in the south and those in the north-east, South Wales, Scotland and elsewhere, where the rate of recovery was much slower. At the same time, the national mood was changing; external factors such as the rise of fascism in Europe helped to unify the British left, and there were more supportive voices in parliament on behalf of the unemployed. The idea of marching as a means of expressing political or social grievances had by now become an accepted and well-established tactic, and there was a growing awareness of the problems complained of, which counterbalanced their exploitation by the Communists. The historian A. J. P. Taylor considered that the hunger marchers had "displayed the failure of capitalism in a way that mere figures or literary description could not. Middle-class people felt the call of conscience".
Local Background: Jarrow
Town history
Jarrow, situated on the River Tyne in County Durham, northern England, entered British history in the 8th century, as the home of Bede, the early Christian monk and scholar. After Bede, little changed in the remote rural community for a thousand years, although his monastery was dissolved under Henry VIII in the 16th century. The discovery of coal in the 17th century led to major changes. Mining on an industrial scale began in the early 1800s, resulting in the population of Jarrow more than doubling between 1801 and 1821 to around 3,500, largely from the influx of mineworkers.
The town's years as a coalfield were unhappy. Living conditions in many of the hastily erected cottages were insanitary, lacking water and drainage. There was a serious outbreak of cholera in Jarrow and northeast England in the winter of 1831–32, as part of an epidemic that spread from Europe and resulted in more than 200 deaths in Newcastle alone. Relations in Jarrow between employer and employee were poor; workers were held by the "bond" system whereby they were tied to a particular employer for a year, whether or not that employer could provide work. Working conditions in the mines were dangerous: there were explosions in 1826, 1828 and 1845, each with large loss of life. Attempts by workers to organise into a trade union were fiercely opposed by the employers. Nevertheless, miners conducted lengthy strikes in 1832 and 1844, each ending when hunger forced them back to work. After the easier seams of coal were exhausted, the Jarrow pits became less profitable, and in 1851 the owners abandoned them altogether.
Shipbuilding
Jarrow began its development as a shipbuilding town with the establishment in 1851 of Palmer's shipyard on the banks of the River Tyne. The first ship from the yard was launched in 1852, an iron-built and steam-powered collier; many more such carriers followed. In 1856 the yard began building warships, and was soon supplying many of the world's navies. With its associated iron and steel works, it became the largest shipbuilding centre in the country, employing thousands of men. Jarrow's population, at around 3,800 in 1850, had increased nearly tenfold to 35,000 by 1891. Palmer's was central to Jarrow's economy, both for the numbers employed there and for the ancillary businesses that served the needs of both the yard and town.
The shipyard generated high employment to Jarrow, but the industrial works created a harsh environment. Ellen Wilkinson, the town's historian and member of parliament from 1935 to 1947, quotes a newspaper source from 1858: "There is a prevailing blackness about the neighbourhood. The houses are black, the ships are black, the sky is black, and if you go there for an hour or two, reader, you will be black". According to Wilkinson, the yard's founder, Sir Charles Palmer, "regarded it as no part of his duty to see that the conditions under which his workers had to live were either sanitary or tolerable".
In the 1890s, Britain held a near monopoly of the world's shipbuilding, with a share of around 80%. This proportion fell during the early years of the 20th century to about 60%, as other countries increased their production. Palmer's remained busy, and during the years of the First World War built many of Britain's warships: the battleship , the light cruiser , and numerous smaller vessels were all built in Jarrow. During the brief postwar boom of 1919–20, orders remained plentiful and Palmer's prospered. However, the firm's management had not anticipated the conditions that developed in the 1920s when, as Wilkinson says, "every industrial country that had bought ships from Britain was now building for itself". The firm made over-optimistic assessments of future demand, and invested accordingly. The anticipated demand did not materialise; by the mid-1920s, Palmer's was incurring heavy losses, and was close to bankruptcy. It was temporarily reprieved by a short-lived boom in 1929, when orders rose and the town briefly enjoyed the prospect of an economic recovery.
Closure of Palmer's
On 24 July 1930 Palmer's launched its thousandth ship, the tanker Peter Hurll, but by this time the brief shipbuilding boom had been ended by the Great Depression, and there were no new orders on the firm's books. Rumours of impending reorganisation and rationalisation in the industry gave the workforce cause for anxiety, which deepened with the formation in 1930 of National Shipbuilders Security Ltd (NSS). This was a company created by the government to assist shipbuilders by acquiring failing yards and dismantling them, so that production was concentrated within a smaller number of profitable yards. To ensure this rationalisation was sustained, the closed yards were banned from any shipbuilding activity for at least 40 years.
During 1931, NSS was busy closing shipyards elsewhere in the country, while an order from the Admiralty for two destroyers kept Palmer's working until mid-1932. The second of these ships, , was the last ship launched from the yard, on 19 July 1932. By this time, Palmer's was insolvent, but retained a faint hope of further naval contracts. These failed to materialise, and in June 1933 the firm's creditors appointed a receiver. By December 1933 rumours of NSS interest in the yard were appearing in the press, and in the House of Commons Walter Runciman, the President of the Board of Trade, told members: "There is nothing to be gained by giving Jarrow the impression that Palmer's can be revived". He continued: "Would it not be very much better to make a clean sweep of that as a shipyard, and throw open to the world for sale what is one of the finest and most convenient sites anywhere in Europe?" Despite efforts by management and workers to find an alternative solution, in the early summer of 1934 NSS acquired the yard, closed it, and began to dismantle its plant. Blythe wrote: "The only sound to compete with the unfamiliar noise of the marsh birds ... was the ring of the breakers' hammers."
Following the Palmer's closure, a small hope of relief and some industrial resurrection was offered by the industrialist Sir John Jarvis, who held the ceremonial office of High Sheriff of Surrey. He was the prospective Conservative candidate for Guildford. On 4 October 1934, Jarvis announced the "adoption" of Jarrow by the county of Surrey, and promised to bring new industries to the town; he mentioned ship-breaking, bottle manufacture and furniture-making. While acknowledging the generous principle behind Jarvis's scheme, Betty Vernon (biographer of Jarrow politician Ellen Wilkinson) described it as ultimately superficial, offering little more than patchwork assistance. Blythe observes: "This excellent man failed, as anyone must fail who tries to play the good squire to a town of nearly forty thousand people".
Ellen Wilkinson
In the 1931 general election, in the nationwide rout of Labour, the Jarrow constituency was won by the National Government's candidate, William Pearson, a Conservative borough councillor and former mayor. In 1932, when the mood in Jarrow was desperate—"a workhouse without walls" according to one commentator—the local Labour Party selected Ellen Wilkinson as its parliamentary candidate for the next general election. Wilkinson had helped to found the British Communist Party in 1920, and had a firebrand reputation. She had been associated with Hannington and the NUWM in the early 1920s, but had left the Communist Party in 1923 and had served as Labour MP for Middlesbrough East between 1924 and 1931.
Wilkinson felt a deep bond of sympathy with the people of Jarrow and the loss of the shipyard which was the life-source of the town. Early in 1934 she led a deputation of Jarrow's unemployed to meet the prime minister, MacDonald, in his nearby Seaham constituency. She records that at the end of the meeting MacDonald said to her: "Ellen, why don't you go out and preach socialism, which is the only remedy for all this?" This "priceless remark", she says, brought home the "reality and sham ... of that warm but so easy sympathy". She became Jarrow's MP in the general election of November 1935, when she won the seat with a majority of 2,360. In the opening debate of the new parliamentary session, on 9 December 1935, she pleaded on behalf of her new constituents: "These are skilled fitters, men who have built destroyers and battleships and the finest passenger ships ... The years go on and nothing is done ... this is a desperately urgent matter and something should be done to get work to these areas which, Heaven knows, want work."
Proposed steelworks
While Jarvis's palliative measures were being developed, a more substantial project to bring industry back to Jarrow was under consideration. An American entrepreneur, T. Vosper Salt, became aware of the impending sale and break-up of Palmer's yard. He was convinced that the world demand for steel was about to rise, and thought that the site, with its ready-made docking and rail facilities, would be ideal for a new, modern steelworks. In January 1934, when an initial feasibility study report had proved favourable, Salt began discussions with the British Iron and Steel Federation (BISF), a steel producers' organisation formed that year as part of the National Government's rationalisation of the iron and steel industry.
The British steel industry was protected from more efficient foreign competition by the government's high tariff wall. The BISF, through its control of pricing, could also present a united front against new competition at home. When the feasibility report was received by the BISF in March 1935 the Federation's chairman, Sir Andrew Duncan, at first reacted positively; his members from the north-east were rather less enthusiastic. Only one of the large steel firms in the region, the Consett Iron Company, offered support for a Jarrow steelworks, while other BISF members put pressure on London's financial institutions to withhold capital from the new scheme. Reports of such tactics caused great anxiety in the Jarrow area, where the people were desperate for the new works to come about. In a reassuring speech shortly before the November 1935 general election, Baldwin, now leading the National Government, informed his listeners in Newcastle: "There is no truth in any of the reports that either the banks or any other authorities ... are making a dead set to prevent anything of the kind being done in the area".
After the election and the return of the National Government, little happened to support Baldwin's optimistic words. In the House of Commons on 2 March 1936, Wilkinson spoke of the "atmosphere of mystery" that surrounded the Jarrow scheme: "Publicly one sees tremendous optimism ... but when you see people privately there is a great deal of humming and ha'ing, and they are not quite sure". Meanwhile, the BISF argued that increased steel production should be achieved by expanding capacity in existing facilities, rather than by building new plant. Duncan, in a reversal of his earlier attitude, now opposed the provision of finance for Jarrow which, he felt, might create a precedent that other distressed areas could exploit. The BISF finally succeeded in watering down the scheme to the extent that it became unviable; Salt and his syndicate withdrew, and the scheme was dead, "strangled at birth" according to Wilkinson.
In a series of exchanges in the Commons with Runciman on 30 June, Wilkinson requested in vain that the matter be reconsidered by an independent body, rather than being decided by the BISF. One of the government's own negotiators, who had been involved in the project since its early stages, wrote in The Times: "A system which permits the adjudication on a proposal of national importance ... to be left in the hands of parties whose financial interests may run counter to that project, is not conducive to the enterprising development of the steel industry".
When, later in the summer, Runciman met workers from Jarrow the deputation encountered, in Wilkinson's words, "a figure of ice. Icily correct, icily polite, apparently completely indifferent to the woes of others." His insistence that "Jarrow must work out its own salvation", was described by Blythe as "the last straw in official cruelty"; to Wilkinson, the phrase "kindled the town", and inspired it to action.
March
Preparation
After the loss of the steelworks, David Riley, the chairman of Jarrow Borough Council, told a rally of the town's unemployed in July 1936: "If I had my way I would organise the unemployed of the whole country ... and march them on London so they would all arrive at the same time. The government would then be forced to listen, or turn the military on us". The idea of a march was taken up with enthusiasm by the mayor Billy Thompson, by Wilkinson, and by political, commercial and religious groups. It was decided that the march would be a local affair, representing the town, with no political connotations. It would be limited to 200 fit men who would arrive in London at the start of the new parliamentary session on 3 November 1936, when a petition from the town would be presented to the House of Commons.
Riley was appointed chief marshal, with four subcommittees to deal with organisational detail. All the local political parties—Labour, Conservative and Liberal—gave their support, as did the town's churches and the business community. Relays of medical students from the Inter-Hospital Socialist Society agreed to accompany the march as medical attendants. A fund was begun, with an initial target of £800, to meet the costs of the march; ultimately, nearly double that amount was raised, locally and on the route. Public meetings were planned for the overnight stops, to publicise the plight of Jarrow and of other areas like it. One marcher explained: "We were more or less missionaries of the distressed areas, [not just] Jarrow".
On Monday 5 October the marchers, selected from over 1,200 volunteers, attended an ecumenical dedication service in Christ Church, Jarrow, where the blessing was given by James Gordon, the Bishop of Jarrow. This apparent endorsement by a senior cleric gained considerable press attention, but earned a sharp response from Hensley Henson, the Bishop of Durham. Henson, a severe critic of socialism and trade unionism, described the march as "revolutionary mob pressure", and regretted his colleague's association with "these fatuous demonstrations, which are mainly designed in the interest, not of the Unemployed, but of the Labour party".
As Jarrow's representatives prepared to leave, six regional contingents of the sixth National Hunger March were taking the road to London, where they were due to arrive a week after the Jarrow marchers. A group of blind veterans, organised by the National League of the Blind and Disabled, was also on the march, demanding better allowances for the country's 67,000 blind persons.
On the road
Week one: Jarrow to Ripon
After the service of dedication, the marchers left Jarrow Town Hall, cheered on by most of the town and bearing banners announcing themselves as the "Jarrow Crusade". By the following weekend they had travelled to the cathedral city of Ripon, where they were welcomed by the Bishop of Ripon and a delegation representing local churches. Receptions at the intervening stops had been mixed: lukewarm at Chester-le-Street, warm and friendly from the people in Ferryhill and also from the Conservative-controlled council in Darlington.
Wilkinson had left the march at Chester-le-Street to attend the Labour Party's annual conference, taking place in Edinburgh. The conference was not supportive of the march—one delegate criticised Wilkinson for "sending hungry and ill-clad men on a march to London". The Labour conference's negative stance brought angry responses from the marchers; Riley considered that they had been "stabbed in the back". The marchers were further dismayed to learn that the Ministry of Labour's Unemployment Assistance Board had ruled that their benefits would be reduced, since they were unavailable for work should jobs arise.
Week two: Ripon to Chesterfield
After a weekend's rest, the marchers proceeded to Harrogate. In this solidly Conservative, prosperous town the marchers were greeted warmly by the civic authorities and were fed by the Rotary Club. They were given sleeping quarters by the Territorial Army, a change from the school and church halls, and occasional workhouse accommodation, that was provided at most overnight stops. It was becoming evident that local Conservatives were often as likely to provide practical assistance as Labour, whose local parties were constrained by the attitude of the party's national leadership. The marchers' claim that theirs was a unique situation, arising from specific actions (the closing of the shipyard and the blocking of the proposed steelworks) that could be remedied by immediate government action, may also have alienated local working-class communities. Cross-party support was important in maintaining the march's non-partisan ethos, a factor that led Riley to refuse a donation of £20 from a communist group, stating: "We are determined at all costs to preserve the non-political character of this Crusade".
At Harrogate Wilkinson rejoined the march, as it proceeded through southern Yorkshire towards Chesterfield in Derbyshire. The march was attracting wide publicity; in London the government worried that King Edward might exceed his constitutional limits and receive the marchers. The cabinet issued a statement that emphasised the constitutional means for expressing grievances, and condemned marches for causing "unnecessary hardship for those taking part in them"—"crocodile tears", according to Wilkinson. In reaching Chesterfield on 17 October, the marchers had travelled during the week, and were at the approximate half-way point in their journey. That day, the Bishop of Durham was gratified and the marchers correspondingly disappointed, when in a letter to The Times the Bishop of Jarrow denied that his blessing on the march had indicated his support for the venture. The blessing was, he said an act of Christian duty; in general he believed that such marches should be discouraged. Wilkinson was forgiving of the bishop's volte-face, knowing, she later said, "the difficulties he had to face".
Week three: Chesterfield to Northampton
The third week of the march covered the greatest distance of the four weeks—. At Mansfield, the Labour-controlled council defied the national leadership to give the marchers a warm welcome. This was matched by the reception from Nottingham's Conservative mayor and councillors, and supplemented by gifts of clothing and underwear from the city's manufacturers. At Leicester, the Co-operative Society's bootmakers worked through the night without pay, repairing the marchers' boots. According to some accounts, the marchers presented the vicar of the Church of St Mark, Leicester, with a wooden cross, although Matt Perry, in his history of the Jarrow March, indicates that this cross was donated in 1934 by the national hunger march.
From Leicester the march moved to Market Harborough. This was one of the least welcoming of all the overnight stops. No member of the local council greeted or visited the marchers, and they were forced to spend the night on the stone floor of an unfinished building (the local press later denied that this was so). On Saturday 24 October the marchers reached Northampton, arriving at the same time as the blind group. Wilkinson left to supervise arrangements in London, and would thereafter only participate intermittently until the final day, a week hence.
Week four: Northampton to London
The leg on Monday 26 October, from Northampton to Bedford, was the longest daily march—. Of the original contingent, 185 were still on the road, together with 10 replacements. To maintain the timetable for arrival at Marble Arch, the marchers took an extra rest day on Tuesday before marching, in teeming rain, the to Luton.
On 29 October, as the marchers walked from Luton to St Albans, the plight of Jarrow was the subject of exchanges in the House of Commons between Wilkinson and Baldwin. The prime minister drew attention to the recent decrease in Jarrow's unemployed, and said: "There is every reason to hope that the revival of industry now in progress in the Tyneside area will result in further opportunities for employment for those still unemployed at Jarrow." Wilkinson replied that the apparent decrease in Jarrow's unemployment figures arose from the amalgamation of the figures of Jarrow with those of neighbouring South Shields, and did not represent an increase in employment. She asked Baldwin whether he would break with tradition and meet a deputation of the marchers; the prime minister declined.
On the penultimate stage, from St Albans to Edgware, as the march neared its end, marchers began to contemplate the return home, and the prospect of "looking out of the window ... knowing that there's nothing, nothing at all to do". On the final day, for the short stretch, large crowds watched the column proceed through the London suburbs towards Marble Arch, marching to the accompaniment of their own mouth-organ band despite relentless rain. On arrival, as their leaders talked to the press, the marchers retired to their overnight accommodation in London's East End.
London
On Sunday 1 November the marchers proceeded to Hyde Park for a hastily organised public meeting. The Communist Party was holding a general rally in the park against unemployment; Wilkinson records that they "generously gave way for an hour and asked their great audience to swell our Crusade meeting". The police made a low estimate of 3,000 for the crowd, but the journalist Ritchie Calder, who was present, put the figure at 50,000.
After a day's rest, the marchers' main event on Tuesday was a public meeting in the Memorial Hall, Farringdon Street. Among the guest speakers was the Rev. Canon Dick Sheppard, founder of the Peace Pledge Union. He told the marchers: "You have so aroused the conscience of the country that things are bound to happen". Sir John Jarvis, without prior warning, then revealed plans for a steel tubes mill on the Palmers site. The impression that Jarrow's problems could be solved thus, without government action, disconcerted the listening marchers. Wilkinson commented that such plans were in the future, and were no substitute for the town's requirement for immediate government intervention.
On Wednesday 4 November Wilkinson presented the Jarrow petition to the House of Commons. With over 11,000 signatures, it asked that "His Majesty's Government and this honourable House should realise the urgent need that work should be provided for the town without further delay." In the brief discussion that followed, Runciman said that "the unemployment position at Jarrow, while still far from satisfactory, has improved during recent months", to which James Chuter Ede, the Labour backbencher representing South Shields, the neighbouring constituency to Wilkinson's, replied that "the Government's complacency is regarded throughout the country as an affront to the national conscience".
Blythe summarises the marchers' anger and disillusionment: "And that was that. The result of three months' excited preparation and one month's march has led to a few minutes of flaccid argument during which the Government speakers had hardly mustered enough energy to roll to their feet". A "stay-in" strike was briefly proposed, before Wilkinson arranged a meeting with a cross-party group of MPs. The marchers' case was heard sympathetically; the meeting was warned that, given international uncertainties, they might come to regret the dismantling of an important shipbuilding facility for reasons of private profit. Such statements, according to Wilkinson, made members "distinctly uncomfortable". The next day the marchers returned by train to Jarrow, where they received an ecstatic welcome from the town.
Appraisal and legacy
Before the start of the Second World War, and the establishment of war-based industries, Jarvis's initiatives brought modest relief to Jarrow. By 1939, about 100 men were employed in a small furniture factory and up to a further 500 in various metal-based industries set up on the Palmer's site. Jarvis had acquired the obsolete liners and , to be broken up at the yard. However, after their triumphant homecoming many of the marchers felt that their endeavour had failed. Con Whalen, who at his death in 2003 was the last survivor of those who marched the full distance, said that the march was "a waste of time", but added that he had enjoyed every step. His fellow marcher Guy Waller, on the 40th anniversary of the march in 1976, said that "[t]he march produced no immediate startling upsurge in employment in the town. It took the war to do that". These views are shared by most commentators and historians. The Daily Mirror columnist Kevin Maguire calls the march "a heroic failure", while Matt Dobson, in The Socialist, writes that "out of all the hunger marches its aims were the most diluted and it made the most modest gains". The historians Malcolm Pearce and Geoffrey Stewart provide a positive perspective, arguing that the Jarrow March "helped to shape [post-Second World War] perceptions of the 1930s", and thus paved the way to social reform.
Perry observes that "the passage of time has transformed the Jarrow Crusade ... into a potent talisman with which many apparently seek association". Thus the Labour Party, which in 1936 shunned the march, later adopted it as "a badge of credibility". In 1950 the party featured the Jarrow banners on its election posters; the march then disappeared from view in an era of high employment, only to be invoked again when unemployment again became a political issue in the 1980s. In the late 20th century and beyond, Labour leaders—Michael Foot, Neil Kinnock, Tony Blair—have all associated themselves with the march. In October 1986, on the 50th anniversary, a group from Jarrow and other towns along the way retraced the route to London. At that time of industrial recession, Jarrow once again had the highest level of unemployment in the country. The 75th anniversary in 2011 was marked by a "March for Jobs", that drew the ire of a Conservative MP, Robert Goodwill, who noted the high level of withdrawals in its early stages and dismissed it as "an insult to the memory of the Jarrow marchers ... They are not fit to walk in [their] footsteps".
Shortly after the return home in November 1936 Riley, together with three other Jarrow councillors who had led the march—James Hanlon, Paddy Scullion and Joseph Symonds—left Labour to form a breakaway group committed to a more direct fight for employment. All four later rejoined the party; Scullion and Symonds both served as the town's mayor, and Symonds was Labour MP for Whitehaven from 1959 to 1970. In 1939 Wilkinson published her history of Jarrow, The Town that Was Murdered. A reviewer for The Economic Journal found the book "not quite as polemical as one might have expected", but felt that in her denunciation of the BISF Wilkinson had not taken full account of the state of the iron and steel industry in the 1930s. Wilkinson continued her parliamentary career, and from 1940 to 1945 held junior ministerial office in Churchill's wartime coalition government. In the 1945 Labour government she was appointed Minister of Education, with a seat in the cabinet, a post in which she served until her death, aged 55, in February 1947.
In 1974 the rock singer Alan Price released the "Jarrow Song", which helped to raise awareness of the events of 1936 among a new generation. Among dramatisations based on the Jarrow March is a play, Whistling at the Milestones (1977) by Alex Glasgow, and an opera, Burning Road (1996), by Will Todd and Ben Dunwell. In what Perry describes as one of the ironies surrounding the march, the opera was performed in Durham Cathedral in May 1997, in retrospective defiance of the bishop who had condemned the march. On 29 October 2017, the Tyne Bridge was closed off and was the venue the Freedom on The Tyne Finale. The Freedom on The Tyne Finale was the finale of the 2017 Freedom City festival. The event, promoted by Newcastle University re-enacted many world civil rights stories throughout history. The final event, revolved around the March, the re-enactment was described as a memorable closing to the finale. The town of Jarrow contains several commemorations, including a steel relief sculpture by Vince Rea at the new railway station, a tile mural designed by local schoolchildren, and a bronze sculpture—"The Spirit of the Crusade" by Graham Ibbeson—in the town centre. Buildings and street names bear the names of Wilkinson and Riley. Perry writes that "In Jarrow, landscape and memory have fused together, just as the red hot rivets once fastened great sheets of steel in Palmer's Yard."
Notes and references
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
The Jarrow Crusade – UK Parliament Living Heritage
BBC World Service – Witness: The Jarrow Crusade
Great Depression in the United Kingdom
1936 in England
Protests in England
Jarrow
Poverty in England
1936 in politics
North East England
Unemployment in the United Kingdom
Protest marches
Politics of North East England
October 1936 events
Labour disputes in England
British trade unions history
1936 protests | [
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242502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boys%27%20Brigade | Boys' Brigade | The Boys' Brigade (BB) is an international interdenominational Christian youth organisation, conceived by the Scottish businessman Sir William Alexander Smith to combine drill and fun activities with Christian values. Following its inception in Glasgow in 1883 the BB quickly spread across the United Kingdom, becoming a worldwide organisation by the early 1890s. As of 2018, there were 750,000 Boys' Brigade members in 60 countries.
Object, motto and emblem
The stated object of the Boys' Brigade is "The advancement of Christ's kingdom among Boys and the promotion of habits of Obedience, Reverence, Discipline, Self-respect and all that tends towards a true Christian manliness." Except for the addition of the word "obedience" in 1893, the contents of the object has remained unchanged from the beginning. However, some countries, particularly those which permit girls on their membership roll, have re-worded the object for gender neutrality. For example, in Malaysia, the word "manliness" has been changed to "character".
When designing the Brigade's motto and crest, William Smith referred directly to in the King James Version of the Bible, "Which hope we have as an anchor of the soul, both sure and stedfast...".
From this verse came the BB motto, "Sure and Stedfast", retaining the old spelling of the latter word. Today, some parts of the movement (only the UK and the ROI) have adopted the modern spelling of "steadfast", whilst all others continue to use the older spelling.
The crest was originally a plain anchor, bearing the BB motto with a capital 'B' on either side. Upon the merger between the Boys' Brigade and the Boys' Life Brigade in 1926, the red Greek cross was placed behind the anchor to form the current emblem. The cross originally formed part of emblem of the Boys' Life Brigade.
History
The Boys' Brigade was founded in Glasgow by Sir William Alexander Smith on 4 October 1883 to develop Christian manliness by the use of a semi-military discipline and order, gymnastics, summer camps and religious services and classes.
By 1910, there were about 2200 companies connected with different churches throughout the British Empire and the United States, with 10,000 officers and 100,000 boys.
Boys' Brigade Scouts, 1906–1927
Companies of The Boys' Brigade used manuals on scout training in their programmes. In May 1903, Robert Baden-Powell became a vice-president. Baden-Powell promoted the idea of scouting and outdoor pursuits in the Boys' Brigade and other boys' organisations and schools. The Boys' Brigade formally began its boy scout scheme in 1906. Scout badges (Silver second class & Gold first class) were awarded in The Boys' Brigade and there were specialised Boys' Brigade Scout sections, which operated as part of a BB Company, but met at different times to train in scouting, who wore khaki or blue uniforms, neck scarves and the distinctive four dented broad brimmed fur felt hats. Boys of the Bournemouth & Poole Battalion of The Boys' Brigade participated in Baden-Powell's experimental camp on Brownsea Island in 1907. Baden-Powell did not originally intend to start a separate organisation.
Many Boys' Brigade Scouts later made dual registration with The Boy Scouts Association. The 1st Bournemouth Scouts was run by the 1st Bournemouth Boys' Brigade as a 'BP' Scout group and never a 'BB Scout 'Section'. The Boys' Life Brigade, which merged with The Boys' Brigade in 1926, also operated its own boy scouts and was a member organization of the National Peace Scouts with the British Boy Scouts. The Boys' Brigade Scouts continued until 1927. Some former Boys' Brigade Scout units continued independently after 1927 or affiliated with The Boy Scouts' Association or British Boy Scouts. Two of the original Boys' Brigade Scout units continue as 1st Parkstone Scout Group and 1st Hamworthy Scout Group, both formerly sub units of the 1st Poole Boys Brigade.
Merger with Boys' Life Brigade, 1926
In October 1926 The Boys' Brigade united with The Boys' Life Brigade. The merger also prompted the abandonment of dummy drill rifles that had been used in The Boys' Brigade, due to the Life Brigade's objection to use of weapons or their representations. The Junior organisation of the Boys' Brigade prior to 1926 was called 'The Boy Reserves' but after amalgamation the juniors were called 'The Life Boys'. The name came from the fact that the junior reserve of The Boys' Life Brigade had been known as 'Lifeboys' (all one word). The Life Boys remained as the 'Junior Reserve of The Boys' Brigade until 1966 when the name was changed to 'The Junior Section'.
The Boys' Life Brigade (1899) was one of many similar movements formed following the formation of The Boys' Brigade. The BLB was formed by the National Sunday School Union (Pacifist) and was strongest amongst non-conformist churches. It substituted first aid drill for the military and weapons drill used in The Boys' Brigade. Others organisations similar to The Boys' Brigade included the Church Lads' Brigade (1891, Anglican) and London Diocesan Lads' Brigade (Anglican), the Catholic Boys' Brigade (1894) and the Jewish Lads' Brigade (1895). There were many more smaller Brigades in other denominations and even some in individual churches.
Establishment of recreational camping
Drawing from his military experience, William Smith (Knighted in 1909) introduced the concept of camping into the Brigade to allow boys and officers to remain in contact when other activities ceased for the summer break.
The notion was initially ill-received due to concerns for the boys' safety. A mother has been quoted saying, "Camp! My children have always had a roof over their heads, and as long as I live, always will!". They did have a roof over their heads because William Smith proceeded with the idea and 1st Glasgow Company held its inaugural one-week camp beginning on Friday, 16 July 1886, at Auchinlochan Hall, Tighnabruaich in a hall. In later years they took to canvas camping on a site at Portavadie in the Kyles of Bute. The First Glasgow continued to attend summer camp at the same location until the summer of 1974 when Portavadie was selected as the location of a proposed yard for the construction of oil production platforms. However the new camp is located only 100 yards away at Stilliag farm. This camp site is now used by many companies of the BB every summer for their camping trip.
The initial reservations towards camping did not last. A tradition developed, where the boys who were marching home on the last day of camp would be greeted by cheers from residents and were each presented with a bouquet of flowers. Camps soon became one of the most anticipated events in the year and early publications of the Boys' Brigade Gazette contained many accounts of camping experiences.
Sir William Smith's plans and notes for his first camps have been preserved, and have been used by many other campers.
Sections in the BB
Age groups are typically based on school years, so boys in the same year group would be promoted to the next section together, regardless of the dates of individual boys' birthdays. In some companies, sections may merge or there may be minor variations to the normal age boundaries, to accommodate excessively large or small groups of boys or a lack of leaders. Boys might also move to their next section before the end of the year to allow a smoother transition.
Australia has three different age groups, known as "sections":
Anchors – 5 to 7 years
Juniors – 8 to 11 years
Seniors – 12 to 18 years
'Alpha' – 12 to 14
'Omega' – 15 to 18
Malaysia has four sections:
Pre-Juniors – 6 to 8 years
Juniors – 9 to 12 years
Seniors– 12 to 18 years
Primer– 18 to 21 years
(All Malaysian Boys' Brigade companies may accept girls into membership with the approval of their respective sponsoring authorities.)
United Kingdom has four sections:
Anchor 5 to 8 years (companies need special permission to accept boys younger than 5 years old)
Juniors – 8 to 11 years
Company – 11 to 15 years
Seniors – 15 to 18 years
Officers company and over
(Companies may choose to run a Girls' Association alongside or in combination with these sections)
In the United Kingdom and Eire The BB is divided into four Regions, each region is then further divided. In Scotland and England & Wales The BB is divided into Districts and then Battalions. In Northern Ireland the BB is divided into 13 Battalions. The Battalions provide a local grouping of companies. The Battalions are normally based on Cities or Counties. Each Battalion has its own local structure that organises events and training on behalf of the member companies.each with its own Battalion President and Executive Team who assist the President in running the Battalion.
Amicus Groups
United Kingdom
Amicus was launched in 1994, and is intended to either run as an alternative to the Seniors programme or even without any other Boys' or Girls' Brigade sections operating. Unlike other sections which may be for boys only in many companies, Amicus is always run as a mixed-gender group. The Amicus concept emphasises involvement of all its members in decision-making concerning the running of the section, such as the content and whether a uniform is to be worn. The section will be overseen and supervised by leaders aged over 18, who receive training from the Boys' Brigade and may deliver parts of the programme.
Leadership
Officers (adult leaders)
Leaders in training are Warrant Officers, attaining the rank of Lieutenant only when having completed additional formal training in youth leadership. To avoid unnecessary leader hierarchy, all qualified officers are Lieutenants. The post of Captain of a company is a brevet rank with those in the position reverting to Lieutenant when they cease to be in the position; similarly, other positions such as the company Adjutant (second to the captain) are considered appointments rather than substantive ranks.
Boys bearing the rank of Staff-Sergeant are non-commissioned officers but act within the company as Officers.
Boys as non-commissioned officers
An older boy can gain promotion from Private to become a Non-Commissioned Officer (NCO). There are four NCO ranks available, each being awarded when a boy is of a certain minimum age and reaches a high enough standard of leadership:
Lance Corporal — L/Cpl (minimum age 14)
Corporal — Cpl (minimum age 15)
Sergeant — Sgt (minimum age 16)
Staff Sergeant — S/Sgt (minimum age 17)
NCOs often play an important role in the Boys' Brigade, helping the officers and other adult helpers with organising activities and awards classes, particular in the Anchors and Juniors sections. NCOs wear chevrons on their upper right arm.
Staff Sergeants act within the company as officers and do not stand in the ranks; however as Staff Sergeants are boys of the Brigade, they can still partake in company activities and competitions, and still earn awards and badges. The uniform of Staff Sergeants is slightly different from that of the normal boy or NCO, they will still wear a blue shirt. If caps are worn, the BB Anchor is used with no coloured surround. Their rank is denoted with an armband on the right forearm with four inverted chevrons (similar to the rank badge historically worn by senior grades of sergeant in the British Army).
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, those aged 17 to 21 years old who are nominated by their company, may participate in The Boys' Brigade KGVI Youth Leadership Training; this consists of two one-week-long residential training experiences containing all the training needed to become an officer in The Boys' Brigade. KGVI is held at each of the Regional Headquarters (Felden Lodge in England/Wales, Carronvale House in Scotland and Newport Centre in Northern Ireland).
Awards
Each section within the Boys' Brigade has awards that can be gained by fulfilling achievements.
Anchor Section
The Anchors can gain three badges: Green, Red and Blue triangles by completing a variety of activities in the areas of Body, Mind, Spirit, Community, and Creativity.
The Anchors award structure was revamped in 2020 and now have the following badges available, Anchors Membership Award, Core Awards of Yellow Award, Green Award, Blue Award and the Red Award.
Junior Section
The Juniors award scheme was revised in 2004 and members of the section can now gain the Junior Target Award, followed by Bronze, Silver and Gold awards, by completing a variety of activities in the areas of Body, Mind, Spirit, Community, and Creativity.
The Juniors award structure was revamped again in 2020 and now have the following badges available, Juniors Membership Award, Core awards of Bronze, Silver and Gold, and Project Awards of Get Active, Get Adventurous, Get Creative, Get Into The Bible, Get Involved and Get Learning. The Leading Boy/Girl Badges have also been replaced by Team Leader. This structure also sees the introduction of a "Nights Away" badge and can be awarded at 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 75 & 100 nights. This continues from the Junior Section through to the Company and Senior Sections.
Company Section
Get the Credit [Outdated]
Under the old 'Get the Credit' Scheme, Company Section members could gain one Target badge first (reduced from the required two in an award reorganisation a few years ago, though Target Two could still be completed as an optional extra), then five other badges (Interests, Adventure, Leadership, Physical and Community) with red and blue flashes around them. After about three years, the boys would have gained all five badges with both red and blue flashes. This enabled the boys to attend a Leadership Training Course and potentially attain the President's Badge. This is a necessary prerequisite for the Brigade's highest award – the Queen's Badge.
Discover
The current award scheme for 11- to 15-year-olds, called Discover, was launched in August 2007. The award scheme is built around three 'zones': Community; Recreation; and Skills. Badges may be gained at four Levels in each zone, 1 through 4.
Having spent two hours working on topics relevant to each of the three zones (a total of six hours), the member is awarded the Compass Badge.
The badge for a zone is gained when the required number of hours have been spent working on topics relevant to that zone (Community – seven hours; Recreation – 10 hours; Skills – 7 hours). A maximum of one badge per zone can be gained in a 12-month period (min 24 hours work). Any additional hours may not be carried over into the next 12-month period. In subsequent 12-month periods, members will work to gain Levels 2, 3, and 4 of each badge.
During a member's second year in Company Section they may gain the Discovery Badge, provided they have: gained a badge in all three zones within the last 12 months; completed an additional 6 hours work in any of the zones; taken part in a residential experience; played an active role in a Company, Battalion, or Church event; and had good attendance for the session.
The Discover programme includes the President's Badge, the requirements for which remain similar to those laid out in the 'Get the Credit' scheme. Including a 'Building Your Skills' Course
See images and logos at boys-brigade.org.uk.
Challenge Plus
The award scheme for Seniors (16- to 18-year-olds), is called Challenge Plus, and was launched in time for the start for the 2008/09 Session, and includes the Queen's Badge.
Founder's Badge
In non-Commonwealth countries, the Founder's Badge is used in place of the Queen's Badge. However, the Boys' Brigade in Malaysia and the Boys' Brigade in Singapore have chosen to use the Founder's Badge, although these countries are members of the Commonwealth.
President's Badge
President's badge is the second highest award in the senior section, it is also a requirement for members before undertaking the highest award which is Founder's badge. The title of Founder's Man and President's Man are held for life, recognizing all rounds of excellence in their service. The Badge itself may be worn while serving as a Non-Commissioned Officer (NCO), a Staff-Sergeant, or a Primer.
Queen's Badge
Queen's Badge is the highest award in the senior section in the UK and the Commonwealth; it is equivalent to a Founder's Badge.
International
Sovereign countries
Dates in parentheses indicate the year when the movement was revived after being dormant or defunct after the initial establishment.
Africa
America
Asia
Australia / Oceania
Europe
Non-sovereign territories
Affiliated Boys' Brigade type movements
See also
The Boys' Brigade Australia
The Boys' Brigade Hong Kong
The Boys' Brigade Malaysia
The Boys' Brigade in Singapore
The Boys' Brigade in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland
The Girls' Brigade
Frivilligt Drenge- og Pige-Forbund, Boys' Brigade partner organisation in Denmark
Suomen Poikien ja Tyttöjen Keskus, Boys' Brigade partner organisation in Finland
Church Lads' Brigade
References
25.Mwisa- The Boys Brigade vesper . 25th Kitwe Company: History Into Print. 2016. p. 1. ISBN 9781858583334.
Sources
External links
The Boys' Brigade in Australia
The Boys' Brigade in Hong Kong
The Boys' Brigade in Ireland
The Boys' Brigade in Malaysia
The Boys' Brigade in Malaysia - Official Webzine
The Boys' Brigade in New Zealand
The Boys' Brigade in Nigeria
The Boys' Brigade in Singapore
The Boys' Brigade in UK
FDF; Boys' Brigade's partner organisation in Denmark, or Crossculture, FDF's international work
PTK; Boys' Brigade's partner organisation in Finland
Boys' and Girls' Brigade of the Fox Valley (USA)
Boys' Brigade camp photographs c.1900
London Stedfast Association for former Boys' Brigade members
Behind Tourism International Project
Evangelical parachurch organizations
Christian youth organizations
Religious organizations established in 1883
Youth organisations based in the United Kingdom
1883 establishments in Scotland | [
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242504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berenguer%20Ramon%20II%2C%20Count%20of%20Barcelona | Berenguer Ramon II, Count of Barcelona | Berenguer Ramon II "the Fratricide" (1053/54 – 1097/99) was count of Barcelona from 1076 to 1097. He was the son of Ramon Berenguer I and Almodis of La Marche, and initially ruled jointly with his twin brother Ramon Berenguer II.
Born in 1053 or 1054, Berenguer Ramon succeeded his father Ramon Berenguer I the Old in 1075 to co-rule with his twin brother Ramon Berenguer II. The twins failed to agree and divided their possessions between them, against the will of their late father. Ramon Berenguer II was killed while hunting in the woods on 5 December 1082. Berenguer Ramon II, who became the sole ruler of Catalonia for the next four years, was credited by popular opinion with having orchestrated this murder. This suspicion and other divisions of loyalty led to a civil war. Various parties asserted ways to resolve this 'unjust and iniquitous murder', which led to a moderate compromise in 1086 in which Berenguer Ramon II would rule Catalonia with his brother's four-year-old son Ramon Berenguer III for eleven years until he came of age.
In the 1080s Berenguer Ramon's involvement in the internal strife in the Moorish taifa kingdoms brought him in conflict with El Cid. In the ensuing war the Count of Barcelona was twice taken prisoner.
After Berenguer Ramon's resignation in 1097 his life became more obscure. Still living under the accusations of his brother's assassination, the guilt of which may have been determined by trial by combat, which he lost, he went to Jerusalem, either on pilgrimage, as a penance, or as part of the First Crusade, and perished there between 1097 and 1099. Berenguer Ramon II was succeeded by his nephew Ramon Berenguer III, son of Ramon Berenguer II.
Notes
1050s births
1090s deaths
Counts of Barcelona
Barcelona
Trials by combat
11th-century people from the County of Barcelona
Christians of the First Crusade | [
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242510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramon%20Berenguer%20II%2C%20Count%20of%20Barcelona | Ramon Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona | Ramon Berenguer II the Towhead or Cap de estopes (1053 or 1054 – December 5, 1082) was Count of Barcelona from 1076 until his death. He was the son of Ramon Berenguer I, Count of Barcelona, and Almodis de La Marche. The Chronicle of San Juan de la Pena called him, "… exceeding brave and bold, kind, pleasant, pious, joyful, generous, and of an attractive appearance". Because of the extremely thick hair he had on top of his head, he was known as Cap d'Estop."
He succeeded his father as co-ruler with his twin brother, Berenguer Ramon, in 1075. The twins failed to agree and divided their possessions between them, against the will of their late father. Ramon Berenguer the Towhead, so called because of the thickness and colour of his hair, was killed while hunting in the woods in 1082. His brother, who went on to become the sole ruler of Catalonia, was credited by popular opinion of having orchestrated this murder. Berenguer Ramon II the Fratricide was later succeeded by Ramon Berenguer's son, Ramon Berenguer III.
Family and issue
Ramon Berenguer married Mahalta (or Maud) of Apulia, born ca. 1059, died 1111/1112, daughter of Duke Robert Guiscard and of Sikelgaita de Salerno. Following his murder, she remarried to Aimery I of Narbonne, and was the mother of his son Aimery II.
Ramon Berenguer and Mahalta's son, Ramon Berenguer III (before 1082–1131), was count of Barcelona and Provence.
References
Sources
Year of birth missing
1082 deaths
Ramon Berenguer 02
Assassinated Spanish people
11th-century murdered monarchs
Barcelona
House of Barcelona
11th-century people from the County of Barcelona | [
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242517 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramon%20Berenguer%20I%2C%20Count%20of%20Barcelona | Ramon Berenguer I, Count of Barcelona | Ramon Berenguer I (1023–1076), called the Old (, ), was Count of Barcelona in 1035–1076. He promulgated the earliest versions of a written code of Catalan law, the Usages of Barcelona.
Born in 1024, he succeeded his father, Berenguer Ramon I the Crooked in 1035. It was during his reign that the dominant position of Barcelona among the other Catalan counties became evident.
Ramon Berenguer campaigned against the Moors, extending his dominions as far west as Barbastro and imposing heavy tributes (parias) on other Moorish cities. Historians claim that those tributes helped create the first wave of prosperity in Catalan history. During his reign Catalan maritime power started to be felt in the western Mediterranean. Ramon Berenguer the Old was also the first count of Catalonia to acquire lands (the counties of Carcassonne and Razés) and influence north of the Pyrenees.
Another major achievement of his was beginning the codification of Catalan law in the written Usatges of Barcelona which was to become the first full compilation of feudal law in Western Europe. Legal codification was part of the count's efforts to forward and somehow control the process of feudalization which started during the reign of his weak father, Berenguer Ramon. Another major contributor was the Church acting through the institution of the Peace and Truce of God. This established a general truce among warring factions and lords in a given region for a given time. The earliest extant date for introducing the Truce of God in Western Europe is 1027 in Catalonia, during the reign of his father, Berenguer Ramon.
While still married to his second wife Blanca, he became involved with the wife of the Count of Toulouse, Almodis de La Marche, countess of Limoges. Both quickly married and were consequently excommunicated by Pope Victor II.
Ramon Berenguer I, together with his third wife Almodis, also founded the Romanesque cathedral of Barcelona, to replace the older basilica presumably destroyed by Almanzor. Their velvet and brass bound wooden coffins are still displayed in the Gothic cathedral which eventually replaced the cathedral that they founded.
He was succeeded by his twin sons Ramon Berenguer II and Berenguer Ramon II.
Family and issue
First wife, possibly Isabel, daughter of Count Sancho of Gascony
Berenguer (died young)
Arnau (died young)
Peter Raymundi (1050–1073?), murdered his father's third wife, Almodis, and was exiled
Second wife, Blanca of Narbonne, daughter of Llop Ato Zuberoa and Ermengarda of Narbonne
Third wife, Almodis de La Marche, countess of Limoges
Ramon Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona the Towhead (1053/54–1082)
Berenguer Ramon II, Count of Barcelona the Fratricide (1053/54–1097)
Agnes, married Guigues II of Albon
Sancha, married William Raymond, count of Cerdanya
References
Sources
1023 births
1076 deaths
Counts of Barcelona
Medieval child rulers
Burials at Barcelona Cathedral
Ramon 1
11th-century people from the County of Barcelona | [
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242523 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronquist%20system | Cronquist system | The Cronquist system is a taxonomic classification system of flowering plants. It was developed by Arthur Cronquist in a series of monographs and texts, including The Evolution and Classification of Flowering Plants (1968; 2nd edition, 1988) and An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants (1981) (see Bibliography).
Cronquist's system places flowering plants into two broad classes, Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons) and Liliopsida (monocotyledons). Within these classes, related orders are grouped into subclasses. While the scheme was widely used, in either the original form or in adapted versions, many botanists now use the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants, first developed in 1998. The system as laid out in Cronquist's An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants (1981) counts 64 orders and 321 families in class Magnoliopsida and 19 orders and 65 families in class Liliopsida.
The Evolution and Classification of Flowering Plants 1968 (monocots)
Class Liliatae (Monocotyledoneae)
Subclass Alismatidae (4 orders)
Order Alismatales
Order Hydrocharitales
Order Najadales
Order Triuridales
Subclass Commelinidae (8 orders)
Order Commelinales
Order Eriocaulales
Order Restionales
Order Juncales
Order Cyperales
Order Typhales
Order Bromeliales
Order Zingiberales
Subclass Arecidae (4 orders)
Order Arecales
Order Cyclanthales
Order Pandanales
Order Arales
Subclass Liliidae (2 orders)
Order Liliales
Family Philydraceae
Family Pontederiaceae
Family Liliaceae (Alluaceae, Alstroemeriaceae, Aphyllanthaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceae, Colchicaceae, Hypoxidaceae, Melanthiaceae, Petermanniaceae, Philesiaceae, Ruscaceae, Trilliaceae)
Family Iridaceae
Family Agavaceae
Family Xanthorrhoeaceae
Family Velloziaceae
Family Haemodoraceae (Tecophilaeceae)
Family Taccaceae
Family Cyanastraceae
Family Stemonaceae (Roxburghiaceae)
Family Smilacaceae
Family Dioscoreaceae (Stenomeridaceae, Trichopodaceae)
Order Orchidales
Family Geosiridaceae
Family Burmanniaceae (Thismiaceae)
Family Corsiaceae
Family Orchidaceae (Apostasiaceae)
An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants 1981
Class Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons)
Subclass Magnoliidae (mostly basal dicots)
Order Magnoliales
Winteraceae
Degeneriaceae
Himantandraceae
Eupomatiaceae
Austrobaileyaceae
Magnoliaceae (magnolia family)
Lactoridaceae
Annonaceae
Myristicaceae
Canellaceae
Order Laurales
Amborellaceae
Trimeniaceae
Monimiaceae
Gomortegaceae
Calycanthaceae
Idiospermaceae
Lauraceae (laurel family)
Hernandiaceae
Order Piperales
Chloranthaceae
Saururaceae
Piperaceae (pepper family)
Order Aristolochiales
Aristolochiaceae
Order Illiciales
Illiciaceae
Schisandraceae
Order Nymphaeales
Nelumbonaceae (lotus family)
Nymphaeaceae (waterlily family)
Barclayaceae
Cabombaceae
Ceratophyllaceae
Order Ranunculales
Ranunculaceae (buttercup family)
Circaeasteraceae
Berberidaceae
Sargentodoxaceae
Lardizabalaceae
Menispermaceae
Coriariaceae
Sabiaceae
Order Papaverales
Papaveraceae (poppy family)
Fumariaceae
Subclass Hamamelidae [sic: correctly Hamamelididae]
Order Trochodendrales
Tetracentraceae
Trochodendraceae
Order Hamamelidales
Cercidiphyllaceae
Eupteleaceae
Platanaceae
Hamamelidaceae
Myrothamnaceae
Order Daphniphyllales
Daphniphyllaceae
Order Didymelales
Didymelaceae
Order Eucommiales
Eucommiaceae
Order Urticales
Barbeyaceae
Ulmaceae
Cannabaceae (cannabis family)
Moraceae (mulberry family)
Cecropiaceae
Urticaceae
Order Leitneriales
Leitneriaceae
Order Juglandales
Rhoipteleaceae
Juglandaceae
Order Myricales
Myricaceae
Order Fagales
Balanopaceae
Ticodendraceae
Fagaceae
Nothofagaceae
Betulaceae
Order Casuarinales
Casuarinaceae
Subclass Caryophyllidae
Order Caryophyllales
Phytolaccaceae
Achatocarpaceae
Nyctaginaceae
Aizoaceae
Didiereaceae
Cactaceae (cactus family)
Chenopodiaceae
Amaranthaceae
Portulacaceae
Basellaceae
Molluginaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Order Polygonales
Polygonaceae
Order Plumbaginales
Plumbaginaceae
Subclass Dilleniidae
Order Dilleniales
Dilleniaceae
Paeoniaceae
Order Theales
Ochnaceae
Sphaerosepalaceae
Sarcolaenaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Caryocaraceae
Theaceae (tea family)
Actinidiaceae (kiwi family)
Scytopetalaceae
Pentaphylacaceae
Tetrameristaceae
Pellicieraceae
Oncothecaceae
Marcgraviaceae
Quiinaceae
Elatinaceae
Paracryphiaceae
Medusagynaceae
Clusiaceae
Order Malvales
Elaeocarpaceae
Tiliaceae
Sterculiaceae
Bombacaceae
Malvaceae (mallow family)
Order Lecythidales
Lecythidaceae
Order Nepenthales
Sarraceniaceae
Nepenthaceae
Droseraceae
Order Violales
Flacourtiaceae
Peridiscaceae
Bixaceae
Cistaceae (rock rose family)
Huaceae
Lacistemataceae
Scyphostegiaceae
Stachyuraceae
Violaceae (violet family)
Tamaricaceae (tamarix family)
Frankeniaceae
Dioncophyllaceae
Ancistrocladaceae
Turneraceae
Malesherbiaceae
Passifloraceae (passionflower family)
Achariaceae
Caricaceae (papaya family)
Fouquieriaceae
Hoplestigmataceae
Cucurbitaceae (squash family)
Datiscaceae
Begoniaceae
Loasaceae
Order Salicales
Salicaceae
Order Capparales
Tovariaceae
Capparaceae
Brassicaceae (mustard family)
Moringaceae
Resedaceae
Order Batales
Gyrostemonaceae
Bataceae
Order Ericales
Cyrillaceae
Clethraceae
Grubbiaceae
Empetraceae
Epacridaceae
Ericaceae
Pyrolaceae
Monotropaceae
Order Diapensiales
Diapensiaceae
Order Ebenales
Sapotaceae
Ebenaceae
Styracaceae
Lissocarpaceae
Symplocaceae
Order Primulales
Theophrastaceae
Myrsinaceae
Primulaceae (primula family)
Subclass Rosidae
Order Rosales
Brunelliaceae
Connaraceae
Eucryphiaceae
Cunoniaceae
Davidsoniaceae
Dialypetalanthaceae
Pittosporaceae
Byblidaceae
Hydrangeaceae
Columelliaceae
Grossulariaceae
Greyiaceae
Bruniaceae
Anisophylleaceae
Alseuosmiaceae
Crassulaceae
Cephalotaceae
Saxifragaceae
Rosaceae (rose family)
Neuradaceae
Crossosomataceae
Chrysobalanaceae
Surianaceae
Rhabdodendraceae
Order Fabales
Mimosaceae (mimosa family)
Caesalpiniaceae
Fabaceae (legume/pea family)
Order Proteales
Elaeagnaceae
Proteaceae
Order Podostemales
Podostemaceae
Order Haloragales
Haloragaceae
Gunneraceae
Order Myrtales
Sonneratiaceae
Lythraceae
Penaeaceae
Crypteroniaceae
Thymelaeaceae
Trapaceae
Myrtaceae (myrtle family)
Punicaceae
Onagraceae
Oliniaceae
Melastomataceae
Combretaceae
Alzateaceae
Memecylaceae
Rhyncocalycaceae
Order Rhizophorales
Rhizophoraceae
Order Cornales
Alangiaceae
Nyssaceae
Cornaceae
Garryaceae
Order Santalales
Medusandraceae
Dipentodontaceae
Olacaceae
Opiliaceae
Santalaceae
Misodendraceae
Loranthaceae
Viscaceae
Eremolepidaceae
Balanophoraceae
Order Rafflesiales
Hydnoraceae
Mitrastemonaceae
Rafflesiaceae (rafflesia family)
Order Celastrales
Geissolomataceae
Celastraceae
Hippocrateaceae
Stackhousiaceae
Salvadoraceae
Aquifoliaceae
Icacinaceae
Aextoxicaceae
Cardiopteridaceae
Corynocarpaceae
Dichapetalaceae
Tepuianthaceae
Order Euphorbiales
Buxaceae (box family)
Simmondsiaceae
Pandaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Order Rhamnales
Rhamnaceae
Leeaceae
Vitaceae (grape family)
Order Linales
Erythroxylaceae
Humiriaceae
Ixonanthaceae
Hugoniaceae
Linaceae
Order Polygalales
Malpighiaceae
Vochysiaceae
Trigoniaceae
Tremandraceae
Polygalaceae
Xanthophyllaceae
Krameriaceae
Order Sapindales
Staphyleaceae
Melianthaceae
Bretschneideraceae
Akaniaceae
Sapindaceae
Hippocastanaceae
Aceraceae
Burseraceae
Anacardiaceae (cashew family)
Julianiaceae
Simaroubaceae
Cneoraceae
Meliaceae
Rutaceae (citrus family)
Zygophyllaceae
Order Geraniales
Oxalidaceae
Geraniaceae
Limnanthaceae
Tropaeolaceae
Balsaminaceae
Order Apiales
Araliaceae
Apiaceae (carrot family)
Subclass Asteridae
Order Gentianales
Loganiaceae
Retziaceae
Gentianaceae
Saccifoliaceae
Apocynaceae
Asclepiadaceae
Order Solanales
Duckeodendraceae
Nolanaceae
Solanaceae (nightshade/tomato family)
Convolvulaceae
Cuscutaceae
Menyanthaceae
Polemoniaceae
Hydrophyllaceae
Retziaceae
Order Lamiales
Lennoaceae
Boraginaceae
Verbenaceae
Lamiaceae (mint family)
Order Callitrichales
Hippuridaceae
Callitrichaceae
Hydrostachyaceae
Order Plantaginales
Plantaginaceae
Order Scrophulariales
Buddlejaceae
Oleaceae (olive family)
Scrophulariaceae
Globulariaceae
Myoporaceae
Orobanchaceae
Gesneriaceae
Acanthaceae
Pedaliaceae
Bignoniaceae
Mendonciaceae
Lentibulariaceae
Order Campanulales
Pentaphragmataceae
Sphenocleaceae
Campanulaceae (bell flower family)
Stylidiaceae
Donatiaceae
Brunoniaceae
Goodeniaceae
Order Rubiales
Rubiaceae (coffee family)
Theligonaceae
Order Dipsacales
Caprifoliaceae
Adoxaceae
Valerianaceae
Dipsacaceae
Order Calycerales
Calyceraceae
Order Asterales
Asteraceae (sunflower family)
Class Liliopsida (monocotyledons)
Subclass Alismatidae
Order Alismatales
Butomaceae
Limnocharitaceae
Alismataceae
Order Hydrocharitales
Hydrocharitaceae
Order Najadales
Aponogetonaceae
Scheuchzeriaceae
Juncaginaceae
Potamogetonaceae
Ruppiaceae
Najadaceae
Zannichelliaceae
Posidoniaceae
Cymodoceaceae
Zosteraceae
Order Triuridales
Petrosaviaceae
Triuridaceae
Subclass Arecidae
Order Arecales
Arecaceae (palm family)
Order Cyclanthales
Cyclanthaceae
Order Pandanales
Pandanaceae (pandan family)
Order Arales
Acoraceae
Araceae
Lemnaceae
Subclass Commelinidae
Order Commelinales
Rapateaceae
Xyridaceae
Mayacaceae
Commelinaceae
Order Eriocaulales
Eriocaulaceae
Order Restionales
Flagellariaceae
Joinvilleaceae
Restionaceae
Centrolepidaceae
Order Juncales
Juncaceae
Thurniaceae
Order Cyperales
Cyperaceae
Poaceae (grass family)
Order Hydatellales
Hydatellaceae
Order Typhales
Sparganiaceae
Typhaceae
Subclass Zingiberidae
Order Bromeliales
Bromeliaceae
Order Zingiberales
Strelitziaceae
Heliconiaceae
Musaceae
Lowiaceae
Zingiberaceae (ginger family)
Costaceae
Cannaceae
Marantaceae
Subclass Liliidae
Order Liliales
Philydraceae
Pontederiaceae
Haemodoraceae
Cyanastraceae
Liliaceae (lily family)
Iridaceae (iris family)
Velloziaceae
Aloeaceae (aloe family)
Agavaceae
Xanthorrhoeaceae
Hanguanaceae
Taccaceae
Stemonaceae
Smilacaceae
Dioscoreaceae
Order Orchidales
Geosiridaceae
Burmanniaceae
Corsiaceae
Orchidaceae (orchid family)
Bibliography
Texas A and M University Bioinformatics Working Group : Cronquist System
Work by Cronquist
Cronquist, Arthur. (1957). Outline of a new system of families and orders of dicotyledons. Bull. Jard. Bot. Etat Brux. 27: 13–40.
Excerpt: Classification. 7 pp.
system, Cronquist | [
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242525 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor/Victoria | Victor/Victoria | Victor/Victoria is a 1982 British-American musical comedy film written and directed by Blake Edwards and starring Julie Andrews, James Garner, Robert Preston, Lesley Ann Warren, Alex Karras, and John Rhys-Davies. The film was produced by Tony Adams and scored by Henry Mancini, with lyrics by Leslie Bricusse. Released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, it was adapted in 1995 as a Broadway musical. The film was nominated for seven Academy Awards and won the Academy Award for Best Original Score. It is a remake of the 1933 German film Victor and Victoria.
Plot
In 1934 Paris, Carroll "Toddy" Todd, an aging gay performer at Club Chez Lui in Paris, sees Labisse, the owner, auditioning frail and impoverished soprano, Victoria Grant. After her failed audition, Victoria returns to her hotel room to find herself about to be evicted, as she's unable to pay her rent. That night, when Richard, a hustler with whom Toddy is romantically involved, comes to Chez Lui as part of a straight foursome, Toddy incites a brawl resulting in major damages and the police locking up whomever they can get their hands on. Labisse fires Toddy and bans him from the club. Walking home, he spots Victoria in a restaurant. She invites him to join her. As neither of them can pay for the meal, she has a plan to dump a cockroach in her salad to avoid paying, but it escapes and mayhem ensues.
The duo runs through the rain to Toddy's, and he invites her to stay when she discovers the rain has shrunken and damaged her decrepit clothing. The next morning, Richard shows up to collect his things. Victoria, who is wearing his suit and hat, hides in Toddy's closet. When Richard opens the closet door, she punches him, breaking his nose before finally kicking him out. Seeing this, Toddy is struck with the inspiration of passing Victoria off as a man and presenting her to Andre Cassell, the most successful talent agent in Paris, as a female impersonator.
Cassell accepts her as Count Victor Grazinski, a gay Polish female impersonator and Toddy's new boyfriend. Cassell gets her a booking in a nightclub show and invites a collection of club owners to the opening. Among the guests is King Marchand, a Chicago gangster, and his ditzy blonde moll Norma Cassidy and burly bodyguard Mr. Bernstein, a.k.a. Squash. Victoria is an immediate hit, and King is smitten, but he is shocked when she "reveals" herself to be a man at the end of the act. King, however, is convinced that "Victor" is not a man.
After Norma violently attacks King during a quarrel, he sends her back to America. Determined to get the truth, King sneaks into Victoria and Toddy's suite and confirms his suspicion when he spies her getting into the bath. He invites Victoria, Toddy, and Cassell to Chez Lui. Another major fight breaks out. Squash and Toddy are both arrested, along with many of the club clientele, but King and Victoria manage to escape. King kisses Victoria, pretending that he does not care about Victoria's assumed gender.
Squash returns to the suite and catches King in bed with Victoria. King tries to explain, but then Squash reveals he himself is gay. Victoria and King argue over whether or not the relationship could work and Victoria discovers that King isn't really a gangster but someone who pretends to be in order to stay in the nightclub business, leading Victoria to point out that they're both pretending to be something they're not. Victoria returns to her room and finds Squash in bed with Toddy.
Meanwhile, Labisse hires a private investigator, Charles Bovin, to tail and investigate Victor. Victoria and King attempt to live together for a while, but keeping up her deception strains the relationship to the breaking point, and King ends it. Back in Chicago, Norma, still angry over being dumped, tells King's business partner Sal Andretti that King is having an affair with a man.
At the same time that Victoria has decided to give up the persona of Victor in order to be with King, Sal arrives and demands that King transfer his share of the business to Sal for a fraction of what it's actually worth. Squash tells Victoria what is happening, and she shows Norma that she is really a woman, saving King's stake. That night at the club, Cassell tells Toddy and Victoria that Labisse has lodged a police complaint against him and "Victor" for perpetrating a public fraud. After checking for himself, the inspector tells Labisse that the performer he saw in the room, after opening the door, is a man and that Labisse is an idiot.
In the end, Victoria joins King in the club as her real self. The announcer says that Victor is going to perform, but instead of Victoria, Toddy masquerades as "Victor". After an intentionally disastrous, but ultimately hilarious performance, Toddy claims that this is his last performance.
Cast
Julie Andrews as Victoria Grant / Count Victor Grazinski
James Garner as King Marchand
Robert Preston as Carroll "Toddy" Todd
Lesley Ann Warren as Norma Cassidy
Alex Karras as "Squash" Bernstein
John Rhys-Davies as Andre Cassell
Graham Stark as The Waiter
Peter Arne as Labisse
Malcolm Jamieson as Richard Di Nardo
Herb Tanny (as Sherloque Tanney) as Charles Bovin
Ina Skriver as Simone Kallisto
Michael Robbins as Manager of Victoria's Hotel
Norman Chancer as Sal Andratti
David Gant as Restaurant Manager
Maria Charles as Madame President
Glen Murphy as Boxer
Geoffrey Beevers as Police Inspector
Norman Alden as Man In Hotel With Shoes (uncredited)
Jay Benedict as Guy Longois
Musical numbers
The vocal numbers in the film are presented as nightclub acts, with choreography by Paddy Stone. However, the lyrics or situations of some of the songs are calculated to relate to the unfolding drama. Thus, the two staged numbers "Le Jazz Hot" and "The Shady Dame from Seville" help to present Victoria as a female impersonator. The latter number is later reinterpreted by Toddy for diversionary purposes in the plot, and the cozy relationship of Toddy and Victoria is promoted by the song "You and Me", which is sung before the audience at the nightclub.
