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241893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positioning | Positioning | Positioning may refer to:
Positioning (marketing), creating an identity in the minds of a target market
Positioning theory, a theory in social psychology
Positioning (critical literacy), reader context
Positioning (telecommunications), a technology to approximate where a mobile phone temporarily resides
Grappling position, the positioning and holds of combatants engaged in grappling
Geopositioning, determining the location of an object in space
See also
Position (disambiguation)
Real-time locating | [
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241894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvester%20McCoy | Sylvester McCoy | Sylvester McCoy (born Percy James Patrick Kent-Smith; 20 August 1943) is a Scottish actor and physical comedian. He is best known for playing the seventh incarnation of the Doctor in the long-running science fiction television series Doctor Who from 1987 to 1989—the final Doctor of the original run—and briefly returning in a television film in 1996. He is also known for his work as Radagast in The Hobbit film series (2012–2014).
Early life
McCoy was born Percy James Patrick Kent-Smith in Dunoon, on the Cowal peninsula, to an Irish mother and English father who was killed in action in World War II a couple of months before his son was born. His maternal grandmother was from Portadown, Northern Ireland. He was raised religious, but is now an atheist.
He was raised primarily in Dunoon, where he attended St. Mun's School. He then studied for the priesthood at Blairs College, a seminary in Aberdeen between the ages of 12 and 16, but he gave this up and continued his education at Dunoon Grammar School. After he left school he moved to London where he worked in the insurance industry for five years. He worked in The Roundhouse box office for a time, where he was discovered by Ken Campbell.
Career
Early work
McCoy came to prominence as a member of the experimental theatre troupe "The Ken Campbell Roadshow". His best known act was as a stuntman character called "Sylveste McCoy" in a play entitled An Evening with Sylveste McCoy (the name was coined by actor Brian Murphy, part of the Roadshow at the time), where his stunts included putting a fork and nails up his nose and stuffing ferrets down his trousers, and setting his head on fire. As a joke, the programme notes listed Sylveste McCoy as played by "Sylveste McCoy" and, after a reviewer missed the joke and assumed that Sylveste McCoy was a real person, Kent-Smith adopted this as his stage name. Some years later, McCoy added an "r" to the end of "Sylveste", in part because of the actors' superstition that a stage name with thirteen letters was unlucky.
Notable television appearances before he gained the role of the Doctor included roles in Vision On (where he played Pepe/Epep, a character who lived in the mirror), an O-Man in Jigsaw and Tiswas. Every episode of the innovative ATV schools maths programme Leapfrog featured Sylveste (sic) as "Bert" in wordless sequences filmed out of doors, as he attempted to form regular geometric patterns from different numbers of logs or carpet squares. He also appeared in Eureka, often suffering from the inventions of Wilf Lunn and as Wart, assistant to StarStrider in the CITV series of the same name. McCoy also portrayed, in one-man shows on the stage, two famous movie comedians: Stan Laurel and Buster Keaton. He also appeared as Henry "Birdie" Bowers in the 1985 television serial about Scott's last Antarctic expedition, The Last Place on Earth.
McCoy also had a small role in the 1979 film Dracula opposite Laurence Olivier and Donald Pleasence, and has sung with the Welsh National Opera.
Doctor Who
McCoy became the Seventh Doctor after taking over the lead role in Doctor Who in 1987 from Colin Baker. He remained on the series until it ended in 1989, ending with Survival (see List of Doctor Who episodes (1963–1989)). As Baker declined the invitation to film the regeneration scene, McCoy briefly wore a wig and appeared, face-down until the last moment before the regeneration commenced, as the sixth Doctor. He played the Doctor in the 1993 charity special Dimensions in Time, and again in 1996, appearing in the beginning of the Doctor Who television movie starring Paul McGann as the Eighth Doctor.
In his first series, McCoy, a comedy actor, portrayed the character with a degree of clown-like humour, but script editor Andrew Cartmel soon changed that when fans argued that the character (and plots) were becoming increasingly lightweight. The Seventh Doctor developed into a much darker figure than any of his earlier incarnations, manipulating people like chess pieces and always seeming to be playing a deeper game. A distinguishing feature of McCoy's performances was his manner of speech. He used his natural Scottish accent and rolled his rs. At the start of his tenure he used proverbs and sayings adapted to his own ends (e.g. "There's many a slap twixt cup and lap" – Delta and the Bannermen), although this characteristic was phased out during the later, darker series of his tenure. In 1990, readers of Doctor Who Magazine voted McCoy's Doctor "Best Doctor", over perennial favourite Tom Baker. Since 1999 he has continued acting in the role of the Seventh Doctor in a series of audio plays for Big Finish Productions.
In November 2013 McCoy co-starred in the one-off 50th anniversary comedy homage The Five(ish) Doctors Reboot.
In January 2021, Sylvester McCoy returned to his role of 'The Doctor' alongside Bonnie Langford, in 'A Business Proposal for Mel!' This short, acted as an announcement trailer for 'The Collection: Season 24' Blu-Ray set, which was released later that year.
Later work
McCoy's television roles since Doctor Who have included Michael Sams in the 1997 drama Beyond Fear, shown on the first night of broadcast of Channel 5. He has also returned to play the Seventh Doctor in a series of audio plays by Big Finish Productions. In 1988, while still appearing in Doctor Who, McCoy presented a BBC children's programme called What's Your Story?, in which viewers were invited to phone in suggestions for the continuation of an ongoing drama.
He has also acted extensively in theatre in productions as diverse as pantomime and Molière. He played Grandpa Jock in John McGrath's A Satire of the Four Estaites (1996) at the Edinburgh Festival. He played the role of Snuff in the macabre BBC Radio 4 comedy series The Cabaret of Dr Caligari.
McCoy missed out on a role in Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and was the second choice to play the role of Bilbo Baggins in Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. In 1991, he presented the Doctor Who video documentary release The Hartnell Years showcasing selected episodes of missing stories from the First Doctor's era.
McCoy appeared as the lawyer Dowling in a BBC Production of Henry Fielding's novel, The History of Tom Jones, A Foundling.
In 2001 he appeared in Paul Sellar's asylum comedy "The Dead Move Fast" at the Gilded Balloon as part of the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, playing the role of Doctor Mallinson. In 2012 he played the part of the suicidal Mr. Peters in JC Marshall's play, Plume, at the Tron Theatre in Glasgow.
McCoy has appeared with the Royal Shakespeare Company in The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe and in King Lear in 2007, playing the Fool to Ian McKellen's Lear, a performance which made use of McCoy's ability to play the spoons. The RSC production with McKellen and McCoy was staged in Melbourne, during late July/early August 2007 and Wellington and Auckland, New Zealand, during mid to late August 2007. It came into residence at the New London Theatre in late 2007, ending its run in January 2008. He reprised the role for the 2008 television movie of the production.
In May 2008 he performed with the Carl Rosa Opera Company in a production of Gilbert and Sullivan's The Mikado, playing the title role. He only performed with the company briefly, for the week of the show's run performing at the Sheffield Lyceum. Despite being set in Japan, he was able to demonstrate his ability to play the spoons by using his fan. In 2009 McCoy played the character of Mr. Mushnik in the Chocolate Factory's production of Little Shop of Horrors.
He has also made guest appearances in the television series The Bill, the Rab C. Nesbitt episode "Father" as Rab's mentally ill brother Gash Sr. and the Still Game episode "Oot" (AKA "Out"), where he played a hermit-type character adjusting to life in modern Glasgow, having remained in his house for over 30 years. In October 2008, he had a minor guest role as an injured ventriloquist on Casualty. In the same month McCoy guest starred in an episode of the BBC soap opera Doctors, playing an actor who once played the time-travelling hero of a children's television series called "The Amazing Lollipop Man". The role was written as a tribute to McCoy.
In January and February 2016, McCoy appeared in the three-part BBC series The Real Marigold Hotel, which followed a group of celebrity senior citizens including Miriam Margolyes and Wayne Sleep on a journey to India.
In 2017 he returned to the stage at the Edinburgh Fringe, in the production A Joke alongside Star Trek:Voyager actor Robert Picardo.
Video games
McCoy returned to the role of the Seventh Doctor in 1997, recording new audio for the video game Doctor Who: Destiny of the Doctors.
The Hobbit trilogy
McCoy began filming for The Hobbit, A three-part adaptation of the book, in 2011. He portrays the wizard Radagast, alongside fellow King Lear actor Ian McKellen who reprises his role as Gandalf.
Although the character of Radagast is only alluded to in The Hobbit, and only a minor character in The Lord of the Rings, the part was expanded for the films.
Personal life
McCoy and his wife, Agnes, have a daughter and two sons, one of whom is Sam Kent-Smith, a 3D artist who worked on the Doctor Who video game Return to Earth.
Filmography
Film
Television
Short films
Audio drama
Direct to video
Video games
References
External links
1943 births
20th-century Scottish male actors
21st-century Scottish male actors
Living people
People educated at Dunoon Grammar School
People from Dunoon
Royal Shakespeare Company members
Scottish atheists
Scottish male comedians
Scottish male film actors
Scottish male radio actors
Scottish male Shakespearean actors
Scottish male stage actors
Scottish male television actors
Scottish people of English descent
Scottish people of Irish descent
Scottish people of Northern Ireland descent | [
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241896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonjour%20%28software%29 | Bonjour (software) | Bonjour is Apple's implementation of zero-configuration networking (zeroconf), a group of technologies that includes service discovery, address assignment, and hostname resolution. Bonjour locates devices such as printers, other computers, and the services that those devices offer on a local network using multicast Domain Name System (mDNS) service records.
The software comes built-in with Apple's macOS and iOS operating systems. Bonjour can also be installed onto computers running Microsoft Windows. Bonjour components may also be included within other software such as iTunes and Safari.
After its introduction in 2002 with Mac OS X 10.2 as Rendezvous, the software was renamed in 2005 to Bonjour following an out-of-court trademark dispute settlement.
Overview
Bonjour provides a general method to discover services on a local area network. The software is widely used throughout macOS, and allows users to set up a network without any configuration. it is used to find printers and file-sharing servers.
Notable applications using Bonjour include:
iTunes to find shared music
iPhoto to find shared photos
iChat, Adobe Systems Creative Suite 3, Proteus, Adium, Fire, Pidgin, Skype, Vine Server, and Elgato EyeTV to communicate with multiple clients
Gizmo5 to find other users on the local network
TiVo Desktop to find digital video recorders and shared-media libraries (deprecated, unsupported c. 2013)
SubEthaEdit to find document collaborators
Solidworks and PhotoView 360 used for managing licenses
Things and OmniFocus to synchronize projects and tasks across the Mac desktop and the iPad, iPhone or iPod touch
Safari to find local web servers and configuration pages for local devices
Software such as Bonjour Browser or iStumbler, both for macOS, can be used to view all services declared by these applications. Apple's "Remote" application for iPhone and iPod Touch also uses Bonjour to establish connection to iTunes libraries via Wi-Fi.
Bonjour only works within a single broadcast domain, which is usually a small area, without special DNS configuration. macOS, Bonjour for Windows and AirPort Base Stations may be configured to use Wide Area Bonjour which allows for wide area service discovery via an appropriately configured DNS server.
Applications generally implement Bonjour services using standard TCP/IP calls, rather than in the operating system. Although macOS provides various Bonjour services, Bonjour also works on other operating systems. Apple has made the source code of the Bonjour multicast DNS responder, the core component of service discovery, available as a Darwin open source project. The project provides source code to build the responder daemon for a wide range of platforms, including Mac OS 9, macOS, Linux, *BSD, Solaris, VxWorks, and Windows. Apple also provides a user-installable set of services called Bonjour for Windows and Java libraries.
Licensing
Bonjour is released under a terms-of-limited-use license by Apple. It is freeware for clients, though developers and software companies who wish to redistribute it as part of a software package or use the Bonjour logo may need a licensing agreement. The source code for mDNSResponder is available under the Apache License.
Naming
Apple originally introduced the Bonjour software in August 2002 as part of Mac OS X 10.2 under the name "Rendezvous". On August 27, 2003 Tibco Software Inc announced that it had filed a lawsuit for trademark infringement.
Tibco had an enterprise application integration product called TIBCO Rendezvous on the market since 1994 and stated that it had tried to come to an agreement with Apple Computer. In July 2004 Apple Computer and Tibco reached an out-of-court settlement; specifics of the settlement were not released to the public. On April 12, 2005, Apple announced the renaming of Rendezvous to "Bonjour".
The current name Bonjour is French for the morning or afternoon greeting, "good day". The previous name Rendezvous is French for "meeting", "appointment" or "date".
Other implementations
Bonjour version 2.0, released on February 24, 2010, works with Microsoft Windows 2000, 2003, XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10. Systems use it primarily to facilitate the installation, configuration, and use of network printers, and thus it runs from startup. When Bonjour is fully implemented on Windows, some features—such as iChat—allow for communication between Windows and Mac OS. Bonjour for Windows also adds zeroconf capabilities to Internet Explorer, and provides a zeroconf implementation to Java VMs.
Some third-party applications, such as Adobe's Photoshop CS3 suite,
also come bundled with Bonjour to take advantage of zeroconf technology.
Installers on Windows systems normally place Bonjour files in a folder called "Bonjour" within the "Program Files" folder. It modifies Windows system-registry entries related to internal network configuration and operation. Bonjour runs as mDNSResponder.exe. Communications across the network take place over UDP port 5353, which may require reconfiguring some personal or corporate firewalls that block Bonjour packets. A full installation of Bonjour for Windows will include a plug-in for Internet Explorer, a printer wizard, and the network communication services. Not all components are included when installed as part of a third-party application or as a component of other Apple software such as iTunes.
Some VPN clients are configured so that local network services are unavailable to a computer when VPN software is active and connected. In such a case no local zeroconf services are available to Bonjour or any other zeroconf implementation.
In September 2008, two security vulnerabilities were found in Bonjour for Windows.
Certain installations of Bonjour for Windows lack an uninstaller and do not display a human-readable entry in the Windows services listing.
In 32- and 64-bit releases of Windows 7, some older but still available versions of Bonjour services can disable all network connectivity by adding an entry of 0.0.0.0 as the default gateway. This was a bug reported in 2013.
The open-source IM clients Pidgin, Kopete and Adium support the Bonjour IM protocol, as does the closed-source Trillian client.
Browsers
A number of browsers allow an end-user to graphically explore the devices found using Bonjour.
Discovery / Bonjour Browser
Discovery is a Creative Commons-licensed macOS application that displays all services declared using Bonjour. The program was originally called Rendezvous Browser, but changed its name in version 1.5.4 after Apple changed the protocol's name to Bonjour; since version 2.0, it has been renamed again, to Discovery. For certain protocols, double-clicking a list item will launch the associated helper. Version 1.5.6 was the first universal binary release.
Future versions will allow users to completely define a service, instead of relying on the author to do so.
Bonjour Browser was recommended for service discovery in MacAddict #123.
Discovery is available on the Apple App Store.
JBonjourBrowser
A student research project at Columbia University produced a Java-based system to match the functionality of Bonjour Browser, called JBonjourBrowser. JBonjourBrowser is open-source and available under the GPL.
JBonjourBrowser was built to emulate the functionality of Bonjour Browser, and at the same time work on multiple platforms. It requires Apple's Bonjour Java library to run.
Bonjour Browser for Windows
A native Windows application offers similar functions to Bonjour Browser for Mac OS. Bonjour Browser for Windows is offered for free by Hobbyist Software and HandyDev Software.
mDNSBrowser
A commercial implementation called mDNSBrowser is offered by Netputing Systems Inc.
See also
.local
PostgreSQL database supports Bonjour
Service Location Protocol
Bonjour Sleep Proxy service
Universal Plug and Play – provides discovery functionality similar to Bonjour among other things
WS-Discovery – a technical specification that defines a multicast discovery protocol to locate services on a local network.
References
External links
DNS SRV (RFC 2782) Service Types – List of officially registered Bonjour service types
Bonjour – Networking, simplified – General information from Apple
Bonjour developer website – Developer resources from Apple
Apple – Support – Bonjour – Bonjour support from Apple
Bonjour: The official Bonjour site on Mac OS Forge.
Zeroconf – site with myriad useful links maintained by Stuart Cheshire
Hour-long talk by Stuart Cheshire on Talks at Google about Bonjour and zeroconf (November 2, 2005)
Stuart Cheshire and Rendezvous mentioned on Daniel Smith's blog on the O'Reilly Network
Bonjour Browser for Windows – Bonjour Browser for Windows
Understanding Zeroconf and Multicast DNS – An introduction to zero configuration networking, including a comparison between Bonjour/zeroconf and Universal Plug 'n' Play
mDNSBrowser website
2002 software
Apple Inc. software
MacOS
Utilities for macOS
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241903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision%20On | Vision On | Vision On was a British children's television programme, shown on BBC1 from 1964 to 1976 and designed specifically for children with hearing impairment.
Concept and production
Vision On was conceived and developed by BBC producers Ursula Eason and Patrick Dowling to replace a monthly series For Deaf Children (1952–64), a programme paced slowly enough for children to read captions and subtitles. It was noted in surveys that a favourite for deaf children was Top of the Pops, due to its lively and fast-moving format and that even the profoundly deaf could still enjoy the music's lower frequency notes.
There was initial disagreement as to whether lip-reading or British Sign Language would be more appropriate. Eventually it was decided that, since the new programme was intended as entertainment rather than education, communication would be entirely visual, the amount of text would be severely limited and, except for a few repeated statements, speech would be abandoned altogether.
The title Vision On referred to the illuminated sign in studios indicating that cameras were live. Normally another sign "Sound On" would follow, but the titles for Vision On deliberately omitted this. The programme's logo is made up from the handwritten words of the title and their reflection, stylised into an animated character.
The aim of the programme was to entertain but also to encourage imagination, with a fast-paced flow of contrasting ideas, both sane and silly. This mixture was an apparent success as the series ran for twelve years and, while retaining a commitment to the deaf, attracted a wider following and gained several awards including the international Prix Jeunesse and the BAFTA Award for Specialised Programmes (Patrick Dowling 1974).
Presenters
A full list of contributors can be found, but the main presenters were:
Pat Keysell: an actress who also taught deaf children
Tony Hart: artist, who made pictures in a variety of sizes and media, and encouraged children to submit their own paintings to "The Gallery", which they did by the thousands
Ben Benison and Sylvester McCoy (credited as Sylveste McCoy): mime artistes
Wilf Lunn: eccentric inventor of equally eccentric machines
David Cleveland: appeared in film sequences as the Prof
Segments
Besides the scenes with Hart, Keysell and the others doing artwork (which in later years appeared on the screen as the artwork being made without any hands), Vision On had many memorable segments:
"The Gallery" – A section consisting of artwork sent into the show by viewers, with the name and age of the artist being shown alongside the artwork. Often the artwork shown on a specific show coincided with the theme of the show. At the end of this segment, Keysell would thank everyone for sending in their pictures and apologize for being unable to return them, but did state there was "a prize for any that we show". However, it remains unknown as to what exactly the prize was.
"The Burbles" – A couple of unseen people living inside a grandfather clock who converse in speech bubbles, mainly telling puns. Occasionally they are heard speaking the lines as if they are underwater, but other times there are just the speech bubbles.
"The Prof" – A man in a white lab coat (aka film-makers David Cleveland, Tony Amies and David Wyatt) who is usually outdoors doing various humorous things.
"Humphrey the Tortoise" – Much like the Burbles, Humphrey talks of something specific (usually a pun or joke) either to himself or someone else. His speech, as well as the other person's if there is one, is shown on screen with no audio.
"The Digger" – A "cut-out" cartoon man designed and animated by Bill Mather and George Dunning. Other Animators, Bob Baker, Dave Martin and Laurie Booth. Each week on a construction site he digs into the dirt with a shovel until something interesting is dug up.
"The Animated Clock" – An animated cuckoo clock that is either showing signs of trouble or whose parts come to life like a human being, sometimes it would also feature a small animated man wandering around a surreal animated world and would interact with the clock's bird.
"The Woofumpuss" – One running gag in later episodes involved one of the cast members frantically chasing a fuzzy worm trying to catch it to no avail and occasionally messing up the artwork of Hart and Keysell.
"Aardman" - Various Clay animated segments created by Peter Lord and David Sproxton, including the Greeblies, who served as early precursors of their later creation, Morph, and Aard-man, a superhero whose name would later become the name of Lord and Sproxton's company, Aardman Animations.
Music
Despite its intended hearing-impaired audience, the show made extensive use of music for the benefit of hearing viewers watching the show. Notable themes included:
The opening theme was "Accroche-Toi, Caroline" by Caravelli (recorded by the Paris Studio Group).
The closing theme was "Java" in the versions recorded by Al Hirt and Bert Kaempfert.
"The Gallery" – "Left Bank Two" by Wayne Hill (recorded by The Noveltones) for De Wolfe Music is best remembered for this sequence. When Take Hart started, "Left Bank Two" became the opening theme tune and "Cavatina" became the "Gallery" music for the show instead.
"The Burbles" theme "Goofy" by Cliff Johns.
"Humphrey the tortoise" theme "Merry Ocarina" by Pierre Arvay.
"Animated Clock" scenes used "Gurney Slade" by Max Harris (the theme music from the TV series The Strange World of Gurney Slade) and "Keystone Capers" by Eric Peters.
"The Digger" music was "Elephant Dance" by Harry Pitch.
"The Prof" - the two most commonly used themes were "Comedy Cocktails 2" and "Comedy Cocktails 4" by Paul Gerard, from the Chappell recorded music library.
"Interlude" music was "Rampage" by Mike Vickers from the KPM music library.
Co-productions
Vision On was co-produced in France with ORTF, in Canada with Radio-Canada under the title Déclic and in Sweden as Ögon Blik. It was also shown in Israel under the title "קסים קסם" (Magic Magic).
Distribution
The programme was shown in many other countries, including Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Jordan, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa, Sweden & Switzerland.
In the United States, many PBS stations, and a few commercial stations, aired Vision On during the 1970s and 1980s. Some of these stations, such as KOMO-TV in Seattle, taped their own episodes, which were seen along with the BBC-produced shows.
End of production
Series' producer Dowling eventually found that the flow of new ideas became more and more difficult to sustain, and after twelve years decided to close the programme while it was still at its height.
Dowling and Hart continued to make arts programmes, starting with Take Hart (which kept "The Gallery" segment), continuing with Hartbeat during the 1980s and 1990s, and then the BBC's current children's art programme, SMart.
Series guide
Series 1: 29 editions from 6 March 1964 – 29 October 1965
Series 2: 6 editions from 5 January 1966 – 9 February 1966
Series 3: 6 editions from 21 September 1966 – 26 October 1966
Series 4: 7 editions from 1 February 1967 – 16 March 1967
Series 5: 6 editions from 5 July 1967 – 9 August 1967
Series 6: 12 editions from 27 December 1967 – 20 March 1968
Series 7: 11 editions from 3 June 1969 – 12 August 1969
Series 8: 9 editions from 22 April 1970 – 17 June 1970
Series 9: 9 editions from 22 September 1970 – 17 November 1970
Series 10A: 9 editions from 23 February 1971 – 27 April 1971
Series 10B: Best of Vision On: 6 editions from 27 July 1971 – 31 August 1971
Series 11?: 16 editions from 14 December 1971 – 4 April 1972
Series 12?: 16 editions from 5 December 1972 – 27 March 1973
Series 13?: 16 editions from 1 January 1974 – 16 April 1974
Series 13: 16 editions from 31 December 1974 – 22 April 1975
Series 14: 14 editions from 10 February 1976 – 11 May 1976
Archival Status
Over 70 episodes of the series are lost or have most footage missing, but all episodes from series 9 onwards are known to exist.
Tie-in publication
Vision On: A Book of Nonsense with Some Sense In It, published by the British Broadcasting Corporation in 1970. SBN: 563 09454 0.
No author's name given on cover, but publishing notes read '© The British Broadcasting Corporation and Pat Keysell 1970'.
References
Radio Times, 1964–1977
External links
British Film Institute Screen Online
BBC News Magazine – "A bit of vibraphone nostalgia"
BBC children's television shows
British television series with live action and animation
1964 British television series debuts
1976 British television series endings
1960s British children's television series
1970s British children's television series
Sign language television shows
Deaf culture in the United Kingdom
British Sign Language
English-language television shows
Television shows about deaf people | [
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241904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peng%20Dehuai | Peng Dehuai | Peng Dehuai (; October 24, 1898November 29, 1974) was a prominent Chinese Communist military leader, who served as China's Defense Minister from 1954 to 1959. Peng was born into a poor peasant family, and received several years of primary education before his family's poverty forced him to suspend his education at the age of ten, and to work for several years as a manual laborer. When he was sixteen, Peng became a professional soldier. Over the next ten years Peng served in the armies of several Hunan-based warlord armies, raising himself from the rank of private second class to major. In 1926, Peng's forces joined the Kuomintang, and Peng was first introduced to communism. Peng participated in the Northern Expedition, and supported Wang Jingwei's attempt to form a left-leaning Kuomintang government based in Wuhan. After Wang was defeated, Peng briefly rejoined Chiang Kai-shek's forces before joining the Communist Party of China, allying himself with Mao Zedong and Zhu De.
Peng was one of the most senior generals who defended the Jiangxi Soviet from Chiang's attempts to capture it, and his successes were rivaled only by Lin Biao. Peng participated in the Long March, and supported Mao Zedong at the Zunyi Conference, which was critical to Mao's rise to power. During the 1937–1945 Second Sino-Japanese War, Peng was one of the strongest supporters of pursuing a ceasefire with the Kuomintang in order to concentrate China's collective resources on resisting the Japanese Empire. Peng was the senior commander in the combined Kuomintang-Communist efforts to resist the Japanese occupation of Shanxi in 1937; and, by 1938, was in command of 2/3 of the Eighth Route Army. In 1940, Peng conducted the Hundred Regiments Offensive, a massive Communist effort to disrupt Japanese logistical networks across northern China. The Hundred Regiments Offensive was modestly successful, but political disputes within the Communist Party led to Peng being recalled to Yan'an, and he spent the rest of the war without an active command. After the Japanese surrendered, in 1945, Peng was given command of Communist forces in Northwest China. He was the most senior commander responsible for defending the Communist leadership in Shaanxi from Kuomintang forces, saving Mao from being captured at least once. Peng eventually defeated the Kuomintang in Northwest China, captured huge amounts of military supplies, and actively incorporated the huge area, including Xinjiang, into the People's Republic of China.
Peng was one of the few senior military leaders who supported Mao's suggestions to involve China directly in the 1950–1953 Korean War, and he served as the direct commander of the Chinese People's Volunteer Army for the first half of the war (though Mao and Zhou Enlai were technically more senior). Peng's experiences in the Korean War convinced him that the Chinese military had to become more professional, organized, and well-equipped in order to prepare itself for the conditions of modern technical warfare. Because the Soviet Union was the only communist country then equipped with a fully modern, professional army, Peng attempted to reform China's military on the Soviet model over the next several years, making the army less political and more professional (contrary to the political goals of Mao). Peng resisted Mao's attempts to develop a personality cult throughout the 1950s; and, when Mao's economic policies associated with the Great Leap Forward caused a nationwide famine, Peng became critical of Mao's leadership. The rivalry between Peng and Mao culminated in an open confrontation between the two at the 1959 Lushan Conference. Mao won this confrontation, labeled Peng as a leader of an "anti-Party clique", and purged Peng from all influential positions for the rest of his life.
Peng lived in virtual obscurity until 1965, when the reformers Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping supported Peng's limited return to government, developing military industries in Southwest China. In 1966, following the advent of the Cultural Revolution, Peng was arrested by Red Guards. From 1966–1970, radical factions within the Communist Party, led by Lin Biao and Mao's wife, Jiang Qing, singled out Peng for national persecution, and Peng was publicly humiliated in numerous large-scale struggle sessions and subjected to physical and psychological torture in organized efforts to force Peng to confess his "crimes" against Mao Zedong and the Communist Party. In 1970 Peng was formally tried and sentenced to life imprisonment, and he died in prison in 1974. After Mao died in 1976, Peng's old ally, Deng Xiaoping, emerged as China's paramount leader. Deng led an effort to formally rehabilitate people who had been unjustly persecuted during the Cultural Revolution, and Peng was one of the first leaders to be posthumously rehabilitated, in 1978. In modern China, Peng is considered one of the most successful and highly respected generals in the history of the Communist Party of China.
Early life
Childhood
Peng was born in 24 October 1898 in the village of Shixiang, Xiangtan County, Hunan. His birth name was "Peng Dehua". Peng's family lived in a thatched-straw hut and owned approximately 1.5 acres of irrigated land on which the family grew bamboo, sweet potatoes, tea, cotton, and various vegetables. His father also operated a bean curd shop. The income from the land and shop supported an extended family of eight people, including Peng, his three brothers, his parents, his grandmother, and a grand-uncle. Peng's grand-uncle had joined and fought for the Taiping rebellion and used to tell Peng about the old Taiping ideals: everyone should have enough food to eat, women should not bind their feet, and land should be redistributed equally. Peng later described his own class background as "lower-middle peasant."
From 1905 to 1907, Peng was enrolled in a traditional Confucian primary school. In 1908, Peng attended a modern primary school but at the age of ten was forced to withdraw from this school because of his family's deteriorating financial situation. In 1905 to 1906, there was a severe drought in Hunan. Peng's mother died in 1905, and Peng's six-month-old brother died of hunger. Peng's father was forced to sell most of his family possessions for food and to pawn most of his family's land. When Peng was withdrawn from school in 1908, he and his brothers were sent to beg for food in their village. From 1908 to 1910, Peng took work on looking after a pair of water buffaloes.
When Peng's grand-uncle died in 1911, Peng left home and worked at a coalmine in Xiangtan, where he pushed carts of coal for a wage of nine yuan a month. In 1912, shortly after the founding of the Republic of China, the mine went bankrupt and the owners fled, which cheated Peng out of half his annual wages. Peng returned home in 1912 and took a number of odd jobs. In 1913, Hunan suffered another drought and famine, and Peng participated in a public demonstration that escalated into the seizure of a grain merchant's storehouse and the redistribution of grain among the peasants. Village police issued a warrant for Peng's arrest, and he fled to northern Hunan, where he worked for two years as a construction laborer for the construction of a dam near Dongting Lake. When the dam was completed in 1916, Peng assumed that he was no longer in danger of being arrested and returned home and joined the army of a local Kuomintang-aligned warlord, Tang Xiangming.
Service in warlord armies
Peng enlisted as a private second class soldier, with a monthly wage of 5.5 yuan, 2 yuan of which he sent back to support his family. Within seven months, he was promoted to private first class, with a monthly wage of 6 yuan, 3 yuan of which he sent to his family. One of Peng's commanding officers was an idealistic Nationalist who had participated in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution and influenced Peng to sympathize with the Kuomintang's goals of social reform and national reunification. After another civil war broke out in 1917, Peng's regiment split from the rest of its army and joined the forces of Tang Shengzhi, who was aligned with Tan Yankai and Sun Yat-sen against those aligned with the northern warlord Wu Peifu. Peng received training in formal tactics from an officer in his brigade. In July 1918, Peng was captured on a reconnaissance mission behind enemy lines, but he was released after two weeks. In April 1919, Peng was promoted to master sergeant and acting platoon commander. Tang Shengzhi's forces drove enemy troops out of Hunan in July 1920 and captured the provincial capital of Changsha.
Peng participated in a failed mutiny over pay but was pardoned. In August 1921, Peng was promoted to the rank of second lieutenant and became acting company commander several weeks later. Stationed in a village in Nanxian, Peng noticed that the poor were being mistreated by a local landlord, and he encouraged them to establish an "association to help the poor." When the local villagers hesitated, Peng ordered his soldiers to arrest the landlord and execute him. Peng was reprimanded for his actions but not demoted or reassigned. After that incident, Peng began to consider seriously leaving the service of his provincial warlord army. In February 1922, after applying for extended unpaid leave, Peng and several other officers traveled to Guangdong to seek employment in the army of the Kuomintang.
Peng's impression of the Kuomintang in 1922 was not favorable, and he left Guangzhou with the intention of settling back in Hunan as a farmer. Peng returned to his home village by sea via Shanghai, the farthest that he had ever been from his home village, and farmed with his father for three months on land that his father had bought with money sent home by Peng, but Peng did not find that occupation to be satisfying.
After one of Peng's old comrades had suggested that Peng apply to the local Hunan Military Academy to seek employment as a formally-trained professional officer, Peng accepted. Peng successfully gained admission in August 1922 and used the personal name "Dehuai" for the first time. In August 1923, after nine months of training, Peng graduated from the academy and rejoined his old regiment with the rank of captain. He was promoted to acting battalion commander in April 1924.
In 1924, Tang Shengzhi aligned himself with northern warlords against the warlord controlling Guangdong, who was aligned with the Kuomintang. Peng conducted skirmishes along the Hunan-Guangdong border for nine months, but reorganized his battalion along pro-Kuomintang political lines in 1925. In late 1925, Chiang Kai-shek established the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) and led the Kuomintang to take control of Guangdong. Tang then aligned himself with Chiang and joined him in the Northern Expedition, an effort to unify China by defeating the northern warlords. The Hunanese army was reorganized, and Peng was promoted to the rank of major. When Wu Peifu invaded Hunan and occupied Changsha, Chiang sent the NRA to Hunan and began the Northern Expedition. Peng's forces then joined the Kuomintang, but Peng never joined it as a formal member. It was only after Peng joined the Kuomintang, in 1925, that he first heard of the Communist Party.
Kuomintang officer
Between July 1926 and March 1927, Peng campaigned in Hunan, participating in the capture of Changsha and Wuhan. Under General He Jian, Peng participated in the Battle of Fengtai in which Kuomintang forces decisively defeated the warlord Wu Peifu. In 1927, Wang Jingwei attempted to establish a left-leaning Kuomintang government in Wuhan that threatened Chiang Kai-shek's leadership. Tang Shengzhi, who Peng served under, aligned himself with Wang, and Peng was promoted to lieutenant-colonel and regimental commander. After Tang's forces had bern decisively defeated by Chiang, Peng commanded the rear guard and protected the retreat of Tang's forces into Hunan.
In 1927, Peng was approached several times by Communist Party members, some of which were old friends, who attempted to recruit him into the party. In August 1927, Peng was approached by an old military comrade, : he was sympathetic but could not decide on joining the party. On October 12, Peng was approached by Duan Dechang, a party representative: Peng again expressed sympathy and interest but still considered himself a member of the "Kuomintang left wing" and could not yet bring himself to break with the party. Peng considered joining the Communist Party for some time, met Duan again later that October, and began to study basic communist theory. Peng secretly joined the Communist Party of China in mid-February 1928.
In February 1928, Peng joined general Ho Chien when Ho defected back to Chiang's forces and gained a promotion to full colonel after rejoining Chiang. After rejoining Chiang's Nanking government, Peng was stationed in the mountainous Pingjiang County, northwest of Changsha. His orders were to eliminate local groups of communist guerrillas who had fled to the area following the Shanghai massacre of 1927. Because Peng had secretly joined the Communist Party, he kept his unit passive and began to organize local party branches. Peng made contact with local communist guerrillas, who were nominally attached to the forces of Mao Zedong and Zhu De, and decided to issue a pronouncement for the communists on July 18, 1928.
On July 22, 1928 Peng's forces of approximately 2000 men occupied Pingjiang County and arrested and executed the county magistrate and over 100 landlords and local militia commanders. On July 23, Peng declared the establishment of the "Hunan Provincial Soviet Government" and formally aligned himself with Mao and Zhu. On July 29 Peng's former superior, General Ho Chien, attacked Peng's forces and inflicted heavy casualties. By September, Peng's forces were driven into the mountains, and by October, only several hundred men had remained. Peng abandoned his bases and left to join Mao and Zhu at their base in the Jinggang Mountains. Peng's forces successfully joined Mao and Zhu in November 1928. Some of Peng's subordinates in the rebellion survived and became important military figures themselves, including generals Huang Kecheng and Peng Shaohui.
Red Army commander
Defending Jiangxi Soviet
After joining forces with communist guerrillas, one of Peng's first actions was to save Mao, whose forces were being encircled by Kuomintang units. Peng broke the encirclement and drove the enemy off. Peng then met with Zhu and Mao, and they reorganized their forces and decided to form a base area around the Ruijin, Jiangxi, an agricultural city that was defended only by weak warlord units. Zhu and Mao occupied the area, which informally began the Jiangxi Soviet in January 1929.
Peng remained behind to guard Jinggangshan with a force of 800 soldiers but withdrew from the area after an attack by a Hunanese Kuomintang force of 25,000 soldiers. He joined Zhu and Mao in Ruijin in March. Although he had saved his force from destruction, he was criticized by Mao for withdrawing. Peng returned to Jinggangshan with a force of 1,000 men later that year and occupied the area after the Kuomintang withdrew. In mid-1929, Peng's forces merged with the forces of two local bandit groups, but conflicts arose over supplies and the command structure, and both groups rebelled against Peng in July 1929. One of the bandit leaders was captured and executed by Peng, and the other committed suicide. The remaining forces were incorporated into Peng's unit and brought its strength up to 2,000 men. Peng then organized a series of increasingly-ambitious raids into southern Hunan throughout 1929 and 1930, captured an increasing amount of supplies, and attracted more recruits.
On July 13, 1930, the de facto leader of the Communist Party of China, Li Lisan, issued a general order for communist units around China to "conquer one provincial capital" as a signal for a "nationwide revolutionary storm." Peng took those general orders seriously and launched an attack on Hunan's capital, Changsha, on July 25 with 17,000 soldiers under his command and with the support of another 10,000 guerillas. Changsha was then defended by general Ho Chien, Peng's former superior. Peng's forces broke through the Kuomintang lines on July 28 and occupied Changsha proper on July 30, which Ho hastily evacuated. On August 1, Peng declared the establishment of a "Hunan Provincial Soviet Government," with Li Lisan, who lived in the French concession area in Shanghai, named chairman and Peng himself as vice-chairman. On August 5, Ho counterattacked with a force of 35,000 men. Peng suffered 7,500 casualties, and was forced to withdraw to Jinggangshan. On September 1, Peng again attempted to capture Changsha, but the attack was halted on the outskirts of the city with heavy casualties. Mao and Zhu kept their own forces from assisting Peng during his attempts to take Changsha, and Peng withdrew his forces into the Jiangxi Soviet in late 1930.
Peng was one of the most important generals active in defending the Jiangxi Soviet by taking a leading role in defeating Chiang Kai-shek's first three Encirclement Campaigns from December 1930 to May 1931. His successes were outmatched only by Lin Biao. On November 7, Peng was named to the Central Military Commission and to the Central Executive Committee of the Jiangxi Soviet, the first time that he had been named to a position of political leadership in the communist movement. After the consolidation of the Jiangxi Soviet, a number of Soviet-trained Communist Party leaders arrived and took power in the Soviet. Peng, like most other communist military leaders, supported their leadership until the Jiangxi Soviet was eventually overrun. In August 1933, Peng was named Vice-Chairman of the Central Military Commission, and in January 1934, Peng was appointed as an alternate member to the Sixth CPC Central Committee. Peng continued the defense of the Jiangxi Soviet throughout the early 1930s. In August 1933, after the indecisive Fourth Encirclement Campaign, Peng broke through Kuomintang defenses, conquered a large area of western Fujian, and captured great quantities of arms and ammunition.
Long March
In October 1933 Chiang Kai-shek took command of nearly 800,000 soldiers and led the Fifth Encirclement Campaign against the Red Army's force of 150,000 men. By September 1934, the Fifth Encirclement Campaign had been largely successful, and Peng's own units suffered heavy casualties defending the soviet and shrank from 35,000 to around 20,000 men. On October 20, 1934, the communists broke out of Chiang's encirclement and began the Long March. Of the 18,000 men under Peng's command when the March began, only about 3,000 remained when Peng's forces reached their eventual destination in Shaanxi on October 20, 1935.
Peng was a strong supporter of Mao's rise to power during the January 1935 Zunyi Conference. Peng continued to consolidate the communists' base area after arriving in Shaanxi by campaigning in neighboring Shanxi and Gansu. In April 1937, Peng was named vice commander-in-chief of all Chinese communist forces, outranked only by Zhu De, who was named commander-in-chief. Peng's promotion was supported by Lin Biao, who had been actively supporting Peng for promotions to senior leadership as early as May 1934. In early 1935, Lin responded to widespread discontent within the Red Army over Mao's evasive tactics, which it perceived as unnecessarily exhausting, by publicly proposing for Peng to take overall command of the Red Army, but Mao, who had recently been promoted to the position, attacked Peng and Lin for challenging him and successfully retained his position.
In October 1935, following the last major battle between the Kuomintang and the Red Army, Mao wrote and dedicated a poem to Peng. (The poem was not published until 1947.)
The mountains are high, the road is long and full of potholes,
Many soldiers are moving to and fro,
Who is the courageous one, striking from his horse in all directions?
None other than our great General Peng!
In 1936, the American journalist Edgar Snow stayed for several days at Peng's compound in Yuwang while Peng was campaigning in Ningxia. Snow had long conversations with him and wrote two whole chapters about Peng in his book Red Star Over China. He wrote more about Peng than any other individual, except for Mao.
Second Sino-Japanese War
After the 1937 Marco Polo Bridge Incident, China and Japan went to war. When the Kuomintang and communists declared a united front to fight the Japanese, Peng was confirmed as a general in the unified command structure of the NRA. At the August 20, 1937 Luochuan Conference (), Mao believed that the united front should be used as a feint by giving token resistance to the Japanese but saving the strength of the Red Army for the eventual confrontation with the Kuomintang. However, Peng, along with most other senior military and political leaders, disagreed and believed that the Red Army should genuinely focus on fighting the Japanese. Mao was not able to force his position, and the communists co-operated with the Kuomintang and fought the Japanese.
When the Japanese invaded Shanxi, the Red Army (renamed the Eighth Route Army) assisted the Kuomintang warlord, Yan Xishan, in resisting the Japanese, and Peng traveled to the provincial capital, Taiyuan, with Zhou Enlai to co-ordinate tactics. After the Japanese advanced towards Taiyuan on September 13, 1937, Peng directed overall operations from a base in Wutaishan but was called from duty to attend a Politburo meeting on December 13. At the meeting, Peng advocated a greater material commitment to the defense of Shanxi, but Mao disagreed and wanted the Red Army to reduce its commitment to fighting the Japanese. In 1938, after Mao's rival, Zhang Guotao, defected to the Kuomintang, Peng moved closer to Mao's position. In late 1938, Peng set up a base in Taihangshan, on the borders of Shanxi and Hebei, and directed guerrilla operations in both provinces. From Taihangshan, Peng commanded two thirds of the Eighth Route Army, approximately 100,000 soldiers.
In July 1940, Peng was given overall command of the largest communist operation of the anti-Japanese war, the Hundred Regiments Offensive, when 200,000 regular troops from the Eighth Route Army participated in the operation and were supported by 200,000 irregular communist guerrillas. From August 20 to October 5, 1940, communist forces destroyed large numbers of bridges, tunnels, and railroad tracks in Japanese-occupied China and inflicted relatively heavy Japanese casualties. From October 6 to December 5, the Japanese counterattacked, and the communists mostly repelled the counterattack successfully. Peng's operation was successful in disrupting Japanese communication lines and logistics networks, which were not fully restored until 1942, but the communists suffered heavy losses, In communist sources, the Japanese casualties have two figures, one of which is 20,645 and the other 12,645. Foreign sources give figures of 20,900. In early 1941, the Japanese began a large-scale effort to drive Peng from his base in Taihangshan, and Peng relocated closer to the communist base in Yan'an in late 1941.
After being recalled to Yan'an, Peng was subjected to a political indoctrination campaign in which he was criticized as an "empiricist" for his good relations with the Comintern and survived professionally only through an unconditional conversion to Mao's leadership. Mao ordered Peng to be criticized for 40 days for the "failings" of the Hundred Regiments Campaign (even though Mao had supported it and later praised its successes). Peng was not allowed to reply and was forced to make a self-criticism. Privately, Peng resented Mao's criticism of him, and in 1959 once told Mao: "At Yan'an, you fucked my mother for forty days."
From 1942 to 1945, Peng's role in the war was mostly political, and he supported Mao very closely. In June 1944, Peng was part of a team that held conferences with American military personnel who visited Yan'an as part of the Dixie Mission, briefing the Americans about the military situation in Japanese-occupied China.
Defeating the Kuomintang
The Japanese surrendered on September 3, 1945, ending China's war with Japan and beginning the final stage of the Chinese Civil War. In October Peng took command of troops in northern China, occupied Inner Mongolia, and accepted the surrender of Japanese soldiers there. In March 1946, communist forces (1.1 million soldiers) were renamed the "People's Liberation Army." Peng himself was placed in command of 175,000 soldiers, organized as the "Northwest Field Army," most of which had been under the command of He Long during the war against Japan. He then became Peng's second-in-command. Peng's notable subordinates in the Northwest Field Army included Zhang Zongxun and Wang Zhen.
Peng's forces were the most poorly armed of the newly re-organized army but were responsible for the area around the communist capital, Yan'an. In March 1947, Kuomintang General Hu Zongnan, invaded the area with 260,000 soldiers. Hu's forces were among the best-trained and most well-supplied Nationalist units, but one of Zhou Enlai's spies was able to provide Peng with information about Hu's strategic plans, his forces' troop distributions, strength, and positions, and details about the air cover available to Hu. Peng was forced to abandon Yan'an in late March but resisted Hu's forces long enough for Mao and other senior party leaders to evacuate safely. Mao wanted Peng to provoke a decisive confrontation with Hu immediately, but Peng dissuaded him. By April, Mao agreed that Peng's objective was to "keep the enemy on the run... tire him out completely, reduce his food supplies, and then look for an opportunity to destroy him."
On May 4 Peng's forces attacked an isolated supply depot in northeastern Shaanxi, arrested its commander, and captured food reserves, 40,000 army uniforms, and a collection of arms that included over a million pieces of artillery. Peng's forces were pushed back to the border of Inner Mongolia but finally managed to decisively defeat Hu's forces in August, in the Battle of Shajiadian(沙家店战役), which saved Mao and other members from the Central Committee from being taken prisoner. Peng eventually pushed Kuomintang forces out of Shaanxi in February 1948.
Between 1947 and September 22, 1949, Peng's forces occupied Gansu, Ningxia, and Qinghai. His forces repeatedly defeated but could not destroy the forces of Hu Zongnan and Ma Bufang, which retreated into Sichuan and were airlifted to Taiwan when the Kuomintang lost the Civil War in December 1949. In October Peng's forces, led directly by Wang Zhen, invaded Xinjiang. Most of Xinjiang's defenders surrendered peacefully and were incorporated as a new unit in Peng's army, but some ethnic guerrilla bands resisted Chinese control for several years. After the People's Republic of China was declared on October 1, 1949, Peng was appointed Chairman of the Northwest China Military and Administrative Commission and Commander-in-Chief and Political Commissar of Xinjiang, with Wang Zhen as his deputy. That appointment gave Peng responsibility over Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai, and Xinjiang, an area of over 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles) but under 30 million people. Peng's forces continued their gradual occupation of Xinjiang, which they completed in September 1951.
Korean War
North Korea invaded South Korea on June 25, 1950. After receiving its endorsement from the United Nations, the United States landed its first troops in Korea on September 15. On October 1, the first anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic, UN forces crossed the 38th parallel into North Korea. There was some disagreement within China's leadership about how to react to the American push to the Chinese border. Mao and Zhou wanted direct military intervention, but most other Chinese leaders believed that China should not enter the war unless it was directly attacked. Lin Biao was Mao's first choice to lead the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) into Korea, but Lin refused, citing his bad health.
Mao then sought the support of Peng, who had not yet taken a strong position, to lead the PVA. Peng flew to Beijing from Xi'an (where he was still administering northwest China and directing the incorporation of Xinjiang into the PRC), and arrived on October 4. Peng listened to both sides of the debate and on October 5 decided to support Mao. Peng's support for Mao's position changed the atmosphere of the meeting, and most other leaders changed their positions to support a direct Chinese intervention in the Korean War. On October 5, Peng was named the Commander and the Commissar of the People's Volunteer Army and held both titles until the Korean Armistice Agreement in 1953. Mao directed China's general strategy, and Zhou was appointed general commander and co-ordinating Peng's forces with the Soviet and North Korean governments and the rest of the Chinese government. Over the next week, Peng established a headquarters in Shenyang, and prepared his invasion strategy with his officers.
After Zhou and Lin had negotiated Stalin's approval, Peng attended a conference in Beijing with Mao, Zhou, and Gao Gang on October 18, and they ordered the first wave of Chinese soldiers, in total more than 260,000 men, to cross into Korea on the night of October 19. On October 25, the PVA had its first confrontation with UN troops at Onjong and Unsan, and pushed the UN forces south of the Chongchon River by November 4 in the aftermath of First Phase Campaign. From November 24 to December 24, Peng directed 380,000 PVA troops to confront UN forces in the Second Phase Campaign, and he successfully recovered the area north of the 38th parallel. However, on his watch, Mao's son Anying was killed in an air raid. Despite his personal reservations, Peng then began an ambitious campaign to take the area south of the 38th parallel to fulfill Mao's political objectives for the war. About 230,000 Chinese soldiers crossed into South Korean territory on December 31 and captured Seoul as part of the Third Phase Campaign but were forced to evacuate it with heavy losses on March 14, 1951 as the UN forces counterattacked during the course of Fourth Phase Campaign. Peng launched a final Fifth Phase Campaign from April 22 to June 10 to retake Seoul with 548,000 Chinese troops, but it failed, and the Korean War came to a standstill just north the 38th parallel. In the evaluation of US Army's official Korean War historian Roy Edgar Appleman, Peng's performances in the war were unremarkable in terms of military talents despite his aggressiveness and leadership skills. During the Cultural Revolution, Red Guards claimed that Peng's successful campaigns, from October to December 1950, were fought under Mao's direction but that his unsuccessful campaigns, from January to May 1951, were organized by Peng against Mao's instructions. Modern scholars reject that interpretation and credit Peng with both the successes and the failures of the war.
PVA casualties during the first 12 months of the Korean War, from October 1950 to October 1951, were heavy. Soviet material support was slight, and because the only available means to transport supplies into Korea for the first year of the war was a force of 700,000 labourers, all available supplies were light and limited. The UN forces also had complete air superiority. The logistic constraints later caused 45,000 Chinese soldiers to freeze to death between November 27 and December 12, 1950 because of inadequate winter clothing. China's insufficient artillery, armor, and air support meant that Peng was forced to rely heavily on human wave tactics until the summer of 1951. Stealthy fireteams attacked in column against weak points in enemy defenses in the hope that surprise, attrition, and perseverance would break the enemy lines. Participants even drank large quantities of Kaoliang wine to improve their courage. Some of the worst Chinese battle losses occurred during the Second and the Fifth Phase Campaign. Up to 40% of all Chinese forces in Korea were rendered combat ineffective between November 25 and December 24, 1950, and about 12 Chinese divisions were lost in from April 22 to June 10, 1951. All in all, over a million Chinese soldiers became casualties during the course of the war. Peng justified the PVA's high casualty rate by his almost religious belief in communism and the party and his belief that the ends of the conflict justified the means. Some accounts even claimed that Peng invented the human wave tactic under the name "short attack" to exploit his manpower advantage.
On November 19, 1951, Zhou called a conference in Shenyang to discuss improvements to China's logistical network, but they did little to resolve China's supply problems directly. Peng visited Beijing several times over the next several months to brief Mao and Zhou about the heavy casualties suffered by Chinese troops and the increasing difficulty of keeping the front lines supplied with basic necessities. By the winter of 1951–1952, Peng became convinced that the war would be protracted and that neither side would be able for achieve victory in the foreseeable future. On February 24, 1952, the Central Military Commission, presided over by Zhou, discussed the PVA's logistical problems with members of various government agencies involved in the war effort. After the government representatives emphasized their inability to meet the demands of the war, Peng, in an angry outburst, shouted, "You have this and that problem.... You should go to the front and see with your own eyes what food and clothing the soldiers have! Not to speak of the casualties! For what are they giving their lives? We have no aircraft. We have only a few guns. Transports are not protected. More and more soldiers are dying of starvation. Can't you overcome some of your difficulties?" The atmosphere became so tense that Zhou was forced to adjourn the conference. He later called a series of meetings, and it was agreed that the PVA would be divided into three groups to be dispatched to Korea in shifts, to accelerate the training of Chinese pilots, to provide more anti-aircraft guns to the front lines, to purchase more military equipment and ammunition from the Soviet Union, to provide the army with more food and clothing, and to transfer the responsibility of logistics to the central government. Peng also became a zealous supporter of the Three-anti Campaign because of his belief that corruption and waste were the main causes of the PVA's hardship.
Truce talks began on July 10, 1951 but proceeded slowly. Peng was recalled to China in April 1952 for a head tumor, and Chen Geng and Deng Hua later assumed Peng's responsibilities in the PVA.
On July 27, 1953, Peng personally signed the armistice agreement in Panmunjom. At a mass rally in Pyongyang on July 31, Kim Il Sung awarded Peng his second North Korean "National Flag" Order of Merit, First Class (the first had been awarded to Peng in 1951) and awarded Peng the title of "Hero of the Korean Democratic People's Republic." Peng also received a hero's welcome in Tiananmen Square on August 11. Chinese troops remained in North Korea until 1958.
Peng's experiences in the Korean War strongly affected his outlook over the next decade. The heavy losses sustained during the first year of the war convinced him that the Chinese Army needed to change by introducing modern equipment and standards of professionalism and by developing new tactics more suited to modern conventional warfare. He came to believe strongly that military training should never be reduced for of political indoctrination and that military commanders should enjoy seniority over commissars. Because the only communist country fully prepared for modern technical warfare was the Soviet Union, Peng grew to see the Red Army as a model for the development of China's PLA. Those perspectives and Peng's long-held conviction that the primary role of the Communist Party was to improve the welfare of the common people were contrary to Mao's political goals and so contributed to their eventual conflict in the late 1950s. Stalin once arbitrated in favor of Peng in a conflict with a Soviet diplomat by saying, "Trust him in everything; Peng is a long-tested, talented militarist."
Defense Minister
After being recalled to China in April 1952, Peng succeeded Zhou in managing the day-to-day affairs of the Central Military Commission in July 1952. In the spring of 1954, Peng was confirmed as the vice-chairman of the Commission (Mao was its chairman) and became effectively the most senior military leader in China. On September 24, 1954, the First National People's Congress confirmed Peng's position and appointed him Defense Minister and one of the ten vice-ministers of the State Council. Lin Biao was senior to Peng on the State Council. Soon after accepting those appointments, on October 1, 1954, Peng produced an ambitious plan for the modernization of the PLA on the model of the Soviet military.
Political activities
Peng had been an alternate member of the Central Committee since 1934, a full member since 1938, and a member of the Politburo since 1945, but it was not until he became the leader of the PLA and moved permanently to Beijing in November 1953 that he could attend regular political meetings and became active in domestic politics. Peng had been loyal to Mao's leadership since the 1935 Zunyi Conference and continued to support Mao for several years after he had moved to Beijing. Peng, like Lin Biao, was implicated in passively supporting Gao Gang's effort to replace Liu Shaoqi as the second most powerful person in China in 1953 but then opposed Gao in 1954 once Mao had made his own opposition clear. Mao did not take any action against Peng or Lin, but Peng's involvement alienated Peng from Liu and Liu's supporters.
In 1955, Peng supported Mao's efforts to collectivize agriculture. Along with Liu Shaoqi, Zhu De, Lin Biao, Lin Boqu, and Luo Ronghuan, Peng opposed Mao's attempt to liberalize China's culture and politics in the first stages of the 1957 Hundred Flowers Campaign but then supported Mao's efforts to arrest and persecute Chinese citizens who had criticized the CPC later that year.
During the late 1950s, Peng developed a personal dislike for Mao's efforts to promote his own image in Chinese popular culture as a perfect hero singularly responsible for the communist victories of his time. In 1955 to 1956, Peng was involved in a large number of efforts to moderate Mao's popular image by developing it into a personal campaign. Peng's preference for modesty and simplicity led Peng to oppose Mao's efforts to develop his personality cult. In 1955, a draft copy of a book, The Military History of the PVA, was submitted to Peng so that he could edit and authorize it. The preface of the book stated that "the military victories of the PVA" were won "under the correct leadership of the CPC and of Comrade Mao Zedong." Peng authorized the text after he had removed "and of Comrade Mao Zedong." In 1956, an anonymous Chinese citizen wrote a letter to Peng to condemn the practices of hanging portraits of Mao in public places and singing songs in praise of Mao. Peng sent this letter to Huang Kecheng, his chief of staff, to be widely distributed. Peng successfully opposed efforts to place a bronze statue of Mao in the Beijing Military Museum by saying, "Why take the trouble to put it up? What is put up now will be removed in the future." When greeted by a group of soldiers who shouted, "Long Live Chairman Mao!" (literally "10,000 years for Chairman Mao"), Peng addressed the soldiers by saying, "You shout '10,000 years for Chairman Mao!' – does he, then, live for 10,000 years? He will not even live for 100 years! This is a personality cult!" When one of Peng's political commissars suggested that the Maoist hymn The East is Red should be widely taught throughout the PLA, Peng angrily rejected the suggestion, similarly by saying, "That is a personality cult! That is idealism!" Later in 1956, a group of soldiers visited Peng to request an audience with the Chairman, but Peng rejected them by saying, "He is an old man, what is so beautiful about him?"
In preparation for the Eighth National Congress, held in September 1956, Peng attended a Politburo committee to redraft the new Party Constitution. At the meeting, Peng suggested for a section in the Constitution's preamble referring to Mao Zedong Thought to be removed. Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping, Peng Zhen, and most other senior CPC members present quickly agreed, and it was removed from the final version of the 1956 Party Constitution. At the Congress, Peng was reappointed to the Politburo and as a full member of the Central Committee.
Peng resented Mao's personal lifestyle, which Peng considered decadent and luxurious. By the late 1950s, Mao had developed a lifestyle that was out of touch with Peng's preference for modesty and simplicity. Mao enjoyed a private pool in Zhongnanhai and had many villas around China built for him, which he would travel to on a private train. Mao enjoyed the companionship of an ever-changing succession of enthusiastic young women, whom he met either at weekly dances in Zhongnanhai or on his journeys by train. Mao had a costly office suite built for him in Beijing, including a private, book-lined study. When Peng's wife suggested for the couple to spend more free time visiting Mao's quarters, Peng was reluctant and stated that Mao's surroundings were "too luxuriously furnished" for him to tolerate. Throughout the 1950s, Peng continued to refer to the Chairman as "Old Mao," an egalitarian title that was used among senior CPC leaders in the 1930s and 1940s.
Military activities
Peng staged his first offensive after becoming Defense Minister in January 1955 by attacking and occupying a chain of islands, part of Zhejiang, which were still held by the Kuomintang from which it occasionally staged guerrilla raids as far as Shanghai. That operation led the United States to form a defense agreement with Taiwan, which effectively prevented the communists from completely defeating the Kuomintang.
Peng participated in a number of foreign trips throughout the communist world after he had become Defense Minister, the first time that he had traveled outside of China and North Korea. In May 1955 Peng visited East Germany, Poland, and the Soviet Union and met with Wilhelm Pieck, Józef Cyrankiewicz, Nikita Khrushchev and Soviet Marshals Konstantin Rokossovsky and Georgy Zhukov. In September 1955, Peng traveled to Poland and the Soviet Union to attend the signing of the Warsaw Pact as an observer. From November 2 to December 3, 1957, Peng accompanied Mao on his second visit to the Soviet Union. From April 24 to June 13, 1959 Peng went on a "military goodwill tour" across the communist world and visited Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, the Soviet Union, and Mongolia.
After Peng had returned from his first tour abroad in September 1955, he began to implement his "Four Great Systems" seriously: the implementation of standardized military ranks, salaries, awards, and rules of conscription. On September 23, 1955, the State Council named Peng one of the ten marshals of the PLA, China's highest military rank. (Before 1955, Chinese soldiers were assigned "functions" instead of ranks, such as "company commander", or "division commander"). PLA leaders were promoted into Peng's new system of military ranks and were awarded new orders of merit. Peng himself was awarded the First Class Medal of the Order of August 1 (for his achievements in the Chinese Civil War from 1927 to 1937), the First Class Medal of the Order of Independence and Freedom (for his achievements in the Sino-Japanese War), and the First Class Medal of the Order of Liberation (for his achievements in the Chinese Civil War from 1945 to 1949). Peng introduced military insignia for the first time and issued military uniforms modeled on those worn by Soviet soldiers. On January 1, 1956, Peng replaced conscription with voluntary service and standardized career soldiers' salaries on eighteen grades from private second class to marshal. In May 1956, Peng introduced a clear prioritization of rank favoring commanders over political commissars. By September 1956, Peng's doctrines of professionalism, strict training, discipline, and the mastery of modern equipment were entrenched within the structure of the PLA.
Mao opposed all of those initiatives but at first focused his dissatisfaction on other marshals, Liu Bocheng and Luo Ronghuan, whom Mao accused of "dogmatism" (uncritically assimilating methods borrowed from the Soviet Union). In 1958, Mao convinced Peng of the need to maintain a balance between military professionalism and political indoctrination, and Peng co-operated in removing Liu and Luo from high positions. Peng's removal of Liu especially cost Peng the support of many other military leaders, and Mao used Liu's resulting criticism of Peng to criticize Peng before other senior Chinese leaders the next year, when Mao then sought to remove Peng.
Peng was still in command of China's armed forces when Mao ordered the shelling of Kinmen (Quemoy) and Matsu, islands off the coast of Fujian that were still held by the Kuomintang, in the late summer and autumn of 1958. Peng developed a strategy with his chief of staff, Su Yu, to bombard the islands so intensely that the morale of their defenders would collapse, which would eventually lead to the islands' surrender. Then, the PLA would then use the islands to launch attacks against Taiwan. The saturated shelling of the islands included over half the artillery in China and began on August 28. The attack included a co-ordinated effort to cut off the islands' air and sea supply lines.
The campaign ran into unexpected difficulties and did not achieve its objectives. The Soviets did not give explicit support to the operation, and the United States provided air and sea cover to Kuomintang supply ships up to within three miles of the Chinese coast. Kuomintang fighter jets shot down 37 PRC fighters but only lost only 3 themselves, and Nationalist artillery and naval bombardments destroyed 25 PRC ships. Peng had quietly opposed the operation from the beginning and gradually began to end hostilities after the PLA had encountered serious difficulties by announcing a series of intermittent ceasefires and eventually halting the campaign in late October. Su Yu was blamed for the disaster and replaced with another ally of Peng, General Huang Kecheng. Peng's position was not directly affected, but his personal prestige suffered, and the practical effects of his efforts to modernize China's armed forces were called into question within the PLA. Su was accused of directing the aborted attack on Matzu and withdrawing troops from North Korea without authorization, and of secretly taking orders from the Soviets. The conflict between Su and Peng lingered throughout Peng's life, and Su was not rehabilitated until after his death.
Fall from power
The Great Leap Forward
In the autumn of 1957 Mao suggested a nationwide programme of mass collectivization, in which China's farmers would be forcibly relocated to large agricultural communes and all private property would be eliminated. Mao's theories on mass collectivization became the basis of the Great Leap Forward, a national economic plan that began in 1958 which caused a man-made famine across the country that lasted for several years. By 1959, tens of millions of people had starved to death. From October–December 1958, the economic system in the countryside broke down as farmers refused to go to work in the fields, raided government granaries for food, and in Guangdong, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan, and Qinghai, rebelled. In December 1958 China's leaders quietly decided to reverse the policies of the Great Leap.
Peng did not oppose Mao's collectivizations in the first phase of the Great Leap, from late 1957– early 1958, but he increasingly opposed it from spring-winter 1958, as the problems which Mao's policies had caused became more evident. In February 1958 Peng gave a speech for the fortieth anniversary of the Soviet Red Army, in which he suggested increased military cooperation between China and the Soviet Union. Mao opposed this suggestion, and began grooming Lin Biao as a viable successor to Peng for the position of Defense Minister. As part of the Great Leap Forward, Mao ordered the formation of a national militia that was controlled by Party members and independent of the PLA, eventually training and arming tens of millions of civilians.
Peng made regular inspection tours of the Chinese provinces after becoming Defense Minister in 1953. In a tour on Guangzhou in April 1958, he openly criticized Mao, saying "The Chairman talks all the time about more, faster, better, and more economical results. That is annoying. What does he want with chanting these liturgies all the time?" On an inspection tour through Gansu in October 1958, Peng observed many of the problems associated with the Great Leap Forward. Mature crops were left to die in the field because all of the young men had been drafted to operate primitive backyard furnaces. When Peng asked an old peasant why no one was collecting the harvest, he received the answer: "unless the centre sends down a great comrade, one cannot stand up against this storm." On the same tour Peng heard complaints that household utensils were being melted down for "steel", and that houses and orchards were cut and torn down in order to provide fuel for the backyard furnaces. In a subsequent tour through his native province of Hunan, later in 1958, Peng observed the same problems associated everywhere with the Great Leap Forward: serious food shortages; hungry children and babies; elders who expressed bitterness and anger; and arrogant, boasting Party cadres who administered local economic reforms. During his inspection tours through China in the fall of 1958, Peng composed a poem that summarized his attitude towards the Great Leap Forward:
Grain scattered on the ground, potato leaves withered;
Strong young people have left to make steel;
Only children and old women reap the crops;
How can they pass the coming year?
Allow me to raise my voice for the people!
At an enlarged Politburo meeting in Shanghai, held from March 25 – April 1, Peng openly criticized Mao in the Chairman's presence for the first time, accusing him of "taking personal command" of national politics and disregarding the collective leadership of the Chinese government and the Party. Mao responded with vague criticisms of Peng, which Peng said was "provocative". From April 24 – June 15 Peng left on a goodwill military tour through Eastern Europe. Peng met with Khrushchev on May 24, and was criticized during the Cultural Revolution for having criticized Mao's leadership to the Soviet leader, but the evidence that Peng criticized Mao to Khrushchev is very circumstantial, and Mao did not mention this during his efforts to have Peng purged. Peng's absence from China during the seven weeks that he was abroad allowed Mao to freely spread negative rumors discrediting Peng within the Party, and to develop consensus among other senior Party leaders to oppose Peng when he returned.
The Lushan Conference
The Eighth Plenum of the Eighth CPC Central Committee was held in the scenic resort town of Lushan, Jiangxi, on July 2, 1959, to discuss Party members' positions on the Great Leap Forward. Mao opened the conference by encouraging Party members to "criticize and offer opinions" on the government's "mistakes and shortcomings", and he promised that he would not attack any member personally as a "rightist" or "counter-revolutionary" for any opinions expressed at the conference. Peng had returned to China just previous to the conference after spending seven weeks abroad and was not planning on attending the conference, but Mao personally phoned Peng and invited him to attend. Peng obeyed Mao and travelled to Lushan to participate in the conference.
Peng participated in group meetings in the early portion of the conference, gaining consensus among his peers for criticizing the widespread practice of inaccurately reporting agricultural statistics, and emphasizing that "everybody had a share of responsibility, including Comrade Mao Zedong". Peng bluntly criticized the hesitation of senior Party members to disagree with the Party leadership, implying that many Party leaders were cowardly for following orders that they knew were not in the best interests of the Chinese people. After gaining the consensus of several of his peers, Peng developed his opinions more systematically, but was hesitant to bring up the full range of his criticisms in public. Peng discussed his thoughts with several other senior Party leaders (notably the CPC Secretary of Hunan, Zhou Xiaozhou (周小舟), and Peng's colleagues encouraged Peng to visit Mao privately in order to win Mao's support for a reversal of the policies of the Great Leap Forward. Peng visited Mao's quarters on the night of July 13, but found Mao asleep, and wrote Mao a "letter of opinion" articulating Peng's ideas instead. Peng delivered the letter to Mao on the morning of July 14, but Mao did not read the letter until July 17. Later on July 17 Mao had Peng's letter widely circulated among the other delegates at the conference. Peng did not intend his letter to be widely read and attempted to prevent its circulation, but was not successful. Most other senior leaders, including Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai, and Deng Xiaoping, supported Peng's position before Mao began to attack it, indicating that they shared Peng's views and that they did not see Peng's letter as an attack on the Chairman.
In Peng's letter, Peng compared himself to the courageous but tactless Han dynasty general Zhang Fei. Because of Mao's appreciation of Zhang's enemy, Cao Cao, Mao interpreted this as implying a confrontational relationship. Peng criticized the poor allocation of labour across China, especially the inefficient, country-wide practice of forcing farmers to work in backyard furnaces. He criticized the nationwide famine and severe shortage of cotton, and stated that the Chinese people were justified in demanding change from the present conditions. Peng blamed the problems of the Great Leap on what he called "problems in our way of thinking and style of work", especially the tendency for Party administrators to submit exaggerated production reports, and for Party bureaucrats to accept these figures uncritically. Peng blamed the mistakes of the Party on a culture of "petty bourgeois fanaticism", a tendency to believe in achieving change through blindly encouraging mass movements, and claimed that the acceptance of this culture had led to the Party leadership forgetting "the mass-line and the style of seeking truth from facts", which Peng believed had led to the Communist victories over the Japanese and Kuomintang. Peng criticized Mao's policy of "putting politics in command", substituting economic principles and productive work for political objectives.
Mao's decision to have Peng's letter widely circulated completely changed the direction of the conference. On July 21, Zhang Wentian gave an independent, supplementary speech attacking Mao's policies, and the same day a majority of delegates expressed their approval of Peng's letter, making it an official conference document. Mao interpreted the letter as a personal attack, and began to defend himself on July 23, attacking Peng and those who disagreed with his policies. Mao defended his commune system by claiming that "until now, not a single commune has collapsed". He attacked Peng and those who shared his political opinions as "imperialists" "bourgeoisie", and "rightists", and associated their positions with other Communist leaders who had led failed oppositions to Mao's leadership, including Li Lisan, Wang Ming, Gao Gang, and Rao Shushi. Mao brought up an ultimatum, stating that, if the delegates of the conference sided with Peng, Mao would split the Communist Party, retreating into the countryside and leading the peasants to "overthrow the government". The other senior leaders of the Communist Party, including Zhou Enlai and Liu Shaoqi, were unwilling to risk splitting the Party, and sided with Mao in opposing Peng's position.
From August 2, the conference debated whether Peng should be disciplined, what punishment Peng should receive, and for what reasons. On August 16 the conference passed two resolutions. The first resolution condemned Peng as the leader of an "anti-Party clique", and called for Peng's removal from the positions of Defense Minister and Vice-Chairman of the Military Commission. The resolution did not eject Peng from the Communist Party, and it allowed Peng to retain his position in the Politburo, but he was excluded from Politburo meetings for years. The second resolution recognized Mao's dominance within the Party and subtly called for an end to the policies of the Great Leap Forward. After Mao had rallied the rest of the Party against him, Peng's options were limited to stubbornly standing his ground, engaging in a humiliating self-criticism, or suicide. After private discussion with other senior leaders, Peng considered the prestige of Mao and the unity of the Party and agreed to make a self-criticism, which was publicly reviewed at the conference, in which he admitted that he had made "severe mistakes" associated with his "rightist viewpoint", that he had been a follower of Li Lisan and Wang Ming, and in which he openly implicated his supporters in his "mistakes". After the conference, Peng said privately to Zhou Enlai regarding his self-criticism: "For the first time in my life, I have spoken out against my very heart!" Mao purged most of Peng's supporters from important offices following the conference, almost completely isolating Peng politically for the rest of his life. Peng later reflected that he was confused that Mao could have interpreted his private letter as a political attack, and wondered why, after thirty years of working together, Mao could not have discussed the matter privately with him, if Peng had indeed made the mistakes Mao claimed he did.