"Gay Paree" – Toddy
"Le Jazz Hot!" – Victoria
"The Shady Dame from Seville" – Victoria
"You and Me" – Toddy, Victoria
"Chicago, Illinois" – Norma
"Crazy World" – Victoria
"Finale/Shady Dame from Seville (Reprise)" – Toddy
Occasionally, Victoria and Toddy sing "Home on the Range" when they are in the hotel.
Production
The film's screenplay was adapted by Blake Edwards (Andrews' husband) from the 1933 German film Viktor und Viktoria written and directed by Reinhold Schünzel from an original story treatment by Hans Hoemburg. According to Edwards, the screenplay took only one month to write. Julie Andrews watched the 1933 version to prepare for her role. The film had been planned as early as 1978 with Julie Andrews to star alongside Peter Sellers, but Sellers died in 1980 while Andrews and Blake Edwards were filming S.O.B. (1981), so Robert Preston was cast in the role of Toddy.
The costume worn by Julie Andrews in the number "The Shady Dame from Seville" is in fact the same costume worn by Robert Preston at the end of the film. It was made to fit Preston, and then, using a series of hooks and eyes at the back, it was drawn in tight to fit Andrews' shapely figure. Black silk ruffles were added to the bottom of the garment to hide the differences in height. The fabric is a black and brown crepe, with fine gold threads woven into it, that when lit appears to have an almost wet look about it.
Release
Victor/Victoria was the opening night film at Filmex on March 16, 1982. It opened in New York, Los Angeles and Toronto on March 19, 1982.
Reception
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 97% based on 33 reviews, with the site's consensus: "Driven by a fantastic lead turn from Julie Andrews, Blake Edwards' musical gender-bender is sharp, funny and all-round entertaining." On Metacritic it has a score of 84 out of 100 based on reviews from 12 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it 3 out of 4 stars and wrote: "Not only a funny movie, but, unexpectedly, a warm and friendly one."
Todd McCarthy of Variety called it "sparkling, ultra-sophisticated entertainment from Blake Edwards."
Accolades
In 2000, American Film Institute included the film in AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs (#76).
See also
Cross-dressing in film and television
Notes
References
External links
James Garner Interview on the Charlie Rose Show
James Garner interview at Archive of American Television
1982 films
1980s musical comedy films
1982 romantic comedy films
1982 LGBT-related films
American films
American LGBT-related films
American musical comedy films
American romantic comedy films
American romantic musical films
American sex comedy films
British films
British LGBT-related films
British musical comedy films
British romantic comedy films
British sex comedy films
1980s English-language films
Films directed by Blake Edwards
Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award
Cross-dressing in American films
Drag (clothing)-related films
Transgender-related films
American remakes of German films
Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe winning performance
Films set in Paris
Films set in 1934
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Films shot at Pinewood Studios
Best Foreign Film César Award winners
LGBT-related musical comedy films
Films scored by Henry Mancini
British remakes of German films
Films adapted into plays
LGBT-related sex comedy films
Films with screenplays by Blake Edwards | [
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242527 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robe | Robe | A robe is a loose-fitting outer garment. Unlike garments described as capes or cloaks, robes usually have sleeves. The English word robe derives from Middle English robe ("garment"), borrowed from Old French robe ("booty, spoils"), itself taken from the Frankish word *rouba ("spoils, things stolen, clothes"), and is related to the word rob.
Types
There are various types of robes, including:
A gown worn as part of the academic regalia of faculty or students, especially for ceremonial occasions, such as a convocations, congregations or graduations.
A gown worn as part of the attire of a judge or barrister.
A wide variety of long, flowing religious dress including pulpit robes and the robes worn by various types of monks.
A gown worn as part of the official dress of a peer or royalty.
Any of several women's fashions of French origin, as robe à l'anglaise (18th century), robe de style (1920s).
A gown worn in fantasy literature and role-playing games by wizards and other magical characters.
A bathrobe worn mostly after bathing or swimming.
A gown used to cover a state of underdress, often after rising in the morning, is called a dressing gown. They are similar to a bathrobe but without the absorbent material.
(Informal usage) Any long flowing garment; for example, a cassock is sometimes called a robe, although a cassock is close-fitting.
See also
Mantle (royal garment)
Thawb
Abaya
Academic stole
Kaftan
Kimono
Clothing
Seamless robe of Jesus - Biblical relic
Senegalese kaftan
The Robe - 1953 American film
Black Robe - film about a robed Jesuit priest
Tricivara - Buddhist monastic robe
References
External links
Academic dress
Judicial clothing
Nightwear
Costume design
Religious clothing
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242528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances%20%28film%29 | Frances (film) | Frances is a 1982 American biographical drama film directed by Graeme Clifford from a screenplay written by Eric Bergren, Christopher De Vore, and Nicholas Kazan. The film stars Jessica Lange as Frances Farmer, a troubled actress during the 1930s whose career suffered as a result of her mental illness. It also features Kim Stanley, Sam Shepard, Bart Burns, Christopher Pennock, Jonathan Banks, and Jeffrey DeMunn in supporting roles.
The film chronicles Farmer's life from her days as a high school student, her short lived film career in the 1930s, her institutionalization for alleged mental illness in the 1940s, her deinstitutionalization in the 1950s and her appearance on This Is Your Life.
Frances was released theatrically on December 3, 1982 by Universal Pictures. Lange's performance was unanimously praised and has been cited by many (including her) as her best performance.
At the 55th Academy Awards, it received two nominations for Lange and Stanley as Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress respectively.
Plot
Born in Seattle, Washington, Frances Elena Farmer is a rebel from a young age, winning $100 in 1931 from The Scholastic Art and Writing Awards for a high school essay called God Dies. In 1935, she becomes controversial again when she wins (and accepts) an all-expenses-paid trip to the USSR to visit its Moscow Art Theatre. Determined to become an actress, Frances is equally determined not to play the Hollywood game: she refuses to acquiesce to publicity stunts, and insists upon appearing on screen without makeup. She marries her first husband, Dwayne Steele, despite being advised not to, but cheats on him with alleged Communist Harry York on the night of her hometown's premiere of Come and Get It. Her defiance attracts the attention of Broadway playwright Clifford Odets, who convinces Frances that her future rests with the Group Theatre.
After leaving Hollywood for New York City and appearing in the Group Theatre play Golden Boy, Frances learns, much to her chagrin, that the Group Theatre exploited her fame only to draw in more customers, replacing her with a wealthy actress for her family's needed financial backing for the play's London tour, and Odets ends their affair upon his wife's upcoming return from Europe. Her desperate attempts to restart her film career upon returning to Hollywood results in being cast in unchallenging roles in forgettable B-films. Her increased dependence on alcohol and amphetamines in the 1940s and the pressures brought on her by her wannabe mother, who becomes her legal guardian after her multiple legal problems, result in a complete nervous breakdown. After her first hospitalization at Kimball Sanitarium in La Crescenta where she was forced to undergo insulin shock therapy and hydrotherapy, she tells her mother that she doesn't want to return to Hollywood but instead wants to live alone in the countryside, assaulting and threatening Lillian in the resulting argument. While institutionalized at Western State Hospital, Frances is abused by the powers that be: she is subjected to electroconvulsive shock therapy, is cruelly beaten, periodically raped by the male orderlies and visiting soldiers from a nearby military base and involuntarily lobotomized before her release in 1950.
In 1958, Frances is paid honor on Ralph Edwards' This Is Your Life television program, which Harry York watches from his home. When asked about alcoholism, illegal drugs and mental illness, Farmer denies them all and says, "If you're treated like a patient, you're apt to act like one". The film ends just after a party honoring her at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel with Farmer walking down a street with Harry York, talking about her parents' deaths, how she sold their house and that she's a "faceless sinner" with a slower paced lifestyle ahead of her in the future. The end credits state that she moved to Indianapolis shortly afterwards, hosting a local daytime TV program (Frances Farmer Presents) from 1958 to 1964 before dying alone, just as she had lived, on August 1, 1970 at age 56.
Cast
Jessica Lange as Frances Farmer
Kim Stanley as Lillian Van Ornum Farmer
Sam Shepard as Harry York
Bart Burns as Ernest Farmer
Christopher Pennock as Dick Steele
Jonathan Banks as Hitchhiker
Jeffrey DeMunn as Clifford Odets
Kevin Costner as Luther (uncredited)
Zelda Rubinstein as Mental patient
Anjelica Huston as Mental patient
Pamela Gordon as Mental patient
Rick May as Policeman
Production
The film was developed by the team who had made The Elephant Man, writers Eric Bergren and Christopher De Vore, and producer Jonathan Sanger and Mel Brooks. Brooks was keen for David Lynch, who had directed The Elephant Man, to direct. However, Lynch had signed an agreement with Universal. Sanger then suggested Graeme Clifford, who was well established as an editor, notably having made several films with Robert Altman. "He's very bright and completely in love with the story," said Brooks.
The script was based upon William Arnold's Shadowland, a fictional biography of Farmer. In pre-production, the producers reneged on their option to use the book as source material. Arnold filed an unsuccessful copyright infringement lawsuit but many of his fictional elements were incorporated into the final film.
On the commentary of the DVD release, director Clifford stated, "We didn't want to nickel and dime people to death with facts." Mel Brooks was executive producer of the film, but received no credit for his participation.
They struggled to gain finance until EMI Films stepped in.
The nude scene of Farmer's arrest with policemen breaking into the Knickerbocker Hotel was particularly frustrating and demanding for Jessica Lange. There was a problem with the bathroom door which stuck and stuck again when the actors playing cops on the other side tried to get it open. The entire scene, lasting no more than three minutes of film time, took four days to shoot. Lange was disgusted. She began to feel as used, abused, and manipulated as Frances herself.
Casting
Many actresses were considered candidates for the role of Frances Farmer including Anne Archer, Susan Blakely, Blythe Danner, Susan Dey, Patty Duke, Mia Farrow, Sally Field, Jane Fonda, Goldie Hawn, Diane Keaton, Liza Minnelli, Susan Sarandon, Cybill Shepherd, Sissy Spacek, Meryl Streep, Natalie Wood and Tuesday Weld.
"This is a role every actress waits all her life for," said Hawn.
Jessica Lange had wanted to play the role since reading Farmer's memoirs in the late 1970s. She tried to interest Bob Rafelson and Bob Fosse to make the film but neither were interested. Then she says Clifford called her directly offering the role. (Clifford had edited Lange in The Postman Always Rings Twice.)
"She was very high-strung and had overpowering elements in her personality of self-destruction, but she was a real warrior," said Lange. "It was misguided heroics."
"I began to identify with Frances Farmer's anger," said Lange. "She would release it no matter what the consequences were."
Susan Blakely went on to portray Farmer in the 1983 CBS television film Will There Really Be a Morning?
Music
The original music score was composed by John Barry. According to Barry, his idea of carrying the main theme using a harmonica was initially disliked by producers until they heard it fully orchestrated.
Along with some popular songs from the period, a notable piece of music was from Mozart's Piano Sonata No.11, K331, and the second movement of Beethoven's seventh Symphony also featured.
Editing
The film originally ran for three hours and was cut down. This meant reduction of the amount of screen time dedicated to Frances and her parents, and Frances and her love interest. Clifford would subsequently claim he felt the film was too short.
Reception
Frances holds a 66% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 29 reviews.
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1982 films
1980s biographical drama films
1982 independent films
American films
American biographical drama films
American independent films
Biographical films about actors
Brooksfilms films
English-language films
Films produced by Mel Brooks
Films scored by John Barry (composer)
Films about psychiatry
Films based on American novels
Films directed by Graeme Clifford
Films set in the 1930s
Films set in the 1940s
Films set in the 1950s
Universal Pictures films
EMI Films films
1982 directorial debut films
1982 drama films
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242529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantherophis%20obsoletus | Pantherophis obsoletus | Pantherophis obsoletus – also known as the western rat snake, black rat snake, pilot black snake, or simply black snake – is a non-venomous species of Colubridae found in central North America. No subspecies are currently recognized. Its color variations include the Texas ratsnake. Along with other snakes of the eastern United States, like the eastern indigo snake (Drymarchon couperi) or the eastern racer (Coluber constrictor), it is called 'black snake'.
Geographic range
Pantherophis obsoletus is found west of the Mississippi River, from eastern and southern Iowa southward through Missouri and Arkansas to western Louisiana, westward to eastern Texas, northward through Oklahoma and eastern Kansas to southeastern Nebraska.
Aside from the usual variety that is black or has patches of black on a lighter background, color variations include
the Texas rat snake, a brown-to-black variant, often with tinges of orange or red, that can be found in southern Oklahoma, Texas, and Louisiana.
Habitat
Rat snakes live in a variety of habitats; some overlap each other. Rat snakes are excellent climbers and spend time in trees. They live in habitats ranging from a rocky hillside to flat farmland.
Preferred habitat
It prefers heavily wooded areas and is known for having excellent climbing ability, including the ability to climb the trunk of large mature trees without the aid of branches; the snake is also a competent swimmer. During winter it hibernates in dens, often with copperheads and timber rattlesnakes. This association gave rise to one of its common names, pilot black snake, and the superstition that this nonvenomous species led the venomous ones to the den.
Description
Adults of Pantherophis obsoletus can become quite large, with a reported typical total length (including tail) of . They are the largest snake found in Canada. The record total length is , making it (officially) the longest snake in North America. Unofficially, indigo snakes (Drymarchon couperi) are known to exceed them, and one wild-caught pine snake (Pituophis melanoleucus), with a portion of its tail missing, measured . The body mass of this rat snake can range up to in adults, although most adults are on the smaller end of this scale, per herpetology research sites, with weights most commonly between .
Juveniles are strongly patterned with brown blotches on a gray background (like miniature fox snakes: P. gloydi, P. ramspotti, and P. vulpinus). Darkening occurs rapidly as they grow. Adults are glossy black above with white lips, chin, and throat. Sometimes traces of the "obsolete" juvenile pattern are still discernible in the skin between the scales, especially when stretched after a heavy meal.
Common names
Other common names include: black chicken snake, black coluber, chicken snake, mountain black snake, mountain pilot snake, pilot, rat snake, rusty black snake, scaly black snake, cow snake, schwartze Schlange, sleepy John, and white-throated racer.
Behavior
When not fully grown, rat snakes are subject to predation by many animals, including other snakes. Once they attain maturity, they are readily preyed on by mammalian carnivores (including the American mink, which weighs no more than an adult rat snake) and large birds of prey (especially red-tailed hawks). When startled, they may freeze and wrinkle themselves into a series of kinks. If they feel further threatened, they may flee quickly or tail vibrate (potentially a form of mimicry, which makes them sound like rattlesnakes). They are also capable of producing a foul-smelling musk, which they will release onto predators if picked up. They spread the musk with their tails in hopes of deterring the threat. When cornered or provoked, black snakes are known to stand their ground and can become aggressive. Counterattacks on large birds of prey, often committed by large snakes in excess of in length, have resulted in violent prolonged struggles. Utilizing its infamous agility and the great strength of its muscular coils, the black rat snake is sometimes able to overwhelm and kill formidable avian predators such as red-tailed hawks, great horned owls and red-shouldered hawks, though in many cases the bird is able to kill the snake and both combatants may even die.
Feeding
This species is a constrictor, meaning it squeezes its prey to the point of cardiovascular collapse due to obstructive shock, coiling around small animals and tightening its grip until they can no longer circulate blood and die of profound hypotension, before eating them. Though they will often consume mice, voles, and rats, western rat snakes are far from specialists at this kind of prey and will readily consume any small vertebrate they can catch. Other prey opportunistically eaten by this species can include other snakes (including both those of their own and other species), frogs, lizards, chipmunks, squirrels, juvenile rabbits, juvenile opossums, songbirds, and bird eggs. One snake was observed to consume an entire clutch of Mallard eggs. Cavity-nesting bird species are seemingly especially prevalent in this snake's diet. The rat snake has been noted as perhaps the top predator at purple martin colonies as a single large snake will readily consume a number of eggs, hatchlings, and adults each summer. Several rat snake repelling methods have been offered to those putting up martin houses, but most are mixed in success.
Reproduction
Mating takes place in late May and early June. The male snake wraps its tail around the female with their vents nearly touching. The male then everts one of its sex organs, a hemipenis, into the female sex organ, cloaca. The mating lasts a few minutes to a few hours. After five weeks, the female lays about 12 to 20 eggs, which are long by wide. The eggs hatch about 65 to 70 days later in late August to early October. The hatchlings are in total length, and they look like miniature fox snakes.
Taxonomy
This species has previously been placed (and is still placed by many) in the genus Elaphe, as Elaphe obsoleta. However, Utiger et al. found that Elaphe is broadly construed as paraphyletic, and placed this species in the genus Pantherophis. In addition, because Pantherophis is masculine, the specific epithet becomes the masculine obsoletus. The split of Pantherophis from Elaphe has been further confirmed by additional phylogenetic studies.
In 2001, Burbrink suggested this species be divided into three species based on geographic patterns of mitochondrial DNA diversity. He assigned new common names and resurrected old scientific names, resulting in the following combinations: eastern ratsnake (Elaphe alleghaniensis, now Pantherophis alleghaniensis), central ratsnake (Elaphe spiloides, now Pantherophis spiloides), and western rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta, now Pantherophis obsoletus). However, these three species are not morphologically distinct and overlap in all examined morphological characters. More recent investigations have indicated P. alleghaniensis and P. spiloides interbreed freely in Ontario.
In 2008, Collins and Taggart resurrected the genus Scotophis for Burbrink's three taxa (i.e., Scotophis alleghaniensis, Scotophis spiloides, and Scotophis obsoletus) in response to the findings of Burbrink and Lawson, 2007. The justification for this nomenclatural change has been removed by more recent research.
In captivity
Western rat snakes are popular as pets. Their size, calm temperament, and ease of care contribute to this popularity and they also occur in many mutations such as leucistic, albino, and scaleless. They enjoy hiding and burrowing which is usually accommodated with a loose substrate (such as aspen wood shavings or newspaper) and one or more hide boxes. Captive rat snakes are generally fed killed or stunned mice because captive-bred mice reduce the risk of exposing the snake to pathogens or live prey-induced injuries.
References
Further reading
Say T (1823). In: James E (1823). Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, Performed in the Years 1819 and '20, by Order of the Hon. J.C. Calhoun, Sec'y of War: Under the Command of Major Stephen H. Long. From the Notes of Major Long, Mr. T. Say, and other Gentlemen of the Exploring Party. Vol. I. Philadelphia: H.C. Carey and I. Lea. 503 pp. (Coluber obsoletus, new species, p. 140).
External links
"Black Snakes": Identification and Ecology – University of Florida fact sheet
Black Rat Snake, Reptiles and Amphibians of Iowa
Rat snakes
Snakes of North America
Reptiles of Canada
Reptiles of Ontario
Fauna of the Eastern United States
Reptiles of the United States
Reptiles described in 1823
Taxa named by Thomas Say | [
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242530 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debra%20Winger | Debra Winger | Debra Lynn Winger (born May 16, 1955) is an American actress. She starred in the films An Officer and a Gentleman (1982), Terms of Endearment (1983), and Shadowlands (1993), each of which earned her a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress. She won the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actress for Terms of Endearment, and the Tokyo International Film Festival Award for Best Actress for A Dangerous Woman (1993). Her other film roles include Urban Cowboy (1980), Legal Eagles (1986), Black Widow (1987), Betrayed (1988), The Sheltering Sky (1990), Forget Paris (1995), and Rachel Getting Married (2008). In 2012, she made her Broadway debut in the original production of the David Mamet play The Anarchist. In 2014, she received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the Transilvania International Film Festival.
She starred as a series regular in the Netflix original television series The Ranch (2016–2020).
Early years
Winger was born in Cleveland Heights, Ohio, into an Orthodox Jewish family, to Robert Winger, a meat packer, and Ruth (née Felder), an office manager. Over the years, she told many interviewers that she volunteered on an Israeli kibbutz, sometimes even saying she had trained with the Israel Defense Forces, but in a 2008 interview she said she was merely on a typical youth tour that visited the kibbutz. At the age of 18, after returning to the United States, she was involved in a car accident and suffered a cerebral hemorrhage; as a result, she was left partially paralyzed and blind for 10 months, having initially been told that she would never see again. With time on her hands to think about her life, she decided that, if she recovered, she would move to California and become an actress.
Career
Acting
Winger's first acting role was as "Debbie" in the 1976 sexploitation film Slumber Party '57. Her next role was as Diana Prince's younger sister Drusilla (Wonder Girl) in three episodes of ABC's TV series, Wonder Woman. The producers had wanted her to appear more often, but she refused, fearing that the role would hurt her fledgling career. This was followed by a guest role in Season 4 of the TV drama Police Woman in 1978. Played a supporting role in Willard Huyck's iconic “students in Paris” film “French Postcards” 1979.
Her first major role was in Thank God It's Friday, followed by her role in Urban Cowboy in 1980 with John Travolta, for which she received a BAFTA nomination and a pair of Golden Globe nominations (for Best Performance by an Actress and Best New Star). In 1982 she co-starred with Nick Nolte in Cannery Row and with Richard Gere in An Officer and a Gentleman, for which she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress. She was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress twice more: for Terms of Endearment in 1983 (which was awarded to her co-star, Shirley MacLaine, who played her mother in the film) and for Shadowlands in 1993, for which she also received her second BAFTA nomination. Her performance in A Dangerous Woman earned a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress.
Over the years Winger acquired a reputation for being outspoken and difficult to work with. She has expressed her dislike of An Officer and a Gentleman, for which she refused to do any publicity, and several of her other films, and has been dismissive of some of her co-stars and directors. When Barbara Walters interviewed Bette Davis in 1986, Davis said "I see a great deal of myself in Debra Winger."
Winger was going to play Peggy Sue in the film Peggy Sue Got Married but was forced to back out just before production began when she injured her back in a bicycle accident. The role went to Kathleen Turner. The injury affected Winger's ability to work for several months afterward. Winger was cast in the motion picture A League of Their Own but dropped out and was replaced by Geena Davis. It was later reported that the reason Winger dropped out of the film was her refusal to work with recording artist Madonna, whom Winger did not consider a serious actress. Other starring roles during this period included Legal Eagles, Made in Heaven, Everybody Wins, The Sheltering Sky, Leap of Faith, Black Widow, Betrayed, Wilder Napalm, and A Dangerous Woman.
In 1995 Winger decided to take a hiatus from acting. In 2002 she said, "I wanted out for years. I got sick of hearing myself say I wanted to quit. It's like opening an interview with 'I hate interviews!' Well, get out! I stopped reading scripts and stopped caring. People said, 'We miss you so much.' But in the last six years, tell me a film that I should have been in. The few I can think of, the actress was so perfect". After making Forget Paris in 1995 she was absent from the screen for six years before returning in 2001 with Big Bad Love, written and directed by her husband, Arliss Howard, and also marking Winger's debut as a producer.
During her film hiatus, Winger had the female lead in the American Repertory Theater's stage production of Anton Chekhov's play Ivanov from November 1999 to January 2000.
In 2001 a critically acclaimed documentary film titled Searching for Debra Winger was made by Rosanna Arquette and released in 2002 after Winger returned to film acting. She subsequently starred in the films Radio, Eulogy, Sometimes in April and received positive reviews for portraying Anne Hathaway's estranged mother in Rachel Getting Married.
Winger earned an Emmy Award nomination for her title role in the television film Dawn Anna in 2005, directed by Arliss Howard. In 2010 she returned to television, making a guest appearance as a high school principal in an episode of Law & Order. She also joined the cast of HBO's In Treatment as one of the three patients featured in the third season.
In 2013 she starred in three episodes of In the Woods, the first installment of Jennifer Elster's multimedia, experimental film series The Being Experience, also including: Terrence Howard, Dave Matthews, Rufus Wainwright, Karen Black, Will Shortz, Liya Kebede, Questlove, Famke Janssen, Moby, Gale Harold, Paz de la Huerta, Jorgen Leth, Rosie Perez, Aubrey de Grey, and Alan Cumming.
From 2016 to 2020, Winger starred opposite Sam Elliott and Ashton Kutcher in the Netflix multi-cam comedy The Ranch as Maggie.
In 2017, she had a cameo as Supreme Court Justice Elena Kagan in the TV miniseries When We Rise. The same year, she starred in her first romantic lead after many years in The Lovers. She has continued to acquire roles in other feature films, such as Tiger City, scheduled for release in 2018.
Other pursuits
In 1995 Winger performed in The Wizard of Oz in Concert: Dreams Come True a television musical performance of the popular 1939 MGM film at Lincoln Center to benefit the Children's Defense Fund. Her roles in that television special were the "Cyclone" narrator and the Wicked Witch of the West. It was originally broadcast on both TBS and TNT.
During her hiatus from the film industry, Winger spent a semester as a teaching fellow at Harvard University. In 2008 Winger wrote a book based on her personal recollections titled Undiscovered. She has shown her support for reconciliation between Arabs and Jews in Israel by visiting the bilingual Hand in Hand schools (Galilee Jewish-Arab School, Gesher al HaWadi School) where, in 2008, she stated she would "dedicate the next bit of my life to these schools".
As 2009 president of the Zurich Film Festival jury, Winger joined other members of the Hollywood film community to speak out against the arrest and prosecution of director Roman Polanski who was convicted of raping a 13-year-old girl in the 1970s, criticizing Switzerland's government for "philistine collusion" in arresting him so many years later, as he was en route to attend the Zurich festival.
In 2010 Debra Winger was co-executive producer of the Academy Award-nominated documentary, Gasland. She was also the executive producer of the 2012 documentary Bel Borba Aqui about the life and works of Brazilian graphic artist Bel Borba.
Personal life
Winger's three-year relationship with actor Andrew Rubin ended in 1980. From 1983 to 1985 Winger dated Bob Kerrey, at the time the Governor of Nebraska, whom she met while filming Terms of Endearment in Lincoln, Nebraska. Winger has also dated her Cannery Row and Everybody Wins co-star Nick Nolte.
From 1986 to 1990 she was married to actor Timothy Hutton with whom she had a son, Noah Hutton, a documentary filmmaker born in 1987. The marriage ended in divorce.
In 1996 she married actor/director Arliss Howard, whom she met on the set of the film Wilder Napalm. Their son, Gideon Babe Ruth Howard (known as Babe), was born in 1997. She is stepmother to Sam Howard, Arliss's son from his prior marriage.
Filmography
Film
Television
References
External links
Transcript of Radio 4 interview
1955 births
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Cleveland
American film actresses
American television actresses
California State University, Northridge alumni
Harvard Fellows
Jewish American actresses
Living people
Audiobook narrators
21st-century American Jews | [
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242539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20Officer%20and%20a%20Gentleman | An Officer and a Gentleman | An Officer and a Gentleman is a 1982 American romantic drama film starring Richard Gere, Debra Winger, and Louis Gossett Jr. Gossett Jr. won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the film, making him the first black male to do so. It tells the story of Zack Mayo (Gere), a United States Navy Aviation Officer Candidate who is beginning his training at Aviation Officer Candidate School. While Zack meets his first true girlfriend during his training, a young "townie" named Paula (Winger), he also comes into conflict with the hard-driving Marine Corps Gunnery Sergeant Emil Foley (Gossett Jr.) training his class.
The film was written by Douglas Day Stewart and directed by Taylor Hackford. Its title is an old expression from the Royal Navy and later from the U.S. Uniform Code of Military Justice's charge of "conduct unbecoming an Officer and a Gentleman" (from 1860). The film was commercially released in the U.S. on August 13, 1982. It was well-received by critics, with a number calling it the best film of 1982. It also was a financial success, grossing $190 million against a $6 million or $7 million budget.
Plot
Zachary "Zack" Mayo is preparing to report to Aviation Officer Candidate School (AOCS) following college graduation. After his mother's suicide while he was a child, he moved to the Philippines to live with his father, Byron, a US Navy Boatswain's Mate First Class, a drunk, and a womanizer. Zack grows up as a Navy brat at U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay and is now determined—despite his father's disapproval—to become a Navy pilot. Upon arrival at AOCS, Zack and his classmates are warned by their drill instructor, Marine Gunnery Sergeant Emil Foley, about "Puget Sound Debs", local girls who dream of marrying a Naval Aviator and who will feign pregnancy or stop using birth control to trap a man. Zack and fellow candidate Sid Worley meet two local factory workers, Paula Pokrifki and Lynette Pomeroy, at a Navy Ball. Zack begins a relationship with Paula, while Sid dates Lynette.
Foley runs the program mercilessly, and Recruit Topper Daniels drops out after nearly drowning during a ditching-escape exercise. Foley believes Zack lacks motivation and is not a team player, and when he discovers Zack has been selling pre-shined shoes and belt buckles, he punishes Zack with an entire weekend of hazing to make him quit the program. Zack refuses, and Foley tells him he will expel him. Zack breaks down, telling Foley "I've got nowhere else to go. I've got nobody." Satisfied that Zack has come to a crucial self-realization, Foley relents.
The next weekend, Zack learns that Paula’s real father, an officer candidate like him, got Paula’s mother pregnant and refused to marry her. During his last obstacle-course run, Zack has a chance to break the course record, but instead stops to encourage his teammate, Casey Seeger, to succeed. Zack attends a dinner with Sid and his parents and learns that Sid has a long-time girlfriend who was his late brother's girlfriend, and whom he is planning to marry once he receives his commission. Meanwhile, Lynette has been dropping hints to Sid that she may be pregnant with his child.
After having a severe anxiety attack during a high-altitude simulation in a pressure chamber, Sid quits. He goes to Lynette's house to propose marriage but she rejects him, telling him she wants to marry a naval aviator, and that she got her period and so is not pregnant. After Sid leaves, Zack shows up with Paula looking for Sid; after Lynette recaps the conversation with Sid, Zack accuses her of making up the pregnancy, which she denies. Zack and Paula go looking for Sid and discover that he has hanged himself. Zack blames himself and heads back to base, intending to quit, but Foley will not let him. They fight, with Zack landing several blows on a surprised Foley before the latter ends the fight and tells Zack he can quit if he wants.
Zack completes the training and is commissioned as an officer; following tradition, he receives his first salute from Foley in exchange for a US silver dollar. Zack thanks Foley for not giving up on him and says he would have never have made it without him. He finds Paula at the factory and declares his love to her, then picks her up and walks out with her in his arms to the applause of her colleagues, including her mother and Lynette.
Cast
(in credits order)
Production
Locations
The film was shot in late 1981 on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington, at Port Townsend and Fort Worden. The U.S. Navy did not permit filming at NAS Pensacola in the Florida panhandle, the site of the actual Aviation Officer Candidate School in 1981. Deactivated U.S. Army base Fort Worden stood in for the location of the school, an actual Naval Air Station in the Puget Sound area, NAS Whidbey Island.
A motel room in Port Townsend, The Tides Inn on Water Street (), was used for the film. There was a plaque outside the room noting it as a filming location, although the room has been extensively refurbished. Some early scenes of the movie were filmed in Bremerton, with ships of the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in the background.
The "Dilbert Dunker" scenes were filmed in the swimming pool at what is now Mountain View Elementary School (Port Townsend Jr High School during filming). According to the director's commentary on the DVD, the dunking machine was constructed specifically for the film and was an exact duplicate of the actual one used by the Navy. , Mountain View Elementary is closed and is home to the Mountain View Commons, which holds the police station, food bank and the YMCA, the latter of which holds the pool.
The filming location of Paula Pokrifiki's house was 1003 Tremont in Port Townsend. As of 2009, the house was shrouded by a large hedge, and the front porch had been remodeled. The neighboring homes and landscape look identical to their appearance in the film, including the 'crooked oak tree' across the street from the Pokrifiki home. This oak tree is visible in the scene near the end of the film in which Richard Gere returns to the home to request Paula's help in finding his friend Sid. In the film, the plot has Paula leaving on a ferry ride away from the naval base. In reality, Paula's home is located approximately 8 blocks from Fort Worden.
Lynette Pomeroy's house was located on Mill Road, just west of the main entrance of the Port Townsend Paper Corp. mill. The house no longer exists, but the concrete driveway pad is still visible.
The interior of the USO building at Fort Worden State Park was used for the reception scene near the beginning of the film.
The concrete structure used during the famous Richard Gere line "I got nowhere else to go!" is the Battery Kinzie located at Fort Worden State Park. The scene was filmed on the southwest corner of the upper level of the battery. The 'obstacle course' was constructed specifically for the film and was located in the grassy areas just south and southeast of Battery Kinzie.
The decompression chamber was one of the only sets constructed for the film and , it is still intact in the basement of building number 225 of the Fort Worden State Park. It can be seen through the windows of the building's basement.
Building 204 of Fort Worden State Park was used as the dormitory and its porch was used for the film's closing 'silver dollar' scene.
The blimp hangar used for the famous fight scene between Louis Gossett Jr. and Richard Gere is located at Fort Worden State Park and is still intact, but has been converted into a 1200-seat performing arts center called the McCurdy Pavilion.
The filming location for the exterior of 'TJ's Restaurant' is located at the Point Hudson marina in Port Townsend. The space is now occupied by a company that makes sails. The fictional "TJ's" is an homage to the Trader Jon's bar in Pensacola, Florida, as a naval aviator hangout until it closed later in November 2003. For years, it was traditional for graduating Aviation Officer Candidate School classes to celebrate their commissioning at "Trader's."
Casting
Originally, folk music singer and occasional actor John Denver was signed to play Zack Mayo. But a casting process eventually involved Jeff Bridges, Harry Hamlin, Christopher Reeve, John Travolta, and Richard Gere. Gere eventually beat all the other actors for the part. Travolta had turned down the role, as he did with American Gigolo (another Richard Gere hit).
The role of Paula was originally given to Sigourney Weaver, then to Anjelica Huston and later to Jennifer Jason Leigh, who dropped out to do the film Fast Times at Ridgemont High instead. Eventually, Debra Winger replaced Leigh for the role of Paula. Rebecca De Mornay, Meg Ryan, and Geena Davis auditioned for the role of Paula.
In spite of the strong on-screen chemistry between Gere and Winger, the actors did not get along during filming. Publicly, she called him a "brick wall" while he admitted there was "tension" between them. Thirty years later, Gere was complimentary towards Winger when he said that she was much more open to the camera than he was, and he appreciated the fact that she presented him with an award at the Rome Film Festival.
R. Lee Ermey was originally the main cast for Gunnery Sgt. Emil Foley due to his time of being an actual drill instructor for the United States Marine Corps at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego in the 1960s. However, Taylor Hackford instead cast Louis Gossett Jr. and had Ermey coach him for his role as the film's technical advisor. It was there where the "steers and queers" comment from Gossett's character in the 1982 movie came from, which was later used for Ermey's role in the 1987 film Full Metal Jacket.
Hackford kept Gossett Jr. in separate living quarters from other actors during production so Gossett could intimidate them more during his scenes as drill instructor. In addition to R. Lee Ermey, Gossett was advised by Gunnery Sergeant Buck Welscher, an actual Drill Instructor at Aviation Officer Candidate School, NAS Pensacola. He can be seen leading the senior class after the run.
Props
Richard Gere rides a 750cc T140E Triumph Bonneville. Paramount purchased two of the motorcycle from Dewey's Cycle Shop in Seattle. The stunt bike is on display in the Planet Hollywood restaurant, Orlando, Florida. In the United Kingdom, Paramount linked with Triumph Motorcycles (Meriden) Ltd on a mutual promotion campaign. Triumph's then-chairman, John Rosamond, in his book Save The Triumph Bonneville! (Veloce 2009), states it was agreed cinemas showing the film would be promoted at their local Triumph dealer, and T140E Triumph Bonnevilles supplied by the dealer would be displayed in the cinema's foyers.
Ending
Richard Gere balked at shooting the ending of the film, in which Zack arrives at Paula's factory wearing his naval dress whites and carries her off the factory floor. Gere thought the ending would not work because it was too sentimental. Director Taylor Hackford agreed with Gere until, during a rehearsal, the extras playing the workers began to cheer and cry. When Gere saw the scene later, with a portion of the score (that was used to write "Up Where We Belong") played at the right tempo, he said it gave him chills. Gere is now convinced Hackford made the right decision. Screenwriter Michael Hauge, in his book Writing Screenplays That Sell, echoed this opinion: "I don't believe that those who criticized this Cinderella-style ending were paying very close attention to who exactly is rescuing whom."
Release
Two versions of the film exist. The original, an uncensored R-rated cut and an edited-for-broadcast television cut (which first aired on NBC in 1986) are nearly identical. The main difference is that the nudity and a majority of the foul language are edited out when the film airs on regular television. However, the group marching song near the beginning of the film and Mayo's solo marching song are not voiceover edits; they are reshoots of those scenes for television. Also, the sex scene between Mayo and Paula is cut in half, and the scene where Mayo finds Sid's naked body hanging in the shower is also edited.
Home media
The film has been available on various formats, first on VHS and also DVD. It was first released on DVD in 2000 with two extra features, audio commentary and film trailer. It was released as a collectors edition in 2007 with new bonus material. The film debuted on Blu-ray in the U.S. by Warner Bros. and UK by Paramount Pictures in 2013, however the same bonus features ported from the 2007 DVD are only on the U.S. release. It was re-released in 2017 by Paramount Pictures.
Reception
Box office
An Officer and a Gentleman was an enormous box office success and went on to become the third-highest-grossing film of 1982, after E.T.: The Extra Terrestrial and Tootsie. It grossed $3,304,679 in its opening weekend and $129,795,554 overall at the US and Canadian box office. It sold an estimated 44 million tickets in the US and Canada. Internationally, it grossed $60 million for a worldwide gross of $190 million.
Critical response
An Officer and a Gentleman was well received by critics and is widely considered one of the best films of 1982. The film holds a 78% rating on the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 32 reviews, with the consensus: "Old-fashioned without sacrificing its characters to simplicity, An Officer and a Gentleman successfully walks the fine line between sweeping romance and melodrama". On Metacritic it has a score of 75% based on reviews from 8 critics.
It received rave reviews from critics, most notably from Roger Ebert, who gave it four out of four stars. Ebert described An Officer and a Gentleman as "a wonderful movie precisely because it's so willing to deal with matters of the heart...it takes chances, takes the time to know and develop its characters, and by the time this movie's wonderful last scene comes along, we know exactly what's happening, and why, and it makes us very happy."
Rex Reed gave a glowing review where he commented: "This movie will make you feel ten feet tall!" British film critic Mark Kermode, an admirer of Taylor Hackford observed, "It's a much tougher film than people remember it being; it's not a romantic movie, it's actually a movie about blue-collar, down-trodden people."
Accolades
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions—#29
2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:
"Up Where We Belong"—#75
2006: AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers—#68
Louis Gossett Jr. became the first African-American actor to win the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and the fourth African-American Oscar winner overall (after Hattie McDaniel, Sidney Poitier and Isaac Hayes).
Producer Don Simpson complained about the song "Up Where We Belong", "The song is no good. It isn't a hit," and unsuccessfully demanded it be cut from the film. It later became the number one song on the Billboard charts.
Soundtrack
Track Listing (Original Record)
Charts
Adaptations
The Takarazuka Revue adapted the movie as a musical in 2010 in Japan (Takarazuka Grand Theater; Tokyo Takarazuka Theater). The production was performed by Star Troupe and the cast included Reon Yuzuki as Zack Mayo, Nene Yumesaki as Paula Pokrifki and Kaname Ouki as Gunnery Sergeant Emil Foley.
A stage musical, with book by Douglas Day Stewart and Sharleen Cooper Cohen and songs by Ken Hirsch and Robin Lerner, directed by Simon Phillips, opened on May 18, 2012 at the Lyric Theatre in Sydney, Australia. The production received mixed reviews and closed after six weeks.
In 1990 The American TV Show The Simpsons adapted the Iconic Final Scene of the film in the 9th episode of the first Season Life On The Fast Lane. The gender roles are swapped as Marge Plays The role of Gere finding Homer’s Winger in the Nuclear Power Plant after fears on infidelity in their Marriage are swept away as Marge is carried away by Homer in the exact fashion as the movie. The tribute to this film has become just as iconic to the point many Simpsons fans don’t realise it’s a homage
In 1992 the American sitcom Clarissa Explains It All parodies the final scene in season 3's first episode "Janet's Old Boyfriend." Main character Clarissa imagines her mother being swept away like Debra Winger in the film by her visiting old high school boyfriend Joey Russo as Richard Gere.
See also
Conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman
References
External links
1982 films
1982 romantic drama films
American films
American romantic drama films
English-language films
Films scored by Jack Nitzsche
Films directed by Taylor Hackford
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor Academy Award-winning performance
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe winning performance
Films set in Seattle
Films set in Washington (state)
Films set in the Philippines
Films shot in Washington (state)
Films shot in the Philippines
Films that won the Best Original Song Academy Award
Paramount Pictures films
Films with screenplays by Douglas Day Stewart
Films about the United States Marine Corps
Films about the United States Navy
Films about the working class | [
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242540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tramway | Tramway | Tramway may refer to:
Tramway (industrial), a lightly laid railway for uses such as logging or mining
A tram transport system (public transport vehicles running on rails)
The tracks which trams run on (also a section of reserved track for trams)
Aerial tramway
Tramway, North Carolina, locality in the United States
Tramway (arts centre), for visual and performing arts in Glasgow, Scotland
Tramway (film), a short film by Polish director Krzysztof Kieślowski | [
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242541 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VFW-Fokker | VFW-Fokker | VFW-Fokker GmbH was a joint venture of Fokker and Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke (VFW) started in 1969 that, from then on, controlled the ERNO initiative.
The Entwicklungsring Nord (Northern development circle) — abbreviated ERNO — was a 1961 joint venture of Bremen-based Weserflug and Focke-Wulf with Hamburger Flugzeugbau to develop parts for rockets and get involved in space activities.
In 1961 work began on a small, jet-powered transport aircraft initially styled Erno-61-4.
After Weserflug and Focke Wulf formally merged into Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke (VFW) in 1964, the machine was redesignated VFW 614. The draft design was amended to a STOL 40-44 passenger jet with overwing engines, for easier operation from unprepared runways. German government subsidies enabled development to start in earnest in 1966. The first prototype started in August 1968, but then VFW and Fokker of the Netherlands formed a joint transnational holding company.
VFW-Fokker teamed with Republic Aviation to develop the D-24 Alliance Variable sweep wing VTOL aircraft as part of the AVS ("Advanced Vertical Strike").
The prototype flew on July 14, 1971, but crashed next February. Two more prototypes flew in 1972. German, FAA, and French DGA certifications completed in 1974, 1975, and 1976 respectively. The collaborative production arrangements involved Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB) in Germany, Fokker VFW in the Netherlands and SABCA and Fairey in Belgium. The first sale was to Cimber Air, which started commercial flights in November 1975.
The VFW-Fokker alliance affected the VFW 614 negatively, as Fokker needed to sell its competing F27 and F28. National subsidies were diverted to the Airbus program, and the end came for the VFW-614. On August 19, 1977, the nineteenth (including prototypes) and last machine was completed.
Few VFW 614 aircraft remained in use. Only the Koln/Bonn Flugbereitschaft der Luftwaffe continued flying VFW 614 until they finally ceased in 1998. Only DLR in Braunschweig (region) and EADS Airbus at Bremen now retain the machines for research duties.
The European Space Agency ESA in June 1974 named a consortium headed by ERNO-VFW Fokker (Zentralgesellschaft VFW-Fokker GmbH) to build pressurized modules for Spacelab. British Aerospace, under contract to ERNO-VFW Fokker, built five -long, unpressurized, U-shaped pallet segments.
West Germany provided 53.3% of Spacelab's cost and fulfilled 52.6% of all Spacelab work contracts. ERNO VFW Fokker, in competition with MBB, submitted the winning design, and became the prime contractor for Spacelab. MBB in 1981 took over VFW Fokker. The ERNO plant in Bremen continued as the headquarters for Spacelab design, production management, component testing, and assembly. Today, it is a part of EADS Astrium Space Transportation.
References
External links
VFW-Fokker Vfw 614 Regional jet
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of Germany
Joint ventures
Fokker | [
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242542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testament%20%281983%20film%29 | Testament (1983 film) | Testament is a 1983 drama film based on a three-page story titled "The Last Testament" by Carol Amen (1933–1987), directed by Lynne Littman and written by John Sacret Young. The film tells the story of how one small suburban town near the San Francisco Bay Area slowly falls apart after a nuclear war destroys outside civilization.
Originally produced for the PBS series American Playhouse, it was given a theatrical release instead by Paramount Pictures (although PBS did subsequently air it a year later). The cast includes Jane Alexander, William Devane, Leon Ames, Lukas Haas, Roxana Zal and, in small roles shortly before their rise to stardom, Kevin Costner and Rebecca De Mornay. Alexander was nominated for an Oscar for Best Actress for her performance.
Plot
The Wetherly family — husband Tom, wife Carol, and children Brad, Mary Liz, and Scottie — live in the fictional suburb of Hamelin, California, within a 90-minute drive north of San Francisco, where Tom works.
On a routine afternoon, Carol listens to an answering-machine message from Tom saying he's on his way home for dinner. Scottie watches Sesame Street on TV when the show is suddenly replaced by white noise; a San Francisco news anchor appears onscreen, saying they have lost their New York signal and there were explosions of "nuclear devices there in New York, and up and down the East Coast." The anchorman is cut off by the Emergency Broadcast System tone. An announcer's voice states that the White House is interrupting the program, but just as the President is introduced the TV and electricity in the house go dark. Suddenly, the blinding flash of a nuclear detonation is seen through the window. The family huddles on the floor in panic as the town's air-raid sirens go off; minutes later, several of their neighbors are seen running around on the street outside, dazed in fear and confusion. The family tries to remain calm, hoping Tom is safe.
The suburb of Hamelin seems to survive relatively unscathed. Frightened residents meet at the home of Henry Abhart, an elderly ham radio operator. He has made contact with survivors in rural areas and internationally, and tells Carol that he was unable to reach anyone east of Keokuk, Iowa. He reveals that the entire Bay Area and all major U.S. cities are radio-silent. The morning after the attack, they are joined by a boy named Larry who tells Carol his parents never returned home from San Francisco; he later succumbs to radiation poisoning. Despite Abhart's efforts, no one knows or finds out either the reason for the attack or the responsible parties. Rumors from other radio operators range from a Soviet preemptive strike to terrorism.
The school play about the Pied Piper of Hamelin was in rehearsal before the bombings; desperate to recapture some normality, the town decides to go on with the show anyway. The parents smile and applaud, many of them in tears. The day after the attack, the children notice "sand" on their breakfast plates: contaminated fallout dirt settling back onto the ground from the blast. Residents now have to cope with losing municipal services, food and gas shortages and, ultimately, the loss of loved ones to radiation poisoning. Brad plays with a toy that makes a noise identical to one heard in Kraftwerk's song Home Computer. Scottie, the first to succumb, is buried in the back yard. Wooden caskets are used as fuel for funeral pyres instead as the dead accumulate faster than they can be buried. Carol sews together a burial shroud from bed sheets for her daughter, Mary Liz, who also dies from radiation exposure.
While many of the children die, older residents fall to rapid dementia, and order in the town starts to break down as police and firefighter ranks dwindle. A young couple leave town after losing their infant, hoping to find safety and solace elsewhere. Carol's search for a battery causes her to listen once more to her husband's final message on the answering machine. To her sorrow, she finds a later (and previously unheard) message on the machine from Tom: he decided to stay at work late in San Francisco on the day of the attack, and she gives up her last hope that he will return home.
Son Brad, forced into early adulthood, helps his mother and takes over the radio for Henry Abhart. The family adopts a mentally disabled boy named Hiroshi, who Tom used to take fishing along with his children, after Hiroshi's father Mike dies. Soon thereafter Carol starts showing signs of radiation poisoning. Carol decides she, Brad and Hiroshi should avoid a slow and painful death from radiation poisoning and instead take their own lives via carbon monoxide poisoning. They gather in the family's station wagon with the engine running and the garage door closed, but Carol cannot bring herself to go through with the deed. They are finally seen sitting by candlelight to celebrate Brad's birthday, using a graham cracker in place of a cake. When asked what they should wish for, Carol answers: "That we remember it all...the good and the awful." She blows out the candle. An old family home movie of a surprise birthday party for Tom plays, showing him as he blows out the candles on his cake.
Cast
Jane Alexander as Carol Wetherly
William Devane as Tom Wetherly
Ross Harris as Brad Wetherly
Roxana Zal as Mary Liz Wetherly
Lukas Haas as Scottie Wetherly
Philip Anglim as Hollis
Lilia Skala as Fania
Leon Ames as Henry Abhart
Lurene Tuttle as Rosemary Abhart
Rebecca De Mornay as Cathy Pitkin
Kevin Costner as Phil Pitkin
Mako as Mike
Production
Testament was shot entirely on location in the town of Sierra Madre, California, a suburb community of Los Angeles located in the San Gabriel Valley.
Reception
Initial
Testament received positive reviews from the few critics who got the opportunity to see it. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 89% based on reviews from 45 critics.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a rare four stars out of four, and was highly enthusiastic about the film. Ebert wrote that the film was powerful and made him cry, even after the second time he watched it. Ebert wrote: "The film is about a suburban American family, and what happens to that family after a nuclear war. It is not a science-fiction movie, and it doesn't have any special effects, and there are no big scenes of buildings blowing over or people disintegrating. We never even see a mushroom cloud. We never even know who started the war. Instead, Testament is a tragedy about manners: It asks how we might act toward one another, how our values might stand up, in the face of an overwhelming catastrophe."
Christopher John reviewed Testament in Ares Magazine Special Edition #2 and commented that "Testament may not change any lives, but it is bound to change the way some people think. Considering the subject matter, every little bit will help."
Testament was nominated for one Academy Award, a Best Actress nomination for Jane Alexander.
Retrospective
Testament has had positive retrospective reviews. Screen Rant has listed the film as one of the best science fiction movies directed by a woman, noting that it "went on to inspire other speculative war disaster media such as the TV show Jericho." Jacqueline Foertsch wrote that, in contrast to "a sizable majority of postapocalyptic and science fiction texts authored by Western male authors," Testament does not "ignore the reality of nuclear catastrophe" and "emphasize[s] threats to the well-being of families." Tor.com, in a piece on dystopian science fiction, called Testament "a realistic vision of the world we might live in after the bombs drop" and "quiet, brilliant little movie." Film critic Alexandra Heller-Nicholas wrote that Testament "utilises sci-fi to communicate a political message and remains a fascinating vision of life after a nuclear war" and "it remains a powerful but often widely forgotten sci-fi treasure." The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction calls it "potent and sentimental" and notes that it "seems not interested in causes, only in effects – in marked contrast to The Day After, made the same year."
The Science Fiction Handbook contrasts the film and others from the decade against 1950s dystopian films such as On the Beach and World Without End by stating how "other post-holocaust films of the long 1950s were even more indirect in their representation of nuclear war and its aftermath: graphic on-screen depictions of the actual effects of nuclear war were rare until the mid-1980s,
when a spate of such films appeared, including The Day After (1983), Testament (1983), and Threads (1985)."
Home media
Testament was released by Paramount Home Video on Beta, VHS videocassette, Laserdisc and RCA's CED System in 1984.
The film was released on DVD in 2004 in an edition that contained three featurettes: Testament at 20, Testament: Nuclear Thoughts, and Timeline of the Nuclear Age; this edition has gone out of print.
As part of its 2013 agreement with Paramount Pictures, Warner Home Video made the film available in 2014 for purchase on MOD (Manufactured on Demand) DVD Recordable disc via its Warner Archive Collection.
See also
The Day After, television film aired 2 weeks after Testament was released
Threads, 1984 British television film
List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction
List of nuclear holocaust fiction
References
External links
1983 films
1980s disaster films
1983 drama films
Anti-nuclear films
American disaster films
American films
American drama films
English-language films
Films about nuclear war and weapons
Films based on short fiction
Films set in the San Francisco Bay Area
Paramount Pictures films
American post-apocalyptic films
Films about World War III
Films scored by James Horner
1980s science fiction drama films
American science fiction films | [
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242544 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports%20memorabilia | Sports memorabilia | Sports memorabilia refers to collectables associated with sports. Types include equipment, trophies, sports cards, autographs, photographs, etc.
A multi-billion-dollar industry has grown up around the trading of sports memorabilia. Individual items can be valued in the millions of dollars. For example, a T206 Honus Wagner baseball card was sold for $2.8 million in 2007. As a result, fakes have become a serious problem.
Monetary value
Items that have been in direct contact with a famous athlete can have significant monetary value. Game-used items such as the ball, which Mark McGwire hit for his 70th home run of the 1998 season, sold for $3 million. The most expensive piece of sports memorabilia ever sold, a New York Yankees baseball jersey worn by Babe Ruth during the 1920 season, sold for $4,415,658 in 2012. In 2016, the ten most valuable sports cards and memorabilia sold for a record-setting combined $12,186,294.
Autographed pieces of memorabilia are usually more valuable than non-autographed items. Items that have been personalized (i.e. "To Mark," Best Wishes Travis," or "Happy Birthday John") can add sentimental value. Collectors who are interested in purchasing sports memorabilia often look for a certificate of authenticity. Several companies have developed systems to prove the authenticity of game-used or autographed memorabilia, and collectors will generally seek out dealers that offer a lifetime, money-back, authenticity guarantee.
The value of a signed item will generally be relative to the profile of the signer and the scarcity of similar items. When a high-profile sports star dies, the value often rises as there will no longer be an opportunity to get more. For example, the death of Muhammad Ali in 2016 raised both demand and prices for signed Muhammad Ali memorabilia.
History
It could be said that collecting sports memorabilia goes back to the first decades of the 20th century, when many people would collect baseballs from baseball games and many asked Babe Ruth for autographs. As years passed and many other sports stars joined their sports, memorabilia collectors also began to broaden their horizons.
When the NBA, MLB, NHL and NFL began selling their jerseys in stores during the 1980s, game used jerseys also became a hot item among sports memorabilia collectors. Former NBA player Dennis Rodman was famous for taking off his jerseys and throwing them to the stands after his games were over. Michael Jordan is probably the basketball player whose memorabilia is most sought after by collectors.
The highest price fetched for a football (soccer) match worn shirt is $224,000. The shirt belonged to the legendary Pelé, who wore it during the 1970 World Cup final in which Brazil went on to win.
Popular items
Collectors like to look back in time when they are finding sports memorabilia. Items such as John L. Sullivan and Jack Johnson fight posters have sold well before. There is also a boxing glove signed by Sullivan, Johnson, Ruth and many Hollywood stars and American Presidents that has sold for a lot of money before. This glove is now on display at the International Boxing Hall of Fame.
Other popular items in sports memorabilia are "game-used" items. Game used can refer to an item worn on the field during a game, worn during the pregame, or by a player on the bench. These can include jerseys, pants, caps, helmets, gloves, shoes, or even sunglasses. Game Used can also refer to bats, balls, turf, flags, or other items used by a player on in the stadium. In NASCAR, and other forms of automobile racing, the metal from the cars, the tires, the driver uniforms, and the crew uniforms are popular collectables. Concrete from the various racetracks are also popular. Trunks (shorts or pants), used by popular boxers such as Greg Haugen in boxing fights are also popular and sometimes sell for 100 dollars or more.
In Europe, football (soccer) memorabilia is the largest market, with high-profile players shirts, boots and photos in demand. Event programmes from rugby union and football (soccer) matches are also highly collectable.
See also
Hero card
References
External links
Sports culture | [
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] |
242546 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20River | The River | The River may refer to:
Films
The River (1929 film), an American film by Frank Borzage
The River (1933 film), a Czech film by Josef Rovenský
The River (1938 film), an American film by Pare Lorentz
The River (1951 film), a French film by Jean Renoir
Nehir or The River, a 1977 Turkish film by Şerif Gören
The River (1984 film), an American film by Mark Rydell
The River (1997 film), a Taiwanese film by Tsai Ming-liang
The River (2001 film), a Finnish film by Jarmo Lampela
Reka (2002 film), a Russian film by Aleksey Balabanov
The River (2018 film), a Kazakhstani film by Emir Baigazin
Literature
The River (play), a 1925 play by Patrick Hastings
"The River" (short story), a 1955 short story by Flannery O'Connor
The River (Paulsen novel), a 1991 novel by Gary Paulsen
The River, a novel by Eden Phillpotts
The River, a book about a debunked theoretical origin of HIV/AIDS by Edward Hooper
The River, a fictional river in the Riverworld series by Philip Jose Farmer
Music
Albums
The River (Ali Farka Touré album) (1991)
The River (Bruce Springsteen album) (1980)
The River (Jordan Feliz album), and the title song (see below) (2016)
The River (Ketil Bjørnstad album) (1997)
The River, an album by Mick Stevens
The River, an album by Neal Morse
Songs
"The River" (Elgar), a composition of Edward Elgar
"The River" (Breed 77 song) (2004)
"The River" (Garth Brooks song) (1992)
"The River" (Good Charlotte song) (2007)
"The River" (Jordan Feliz song) (2016)
"The River" (Liam Gallagher song), 2019
"The River" (Delta Goodrem song) (2016)
"The River" (Noel Gourdin song) (2007)
"The River" (Live song) (2006)
"The River" (Bruce Springsteen song) (1980)
"The River" (The Tea Party song) (1993)
"The River", a song by Anathallo from Canopy Glow
"The River", a song by Meredith Andrews from The Invitation
"The River", a song by the Beautiful South from Painting It Red
"The River", a song by Joe Bonamassa from Had to Cry Today
"The River", a song by Tim Buckley from Blue Afternoon
"The River", a song by David Byrne and Brian Eno from Everything That Happens Will Happen Today
"The River", a song by Tom Chaplin from The Wave
"The River", a song by the Cult from Sonic Temple
"The River (Le Colline Sono In Fiore)", a song by Ken Dodd
"The River Song", a song by Donovan from The Hurdy Gurdy Man
"The River", a song by Dan Fogelberg from Home Free
"The River", a song by Missy Higgins from The Sound of White
"The River", a song by Imagine Dragons from It's Time
"The River", a song by Lyfe Jennings from The Phoenix
"The River", a song by King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard from Quarters!
"The River" or "River", a song by King Trigger
"The River", a song by Ladyhawke from Wild Things
"The River", a song by John Martyn from The Apprentice
"The River", a song by Parkway Drive from Atlas
"The River", a song by Santana from Festival
"The River", a song by Sentenced from Crimson
"The River", a song by Spirit from California Blues
"The River (Tongo)", a song by Mike Stern from Voices
"The River", a song by Strawbs from Bursting at the Seams
"The River", a song by Sun Kil Moon from April
"The River", a song by 10 Years from From Birth to Burial
"The River", a song by Wild Orchid from the self-titled album
"The River", a song by Hank Williams, Jr. from Ballads of the Hills and Plains
"The River", a song by Keller Williams from Freek
"The River", a song by Chely Wright from The Metropolitan Hotel
"The River", a song by Aurora from A Different Kind of Human (Step 2)
Radio stations
The River, KIWR 89.7 FM, Council Bluffs, Iowa, United States
The River, WXRV 92.5 FM, Haverhill, Massachusetts, United States
The River, WRSI 93.9 FM, Turners Falls, Massachusetts, United States
The River, WOLZ 95.3 FM, Fort Myers, Florida, United States
The River, WZRV 95.3 FM, Front Royal, Virginia, United States
The River, WERV-FM 95.9 FM, Chicago, Illinois, United States
The River, KRVE 96.1 FM, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States
The River, WSRV 97.1 FM, Gainesville, Georgia, United States
The River, WRVV 97.3 FM, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, United States
The River, KVRV 97.7 FM, Santa Rosa, California, United States
The River, CFAN-FM 99.3 FM, Miramichi, New Brunswick, Canada
The River, WRVE 99.5 FM, Schenectady, New York, United States
The River, WVRV 101.5 FM, Montgomery, Alabama, United States
The River, WURV 103.7 FM, Richmond, Virginia, United States
The River, WCVO 104.9 FM, Gahanna, Ohio, United States
Triple M The Border, 105.7 FM, Albury, New South Wales, Australia, formerly branded The River
The River, WHCN 105.9 FM, Hartford, Connecticut, United States
The River, KRVK 107.9 FM, Vista West, Wyoming, United States
Television
The River (South African TV series), a telenovela
The River (UK TV series), a 1988 television series starring David Essex
The River (U.S. TV series), a 2012 paranormal/adventure/horror series
"The River" (Cold Case), an episode of Cold Case
Other uses
The River (artwork), a 1994 fountain in Victoria Square, Birmingham, England
The River (Greece), a political party in Greece
The River (skyscraper), a building in Bangkok, Thailand
The River (dance), choreographed (1970) by Alvin Ailey to a score of the same title by Duke Ellington
See also
River (disambiguation)
River Song (disambiguation)
La Rivière (Maillol)
The Ties That Bind: The River Collection, a 2015 compilation album by Bruce Springsteen
Te Awa (disambiguation) | [
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242548 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silkwood | Silkwood | Silkwood is a 1983 American biographical drama film directed by Mike Nichols and starring Meryl Streep, Cher, and Kurt Russell. The screenplay by Nora Ephron and Alice Arlen was adapted from the book Who Killed Karen Silkwood? by Rolling Stone writer and activist Howard Kohn which detailed the life of Karen Silkwood. Silkwood was a nuclear whistle-blower and a labor union activist who died in a car collision while investigating alleged wrongdoing at the Kerr-McGee plutonium plant where she worked. In real life, her death gave rise to a 1979 lawsuit, Silkwood v. Kerr-McGee, led by attorney Gerry Spence. The jury rendered its verdict of $10 million in damages to be paid to the Silkwood estate (her children), the largest amount in damages ever awarded for that kind of case at the time. The Silkwood estate eventually settled for $1.3 million.
Silkwood was shot largely in New Mexico and Texas on a budget of $10 million. Factual accuracy was maintained throughout the script. One scene in particular involved Silkwood activating a radiation alarm at the plant; Silkwood herself had forty times the legal limit of radioactive contamination in her system.
Streep had just finished filming Sophie's Choice (1982) when production began. The film marked a departure for some of its stars: it is noted for being one of the first "serious" works of Cher, who had been previously known mostly for her singing, and for Russell, who was at the time widely known for his work in the action genre.
The film received positive reviews and was a box office success, with particular attention focused on Nichols' direction and Streep's performance. At the 56th Academy Awards, Silkwood received five nominations in total, including Streep for Best Actress, Cher for Best Supporting Actress, and Nichols for Best Director. After being out of print on DVD in the United States, the film was released on Blu-ray on July 25, 2017.
Plot
Karen Silkwood, a worker at the Kerr-McGee Cimarron Fuel Fabrication Site (near Crescent, Oklahoma), shares a ramshackle house with two co-workers, her boyfriend Drew Stephens and her lesbian friend Dolly Pelliker. She makes MOX fuel rods for nuclear reactors, where she deals with the threat of exposure to radiation. She has become a union activist, concerned that corporate practices may adversely affect the health of workers. She is also engaged in a conflict with her former common-law husband in an effort to have more time with their three children.