Later life
In September 1959 Mao replaced Peng as Defense Minister with Lin Biao, which effectively ended Peng's military career. Peng was relocated to a suburb of Beijing and forfeited his marshal's uniform and military decorations. Lin reversed Peng's reforms, abolished all signs and privileges of rank, purged officers considered sympathetic to the Soviets, directed soldiers to part-time work as industrial and agricultural labourers, and indoctrinated the armed forces in Mao Zedong Thought. Lin's system of indoctrination made it clear that the party was clearly in command of China's armed forces, and Lin ensured that the army's political commissars enjoyed great power and status to see that his directives were followed. Lin implemented those reforms to please Mao but privately feared that they would weaken the PLA. Lin used his position as Minister of Defense to flatter Mao by using the army to promote Mao's personality cult throughout China by devising and running a number of national Maoist propaganda campaigns based on the PLA. The most successful of Lin's efforts to promote Mao's personality cult was the "learn from Lei Feng" campaign, which Lin began in 1963.
Partial rehabilitation
After his forced retirement, Peng lived alone, under constant surveillance from the Central Guard Unit of the PLA and was accompanied by a secretary and a bodyguard. His wife remained in Beijing, and her work as the party secretary of Beijing Normal University allowed her to visit only infrequently. Peng's guards prevented curious local farmers from visiting Peng until he threatened to complain to Mao. Peng's niece, Peng Meikui, visited frequently, and they became close. Peng spent most of his free time in renovating his home, gardening, and studying Marxist theory, agriculture, and economics. Peng was not completely purged since even though he could no longer participate in government meetings or decision-making bodies, he still received and read all documents distributed to the members of the Politburo and State Council of which he was technically still a member. In 1960, Peng attended the funeral of Lin Boqu.
In 1960 to 1961, the effects of Mao's economic policies continued to produce widespread economic collapse. That improved Peng's reputation among party leaders who secretly believed that Mao's policies were a mistake and desired to reverse them. Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi led Party efforts to revive the Chinese economy and cultivated Peng's friendship as part of a wider effort to gain widespread support for their activities. In November to December 1961, Peng received permission to leave his residence for the first time since 1959 to conduct an inspection tour of Hunan. Peng found the conditions there even worse than in 1959 and, in a January 1962 conference of 7,000 party leaders to determine party economic policies, repeated most of the criticisms that he had made at Lushan. On June 16, 1962, Peng submitted a document, his "Letter of 80,000 Words," to Mao and the Politburo, which gave a full account of his life, admitted to several "mistakes," defended himself against most of the accusations made against him at the Lushan Conference, requested to be readmitted to decision-making government bodies, and sharply criticized the economic policies of the Great Leap Forward. In his letter, Peng first wrote one of his most famous quotes: "I want to be a Hai Rui!" The efforts of Liu and Deng to rehabilitate Peng further were not initially successful. Peng was not allowed to attend the Tenth Plenum of the Eighth CPC Central Committee, held in September 1962, and the efforts to reverse the verdict on Peng made at the Lushan Conference failed. From 1962 to 1965, Peng continued to live in relative obscurity but was no longer under house arrest.
After Mao had purged Peng in 1959, he appointed Marshal He Long to the head of an office to investigate Peng's past to find more reasons to criticize Peng. He accepted the position but was sympathetic to Peng, and He stalled for over a year before he submitted his report. Mao's prestige weakened when it became widely known that the Great Leap Forward had been a disaster, and He eventually presented a positive report that attempted to vindicate Peng.
In September 1965, Mao agreed to rehabilitate Peng by promoting him to a position managing the industrial development of Southwestern China, a project known as the Third Front. Peng initially refused the position and so Mao called him personally and convinced him to accept it by suggesting that the condemnation of Peng at the Lushan Conference may have been a mistake. Peng was then appointed "Deputy Commander of the Great Third Line of Construction in Southwest China" and "Third Secretary of the Control Commission of the CPC's Southwest Bureau." In practice, Peng's responsibilities were to oversee the industrial development of Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, and Tibet with a focus on developing military industries and logistical networks. Those positions were far below Peng's position before 1959 but signaled his return to national politics. Peng worked energetically until August 1966, when the beginning of the Cultural Revolution had him recalled to Chengdu, and the first Red Guards began patrolling the streets and violently attacking their perceived enemies. Peng's bodyguards warned him to avoid contact with the Red Guards, but Peng disregarded their advice: "a CPC member does not have to be afraid of the masses." Peng's disregard for personal danger and his confidence in the party made him one of the Cultural Revolution's first victims.
Persecution during Cultural Revolution
Peng was one of the first public figures singled out for persecution in 1966 by the Cultural Revolution Group. The Secretariat of the Party, attempted to shield Peng, but Mao's wife, Jiang Qing, took a personal interest in persecuting Peng and directed Red Guards in Sichuan to find Peng in Chengdu, arrest him, and deliver him to Beijing to be persecuted. Local Red Guards in Chengdu were not enthusiastic to follow the orders. They visited Peng's house on December 22, 1966 and attempted to intimidate him by informing him of the recent arrests of some of his friends and comrades and the imminent arrests of Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping. Because of local Red Guards' lack of enthusiasm to carry out Jiang Qing's orders, a more radical Red Guard leader, Wang Dabin, arrived in Chengdu on December 24 and denounced his local comrades as "rightists" and "traitors" for delaying Peng's arrest. The Red Guards then abducted Peng in the early morning of December 25, put him in chains, and ransacked his house. Peng's bodyguards arrived to save Peng at around 4:00 a.m. but were already too late.
Prime Minister Zhou Enlai made an effort to save Peng by placing him under PLA surveillance. On December 25, Zhou's office ordered the Red Guards who had abducted Peng to accompany members of the PLA from Chengdu, deliver Peng to Beijing by train (instead of by plane since the airports in Sichuan had been taken over by Red Guards), and deliver Peng to the Beijing PLA garrison. After the party arrived in Beijing, Wang Dabin successfully directed Red Guards under his command to delay the PLA unit scheduled to take possession of Peng and succeeded in keeping Peng from being saved.
In January 1967, Peng was taken to his first "struggle session" in which he was paraded in chains before several thousand jeering Red Guards, wearing a large paper dunce cap and with a wooden board hung from his neck on which his "crimes" were written. In the fall, Peng was held at a PLA military prison outside Beijing and was allowed to receive extra clothing. In July, Mao and Lin Biao, co-operating with Jiang Qing's faction, ordered the PLA to form an "investigation group" to determine Peng's "crimes" so that Peng could be more thoroughly humiliated in future struggle sessions. Peng's jailers attempted to force Peng to confess that he was a "great warlord," a "great ambitionist," and a "great conspirator" who had "crept into the Party and the Army." Peng refused to confess to those accusations or to "surrender to the masses" and so his jailers strapped Peng to the floor of an unlit cell and did not allow him to stand or sit up, drink water, rise to go to the toilet, or move in his sleep for several days. After Peng still refused to "confess," his jailers began routinely beating him and broke several ribs, injured his back, and damaged his internal organs, especially his lungs. Peng's violent "interrogations" lasted over ten hours a day, but his interrogators were replaced every two hours to keep them from developing any sympathy for Peng, a practice pioneered by the Stalinist secret police in the 1930s. Peng was "interrogated" that way over 130 times. During interrogations he shouted denials to the Red Guards who beat him, and it is reputed that he pounded the table so hard that the cell walls shook.
In late July 1967, following the failed Wuhan Uprising, party leaders decided that Peng should be used as an example by publicly humiliating him by name at a national level. On July 31, an article appeared that was distributed nationally and directed the nation to take part in vilifying him. In the article, Peng was called a "capitalist," a "great ambitionist," and a "great conspirator" who had "always opposed Chairman Mao" and who was "the representative of the greatest capitalist-roader [Liu Shaoqi] in the army." The article accused Peng of conspiring with foreign countries; allying with "imperialists, revisionists, and counter-revolutionaries;" and waging "a wild attack against the Party." The campaign of national vilification against Peng lasted several months until late 1967. On August 16, another article stated that Peng "was never a Marxist" but that he had instead been a "capitalist great warlord" who had "crept into the Party and into the army... we have to struggle against him until he falls, until he breaks down, until he stinks." CPC propagandists made an effort to discredit Peng's military career by portraying it as a long string of failures except for the battles that were supposedly directed closely by Mao and to convince the Chinese people that Peng was a subhuman villain who should be destroyed without compassion or mercy.
In August 1967, Peng was taken to a "struggle meeting," which was held in a stadium attended by 40,000 PLA soldiers. At the meeting, Peng was led in chains to a stage, where he was forced to kneel for several hours while he listened to soldiers repeatedly denouncing him for his "crimes." At the end of the meeting, Lin Biao personally appeared to the soldiers, where he addressed the assembled soldiers and Peng, who was still kneeling. Lin gave a speech in which he denounced Peng as a villainous element who must be purged and that it was "in the interest of the whole Party, the whole army, and the whole people of the whole country" to persecute him so severely. Lin then addressed Peng directly: "If you reform yourself, all right, if not, it is all right too. But of course we hope you reform yourself." It is not known whether Peng eventually broke down and "confessed" at the rally.
Peng was imprisoned for the rest of his life. In 1969, the party formed a "special investigation group" to reach a verdict in his case. Peng's jailers then forced him to write a full biography of his life many times, but they did not believe that he ever fully confessed his "crimes." Peng was then subjected to constant violent "interrogations" throughout most of 1970 until a special military tribune sentenced Peng to life imprisonment. The sentence was immediately approved by Lin Biao's General Chief of Staff, Huang Yongsheng.
After the 1971 Lin Biao incident, the military attempted to improve Peng's living conditions, but the years of deprivation and torture from 1967–1970 had seriously weakened his physical health, and from late 1972 to his death, Peng was seriously ill probably from tuberculosis, thrombosis, or both. Peng was briefly hospitalized in 1973 before he was returned to prison, the first time that he had been outside of prison since 1967. Peng's niece, Peng Meikui, visited Peng in the hospital and convinced his jailers to allow an operation, but the nature and the results of this operation are unknown. Peng's medical condition deteriorated further in 1974. According to Jurgen Domes, there is "some scattered evidence" that he received no substantial medical aid because of Mao's direct order. On the other hand, David Shambaugh states that he was instead denied medical aid by the directive of Mao's wife, Jiang Qing. Peng died at 3:35 p.m. on November 29, 1974. His last wish was to see Zhu De on his deathbed. The request was denied and when Zhu learnt of Peng's wish, after his death, he reportedly burst into tears.
Peng Meikui was allowed to view her uncle's body for twenty minutes but was then removed. Peng's body was quickly cremated, and his ashes were sent to Chengdu, identified only by a note that read, "No. 327 – Wang Chuan, from Chengdu."
Posthumous rehabilitation
The leadership of the CPC successfully concealed Peng's death for several years and successfully convinced the only civilian witness, Peng Meikui, not to tell anyone of Peng's death. Peng's former bodyguards did not learn of his death until 1976. His wife, Pu Anxiu, had also been arrested by Red Guards and "sentenced" to a "labour reform camp," where she remained until 1975, when she was released to settle as a farmer in Northern China. She did not find out about Peng's death until she was allowed to return to Beijing in 1978, when the news was first publicly disclosed.
Mao died in 1976. Following a brief power struggle, Peng's former ally, Deng Xiaoping, emerged as the paramount leader of China. One of Deng's first political goals was to rehabilitate party members who had been condemned and persecuted during the Cultural Revolution. By 1978, many people, led by General Huang Kecheng, who had been a comrade of Peng's since Peng rebelled against the Kuomintang in 1928, were agitating for Peng's posthumous rehabilitation. The Chinese government formally reversed the "erroneous" verdict of Peng during the Third Plenum of the Eleventh CPC Central Committee, held from December 18 to 22, 1978. Deng gave a speech announcing Peng's rehabilitation:
He was courageous in battle, open and straightforward, incorruptible and impeccable, and strict towards himself. He cared about the masses, and was never concerned about his own advantage. He was never afraid of difficulties, neither of carrying heavy loads. In his revolutionary work, he was diligent, honest, and he had an utmost sense of responsibility.
Deng's speech also stated that Mao's decision in 1959, which vilified Peng as the leader of an "anti-Party clique," had been "entirely wrong" and that it had "undermined intra-Party democracy." From January 1979, the party encouraged historians and those who had known Peng to produce many memoirs, historical stories, and articles praising and remembering him. In 1980, the Intermediate Court of Justice in Wuhan sentenced Wang Dabin, the Red Guard who had directed Peng's arrest in 1966, to nine years in prison for "the persecution and torture of Comrade Peng Dehuai." In 1986, an "autobiography", Memoirs of a Chinese Marshal, was compiled from various documents that Peng had written about his life. Much of the material for Memoirs was drawn from the "confessions" that Peng had written during the Cultural Revolution, and the book focused on Peng's early life, before the Sino-Japanese War. In 1988, China released a set of stamps to commemorate the 90th anniversary of Peng's birth. In modern China, Peng is considered one of the greatest military leaders of the twentieth century.
See also
Chinese Red Army and People's Liberation Army - Chinese Civil War
Eighth Route Army - Second Sino-Japanese War
People's Volunteer Army - Korean War
List of generals of the People's Republic of China
Lushan Conference - History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)
References
Citations
Sources
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Casella, Alexander. "China's Military Comes to Terms with Its Past". Asia Times Online. September 12, 2009. Retrieved February 10, 2012.
"J155 90th Anniv. of Birth of Comrade Peng Dehuai". China Stamps Here. October 26, 2012. Retrieved February 10, 2012.
Chung, Jang. Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China. Touchstone: New York, NY. 2003. .
Domes, Jurgen. Peng Te-huai: The Man and the Image, London: C. Hurst & Company. 1985. .
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. (Ed.) Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook. Second Ed. United States of America: The Free Press. 1993. . Retrieved November 17, 2011.
Garver, John W. Chinese-Soviet Relations, 1937-1945. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1999. .
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Lew, Christopher R. The Third Chinese Revolutionary War, 1945-1949: An Analysis of Communist Strategy and Leadership. The USA and Canada: Routelage. 2009. .
Li Xiaobing. A History of the Modern Chinese Army. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. 2007. .
Memoirs of a Chinese Marshal: The Autobiographical Notes of Peng Dehuai (1898-1974). Foreign Languages Press. 1984. .
Millett, Allan R. The War for Korea, 1950-1951: They Came From the North. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 2010. .
"Peng Dehuai". People's Daily Online. Retrieved May 5, 2012.
"'Peng Dehuai's Complete Biography': Recalling Su Yu's Three Great Mistakes" Phoenix Online Comprehensive History. December 15, 2009. Retrieved June 30, 2014. [Chinese].
Qiu Jin. The Culture of Power: The Lin Biao Incident in the Cultural Revolution. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. 1999. Retrieved November 12, 2011.
Rice, Edward E. Mao's Way. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1974. .
Roe, Patrick C. The Dragon Strikes. Novato, CA: Presidio. 2000. .
Salisbury, Harrison E. The Long March: The Untold Story. New York: Harper & Row. 1985.
Snow, Edgar. Red Star Over China. Penguin. 1972. .
Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern China, New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1999. .
Tanner, Harold Miles. China: A History. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company. 2009. . Retrieved November 17, 2011.
Teiwes, Frederick C. "Peng Dehuai and Mao Zedong". The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs. No. 16, July 1986. pp. 81–98. online
Titov, A. "Apropos of the Rehabilitation of Peng Teh-Huai." Far Eastern Affairs (1980), Issue 3, p 69-77
Xiao Nong. "Peng Dehuai and Mao Zedong Told Each Other: 'Fuck Your Mother'. Everyone Else Was Speechless". Wenweipo.com. April 9, 2013. Retrieved July 1, 2014. [Chinese]
Yang Lijie. "'Six Poems to Comrade Peng Dehuai' (October 1935)". Xinhuanet. 2011. Retrieved May 4, 2012.
Yang Jisheng. "The Fatal Politics of the PRC's Great Leap Famine: the preface to Tombstone". Journal of Contemporary China. Vol. 19, Issue 66. pp. 755–776. July 26, 2010. Retrieved December 7, 2011.
Zhang Shu Guang. Mao's Military Romanticism: China and the Korean War, 1950–1953. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 1995. .
External links
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1898 births
1974 deaths
Chinese military personnel of the Korean War
20th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Chinese Communist Party politicians from Hunan
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Ministers of National Defense of the People's Republic of China
Politicians from Xiangtan
Eighth Route Army generals
People of the Chinese Civil War
People persecuted to death during the Cultural Revolution
National Heroes of North Korea
People's Republic of China politicians from Hunan
Members of the 8th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the 7th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party
Burials at Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery
Tuberculosis deaths in China | [
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241905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government%20in%20exile | Government in exile | A government in exile (abbreviated as GiE) is a political group which claims to be a country or semi-sovereign state's legitimate government, but is unable to exercise legal power and instead resides in another state or foreign country. Governments in exile usually plan to one day return to their native country and regain formal power. A government in exile differs from a rump state in the sense that a rump state controls at least part of its former territory. For example, during World War I, nearly all of Belgium was occupied by Germany, but Belgium and its allies held on to a small slice in the country's west. A government in exile, in contrast, has lost all its territory. However, in practice the difference might be minor; in the above example, the Belgian government at Sainte-Adresse was located in French territory and acted as a government in exile for most practical purposes.
Exiled governments tend to occur during wartime occupation or in the aftermath of a civil war, revolution, or military coup. For example, during German expansion in World War II, some European governments sought refuge in the United Kingdom, rather than face destruction at the hands of Nazi Germany. On the other hand, the Provisional Government of Free India proclaimed by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose sought to use support from the invading Japanese to gain control of the country from what it viewed as British occupiers, and in the final year of WWII, after Nazi Germany was driven out of France, it maintained the remnants of the Nazi-sympathizing Vichy government as a French government in exile at the Sigmaringen enclave.
A government in exile may also form from widespread belief in the illegitimacy of a ruling government. Due to the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War in 2011, for instance, the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces was formed by groups whose members sought to end the rule of the ruling Ba'ath Party.
The effectiveness of a government in exile depends primarily on the amount of support it receives, either from foreign governments or from the population of its own country. Some exiled governments come to develop into a formidable force, posing a serious challenge to the incumbent regime of the country, while others are maintained chiefly as a symbolic gesture.
The phenomenon of a government in exile predates the formal utilization of the term. In periods of monarchical government, exiled monarchs or dynasties sometimes set up exile courts, as the House of Stuart did when driven from their throne by Oliver Cromwell and again at the Glorious Revolution (see ). The House of Bourbon would be another example because it continued to be recognized by other countries at the time as the legitimate government of France after it was overthrown by the populace during the French Revolution. This continued to last through the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte and the Napoleonic Wars from 1803–04 to 1815. With the spread of constitutional monarchy, monarchical governments which were exiled started to include a prime minister, such as the Dutch government during World War II headed by Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy.
Activities
International law recognizes that governments in exile may undertake many types of actions in the conduct of their daily affairs. These actions include:
becoming a party to a bilateral or international treaty
amending or revising its own constitution
maintaining military forces
retaining, or newly obtaining, diplomatic recognition from other states
issuing identity cards
allowing the formation of new political parties
holding elections
In cases where a host country holds a large expatriate population from a government in exile's home country, or an ethnic population from that country, the government in exile might come to exercise some administrative functions within such a population. For example, the WWII Provisional Government of Free India had such authority among the ethnically Indian population of British Malaya, with the consent of the then Japanese military authorities.
Current governments in exile
Governments in exile may have little or no recognition from other states. Some exiled governments have some characteristics in common with rump states. Such disputed or partially in exile cases are noted in the tables below.
Current government regarded by some as a "government-in-exile"
Exiled governments that also function as rump states
These governments once controlled all or most of their claimed territory, but continue to control a smaller part of it while also continuing to claim legitimate authority of the entire territory they once fully controlled.
Deposed governments of current states
These governments in exile were created by deposed governments or rulers who continue to claim legitimate authority of the state they once controlled.
Deposed governments of former states
These governments in exile were created by deposed governments or rulers who continue to claim legitimate authority of the state they once controlled but whose state no longer exists.
Deposed governments of subnational territories
Current
These governments in exile claim legitimacy of autonomous territories of another state and have been created by deposed governments or rulers, who do not claim independence as a separate state.
Past
Alternative governments of current states
These governments have been created in exile by political organisations and opposition parties, aspire to become actual governing authorities or claim to be legal successors to previously deposed governments, and have been created as alternatives to incumbent governments.
Alternative separatist governments of current subnational territories
These governments have been created in exile by political organisations, opposition parties, and separatist movements, and desire to become the governing authorities of their territories as independent states, or claim to be the successor to previously deposed governments, and have been created as alternatives to incumbent governments.
Exiled governments of non-self-governing or occupied territories
These governments in exile are governments of non-self-governing or occupied territories. They claim legitimate authority over a territory they once controlled, or claim legitimacy of a post-decolonization authority. The claim may stem from an exiled group's election as a legitimate government.
The United Nations recognizes the right of self-determination for the population of these territories, including the possibility of establishing independent sovereign states.
From the Palestinian Declaration of Independence in 1988 in exile in Algiers by the Palestine Liberation Organization, it has effectively functioned as the government in exile of the Palestinian State. In 1994, however the PLO established the Palestinian National Authority interim territorial administration as result of the Oslo Accords signed by the PLO, Israel, the United States, and Russia. Between 1994 and 2013, the PNA functioned as an autonomy, thus while the government was seated in the West Bank it was not sovereign. In 2013, Palestine was upgraded to a non-member state status in the UN. All of the above created an ambiguous situation, in which there are two distinct entities: The Palestinian Authority, exercising a severely limited amount of control on the ground and the State of Palestine, recognized by the United Nations and by numerous countries as a sovereign and independent state, but not able to exercise such sovereignty on the ground. Both are headed by the same person—as of February 2016, President Mahmud Abbas—but are judicially distinct.
Past governments in exile
World War II
Many countries established a government in exile after loss of sovereignty in connection with World War II.
Governments in London
A large number of European governments-in-exile were set up in London.
Other exiled leaders in Britain in this time included King Zog of Albania and Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia.
Occupied Denmark did not establish a government in exile, although there was an Association of Free Danes established in London. The government remained in Denmark and functioned with relative independence until August 1943 when it was dissolved, placing Denmark under full German occupation. Meanwhile, Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands were occupied by the Allies and effectively separated from the Danish crown. (See British occupation of the Faroe Islands, Iceland during World War II, and History of Greenland during World War II.)
Governments-in-exile in Asia
The Philippine Commonwealth (invaded December 9, 1941) established a government in exile, initially located in Australia and later in the United States. Earlier, in 1897, the Hong Kong Junta was established as a government in exile by the Philippine revolutionary Republic of Biak-na-Bato.
While formed long before World War II, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea continued in exile in China until the end of the war.
At the fall of Java, and the surrender by the Dutch on behalf of Allied forces on March 8, 1942, many Dutch-Indies officials (including Dr van Mook and Dr Charles van der Plas) managed to flee to Australia in March 1942, and on December 23, 1943, the Royal Government (Dutch) decreed an official Netherlands East Indies Government-in-exile, with Dr van Mook as Acting Governor General, on Australian soil until Dutch rule was restored in the Indies.
Axis-aligned governments in exile
In the later stages of World War II, with the German Army increasingly pushed back and expelled from various countries, Axis-aligned groups from some countries set up "governments-in-exile" under the auspices of the Axis powers, in the remaining Axis territory - even though internationally recognized governments were in place in their home countries. The main purpose of these was to recruit and organize military units composed of their nationals in the host country.
Persian Gulf War
Following the Ba'athist Iraqi invasion and occupation of Kuwait, during the Persian Gulf War, on August 2, 1990, Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah and senior members of his government fled to Saudi Arabia, where they set up a government-in-exile in Ta'if. The Kuwaiti government in exile was far more affluent than most other such governments, having full disposal of the very considerable Kuwaiti assets in western banks—of which it made use to conduct a massive propaganda campaign denouncing the Ba'athist Iraqi occupation and mobilizing public opinion in the Western world in favor of war with Ba'athist Iraq. In March 1991, following the defeat of Ba'athist Iraq at the hands of coalition forces in the Persian Gulf War, the Sheikh and his government were able to return to Kuwait.
Municipal councils in exile
Following the Turkish Invasion of Cyprus in 1974 and the displacement of many Greek Cypriots from North Cyprus, displaced inhabitants of several towns set up what are in effect municipal councils in exile, headed by mayors in exile. The idea is the same as with a national government in exile – to assert a continuation of legitimate rule, even though having no control of the ground, and working towards restoration of such control. Meetings of the exiled Municipal Council of Lapithos took place in the homes of its members until the Exile Municipality was offered temporary offices at 37 Ammochostou Street, Nicosia. The current Exile Mayor of the town is Athos Eleftheriou. The same premises are shared with the Exile Municipal Council of Kythrea.
Also in the Famagusta District of Cyprus, the administration of the part retained by the Republic of Cyprus considers itself as a "District administration in exile", since the district's capital Famagusta had been under Turkish control since 1974.
Fictional governments in exile
Works of alternate history as well as science fictional depictions of the future sometimes include fictional governments in exile.
In Len Deighton's SS-GB, the UK is defeated in World War II and occupied by Germany. A British government in exile is formed, but finds it far from easy to secure international recognition. Specifically, Deighton refers to this government in exile needing to go to the US courts and wage a prolonged struggle against the London-based German-collaborating government, before securing possession of the British Embassy in Washington.
In If Israel Lost the War by Robert Littell, Richard Z. Chesnoff and Edward Klein, Israel is defeated in the 1967 Six-Day War and its territory occupied by Arab armies. Thereupon, David Ben-Gurion and Golda Meir set up an Israeli government in exile in North America.
Algis Budrys' The Falling Torch is set in a future time when Earth was conquered and occupied by extraterrestrial humanoid invaders. Many years later, the Earth government in exile, located at a human colony planet orbiting Alpha Centauri, is holding a regular meeting in an atmosphere of dejection and futility – its hosts being indifferent to Earth's plight and unwilling to offer any real help. The Exile Prime Minister is shown more involved with his successful career as the chef of a luxury hotel than with the seemingly non-existent hope of liberating Earth. This depiction might have drawn on the writer's actual experience as a member of the exile Lithuanian community in the 1950s US, at the time seeing little hope of shaking the Soviet hold of its homeland.
See also
Exclusive mandate
Exilarch
Transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil
Provisional government
Shadow cabinet
Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
Lists
Lists of active separatist movements
List of historical separatist movements
List of historical unrecognized states and dependencies
List of territorial disputes
List of states with limited recognition
United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories
References
Further reading
Exile organizations | [
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241907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seaborg | Seaborg | Seaborg may refer to:
Glenn T. Seaborg (1912–1999), American nuclear chemist, gave name to chemical element seaborgium
Helen L. Seaborg (1917–2006), American child welfare advocate and wife of Glenn T. Seaborg
David Seaborg (born 1949), American evolutionary biologist and activist, son of Glenn and Helen
Seaborg Home (South Gate, California), family home of Glenn T. Seaborg from 1922 to 1934
Seaborg Technologies, a Danish-based company developing a novel type of nuclear reactor, the Molten salt reactor.
See also
Seaborgium, chemical element 106Sg
List of things named after Glenn T. Seaborg | [
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241909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gohan | Gohan | is a fictional character in the Dragon Ball manga series, created by Akira Toriyama. Gohan is introduced as the first son of the protagonist Goku, and his wife Chi-Chi, in chapter #196 , published in Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine on October 8, 1988.
Chi-Chi is a strict and protective mother to Gohan, forcing him to focus on his studies and forbidding him from practicing martial arts. However, due to the various threats to the Earth, she reluctantly allows him to fight, with him ultimately becoming one of the strongest characters in the series due to him having hidden potential only being awakened by his rage. Gohan has been well received by both fans and critics, the latter usually citing the character's growth from his initial appearance to his defeat of Cell.
Creation and design
Gohan's name comes from the Japanese word , a continuation of the naming scheme of foods by Toriyama. Rice, being a grain, is not normally considered to be a vegetable, even though it is a common food. However, as the word "vegetable" is a culinary term, and not a botanical term, the name can also continue the naming scheme for Saiyan characters, which derives names from puns on vegetables.
In conceptualizing for Gohan's character, Toriyama originally included glasses or a jacket to his apparel, and commonly, his hair is spiked up as seen in the final design. With the ending of the Cell arc, Gohan was meant to replace his father as the protagonist. However, Toriyama later decided against it, finding the character unsuited for the role in comparison to his father.
As opposed to full-blooded Saiyans, whose hair stays the same from birth, Gohan's is drawn at varying lengths, and changes markedly in style. Initially, Gohan is illustrated garbed in a surcoat with kanji 孫 (grandchild), fixed on the front and the four-star Dragon Ball fitted on top of his hat. Piccolo later supplies him with a keikogi fashioned after Goku's, but substitutes the symbol with his own demon character "". Normally thereafter, Gohan is drawn with a keikogi modeled after Piccolo's own. On Namek, Gohan is portrayed in battle armor worn by Frieza's henchmen, having been given it by Vegeta in preparation for their encounter with Frieza. Prior to his second fight with Majin Buu, Gohan asks Kibito for an outfit resembling his father's, and is then drawn in a keikogi identical to Goku's. Gohan, from the alternate future, is dressed in a keikogi similar to that of his father's with his kanji name 飯 (Gohan), and has a long scar across his left eye.
Abilities
Gohan possesses superhuman strength and durability, as well as superhuman speed and reflexes, as seen during his training with his younger brother Goten. As a child, Gohan is depicted with an immense amount of hidden potential, which at first only revealed itself when he experienced fierce rage or distress. The vastness of this potential is shown consistently throughout the series as he ages and learns to master his powers from constant training and battles, the earliest example was during his short fight with Raditz. Gohan's potential was unlocked twice in the series: first by the Namekian Grand Elder, and then fully unlocked by Old Kaiō-shin, which sees his power level rise to new heights, capable of easily overwhelming the seemingly invincible Majin Buu.
As a Half-Saiyan, he has the ability to become an Oozaru, a gigantic ape-like creature, by absorbing waves from a full moon. He lost this ability after his tail was cut by Piccolo, and later Vegeta. He was the third youngest Saiyan to achieve the Super Saiyan transformation at the age of nine whilst training and surpassing his father Goku in the Room of Spirit and Time (hyperbolic time chamber) and as a display of his hidden potential which he unlocked during his training with his father, Gohan becomes the first Saiyan in the series to become a Super Saiyan 2 during his battle against Cell. Though Gohan had gotten much weaker due to not training after the Cell Games, he became stronger than he ever has after his potential was unlocked from Old Kaiō-shin. Gohan with this power up was even stronger than Super Saiyan 3 Goku and Super Saiyan 3 Gotenks since he was able to dominate Super Buu with ease without transforming.
Ever since this fight, Gohan has given up on fighting and has continually gotten weaker to the point that he can't use his Super Saiyan transformations without straining himself. Gohan can still hold his own against Frieza's soldiers, Shisami, and Tagoma in his base form and overpower them when he transforms into a Super Saiyan. After Frieza's attack on Earth, Gohan returned to training with Piccolo. During his training with Piccolo before the start of the Tournament of Power, Gohan is pushed beyond his limits and manages to unlock his hidden power once again, becoming stronger than ever before. After this, he has shown that he is now able to combat foes of God-level might, having been able to hold his own in a sparring match against his father Goku in his Super Saiyan Blue form, and hold his own against Frieza in his Golden Frieza form.
Gohan has the ability to freely manipulate a life-force energy known as ki to fly using ,. He can also concentrate his ki to fire blasts of energy, such as the or the . Gohan has displayed the use of his ki in a defensive manner, such as generating protective energy shields. Both as a child and an adult, Gohan is known to be a capable swordsman, as well as an adept teacher.
Voice actors
Gohan is voiced in the original Japanese anime and all other media by Masako Nozawa. Nozawa, who also voices Goku, revealed that she did not know she would be playing Gohan until receiving the script on the day of recording his debut episode. Despite having to voice Gohan, Goku, Goten and Bardock, Nozawa claims she is able to instantly get into the respective character simply upon seeing their image.
In Funimation and Saban Entertainment initial 1996 English dub of Dragon Ball Z, Gohan is voiced by Saffron Henderson. Henderson reprised her role in AB Group and Westwood Media's alternate dub for the UK and Canadian markets in 2000. Jillian Michaels replaced Henderson in the later part of the Cell arc, while his adult version is voiced by Brad Swaile. Henderson believed her experience playing Goku in Dragon Ball made it simple to develop Gohan's voice, though stressed performing as him was "tiring" due to the action of the series requiring louder volumes. She also remembered scheduling conflicts thanks to her wedding, setting the stage for the studio to audition other voice actors for the part of Gohan, and being disappointed at the role being recast.
In Funimation's in-house dub, Gohan's child incarnation is voiced by Stephanie Nadolny for various media until 2010 and Colleen Clinkenbeard for Dragon Ball Kai and later media while his adult incarnation is voiced by Kyle Hebert for almost all various media and Dameon Clarke as "Future Gohan" for some episodes and the History of Trunks TV special. Nadolny was called in to audition in 1999, when the English dub of Dragon Ball Z was recast. She said her most challenging time voicing the character was during his fight against Cell where she had to make him sound as "deep, tough and as much like a man as possible." Nadolny's voice was strained during the recordings, causing her to sometimes leave the studio in pain. Hebert said that his roles as Gohan and the narrator of Dragon Ball Z are close to him as they kickstarted his career. He also found Battle of Gods to be "genuinely touching" outside of its fighting, citing Gohan finding out that he was going to be a father among the moments he found sentimental and was happy to return to the franchise when reprising his role in Resurrection 'F''', also expressing interest in redoing his lines in Dragon Ball Kai as he had more experience.
In the English dub of the video game Dragon Ball GT: Final Bout, Gohan is voiced by Lex Lang. In the English dub of Dragon Ball GT produced by Blue Water Studios distributed in Canada, he was voiced by Scott Roberts. In the English dub of movies distributed in Europe by AB Groupe, Gohan was voiced by Jodi Forrest, with David Gasman voicing Gohan as an adult in The History of Trunks. In the Toonami Asia dub produced by Bang Zoom! Entertainment of Dragon Ball Super, Gohan here is voiced by Chris Hackney.
In a rare English dub of the anime produced in the Philippines by Creative Products Corporation, Gohan was voiced by Ethel Lizano who also directed that dub. In the 1996 dub of the double feature combining Cooler's Revenge and The Return of Cooler also by Creative Products Corp.; young Gohan was voiced by E.J. Galang, who was 12 years old at the time he voiced Gohan.
Appearances
In Dragon Ball Z
Gohan is introduced as the four-year-old son of Goku and Chi-Chi, named after Goku's adoptive grandfather. Described as well-mannered and reserved,Dragon Ball Daizenshū, book 2, Story Guide Gohan's story begins following his abduction by the extraterrestrial Saiyan named Raditz, revealed to be his paternal uncle. While Goku is pinned to the ground, Gohan's extreme distress explodes with the release of his dormant power, which allows him to injure Raditz. Piccolo then takes Gohan away following the fight and Goku's death, and trains him for the upcoming battle against the two other Saiyans, Vegeta and Nappa, though Piccolo is aware that training the son of his greatest enemy will be a risk. His tutelage under Piccolo forms a deep bond between the two characters, with Piccolo ultimately sacrificing himself to save Gohan during their fight with Nappa. After Vegeta's defeat, Gohan travels with Bulma and Krillin to planet Namek to use the Dragon Balls there to revive their fallen friends, as the Dragon Balls on Earth had turned to stone due to the Earth's protector Kami's death. After succeeding in gathering the Dragon Balls, Gohan and the others wish Piccolo back to life, causing Kami and the Dragon Balls to be returned. Gohan, along with Krillin and Vegeta, are then forced into an encounter with Frieza, who seeks the Dragon Balls for immortality. Shortly after the fight with Frieza begins, Krillin is impaled by one of Frieza's horns. Frieza stops Gohan as he tries to save Krillin, who has now been thrown into the ocean below, and he mocks him, saying it is pointless to try to save his friend since he and Vegeta are both about to die. Gohan is extremely angered by being unable to save Krillin and attacks Frieza without hesitation. He manages to knock Frieza into a small island below, and then he blasts him with a series of energy blasts before ending the attack with a Masenko. Later on in the fight, as Piccolo was getting repeatedly blasted from Frieza, who is now in his third form, Gohan blasts Frieza with another Masenko, and once again pushes him back with it. Frieza is able to send it back at Gohan without taking any damage, but he is once again shocked that a child could produce such an attack. Shortly after this, Frieza transforms into his original and most powerful form. Once he does this he immediately kills Dende, a young Namekian who had been secretly healing Gohan, Krillin, Piccolo and Vegeta. Gohan is outraged by this and unleashes all of his power against Frieza. However, he is unable to land even a single blow. After Goku transforms into a Super Saiyan enraged by the death of Krillin and defeats Frieza, the planet Namek explodes and Goku escapes while Frieza is left with serious injuries, Frieza is found in space by his father, King Cold, and is turned into a cyborg. Gohan is shown to settle back into school life on Earth, waiting for Goku to return home from Namek.