Because the plant has ostensibly fallen behind on a major contract – fabricating MOX fuel rods for a breeder reactor at the Hanford Site – employees are required to work long hours and weekends of overtime. She believes that managers are falsifying safety reports and cutting corners wherever possible, risking the welfare of the personnel. Karen approaches the union with her concerns and becomes active in lobbying for safeguards. She travels to Washington, D.C. to testify before the Atomic Energy Commission. She interacts with union officials who appear to be more interested in the publicity she is generating than her welfare and that of her co-workers.
When Silkwood and other workers become contaminated by radiation, plant officials try to blame her for the incident. When she sees weld sample radiographies of fuel rods being retouched to hide shoddy work, and that records of inadequate safety measures had been altered, she decides to investigate further herself. Complications arise in her personal life when Angela, a funeral parlour beautician, joins the household as Dolly's lover. Unable to deal with Silkwood's obsession with gathering evidence, and suspecting her of infidelities, Drew moves out.
Once she feels she has gathered sufficient documentation, Silkwood contacts a reporter from The New York Times and arranges a night time meeting. In the film's final moments Silkwood leaves a union meeting, carrying documentation of her findings on her way to meet with the journalist. She sees approaching headlights in her rear-view mirror. The scene fades out as the lights draw up so close that they distract and blind her, preventing her from seeing the road ahead. The scene fades in again on the aftermath of her fatal one-car crash. There are no documents to be found in the car wreck.
Cast
Meryl Streep as Karen Silkwood
Kurt Russell as Drew Stephens
Cher as Dolly Pelliker
Craig T. Nelson as Winston
Fred Ward as Morgan
Diana Scarwid as Angela
Ron Silver as Paul Stone
Josef Sommer as Max Richter
Charles Hallahan as Earl Lapin
Tess Harper as Linda Dawson
Sudie Bond as Thelma Rice
Henderson Forsythe as Quincy Bissell
Bruce McGill as Mace Hurley
David Strathairn as Wesley
M. Emmet Walsh as Walt Yarborough
Ray Baker as Pete Dawson
Will Patton as Joe
E. Katherine Kerr as Gilda Schultz
J. C. Quinn as Curtis Schultz
Production
The film was shot on location in Albuquerque and Los Alamos in New Mexico, and Dallas, Howe, Texas City, and Tom Bean in Texas from September 7 to November 26, 1982. Arthur Hirsch and Larry Cano were the producers of the film and received Executive Producer credits. They began working on the movie while graduate film students at UCLA. Their involvement in the making of Silkwood set a precedent in the U.S. Supreme Court regarding the protection under the First Amendment of confidential sources for film-makers, as is done for journalists.
Release
Home media
Anchor Bay Entertainment released the film on DVD in Region 1 on June 15, 1999. Viewers had the option of anamorphic widescreen or fullscreen formats. The Anchor Bay release is long out of print. A Region 2 DVD was released by PT Video on April 8, 2002. A second Region 1 DVD was released by MGM Home Entertainment on October 7, 2003, and a Region 4 DVD was released on October 14, 2004, by MRA Entertainment. It is in anamorphic widescreen format with subtitles in English, Spanish, and French.
The film was broadcast in high definition (1080i) on SkyHD. Silkwood was released on Blu-ray from Kino Lorber on July 25, 2017.
Reception
Box office
The film opened on a limited release in 257 theatres in the United States on December 14, 1983. It grossed $1,218,322 on its opening weekend, ranking #12 at the box office. The film opened widely on January 27, 1984, during which, in its seventh week of release, it had expanded to 816 screens and reached #1. It eventually earned $35,615,609 in the U.S. and Canada.
Critical response
Silkwood received a positive critical response. Vincent Canby of The New York Times called the film "a precisely visualized, highly emotional melodrama that's going to raise a lot of hackles" and "a very moving work." He added, "There are, however, problems, not unlike those faced by Costa-Gavras in his State of Siege and Missing, and they are major. Mr. Nichols and his writers ... have attempted to impose a shape on a real-life story that, even as they present it, has no easily verifiable shape. We are drawn into the story of Karen Silkwood by the absolute accuracy and unexpected sweetness of its Middle American details and then, near the end, abandoned by a film whose images say one thing and whose final credit card another. The muddle of fact, fiction and speculation almost, though not quite, denies the artistry of all that's gone before." He concluded, "I realize that films shouldn't be judged in bits and pieces, but it's difficult not to see Silkwood in that way. For most of its running time it is so convincing—and so sure of itself—that it seems a particular waste when it goes dangerously wrong. It's like watching a skydiver execute all sorts of graceful, breath-taking turns, as he appears to ignore gravity and fly on his own, only to have him smash to earth when the chute doesn't open."
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times rated the film four stars and commented, "It's a little amazing that established movie stars like Streep, Russell and Cher could disappear so completely into the everyday lives of these characters."
David Sterritt of The Christian Science Monitor called the film "a fine example of Hollywood's love-hate attitude toward timely and controversial subject matter." He continued, "The movie sides with Silkwood as a character, playing up her spunk and courage while casting wry, sidelong glances at her failings. When it comes to the issues connected with her, though, the filmmakers slip and slide around, providing an escape hatch ... for every position and opinion they offer. This makes the movie less polemical than it might have been, and a lot more wishy-washy ... This is too bad, because on other levels Silkwood is a strong and imaginative film. Meryl Streep gives the year's most astounding performance by an actress, adding vigor and complexity to almost every scene with her endlessly inventive portrayal of the eccentric heroine. The supporting players skilfully follow her lead."
The film holds a 76% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 33 reviews, with an average rating of 7.70/10. The consensus reads: "Silkwood seethes with real-life rage -- but backs it up with compelling characters and trenchant observations." It also holds a score of 64 out of 100 on Metacritic.
The American Film Institute included Karen Silkwood as the #47 hero in AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains and the film as #66 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers.
Accolades
See also
Karen Silkwood
The China Syndrome
Erin Brockovich
Norma Rae
List of nuclear whistleblowers
Nuclear power
Nuclear fuel
Nuclear fuel cycle
Nuclear security
Nuclear contamination
Plutonium
References
External links
at MGM.com
1983 films
1983 drama films
1983 LGBT-related films
American films
American biographical drama films
American LGBT-related films
Anti-nuclear films
English-language films
Films scored by Georges Delerue
Films about activists
Films about the labor movement
Films about nuclear technology
Films about whistleblowing
Films directed by Mike Nichols
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe-winning performance
Films set in Oklahoma
Films set in 1974
Films shot in New Mexico
Films shot in Texas
Mass media portrayals of the working class
Films with screenplays by Nora Ephron
ABC Motion Pictures films
20th Century Fox films | [
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242549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampshire%20College%20Summer%20Studies%20in%20Mathematics | Hampshire College Summer Studies in Mathematics | The Hampshire College Summer Studies in Mathematics (HCSSiM) is an American residential program for mathematically talented high school students. The program has been conducted each summer since 1971, with the exceptions of 1981, 1996, and has more than 1500 alumni. Due to the Coronavirus pandemic, the 2020 Summer Studies ran online for a shortened program of four weeks.
The program was created by and is still headed by Professor David C. Kelly.
Background
The program is housed at Hampshire College in Amherst, Massachusetts, and generally runs for six weeks from early July until mid-August. The program itself consists of lectures, study sessions, math workshops (general-knowledge classes), maxi-courses (three-week classes run by the senior staff members), and mini-courses (specialized shorter classes).
On a typical day, students spend four hours in the morning in class, have lunch together with the faculty, and then have several hours to use at their leisure. During this "down time" students and faculty members often host quasis, where they participate in an activity as a small group, such as juggling or making sushi. They return for the "Prime Time Theorem" (an hour-long talk on an interesting piece of mathematics given by a faculty member or a visitor), have dinner, and then spend three hours in a problem solving session. One of the instructors blogged the content of her class.
Many students go on to professional careers in mathematics. An occasional publication has resulted from work done at the program. Well-known alumni of the program include two MacArthur Fellows, Eric Lander and Erik Winfree, as well as Lisa Randall, Dana Randall, and Eugene Volokh. Many alumni return to the campus for a few days around Yellow Pig's Day (July 17) of each year. This observance was formalized for 2006 in "Yellow Pig Math Days," which was conducted in observance of 2006 being the 34th offering of the HCSSiM Program (34 being a multiple of 17).
The Summer Studies has been funded in the past by the American Mathematical Society and the U.S. National Science Foundation.
Notable alumni
Bram Cohen, developer of BitTorrent, co-founder of CodeCon
Matthew Cook, group leader at the Institute for Neuroinformatics at ETH Zurich and computer scientist who proved the Turing universality of Wolfram's Rule 110 cellular automaton
Lenore Cowen, computer scientist and mathematician at Tufts University
Alan Edelman, professor of mathematics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sloan Fellow
Alan Grayson, former member of the U.S House of Representatives for Florida's 8th and 9th Congressional Districts
Neil Immerman, professor of computer science at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, Guggenheim Fellow
Susan Landau, professor of social science and policy studies at Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Guggenheim Fellow
Eric Lander, professor of biology at MIT and science advisor to Presidents Barack Obama and Joe Biden, MacArthur Fellow and Rhodes Scholar
Adam Marcus, professor of mathematics at Princeton University
Cathy O'Neil, data scientist, author, and blogger at Mathbabe
Jim Propp, professor of mathematics at the University of Massachusetts Lowell
Lisa Randall, professor of theoretical physics at Harvard University
Seth Schoen, technologist at the Electronic Frontier Foundation, author of the DeCSS haiku
Steven Strogatz, Professor of Applied Mathematics at Cornell University
Eugene Volokh, Gary T. Schwartz Professor of Law at UCLA School of Law,
Erik Winfree, professor of computer science and bioengineering at the California Institute of Technology
See also
Michael Spivak
References
External links
HCSSiM Homepage
Hampshire College
Mathematics summer camps | [
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242550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Trip%20to%20Bountiful | The Trip to Bountiful | The Trip to Bountiful is a 1985 American drama film directed by Peter Masterson and starring Geraldine Page, John Heard, Carlin Glynn, Richard Bradford and Rebecca De Mornay. It was adapted by Horton Foote from his 1953 play of the same name. The film features a soundtrack by J.A.C. Redford featuring Will Thompson's "Softly and Tenderly" sung by Cynthia Clawson. Geraldine Page won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance as Mrs. Watts and Horton Foote was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay.
The film is partially set in the titular community of Bountiful, a fictitious Texas town. Although part of the film is set in Houston, Texas (as was the original play), the movie was shot in Dallas.
Plot
The film, set in the post-World War II 1940s, tells the story of an elderly woman, Carrie Watts (Page), who wants to return to her home, the small, rural, agriculture-based town of Bountiful near the Texas Gulf coast between Houston and Corpus Christi, where she grew up, but she's frequently stopped from leaving Houston by her daughter-in-law and her overprotective son (Heard), who will not let her travel alone. Her son and daughter-in-law both know that the town has long since disappeared, due to the Depression. Long-term out-migration was caused by the draw-down of all the town's able-bodied men to the wartime draft calls and by the demand for industrial workers in the war production plants of the big cities.
Old Mrs. Watts is determined to outwit her son and bossy daughter-in-law, and sets out to catch a train, only to find that trains do not go to Bountiful anymore. She eventually boards a bus to a town near her childhood home. On the journey, she befriends a woman traveling alone (DeMornay) and reminisces about her younger years and grieves for her lost relatives. Her son and daughter-in-law eventually track her down, with the help of the local police force; however, Mrs. Watts is determined. The local sheriff, moved by her yearning to visit her girlhood home, offers to drive her out to what remains of Bountiful. The town is deserted and the few remaining structures are derelict. Mrs. Watts learns that the last occupant of the town and the woman with whom she had hoped to live, has recently died. She is moved to tears as she surveys her father's land and the remains of the family home. Having accepted the reality of the current condition of Bountiful and knowing that she has reached her goal of returning there before dying, she is ready to return to Houston when her son and daughter-in-law arrive to drive her back. Having confronted their common history in Bountiful, the three commit to live more peacefully together. They begin their drive back to Houston.
Cast
Geraldine Page as Mrs. Watts
John Heard as Ludie Watts
Carlin Glynn as Jessie Mae
Richard Bradford as Sheriff
Rebecca De Mornay as Thelma
Kevin Cooney as Roy
Norman Bennett as First Bus Ticket Man
Harvey Lewis as Second Bus Ticket Man
Kirk Sisco as Train Ticket Agent
Dave Tanner as Billy Davis
Gil Glasgow as Stationmaster, Gerard
Betty Lou Gerson as Rosella
Wezz Tildon as Bus Passenger
Peggy Ann Byers as Downstairs Neighbor
David Romo as Mexican Man
Tony Torn as Twin
John Torn as Twin
Alexandra Masterson as Drugstore Waitress
Don Wyse as Doctor
Reception
Critical response
The Trip to Bountiful received a very positive response from film critics, with Geraldine Page receiving particular praise for her performance as Mrs. Watts. Variety called the film "a superbly crafted drama featuring the performance of a lifetime by Geraldine Page." Vincent Canby of The New York Times described it as a "funny, exquisitely performed film adaptation of [Foote's] own play" and wrote of Page, "Her Mrs. Watts is simultaneously hilarious and crafty, sentimental and unexpectedly tough." He added, "It's a wonderful role, and the performance ranks with the best things Miss Page has done on the screen." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times similarly observed that "Page inhabits the central role with authority and vinegar," writing, "She's not just a sweet and gentle little old lady. She's a big old lady, with a streak of stubbornness. And just because she's right doesn't mean she's always all that nice." Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times further remarked, "Carrie [Watts] is a performance, a precisely conceived and calculated turn by a gifted professional always aware of what she is doing and the effects she's creating. But the test of acting always is that you forget this, surrendering to the certainty that you have been transported back to 1947 and that dark apartment, and are then riding the bus toward Bountiful in the company of this warm and loving old woman. The film gives us an unforgettable portrayal."
Vincent Canby later included The Trip to Bountiful in his list of the top ten films of 1985.
Awards and nominations
Home media
On April 12, 2005, MGM released The Trip to Bountiful on DVD in region 1 US in both a widescreen and a full-frame format on a two-sided disc.
In the United Kingdom, the film was initially released in late 1986 on VHS via Vestron Video, while it has been available multiple times on DVD on region 2 in the UK; first distributed by Arrow Films in a standard full-frame format edition on February 7, 2005, while on February 6, 2006, it was made available via Prism in the same full-frame version. Its most recent DVD release was on December 15, 2008, when it was distributed by Boulevard Entertainment.
Kino Lorber released The Trip to Bountiful on Blu-ray Region A on September 25, 2018.
References
External links
Films directed by Peter Masterson
1985 drama films
1985 films
American films
English-language films
Films about old age
American films based on plays
Films featuring a Best Actress Academy Award-winning performance
Films set in 1947
Films set in Houston
Films set in Texas
Films shot in Dallas
Films with screenplays by Horton Foote
1985 directorial debut films | [
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242552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnes%20of%20God | Agnes of God | Agnes of God is a 1979 play by American playwright John Pielmeier which tells the story of a novice nun who gives birth and insists that the child was the result of a virgin conception. A psychiatrist and the mother superior of the convent clash during the resulting investigation. The title is a pun on the Latin phrase Agnus Dei (Lamb of God).
Synopsis
The stage play concerns three main characters: Martha, the psychiatrist; the Mother Superior; and Agnes, the novice. There are no other characters on stage. All three roles are considered demanding for the actors playing them. Martha covers the full gamut of emotion during the play, from nurturer to antagonist, from hard nosed court psychiatrist and atheist to faith-searching healer. She is always on stage and has only three small respites from monologues or dialogue while Agnes and the Mother Superior enact flashbacks to events at the convent. The Mother Superior must expound the possibilities of miracles while recognizing the realities of today's world. Agnes is a beautiful but tormented soul whose abusive upbringing has affected her ability to think rationally.
Historical casting
Production history
The play first was staged at the Eugene O'Neill Theater Center in Waterford, Connecticut in 1979. In 1980, the play further was developed at the Actors Theatre of Louisville. Pielmeier had been an actor at both of these venues and had been wanting to turn to playwriting, and he began writing Agnes in the summer of 1978.
The play opened on Broadway on March 30, 1982 at the Music Box Theatre and closed on September 4, 1983 after 599 performances. Amanda Plummer received the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play, and Page was nominated for Best Actress in a Play.
During the run, Elizabeth Ashley was succeeded in her role by Diahann Carroll and Amanda Plummer by Mia Dillon, Carrie Fisher and Maryann Plunkett. Lee Remick played the psychiatrist in the show's pre-Broadway run in Boston and was advertised for the New York run but left the show before the New York opening. A national tour was launched in 1983.
In 1983, the play was staged in London at the Greenwich Theatre. A production also was staged at the Center Stage Theatre in Baltimore, Maryland, starring Tania Myren-Zobel as Agnes.
In 1984, the play was staged in Mexico City, Mexico. The production was starring by Marga López, María Teresa Rivas and Blanca Guerra in the main roles.
The National Tour starred Ashley, Plunkett and Mercedes McCambridge. There was also a summer stock production starring Sandy Dennis and Geraldine Page. As well as another production starring Peggy Cass and Susan Strasberg.
Film adaptation
The 1985 film adaptation was directed by Norman Jewison, with a script also written by Pielmeier. It garnered three Academy Award nominations: Meg Tilly was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, Anne Bancroft for Lead Actress for her performance as Mother Miriam, and Best Score. Anne Pitoniak, who played Miriam Ruth in the 1980 cast, also appears in the film, this time as the mother of Dr. Livingston. The film version changes Livingston's last name, removing the 'e' from Livingstone.
Background
Pielmeier was inspired to write the play after seeing an article in a newspaper about an event that occurred in a convent in Brighton, New York, just outside the city limits of Rochester. Sister Maureen Murphy, a thirty-six-year-old Montessori teacher, was found bleeding in her room by the other sisters of the convent after she did not come down for meals. Sister Maureen denied she had given birth; when examined by medical staff, she said she could not remember being pregnant. She had covered up the pregnancy by wearing the traditional nun's habit. The baby was found dead in her small convent room in a waste basket, asphyxiated.
The police found ticket stubs and other information in the nun's room indicating that precisely nine months earlier she had traveled out of state to an educational conference. During the trial, the father of the baby was never named.
At her trial, Sister Maureen waived her right to a jury, and Judge Hyman Maas presided. The trial was over in ten days, and Maas found the nun not guilty of all charges by reason of insanity in March 1977.
The convent where the incident occurred is adjacent to the still-functioning suburban parish and school. The convent is used to house University of Rochester graduate students. The girls' high school, St. Agnes, where some of the nuns taught, is closed.
References
External links
Broadway plays
West End plays
1979 plays
American plays adapted into films
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242554 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20flight%20%28model%20aircraft%29 | Free flight (model aircraft) | Free flight is the segment of model aviation involving aircraft with no active external control after launch. Free Flight is the original form of hobby aeromodeling, with the competitive objective being to build and launch a self controlling aircraft that will consistently achieve the longest flight duration over multiple competition rounds, within various class parameters.
Description
The essence of free-flight is that the aircraft have no need for external control, for instance by radio. Aircraft of this type have been flown for over two centuries. They are designed to be inherently stable in flight; if disturbed by a gust of wind or a thermal current they will return automatically to stable flight. Their stability is achieved by a combination of design and trim, - the relationship between centre of gravity, wing and tailplane incidence and rudder setting.
With their much lower wing loading, free-flight aircraft fly much more slowly than the engine-powered radio-controlled aircraft that many people first think of when ‘model aircraft’ is mentioned. Most of them glide at little more than walking pace and few weigh more than 500 grams.
Usually the sole objective of free-flight competition is flight duration, and one of the sport’s fascinations and challenges is to design the most efficient aircraft within the various competition limits on parameters such as minimum weight, maximum wing area, and motive power.
Types
Free flight models may be broadly divided into four categories:
Gliders (towline and hand-launched)
Rubber-powered (pure duration, and scale with duration)
Power (CO2, Methanol-fueled glow engine, or electric)
Indoor (pure duration, and scale with duration)
When flown competitively, the usual aim is maximum flight duration. In the case of models flown outdoors, the modeler attempts to launch the model into rising column of air, a thermal. These outdoor free flight models tend to be designed for two very different flying modes: climbing rapidly under power or tow, and gliding slowly while circling with minimum fall rate. Much of the challenge in designing and flying these models is to maintain aerodynamic stability in both modes and to make a smooth transition between them. Modern models use mechanical or electronic timers to move control surfaces at preset times. Detecting the thermal into which to launch is vital and can involve several methods, ranging from radio telemetered temperature and windspeed measurements plotted on a chart recorder to Mylar streamers or soap bubbles to visualize the rising air.
Because competitions normally involve up to seven rounds during the day, each flown to a maximum flight time hard to achieve without thermal assistance; an automatic on-board timeswitch upsets the trim of the aircraft when the "max" is achieved, to bring the aircraft down safely and quickly. Locating and recovering the aircraft for further flights is an important part of free-flight. Many aircraft carry radio location beacons, and flyers will use GPS, binoculars, a compass and a directionally sensitive radio tracking receiver to assist them. A day's flying and retrieval may well involve or so on foot or on bike, depending on wind strength.
Models flown indoors do not depend on rising air currents, but they must be designed for maximum flight efficiency, because of the limited energy stored in the rubber or electric power source.
Within each category, there are different classes. Typically, there is a Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) world-championship class, a so-called mini class, an open class, and possibly any number of national or unofficial classes, for which regional or national competitions may be held. Within the competition classification codes specified by the FAI, free flight aeromodeling gets the generic code of F1, where the "F" stands for flying model aircraft in general, with the "1" standing specifically for free flight models.
Gliders
Gliders have no onboard motive power. The only energy inputs are the launch, and rising air encountered during the flight. During launch many gliders withstand 60G or more, far more than any manned aircraft is stressed to and launch speeds of sometimes over 140 km/h which energy is then converted to altitude ; this has only become possible since the advent of composite materials such as carbon (graphite), fiberglass, and Kevlar, which are used extensively in many of their structures.
The FAI glider class is F1A, also known as A/2 or Nordic glider. The model must have a projected area (wing and stabilizer) of between 32-34 dm2, and a minimum weight of 410 g. Launch is by hand tow, using a tow line of 50 m length, similar to towing a kite. During the tow phase, the glider can be controlled by letting it glide in tight circles followed by towing it up against the wind. Once the decision is taken to launch the model, the sportsman runs to make the model gain speed. When the model is at maximum speed overhead, the tow line is released and a mechanism frees the tow line from the model which then starts a pre-programmed pattern to convert speed into altitude. Modern F1A gliders can gain sometimes as much as 70 meters of additional altitude. The mini glider class is A/1 (F1H). A/1 gliders must have less than 18 dm2 total area, and weigh at least 220 g. Open glider contests are rarely flown, and most competitors in such contests use F1A gliders. Other glider classes include magnet-steered (F1E) gliders - essentially a free flight slope soaring class, and hand-launched glider (usually abbreviated HLG, and also widely known as simply chuck glider). HLGs are small models which are launched from level ground simply by being thrown hard. This is one of the more athletic of the free flight disciplines.
Rubber powered
Rubber-powered models are powered by the stored energy of a twisted elastic material. These range from the simple rubber-band powered toys available in many toy stores, up to the open rubber class, examples of which often use 200 g of rubber in their "motor". Rubber does not produce a constant power output; when fully wound a rubber motor produces its maximum torque, but this drops rapidly at first before 'plateauing', finally declining again, after which the propeller stops. Using this initial burst efficiently is vital, and automatic variable-pitch propellers help here, together with timer-operated changes of wing and tailplane incidence and of rudder setting. At the end of the power run the blades fold back alongside the fuselage to minimise drag during the glide.
The FAI rubber class is F1B, also known as Wakefield. Charles Dennis Rushing has written on the history of the Wakefield Cup. F1B models may have a maximum of 30 g of rubber motor, and the empty weight of the airframe must be at least 200 g. The maximum total area of the model must be less than 19 dm2.
The mini rubber class is Coupe d'Hiver (also known as F1G). "Coupe" models have no area restrictions. The maximum weight of rubber allowed is 10 g, and the minimum empty weight of the airframe is 70g. .
Open rubber is a popular event, featuring large models with enormous amounts of rubber crammed into them. Open models often have 50% of their flying weight composed of rubber.
The F1D (see #Indoor below) is a class of delicate, lightweight, slow-flying, long-duration (over 30 minutes) rubber-powered aircraft designed to be flown in a large indoor space.
P-30 is a common beginner's event. A P-30 must use an unmodified commercially available plastic propeller. P-30 has a maximum wingspan and overall length of 30 inches (76.2 cm), and uses maximum 10 g of rubber. The empty airframe must weigh at least 40 g.
The Wright Stuff competition in Science OIympiad is also very popular. The rules and dimension restrictions vary every year, but many notable fliers such as Brett Sanborn started in Science Olympiad. Planes for this competition usually consist of a balsa frame with a mylar-covered wing and a commercially available fixed-pitch propeller. The rubber motor is typically wound with a 15:1 winder.
The most well known beginner rubber powered models are the AMA Cub (also known in the USA as the "AMA Delta Dart"), Denny Dart, Canarsie Canarie and Squirrel. They are commonly used in workshops or for beginners to learn about construction and flying.
The Squirrel, designed by Darcy Whyte is the easiest to build. Free plans are available for download for a Squirrel.
The smallest rubber powered model aircraft was built in 1931 by a Philadelphia high school student, called the Flying Flea and was one and a quarter inches long and could remain airborne for approximately one minute.
Power
Power models are those with an onboard power source which is not a rubber motor. Frequently this is an internal combustion engine, and the engine run is limited, typically to just five seconds. Designing an aircraft which climbs as high as possible, with minimum drag at a low lift coefficient, but then must convert to a slow flying glider, is a challenge unique in aviation. However, the category also includes compressed gas motors and electric power. The FAI power class is F1C. F1C models are equipped with an internal combustion engine of up to 2.5cc and need to weight at least 300 g per 1cc (i.e. minimum weight of a 2.5cc equipped model is 750 g). These engines are usually custom made for optimal power output and often yield at more than 30,000 RPM. Many F1C models feature folding wings, to minimize the aerodynamic drag during the climb phase.
Another type of powered free flight models is CO2 (its FAI category is F1K ). These models fly using a small engine powered by carbon dioxide. This models are very light. The amount of CO2 is limited to 2 cm³, which is enough for cca. 2 minutes of flight.
Another popular free flight Class is FAI category F1J which is similar to F1C however the engines are 1cc displacement or less. These models use engines like the Profi, and other specialized manufactured engines from Russia and Europe.
Sport free flight fliers also use small internal combustion engines, and increasingly; electric motor-powered free flight scale models.
Indoor
As the name suggests, indoor models are designed to fly indoors. These models are typically very light in weight because they do not have to withstand external weather conditions.
There are a number of classes of indoor free flight models. Some are scale reproductions but others are designed purely to fly for as long as possible. These models are timed with a stopwatch.
The FAI is the international organising body for all air sports worldwide, including aeromodelling. The FAI sanctions World and European Championships for the ultimate indoor duration class designated F1D. F1D models must have a minimum weight of 1.4 grams and a maximum wing span of 55 cm. These models are constructed from light balsa sheet and strip, boron filament, carbon fibre, and a transparent covering of plastic film less than 0.5 micrometres thick. The models are powered by 0.4 grams of rubber in a single loop about 9.0 inches long that can be wound to take around 1500 turns. The average propeller RPM during a flight is less than 50 and these models fly at less than walking pace. F1D models require a large space, such as a sports hall, aircraft or dirigible hangar, with the famous atrium of the West Baden Springs Hotel having been previously used for indoor free flight competitions in the United States, and there is even a salt mine in Romania underground that has hosted the FAI world F1D championships several times. Single flight times approach forty minutes.
Although most other indoor model aircraft are also rubber-powered, gliders and aircraft powered by compressed gas or electric batteries are also flown indoors. Some classes concentrate on scale or semi-scale replicas of man-carrying aircraft. Others feature unusual flight configurations, such as ornithopters, helicopters or autogiros.
Indoor modelling is now about a century old. A history of indoor models may be found here.
Old Timers
Sanctioned in the United States by the Society of Antique Modelers , and by a growing number of "SAM" organization chapters around the world (as well as similar national clubs in some nations) so-called "Old Timer" free flight model aircraft, which can be gliders, rubber powered or engine powered models, are flyable reproductions of free flight model aircraft designs that generally originated from anywhere in the world, any time before the US involvement in World War II began in 1941-42. Scaling of the size (enlargement or reduction) of these designs are permitted for most of the event types in SAM competition, with a few specialized categories existing for reproduction models that mandate the models be built in their original size only.
In the United Kingdom, models built to plans or kits published before January 1951 are categorised as vintage and those subsequently but prior to 1960 are categorised as classic. Jim Arnott holds Winding Boy, a classic rubber model designed by Urlan Wannop.
Low-pressure, enjoyable competitions for these models generally follow the modern competition formats, with special categories for these early-design models that re-create the model aircraft events actually held before WWII, and even the "old-timer" movement has seriously begin to embrace electric-powered versions of designs originally built for the two-stroke gasoline-fueled engines of pre-WWII free flight aeromodelling. Actual pre-WW II vintage gasoline-fueled model engines, or authentically operational reproductions of them, are even used on some of the engine-powered designs, and a substantial interest exists in so-called "RC Assist" old timer free flight models within the SAM organization, which takes the engine powered designs of that era, powers them with more modern two and four stroke glow engines or brushless electric motors instead, and adds rudder, elevator and engine control from a radio control transmitter, just as would be done in the regular RC hobby.
Old Timer free flight aircraft specifications, competition rules and guidelines are available from the SAM organization online.
Scale rubber
Rubber scale models replicate full-scale aircraft. Scale documentation is used at contests to check the accuracy and compliance of the model to the full-scale aircraft modeled.
Most rubber scale models are in the 20” to 30” wingspan range. Exceptions are for "Peanut Scale" class models, with a maximum 13” wingspan and "Jumbo Scale" class models, with 36” or greater wingspan. The models are powered with loops of rubber matched to the weight of the model and the diameter and pitch of the propeller. The length of the loops often exceed twice the length of the fuselage of the model. The flying duration of the scale model is greatly increased because of the number of windings that can be made on such a long loop of rubber with multiple strands. A mechanical winder is used and the rubber is stretched up to fives times original length to pack in maximum winds on the motor. In flight, these models look just like the real thing. All that is missing is the noise of the engine in the original airplane. Experts can achieve spectacular flights from obscure designs such as the Wright brothers original and Bleriot’s channel crosser, to one-of-a-kind Depression era homebuilts and modern day experimental aircraft.
References
External links
The USA's National Free Flight Society aeromodeling specialty group
Easy to build rubber powered free flight plane
Article on building model planes - from 1934 and scanned vintage plans
Instructions on building a rubber powered scale Free Flight model
Information about Free Flight competitions (Ukrainian)
Model Flying Forum
Free flight Ontario
British Model Flying Association
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242555 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary%20Colors%20%28novel%29 | Primary Colors (novel) | Primary Colors: A Novel of Politics is a 1996 book by columnist Joe Klein—published anonymously—about the presidential campaign of a southern governor. It is a roman à clef (a work of fiction based on real people and events) about Bill Clinton's first presidential campaign in 1992. It was adapted as a film of the same name in 1998.
The book has been compared to two other novels about American politics: Robert Penn Warren's All the King's Men (1946) and O: A Presidential Novel (2011).
Klein was identified as the author several months after its publication. He wrote a sequel, The Running Mate in 2000, focusing on Primary Colors character Charlie Martin.
Plot summary
The book begins as an idealistic former congressional worker, Henry Burton, joins the presidential campaign of southern governor Jack Stanton, a thinly disguised stand-in for Bill Clinton. The plot then follows the primary election calendar beginning in New Hampshire where Stanton's affair with Cashmere, his wife's hairdresser, and his participation in a Vietnam War era protest come to light and threaten to derail his presidential prospects. In Florida, Stanton revives his campaign by disingenuously portraying his Democratic opponent as insufficiently pro-Israel and as a weak supporter of Social Security. Burton becomes increasingly disillusioned with Stanton, who is a policy wonk who talks too long, eats too much and is overly flirtatious toward women. Stanton is also revealed to be insincere in his beliefs, saying whatever will help him to win. Matters finally come to a head, and Burton is forced to choose between idealism and realism.
Identity of the author
An early reviewer opined that the author wished to remain unknown because "Anonymity makes truthfulness much easier". Later commentators called the publishing of the book under an anonymous identity an effective marketing strategy that produced more publicity for the book, and thus more sales, without calling into question the author's actual inside knowledge.
Several people, including former Clinton speechwriter David Kusnet, believed the style of writing had similarities to that of Klein. This was also supported by a quantitative stylometric analysis of the book by Vassar professor Donald Foster. Klein initially denied writing the book and publicly condemned Foster. Klein denied authorship again in Newsweek, speculating that another writer wrote it. Washington Post Style editor David von Drehle, in an interview, asked Klein if he was willing to stake his journalistic credibility on his denial, to which Klein agreed.
In July 1996, after The Washington Post published the results of a handwriting analysis of notes made on an early manuscript of the book, Klein finally admitted that he was the author.
Reception
The New York Daily News described the book as a farce and praised it as funny, truthful, and as containing "uncannily accurate" portraits of its thinly disguised characters.
The book was #1 on The New York Times Best Seller list for fiction, for nine weeks in 1996.
Fictional characters and believed real-life inspirations
Jack Stanton, southern governor – Bill Clinton
Susan Stanton, his wife – Hillary Clinton
Henry Burton, campaign manager – George Stephanopoulos
Richard Jemmons, campaign strategist – James Carville
Daisy Green, campaign media adviser – Mandy Grunwald or Dee Dee Myers
Howard Ferguson, III, campaign chief – Harold Ickes, Jr.
Orlando Ozio, New York governor – Mario Cuomo
Jimmy Ozio, his son – Andrew Cuomo
Charlie Martin, U.S. senator – Bob Kerrey
Lawrence Harris, former senator – Paul Tsongas
Bart Nilson, U.S. senator – Tom Harkin
Freddy Picker, former Florida Governor – Jerry Brown / Reubin Askew / Harold Hughes / Ross Perot
Richmond Rucker, NYC Mayor – David Dinkins
Luther Charles, minister – Jesse Jackson
Cashmere McLeod, suspected lover of Jack Stanton – Gennifer Flowers
Lucille Kauffman, adviser to Susan Stanton – Susan Thomases
Libby Holden campaign chief of staff – Betsey Wright/ Vince Foster
Related film
The War Room, a documentary of Clinton's 1992 campaign.
Primary Colors (film), a 1998 adaptation of the novel.
See also
Politics in fiction
References
External links
Random House - Book website and excerpt
Fiction set in 1992
1996 American novels
American novels adapted into films
American political novels
American satirical novels
Cultural depictions of American people
Novels about elections
Random House books
Roman à clef novels
Works published anonymously | [
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242556 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20theism | Open theism | Open theism, also known as openness theology and free will theism, is a theological movement that has developed within Christianity as a rejection of the synthesis of Greek philosophy and Christian theology. Open theism arises out of the freewill theistic tradition of the church which goes back to the early church fathers. Open theism is typically advanced as a biblically motivated and logically consistent theology of human and divine freedom (in the libertarian sense), with an emphasis on what this means for the content of God's foreknowledge and exercise of God's power.
Open theist theologian Thomas Jay Oord identifies four paths to open and relational theology:
following the biblical witness,
following themes in some Christian theological traditions,
following the philosophy of free will, and
following the path of reconciling faith and science.
Roger E. Olson said that open theism triggered the "most significant controversy about the doctrine of God in evangelical thought" in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
Exposition of open theism
In short, open theism says that since God and humans are free, God's knowledge is dynamic and God's providence flexible. While several versions of traditional theism picture God's knowledge of the future as a singular, fixed trajectory, open theism sees it as a plurality of branching possibilities, with some possibilities becoming settled as time moves forward. Thus, the future as well as God's knowledge of it is open (hence "open" theism). Other versions of classical theism hold that God fully determines the future, entailing that there is no free choice (the future is closed). Yet other versions of classical theism hold that even though there is freedom of choice, God's omniscience necessitates God foreknowing what free choices are made (God's foreknowledge is closed). Open theists hold that these versions of classical theism do not agree with:
the biblical concept of God
the biblical understanding of divine and creaturely freedom
and/or result in incoherence. Open Theists tend to emphasize that God's most fundamental character trait is love, and that this trait is unchangeable. They also (in contrast to traditional theism) tend to hold that the biblical portrait is of a God deeply moved by creation, experiencing a variety of feelings in response to it.
Comparison of open and Reformed theism
The following chart compares beliefs about key doctrines as stated by open theists and Calvinists after "the period of controversy" between adherents of the two theisms began in 1994. During this period the "theology of open theism… rocked the evangelical world".
Historical development
Contemporary open theists have named precursors among philosophers to document their assertion that "the open view of the future is not a recent concept," but has a long history.
The first known post-biblical Christian writings advocating concepts similar to open theism with regard to the issue of foreknowledge are found in the writings of Calcidius, a 4th-century interpreter of Plato. It was affirmed in the 16th century by Socinus, and in the early 18th century by Samuel Fancourt and by Andrew Ramsay (an important figure in Methodism). In the 19th century several theologians wrote in defense of this idea, including Isaak August Dorner, Gustav Fechner, Otto Pfleiderer, Jules Lequier, Adam Clarke, Billy Hibbard, Joel Hayes, T.W. Brents, and Lorenzo D. McCabe. Contributions to this defense increased as the century drew to a close.
The dynamic omniscience view has been affirmed by a number of non Christians as well: Cicero (1st century BC) Alexander of Aphrodisias (2nd century) and Porphyry (3rd century). God's statement to Abraham “Now I know that you fear me” (Gen 22:12) was much discussed by Medieval Jewish theologians. Two significant Jewish thinkers who affirmed dynamic omniscience as the proper interpretation of the passage were Ibn Ezra (12th century) and Gersonides (14th century).
Sergei Bulgakov, an early-20th-century Russian Orthodox priest and theologian advocated the use of the term panentheism, which articulated a necessary link between God and creation as consequence of God's free love and not as a natural necessity. His sophiology has sometimes been seen as a precursor to 'open theism'.
Millard Erickson belittles such precursors to open theism as "virtually unknown or unnoticed."
After 1980
The term "open theism" was introduced in 1980 with theologian Richard Rice's book The Openness of God: The Relationship of Divine Foreknowledge and Human Free Will. The broader articulation of open theism was given in 1994, when five essays were published by evangelical scholars (including Rice) under the title The Openness of God. Recent theologians of note expressing this view include: Clark Pinnock (deceased as of 2010), Greg Boyd, Thomas Jay Oord, John E. Sanders, Dallas Willard, Jürgen Moltmann, Richard Rice, C. Peter Wagner, John Polkinghorne, Hendrikus Berkhof, Adrio Konig, Harry Boer, Bethany Sollereder, Matt Parkins, Thomas Finger (Mennonite), W. Norris Clarke (Roman Catholic), Brian Hebblethwaite, Robert Ellis, Kenneth Archer (Pentecostal) Barry Callen (Church of God), Henry Knight III, Gordon Olson, and Winkie Pratney. A significant, growing number of philosophers of religion affirm it: Peter Van Inwagen, Richard Swinburne (Eastern Orthodox), William Hasker, David Basinger, Nicholas Wolterstorff, Dean Zimmerman, Timothy O'Connor, James D. Rissler, Keith DeRose, Richard E. Creel, Robin Collins (philosopher/theologian/physicist), J. R. Lucas, Vincent Brümmer, (Roman Catholic), Richard Purtill, Alan Rhoda, Jeffrey Koperski, Dale Tuggy, and Keith Ward. Biblical scholars Terence E. Fretheim, Karen Winslow, and John Goldingay affirm it. Others include writers Madeleine L'Engle and Paul C. Borgman, mathematician D.J. Bartholomew and biochemist/theologian Arthur Peacocke.
Philosophical arguments
Open theists maintain that traditional classical theists hold the classical attributes of God together in an incoherent way. The main classical attributes are as follows:
All-good: God is the standard of moral perfection, all-benevolent, and perfectly loving.
Simplicity: God has no parts, cannot be differentiated, and possesses no attribute as distinct from His being.
Immutability: God cannot change in any respect.
Impassibility: God cannot be affected by outside forces.
Omnipresence: God is present everywhere, or more precisely, all things find their location in God.
Omniscience: God knows absolutely everything: believes all truths and disbelieves all falsehoods. God's knowledge is perfect.
Omnipotence: God can do anything because he is all-powerful and not limited by external forces.
Contradictions in the traditional attributes are pointed out by open theists and atheists alike. Atheist author and educator George H. Smith writes in his book Atheism: The Case Against God that if God is omniscient, God cannot be omnipotent because: "If God knew the future with infallible certainty, he cannot change it – in which case he cannot be omnipotent. If God can change the future, however, he cannot have infallible knowledge of it".
Open theism also answers the question of how God can be blameless and omnipotent even though evil exists in the world. H. Roy Elseth gives an example of a parent that knows with certainty that his child would go out and murder someone if he was given a gun. Elseth argues that if the parent did give the gun to the child then the parent would be responsible for that crime. However, if God was unsure about the outcome then God would not be culpable for that act; only the one who committed the act would be guilty. This position is, however, dubious, as a parent who knows his child was probable, or likely, or even possibly going to shoot someone would be culpable; and God knew that it was likely that man would sin, and thus God is still culpable. An orthodox Christian might try, on the contrary, seek to ground a theodicy in the resurrection, both of Christ and the general resurrection to come, though this is not the traditional answer to evil.
Varieties of open theists
Philosopher Alan Rhoda has described several different approaches several open theists have taken with regard to the future and God's knowledge of it.
Voluntary Nescience: The future is alethically settled but nevertheless epistemically open for God because he has voluntarily chosen not to know truths about future contingents. It is thought Dallas Willard held this position.
Involuntary Nescience: The future is alethically settled but nevertheless epistemically open for God because truths about future contingents are in principle unknowable. William Hasker, Peter Van Inwagen, and Richard Swinburne espouse this position.
Non-Bivalentist Omniscience: The future is alethically open and therefore epistemically open for God because propositions about future contingents are neither true nor false. J. R. Lucas and Dale Tuggy espouse this position.
Bivalentist Omniscience: The future is alethically open and therefore epistemically open for God because propositions asserting of future contingents that they 'will' obtain or that they 'will not' obtain are both false. Instead, what is true is that they 'might and might not' obtain. Greg Boyd holds this position."
Criticism
Norman Geisler, a critic of open theism, addresses the claims that the Classical attributes were derived from the Greeks with three observations:
The quest for something unchanging is not bad.
The Greeks did not have the same concept of God.
Philosophical influences are not wrong in themselves.
An open theist might respond that all such criticisms are misplaced. As to observation (1), it is not characteristic of open theists to say that the quest for something unchanging is bad. Indeed, open theists believe God's character is unchanging. As to observation (2), open theists do not characteristically say traditional forms of classical theism have exactly the same concept of God as the Greeks. Rather, they argue that they imported only some unbiblical assumptions from the Greeks. They also point to theologians of the Christian tradition who, throughout history, did not succumb so strongly to Hellenistic influences. As to observation (3), open theists do not argue that philosophical influences are bad in themselves. Rather, they argue that some philosophical influences on Christian theology are unbiblical and theologically groundless. Consider John Sanders' statement in The Openness of God (1980):
Opponents of open theism, both Arminians, and Calvinists, such as John Piper, claim that the verses commonly used by open theists are anthropopathisms. They suggest that when God seems to change from action A to action B in response to prayer, action B was the inevitable event all along, and God divinely ordained human prayer as the means by which God actualized that course of events.
They also point to verses that suggest God is immutable, such as:
: For I, the Lord, have not changed; and you, the sons of Jacob, have not reached the end.
: God is not a man that He should lie, nor is He a mortal that He should repent. Would He say and not do, speak and not fulfill?
: And also, the Strength of Israel will neither lie nor repent, for He is not a man to repent."
: [I] tell the end from the beginning, and from before, what was not done; [I] say, "My counsel shall stand, and all My desire I will do."
Those advocating the traditional view see these as the verses that form God's character, and they interpret other verses that say God repents as anthropomorphistic. Authors who claim this can be traced back through Calvin, Luther, Aquinas, Ambrose, and Augustine. Open theists note that there seems to be an arbitrary distinction here between those verses which are merely anthropopathic and others which form God's character. They also note that the immediate sense of the passages addressing God's inalterability ought to be understood in the Hebrew sense of his faithfulness and justice. In other words, God's love and character is unchanging; this, however, demands that His approach to people (especially in the context of personal relationship) be flexible.
Literary debate
In the early 18th century, an extended public correspondence flourished around the topic of open theism. The debate was incited by Samuel Fancourt's 1727 publication, The Greatness of Divine Love Vindicated. Over the next decade, four other English writers published polemical works in response. This led Fancourt to defend his views in six other publications. In his 1747 autobiography, in response to some who thought that this controversy had affected his career, Fancourt wrote, "Should it be suggested, that my religious principles were a prejudice unto me—I answer: so are those of every Dissenting Protestant in the [United] Kingdom with some, if he dares to think and to speak what he thinks." Fancourt also names other writers who had supported his views.
In 2005, a "raging debate" among evangelicals about "open or free-will theism" was in place. This period of controversy began in 1994 with the publication of The Openness of God. The debate between open and classical theists is illustrated by their books as in the following chart.
See also
David Basinger
Gregory A. Boyd
Robin Collins
Conceptions of God
Samuel Fancourt
Terence E. Fretheim
William Hasker
Libertarianism (metaphysics)
John Lucas (philosopher)
Thomas Jay Oord
Philosophical theology
Philosophy of space and time
Clark Pinnock
John Polkinghorne
Process theology
Richard Rice (theologian)
John E. Sanders
Richard Swinburne
Keith Ward
Dean Zimmerman
Footnotes
References
Sources
Pro
Trinity and Process, G.Boyd, 1992
"Satan & the Problem of Evil: Constructing a Trinitarian Warfare Theodicy", Greg Boyd (2001)
The Case for Freewill Theism: a Philosophical Assessment, David Basinger, 1996, InterVarsity Press,
The Openness of God: The Relationship of Divine Foreknowledge and Human Free Will, Richard Rice, 1980, Review and Herald Pub. Association,
The Openness of God: A Biblical Challenge to the Traditional Understanding of God, Clark Pinnock editor, et al., 1994, InterVarsity Press , Paternoster Press (UK), (followup to Rice book includes contribution from him)
The God Who Risks: A Theology of Providence, John Sanders, revised edition, 2007. InterVarsity Press,
The Nature of Love: A Theology, Thomas Jay Oord, 2010. Chalice Press,
God, Time, and Knowledge, William Hasker, 1998, Cornell University Press,
God of the Possible, Gregory A. Boyd, 2000 reprint, Baker Books,
Most Moved Mover: A Theology of God's Openness (The Didsbury Lectures), Clark Pinnock, 2001, Baker Academic,
Providence, Evil, and the Openness of God, William Hasker, 2004, Routledge,
Creation Made Free: Open Theology Engaging Science, Thomas Jay Oord ed., 2009, Pickwick,
Con
God's Lesser Glory, Bruce A. Ware, 2000, Crossway Books,
Still Sovereign: Contemporary Perspectives on Election, Foreknowledge, and Grace, Thomas R. Schreiner and Bruce A. Ware (editors), 2000, Baker Academic,
Bound Only Once: The Failure of Open Theism, Douglas Wilson editor, et al., 2001, Canon Press,
No Other God: A Response to Open Theism, John M. Frame, P & R Publishing, 2001,
Consuming Glory: A Classical Defense of Divine-Human Relationality Against Open Theism, Gannon Murphy, Wipf & Stock, 2006,
Beyond the Bounds: Open Theism and the Undermining of Biblical Christianity, John Piper et al., 2003, Crossway Books,
What Does God Know and When Does He Know It?: The Current Controversy over Divine Foreknowledge, Millard J. Erickson, Zondervan, 2006,
How Much Does God Foreknow?: A Comprehensive Biblical Study, Steven C. Roy, InterVarsity Press, 2006,
The Benefits of Providence: A New Look at Divine Sovereignty, James S. Spiegel, Crossway Books, 2005,
Multiple views
The Sovereignty of God Debate, D. Steven Long and George Kalantizis editors, 2009 Cascade Books,
Perspectives on the Doctrine of God: 4 Views, Bruce Ware editor, 2008, Broadman and Holman Academic,
Divine Foreknowledge: 4 Views, James Beilby and Paul Eddy (editors), et al., 2001, InterVarsity Press,
God and Time: Essays on the Divine Nature, Gregory E. Ganssle and David M. Woodruff (editors), 2002, Oxford University Press,
God & Time: Four Views, Gregory E. Ganssle (editor), et al., 2001, InterVarsity Press,
Predestination & Free Will, David and Randall Basinger (editors), et al., 1985, Intervarsity Press,
Searching for an Adequate God, John Cobb and Clark Pinnock (Editors), et al., 2000, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company,
Further reading
The Nature of Love: A Theology, Thomas Jay Oord (2010)
God, Foreknowledge, and Freedom, John Martin Fischer (editor), 1989, Stanford,
The Only Wise God: The Compatibility of Divine Foreknowledge & Human, William Lane Craig, 2000, Wipf & Stock Publishers,
The Dilemma of Freedom and Foreknowledge, Linda Zagzebski, 1996, Oxford,
Eternal God : A Study of God without Time, Paul Helm, 1997, Oxford,
Time and Eternity: Exploring God's Relationship to Time, William Lane Craig, 2001, Crossway Books,
Time and Eternity, Brian Leftow, 1991, Cornell,
Travels in Four Dimensions: The Enigmas of Space and Time, Robin LePoidevin, 2003, Oxford, * The Ontology of Time, L Nathan Oaklander, 2004, Prometheus Books,
Four-Dimensionalism: An Ontology of Persistence and Time, Theodore Sider, 2003, Oxford, * Real Time II, Hugh Mellor, 1998, Routledge,
The Suffering of God: An Old Testament PerspectiveThe Suffering of God, Terence E. Fretheim, 1984, Fortress Press,
External links
– A website maintained by Open Theist Boyd
– magazine article
Evangelical theology
Christian terminology
Conceptions of God
God in Christianity
Christian theological movements | [
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242559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin%20Chancellor | Justin Chancellor | Justin Gunnar Walter Chancellor is an English musician best known as the bass player for progressive metal band Tool. He was also the bassist of the band Peach. After settling in the US, along with his engagement in his musical projects, he and his wife Shelee Dykman Chancellor ran a store called Lobal Orning in Topanga, California, dedicated to music and literature "that shaped and changed" both of them. The store closed in 2008. He started M.T.Void music project with Piotr "Glaca" Mohammed from Sweet Noise. In October 2012, Chancellor featured as bass player on the song "In the Spirit Of..." on a The Fusion Syndicate album, released by Cleopatra Records. His track also appears on the 2014 album The Prog Box.
Early life
Chancellor is of English and Norwegian descent. He was educated at Tonbridge School in Kent, England, where he was the bass player for a school band named Slice of Life and used to perform a cover version of Corey Hart's "Sunglasses at Night" in the dining room of his boarding house. The band released an eponymous titled tape featuring a song of the same name. Chancellor went on to study at Durham University. He later joined the band Peach.
Peach released an album and supported Tool in the early 1990s in England. In September 1995, Chancellor moved to the United States and joined Tool full-time to replace Paul D'Amour who departed during or after the recording of the band's second full-length album. Chancellor has been a full member of the band since the 1996 studio album Ænima.
Equipment
Basses
Wal – Chancellor’s main bass is a Wal 4-string he bought on a friend’s recommendation during the recording of Ænima. The bass’s woods and electronics help create the midrange cut and punch for which he is known. Justin also has three other four-string Wals. Justin normally plays Ernie Ball Hybrid Slinky strings (.045, .065, .085, .105)
Music Man Stingray – Used on "Forty-Six & 2", "H.", "Pushit" and "No Quarter".
Gibson Thunderbird – Used once for "Prison Sex" live in 1995/1996, when he first joined the band.
Warwick Streamer - As of 2017, Justin has his own custom shop Streamer Stage II bass.
Amplification
Gallien-Krueger 2001RB head x3 (1 Dirty, 1 Clean, 1 Spare)
Mesa Boogie Roadready 4x12 (For Dirty)
Mesa Boogie Roadready 8x10 (For Clean)
Demeter Amplification VTBP-201S Bass Preamp running direct to PA
Formerly used
Mesa Boogie M-2000 head
Mesa Boogie M-Pulse
Mesa Boogie Bass 400+
Mesa Roadready 8x10 (in place of the 4x12)
Effects
Boss TU-2
Guyatone VTX Tremolo
DigiTech Bass Whammy – Used on "Eulogy" (fifth up/sixth up harmony), "Pushit (Live)" (fifth up/octave up harmony), "Third Eye" (octave up), "Schism" (octave up), "Ticks and Leeches" (fifth up/octave up harmony), "Lateralus" (octave up), "Disposition" (fifth up/octave up harmony), "Vicarious" (octave up harmony), "The Pot" (octave up), "Right in Two"(fifth up/sixth up harmony), and "Invincible" (octave up).
Tech 21 SansAmp GT2 Distortion
Boss CE-5 Chorus Ensemble
Boss BF-2 Flanger
Boss DD-3 Digital Delay
MXR Bass Envelope Filter
Prescription Electronics Rx Overdriver
Colorsound Tone Bender Fuzz
Foxx Fuzz/Wah/Volume-Volume Pot Removed
Dunlop Justin Chancellor Cry Baby Wah
Guest appearances
Chancellor played bass on the Isis song "Altered Course" on their 2004 album Panopticon. Chancellor also provided additional sounds/bass guitar on the Isis song "Weight" from their 2006 live Clearing the Eye [DVD].
Additional bass on the title track of Intronaut's 2010 album Valley of Smoke.
Chancellor narrated on the Primus track "The Valley" from their 2017 album The Desaturating Seven.
In May 2018, Chancellor collaborated with Death Grips in the album Year of the Snitch'', providing bass on the track "Disappointed".
Justin played bass on Author and Punisher's album Krüller, on the track "Centurion".
References
External links
Alternative metal musicians
Alternative metal bass guitarists
Progressive metal bass guitarists
Tool (band) members
1970 births
Living people
English heavy metal bass guitarists
English rock bass guitarists
British heavy metal bass guitarists
British rock bass guitarists
Male bass guitarists
English people of Norwegian descent
British people of Norwegian descent
People educated at Tonbridge School
Alumni of Durham University
Musicians from London
People from Topanga, California
English expatriates in the United States
21st-century English bass guitarists | [
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242561 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griddle | Griddle | A griddle, in the UK also called a girdle, is a cooking device consisting mainly of a broad, usually flat cooking surface. Nowadays it can be either a movable metal pan- or plate-like utensil, a flat heated cooking surface built into a stove or kitchen range, or a compact cooking machine with its own heating system attached to an integrated griddle acting as a cooktop.
A traditional griddle can either be a brick slab or tablet, or a flat or curved metal disc, while in industrialized countries a griddle is most commonly a flat metal plate. A griddle can have both residential and commercial applications, and can be heated directly or indirectly. The heating can be supplied either by a flame fuelled by wood, coal, or gas; or by electrical elements. Commercial griddles run on electricity, natural gas or propane.
Griddles can be made of cast iron, but there are also non-stick varieties. A residential griddle may be made of cast iron, aluminium, chrome steel, or carbon steel. The vast majority of commercial-grade griddles are made from A36 steel, though some are stainless steel or composites of stainless and aluminium. The plate surfaces of commercial griddles can be made of cast iron, polished steel, cold-rolled steel or can have a chrome finish.
In the US the term griddle relates either to a heavy, flat metal plate provided with a handle, or to a special heated surface on a stove, and is most readily associated with cooking pancakes.
Etymology
The word griddle is attested in 13th-century English and it probably comes from Anglo-French gridil, which had developed over time from the Latin word craticula, 'small griddle' (craticula – graille – gredil – gridil), possibly via the Latin craticulum, 'fine wickerwork'. or 'fine wickerwork'
In British English it is also called girdle.
Traditional and early modern
Traditional griddles include a stone or brick slab or tablet, and a shallow platter filled with sand. The former are usually heated to cooking temperature before the food is placed on them, the latter heated after. Later versions were sometimes integrated into the tops of wood-fired cookstoves as a removable iron plate, and later as a separate, typically handle-less plate covering one or more burners on a gas or electric stove.
Middle East
In traditional Middle Eastern and South Asian cuisines, a saj is a convex griddle that is used to cook a variety of flatbread types.
Latin America
In Latin America one traditional style of griddle is a budare. Made from stone or clay, it is used to cook a variety of flatbreads, such as tortilla, arepa and casabe. Modern versions for commercial use are metal and called comals.
Great Britain
In Britain the griddle is also called girdle, and is used for instance for making scones. It can take the shape of a thick iron plate, round and held from above by a half-hoop handle.
The traditional Scottish griddle (or girdle) has a flat wrought iron disk with an upturned rim to which a semicircular hoop handle is attached, allowing it to be suspended over the fire from a central chain and hook. Girdles are used for cooking scones, bannocks, pancakes and oatcakes.
The traditional Welsh bakestone is similar, circular with a one-piece handle, typically cast iron, in thickness. It is used to cook Welsh cakes, pikelets, and crepes.
United States
In Upstate New York, a griddle used to be the lid covering a round opening on the cooking surface of a wood- or coal-burning stove.
Commercial griddles
Dishes
Griddles are often used to prepare breakfast items such as pancakes, French toast, eggs and bacon, as well as stir-fries and meat dishes like hamburgers, steak and chicken breasts.
Technical details
Commercial griddles can be 2–6 feet wide and 18–30 inches deep, and their plates can be flat or grooved. The burners on the griddle units can be controlled manually or with the help of a thermostat.
Gallery
See also
Comal
Flattop grill
Hot plate
Sheet pan
Tava
Teppan
References
External links
Foodservice Equipment & Supplies (FE&S): the FE&S website has hundreds of pages on commercial griddles. Accessed 23 Dec 2021.
"A Flash in the Pan": broad technical presentation of commercial griddles. Dan Bendall, 1 July 2006, Food Management, US. Accessed 23 Dec 2021.
Cookware and bakeware
Baking
Barbecue | [
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242568 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personalized%20marketing | Personalized marketing | Personalized marketing, also known as one-to-one marketing or individual marketing, is a marketing strategy by which companies leverage data analysis and digital technology to deliver individualized messages and product offerings to current or prospective customers. Advancements in data collection methods, analytics, digital electronics, and digital economics, have enabled marketers to deploy more effective real-time and prolonged customer experience personalization tactics.
Beginning in the early 1990s, web developers began tracking HTML calls that their websites were receiving from online visitors. In 2012, the Web Analytics Association (WAA) officially changed its name to the Digital Analytics Association (DAA) in order to accommodate new and developing data streams that exist in addition to the web.
Technology
Personalized marketing is dependent on many different types of technology for data collection, data classification, data analysis, data transfer, and data scalability. Technology enables marketing professionals to collect first-party data such as gender, age group, location, and income and connect them with third-party data such as click-through rates of online banner ads and social media participation.
Data Management Platforms: A data management platform (DMP) is a centralized computing system for collecting, integrating and managing large sets of structured and unstructured data from disparate sources. Personalized marketing enabled by DMPs, is sold to advertisers with the goal of having consumers receive relevant, timely, engaging, and personalized messaging and advertisements that resonate with their unique needs and wants. Growing number of DMP software options are available including Adobe Systems Audience Manager and Core Audience (Marketing Cloud) to Oracle-acquired BlueKai, Sitecore Experience Platform and X+1
Customer Relationship Management Platforms: Customer relationship management (CRM) is used by companies to manage and analyze customer interactions and data throughout the customer lifecycle to improve business relationships with customers, assist in customer retention and drive sales growth. CRM systems are designed to compile information on customers across different channels (points of contact between the customer and the company) which could include the company's website, live support, direct mail, marketing materials and social media. CRM systems can also give customer-facing staff detailed information on customers' personal information, purchase history, buying preferences and concerns. Most popular enterprise CRM applications are Salesforce.com, Microsoft Dynamics CRM, NetSuite, and Oracle Eloqua.
Beacon Technology: Beacon technology works on Bluetooth low energy (BLE) which is used by a low frequency chip that is found in devices like mobile phones. These chips communicate with multiple Beacon devices to form a network and are used by marketers to better personalize the messaging and mobile ads based on the customer's proximity to their retail outlet.
Strategies
One-to-one marketing refers to marketing strategies applied directly to a specific consumer. Having knowledge of the consumer's preferences, enables suggesting specific products and promotions to each consumer. One-to-one marketing is based on four main steps in order to fulfill its goals: identify, differentiate, interact, and customize.
Identify: In this stage, the major concern is to get to know the customers of a company, to collect reliable data about their preferences and how their needs can best be satisfied.
Differentiate: To distinguish the customers in terms of their lifetime value to the company, to know them by their priorities in terms of their needs, and segment them into more restricted groups.
Interact: In this phase, one needs to know by which communication channel and by what means, contact with the client is best made. It is necessary to get the customer's attention by engaging with him/her in ways that are known as being the ones that he/she enjoys the most.
Customize: One needs to personalize the product or service to the customer individually. The knowledge that a company has about a customer, needs to be put into practice and the information held has to be taken into account in order to be able to give the client exactly what he/she wants.
Costs and Benefits
Personalized marketing is used by businesses to engage in personalized pricing which is a form of price discrimination. Personalized marketing is being adopted in one form or another by many different companies because of the benefits it brings for both the businesses and their customers.
Businesses
Before the Internet, it was difficult for businesses to measure the success of their marketing campaigns. A campaign would be launched, and even if there was a change in revenue, it was nearly impossible to determine what impact the campaign had on the change. Personalized marketing allows businesses to learn more about customers based on demographic, contextual, and behavioral data. This behavioral data, as well as being able to track consumers’ habits, allows firms to better determine what advertising campaigns and marketing efforts are bringing customers in and what demographics they are influencing. This allows firms to drop efforts that are ineffective, as well as put more money into the techniques that are bringing in customers.
Some personalized marketing can also be automated, increasing the efficiency of a business's marketing strategy. For example, an automated email could be sent to a user shortly after an order is placed, giving suggestions for similar items or accessories that may help the customer better use the product he or she ordered, or a mobile app could send a notification about relevant deals to a customer when he or she is close to a store.
Customers
Consumers face an overwhelming variety and volume of products and services available to purchase. A single retail website can offer thousands of different products, and few have the time or are willing to make the effort to browse through everything retailers have to offer. At the same time, customers expect ease and convenience in their shopping experience. In a recent survey, 74% of consumers said they get frustrated when websites have content, offers, ads, and promotions that have nothing to do with them. Many even expressed that they would leave a site if the marketing on the site was the opposite of their tastes, such as prompts to donate to a political party they dislike, or ads for a dating service when the visitor to the site is married. In addition, the top two reasons customers unsubscribe from marketing emailing lists are 1) they receive too many emails and 2) the content of the emails is not relevant to them.