After Trunks kills Frieza and his father King Cold then tells Goku about the Androids, Gohan goes into the wilderness with Goku and Piccolo to train for the upcoming threat. After Vegeta kills Android #19, Dr. Gero (Android #20) activate Androids #17 and #18, and Cell is discovered, Gohan enters the Room of Spirit and Time with Goku where they train for 1 year (1 day on earth, however in their case according to Mr. Popo, Goku and Gohan still had 3 hours left in the room, but they came out having finished their training earlier than expected). Gohan makes the jump to Super Saiyan while he is in the chamber and after they emerge, both Goku and Gohan retain the physical characteristics of a Super Saiyan without any of the drawbacks of its form (increased aggression, energy loss, etc.). After Goku initially fights Cell but realizes later that he cannot defeat him, Gohan is called to fight to the surprise of everyone else and Cell. During the fight, Gohan asks Cell to stop the Cell Games tournament and then he tells him about his power. Cell, instead of heeding Gohan's warning, attacks him in an effort to force Gohan to show his true power. Gohan holds his own for a while until Cell becomes impatient and bored. He releases Cell Juniors on the other fighters to provoke Gohan from attacking. After Android #16 is murdered by Cell, Gohan unleashes his rage and transforms into a Super Saiyan 2. Gohan easily defeats the Cell Juniors and proceeds to toy with Cell, now that he has a much greater power level. This backfires, however; he waits too long to finish Cell, who decides to self-destruct when transformed back to his semi-perfect form, as a last-ditch effort to destroy Gohan and the Earth. Goku, in an act of self-sacrifice, uses teleportation to take Cell to Kaio-sama's planet. Thinking Cell dead, the fighters lower their guard only to be surprised by a blast that kills Trunks. Cell returns, having regenerated from a single Cell that survived the blast, and also adopted the instant transmission technique. Right before Cell is about to finish Vegeta, Gohan intercedes which costs him the use of his left arm. As Cell charges up one final Kamehameha wave to finish the Earth, Gohan hears the voice of his father who gives him the resolve he needs to defeat Cell. They both launch large Kamehameha waves at each other, which initiates a power struggle. Cell is about to overcome Gohan when Vegeta uses his remaining energy to blast Cell, which distracts him for a moment. Gohan uses this moment to unleash all his fury into his attack, which causes it to overpower Cell's. It hits Cell full-force which disintegrates all his cells, finally killing him.
The Gohan of the alternate timeline, referred to as "Future Gohan", to distinguish him from the character's present-timeline incarnation, is presented in the volume #33 sidestory of the original manga, Trunks the Story, in which he is shown to be the only surviving fighter; the others have all died at the hands of the androids (sans Goku due to having died from a heart virus prior to androids' arrival).Dragon Ball Z manga, volume 17, chapter 141 Gohan is shown training Trunks to assist him in battling Androids #17 and #18. In this timeline, Gohan has become a Super Saiyan and is depicted wearing a uniform similar to his father's, one with his own kanji symbol on the back, Han, . Gohan states he wears it in hopes of becoming as strong as his father one day, and is mentioned that he bears a striking resemblance to Goku when donning it. He eventually loses his left arm fighting Androids #17 and #18. He is ultimately killed by the two androids during a battle where they ganged up on Gohan, killing him with machine gun-like ki blasts.
In the present-timeline, Gohan is shown enrolled at Orange Star High School in Satan City. After foiling crimes as a Super Saiyan he earns the alias the from the public. In order to hide his identity, and with help from Bulma, he adopts a superhero persona that he dubs the . When his peer, Videl figures out his identity as the Great Saiyaman, she blackmails him into attending the 25th Tenkaichi Budōkai and teaching her to fly. Over time, the two begin to bond together and eventually form a relationship. Gohan is depicted as having grown weaker, which the Daizenshū World Guide book explains as due to a lack of training and anger in transforming. Gohan, after having his chi absorbed by Spopovich and Yamu, pursues the two and enters Bobbidi's spaceship with the Kaiō-shin, Goku and Vegeta, where Gohan later fights with Dabura. Following Majin Buu‘s release and Gohan's defeat at his hands, Gohan is taken to the home planet of the Kaiō-shin. After pulling out the Zeta Sword (Known in the English Funimation Dub as the Z Sword) and accidentally breaking it in a training session, Gohan unwittingly releases the Old Kaiō-shin, who then performs a prolonged ceremony to unlock Gohan's latent powers. Gohan then returns to Earth and confronts Buu for a second time, and easily defeats him. However, his victory is temporary, as he is overpowered when Buu absorbs Gotenks and Piccolo. He is later absorbed by Buu. Though Goku and Vegeta manage to rescue him along with Goten, Trunks, and Piccolo, he is killed when Buu (now in his pure form) destroys the Earth. Once revived, Gohan is able to aid Goku's Genki-dama by lending his chi. Following Buu's defeat and a ten-year gap, Gohan has finally become a scholar, is married with Videl and they have a daughter Pan.
In Dragon Ball Super
In Battle of Gods, Gohan is defeated by Beerus and provides his aid in transforming his father into a Super Saiyan God, with his unborn daughter Pan, also contributing as well, and in Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F', Gohan confronts the resurrected Frieza and avoids being killed with the majority of the Earth's population thanks to a save by Whis.
After the latter two films' events, Gohan decides to resume his training with Piccolo, vowing to protect his family and not repeat the same mistake he did slacking off in his training. Following a short time of civilian life, where he is unable to participate in the Universe 6 vs Universe 7 tournament thanks to a scheduling conflict, and Gohan turns down a new job and with Pan already born, he is reunited with Trunks, being unaware of his reason to return to the past until after Goku, Trunks and Vegeta have had multiple encounters with Goku Black and he goes in search of his father. After Pan gets sick, Gohan has Shenlong to cure her and Gohan later follows Goku around after Hit targets Goku. Gohan becomes a stuntman for a movie featuring his Great Saiyaman persona against Mr. Satan, defeating Watagash and being attacked by Jaco, who thinks Gohan is Watagash's new host. Gohan then defeats a Watagash possessed Barry Karn.
Citing a desire to protect his family, Gohan participates in Zen-Oh-sama's Universal Survival tournament for the Universe 7 team. In the exhibition round, Gohan is matched against Universe 9's Lavender, who fires a mist into his eyes that blinds him. Gohan powers up, causing the poison to accelerate through his body, and he knocks out Lavender before being unable to fight any further and the match being declared a draw. While Gohan and Goku recruit fighters for the Tournament of Power, Gohan is defeated by Krillin a sparring match after being blinded with the Solar Flare x 100. Gohan's training with Piccolo, during which Piccolo chastises Gohan for being reckless as a result of wanting to protect his family, concludes with Gohan becoming stronger than ever before and the two agreeing to develop combination moves. Gohan then challenges Goku to a duel, and while he is ultimately defeated, Goku is impressed enough to make him the captain of their team in the Tournament of Power. In the Tournament of Power, Gohan defeats Universe 6's Botamo, Universe 10's Obuni, Universe 6's Saonel and Pirina, and Universe 3's Anilaza before Universes 7 and 11 become the only remaining teams in the tournament. Gohan initially partners with Android 17 to battle Toppo, firing a Kamehameha wave at Android 17 and Toppo while they are inside Android 17's barrier in effort to ring them out, though Gohan retracts the beam out of concern for Android 17. Gohan breaks away from the fight with Toppo and comes to Frieza's aid against Dyspo, Gohan holding Dyspo down and the two being blasted out of bounds by Frieza.
In other media
Gohan appears in twelve of the thirteen Dragon Ball Z side story films; in the first movie, Gohan is kidnapped by Garlic Jr. due to his hat having a Dragon Ball on it and causes the villain's plan to fail when he uses his dormant power against him; in the second, Gohan participates in the fight against Dr. Wheelo and frees Piccolo from further mind control; in the third, Gohan is forcibly made to combat his father as an Oozaru before having his tail removed; in the fourth, Gohan attempts to fight Lord Slug's men only to be defeated; in the fifth, Gohan watches over his father's body after Goku shields him from a blast from Cooler. He also goes to Kirin Tower for Senzu beans to give to his father; in the sixth, Gohan travels to New Namek and fights Cooler's army of robots; in the seventh, Gohan intervenes in the battle against Android 13 by attacking him and then defending his father against the android when he tries to power the Genki-Dama; in the eighth, Gohan tries fighting Broly but does worse than everyone else and is defeated and later aids in the Saiyan's defeat by providing his energy; in the ninth, Gohan faces Bojack and his henchmen, struggling initially before transforming into a Super Saiyan 2 and successfully stopping Bojack and his group of invaders; in the tenth, Gohan comes to the aid of Goten and Trunks after they are confronted by Broly, who he seemingly kills alongside his father and brother in a family Kamehameha wave; in the twelfth, Gohan combats the villains that have escaped from Other World and defeats Frieza with one punch; in the thirteenth, Gohan battles Hirudegarn following his appearance.
In filler episodes of Dragon Ball Z, while training for the Saiyans, Gohan makes friends with C-6 and a dinosaur. During the Namek arc, Gohan also encounters the Mirror spaceship and a fake version of Namek, where he, Krillin and Bulma collect Dragon Balls during a distraction, and prevent their ship from being stolen. In the Garlic Jr. arc, entirely composed of filler, Gohan is one of only a few unaffected by the Black Water Mist and after fighting his allies, he travels to the lookout where he kills the henchmen of Garlic Jr. after they severely injure Krillin, Gohan then sending Garlic Jr. back into the Dead Zone by destroying his power through shooting out the Makyo Star after being attacked by Piccolo and Krillin as they pretend to be under the effects of the Black Water Mist. Leading up to the Cell Games, Gohan encounters Taopaipai, his father's old enemy, who flees from a potential battle once recognizing Gohan as Goku's son and celebrates his 11th birthday, it being shown in flashbacks how he acquires his name and how he had hidden potential within infancy. Prior to the Buu arc beginning, Gohan's high school antics are explored such as his masquerading as Great Saiyaman and his first date. After Buu is defeated, Gohan attends a party with his family.
He is featured in other Dragon Ball Z animations; in Dragon Ball Z Side Story: Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans, Gohan uses a Super Masenko to destroy Hatchiyack, who is killed by his combined efforts alongside Goku, Vegeta and Trunks and in Yo! Son Goku and His Friends Return!!, Gohan meets Vegeta's younger brother Tarble after Tarble arrives on Earth, also advising Goten and Trunks in their fight against Abo and Kado.
Gohan appears in the anime-only sequel, Dragon Ball GT in a reduced role. He is the second Saiyan on Earth to be taken control of by Baby, who previously controlled his younger brother Goten and moved to possessing Gohan during their battle. After Vegeta becomes Baby's permanent host, the parasite transmitting himself to Vegeta during a fight between him and the possessed Gohan, Gohan remains under his influence due to Baby having implanted Tuffle parasite inside of him while he was originally possessed. After regaining his will, he assists his father in defeating Baby, donating his energy and tearfully bids farewell to his former mentor Piccolo as the latter dies alongside the Earth. He then participates in the fights against Super 17 and Omega Shenron.
Gohan has performed multiple songs, his voice actor Masako Nozawa singing in reference to his character, the first of these being the song "The World's Greatest Gohan" released on the 1989 album Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection, Gohan singing about how good he feels. The second was "I Lo~ve Mr. Piccolo" in the album Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection III: Space Dancing, released in 1990, Gohan singing Piccolo praises and speculating on what species he is. Another song, "Feeling of Whistling", debuted on the 1991 album Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection 6: BP∞ Battle Points Unlimited. The 1991 album Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection 8: Character Special 2 features the song ""I•ke•na•i Oo-La-La Magic", where Chi-Chi forces Gohan to sing a duet with her after she feels left out from his adventures with Goku, also intending to enter the local karaoke circuit with Gohan.
Gohan has made appearances in non-Dragon Ball material. In the 2003 interactive feature , Gohan and Krillin attempt to save visitors of at Fuji Television's orb section from drowning, while Goku battles Frieza. In the 2013 special , Gohan cheers on Goku in his match against Monkey D. Luffy and Toriko.
Since Dragon Ball Z began syndication in the U.S. in 1996, Gohan has also appeared in American media. Gohan has been used in promotional merchandising at fast-food chain Burger King, and collectible cards, such as the Dragon Ball Z Collectible Card Game, have featured Gohan frequently. Gohan is referenced in the song "Goku" by Soulja Boy Tell 'Em, where he brags that he looks and feels like Gohan and a few other Dragon Ball related characters. Gohan, along with Goku, is parodied in the Robot Chicken episode "Easter Basket". In "The Move", an episode of The Amazing World of Gumball, Gumball gains hair identical to Super Saiyan 2 Gohan when transforming into a Super Saiyan. Gohan appears for a scene in a parody of the film Moneyball in an episode of Mad being drafted by Billy Beane.
Video games
In the 1992 Video game Dragon Ball: Get Together! Goku World, Gohan along with Goku, Trunks, Bulma, and Krillin travel back in time to examine events in the past.
In the 2004 video game Dragon Ball Z: Supersonic Warriors, Gohan comes to Goku's aid against the androids and defeats Android 18. After Goku passes away from a heart disease, Gohan inherits his role as Earth's primary protector. Gohan confronts Dr. Gero, who he defeats and is warned by of an upcoming threat from Cell, the latter announcing the Cell Games after being revealed and Gohan training with Piccolo in the Room of Spirit and Time to prepare. After Gohan and Piccolo struggle against Cell, and Piccolo sacrifices himself to save Gohan, Gohan unleashes his hidden power and destroys Cell. In the 2005 video game Dragon Ball Z: Supersonic Warriors 2, after his defeat of Cell, Gohan is recruited by Trunks to assist him with defeating the androids in his timeline. After defeating Android 18, Gohan and Trunks confront and defeat Cell. The two travel to Dr. Gero's laboratory and defeat various clones of the android and destroy the computer that created them. Years later, he encounters Cooler when the latter comes to Earth searing for the Saiyan that defeated his brother Frieza. Piccolo is turned evil when taking a blast from Bobbidi to protect Gohan, who is forced to fight Piccolo before the latter flees. Gohan later confronts Piccolo and defeats him.
In the 2006 game Dragon Ball Z: Shin Budokai, Gohan confronts Frieza after the latter is resurrected and unsuccessfully tries donning his Great Saiyaman persona, becoming worn out in the process of fighting him before Frieza departs.
Gohan then confronts Cooler after seeing him search for a Dragon Ball and bests him in battle, before Cooler escapes with the Dragon Ball using the Shunkan Idō.
Later, influence by Janemba allows Gohan to kill Cell with ease and nearly become consumed with evil energy before Goku's intervention. In the 2007 game Dragon Ball Z: Shin Budokai - Another Road, Gohan travels to Trunks' timeline to assist him with the Majin Buu threat. and fights Janemba while searching for the timeline's version of himself to pull the Zeta Sword. Gohan meets Pikkon and his grandfather Bardock for the first time.
In the 2010 arcade game Dragon Ball Heroes, Gohan attains both the Super Saiyan 3, the result of continued training with Piccolo after the Cell Games, and Super Saiyan 4 forms.
In the 2015 game Dragon Ball: Xenoverse, Gohan serves as a mentor with Videl, teaching the player moves. In the Saiyan arc, the player saves Gohan from being killed by Raditz; in the Frieza arc, Gohan being left to fight Frieza alone causes Goku to rush to his aid instead of finishing healing; in the Cell arc, Gohan receives a Villainous Mode power-up from Towa and the player helps him defeat Villainous Mode Cell; and in the epilogue of the game, the player faces Gohan in Villainous Mode. In the 2016 game Dragon Ball Xenoverse 2, the player is commanded to prevent any intervention in the fight between Goku and Cell, and after Gohan transforms into a Super Saiyan 2, Trunks notes that the timeline has been altered by the continued presence of the Cell Juniors. After the player defends Gohan from the Cell Juniors, a portal transfers multiple Metal Coolers into the arena, which the player defeats before departing for Namek while Gohan continues fighting Cell. The player returns to help Gohan battle Cell, whose power remains enhanced by Towa's magic. In the alternate timeline, Gohan is confronted by Android 16, who seeks to kill him for being Goku's son. Gohan realizes his strength and urges the player to leave while he holds him off before the two defeat Android 16 and are approached by Mira, who takes interest in Gohan's potential. Gohan and the player are outclassed by Mira, leading Trunks to conclude that the two will die and travel to the scene of the fight. After Trunks declares that he will not let Mira kill Gohan and Mira flees, Gohan realizes that Trunks is from the future and tells him he is proud of him, though mentions that 17 and 18 are attacking. Trunks is tempted to prevent him from going to the fight, knowing that he will die and that it will change history, but is stopped by the player.
In the 2018 game Dragon Ball FighterZ, an unconscious Gohan is found by Goku, Piccolo, and Krillin, and after waking up, joins their quest to combat the clones. He later participates in destroying Android 21 by firing a Masenko at her. In the game's second arc, Gohan is found by Goku, Frieza, and Cell, and is skeptical of the latter two when being told of their alliance with the heroes.
Gohan has also appeared in crossover games such as Battle Stadium D.O.N, Jump Super Stars and Jump Ultimate Stars as a playable character.
Reception
In 1993, Gohan placed first in a Dragon Ball character popularity poll voted on by Weekly Shōnen Jump readers, and was also voted the third most popular character by fans of the series for the 2004 book Dragon Ball Forever. Due to the popularity of Gohan, other merchandise, such as action figures, video games, and clothing have featured Gohan in Japan and in various countries around the world. In an interview featured in the second Dragon Ball GT Perfect Files, a companion book released in December 1997 by Shueisha's Jump Comics Selection imprint, Masako Nozawa, Gohan's voice actress, stated that her favorite episode voicing Gohan was "Sorry, Robot-san - The Desert of Vanishing Tears". Saffron Henderson, Gohan's original English voice actor, has stated she felt protective of the role and considers it to be one of her favorites. In addition, Gohan's original Funimation voice actor, Stephanie Nadolny has said that playing Gohan was a unique and much-loved experience. C.J. A. Glover of Moviepilot ranked Gohan his third favorite comic character, admitting Gohan "has always been somewhat of an idol to me" as he related to bottling up his anger and being a gentle person that, when snapping, "would let loose and it would be hard to bottle it back up again." In conclusion, Glover wrote that Gohan was definitely "one of my favorite anime and manga characters ever." Gohan's relationship with mentor Piccolo during the Saiyan arc was praised, being seen as "complex" and "culminating in a truly emotional and inspiring moment that one doesn't often expect from your average animated series." Tomoko Hiroki from Bandai Namco considered Gohan her favorite character from the series.
Most of Gohan's praise is derived from his role in the Cell arc of Dragon Ball Z. IGN writer D. F. Smith liked how during the Cell Games, Gohan has more screentime than Goku, and praised his scenes as one of the biggest moments from said story arc. Theron Martin from Anime News Network celebrated Gohan's development in the Cell Games as he had grown up and become stronger. The character's battles against Cell during the arc and his transformation into a Super Saiyan 2 were positively received as some of the best in the entire series, the fight additionally being praised for its animation. Both Anime Focus and John Begley believed Dragon Ball Z could have ended with Gohan's defeat of Cell, the latter reasoning concluding it there would have "provided it a sense of poignancy and closure that retroactively would have provided a greater sense of depth and purpose." Luke Ryan Baldock of The Hollywood News felt Gohan's progression was the focus of the Cell Games and that he had begun to match his father Goku in ability, calling their relationship "a fascinating one to watch unfold." Reviewer Nick Hartel expressed that the "continuing elevation of Gohan" pleased him and the last episodes of the Cell storyline "properly sees this is paid off from a narrative standpoint." Reviewer Todd Douglass Jr. wrote that the series split its focus between Goku and Gohan during the start of the series as they grew on their own, finding it to be "an interesting way to handle the flow of story but also important because it shows Gohan's growth as a person and warrior."
Gohan's role and character in the latter part of the series was met with more mixed reviews. Reviewer Michael Zupan wrote of his disappointment with the character, "Gohan was once the most promising warrior in the galaxy, with the potential to even best his father, Goku… and this is where he's at seven years later? Dressing up in a green dress, black tights and a Lost in Space helmet to put the beat down on robbers?"
Anime Focus found humor in his Great Saiyaman guise and his "clumsy but earnest" relationship with Videl, but thought it "mostly uninspired and draggy and feels very flat after the high flying antics of previous arcs." Reviewer Brad Stephenson argued that the character growing older and becoming more "emotionally complex" provided Dragon Ball Z "with a true sense of progression and meaning." While controversial, lighthearted and more casual fans of the show tend to enjoy the Saiyaman saga due to its comedic tone and way of portraying larger than life figures in relatable real life situations. Josh Begley enjoyed Gohan trying to find his place in high school and his role as big brother to Goten, but thought his Great Saiyaman guise was not comedic and became embarrassed on the character's behalf. Anime Focus was impressed with his fight against Majin Buu after he was powered up, calling it a "rare chance for him to flex his muscles" by giving Majin Buu "an impressive beatdown".
Gohan's portrayal in Dragon Ball Super was the subject of negative response. Den of Geek noted his lighthearted self was not fit for Trunks' dark storyline and heavily contrasted the previous characterizations of Gohan Trunks used to see. In a later review, the same site enjoyed how the anime mocked Gohan's heroic persona but had mixed feelings in regards to its handling in gag episode. The site addressed fans' complaints about how Gohan's character was nearly forgotten by the staff members as well as his marriage with Videll. Sam Leach from Anime News Network noted that fans of the series tend to joke Piccolo is a better paternal figure to Gohan than his actual father, Goku, and felt that Dragon Ball Super emphasized it more when Piccolo started training him again. On the other hand, Leach criticized how Super tries to teach "life lessons" to a mature Gohan. The fact that Piccolo calls him "arrogant", despite Gohan's kindness and humility, was seen as a bad plot point by the reviewer. Mark Sammut of TheGamer'' notes that Gohan occasionally performs the dab move (as The Great Saiyaman), decades before it became a popular dance move in American popular culture.
References
Dragon Ball characters
Anime and manga characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Anime and manga characters with superhuman strength
Martial artist characters in anime and manga
Child characters in anime and manga
Comics characters introduced in 1988
Fictional amputees
Fictional characters who can change size
Fictional characters with alter egos
Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities
Fictional extraterrestrial–human hybrids
Fictional pacifists
Fictional scholars
Fictional swordfighters
Fictional therianthropes
Fictional vigilantes
Male characters in anime and manga
Male superheroes
Superheroes in anime and manga
Superheroes with alter egos
Teenage characters in anime and manga
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241911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City%20Lights%20Bookstore | City Lights Bookstore | City Lights is an independent bookstore-publisher combination in San Francisco, California, that specializes in world literature, the arts, and progressive politics. It also houses the nonprofit City Lights Foundation, which publishes selected titles related to San Francisco culture. It was founded in 1953 by poet Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Peter D. Martin (who left two years later). Both the store and the publishers became widely known following the obscenity trial of Ferlinghetti for publishing Allen Ginsberg's influential collection Howl and Other Poems (City Lights, 1956). Nancy Peters started working there in 1971 and retired as executive director in 2007. In 2001, City Lights was made an official historic landmark. City Lights is located at 261 Columbus Avenue. While formally located in Chinatown, it self-identifies as part of immediately adjacent North Beach.
History
Founding and early years
City Lights was the inspiration of Peter D. Martin, who relocated from New York City to San Francisco in the 1940s to teach sociology. He first used City Lights, in homage to the Chaplin film, in 1952 as the title of a magazine, publishing early work by such key Bay Area writers as Philip Lamantia, Pauline Kael, Jack Spicer, Robert Duncan, and Ferlinghetti himself, as "Lawrence Ferling". A year later, Martin used the name to establish the first all-paperback bookstore in the U.S., at the time an audacious idea.
The site was a tiny storefront in the triangular Artigues Building located at 261 Columbus Avenue, near the intersection of Broadway in North Beach. Built on the ruins of a previous building destroyed in the fire following the 1906 earthquake, the building was designed by Oliver Everett in 1907 and named for its owners. City Lights originally shared the building with a number of other shops. It gradually gained more space whenever one of the other shops became vacant, and eventually occupied the entire building.
In 1953, as Ferlinghetti was walking past the Artigues Building, he encountered Martin out front hanging up a sign that announced a "Pocket Book Shop." He introduced himself as a contributor to Martin's magazine City Lights, and told him he had always wanted a bookstore. Before long he and Martin agreed to a partnership. Each man invested $500. Soon after they opened they hired Shig Murao as a clerk. Murao worked without pay for the first few weeks, but eventually became manager of the store and was a key element in creating the unique feel of City Lights. In 1955, Martin sold his share of the business to Ferlinghetti for $1000, moved to New York and started the New Yorker Bookstore which specialized in cinema.
In the late 1960s, Ferlinghetti hired Joseph Wolberg, former philosophy professor at SUNY Buffalo, to manage the bookstore. Wolberg is credited with organizing the once chaotically messy shelves and for convincing a cheap Ferlinghetti to install anti-shoplifting metal detectors. Through his connection to City Lights, Wolberg produced records for Beat poets such as Charles Bukowski and Shel Silverstein.
The logo for City Lights Bookstore is a medieval guild mark, chosen by Ferlinghetti, from Rudolf Koch's The Book of Signs.
1970s and 1980s
In 1971, Ferlinghetti persuaded Nancy Peters – who was working at the Library of Congress – to join in a project with him, after which she began full-time work at City Lights. She said:
In 1984, the business was in a financial crisis and Peters became a co-owner of it. Ferlinghetti credits her for the subsequent survival and growing success of the business. In 1999, with Ferlinghetti, she bought the building they worked in.
2000s
In 2001, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors made City Lights an official historic landmark – the first time this had been granted to a business, rather than a building – citing the organization for "playing a seminal role in the literary and cultural development of San Francisco and the nation." It recognized the bookstore as "a landmark that attracts thousands of book lovers from all over the world because of its strong ambiance of alternative culture and arts", and it acknowledged City Lights Publishers for its "significant contribution to major developments in post-World War II literature."
The building itself, with its clerestory windows and small mezzanine balcony, also qualified as a city landmark because of its "distinctive characteristics typical of small commercial buildings constructed following the 1906 earthquake and fire." The landmark designation mandates the preservation of certain external features of the building and its immediate surroundings. Peters commented (referring to the effect of dotcom and computer firms), "The old San Francisco is under attack to the point where it's disappearing."
By 2003, the store had 15 employees. Peters estimated that the year's profits would be only "maybe a thousand dollars." In 2007, after 23 years as executive director, she stepped down from the post, which was filled by Elaine Katzenberger; Peters remained on the board of directors. Peters said of her work at City Lights:
Present
As of 2017, City Lights is a general bookstore, specializing in fiction and poetry, cultural studies, world history, and politics. It offers three floors of new-release hardcovers and paperbacks from all major publishers, as well as a large selection of titles from smaller, independent publishers. City Lights is a member of the American Booksellers Association.
Publishing
In 1955, Ferlinghetti launched City Lights Publishers with his own Pictures of the Gone World, the first number in the Pocket Poets Series. This was followed in quick succession by Thirty Spanish Poems of Love and Exile translated by Kenneth Rexroth and Poems of Humor & Protest by Kenneth Patchen, but it was the impact of the fourth volume, Howl and Other Poems (1956) by Allen Ginsberg that brought national attention to the author and publisher.
City Lights Journal published poems of the Indian Hungry generation writers when the group faced police case in Kolkata. The group got worldwide publicity thereafter.
Apart from Ginsberg's seven collections, a number of the early Pocket Poets volumes brought out by Ferlinghetti have attained the status of classics, including True Minds by Marie Ponsot (1957), Here and Now by Denise Levertov (1958), Gasoline (1958) by Gregory Corso, Selected Poems by Robert Duncan (1959), Lunch Poems (1964) by Frank O'Hara, Selected Poems (1967) by Philip Lamantia, Poems to Fernando (1968) by Janine Pommy Vega, Golden Sardine (1969) by Bob Kaufman, and Revolutionary Letters (1971) by Diane di Prima.
In 1967 the publishing operation moved to 1562 Grant Avenue. Dick McBride ran this part of the business with his brother Bob McBride and Martin Broadley for several years.
In 1971, Nancy Peters joined Ferlinghetti as co-editor and publisher. He praised her as "one of the best literary editors in the country."
Over the years, the press has published a wide range of poetry and prose, fiction and nonfiction, and works in translation. In addition to books by Beat Generation authors, the press publishes literary work by such authors as Charles Bukowski, Georges Bataille, Rikki Ducornet, Paul Bowles, Sam Shepard, Andrei Voznesensky, Nathaniel Mackey, Alejandro Murguía, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Ernesto Cardenal, Daisy Zamora, Guillermo Gómez-Peña, Juan Goytisolo, Anne Waldman, André Breton, Kamau Daáood, Masha Tupitsyn, and Rebecca Brown. In 1965, the press published an anthology of texts by Antonin Artaud, edited by Jack Hirschman.
Associated from the outset with radical left-wing politics and issues of social justice, City Lights has in recent years augmented its list of political non-fiction, publishing books by Noam Chomsky, Michael Parenti, Howard Zinn, Cindy Sheehan, and Ward Churchill.
Howl
Ferlinghetti had heard Ginsberg read Howl in 1955 at the Six Gallery; the next day, he offered to publish it along with other shorter poems. William Carlos Williams — who was Ginsberg's childhood Pediatrician and himself a future Pocket Poet with a 1957 edition of his early modernist classic, Kora in Hell (1920) — was recruited for an introduction, perhaps to lend literary justification to Howl'''s depictions of drug use and homosexuality. Prior to publication, Ferlinghetti had asked, and received, assurance from the American Civil Liberties Union that the organization would defend him, should he be prosecuted for obscenity.
Published in November 1956, Howl was not long in generating controversy. In March 1957, local Collector of Customs Chester MacPhee seized a shipment from England of the book's second printing on grounds of obscenity, but he was compelled to release the books when federal authorities refused to confirm his charge. But the troubles were just beginning, for in June of that year, local police raided City Lights Bookstore and arrested store manager Shigeyoshi Murao on the charge of offering an obscene book for sale. Ferlinghetti, then in Big Sur, turned himself in on his return to San Francisco. Both faced a possible $500 fine and a 6-month sentence. (Ginsberg was in Tangiers at the time, and not charged.) The ACLU posted bail, assigned defense counsel Albert Bendich to the case, and secured the pro bono services of famous criminal defense lawyer J. W. Ehrlich.
The municipal court trial, presided over by Judge Clayton W. Horn, ran from August 16 to September 3, 1957. The charges against Murao were dismissed since it couldn't be proved that he knew what was in the book. Then, during the trial of Ferlinghetti, respected writers and professors testified for the defense. Judge Horn rendered his precedent-setting verdict, declaring that Howl was not obscene and that a book with "the slightest redeeming social importance" merits First Amendment protection. Horn's decision established the precedent that paved the way for the publication of such hitherto banned books as D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover and Henry Miller's Tropic of Cancer. The media attention resulting from the trial stimulated national interest, and, by 1958, there were 20,000 copies in print. Today there are over a million. Ginsberg continued to publish his major books of poetry with the press for the next 25 years. Even after the publication by Harper & Row of his Collected Poems in 1980, he would continue his warm association with City Lights, which served as his local base of operations, for the rest of his life.
See also
List of San Francisco Designated Landmarks
Notes and references
External links
Landmark status likely for beatnik-era bookstore, a June 2001 CNN article
And the Beats Go On, a June 2001 article from the San Francisco Chronicle''
Poetry Landmark: The City Lights Bookstore, from the website of the Academy of American Poets
Guide to the records of City Lights Books at The Bancroft Library
Paul Yamazaki , Chief Buyer at the Bookshop had a conversation with Rishabh Chaddha(Contributing Writer/Correspondent) about Bookselling Business Ecosystem. When and how City Lights Books came into existence , how it became such a historical landmark. What was the mission and vision Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Peter Martin had projected when they founded this book heaven.
Bookstores in the San Francisco Bay Area
Beat Generation
Buildings and structures in San Francisco
Independent bookstores of the United States
Retail buildings in California
Book publishing companies based in San Francisco
Bookstores established in the 20th century
Retail companies established in 1953
1953 establishments in California
American companies established in 1953
San Francisco Designated Landmarks
Chinatown, San Francisco | [
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241912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grant%20Green | Grant Green | Grant Green (June 6, 1935 – January 31, 1979) was an American jazz guitarist and composer.
Recording prolifically for Blue Note Records as both leader and sideman, Green performed in the hard bop, soul jazz, bebop, and Latin-tinged idioms throughout his career. Critics Michael Erlewine and Ron Wynn write, "A severely underrated player during his lifetime, Grant Green is one of the great unsung heroes of jazz guitar ... Green's playing is immediately recognizable – perhaps more than any other guitarist." Critic Dave Hunter described his sound as "lithe, loose, slightly bluesy and righteously groovy". He often performed in an organ trio, a small group featuring a Hammond organ and drummer.
Apart from fellow guitarist Charlie Christian, Green's primary influences were saxophonists, particularly Charlie Parker, and his approach was therefore almost exclusively linear rather than chordal. He thus rarely played rhythm guitar except as a sideman on albums led by other musicians. The simplicity and immediacy of Green's playing, which tended to avoid chromaticism, derived from his early work playing rhythm and blues and, although he achieved a synthesis of this style with bop, he was a highly skilled blues and funk guitarist and returned to this style in his later career.
Biography
Grant Green was born on June 6, 1935 in St. Louis, Missouri to John and Martha Green. His father was at various times a laborer and a Saint Louis policeman.
Green first performed in a professional setting at the age of 13 as a member of a gospel music ensemble. His influences were Charlie Christian, Charlie Parker, Lester Young, and Jimmy Raney, he first played boogie-woogie before moving on to jazz. His first recordings in St. Louis were with tenor saxophonist Jimmy Forrest for the United label, where Green played alongside drummer Elvin Jones. Green recorded with Jones for several albums in the mid-1960s. In 1959, Lou Donaldson discovered Green playing in a bar in St. Louis hired him for his touring band. Green moved to New York at some point during 1959–60.
Lou Donaldson introduced Green to Alfred Lion of Blue Note Records. Lion was so impressed that, rather than first using Green as a sideman, as was the usual Blue Note practice, Lion arranged for him to record initially as a group leader. However, due to Green's lack of confidence the initial recording session was only released in 2001 as First Session.
Despite the shelving of his first session, Green's recording relationship with Blue Note was to last, with a few exceptions, throughout the 1960s. From 1961 to 1965, Green made more appearances on Blue Note LPs, as leader or sideman, than anyone else. Green's first issued album as a leader was Grant's First Stand. This was followed in the same year by Green Street and Grantstand. Grant was named best new star in the Down Beat critics' poll, in 1962. He often provided support to the other important musicians on Blue Note, including saxophonists Hank Mobley, Ike Quebec, Stanley Turrentine and organist Larry Young.
Sunday Mornin' , The Latin Bit and Feelin' the Spirit are all loose concept albums, each taking a musical theme or style: gospel, Latin and spirituals respectively. Grant always carried off his more commercial dates with artistic success during this period. Idle Moments (1963), featuring Joe Henderson and Bobby Hutcherson, and Solid (1964), are described by professional jazz critics as two of Green's best recordings.
Many of Grant Green's recordings were not released during his lifetime. These include several albums with pianist Sonny Clark recorded in 1961-1962 included in The Complete Grant Green & Sonny Clark released by Mosaic Records in 1997, and two albums from 1964 (Matador and Solid) that featured McCoy Tyner and Elvin Jones from the John Coltrane Quartet. In 1966 Green left Blue Note and recorded for several other labels, including Verve. From 1967 to 1969 Green was, for the most part, inactive due to personal problems and the effects of heroin addiction. In 1969 Green returned with a new funk-influenced band. His recordings from this period include the commercially successful Green Is Beautiful and the soundtrack to the film The Final Comedown.
Green left Blue Note again in 1974 and the subsequent recordings he made with other labels divide opinion: some consider Green to have been the 'Father of Acid Jazz' (and his late recordings have been sampled by artists including US3, A Tribe Called Quest and Public Enemy), while others have dismissed them (reissue producer Michael Cuscuna wrote in the sleeve notes for the album Matador: "During the 1970s [Green] made some pretty lame records").
Green spent much of 1978 in the hospital and, against the advice of doctors, went back on the road to earn money. While in New York to play an engagement at George Benson's Breezin' Lounge, he collapsed in his car of a heart attack and died on January 31, 1979. He was buried in Greenwood Cemetery in his hometown of St. Louis, Missouri, and was survived by six children. Since Green's death, his reputation has grown and many compilations exist, of both his earlier (post-bop/straight ahead and soul jazz) and later (funkier/dancefloor jazz) periods.
Equipment
Green used a Gibson ES-330, then a Gibson L7 with a Gibson McCarty pickguard/pickup, an Epiphone Emperor (with the same pickup) and finally had a custom-built D'Aquisto. According to fellow guitarist George Benson, Grant achieved his tone by turning off the bass and treble settings of his amplifier, and maximizing the midrange. This way he could get his signature punchy, biting tone.
Discography
References
External links
Grant Green discography project
Grant Green discography at Jazzlists
Playing Jazz Guitar in the Style of Grant Green
20th-century American guitarists
American jazz guitarists
African-American jazz guitarists
American male guitarists
Soul-jazz guitarists
Hard bop guitarists
Jazz-funk guitarists
Blue Note Records artists
Muse Records artists
Guitarists from Missouri
1935 births
1979 deaths
Musicians from St. Louis
Jazz musicians from Missouri
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians
CTI Records artists
African-American guitarists
20th-century African-American musicians | [
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241913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermographic%20camera | Thermographic camera | A thermographic camera (also called an infrared camera or thermal imaging camera, thermal camera or thermal imager) is a device that creates an image using infrared (IR) radiation, similar to a normal camera that forms an image using visible light. Instead of the 400–700 nanometre (nm) range of the visible light camera, infrared cameras are sensitive to wavelengths from about 1,000 nm (1 micrometre or μm) to about 14,000 nm (14 μm). The practice of capturing and analyzing the data they provide is called thermography.
History
Discovery and research of infrared radiation
Infrared was discovered in 1800 by Sir William Herschel as a form of radiation beyond red light. These "infrared rays" (infra is the Latin prefix for "below") were used mainly for thermal measurement. There are four basic laws of IR radiation: Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation, Stefan–Boltzmann law, Planck's law, and Wien's displacement law. The development of detectors was mainly focused on the use of thermometers and bolometers until World War I. A significant step in the development of detectors occurred in 1829, when Leopoldo Nobili, using the Seebeck effect, created the first known thermocouple, fabricating an improved thermometer, a crude thermopile. He described this instrument to Macedonio Melloni. Initially, they jointly developed a greatly improved instrument. Subsequently, Melloni worked alone, creating an instrument in 1833 (a multielement thermopile) that could detect a person 10 metres away. The next significant step in improving detectors was the bolometer, invented in 1880 by Samuel Pierpont Langley. Langley and his assistant Charles Greeley Abbot continued to make improvements in this instrument. By 1901, it could detect radiation from a cow from 400 metres away and was sensitive to differences in temperature of one hundred thousandths (0.00001 C) of a degree Celsius. The first commercial thermal imaging camera was sold in 1965 for high voltage power line inspections.
The first advanced application of IR technology in the civil section may have been a device to detect the presence of icebergs and steamships using a mirror and thermopile, patented in 1913. This was soon outdone by the first accurate IR iceberg detector, which did not use thermopiles, patented in 1914 by R.D. Parker. This was followed by G.A. Barker's proposal to use the IR system to detect forest fires in 1934. The technique was not genuinely industrialized until it was used to analyze heating uniformity in hot steel strips in 1935.
First thermographic camera
In 1929, Hungarian physicist Kálmán Tihanyi invented the infrared-sensitive (night vision) electronic television camera for anti-aircraft defense in Britain. The first American thermographic camera developed was an infrared line scanner. This was created by the US military and Texas Instruments in 1947 and took one hour to produce a single image. While several approaches were investigated to improve the speed and accuracy of the technology, one of the most crucial factors dealt with scanning an image, which the AGA company was able to commercialize using a cooled photoconductor.
The first infrared linescan system was the British Yellow Duckling of the mid-1950s. This used a continuously rotating mirror and detector, with Y-axis scanning by the motion of the carrier aircraft. Although unsuccessful in its intended application of submarine tracking by wake detection, it was applied to land-based surveillance and became the foundation of military IR linescan.
This work was further developed at the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment in the UK when they discovered that mercury cadmium telluride was a photoconductor that required much less cooling. Honeywell in the United States also developed arrays of detectors that could cool at a lower temperature, but they scanned mechanically. This method had several disadvantages which could be overcome using an electronic scanning system. In 1969 Michael Francis Tompsett at English Electric Valve Company in the UK patented a camera that scanned pyro-electronically and which reached a high level of performance after several other breakthroughs during the 1970s. Tompsett also proposed an idea for solid-state thermal-imaging arrays, which eventually led to modern hybridized single-crystal-slice imaging devices.
Smart sensors
One of the essential areas of development for security systems was for the ability to intelligently evaluate a signal, as well as warning of a threat's presence. Under the encouragement of the US Strategic Defense Initiative, "smart sensors" began to appear. These are sensors that could integrate sensing, signal extraction, processing, and comprehension. There are two main types of smart sensors. One, similar to what is called a "vision chip" when used in the visible range, allow for preprocessing using smart sensing techniques due to the increase in growth of integrated microcircuitry. The other technology is more oriented to specific use and fulfills its preprocessing goal through its design and structure.
Towards the end of the 1990s, the use of infrared was moving towards civilian use. There was a dramatic lowering of costs for uncooled arrays, which along with the significant increase in developments, led to a dual-use market encompassing both civilian and military uses. These uses include environmental control, building/art analysis, functional medical diagnostics, and car guidance and collision avoidance systems.
Theory of operation
Infrared energy is just one part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which encompasses radiation from gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, a thin region of visible light, infrared, terahertz waves, microwaves, and radio waves. These are all related and differentiated in the length of their wave (wavelength). All objects emit a certain amount of black body radiation as a function of their temperature.
Generally speaking, the higher an object's temperature, the more infrared radiation is emitted as black-body radiation. A special camera can detect this radiation in a way similar to the way an ordinary camera detects visible light. It even works in total darkness because ambient light level does not matter. This makes it useful for rescue operations in smoke-filled buildings and underground.
A major difference with optical cameras is that the focusing lenses cannot be made of glass, as glass blocks long-wave infrared light. Typically the spectral range of thermal radiation is from 7 to 14 μm. Special materials such as Germanium, calcium fluoride, crystalline silicon or newly developed special type of chalcogenide glasses must be used. Except for calcium fluoride all these materials are quite hard and have high refractive index (for germanium n=4) which leads to very high Fresnel reflection from uncoated surfaces (up to more than 30%). For this reason most of the lenses for thermal cameras have antireflective coatings. The higher cost of these special lenses is one reason why thermographic cameras are more expensive.
In use
Images from infrared cameras tend to be monochrome because the cameras generally use an image sensor that does not distinguish different wavelengths of infrared radiation. Color image sensors require a complex construction to differentiate wavelengths, and color has less meaning outside of the normal visible spectrum because the differing wavelengths do not map uniformly into the system of color vision used by humans.
Sometimes these monochromatic images are displayed in pseudo-color, where changes in color are used rather than changes in intensity to display changes in the signal. This technique, called density slicing, is useful because although humans have much greater dynamic range in intensity detection than color overall, the ability to see fine intensity differences in bright areas is fairly limited.
For use in temperature measurement the brightest (warmest) parts of the image are customarily colored white, intermediate temperatures reds and yellows, and the dimmest (coolest) parts black. A scale should be shown next to a false color image to relate colors to temperatures. Their resolution is considerably lower than that of optical cameras, mostly only 160 x 120 or 320 x 240 pixels, although more expensive cameras can achieve a resolution of 1280 x 1024 pixels. Thermographic cameras are much more expensive than their visible-spectrum counterparts, though low-performance add-on thermal cameras for smartphones became available for hundreds of dollars in 2014. Higher-end models are often deemed as dual-use and export-restricted, particularly if the resolution is 640 x 480 or greater, unless the refresh rate is 9 Hz or less. The export of thermal cameras is regulated by International Traffic in Arms Regulations. A thermal camera was first built into a smartphone in 2016, into the Cat S60.
In uncooled detectors the temperature differences at the sensor pixels are minute; a 1 °C difference at the scene induces just a 0.03 °C difference at the sensor. The pixel response time is also fairly slow, at the range of tens of milliseconds.
Thermography finds many other uses. For example, firefighters use it to see through smoke, find people, and localize hotspots of fires. With thermal imaging, power line maintenance technicians locate overheating joints and parts, a telltale sign of their failure, to eliminate potential hazards. Where thermal insulation becomes faulty, building construction technicians can see heat leaks to improve the efficiencies of cooling or heating air-conditioning.
Thermal imaging cameras are also installed in some luxury cars to aid the driver (automotive night vision), the first being the 2000 Cadillac DeVille.
Some physiological activities, particularly responses such as fever, in human beings and other warm-blooded animals can also be monitored with thermographic imaging. Cooled infrared cameras can be found at major astronomy research telescopes, even those that are not infrared telescopes.
Types
Thermographic cameras can be broadly divided into two types: those with cooled infrared image detectors and those with uncooled detectors.
Cooled infrared detectors
Cooled detectors are typically contained in a vacuum-sealed case or Dewar and cryogenically cooled. The cooling is necessary for the operation of the semiconductor materials used. Typical operating temperatures range from to just below room temperature, depending on the detector technology. Most modern cooled detectors operate in the 60 Kelvin (K) to 100 K range (-213 to -173 °C), depending on type and performance level.
Without cooling, these sensors (which detect and convert light in much the same way as common digital cameras, but are made of different materials) would be 'blinded' or flooded by their own radiation. The drawbacks of cooled infrared cameras are that they are expensive both to produce and to run. Cooling is both energy-intensive and time-consuming.
The camera may need several minutes to cool down before it can begin working. The most commonly used cooling systems are peltier coolers which, although inefficient and limited in cooling capacity, are relatively simple and compact. To obtain better image quality or for imaging low temperature objects Stirling engine cryocoolers are needed. Although the cooling apparatus may be comparatively bulky and expensive, cooled infrared cameras provide greatly superior image quality compared to uncooled ones, particularly of objects near or below room temperature. Additionally, the greater sensitivity of cooled cameras also allow the use of higher F-number lenses, making high performance long focal length lenses both smaller and cheaper for cooled detectors.
An alternative to Stirling engine coolers is to use gases bottled at high pressure, nitrogen being a common choice. The pressurised gas is expanded via a micro-sized orifice and passed over a miniature heat exchanger resulting in regenerative cooling via the Joule–Thomson effect. For such systems the supply of pressurized gas is a logistical concern for field use.
Materials used for cooled infrared detection include photodetectors based on a wide range of narrow gap semiconductors including indium antimonide (3-5 μm), indium arsenide, mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) (1-2 μm, 3-5 μm, 8-12 μm), lead sulfide, and lead selenide
Infrared photodetectors can be created with structures of high bandgap semiconductors such as in quantum well infrared photodetectors.
A number of superconducting and non-superconducting cooled bolometer technologies exist.
In principle, superconducting tunneling junction devices could be used as infrared sensors because of their very narrow gap. Small arrays have been demonstrated. They have not been broadly adopted for use because their high sensitivity requires careful shielding from the background radiation.
Superconducting detectors offer extreme sensitivity, with some able to register individual photons. For example, ESA's Superconducting camera (SCAM). However, they are not in regular use outside of scientific research.
Uncooled infrared detectors
Uncooled thermal cameras use a sensor operating at ambient temperature, or a sensor stabilized at a temperature close to ambient using small temperature control elements. Modern uncooled detectors all use sensors that work by the change of resistance, voltage or current when heated by infrared radiation. These changes are then measured and compared to the values at the operating temperature of the sensor.
Uncooled infrared sensors can be stabilized to an operating temperature to reduce image noise, but they are not cooled to low temperatures and do not require bulky, expensive, energy consuming cryogenic coolers. This makes infrared cameras smaller and less costly. However, their resolution and image quality tend to be lower than cooled detectors. This is due to differences in their fabrication processes, limited by currently available technology. An uncooled thermal camera also needs to deal with its own heat signature.
Uncooled detectors are mostly based on pyroelectric and ferroelectric materials or microbolometer technology. The material are used to form pixels with highly temperature-dependent properties, which are thermally insulated from the environment and read electronically.
Ferroelectric detectors operate close to phase transition temperature of the sensor material; the pixel temperature is read as the highly temperature-dependent polarization charge. The achieved NETD of ferroelectric detectors with f/1 optics and 320x240 sensors is 70-80 mK. A possible sensor assembly consists of barium strontium titanate bump-bonded by polyimide thermally insulated connection.
Silicon microbolometers can reach NETD down to 20 mK. They consist of a layer of amorphous silicon, or a thin film vanadium(V) oxide sensing element suspended on silicon nitride bridge above the silicon-based scanning electronics. The electric resistance of the sensing element is measured once per frame.
Current improvements of uncooled focal plane arrays (UFPA) are focused primarily on higher sensitivity and pixel density. In 2013 DARPA announced a five-micron LWIR camera that uses a 1280 x 720 focal plane array (FPA).
Some of the materials used for the sensor arrays are amorphous silicon (a-Si), vanadium(V) oxide (VOx), lanthanum barium manganite (LBMO), lead zirconate titanate (PZT), lanthanum doped lead zirconate titanate (PLZT), lead scandium tantalate (PST), lead lanthanum titanate (PLT), lead titanate (PT), lead zinc niobate (PZN), lead strontium titanate (PSrT), barium strontium titanate (BST), barium titanate (BT), antimony sulfoiodide (SbSI), and polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF).
Applications
Originally developed for military use during the Korean War, thermographic cameras have slowly migrated into other fields as varied as medicine and archeology. More recently, the lowering of prices has helped fuel the adoption of infrared viewing technology. Advanced optics and sophisticated software interfaces continue to enhance the versatility of IR cameras.
Agriculture, e.g., Seed-counting machine
Building inspection
Fault diagnosis and troubleshooting
Energy auditing of building insulation and detection of refrigerant leaks
Roof inspection
Home performance
Moisture detection in walls and roofs (and thus in turn often part of mold remediation)
Masonry wall structural analysis
Law enforcement and anti-terrorism
Quarantine monitoring of visitors to a country
Military and police target detection and acquisition: forward-looking infrared, infrared search and track
Condition monitoring and surveillance
Technical surveillance counter-measures
Thermal weapon sight
Search and rescue operations
Firefighting operations
Thermography (medical) - Medical testing for diagnosis
Veterinary thermal imaging
Program process monitoring
Quality control in production environments
Predictive maintenance (early failure warning) on mechanical and electrical equipment
Astronomy, in telescopes such as UKIRT, the Spitzer Space Telescope, WISE and the James Webb Space Telescope (launch planned for December 18, 2021)
Automotive night vision
Auditing of acoustic insulation for sound reduction
Chemical imaging
Data center monitoring
Electrical distribution equipment diagnosis and maintenance, such as transformer yards and distribution panels
Nondestructive testing
Research and development of new products
Pollution effluent detection
Locating pest infestations
Aerial archaeology
Flame detector
Meteorology (thermal images from weather satellites are used to determine cloud temperature/height and water vapor concentrations, depending on the wavelength)
Cricket Umpire Decision Review System. To detect faint contact of the ball with the bat (and hence a heat patch signature on the bat after contact).
Autonomous navigation
Malicious Applications
Thermal Attack is an approach that exploits heat traces left after interacting with interfaces, such as touchscreens or keyboards, to uncover the user's input .
Nighttime wildlife photography
Inspecting photovoltaic power plants
Specifications
Some specification parameters of an infrared camera system are number of pixels, frame rate, responsivity, noise-equivalent power, noise-equivalent temperature difference (NETD), spectral band, distance-to-spot ratio (D:S), minimum focus distance, sensor lifetime, minimum resolvable temperature difference (MRTD), field of view, dynamic range, input power, and mass and volume.
See also
Digital infrared thermal imaging in health care
Hyperspectral imaging
Infrared non-destructive testing of materials
Infrared photography
Ora, a 2011 3D film shot in HD thermography
Passive infrared sensor
Thermal imaging camera (firefighting)
Thermal weapon sight
Thermography
References
Cameras by type
Astronomical imaging
Surveillance
Infrared imaging
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241914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limehouse%20station | Limehouse station | Limehouse is a National Rail and connected Docklands Light Railway (DLR) station in Limehouse, London, England. It is served by regional services operated by c2c to and from Fenchurch Street, and by light metro services provided by the DLR to and from Tower Gateway or Bank. On the main line, Limehouse is located from Fenchurch Street and the following station is West Ham; on the DLR it is between Shadwell and Westferry in Travelcard Zone 2.
The station was opened by the Commercial Railway (later the London and Blackwall Railway) in 1840 with the name Stepney. At that time, the Commercial Railway had a separate station named Limehouse one stop to the east. Stepney was renamed Stepney East in 1923, and in 1926 the other Limehouse station was closed. Stepney East adopted the current Limehouse name in 1987, just before the DLR opened.
History
Early history (1840–1866)
The station was opened on 6 July 1840 by the Commercial Railway, located in the parish of Stepney within the hamlet of Ratcliff. It was named Stepney, lying between Shadwell and a separate station called Limehouse, located within the Limehouse parish. The initial train service operated between a temporary terminus at Minories and Blackwall until 2 August 1841 when Fenchurch Street opened; the Commercial Railway was then renamed the London and Blackwall Railway (LBR). The service was a rope-powered operation and it was not until 15 February 1849 that steam operation commenced.
On 28 September 1850 an extension was opened from Stepney to Bow, to join the LBR with the Eastern Counties Railway (ECR). Increasing congestion on the approaches to Fenchurch Street saw a third line proposed between Fenchurch Street and a junction at George Street (now called Boulcott Street). Discussions about a replacement started in 1853 but it was not until 1 April 1856 that plans were agreed by the LBR board.
In the meantime the London, Tilbury and Southend Railway (LTSR) was opened in 1854 operating trains via Stratford railway station to Fenchurch Street.
The replacement (existing) station was constructed with a set of platforms (the present-day platforms 1 and 2) to serve the Bow route (as it was then) whilst two further platforms were constructed for the Blackwall line (the Docklands Light Railway platforms occupy this site). It opened on 30 March 1856.
In 1858 LTSR trains started operating on the direct route from Barking rather than via the congested Stratford route. Twenty people were injured in a minor collision at the station on 22 November 1861. A Board of Trade report found a signaller's error the primary cause of the incident.
Great Eastern Railway ownership (1866–1922)
In 1866 the Great Eastern Railway (GER) took over the LBR on a long-lease and instigated a series of repairs and in 1869 provided improved signalling arrangements with a new signal box and interlocked signals and block working between adjacent signal boxes.
On 9 April 1871 a train from Bow ran through a signal and hit a Blackwall to Fenchurch Street train with the last coach being knocked off the viaduct and landing on a building below. A further accident in 1879 saw the Board of Trade inspector recommend the re-siting of the signal box which was duly provided in 1880.
With a frequent train service however Stepney was again the site of an accident in 1874 with 106 injuries, in 1889 where a LTSR locomotive derailed, and in 1892 where another LTSR locomotive was derailed but this time was hit by a GER locomotive killing the LTSR driver.
An improved building was provided on the down Bow platform in 1894. In 1895 the fourth line towards Fenchurch Street was opened which helped reduce the number of conflicting moves between trains and thus the risk of accidents. The GER further improved the station in 1900.
The LTSR became part of the Midland Railway in 1912.
London & North Eastern Railway ownership (1923–1947)
On 1 January 1923 the Midland Railway became part of the London Midland & Scottish Railway (LMS) which took over operation of the services to Southend and Tilbury.
The GER became part of the London & North Eastern Railway on this date and the station was renamed Stepney East on 1 July 1923 to avoid confusion with the Stepney station in Yorkshire.
The LBR platforms were closed on 3 May 1926 as passenger services were withdrawn and all services were routed via the Bow platforms. A few goods trains used the Blackwall route but the LBR platforms were demolished in circa 1936 and the junction simplified. The signalling was improved at this time as part of a major re-signalling with colour light signals from Fenchurch Street to Gas Factory Junction (east of Stepney).
Railway nationalisation (1948–1994)
On 20 February 1949 the whole LTS line was transferred to the Eastern Region, yet despite the organisational changes, the old LTSR still was a distinctive system operated by former LTS and LMS locomotives until electrification.
The route to Stratford via Bow Road was electrified in 1949 and it was at that time that the former GER suburban services ceased operating leaving Stepney East served only by trains to the former LTSR destinations. No public electric trains ran however until the old LTSR system was electrified in 1961–62 with full electric services commencing on 17 June 1962.
The junction to the Blackwall line was removed in 1952 although a siding remained on the viaduct (accessible from the Blackwall end) for scrap metal traffic from Regent Dock which finished in the old Blackwall platforms.
Between 1982 and 1992 the station was operated by Network SouthEast, one of British Rail's three passenger business sectors, before being handed over to a business unit in preparation for privatisation.
Docklands Light Railway opens (1987)
On 31 August 1987 the Docklands Light Railway, which operated over the old LBR line, commenced operations, with new platforms (platforms 3 and 4) built on the site of the old LBR platforms; the station had been renamed Limehouse on 11 May that year.
The platforms were extended in 1991 to accommodate the DLR's new and longer two-carriage trains.
The privatisation era (1994–present)
In April 1994 Railtrack became responsible for the maintenance of the infrastructure at Limehouse station. Railtrack was succeeded by Network Rail in 2002.
In May 1996 the franchise for the London, Tilbury and Southend line was awarded to Prism Rail by the Director of Passenger Rail Franchising for a 15-year period with an average annual subsidy of £18.4 million. It began operating as LTS Rail on 26 May 1996. Prism was bought out by National Express who named the franchise c2c in 2003 and continue to operate the station.
Since the opening of the DLR, Limehouse has become a well-used interchange for Essex and east London commuters who work in the Canary Wharf area, but the two viaducts remained separate, resulting in an awkward interchange between the DLR platforms and the National Rail platforms, as passengers had to pass down and then up flights of stairs. To remedy this, at least in part, a bridge was built to connect the westbound (London-bound) main line platform with the adjacent eastbound (Canary Wharf-bound) DLR platform. It was originally due for completion by the end of 2008, but was finally opened in November 2009. At the same time as the bridge was being built, other improvements were made, including readying the station for three-carriage operations on the DLR and the construction of an additional eastern entrance, with lifts and stairways for platform access.
Limehouse Curve
There was also a rail link on a curved viaduct to the east of the station known as the Limehouse Curve. This had opened on 5 April 1880 and was generally used for goods trains heading towards London's docks. There was a short-lived passenger train service between Blackwall and Palace Gates (via Stratford and Seven Sisters) which operated from 1 September 1880 until 1 March 1881. Some special excursion trains also used the curve about this time running from Blackwall to Southend and Southminster on summer Sundays in 1890 and 1891.
The Limehouse Curve was last used on 5 November 1962; on 10 May 1963 it was officially abandoned.
Design
Limehouse station is elevated on a pair of diverging viaducts, each carrying a pair of platforms – one pair for National Rail trains and one for the Docklands Light Railway. The National Rail platforms have one entrance accessed via a stairwell at the western end, while the DLR platforms have entrances at both the western and eastern ends, each equipped with stairwells and lifts. The westbound main line platform is connected to the eastbound DLR platform by a walkway bridge.
The station holds Secure Stations Scheme accreditation, and bicycle racks are provided underneath the DLR platforms by the western entrance. The ticket office is located within the station building under the main line platforms, and is managed by c2c; tickets can be retailed for National Rail services, the DLR and on Oyster card. Additional automatic ticket machines for DLR and Oyster cards are located under the DLR platforms at the foot of the stairways. There are automatic ticket barriers to the National Rail platforms, but not the DLR, meaning the bridge between the two sets of platforms has its own set of barriers.
Services
Limehouse is situated in London fare zone 2.
The typical off-peak frequency of National Rail services is:
Eastbound:
4 tph to Shoeburyness via Basildon.
2 tph to Grays via Rainham
2 tph to Southend Central via Ockendon
Westbound
8 trains per hour to Fenchurch Street.
The typical off-peak service frequency for the DLR is:
Eastbound
9 tph to Lewisham
6 tph to Beckton
6 tph to Woolwich Arsenal
Westbound
15 tph to Bank
6 tph to Tower Gateway
Connections
London Buses routes 15, 115, 135, D3 and night routes N15, N550 and N551 serve the station.
Notes
References
External links
Limehouse on the DLR website
Limehouse on the c2c website
National Rail website – Limehouse on the National Rail website
Docklands Light Railway stations in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets
Railway stations in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets
Former London and Blackwall Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1840
Railway stations served by c2c
Limehouse | [
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241915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westferry%20DLR%20station | Westferry DLR station | Westferry is a station on the Docklands Light Railway (DLR), at the junction of Limehouse Causeway and Westferry Road in Limehouse in London Docklands, England. The station is located in Travelcard Zone 2. To the west is Limehouse station, whilst to the east the DLR splits, with one branch going to Poplar station and the other to West India Quay station.
Location
The DLR station was built midway between the site of the old Limehouse and West India Docks stations on the disused London and Blackwall Railway. Limehouse Police Station is nearby, as is St Anne's Church, built by Nicholas Hawksmoor and boasting London's tallest church clock tower. The station is also close to Westferry Circus and Canary Wharf Pier.
Etymology
Westferry station is in Limehouse and given its proximity to the former Limehouse station on the London & Blackwall Railway, could have been given this name, but instead Stepney East was renamed Limehouse and the DLR station there given that name. West India Quay was reserved for the station at the other end of West India Dock, so there was no obvious choice.
There is no place called Westferry; the name is derived from the nearby Westferry Road. Nor was there ever a west ferry. There was a passenger ferry at the southern tip of the Isle of Dogs run by the Greenwich watermen. It was accessed by two roads, East Ferry Road (also known locally as Farm Road) and Westferry Road, built in 1812 when a horse ferry was introduced alongside the passenger ferry. The two roads still exist, running down the centre and west side of the Isle of Dogs respectively. But the road names refer to an ancient service at the far end of the Isle of Dogs from the station.
Connections
London Buses routes 135, 277, D3, D7 and night routes N277 and N550 serve the station.
References
External links
Docklands Light Railway website - Westferry station page
Docklands Light Railway stations in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1987
Limehouse | [
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241920 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20German | Edward German | Sir Edward German (17 February 1862 – 11 November 1936) was an English musician and composer of Welsh descent, best remembered for his extensive output of incidental music for the stage and as a successor to Arthur Sullivan in the field of English comic opera. Some of his light operas, especially Merrie England, are still performed.
As a youth, German played the violin and led the town orchestra of Whitchurch, Shropshire. He also began to compose music. While performing and teaching violin at the Royal Academy of Music, German began to build a career as a composer in the mid-1880s, writing serious music as well as light opera. In 1888, he became music director of Globe Theatre in London. He provided popular incidental music for many productions at the Globe and other London theatres, including Richard III (1889), Henry VIII (1892) and Nell Gwynn (1900). He also wrote symphonies, orchestral suites, symphonic poems and other works. He also wrote a considerable body of songs, piano music, and symphonic suites and other concert music, of which his Welsh Rhapsody (1904) is perhaps best known.
German was engaged to finish The Emerald Isle after the death of Arthur Sullivan in 1900, the success of which led to more comic operas, including Merrie England (1902) and Tom Jones (1907). He also wrote the Just So Song Book in 1903 to Rudyard Kipling's texts and continued to write orchestral music. German wrote little new music of his own after 1912, but he continued to conduct until 1928, the year in which he was knighted.
Life and career
German was born German Edward Jones in Whitchurch, Shropshire, the second of five children and older of two sons of John David Jones, a liquor merchant, brewer, church organist and lay preacher at the local Congregational chapel, and Elizabeth (Betsy) Cox (died 1901), a teacher of Bible classes for young women. His first name was an anglicised form of the Welsh name "Garmon." His parents called him Jim. He began to study piano and organ with his father at the age of five. At the age of six, he formed a boys' concert band to perform locally, teaching himself the violin, composition, and music arrangement in the process. He later sang alto in the church choir and participated in family entertainments above his uncle's grocery shop, often playing piano duets and performing comic sketches with his elder sister, Ruth, who died when he was 15. He also wrote comic poems. His younger sisters were named Mabel and Rachel.
In his mid-teens, German's parents attempted to apprentice him to a shipbuilding firm, as they believed their son had an aptitude for engineering. His studies at a boarding-school in Chester had been delayed by a serious illness, however, and so he was turned away as too old to begin an apprenticeship. In his teens he formed a second band, a quintette, including himself on the violin, his sister on the pianoforte or the bass, and three friends of the family. He prepared the orchestrations for this band. He also led the town orchestra, did some amateur acting, and sang comic songs in local village halls.
The Royal Academy
At the age of 18, he studied privately with Walter Cecil Hay, the conductor of the Whitchurch choral society and director of music at St Chad's, Shrewsbury. German entered the Royal Academy of Music, where he eventually changed his name to J. E. German (and later simply Edward German) to avoid confusion with another student named Edward Jones. He continued his studies of violin and organ, also beginning a more formal study of composition under Ebenezer Prout. Many of German's student works were played at Academy concerts.
In 1884, the Academy appointed German a sub-professor of the violin. During his time as an instructor, he was well regarded and won several medals and prizes, such as the Tubbs Bow for his skill with the violin. In 1885, he won the Charles Lucas Medal for his Te Deum for soloists, choir and organ, leading him to change his focus from violin to composition. He soon wrote a light opera, The Two Poets (for four soloists and piano), in 1886, which was produced at the Academy and then performed at St. George's Hall. In 1887, his first symphony, in E Minor, was also performed at the Academy. In 1890 he conducted a revised version of this symphony at the Crystal Palace, while The Two Poets toured successfully in England.
During his time at the Royal Academy, German taught at Wimbledon School and played the violin in theatre orchestras, including the Savoy Theatre. He visited Germany in 1886 and 1888–89 and was impressed by its opera, particularly at Bayreuth. His circle of close friends at the Academy included Dora Bright and Ethel Mary Boyce (1863–1936) from Chertsey, Surrey. He and Boyce became engaged. She was also a promising composition student and won the Lady Goldsmid scholarship in 1885, the Sterndale Bennett Prize in 1886 and the Charles Lucas Medal in 1889. Although the engagement was broken off, they remained friends. German never married.
Plays and orchestral music
After leaving the Academy, German continued to teach at Wimbledon School and to play the violin in orchestras at various London theatres, including the Savoy. In 1888, an introduction by conductor Alberto Randegger to theatre manager Richard Mansfield led to German's appointment as conductor and musical director at the Globe Theatre in London. There he improved the orchestra and began providing incidental music for the theatre's lavish productions, starting with Richard III in 1889. This music was well received (The Times called for a concert suite to be arranged), and the overture soon became popular in concert halls. This eventually led to other incidental music commissions that gained success. In 1892, German composed music for a production of Henry Irving's version of Henry VIII at the Lyceum Theatre, London, where he incorporated elements of traditional old English dance. Within a year, sheet music of the dance numbers from the play's score had sold 30,000 copies. German was by then in great demand to write music for plays. His commissions included Henry Arthur Jones's The Tempter in 1893, Johnston Forbes-Robertson's Romeo and Juliet at the Lyceum in 1895, Herbert Beerbohm Tree's productions of As You Like It (1896) and Much Ado about Nothing (1898), and Anthony Hope's English Nell (later known as Nell Gwynn) in 1900, starring Marie Tempest.
At the same time, German was writing music for the concert hall, sometimes adapting music from his theatrical scores. His Gipsy Suite met with success similar to that of his overture to Richard III and his popular Henry VIII and Nell Gwynn dances. All were written in "a distinctive, if limited, 'olde English' manner, a species of musical mock Tudor with which German came to be particularly associated." He also wrote a number of successful drawing-room songs and solo piano pieces during this time. The success of German's theatrical and concert hall music led to his receiving commissions from orchestral music festivals, including his second symphony for the Norwich Festival in 1893. The young critic George Bernard Shaw complained that German's symphonies were limited by the composer's indulgence in a theatricality out of place in symphonic writing. German was thin-skinned, and after receiving this criticism, he wrote no more symphonies. German tried to avoid this charge in the future by characterising his large-scale four-movement works as "symphonic suites". Successful orchestral works included suites for the Leeds Festival in 1895 and The Seasons for Norwich in 1899, and a symphonic poem, Hamlet, at Birmingham in 1897, conducted by Hans Richter. He had planned a violin concerto for the 1901 Leeds Festival, but this was never completed, as German instead turned to light opera. In 1902, he produced a Rhapsody on March Themes for the Brighton Festival.
Comic operas
Though German had little experience with opera or choral music, Richard D'Oyly Carte invited him to finish Arthur Sullivan's The Emerald Isle for the Savoy Theatre after Sullivan's death in 1900. He accepted, giving up his violin concerto commission for the Leeds Festival to meet the deadlines. The success of his score for the opera (which was performed into the 1920s) opened up a new career for him. His next comic opera, in 1902, was Merrie England, with Basil Hood, the librettist for The Emerald Isle. This was perhaps German's greatest success, and its dance music was popular separately. It was revived frequently, becoming a light-opera standard in Britain, while several of its songs, including "The English Rose", "O Peaceful England" and "The Yeomen of England", remained popular until the middle of the 20th century. Merrie England has been so frequently chosen by amateur groups in England that it probably has been performed more often than any other British opera or operetta written in the 20th century.
After this, German and Hood collaborated again in 1903 to write A Princess of Kensington. This opera was unsuccessful, although it toured briefly and had a New York production. German turned to other endeavours, composing music to Rudyard Kipling texts, including the twelve songs in the Just So Song Book in 1903. He also received a steady flow of orchestral commissions, leading to works such as his Welsh Rhapsody for the Cardiff Festival in 1904, featuring as its climax "Men of Harlech".
German returned to writing comic operas, achieving another success with Tom Jones for the Apollo Theatre in 1907, produced by Robert Courtneidge for the Fielding bicentenary. The score is one of German's finest works. It received a production in New York, with German conducting, and was performed for decades, spawning separate performances of its dance music. He next collaborated with W. S. Gilbert on his final (and unsuccessful) opera, Fallen Fairies, at the Savoy in 1909. With German's agreement, Gilbert cast his protege, Nancy McIntosh, as the Fairy Queen, Selene. Critics found her performance weak. Shortly after the opening, the producer C. H. Workman, acting at the request of the syndicate he had gathered, replaced McIntosh with Amy Evans and asked for restoration of a song that Gilbert had cut during rehearsals. Gilbert was outraged and threatened to sue, demanding that German join him. This placed German in a distressing position, and the composer, who habitually preferred to avoid legal battles, declined. In maintaining the Savoy tradition of comic opera, German was composing a style of piece for which public taste had dwindled as fashions in musical theatre had changed with the new century.