Personalized marketing helps to bridge the gap between the vastness of what is available and the needs of customers for streamlined shopping experience. By providing a customized experience for customers, frustrations of purchase choices may be avoided. Customers may more quickly find what they are looking for and avoid wasting time scrolling through irrelevant content and products. Consumers have come to expect this sort of user experience that caters to their interests, and companies that have created ultra-customized digital experiences, such as Amazon and Netflix.
Future of Personalized Marketing
Personalized marketing is gaining headway and has become a point of popular interest with the emergence of relevant and supportive technologies like DMP, geotargeting, and various forms of social media. Now, many people believe it is the inevitable baseline for the future of marketing strategy and for future business success in competitive markets.
Adapt to technology: For personalized marketing to work the way advocates say it will, companies are going to have to adapt to relevant technologies. They will have to get in touch with the new and popular forms of social media, data-gathering platforms, and other technologies that not all current employees and businesses may be familiar with or can afford. Companies that have been able to afford it, have employed machine learning, big data and AI that make personalization automatic.
Restructuring current business models: Adopting a new marketing system tailored to the most relevant technologies will take time and resources to implement. Organized planning, communication and restructuring within businesses will be required to successfully implement personalized marketing. Some companies will have to accept that their current business and marketing models will change radically, and probably often. They will have to reconsider the ways customer data and information circulate within the company and possibly beyond. Company databases will be flooded with expansive personal information – individual's geographic location, potential buyers’ past purchases, etc., and there may be complications regarding how that information is gathered, circulated internally and externally, and used to increase profits.
Legal liabilities: To address concerns about sensitive information being gathered and utilized without obvious consumer consent, liabilities and legalities have to be set and enforced. Privacy is always an issue, in some countries more than others, so companies have to manage any legal hurdles before personalized marketing can be adopted. Specifically, the EU has passed rigid regulation, known as GDPR, that limits what kind of data marketers can collect on their users, and provide ways in which consumers can suit companies for violation of their privacy. In the US, California has followed suit and passed the CCPA in 2018.
Controversies
Many people are concerned that companies are using too much personal information to create the personalized marketing used today by businesses.
Use of algorithms
Data is being generated by algorithms, and the algorithms associate preferences with the user's browsing history or personal profiles. Rather than discovering new facts or perspectives when one searches for news, information, or products, one will be presented with similar or adjoining concepts ("filter bubble"). Some consider this exploitation of existing ideas rather than discovery of new ones. Presenting someone with only personalized content may also exclude other, unrelated news or information that might in fact be useful to the user.
Algorithms may also be manipulated. In February 2015, Coca-Cola ran into trouble over an automated, algorithm-generated bot created for advertising purposes. Gawker’s editorial labs director, Adam Pash, created a Twitter bot @MeinCoke and set it up to tweet lines from Mein Kampf and then link to them with Coca-Cola’s campaign #MakeItHappy. The result was that for two hours, Coca-Cola’s Twitter feed was broadcasting big chunks of Adolf Hitler’s text. In November 2014, the New England Patriots were forced to apologize after an automatic, algorithm-generated bot was tricked into tweeting a racial slur from the official team account.
Internet marketing
Personalized marketing had been most practical in interactive media such as the internet. A web site can track a customer's interests and make suggestions for the future. Many sites help customers make choices by organizing information and prioritizing it based on the individual's liking. In some cases, the product itself can be customized using a configuration system.
The business movement during Web 1.0 leveraged database technology for targeting products, ads, and services to specific users with particular profile attributes. The concept was supported by technologies such as BroadVision, ATG, and BEA. Amazon is a classic example of a company that performs "One to One Marketing" by offering users targeted offers and related products.
Personalization is the term that later followed as a way of describing this evolution in Internet marketing.
Advancements in data collection and IP targeting technology have enabled marketers to deploy one-to-one marketing to individual buildings or homes using an offline to online strategy, matching customers and their devices online simply by obtaining a physical mailing address.
Other marketing
More recently, personalized marketing, also known as Individual marketing, has become practical for bricks and mortar retailers. The market size, an order of magnitude greater than that of the Internet, demanded a different technological approach now available and in use. Many retailers attract customers to the physical store by offering discounted items which are automatically selected to appeal to the individual recipient. The interactivity occurs through the offer redemptions recorded by the point of sale systems, which can then update each model of the individual shopper. Personalization can be more accurate when based solely upon individual purchasing records because of the simplified and repetitive nature of some bricks and mortar retail purchasing, for example grocery superstores.
Don Peppers and Martha Rogers, in their book on the subject, The One to One Future, speak of managing customers rather than products, differentiating customers not just products, measuring share of customer not share of market, and developing economies of scope rather than economies of scale. They also describe personalized marketing as a four phase process: identifying potential customers; determining their needs and their lifetime value to the company; interacting with customers so as to learn about them; and customizing products, services, and communications to individual customers.
Some commentators (including Peppers and Rogers) use the term "one-to-one marketing" which has been misunderstood by some. Seldom is there just one individual on either side of the transaction. Buyer decision processes often involve several people, as do the marketer's efforts. However, the excellent metaphor refers to the objective of a single message source (store) "to" the single recipient (household), a technological analogy to a "mom and pop" store on a first-name basis with 10 million customers.
Difficulties
McKinsey identified 4 problems that prevent companies from implementing large scale personalizations:
Companies are storing and collecting data - but are not able to sync and analyze the right data together at the right time.
Many marketers are looking for events and are not thinking about triggers - This means that marketers are looking for external motives for personalization, such as holidays, while personalized marketing works best when it is based on triggers - i.e. customers' own behavior.
Hierarchal companies - personalization marketing works best in agile companies, companies where there's a lot of cross-department collaboration. But most companies are used to hierarchal, strict structures that prevents data sharing across companies.
Not using adequate technology - the wrong technological solution has been implemented.
See also
Behavioral targeting
Mass customization
Recommender system
Management information system
Intelligent document
Relationship marketing
Configurator
Internet marketing
Variable pricing
Variable data printing
Real-time Marketing
Targeted advertising
Surveillance capitalism
Internet manipulation
GDPR
CCPA
References
Market segmentation | [
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242570 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth%20Westheimer | Ruth Westheimer | Karola Ruth Westheimer ( Siegel; born June 4, 1928), better known as Dr. Ruth, is a German-American sex therapist, talk show host, author, professor, Holocaust survivor, and former Haganah sniper.
Born in Germany to a Jewish family, as the Nazis came to power Westheimer's parents sent her at 10 years old to an orphanage in Switzerland for safety. Her parents were subsequently sent to concentration camps by the Gestapo, and killed. After World War II ended, she immigrated to British-controlled Mandatory Palestine. Despite being only 4 feet 7 inches (1.39 m) tall and 17 years of age, she joined the Haganah, and became a scout and sniper. On her 20th birthday, Westheimer was seriously wounded in action by an exploding shell during a mortar fire attack on Jerusalem during the 1947–1949 Palestine war, and almost lost both of her feet. Moving to Paris, France two years later, she studied psychology at the Sorbonne. Immigrating to the United States in 1956, she worked as a maid to put herself through graduate school, earned an M.A. degree in sociology from The New School in 1959, and earned a doctorate at 42 years of age from Teachers College, Columbia University in 1970. Over the next decade, she taught at a number of universities, and had a private sex therapy practice.
Westheimer's media career began in 1980 with the radio call-in show Sexually Speaking, which continued until 1990. In 1983 it was the top-rated radio show in the area, in the country's largest radio market. She then launched a television show, The Dr. Ruth Show, which by 1985 attracted 2 million viewers a week. She became known for giving serious advice while being candid, but also warm, cheerful, funny, and respectful, and for her tag phrase; "Get some". The New York Times noted in 1984 that she had risen "from obscurity to almost instant stardom." She hosted several series on the Lifetime Channel and other cable television networks from 1984 to 1993. She became a household name and major cultural figure, appeared on several network TV shows, co-starred in a movie with Gérard Depardieu, appeared on the cover of People, sang on a Tom Chapin album, appeared in several commercials, and hosted Playboy videos. She is the author of 45 books on sex and sexuality.
The one-woman 2013 play Becoming Dr. Ruth, written by Mark St. Germain, is about her life, as is the 2019 documentary, Ask Dr. Ruth, directed by Ryan White. Westheimer has been inducted into the Radio Hall of Fame, and awarded the Magnus Hirschfeld Medal, the Ellis Island Medal of Honor, the Leo Baeck Medal, the Planned Parenthood Margaret Sanger Award, and the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany.
Early life and education
Germany
Westheimer was born Karola Ruth Siegel, in the small village of Wiesenfeld (now part of Karlstadt am Main), in Germany. She was the only child of Orthodox Jews, Irma (née Hanauer), a housekeeper, and Julius Siegel, a notions wholesaler and son of the family for whom Irma worked. From the age of one, she lived in an apartment in Frankfurt with her parents and her paternal grandmother, Selma, who was a widow. She was given an early grounding in Judaism by her father, who took her regularly to the synagogue in the Nordend district of Frankfurt, where they lived.
Her father, 38 years old at the time, was taken away by the Nazis who sent him to the Dachau concentration camp a week after Kristallnacht, the "Night of Broken Glass" when Nazis burned down 10,000 Jewish stores as well as Jewish homes and synagogues, in November 1938. Westheimer cried while her father was taken away by Gestapo men in glossy black leather boots who loaded him on a truck, while her grandmother handed the Nazis money, pleading "Take good care of my son."
Switzerland
Westheimer's mother and grandmother decided that Nazi Germany was too dangerous for her, due to the growing Nazi violence. Therefore, a few weeks later, in January 1939 they sent her on the Kindertransport organized Jewish children's rescue train to Switzerland, though she desperately did not want to leave. Westheimer, age 10, from that moment on was never hugged again as a child.
She arrived at an orphanage of a Jewish charity in Heiden, Switzerland, as one of 300 Jewish children, some as young as six years of age. By the end of World War 2, nearly all of them were orphans, as their parents never made it out of Germany, and were killed by the Nazis. In the orphanage she was given cleaning responsibilities, and took on the role of a caregiver and mother-like figure to the younger children. She remained at the orphanage for six years. Westheimer, being a girl, was not allowed to take classes at the local school. However, a fellow orphan boy would sneak her his textbooks at night so she could read them in secret and continue her education.
While at the Swiss orphanage, Westheimer corresponded with her mother and grandmother via letters. Their letters ceased in 1941. Her father was murdered in the Auschwitz concentration camp in 1942. Her mother was killed during the Holocaust, but there is no information about the specific circumstances of her killing. In the database at the Yad Vashem World Holocaust Remembrance Center, Westheimer's mother is categorized as verschollen, or 'disappeared'/murdered. In addition to Westheimer's parents, all of her other relatives were killed in Nazi concentration camps.
For many years she lived with an "irrational guilt," that if she had stayed in Germany she could have saved her parents. But now she says the guilt has been replaced by an admiration for her parents' sacrifice in sending her to safety, saying: "I would not have the courage to send my own children away like that."
Israel
After World War II ended, Westheimer decided to immigrate to British-controlled Mandatory Palestine at 16 years of age. Immigrating there in September 1945, at 17 she joined and worked in agriculture at Kibbutz Ramat David, changed her name from Karola to her middle name Ruth, and "first had sexual intercourse on a starry night, in a haystack, without contraception." She later told The New York Times that "I am not happy about that, but I know much better now and so does everyone who listens to my radio program." She next lived on Moshav Nahalal, and then Kibbutz Yagur. She then moved to Jerusalem in 1948 to study early childhood education.
Westheimer joined the Haganah Jewish Zionist underground paramilitary organization (later, the Israel Defense Forces) in Jerusalem. Because of her diminutive height of , she was trained as a scout and sniper. Of this experience, she said, "I never killed anybody, but I know how to throw hand grenades and shoot." She became an ace sniper, and learned to assemble a rifle in the dark. When she was 90 years old, she demonstrated that she was still able to put together a Sten gun with her eyes closed.
In 1948, on her 20th birthday, Westheimer was seriously wounded in action by an exploding shell during a mortar fire attack on Jerusalem during the 1947–1949 Palestine war; the explosion killed two girls who were right next to her. She had near-fatal injuries; she was temporarily paralyzed, almost lost both of her feet, the top of one of her feet was blown off, and it was several months of recuperating in a ward before she was able to walk again. In 2018 she said that she still visited Israel every year, and felt that it was her real home, and the following year said that she was and is a Zionist.
France
In 1950, at the age of 22 Westheimer moved to France. There she studied psychology under psychologist Jean Piaget at the University of Paris (the Sorbonne), and earned an undergraduate degree despite not having had a high school education. She then taught psychology at the Sorbonne.
United States
In 1956, at 26 years of age and with a newborn daughter, Westheimer immigrated to the United States, settling in Washington Heights, Manhattan. She worked as a maid, initially for 75 cents an hour and later for one dollar an hour, to put herself through graduate school.
Westheimer earned an M.A. degree in sociology from The New School in 1959, with the help of a scholarship. She was a single mother, and an organization named Jewish Family Service paid for her daughter to stay with a foster family during the day, and then when her daughter was three years old at a German Jewish Orthodox nursery school, as Westheimer worked and went to classes at The New School. She then earned a doctorate at 42 years of age, as she received a Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) degree from Teachers College, Columbia University in Family-Life Studies in 1970 with the help of a scholarship, studying under Shirley Zussman. She then trained as a sex therapist at the New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center/Cornell Medical School, working for seven years under sex therapist Helen Singer Kaplan, two years training under her and five years training others.
Westheimer became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1965. She married, for the third time, in 1967. She regained her German citizenship in 2007 through the German Citizenship Project that enabled descendants of Germans deprived of their citizenship during Nazi rule to reclaim their citizenship without losing the citizenship of their home country.
Early career
After receiving her doctorate, Westheimer briefly worked for Planned Parenthood in Harlem training women to teach sex education, and this experience encouraged her to continue studying human sexuality. She went on to work as a postdoctoral researcher at New York-Presbyterian Hospital. She continued to work there as an adjunct associate professor for five years. She also taught at Lehman College, Brooklyn College, Hunter College, Adelphi University, Columbia University, Yale University, Princeton University, New York University, New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center/Weill Cornell Medicine, and West Point. In addition, she treated sex therapy patients in a private practice, on East 73rd Street on the Upper East Side of Manhattan.
Media career
Described as "Grandma Freud" and the "Sister Wendy of Sexuality", Dr. Ruth helped revolutionize talk about sex and sexuality on radio and television, advocating for speaking openly about sexual issues. She fielded questions ranging from women who did not have orgasms, to the best time of day to have sex (the morning), to men with premature ejaculations, to foreplay, to oral sex, to sexual fantasies ("embrace them"; "If you want to believe that a whole football team is in bed with you, that's fine"), to masturbation, to erections, to sexual positions, to the G-spot. She stressed that: "anything that two consenting adults do in the privacy of their bedroom or kitchen floor is all right with me." Asked a question as to having sex with an animal, she responded: "I'm not a veterinarian." She spoke out against engaging in any sexual activity under pressure, and against pedophilia. She spoke out strongly in favor of having sex, in favor of contraception being used, in favor of the availability of abortion as an aid for contraception failures, in favor of sex within relationships rather than one-night stands, in favor of funding for Planned Parenthood, and in favor of research on AIDS, and educated her listeners about sexually transmitted diseases. She became known for giving serious advice while being candid and funny, but warm, cheerful, and respectful; and for her tag phrase: "Get some". Journalist Joyce Wadler described her as a "world class charmer."
One journalist described her voice as "a cross between Henry Kissinger and Minnie Mouse". She was noted for having "an accent only a psychologist could love", one that was "dripping chicken soup."
The New York Times noted in 1984 that on radio the 55-year-old had risen "from obscurity to almost instant stardom." Journalist Jeannette Catsoulis wrote later in The New York Times, "It’s hard to explain how revolutionary her humor, candor and sexual explicitness seemed for the time."
1980-89
Dr. Ruth's media career began in 1980 when she was 52 years old, and her radio show, Sexually Speaking, debuted on WYNY-FM in New York City. In it, she answered questions called in by listeners, and the show ultimately became nationally syndicated. She was offered the opportunity after she gave a lecture to New York broadcasters about the need for sex education programming to help deal with issues of contraception and unwanted pregnancies. Betty Elam, the community affairs manager at WYNY, was impressed with her talk and offered Westheimer $25 per week to make Sexually Speaking, which started as a 15-minute show airing every Sunday at midnight, which was historically a dead time.
By 1981, as the show attracted 250,000 listeners every week despite the network not doing any promotion for it—growing simply by word of mouth, it was extended to be one hour long on Sunday nights, starting at 10 pm. It was soon picked up by 90 stations across the United States, and it ran for a decade. The show broke taboos of the time, about speaking publicly and explicitly about sex. The New York Times described it as one of the station's "oddest shows," and among its biggest draws. A New York University professor of human sexuality made listening to her show a class assignment. When the station offered a "Dr. Ruth T-shirt" ("Sex on Sunday? You Bet!"), it received 3,500 orders.
By 1982, her show was WYNY's top-rated phone-in talk show. Singer Pattie Brooks recorded a song as an ode to her, "Dr. Ruth," with a trendy, dance-rock tinged, high pressure beat.
By 1983 her show was the top-rated radio show in the area, in the country's largest radio market. In 1984 NBC Radio began syndicating the radio program nationwide—it is now heard in 93 markets . She went on to produce her radio show until 1990.
In 1984, Westheimer began hosting several television programs on the Lifetime TV network, and one in syndication. Her first show was Good Sex! With Dr. Ruth Westheimer, airing for a half hour at 10 pm on weeknights. She would end each show by reminding her audience: "Have good sex!"
The show was expanded in 1985 to a full hour, and its name was changed to The Dr. Ruth Show. During each of her live shows, 3,000 callers tried to get through, and the show attracted an average of 450,000 viewers a night, double the audience previously watching at that hour, and attracted more viewers than any other show on Lifetime; that number rose to 2 million homes a week. In April 1985 she appeared on the cover of People. That year she also appeared as an actress in the French romantic comedy film Une Femme ou Deux (One Woman or Two), starring Gérard Depardieu and Sigourney Weaver, playing the part of a wealthy philanthropist.
Dr. Ruth's Game of Good Sex was released in 1985. A Baltimore distributor said: "I'm going to have to compare this to Trivial Pursuit. The orders overshadow anything we've had in our company's 100-year history." Dr. Ruth's Computer Game of Good Sex was a hit, released in 1986 for the Commodore 64, DOS, and Apple II. In addition, she gave an interview in the January 1986 issue of Playboy.
In 1987 she began a separate half-hour syndicated series on many broadcast stations called Ask Dr. Ruth, which was co-hosted by Larry Angelo. Westheimer's friend Eleanor Bergstein, the writer of the 1987 romantic drama dance film Dirty Dancing, attempted to cast her to play Mrs. Schumacher in the film (with Joel Grey as her husband). However, Westheimer backed out when she learned the role involved her playing a thief.
She appeared on a TV Guide cover in 1988. Dr. Ruth returned to the Lifetime network in 1988 with The All New Dr. Ruth Show. That was followed in 1989 by two teen advice shows called What's Up, Dr. Ruth?, and a call-in show, You're on the Air with Dr. Ruth in 1990. That year she also appeared in an episode of the television series Tall Tales & Legends as the "Mysterious Stranger."
During the 1980s "Dr. Ruth" became a household name and a major cultural figure; during the 1980s and 1990s she made frequent guest appearances on several network television shows, including Late Night with David Letterman, and appeared on talk shows on German television. She was portrayed on Saturday Night Live by Mary Gross in "Saturday Night News" four times in 1983, and twice in 1984, and was a guest on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson twice in 1982, once in 1983, three times in 1984, twice in 1985 - in addition to being impersonated in a "Mighty Carson Art Players" sketch, and once in 1986, on Joan Rivers: Can We Talk? twice in 1986, seven times as a panelist on the game show The New Hollywood Squares in 1986–87, on The Arsenio Hall Show once in 1989, on The Joan Rivers Show once in 1989, and on Live with Kelly and Ryan in both 1989 and 1990. In 1987, she made a TV commercial for Signal mouthwash.
1990-99
In 1993, Westheimer and Israeli TV host Arad Nir hosted a talk show in Hebrew titled Min Tochnit, on the newly opened Israeli Channel 2. The show was similar to her US Sexually Speaking show. The name of the show, Min Tochnit, is a play on words: literally "Kind of a program", but "Min" (מין) in Hebrew also means "sex" and "gender". 1993 and 1994 saw the publication of "Dr. Ruth's Good Sex Night-to-Night Calendar."
In 1994, she appeared in a computer game, an interactive CD-ROM adaptation of Dr. Ruth's Encyclopedia of Sex released for Windows and the Phillips CD-i.
In 1995 she hosted a series of Playboy instructional videos entitled "Making Love." She also wrote a column distributed both nationally and internationally by the King Features Syndicate. In 1996, she co-authored Heavenly Sex, on Judaism and sex, in which she wrote: "The great rabbi Simeon ben-Halafta called the penis the great peacemaker of the home." She refers to the Book of Ruth as encouraging single women to initiate sex (providing the relationship leads to marriage), cites a Talmudic mandate that an unemployed man must make love to his wife every day, and mentions the writings of a 12th-century rabbi who suggested that couples use different positions while having sex.
In the 1990s Westheimer was a guest star in 1992 on the television soap opera One Life to Live, and appeared as herself in "Dr. Ruth" of a 1993 episode of the sci-fi drama series Quantum Leap. She appeared on the BBC radio show Desert Island Discs in 1990, on The Arsenio Hall Show once in 1990, once in 1991, once in 1993, and once in 1994, on The Howard Stern Show once in 1991, on Late Night with Conan O'Brien once in 1994, twice in 1995, three times in 1996, and once in 1997, on The Daily Show once in 1998, and was featured in a Celebrity Deathmatch episode in 1999.
Dr. Ruth also appeared in several commercial advertisements, including a 1990 commercial for Clairol Herbal Essences shampoo and body wash, a 1991 Pepsi commercial (along with Annette Funicello, Frankie Avalon, Bo Jackson, and Gilbert Gottfried), and a 1994 Honda Prelude ad.
2000-09
In 2000 she appeared on Grammy Award winner Tom Chapin's album This Pretty Planet, in the song "Two Kinds of Seagulls", in which she and Chapin sing in a duet of various animals that reproduce sexually. "It takes two to tingle" says the song. That year, she also made a TV commercial for Entenmann's Raspberry Danish Twist.
Between 2001 and 2007, Westheimer made regular appearances on the PBS children's television series Between the Lions as "Dr. Ruth Wordheimer" in a spoof of her therapist role, in which she helps anxious readers and spellers overcome their fear of long words. In 2002, she received a nomination for a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children, for Timeless Tales and Music of Our Time. In 2003–04, she made 10 appearances as a panelist on the game show Hollywood Squares.
In 2004 she made a guest appearance on Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!, an NPR news panel game, and in 2007 she appeared on Live with Regis and Kelly. In January 2009, the 55th anniversary issue of Playboy magazine included Westheimer as #13 in a list of the 55 most important people in sex from the past 55 years. That year, Vanity Fair named her one of "12 women who changed the way we look at sex." She also appeared in the 2009 documentary Hugh Hefner: Playboy, Activist and Rebel.
2010-present
In 2011, interior designer Nate Berkus hosted her on The Nate Berkus Show, after redoing the living room and dining room of her Manhattan apartment, in which she had lived for 50 years, to reduce clutter. She appeared as a guest on The Doctors in 2011 and 2012, on Joy Behar: Say Anything! in 2012, on Rachael Ray in 2013 and 2015, and on The Today Show in 2015 and 2019.
Not slowing down, in 2018 she wrote three books. In 2019, she published her 45th book on sex and sexuality. On her 91st birthday, June 4, 2019, Westheimer appeared as a guest on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, and she visited Ellen's show again in November 2019, taking questions from the audience, and was also a guest in November 2020. In 2019, Westheimer also appeared as a guest on Late Night with Seth Meyers, The View, The Today Show, and twice on Strahan, Sara and Keke. She also has over 100,000 followers on Twitter.
Speaking of the Holocaust in 2021, Westheimer said: "We must keep saying to the young people, 'Think of these words — never again! Never again!' All of this must never happen again."
Other activities
Westheimer has delivered commencement speeches at the Hebrew Union College seminary, Lehman College of the City University of New York and, in 2004, at Trinity College, where she has been awarded honorary degrees. She also was the guest speaker at the Bronx High School of Science in New York in commemoration of Yom HaShoah 2008, and received an honorary Bronx High School of Science diploma.
Westheimer is an accomplished ethnographer. Her studies in this field include the Ethiopian Jews, Papua New Guinea's Trobriand Islanders, and the Druze, a sect originating from Shia Islam now residing in Israel, Syria, and Lebanon. The latter were the subject of her 2007 PBS documentary The Olive and the Tree: The Secret Strength of the Druze, and a book of the same title. She was also the Executive Producer for PBS documentaries Surviving Salvation and No Missing Link, Shifting Sands: Bedouin Women at the Crossroads, and The Unknown Face of Islam (on the Circassians).
Westheimer is a board member of the Museum of Jewish Heritage: A Living Memorial to the Holocaust in Lower Manhattan in New York City. She was also made a fellow of the New York Academy of Medicine, which is an honor for a non-physician.
Play and documentary on Dr. Ruth's life
In October 2013 the one-woman play Becoming Dr. Ruth, written by Mark St. Germain and directed by Julianne Boyd and set in 1997, opened Off Broadway at the Westside Theatre. Actress Debra Jo Rupp played the role of Dr. Ruth. The play showcased the sex therapist's life from fleeing the Nazis in the Kindertransport and joining the Haganah in Jerusalem as a scout and sniper, to her struggles to succeed as a single mother coming to America. Eileen DeSandre played Dr. Ruth in the Virginia Repertory Theatre production of Becoming Dr. Ruth. In 2021, actress Tovah Feldshuh has played Dr. Ruth.
In 2019, the documentary Ask Dr. Ruth directed by Ryan White was in theaters, and was made available on Hulu, as she approached her 90th birthday. it won a 4th Critics' Choice Documentary Award in 2019 as "Most Compelling Living Subject of a Documentary," and was a 19th AARP Movies for Grownups Awards nominee in 2019 for "Best Documentary." Having previously avoided discussing her early years and how the Holocaust affected her family and herself, Westheimer believed that current events made it necessary for her to "stand up and be counted." She said that seeing child refugees being separated from their parents upset her, because her own story was reflected in what they were going through.
Accolades
In 2008 Westheimer's name was added to the Bronx Walk of Fame (as the first “Honorary Bronxite,” chosen for contributions to the life of the borough). In 2010 she was made a member of the Women in Technology International Hall of Fame. In 2017 she was inducted into the German-American Hall of Fame. In 2019, she was inducted into the Radio Hall of Fame.
Westheimer was named 1983 Jewish Woman of Achievement by a consortium of organizations connected with the Federation of Jewish Philanthropies in New York, received the 1986 Mayor's Liberty Award from New York City Mayor Ed Koch, was given the 1987 Motion Picture Theater Bookers Association Star of Tomorrow Award, her show The All New Dr. Ruth Show won a 1988 Ace Award, and was awarded the 1994 Magnus Hirschfeld Medal and the 1995 American Academy of Clinical Sexology Medal of Sexology. In 2002, she received the Ellis Island Medal of Honor, as well as the Leo Baeck Medal for her humanitarian work promoting tolerance and social justice, in 2006 the Columbia University Teacher's College Medal For Distinguished Services, in 2012 the National Alliance on Mental Illness Yale Mental Health Research Advocacy Award, in 2013 the Planned Parenthood Margaret Sanger Award, and in 2019 the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany and the James Parks Morton Interfaith Award.
In 2000 Westheimer received an honorary doctorate from Hebrew Union College, in 2001 an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Lehman College, in 2008 an honorary doctorate from Westfield State University, in 2014 an honorary Doctor of Humanities degree from Trinity College in Connecticut, and in 2019 an honorary doctorate from Ben Gurion University of the Negev (she remarked: "I wish I had met Ben Gurion. He was short.").
Personal life
Westheimer has been married three times, the first two times briefly. She said each of her marriages played an important role in her relationship advice, but after two divorces, it was her third marriage, at age 22 to fellow Holocaust survivor Manfred 'Fred' Westheimer, that was the "real marriage". She met Fred on a ski tow in the Catskills. Fred, too, had escaped Nazi Germany. When Diane Sawyer, interviewing the couple for the TV show 60 Minutes asked her husband about their sex life, he answered, "The shoemaker's children have no shoes." Their marriage lasted 36 years, until his death in 1997.
She has two children, both of whom have doctorates, Miriam Yael Westheimer, who lived in Israel for six years and later married Joel Henry Einleger, and Joel Westheimer, a professor at the University of Ottawa, and four grandchildren. She said: "I was so short - 4 feet 7 inches - that I couldn't believe that anything could grow inside of me."
She speaks English, German, French, and Hebrew.
In December 2014, Westheimer was a guest at a wedding in the Bronx. The groom, Rabbi Benjamin Goldschmidt, was the great-grandson of the woman who had helped rescue Westheimer from Nazi Germany.
Among her concerns in the 21st century have been loneliness of people.
Westheimer still lives in the cluttered three-bedroom apartment on 190th Street "in Washington Heights where she raised her two children and became famous, in that order." She has stayed there, she said in 1995, to be near the two synagogues of which she is a member (one of which is the Reform synagogue the Hebrew Tabernacle Congregation of Washington Heights, and the other of which is Conservative Synagogue Adath Israel of Riverdale; she used to also be a member of the Orthodox synagogue Ohav Shalom until it closed), the YMHA of Washington Heights and Inwood of which she was president for 11 years, and a "still sizable community of German Jewish World War II refugees." She explained: "Because of my experience with the Holocaust, I don't like to lose friends."
Bibliography
Filmography
Electric Dreams (1984); science fiction romantic comedy; cast as herself as talk show host
Une Femme ou Deux (One Woman or Two) (1985); comedy romance starring Gérard Depardieu and Sigourney Weaver; cast as Mrs. Heffner
Quantum Leap (TV, 1985) "Dr. Ruth" (season 5, episode 14); science fiction; cast as herself
Forever, Lulu (1987), comedy mystery starring Hanna Schygulla, Deborah Harry, and Alec Baldwin; cast as herself
The Emperor's New Clothes: An All-Star Illustrated Retelling of the Classic Fairy Tale (1998); cast as the Imperial Physician (voice)
The History of Sex (1999); documentary, interview
Inside Deep Throat (2005) documentary about the pornographic film Deep Throat, and its effects on American society; as herself
Lipshitz Saves the World (2007); comedy starring Leslie Nielsen; cast as herself
Ask Dr. Ruth (2019; Sundance Film Festival); documentary directed by Ryan White follows Westheimer as she reflects on her life and career
References
External links
Dr. Ruth's Encyclopedia of Sex
Introduction to Sexually Speaking Radio Show
"Arsenio Hall and Dr. Ruth visit Condomania," December 22, 2006 (video)
"At Home With Dr. Ruth," November 29, 2013, The New York Times (video)
"Oral history interview" with Dr. Ruth by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, June 14, 2010 (audio).
1928 births
Adelphi University faculty
American ethnographers
American feminists
American people of German-Jewish descent
American relationships and sexuality writers
American sex educators
American talk radio hosts
American voice actresses
American women academics
American women non-fiction writers
American Zionists
Brooklyn College faculty
Celebrity doctors
Educators from New York City
German emigrants to Mandatory Palestine
German emigrants to France
German emigrants to the United States
German ethnographers
German radio personalities
German sex educators
German women academics
German women educators
German women non-fiction writers
German women television presenters
German Zionists
Haganah members
Israeli emigrants to France
Israeli people wounded in the 1947–1949 Palestine war
Jewish American academics
Jewish American writers
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to Mandatory Palestine
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to Switzerland
Jewish feminists
Jewish German writers
Jewish women writers
Kibbutzniks
Kindertransport refugees
Lehman College faculty
Living people
Military snipers
Naturalized citizens of the United States
New York University faculty
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
People associated with Planned Parenthood
People from Appenzell Ausserrhoden
People from Frankfurt
People from Jerusalem
People from Karlstadt am Main
People from Northern District (Israel)
People from Washington Heights, Manhattan
People who lost German citizenship
Princeton University faculty
Psychology educators
Radio personalities from New York City
Sex therapists
Swiss emigrants to Israel
Teachers College, Columbia University alumni
Teachers College, Columbia University faculty
Television people from Frankfurt
The New School alumni
United States Military Academy faculty
University of Paris alumni
University of Paris faculty
Weill Medical College of Cornell University faculty
Women in war
Women radio presenters
Women soldiers
Writers from Frankfurt
Yale University faculty
20th-century American Jews
20th-century American women
20th-century German educators
20th-century German women writers
21st-century American Jews
21st-century American women
21st-century German educators
21st-century German women writers | [
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242571 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesdale | Chesdale | Chesdale is a New Zealand brand of processed cheese product made. It is well known for its animated television advertising, with a jingle sung by two cartoon characters, Ches and Dale, wearing gumboots and black singlets.
Chesdale is produced by Fonterra and distributed widely in New Zealand supermarkets. The brand has been distributed internationally with varieties such as Chocolate Cheese being produced from 2005 for the Asian market, where Chesdale is worth $25 million per annum.
Television advertisement
The advertisement was created by art director Don Couldrey and copywriter Robert Merlyn Jenkins in 1969. It is considered an example of Kiwiana, and has been semi-seriously proffered as an icon of New Zealand culture.
References
External links
Chesdale official site
New Zealand cheeses
Processed cheese | [
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242572 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mingus%20Mountain | Mingus Mountain | Mingus Mountain () is a mountain located in the U.S. state of Arizona in the Black Hills mountain range. It is located within the Prescott National Forest traversed by State Route 89A approximately midway between Cottonwood and Prescott. The summit can be reached via Forest Service roads that branch off from State Route 89A. From the mountain, there are views of the Verde Valley, Sycamore Canyon Wilderness and the towns of Cottonwood, Jerome, and Clarkdale. The Woodchute Wilderness, north of the summit of 89A, also offers views and hiking trails. There are several National Forest campgrounds in the area and it is the transmitter location for Prescott full-service television station KAZT-TV and several low-power television stations serving Cottonwood, Clarkdale, Camp Verde and Prescott Valley. Mingus Mountain is also the premier flying site of the Arizona Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association.
According to the book, Roadside History of Arizona, by Marshall Trimble, "Mingus Mountain was named for Joseph and Jacob Mingus, two brothers who settled in the area in the 1880s and later operated a sawmill near the base of the mountain". Another source attributes the name to William Mingus (d. 1911, Prescott, Arizona), a pioneer prospector who lived and worked on Mingus Mountain in the 1870s.
The Mingus Lookout Complex is a complex of fire tower and associated buildings at the top of the mountain, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
References
External links
The ACA Retreat on Mingus Mountain
Mountains of Arizona
Landforms of Yavapai County, Arizona
Prescott National Forest
Mountains of Yavapai County, Arizona | [
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242573 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skellig%20Michael | Skellig Michael | Skellig Michael ( ), also called Great Skellig ( ), is a twin-pinnacled crag west of the Iveragh Peninsula in County Kerry, Ireland. The island is named after the archangel Michael, while "Skellig" is derived from the Irish language word sceilig, meaning a splinter of stone. Its twin island, Little Skellig (Sceilig Bheag), is smaller and inaccessible (landing is not permitted). The two islands rose c. 374–360 million years ago during a period of mountain formation, along with the MacGillycuddy's Reeks mountain range. Later, they were separated from the mainland by rising water levels.
Skellig Michael consists of approximately of rock, with its highest point, known as the Spit, above sea level. The island is defined by its twin peaks and intervening valley (known as Christ's Saddle), which make its landscape steep and inhospitable. It is best known for its Gaelic monastery, founded between the 6th and 8th centuries, and its variety of inhabiting species, which include gannets, puffins, a colony of razorbills and a population of approximately fifty grey seals. The island is of special interest to archaeologists, as the monastic settlement is in unusually good condition. The rock contains the remains of a tower house, a megalithic stone row and a cross-inscribed slab known as the Wailing Woman. The monastery is situated at an elevation of , Christ's Saddle at , and the flagstaff area at above sea level.
The monastery can be approached by narrow and steep flights of stone steps which ascend from three landing points. The hermitage on the south peak contains a dangerous approach and is largely closed to the public. Because of the often difficult crossing from the mainland and the exposed nature of the landing spots, the island is accessible only during summer months. Skellig Michael was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996.
Etymology
The word "Skellig" derives from the old Irish word sceillec, which translates as "small or steep area of rock". The word is unusual in Irish placenames, and appears only in few other instances, including Bunskellig, County Cork, and the Temple-na-Skellig church in Glendalough, County Wicklow. It may be of Old Norse origin, from the word skellingar ("the resounding ones"). An early but rarely used alternative Irish name for the island is Glascarraig ("the green rock").
The first known reference to the Skelligs appears in the Irish annals; a retelling of a shipwreck occurring around 1400 BC, said to have been caused by the Tuatha Dé Danann, a supernatural race in Irish mythology. According to legend, Irr, son of Míl Espáine (who is sometimes credited with the colonisation of Ireland), was travelling from the Iberian Peninsula, but drowned and was buried on the island. Daire Domhain ("King of the World") is said to have stayed there c. 200 AD before attacking Fionn mac Cumhaill's army in nearby Ventry. A text from the 8th or 9th century records that Duagh, King of West Munster, fled to "Scellecc" after a feud with the Kings of Cashel sometime in the 5th century, although the historicity of the event has not been established. Other early mentions include in the narrative prose of the Lebor Gabála Érenn and Cath Finntrágha, as well the medieval Martyrology of Tallaght.
Geography
Skellig Michael is a steep pyramidal rugged rock (or "crag") of on the Atlantic coast off the Iveragh peninsula of County Kerry. It is west north west of Bolus Head, at the southern end of Saint Finian's Bay. Its twin island, Little Skellig, is a mile closer to land, and far more inhospitable, because of its sheer cliff faces. The small Lemon Rock island is further inland. The nearby Puffin Island is another seabird colony. The Skelligs, along with some of the Blasket Islands, constitute the most westerly part of both Ireland and Europe excluding Iceland.
The island is defined by its two peaks: the north-east summit where the monastery is built (185 metres above sea level), and the south-west point containing the hermitage (218 metres above sea level). These elevations reside on either side of a depression colloquially known as Christ's Saddle.
Geology
The islands are composed of Old Red Sandstone and compressed slate, and were formed between 360 and 374 million years ago, as part of the rising of the MacGillycuddy's Reeks and Caha Mountains mountains ranges. This occurred during the Devonian period when Ireland was part of a larger continental landmass and located south of the equator. The region's topography of peaks and valleys are characterised by steep ridges formed during the Hercynian period of folding and mountain formation some 300 million years ago. When the Atlantic ocean level rose, it created deep marine inlets such as Bantry Bay and left the Skelligs detached from the mainland. The rock is highly compressed and contains numerous fracture lines and jointing. As a result of erosion along a major north–south-trending fault line containing bedrock much more brittle than that on surrounding areas, a large part of the rock broke away, resulting in Christ's Saddle, the depression between the peaks. The island's rock is deeply eroded through exposure to wind and water.
The Wailing Woman rock lies in the centre of the island, on the ascent before the Christ's Saddle ridge, above sea level, on of grassland. It is the only flat and fertile part of the island, and thus contains traces of medieval crop farming. The path from the Saddle to the summit is known as the Way of the Christ, a nomenclature that reflects the danger presented to climbers. Notable features on this stretch include the Needle's Eye peak, a stone chimney above sea level, and a series of 14 stone crosses with names such as the "Rock of the Women's piercing caoine", further references to the harsh climb. Further up is the Stone of Pain area, including the station known as the Spit, a long and narrow fragment of rock approached by steps. The ruin of the medieval church is lower and approached before the older monastery.
Bays
The island's three main bays are Blind Man's Cove to the east, Cross Cove to the south and Blue Cove to the north. Each can be used as access points from the sea. All three have steps carved into the rock from their landing point to above sea level. The main landing cove is on the recesses of the eastern side; known as Blind Man's Cove, it is exposed to sea swells and high waves, making approach difficult outside the summer months. The bay's pier is positioned under a sheer cliff face, populated by large numbers of birds. It was built in 1826 from an area known as the Flagstaff and leads to a small stairway leading to the now disused lighthouse. The steps divide into two staircases, the earliest and largely abandoned path leading directly to the monastery.
Blue Cove is the most difficult landing point and is only approachable on an average of 20 days per year. Noting the inaccessibility of the island, writer Des Lavelle observes that "the fact that the monks of old undertook the giant task of constructing a stairway to this bleak cove is a good argument that the weather conditions then were far better than now."
Demographics
Ecology
Skellig Michael is lined by exposed sea cliffs and three bays. Its inland is mostly of thin soil on steep ground, with patches of vegetation which are, however, exposed to sea spray. Nonetheless, it has an ecology far more diverse than on the mainland; as an island, it provides sanctuary to wide varieties of flora and fauna, many of which are unusual to Ireland. It contains a large range of seabirds, now protected by the island's status as a nature reserve owned by the state. The Skellig Islands were classified as a Special Protection Area in 1986 when they were recognised for containing an unusually large variety and population of birds.
The island hosts eyries for peregrine falcons. Other birds of interest include fulmars, Manx shearwaters (Puffinus puffinus), storm petrels, gannets, kittiwakes, guillemots and Atlantic puffins. A herd of goats lived on the island until recently, and it supports a population of rabbits and house mice, both relatively recent introductions, probably introduced in the 19th century by lighthouse attendants. Grey seals haul out on the island's ledges.
History
Monastic
Skellig Michael was largely uninhabited until the founding of the Augustinian monastery. Many of the islands of the west coast of Ireland contain early Christian monasteries, which were favoured because of their isolation and the abundance of rock for construction. A strong concentration of monasteries can be found off the coast of County Kerry, with nine in total found on islands off the Iveragh and Dingle peninsulas.
Skellig Michael was originally a small Bardic retreat that fell out of use. A Culdee settlement was established there circa AD 60. This establishment of a hermitage on the island was ordered by Arwystli (aka Aristobulus) who was appointed and ordained Bishop of Britain by the Apostle Paul. Arwystli was the spiritual instructor of Bran (Bran The Blessed son of Llyr Llediaith) of the Silurian dynasty. The purpose of the hermitage was the preservation of doctrine and protection of sacred texts of the Culdee church consisting of the full canon of the Essenes brought to Britain by Joseph Of Arimathea circa AD 37. The hermitage remained in use by Culdee anchorites and was visited by all the prominent Christian bards – Dewi, Teilo, and Padarn – for instruction and wisdom before their trip to Jerusalem. The hermitage was visited extensively by Cattwg Ddoeth, who took over its funding and had the first chapel built on the west side of the island. The last Culdee anchorite to live on the island was Gildas, a student of Cattwg Ddoeth. Gildas retired finally to Glastonbury where he wrote his History Of The Britons. The island remains a sacred pilgrimage site for Culdee Christians, particularly for members of the Assembly Of Christian Israelites.
The Annals of Inisfallen record a Viking attack in 823. The Annals record that “Skellig was plundered by the heathen and Eitgal [the abbot] was carried off and he died of hunger on their hands.”
The site had been dedicated to Saint Michael by at least 1044 (when the death of "Aedh of Scelic-Mhichí" is recorded). However, this dedication may have occurred as early as 950, around which time a new church was added to the monastery (typically done to celebrate a consecration) and called Saint Michael's Church. The island may have been dedicated to St. Michael, the legendary slayer of serpents, based on a connection to St. Patrick. A thirteenth-century German source claims that Skellig was the final location of the battle between St. Patrick and the venomous snakes that plagued Ireland.
The island was a regular destination for pilgrims by the early 16th century.
Stairs and paths
Each of the three landing areas lead to long flights of steps (known as the east, south and north steps) built by the first generations of monks to inhabit the island. They may have at one time formed part of a larger network; traces of other, possibly earlier steps have been uncovered elsewhere on the island. Archaeological evidence shows that basal sections of each series of steps were rock-cut, giving way to more stable dry stone masonry once they reached an altitude where the sea waves would no longer weather them. Later the base steps were replaced with dry-stone paths.
The north steps lead from Blue Cove and consist of two long and steep continuous flights known as the upper and lower steps. The upper pathway was built from dry stone but in places are in very poor condition; given the steep face on which they are built, they are prone to erosion and the impact of falling stone from the cliffs directly above. The lower rock-cut portion has been heavily weathered by the sea, and some of the ground around them has collapsed; the portions where steps are lost have been replaced with ramps. A parapet at their lowest base was added in the 1820s, and they were widened during the construction of the lighthouse.
The south steps are most commonly used today and merge with the north steps at Christ's Saddle, to lead to the monastery. They cross several archaeological features, including a prayer station and walling. They are in good condition and were probably repaired by the lighthouse builders. Their weakest point, directly above Christ's Saddle, suffers wear and tear from continual use by modern visitors and require continual maintenance. The landing steps may have been built by the lighthouse builders; 14 steps apart from the main landing are virtually inaccessible, stopping short at both ends and leading neither to the sea nor to the highest levels.
The base of the east steps above Blind Man's Cove was heavily blasted with dynamite in 1820 during the construction of the pier and Lighthouse Road and are now inaccessible from the landing point. The steps above this level, on a very steep climb along a sheer face, have been subject to conservation, most recently in 2002/2003 when large amounts of overgrowth were removed, and they are today in good condition.
Monastery
The monastery is built into a terraced shelf above sea level. It contains two oratories, a cemetery, crosses, cross-slabs, six clochán-type domed beehive cells (of which one has fallen) and a medieval church. The cells and oratories are all of dry-built corbel construction, and the church, which was constructed at a later date, is of mortared stone.
The year of the monastery's foundation is unknown. Like many early Christian remnants in Kerry, it is sometimes attributed to Saint Finnia, though this is doubted by historians. The first definite reference to monastic activity on the island is a record of the death of "Suibhini of Skelig" dating from the 8th century; however, Fionán is claimed to have founded the monastery in the 6th century.
The Annals of the Four Masters detail events at the Skelligs between the 9th and 11th centuries. These entries suggest that Eitgall of Skellig, the monastery's abbot, was taken by the Vikings in 823 and died of starvation thereafter. The Vikings again attacked in 838, sacking churches in Kenmare town, Skellig and Innisfallen Island. The Augustinian abbey in Ballinskelligs was founded in 950, the same year that Blathmhac of Sceilig died. Finally, the annals mention the death of Aedh of Sceilig Michael in 1040.
The largest hut, known as cell A, has a floor area of 14.5 × 3.8 metres, and is 5 metres high. Like the other huts, its internal walls are straight before narrowing to accommodate its dome roof. Protruding stones in the interior, acting as pegs, are placed at about 2.5 metres to support the roof, and in some instances may have supported upstairs living quarters. Protruding stones on the exterior most likely acted as anchors for thatch roofing. Some cells contain recesses that may have been formed to contain cupboards. The main oratory is boat-shaped, and measures 3.6 × 4.3 metres. It has an altar a small window on its eastern wall. The small oratory is situated on its own terrace, at a relative distance from the main complex. It measures 2.4 × 1.8 × 2.4 metres and contains a low door (0.9 × 0.5 metres) and a comparatively large, one-metre-high window on its north-eastern wall.
St. Michael's Church dates to the 10th or early 11th century. It was originally constructed from mostly lime mortar with imported sandstone from Valentia Island. It is today mostly collapsed, with only its eastern window still standing. The centre of the church contains a modern gravestone, dated 1871, erected for members of the family of one of the lighthouse keepers.
The Monk's Graveyard is partially collapsed and smaller than when it was in active use. It contains stone crosses with mostly plain inscripted decorative patterns on its west side, two of which are highly detailed and believed to be early features of the site; in total over a hundred individual stone crosses have been found on the island. There are several large orthostats on its north and west sides. There are two dry stone leachta on the site. The larger is positioned between Saint Michael's Church and the main Oratory, and is thought to pre-date both, and once had a large upright cross at its western end, which is now broken off. The other is located against the monastery retaining wall at the south of the oratory. Human remains have been found underneath both.
It has been estimated that no more than twelve monks and an abbot lived at the monastery at any one time. The monastery was continuously occupied until the late 12th or early 13th century and remained a site for pilgrimage through to the modern era. The diet of the island monks was somewhat different from that of those on the mainland. With less arable land available to grow grain, vegetable gardens were an important part of monastic life. Of necessity, fish and the meat and eggs of birds nesting on the islands were staples. Theories for the site's abandonment include that the climate around Skellig Michael became colder and more prone to storms, Viking raids, and changes to the structure of the Irish Church. Probably a combination of these factors prompted the community to abandon the island and move to the abbey in Ballinskelligs. The move was recorded by the Cambro-Norman cleric and historian Giraldus Cambrensis at the end of the 12th century when he wrote that the monks had moved to a new site on the continent.
Hermitage
The hermitage is on the opposite side of the island to the monastery, below the south peak, and is significantly more difficult and hazardous to approach. Today, access to the south peak is restricted and only permitted after prior arrangement. It is approached from Christ's Saddle via a very narrow and steep series of rock-cut steps exposed on all sides to high winds, at times to near-hurricane force. The pathway passes through the Needle's Eye, a rock chimney formed by a narrow vertical crack in the peak. Though its origin and history are not as well studied as that of the monastery, the hermitage is thought to originate from the 9th century and comprises several enclosures and platforms situated on three main terraces cut into the rock. The terraces are known as the Oratory, Garden and Outer Terraces.
The oratory terrace, two hundred metres above sea level and fifteen metres below the summit, is the largest and is in good condition. The main oratory is still largely intact and contains its original altar, bench, a water cistern and what is likely the remnants of a shrine. The masonry work is typical of the Early Christian period in Ireland. It seems likely that the hermitage was built later than the monastery; given the presumed difficulty of its construction, which would have involved the movement of large pieces of stone up almost sheer cliff faces, the builders would have needed the monastery as a base. The eroding effect of frost on the island's major fault line provided the masons with large amounts of materials for the construction.
The interior of the main building measures 2.3 metres long and 1.2 metres wide. The enclosure wall is made from mostly small stones. Although it is now worn and mostly knocked down, it would once have been 1–1.5 metres high. The interior is today full of stone rubble fallen from the structure and the fragments of a 7-foot-tall stone cross. The leacht outside of it was probably used as a shrine or altar; it is too small to have been a burial site.
The outer terrace is situated on three stepped ledges some distance from the main complex and is difficult to access. Its only masonry consists of a 17-metre-long wall along its steep and exposed perimeter. Wondering why such an inaccessible and harsh outpost might have been built, the historian Walter Horn wrote that "the goal of an ascetic was not comfort" and recalled that the Cambrai Homily states: "This is our denial of ourselves, if we do not indulge our desires and if we abjure our sins. This is our taking-up of our cross upon us if we receive loss and martyrdom and suffering for Christ's sake."
Post-monastic
Skellig Michael remained in the possession of the Catholic Canons Regular until the dissolution of Ballinskelligs Abbey in 1578, a result of the reformation by Elizabeth I. Ownership of the islands passed to the Butler family (for rental of "two hawks and a quantity of puffin feathers yearly"), with whom it stayed until the early 1820s when the Corporation for Preserving and Improving the Port of Dublin (predecessor to the Commissioners of Irish Lights) purchased the island for £500 from John Butler of Waterville in a compulsory purchase order. The corporation constructed two lighthouses on the Atlantic side of the island, and associated living quarters, all of which was completed by 1826.
In 1871, Lord Dunraven, in his Notes on Irish Architecture, made the first comprehensive archaeological survey of the island. Describing the monastery, he wrote "the scene is one so solemn and so sad that none should enter here but the pilgrim and the penitent. The sense of solitude, the vast heaven above and the sublime monotonous motion of the sea beneath would oppress the spirit, were not that spirit brought into harmony." He was less charitable of the lighthouse project and described their alterations as attributed to "the lighthouse workmen who...in 1838, built some objectionable modern walls". The Office of Public Works took the remains of the monastery into guardianship in 1880, before purchasing the island (with the exception of the lighthouses and associated structures) from the Commissioners of Irish Lights.
Skellig Michael was made a World Heritage Site in 1996. The International Council on Monuments and Sites (an advisory body of the World Heritage Committee) described Skellig Michael as of "exceptional universal value", and a "unique example of an early religious settlement", while also noting the site's preservation as a result of its "remarkable environment", and its ability to illustrate "as no other site can, the extremes of a Christian monasticism characterising much of North Africa, the Near East and Europe".
In culture
Several films and documentaries have used the island as a filming location. The island was used as a filming location in Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015) and Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017). Aerial footage of the island was also used in Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker (2019). It also served as a location for the final scene in Heart of Glass (1976), and in Byzantium (2012).
In the first episode of the 1969 BBC documentary Civilisation: A Personal View by Kenneth Clark, art historian Kenneth Clark described the island's buildings and pathways as "an extraordinary achievement of courage and tenacity". He observed that "looking back from the great civilizations of twelfth-century France or seventeenth-century Rome, it is hard to believe, that for quite a long time—almost a hundred years—western Christianity survived by clinging to places like Skellig Michael, a pinnacle of rock eighteen miles from the Irish coast, rising out of the sea."
Access and tourism
Skellig Michael contains three landing points variously used by monks depending on the weather conditions. Today the island receives an average of 11,000 visitors per year. To protect the site, the Office of Public Works limits the number of visitors to 180 per day. The local climate and exposed terrain make the crossing from the mainland to Skellig Michael difficult. Once landed, the island's terrain is steep, unprotected and dangerous. The rock is ascended via 600 medieval stone steps leading towards the main island peak.
This remoteness and inaccessibility has long discouraged visitors, so the island is exceptionally well preserved. Tourism began in the late 19th century when a rowing boat could be hired for 25 shillings. It did not become a popular tourist destination until the early 1970s when small chartered passenger boats became more frequent; five were available in 1973 at a price of £3 per person. By 1990, the level of demand had grown to the extent that the Office of Public Works began to organise ten boats departing from four individual harbours.
Each year at least four boat licences are granted to tour operators who run trips to Skellig Michael during the summer season (May to October, inclusive), weather permitting. Even when conditions on the mainland are calm, the sea around the island can be turbulent. The area is a landing point for sea swells travelling in from distant depressions in the Atlantic. The island is lashed by water from all sides, with wave crests breaking at up to 10 metres over the pier and 45 metres along the lighthouse. When such large wave troughs recede, they can often expose ragged seaweed stumps, sponges and anemones on the rock faces, further hampering approach and landing.
A typical visit lasts about six hours. The Office of Public Works emphasises that the journey presents safety challenges. For safety reasons, mainly because the steps are steep, rocky, old and unprotected, climbs are not permitted during wet or windy weather. Dive sites immediately around the rock, mostly around Blue Cove, are permitted in summer.
Gallery
Notes
References
The Skelligs (Book, 1980s) (WorldCat.org)
Archaeological sites in County Kerry
Christian monasteries in the Republic of Ireland
Former populated places in Ireland
Michael (archangel)
National Monuments in County Kerry
Peaks dedicated to Michael (archangel)
Ruins in the Republic of Ireland
Skellig Islands
Uninhabited islands of Ireland
World Heritage Sites in the Republic of Ireland | [
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242575 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verde%20Valley | Verde Valley | The Verde Valley (; ) is a valley in central Arizona in the United States. The Verde River runs through it. The Verde River is one of Arizona's last free-flowing river systems. It provides crucial habitat for fish and wildlife, fresh water for local agricultural production, recreational opportunities for locals and tourists alike, and brings clean drinking water to over 2 million people in the greater Phoenix area. The valley is overlooked by Mingus Mountain and the Mogollon Rim. The valley is one of three regions of viticulture in Arizona and contains the Verde Valley AVA.
History
The first notice of this region appears in the report of Antonio de Espejo, who visited in 1583. Little more was recorded until the commencement of prospecting for gold and silver in the 19th century.
Towns
Camp Verde
Clarkdale
Cornville
Cottonwood
Jerome
Lake Montezuma
McGuireville
Rimrock
Sedona
In popular culture
Verde Valley was the setting for the 1977 sci-fi thriller movie Kingdom of the Spiders, starring William Shatner. The theme song for the film, "Peaceful Verde Valley," was recorded by country singer Dorsey Burnette.
See also
Tuzigoot National Monument (pueblo ruin)
V Bar V Heritage Site (petroglyphs)
Montezuma Well
Montezuma Castle National Monument
Verde Canyon Railroad
Arizona Central Railroad
References
External links
Verde Valley Travel & Vacation Guide
Common Plants of the Verde Valley & Sedona
Sedona Verde Valley Tourism Council
Valleys of Arizona
Regions of Arizona
Landforms of Yavapai County, Arizona | [
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242581 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutt%20and%20Jeff | Mutt and Jeff | Mutt and Jeff is a long-running and widely popular American newspaper comic strip created by cartoonist Bud Fisher in 1907 about "two mismatched tinhorns". It is commonly regarded as the first daily comic strip. The concept of a newspaper strip featuring recurring characters in multiple panels on a six-day-a-week schedule had previously been pioneered through the short-lived A. Piker Clerk by Clare Briggs, but it was Mutt and Jeff as the first successful daily comic strip that staked out the direction of the future trend.
Mutt and Jeff remained in syndication until 1983, employing the talents of several cartoonists, chiefly Al Smith who drew the strip for nearly fifty years. The series eventually became a comic book, initially published by All-American Publications and later published by DC Comics, Dell Comics and Harvey Comics. Later it was also published as cartoons, films, pop culture merchandise and reprints.
Syndicated success
Harry Conway "Bud" Fisher was a sports cartoonist for the San Francisco Chronicle in the early 1900s, a time when a newspaper cartoon was single panel. His innovation was to tell a cartoon gag in a sequence, or strip, of panels, creating the first American comic strip to successfully pioneer that since-common format. The concept of a newspaper strip featuring recurring characters in multiple panels on a six-day-a-week schedule actually had been created by Clare Briggs with A. Piker Clerk four years earlier, but that short-lived effort did not inspire further comics in a comic-strip format. As comics historian Don Markstein explained,
A. Mutt, the comic strip that became better known by its later title, Mutt and Jeff, debuted on November 15, 1907 on the sports pages of the San Francisco Chronicle. The featured character had previously appeared in sports cartoons by Fisher but was unnamed. Fisher had approached his editor, John P. Young, about doing a regular strip as early as 1905, but was turned down. According to Fisher, Young told him, "It would take up too much room, and readers are used to reading down the page, and not horizontally."
This strip focused on a single main character until the other half of the duo appeared on March 27, 1908. It appeared only in the Chronicle, so Fisher did not have the extended lead time that syndicated strips require. Episodes were drawn the day before publication, and frequently referred to local events that were currently making headlines or to specific horse races being run that day. A 1908 sequence about Mutt's trial featured a parade of thinly-disguised caricatures of specific San Francisco political figures, many of whom were being prosecuted for graft.
On June 7, 1908, the strip moved off the sports pages and into Hearst's San Francisco Examiner where it was syndicated by King Features and became a national hit, subsequently making Fisher the first celebrity of the comics industry. Fisher had taken the precaution of copyrighting the strip in his own name, facilitating the move to King Features and making it impossible for the Chronicle to continue the strip using another artist.
A dispute between Fisher and King Features arose in 1913, and Fisher moved his strip on September 15, 1915, to the Wheeler Syndicate (later the Bell Syndicate), who gave Fisher 60% of the gross revenue, an enormous income in those times. Hearst responded by launching a lawsuit which ultimately failed. By 1916, Fisher was earning in excess of $150,000 a year. By the 1920s, merchandising and growing circulation had increased his income to an estimated $250,000.
In 1918, Mutt and Jeff added a Sunday strip and, as success continued, Fisher became increasingly dependent on assistants to produce the work. Fisher hired Billy Liverpool and Ed Mack, artists Hearst had at one point groomed to take over the strip, who would do most of the artwork. Other assistants on the strip included Ken Kling, George Herriman, and Maurice Sendak (while still in high school).
Fisher appeared to lose all interest in the strip during the 1930s, and after Mack died in 1932, the job of creating the strip fell to Al Smith. In c. 1944, the new Chicago-based Field Syndicate took over the strip. Mutt and Jeff retained Fisher's signature until his death, however, so it wasn't until December 7, 1954, that the strip started being signed by Smith.
Al Smith received the National Cartoonists Society Humor Comic Strip Award in 1968 for his work on the strip. Smith continued to draw Mutt and Jeff until 1980, two years before it ceased publication.
In the introduction to Forever Nuts: The Early Years of Mutt & Jeff, Allan Holtz gave the following reason for the strip's longevity and demise:
During this final period it was drawn by George Breisacher. Currently, Andrews McMeel Universal continues to syndicate Mutt and Jeff under the imprint Classic Mutt and Jeff (in both English and Spanish language versions) under the copyright of Pierre S. de Beaumont (1915–2010), founder of the Brookstone catalog and retail chain. De Beaumont inherited ownership of the strip from his mother, Aedita de Beaumont, who married Fisher in 1925 (the couple parted after four weeks, but never divorced).
Characters and story
Augustus Mutt is a tall, dimwitted racetrack character—a fanatic horse-race gambler who is motivated by greed. Mutt has a wife, known only as Mrs. Mutt (Mutt always referred to her as "M'love"; Al Smith admitted in a Boston Globe newspaper column that her first name was Ima – and conceded that he did not use it often because it was not a complimentary name). The Mutts' son was named Cicero. Mutt first encountered the half-pint Jeff, an inmate of an insane asylum who shares his passion for horseracing, in 1908. They appeared in more and more strips together until the strip abandoned the horse-race theme, and concentrated on Mutt's other outlandish, get-rich-quick schemes. Jeff usually served as a (sometimes unwilling) partner. Jeff was short, bald as a billiard ball, and wore mutton chop sideburns. He has no last name, stating his name is "just Jeff—first and last and always it's Jeff". However, at one point late in the strip's life, he is identified in the address of a cablegram as "Othello Jeff". He has a twin brother named Julius. They look so much alike that Jeff, who cannot afford to have a portrait painted, sits for Julius, who is too busy to pose. Rarely does Jeff change from his habitual outfit of top hat and suit with wing collar. Friends of Mutt and Jeff have included Gus Geevem, Joe Spivis, and the English Sir Sidney. Characteristic lines and catchphrases that appeared often during the run of the strip included "Nix, Mutt, nix!", "For the love of Mike!" and "Oowah!"
The original inspiration for the character of "Jeff" was Jacques "Jakie" Fehr, a tiny () irascible Swiss-born shopkeeper in the village of Occidental, California. One summer day in 1908, Fisher, a member of San Francisco's Bohemian Club, was riding the North Pacific Coast narrow-gauge railway passenger train northbound to the Bohemian Grove, the club's summer campsite. During a stop in Occidental, Fisher got off the train to stretch his legs and observed the diminutive walrus-moustached Fehr in heated altercation with the tall and lanky "candy butcher", who sold refreshments on the train and also distributed newspapers to shops in towns along the train route. The comic potential in this scene prompted Fisher to add the character of Jeff to his A. Mutt comic strip, with great success.
Cicero's Cat
Starting October 27, 1926, the Sunday page included a topper strip about Cicero, Mutt's son. On December 3, 1933, the topper began to focus on Cicero's pet, Desdemona. Under the title Cicero's Cat, this pantomime strip ran until 1972.