Later years
In the wake of the failure of Fallen Fairies and his unhappy experience with it, German effectively ended his career as a composer of new works, only returning to composition on a few rare occasions. In 1911 he became the first composer to write music for a British film; he was commissioned for 50 guineas to write 16 bars of music for the coronation scene in the film Henry VIII. The same year, he composed his march and hymn for the coronation of King George V.
Among the few works of his later years was the Theme and Six Diversions in 1919, and his final major work, the Othello-inspired tone poem The Willow Song in 1922. After that, German all but ceased composing. Correspondence shows that he felt uncomfortable with the changing musical styles, such as jazz and modernist classical music. Like Sullivan before him, he regretted that his popularity stemmed mostly from his comic operas. However, German was a perfectionist and continually revised his works and produced new arrangements for publication. He also recorded some of them and encouraged their production and broadcast on the radio.
German lived, from 1886, in Hall Road, Maida Vale, near Lord's Cricket Ground, London, where he was an avid enthusiast of that game. He lived a quiet life, enjoying walking, cycling and fishing, though he often attended the theatre. He developed a strong friendship with Sir Edward Elgar. German was injured in a road accident during World War I, but continued to be a highly sought-after conductor, accepting many conducting engagements, until he suffered an eye condition that left him blind in his right eye in 1928. He was the first British conductor invited by Dan Godfrey to conduct his own music at Bournemouth. Beginning in 1916, he was also one of the first composers to conduct his own music for recording, producing full renderings of Merrie England and Theme and Six Diversions.
German was knighted in 1928, when the respect in which he was held by fellow musicians was shown by the number of eminent musicians who attended the celebratory dinner, including Elgar, Sir Alexander Mackenzie, Sir Hugh Allen, Sir Landon Ronald, and Lord Berners. In 1934 German received the Royal Philharmonic Society's highest honour, its gold medal, presented by Sir Thomas Beecham at an RPS concert. He was elected an Honorary Freeman of the Worshipful Company of Musicians in 1936, and he was a leader of the Performing Rights Society, which fought for composers' rights to fair compensation for the performances of their works.
German died of prostate cancer at his Maida Vale home, aged 74. He was cremated at Golders Green, and his ashes are interred in the Whitchurch cemetery. He left an estate valued at £56,191.
Legacy
German lived long enough to witness the beginning of a decline in the popularity of his orchestral works. A note found after his death bears this poignant message: "I die a disappointed man because my serious orchestral works have not been recognised". However, his best-known orchestral pieces continued to see occasional performances, and his light operas Merrie England and Tom Jones were kept alive by the productions of amateur companies. Beecham recorded his Gipsy Suite in 1956. A recording of his Richard III, Theme and Six Diversions and The Seasons was released by Naxos in 1994, conducted by Andrew Penny. The first complete professional recording of Tom Jones followed in 2009. Dutton Epoch released a selection of German's music, including his Symphony No. 2, in 2007, and a recording of some of his incidental music for plays, together with two marches and a hymn in 2012.
Analysis
The music scholar David Russell Hulme wrote of German that French influences are clearly apparent in his music "and there are even occasional reminders of Tchaikovsky, but paradoxically he was, like Elgar, a stylistic cosmopolitan who wrote music that is quintessentially English." Hulme also observes that though he is seen as Sullivan's successor, German's music is quite different in style, and his lyric ballads especially show "a romantic warmth that struck a new note in British operetta". The Times argued that German was so frequently spoken of as Sullivan's successor that his contemporaries failed to notice that he was "an artist of genius" in his own right. Many of German's colleagues in the musical establishment did, however, find his work to be of the highest quality, including Elgar and Sir John Barbirolli. Hulme writes that "German's orchestral music certainly does not deserve the neglect it has suffered, for it still has much to offer modern audiences. Beautifully crafted, colourful and vital, its pleasing and distinctive personality is still capable of inspiring the kind of affectionate regard it once so readily kindled."
German's music often reflected a romanticised Shakespearian or semi-mythical English merry-making past. This appealed to contemporary taste, as his Three Dances from 'Henry VIII (1892) was the most frequently performed English orchestral work in the first decade of The Proms, with well over 30 performances between 1895 and 1905, and his Three Dances from 'As You Like It (1896) were similarly popular.
Edward German Festival
The first Edward German Festival was held in 2006 in German's birth town, Whitchurch, Shropshire. Events included performances by festival patron and cellist, Julian Lloyd Webber and a concert version of German's best-known work, Merrie England. Another festival was held on 23–28 April 2009, sponsored by the Friends of Whitchurch Heritage. This programme included a concert version of Tom Jones (for which a new recording was released by Naxos in 2009) and a school adaptation of Merrie England. Other events featured clarinettist Emma Johnson, German scholar David Russell Hulme and the Hallé Orchestra.
Works
Operas
The Two Poets (1886), later revised as The Rival Poets (1901)
The Emerald Isle (1901; completion of the opera left unfinished by Sullivan at his death)
Merrie England (1902)
A Princess of Kensington (1903)
Tom Jones (1907)
Fallen Fairies (1909)
Incidental music to plays
Richard III (1889)
Henry VIII (1892)
The Tempter (1893)
Romeo and Juliet (1895)
Michael and his Lost Angel (1896)
As You Like It (1896)
Much Ado about Nothing (1898)
English Nell (1900), later known as Nell Gwyn
The Conqueror (1905)
Orchestral
The Guitar (1883)
Bolero (1883)
Symphony No 1 in E minor (1887)
March Solennelle (1891)
On German Airs (1891)
Gipsy Suite (1892)
Symphony No 2 ("Norwich") in A minor (1893)
Symphonic Suite in D minor ("Leeds") (1895)
In Commemoration (1897) [revised in 1902 as March Rhapsody on Original Themes]
Hamlet, Symphonic Poem (1897)
The Seasons, Symphonic Suite (1899)
Welsh Rhapsody (1904)
Coronation March and Hymn (1911)
The Irish Guards (1918)
Theme and Six Diversions (1919)
The Willow Song (1922)
Cloverley Suite (1934)
Choral works and part songs
Te Deum in F (1885)
The Chase (1886)
Antigone (c 1887)
O Lovely May (1894)
Who is Sylvia? (1894)
Banks of the Bann (1899)
Just So Songs (originally written for solo voice in 1903, part-song arrangements by the composer from 1916–1933)
Canada Patriotic Hymn (1904)
O Peaceful Night (1904)
Introit: Bread of Heaven (1908)
Grace: Non Nobis Domine (1911)
Pure as the Air (1911)
The Three Knights (1911)
Beauteous Morn (1912)
In Praise of Neptune (1912)
My Bonnie Lass (1912)
Sleeping (1912)
Sweet Day So Cool (1912)
Morning Hymn (1912)
Intercessory Hymn: Father Omnipotent (1915)
London Town (1920)
Rolling Down to Rio
Songs for solo voice
All Friends Around the Wrekin: A Song of Shropshire
Big Steamers
Be Well Assured (from The Fringes of the Fleet)
Have You News of My Boy Jack? (1916)
Charming Chloe
Cupid at the Ferry
Love the Pedlar
Sea Lullaby
Heigh Ho
Bird of Blue
Glorious Devon
Who'll Buy My Lavender?
Recompense
Piano
Suite for Pianoforte: "Impromptu", "Valse Caprice", "Bourrée", "Elegy", "Mazurka", "Tarantella" (1889)
Four Pianoforte Duets (1890)
Graceful Dance in F (1891)
Polish Dance (1891)
Valse in A Flat (1891)
Album Leaf (1892)
Intermezzo in A Minor (1892)
Valsette pour Piano (1892)
Minuet in G (1893)
Second Impromptu (1894)
Concert Study in A Flat (1894)
Gipsy Suite: Four Characteristic Dances -duet- (1895)
Melody in E Flat (1895)
Suite for Four Hands (1896)
"Columbine" Air de Ballet (1898)
Abendlied "Evensong" (1900)
Melody in E. "The Queen's Carol" (1905)
Violin
Nocturne (1882)
Chanson d'Amour (1880s)
Barcarolle (1880s)
Album Leaf (1880s)
Sprites' Dance (1880s)
Bolero (1883)
Scotch Sketch for 2 Violins and Pianoforte (1890)
Moto Perpetuo Pour Violin Accompagnement de Piano (1890)
Souvenir for Violin and Pianoforte (1896)
Song without Words (1898)
Three Sketches: "Valsette", "Souvenir", "Bolero" (1897)
Woodwind, chamber music and organ
Saltarello (for flute and piano) (1889)
Pastorale and Bourrée (for woodwinds) (1891)
Suite: Three Pieces (for woodwinds) (1892)
Andante and Tarantella (for woodwinds) (1892)
Romance (for woodwinds) (1892)
Intermezzo (for woodwinds) (1894)
Early One Morning (for woodwinds) (1900)
Trio in D for Violin, Violoncello, and Pianoforte (c. 1883)
Serenade (for chamber ensemble) (1890s)
Andante in B Flat (for organ) (1880s)
References
Sources
Further reading
Gänzl, Kurt. The encyclopaedia of the musical theatre, 2 vols. (1994)
Lamb, Andrew. "German, Sir Edward", New Grove Dictionary of Music
Parker, D. C. "Sir Edward German", RAM Magazine, No 179, 1961, pp. 31–33.
External links
Edward German at Allmusic
The Edward German Discography
Detailed biographical sketch from Naxos
"Edward German. A Biographical Sketch", The Musical Times, Vol. 45, No. 731, 1 January 1904, pp. 20–24
Hulme, David Russell. "Orpheus With His Lute: Sources of Edward German's Music for the Victorian and Edwardian Drama", Brio, Autumn/Winter 2000.
1862 births
1936 deaths
19th-century British composers
19th-century classical composers
19th-century male conductors (music)
19th-century conductors (music)
19th-century English musicians
20th-century British composers
20th-century British male musicians
20th-century classical composers
20th-century British conductors (music)
20th-century English musicians
Academics of the Royal Academy of Music
Alumni of the Royal Academy of Music
Composers awarded knighthoods
English classical composers
English conductors (music)
British male conductors (music)
English male classical composers
English opera composers
English people of Welsh descent
English Romantic composers
Knights Bachelor
Light music composers
Male opera composers
Musicians from Shropshire
People associated with Gilbert and Sullivan
People from Maida Vale
People from Whitchurch, Shropshire
Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medallists | [
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241921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clyde%20Best | Clyde Best | Clyde Cyril Best, MBE (born 24 February 1951) is a Bermudian former football player. He was one of the first black players in First Division football in England, scoring 47 goals as a striker for West Ham United between 1968 and 1976.
Early and personal life
Best moved from Bermuda to England at the age of 16, to play for West Ham United. Upon his arrival he was looked after by club captain Bobby Moore. He has credited Moore and fellow West Ham players Harry Redknapp and Billy Bonds with helping him deal with racist abuse.
Playing career
As one of England's first black footballers, Best was regularly targeted with racist chanting from the terraces, but eventually became a fan favourite at Upton Park. He was a strong, powerful player with the skills of the traditional English centre forward, tough to dispossess when he had the ball and good in the air. He made his debut for West Ham United in a 1–1 home draw against Arsenal on 25 August 1969 at the age of 18. His first goal for the Hammers came during League Cup competition, in a 4–2 win against Halifax Town, on 3 September 1969. In 1973 Best deputised for an injured Bobby Ferguson in goal against Leeds United. Best played 218 games and registered 58 goals for West Ham over 7 seasons between August 1969 and January 1976.
Best also played in the Dutch Eredivisie for Feyenoord where he was generally viewed as a failure, scoring only 3 goals in 23 matches, and in the United States for Tampa Bay Rowdies, Toronto Blizzard and Portland Timbers of the North American Soccer League. While playing for Tampa Bay in Soccer Bowl '75, he scored an 88th minute goal to secure the Rowdies' first NASL championship in a 2–0 victory over Portland Timbers. The following spring he led the Rowdies to the 1976 indoor title and was named tournament MVP. He was the Rowdies leading scorer for the brief 1976 indoor season with 11 goals, 5 assists for 27 points.
Managerial career
Best was an assistant coach for the San Diego Sockers for a brief period in the early 1990s. Best coached the Bermuda national team from 1997 to 1999.
Later life
After his coaching career finished he retired back to Bermuda.
Honours
Best was inducted into the Bermuda National Sports Hall of Fame in 2004. He was awarded an MBE in the 2006 New Year Honours list for services to football and the community in Bermuda.
References
External links
NASL/MISL stats
1951 births
Living people
People from Sandys Parish
Association football forwards
Bermudian footballers
Bermuda international footballers
West Ham United F.C. players
Tampa Bay Rowdies (1975–1993) players
Portland Timbers (1975–1982) players
Feyenoord players
Cleveland Force (original MISL) players
Toronto Blizzard (1971–1984) players
Los Angeles Lazers players
Bermudian expatriate footballers
Bermudian expatriate sportspeople in England
Bermudian expatriate sportspeople in Canada
Bermudian expatriates in the Netherlands
Bermudian expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Expatriate footballers in the Netherlands
Expatriate soccer players in Canada
Expatriate soccer players in the United States
English Football League players
Eredivisie players
Major Indoor Soccer League (1978–1992) players
North American Soccer League (1968–1984) indoor players
North American Soccer League (1968–1984) players
Pan American Games silver medalists for Bermuda
Bermudian football managers
Bermuda national football team managers
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Pan American Games medalists in football
Footballers at the 1967 Pan American Games
Race-related controversies in the United Kingdom
Outfield association footballers who played in goal
Medalists at the 1967 Pan American Games
Bermudian people of Barbadian descent
Association football coaches | [
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241925 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liche | Liche | Liche, also spelled Liché and Litché, was a settlement in Ethiopia in the late 19th and early 20th century. It was a major market town in Shoa and briefly served as that kingdom's capital. The future emperor Menelek was forced to move his court to Debra Bernam (modern Debre Berhan) in 1878 as part of his treaty with Yohannes IV.
References
Former populated places in Ethiopia
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241926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Gaugamela | Battle of Gaugamela | The Battle of Gaugamela (; ), also called the Battle of Arbela (), was a battle that took place in 331 BC between the forces of the Army of Macedon under Alexander the Great and the Persian Army under King Darius III. It was the second and final battle between the two kings, and is considered to be the final blow to the Achaemenid Empire, resulting in its complete conquest by Alexander.
The fighting took place in Gaugamela, which literally meant "The Camel's House", a village on the banks of the river Bumodus. The area today would be considered modern-day Arbil, Iraq according to Urbano Monti's world map. Alexander's army was heavily outnumbered and modern historians say that "the odds were enough to give the most experienced veteran pause". Despite the overwhelming odds, Alexander's army emerged victorious due to the employment of superior tactics and the clever usage of light infantry forces. It was a decisive victory for the League of Corinth, and it led to the fall of Achaemenid Empire and of Darius III.
Background
In November 333 BC, King Darius III had lost the Battle of Issus to Alexander the Great, which resulted in the subsequent capture of his wife, his mother and his two daughters; Stateira II and Drypetis. Alexander's victory at Issus had also given him complete control of southern Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). After the battle, King Darius retreated to Babylon where he regrouped with his remaining army that was there, on-site from a previous battle.
Alexander fought at the Siege of Tyre (332 BC), which lasted from January to July, and the victory resulted in his control of the Levant. Alexander then again fought at the Siege of Gaza, which resulted in Persian troop counts becoming very low. Due to this, the Persian satrap of Egypt, Mazaeus, peacefully surrendered to Alexander.
Negotiations between Darius and Alexander
Darius tried to dissuade Alexander from further attacks on his empire by diplomacy. Ancient historians provide different accounts of his negotiations with Alexander, which can be separated into three negotiation attempts.
Historians Justin, Arrian and Curtius Rufus, writing in the 1st and 2nd centuries, say that Darius had sent a letter to Alexander after the Battle of Issus. The letter demanded that Alexander withdraw from Asia as well as release all of his prisoners. According to Curtius and Justin, Darius offered a ransom for his prisoners, although Arrian does not mention a ransom. Curtius describes the tone of the letter as offensive, and Alexander refused his demands.
A second negotiation attempt took place after the capture of Tyre. Darius offered Alexander marriage with his daughter Stateira II, as well as all the territory west of the Halys River. Justin is less specific, and does not mention a specific daughter, and only speaks of a portion of Darius' kingdom. Diodorus Siculus (1st century Greek historian) likewise mentions the offer of all territory west of the Halys River, a treaty of friendship and a large ransom for Darius' captives. Diodorus is the only ancient historian who mentions the fact that Alexander concealed this letter and presented his friends with a forged one that was favorable to his own interests. Again, Alexander refused Darius' offers.
King Darius started to prepare for another battle with Alexander after the failure of the second negotiation attempt. Nevertheless, Darius made a third and final effort to negotiate with Alexander the Great after Alexander had departed from Egypt. Darius' third offer was much more generous. He praised Alexander for the treatment of his mother Sisygambis, offered him all territory west of the Euphrates, co-rulership of the Achaemenid Empire, the hand of one of his daughters and 30,000 talents of silver. In the account of Diodorus, Alexander explicitly deliberated this offer with his friends. Parmenion was the only one who spoke up, saying, "If I were Alexander, I should accept what was offered and make a treaty." Alexander reportedly replied, "So should I, if I were Parmenion." Alexander, in the end, refused the offer of Darius, and insisted that there could be only one king of Asia. He called on Darius to surrender to him or to meet him in battle in order to decide who would be the sole king of Asia.
The descriptions given by other historians of the third negotiation attempt are similar to the account of Diodorus, but differ in details. Diodorus, Curtius and Arrian write that an embassy was sent instead of a letter, which is also claimed by Justin and Plutarch (1st century). Plutarch and Arrian mention the ransom offered for the prisoners was 10,000 talents, but Diodorus, Curtius and Justin had given the figure of 30,000. Arrian writes that Darius' third attempt took place during the Siege of Tyre, but the other historians place the second negotiation attempt at that time. In spite of everything, with the failure of his negotiation attempts, Darius had now decided to prepare for another battle with Alexander.
Prelude
After settling affairs in Egypt, Alexander returned to Tyre during the spring of 331 BC. He reached Thapsacus in July or August. Arrian relates that Darius had ordered Mazaeus to guard the crossing of the Euphrates near Thapsacus with a force of 3,000 cavalry. He fled when Alexander's army approached to cross the river.
Alexander's march through Mesopotamia
After crossing the Euphrates, Alexander followed a northern route instead of a direct southeastern route to Babylon. While doing so he had the Euphrates and the mountains of Armenia on his left. The northern route made it easier to forage for supplies and his troops would not suffer the extreme heat of the direct route. Captured Persian scouts reported to the Macedonians that Darius had encamped past the Tigris River and wanted to prevent Alexander from crossing. Alexander found the Tigris undefended and succeeded in crossing it with great difficulty.
In contrast, Diodorus mentions that Mazaeus was only supposed to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. He would not have bothered to defend it because he considered it impassable due to the strong current and depth of the river. Furthermore, Diodorus and Curtius Rufus mention that Mazaeus employed scorched-earth tactics in the countryside through which Alexander's army had to pass.
After the Macedonian army had crossed the Tigris a lunar eclipse occurred. Following the calculations, the date must have been October 1 in 331 BC. Alexander then marched southward along the eastern bank of the Tigris. On the fourth day after the crossing of the Tigris his scouts reported that Persian cavalry had been spotted, numbering no more than 1000 men. When Alexander attacked them with his cavalry force ahead of the rest of his army, the Persian cavalry fled. Most of them escaped, but some were killed or taken prisoner. The prisoners told the Macedonians that Darius was not far away, with his encampment near Gaugamela.
Strategic analysis
Several researchers have criticized the Persians for their failure to harass Alexander's army and disrupt its long supply lines when it advanced through Mesopotamia. Classical scholar Peter Green thinks that Alexander's choice for the northern route caught the Persians off guard. Darius would have expected him to take the faster southern route directly to Babylon, just as Cyrus the Younger had done in 401 BC before his defeat in the Battle of Cunaxa. The use of the scorched-earth tactic and scythed chariots by Darius suggests that he wanted to repeat that battle. Alexander would have been unable to adequately supply his army if he had taken the southern route, even if the scorched-earth tactic had failed. The Macedonian army, underfed and exhausted from the heat, would then be defeated at the plain of Cunaxa by Darius. When Alexander took the northern route, Mazaeus must have returned to Babylon to bring the news. Darius most likely decided to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. This plan failed because Alexander probably took a river crossing that was closer to Thapsacus than Babylon. He would have improvised and chosen Gaugamela as his most favourable site for a battle. Historian Jona Lendering argues the opposite and commends Mazaeus and Darius for their strategy. Darius would have deliberately allowed Alexander to cross the rivers unopposed in order to guide him to the battlefield of his own choice.
Location
Darius chose a flat, open plain where he could deploy his larger forces, not wanting to be caught in a narrow battlefield as he had been at Issus two years earlier, where he could not deploy his huge army properly. Darius had his soldiers flatten the terrain before the battle, to give his 200 war chariots the best conditions. However, this did not matter. On the ground were a few hills and no bodies of water that Alexander could use for protection, and in the autumn the weather was dry and mild. The most commonly accepted opinion about the location is (), east of Mosul in modern-day northern Iraq – suggested by archeologist Sir Aurel Stein in 1938.
Size of Persian army
Modern estimates
It is possible that the Persian army could have numbered over 100,000 men. One estimate is that there were 25,000 peltasts, 10,000 Immortals, 2,000 Greek hoplites, 1,000 Bactrians, and 40,000 cavalry, 200 scythed chariots, and 15 war elephants. Hans Delbrück estimates Persian cavalry at 12,000 because of management issues, Persian infantry less than that of the Greek heavy infantry, and Greek mercenaries at 8,000. Warry estimates a total size of 91,000; Welman 90,000; Engels (1920); Green (1990) no larger than 100,000 and Thomas Harbottle 120,000.
Ancient sources
According to Arrian, Darius' force numbered 40,000 cavalry and 1,000,000 infantry, Diodorus Siculus put it at 200,000 cavalry and 800,000 infantry, Plutarch put it at 1,000,000 troops (without a breakdown in composition), while according to Curtius Rufus it consisted of 45,000 cavalry and 200,000 infantry. Furthermore, according to Arrian, Diodorus and Curtius, Darius had 200 chariots while Arrian mentions 15 war elephants. Included in Darius's infantry were about 2,000 Greek mercenary hoplites.
According to Arrian, Indian troops were also deployed. He explains that Darius III "obtained the help of those Indians who bordered on the Bactrians, together with the Bactrians and Sogdianians themselves, all under the command of Bessus, the Satrap of Bactria". The Indians in question were probably from the area of Gandāra. Indian "hill-men" are also said by Arrian to have joined the Arachotians under Satrap Barsentes, and are thought to have been either the Sattagydians or the Hindush.
While Darius had a significant advantage in numbers, most of his troops were of a lower quality than Alexander's. Alexander's pezhetairoi were armed with a six-metre pike, the sarissa. The main Persian infantry was poorly trained and equipped in comparison to Alexander's pezhetairoi and hoplites. The only respectable infantry Darius had were his 2,000 Greek hoplites and his personal bodyguard, the 10,000 Immortals. The Greek mercenaries fought in a phalanx, armed not with a heavy shield but with spears no longer than three metres, while the spears of the Immortals were two metres long. Among the other Persian troops, the most heavily armed were the Armenians, who were armed the Greek way and probably fought as a phalanx.
Size of Macedonian army
Alexander commanded Greek forces from his kingdom of Macedon and the Hellenic League, along with Greek mercenaries and levies from the Paeonian and Thracian tributary peoples. According to Arrian, his forces numbered 7,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry. Most historians agree that the Macedonian army consisted of 31,000 heavy infantry, including mercenaries and hoplites from other allied Greek states in reserve, with an additional 9,000 light infantry consisting mainly of peltasts with some archers. The size of the Greek mounted army was about 7,000.
The battle
Initial dispositions
The battle began with the Persians already present at the battlefield. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his Eastern satrapies and from allied Scythian tribes and deployed scythed chariots, for which he had ordered bushes and vegetation removed from the battlefield to maximize their effectiveness. He also had 15 Indian elephants supported by Indian chariots. However, the absence of any mention of those elephants during the battle and their later capture in the Persian camp indicate they were withdrawn. The reason might have been fatigue.
Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry, as was the tradition among Persian kings. He was surrounded by, on his right, the Carian cavalry, Greek mercenaries and Persian horse guards. In the right-center he placed Persian foot guards (Apple Bearers/Immortals to the Greeks), the Indian cavalry and his Mardian archers.
On both flanks were the cavalry. Bessus commanded the left flank with the Bactrians, Dahae cavalry, Arachosian cavalry, Persian cavalry, Susian cavalry, Cadusian cavalry and Scythians. Chariots were placed in front with a small group of Bactrians. Mazaeus commanded the right flank with the Syrian, Median, Mesopotamian, Parthian, Sacian, Tapurian, Hyrcanian, Caucasian Albanian, Sacesinian, Cappadocian and Armenian cavalry. The Cappadocians and Armenians were stationed in front of the other cavalry units and led the attack. The Albanian and Palestinian cavalry were sent around to flank the Greek left.
According to Curtius, the archers were all Amardi.
The Macedonians were divided into two, with the right side under the direct command of Alexander and the left of Parmenion. Alexander fought with his Companion cavalry. With it was the Paionian and Greek light cavalry. The mercenary cavalry was divided into two groups, veterans on the flank of the right and the rest in front of the Agrians and Greek archers, who were stationed next to the phalanx. Parmenion was stationed on the left with the Thessalians, Greek mercenaries and Thracian cavalry. There they were to conduct a holding action while Alexander launched the decisive blow from the right.
On the right-center were Cretan mercenaries. Behind them were Thessalian cavalry under Phillip, and Achaean mercenaries. To their right was another part of the allied Greek cavalry. From there came the phalanx, in a double line. Outnumbered over 5:1 in cavalry, with their line surpassed by over a mile, it seemed inevitable that the Greeks would be flanked by the Persians. The second line was given orders to deal with any flanking units should the situation arise. This second line consisted mostly of mercenaries.
Beginning of the battle
Alexander began by ordering his infantry to march in phalanx formation towards the center of the enemy line. The Macedonians advanced with the wings echeloned back at 45 degrees to lure the Persian cavalry to attack. While the phalanxes battled the Persian infantry, Darius sent a large part of his cavalry and some of his regular infantry to attack Parmenion's forces on the left.
During the battle Alexander employed an unusual strategy which has been duplicated only a few times. While the infantry battled the Persian troops in the centre, Alexander began to ride all the way to the edge of the right flank, accompanied by his Companion Cavalry. His plan was to draw as much of the Persian cavalry as possible to the flanks, to create a gap within the enemy line where a decisive blow could then be struck at Darius in the centre. This required almost perfect timing and maneuvering and Alexander himself to act first. He would force Darius to attack (as they would soon move off the prepared ground), though Darius did not want to be the first to attack after seeing what happened at Issus against a similar formation. In the end, Darius' hand was forced, and he attacked.
The cavalry battle in the Hellenic right wing
The Scythian cavalry from the Persian left wing opened the battle by attempting to flank Alexander's extreme right. What followed was a long and fierce cavalry battle between the Persian left and the Macedonian right, in which the latter, being greatly outnumbered, was often hard-pressed. However, by careful use of reserves and disciplined charges, the Greek troops were able to contain their Persian counterparts, which would be vital for the success of Alexander's decisive attack.
As told by Arrian:
Then the Scythian cavalry rode along the line, and came into conflict with the front men of Alexander's array, but he nevertheless still continued to march towards the right, and almost entirely got beyond the ground which had been cleared and levelled by the Persians. Then Darius, fearing that his chariots would become useless, if the Macedonians advanced into the uneven ground, ordered the front ranks of his left wing to ride round the right wing of the Macedonians, where Alexander was commanding, to prevent him from marching his wing any further. This being done, Alexander ordered the cavalry of the Grecian mercenaries under the command of Menidas to attack them. But the Scythian cavalry and the Bactrians, who had been drawn up with them, sallied forth against them and being much more numerous they put the small body of Greeks to rout. Alexander then ordered Aristo at the head of the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries to attack the Scythians, and the barbarians gave way. But the rest of the Bactrians, drawing near to the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries, caused their own comrades who were already in flight to turn and renew the battle; and thus they brought about a general cavalry engagement, in which more of Alexander's men fell, not only being overwhelmed by the multitude of the barbarians, but also because the Scythians themselves and their horses were much more completely protected with armour for guarding their bodies. Notwithstanding this, the Macedonians sustained their assaults, and assailing them violently squadron by squadron, they succeeded in pushing them out of rank.
The tide finally turned in the Greek favor after the attack of Aretes' Prodromoi, likely their last reserve in this sector of the battlefield. By then, however, the battle had been decided in the center by Alexander himself.
The Persians also who were riding round the wing were seized with alarm when Aretes made a vigorous attack upon them. In this quarter indeed the Persians took to speedy flight; and the Macedonians followed up the fugitives and slaughtered them.
Attack of the Persian scythed chariots
Darius now launched his chariots at those troops under Alexander's personal command; many of the chariots were intercepted by the Agrianians and other javelin-throwers posted in front of the Companion cavalry. Those chariots who made it through the barrage of javelins charged the Macedonian lines, which responded by opening up their ranks, creating alleys through which the chariots passed harmlessly. The Hypaspists and the armed grooms of the cavalry then attacked and eliminated these survivors.
Alexander's decisive attack
As the Persians advanced farther and farther to the Greek flanks in their attack, Alexander slowly filtered in his rear guard. He disengaged his Companions and prepared for the decisive attack. Behind them were the guard's brigade along with any phalanx battalions he could withdraw from the battle. He formed his units into a giant wedge, with him leading the charge. The Persian infantry at the center was still fighting the phalanxes, hindering any attempts to counter Alexander's charge. This large wedge then smashed into the weakened Persian center, taking out Darius' royal guard and the Greek mercenaries. Darius was in danger of being cut off, and the widely held modern view is that he now broke and ran, with the rest of his army following him. This is based on Arrian's account:
For a short time there ensued a hand-to-hand fight; but when the Macedonian cavalry, commanded by Alexander himself, pressed on vigorously, thrusting themselves against the Persians and striking their faces with their spears, and when the Macedonian phalanx in dense array and bristling with long pikes had also made an attack upon them, all things together appeared full of terror to Darius, who had already long been in a state of fear, so that he was the first to turn and flee.
Jona Lendering's view is that it was Darius' army that abandoned him; this view is based on an astronomical diary from Babylon written within days of the battle:
The twenty-fourth [day of the lunar month], in the morning, the king of the world [i.e., Darius] [erected his] standard [lacuna]. Opposite each other, they fought and a heavy defeat of the troops [of the king he inflicted]. The king [i.e., Darius], his troops deserted him and to their cities [they went]. They fled to the land of the Guti.
The left flank
Alexander could have pursued Darius at this point. However, he received desperate messages from Parmenion (an event that would later be used by Callisthenes and others to discredit Parmenion) on the left. Parmenion's wing was apparently encircled by the cavalry of the Persian right wing; being attacked from all sides, it was in a state of confusion. Alexander was faced with the choice of pursuing Darius and having the chance of killing him, ending the war in one stroke but at the risk of losing his army, or going back to the left flank to aid Parmenion and preserve his forces, thus letting Darius escape to the surrounding mountains. He decided to help Parmenion, and followed Darius later.
While holding on the left, a gap had opened up between the left and center of the Macedonian phalanx, due to Simmias' brigade of pezhetairoi being unable to follow Alexander in his decisive attack, as they were being hard-pressed. The Persian and Indian cavalry in the center with Darius broke through. Instead of taking the phalanx or Parmenion in the rear, however, they continued towards the camp to loot. They also tried to rescue the Queen Mother, Sisygambis, but she refused to go with them. These raiders were in turn attacked and dispersed by the rear reserve phalanx as they were looting.
What happened next was described by Arrian as the fiercest engagement of the battle, as Alexander and his companions encountered the cavalry of the Persian right, composed of Indians, Parthians and "the bravest and most numerous division of the Persians", desperately trying to get through to escape. Sixty Companions were killed in the engagement, and Hephaestion, Coenus and Menidas were all injured. Alexander prevailed, however, and Mazaeus also began to pull his forces back as Bessus had. However, unlike on the left with Bessus, the Persians soon fell into disorder as the Thessalians and other cavalry units charged forward at their fleeing enemy.
Aftermath
After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his bodyguard pursued Darius. As at Issus, substantial loot was gained, with 4,000 talents captured, the King's personal chariot and bow and the war elephants. It was a disastrous defeat for the Persians and one of Alexander's finest victories.
Darius managed to escape by horseback with a small corps of his forces remaining intact. The Bactrian cavalry and Bessus caught up with him, as did some of the survivors of the Royal Guard and 2,000 Greek mercenaries. At this point the Persian Empire was divided into two halves—East and West. On his escape, Darius gave a speech to what remained of his army. He planned to head further east and raise another army to face Alexander, assuming that the Greeks would head towards Babylon. At the same time he dispatched letters to his eastern satraps asking them to remain loyal.
The satraps, however, had other intentions. Bessus murdered Darius before fleeing eastwards. When Alexander discovered Darius murdered, he was saddened to see an enemy he respected killed in such a fashion, and gave Darius a full burial ceremony at Persepolis, the former ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire, before angrily pursuing Bessus, capturing and executing him the following year. The majority of the remaining satraps gave their loyalty to Alexander and were allowed to keep their positions. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is traditionally considered to have ended with the death of Darius.
References
Sources
Ancient sources
Modern sources
Further reading
External links
Livius.org tells the story of Alexander and quotes original sources. Favors a reconstruction of the battle which heavily privileges the Babylonian astronomical diaries.
History Channel
Livius.org provides a new scholarly edition of the Babylonian Astronomical Diary concerning the battle of Gaugamela and Alexander's entry into Babylon by R.J. van der Spek.
Gaugamela
Gaugamela
331 BC
Military history of Iraq
Erbil
330s BC conflicts
Invasions of Iran | [
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241937 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20Jackson%20Turner | Frederick Jackson Turner | Frederick Jackson Turner (November 14, 1861 – March 14, 1932) was an American historian during the early 20th century, based at the University of Wisconsin until 1910, and then Harvard University. He was known primarily for his frontier thesis. He trained many PhDs who became well-known historians. He promoted interdisciplinary and quantitative methods, often with an emphasis on the Midwest. His best known publication is his essay "The Significance of the Frontier in American History," the ideas of which formed the frontier thesis. He argued that the moving western frontier exerted a strong influence on American democracy and the American character from the colonial era until 1890. He is also known for his theories of geographical sectionalism. During recent years historians and academics have argued frequently over Turner's work; however, all agree that the frontier thesis has had an enormous effect on historical scholarship.
Early life, education, and career
Born in Portage, Wisconsin, the son of Andrew Jackson Turner and Mary Olivia Hanford Turner, Turner grew up in a middle-class family. His father was active in Republican politics, an investor in a railroad, and was a newspaper editor and publisher. His mother taught school. Turner was very much influenced by the writing of Ralph Waldo Emerson, a poet known for his emphasis on nature; so too was Turner influenced by scientists such as Charles Darwin, Herbert Spencer, and Julian Huxley, and the development of Cartography. He graduated from the University of Wisconsin (now University of Wisconsin–Madison) in 1884, where he was a member of the Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity.
He earned his PhD in history from Johns Hopkins University in 1890 with a thesis on the Wisconsin fur trade, titled "The Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wisconsin", directed by Herbert Baxter Adams. Turner did not publish extensively; his influence came from tersely expressed interpretive theories (published in articles), which influenced his hundreds of disciples. Two theories, in particular, were influential, the "Frontier Thesis" and the "Sectional Hypothesis".