Comic books and reprints
The Cupples & Leon Company produced at least 18 reprint collections of Mutt and Jeff daily strips, in 10" x 10" softcover books from 1919 to 1933. They also published two larger hardcover editions, Mutt and Jeff BIG Book (1926) and Mutt and Jeff BIG Book No. 2 (1929).
Mutt and Jeff also appeared in comic books. They were featured on the front cover of Famous Funnies #1, the first modern format comic book, and reprints appeared in DC Comics' All American Comics. It has been suggested that some of the Mutt and Jeff material published by DC Comics were new stories drawn by Sheldon Mayer
In 1939, DC gave them their own comic book, published until 1958 for 103 issues, that consisted entirely of newspaper reprints. Dell Comics took over the feature after DC dropped it, but their tenure only lasted for one year and 12 issues. Many of the Dell issues featured new, conventional-length stories drawn by Smith.
Harvey Comics, which had several other comic strip reprint comics running at the time, picked up Mutt and Jeff from Dell, and this version of the comic ran to 1965 for a total of 33 issues, plus two short-lived spinoff titles: Mutt & Jeff Jokes and Mutt & Jeff New Jokes. These later versions also included Smith's Cicero's Cat.
In 2007, comics publisher NBM published a reprint volume, Forever Nuts: The Early Years of Mutt & Jeff.
Stage shows and sheet music
Mutt and Jeff: A Musical Comedy Song Book (1912) Songs include: "The Barn-Yard Rag"; "Sail on Silv'ry Moon"; "Mr. Ragtime Whippoorwill"; "Oh You Girl!"; "A Mother Old and Gray"; "Let Me Call You Sweetheart"; "Years Years Ago"; "If I Forget"; "Bohemia Rag"; "Undertaker Man"; "Tell Me That You Love Me"
The Face in the Flag I Love (from Mutt and Jeff in Panama, 1913)
At the Funny Page Ball (1918)
Mutt and Jeff on Their Honeymoon (aka Mutt and Jeff Divorced, 1920) Songs include: "My Dearie"; "My Dixie Rose"; "The Wild Irish Rose That God Gave Me"; "Why Can't My Dreams Come True"; "Just One Little Smile"; "Songs My Mother Sang to Me"; "When Someone Dreams of Someone"; "When I Am Dreaming of You"
Mutt and Jeff: And They Called It the Funny Sheet Blues (1923)
Mutt and Jeff Songster (Date unknown)
Program from Mutt and Jeff Divorced (1920)
Motion pictures
Live-action
In early July 1911, during the silent era of motion pictures, at David Horsley's Nestor Comedies in Bayonne, New Jersey, Al Christie began turning out a weekly one-reel live-action Mutt and Jeff comedy short, which was based on the comic strip.
The Mutt and Jeff serial was extremely popular and after the Nestor Company established a studio in Hollywood, in late October 1911, Christie continued to oversee a weekly production of a one-reel episode.
In the fall of 1911, Nestor began using an alternate method of displaying the intertitles in the Mutt and Jeff comedies. Instead of a cut to the dialogue titles, the dialogue was displayed at the bottom of the image on a black background so the audience could read them as a subtitle, which was similar to the way they appeared in the cartoon strips. Horsley was very proud of the device and claimed to have entered a patent on it. He advertised the Mutt and Jeff movies as "talking pictures".
The first actors to portray Mutt and Jeff in the comedy shorts were Sam D. Drane, a tall man noted for his resemblance to President Lincoln, who actually played Lincoln in his last movie, The Crisis (1916), as A. Mutt, and Gus Alexander, whose nickname was "Shorty", as Jeff. When Alexander was leaving the serial, Christie hired the small actor Bud Duncan. Duncan played Jeff in two installments before the serial ended in 1912.
Animation
In 1916, Fisher licensed the production of Mutt and Jeff for animation with pioneers Charles Bowers and Raoul Barré of the Barré Studio. The animated series lasted 11 years and more than 300 animated Mutt and Jeff shorts were released by the Fox Film Corporation, making it the longest continuing theatrical animated movie serial and second longest to Krazy Kat.
In 1971, a feature film was released consisting of eleven redrawn colorized Mutt and Jeff silent films, with the short Slick Sleuths used as the frame, titled The Weird Adventures of Mutt & Jeff and Bugoff, which added new dialogue and soundtrack songs. In this film, Mutt and Jeff are USA government agents, and they have been assigned to track down SMOGPOO’s top secret agent Bugoff, a master of disguise attempting to steal secrets all across the world. Bugoff is actually the Phantom character in Slick Sleuths, but now he is coloured pink. Radio & Television Packagers, Inc. were the producers of the film, which received a very limited theatrical release, primarily being shown on the 16MM circuit.
In 2005, Inkwell Images released a DVD documentary entitled Mutt and Jeff: the Original Animated Odd Couple; included on the disc are several Mutt and Jeff animated cartoons. Also, individual Mutt and Jeff cartoons have been mixed with other titles on low-cost video collections, such as the Cartoon Craze DVDs from Digiview Productions.
In popular culture
Any pair of individuals of different sizes has come to be known as a "Mutt and Jeff".
In the TV series ER Mark Greene and Susan Lewis were referred to several times as "Mutt and Jeff" of Emergency Medicine by Doug Ross.
Mutt and Jeff, Texas, was a small community located at the intersection of State Highway 37 and Farm Road 14, near Big Sandy Creek, six miles from Winnsboro. The town was so named in the 1920s because of two area merchants, who reminded locals of the comic strip characters. The population decreased during the 1930s, and Mutt and Jeff, Texas, was abandoned by the early 1960s.
The "good cop/bad cop" police interrogation tactic is also called "Mutt and Jeff".
In rhyming slang, "mutton" is used as a shortening of "Mutt'n'Jeff", meaning "deaf".
In Frank Henenlotter's Frankenhooker, when Jeffrey Franken is going through various body parts, he refers to two mismatched breasts as "Mutt and Jeff".
In the TV series Twin Peaks pilot, Bookhouse Boy biker Joey Paulsen says to the fellow biker sitting next to him at The Roadhouse "Scotty, Mutt and Jeff just crawled in" when Bobby Briggs and Mike Nelson enter the bar.
In Disney's Aladdin stage musical, Mutt and Jeff are referred to by name as examples of great friends.
In a Gasoline Alley sequence begun on October 19, 2015, Mutt telephones Walt Wallet with news regarding Jeff.
Paul Brickhill (in The Dam Busters) referred to two test pilots as Mutt and Jeff.
In the 2002 Simpsons episode "Helter Shelter", in which the Simpsons participate in a reality television game show in which they live in Victorian house and have access to items available only in 1895, Bart laments having access only to Mutt and Jeff comic books and is quoted as saying, "This has been the worst week of my life. I miss my toys and my video games. Mutt and Jeff comics are NOT funny! They're gay, I get it!". Mutt and Jeff was not created until 1907.
Mutt and Jeff, better known in Spanish as Eneas and Benitín, are mentioned in the song "Día de Enero" (English: "January Day") by Colombian singer Shakira in her sixth studio album Fijación Oral 1.
In the 1973 film The Sting, Robert Redford's character Johnny Hooker refers to the mark's bodyguards as "Mutt and Jeff".
In the musical Annie, Mutt & Jeff are referred to in the song "We Got Annie".
In Kim Stanley Robinson's book New York 2140, the chapters concerning the characters Jeff Rosen and Ralph Muttchopf are titled "Mutt and Jeff".
References
External links
A.Word.A.Day
The Classic Mutt and Jeff strips GoComics
A suicide-themed Mutt and Jeff strip from November 1911
(An animated short film.)
Slick Sleuths at the TCM Movie Database
Mutt and Jeff at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on April 4, 2012.
1907 comics debuts
1983 comics endings
American comic strips
Animated films based on comics
Comics adapted into animated series
Comics characters introduced in 1907
Comic strip duos
Fictional gamblers
Gag-a-day comics
Harvey Comics series and characters
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242584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%26W | A&W | A&W may refer to:
A&W Restaurants, an American fast food chain
A&W Food Services of Canada, a fast food chain originally a part of A&W Restaurants, later sold and operated as a separate company
A&W Cream Soda
A&W Root Beer
Ahnapee and Western Railway
Alexandria & Western Railway | [
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242587 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anting | Anting | Anting () is a town in Jiading District, Shanghai, bordering Kunshan, Jiangsu to the west. It has 96,000 inhabitants and, after the July 2009 merger of Huangdu (), an area of .
Overview
Anting is one of the centres of the Chinese automotive industry; it is home to Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation and includes the German/Chinese joint venture: Shanghai Volkswagen Automotive. This enterprise has the largest market share of passenger cars in China.
The Shanghai International Circuit, China's first Formula One race track, is located near the town, a 15-minute drive away. The Shanghai Auto Museum is also located here, on Boyuan Road.
Subdivisions
, Anting is divided into 20 residential communities () and 43 villages, among the most well-known of which is Tamiao (), which is nicknamed the "Auto City". In the southern part of town, an extension of "Anting Auto City" called "Anting New Town" () is being built in the fashion of "Anting German Town" ().
German Town
The first phase of Anting New Town construction will be completed in June 2007, with the second phase slated to begin before the end of 2007, the latter spanning three years. Upon completion the hope is that the resulting town will be a modern community, with a noticeably German urban aesthetic, with a capacity of over 50,000 residents. However, amid tentative financial troubles and poor sales of housing and retail, the phase 2 of Anting New Town may be delayed.
German Town is modelled on a modern German-style town with colourful Bauhaus-type buildings. The district was designed by Frankfurt-based architecture firm Albert Speer & Partner. Speer is the son of the eponymous architect who was Hitler’s chief architect during World War II.
Transportation
Anting is served by Line 11 of the Shanghai Metro, connected to the Lifehub shopping center Anting Station. Anting North Railway Station is on the Shanghai–Nanjing Intercity Railway.
Accommodation
The first 5* International hotel, Crowne Plaza Shanghai Anting Golf, opened its doors in Anting, Jiading District on 4 September 2012. It is located at 6555 Boyuan Road.
Entertainment
Lifehub@Anting, an entertainment complex located just beside the Metro Line 11, provides numerous Clothing outlets, local and international restaurants and coffee shops, a supermarket, film theatre, etc.
References
Neighbourhoods of Shanghai
Township-level divisions of Shanghai | [
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242589 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%20Wynn | Ed Wynn | Isaiah Edwin Leopold (November 9, 1886 – June 19, 1966), better known as Ed Wynn, was an American actor and comedian. He was noted for his Perfect Fool comedy character, his pioneering radio show of the 1930s, and his later career as a dramatic actor.
Background
Wynn was born Isaiah Edwin Leopold in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to a Jewish family. His father, Joseph, a milliner, was born in Bohemia. His mother, Minnie Greenberg, of Romanian and Turkish ancestry, came from Istanbul. Wynn attended Central High School in Philadelphia until age 15. He ran away from home in his teens, worked as a hat salesman and as a utility boy, and eventually adapted his middle name "Edwin" into his new stage name, "Ed Wynn", to save his family the embarrassment of having a lowly comedian as a relative.
Early career
Wynn began his career in vaudeville in 1903 and was a star of the Ziegfeld Follies starting in 1914. During The Follies of 1915, W. C. Fields allegedly caught Wynn mugging for the audience under the table during Fields's Pool Room routine and knocked Wynn unconscious with his cue. Wynn wrote, directed, and produced many Broadway shows in the subsequent decades, and was known for his silly costumes and props as well as for the giggly, wavering voice he developed for the 1921 musical revue, The Perfect Fool. Wynn became a very active member of The Lambs Club in 1919.
Radio
In the early 1930s Wynn hosted the popular radio show The Fire Chief, heard in North America on Tuesday nights, sponsored by Texaco gasoline. Like many former vaudeville performers who turned to radio in the same decade, the stage-trained Wynn insisted on playing for a live studio audience, doing each program as an actual stage show, using visual bits to augment his written material, and in his case, wearing a colorful costume with a red fireman's helmet. He usually bounced his gags off announcer/straight man Graham McNamee; Wynn's customary opening, "Tonight, Graham, the show's gonna be different," became one of the most familiar tag-lines of its time; a sample joke: "Graham, my uncle just bought a new second-handed car... he calls it Baby! I don't know, it won't go anyplace without a rattle!"
Wynn reprised his Fire Chief radio character in two movies, Follow the Leader (1930) and The Chief (1933). Near the height of his radio fame (1933) he founded his own short-lived radio network the Amalgamated Broadcasting System, which lasted only five weeks, nearly destroying the comedian. According to radio historian Elizabeth McLeod, the failed venture left Wynn deep in debt, divorced and finally, suffering a nervous breakdown.
Wynn was offered the title role The Wizard in MGM's 1939 screen adaptation of The Wizard of Oz, but turned it down, as did his Ziegfeld contemporary W. C. Fields. The part went to Frank Morgan.
Television
Ed Wynn first appeared on television on July 7, 1936 in a brief, ad-libbed spot with Graham McNamee during an NBC experimental television broadcast. In the 1949–50 season, Wynn hosted one of the first network, comedy-variety television shows, on CBS, and won both a Peabody Award and an Emmy Award in 1949. Buster Keaton, Carmen Miranda, Lucille Ball, Desi Arnaz, Hattie McDaniel and The Three Stooges all made guest appearances with Wynn. This was the first CBS variety television show to originate from Los Angeles, which was seen live on the west coast, but filmed via kinescope for distribution in the Midwest and East, as the national coaxial cable had yet to be completed. Wynn was also a rotating host of NBC's Four Star Revue from 1950 through 1952.
After the end of Wynn's third television series, The Ed Wynn Show (a short-lived situation comedy on NBC's 1958–59 schedule), his son, actor Keenan Wynn, encouraged him to make a career change rather than retire. The comedian reluctantly began a career as a dramatic actor in television and movies. Father and son appeared in three productions, the first of which was the 1956 Playhouse 90 broadcast of Rod Serling's play Requiem for a Heavyweight. Ed was terrified of straight acting and kept goofing his lines in rehearsal. When the producers wanted to fire him, star Jack Palance said he would quit if they fired Ed. (However, unbeknownst to Wynn, supporting player Ned Glass was his secret understudy in case something did happen before air time.) On live broadcast night, Wynn surprised everyone with his pitch-perfect performance, and his quick ad libs to cover his mistakes. A dramatization of what happened during the production was later staged as an April 1960 Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse episode, The Man in the Funny Suit, starring both senior and junior Wynns, with key figures involved in the original production also portraying themselves (including Rod Serling and director Ralph Nelson). Ed and his son also worked together in the Jose Ferrer film The Great Man, with Ed again proving his unexpected skills in drama.
Requiem established Wynn as a serious dramatic actor who could easily hold his own with the best. His performance in The Diary of Anne Frank (1959) received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor.
Also in 1959, Wynn appeared on Serling's TV series The Twilight Zone in "One for the Angels". Serling, a longtime admirer, had written that episode especially for him, and Wynn later in 1963 starred in the episode "Ninety Years Without Slumbering". For the rest of his life, Wynn skillfully moved between comic and dramatic roles. He appeared in feature films and anthology television, endearing himself to new generations of fans.
Cartoons
Wynn was caricatured in the Merrie Melodies cartoon shorts Shuffle Off to Buffalo (1933) and I've Got to Sing a Torch Song (1933), and as a pot of jam in the Betty Boop short Betty in Blunderland (1934).
Films
He appeared as the Fairy Godfather in Jerry Lewis's Cinderfella. His performance as Paul Beaseley in the 1958 film The Great Man earned him nominations for a Golden Globe Award for "Best Supporting Actor" and a BAFTA Award for "Best Foreign Actor". The following year he received his first (and only) nomination for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role as Mr. Dussell in The Diary of Anne Frank (1959). Six years later he appeared in the Bible epic The Greatest Story Ever Told.
Disney
Wynn provided the voice of the Mad Hatter in Walt Disney's film Alice in Wonderland (1951) and played The Toymaker alongside Annette Funicello and Tommy Sands in the Christmas operetta film Babes in Toyland released in 1961.
Possibly his best-remembered film appearance was in Walt Disney's Mary Poppins (1964), in which he played eccentric Uncle Albert floating around just beneath the ceiling in uncontrollable mirth, singing "I Love to Laugh".
Re-teaming with the Disney team the following year—in That Darn Cat! (1965), featuring Dean Jones and Hayley Mills—Wynn filled out the character of Mr. Hofstedder, the watch jeweler with his bumbling charm. He also had brief roles in The Absent Minded Professor (as the fire chief, in a scene alongside his son Keenan Wynn, who played the film's antagonist) and Son of Flubber (as county agricultural agent A.J. Allen). His final performance, as Rufus in Walt Disney's The Gnome-Mobile, was released a few months after his death.
In addition to Disney films, Wynn was also an actor in the Disneyland production The Golden Horseshoe Revue.
Death
Wynn died in June 19, 1966, in Beverly Hills, California, of esophageal cancer, aged 79. He is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale.
His bronze grave marker reads:
According to his granddaughter Hilda Levine, Walt Disney, who died a few months later, served as one of his pall bearers. Red Skelton, who was discovered by Wynn, stated: "His death is the first time he ever made anyone sad."
Legacy
Wynn's distinct voice continues to be emulated by countless actors and comedians. It was deliberately emulated by Alan Tudyk for character Turbo/King Candy in Disney's animated film Wreck-It Ralph, by Daws Butler for the character of Wally Gator, by Paul Frees for the characters of Captain Peter "Wrongway" Peachfuzz on Rocky and Bullwinkle and Fred the lion from the Super Chicken segment of George of the Jungle, by Cam Clarke for character Multo in The Zula Patrol, by Joey D'Auria for the character Mr. Scatterbrain on The Mr. Men Show, by Meshach Taylor for the character Cecil in The Secret of NIMH 2: Timmy to the Rescue, by Kevin Michael Richardson for the character Uncle Pockets in Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends, by Dallas McKennon as Professor Kapp in the Gumby franchise, by Jeff Bennett for characters Choose Goose in Adventure Time and Ranger Jinx in Mixels, by Mark Silverman for the plush doll Herbie in Malcolm in the Middle, and by Walker Edmiston for the character of Dr. Blinky in H.R. Pufnstuf.
Wynn was posthumously named a Disney Legend on August 10, 2013.
Broadway and films
The Deacon and the Lady (1910) – musical – actor/performer
Ziegfeld Follies of 1914 (1914) – revue – actor/performer
Ziegfeld Follies of 1915 (1915) – revue – actor/performer
The Passing Show of 1916 (1916) – revue – actor/performer
Sometime (1918) – play – actor
Ed Wynn's Carnival (1920) – revue – composer, lyricist, book-writer and performer/actor
The All-Star Idlers of 1921 (1921) – revue – actor/performer
The Perfect Fool (1921) – revue – composer, lyricist, book-writer, director and actor/performer
The Grab Bag (1924) – revue – producer, composer, lyricist, book-writer and actor/performer
Manhattan Mary (1927) – musical – actor in the role of "Crickets"
Rubber Heels (1927) – actor (as Homer Thrush)
Simple Simon (1930) – musical – co-book-writer and actor
Revived in 1931 (was also producer in addition to above roles)
Follow the Leader (1930) – actor (as Crickets)
The Laugh Parade (1931) – revue – producer, co-book-writer, director, originator and star actor/performer
Turn Back the Clock (1933) – actor (as Cigar Store Customer), uncredited
The Chief (1933) – actor (as Henry Summers)
Alice Takat (1936) – play – producer
Hooray for What! (1937) – musical – actor in the role of "Chuckles"
Boys and Girls Together (1940) – revue – producer, co-book-writer, originator, director and actor/performer
Morose Thoughts (1941) – revue – producer, book co-author, and actor
Laugh, Town, Laugh! (1942) – revue – producer, book-writer and director
Stage Door Canteen (1943) – himself (Ed Wynn)
Alice in Wonderland (1951) – voice actor (as Mad Hatter)
Playhouse 90 episode "Requiem for a Heavyweight" (1956) – actor (as Army)
The Great Man (1956) – actor (as Paul Beaseley)
Marjorie Morningstar (1958) – actor (as Uncle Samson)
The Diary of Anne Frank (1959) – actor (as Fritz Pfeffer)
Wagon Train episode "The Cappy Darrin Story" (1959) – actor (as Cappy Darrin)
Peabody's Improbable History episode "King Arthur" (1959) – voice actor (as Frantic Man)
The Twilight Zone episode "One for the Angels" (1959) – actor (as Lou Bookman)
Miracle on 34th Street (1959) – actor (as Kris Kringle)
Startime episode "The Greatest Man Alive" (1960) – actor (as Amos Benedict)
Cinderfella (1960) – actor (as the fairy godfather)
The Absent-Minded Professor (1961) – actor (as Fire Chief)
Babes in Toyland (1961) – actor (as The Toy Maker)
Rawhide episode "Twenty-Five Santa Clauses" (1961) – actor (as Bateman)
The Sound of Laughter (1962) – actor (as host and narrator)
Son of Flubber (1963) – actor (as Dept. of Agriculture agent)
77 Sunset Strip episode "5: Part 1" (1963) – actor (as Feigenstein)
The Twilight Zone episode "Ninety Years Without Slumbering" (1963) – actor (as Sam Forstmann)
Burke's Law episode "Who Killed Avery Lord?" (1964) – actor (as Zachary Belden)
For the Love of Willadean (1964) – actor (as Alfred)
The Patsy (1964) – actor (as Ed Wynn)
Mary Poppins (1964) – actor (as Uncle Albert)
Slattery's People episode "Question: What Ever Happened to Ezra?" (1964) – actor (as Ezra Tallicott)
Dear Brigitte (1965) – actor (as The Captain and Narrator)
Those Calloways (1965) – actor (as Ed Parker)
Bonanza episode "The Ponderosa Birdman" (1965) – actor (as Professor Phineas T. Klump)
The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965) – actor (as Old Aram)
That Darn Cat! (1965) – actor (as Mr. Hofstedder)
The Daydreamer (1966) – voice actor (as The Emperor)
Combat Episode “The Flying Machine” (1966) Actor (as Lt. Brannigan)
Vacation Playhouse episode "You're Only Young Twice" (1967) – actor (as Professor Hubert Abernathy)
The Gnome-Mobile (1967) – actor (as Rufus) – released after his death (final film role)
See also
List of actors with Academy Award nominations
References
External links
The Ed Wynn Show at Classic TV Info.
Four Star Revue/All Star Revue at Classic TV Info.
Biography of Ed Wynn at Ed-Wynn.info
Ed Wynn papers at the Free Library of Philadelphia Theatre Collection
Radio Journeys: Texaco Fire Chief (July 26, 1932)
1886 births
1966 deaths
20th-century American comedians
20th-century American male actors
American male comedy actors
American male film actors
American male radio actors
American male musical theatre actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American people of Romanian-Jewish descent
American people of Czech-Jewish descent
American people of Ottoman-Jewish descent
American radio personalities
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
Central High School (Philadelphia) alumni
Deaths from cancer in California
Deaths from esophageal cancer
Disney people
Jewish American male actors
Male actors from Philadelphia
Vaudeville performers
Ziegfeld Follies
Members of The Lambs Club | [
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242590 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinfandel | Zinfandel | Zinfandel (also known as Primitivo) is a variety of black-skinned wine grape. The variety is grown in over 10 percent of California vineyards. DNA analysis has revealed that it is genetically equivalent to the Croatian grapes Crljenak Kaštelanski and Tribidrag, as well as to the Primitivo variety traditionally grown in Apulia (the "heel" of Italy), where it was introduced in the 18th century. The grape found its way to the United States in the mid-19th century, where it became known by variations of a name applied to a different grape, likely "Zierfandler" from Austria.
The grapes typically produce a robust red wine, although in the United States a semi-sweet rosé (blush-style) wine called White Zinfandel has six times the sales of the red wine. The grape's high sugar content can be fermented into levels of alcohol exceeding 15 percent.
The taste of the red wine depends on the ripeness of the grapes from which it is made. Red berry fruit flavors like raspberry predominate in wines from cooler areas, whereas blackberry, anise and pepper notes are more common in wines made in warmer areas and in wines made from the earlier-ripening Primitivo clone.
History
Europe (6000 BCE–1870)
Archaeological evidence indicates that domestication of Vitis vinifera occurred in the Caucasus region around 6000 BCE, and winemaking was discovered shortly after that. Cultivation of the vine subsequently spread to the Mediterranean and surrounding regions. Croatia once had several indigenous varieties related to Zinfandel, which formed the basis of its wine industry in the 19th century. This diversity suggests that the grapes have been grown in Croatia longer than anywhere else. These varieties were almost entirely wiped out, however, by the phylloxera epidemic of the late 19th century, eventually reducing Zinfandel to just nine vines of locally-known "Crljenak Kaštelanski" discovered in 2001 on the Dalmatian coast of Croatia.
The first documented use of the term Primitivo appears in Italian governmental publications of the 1870s. The name derives from the terms primativus or primaticcio, which refer to the grape's tendency to ripen earlier than other varieties. This name's appearance, 40 years after the first documented use of the term Zinfandel, was previously thought to suggest that Primitivo was introduced to Italy from across the Atlantic; however, this hypothesis has become unlikely since the discovery of the vine's Croatian origin.
Primitivo is now thought to have been introduced as a distinct clone into the Apulia region of Italy in the 18th century. Don Francesco Filippo Indellicati, the priest of the church at Gioia del Colle near Bari, selected an early ("primo") ripening plant of the Zagarese variety and planted it in Liponti. This clone ripened at the end of August and became widespread throughout northern Apulia. Cuttings came to the other great Primitivo DOC (denominazione di origine controllata or "denomination of controlled origin") as part of the dowry of the Countess Sabini of Altamura when she married Don Tommaso Schiavoni-Tafuri of Manduria in the late 19th century.
United States east coast (1829–1850)
The arrival of Zinfandel in the United States may have been via the Imperial Nursery in Vienna, Austria, which probably obtained the vines during the Habsburg Monarchy's control over the Dalmatian territories of the former Republic of Venice. George Gibbs, a horticulturist on Long Island, received shipments of grapes from Schönbrunn and elsewhere in Europe between 1820 and 1829. Sullivan suggests that the "Black Zinfardel of Hungary" mentioned by William Robert Prince in A Treatise on the Vine (1830) may have referred to one of Gibbs's 1829 acquisitions. Webster suggests that the name is a modification of the Hungarian tzinifándli (czirifandli), which derives from the German Zierfandler, a white grape (Grüner Sylvaner) from Austria's Thermenregion.
Gibbs visited Boston in 1830, and Samuel Perkins of that city began selling "Zenfendal" soon afterward. In 1830, Gibbs also supplied Prince with "Black St. Peters", a similar variety that may have come from England, where many vines have "St. Peters" in their names. Little is known about this vine, except that the Black St. Peters that arrived in California in the 1850s was the same as what became known as Zinfandel by the 1870s.
By 1835 Charles M. Hovey, Boston's leading nurseryman, was recommending "Zinfindal" as a table grape, and it was soon widely grown in heated greenhouses for the production of table grapes as early as June. The first reference to making wine from "Zinfindal" appears in John Fisk Allen's Practical Treatise in the Culture and Treatment of the Grape Vine (1847). Meanwhile, the fad of hothouse cultivation faded in the 1850s as attention turned to the Concord and other grape varieties that could be grown outdoors in Boston.
California (1850–1933)
Prince and other nurserymen such as Frederick W. Macondray (future son in law of Faxon Atherton), joined the California Gold Rush in the 1850s, and took Zinfandel with them. Prince's notebook records that the grape dried "perfectly to Raisin" and that he believed his Zinfandel was the same as the "Black Sonora" he found in California. When the vine known as "Black St. Peters" arrived in California, it was initially regarded as a distinct variety, but by the 1870s it was recognized as the same grape as Zinfandel.
Joseph W. Osborne may have made the first wine from Zinfandel in California. He planted Zinfandel from Macondray at his Oak Knoll vineyard just north of Napa, and his wine was much praised in 1857. Planting of Zinfandel boomed soon after, and by the end of the 19th century it was the most widespread variety in California.
These Zinfandel old vines are now treasured for the production of premium red wine, but many were ripped up in the 1920s, during the Prohibition years (1920–1933), but not for the obvious reason. Even during the Prohibition, home winemaking remained effectively legal, and some vineyards embraced the sale of grapes for making wine at home. While Zinfandel grapes proved popular among home winemakers living near the vineyards, it was vulnerable to rot on the long journey to East Coast markets. The thick-skinned Alicante Bouschet was less susceptible to rot, so this and similar varieties were widely planted for the home winemaking market. In 1931, 3000 cars – about – of Zinfandel grapes were shipped, compared to 6000 cars of Alicante Bouschet.
Rediscovery after Prohibition (1933–present)
By 1930, the wine industry had weakened due to the Great Depression and Prohibition. Many vineyards that survived by supplying the home market were located in California's Central Valley, a non-optimal environment for growing quality Zinfandel. Thus, the end of Prohibition left a shortage of quality wine grapes, and Zinfandel sank into obscurity as most was blended into undistinguished fortified wines. However, some producers remained interested in making single varietal red wines.
By the middle of the 20th century the origins of California Zinfandel had been forgotten. In 1972, one British wine writer wrote, "there is a fascinating Californian grape, the zinfandel, said to have come from Hungary, but apparently a cépage now unknown there." In 1974 and 1981, American wine writers described it as "a California original, grown nowhere else" and "California's own red grape".
In 1972, Bob Trinchero of the Sutter Home Winery decided to try draining some juice from the vats in order to impart more tannins and color to his Deaver Vineyard Zinfandel. He vinified this juice as a dry wine, and tried to sell it under the name of Oeil de Perdrix, a Swiss wine made by this saignée method. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms insisted on an English translation, so he added "White Zinfandel" to the name, and sold 220 cases. At the time, demand for white wine exceeded the availability of white wine grapes, encouraging other California producers to make "white" wine from red grapes, with minimal skin contact. However, in 1975, Trinchero's wine experienced a stuck fermentation, a problem in which the yeast dies off before all the sugar is converted to alcohol. He put the wine aside for two weeks, then tasted it and decided to sell this pinker, sugary wine. Just as Mateus Rosé had become a huge success in Europe after World War II, this medium sweet White Zinfandel became immensely popular. White Zinfandel still accounts for 9.9% of U.S. wine sales by volume (6.3% by value), six times the sales of red Zinfandel. Most white Zinfandel is made from grapes grown for that purpose in California's Central Valley.
Wine critics considered white Zinfandel to be insipid and uninteresting in the 1970s and 1980s, although modern white Zinfandels have more fruit and less cloying sweetness. Nevertheless, the success of this blush wine saved many old vines in premium areas, which came into their own at the end of the 20th century as red Zinfandel wines came back into fashion. Although the two wines taste dramatically different, both are made from the same (red) grapes, processed in a different way.
Relationship to Primitivo, Crljenak Kaštelanski and Tribidrag
Zinfandel was long considered "America's vine and wine", but when University of California, Davis (UCD) professor Austin Goheen visited Italy in 1967, he noticed how wine made from Primitivo reminded him of Zinfandel. Others also made the connection about that time. Primitivo was brought to California in 1968, and ampelographers declared it identical to Zinfandel in 1972. The first wine made from these California vines in 1975 also seemed identical to Zinfandel. In 1975, PhD student Wade Wolfe showed that the two varieties had identical isozyme fingerprints.
Dr. Lamberti of Bari had suggested to Goheen in 1976 that Primitivo might be the Croatian variety Plavac Mali. By 1982 Goheen had confirmed that they were similar but not identical, probably by isozyme analysis. Some Croatians, however, became convinced that Plavac Mali was the same as Zinfandel, among them Croatian-born winemaker Mike Grgich. In 1991 Grgich and other producers came together as the Zinfandel Advocates and Producers (ZAP) with the objectives of promoting the varietal and wine, and supporting scientific research on Zinfandel. With this support, UCD professor Carole Meredith went to Croatia and collected over 150 samples of Plavac Mali throughout Dalmatia, in collaboration with the University of Zagreb.
In 1993, Meredith used a DNA fingerprinting technique to confirm that Primitivo and Zinfandel are clones of the same variety. Comparative field trials have found that "Primitivo selections were generally superior to those of Zinfandel, having earlier fruit maturity, similar or higher yield, and similar or lower bunch rot susceptibility." This is consistent with the theory that Primitivo was selected as an early-ripening clone of a Croatian grape.
By 1998, Meredith's team realized that Plavac Mali was not Zinfandel but rather that one was the parent of the other. In 2000 they discovered that Primitivo/Zinfandel was one parent of Plavac Mali. The other parent of Plavac Mali was determined by Ivan Pejić and Edi Maletić (University of Zagreb) to be Dobričić, an ancient variety from the Adriatic island of Šolta.
This discovery narrowed down the search to the central Dalmatian coastal strip and its offshore islands. Eventually a matching DNA fingerprint was found among the samples. The match came from a vine sampled in 2001 in the vineyard of Ivica Radunić in Kaštel Novi. This Crljenak Kaštelanski ("Kaštela Red") appears to represent Primitivo/Zinfandel in its original home, although some genetic divergence may have occurred since their separation. Meredith now refers to the variety as "ZPC" – Zinfandel / Primitivo / Crljenak Kaštelanski.
This Croatian vineyard contained just nine Crljenak Kaštelanski vines mixed with thousands of other vines. In 2002, additional vines known locally as Pribidrag were found in the Dalmatian coastal town of Omiš. Both clones are being propagated in California under the aegis of Ridge Vineyards, although virus infections have delayed their release. The first Croatian ZPC wine was made by Edi Maletić in 2005. Meanwhile, plantings of Primitivo have increased in California, where it seems to grow somewhat less vigorously than its sibling. Its wines are reputed to have more blackberry and spice flavors.
In the 2012 book Wine Grapes Masters of wine Jancis Robinson and Julia Harding and Swiss grape geneticist Dr. José Vouillamoz detail the search for Zinfandel's origins. After years of research and DNA testing of vines from vineyards across the globe, a single 90-year-old grape vine from the garden of an elderly lady in Split, Croatia, provided the evidence to show that Zinfandel was a Croatian grape that has been known as Tribidrag since at least the 15th century.
Legal issues
Local wine-labeling regulations are slowly catching up with the DNA evidence, a process that has been slowed by trade disputes. The European Union recognized Zinfandel as a synonym for Primitivo in January 1999, meaning that Italian Primitivos can be labelled as Zinfandel in the United States and any other country that recognises EU labelling laws. Italian winemakers have taken advantage of these rules and shipped Primitivo wines to the United States labelled as Zinfandels, with the approval of the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB).
As of December 2007, the TTB lists both Zinfandel and Primitivo as approved grape varieties for American wines, but they are not listed as synonyms; U.S. producers, therefore, must label a wine according to whether it is Zinfandel or Primitivo. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) proposed in 2002 that they be recognized as synonyms. In July 2008, the proposed regulation (RIN 1513–AA32, formerly RIN 1512-AC65) was withdrawn.
Distribution and wines
United States
Zinfandel is grown across the continental United States, although California grows the largest proportion. U.S. producers make wine in styles that range from late harvest dessert wines, rosés (White Zinfandel) and Beaujolais-style light reds to big hearty reds and fortified wine in the style of port. The quality and character of American Zinfandel wines largely depend on the climate, location, and age of the vineyard in which they are grown, as well as the technology employed by the winemaker.
Historically, California Zinfandel vines were planted as a field blend interspersed with Durif (Petite Sirah), Carignan, Grenache, Mourvèdre, Mission and Muscat. While most vineyards are now fully segregated, California winemakers continue to use other grapes (particularly Petite Sirah) in their Zinfandel wines. Zinfandel is grown on approximately 11% of California's vineyard land area. Around 400,000 short tons (350,000 tonnes) are crushed each year, depending on the harvest, placing Zinfandel third behind Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon and just ahead of Merlot.
California regions
In California, 20% of the Zinfandel-growing counties hold 80% of the Zinfandel growing area; however, major producing areas such as San Joaquin County, Stanislaus County, and Madera County produce Zinfandel primarily for blends or jug wine.
Certain California regions are regarded as "exceptional" for Zinfandel, each with identifiable flavor characteristics:
Amador has a reputation for big, full-bodied Zinfandel. These extra-ripe wines have been called jammy, briary, and brambly, having aromas of sweet berries.
Although the Santa Cruz Mountains AVA in Santa Clara Valley produces Zinfandel from just , the Zinfandel from that region is known for its complexity and depth.
Sonoma county has a Zinfandel-producing land area second only to that of San Joaquin County. The county contains the warm Dry Creek Valley AVA, known for its juicy Zinfandel with bright fruit, balanced acidity and notes of blackberry, anise and pepper. Dry Creek Valley produces Zinfandel in a variety of styles ranging from the high-alcohol Amador style to balanced, spicy wines.
San Luis Obispo, particularly the Paso Robles AVA with its hot days and cool maritime evenings, produces Zinfandel known for being soft and round.
While the Napa Valley AVA is known primarily for its Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Syrah, Napa also produces Zinfandel wines described as plummy and intense, tasting of red berry fruits with cedar and vanilla. Zinfandel in Napa tends to be made in a claret style like red Bordeaux.
The Russian River Valley generally produces well during warm vintages. Otherwise, the grapes do not fully ripen, leaving the wines with excessive acidity. The area has mostly "old vine" Zinfandel, characterized as spicy and somewhat lower in alcohol than Zinfandel from other regions.
Mendocino County Zinfandel wines have been considered high quality, but they are less known because they are not heavily marketed.
Lodi has some of the oldest Zinfandel vines in California. While often used for White Zinfandel production, in the red style, Lodi Zinfandels have a reputation for being juicy and approachable.
Italy
Most Primitivo is grown in Apulia, a coastal region known as the "heel" of Italy, and it is estimated to be the country's 12th most widely planted grape variety. The main three DOC areas are Primitivo di Manduria, Gioia del Colle Primitivo (Riserva) and Falerno del Massico Primitivo (Riserva o Vecchio). The Manduria DOC covers still red wine as well as sweet (Dolce Naturale) and fortified (Liquoroso Dolce Naturale, Liquoroso Secco) wine. Falerno requires a minimum of 85% Primitivo; the others are 100% Primitivo. Gioia del Colle Rosso and Rosato contain 50–60% Primitivo, and Cilento Rosso/Rosato contains around 15%.
Historically, the grape was fermented and shipped north to Tuscany and Piedmont, where it was used as a blending grape to enhance the body of thin red wines produced in those areas. When the link between Primitivo and Zinfandel began to emerge, plantings in the region and production of non-blended varietal increased. Today most Italian Primitivo is made as a rustic, highly alcoholic red wine with up to 16% alcohol by volume (ABV). Some Italian winemakers age the wines in new American oak to imitate American-style Zinfandel.
Other locations
The Croatian form Crljenak Kaštelanski was not bottled in Croatia as a varietal in its own right before the link to Zinfandel was revealed. UCD has since sent clones of both Zinfandel and Primitivo to Professor Maletić in Croatia, which he planted on the island of Hvar. He made his first ZPC wines in Croatia in 2005. There is high demand for red grapes in the country, and the government has been supportive of ongoing research. Figures from the department of viticulture and enology at the University of Zagreb claim that from only 22 vines of Crljenak Kaštelanski in Croatia in 2001, there were about 2,000 vines in 2008.
Old vine Zinfandel plantings dating from the 1930s have been found in Baja California, Mexico. There are also small Zinfandel plantings in Western Australia, Mudgee in New South Wales and the McLaren Vale area of South Australia. South Africa has a small production of Zinfandel, including one estate rated among the country's Zinfandel producers and winner of an international prize. In France, there is a single hectare of Zinfandel grown in the Côtes de Thongue region, sold by Domaine de l'Arjolle.
Viticulture and winemaking
Zinfandel vines are quite vigorous and grow best in climates that are warm but not too hot, because grapes may shrivel in hot weather. Zinfandel's thin-skinned grapes grow in large, tight bunches that are sometimes prone to bunch rot. The fruit ripen fairly early and produce juice with high sugar content. If weather conditions permit, the grapes may be late-harvested to make dessert wine. Zinfandel is often praised for its ability to reflect both its terroir and its winemaker's style and skill.
The grapes exhibit an uneven pattern of ripening: a single bunch may contain both raisin-like, over-ripe grapes and green, unripened grapes. Some winemakers choose to vinify the bunches with these varying levels of ripeness, while others hand-harvest the bunches, even by single berries, in multiple passes through the vineyards over several weeks. This extensively laborious practice is one component in the high cost of some Zinfandels.
Red Zinfandel wines have been criticized for being too "hot" (too alcoholic), although modern winemaking techniques have helped make them more approachable. On the other hand, Zinfandel producers such as Joel Peterson of Ravenswood believe that alcohol-removing technologies, such as reverse osmosis and spinning cones, remove a sense of terroir from the wine. If a wine has the tannins and other components to balance 15% alcohol, Peterson argues, it should be accepted on its own terms.
Factors that affect the wine's flavors include length of fermentation, length of the maceration period with skin contact, the level of oak aging, and the degrees Brix of the harvested grapes. White Zinfandel is normally harvested early at 20°Bx when the grapes have yet to develop much varietal character, though some examples can develop hints of tobacco and apple skin. At 23°Bx (the degree that most red wine is considered "ripe"), strawberry flavors develop. Cherry flavors appear at 24°Bx followed by blackberry notes at 25°Bx.
Synonyms
Crljenak Kaštelanski, Gioia Del Colle, Locale, Morellone, Plavac Veliki, Primaticcio, Primativo, Primitivo, Primitivo Di Gioia, Primitivo Nero, Uva Della Pergola, Uva Di Corato, Zin (informal), ZPC, Black St. Peters, Zenfendal, Zinfardel, Zinfindal, Taranto, Zeinfandall, Zinfardell, Zinfindel, Zinfandal.
See also
Paul Draper – chief winemaker at Ridge Vineyards, pioneer of California Zinfandel
Mike Grgich – winemaker advocate of Zinfandel who funded genetic research
Plavac Mali – a grape variety descended from parents Zinfandel and Dobričić
Susumaniello – Pugliese grape that also probably came from Dalmatia
Croatian wine
References
Further reading
External links
Zinfandel Advocates & Producers (ZAP)
Grape varieties of Croatia
Wine grapes of Italy
Wine grapes of Apulia
Red wine grape varieties
American wine
Croatian wine | [
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242591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Celan | Paul Celan | Paul Celan (; ; 23 November 1920 – c. 20 April 1970) was a Romanian-born German-language poet and translator. He was born as Paul Antschel to a Jewish family in Cernăuți (German: Czernowitz), in the then Kingdom of Romania (now Chernivtsi, Ukraine), and adopted the pseudonym "Paul Celan". He became one of the major German-language poets of the post-World War II era.
Life
Early life
Celan was born into a German-speaking Jewish family in Cernăuți, Bukovina, a region then part of Romania and earlier part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (when his birthplace was known as Czernowitz). His first home was in the Wassilkogasse in Cernăuți. His father, Leo Antschel, was a Zionist who advocated his son's education in Hebrew at the Jewish school Safah Ivriah (meaning the Hebrew language).
Celan's mother, Fritzi, was an avid reader of German literature who insisted German be the language of the house. In his teens Celan became active in Jewish Socialist organizations and fostered support for the Republican cause in the Spanish Civil War. His earliest known poem is titled Mother's Day 1938.
Paul attended the Liceul Ortodox de Băieți No. 1 (Boys' Orthodox Secondary School No. 1) from 1930 until 1935, Liceul de Băieți No. 2 în Cernăuți (Boys' Secondary School No. 2 in Cernăuți) from 1935 to 1936, followed by the Liceul Marele Voievod Mihai (Great Prince Mihai Preparatory School, now Chernivtsi School No. 5), where he studied from 1936 until graduating in 1938. At this time Celan secretly began to write poetry.
In 1938 Celan traveled to Tours, France, to study medicine. The Anschluss precluded his study in Vienna, and Romanian schools were harder to get into due to the newly imposed Jewish quota. His journey to France took him through Berlin as the events of Kristallnacht unfolded, and also introduced him to his uncle, Bruno Schrager, who was later among the French detainees who died at Birkenau. Celan returned to Cernăuţi in 1939 to study literature and Romance languages.
Life during World War II
Following the Soviet occupation of Bukovina in June 1940, deportations to Siberia started. A year later, following the reconquest by Romania, Nazi Germany and the then-fascist Romanian regime brought ghettos, internment, and forced labour (see Romania in World War II).
On arrival in Cernăuți in July 1941, the German SS Einsatzkommando and their Romanian allies set the city's Great Synagogue on fire. In October, the Romanians deported a large number of Jews after forcing them into a ghetto, where Celan translated Shakespeare's sonnets and continued to write his own poetry. Before the ghetto was dissolved in the fall of that year, Celan was pressed into labor, first clearing the debris of a demolished post office, and then gathering and destroying Russian books.
The local mayor, Traian Popovici, strove to mitigate the harsh circumstances, until the governor of Bukovina had the Jews rounded up and deported, starting on a Saturday night in June 1942. Celan hoped to convince his parents to leave the country so as to escape certain persecution. While Celan was away from home, on 21 June 1942, his parents were taken from their home and sent by train to an internment camp in Transnistria Governorate, where two-thirds of the deportees eventually perished. Celan's father likely perished of typhus and his mother was shot after being exhausted by forced labour. Later that year, after being taken to a labour camp in Romania, Celan would receive reports of his parents' deaths.
Celan remained imprisoned in a work-camp until February 1944, when the Red Army's advance forced the Romanians to abandon the camps, whereupon he returned to Cernăuţi shortly before the Soviets returned. There, he worked briefly as a nurse in the mental hospital. Friends from this period recall Celan expressing immense guilt over his separation from his parents, whom he had tried to convince to go into hiding prior to the deportations, shortly before their deaths.
Life after the war
Considering emigration to Palestine, Celan left Cernăuţi in 1945 for Bucharest, where he remained until 1947. He was active in the Jewish literary community as both a translator of Russian literature into Romanian, and as a poet, publishing his work under a variety of pseudonyms. The literary scene of the time was richly populated with surrealists – Gellu Naum, Ilarie Voronca, Gherasim Luca, Paul Păun, and Dolfi Trost – and it was in this period that Celan developed pseudonyms both for himself and his friends, including the one he took as his pen name. Here he also met with the poets Rose Ausländer and , elements of whose works he would reuse in his poem "Todesfuge" (1944–45).
A version of Celan's poem "Todesfuge" appeared as "" ("Death Tango") in a Romanian translation of May 1947. Additional remarks were published explaining that the dancing and musical performances evoked in the poem were images of realities of the extermination camp life.
Emigration and Paris years
On the emergence of the communist regime in Romania, Celan fled Romania for Vienna, Austria. It was there that he befriended Ingeborg Bachmann, who had just completed a dissertation on Martin Heidegger. Facing a city divided between occupying powers and with little resemblance to the mythic capital it once was, which had harboured the (now) shattered Austro-Hungarian Jewish community, he moved to Paris in 1948. In that year his first poetry collection, Der Sand aus den Urnen ("Sand from the Urns"), was published in Vienna by A. Sexl. His first few years in Paris were marked by intense feelings of loneliness and isolation, as expressed in letters to his colleagues, including his longtime friend from Cernăuţi, Petre Solomon. It was also during this time that he exchanged many letters with Diet Kloos, a young Dutch singer and anti-Nazi resister who saw her husband of a few months tortured to death. She visited Celan twice in Paris between 1949 and 1951.
In 1952, Celan's writing began to gain recognition when he read his poetry on his first reading trip to Germany where he was invited to read at the semiannual meetings of Group 47. At their May meeting he read his poem Todesfuge ("Death Fugue"), a depiction of concentration camp life. When Ingeborg Bachmann, with whom Celan had an affair, won the group's prize for her collection (The Extended Hours), Celan (whose work had received only six votes) said "After the meeting, only six people remembered my name". He did not attend any other meeting of the group.
In November 1951, he met the graphic artist Gisèle Lestrange, in Paris. He sent her many love letters, influenced by Franz Kafka's correspondence with Milena Jesenská and Felice Bauer. They married on 21 December 1952, despite the opposition of her aristocratic family. During the following 18 years they wrote over 700 letters; amongst the active correspondents of Celan were Hermann Lenz and his wife, Hanne. He made his living as a translator and lecturer in German at the École normale supérieure. He was a close friend of Nelly Sachs, who later won the Nobel Prize for literature.
Celan became a French citizen in 1955 and lived in Paris. Celan's sense of persecution increased after the widow of a friend, the French-German poet Yvan Goll, unjustly accused him of having plagiarised her husband's work. Celan was awarded the Bremen Literature Prize in 1958 and the Georg Büchner Prize in 1960.
Celan drowned himself in the river Seine in Paris around 20 April 1970.
Poetry and poetics
The death of his parents and the experience of the Shoah (The Holocaust) are defining forces in Celan's poetry and his use of language. In his Bremen Prize speech, Celan said of language after Auschwitz that:
Celan also said: "There is nothing in the world for which a poet will give up writing, not even when he is a Jew and the language of his poems is German."
His most famous poem, the early "Todesfuge", is a work of great complexity and power, which may have drawn some key motifs from the poem "ER" by , another Czernovitz poet. The characters of Margarete and Sulamith, with their respectively golden and ashen hair, can be interpreted as a reflection of Celan's Jewish-German culture, while the blue-eyed "Master from Germany" embodies German Nazism.
In later years his poetry became progressively more cryptic, fractured and monosyllabic, bearing comparison to the music of Anton Webern. He also increased his use of German neologisms, especially in his later works Fadensonnen ("Threadsuns") and Lichtzwang. In the eyes of some, Celan attempted in his poetry either to destroy or remake the German language. For others, he retained a sense for the lyricism of the German language which was rare in writers of that time. As he writes in a letter to his wife Gisèle Lestrange on one of his trips to Germany: "The German I talk is not the same as the language the German people are talking here". Writing in German was a way for him to think back and remember his parents, particularly his mother, from whom he had learned the language. This is underlined in "" (Lupin), a poem in which Paul Celan addresses his mother. The urgency and power of Celan's work stem from his attempt to find words "after", to bear (impossible) witness in a language that gives back no words "for that which happened".
In addition to writing poetry (in German and, earlier, in Romanian), he was an extremely active translator and polyglot, translating literature from Romanian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Russian, Hebrew, and English into German.
Awards
Bremen Literature Prize 1958
Georg Büchner Prize 1960
Significance
Based on the reception of his work, it could be suggested that Celan, along with Goethe, Hölderlin and Rilke, is one of the most significant German poets who ever lived. Despite the difficulty of his work, his poetry is thoroughly researched, the total number of scholarly papers numbering in the thousands. Many contemporary philosophers, including Maurice Blanchot, Jacques Derrida, Hans-Georg Gadamer and others have devoted at least one of their books to his writing.
Bibliography
In German
Der Sand aus den Urnen (The Sand from the Urns, 1948)
Mohn und Gedächtnis (Poppy and Memory, 1952)
Von Schwelle zu Schwelle (From Threshold to Threshold, 1955)
Sprachgitter (Speechwicket / Speech Grille, 1959)
Die Niemandsrose (The No-One's-Rose, 1963)
Atemwende (Breathturn, 1967)
Fadensonnen (Threadsuns / Twinesuns / Fathomsuns, 1968)
Lichtzwang (Lightduress / Light-Compulsion, 1970)
Schneepart (Snow Part [posthumous], 1971)
Zeitgehöft (Timestead / Homestead of Time [posthumous], 1976)
Translations
Celan's poetry has been translated into English, with many of the volumes being bilingual. The most comprehensive collections are from John Felstiner, Pierre Joris, and Michael Hamburger, who revised his translations of Celan over a period of two decades. Susan H. Gillespie and Ian Fairley have released English translations.
Joris has also translated Celan's German poems into French.
(Note: This incomplete list is chronological by year of publication of the translation, the most recent listed first.)
Memory Rose Into Threshold Speech: The Collected Earlier Poetry, A Bilingual Edition, translated by Pierre Joris (2020)
Microliths They Are, Little Stones: Posthumous Prose, translated by Pierre Joris (2020)
Breathturn into Timestead: The Collected Later Poetry: A Bilingual Edition, translated by Pierre Joris (2015)
Corona: Selected Poems of Paul Celan, translated by Susan H. Gillespie (Station Hill of Barrytown, 2013)
The Meridian: Final Version – Drafts – Materials, edited by Bernhard Böschenstein and Heino Schmull, translated by Pierre Joris (2011)
The Correspondence of Paul Celan and Ilana Shmueli, translated by Susan H. Gillespie with a preface by John Felstiner (2011)
Paul Celan, Ingeborg Bachmann: Correspondence, translated by Wieland Hoban (2010)
From Threshold to Threshold, translated by David Young (2010)
Snow Part, translated by Ian Fairley (2007)
Lichtzwang/Lightduress, translated and with an introduction by Pierre Joris, a bilingual edition (Green Integer, 2005)
Paul Celan: Selections, edited and with an introduction by Pierre Joris (2005)
Fathomsuns/Fadensonnen and Benighted/Eingedunkelt, translated by Ian Fairley (2001)
Poems of Paul Celan: A Bilingual German/English Edition, Revised Edition, translated by Michael Hamburger (2001)
Glottal Stop: 101 Poems, translated by Nikolai B. Popov and Heather McHugh (2000) (winner of the 2001 International Griffin Poetry Prize)
Paul Celan, Nelly Sachs: Correspondence, translated by Christopher Clark, edited with an introduction by John Felstiner (1998)
Atemwende/Breathturn, translated by Pierre Joris (1995)
Collected Prose, edited by Rosmarie Waldrop (1986)
Last Poems, translated by Katharine Washburn and Margret Guillemin (1986)
Paul Celan, 65 Poems, translated by Brian Lynch and Peter Jankowsky (1985)
Nineteen Poems by Paul Celan, translated by Michael Hamburger (1972)
"Speech-Grille" and Selected Poems, translated by Joachim Neugroschel (1971)
Something is still present and isn't, of what's gone. A bilingual anthology of avant-garde and avant-garde inspired Rumanian poetry, (translated by Victor Pambuccian), Aracne editrice, Rome, 2018.
In Romanian
, Andrei Corbea Hoişie
Bilingual
Paul Celan. /, editor Andrei Corbea Hoişie
Schneepart / Snøpart. Translated 2012 to Norwegian by Anders Bærheim and Cornelia Simon
Writers translated by Celan
Guillaume Apollinaire
Tudor Arghezi
Antonin Artaud
Charles Baudelaire
Alexander Blok
André Breton
Jean Cayrol
Aimé Césaire
René Char
Emil Cioran
Jean Daive
Robert Desnos
Emily Dickinson
John Donne
André du Bouchet
Jacques Dupin
Paul Éluard
Robert Frost
Clement Greenberg
A. E. Housman
Velimir Khlebnikov
Maurice Maeterlinck
Stéphane Mallarmé
Osip Mandelstam
Andrew Marvell
Henri Michaux
Marianne Moore
Gellu Naum
Gérard de Nerval
Benjamin Péret
Fernando Pessoa
Pablo Picasso
Arthur Rimbaud
William Shakespeare
Georges Simenon
Jules Supervielle
Giuseppe Ungaretti
Paul Valéry
Sergei Yesenin
Yevgeny Yevtushenko
About translations
About translating David Rokeah from Hebrew, Celan wrote: "David Rokeah was here for two days, I have translated two poems for him, mediocre stuff, and given him comments on other German translation, suggested improvements ... I was glad, probably in the wrong place, to be able to decipher and translate a Hebrew text."
Biographies
Paul Celan: A Biography of His Youth Israel Chalfen, intro. John Felstiner, trans. Maximilian Bleyleben (New York: Persea Books, 1991)
Paul Celan: Poet, Survivor, Jew, John Felstiner (Yale University Press, 1995)
Selected criticism
Englund, Axel. Still Songs: Music In and Around the Poetry of Paul Celan. Farnham: Ashgate, 2012.
Hillard, Derek. Poetry as Individuality: The Discourse of Observation in Paul Celan. Bucknell University Press, 2010.
Celan Studies Peter Szondi, translated by Susan Bernofsky and Harvey Mendelsohn (2003)
Word Traces Aris Fioretos (ed.), includes contributions by Jacques Derrida, Werner Hamacher, and Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe (1994)
Poetry as Experience Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, translated by Andrea Tarnowski (1999)
Gadamer on Celan: 'Who Am I and Who Are You?' and Other Essays, Hans-Georg Gadamer, trans. and ed. by Richard Heinemann and Bruce Krajewski (1997)
Sovereignties in Question: the Poetics of Paul Celan Jacques Derrida, trans. and ed. by Thomas Dutoit, Outi Pasanen, a collection of mostly late works, including "Rams," which is also a memorial essay on Gadamer and his "Who Am I and Who Are You?", and a new translation of Schibboleth (2005)
Poésie contre poésie. Celan et la littérature Jean Bollack. PUF (2001)
L'écrit : une poétique dans l'oeuvre de Celan Jean Bollack. PUF (2003)
Paul Celan and Martin Heidegger: An Unresolved Conversation, 1951–1970 James K. Lyon (2006)
Paul Celan et Martin Heidegger: le sens d'un dialogue Hadrien France-Lanord (2004)
Words from Abroad: Trauma and Displacement in Postwar German Jewish Writers, Katja Garloff (2005)
Carson, Anne. Economy of the Unlost: Reading Simonides of Keos with Paul Celan, Princeton: Princeton University Press (1999)
"Shakespeare and Celan: A very brief comparative Study" by Pinaki Roy, in Yearly Shakespeare (ISSN 0976-9536) (xviii, 2020): 118-24.
Kligerman, Eric. Sites of the Uncanny: Paul Celan, Specularity and the Visual Arts. Berlin and New York, 2007 (Interdisciplinary German Cultural Studies, 3).
Andréa Lauterwein: Anselm Kiefer /Paul Celan. Myth, Mourning and Memory. With 157 illustrations, 140 in colour. Thames & Hudson, London 2007.
Arnau Pons, "Vor Morgen. Bachmann und Celan. Die Minne im Angesicht der Morde". Kultur & Genspenster. Heft Nr. 10, 2010.
Werner Wögerbauer, "Das Gesicht des Gerechten. Paul Celan besucht Friedrich Dürrenmatt", Kultur & Genspenster. Heft Nr. 10, 2010.
Marko Pajević, "Zur Poetik Paul Celans: Gedicht und Mensch - die Arbeit am Sinn". Universitätsverlag C. Winter, Heidelberg 2000.
Audio-visual
Recordings
, readings of his original compositions
, readings of his translations of Osip Mandelstam and Sergei Yesenin
Six Celan Songs, texts of his poems , sung by Ute Lemper, set to music by Michael Nyman
Tenebrae () from (1998) of Marcus Ludwig, sung by the ensemble amarcord
"" (from ), "Zähle die Mandeln" (from ), "Psalm" (from ), set to music by Giya Kancheli as parts II–IV of Exil, sung by Maacha Deubner, ECM (1995)
Pulse Shadows by Harrison Birtwistle; nine settings of poems by Celan, interleaved with nine pieces for string quartet (one of which is an instrumental setting of "Todesfuge").
Reviews
Dove, Richard (1981), Mindus Inversus, review of Selected Poems translated by Michael Humburger. in Murray, Glen (ed.), Cencrastus No. 7, Winter 1981-82, p. 48,
Notes
Further reading
Aquilina, Mario, The Event of Style in Literature (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014)
Daive, Jean. Under The Dome: Walks with Paul Celan (tr. Rosmarie Waldrop), Providence, Rhode Island: Burning Deck, 2009.
Daive, Jean. Albiach / Celan (author, tr. Donald Wellman), Anne-Marie Albiach (author), (tr. Julian Kabza), Ann Arbor, Michigan: Annex Press, 2017.
John Felstiner, "Paul Celan and Yehuda Amichai: An Exchange between Two Great Poets", Midstream, vol. 53, no. 1 (Jan.–Feb. 2007)
John Felstiner "Writing Zion" Paul Celan and Yehuda Amichai: An Exchange between Two Great Poets, The New Republic, 5 June 2006
Hana Amichai: "The leap between the yet and the not any more", Yehuda Amichai and Paul Celan, Haaretz, 6 April 2012 (Hebrew)
Mario Kopić: "Amfiteater v Freiburgu, julija 1967", Arendt, Heidegger, Celan, Apokalipsa, 153–154, 2011 (Slovenian)
External links
Selected Celan exhibits, sites, homepages on the web
Link to the new site
Biography of Celan at the George Mason University site
Overview at Littlebluelight.com
Limited-edition of Paul Celan's reading before the German literary club, Group 47, from The Shackman Press
Spike Magazine's analysis on the writing of Celan
Against Time: Essays on Paul Celan on Point and Circumference
Selected poetry, poems, poetics on the web (English translations of Celan)
Recent Celan essays by John Felstiner: 1) "Paul Celan Meets Samuel Beckett", American Poetry Review, July/August 2004 & poetrydaily.org, 6 July 2004; 2) "Writing Zion: An Exchange between Celan and Amichai", New Republic, 12 June 2006 & "Paul Celan and Yehuda Amichai: An Exchange on Nation and Exile", wordswithoutborders.org; 3) "The One and Only Circle: Paul Celan's Letters to Gisèle", Fiction 54, 2008 and (expanded) Mantis, 2009
"Die Zweite Bibliographie", Jerry Glenn (copious bibliography, through 1995, in German)
Celan on Mandelstam: extracts from the variorum edition of the Meridian speech featured on Pierre Joris's blog, this is a page of notes, fragments, sketches for sentences, etc., Celan took when preparing a radio-essay on Osip Mandelstam. However, as Joris points out: "some of the thinking reappears, transformed, in the Meridian".
"Four New Translations of Paul Celan", by Ian Fairley in Guernica Magazine
"Fugue of Death" (English translation of "")
"Death Fugue" (Another English translation of "")
InstaPLANET Cultural Universe: three poems from Die Gedichte aus dem Nachlass in the original German with a translation into English by Ana Elsner
"Dissertation on the French Reception of Celan"
Ring-Narrowing Day Under, one of seven poems translated from the German by Heather McHugh and Nikolai Popov, originally published in Jubilat
Extract from Lightduress (Cycle 6), translated by Pierre Joris; originally published by Samizdat
Dan Kaufman & Barbez music recorded an album based upon the life and poems of Paul Celan, published on the Tzadik label in the series of Radical Jewish Culture.
translations from ATEMWENDE/ Breathturn Cal Kinnear translates Paul Celan
Selected multimedia presentations
Recordings of Celan reading a selection of his poems, including "", with translations by John Felstiner
Griffin Poetry Prize reading by Nikolai Popov and Heather McHugh from Glottal Stop: 101 Poems by Paul Celan, including video clip
1920 births
1970 suicides
People from Chernivtsi
École Normale Supérieure faculty
German-language poets
Jewish poets
French people of Romanian-Jewish descent
Romanian emigrants to France
Jewish Romanian writers
Bukovina Jews
Romanian male poets
French male poets
Romanian translators
Romanian writers in French
Romanian writers in German
French writers in German
Suicides by drowning in France
Georg Büchner Prize winners
Nazi-era ghetto inmates
Jewish concentration camp survivors
20th-century French translators
20th-century Romanian poets
20th-century French poets
Translators of William Shakespeare
French male dramatists and playwrights
1970 deaths
Forced labourers under German rule during World War II | [
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242592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisherman | Fisherman | A fisher or fisherman is someone who captures fish and other animals from a body of water, or gathers shellfish.
Worldwide, there are about 38 million commercial and subsistence fishers and fish farmers. Fishers may be professional or recreational. Fishing has existed as a means of obtaining food since the Mesolithic period.
History
Fishing has existed as a means of obtaining food since the Mesolithic period. Fishing had become a major means of survival as well as a business venture.
Fishing and the fishers have also influenced Ancient Egyptian religion; mullets were worshipped as a sign of the arriving flood season. Bastet was often manifested in the form of a catfish. In ancient Egyptian literature, the process that Amun used to create the world is associated with the tilapia's method of mouth-brooding.
Commerce
According to the FAO, there were about 39 million fishers in countries producing more than 200,000 tonnes in 2012, which is nearly 140% the number in 1995. The total fishery production of 66 million tonnes equated to an average productivity of 3.5 tonnes per person.
Most of this growth took place in Asian countries, where four-fifths of world fishers and fish farmers dwell.
Most fishers are women and men involved in offshore and deep-sea fisheries. Women and men fish in some regions inshore from small boats or collect shellfish and seaweed. In many artisanal fishing communities, women or men are responsible for making and repairing nets, post-harvest processing and marketing.
Recreation
Recreational fishing is fishing for pleasure or competition. It can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is fishing for economic profit, or subsistence fishing, which is fishing for survival.
The most common form of recreational fishing is done with a rod, reel, line, hooks and any one of a wide range of baits. Lures are frequently used in place of bait. Some people make handmade lures, including plastic lures and artificial flies.
The practice of catching or attempting to catch fish with a hook is called angling. When angling, it is sometimes expected or required that the fish be caught and released. Big-game fishing is fishing from boats to catch large open-water species such as tuna, sharks and marlin. Noodling and trout tickling are also recreational activities.
Communities
For some communities, fishing provides not only a source of food and work but also community and cultural identity.
Safety issues
The fishing industry is hazardous for fishers. Between 1992 and 1999, US commercial fishing vessels averaged 78 deaths per year. The main contributors to fatalities are:
inadequate preparation for emergencies
poor vessel maintenance and inadequate safety equipment
lack of awareness of or ignoring stability issues.
Many fishers, while accepting that fishing is dangerous, staunchly defend their independence. Many proposed laws and additional regulation to increase safety have been defeated because fishers oppose them.
Alaska's commercial fishers work in one of the world's harshest environments. Many of the hardships they endure include isolated fishing grounds, high winds, seasonal darkness, very cold water, icing, and short fishing seasons, where very long work days are the norm. Fatigue, physical stress, and financial pressures face most Alaska fishers through their careers. Out of 948 work-related deaths that took place in Alaska during 1990–2006, one-third (311) occurred to fishermen. This is equivalent to an estimated annual fatality rate of 128/100,000 workers/year. This fatality rate is 26 times that of the overall U.S. work-related fatality rate of approximately 5/100,000 workers/year for the same time period.
While the work-related fatality rate for commercial fishers in Alaska is still very high, it does appear to be decreasing: since 1990, there has been a 51 percent decline in the annual fatality rate. The successes in commercial fishing are due in part to the U.S. Coast Guard implementing new safety requirements in the early 1990s. These safety requirements contributed to 96 percent of the commercial fishers surviving vessel sinkings/capsizings in 2004, whereas in 1991, only 73 percent survived. While the number of occupational deaths in commercial fishers in Alaska has been reduced, there is a continuing pattern of losing 20 to 40 vessels every year. There are still about 100 fishers who must be rescued each year from cold Alaska waters. Successful rescue is still dependent on the expertly trained personnel of the US Coast Guard Search and Rescue operations, and such efforts can be hindered by the harshness of seas and the weather. Furthermore, the people involved in Search and Rescue operations are themselves at considerable risk for injury or death during these rescue attempts.
Gallery
See also
Fishing
Recreational fishing
Aquaculture
Fish farming
Dirty, dangerous and demeaning
Fishery
List of American fishers
References
Further reading
Fields, Leslie Leyland (editor) (2002) Out On The Deep Blue: Women, Men, and the Oceans They Fish. St. Martin's Press.
Jones, Stephen (2001) Working Thin Waters: Conversations with Captain * Lawrence H. Malloy, Jr. University Press of New England.
External links
Moore, Charles W (1998) Did fishermen discover the New World?''
For Those in Peril: Dangers at Sea for fishermen on the East Coast of Scotland historyshelf.org
Fisher Folk at Sea and Ashore North East Folklore Archive, Aberdeenshire Council. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
Fishers
Food services occupations
Marine occupations | [
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242596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grant%20Wood | Grant Wood | Grant DeVolson Wood (February 13, 1891 in Anamosa, IowaFebruary 12, 1942 in Iowa City) was an American painter and representative of Regionalism, best known for his paintings depicting the rural American Midwest. He is particularly well known for American Gothic (1930), which has become an iconic example of early 20th-century American art.
Early life
Wood was born in rural Iowa, 4 mi (6 km) east of Anamosa, in 1891, the son of Hattie DeEtte Weaver Wood and Francis Maryville Wood. His mother moved the family to Cedar Rapids after his father died in 1901. Soon thereafter, Wood began as an apprentice in a local metal shop. After graduating from Washington High School, Wood enrolled in The Handicraft Guild, an art school run entirely by women in Minneapolis in 1910 (now a prominent artist collective in the city). He is said to have later returned to the Guild to paint American Gothic. A year later, Wood returned to Iowa, where he taught in a rural one-room schoolhouse.
In 1913, he enrolled at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago and performed some work as a silversmith.
Career
Close to the end of World War I, Wood joined the US military, working as an artist designing camouflage scenes as well as other art.
From 1922 to 1935, Wood lived with his mother in the loft of a carriage house in Cedar Rapids, which he turned into his personal studio at "5 Turner Alley" (the studio had no address until Wood made one up).
From 1922 to 1928, Wood made four trips to Europe, where he studied many styles of painting, especially Impressionism and post-Impressionism. However, it was the work of the 15th-century Flemish artist Jan van Eyck that influenced him to take on the clarity of this technique and to incorporate it in his new works.
In 1932, Wood helped found the Stone City Art Colony near his hometown to help artists get through the Great Depression. He became a great proponent of regionalism in the arts, lecturing throughout the country on the topic. As his classically American image was solidified, his bohemian days in Paris were expunged from his public persona.
From 1934 to 1941 Wood taught painting at the University of Iowa's School of Art. During that time, he supervised mural painting projects, mentored students, produced a variety of his own works, and became a key part of the University's cultural community.
Personal life
It is thought that Wood was a closeted homosexual, and that there was an attempt on the part of a senior colleague, Lester Longman, to get him fired both on moral grounds and for his advocacy of regionalism. Critic Janet Maslin states that his friends knew him to be "homosexual and a bit facetious in his masquerade as an overall-clad farm boy." University administration dismissed the allegations and Wood would have returned as professor if not for his growing health problems.
Wood was an avid Freemason and Member of Mount Hermon Lodge #263 in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. After receiving his 3rd Degree of Master Mason he painted The First Three Degrees of Freemasonry in 1921. Freemasonry influenced multiple pieces of work by Grant Wood in his life, and furthered his moral and ethical beliefs.
Death and legacy
The day before his 51st birthday, Wood died at Iowa City university hospital of pancreatic cancer. He is buried at Riverside Cemetery, Anamosa, Iowa.
When Wood died, his estate went to his sister, Nan Wood Graham, the woman portrayed in American Gothic. When she died in 1990, her estate, along with Wood's personal effects and various works of art, became the property of the Figge Art Museum in Davenport, Iowa.
The World War II Liberty Ship was named in his honor.
In 2009, Grant was awarded the Iowa Prize, the state's highest citizen honor.
Grant Wood Area Education Agency, one of Iowa's nine regional Area Education Agencies established in 1974, which is serving Eastern Iowa, was named after Grant Wood.
Work
Wood was an active painter from an extremely young age until his death, and although he is best known for his paintings, he worked in a large number of media, including lithography, ink, charcoal, ceramics, metal, wood and found objects.
Throughout his life, he hired out his talents to many Iowa-based businesses as a steady source of income. This included painting advertisements, sketching rooms of a mortuary house for promotional flyers and, in one case, designing the corn-themed décor (including chandelier) for the dining room of a hotel. In addition, his 1928 trip to Munich was to oversee the making of the stained glass windows he had designed for a Veterans Memorial Building in Cedar Rapids. The window was damaged during the 2008 flood and it is currently in the process of restoration. He again returned to Cedar Rapids to teach junior high students as he had served in the army as a painter.
Regionalism
Wood is associated with the American movement of Regionalism, which was primarily situated in the Midwest, and advanced figurative painting of rural American themes in an aggressive rejection of European abstraction.
Wood was one of three artists most associated with the movement. The others, John Steuart Curry and Thomas Hart Benton, returned to the Midwest in the 1930s due to Wood's encouragement and assistance with locating teaching positions for them at colleges in Wisconsin and Missouri, respectively. Along with Benton, Curry, and other Regionalist artists, Wood's work was marketed through Associated American Artists in New York for many years. Wood is considered the patron artist of Cedar Rapids, and his childhood country school is depicted on the 2004 Iowa State Quarter.
American Gothic
Wood's best known work is his 1930 painting American Gothic, which is also one of the most famous paintings in American art, and one of the few images to reach the status of widely recognized cultural icon, comparable to Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa and Edvard Munch's The Scream.
American Gothic was first exhibited in 1930 at the Art Institute of Chicago, where it is still located. It was given a $300 prize and made news stories country-wide, bringing Wood immediate recognition. Since then, it has been borrowed and satirized endlessly for advertisements and cartoons.
Art critics who had favorable opinions about the painting, such as Gertrude Stein and Christopher Morley, assumed the painting was meant to be a satire of repression and narrow-mindedness of rural small-town life. It was seen as part of the trend toward increasingly critical depictions of rural America, along the lines of such novels as Sherwood Anderson's 1919 Winesburg, Ohio, Sinclair Lewis's 1920 Main Street, and Carl Van Vechten's The Tattooed Countess. Wood rejected this reading of it. With the onset of the Great Depression, it came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast American pioneer spirit. Another reading is that it is an ambiguous fusion of reverence and parody.
Wood's inspiration came from Eldon, southern Iowa, where a cottage designed in the Gothic Revival style with an upper window in the shape of a medieval pointed arch provided the background and also the painting's title. Wood decided to paint the house along with "the kind of people I fancied should live in that house." The painting shows a farmer standing beside his spinster daughter, figures modeled by the artist's sister, Nan (1900–1990), and his dentist. Wood's sister insisted that the painting depicts the farmer's daughter and not wife, disliking suggestions it was the farmer's wife, since that would mean that she looks older than Wood's sister preferred to think of herself. The dentist, Dr. Byron McKeeby (1867–1950), was from Cedar Rapids. The woman is dressed in a dark print apron mimicking 19th-century Americana with a cameo brooch. The couple are in the traditional roles of men and women, the man's pitchfork symbolizing hard labor.
The compositional severity and detailed technique derive from Northern Renaissance paintings, which Grant had looked at during three visits to Europe; after this he became increasingly aware of the Midwest's own legacy, which also informs the work. It is a key image of Regionalism.
Wood was hired in 1940, along with eight other prominent American artists, to document and interpret dramatic scenes and characters during the production of the film The Long Voyage Home, a cinematic adaptation of Eugene O'Neill's plays.
Gallery
List of works
Paintings
Spotted Man (1924)
The Little Chapel Chancelade (1926)
Woman with Plants (1929)
American Gothic (1930)
Arnold Comes of Age (1930)
Stone City, Iowa (1930)
Appraisal (1931)
Young Corn (1931)
Fall Plowing (1931)
The Birthplace of Herbert Hoover, West Branch, Iowa (1931)
The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere (1931)
Plaid Sweater (1931)
Self-Portrait (1932)
Arbor Day (1932)
Boy Milking Cow (1932)
Daughters of Revolution (1932)
Portrait of Nan (1933)
Near Sundown (1933)
Dinner for Threshers (1934)
Return from Bohemia (1935)
Death on Ridge Road (1935)
Spring Turning (1936)
Seedtime and Harvest (1937)
Sultry Night (1937)
Haying (1939)
New Road (1939)
Parson Weems' Fable (1939)
January (1940)
Iowa Cornfield (1941)
Spring in the Country (1941)
Writing
Wood, Grant. "Art in the Daily Life of the Child." Rural America, March 1940, 7–9.
Revolt against the City. Iowa City: Clio Press, 1935.
References
Sources
Corn, Wanda M. Grant Wood: The Regionalist Vision. New Haven: Minneapolis Institute of Arts and Yale University Press, 1983.
Crowe, David. "Illustration as Interpretation: Grant Wood's 'New Deal' Reading of Sinclair Lewis's Main Street." In Sinclair Lewis at 100: Papers Presented at a Centennial Conference, edited by Michael Connaughton, 95–111. St. Cloud, MN: St. Cloud State University, 1985.
Czestochowski, Joseph S. John Steuart Curry and Grant Wood: A Portrait of Rural America. Columbia: University of Missouri Press and Cedar Rapids Art Association, 1981.
DeLong, Lea Rosson. Grant Wood's Main Street: Art, Literature and the American Midwest. Ames: Exhibition catalog from the Brunnier Art Museum at Iowa State University, 2004.
When Tillage Begins, Other Arts Follow: Grant Wood and Christian Petersen Murals. Ames: Exhibition catalog from the Brunnier Art Museum at Iowa State University, 2006.
Dennis, James M. Grant Wood: A Study in American Art and Culture. New York: Viking Press, 1975.
Renegade Regionalists: The Modern Independence of Grant Wood, Thomas Hart Benton, and John Steuart Curry. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1998.
Evans, R. Tripp. Grant Wood [A Life]. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010 .
Graham, Nan Wood, John Zug, and Julie Jensen McDonald. My Brother, Grant Wood. Iowa City: State Historical Society of Iowa, 1993.
Green, Edwin B. A Grant Wood Sampler, January Issue of the Palimpsest. Iowa City: State Historical Society of Iowa, 1972.
Haven, Janet. "Going Back to Iowa: The World of Grant Wood", MA project in conjunction with the Museum for American Studies of the American Studies Program at the University of Virginia, 1998; includes list of paintings and gallery.
Hoving, Thomas. American Gothic: The Biography of Grant Wood's American Masterpiece. New York: Chamberlain Brothers, 2005.
Milosch, Jane C., ed. Grant Wood’s Studio: Birthplace of American Gothic. Cedar Rapids and New York: Cedar Rapids Museum of Art and Prestel, 2005.
Seery, John E. "Grant Wood's Political Gothic." Theory & Event 2, no. 1 (1998).
Taylor, Sue. "Grant Wood's Family Album." American Art 19, no. 2 (2005): 48–67.
External links
Grant Wood scrapbooks at the Iowa Digital Library
Grant Wood's Studio
Grant Wood Gallery at MuseumSyndicate
The Long Voyage Home Artist Portraits and Paintings at The Ned Scott Archive
"Grant Woods Murals in the Parks Library at Iowa State University"
1891 births
1942 deaths
School of the Art Institute of Chicago alumni
Alumni of the Académie Julian
20th-century American painters
20th-century male artists
American male painters
University of Iowa faculty
Painters from Iowa
Artists from Cedar Rapids, Iowa
People from Anamosa, Iowa
Artists from Park Ridge, Illinois
People of the New Deal arts projects
American portrait painters
20th-century American printmakers
Deaths from cancer in Iowa
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
American Freemasons | [
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242598 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie%20Arcaro | Eddie Arcaro | George Edward Arcaro (February 19, 1916 – November 14, 1997), was an American Thoroughbred horse racing Hall of Fame jockey who won more American classic races than any other jockey in history and is the only rider to have won the U.S. Triple Crown twice. He is widely regarded as the greatest jockey in the history of American Thoroughbred horse racing. Arcaro was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, the son of an impoverished taxi driver. His parents, Pasquale and Josephine, were Italian immigrants and his father held a number of jobs, including taxi driver and operator of an illegal liquor enterprise during Prohibition. Arcaro was born prematurely, and weighed just three pounds at birth; because of this, he was smaller than his classmates and was rejected when he tried out for a spot on a baseball team. His full height would reach just five-foot, two inches. Eventually nicknamed "Banana Nose" by his confreres, Arcaro won his first race in 1932 at the Agua Caliente racetrack in Tijuana, Mexico; he was 16 years old. In 1934, the inaugural year of Narragansett Park, Arcaro was a comparative unknown who rode many of his early career races at 'Gansett.
American classic races
Arcaro won his first Kentucky Derby in 1938 aboard Lawrin. He is tied with Bill Hartack for most Derby wins with five, and has the most wins in the Preakness and the Belmont Stakes with six. He won the U.S. Triple Crown in 1941 on Whirlaway and again in 1948 on Citation. His other Kentucky Derby wins were Hoop Jr. (1945) and Hill Gail (1952).
Major stakes wins
Arcaro also won the Suburban Handicap eight times, the Wood Memorial Stakes nine times and the Jockey Club Gold Cup ten times.
In international competition, at old Woodbine Racetrack in Toronto, Arcaro won the 1953 Queen's Plate (Canada's most prestigious race); at Laurel Park Racecourse in Laurel, Maryland, he won the 1954 Washington, D.C. International against the best horses and riders from Europe.
In 1953 Arcaro was voted the George Woolf Memorial Jockey Award, and in 1958 he was inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in Saratoga Springs, New York.
Active in jockey affairs, Arcaro was a driving force behind the creation of the Jockeys' Guild. He retired in 1962, due to severe bursitis in his arm. During his career Arcaro rode in 24,092 races and won 4,779, with record setting earnings of $30,039,543. After working as a television commentator on racing for CBS and ABC, he was a public relations officer for the Golden Nugget Casino in Las Vegas before retiring to Miami, Florida. He also worked as a spokesman for the Buick Motor Division of General Motors, for which he voiced the well-known phrase "If you price a Buick, you'll buy a Buick." For many years, he was the proprietor of a popular Italian restaurant in Beverly Hills.
Arcaro died in 1997. His body was cremated and his ashes were interred in the columbarium at Our Lady of Mercy Catholic Cemetery in Miami. Today, he remains one of the best-known jockeys in the history of horse racing, called "the Master" for his riding skills, good sense of pace and the ability to switch his whip from one hand to the other with ease during a race.
Triple Crown race record
† - Won the Triple Crown
‡ - Filly
Kentucky Derby: 21-5-3-2
Preakness: 15-6-2-4
Belmont: 21-6-3-2
References
External links
An oral history with Eddie Arcaro at the Louie B. Nunn Center for Oral History at the University of Kentucky Libraries
New York Times About, Inc. article/photographic collection titled Eddie Arcaro Remembered
"Man on a Horse". Time. May 17, 1948.
Eddie Arcaro interviewed by Mike Wallace on The Mike Wallace Interview on September 8, 1957
Eddie Arcaro in the Belmont Stakes
1916 births
1997 deaths
American jockeys
American Champion jockeys
United States Thoroughbred Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Sportspeople from Cincinnati
American horse racing announcers
American sports announcers
People from Garden City, New York | [
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242601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesshin | Sesshin | A sesshin (接心, or also 摂心/攝心 literally "touching the heart-mind") is a period of intensive meditation (zazen) in a Zen monastery.
While the daily routine in the monastery requires the monks to meditate several hours a day, during a sesshin they devote themselves almost exclusively to zazen practice. The numerous 30- to 50-minute-long meditation periods are interleaved with short rest breaks, meals, and sometimes short periods of work (Japanese: 作務 samu) all performed with the same mindfulness; nightly sleep is kept to a minimum, at six hours or fewer. During the sesshin period, the meditation practice is occasionally interrupted by the master giving public talks (teisho) and individual direction in private meetings (which may be called dokusan, daisan, or sanzen) with a Zen Master.
In modern Buddhist practice in Japan and the West, sesshins are often attended by lay students, and are typically one, three, five, or seven days in length. Seven-day sesshins are held several times a year at many Zen centers, especially in commemoration of the Buddha's awakening to full enlightenment (anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi). At this Rohatsu sesshin, practitioners seek to relax and quiet the mind to the point of cessation of mental chatter and emotional impulse, samadhi, kensho, or satori.
A typical sesshin day
A sesshin schedule in the West will typically allow anywhere from nine to fifteen periods of zazen per day, 30–40 minutes each, with ten-minute periods of walking meditation (kinhin) between zazen periods. Traditional sesshin are more intensive, with meditations lasting 30–60 minutes each, with an absence of any rest or work breaks and sleep limited to less than five hours a day.
Meals are taken in a formal meditation ritual of oryoki. Work periods in westernized sesshin are sometimes scheduled and may comprise one to two hours of the day, usually in gardening, cooking, or cleaning. The sesshin schedule typically allows for four to five hours of sleep per night, though practitioners occasionally will spend much of the next-to-last night of a five- or seven-day sesshin in zazen. This is called yaza and is much revered as a particularly effective time to meditate when the thinking mind and ego lack the energy to derail practice.
It has been reported that at least three days of sesshin are usually required for the practitioner to "settle down" into the sesshin routine to a point where the mind becomes quiet enough for the deeper types of meditation and samadhi to begin.
Psychological aspects of sesshin
Some people unfamiliar with the process have reported becoming disoriented and fearful of incurring psychological damage during sesshin. Some Zen centers do not allow novices to attend long sesshins without much prior experience and screening by the practice leaders. Sesshin can lead to deep experiences of awakening that may at times be somewhat traumatic, akin to a "spiritual emergency" or symptoms of Kundalini Syndrome.
While this may seem daunting at first, people who practice regular zazen do not usually have problems with sesshin. Heightening of senses may arise during sesshin. Sometimes practitioners report that food has incredible flavor and colors become more vivid and pronounced.
Social aspects of sesshin
There is no talking during sesshin. Silence is observed so that each student may both concentrate on their experience and not influence those of others.
At the end of the sesshin there is usually a meal when students are allowed to talk to others for the first time since arriving.
See also
Ango
Buddhist terms and concepts
Tenzo
References
External links
Traditional Zen Sesshin at the Dai Bosatsu Monastery
Diary of a lay student in Sesshin
"Bodhidhrama's Shoe", a short film of a sesshin with Joshu Sasaki Roshi, recorded by Tom Davenport in 2003.
Zen
Buddhist meditation
Zazen | [
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242602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20pet | Digital pet | A digital pet (also known as a virtual pet, artificial pet, or pet-raising simulation) is a type of artificial human companion. They are usually kept for companionship or enjoyment. People may keep a digital pet in lieu of a real pet. Cyberpet and Tamagotchi were some of the first popular digital pets.
Digital pets have no concrete physical form other than the hardware they run on. Interaction with virtual pets may or may not be goal oriented. If it is, then the user must keep it alive as long as possible and often help it to grow into higher forms. Keeping the pet alive and growing often requires feeding, grooming and playing with the pet. Some digital pets require more than just food to keep them alive. Daily interaction is required in the form of playing games, virtual petting, providing love and acknowledgment can help keep your virtual pet happy and growing healthy.
Digital pets can be simulations of real animals, as in the Petz series, or fantasy ones, like the Tamagotchi or Digimon series. Unlike biological simulations, the pet does not usually reproduce.
Types
Web-based
Virtual pet sites are usually free to play for all who sign up. They can be accessed through web browsers and often include a virtual community, such as Neopia in Neo pets. In these worlds, a user can play games to earn virtual money which is usually spent on items and food for pets. One large branch of virtual pet games are sim horse games.
Some sites adopt out pets to put on a webpage and use for role-playing in chat rooms. They often require the adoptee to have a page ready for their pet. Sometimes they have a setup for breeding one's pets and then adopting them out.
Some sites use quests in order for users to make points and receive items. Some quests can give stat points to the user's pets for when they are battling. These sites, and their clones, have a single non-dynamic image for each pet and its various colors, leading to a lot of similarity in the pets.
There are also "simulation sites" where the webpage attempts to simulate a real-life discipline, such as horse dressage or pedigree dog showing. Often these sites will also have a breeding aspect, including genetics and markings. Other simulation sites focus mostly on the markings.
Software-based
There are many video games that focus on the care, raising, breeding or exhibition of simulated animals. Such games are described as a sub-class of life simulation game. Since the computing power is more powerful than with webpage or gadget based digital pets, these are usually able to achieve a higher level of visual effects and interactivity. Pet-raising simulations often lack a victory condition or challenge, and can be classified as software toys.
The pet may be capable of learning to do a variety of tasks. "This quality of rich intelligence distinguishes artificial pets from other kinds of A-life, in which individuals have simple rules but the population as a whole develops emergent properties". For artificial pets, their behaviors are typically "preprogrammed and are not truly emergent".
A screen mate is a downloadable virtual pet that creates a small animation that walks around a computer desktop and over open screens unpredictably. Each pets is a small animation of an animal (such as a sheep or a frog, or in some cases a human or bottle cap) that can be interacted by clicking on or dragging, which lifts the pet as if you were picking it up. Most screen mates are free to download and used for entertainment purposes.
History
PF Magic released the first widely popular virtual pets in 1995 with Dogz, followed by Catz in the spring of 1996, eventually becoming a franchise known as Petz. The digital pets were further popularized when Tamagotchi and Digimon were introduced in 1996 and 1997.
Digital pets like Tamagotchi and Digimon were a massive fad across Japan, the United States and United Kingdom during the late 1990s. Today, there are also "Digital Pets" which have physical robotic bodies, known as Ludobots or Entertainment robots.
Controversy
The popularity of virtual pets in the United States, and the constant need for attention the pets required, led to them being banned from schools across the country, a move that hastened the virtual pet's decline from popularity.
A Mad cover on regular issue #362, October 1997 shows a gun being pointed at a virtual pet with Alfred E. Neuman's face and the line "If you don't buy this magazine, we'll kill this virtual pet!" Illustrated by Mark Fredrickson. The cover parodies the January 1973 issue of National Lampoon which depicted a gun being held to a real dog's head and the line, "If you don't buy this magazine, we'll kill this dog."
Digital pets over real pets
Some people suggest that digital pets are preferable for a number of reasons. Having a digital pet in place of a real pet ensures real pets do not have to suffer, and it is arguably training before adopting a real pet. PETA has suggested that robotic animals can help people recognize that they are not up to the commitment of caring for a real animal. Another argument is that the digital pet can successfully substitute a real one for children who cannot care for a real pet, such as those who suffer from allergies.
Relationship with digital pet
There is research concerning the relationship between digital pets and their owners, and their impact on the emotions of people. For example, Furby affects the way people think about their identity, and many children think that Furby is alive in a "Furby kind of way" in Sherry Turkle's research.
Common features
There are many common features between different digital pets, some of them are used to give a sense of reality to the user (such as the pet responding to "touch"), and some for enhancing playability (such as training).
Communication
With advanced video gaming technology, most modern digital pets do not show a message box nor icon to display the pet's internal variable, health state or emotion like earlier generations (such as Tamagotchi). Instead, users can only understand the pet by interpreting their actions, body language, facial expressions, etc. This helps to make a pet's behavior seem natural, rather than calculated, and fosters a feeling of a relationship between user and digital pet.
Sense of reality
To give a sense of reality to users, most digital pets have certain level of autonomy and unpredictability. The user can interact with the pet and this process of personalizing can make the pet more distinctive. Personalizing increases the feeling of responsibility for the pet to the user. For example, if a Tamagotchi is unattended for long enough, it will "die".
Interactivity
To increase user's personal attachment to the pet, the pet interacts with the user. Interactivity can be classified into two categories: Short-term and long-term.
Short-term interactivity includes direct interaction or action to reaction from the pet. Example: "touch" a pet with mouse cursor and the pet will give a direct response to the "touching".
Long-term interactivity includes action that affects the pet's growth, behavior or life span. For example, training a pet may have a good effect on the pet's behavior. Long-term interactivity is quite important for a sense of reality as the user would think that he has some lasting influence on the pet.
Two kinds of interactivity are often combined. Training (long-term interaction) may happen through continuing short-term interaction. Similarly, playing with a pet (short-term interaction) may, if continued over the long term, make the pet more optimistic.
Example of common features
Responds to calling
Responds to touching
Training the pet
Supplies or toys for the pet
Dressing up the pet
Competition or trial amongst pets
Meeting other pets
Complaining when it needs care
See also
List of virtual pet games
AIBO
References
Life simulation games
Electronic toys
1990s fads and trends
Toy animals
Video game genres | [
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242604 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass%20customization | Mass customization | Mass customization, in marketing, manufacturing, call centres, and management, is the use of flexible computer-aided manufacturing systems to produce custom output. Such systems combine the low unit costs of mass production processes with the flexibility of individual customization.Mass customization is the new frontier in business for both manufacturing and service industries. At its core, is a tremendous increase in variety and customization without a corresponding increase in costs. At its limit, it is the mass production of individually customized goods and services. At its best, it provides strategic advantage and economic value. It is one of the product design strategies and is currently used with both techniques (delay differentiation and modular design) together with effective innovative climate to enhance the value delivered to customers.
Mass customization is the method of "effectively postponing the task of differentiating a product for a specific customer until the latest possible point in the supply network". Kamis, Koufaris and Stern (2008) conducted experiments to test the impacts of mass customization when postponed to the stage of retail, online shopping. They found that users perceive greater usefulness and enjoyment with a mass customization interface vs. a more typical shopping interface, particularly in a task of moderate complexity. From collaborative engineering perspective, mass customization can be viewed as collaborative efforts between customers and manufacturers, who have different sets of priorities and need to jointly search for solutions that best match customers' individual specific needs with manufacturers' customization capabilities.
The concept of mass customization is attributed to Stan Davis in Future Perfect and was defined by as "producing goods and services to meet individual customer's needs with near mass production efficiency". concurred, calling it "a strategy that creates value by some form of company-customer interaction at the fabrication and assembly stage of the operations level to create customized products with production cost and monetary price similar to those of mass-produced products". Similarly, highlights that mass customization involves balancing operational drivers by defining it as "the capability to manufacture a relatively high volume of product options for a relatively large market (or collection of niche markets) that demands customization, without tradeoffs in cost, delivery and quality".
Implementation
Many implementations of mass customization are operational today, such as software-based product configurators that make it possible to add and/or change functionalities of a core product or to build fully custom enclosures from scratch. This degree of mass customization, however, has only seen limited adoption. If an enterprise's marketing department offers individual products (atomic market fragmentation), it doesn't often mean that a product is produced individually, but rather that similar variants of the same mass-produced item are available. Additionally, in a fashion context, existing technologies to predict clothing size from user input data have been shown to be not yet of high enough suitability for mass customisation purposes.
Companies that have succeeded with mass-customization business models tend to supply purely electronic products. However, these are not true "mass customizers" in the original sense, since they do not offer an alternative to mass production of material goods.
Variants
described four types of mass customization:
Collaborative customization (also considered co-creation) – Firms talk to individual customers to determine the precise product offering that best serves the customer's needs (see personalized marketing and personal marketing orientation). This information is then used to specify and manufacture a product that suits that specific customer. For example, some clothing companies will manufacture pants or jackets to fit an individual customer. This is also being taken into deeper customization via 3D printing with companies like Shapeways. Examples: Tailored suits; Converse lets consumers chose the color or pattern of every element of certain types of shoes, either in-store or online.
Adaptive customization – Firms produce a standardized product, but this product is customizable in the hands of the end-user (the customers alter the product themselves). Example: Lutron lights, which are programmable so that customers can easily customize the aesthetic effect.
Transparent customization – Firms provide individual customers with unique products, without explicitly telling them that the products are customized. In this case there is a need to accurately assess customer needs. Example: Google AdWords and AdSense
Cosmetic customization – Firms produce a standardized physical product, but market it to different customers in unique ways. Example: Soft Drink served in: A can, 1.25L bottle, 2L bottle.
He suggested a business model, "the 8.5-figure-path", a process going from invention to mass production to continuous improvement to mass customization and back to invention.
See also
Configurator
Dell
Industry 4.0
Knowledge-based configuration
Long tail
Mail merge
Manufacturing
Personalization
Personalized marketing
Product differentiation
Product management
Prosumer
Rapid manufacturing
Responsive computer-aided design
Structure chart
Variable data printing
Notes
References
– detailed look at mass custom manufacturing of ties
Product management
Modes of production
Marketing strategy
Market segmentation | [
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242606 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khufu | Khufu | Khufu (, full name Khnum Khufu , known to the ancient Greeks as , , and the ancient Romans as Cheops; Old Egyptian: ḫw.f-wj, Ḫawyafwī ) was an ancient Egyptian monarch who was the second pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty, in the first half of the Old Kingdom period (26th century BC). Khufu succeeded his father Sneferu as king. He is generally accepted as having commissioned the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, but many other aspects of his reign are poorly documented.
The only completely preserved portrait of the king is a three-inch high ivory figurine found in a temple ruin of a later period at Abydos in 1903. All other reliefs and statues were found in fragments, and many buildings of Khufu are lost. Everything known about Khufu comes from inscriptions in his necropolis at Giza and later documents. For example, Khufu is the main character noted in the Westcar Papyrus from the 13th dynasty.
Most documents that mention king Khufu were written by ancient Egyptian and Greek historians around 300 BC. Khufu's obituary is presented there in a conflicting way: while the king enjoyed a long-lasting cultural heritage preservation during the period of the Old Kingdom and the New Kingdom, the ancient historians Manetho, Diodorus and Herodotus hand down a very negative depiction of Khufu's character. Thanks to these documents, an obscure and critical picture of Khufu's personality persists.
Khufu's name
Khufu's name was dedicated to the god Khnum, which might point to an increase of Khnum's popularity and religious importance. In fact, several royal and religious titles introduced at this time may point out that Egyptian pharaohs sought to accentuate their divine origin and status by dedicating their official cartouche names to certain deities. Khufu may have viewed himself as a divine creator, a role that was already given to Khnum, the god of creation and growth. As a consequence, the king connected Khnum's name with his own. Khufu's full name (Khnum-khufu) means "Khnum protect me". While modern Egyptological pronunciation renders his name as Khufu, at the time of his reign his name was probably pronounced as Kha(w)yafwi(y), and during the Hellenized era, Khewaf(w).
The pharaoh officially used two versions of his birth name: Khnum-khuf and Khufu. The first (complete) version clearly exhibits Khufu's religious loyalty to Khnum, the second (shorter) version does not. It is unknown as to why the king would use a shortened name version since it hides the name of Khnum and the king's name connection to this god. It might be possible though, that the short name wasn't meant to be connected to any god at all.
Khufu is well-known under his Hellenized name , Khéops or Cheops (, , by Diodorus and Herodotus) and less well-known under another Hellenized name, , Súphis (, , by Manetho). A rare version of the name of Khufu, used by Josephus, is , Sofe (, ). Arab historians, who wrote mystic stories about Khufu and the Giza pyramids, called him Saurid () or Salhuk (سلهوق).
Family
Khufu's origin
The royal family of Khufu was quite large. It is uncertain if Khufu was actually the biological son of Sneferu. Mainstream Egyptologists believe Sneferu was Khufu's father, but only because it was handed down by later historians that the eldest son or a selected descendant would inherit the throne. In 1925 the tomb of queen Hetepheres I, G 7000x, was found east of Khufu's pyramid. It contained many precious grave goods, and several inscriptions give her the title Mut-nesut (meaning "mother of a king"), together with the name of king Sneferu. Therefore, it seemed clear at first that Hetepheres was the wife of Sneferu, and that they were Khufu's parents. More recently, however, some have doubted this theory, because Hetepheres is not known to have borne the title Hemet-nesut (meaning "king's wife"), a title indispensable to confirm a queen's royal status. Instead of the spouse's title, Hetepheres bore only the title Sat-netjer-khetef (verbatim: "daughter of his divine body"; symbolically: "king's bodily daughter"), a title mentioned for the first time. As a result, researchers now think Khufu may not have been Sneferu's biological son, but that Sneferu legitimised Khufu's rank and familial position by marriage. By apotheosizing his mother as the daughter of a living god, Khufu's new rank was secured. This theory may be supported by the circumstance that Khufu's mother was buried close to her son and not in the necropolis of her husband, as it was to be expected.
Family tree
The following list presents family members, which can be assigned to Khufu with certainty.Parents:
Sneferu: Most possibly his father, maybe just stepfather. Famous pharaoh and builder of three pyramids.
Hetepheres I: Most possibly his mother. Wife of king Sneferu and well known for her precious grave goods found at Giza.
Spouses:
Meritites I: First wife of Khufu.
Henutsen: Second wife of Khufu. She is mentioned on the famous Inventory Stela.
Brothers and Sisters:
Hetepheres: Wife of Ankhhaf.
Ankhhaf: The eldest brother. His nephew would later become pharaoh Khafra.
Nefermaat: Half-brother; buried at Meidum and owner of the famous "mastaba of the geese".
Rahotep: Elder brother or half-brother. Owner of a life-size double statue portraying him and his wife Nofret, displayed in the Egyptian Museum of Cairo.
Sons of Khufu:
Kawab: Most possibly the eldest son and crown prince, he died before Khufu's own end of reign and thus did not follow Khufu on the throne.
Djedefra: Also known as Radjedef and Ratoises. Became the first throne successor.
Khafre: Most possibly second throne successor.
Djedefhor: Also known as Hordjedef, mentioned in Papyrus Westcar.
Baufra: Possibly a son of Khufu, but neither archaeologically nor contemporarily attested. Only known from two much later documents.
Babaef I: Also known as Khnum-baef I.
Khufukhaf I: Also known as Kaefkhufu I.
Minkhaf I.
Horbaef.
Daughters:
Nefertiabet: Known for her beautiful slab stelae.
Hetepheres II: Wife of prince Kawab, later married to pharaoh Djedefra.
Meresankh II.
Meritites II: Married to Akhethotep.
Khamerernebty I: Wife of king Khafra and mother of Menkaura.
Grandchildren:
Duaenhor: Son of Kawab and possibly eldest grandchild.
Kaemsekhem: Second son of Kawab.
Mindjedef: Also known as Djedefmin.
Djaty: Son of Horbaef.
Iunmin I: Son of Khafre.
Nephews and nieces:
Hemiunu: Director of the building of Khufu's great pyramid.
Nefertkau III: Daughter of Meresankh II.
Djedi: Son of Rahotep and Nofret
Itu: Son of Rahotep and Nofret
Neferkau: Son of Rahotep and Nofret
Mereret: Daughter of Rahotep and Nofret
Nedjemib: Daughter of Rahotep and Nofret
Sethtet: Daughter of Rahotep and Nofret
Reign
Length of reign
It is still unclear how long Khufu ruled over Egypt, because historically later documents contradict each other and contemporary sources are scarce. The Royal Canon of Turin from the 19th Dynasty however, gives 23 years of rulership for Khufu. The ancient historian Herodotus gives 50 years and the ancient historian Manetho even credits him 63 years of reign. These figures are now considered an exaggeration or a misinterpretation of antiquated sources.
Sources contemporary to Khufu's time give three key pieces of information: One of them was found at the Dakhla Oasis in the Libyan Desert. Khufu's serekh name is carved in a rock inscription reporting the "Mefat-travelling in the year after the 13th cattle count under Hor-Medjedu". The second source can be found in the relieving chambers inside Khufu's pyramid above the burial chamber. One of these inscriptions according to Flinders Petrie mentions a workmen's crew named "friends of Khufu" alongside the note "in the year of the 17th cattle count", but it is questioned if the number of years points to a biennial cattle count, or if the number must be taken verbatim. Though Zahi Hawass has reported locating the inscription of the date given by Petrie, there is also some debate whether Petrie may have mistakenly relied on other sources as the inscription has otherwise yet to be found. Newer evidence from Wadi al-Jarf, however, gives a third clue about the true length of reign: Several papyrus fragments contain handwritten reports from a royal harbour at modern-day Wadi al-Jarf. The inscriptions describe the arrival of royal boats with precious ore and turquoise in the "year after the 13th cattle count under Hor-Medjedw". Therefore, Khufu's highest known and certain preserved date is the "Year after the 13th cattle count".
In an attempt to solve the riddle around Khufu's true length of rulership, modern Egyptologists point to Sneferu's reign, when the cattle count was held every second year of a king's rulership. The cattle count as an economic event served the tax collection in the whole of Egypt. Newer evaluation of contemporary documents and the Palermo stone inscription strengthen the theory that the cattle count under Khufu was still performed biennially, not annually, as thought earlier.
Egyptologists such as Thomas Schneider, Michael Haase, and Rainer Stadelmann wonder if the compiler of the Turin Canon actually took into account that the cattle count was performed biennially during the first half of the Old Kingdom period, whilst tax collection during the 19th Dynasty was held every year. In sum, all these documents would prove that Khufu ruled for at least 26 or 27 years, and possibly for over 34 years, if the inscription in the relieving chambers points to a biennial cattle count. Indeed, if the compiler of the Turin Canon did not take into account a biennial cattle count, it could even mean that Khufu ruled for 46 years.
Political activities
There are only a few hints about Khufu's political activities within and outside Egypt. Within Egypt, Khufu is documented in several building inscriptions and statues. Khufu's name appears in inscriptions at Elkab and Elephantine and in local quarries at Hatnub and Wadi Hammamat. At Saqqara two terracotta figures of the goddess Bastet were found, on which, at their bases, the horus name of Khufu is incised. They were deposited at Saqqara during the Middle Kingdom, but their creation can be dated back to Khufu's reign.
Wadi Maghareh
At Wadi Maghareh in the Sinai a rock inscription depicts Khufu with the double crown. Khufu sent several expeditions in an attempt to find turquoise and copper mines. Like other kings, such as Sekhemkhet, Sneferu and Sahure, who are also depicted in impressive reliefs there, he was looking for those two precious materials. Khufu also entertained contacts with Byblos. He sent several expeditions to Byblos in an attempt to trade copper tools and weapons for precious Lebanon cedar wood. This kind of wood was essential for building large and stable funerary boats and indeed the boats discovered at the Great Pyramid were made of it.
Wadi al-Jarf
New evidence regarding political activities under Khufu's reign has recently been found at the site of the ancient port of Wadi al-Jarf on the Red Sea coast in the east of Egypt. The first traces of such a harbour were excavated in 1823 by John Gardner Wilkinson and James Burton, but the site was quickly abandoned and then forgotten over time. In 1954, French scholars François Bissey and René Chabot-Morisseau re-excavated the harbour, but their works were brought to an end by the Suez Crisis in 1956. In June 2011, an archaeological team led by French Egyptologists Pierre Tallet and Gregory Marouard, organized by the French Institute of Oriental Archeology (IFAO), restarted work at the site. Among other material, a collection of hundreds of papyrus fragments were found in 2013 dating back 4500 years. The papyrus is currently exhibited at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. The Egyptian archaeologist Zahi Hawass called this ancient papyrus “the greatest discovery in Egypt in the 21st century.”
Ten of these papyri are very well preserved. The majority of these documents date to the 27th year of Khufu's reign and describe how the central administration sent food and supplies to the sailors and wharf workers. The dating of these important documents is secured by phrases typical for the Old Kingdom period, as well as the fact that the letters are addressed to the king himself, using his Horus name. This was typical when the king in question was still alive; when the ruler was dead he was addressed by his cartouche name or birth name. One document is of special interest: the diary of Merer, an official involved in the building of the Great Pyramid. Using the diary, researchers were able to reconstruct three months of his life, providing new insight into the everyday lives of people of the Fourth Dynasty. These papyri are the earliest examples of imprinted papyri ever found in Egypt. Another inscription, found on the limestone walls of the harbor, mentions the head of the royal scribes controlling the exchange of goods: Idu.
Khufu's cartouche name is also inscribed on some of the heavy limestone blocks at the site. The harbor was of strategic and economic importance to Khufu because ships brought precious materials, such as turquoise, copper and ore from the southern tip of the Sinai peninsula. The papyri fragments show several storage lists naming the delivered goods. The papyri also mention a certain harbour at the opposite coast of Wadi al-Jarf, on the western shore of the Sinai Peninsula, where the ancient fortress Tell Ras Budran was excavated in 1960 by Gregory Mumford. The papyri and the fortress together reveal an explicit sailing route across the Red Sea for the very first time in history. It is the oldest archaeologically detected sailing route of Ancient Egypt. According to Tallet, the harbor could also have been one of the legendary high sea harbours of Ancient Egypt, from where expeditions to the infamous gold land Punt had started.
Monuments and statues
Statues
The only three-dimensional depiction of Khufu that has survived time nearly completely is a small and well restored ivory figurine known as Khufu Statuette. It shows the king with the Red Crown of Lower Egypt. The king is seated on a throne with a short backrest, at the left side of his knees the Horus-name Medjedu is preserved, and, at the right side, a fragment of the lower part of the cartouche name Khnum-Khuf is visible. Khufu holds a flail in his left hand and his right hand rests together with his lower arm on his right upper leg. The artifact was found in 1903 by Flinders Petrie at Kom el-Sultan near Abydos. The figurine was found headless; according to Petrie, it was caused by an accident while digging. When Petrie recognized the importance of the find, he stopped all other work and offered a reward to any workman who could find the head. Three weeks later the head was found after intense sifting in a deeper level of the room rubble. Today the little statue is restored and on display in the Egyptian Museum of Cairo in room 32 under its inventory number JE 36143. Most Egyptologists believe the statuette is contemporary, but some scholars, such as Zahi Hawass, think that it was an artistic reproduction of the 26th dynasty. He argues that no building that clearly dates to the Fourth Dynasty was ever excavated at Kom el-Sultan or Abydos. Furthermore, he points out that the face of Khufu is unusually squat and chubby and shows no emotional expression. Hawass compared the facial stylistics with statues of contemporary kings, such as Sneferu, Khaefra and Menkaura. The faces of these three kings are of even beauty, slender and with a kindly expression – the clear result of idealistic motivations; they are not based on reality. The appearance of Khufu on the ivory statue instead looks like the artist did not care very much about professionalism or diligence. He believes Khufu himself would never have allowed the display of such a comparatively sloppy work. And finally, Hawass also argues that the sort of throne the figurine sits on does not match the artistic styles of any Old Kingdom artifact. Old Kingdom thrones had a backrest that reached up to the neck of the king. But the ultimate proof that convinces Hawass about the statue being a reproduction of much later time is the Nehenekh flail in Khufu's left hand. Depictions of a king with such a flail as a ceremonial insignia appear no earlier than the Middle Kingdom. Zahi Hawass therefore concludes that the figurine was possibly made as an amulet or lucky charm to sell to pious citizens.
It is often said that the small figurine is the only preserved statue of Khufu. This is not quite correct. Excavations at Saqqara in 2001 and 2003 revealed a pair of terracotta statues depicting a lion goddess (possibly Bastet or Sekhmet). On her feet two figures of childlike kings are preserved. While the right figurine can be identified as king Khufu by his Horus name, the left one depicts king Pepy I of 6th dynasty, called by his birth name. The figurines of Pepy were added to the statue groups in later times, because they were placed separately and at a distance from the deity. This is inconsistent with a typical statue group of the Old Kingdom — normally all statue groups were built as an artistic unit. The two statue groups are similar to each other in size and scale but differ in that one lion goddess holds a scepter. The excavators point out that the statues were restored during the Middle Kingdom, after they were broken apart. However, it seems that the reason for the restoration lay more in an interest in the goddess, than in a royal cult around the king figures: their names were covered with gypsum.
The Palermo Stone reports on its fragment C-2 the creation of two oversize standing statues for the king; one is said to have been made of copper, the other of pure gold.
Furthermore, several alabaster and travertine fragments of seated statues, which were found by George Reisner during his excavations at Giza, were once inscribed with Khufu's full royal titulary. Today, the complete or partially preserved cartouches with the name Khufu or Khnum-Khuf remain. One of the fragments, that of a small seated statue, shows the legs and feet of a sitting king from the knuckles downward. To the right of them the name ...fu in a cartouche is visible, and it can easily be reconstructed as the cartouche name Khufu.<ref>Dagmar Stockfisch: Untersuchungen zum Totenkult des ägyptischen Königs im Alten Reich. Die Dekoration der königlichen Totenkultanlagen (= Antiquitates, vol. 25.). Kovač, Hamburg 1994, .</ref>
Two further objects are on display at the Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum Hildesheim. These are also made of alabaster. One of them shows the head of a cat goddess (most probably Bastet or Sekhmet). The position of her right arm suggests that the bust once belonged to a statue group similar to the well known triad of Mycerinus.
Several statue heads might have belonged to Khufu. One of them is the so-called "Brooklyn head" of the Brooklyn Museum in New York City. It is 54,3 cm large and made of pink granite. Because of its chubby cheeks the head is assigned to Khufu as well as to king Huni. A similar object is on display at the State Collection of Egyptian Art in Munich. The head is made of limestone and is comparatively small at only 5,7 cm.
Reliefs
Khufu is depicted in several relief fragments found scattered in his necropolis and elsewhere. All reliefs were made of finely polished limestone. Some of them originate from the ruined pyramid temple and the destroyed causeway, where they once covered the walls completely. Others were found re-used in the pyramid necropolis of king Amenemhet I at Lisht and at Tanis and Bubastis. One of the relief fragments shows the cartouche of Khufu with the phrase: "Building of the sanctuaries of the gods". Another one shows a row of fat oxen decorated with flowers – they were obviously prepared as sacrifices during an offering procession. The guiding inscription calls them "the surroundings of Tefef serve Khufu", "beautiful bulls of Khufu" and "bawling for Khufu". A third one shows the earliest known depiction of royal warfare: the scene is called "archers prepare", since it shows archers drawing their bows. And a fourth example shows the king with the double crown impaling a hippopotamus.William James Hamblin: Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History. Routledge, London/New York 2006, , page 332.
At the Wadi Maghareh in Sinai a rock inscription contains Khufu's names and titles and reports: "Hor-Medjedu, Khnum-Khuf, Bikuj-Nebu, the great god and smiter of the troglodytes, all protection and life are with him". The work-off of the relief is similar to that of king Snefru. In one scene king Khufu wears the double-crown; nearby, the depiction of the god Thoth is visible. In another scene, close by, Khufu wears the Atef-crown while smiting an enemy. In this scene the god Wepwawet is present.Kathryn A. Bard, Steven Blake Shubert: Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge, London 1999, , page 1071.
None of the numerous relief fragments shows king Khufu offering to a god. This is remarkable, since reliefs of Sneferu and those of all kings from Menkaura onward show the king offering to a deity. It is possible that the lack of this special depiction influenced later ancient Greek historians in their assumptions that Khufu could have actually closed all temples and prohibited any sacrifice.Jean Leclant: Sesto Congresso internazionale di egittologia: atti, vol. 2. International Association of Egyptologists, 1993, page 186–188.
Pyramid complex
The pyramid complex of Khufu was erected in the northeastern section of the plateau of Giza. It is possible that the lack of building space, the lack of local limestone quarries and the loosened ground at Dahshur forced Khufu to move north, away from the pyramid of his predecessor Sneferu. Khufu chose the high end of a natural plateau so that his future pyramid would be widely visible. Khufu decided to call his pyramid Akhet-Khufu (meaning "horizon of Khufu").Rainer Stadelmann: Die ägyptischen Pyramiden: Vom Ziegelbau zum Weltwunder. 2. überarteitete und erweiterte Auflage., von Zabern, Mainz 1991, .Peter Jánosi: Die Pyramiden: Mythos und Archäologie. Beck, Frankfurt 2004, , page 70–72.
The Great Pyramid has a base measurement of ca. 750 x 750 ft (≙ 230.4 x 230.4 m) and today a height of . Once it had been high, but the pyramidion and the limestone casing are completely lost due to stone robbery. The lack of the casing allows a full view of the inner core of the pyramid. It was erected in small steps by more or less roughly hewn blocks of dark limestone. The casing was made of nearly white limestone. The outer surface of the casing stones were finely polished so the pyramid shimmered in bright, natural lime-white when new. The pyramidion might have been covered in electrum, but there is no archaeological proof of that. The inner corridors and chambers have walls and ceilings made of polished granite, one of the hardest stones known in Khufu's time. The mortar used was a mixture of gypsum, sand, pulverized limestone and water.
The original entrance to the pyramid is on the northern side. Inside the pyramid are three chambers: at the top is the burial chamber of the king (the king's chamber), in the middle is the statue chamber (erroneously called the queen's chamber), and under the foundation is an unfinished subterranean chamber (underworld chamber). Whilst the burial chamber is identified by its large sarcophagus made of granite, the use of the "queen's chamber" is still disputed – it might have been the serdab of the Ka statue of Khufu. The subterranean chamber remains mysterious as it was left unfinished. A tight corridor heading south at the western end of the chamber and an unfinished shaft at the eastern middle might indicate that the subterranean chamber was the oldest of the three chambers and that the original building plan contained a simple chamber complex with several rooms and corridors. But for unknown reasons the works were stopped and two further chambers were built inside the pyramid. Remarkable is the so-called Grand Gallery leading to the king's chamber: It has a corbelled arch ceiling and measures in height and in length. The gallery has an important static function; it diverts the weight of the stone mass above the king's chamber into the surrounding pyramid core.
Khufu's pyramid was surrounded by an enclosure wall, with each segment in distance from the pyramid. On the eastern side, directly in front of the pyramid, Khufu's mortuary temple was built. Its foundation was made of black basalt, a great part of which is still preserved. Pillars and portals were made of red granite and the ceiling stones were of white limestone. Today nothing remains but the foundation. From the mortuary temple a causeway 0.43 miles long once connected to the valley temple. The valley temple was possibly made of the same stones as the mortuary temple, but since even the foundation is not preserved, the original form and size of the valley temple remain unknown.
On the eastern side of the pyramid lies the East Cemetery of the Khufu necropolis, containing the mastabas of princes and princesses. Three small satellite pyramids, belonging to the queens Hetepheres (G1-a), Meritites I (G1-b) and possibly Henutsen (G1-c) were erected at the southeast corner of Khufu's pyramid. Close behind the queens' pyramids G1-b and G1-c, the cult pyramid of Khufu was found in 2005. On the southern side of the Great Pyramid lie some further mastabas and the pits of the funerary boats of Khufu. On the western side lies the West Cemetery, where the highest officials and priests were interred.
A possible part of Khufu's funerary complex is the famous Great Sphinx of Giza. It's a large limestone statue in the shape of a recumbent lion with the head of a human, decorated with a royal Nemes headdress. The Sphinx was directly hewn out of the plateau of Giza and originally painted with red, ochre, green and black. To this day it is passionately disputed as to who exactly gave the order to build it: the most probable candidates are Khufu, his elder son Djedefra and his younger son Khaefra. One of the difficulties of a correct attribution lies in the lack of any perfectly preserved portrait of Khufu. The faces of Djedefre and Khaefra are both similar to that of the Sphinx, but they do not match perfectly. Another riddle is the original cultic and symbolic function of the Sphinx. Much later it was called Heru-im-Akhet (Hârmachís; "Horus at the horizon") by the Egyptians and Abu el-Hὀl ("father of terror") by the Arabians. It might be that the Sphinx, as an allegoric and mystified representation of the king, simply guarded the sacred cemetery of Giza.
Khufu in later Egyptian traditions
Old Kingdom
Khufu possessed an extensive mortuary cult during the Old Kingdom. At the end of 6th dynasty at least 67 mortuary priests and 6 independent high officials serving at the necropolis are archaeologically attested. Ten of them were already serving during the late 4th dynasty (seven of them were royal family members), 28 were serving during the 5th dynasty and 29 during the 6th dynasty. This is remarkable: Khufu's famous (step-)father Sneferu enjoyed "only" 18 mortuary priesthoods during the same period of time, even Djedefra enjoyed only 8 and Khaefra enjoyed 28. Such mortuary cults were very important for the state's economy, because for the oblations special domains had to be established. A huge number of domains' names are attested for the time of Khufu's reign. However, by the end of the 6th dynasty the number of domains abated quickly. With the beginning of the 7th dynasty no domain's name was handed down any more.
Middle Kingdom
At Wadi Hammamat a rock inscription dates back to the 12th dynasty. It lists five cartouche names: Khufu, Djedefra, Khafra, Baufra and Djedefhor. Because all royal names are written inside cartouches, it was often believed that Baufra and Djedefhor once had ruled for short time, but contemporary sources entitle them as mere princes. Khufu's attendance roll call in this list might indicate that he and his followers were worshipped as patron saints. This theory is promoted by findings such as alabaster vessels with Khufu's name found at Koptos, the pilgrimage destination of Wadi Hammamat travellers.
A literary masterpiece from the 13th dynasty talking about Khufu is the famous Papyrus Westcar, where king Khufu witnesses a magical wonder and receives a prophecy from a magician named Dedi. Within the story, Khufu is characterised in a difficult-to-assess way. On one hand, he is depicted as ruthless when deciding to have a condemned prisoner decapitated to test the alleged magical powers of Dedi. On the other hand, Khufu is depicted as inquisitive, reasonable and generous: He accepts Dedi's outrage and his subsequent alternative offer for the prisoner, questions the circumstances and contents of Dedi's prophecy and rewards the magician generously after all. The contradictory depiction of Khufu is the object of great dispute between Egyptologists and historians to this day. Especially earlier Egyptologists and historians such as Adolf Erman, Kurt Heinrich Sethe and Wolfgang Helck evaluated Khufu's character as heartless and sacrilegious. They leaned on the ancient Greek traditions of Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, who described an exaggerated negative character image of Khufu, ignoring the paradoxical (because positive) traditions the Egyptians themselves had always taught.
But other Egyptologists, such as Dietrich Wildung, see Khufu's order as an act of mercy: the prisoner would have received his life back if Dedi had actually performed his magical trick. Wildung thinks that Dedi's refusal was an allusion to the respect Egyptians showed to human life. The ancient Egyptians were of the opinion that human life should not be misused for dark magic or similar evil things. Verena Lepper and Miriam Lichtheim suspect that a difficult-to-assess depiction of Khufu was exactly what the author had planned. He wanted to create a mysterious character.Adolf Erman: Die Märchen des Papyrus Westcar I. Einleitung und Commentar. In: Mitteilungen aus den Orientalischen Sammlungen. Heft V, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Berlin 1890.Miriam Lichtheim: Ancient Egyptian literature: a book of readings. The Old and Middle Kingdoms, Band 1. University of California Press 2000 (2. Auflage),
New Kingdom
During the New Kingdom the necropolis of Khufu and the local mortuary cults were reorganized and Giza became an important economic and cultic destination again. During the Eighteenth Dynasty king Amenhotep II erected a memorial temple and a royal fame stele close to the Great Sphinx. His son and throne follower Thutmose IV freed the Sphinx from sand and placed a memorial stele – known as the "Dream Stele" – between its front paws. The two steles' inscriptions are similar in their narrative contents, but neither of them gives specific information about the true builder of the Great Sphinx.
At the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty a temple for the goddess Isis was built at the satellite pyramid G1-c (that of queen Henutsen) at Khufu's necropolis. During the Twenty-first Dynasty the temple got extended, and, during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, the extensions continued. From this period of time several "priests of Isis" (Hem-netjer-Iset), who were also "priests of Khufu" (Hem-netjer-Khufu), worked there. From the same dynasty a golden seal ring with the name of a priest Neferibrê was found at Giza.
Late Period
During the Late Period huge numbers of scarabs with the name of Khufu were sold to the citizens, possibly as some kind of lucky charms. More than 30 scarabs are preserved. At Isis' temple a family tree of the Isis priests is on display, which lists the names of priests from 670 to 488 BC. From the same period comes the famous Inventory Stela, which names Khufu and his wife Henutsen. However, modern Egyptologists question whether Khufu was still personally adored as a royal ancestor at this time; they think it more likely that Khufu was already seen as a mere symbolic foundation figure for the history of the Isis temple.Gunnar Sperveslage: Cheops als Heilsbringer in der Spätzeit. In: Sokar, vol. 19, 2009, page 15–21.
Khufu in ancient Greek traditions
Manetho
The later Egyptian historian Manetho called Khufu "Sûphis" and credited him with a rulership of 63 years. He also mentions that Khufu built the Great Pyramid, then he claims that his contemporary Herodotus says that the pyramid was built by a king "Khéops". Obviously, Manetho thought "Khéops" and "Sûphis" to be two different kings. Manetho also says that Khufu received a contempt against the gods and that he had written a sacred book about that and that he (Manetho) received that book during his travel through Egypt. The story about the alleged "Sacred Book" is questioned by modern Egyptologists, for it would be highly unusual that a pharaoh wrote books and that such a precious document could be sold away so easily.Siegfried Morenz: Traditionen um Cheops. In: Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, vol. 97, Berlin 1971, , page 111–118.
Herodotus
The Greek historian Herodotus instead depicts Khufu as a heretic and cruel tyrant. In his literary work Historiae, Book II, chapter 124–126, he writes: "As long as Rhámpsinîtos was king, as they told me, there was nothing but orderly rule in Egypt, and the land prospered greatly. But after him Khéops became king over them and brought them to every kind of suffering: He closed all the temples; after this he kept the priests from sacrificing there and then he forced all the Egyptians to work for him. So some were ordered to draw stones from the stone quarries in the Arabian mountains to the Nile, and others he forced to receive the stones after they had been carried over the river in boats, and to draw them to those called the Libyan mountains. And they worked by 100,000 men at a time, for each three months continually. Of this oppression there passed ten years while the causeway was made by which they drew the stones, which causeway they built, and it is a work not much less, as it appears to me, than the pyramid. For the length of it is 5 furlongs and the breadth 10 fathoms and the height, where it is highest, 8 fathoms, and it is made of polished stone and with figures carved upon it. For this, they said, 10 years were spent, and for the underground chambers on the hill upon which the pyramids stand, which he caused to be made as sepulchral chambers for himself in an island, having conducted thither a channel from the Nile.
For the making of the pyramid itself there passed a period of 20 years; and the pyramid is square, each side measuring 800 feet, and the height of it is the same. It is built of stone smoothed and fitted together in the most perfect manner, not one of the stones being less than 30 feet in length. This pyramid was made after the manner of steps, which some call 'rows' and others 'bases': When they had first made it thus, they raised the remaining stones with devices made of short pieces of timber, lifting them first from the ground to the first stage of the steps, and when the stone got up to this it was placed upon another machine standing on the first stage, and so from this it was drawn to the second upon another machine; for as many as were the courses of the steps, so many machines there were also, or perhaps they transferred one and the same machine, made so as easily to be carried, to each stage successively, in order that they might take up the stones; for let it be told in both ways, according as it is reported. However, that may be, the highest parts of it were finished first, and afterwards they proceeded to finish that which came next to them, and lastly they finished the parts of it near the ground and the lowest ranges.
On the pyramid it is declared in Egyptian writing how much was spent on radishes and onions and leeks for the workmen, and if I remember correctly what the interpreter said while reading this inscription for me, a sum of 1600 silver talents was spent. Kheops moreover came to such a pitch of evilness, that being in want of money he sent his own daughter to a brothel and ordered her to obtain from those who came a certain amount of money (how much it was they did not tell me). But she not only obtained the sum that was appointed by her father, but she also formed a design for herself privately to leave behind her a memorial: She requested each man who came in to her to give her one stone for her building project. And of these stones, they told me, the pyramid was built which stands in front of the great pyramid in the middle of the three, each side being 150 feet in length."