Although he published little, he had an encyclopedic knowledge of American history, earning a reputation by 1910 as one of the two or three most influential historians in the country. He proved adept at promoting his ideas and his students, for whom he obtained jobs in major universities, including Merle Curti and Marcus Lee Hansen. He circulated copies of his essays and lectures to important scholars and literary people, published extensively in magazines, recycled favorite material, attaining the largest possible audience for major concepts, and wielded considerable influence within the American Historical Association as an officer and advisor for the American Historical Review. His emphasis on the importance of the frontier in shaping American character influenced the interpretation found in thousands of scholarly histories. By the time Turner died in 1932, 60% of the major history departments in the U.S. were teaching courses in frontier history compatible with Turner's theories.
Annoyed by the university regents who demanded less research and more teaching and state service, Turner sought an environment that would permit him to do more research. Declining offers from California, he accepted an offer from Harvard in 1910 and remained a professor there until 1922, being succeeded in 1924 by Arthur M. Schlesinger, Sr. In 1907 Turner was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society, and in 1911 he was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Turner was never comfortable at Harvard; when he retired in 1922 he became a visiting scholar at the Huntington Library in Los Angeles, where his note cards and files continued to accumulate, although few monographs got published. His The Frontier in American History (1920) was a collection of older essays.
As a professor of history at Wisconsin (1890–1910) and Harvard (1910–1922), Turner trained scores of disciples who in turn dominated American history programs throughout the country. His model of sectionalism as a composite of social forces, such as ethnicity and land ownership, encouraged historians to use social history to analyze social, economic and political developments of American history. At the American Historical Association, he collaborated with J. Franklin Jameson on numerous major projects.
Turner's theories became unfashionable during the 1960s, as critics complained that he neglected regionalism. They complained that he claimed too much egalitarianism and democracy for a frontier that was restrictive for women and minorities. After Turner's death his former colleague Isaiah Bowman had this to say of his work: "Turner's ideas were curiously wanting in evidence from field studies...He represents a type of historian who rests his case on documents and general impression rather than a scientist who goes out for to see." His ideas were never forgotten; indeed they influenced the new field of environmental history. Turner gave a strong impetus to quantitative methods, and scholars using new statistical techniques and data sets have, for example, confirmed many of Turner's suggestions about population movements. Turner believed that because of his own biases and the amount of conflicting historical evidence that any one method of historical interpretation would be insufficient, that an interdisciplinary method was the most accurate way to analyze history.
Works
Frontier thesis
Turner's frontier thesis was developed in a scholarly paper of 1893, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History", read before the American Historical Association in Chicago during the World's Columbian Exposition (Chicago World's Fair). He believed the spirit and success of the United States was associated directly with the country's westward expansion. Turner expounded an evolutionary model; he had been influenced by work with geologists at Wisconsin. The West, not the East, was where distinctively American characteristics emerged. The creation of the unique American identity occurred at the juncture between the "civilization" of settlement and the "savagery" of wilderness. This produced a new type of citizen – one with the power to "tame the wild" and one upon whom the wild had conferred strength and individuality. As each generation of pioneers relocated 50 to 100 miles west, they abandoned useless European practices, institutions and ideas, and instead found new solutions to new problems created by their new environment. Over multiple generations, the frontier produced characteristics of informality, violence, crudeness, democracy and initiative that the world recognized as "American".
Turner ignored gender, and he did not emphasize class. Historians of the 1960s and later stressed that race, class and gender were major influencers of history. The new generation stresses gender, ethnicity, professional categorization, and the contrasting victor and victim legacies of manifest destiny and colonial expansion. Most professional historians operating within the au courant postmodern paradigm now criticize Turner's frontier thesis and the theme of American exceptionalism. The disunity of the concept of the West and the similarity of American expansion to European colonialism and imperialism during the 19th century, and the lack of complete egalitarianism even on the frontier revealed the limits of Turnerian and exceptionalist paradigms.
Sectionalism
Turner's sectionalism essays are collected in The Significance of Sections in American History, which won the Pulitzer Prize in History in 1933. Turner's sectionalism thesis had almost as much influence among historians as his frontier thesis, but never became widely known to the general public as did the frontier thesis. He argued that different ethnocultural groups had distinct settlement patterns, and this revealed itself in politics, economics and society.
Influence and legacy
Turner's ideas influenced many types of historiography. Concerning the history of religion, for example, Boles (1993) notes that William Warren Sweet at the University of Chicago Divinity School argued that churches adapted to the characteristics of the frontier, creating new denominations such as the LDS Church, the Church of Christ, the Disciples of Christ, and the Cumberland Presbyterians. The frontier, they argued, created uniquely American institutions such as revivals, camp meetings, and itinerant preaching. This opinion dominated religious historiography for decades. Moos (2002) says that the 1910s to 1940s black filmmaker and novelist Oscar Micheaux incorporated Turner's frontier thesis into his work. Micheaux promoted the West as a place where blacks could transcend race and earn economic success through diligent work and perseverance.
Slatta (2001) maintains that the widespread popularization of Turner's frontier thesis influenced popular histories, motion pictures, and novels, which characterize the West in terms of individualism, frontier violence, and rough justice. Disneyland's Frontierland of the late 20th century represented the myth of rugged individualism that celebrated what was perceived to be the American heritage. The public has ignored academic historians', David J. Weber for example, anti-Turnerian models, largely because they conflict with and often destroy the legends of Western heritage. However, the work of historians during the 1980s–1990s, some of whom sought to discredit Turner's conception of the frontier and others who have sought to spare the concept while presenting a more balanced and nuanced version of it, have done much to place Western myths in context.
The Frederick Jackson Turner Award is given annually by the Organization of American Historians for an author's first scholarly book on American history.
Turner's former home in Madison, Wisconsin is located in what is now the Langdon Street Historic District.
In 2009 he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum.
Marriage, family, and death
Turner married Caroline Mae Sherwood in Chicago in November 1889. They had three children: only one survived childhood. Dorothy Kinsley Turner (later Main) was the mother of the historian Jackson Turner Main (1917–2003), a scholar of Revolutionary America who married a fellow scholar.
Frederick Jackson Turner died in 1932 in Pasadena, California, where he had been a research associate at the Huntington Library.
See also
Edward Alsworth Ross
Charles Henry Ambler – historian of West Virginia and student of Turner
Thomas Perkins Abernethy - student of Turner at Harvard; later a noted historian
Bibliography
Turner, Frederick Jackson. Edwards, Everett E. (comp.) The early writings of Frederick Jackson Turner, with a list of all his works. Compiled by Everett E. Edwards. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1938.
Turner, Frederick Jackson.
Turner, Frederick Jackson. ed. "Correspondence of the French ministers to the United States, 1791–1797" in American Historical Association. Annual report ... for the year 1903. Washington, 1904.
Turner, Frederick Jackson. "Is Sectionalism in America Dying Away?" (1908). American Journal of Sociology, 13: 661–675.
Turner, Frederick Jackson. "Social Forces in American History," presidential address before the American Historical Association American Historical Review, 16: 217–233.
Turner, Frederick Jackson. The Frontier in American History. New York: Holt, 1920.
Turner, Frederick Jackson. "The significance of the section in American history." Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 8, no. 3 (Mar 1925) pp. 255–280.
Turner, Frederick Jackson. The Significance of Sections in American History. New York: Holt, 1932.
Turner, Frederick Jackson. "Dear Lady": the letters of Frederick Jackson Turner and Alice Forbes Perkins Hooper, 1910–1932. Edited by Ray Allen Billington. Huntington Library, 1970.
Turner, Frederick Jackson. "Turner's Autobiographic Letter." Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 19, no. 1 (Sep 1935) pp. 91–102.
Turner, Frederick Jackson. America's Great Frontiers and Sections: Frederick Jackson Turner's Unpublished Essays edited by Wilbur R. Jacobs. University of Nebraska Press, 1965.
References
Sources
Hall, Patricia Kelly, and Steven Ruggles. "'Restless in the midst of Their Prosperity': New Evidence on the Internal Migration of Americans, 1850–2000. Journal of American History 2004 91(3): 829–846.
Hutton, T. R. C. "Beating a Dead Horse: the Continuing Presence of Frederick Jackson Turner in Environmental and Western History." International Social Science Review 2002 77(1–2): 47–57. online
Scharff, Virginia, et al. "Claims and Prospects of Western History: a Roundtable." Western Historical Quarterly 2000 31(1): 25–46. in Jstor.
Further reading
Billington, Ray Allen. "Why Some Historians Rarely Write History: A Case Study of Frederick Jackson Turner". The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 50, No. 1. (June, 1963), pp. 3–27. in JSTOR.
Billington, Ray Allen. America's Frontier Heritage (1984). detailed analysis of Turner's theories from social science perspective.
Billington, Ray Allen. ed,. The Frontier Thesis: Valid Interpretation of American History? (1966). The major attacks and defenses of Turner.
Billington, Ray Allen. Frederick Jackson Turner: Historian, Scholar, Teacher. (1973). full-scale biography.
Bogue, Allan G. Frederick Jackson Turner: Strange Roads Going Down. (1988) along with Billington (1973), the leading full-scale biography.
Burkhart, J. A. "The Turner Thesis: A Historian's Controversy". Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 31, no. 1 (Sep 1947), pp. 70–83.
Cronon, E. David. An Uncommon Professor: Frederick Jackson Turner at Wisconsin. Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 78, no. 4 (Summer 1995), pp. 276–293.
Cronon, William. "Revisiting the Vanishing Frontier: The Legacy of Frederick Jackson Turner". The Western Historical Quarterly, Vol. 18, No. 2 (Apr., 1987), pp. 157–176 online at JSTOR.
Curti, Merle E. "Frontier in American History: The Methodological Concepts of Frederick Jackson Turner" in Stuart Rice, ed. Methods in Social Science: A Case Book (1931) pp. 353–367. online edition.
Faragher, John Mack (ed.) Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner: The Significance of the Frontier in American History and Other Essays. New York: Holt, 1994.
Fernlund, Kevin Jon. "American Exceptionalism or Atlantic Unity? Frederick Jackson Turner and the Enduring Problem of American Historiography", New Mexico Historical Review, 89 (Summer 2014): 359–399.
Hofstadter, Richard. "Turner and the Frontier Myth", American Scholar (1949) 18#4 pp. 433–443 in JSTOR.
Hofstadter, Richard. The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1968); detailed critique of Turner.
Jacobs, Wilbur R. On Turner's Trail: 100 Years of Writing Western History (1994).
Jensen, Richard. "On Modernizing Frederick Jackson Turner: The Historiography of Regionalism". The Western Historical Quarterly, vol. 11, no. 3 (July 1980), 307–322. in JSTOR.
Limerick, Patricia N. "Turnerians All: The Dream of a Helpful History in an Intelligible World", American Historical Review, 100 (June 1995):697–716. in JSTOR.
Nichols, Roger L. American Frontier and Western Issues: A Historiographical Review (1986) online edition.
Steiner, Michael C. "From Frontier to Region: Frederick Jackson Turner and the New Western History". Pacific Historical Review'', 64 (November 1995): 479–501. in JSTOR.
External links
A biography of Frederick Jackson Turner
Frederick Jackson Turner at the Wisconsin Electronic Reader
1861 births
1932 deaths
19th-century American writers
19th-century historians
20th-century American historians
American male non-fiction writers
Environmental historians
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Harvard University faculty
Historians of the American West
Historians of the United States
Johns Hopkins University alumni
People from Portage, Wisconsin
Presidents of the American Historical Association
Pulitzer Prize for History winners
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty
People from San Marino, California
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Historians from California
Historians from Wisconsin
20th-century American male writers | [
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241938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penology | Penology | Penology (from "penal", Latin poena, "punishment" and the Greek suffix -logia, "study of") is a sub-component of criminology that deals with the philosophy and practice of various societies in their attempts to repress criminal activities, and satisfy public opinion via an appropriate treatment regime for persons convicted of criminal offences.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines penology as "the study of the punishment of crime and prison management," and in this sense it is equivalent with corrections.
Penology is concerned with the effectiveness of those social processes devised and adopted for the prevention of crime, via the repression or inhibition of criminal intent via the fear of punishment. The study of penology therefore deals with the treatment of prisoners and the subsequent rehabilitation of convicted criminals. It also encompasses aspects of probation (rehabilitation of offenders in the community) as well as penitentiary science relating to the secure detention and retraining of offenders committed to secure institutions.
Penology concerns many topics and theories, including those concerning prisons (prison reform, prisoner abuse, prisoners' rights, and recidivism), as well as theories of the purposes of punishment (deterrence, retribution, incapacitation and rehabilitation). Contemporary penology concerns itself mainly with criminal rehabilitation and prison management. The word seldom applies to theories and practices of punishment in less formal environments such as parenting, school and workplace correctional measures.
History
Historical theories were based on the notion that fearful consequences would discourage potential offenders. An example of this principle can be found in the Draconian law of Ancient Greece and the Bloody Code which persisted in Renaissance England, when (at various times) capital punishment was prescribed for over 200 offenses. Similarly, certain hudud offenses under Sharia hadith tradition may incur fearful penalties.
Modern theories of the punishment and rehabilitation of offenders are broadly based on principles articulated in the seminal pamphlet "On Crimes and Punishments" published by Cesare, Marquis of Beccaria in 1764. They center on the concept of proportionality. In this respect, they differ from many previous systems of punishment, for example, England's Bloody Code, under which the penalty of theft had been the same regardless of the value stolen, giving rise to the English expression "It is as well to be hanged for a sheep or a lamb". Subsequent development of the ideas of Beccaria made non-lethal punishment more acceptable. Consequently, convicted prisoners had to be re-integrated into society when their punishment was complete.
Penologists have consequently evolved occupational and psychological education programs for offenders detained in prison, and a range of community service and probation orders which entail guidance and aftercare of the offender within the community. The importance of inflicting some measure of punishment on those persons who breach the law is however maintained in order to maintain social order and to moderate public outrage which might provoke appeals for cruel vengeance.
More recently, some penologists have shifted from a retributive based punishment to a form of community corrections. "Community corrections involves the management and supervision of offenders in the community. These offenders are serving court-imposed orders either as an alternative to imprisonment or as a condition of their release on parole from prison. This means they must report regularly to their community corrections officer and may have to participate in unpaid community work and rehabilitation programs."
See also
Auburn System
Zebulon Brockway
Elmira Correctional Facility
Her Majesty's Prison Service
Panopticon
Penal transportation
Prison reform
References
Further reading
Diiulio, John J., Governing Prisons: A Comparative Study of Correctional Management, Simon and Schuster, 1990.
Feeley, M. M., & Simon, J. (1992). The new penology: Notes on the emerging strategy of corrections and its implications. Criminology, 30(4), 449-474.
Kazemian, L., McCoy, C., & Sacks, M. (2013). Does law matter? An old bail law confronts the New Penology. Punishment & Society, 15(1), 43-70.
External links
CrimLinks UK based site
Criminal law
Crime | [
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241941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudia%20gens | Claudia gens | The gens Claudia (), sometimes written Clodia, was one of the most prominent patrician houses at ancient Rome. The gens traced its origin to the earliest days of the Roman Republic. The first of the Claudii to obtain the consulship was Appius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis, in 495 BC, and from that time its members frequently held the highest offices of the state, both under the Republic and in imperial times.
Plebeian Claudii are found fairly early in Rome's history. Some may have been descended from members of the family who had passed over to the plebeians, while others were probably the descendants of freedmen of the gens. In the later Republic, one of its patrician members voluntarily converted to plebeian status and adopted the spelling "Clodius".
In his life of the emperor Tiberius, who was a scion of the Claudii, the historian Suetonius gives a summary of the gens, and says, "as time went on it was honoured with twenty-eight consulships, five dictatorships, seven censorships, six triumphs, and two ovations." Writing several decades after the fall of the so-called "Julio-Claudian dynasty", Suetonius took care to mention both the good and wicked deeds attributed to members of the family.
The patrician Claudii were noted for their pride and arrogance, and intense hatred of the commonalty. In his History of Rome, Niebuhr writes,
That house during the course of centuries produced several very eminent, few great men; hardly a single noble-minded one. In all ages it distinguished itself alike by a spirit of haughty defiance, by disdain for the laws, and iron hardness of heart.
During the Republic, no patrician Claudius adopted a member of another gens; the emperor Claudius was the first who broke this custom, by adopting Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, afterwards the emperor Nero.
Origin
According to legend, the first of the Claudii was a Sabine, by the name of Attius Clausus, who came to Rome with his retainers in 504 BC, the sixth year of the Republic.{{efn-lr|Various sources give several variations of his original praenomen and nomen, including Attius Clausus, Atta Claudius, and Titus Claudius.}} At this time, the fledgling Republic was engaged in regular warfare with the Sabines, and Clausus is said to have been the leader of a faction seeking to end the conflict. When his efforts failed, he defected to the Romans, bringing with him no fewer than five hundred men able to bear arms, according to Dionysius.
Clausus, who exchanged his Sabine name for the Latin Appius Claudius, was enrolled among the patricians, and given a seat in the Senate, quickly becoming one of its most influential members.Suetonius, "The Life of Tiberius", 1. His descendants were granted a burial site at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, and his followers allotted land on the far side of the Anio, where they formed the core of what became the "Old Claudian" tribe.
The emperor Claudius is said to have referred to these traditions in a speech made before the senate, in which he argued in favor of admitting Gauls to that body. "My ancestors, the most ancient of whom was made at once a citizen and a noble of Rome, encourage me to govern by the same policy of transferring to this city all conspicuous merit, wherever found." By imperial times, the influence of the Claudii was so great that the poet Virgil flattered them by a deliberate anachronism. In his Aeneid, he makes Attius Clausus a contemporary of Aeneas, to whose side he rallies with a host of quirites, or spearmen.
The nomen Claudius, originally Clausus, is usually said to be derived from the Latin adjective claudus, meaning "lame". As a cognomen, Claudus is occasionally found in other gentes. However, since there is no tradition that any of the early Claudii were lame, the nomen might refer to some ancestor of Attius Clausus. It could also have been metaphorical, or ironic, and the possibility remains that this derivation is erroneous. The metathesis of Clausus into Claudius, and its common by-form, Clodius, involves the alternation of 'o' and 'au', which seems to have been common in words of Sabine origin. The alternation of 's' and 'd' occurs in words borrowed from Greek: Latin rosa from Greek rhodon; but in this instance clausus or *closus is a Sabine word becoming clod- in Latin. The name could have come from Greek settlers in Latium, but there is no evidence in favor of this hypothesis.Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue latine, p. 126.
Praenomina
The early Claudii favored the praenomina Appius, Gaius, and Publius. These names were used by the patrician Claudii throughout their history. Tiberius was used by the family of the Claudii Nerones, while Marcus, although used occasionally by the earliest patrician Claudii, was favored by the plebeian branches of the family. According to Suetonius, the gens avoided the praenomen Lucius because two early members with this name had brought dishonor upon the family, one having been convicted of highway robbery, and the other of murder. However, the name was used by at least one branch of the Claudii in the final century of the Republic, including one who, as Rex Sacrorum, was certainly patrician. To these names, the plebeian Claudii added Quintus and Sextus.
The praenomen Appius is often said to have been unique to the Claudii, and nothing more than a Latinization of the Sabine Attius. But in fact there are other figures in Roman history named "Appius", and in later times the name was used by plebeian families such as the Junii and the Annii. Thus, it seems more accurate to say that the Claudii were the only patrician family at Rome known to have used Appius. As for its Sabine equivalent, Attius has been the subject of much discussion by philologists. The form Attus is mentioned by Valerius Maximus, who connected it with the bucolic Greek name Atys. Braasch translated it as Väterchen, "little father," and connected it with a series of childhood parental names: "atta, tata, acca," and the like, becoming such names as Tatius (also Sabine) and Atilius.
During the late Republic and early Empire, the Claudii Nerones, who gave rise to the Imperial family, adopted the praenomen Decimus, seldom used by any patrician family. Subsequently they began to exchange traditional praenomina for names that first entered the family as cognomina, such as Nero, Drusus, and Germanicus.
Branches and cognomina
The patrician Claudii bore various surnames, including Caecus, Caudex, Centho, Crassus, Nero, Pulcher, Regillensis, and Sabinus. The latter two, though applicable to all of the gens, were seldom used when there was a more definite cognomen. A few of the patrician Claudii are mentioned without any surname. The surnames of the plebeian Claudii were Asellus, Canina, Centumalus, Cicero, Flamen, Glaber, and Marcellus.
The earliest Claudii bore the surname Sabinus, a common surname usually referring to a Sabine, or someone of Sabine descent, which according to all tradition, the Claudii were. This cognomen was first adopted by Appius Claudius, the founder of the gens, and was retained by his descendants, until it was replaced by Crassus.Regillensis or Inregillensis, a surname of the earliest Claudii, is said to be derived from the town of Regillum, a Sabine settlement, where Appius Claudius lived with his family and retainers before coming to Rome. Its exact location is unknown, but it must have been in the vicinity of Lake Regillus, where one of the most important battles in the early history of the Roman Republic was fought. The same cognomen was borne by a family of the Postumii, although in this instance the surname is supposed to have been derived from the Battle of Lake Regillus, in which the victorious Roman general was the dictator Aulus Postumius Albus.Livy, xxx. 45.Crassus, sometimes given as the diminutive Crassinus, was a common surname usually translated as "thick, solid," or "dull". This cognomen succeeded that of Sabinus as the surname of the main family of the Claudia gens. It was borne by members of the family from the fifth to the third century BC. The other main families of the patrician Claudii were descended from Appius Claudius Caecus, the last recorded member of the Claudii Crassi, who gave a different cognomen to each of his four sons: Russus (or Rufus), Pulcher, Cento or Centho, and Nero.Pulcher, the surname of the next major branch of the Claudia gens, means beautiful, although it may be that the cognomen was given ironically. The Claudii Pulchri were an extensive family, which supplied the Republic with several consuls, and survived into imperial times.
The other main branch of the patrician Claudii bore the surname Nero, originally a Sabine praenomen described as meaning, fortis ac strenuus, which roughly translated is "strong and sturdy." It may be the same as the Umbrian praenomen Nerius. This family was distinguished throughout the latter Republic, and gave rise to several of the early emperors, including Tiberius, Claudius, and Nero. An oddity of the names by which these emperors are known today is that several of their ancestors bore the name Tiberius Claudius Nero; of three emperors belonging to the same family, one is known by a praenomen, one by a nomen, and one by a cognomen.
The most illustrious family of the plebeian Claudii bore the surname Marcellus, which is a diminutive of the praenomen Marcus. They gained everlasting fame from the exploits of Marcus Claudius Marcellus, one of Rome's finest generals, and a towering figure of the Second Punic War, who was five times consul, and won the spolia opima, defeating and killing the Gallic king, Viridomarus, in single combat.
Most of those who used the spelling Clodius were descended from plebeian members of the gens, but one family by this name was a cadet branch of the patrician Claudii Pulchri, which voluntarily went over to the plebeians, and used the spelling Clodius to differentiate themselves from their patrician relatives.Caecus, the surname of one of the Claudii Crassi, refers to the condition of his blindness, which is well-attested, although it appears that he did not become blind until his old age. Caecus' initial cognomen was Crassus.Humm, Appius Claudius Caecus, p. 35. According to one legend, he was struck blind by the gods during his censorship, after inducing the ancient family of the Potitii to teach the sacred rites of Hercules to the public slaves. The Potitii themselves were said to have perished as a result of this sacrilege. However, Claudius was relatively young at the time of his censorship in 312 BC, and was elected consul sixteen years later, in 296.
Caecus' brother, who shared the same praenomen, was distinguished by the cognomen Caudex, literally meaning a "treetrunk", although metaphorically it was an insult, meaning a "dolt." According to Seneca, he obtained the surname from his attention to naval affairs.
Members
See also Clodius for members of the gens who used the alternate spelling of the name primarily or solely.
Claudii Sabini et Crassi
Marcus Clausus, the father of Appius Claudius.
Appius Claudius M. f. Sabinus Regillensis, consul in 495 BC. Born Attius Clausus, a Sabine; brought his family and retainers to Rome in 504 BC, and was admitted to the patriciate.
Appius Claudius Ap. f. M. n. Sabinus Regillensis, consul in 471 BC, he was sent against the Aequi and Volsci, but his own soldiers revolted, and were punished with decimation. He fiercely opposed the agrarian law first brought forward by Spurius Cassius Vecellinus, and was brought to trial, but took his own life.Dionysius, ix. 43–45, 48–54.
Gaius Claudius Ap. f. M. n. Sabinus Regillensis, consul in 460 BC, the year that Appius Herdonius seized the Capitol. He was a staunch opponent of various laws and reforms favoring the plebeians.Dionysius, x. 9, 12-17, 30, 32; xi. 7-11, 49, 55, 56.
Appius Claudius Ap. f. Ap. n. Crassus, consul in 451 BC, he became head of the college of decemvirs, holding office until 449, when he was imprisoned for his actions as decemvir, and either killed himself or was put to death.Dionysius, x. 54–xi. 46.
Appius Claudius Ap. f. Ap. n. Crassus, consular tribune in 424 BC, said by Livy to have been violently opposed to the plebeians and their tribunes.
Publius Claudius Ap. f. Ap. n. Crassus, the younger son of the decemvir.
Appius Claudius P. f. Ap. n. Crassus Regillensis, consular tribune in 403 BC, during the siege of Veii. He proposed a law allowing one of the tribunes of the plebs to halt the proceedings of the others.Niebuhr, History of Rome, vol. ii, p. 439, note 965.
Appius Claudius P. f. Ap. n. Crassus Regillensis, opposed the Licinian Rogations, opening the consulship to the plebeians. In 362 BC, he was appointed dictator to conduct the war against the Hernici. Consul in 349, he died at the commencement of his year of office.
Gaius Claudius (Ap. f. P. n.) Regillensis, nominated dictator in 337 BC, but immediately resigned after the augurs pronounced the appointment invalid.
Appius Claudius C. f. Ap. n. Caecus, censor in 312 BC, and consul in 307 and 296. It was in his hands that the office of censor gained much more power and prestige; he was once dictator, but the year is unknown. Unlike most of his house, Caecus supported several reforms in favour of the plebeians. He is the earliest known Roman writer of prose and verse.
Appius Claudius C. f. Ap. n. Caudex, consul in 264 BC, at the beginning of the First Punic War; landing in Sicily, he defeated Hiero and the Carthaginians, and raised the siege of Messana.
Appius Claudius Ap. f. C. n. Russus, the eldest son of Appius Claudius Caecus, he was consul in 268 BC, and died during his office.Velleius Paterculus, i. 14.
Claudia, the name of five daughters of Appius Claudius Caecus.Suetonius, "The Life of Tiberius", 2.
Claudii Pulchri
Publius Claudius Ap. f. C. n. Pulcher, the second son of Appius Claudius Caecus, consul in 249 BC; ignoring the auguries, he attacked the Carthaginian fleet at Drepana, and was entirely defeated. Recalled to Rome, he nominated Marcus Claudius Glicia, the son of a freedman, as dictator. He was subsequently impeached and fined.
Appius Claudius P. f. Ap. n. Pulcher, consul in 212 BC, during the Second Punic War; with his colleague laid siege to Capua. His command was prolonged after his year of office, and he was mortally wounded in battle with Hannibal.
Quinta Claudia P. f. Ap. n., freed a grounded ship bringing the image of Cybele to Rome.Ovid, Fasti, iv. 305 ff.Valerius Maximus, i. 8. § 11.
Claudia P. f. Ap. n., married Pacuvius Calavius of Capua.
Appius Claudius Ap. f. P. n. Pulcher, consul in 185 BC.
Publius Claudius Ap. f. P. n. Pulcher, consul in 184 BC.
Gaius Claudius Ap. f. P. n. Pulcher, consul in 177 BC, received Istria as his province; he was censor in 169.
Appius Claudius Ap. f. Ap. n. Pulcher, consul in 143 BC, and censor in 136. He defeated the Salassi, but was refused a triumph by the senate, and triumphed at his own expense.
Gaius Claudius C. f. Ap. n. Pulcher, consul in 130 BC, reported to the senate about the disturbances excited by Gaius Papirius Carbo.
Gaius Claudius C. f. C. n. Pulcher, probably the elder son of Gaius Claudius Pulcher, consul in 130 BC.
Appius Claudius C. f. C. n. Pulcher, probably the younger son of Gaius Claudius Pulcher, consul in 130 BC.
Appius Claudius Ap. f. Ap. n. Pulcher, son of the consul of 143 BC, in 107 he participated in the discussions respecting the agrarian law of Spurius Thorius.
Claudia Ap. f. Ap. n., daughter Appius Claudius Pulcher, consul in 143 BC, was a Vestal Virgin, and accompanied her father during his triumph.Valerius Maximus, v. 4. § 6.
Claudia Ap. f. Ap. n., another daughter of Appius Claudius Pulcher, consul in 143 BC, married Tiberius Gracchus.
Claudia Ap. f. Ap. n., a third daughter of Appius Claudius Pulcher, consul in 143 BC, married Quintus Marcius Philippus, and was the mother of Quintus and Lucius Marcius Philippus; the latter was consul in 91 BC.
Gaius Claudius Ap. f. C. n. Pulcher, consul in 92 BC.
Appius Claudius (Ap. f. C. n.) Pulcher, military tribune in 87 BC, is probably to be identified with the interrex of 77 BC.Sallust, Historiae, fragment 1.
Appius Claudius C. f. C. n. Pulcher, consul in 79 BC.
Appius Claudius Ap. f. Ap. n. Pulcher, praetor in 89 BC.
Gaius Claudius Ap. f. Ap. n. Pulcher, praetor in 73 BC, was defeated by Spartacus at Mount Vesuvius.
Claudia Ap. f. Ap. n., sister of the praetors of 89 and 73 BC, married Quintus Marcius Philippus.
Appius Claudius Ap. f. Ap. n. Pulcher, consul in 54 BC, and censor in 50.
Gaius Claudius Ap. f. Ap. n. Pulcher, praetor in 56 BC.
Publius Claudius Ap. f. Ap. n. Pulcher, contrived to become tribune of the plebs; he was adopted by a plebeian, and affected the nomen Clodius, obtaining the tribunician power in 58 BC.
Claudia Ap. f. Ap. n., married, around her father's consulship in 54 BC, Brutus, who later divorced her without explanation.
Gaius Claudius C. f. Ap. n. Pulcher, adopted by his uncle, Appius, whose praenomen he assumed. He and his brother prosecuted Titus Annius Milo in 51 BC. He is probably the same Appius Claudius Pulcher who was consul in 38 BC, but that may have been his brother.
Appius Claudius C. f. Ap. n. Pulcher, joined his brother in prosecuting Milo; he was later impeached for extortion by the Servilii.
Publius Clodius P. f. Ap. n. Pulcher, son of the tribune Clodius; he was a child at the time of his father's death. His life was spent in gluttony and debauchery, and he died young.Cicero, Epistulae ad Atticum, xiv. 13. A.
Appius Claudius Pulcher, adopted by Marcus Livius Drusus, becoming Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus, supporter of Brutus and Cassius against Octavian and Mark Antony, father of Empress Livia Drusilla.
Appius Claudius Ap. f. (Ap./C. n.) (Pulcher), a senator in 25 BC, probably the one of that name whom Augustus condemned for being a lover of Julia.
(Claudius P. f. P. n.) Pulcher, triumvir of the mint in 8 BC, probably a grandson of the tribune Clodius.Wiseman, "Pulcher Claudius", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 74, pp. 213–214
Claudia Pulchra, wife of Publius Quinctilius Varus, was convicted of immorality and plotting against Tiberius.
Claudii Centhones
Gaius Claudius Ap. f. C. n. Centho, the third son of Appius Claudius Caecus, he was consul in 240 BC, and dictator in 213.Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, i. 1, Brutus, 18.
Gaius Claudius (C. f. Ap. n.) Centho, probably the father of the brothers Gaius and Appius.
Gaius Claudius (C. f. C. n.) Centho, served under the consul Publius Sulpicius Galba in 200 BC, during the war with Philip. He successfully raised the siege of Athens, compelling Philip to take the field.Zonaras, Epitome Historiarum, ix. 15.
Appius Claudius (C. f. C. n.) Centho, praetor in 175 BC, received Hispania Citerior as his province; he defeated the Celtiberi, and received an ovation.
Claudii Nerones
Tiberius Claudius Ap. f. C. n. Nero, the fourth son of Appius Claudius Caecus.Gellius, xiii. 22.
Tiberius Claudius Ti. f. (Ap. n.) Nero, father of the consul of 207 BC.
Publius Claudius Ti. f. (Ap. n.) Nero, father of the consul of 202 BC.
Gaius Claudius Ti. f. Ti. n. Nero, consul in 207 BC; with his colleague, triumphed over Hasdrubal at the Battle of the Metaurus. He was censor in 204.
Tiberius Claudius P. f. Ti. n. Nero, consul in 202 BC, had Africa as his province; but his fleet was delayed by storms, and he was forced to winter in Sardinia until the expiration of his year of office.
Appius Claudius Nero, praetor in 195 BC, obtained Hispania Ulterior as his province; in 189 he was one of ten envoys sent into Asia, in order to settle affairs.
Tiberius Claudius (Ti. f. Ti. n.) Nero, praetor in 181 BC, obtained the province of Sicily.
Tiberius Claudius Nero, praetor in 178 and 167 BC.
Tiberius Claudius Nero, grandfather of the emperor Tiberius, was praetor about 67 BC, the year in which he served under Pompeius during the War against the Pirates. Four years later, he recommended that the conspirators of Catiline be held until the plot was suppressed, and the facts were known.Appian, Bella Mithridatica, 95, Bellum Civile, ii. 5.Broughton, vol. II, pp. 148, 463.
Tiberius Claudius Ti. f. Nero, the father of Tiberius, was praetor circa 42 BC; he subsequently joined the consul Lucius Antonius during the Perusine War.
Tiberius Claudius Ti. f. Ti. n. Nero, the future emperor Tiberius, was adopted by Augustus, becoming Tiberius Julius Caesar.
Decimus Claudius Ti. f. Drusus, afterwards Nero Claudius Drusus, was consul in 9 BC, and father of the emperor Claudius.
Nero Claudius D. f. Ti. n. Drusus Germanicus, better known as "Germanicus", was the nephew of Tiberius. Consul in AD 12, he triumphed over the Pannonians and Dalmatians.
Claudia D. f. Ti. n. Livia Julia, better known as "Livilla", was the niece of Tiberius. She married first, Gaius Caesar; second, her cousin Drusus, the son of Tiberius, whom she poisoned.
Tiberius Claudius D. f. Ti. n. Drusus, the nephew of Tiberius, would follow his own nephew, Caligula, as "Claudius", the fourth Roman emperor, from AD 41 to 54.
Nero Claudius Ti. f. Ti. n. Drusus, afterward Drusus Julius Caesar or "Drusus the Younger", was the son of Tiberius. He was consul in AD 15 and 21, but was subsequently poisoned by his wife, Livilla, at the bidding of Sejanus.
Nero Julius (D. f.) D. n. Caesar, was the eldest son of Germanicus. In AD 29, he was exiled to Pontia, probably due to the influence of Sejanus, and was either killed there or permitted to take his own life two years later.
Drusus Julius (D. f.) D. n. Caesar, was another son of Germanicus. He was imprisoned and put to death by Tiberius in AD 33.
Gaius Julius (D. f.) D. n. Caesar Germanicus, better known as "Caligula", was the youngest son of Germanicus. He survived the downfall of his brothers as a virtual prisoner of his granduncle, Tiberius, who subsequently adopted him as his heir. Caligula succeeded him as the third Roman emperor, from AD 37 to 41.
(Tiberius) Claudius Ti. f. D. n. Drusus, the son of Claudius, died in childhood.
Claudia (Ti. f. D. n.) Antonia, daughter of the emperor Claudius and Aelia Paetina; married first, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, a descendant of the original Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus; second, her cousin Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix. She and Sulla were executed by Nero's order in AD 66.
Claudia (Ti. f. D. n.) Octavia, daughter of the emperor Claudius and Valeria Messalina; full-sister of Britannicus; married her step-brother, the emperor Nero; divorced; later banished and supposedly murdered by Nero's orders in 62.