The same goes for the story about king Khafre. He is depicted as the direct follower of Khufu and as likewise evil and that he ruled for 56 years. In chapter 127–128 Herodotus writes: "After Khéops was dead his brother Khéphrên succeeded to the royal throne. This king followed the same manner as the other ... and ruled for 56 years. Here they reckon altogether 106 years, during which they say that there was nothing but evil for the Egyptians, and the temples were kept closed and not opened during all that time".
Herodotus closes the story of the evil kings in chapter 128 with the words: "These kings the Egyptians (because of their hate against them) are not very willing to say their names. What's more, they even call the pyramids after the name of Philítîs the shepherd, who at that time pastured flocks in those regions."
Diodorus of Sicily
The ancient historian Diodorus claims that Khufu was so much abhorred by his own people in later times that the mortuary priests secretly brought the royal sarcophagus, together with the corpse of Khufu, to another, hidden grave. With this narration he strengthens and confirms the view of the Greek scholars, that Khufu's pyramid (and the other two, as well) must have been the result of slavery. However, at the same time, Diodorus distances himself from Herodotus and argues that Herodotus "only tells fairy tales and entertaining fiction". Diodorus claims that the Egyptians of his lifetime were unable to tell him with certainty who actually built the pyramids. He also states that he didn't really trust the interpreters and that the true builder might have been someone different: the Khufu pyramid was (according to him) built by a king named Harmais, the Khafre pyramid was thought to be built by king Amasis II and the Menkaura pyramid was allegedly the work of king Inaros I.
Diodorus states that the Khufu pyramid was beautifully covered in white, but the top was said to be capped. The pyramid therefore already had no pyramidion anymore. He also thinks that the pyramid was built with ramps, which were removed during the finishing of the limestone shell. Diodorus estimates that the total number of workers was 300,000 and that the building works lasted for 20 years.
Khufu in Arabic traditions
In 642 A.D. the Arabs conquered Egypt. Upon arriving at the Giza pyramids, they searched for explanations as to who could have built these monuments. By this time, no inhabitant of Egypt was able to tell and no one could translate the Egyptian hieroglyphs anymore. As a consequence, the Arab historians wrote down their own theories and stories.
The best known story about Khufu and his pyramid can be found in the book Hitat (completely: al-Mawāʿiẓ wa-’l-iʿtibār fī ḏikr al-ḫiṭaṭ wa-’l-ʾāṯār), written in 1430 by Muhammad al-Maqrizi (1364–1442). This book contains several collected theories and myths about Khufu, especially about the Great Pyramid. Though King Khufu himself is seldom mentioned, many Arab writers were convinced that the Great Pyramid (and the others, too) were built by the god Hermes (named Idris by the Arabs).
Al-Maqrizi notes that Khufu was named Saurid, Salhuk and/or Sarjak by the biblical Amalekites. Then he writes that Khufu built the pyramids after repeated nightmares in which the earth turned upside-down, the stars fell down and people were screaming in terror. Another nightmare showed the stars falling down from heaven and kidnapping humans, then putting them beneath two large mountains. King Khufu then received a warning from his prophets about a devastating deluge that would come and destroy Egypt. To protect his treasures and books of wisdom, Khufu built the three pyramids of Giza.
Modern egyptological evaluations
Over time, Egyptologists examined possible motives and reasons as to how Khufu's reputation changed over time. Closer examinations of and comparisons between contemporary documents, later documents and Greek and Coptic readings reveal that Khufu's reputation changed slowly, and that the positive views about the king still prevailed during the Greek and Ptolemaic era. Alan B. Lloyd, for example, points to documents and inscriptions from the 6th dynasty listing an important town called Menat-Khufu, meaning "nurse of Khufu". This town was still held in high esteem during the Middle Kingdom period. Lloyd is convinced that such a heart-warming name wouldn't have been chosen to honour a king with a bad (or, at least, questionable) reputation. Furthermore, he points to the overwhelming number of places where mortuary cults for Khufu were practiced, even outside Giza. These mortuary cults were still practiced even in Saitic and Persian periods.
The famous Lamentation Texts from the First Intermediate Period reveal some interesting views about the monumental tombs from the past; they were at that time seen as proof of vanity. However, they give no hint of a negative reputation of the kings themselves, and thus they do not judge Khufu in a negative way.
Modern Egyptologists evaluate Herodotus's and Diodorus's stories as some sort of defamation, based on both authors' contemporary philosophy. They call for caution against the credibility of the ancient traditions. They argue that the classical authors lived around 2000 years after Khufu, and their sources that were available in their lifetimes surely were antiquated. Additionally some Egyptologists point out that the philosophies of the ancient Egyptians had changed since the Old Kingdom. Oversized tombs such as the Giza pyramids must have appalled the Greeks and even the later priests of the New Kingdom, because they remembered the heretic pharaoh Akhenaten and his megalomaniac building projects. This negative picture was presumably projected onto Khufu and his pyramid. The view was possibly promoted by the fact that during Khufu's lifetime, permission for the creation of oversized statues made of precious stone and their displaying in public was limited to the king. In their era, the Greek authors, mortuary priests, and temple priests could only explain the impressive monuments and statues of Khufu as the result of a megalomaniac. These negative evaluations were applied to Khufu.
Furthermore, several Egyptologists point out that Roman historians such as Pliny the Elder and Frontinus (both around 70 A.D.) equally do not hesitate to ridicule the pyramids of Giza: Frontinus calls them "idle pyramids, containing the indispensable structures likewise to some of our abandoned aqueducts at Rome" and Pliny describes them as "the idle and foolish ostentation of royal wealth". Egyptologists clearly see politically and socially motivated intentions in these criticisms and it seems paradoxical that the use of these monuments was forgotten, but the names of their builders remained immortalized.
Another hint to Khufu's bad reputation within the Greek and Roman folk might be hidden in the Coptic reading of Khufu's name. The Egyptian hieroglyphs forming the name "Khufu" are read in Coptic as "Shêfet", which actually would mean "bad luck" or "sinful" in their language. The Coptic reading derives from a later pronunciation of Khufu as "Shufu", which in turn led to the Greek reading "Suphis". Possibly the bad meaning of the Coptic reading of "Khufu" was unconsciously copied by the Greek and Roman authors.
On the other hand, some Egyptologists think that the ancient historians received their material for their stories not only from priests, but from the citizens living close to the time of the building of the necropolis. Among the "simple folk", also, negative or critical views about the pyramids might have been handed down, and the mortuary cult of the priests was surely part of tradition. Additionally a long-standing literary tradition does not prove popularity. Even if Khufu's name survived within the literary traditions for so long, different cultural circles surely fostered different views about Khufu's character and historical deeds.Erhart Graefe: Die gute Reputation des Königs "Snofru". In: Studies in Egyptology Presented to Miriam Lichtheim, vol. 1. page 257–263. The narrations of Diodorus, for example, are credited with more trust than those of Herodotus, because Diodorus obviously collected the tales with much more scepsis. The fact that Diodorus credits the Giza pyramid to Greek kings, might be reasoned in legends of his lifetimes and that the pyramids were demonstrably reused in late periods by Greek and Roman kings and noblemen.
Modern Egyptologists and historians also call for caution about the credibility of the Arabian stories. They point out that medieval Arabs were guided by the strict Islamic belief that only one god exists, and therefore no other gods were allowed to be mentioned. As a consequence, they transferred Egyptian kings and gods into biblical prophets and kings. The Egyptian god Thoth, named Hermes by the Greeks, for example, was named after the prophet Henoch. King Khufu, as already mentioned, was named "Saurid", "Salhuk" and/or "Sarjak", and often replaced in other stories by a prophet named Šaddād bīn 'Âd. Furthermore, scholars point to several contradictions which can be found in Al-Maqrizi's book. For example, in the first chapter of the Hitat, the Copts are said to have denied any intrusion of the Amalekites in Egypt and the pyramids were erected as the tomb of Šaddād bīn 'Âd. But some chapters later, Al-Maqrizi claims that the Copts call Saurid the builder of the pyramids.
Khufu in popular culture
Because of his fame, Khufu is the subject of several modern references, similar to kings and queens such as Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Tutankhamen. His historical figure appears in movies, novels and documentaries. In 1827, Jane C. Loudon wrote the novel The Mummy! A Tale of the 22nd Century. The story describes the citizens of the 22nd century, which became highly advanced technologically, but totally immoral. Only the mummy of Khufu can save them. In 1939, Nagib Mahfuz wrote the novel Khufu's Wisdom, which is based on the stories of Papyrus Westcar. In 1997, French author Guy Rachet published the novel series Le roman des pyramides, including five volumes, of which the first two (Le temple soleil and Rêve de pierre) use Khufu and his tomb as a theme. In 2004, spiritualist Page Bryant published the novel The Second Coming of the Star Gods, which deals with Khufu's alleged celestial origin. The novel The Legend of The Vampire Khufu, published by Raymond Mayotte in 2010, deals with king Khufu awakening in his pyramid as a vampire.
Films which deal with Khufu, or have the Great Pyramid as a subject, include Howard Hawks' Land of the Pharaohs from 1955, a fictional account of the building of the Great Pyramid of Khufu, and Roland Emmerich's Stargate from 1994, in which an extraterrestrial device is found near the pyramids.
Khufu and his pyramid are the objects of pseudoscientific theories purporting that Khufu's pyramid was built with the help of extraterrestrials and that Khufu simply seized and re-used the monument, ignoring archaeological evidence or even falsifying it.
A near-Earth asteroid bears Khufu's name: 3362 Khufu.Lutz D. Schmadel: Dictionary of minor planet names. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 2003 (5th edition), , page 280.
Khufu and his pyramid are referenced in several computer games such as Tomb Raider – The Last Revelation, in which the player must enter Khufu's pyramid and face the god Seth as the final boss. Another example is Duck Tales 2 for the Game Boy; the player here must guide Uncle Scrooge through a trap-loaded Khufu's pyramid. In the classic action role playing game Titan Quest, the Giza Plateau is a large desert region in Egypt, where the Tomb of Khufu and The Great Sphinx can be found. He was also mentioned in Assassin's Creed Origins'', as to where the player should find his tomb.
See also
Egyptian pyramid construction techniques
Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree
Khufu ship
References
External links
Travertine fragment of a small seated statue of Khufu, on display in the Boston museum of fine arts
Zahi Hawass: Khufu – Builder of the Great Pyramid
Information about Khufu and his pyramid
An early pharaonic harbour on the Red Sea coast
The Harbor of Khufu on the Red Sea Coast at Wadi al-Jarf
La découverte des papyrus de Chéops sur le port antique du ouadi el-Jarf
26th-century BC Pharaohs
26th-century BC deaths
Pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
Year of birth unknown
Sneferu
Khnum | [
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242613 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year%20of%20the%20Three%20Emperors | Year of the Three Emperors | The Year of the Three Emperors, or the Year of the Three Kaisers (), refers to the year 1888 during the German Empire in German history. The year is considered to have memorable significance because of the deaths of two German Emperors, or Kaisers, leading to a rapid succession of three monarchs within one year. The three different emperors who ruled over Germany during this year were Wilhelm I, Frederick III and Wilhelm II. The mnemonic "" (English: "three eights, three emperors") is still used today in Germany by children and adults alike to learn the year in question.
Situation
Following the death of Frederick William IV in 1861, Wilhelm I became King of Prussia. As the monarch of the largest German state which had a key role in the unification, due largely to Bismarck's efforts, Emperor Wilhelm I had ruled over the German Empire ever since the unification of Germany on 18 January 1871. He lived until he was almost 91 years old and reigned over Prussia for 27 years and over Germany for 17 years. His son, Crown Prince Frederick William, was celebrated for his military actions because of his leadership during the wars fought to unify Germany. Frederick commanded staffs and armies during the Second Schleswig War, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War. Crown Prince Frederick William had just turned 56 before the year 1888. Frederick also had a number of children at the time, and his heir-apparent was named Wilhelm, after his grandfather. Wilhelm turned 29 in January 1888.
Rapid succession
Emperor Wilhelm I died on 9 March 1888 after his long reign. He was then succeeded by his son, Frederick William. Frederick William became known as Frederick III when he assumed the throne. Along with his military successes, Frederick III was a reputed liberal and married to the United Kingdom's liberal Princess Royal Victoria. However, by the time of his father's death, Frederick was 56 years old and had already developed a terminal case of cancer of the larynx before he assumed the German imperial throne. Frederick attempted to have it treated, but it was not successful. Due to this illness and subsequent treatment, Frederick could not talk during his short reign and had to communicate through writing. Frederick still accomplished some of his duties as emperor despite his protracted illness; however, he did not have any lasting effect upon Germany. He died after only 99 days of rule on 15 June 1888. Frederick's son, Wilhelm II, then succeeded to the throne at age 29. Unlike his father, Wilhelm II did not have many liberal tendencies. Wilhelm II eventually led Germany into World War I and ruled until his abdication and the fall of the German Empire in 1918 at the end of war.
See also
History of Germany
German Empire
List of German monarchs
Year of the Three Kings
Year of three popes
Year of the Four Emperors
Notes
References
1888 in Germany
German Empire | [
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242614 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olsen%20Brothers | Olsen Brothers | Olsen Brothers () are a Danish rock/pop music duo, formed by brothers Jørgen (born 15 March 1950) and Niels "Noller" Olsen (born 13 April 1954), both from Odense, who won the Eurovision Song Contest 2000. They formed their first band, The Kids, in 1965. The Kids warmed up for The Kinks in the K.B. Hallen in 1965 and released their first single in 1967.
Career
Both Jørgen and Niels Olsen participated in the musical Hair in the Cirkusbygningen in Copenhagen March 1971, and went on tour afterwards through Denmark, Norway and Sweden.
The Olsen Brothers' first album was released in 1972 and in total they have released 13 albums. Some of the biggest hit singles include "Angelina" (1972), ”For What We Are” (1973), "Julie" (1977), "San Francisco" (1978), "Dans Dans Dans" (1979), "Marie, Marie" (1982), "Neon Madonna" (1985), ”Wings Of Love”(2000), "We Believe In Love" (2001), "Look Up Look Down" (performed with Sir Cliff Richard) (2009) and "Brothers To Brothers" (2013).
The Olsen Brothers have sold approx 3.2 million albums, 1.5 million singles and 2.7 million compilations.
They have a two-voice harmony and among their “fans” are Sir Cliff Richard and Björn Ulvaeus who both call the Olsen Brothers the "European Everly Brothers”.
Dansk Melodi Grand Prix and Eurovision participation
The Olsen Brothers and on occasions Jørgen Olsen on his own took part in a number of annual competitions known as Dansk Melodi Grand Prix the winner of which would represent Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest.
DMGP 2000 and Eurovision Song Contest 2000
They won the annual Dansk Melodi Grand Prix song competition in 2000 in Copenhagen and went on to represent Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest 2000 in Stockholm. where they won with the song "Fly on the Wings of Love" (translated from the Danish "Smuk som et Stjerneskud" (literally translated, "Beautiful as a Shooting Star"). At one stage, they sold 100,000 copies in one day, in Denmark. They became the second Danish act to win the competition. On the day of their victory, Jørgen Olsen was 50 years and 61 days of age, making him the oldest artist to win the contest. However, he only held the record for one year as Dave Benton triumphed in 2001 at the age of 50 years and 101 days. The combined ages of The Olsen Brothers make them the oldest aged act ever to win the contest.
They opened the Eurovision Song Contest 2001 in Copenhagen with a short reprise of their winning song from the previous year, followed by a full performance of their new release "Walk Right Back".
Later years
In 2005 for the first time since their victory, they re-entered the Danish Melodi Grand Prix, the national pre-selection for the Eurovision contest, with the song "Little Yellow Radio". It was widely reported that they hoped to repeat their triumph; however this time they had to settle for second place, finishing behind Jakob Sveistrup.
Their song Fly on the Wings of Love was nominated as one of the 14 finalists for the Congratulations: 50 Years of the Eurovision Song Contest held in Copenhagen, Denmark on 22 October 2005. They performed the song in the event finishing 6th overall from 14 songs. The winner was "Waterloo" from ABBA
In 2019, the brothers called a hiatus to their musical career after Niels was diagnosed with brain cancer. However, Niels was declared cancer free by the end of 2020 in a victory that was described as "against the odds", not ruling out returning to music in the future.
Discography
Albums
Olsen (1972)
For What We Are (1973)
For the Children of the World (1973)
Back on the Tracks (1976)
You're the One (1977)
San Francisco (1978)
Dans - Dans - Dans (1979)
Rockstalgi (1987)
Det Stille Ocean (1990)
Greatest and Latest (1994)
Angelina (1999)
Wings of Love (2000)
The Story of Brødrene Olsen (2000)
Rockstalgi (2001)
Neon Madonna (2001)
Walk Right Back (2001)
Songs (2002)
Weil Nur Die Liebe Zählt (2003)
More Songs (2003)
Our New Songs (2005)
Celebration (2005)
Respect (2008)
Wings of Eurovision (2010)
Brothers to Brothers (2013)
Singles
(Selective)
"Angelina" (1972)
"Julie" (1977)
"San Francisco" (1978)
"Dans dans dans" (1979)
"Marie, Marie" (1982)
"Neon Madonna" (1985)
"Fly on the Wings of Love" (2000)
"Wings of Eurovision" (2011)
See also
Dansk Melodi Grand Prix
Dansk Melodi Grand Prix winners
References
Danish pop music groups
Eurovision Song Contest winners
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Denmark
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2000
Dansk Melodi Grand Prix contestants
Dansk Melodi Grand Prix winners
Sibling musical duos
Musical groups established in 1972 | [
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242617 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rite%20of%20passage | Rite of passage | A rite of passage is a ceremony or ritual of the passage which occurs when an individual leaves one group to enter another. It involves a significant change of status in society. In cultural anthropology the term is the Anglicisation of rite de passage, a French term innovated by the ethnographer Arnold van Gennep in his work Les rites de passage, The Rites of Passage. The term is now fully adopted into anthropology as well as into the literature and popular cultures of many modern languages.
Original conception
In English, Van Gennep's first sentence of his first chapter begins:
"Each larger society contains within it several distinctly separate groupings. ... In addition, all these groups break down into still smaller societies in subgroups."
The population of a society belongs to multiple groups, some more important to the individual than others. Van Gennep uses the metaphor, "as a kind of house divided into rooms and corridors." A passage occurs when an individual leaves one group to enter another; in the metaphor, he changes rooms.
Van Gennep further distinguishes between "the secular" and "the sacred sphere." Theorizing that civilizations are arranged on a scale, implying that the lower levels represent "the simplest level of development," he hypothesizes that "social groups in such a society likewise have magico-religious foundations." Many groups in modern industrial society practice customs that can be traced to an earlier sacred phase. Passage between these groups requires a ceremony, or ritual rite of passage.
The rest of Van Gennep's book presents a description of rites of passage and an organization into types, although in the end he despairs of ever capturing them all: "It is but a rough sketch of an immense picture ...." He is able to find some universals, mainly two: "the sexual separation between men and women, and the magico-religious separation between the profane and the sacred." (Earlier the translators used secular for profane.) He refuses credit for being the first to recognize type of rites. In the work he concentrates on groups and rites individuals might normally encounter progressively: pregnancy, childbirth, initiation, betrothal, marriage, funerals and the like. He mentions some others, such as the territorial passage, a crossing of borders into a culturally different region, such as one where a different religion prevails.
Stages
Rites of passage have three phases: separation, liminality, and incorporation, as van Gennep described. "I propose to call the rites of separation from a previous world, preliminal rites, those executed during the transitional stage liminal (or threshold) rites, and the ceremonies of incorporation into the new world postliminal rites."
In the first phase, people withdraw from their current status and prepare to move from one place or status to another. "The first phase (of separation) comprises symbolic behavior signifying the detachment of the individual or group ... from an earlier fixed point in the social structure." There is often a detachment or "cutting away" from the former self in this phase, which is signified in symbolic actions and rituals. For example, the cutting of the hair for a person who has just joined the army. He or she is "cutting away" the former self: the civilian.
The transition (liminal) phase is the period between stages, during which one has left one place or state but has not yet entered or joined the next. "The attributes of liminality or of liminal personae ("threshold people") are necessarily ambiguous."
In the third phase (reaggregation or incorporation) the passage is consummated [by] the ritual subject." Having completed the rite and assumed their "new" identity, one re-enters society with one's new status. Re-incorporation is characterized by elaborate rituals and ceremonies, like debutant balls and college graduation, and by outward symbols of new ties: thus "in rites of incorporation there is widespread use of the 'sacred bond', the 'sacred cord', the knot, and of analogous forms such as the belt, the ring, the bracelet and the crown."
Psychological effects
Laboratory experiments have shown that severe initiations produce cognitive dissonance. It is theorized that such dissonance heightens group attraction among initiates after the experience, arising from internal justification of the effort used. Rewards during initiations have important consequences in that initiates who feel more rewarded express stronger group identity. As well as group attraction, initiations can also produce conformity among new members. Psychology experiments have also shown that initiations increase feelings of affiliation.
Cultural
Initiation rites are seen as fundamental to human growth and development as well as socialization in many African communities. These rites function by ritually marking the transition of someone to full group membership. It also links individuals to the community and the community to the broader and more potent spiritual world. Initiation rites are "a natural and necessary part of a community, just as arms and legs are natural and necessary extension of the human body". These rites are linked to individual and community development. Dr. Manu Ampim identifies five stages; rite to birth, rite to adulthood, rite to marriage, rite to eldership and rite to ancestorship. In Zulu culture entering womanhood is celebrated by the Umhlanga.
Types and examples
Rites of passage are diverse, and are found throughout many cultures around the world. Many western societal rituals may look like rites of passage but miss some of the important structural and functional components. However, in many Native and African-American communities, traditional rites of passage programs are conducted by community-based organizations such as Man Up Global. Typically the missing piece is the societal recognition and reincorporation phase. Adventure education programs, such as Outward Bound, have often been described as potential rites of passage. Pamela Cushing researched the rites of passage impact upon adolescent youth at the Canadian Outward Bound School and found the rite of passage impact was lessened by the missing reincorporation phase. Bell (2003) presented more evidence of this lacking third stage and described the "Contemporary Adventure Model of a Rites of Passage" as a modern and weaker version of the rites of passage typically used by outdoor adventure programs.
Coming of age
In various tribal and developed societies, entry into an age grade—generally gender-separated—(unlike an age set) is marked by an initiation rite, which may be the crowning of a long and complex preparation, sometimes in retreat.
Religious
Military
Boot Camp and Officer Candidate School are rites of passage from civilian to military life. In the United States Navy's Officer Candidate School and the United States Marine Corps, Drill Instructors manufacture stress as a form of training.
Blood wings
Line-crossing ceremony
Krypteia, a rite involving young Spartans, part of the agoge regime of Spartan education.
Ephebeia, a training period for young Athenians
Wetting-down. In the U.S. Navy and Royal Navy, is a ceremony in which a naval officer throws a party for his shipmates upon receiving a promotion.
Academic
The first day of school, whether the first overall or the first in a specific phase prior to postsecondary education
Graduation
Matura
Some academic circles such as dorms, fraternities, teams and other clubs practice hazing, ragging and fagging. Szecskáztatás, a mild form of hazing (usually without physical and sexual abuse), is practiced in some Hungarian secondary schools. First-year junior students are publicly humiliated through embarrassing clothing and senior students branding their faces with marker pens; it is sometimes also a contest, with the winners usually earning the right to organize the next event. Fraternities and sororities, like other private societies, often have codified initiation ceremonies as ritual separating candidates from members.
Vocational/professional
White coat ceremony in medicine and pharmacy.
The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer, also known as the Iron Ring Ceremony
Walk on Water: Second-year students must pass the competition to continue in the school of architecture at Florida International University in the United States
A student pilot successfully completing a First solo flight traditionally gets drenched with water and has his or her shirt tail cut off.
Sports
Batizados in Capoeira
Black belt in martial arts
Blooding in fox hunting
A National Hockey League player's first goal (The puck used to score said goal may be retrieved, labeled, and given to the player as a keepsake.)
Other
Castration in some sects and special castes
Dental evulsion, among various cultures of Africa, Asia and Oceania.
Earlier seasons of the television series Survivor typically include a rite of passage prior to the final immunity challenge. Though the specifics of this rite of passage vary based on the customs and traditions of the host country, most rites of passage include a lengthy walk to the final challenge along which the remaining castaways pass the torches of every eliminated contestant from that season. There have been variations on this walk, such as seasons in which the remaining contestants paddle a boat to the final challenge and drop the torches into the ocean along the way.
See also
Pilgrimage
Seclusion of girls at puberty
References
Bibliography
Aronson, E. & Mills, J. (1959) "The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology', pp. 177–181.
Further reading
Hatzopoulos, Miltiades B., "Macedonian Cults" (as "Cultes et rites de passage en Macédoine"), Athens & Paris, 1994
Devine, A.M., "Review: Macedonian Cults", The Classical Review'', New Series, Vol. 46, No. 2 (1996), pp. 279–281, Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association
Padilla, Mark William (editor), "Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society", Bucknell University Press, 1999.
External links
Dictionary.com: Rites of Passage
Ceremonies
Anthropology of religion | [
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242619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rites%20of%20Passage%20%28educational%20program%29 | Rites of Passage (educational program) | Rites of Passage is an African American History program sponsored by the Stamford, Connecticut US public schools. The program consists of an extra day of schooling on Saturday for 12 weeks, service projects, and a culminating educational trip to Gambia and Senegal. Gambia and Senegal are the ancestral homes of many US African Americans. The highlight of the trip is a visit to Goree Island, and the Door of No Return. The Door of No Return symbolizes the last point of departure of African slaves being shipped to the Western Hemisphere. As Rodney Bass, the founder and director of the program describes it:
By passing through "The Door of No Return" the students invalidate the legacy of slavery and reconnect with the ancestral heritage, linking their past to their present. We have seen the positive changes in the educational performance of our alumni students, and also the greater impact they have had on our community and the possibilities for their future.
The program is open to 7th grade students. Students must apply and be accepted. Typical participation is 10 to 20 students.
The program was founded by Rodney Bass, a former principal in the Stamford school system. He was moved by his own first visit to West Africa. He and the other teachers who lead the program:
hypothesized that we can help produce healthier young people who now understand slavery was not their beginning, nor the principal means of defining the African-American experience, but instead a real, limited part of a legacy of faith, pride, and endurance that spans millennia.
The program is open to students of all races and heritages. 2010 marked its fifth anniversary.
See also
East Side House Settlement (Bronx, NY) a Bronx NY based after school program which teaches African American history.
References
External links
Rites of Passage home page
African-American people | [
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242620 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81om%C5%BCa | Łomża | Łomża (), in English known as Lomza, is a city in north-eastern Poland, approximately 150 kilometers (90 miles) to the north-east of Warsaw and west of Białystok. It is situated alongside the Narew river as part of the Podlaskie Voivodeship since 1999. Previously, it was the capital of the Łomża Voivodeship from 1975 to 1998. It is the capital of Łomża County and has been the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Łomża since 1925.
Łomża is one of the principal economic, educational, and cultural centres of north-eastern Masovia as well as one of the three main cities of Podlaskie Voivodeship (beside Białystok and Suwałki). It lends its name to the protected area of Łomża Landscape Park. The town is also the location of the Łomża Brewery.
History
Łomża was founded in the 10th century, on the site of the present day village called Stara Łomża (Old Łomża). It was first mentioned in official records in the 14th century. Łomża received its municipal rights in 1416, and became an important political and economic center in the mid-16th century. Łomża was a royal city of Poland and the capital of the Łomża Land, an administrative unit (ziemia) of the Masovian Voivodeship in the Greater Poland Province of the Polish Crown until Poland lost its independence in 1795.
Polish Duke Bolesław IV the Curly () built a palace there in the 12th century. In 1444 the town was granted an exemption from the transit tax on Narew river contributing to its further development. In the 16th century King Sigismund II Augustus gave Łomża the right to hold great fairs three times a year, similar to Warsaw and Płock. In 1614 the Jesuits founded a Jesuit College, which as today's I Liceum Ogólnokształcące is among the oldest high schools in Poland. In 1618 a great fire destroyed most of the city, and six years later, an epidemic killed 5,021 persons decimating its population. A series of disasters (including the Swedish invasion and the Cossack raids) resulted in its rapid decline.
As a result of the Partitions of Poland Łomża was annexed by Prussia in 1795. In 1807 it was included in the short-lived Polish Duchy of Warsaw, within which it was the seat of the Łomża Department. In 1815 Łomża became part of Congress Poland, which was forcibly integrated into the Russian Empire over the course of the 19th century. After the Russian massacres of Polish protesters in Warsaw in 1861, Polish demonstrations took place in Łomża, at which even romantic poet Władysław Syrokomla gave a public speech, however, they ended in October 1861 when the Russians imposed martial law. Afterwards the Polish resistance began preparations for an uprising. In 1863 the January Uprising broke out and many local Poles joined it. In July 1863, the Russians carried out a massacre of 50 unarmed young Poles in the nearby forest in Wygoda, mainly students of local schools, who joined the uprising. The victims were tortured and murdered in gruesome ways, some had their eyes gouged out, bones broken or insides torn out before they died. From November 1863, the Russians carried out mass arrests and confiscations of Polish property, and many insurgents escaped from the country. Russians deported hundreds of Poles from the county to katorga to Siberia, and Łomża was one of the sites of Russian executions of Polish insurgents. At the place of the executions, Poles put up crosses several times, and the Russians removed them.
During World War I, the Russian administration was evacuated in June 1915, and the city was occupied by Germany from August 1915 until 1918. In 1916 the Poles finally erected a still preserved monument at the site of the Russian executions of Polish insurgents. In 1916–1917, the Polish Legions were stationed in the city. In 1917–1918, Łomża was the location of a German internment camp for soldiers of the Polish Legions. In November 1918, Poland regained independence, and the occupying German forces opened fire on Poles who tried to liberate the city, but it was still reintegrated with the reborn Polish state.
During the Polish-Soviet War of 1919–1921, the city was attacked by the Russians on July 29, 1920, and then it was defended by the Poles for a week. Łomża was directly in the path of the Russian army's catastrophic retreat following its defeat at the Battle of Warsaw. On August 15, 1920, the Soviet General August Kork of the 15th Army mounted an unsuccessful defence of the town against the Polish Fourth Army of General Leonard Skierski, before continuing its retreat eastward under pressure from the Polish forces.
World War II
In September 1939, during the joint Soviet and German invasion of Poland, Łomża was largely destroyed by the Wehrmacht during the Battle of Łomża, and then was briefly occupied by Germany. The Einsatzgruppe V entered Łomża in mid-September to commit various crimes against Poles. Germans carried out searches of Polish offices, organizations, and Catholic institutions, including the bishop's seat and the Capuchin monastery, and banned preaching and the organization of meetings.
On September 26, 1939, a Soviet aircraft dropped anti-Polish propaganda leaflets, which stated that "Poles are not capable of self-governing their country," so "the Soviets come to take care of them out of mercy." Soon afterwards the city was turned over by the Germans to the Red Army, which entered on September 29. The Soviets established a local station of the NKVD, and the Polish population was subjected to various repressions. In January 1940, the Soviets changed several street names, even calling one September 17 Street, after the day of the Soviet invasion of Poland. At least 32 Poles from Łomża were murdered by the Russians in the Katyn massacre in 1940. The Soviets carried out arrests of the Capuchin monks and expelled Benedictine nuns in mid-1940. According to Soviet data from September 1940, over 330 Polish families were deported from the district to the USSR. In 1941 the local Polish underground resistance movement was weakened when the Soviets arrested its commander. The Soviets held 2,128 people in the local prison as of June 21, 1941, the day before Germany invaded the Soviet Union, and on June 20–21 they carried out mass deportations of Poles to Russia. Łomża remained under Soviet control until Operation Barbarossa.
In June 1941, at the onset of the Russian campaign Łomża was captured by the Wehrmacht and used as a communications hub by the German forces. Hundreds of Poles, including those initially held in the local prison and local Polish intelligentsia, were murdered in large massacres in nearby villages of Sławiec, Jeziorko and Pniewo in 1942–1943. The Jewish population of Łomża, which numbered 9,000 at the beginning of the war, was almost entirely wiped out, murdered at a nearby forest or sent to the Auschwitz concentration camp to be murdered there. Only a few dozen survived. Since 1943, the Sicherheitspolizei carried out deportations of Poles including teenage boys from the local prison to the Stutthof concentration camp.
The Red Army fought back and successfully captured Łomża on September 13, 1944. Afterwards the city was restored to Poland.
Recent period
Between 1946 and 1975, the oldest part of the city was rebuilt. New housing estates came into existence along with several industrial plants, among them Łomża cotton and furniture factories and starch manufacturing PEPEES, as well as municipal thermal power station. The city transit system was also established during this time. By the beginning of the 1970s, the population had reached almost 30,000 inhabitants.
Jewish community
References to Jewish residents in Łomża date to 1494. The population numbers date back only to 1808, when 157 Jews were officially counted. A magnificent stone synagogue was built there in 1881 on the initiative of Rabbi Eliezer-Simcha Rabinowicz. The Great Synagogue designed by Enrico Marconi became a centre of the Zionist movement. The Lomza Yeshiva attracted hundreds of Orthodox Jewish students, founded in 1883. In 1931, there were 8,912 Jews who lived in the city.
World War I was especially hard on the Jewish community of Łomża, which was a major battle area against German military forces. In 1915, the Jewish Aid Society estimated that 22,000 Jewish residents of Łomża were made homeless from the war.
On October 29, 1941, German troops forced over 1,000 Jewish residents of Lomza to kneel in trenches, and they murdered them all with machine guns. They continued murdering entire families.
On 12 August 1941, a Łomża Ghetto was created in the vicinity of the Old Market Square (Stary Rynek). The Nazi Einsatzkommando under SS-Obersturmführer Hermann Schaper committed mass killings of alleged Soviet collaborators a few days later. The number of Jews herded into the Łomża Ghetto from surrounding villages and towns including Jedwabne, Stawiski, Piątnica, Rotki, Wizna, Łomża, and others, ranged from 10,000 to 18,000. Over two-thousand people were murdered in the Giełczyn Forest outside of town. Many Jews perished from malnutrition and diseases such as dysentery and typhus. The rest were shipped to Auschwitz. The Łomża synagogue was destroyed. The ghetto was liquidated in the final deportation action on 1 November 1942. Only a small number of the Jews of Łomża survived the Holocaust; some found refuge with Catholic Polish families.
At the end of 1944, the Red Army recaptured the territory. Following the Yalta Conference, the Soviets ceded the city to Poland, with its total population reduced to 12,500 inhabitants, none of whom were Jewish.
One of the only visible remnants of the city's Jewish history is the Jewish cemetery. In 1999, the Lomza Jewish Cemetery Foundation was officially founded as a charity devoted to restoring the cemetery, showing respect to the deceased buried there, and to improve relations between Poles and Jews. Łomża declared the Jewish cemetery to be historical sites, and the city erected signed warning that any damage caused would be punishable under the Historical Site Preservation Law. The city also decided to install doors and replace the roof on one of the original cemetery's buildings.
In the 1997, a Torah was discovered that had been hidden in a home in Łomża since World War II. The Torah was discovered while the home was being razed to build new housing. The Torah was bought by Gerald C. Bender, a man living in Illinois in the United States whose father had been born and raised in Łomża. Bender bought the Torah in order to donate it to a synagogue.
Demographics
Łomża is the third largest city in Podlaskie Voivodeship with 63,036 inhabitants. At the end of 2006, the population growth was positive and amounted to 1.3% per 1000 inhabitants whereas the balance of migration was negative (-520). The unemployment rate in May 2008 amounted to 10,2%. According to data from 2006, an average income per inhabitant amounted to 2,942.31 zł.
Historical population of Łomża, 1808 – 1931
General population in blue. Number of Poles of Jewish faith in green. Source: Qiryat Tiv'on, Israel.
Religion
The inhabitants of Łomża are predominantly Roman Catholic, although over the centuries in addition to the Catholics, followers of other religions have settled there. There is evidence of many Jewish and Protestant gravestones at the Łomża cemeteries, particularly the two abandoned Jewish cemeteries.
Education
The history of education in Łomża dates back to the early 15th century, when the first parish was founded. In 1614, Jesuits residing in Łomża created a Collegium (present-day I Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Tadeusza Kościuszki). One of its rectors was Andrew Bobola. The educational level has not decreased after the KEN school pijarom in 1774. Łomża has educated a number of dignitaries, among others: Szymon Konarski, Rafał Krajewski, Jakub Ignacy Weight, Wojciech Szweykowski, and Adam Chętnik.
Currently in Łomża there is a well-developed network of public and private schools at all levels. There are seven primary schools, eight schools, ten secondary schools, six universities (including three non-public) and two schools of art. The educational level in Łomża is high, based on the results of the exams and countrywide lists. For example, I Liceum Ogólnokształcące rates as a top national and central Poland school.
Economy
The economy of Łomża is closely connected to its natural environment, with agricultural and forestry industries at the forefront of the region's economic development. The economy is ecologically friendly, including the food industries, brewing, electronics, the manufacture of building materials and furniture, the production and processing of agricultural crops, as well as tourism and agro-tourism.
Even the largest companies employ less than 1,000 workers, even though a number of firms are listed on the Podlasie Top One Hundred Entrepreneurs. Among them, the Łomża Brewery (large scale producer of beer), DOMEL (producer of unleaded windows), FARGOTEX (importer of upholstery fabrics), Konrad (importer of farm animals), Łomża furniture factory (Łomżyńska Fabryka Mebli), PEPEES (producer of potato starch), Purzeczko (the personal and property protection). On top of that, the city is a registered office of the Podlasie Agency for Restructuring and Modernisation of Agriculture.
By the end of 2007, the number of people steadily employed in Łomża was 13,408, including 7,170 women, however, the unemployment rate () remained considerably high at 14.1 percent. The number of businesses registered by the end of 2008 was 6,421 of which 6,280 belonged to the private sector.
Sports
The history of sport in Łomża dates back to the end of the 19th century, when the first amateur races were held in 1897. Two years later, Łomża Rowing Society was established, and initiated its activities on January 26, 1902.
The first football club was founded on April 16, 1926, currently known as ŁKS Łomża. It is the city's most successful football club, having played on the Polish second tier in the 1930s, 1940s, and 2000s.
There are several sports clubs in town including volleyball, basketball, athletics, and martial arts. The inhabitants of the town have been the most successful in athletics, sports fighting and bodybuilding. Sports in Łomża are supported by the Society for Promoting Physical Culture and the Łomża School Sports Association. In 1998, an indoor sports arena opened for national and international sporting events, including indoor football matches and martial arts tournaments.
In 2009, a contract was signed for the construction of a municipal swimming pool to open in 2011, which is the second such facility in the city.
Landmarks
Notable residents
Hanka Bielicka (1915–2006), Polish actress
Andrew Bobola (1591–1657), Polish Roman Catholic saint
Yehoshua Leib Diskin (1818–1898), rabbi
Julita Fabiszewska (born 1991), Polish singer/songwriter; participant in Bitwa na głos.
Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog (1888–1959), Chief Rabbi of Israel and father of Chaim Herzog, 6th President of Israel
Adam Kownacki (born 1989), Polish Heavyweight boxer
Samuel A. Levine (1891–1966), American cardiologist
Michał Piaszczyński (1885–1940), Polish Catholic priest, killed by the German Nazis
Rajmund Rembieliński (1774–1841), Polish nobleman, activist and landowner
See also
Łomża Landscape Park
List of cities in Poland
References
External links
Łomża City in old documents
Historical Łomża
Łomża City in "Geographical Dictionary of Polish Kingdom and other Slavic countries, Vth volume" p. 699-704
The website about monuments in Łomża
Water Tower Sikorskiego street
Cities and towns in Podlaskie Voivodeship
City counties of Poland
Masovian Voivodeship (1526–1795)
Łomża Governorate
Białystok Voivodeship (1919–1939)
Warsaw Voivodeship (1919–1939)
Belastok Region
Holocaust locations in Poland | [
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242621 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20bones%20of%20the%20human%20skeleton | List of bones of the human skeleton | The human skeleton of an adult consists of around 206 to 213 bones, depending on the counting of sternum (which may alternatively be included as the manubrium, body of sternum, and the xiphoid process). It is composed of 270 bones at the time of birth, but later decreases to 80 bones in the axial skeleton and 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton. Many small accessory bones, such as sesamoid bones, are not included in this count. There are 20 major bones.
Introduction
As a person ages, some bones fuse, a process which typically lasts until sometime within the third decade of life. Therefore, the number of bones in an individual may be evaluated differently throughout a lifetime. In addition, the bones of the skull and face are counted as separate bones, despite being fused naturally. Some reliable sesamoid bones such as the pisiform are counted, while others, such as the hallux sesamoids, are not.
Individuals may have more or fewer bones than the average (even accounting for developmental stage) owing to anatomical variations. The most common variations include sutural (wormian) bones, which are located along the sutural lines on the back of the skull, and sesamoid bones which develop within some tendons, mainly in the hands and feet. Some individuals may also have additional (i.e., supernumerary) cervical ribs or lumbar vertebrae. Amputations or other injuries may result in the loss of bones. Complete bone fractures may split one bone into multiple pieces. Other genetic conditions may result in abnormally higher (e.g. polydactyly or conjoined twins) or lower (e.g. oligodactyly) counts of bones.
Bones
The axial skeleton, comprising the spine, chest and head, contains 80 bones. The appendicular skeleton, comprising the arms and legs, including the shoulder and pelvic girdles, contains 126 bones, bringing the total for the entire skeleton to 206 bones.
Spine (vertebral column)
A fully grown adult features 26 bones in the spine, whereas a child can have 34.
Cervical vertebrae (7 bones)
Thoracic vertebrae (12 bones)
Lumbar vertebrae (5 bones)
Sacrum (5 bones at birth, fused into one after adolescence)
Coccygeal vertebrae/Cordal (set of 4 bones at birth; some or all fuse together, but there seems to be a disagreement between researchers as to what the most common number should be. Some say the most common is 1, others say 2 or 3, with 4 being the least likely. It is counted as 1 in this article.)
Chest (thorax)
There are usually 25 bones in the chest but sometimes there can be additional cervical ribs in men. Cervical ribs occur naturally in other animals such as reptiles.
Sternum (1 or 3)
Ribs (24, in 12 pairs)
Cervical ribs are extra ribs that occur in some people.
Skull
There are 23 bones in the skull. Including the bones of the middle ear and the hyoid bone, the head contains 29 bones.
Cranial bones (8)
Occipital bone
Parietal bones (2)
Frontal bone
Temporal bones (2)
Sphenoid bone (sometimes counted as facial)
Ethmoid bone (sometimes counted as facial)
Facial bones (15)
Nasal bones (2)
Maxillae (upper jaw) (2)
Lacrimal bone (2)
Zygomatic bone (cheek bones) (2)
Palatine bone (2)
Inferior nasal concha (2)
Vomer (1)
Hyoid bone (1)
Mandible (1)
Middle ears (6 bones in total, 3 on each side)
Malleus (2)
Incus (2)
Stapes (2)
Arm
There are a total of 64 bones in the arms, 32 in each arm
Upper arm bones (6 bones in total; 3 on each side)
Humerus (2)
Pectoral girdle (shoulder)
Scapula (2)
Clavicles (2)
Lower arm bones (4 bones in total, 2 on each side) left bone
Ulna (2)
Radius (2)
Hand (54 bones in total; 27 in each hand)
Carpals
Scaphoid bone (2)
Lunate bone (2)
Triquetral bone (2)
Pisiform bone (2)
Trapezium (2)
Trapezoid bone (2)
Capitate bone (2)
Hamate bone (2)
Metacarpals (10 bones in total; 5 on each side)
Phalanges of the hand
Proximal phalanges (10 bones in total; 5 on each side)
Intermediate phalanges (8 bones in total; 4 on each side)
Distal phalanges (10 bones in total; 5 on each side)
Pelvis (pelvic girdle)
The pelvis (or hip bone) is made up of three regions that have fused to form 2 coxal bones. They are: ilium, ischium, and pubis
The sacrum and the coccyx attach to the two hip bones to form the pelvis, but are more important to the spinal column, where they are counted.
Leg
There are a total of 60 bones in the legs.
Femur (2)
Patella or kneecap (2)
Tibia (2)
Fibula (2)
Foot (52 bones in total, 26 per foot)
Tarsus/Tarsals
Calcaneus or heel bone (2)
Talus (2)
Navicular bone (2)
Medial cuneiform bone (2)
Intermediate cuneiform bone (2)
Lateral cuneiform bone (2)
Cuboid bone (2)
Metatarsals (10)
Phalanges of the foot
Proximal phalanges (10)
Intermediate phalanges (8)
Distal phalanges (10)
See also
List of skeletal muscles of the human body
List of nerves of the human body
Circulatory system
Blood vessel
References
List of bones of the human skeleton
Bones | [
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242622 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish%20Republican%20Socialist%20Movement | Scottish Republican Socialist Movement | The Scottish Republican Socialist Movement (SRSM) is a political organisation that was formed out of the now defunct Scottish Republican Socialist Party (SRSP), a political party that operated in Scotland.
The SRSM campaigns for Scottish independence at a grassroots level and through cross-party organisations like Independence First, and organises regular events, including the annual 1320 Declaration of Arbroath rally, the Glencoe rally, and the John MacLean commemoration. It publishes two magazines, called Scottish Worker's Republic and Red Duster.
History
Formation
The Scottish Republican Socialist Clubs were formed in 1973 to introduce socialism to the Scottish National Party (SNP) and grow support for Scottish independence among the left. After the expulsion of the 79 Group from the SNP, the Republican Clubs decided to form a coherent political party and the Scottish Republican Socialist Party was created in 1982.
While agreeing with the SNP insofar that they believed in independence, the SRSP believed this should be combined with support for revolutionary socialism. They argued that independence is meaningless to the working class unless it is socialist, and adopted an abstentionist position towards UK general elections.
Affiliation to the Scottish Socialist Party (1998–2006)
In 1998, the Scottish Socialist Party (SSP) was formed and the SRSP narrowly decided to join them, reforming as a cross-party movement called the Scottish Republican Socialist Movement. Many members ended up within the SSP, but not exclusively.
In December 2004, the SRSM was designated as a banned organisation by the SNP because of its affiliation with the Scottish Socialist Party. As a result, SNP members were no longer allowed to be members of the SRSM.
The SRSM was active in campaigning against attempts within the SSP to ditch the policy of supporting independence. It succeeded at persuading high-profile SSP members like Alan McCombes, Rosie Kane, and Kevin Williamson to speak at its rallies and for its cause. The SRSM twice attempted to entrench a commitment to Scottish independence in the SSP's constitution.
In 2005, there were calls for the SRSM to be ejected from the SSP due to its vocal support for the Irish Republican Socialist Party and other Irish political groups that have been characterised as "opposed to the Northern Ireland peace process". In the Sunday Herald, journalist Paul Hutcheon characterised the movement as having "web-links to Irish terror groups". John Patrick, a member of the SRSM and the SSP's animal rights spokesperson, insisted that the SRSM had no political links to organisations in Ireland but had a relationship "based on solidarity in trying to break up the British state".
Disaffiliation and later activity (2006–present)
In October 2006, the SRSM announced that it was disaffiliating from the Scottish Socialist Party, citing unhappiness with unionist elements within the party and the failure of their third attempt to entrench a commitment to independence in the party constitution. The SRSM confirmed it would continue to operate as a cross-party organisation, and a "minority" of SRSM members remained part of the SSP.
In September 2012, the SRSM were banned from participating in the 2012 March and Rally for Scottish Independence in Edinburgh, because reports circulated by the Better Together campaign characterised the SRSM as "a group who regularly burn Union flags, attack the Queen, glorify terrorism and advocate a violent Scottish revolution". The SRSM's organiser, Donald Anderson, responded by stating the organisation "do not have any intention of burning flags at the Edinburgh rally", and that: "We will be there as individuals carrying Saltires, despite Unionist objections to our national flag. The Imperialist Union flag is not called the 'butcher's apron' for nothing."
The organisation reaffirmed and also updated its key values/demands at its Ard Fheis on Saturday 29 November 2014. The SRSM stands for:
Independent Scottish Socialist Republic
A Scotland that is nuclear free and out of NATO
A democratic society based on a sustainable economy and workers' control.
The organisation is cross party and non-party and endeavours to work with all other organisations that share its goal of an independent Scotland.
The organisation organises a number of annual events including a republican Burns Night and commemorations at Glencoe, Arbroath and Bannockburn. Its main annual event however is the John Maclean March and Rally each November.
The Honorary President and Treasurer is Donald Anderson The National Organiser is Alan Stewart. Karen Stewart is Membership Secretary. The Press Officer is Giacomo Gioga and the International Officer is Peter Urban.
The SRSM has a website, an on-line discussion forum, a facebook page and a periodical called "Scottish Workers' Republic." More recently it has also issued fortnightly "Political Education" bulletin.
See also
Criticism of capitalism
List of advocates of republicanism in the United Kingdom
Scottish Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
References
External links
Website of the Scottish Republican Socialist Movement
Political parties established in 1982
Political parties disestablished in 1998
Republican parties in the United Kingdom
Socialist parties in Scotland
Scottish republicanism
1982 establishments in Scotland
1998 disestablishments in Scotland | [
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242623 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grethe%20and%20J%C3%B8rgen%20Ingmann | Grethe and Jørgen Ingmann | Grethe Ingmann and Jørgen Ingmann were Danish singers and musicians. Together they won the Dansk Melodi Grand Prix in 1963, and went on to represent Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest 1963 with the song "Dansevise" ("Dancing tune") with music by Otto Francker and lyrics by Sejr Volmer-Sørensen. The song won the competition. No other Danish song would take first place in the Eurovision competition again until the year 2000 when the Olsen Brothers won with their song, "Fly on the Wings of Love", and again in 2013 when Emmelie de Forest won with the song "Only Teardrops"
Jørgen Ingmann was born on 26 April 1925 in Copenhagen, Denmark. Grethe Clemmensen was born on 17 June 1938 in Copenhagen, Denmark. They met in 1955, were married in 1956 and got divorced in 1975. Grethe Ingmann became the first Eurovision winner to pass away when she died of cancer on 18 August 1990 in Denmark and Jørgen Ingmann died on 21 March 2015 in Denmark.
The US success of Jörgen Ingmann's version of Jerry Lordan's instrumental "Apache" (which hit no 1 in US Singles' list in 1961) was largely due to EMI's omission to release The Shadows' original 1960 version in time in the USA. The cover version of the Dane came first and The Shadows' hit could not keep up with it in the US. In subsequent years, Jerry Lordan wrote many other instrumental hits for The Shadows (Wonderful Land, Atlantis, Maroc 5). The Shadows could never really break through in the US, not even in the wave of the "British Invasion" in the mid-sixties.
References
Eurovision Song Contest winners
Danish pop music groups | [
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242625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapezoid%20bone | Trapezoid bone | The trapezoid bone (lesser multangular bone) is a carpal bone in tetrapods, including humans. It is the smallest bone in the distal row of carpal bones that give structure to the palm of the hand. It may be known by its wedge-shaped form, the broad end of the wedge constituting the dorsal, the narrow end the palmar surface; and by its having four articular facets touching each other, and separated by sharp edges. It is homologous with the "second distal carpal" of reptiles and amphibians.
Structure
The trapezoid is a four-sided carpal bone found within the hand. The trapezoid is found within the distal row of carpal bones.
Surfaces
The superior surface, quadrilateral, smooth, and slightly concave, articulates with the scaphoid.
The inferior surface articulates with the proximal end of the second metacarpal bone; it is convex from side to side, concave from before backward and subdivided by an elevated ridge into two unequal facets.
The dorsal and palmar surfaces are rough for the attachment of ligaments, the former being the larger of the two.
The lateral surface, convex and smooth, articulates with the trapezium.
The medial surface is concave and smooth in front, for articulation with the capitate; rough behind, for the attachment of an interosseous ligament.
Function
The carpal bones function as a unit to provide a bony superstructure for the hand.
Clinical Significance
Isolated fractures of the trapezoid are rare, representing 0.4% of the total, thus being the least common of all carpal fractures. This is due to the bone being in a fairly protected position. Distally, it forms a stable, relatively immobile joint with the second metacarpal, radially and proximally it forms strong ligaments with the trapezium and the capitate ulnarly, scaphoid respectively.
However, injury can occur through axial force applied to the second metacarpal base. Subluxations, such as ones caused by delivering a blow, are not uncommon. Direct trauma to the bone can also cause fracture.
Due to its rarity, standard treatment has not been established. A wide range of treatments are possible, including rest, surgery and casting.
History
The etymology derives from the Greek trapezion which means "irregular quadrilateral," from tra- "four" and peza "foot" or "edge." Literally, "a little table" from trapeza meaning "table" and -oeides "shaped."
Additional images
See also
Carpal bone
References
Skeletal system
Wrist
Bones of the hand
Carpal bones | [
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242626 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuboid%20bone | Cuboid bone | In the human body, the cuboid bone is one of the seven tarsal bones of the foot.
Structure
The cuboid bone is the most lateral of the bones in the distal row of the tarsus. It is roughly cubical in shape, and presents a prominence in its inferior (or plantar) surface, the tuberosity of the cuboid. The bone provides a groove where the tendon of the peroneus longus muscle passes to reach its insertion in the first metatarsal and medial cuneiform bones.
Surfaces
The dorsal surface, directed upward and lateralward, is rough, for the attachment of ligaments.
The plantar surface presents in front a deep groove, the peroneal sulcus, which runs obliquely forward and medialward; it lodges the tendon of the peroneus longus, and is bounded behind by a prominent ridge, to which the long plantar ligament is attached.
The ridge ends laterally in an eminence, the tuberosity, the surface of which presents an oval facet; on this facet glides the sesamoid bone or cartilage frequently found in the tendon of the peroneus longus. The surface of bone behind the groove is rough, for the attachment of the plantar calcaneocuboid ligament, a few fibers of the flexor hallucis brevis, and a fasciculus from the tendon of the tibialis posterior.
The lateral surface presents a deep notch formed by the commencement of the peroneal sulcus.
The posterior surface is smooth, triangular, and concavo-convex, for articulation with the anterior surface of the calcaneus (the calcaneocuboid joint); its infero-medial angle projects backward as a process which underlies and supports the anterior end of the calcaneus.
The anterior surface, of smaller size, but also irregularly triangular, is divided by a vertical ridge into two facets, forming the fourth and fifth tarsometatarsal joints: the medial facet, quadrilateral in form, articulates with the fourth metatarsal; the lateral, larger and more triangular, articulates with the fifth.
The medial surface is broad, irregularly quadrilateral, and presents at its middle and upper part a smooth oval facet, for articulation with the third cuneiform; and behind this (occasionally) a smaller facet, for articulation with the navicular bone; it is rough in the rest of its extent, for the attachment of strong interosseous ligaments.
Muscle attachments
Only one muscle is attached to the cuboid bone; the tibialis posterior. The tibialis posterior inserts to the under surface of the cuboid bone. While the flexor hallucis brevis arises, by a pointed tendinous process, from the medial part of the under surface of the cuboid bone, from the contiguous portion of the lateral cuneiform bone, and from the prolongation of the tendon of the tibialis posterior.
Clinical significance
In a condition known as cuboid syndrome, the cuboid can be subluxated downward causing a swollen kind of ache along the central portion of the lateral border of the foot.
See also
Bone terminology
Terms for anatomical location
Knucklebones (precursor of gaming dice)
References
Bones of the lower limb
Bones of the foot
Tarsal bones | [
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242627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9opold%20S%C3%A9dar%20Senghor%20International%20Airport | Léopold Sédar Senghor International Airport | Léopold Sédar Senghor International Airport (, ) is an international airport serving Dakar, the capital of Senegal. The airport is situated near the town of Yoff, a northern suburb of Dakar. It was known as Dakar-Yoff International Airport () until 9 October 1996, when it was renamed in honor of Léopold Sédar Senghor, the first president of Senegal.
The airport can handle wide body jets, including the Airbus A340-600 from South African Airways, and the Boeing 777-200 from Air France. In 2015, the airport served about 1,986,000 passengers.
Construction of a replacement airport, Blaise Diagne International, inland from Léopold Sédar Senghor, began in 2007. Saudi Binladin Group constructed the new airport, named after the first black African elected to France's parliament in 1914, Blaise Diagne. It was initially expected to take 30 months to build and is designed for an initial capacity of 3 million passengers a year – almost double the 1.7 million annual traffic handled by the existing airport. Blaise Diagne was delayed several times and finally opened on 7 December 2017. As of March 2020 Senghor Airport serves only charter flights and scheduled cargo services, but not regular passenger flights.
History
During World War II, Dakar Airport was a key link in the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command Natal-Dakar air route, which provided a transoceanic link between Brazil and French West Africa after 1942. Massive amounts of cargo were stored at Dakar, which were then transported along the North African Cairo-Dakar transport route for cargo, transiting aircraft and personnel. From Dakar, flights were made to Dakhla Airport, near Villa Cisneros in what was then Spanish Sahara, or to Atar Airport, depending on the load on the air route. In addition to being the western terminus of the North African route, Dakar was the northern terminus for the South African route, which transported personnel to Pretoria, South Africa, with numerous stopovers at Robertsfield (now Roberts International Airport), Liberia, the Belgian Congo and Northern Rhodesia.
Before the introduction of long-range jets in the mid-1970s, it was an important stopover point for the routes between Europe and South America, along with the Canary Islands.
The airport was a Space Shuttle landing site until 1987, when it was determined that a dip in the runway could damage the shuttle upon landing.
It was one of the five main hubs of the now defunct multi-national airline Air Afrique.
The airport has often been used as a stopover on flights between North America and Southern Africa. Delta Air Lines started service on 4 December 2006 between Atlanta and Johannesburg, with an intermediate stop in Dakar. This stopover has since been removed, with Dakar now served nonstop by Delta from New York–JFK. South African Airways used Dakar as a stopover with both its flights from Johannesburg to Washington and New York. The stopover for the New York–JFK flight was later removed, while the Johannesburg to Washington–Dulles flight now operates via Accra.
Senegal Airlines had a hub operation and their headquarters at the airport before the company's demise in April, 2016.
Other facilities
The head office of Agence Nationale de l'Aviation Civile du Sénégal is also on the airport property.
At one time Air Sénégal International had its head office on the grounds of the airport.
The airport is also home to the French Air Force's Dakar-Ouakam Air Base (Base aérienne Dakar-Ouakam; also known as Air Base 160, Base aérienne 160 Dakar-Ouakam). The Dakar-Ouakam Air Base formed the military section of the airport.
Airlines and destinations
Passenger
Since the opening of its successor in 2017, there are not longer any scheduled commercial passenger flights at the airport.
Cargo
Statistics
Incidents
On 29 August 1960, Air France Flight 343 crashed while attempting to land at Dakar-Yoff Airport during the precursor to what became Hurricane Donna. All 63 passengers and crew on board were killed.
References
External links
Air Base Profile from avions-militaires.net
Profile in French from the French Ministry of Defense
Dakar International Airport (unofficial website)
Airports in Senegal
Buildings and structures in Dakar
Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command on the South Atlantic Route
Installations of the French Air and Space Force | [
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242628 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez | Suez | Suez ( ; ) is a seaport city (population of about 750,000 ) in north-eastern Egypt, located on the north coast of the Gulf of Suez (a branch of the Red Sea), near the southern terminus of the Suez Canal, having the same boundaries as Suez Governorate. It has three harbours, Adabiya, Ain Sokhna and Port Tawfiq, and extensive port facilities. Together they form a metropolitan area, located mostly in Africa with a small portion in Asia.
Railway lines and highways connect the city with Cairo, Port Said, and Ismailia. Suez has a petrochemical plant, and its oil refineries have pipelines carrying the finished product to Cairo. These are represented in the flag of the governorate: the blue background refers to the sea, the gear refers to Suez's status as an industrial governorate, and the flame refers to the petroleum firms of Suez.
The modern city of Suez is a successor of the ancient city of Clysma (, meaning "surf, waves that break"; ; ), the major Red Sea port and a center of monasticism.
History
Achaemenid era
Darius the Great's Suez Inscriptions were texts written in Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian and Egyptian on five monuments erected in Wadi Tumilat, commemorating the opening of a canal between the Nile and the Bitter Lakes, to facilitate a shipping connection between Egypt, then a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire, and Persia (i.e. the greater portion of the Empire itself).
Text of the Suez Inscriptions
Partial transliteration and translation of the inscription:
Transliteration of the Old Persian text:
English translation:
"King Darius says: I am a Persian; setting out from Persia I conquered Egypt. I ordered to dig this canal from the river that is called Nile and flows in Egypt, to the sea that begins in Persia. Therefore, when this canal had been dug as I had ordered, ships went from Egypt through this canal to Persia, as I had intended."
Early Islamic era
In the 7th century AD a town named "Kolzum" stood just north of the site of present-day Suez and served as eastern terminus of a canal built by Amr ibn al-'As, linking the Nile River and the Red Sea. Kolzum's trade fell following the closure of the canal in 770 by the second Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, to prevent his enemies in Arabia from accessing supplies from Egypt and the lands north of it. Nonetheless, the town benefited from the trade that remained between Egypt and Arabia. By 780 al-Mansur's successor al-Mahdi restored part of the canal. The Qarmatians led by al-Hasan al-A'sam defeated a Fatimid army headed by Jawhar al-Siqilli at Kolzum in 971 and thereby captured the town. Following his defeat in Cairo by al-Siqilli at the end of that year, Hasan and his forces retreated to Arabia via Kolzum. Suez was situated nearby and served as a source of drinking water for Kolzum, according to the Arab traveler al-Muqaddasi, who visited in 986.
The Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, Saladin, fortified both Kolzum and Suez in order to defend Egypt's eastern frontier from Crusader raids by Raynald of Chatillon. Between 1183 and 1184, Raynald had ships stationed in the Red Sea to prevent the Ayyubid garrison at Kolzum from accessing water. In response, Saladin's brother al-Adil had Husam ad-Din Lu'lu build a naval fleet, which sailed to the southern port of Aidab to end Raynald's venture. By the 13th century, it was recorded that Kolzum was in ruins, as was Suez, which had gradually replaced the former as a population center. According to Muslim historians al-Maqrizi and al-Idrisi, Kolzum had once been a prosperous town, until it was occupied and plundered by Bedouins. Arab geographer al-Dimashqi noted that Kolzum belonged to the Mamluk province of al-Karak at the time.
Ottoman and Egyptian rule
To prevent Portuguese attacks against Egyptian coastal towns and the Red Sea port of Jeddah, Qansuh al-Ghawri, the last Mamluk sultan, ordered a 6,000-man force headed by Selman Reis to defend Suez in 1507, which in turn limited the Mamluk military's capabilities against the Ottomans in the Mediterranean Sea. Following the Ottoman conquest of Egypt at the beginning of the 16th century, Suez became both a major naval and trading station. The Ottoman fleets at Suez were instrumental in disputing control over Indian Ocean trade with the Portuguese. in the Red Sea in the 16th & 17th century. Campaigns against the Ottoman Empire. Yellow - Factories ( Mokha) Red - Allied Territorie or under influence. Dark Green - Campaigns of Adal.
Portuguese attacks
In trying to limit the Ottoman fleet to the Red Sea, after the Battle of Diu in 1538, a Portuguese Armada was sent in 1541 to seek out and destroy the Ottoman fleet.
After the conquest of El Tor on the Egyptian coast, the commander Estevão da Gama gave the order to attack Suez, but failed to burn the Ottoman fleet as the Ottomans had received intelligence about the incoming raid beforehand. Instead, the Portuguese fleet spent the next 7 months in the Red Sea sailing from port to port and waiting in Massawa for the monsoon to India.
German explorer Carsten Niebuhr noted that in the 18th century a 20-vessel fleet sailed annually from Suez to Jeddah—which served both as Mecca's port and Egypt's gateway for trade with India. However, by 1798, during the Napoleonic invasion, Suez had once again devolved into an unimportant town. Fighting between the French and the British in 1800 left most of the town in ruins. Its importance as a port increased after the Suez Canal opened in 1869
Modern era
The city was virtually destroyed during battles in the late 1960s and early 1970s between Egyptian and Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula. The town was deserted following the Six-Day War in 1967. Reconstruction of Suez began soon after Egypt reopened the Suez Canal, following the Yom Kippur War with Israel.
Suez was the first city to hold major protests against the government of Hosni Mubarak during the 2011 Egyptian revolution and was the scene of the first fatality of that uprising. On account of this, it has been called the Sidi Bouzid of Egypt, recalling that small town's role in the 2010–2011 Tunisian revolution.
In 2021, the container ship Ever Given became stuck across the Suez canal near Suez. This came to be known as the 2021 Suez Canal obstruction.
City districts
The city is divided into five main districts:
El Arbaeen District
The most populous district of the city, it has most of the government buildings and public institutions. It also has the city's main fruit and vegetable markets in addition to other markets and stores selling various commodities.
Suez District
Suez district is considered the most affluent area in the city. The real estate there is significantly more expensive than any other district in the city. Its buildings have more modern architectural style than those in the El Arbaeen District. It includes the affluent neighbourhood of Port Tawfik, which directly overlooks the Suez Canal. Port Tawfik includes some old-style houses that date back to the era of English occupation. The district also includes two of Egypt's most important oil refineries; El-Nasr Petroleum Company and Suez Petroleum Company. Also, Suez Port, one of Egypt's main ports, lies within the perimeter of Suez District.
El Ganayen District
This district stretches all the way to the border with Ismailia Governorate and contains the entire Asian territory of the city. It has all the rural areas of the city and can be thought of as the city's "countryside".
Faisal District
It includes the newer neighbourhoods of the city. Most of the areas at Faisal District were established after the 1973 Yom Kippur war, which had destroyed vast areas of the city. Examples of neighborhoods in Faisal District include Al-Sabbah, Al-Amal and Al-Mushi, to name a few.
Ataqah District
It is characterised by the existence of many industrial areas. There are plants and factories specialising in fertilisers, cement, steel, cooking oil, flour products, oil rigs, ceramic tiles, sugar, and many other products. There is also the Attaka Power Plant.
The district also includes Ain Sokhna, one of Egypt's most important sea resorts, overlooking the Gulf of Suez. Ain Sokhna has numerous high-class sea resorts and is frequented by many tourists, Egyptians and foreigners, all over the year due to its warm weather. The district is also home to the Ain Sokhna Sea Port, one of Egypt's main sea ports operated by the Dubai-based DP World Company and the Al-Ataka Fishing Port, which is the city's main fish production port.
Suez Canal
In ancient times, there was a canal from the Nile delta to the Gulf of Suez, when the gulf extended further north than it does today. This canal fell into disuse, and the present canal was built in the nineteenth century.
The Suez Canal offers a significantly shorter passage for ships, as compared to passing round the Cape of Good Hope. The construction of the Suez Canal was favoured by the natural conditions of the region: the comparatively short distance between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, the occurrence of a line of lakes or depressions which became lakes (Lake Manzala in the north, and depressions, Timsah and the Bitter Lakes, part way along the route), and the generally flat terrain. The construction of the canal was proposed by the engineer and French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps, who in 1854 acquired from Said Pasha the rights of constructing and operating the canal for a period of 99 years. The Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez was formed. Construction took 11 years, and the canal opened on 17 November 1869. The canal had an immediate and dramatic effect on world trade.
In July 1956, just a few days after the fourth anniversary of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, the Egyptian government under President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal Company, which had been run by the French and owned privately, with the British as the largest shareholders. The Israeli–British–French invasion of Egypt which followed is known in Egypt as the Tripartite Aggression but elsewhere as the Suez Crisis. Following Israel's invasion and occupation of Egypt's Sinai Peninsula in the Six-Day War of 1967, the Canal was closed, and did not reopen until 1975.
On March 23rd, 2021, a container ship called the Ever Given ran aground in the canal and blocked it.
Today, the Canal is a vital link in world trade, and contributes significantly to the Egyptian economy; in 2009 the income generated from the canal accounted for 3.7% of Egypt's GDP.
Geography
The Isthmus of Suez is considered the boundary between Africa and Asia.
Climate
Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as a hot desert (BWh).
The hottest recorded temperature was on June 14, 1965 while the coldest recorded temperature was on February 23, 2004.
Twin towns and sister cities
Suez is twinned with:
Djibouti City, Djibouti
Skopje, North Macedonia
Notable people
Ismail Yassine (Arabic: إسماعيل ياسين IPA: [esmæˈʕiːl jæˈsiːn]) (1912-1972) was an Egyptian singer, comedian and actor
Ebrahim Nafae: was an Egyptian journalist and a former editor-in-chief of Al-Ahram Newspaper.
See also
Attaqa Mountain Pumped Storage Power Plant
Battle of Suez
List of cities and towns in Egypt
References
William Matthew Flinders Petrie, A History of Egypt. Volume 3: From the XIXth to the XXXth Dynasties, Adamant Media Corporation, , p. 366
Barbara Watterson (1997), The Egyptians, Blackwell Publishing, , p. 186
Bibliography
External links
Suez Online
Suez Canal photos
Governorate capitals in Egypt
Populated places in Suez Governorate
Populated coastal places in Egypt
Port cities and towns in Egypt
Port cities and towns of the Red Sea
Suez Canal
Metropolitan areas of Egypt
Cities in Egypt
Transcontinental cities | [
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] |
242630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uathach | Uathach | In Irish and Scottish mythology, Uathach was Scáthach's daughter and thus the niece of her rival and sister Aífe. Cú Chulainn, who had recently arrived at Scáthach's fortress-home Dún Scáith (Fortress of Shadows) to be her pupil, accidentally broke one of Uathach's fingers, and Uathach's suitor, Cochar Croibhe, challenged him to single combat despite Uathach's protests. Cú Chulainn killed him and became Uathach's lover.
References
Ulster Cycle
Scottish mythology | [
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242633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ADl%20Esp%C3%A1ine | Míl Espáine | In Irish origin myths, Míl Espáine or Míl Espáne (later Latinized as Milesius; also Miled/Miledh) is the mythical ancestor of the final inhabitants of Ireland, the "sons of Míl" or Milesians, who represent the vast majority of the Irish Gaels. His father was Bile, son of Breogan.
His name is described by Mark Williams as an "etymological fiction" translated from the Latin Miles Hispaniae, meaning "Soldier of Hispania", which is attested in a passage (§ 13) in the 9th-century pseudo-historical work Historia Brittonum ("The History of the Britons") by Nennius. According to the Lebor Gabála Érenn or the Book of Invasions where this tale is recorded his real name is Galam which is equivalent to Columba and its derivatives such as Malcolm and Callum. The work offers an account of how Ireland was successively taken by settlers from Spain, among them Partholom, Nimeth and the "three sons of a Hispanic soldier" (tres filii militis Hispaniae). As A.G. van Hamel has suggested, the status of Iberia as the land of origin can be traced back to Isidore of Seville, who in the introduction to his history of the Goths, Vandals and Suebi had elevated Spain to the "mother of all races". A further explanation may lie in the mistake made by some classical geographers in locating Ireland closely opposite Iberia. For instance, the Lebar Gabála (§ 100) recounts that from Bregon's Tower, the Milesian Íth was able to see right across the sea to Ireland. In galician history, that tower is the Torre de Hercules, Hercule Tower, in A Coruña, Galicia.
He served as a soldier in Scythia and Egypt, before remembering a prophecy that his descendants would rule Ireland. He set off to the west, getting as far as Iberia where he fought several battles before dying, never seeing Ireland himself.
His wife Scota and his uncle Íth, who had spied Ireland from a tower, sailed to Ireland where Íth was killed by the Tuatha Dé Danann. When his body was brought back to Iberia, Míl's eight sons and Íth's nine brothers invaded Ireland and defeated the Tuatha Dé Danann.
He figures prominently in the mythological genealogies of John O'Hart.
Milesius died in Spain before he could reach the Isle of Destiny. His wife Scota went to Ireland with their eight sons. On account of some terrible storms (attributed to the magic of the Tuatha Dé Danann who already lived in Ireland) most of Milesius' sons died when they tried to land.
See also
Lebor Gabála Érenn
Mesca Ulad
Scota
Notes
References
Further reading
Tochomlod mac Miledh a hEspain i nErind ("The Progress of the Sons of Míl from Spain to Ireland"), ed. and tr.
The Milesian Invasion of Ireland, ed. and tr.
Galician mythology
Mythological cycle
Legendary progenitors | [
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242638 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.%20Clifford%20Baxter | J. Clifford Baxter | John Clifford "Cliff" Baxter (September 27, 1958 January 25, 2002) was an Enron Corporation executive who resigned in May 2001 before committing suicide the following year. Prior to his death he had agreed to testify before Congress in the Enron scandal.
Early life
Baxter was born in Amityville, New York, and graduated from New York University. After graduating, he served in the U.S. Air Force from 1980 to 1985 and rose to the rank of captain. After he was discharged from the military, he enrolled at Columbia University where he received an MBA degree two years later. He worked in investment banking briefly before he joined Enron in 1991 where he rose to the executive position of chief strategy officer before his resignation.
Scandal at Enron
On August 15, 2001, Sherron Watkins, Vice President of Corporate Development at Enron, wrote an anonymous letter to Kenneth Lay sharing her concerns about the company's accounting practices, and cited Baxter's prior complaints to Jeffrey Skilling, Andrew Fastow, and other Enron executives regarding what he considered Enron's unethical and possible illegal transactions. This was a day after the abrupt resignation of Jeffrey Skilling as CEO of Enron, who was later characterized by writers Bethany McLean and Peter Elkind in The Smartest Guys in the Room as being Baxter's closest friend at Enron.
Baxter would later be sued personally for $30 million after the bankruptcy of Enron Corporation due to his sale of $30 million worth of Enron stock in the months prior to Enron's bankruptcy in December 2001.
Fortune magazine writer Bethany McLean described Baxter in Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room as being a good deal-maker but also being a manic depressive.
Skilling stated before Congress in February 2002 that Baxter had visited Skilling shortly after Enron had declared bankruptcy and was "heartbroken" by what had happened at Enron. In his testimony, Skilling quoted Baxter as saying: "They're calling us child molesters. That will never wash off."
Suicide
On January 25, 2002, after agreeing to testify before Congressional committees in February 2002 after being subpoenaed regarding his knowledge and evidence of the scandal at Enron, Baxter was found dead in his black Mercedes-Benz S500 in Sugar Land, Texas, with a self-inflicted gunshot wound. The ammunition used was a Glaser Safety Slug, which at the time was misreported as snake shot. A revolver was found in his car and a suicide note was found in his wife's car at their home. An autopsy was performed by the Harris County Medical Examiner's Office and the death was ruled a suicide. Baxter's suicide was partly dramatized during the opening credits of Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room.
His suicide note was hand printed, though not signed, for his wife, Carol. The letter expressed Baxter's despair over the direction his life had taken.
The full text of the note read:
Carol,
I am so sorry for this. I feel I just can't go on. I have always tried to do the right thing but where there was once great pride now it's gone. I love you and the children so much. I just can't be any good to you or myself. The pain is overwhelming.
Please try to forgive me.
Cliff
He was survived by his wife and two children, a son and a daughter.
References
External links
BBC profile of J. Clifford Baxter
The Mysterious Death Of An Enron Exec
Police Chief Answers Questions, Assumptions Of Case
American energy industry executives
People from Long Island
Suicides by firearm in Texas
United States Air Force officers
1958 births
2002 deaths
New York University alumni
Columbia Business School alumni
Enron people
2002 suicides | [
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242641 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junior%20Eurovision%20Song%20Contest%202004 | Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2004 | The Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2004 was the second edition of the annual Junior Eurovision Song Contest for young singers aged eight to fifteen. It was held on 20 November 2004, in Håkons Hall, Lillehammer, Norway and lasted 2 hours and 15 minutes. It was presented by Stian Barsnes Simonsen and Nadia Hasnaoui, broadcast in twenty countries and viewed by 100 million people. Eighteen countries participated, and participated for the first time.
The contest was won by 9-year-old María Isabel who represented with her song "Antes muerta que sencilla" (Better Dead Than Plain) from her debut album ¡No me toques las palmas que me conozco! which was released before the contest. Dino Jelusić, who won the 2003 contest for , presented the award to María. Since then, Isabel has entered the charts in not only Spain but France, Italy, Scandinavia, Latin America and has gone on to release further albums in her home country.
, who came ninth received more sets of twelve points than the , who came second. , who came sixth, were voted by all the other countries that took part, which is more than the number of countries that voted for , who came fourth and , who came third.
Incidentally, the same three countries occupied the top three places as last year, just in a different order. These three countries were Spain, the United Kingdom, and Croatia.
Origins and history
The origins of the contest date back to 2000 when Danmarks Radio held a song contest for Danish children that year and the following year. The idea was extended to a Scandinavian song festival in 2002, MGP Nordic, with Denmark, Norway and Sweden as participants. In November 2002, the EBU picked up the idea for a song contest featuring children and opened the competition to all EBU member broadcasters making it a pan-European event. The working title of the programme was "Eurovision Song Contest for Children", branded with the name of the EBU's already long-running and popular song competition, the Eurovision Song Contest. Denmark was asked to host the first programme that took place the following year after their experience with their own contests and the MGP Nordic.
Location
Host city selection
Norway was the third country of choice for this contest as the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) had, in May 2003, originally chosen broadcaster ITV of the United Kingdom to host the event. Shortly after the first contest in Copenhagen, it was confirmed that the next edition would be held in Manchester on 20 November 2004. However, ITV pulled out in May 2004 due to finance and scheduling problems. In August 2004, it was revealed that Granada Television, who would have co-produced the show with Carlton Television, had decided to pull out of the deal claiming the allocated budget of 1.5 million euros was too small. The EBU offered funding of 900,000 to produce the event, but the ITV company said it would have cost almost 2.5 million euro so asked them to find a new host broadcaster. It is also thought that another factor to their decision was the previous years' audience ratings for ITV which were below the expected amount.
The venue was therefore moved to Croatia, the winning country of 2003, but the Croatian broadcaster HRT reportedly forgot that the prospective venue for the event was already booked for the period the Junior Eurovision Song Contest was to take place. It was at this point (June 2004), with five months remaining until the event would be held, that Norwegian broadcaster NRK offered to organise the next contest. Hosting duties were confirmed by the broadcaster itself a few days later, adding that the competition would take place at Håkons Hall in Lillehammer on the same date as originally planned.
Venue
Håkons Hall, sometimes anglicized as Håkon Hall and Haakons Hall, is an arena located at Stampesletta in Lillehammer, Norway, built for the 1994 Winter Olympics. With a spectator capacity of 11,500 people, it is the largest handball and ice hockey venue in the country.
Håkons Hall is regularly used for handball and ice hockey tournaments, concerts, exhibitions, conferences and banquets. The venue is owned by Lillehammer Municipality via the subsidiary Lillehammer Olympiapark, which owns all the Olympic venues in Lillehammer. The Norwegian Olympic Museum is located in the arena, which is located next to the smaller Kristins Hall. The hall was opened on 1 February 1993 having cost 238 million Norwegian krone (NOK).
Format
Visual design
On 2 September 2004, host broadcaster NRK presented the official logo of the contest. The theme of the show was later confirmed as bright Nordic winter nights, sparkling stars and snow crystals, set in a hip-hop atmosphere.
Presenters
On 23 September 2004, it was announced that Nadia Hasnaoui and Stian Barsnes Simonsen would host the contest. The hosting couple also led the final of national qualifying rounds to the competition, Melodi Grand Prix Junior 2004 on 12 June.
Running order
The draw for the running order of the contest was held on 14 October, with Greece drawn to open the contest for a second time and Romania drawn to close.
Voting
All countries used televoting to decide on their top ten. In normal Eurovision fashion, each country's favourite song was given 12 points, their second favourite 10, and their third to tenth favourites were given 8–1 points.
Opening and interval acts
On television, the show opened with the usual EBU ident and fanfare, followed by a placard of a starry night sky with suspenseful music and the NRK logo in the middle of the card. The "JESC singing girl" would then zoom into the screen on a snowboard with the JESC 2004 logo on the bottom, and trailing behind the board would be stars. The singing girl would then hover towards a rotating disco ball, and as the camera would move closer, the words "JUNIOR EUROVISION SONG CONTEST - LILLEHAMMER 2004" would also start rotating. During this time, a person would start rapping the word "JESC" over and over again, then the placard would give way to a ceiling shot of the arena.
After the flag parade, the hosts, Stian and Nadia were to land on the stage from a snowboard. Stian landed on the left hand side of the stage, but when Nadia came through, she 'accidentally' crash-landed behind the stage. She emerged a few minutes later in comedic style coughing, but no bodily injuries were seen. Nonetheless, when she came out, the audience continued cheering and the show proceeded like it was supposed to.
The camera angle would then switch, this time to a camera positioned in the audience of the arena, where all the participants would walk through in a first ever Eurovision-related flag parade. In future editions, the flag parade would occur on the stage of the arena.
During a ten-minute break for televoting, boy band Westlife performed "Ain't That a Kick in the Head?" live on stage as the interval act.
Participating countries
Originally twenty countries had applied to take part but and later pulled out. There were also reports that had planned to enter the programme. Israel, Ireland and Germany would later debut in the contest in 2012, 2015 and 2020 respectively.
This was the last contest that and took part in before their withdrawal in 2005. They would miss the contest for 12 and 14 years until 2016 and 2018 respectively, when they announced their return.
Results
Scoreboard
12 points
Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points each country awarded to another:
Spokespersons
Kalli Georgelli
Thea Saliba
Danny Hoekstra
Gaia Bertoncini
Ida
Gabrielle
Filip
Jadwiga Jaskulski
Stella María Koukkidi
Darya
Buga
Sabīne Berezina
Charlie Allan
Anne Gadegaard
Lucho
Vännerna Queenie
Alexander Schönfelder
Emy
Other countries
For a country to be eligible for potential participation in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest, it needs to be an active member of the EBU. It is currently unknown whether the EBU issue invitations of participation to all 56 active members like they do for the Eurovision Song Contest.
After failing to participate in the previous year, German broadcaster Norddeutscher Rundfunk (NDR) was announced as a debutant at the 2004 contest. However, the country later ended up pulling out before the contest. No reason for the withdrawal was given. Germany would only debut sixteen years later at the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2020.
Irish television was reported to have received an invitation to participate in the 2004 contest and were among the 20 countries expected to take part in Manchester. However, in the end Ireland did not debut and would stay out of the competition until .
The Israeli Broadcasting Authority (IBA) initially planned to debut at this year's contest but the debut never happened. Israel and the IBA would not debut until .
Broadcasts
Official album
Junior Eurovision Song Contest Lillehammer '04, is a compilation album put together by the European Broadcasting Union, and was released by Universal Music Group on November 2004. The album features all the songs from the 2004 contest.
See also
Eurovision Song Contest 2004
Eurovision Young Musicians 2004
References
External links
2004
2004 song contests
2004 in Norwegian music
Eurovision Song Contest 2004
Lillehammer
November 2004 events in Europe
Music events in Norway
Norway in the Eurovision Song Contest | [
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242642 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorean%20subculture | Gorean subculture | Gorean subculture is a fandom based on the philosophy espoused in John Norman's long-running sword and planet novel series Chronicles of Counter-Earth.
Background
Gorean subculture developed independently of Norman's involvement, particularly starting as a fan network after the publishing houses ceased printing new paperback editions of the novels, allegedly due to the controversy and pressure from feminist circles, and the Gor books went out of print in the late 1980s (trade paperback and e-book sequel novels were subsequently published from 2001 to 2016). It does not have a uniform following but encompasses different groups of varying views and practices.
Gorean concepts
Although Norman's philosophy is concerned with the "order of nature" in a universal context of power and subordination, the Gorean subculture particularly focuses on the master-and-slave dynamic in sexual relationships and associated forms of female submission as portrayed in the novels. Therefore, although they are estimated to comprise less than 5% of the total female population on Gor, training and keeping a female slave (often known as a kajira) is central to Gorean subculture. Formal slave training, slave positions, and commands, as well as slave attire and beautification, are practices central in the Gorean subculture.
Gorean community
Literalists, otherwise known as lifestylers, incorporate elements from the Gorean culture and gender roles in their daily lives and some followers of an unofficial splinter group known as Kaotians who adhered to this approach were prosecuted for leading coercive sex cults. As opposed to literalists, the role players, divided into real-life sexual roleplayers (engaged or not engaged in BDSM practices) and online role-playing gamers (present particularly in Second Life) are not necessarily committed to Gorean philosophy and ideals.
Starting from the 1990s, Gorean subculture has become attractive to a number of male teenagers through role playing in chat rooms. The teenage role-playing Goreans who concealed many of their personal aspects such as age or lack of experience, thanks to anonymity, managed to appeal to a considerable number of married and middle-aged women as kajirae in role-playing contexts. Such notoriety caused by this profile and related practices in the virtual Gorean community succeeded in creating disdain among both feminists and the BDSM community. Nevertheless, scholars have discussed the way that Gorean subculture groups on media such as Second Life and Internet Relay Chat have influenced the development of online role-playing and even the MMORPG genre.
Relationship to BDSM
Norman's non-fictional sex manual Imaginative Sex presents a series of elaborate fantasy scenarios to be acted out in isolated scenes. He also recommends the use of symbolic substitutes, such as the sound of claps as a substitute for whippings and other physical punishments. Pat Califia asserts that Norman was critical of the psychological and physical harm that non-stop BDSM slavery and corporal punishment might inflict. However, such views of Norman are not part of the Gorean canon and debate on Gorean practices' relationship to BDSM, focusing on aspects such as Total Power Exchange and further complicated by the community's diverse nature, continue. BDSM writer Michael Makai nevertheless asserts that Gorean fiction may be found responsible for shaping or otherwise popularizing many of today's established BDSM protocols and tenets.
See also
Dominance and submission
Master/slave (BDSM)
Sex slave
References
External links
'The Last Days of Salernum' Second Life Gorean machinima.
"Kajira Hill"'s account of living a Gorean lifestyle
For further links, see the "External links" section of the Gor article.
Gor
Science fiction fandom
Fantasy fandom
Literary fandom
Subcultures
Role-playing | [
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] |
242643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium%20carbide | Calcium carbide | Calcium carbide, also known as calcium acetylide, is a chemical compound with the chemical formula of CaC2. Its main use industrially is in the production of acetylene and calcium cyanamide.
The pure material is colorless, however pieces of technical-grade calcium carbide are grey or brown and consist of about 80–85% of CaC2 (the rest is CaO (calcium oxide), Ca3P2 (calcium phosphide), CaS (calcium sulfide), Ca3N2 (calcium nitride), SiC (silicon carbide), etc.). In the presence of trace moisture, technical-grade calcium carbide emits an unpleasant odor reminiscent of garlic.
Applications of calcium carbide include manufacture of acetylene gas, and for generation of acetylene in carbide lamps; manufacture of chemicals for fertilizer; and in steelmaking.
Production
Calcium carbide is produced industrially in an electric arc furnace from a mixture of lime and coke at approximately . This is an endothermic reaction requiring per mole and high temperatures to drive off the carbon monoxide. This method has not changed since its invention in 1892:
CaO + 3 C → CaC2 + CO
The high temperature required for this reaction is not practically achievable by traditional combustion, so the reaction is performed in an electric arc furnace with graphite electrodes. The carbide product produced generally contains around 80% calcium carbide by weight. The carbide is crushed to produce small lumps that can range from a few mm up to 50 mm. The impurities are concentrated in the finer fractions. The CaC2 content of the product is assayed by measuring the amount of acetylene produced on hydrolysis. As an example, the British and German standards for the content of the coarser fractions are 295 L/kg and 300 L/kg respectively (at 101 kPa pressure and temperature). Impurities present in the carbide include phosphide, which produces phosphine when hydrolysed.
This reaction was an important part of the industrial revolution in chemistry, and was made possible in the United States as a result of massive amounts of inexpensive hydroelectric power produced at Niagara Falls before the turn of the 20th century.
The method for the production in an electric arc furnace was discovered in 1892 by T. L. Willson and independently by H. Moissan in the same year. In Bosnia and Herzegovina town of Jajce Austrian industrialist, Dr. Josef Kranz and his "Bosnische-Elektrizitäts AG" company, whose successor later became "Elektro-Bosna", opened the largest chemical factory for production of calcium carbide at the time in Europe in 1899. Hydroelectric power station on the Pliva river with installed capacity of 8 MW was constructed to supply electricity for the factory. It was the very first power station of its kind in Southeast Europe, which became operational on 24. March 1899.
Crystal structure
Pure calcium carbide is a colourless solid. The common crystalline form at room temperature is a distorted rock-salt structure with the C22− units lying parallel. There are three different polymorphs which appear at room temperature, the tetragonal one, and two different monoclinc structures.
Applications
Production of acetylene
The reaction of calcium carbide with water, producing acetylene and calcium hydroxide, was discovered by Friedrich Wöhler in 1862.
CaC2(s) + 2H2O(aq) → C2H2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq)
This reaction was the basis of the industrial manufacture of acetylene, and is the major industrial use of calcium carbide.
Today acetylene is mainly manufactured by the partial combustion of methane or appears as a side product in the ethylene stream from cracking of hydrocarbons. Approximately 400,000 tonnes are produced this way annually (see Acetylene Preparation).
In China, acetylene derived from calcium carbide remains a raw material for the chemical industry, in particular for the production of polyvinyl chloride. Locally produced acetylene is more economical than using imported oil. Production of calcium carbide in China has been increasing. In 2005 output was 8.94 million tons, with the capacity to produce 17 million tons.
In the United States, Europe, and Japan, consumption of calcium carbide is generally declining. Production levels in the US during the 1990s were 236,000 tons per year.
Production of calcium cyanamide
Calcium carbide reacts with nitrogen at high temperature to form calcium cyanamide:
CaC2 + N2 → CaCN2 + C
Commonly known as nitrolime, calcium cyanamide is used as fertilizer. It is hydrolysed to cyanamide, H2NCN.
Steelmaking
Calcium carbide is used:
in the desulfurization of iron (pig iron, cast iron and steel)
as a fuel in steelmaking to extend the scrap ratio to liquid iron, depending on economics.
as a powerful deoxidizer at ladle treatment facilities.
Carbide lamps
Calcium carbide is used in carbide lamps. Water dripping on carbide produces acetylene gas, which burns and produces light. While these lamps gave steadier and brighter light than candles, they were dangerous in coal mines, where flammable methane gas made them a serious hazard. The presence of flammable gases in coal mines led to miner safety lamps such as the Davy lamp, in which a wire gauze reduces the risk of methane ignition. Carbide lamps were still used extensively in slate, copper, and tin mines where methane is not a serious hazard. Most miners' lamps have now been replaced by electric lamps.
Carbide lamps are still used for mining in some less wealthy countries, for example in the silver mines near Potosí, Bolivia. Carbide lamps are also still used by some cavers exploring caves and other underground areas, although they are increasingly being replaced in this use by LED lights.
Carbide lamps were also used extensively as headlights in early automobiles, motorcycles and bicycles, but have been replaced entirely by electric lamps.
Other uses
Calcium carbide is sometimes used as source of acetylene gas, which is a ripening agent similar to ethylene. However, this is illegal in some countries as, in the production of acetylene from calcium carbide, contamination often leads to trace production of phosphine and arsine. These impurities can be removed by passing the acetylene gas through acidified copper sulfate solution, but, in developing countries, this precaution is often neglected.
Calcium carbide is used in toy cannons such as the Big-Bang Cannon, as well as in bamboo cannons. In the Netherlands calcium carbide is used around new-year to shoot with milk churns.
Calcium carbide, together with calcium phosphide, is used in floating, self-igniting naval signal flares, such as those produced by the Holmes' Marine Life Protection Association.
Calcium carbide is used to determine the moisture content of soil. When soil and calcium carbide are mixed in a closed pressure cylinder, the water content in soil reacts with calcium carbide to release acetylene whose pressure can be measured to determine the moisture content.
Calcium carbide is sold commercially as a mole repellent. When it comes into contact with water, the produced gas drives away the moles.
References
External links
Calcium Carbide & Acetylene at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Calcium Carbide Manufacturing
2008 Material Safety Data Sheet
Acetylides
Calcium compounds
Deoxidizers
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242644 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral%20envelope | Spectral envelope | A spectral envelope is the envelope curve of the amplitude spectrum. It describes one point in time (one window, to be precise).
In remote sensing using a spectrometer, the spectral envelope of a feature is the boundary of its spectral properties, as defined by the range of brightness levels in each of the spectral bands of interest.
External links
Swartz, Diemo (1998). "Spectral Envelopes". .
Fourier analysis | [
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] |
242648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimano | Shimano | is a Japanese multinational manufacturer of cycling components, fishing tackle and rowing equipment. It produced golf supplies until 2005 and snowboarding gear until 2008. Headquartered in Sakai, Japan, the company has 32 consolidated subsidiaries and 11 unconsolidated subsidiaries. Shimano's primary manufacturing plants are in Kunshan, China; Malaysia; and Singapore.
In 2017, Shimano had net sales of US$3.2 billion, 38% in Europe, 35% in Asia, and 11% in North America. Bicycle components represented 80%, fishing tackle 19%, and other products 0.1%. The company is publicly traded, with 93 million shares of common stock outstanding.
They are also the official neutral support for most of the UCI World Tour.
Cycling
Shimano sales constitute an estimated 70–80% of the global bicycle component market by value. Its products include drivetrain, brake, wheel and pedal components for road, mountain, track and hybrid bikes. The components include crankset comprising cranks and chainrings; bottom bracket; chain; rear chain sprockets or cassette; front and rear wheel hubs; gear shift levers; brakes; brake levers; cables; front and rear gear mechanisms or dérailleurs. Shimano Total Integration (STI) is Shimano's integrated shifter and brake lever combination for road bicycles. The Italian firm Campagnolo as well as US based SRAM are Shimano's primary competitors in the cycling marketplace.
When the 1970s United States bike boom exceeded the capacity of the European bicycle component manufacturers, Japanese manufacturers SunTour and Shimano rapidly stepped in to fill the void. While both companies provided products for all price-ranges of the market, SunTour also focused on refinement of existing systems and designs for higher-end products, while Shimano initially paid more attention to rethinking the basic systems and bringing out innovations such as Positron shifting (a precursor to index shifting) and front freewheel systems at the low end of the market. In the 1980s, with Shimano pushing technological innovation and lower prices, the more traditional European component manufacturers lost significant market presence. During this period, in contrast to the near-universal marketing technique of introducing innovations on the expensive side of the marketplace and relying on consumer demand to emulate early adopters along with economy of scale to bring them into the mass market, Shimano and SunTour (to a lesser extent) introduced new technologies at the lowest end of the bicycle market, using lower cost and often heavier and less durable materials and techniques, only moving them further upmarket if they established themselves in the lower market segments.
In the 1980–1983 period, Shimano introduced three groupsets with "AX" technology: Dura-Ace & 600 (high-end), and Adamas in the low-end. Features of these components include aerodynamic styling, center-pull brakes, brake levers with concealed cables, and ergonomic pedals. By 1985 Shimano introduced innovation only at the highest quality level (Dura-Ace for road bikes and XT for mountain bikes), then trickled the technology down to lower production levels as it became proven and accepted. Innovations include index shifting (known as SIS, Shimano Index System introduced in 1984), freehubs, dual-pivot brakes, 8-9-10 speed drivetrains, and the integration of shifters and brake levers. Also, these components could only work properly when used with other Shimano components; for example, its rear derailleurs have to be used with the correct Shimano gear levers, cables, freehub, and cassette. SunTour tried to catch up, but by the end of the 1980s they had lost the technological and commercial battle, and Shimano had become the largest manufacturer of bicycle components in the world.
Shimano's marketplace domination that developed in the 1990s quickly led to the perception by some critics that Shimano had become a marketplace bully with monopolistic intentions. This viewpoint was based on the fact that Shimano became oriented towards integrating all of their components with each other, with the result being that if any Shimano components were to be used, then the entire bike would need to be built from matching Shimano components. The alternative perspective is that by controlling the mix of components on the bicycle, a manufacturer such as Shimano can control how well their own product functions. Shimano's primary competitors (Campagnolo and SRAM) also make proprietary designs that limit the opportunity to mix and match componentry.
In 2003 Shimano introduced "Dual Control" to mountain bikes, where the gear shift mechanism is integrated into the brake levers. This development was controversial, as the use of Dual Control integrated shifting for hydraulic disc brakes required using Shimano hydraulic disc brakes, locking competitors out of the premium end of the market. However, with their 2007 product line, Shimano moved back to making separate braking and shifting components fully available in addition to the integrated "Dual Control" components, a move to satisfy riders that wished to use Shimano shifting with other brands of disc brakes.
Shimano in 1990 introduced the Shimano Pedaling Dynamics (SPD) range of clipless pedals and matching shoes, designed so that the shoes could be used for walking. The shoes have a recess in the bottom of the sole for fitting the smaller cleats and therefore it does not protrude, while conventional clipless road pedals are designed for road cycling shoes that have smooth soles with large protruding cleats, which are awkward for walking. The SPD range, in addition to other off-road refinements, was designed to be used with treaded soles that more closely resemble rugged hiking boots. SPD pedals and shoes soon established themselves as the market standard in this sector, although many other manufacturers have developed alternatives that may be less prone to being clogged by mud or easier to adjust. However, the SPD dominance in this sector has meant that alternative pedal manufacturers nearly always design their pedals to be usable with Shimano shoes, and likewise mountain bike shoe manufacturers make their shoes "Shimano SPD" compatible. SPD has spawned 2 types of road cleats that are incompatible with standard SPD pedals and some shoes – SPD-R and SPD-SL. SPD-R is a now-defunct pedal standard. SPD-SL is basically a copy of the standard Look clipless pedal system. It has a wide, one-sided platform and a triangular cleat that is Look 3-bolt compatible.
Shimano products
Results
Alexi Grewal used a bicycle equipped with Shimano DynaDrive chainset and pedals (the remainder of the components on his bicycle were primarily Suntour and DiaCompe) to win the 1984 Olympic road race in Los Angeles. In the 1988 Giro d'Italia, Andrew Hampsten rode Shimano to its first Grand Tour victory. In 2002, world championships in both the road and time trial disciplines were won on Shimano equipment. Alberto Contador's 2007 victory in the Tour de France on a Shimano-equipped bicycle represents the first official General Classification victory in that race by a rider using Shimano components (Lance Armstrong originally won the TDF with Shimano in 1999 but was later disqualified due to drug use).
VIA
"VIA" ("Vehicle Inspection Association") is stamped on all Shimano parts. It is an official approval stamp used to certify parts of Japanese vehicles – including bicycles. This mark signifies compliance with certain quality standards and is similar to the "UL" (Underwriters Laboratories) mark.
Road groupsets
Mountain groupsets
The first Shimano MTB groupset was Deore XT in 1983. It was based on a 1981 Deore derailleur built for touring.
Current mountain bike groupsets include:
Other groupsets
Other current groupsets include:
Capreo [F700] – Groupset designed for small-wheeled bikes such as folders and features a cassette with a 9-tooth sprocket.
DXR [MX70] – Performance BMX racing component.
Nexave [C810] – Several sub-groupsets are designed for comfort and commuting bikes, some of which feature internal hub gears and roller brakes.
Tourney - Lowest-end groupset, a mix of inexpensive components including 6-, 7- and 8 speed.
Zee [M640] - Lower-priced version of Saint, SLX-performance level.
GRX [RX800/RX600/RX400] - Gravel cycling specific groupsets intended to be compatible with road groupsets and mountain cassettes.
Groupsets no longer offered include:
70GS and 100GS - budget groupsets in 1990-1992
Hone [M600] (9 speed) – discontinued in 2008
Exage Action, Exage Sport, Exage Motion
Santé
RX100 (compare to Tiagra)
RSX (compare to Sora)
Metrea [U5000] – Groupset designed for urban riding, promising reliable performance with clean, simplistic design. Introduced in 2015 and discontinued in 2020.
Fishing
Shimano offers a range of fishing reels, rods, fishing line, fishing lures, as well as various fishing accessories clothing and electronics. Their spinning reels are their best-selling product series.
Partnerships
Shimano is a founding member of the Global Alliance for EcoMobility, an international partnership that works to promote EcoMobility and thus reduce citizens’ dependency on private motorized vehicles worldwide. The EcoMobility Alliance was founded by a group of leading global organizations on the occasion of the Climate Change Conference in Bali in December 2007.
Financial results
References
External links
History of Dura-Ace and Compatibility at Sheldonbrown.com
Cycling components specifications and compatibility charts, from 2004 to current
Companies based in Osaka Prefecture
Companies listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange
Cycle parts manufacturers
Fishing equipment manufacturers
Japanese brands
Japanese companies established in 1921
Manufacturing companies established in 1921
Manufacturing companies of Japan
Midori-kai
Sporting goods manufacturers of Japan
Sportswear brands | [
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242649 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split%20Enz | Split Enz | Split Enz was a New Zealand rock band that was popular during the late 1970s and early 1980s. It was founded in 1973 by Tim Finn and Phil Judd, and had a variety of other members during its existence. Split Enz had eight songs listed in the APRA Top 100 New Zealand Songs of All Time, more than any other band.
Split Enz had 10 albums (including seven studio albums) reach the top 10 of the Official New Zealand Music Chart. From 1980 to 1982, the band had four number-one albums in New Zealand and three in Australia. It also had two albums break the top 10 of the Canadian Albums Chart, two break the top 50 of the Billboard 200, and one break the top 50 of the UK Albums Chart. The only number-one single for Split Enz was "I Got You" (1980), which topped the charts in both New Zealand and Australia. Other top-10 singles include "One Step Ahead" (1980), "History Never Repeats" (1981), "Dirty Creature" (1982), and "Six Months in a Leaky Boat" (1982).
Career
The New Zealand years
In late 1972, university friends Tim Finn and Phil Judd founded a largely acoustic band called Split Ends in Auckland, New Zealand. Finn sang and played piano, while Judd sang and played guitar. Both wrote songs. They were accompanied by Tim's old school friend Mike Chunn on bass, Miles Golding on violin, and Mike Howard on flute. Finn and Judd quickly became close friends; after moving out of their campus accommodation they shared Room 129 in a rambling boarding house called "Malmsbury Villa" and both their room number and the name of the house would later both be commemorated in song. Another key personality in this period was Phil Judd's university friend Noel Crombie, who occasionally performed with them over the next few years. Another powerful creative influence was Phil and Tim's love for British author and artist Mervyn Peake, whose Gormenghast novels inspired a number of their early songs.
Originally named "Split Ends" they were an odd and eclectic mix for a pop band, Golding having been educated in classical music and Finn influenced by the Beatles, the Move, and the Kinks. With financial backing from friend and fan Barry Coburn (who became the band's original manager) they issued their first single, "For You"/"Split Ends", in April 1973 and undertook their first short first tour, supporting British blues legend John Mayall. It was at this point that Mike Chunn's brother Geoff Chunn was brought in to replace their original drummer Div Vercoe. Golding and Howard left soon after, and Chunn wanted the band to become electric, so extra members were added: guitarist Wally Wilkinson, and saxophonist Robert Gillies. By this time Split Ends had become Tim's primary focus and he dropped out of university to concentrate on the band.
In late 1973 Split Ends entered the New Faces television talent contest, and in preparation for their performance they recorded two new Judd-Finn songs: "129" and "Home Sweet Home". Soon after, they also recorded "Sweet Talkin' Spoon Song", which would become the second single. In the event – and much to the dismay of the Finn family watching at home – Split Ends finished second-last in the contest. Although this first television appearance was not recorded by TVNZ, the Finn family still have the shaky, silent 8mm black and white home movie footage they shot directly off the TV screen and a portion of that was later included in the Split Enz documentary Spellbound. Despite their loss on New Faces, the group made a sufficiently strong impression to secure them a 30-minute concert special for Television New Zealand, which was recorded soon after. Typical of the time, the performances were mimed to pre-recorded backing tracks, so the band put down four more songs including "No Bother To Me", "Malmsbury Villa" and "Spellbound". Still billed as "Split Ends", in November 1973 EMI NZ issued the band's second single, "129" / "Sweet Talking Spoon Song". Shortly after the release of this single, the group altered its name to the punningly patriotic Split Enz.
Over the next eighteen months Split Enz honed their material and performances. The TV special exposure enabled them to undertake their first national concert tour, although Phil Judd did not take part. He disliked performing live, was uncomfortable with negative reactions to the band, and also felt that their developing music was too complex for successful stage presentation, so he initially decided to stay at home to write and record new material while the rest of the band toured, although he later returned to make occasional live appearances and eventually rejoined full-time.
In early 1974 the group's sound took a major step forward when Tim acquired a Mellotron and in February keyboard player Eddie Rayner joined the band. Rayner's accomplished playing soon became a crucial part of the group's sound (and also allowed Tim to step out from behind the keyboard) and he was one of two members who remained with the band for its entire subsequent career, the other being percussionist Noel Crombie. The latter joined later that year, along with Paul Crowther, while Geoff Chunn and Rob Gillies departed.
Early in their career, the group made the decision to treat records, live shows, publicity photos, stage design, costumes, hair and even makeup as a total package, and this was greatly assisted by their wide-ranging interests in literature and the visual arts: Judd was already an accomplished painter and subsequently created cover paintings for two Enz albums. His artist friend Noel Crombie was soon roped in to become the group's "stylist" and went on to create the unusual costumes, hairstyles, makeup and stage sets which soon became their trademark, as well as coordinating all their single and album artwork and associated promotional material (such as buttons and posters), and he directed all their music videos.
In early 1974 Split Enz undertook a series of radio-sponsored "Buck-A-Head" ($1 per head entry) shows which played in theatres rather than in pubs or clubs. Taking advantage of this, Phil and Tim decided that, rather than slogging it out on the traditional pub circuit, they would now only perform in theatres and concert halls, which were better suited to the band's unique performance style and enabled them to stage a full theatrical presentation. Under Noel Crombie's guidance the band developed elaborate sets, costumes, hairstyles and makeup, and performances were punctuated by odd happenings. At one concert, they brought Rayner's auntie on stage to perform an impromptu tap dance during one of the songs and this was a great success, but they realised that they couldn't really take her on tour with them, so it Crombie's spoon playing routine was substituted and soon became an essential part of each show. For an early NZ TV performance with a "desert island" theme they brought in a load of sand and created a miniature indoor beach, complete with palm trees and a wading pool, with band members dressed as hankie-hatted tourists, reclining on deck chairs and sipping drinks. For another now-legendary live performance of their live epic "Stranger Than Fiction", a female friend was recruited to crawl across the stage during the song, under pulsing strobe lights, with a bloodied axe apparently embedded in her skull.
Encouraged by a triumphant live concert on this tour, Judd decided to return to live performance and began making occasional appearances, as did Noel Crombie. The Buck-A-Head tour finished in May 1974, and the next month both Geoff Chunn and Rob Gillies left the band. Paul Emlyn Crowther (ex-Orb) replaced Chunn on drums in July, but Gillies was not replaced at this time, although he rejoined the following year.
Move to Australia: 1974–1976
By the end of 1974 their fanbase in New Zealand, although small, was extremely strong and very dedicated, but the chances of further progress in that small market were obviously limited. In March 1975, the band issued its third single, "No Bother To Me", on the independent White Cloud label, and a few weeks later, Split Enz became the latest in a string of successful NZ groups and solo artists who moved to Australia to further their career. Although their highly unusual visual presentation and complex music were markedly out of step with the blues-based "pub rock" that was dominating Australian music at the time, and many concert-goers were puzzled by them, the band's powerful performances and the quality of their material impressed and as in New Zealand they soon acquired a small but fiercely loyal fan base. After nine months on the Australian pub and concert circuit they were spotted by Melbourne-based entrepreneur Michael Gudinski, who signed them to his new Mushroom Records label, which was then enjoying unprecedented success with the band Skyhooks, whose 1974 debut album had shot to the top of the charts, spawning a string of hit singles and becoming the highest-selling Australian LP ever released up to that time. Thanks to Gudinski's associated booking agency (Consolidated Rock) Split Enz were soon touring nationally and gaining valuable exposure playing prestigious support slots for several major international acts including Flo & Eddie, Lou Reed and Roxy Music.
In May 1975 the group went into Festival Records' Studio 24 in Sydney to record their first album, which was produced by their tour manager of the time, David Russell, a veteran NZ rock/pop musician who had previously played with Ray Columbus & The Invaders, Ray Brown and the New Whispers and Max Merritt & the Meteors. Their debut LP Mental Notes (Mushroom, 1975) did remarkably well, selling 12,000 copies on its first release and going to #19 on the Australian album chart and #7 in New Zealand. Not long after the album was released Wally Wilkinson was sacked and Rob Gillies returned to the band.
The UK years: 1976–1980
Following Split Enz' support slot on Roxy Music's first Australian tour, Roxy guitarist Phil Manzanera offered to produce their second album. With support from Manzanera and Gudinski, the band secured a UK recording deal with Chrysalis Records and they flew to the UK to record Second Thoughts (Mushroom, 1976) at the Basing Street Studios in London, Second Thoughts was issued in Australia in July 1976, and in the UK (as Mental Notes) in September. It comprised four re-arranged and re-recorded tracks from Mental Notes, their second Australian (non-album) single "Late Last Night", three new songs, and a new version of one of the earliest Judd-Finn compositions, "129", retitled "Matinee Idyll (129)". This song was released, backed by "Lovey Dovey", as a single in December 1976 and during the recording they were able to meet up with their old bandmate Miles Golding, then living in London, at a recital he gave at the Australian Embassy.
To promote the album they toured as support to English folk-rockers Jack the Lad. In November 1976 Emlyn Crowther was sacked and replaced by British drummer Malcolm Green.
The band's next single was another non-album track "Another Great Divide", released to promote their return to Australia/New Zealand in January 1977 for the "Courting the Act" tour. Chrysalis issued Mental Notes (the American title of Second Thoughts) in the USA, and at the end of February they set off for the US to support the album. The 23 day/40 show tour was a first attempt to establish themselves in America but it marked the end of an era in the band and proved to be the last tour with founding members Phil Judd and Mike Chunn. Chunn decided to leave at the end of the US tour, partly because he wanted to spend more time with his family but also because he suffered from agoraphobia. But tensions were also increasing between Phil and Tim. Although the band received a standing ovation in San Francisco, audience reactions in more remote areas ranged from puzzlement to outright hostility, and Phil was extremely sensitive to such negative reactions. Also like Mike Chunn he had a young family back in New Zealand and was tired of the endless grind of touring. The tensions climaxed after a concert when Phil, who was having trouble with an out-of-tune guitar, stormed off before the end of the set and when Tim challenged him backstage about what had happened, Phil punched him. The tour ended in April, and Phil left the band. They were due to begin their third English tour later that month, so Tim now took charge and hastily reorganised the group. On 4 April English bassist Nigel Griggs (ex-Octopus) was hired to replace Mike Chunn, who gave Tim a crucial piece of parting advice—he suggested Tim's younger brother Neil as the replacement for Phil Judd. At the time Neil was playing in local Auckland band Afterhours, led by Geoff Chunn, plus Neil and Mark Hough, (aka Buster Stiggs who later joined The Swingers with Phil Judd). Neil flew to England as soon as he received the call from Tim and he officially joined Split Enz on 7 April 1977.
Split Enz' third album was recorded at London's AIR Studios with producer (and former Beatles engineer) Geoff Emerick from June to July 1977. Dizrythmia (a title taken from the medical term for jet-lag, circadian dysrhythmia, meaning 'upset body rhythm') made no appreciable impact in the UK, but was very successful in Australasia, and gave them their first simultaneous hits on the Australian and New Zealand singles and album charts. They returned to Australia in August, coinciding with the release of the album, and began a 28-date tour Australasian tour in October/November. The album reached #18 in Australia. The first single, "My Mistake" (August), peaked at #18 during October, bolstered by the national tour and aided by another distinctive promotional video. In New Zealand Dizrhythmia reached #3, and "My Mistake" peaked at #21. The second single, "Bold as Brass" (December), which failed to chart in Australia, was accompanied by another specially-made video, co-directed by Noel and Rob.
Between November 1977 and February 1978 Split Enz toured solidly throughout the UK and Europe. At the turn of the year Rob Gillies left and despite their earlier falling out, Phil Judd returned, briefly, in early 1978 after Tim and Eddie heard some of his new material, but he apparently felt uncomfortable with their changing musical direction and style, and left the band for good about a month later. The Enz struggled to survive through 1978: they lost their Chrysalis contract and spent most of that year without a UK record deal, a booking agent or a manager. Debts mounted and, unable to get gigs, they were forced to go on the dole, but they continued writing new material and rehearsing constantly. It was at this point that the New Zealand Arts Council came to the rescue with a grant of $5000. This crucial break allowed them to book a tiny 8-track studio in Luton and with the help of 18-year-old English engineer David Tickle they made demos of 28 new songs in less than five days. These sessions—known as the Rootin Tootin Luton Tapes—became the basis for the group's new direction. One of Tim's new songs from these sessions – which showed the clear influence of British punk and New Wave – became their next single, "I See Red".
Split Enz entered Manor Studios in November 1978 to record a new album with producer Mallory Earl. The cover of Frenzy signalled the changes in the group—the wild costumes, hair and makeup were gone, and Phil Judd's painting depicted them in casual clothes, standing in front of a farm shed in a pastoral New Zealand landscape. The album included re-recordings of many songs from the Luton tapes, but the band felt that Earl had not fully captured the raw energy of the Luton demos. Many of the other Luton songs were never re-recorded, and were left as demos, although some eventually surfaced on A&M's American version of Frenzy, released in North America in 1981). The same month, Mushroom issued "I See Red" as a single in Australia. It marked a significant move away from the band's earlier and more 'progressive' style and harked back to Tim's first love—simple, concise, accessible, high-energy guitar-based power pop. Although it didn't chart in the United Kingdom, "I See Red" gained a lot of critical attention and considerable airplay, and is credited as being the song that began the turn-around in their reputation in the UK.
The group went home to New Zealand for Christmas 1978 and before they headed back to the UK, they decided to play some local shows. Just after Christmas there was a serious setback when their equipment was destroyed in a suspicious fire at a rehearsal studio. Using borrowed equipment, Split Enz played what proved to be a pivotal concert in their later career, stunning friends and fans alike with their now-legendary performance at the second Nambassa Festival in January. "I See Red" eventually peaked at #15 in Australia in February 1979, and was followed by another historic release – "Give It a Whirl" (May 1979) – the first Enz single to be written by Neil Finn. Neither Frenzy nor "Give It A Whirl" charted, but one album track, "She Got Body She Got Soul", was later reworked for the soundtrack to the musical feature film Starstruck. A self-produced, non-album single "Things" / "Semi-Detached" was released in October but failed to chart.
Breakthrough and commercial success: 1980–1984
For their next (fifth) studio LP, David Tickle was brought to Australia to produce. The result, True Colours, also marked the emergence of Neil as a significant pop songwriter. His song "I Got You" seems in retrospect an obvious choice as a first single although Mushroom didn't think there was a commercial track on the record, and that they had wasted their $A34,000 budget. Nevertheless, it proved to be a massive hit that finally established the group in the front rank of bands in Australasia. True Colours and "I Got You" were simultaneously released in January 1980 and simultaneously topped charts in both Australia and New Zealand during March – the album stayed at #1 in Australia for ten weeks, and the single for eight weeks and "I Got You" went on to become the highest selling single in Australia for the year – and the biggest international success of the band's career.
The band and Management developed the entire marketing campaign, which included several 'world firsts' – they created a VHS video album (the first of its kind) with music videos for each song and released each new pressing of the LP in different coloured jackets, designed by band member Noel Crombie including once released in the USA, a special laser-etched edition, courtesy Jeff Ayeroff of A&M. This version harnessed laser technology to etch geometric patterns into the playing surface of the album, creating prismatic effects without affecting the music playback. True Colours was a huge commercial success and went on to sell over 250,000 copies in Australasia. A&M issued the album in the UK, Canada and the USA. "I Got You" reached #12 on the UK charts during August and True Colours reached #42. The next single, "I Hope I Never" (b/w "Hypnotised" and "Carried Away") was released in May and reached #18 on the Australian charts during June. Videos for "I Got You" and "I Hope I Never" enjoyed airplay on video music shows in America, and the band played both songs on American television shows such as Fridays (10 Oct 1980).
The group toured extensively behind True Colours before returning to the studio in 1981. Their next album was released in Australia only as Corroboree and everywhere else as Waiata (Maori for "songs"). It continued the winning streak initiated by True Colours but their relationship with producer David Tickle had become strained and it would be their last collaboration. Notably A&M Records refusal to release Waiata in America with Noel's Maori-inspired original white-brown-black cover design (reportedly protesting that "brown is the colour of shit") and much to Noel's chagrin, they changed it to a feeble pastel blue, completely ruining the effect. Although not as well received by critics, the album gave Split Enz their second joint Australian and New Zealand #1 LP, led by Neil's "One Step Ahead" (#5 in November) and "History Never Repeats" (#4 in April 1981). The album's third single, Tim's "I Don't Wanna Dance" (June) failed to chart but "History Never Repeats" reached #63 in the UK during May.
It was also at this same time that Split Enz founder Phil Judd re-emerged with his new band Swingers and scored a huge Australian/New Zealand #1 hit with their debut single "Counting The Beat" produced by David Tickle, who produced the Enz albums True Colours and Waiata. Internal tensions saw drummer Mal Green leave Split Enz in mid-1981 to work on solo projects; Noel Crombie took over as drummer, and the band began on a world tour including North America, where they co-headlined with Tom Petty & the Heartbreakers.
In late 1981, after months of intensive touring, Split Enz returned to the studio to record what many critics regard as their most personal and creative album, Time and Tide. Much of the material came out of Tim's recent personal turmoil—in January that year he had married English dancer Liz Malam, but the marriage collapsed in October and he suffered a nervous breakdown, an ordeal he recounted in "Six Months in a Leaky Boat", specifically the track 'Dirty Creature'. The album was produced by rising English producer/engineer Hugh Padgham. He was already well-known on the music scene for his engineering work with producer Steve Lillywhite on landmark recordings by artists like Peter Gabriel, XTC and Genesis and he is credited with inventing the "gated reverb" drum sound that became Phil Collins' trademark. Padgham reportedly had a much more relaxed style than Tickle which the Enz found ideally suited them. Released in April 1982, Time and Tide became Split Enz' third successive #1 album in Australia and New Zealand. The advent of MTV in America, and its interest in new wave acts also helped the band's growing cult status in America—both "Dirty Creature" and "Six Months in a Leaky Boat" (as well as earlier videos) were given wide airplay on the channel. "Dirty Creature" reached #6 in Australia in April and "Six Months In A Leaky Boat" went to #2 in June. "Never Ceases to Amaze Me" (August) was issued as the third single from the LP but it did not chart.
Initially, "Six Months in a Leaky Boat" also looked like it would at last furnish Split Enz with the breakthrough UK hit that they had been hoping for, but this failed to materialise; after the controversial sinking of the Argentine warship the General Belgrano by the British Navy during the Falklands War the BBC reportedly included the song on a covert "blacklist" of songs that were not to be played on air due to supposedly negative references to the war: although the BBC vehemently denied the blacklist at the time, they finally admitted to its existence in 1999. The year ended with the release of the band's first "Best of" collection Enz of an Era, which went to #8 in Australia (December) and sold 30,000 copies in New Zealand alone.
Early in 1983, Tim took a break from the group to record a solo album with an all-star session group including producers Mark Moffatt (Divinyls, Ross Wilson) former Beach Boy Ricky Fataar, and legendary session singer Venetta Fields. Escapade, released in June, was a major success in Australasia, spawning several hits singles including "Fraction Too Much Friction" and the gospel-styled "Made My Day". Tim won the 'Best Songwriter' gong at that year's TV Week/Countdown Awards, and Split Enz won 'Best Album' (for Time & Tide) and Most Popular Group awards.
In March 1983 Noel Crombie briefly stepped into the limelight and issued a novelty solo single, "My Voice Keeps Changing On Me" and the same month, the new Enz single "Next Exit" was released as a stop-gap until the band could record a new album, but it failed to chart. Up to this time, Tim had been the primary writer in the group, but on the next LP his contributions were overshadowed for the first time by Neil, who wrote the majority of songs. The aptly titled Conflicting Emotions (November 1983) was less cohesive than the previous three albums, and (perhaps inevitably after three successive #1 LPs) it was a commercial letdown, reaching only #13 on the national chart in January. Nevertheless, Neil's songs fared well commercially — the jazzy "Strait Old Line" (October 1983), the anthemic "Message to My Girl" (January 1984) and "I Wake Up Every Night" (April 1984) all appeared as singles. The lead single "Strait Old Line" was a disappointment on the Australian chart, struggling to #42, but the second single "Message To My Girl" was more impressive and reached #12 in February 1984.
For the "Conflicting Emotions" tour, Tim again felt that the band needed a change in the rhythm section, so Paul Hester (ex-Deckchairs Overboard) was brought in on drums, and Noel returned to percussion (and spoons). However growing tensions between Tim and Neil and his solo success with Escapade eventually led to Tim's decision to leave Split Enz and in June 1984 he ended months of speculation by announcing that he would quit before the next LP was recorded, in order to promote the release of Escapade in Europe.
The remaining members decided to continue, but their next album See Ya 'Round proved to be their last. It came out in November 1984 and was dominated by Neil Finn songs, although Hester, now a permanent member, contributed one number. The first single from the album was Neil's stirring, bittersweet farewell to Tim and the Enz, "I Walk Away" which was released in September. It was followed by the darker "One Mouth Is Fed" in November. By this time the group had finally decided to call it a day, and they reunited with Tim and embarked on the "Enz with a Bang" Australasian farewell tour in October/November 1984. Split Enz played its last show on 4 December 1984 in Auckland. A double album recorded on the farewell tour, The Living Enz, was released in December 1985.
After Split Enz
Neil Finn and drummer Paul Hester founded Crowded House. Tim Finn briefly joined Crowded House later on and also recorded two albums together as the Finn Brothers.
Phil Judd released a solo album and formed the Swingers with Buster Stiggs and Bones Hillman. He also formed Schnell Fenster with Noel Crombie and Nigel Griggs. They were joined by Eddie Rayner, but Rayner left to form The Makers. His group Enzso performed Split Enz songs in an orchestral setting with the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra. Rayner also pursued a solo career. Geoff Chunn and Mike Chunn returned to New Zealand and formed Citizen Band.
In May 2018, Eddie Rayner announced that he was working on a new ENZSO project, titled ENZO, combining classical musicians and a pop ensemble including himself and various ex-Split Enz members.
Reunions
In 1986, two years after Split Enz broke up, it reunited for a Greenpeace benefit concert. Three years later, Crowded House toured with Schnell Fenster, assembling an assortment of Split Enz alumni. The band reunited in 1993 for its twentieth anniversary tour, when they played Christchurch, Wellington and Auckland supported by The Holy Toledos. This appeared on TV in 2002 to celebrate its thirtieth anniversary. In 2006, Split Enz toured with a membership consisting of the classic 1979–1981 line-up of Tim Finn, Neil Finn, Nigel Griggs, Eddie Rayner, Noel Crombie, and Malcolm Green.
Another reunion tour followed in March 2008, with four shows in New Zealand featuring John Butler Trio drummer Michael Barker in place of the unavailable Green. A final one-off reunion performance (with Green back on drums) took place on 14 March 2009 as part of the Sound Relief festival.
Members
Latest lineup
Tim Finn – lead vocals, acoustic guitar, piano
Eddie Rayner – keyboards, piano, backing vocals
Noel Crombie – percussion, backing vocals
Malcolm Green – drums, backing vocals
Nigel Griggs – bass, backing vocals
Neil Finn – lead guitar, mandolin, vocals
Discography
Mental Notes (1975)
Second Thoughts (1976)
Dizrythmia (1977)
Frenzy (1979)
True Colours (1980)
Waiata/Corroboree (1981)
Time and Tide (1982)
Conflicting Emotions (1983)
See Ya 'Round (1984)
The Best of Split Enz (1989)
Awards and nominations
ARIA Music Awards
The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of Australian music. They commenced in 1987. Split Enz were inducted into the Hall of Fame in 2005.
|-
| ARIA Music Awards of 2005
| Split Enz
| ARIA Hall of Fame
|
TV Week / Countdown Awards
Countdown was an Australian pop music TV series on national broadcaster ABC-TV from 1974–1987, it presented music awards from 1979–1987, initially in conjunction with magazine TV Week. The TV Week / Countdown Awards were a combination of popular-voted and peer-voted awards.
|-
| rowspan="7" |1980
| rowspan="3" | True Colours
| Best Australian Album
|
|-
| Most Popular Australian Record
|
|-
| Best Australian Record Cover Design
|
|-
| "I Got You"
| Best Single Record
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | themselves
| Most Outstanding Achievement
|
|-
| Most Popular Group
|
|-
| Neil Finn (Split Enz)
| Best Recorded Song Writer
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1981
| themselves
| Most Popular Group
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | Neil Finn (Split Enz)
| Best Australian Songwriter
|
|-
| Most Popular Male Performer
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1982
| Time and Tide
| Best Australian Album
|
|-
| "Six Months in a Leaky Boat"
| Best Australian Single
|
|-
| Themselves
| Most Popular Group
|
|-
| 1983
| Themselves
| Most Popular Group
|
|-
References
Bibliography
Chunn, Mike. Stranger Than Fiction: The Life and Times of Split Enz. GP Publications, 1992.
Chunn, Mike. Stranger Than Fiction: The Life and Times of Split Enz (revised ebook edition). Hurricane Press, 2013.
Dix, John. Stranded in Paradise: New Zealand Rock and Roll, 1955 to the Modern Era. Penguin Books, 2005.
Green, Peter. Letters to My Frenz. Rocket Pocket Books, 2006.
Green, Peter, and Goulding, Mark, Wings Off Flies. Rocket Pocket Books, 2002.
External links
Split Enz Collection at the Performing Arts Collection, Arts Centre Melbourne
AudioCulture
APRA Award winners
Musical groups established in 1971
Musical groups disestablished in 1984
Musical groups reestablished in 2008
New Zealand pop music groups
New Zealand progressive rock groups
New Zealand new wave musical groups
ARIA Award winners
ARIA Hall of Fame inductees
A&M Records artists
Chrysalis Records artists
Mushroom Records artists
Articles which contain graphical timelines
Art rock musical groups
New Zealand expatriates in Australia
New Zealand expatriates in the United Kingdom
1970s in New Zealand music
1980s in New Zealand music
Sibling musical groups
Musical groups from Auckland
New Zealand pop rock groups | [
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