Tiberius Claudius Ti. f. D. n. Germanicus, better known as "Britannicus", was the son and natural heir of the emperor Claudius. His stepmother, Agrippina, ensured the succession of her own son, the future emperor Nero, by persuading him to poison his stepbrother.
Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus, the emperor Nero, reigned from AD 54 to 68; he was born "Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus", the son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina, but was adopted by Claudius in AD 50, after the emperor had married Nero's mother.
Claudia Augusta, an infant daughter of the emperor Nero and Poppaea Sabina. She died in infancy in AD 63.
Claudii Marcelli
Gaius Claudius (Marcellus), grandfather of Marcus Claudius Marcellus, the consul of 331 BC.
Gaius Claudius C. f. (Marcellus), the father of Marcus Claudius Marcellus.
Marcus Claudius C. f. C. n. Marcellus, consul in 331 BC; he was appointed dictator in order to hold the elections in 327, but was prevented from doing so by the augurs, who apparently objected to a plebeian dictator.
Marcus Claudius (M. f. C. n) Marcellus, consul in 287 BC.
Marcus Claudius M. f. (M. n.) Marcellus, father of the consul of 222 BC.Plutarch, "The Life of Marcellus," 1.
Marcus Claudius M. f. M. n. Marcellus, consul in 222, 215, 214, 210, and 208 BC, the great hero of the Second Punic War.
Marcus Claudius Marcellus, plebeian aedile in 216 BC.
Marcus Claudius M. f. M. n. Marcellus, praetor in 198 BC, was assigned the province of Sicily. As consul in 196, he triumphed over the Boii and Ligures.Broughton, vol. I, pp. 330, 335.
Marcus Claudius M. f. M. n. Marcellus, praetor urbanus in 188 BC, and consul in 183.Broughton, vol. I. pp. 365, 378.
Marcus Claudius Marcellus, praetor in 185 BC.Broughton, vol. I, pp. 372, 373 (note 1).
Marcus Claudius Marcellus, tribune of the plebs in 171 BC.
Marcus Claudius M. f. M. n. Marcellus, consul in 166, 155, and 152 BC; triumphed over the Alpine Gauls and the Ligures.
Marcus Claudius M. f. M. n. Marcellus, son of the consul of 166 BC.
Marcus Claudius Marcellus, praetor in 137 BC, was killed by lightning during his year of office.
Marcus Claudius Marcellus, a lieutenant of Lucius Julius Caesar during the Social War; he held the fortress of Aesernia in Samnium for some time, but was ultimately compelled to surrender. He was a rival of the orator Lucius Licinius Crassus.
Marcus Claudius M. f. M. n. Marcellus, curule aedile in 91 BC.
Gaius Claudius M. f. M. n. Marcellus, praetor in 80 BC, and afterwards governor of Sicily; the mildness and justice of his administration was contrasted with that of his predecessor, and subsequently that of Verres.Cicero, In Verrem, ii. 3, 21, iii. 16, 91, iv. 40, 42, ff., Divinatio in Caecilium, 4, De Divinatione, ii. 35, De Legibus, ii. 13, Epistulae ad Familiares, xv. 8, Pro Sulla, 6
Marcus Claudius M. f. Marcellus Aeserninus, a young man who appeared as a witness at the trial of Verres, in 70 BC.
Claudius M. f. Marcellus, the brother of Marcellus Aeserninus, he was adopted by one of the Cornelii Lentuli, and became Publius Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus. He fought under Pompeius during the war against the pirates, in 67 BC, and was an orator of considerable merit. For his descendants, see Cornelia gens.
Marcus Claudius Marcellus, one of the conspirators with Catiline in 63 BC. On the discovery of the plot, he attempted to instigate an insurrection amongst the Paeligni, but was defeated by the praetor, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, and put to death.Orosius, vi. 6.
Gaius Claudius M. f. Marcellus, son of the conspirator, also took part in Catiline's conspiracy, and attempted to instigate a slave revolt at Capua, but was driven out by Publius Sestius, and took refuge in Bruttium, where he was put to death.Cicero, Pro Sestio, 4.
Marcus Claudius Marcellus, consul in 51 BC, and a respected orator; he joined Pompeius during the Civil War, but was subsequently pardoned by Caesar.
Gaius Claudius C. f. M. n. Marcellus, consul in 50 BC; he supported Pompeius, investing him with the command against Caesar during the Civil War; but he remained at Rome and obtained Caesar's pardon for himself and his cousin, Marcus.
Gaius Claudius M. f. M. n. Marcellus, consul in 49 BC; he was a partisan of Pompeius, and probably died in the Civil War. He is frequently confused with his cousin, who was consul in the preceding year.
Marcus Claudius M. f. (M. n.) Marcellus Aeserninus, quaestor in Hispania in 48 BC, he was sent by Gaius Cassius Longinus to put down a revolt at Corduba, but joined the revolt and went over to Caesar, placing his legions under the command of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus.
Marcus Claudius C. f. C. n. Marcellus, nephew of Augustus and stepson of Marcus Antonius; he was adopted by his uncle and married to his cousin, Julia. He was curule aedile in 23 BC. but died that autumn.
Marcus Claudius M. f. M. n. Marcellus Aeserninus, consul in 22 BC, possibly the same as the Marcellus who served under Lepidus during the Civil War.
Marcus Claudius M. f. M. n. Marcellus Aeserninus, the son of Aeserninus, consul in 22 BC, was trained as an orator by his grandfather, Gaius Asinius Pollio.Seneca the Elder, lib. iv. praef.
Claudii Caninae
Gaius Claudius Canina, grandfather of Gaius Claudius Canina, the consul of 285 BC.
Marcus Claudius C. f. Canina, the father of Gaius Claudius Canina.
Gaius Claudius M. f. C. n. Canina, consul in 285 and 273 BC.Fasti Siculi, 354.
Claudii Aselli
Tiberius Claudius Asellus, a military tribune under Gaius Claudius Nero, the consul in 207 BC, during the Second Punic War; the following year he was praetor, and obtained Sardinia as his province. He was tribune of the plebs in 204.Appian, Bellum Hannibalicum, 37.
Tiberius Claudius Asellus, an eques who was deprived of his horse and reduced to the condition of an aerarian by the censor Scipio Aemilianus in 142 BC; he was subsequently restored by Scipio's colleague, Lucius Mummius, and as tribune of the plebs in 140 he accused Scipio.Gellius, ii. 20, iii. 4.
Claudii Pompeiani
Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, consul in AD 173, and probably consul suffectus in 176; he married Lucilla, the daughter of Marcus Aurelius.Herodian, i. 8. § 6.Vulcatius Gallicanus, "The Life of Avidius Cassius", 11.Mennen, pp. 95–97.
Claudius Quintianus Pompeianus, a young senator, and the son-in-law of Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus and Lucilla; persuaded by Lucilla to attempt to kill her brother, the emperor Commodus, he failed and was put to death.Herodian, i. 8.Ammianus Marcellinus, xxix. 4.
Lucius Aurelius Commodus Pompeianus, consul in AD 209, perhaps the son of Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus.
(Tiberius Claudius) Pompeianus, consul suffectus in AD 212, perhaps the son of Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus.
Claudius Pompeianus, consul in AD 231.
Lucius Tiberius Claudius Aurelius Quintianus (Pompeianus), triumvir monetalis circa AD 222, and a candidate for quaestor in 228; he was praetor in 233, and consul in 235.
Clodius Pompeianus, consul in AD 241, with the emperor Gordianus III. In 244, he was curator aedium sacrarum.
Others
Gaius Claudius Cicero, in some manuscripts of Livy, tribune of the plebs in 454 BC; he prosecuted Titus Romilius, the consul of the preceding year, for selling the spoils of the war with the Aequi without the permission of the soldiers. In other manuscripts his nomen is Calvius.
Gaius Claudius Hortator, appointed magister equitum by the dictator Gaius Claudius Crassus in 337 BC.
Marcus Claudius C. f. Glicia, the son of a freedman, was nominated dictator by Publius Claudius Pulcher, following the Battle of Drepana in 249 BC. Glicia's appointment was immediately superseded, but nonetheless recorded in the Fasti consulares. In 236 he was legate to the consul Gaius Licinius Varus, but punished for entering into an unauthorized treaty with the Corsi.Suetonius, "The Life of Tiberius," 2.Cassius Dio, fragment 45.Valerius Maximus, vi. 3. § 3.
Quintus Claudius, tribune of the plebs in 218 BC; probably the same person as Quintus Claudius Flamen, praetor in 208.
Quintus Claudius Flamen, praetor in 208 BC, and subsequently propraetor in the territory of the Sallentini and Tarentum, during the Second Punic War.
Lucius Claudius, praetor in 174 BC, assigned the province of Sicily.
Quintus Claudius Ap. f., a senator in 129 BC.
Tiberius Claudius Centumalus, sued for fraud involving the sale of property to Publius Calpurnius Lanarius; judgment against Claudius was given by Marcus Porcius Cato, the father of Cato Uticensis.Valerius Maximus, viii. 2. § 1.
Gaius Claudius C. f. Glaber, praetor in 73 BC, was defeated by Spartacus. He might have been related to the Claudii Marcelli, as he belonged to the tribus Arniensis, like Marcus Claudius Marcellus, the aedile of 91.Plutarch, Crassus, 9.Appian, Bellum Civile, i. 116.
Lucius Claudius L. f., a senator in 73 BC, perhaps the father and predecessor of Lucius Claudius, the Rex Sacrorum.Broughton, vol. II, p. 115.
Lucius Claudius (L. f. L. n.), Rex Sacrorum before 60 BC.Cicero, De Domo Sua, 127.Taylor, Voting Districts of the Roman Republic, p. 203.
Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius, a historian of the early first century BC, he wrote a history of Rome from the sack of Rome by the Gauls in 390 BC to the death of Sulla.
Sextus Clodius, a Sicilian rhetorician, under whom Marcus Antonius studied oratory, and who in turn received a large estate in the Leontine territory.Cassius Dio, xlv. 30, xlvi. 8.
Lucius Clodius, praefectus fabrum to Appius Claudius Pulcher, consul in 54 BC; he was tribune of the plebs in 43.Pseudo-Cicero, Epistulae ad Brutum, i. 1.
Gaius Claudius, probably the descendant of a freedman of the Claudian house, was one of the suite of Publius Clodius Pulcher on his last journey to Aricia.Asconius Pedianus, In Ciceronis Pro Milone, p. 33, ed. Orelli.
Publius Clodius M. f., probably the Clodius sent into Macedonia by Caesar in 48 BC, and the same as Clodius Bithynicus, who fought on the side of Antonius in the Perusine War, and was put to death by order of Octavian in 40.Appian, Bellum Civile, v. 49.Jean Foy-Vaillant, "Antonius", Nos. 14, 15, "Claudius", Nos. 43–46.
Appius Claudius C. f., mentioned by Cicero in a letter to Brutus; he attached himself to the party of Marcus Antonius, who had restored his father. It is uncertain whether he can be identified with either of two persons of this name who were proscribed by the triumvirs.Appian, Bellum Civile, iv. 44, 55.
Sextus Clodius, the accomplice of Publius Clodius Pulcher, after whose death he was exiled; he was restored by Marcus Antonius in 44 BC.
Gaius Claudius, a follower of Marcus Junius Brutus, who ordered him to put Gaius Antonius to death; afterwards he was sent to Rhodes in command of a squadron, and after his patron's death, he joined Cassius Parmensis.Plutarch, "The Life of Antonius," 22, "The Life of Brutus," 28.
Gaius Clodius Licinus, consul suffectus in AD 4.
Tiberius Claudius Thrasyllus, Greek Egyptian astrologer and friend of Tiberius, better known as Thrasyllus of Mendes. Granted Roman citizenship and adopted his patron's name.
Tiberius Claudius Balbilus, son of Thrasyllus, astrologer to Claudius, Nero, and Vespasian.
Claudia Capitolina, daughter of Balbilus, married Greek prince Gaius Julius Archelaus Antiochus Epiphanes.
Tiberius Claudius Narcissus, freedman and advisor to Claudius, executed by Agrippina the Younger.
Claudius Felix, a name assigned by some writers to Marcus Antonius Felix, a freedman of the emperor Claudius, who was later procurator of Judaea.
Tiberius Claudius Verus, one of the duumvirs at Pompeii in AD 62, when an earthquake devastated the city on February 5.
Claudius Severus, leader of the Helvetii in AD 69.
Claudius Civilis, also known as Gaius Julius Civilis, a leader of the Batavi, who led the Batavian revolt in AD 69.
Claudius Labeo, a leader of the Batavi, and rival of Civilis, who defeated him during the Batavian revolt.
Claudius Athenodorus, praefectus annonae during the reign of Domitian.
Claudius Capito, an orator, and a contemporary of the younger Pliny.
Tiberius Claudius Sacerdos, consul suffectus in AD 100.
Tiberius Claudius Livianus, praetorian prefect under Trajan.
Tiberius Claudius Maximus, a cavalryman in the Imperial Roman army who is known for presenting Trajan with the head of Dacian king Decebalus. He served in the Roman legions and Auxilia under the emperors Domitian and Trajan in the period AD 85–117.
Marcus Clodius Catullus, equestrian governor of Mauretania Tingitana in AD 109.
Gaius Claudius Severus, consul suffectus in AD 112.
Lucius Catilius Severus Julianus Claudius Reginus, consul in AD 120.
Marcus Gavius Claudius Squilla Gallicanus, consul in AD 127.
Claudius Ptolemaeus, a Greek mathematician and astronomer of the second century.
Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes, a celebrated rhetorician; consul in AD 143.
Gnaeus Claudius Severus, consul in AD 146.Codex Justinianus, 6. tit. 26. s. 1.
Claudius Maximus, a stoic philosopher during the age of the Antonines.
Claudius Saturninus, a jurist during the reigns of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, and the author of Liber Singularis de Poenis Paganorum.
Claudius Apollinaris, bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia from AD 170; an early Christian apologist, he wrote to the emperor Marcus Aurelius. He also wrote against the Jews and Gentiles, as well as various doctrines considered heretical by the early church.Jerome, De Viris Illustribus, 26, Epistulae, 84.Photius, Bibliotheca, 14.Chronicon Paschale.
Gnaeus Claudius Severus, consul in AD 173.
Maternus Tiberius Claudius, consul in AD 185.
Claudius Galenus, a name assigned to the physician Galen.
Appius Claudius Lateranus, a lieutenant of the emperor Septimius Severus during his expedition against the Arabians and Parthians in AD 195. He was consul in 197.Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus, 20.
Claudius Tryphoninus, a jurist during the reign of Septimius Severus.Codex Theodosianus, 1. tit. 9. s. 1.
Tiberius Claudius Severus, consul in AD 200.
Claudius Aelianus, a scholar, rhetorician, and antiquarian of the early third century.
Appius Claudius Julianus, consul in AD 224.
Gnaeus Claudius Severus, consul in AD 235.
Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus, emperor in AD 238.
Titus Clodius Pupienus Pulcher Maximus, a son of the emperor Pupienus, was consul suffectus circa AD 235.
Marcus Aurelius Claudius "Gothicus", emperor from AD 268 to 270.
Marcus Claudius Tacitus, emperor from AD 275 to 276.
Titus Claudius Aurelius Aristobulus, consul in AD 285.
Claudius Eusthenius, secretary to the emperor Diocletian, he wrote lives of Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius.
Claudius Mamertinus, the author of two panegyrics in honor of the emperor Maximian; the surname Mamertinus is uncertain.
Flavius Claudius Constantinus (Constantine II), emperor from AD 337 to 340.
Flavius Claudius Julianus, emperor from AD 361 to 363.
Claudius Mamertinus, consul in AD 362.
Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus, consul in AD 371.
Claudius Antonius, consul in AD 382.
Claudius Claudianus (Claudian), the last of the Latin classic poets, who flourished during the reigns of Theodosius I, Arcadius, and Honorius.
Flavius Claudius Constantinus (Constantine III), emperor from AD 407 to 411.
Claudius Julius Eclesius Dynamius, consul in AD 488.
Claudius Didymus, a Greek grammarian, who wrote about the mistakes of Thucydides relating to analogy, a separate work about analogy among the Romans, and an epitome of the works of Heracleon.<ref>Suda, s. v. Διδυμος.</ref>
Claudius Julius or Ioläus, a Greek writer of unknown date, who wrote a work on Phoenicia, and apparently another on the Peloponnesus. He was probably a freedman.
See also
List of Roman gentes
Julio-Claudian dynasty
List of Roman consuls
Footnotes
References
Bibliography
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241950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist%20%28musician%29 | Scientist (musician) | Hopeton Overton Brown (born 18 April 1960 in Kingston, Jamaica) is a recording engineer and producer who rose to fame in the 1980s mixing dub music as "Scientist". A protégé of King Tubby (Osbourne Ruddock), Scientist's contemporaries include several figures who, working at King Tubby's studio, had helped pioneer the genre in the 1970s: Ruddock, Bunny Lee, Philip Smart, Pat Kelly and Prince Jammy.
The 1970s: King Tubby's, Channel One, and Studio One
Scientist was introduced to electronics by his father, who worked as a television and radio repair technician. He began building his own amplifiers and would buy transformers from Tubby's Dromilly Road studio. While at the studio, Scientist asked Tubby to give him a chance at mixing. He was taken on at Tubby's as an assistant, performing tasks such as winding transformer coils, and began working as a mixer in the mid-1970s, initially creating dubs of reworked Studio One tracks for Don Mais's Roots Tradition label, given his chance when Prince Jammy cut short a mixing session for Mais because he was too tired to continue. His name originated from a comment by Tubby to Bunny Lee, with regard to his technical proficiency, "Damn, this little boy must be a scientist."
He left King Tubby's at the end of the 1970s and became the principal engineer for Channel One when hired by the Hoo Kim brothers, giving him the chance to work on a 16-track mixing desk rather than the four tracks at Tubby's.
The 1980s: King Tubby's, Tuff Gong
Scientist came to prominence in the early 1980s and produced many albums, his mixes featuring on many releases in the first part of the decade. He made a series of albums in the early 1980s, released on Greensleeves Records with titles themed around Scientist's fictional achievements in fighting Space Invaders, Pac-Men, and Vampires, and winning the World Cup. The music on these albums was played by Roots Radics, his most frequent collaborators. In particular, he was the favourite engineer of Henry "Junjo" Lawes, for whom he mixed several albums featuring the Roots Radics, many based on tracks by Barrington Levy. He also did a lot of work for Linval Thompson and Jah Thomas. In 1982 he left Channel One to work at Tuff Gong studio as second engineer to Errol Brown.
Scientist worked as an engineer in recording studios in the Washington, D.C. area starting in 1985.
Licensing issues
Scientist has alleged in court that Greensleeves originally released albums without his knowledge, according to his interview with United Reggae online magazine. After this, Dub Мир label began working directly with Scientist to reissue his best-known work. In 2016, Greensleeves removed the Scientist moniker for a run of reissues, substituting titles such as Junjo Presents: Wins The World Cup.
Partial discography
Ranking Dread In Dub King Tubby And Scientist (1981)
Introducing Scientist: The Best Dub Album in the World (1980)
Allied Dub Selection (1980) – with Papa Tad's
Heavyweight Dub Champion (1980)
Big Showdown at King Tubby's (1980) – with Prince Jammy
Scientist Meets the Space Invaders (1981)
Scientist Rids the World of the Evil Curse of the Vampires (1981)
Scientist Meets the Roots Radics (1981)
Scientist in the Kingdom of Dub (1981)
Scientific Dub (1981) Tad's
Dub Landing Vol. 1 (1981)
Yabby You & Michael Prophet Meet Scientist at the Dub Station (1981)
First, Second and Third Generation (1981) – with King Tubby and Prince Jammy
Dub War (1981)
World at War (1981)
Dub Landing Vol. 2 (1982) – with Prince Jammy
High Priest of Dub (1982)
Dub Duel (1982) – with Crucial Bunny
Scientist Encounters Pac-Man (1982)
The Seducer Dub Wise (1982)
Scientist Wins the World Cup (1983)
Dub Duel at King Tubby's (1983) – The Professor
Scientist & Jammy Strike Back (1983) – with Prince Jammy
The People's Choice (1983)
Crucial Cuts Vol. 1 (1984)
Crucial Cuts Vol. 2 (1984)
1999 Dub (1984)
King of Dub (1987)
International Heroes Dub (1989)
Tribute to King Tubby (1990)
Freedom Fighters Dub (1995)
Dub in the Roots Tradition (1996)
Repatriation Dub (1996)
King Tubby Meets Scientist in a World of Dub (1996) – with King Tubby
King Tubby's Meets Scientist at Dub Station (1996) – with King Tubby
Dubbin With Horns (1995)
Dub Science (1997)
Dub Science, Dub For Daze, Volume 2 (1997)
Scientist Meets the Crazy Mad Professor at Channel One Studio (1997)
Respect Due (Joseph I Meets the Scientist in Tribute to Jackie Mittoo) (1999)
Mach 1 Beyond Sound Barrier (1999)
Scientist Kills the Millenium Bug (1999)
Scientist Dubs Culture Into a Parallel Universe (2000)
All Hail the Dub Head (2001)
Ras Portrait (2003)
Pockets of Resistance (2003)
Scientist Meets The Pocket (2003–2004)
Nightshade Meets Scientist (2005) - featuring Wadi Gad
Dub From the Ghetto (2006) (compilation)
Dub 911 (2006)
Scientist Launches Dubstep Into Outer Space (2010)
Repatriation Dub (2014)
Scientist Meets Nightshade (2014)
The Dub Album They Didn't Want You To Hear (2015)
The Untouchable (2016)
Scientist Meets Hempress Sativa in Dub (2018)
Scientist Meets Ral Ston (2021)
References
External links
Roots Archive profile
XLR8R magazine story
"Dub Echoes", a documentary about dub's influence on the birth of drum n bass, electronic music and hip hop
"Stop and Frisk Dub", a document of Scientist creating a live Dub mix in the studio
1960 births
Living people
Jamaican reggae musicians
Dub musicians
Musicians from Kingston, Jamaica
Greensleeves Records artists | [
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241952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristina%20Baz%C3%A1n | Cristina Bazán | Cristina Bazán is the name of a 1978 and 2016 (The Very End for Cristina Bazán), Puerto Rican telenovela starring Puerto Rican actress and singer Johanna Rosaly, and the Venezuelan singer/idol José Luis Rodríguez El Puma. The soap opera, was co-produced in Puerto Rico by Radio Caracas Television of Venezuela and Telemundo Puerto Rico. The show had international success and a record numbers of viewers.
Cristina Bazán was responsible for bringing Johanna Rosaly and José Luis Rodríguez to international TV stardom in Latin America and Spain. The story of Cristina Bazán was the typical story of Cinderella, where the poor and good girl (Cristina) is mistreated by her stepmother and sisters, and finally finds the love of the "handsome" and rich guy (Rodolfo Alcantara). Other characters in this soap opera include 'Ambar Alsina' (Gilda Haddock), 'Taina' (Alba Nydia Díaz), 'Rosaura' (Esther Sandoval), 'Miguel Angel' (Luis Daniel Rivera) and 'Tere' (Alejandra Pinedo). A very young Adamari López has a special appearance. this soap opera was produced by Ramon Mangles and Angel del Cerro, the screenplay Inés rodena and TV scripts Manuel G. Piñera
Plot summary
Cristina Bazán tells the story of Cristina, who studies in an intern school in San Juan, Puerto Rico with her frivolous and evil stepsister, Ambar Alsina. Cristina thinks that her mother Laura is a widow and keeps traveling taking care of her business. But Laura is not a widow business woman. The truth is that Laura is allegedly a prostitute who is in jail for false charges. When she goes to prison, she asks Cristina's father to support her. When Cristina and Ambar graduate from the internate school they go live at Cristina's father's house, Cristina's father is married to Rosaura who is the mother of Ambar. Rosaura and Ambar hate Cristina and they make her into some sort of servant. Ambar is going to marry the "handsome" Rodolfo Alcantara who does not have a clue that she is sleeping with Miguel Ángel who is a doctor in medicine. Rodolfo is beginning to interest in Cristina who loves him in silence. Rodolfo refuses to have sex with Ambar on the wedding night because she is not a virgin. Ambar is pregnant by Miguel Ángel who has fallen into alcoholism and she does not want anyone to know that she is expecting a child from him. Now is when Rosaura invents a plan: make everyone believe that Cristina is awaiting a child from the chauffeur, she has to accept and fake that she is pregnant. Cristina and Ambar go both to the country so Cristina could have "her child".
The introduction was reshot and used for a television commercial for Triple-S, 38 years after the success of the original. The advertisement was created by J. Walter Thompson for Triple-S, a health insurance company, to encourage Puerto Ricans to enroll in health plans. A sole two-hour long episode was shot as well.
References
1978 telenovelas
1978 Puerto Rican television series debuts
1978 Puerto Rican television series endings
1970s Puerto Rican television series
Puerto Rican telenovelas
RCTV telenovelas
Television shows set in Puerto Rico
Venezuelan telenovelas | [
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241953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal%20transportation | Penal transportation | Penal transportation or transportation was the relocation of convicted criminals, or other persons regarded as undesirable, to a distant place, often a colony, for a specified term; later, specifically established penal colonies became their destination. While the prisoners may have been released once the sentences were served, they generally did not have the resources to return home.
Origin and implementation
Banishment or forced exile from a polity or society has been used as a punishment since at least the 5th century BC in Ancient Greece. The practice of penal transportation reached its height in the British Empire during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Transportation removed the offender from society, mostly permanently, but was seen as more merciful than capital punishment. This method was used for criminals, debtors, military prisoners, and political prisoners.
Penal transportation was also used as a method of colonization. For example, from the earliest days of English colonial schemes, new settlements beyond the seas were seen as a way to alleviate domestic social problems of criminals and the poor as well as to increase the colonial labour force, for the overall benefit of the realm.
Great Britain and the British Empire
Initially based on the royal prerogative of mercy, and later under English law, transportation was an alternative sentence imposed for a felony. It was typically imposed for offences for which death was deemed too severe. By 1670, as new felonies were defined, the option of being sentenced to transportation was allowed. Forgery of a document, for example, was a capital crime until the 1820s, when the penalty was reduced to transportation. Depending on the crime, the sentence was imposed for life or for a set period of years. If imposed for a period of years, the offender was permitted to return home after serving his time, but had to make his own way back. Many offenders thus stayed in the colony as free persons, and might obtain employment as jailers or other servants of the penal colony.
England transported its convicts and political prisoners, as well as prisoners of war from Scotland and Ireland, to its overseas colonies in the Americas from the 1610s until early in the American Revolution in 1776, when transportation to America was temporarily suspended by the Criminal Law Act 1776 (16 Geo. 3 c. 43). The practice was mandated in Scotland by an act of 1785, but was less used there than in England. Transportation on a large scale resumed with the departure of the First Fleet to Australia in 1787, and continued there until 1868.
Transportation was not used by Scotland before the Act of Union 1707; following union, the Transportation Act 1717 specifically excluded its use in Scotland. Under the Transportation, etc. Act 1785 (25 Geo. 3 c. 46) the Parliament of Great Britain specifically extended the usage of transportation to Scotland. It remained little used under Scots Law until the early 19th century.
In Australia, a convict who had served part of his time might apply for a ticket of leave, permitting some prescribed freedoms. This enabled some convicts to resume a more normal life, to marry and raise a family, and to contribute to the development of the colony.
Historical background
The trend towards more flexibility of sentencing
In England in the 17th and 18th centuries criminal justice was severe, later termed the Bloody Code. This was due to both the particularly large number of offences which were punishable by execution (usually by hanging), and to the limited choice of sentences available to judges for convicted criminals. With modifications to the traditional benefit of clergy, which originally exempted only clergymen from the general criminal law, it developed into a legal fiction by which many common offenders of "clergyable" offences were extended the privilege to avoid execution. Many offenders were pardoned as it was considered unreasonable to execute them for relatively minor offences, but under the rule of law, it was equally unreasonable for them to escape punishment entirely. With the development of colonies, transportation was introduced as an alternative punishment, although legally it was considered a condition of a pardon, rather than a sentence in itself. Convicts who represented a menace to the community were sent away to distant lands. A secondary aim was to discourage crime for fear of being transported. Transportation continued to be described as a public exhibition of the king's mercy. It was a solution to a real problem in the domestic penal system. There was also the hope that transported convicts could be rehabilitated and reformed by starting a new life in the colonies. In 1615, in the reign of James I, a committee of the council had already obtained the power to choose from the prisoners those that deserved pardon and, consequently, transportation to the colonies. Convicts were chosen carefully: the Acts of the Privy Council showed that prisoners "for strength of bodie or other abilities shall be thought fit to be employed in foreign discoveries or other services beyond the Seas".
During the Commonwealth, Oliver Cromwell overcame the popular prejudice against subjecting Christians to slavery or selling them into foreign parts, and initiated group transportation of military and civilian prisoners. With the Restoration, the penal transportation system and the number of people subjected to it, started to change inexorably between 1660 and 1720, with transportation replacing the simple discharge of clergyable felons after branding the thumb. Alternatively, under the second act dealing with Moss-trooper brigands on the Scottish border, offenders had their benefit of clergy taken away, or otherwise at the judge's discretion, were to be transported to America, "there to remaine and not to returne". There were various influential agents of change: judges' discretionary powers influenced the law significantly, but the king's and Privy Council's opinions were decisive in granting a royal pardon from execution.
The system changed one step at a time: in February 1663, after that first experiment, a bill was proposed to the House of Commons to allow the transporting of felons, and was followed by another bill presented to the Lords to allow the transportation of criminals convicted of felony within clergy or petty larceny. These bills failed, but it was clear that change was needed. Transportation was not a sentence in itself, but could be arranged by indirect means. The reading test, crucial for the benefit of clergy, was a fundamental feature of the penal system, but to prevent its abuse, this pardoning process was used more strictly. Prisoners were carefully selected for transportation based on information about their character and previous criminal record. It was arranged that they fail the reading test, but they were then reprieved and held in jail, without bail, to allow time for a royal pardon (subject to transportation) to be organised.
Transportation as a commercial transaction
Transportation became a business: merchants chose from among the prisoners on the basis of the demand for labour and their likely profits. They obtained a contract from the sheriffs, and after the voyage to the colonies they sold the convicts as indentured servants. The payment they received also covered the jail fees, the fees for granting the pardon, the clerk's fees, and everything necessary to authorise the transportation. These arrangements for transportation continued until the end of the 17th century and beyond, but they diminished in 1670 due to certain complications. The colonial opposition was one of the main obstacles: colonies were unwilling to collaborate in accepting prisoners: the convicts represented a danger to the colony and were unwelcome. Maryland and Virginia enacted laws to prohibit transportation in 1670, and the king was persuaded to respect these.
The penal system was also influenced by economics: the profits obtained from convicts' labour boosted the economy of the colonies and, consequently, of England. Nevertheless, it could be argued that transportation was economically deleterious because the aim was to enlarge population, not diminish it; but the character of an individual convict was likely to harm the economy. King William's War (1688–1697) (part of the Nine Years' War) and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14) adversely affected merchant shipping and hence transportation. In the post-war period there was more crime and hence potentially more executions, and something needed to be done. In the reigns of Queen Anne (1702–14) and George I (1714–27), transportation was not easily arranged, but imprisonment was not considered enough to punish hardened criminals or those who had committed capital offences, so transportation was the preferred punishment.
Transportation Act 1717
There were several obstacles to the use of transportation. In 1706 the reading test for claiming benefit of clergy was abolished (5 Anne c. 6). This allowed judges to sentence "clergyable" offenders to a workhouse or a house of correction. But the punishments that then applied were not enough of a disincentive to commit crime: another solution was needed. The Transportation Act was introduced into the House of Commons in 1717 under the Whig government. It legitimised transportation as a direct sentence, thus simplifying the penal process.
Non-capital convicts (clergyable felons usually destined for branding on the thumb, and petty larceny convicts usually destined for public whipping) were directly sentenced to transportation to the American colonies for seven years. A sentence of fourteen years was imposed on prisoners guilty of capital offences pardoned by the king. Returning from the colonies before the stated period was a capital offence. The bill was introduced by William Thomson, the Solicitor General, who was "the architect of the transportation policy". Thomson, a supporter of the Whigs, was Recorder of London and became a judge in 1729. He was a prominent sentencing officer at the Old Bailey and the man who gave important information about capital offenders to the cabinet.
One reason for the success of this Act was that transportation was financially costly. The system of sponsorship by merchants had to be improved. Initially the government rejected Thomson's proposal to pay merchants to transport convicts, but three months after the first transportation sentences were pronounced at the Old Bailey, his suggestion was proposed again, and the Treasury contracted Jonathan Forward, a London merchant, for the transportation to the colonies. The business was entrusted to Forward in 1718: he was paid £3 (£5 in 1727) for each prisoner transported overseas. The Treasury also paid for the transportation of prisoners from the Home Counties.
The "Felons' Act" (as the Transportation Act was called) was printed and distributed in 1718, and in April twenty-seven men and women were sentenced to transportation. The Act led to significant changes: both petty and grand larceny were punished by transportation (seven years), and the sentence for any non-capital offence was at the judge's discretion. In 1723 an Act was presented in Virginia to discourage transportation by establishing complex rules for the reception of prisoners, but the reluctance of colonies did not stop transportation.
In a few cases before 1734, the court changed sentences of transportation to sentences of branding on the thumb or whipping, by convicting the accused for lesser crimes than those of which they were accused. This manipulation phase came to an end in 1734. With the exception of those years, the Transportation Act led to a decrease in whipping of convicts, thus avoiding potentially inflammatory public displays. Clergyable discharge continued to be used when the accused could not be transported for reasons of age or infirmity.
Women and children
Penal transportation was not limited to men or even to adults. Men, women, and children were sentenced to transportation, but its implementation varied by sex and age. From 1660 to 1670, highway robbery, burglary, and horse theft were the offences most often punishable with transportation for men. In those years, five of the nine women who were transported after being sentenced to death were guilty of simple larceny, an offence for which benefit of clergy was not available for women until 1692. Also, merchants preferred young and able-bodied men for whom there was a demand in the colonies.
All these factors meant that most women and children were simply left in jail. Some magistrates supported a proposal to release women who could not be transported, but this solution was considered absurd: this caused the Lords Justices to order that no distinction be made between men and women. Women were sent to the Leeward Islands, the only colony that accepted them, and the government had to pay to send them overseas. In 1696 Jamaica refused to welcome a group of prisoners because most of them were women; Barbados similarly accepted convicts but not "women, children nor other infirm persons".
Thanks to transportation, the number of men whipped and released diminished, but whipping and discharge were chosen more often for women. The reverse was true when women were sentenced for a capital offence, but actually served a lesser sentence due to a manipulation of the penal system: one advantage of this sentence was that they could be discharged thanks to benefit of clergy while men were whipped. Women with young children were also supported since transportation unavoidably separated them. The facts and numbers revealed how transportation was less frequently applied to women and children because they were usually guilty of minor crimes and they were considered a minimal threat to the community.
The end of transportation
The outbreak of the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) halted transportation to America. Parliament claimed that "the transportation of convicts to his Majesty's colonies and plantations in America ... is found to be attended with various inconveniences, particularly by depriving this kingdom of many subjects whose labour might be useful to the community, and who, by proper care and correction, might be reclaimed from their evil course"; they then passed "An act to authorize ... the punishment by hard labour of offenders who, for certain crimes, are or shall become liable to be transported to any of his Majesty's colonies and plantations." For the ensuing decade, men were instead sentenced to hard labour and women were imprisoned. Finding alternative locations to send convicts was not easy, and the act was extended twice by the Criminal Law Act 1778 (18 Geo. 3 c. 62) and the Criminal Law Act 1779 (19 Geo. 3, c. 54). This resulted in a 1779 inquiry by a Parliamentary Committee on the entire subject of transportation and punishment; initially the Penitentiary Act was passed, introducing a policy of state prisons as a measure to reform the system of overcrowded prison hulks that had developed, but no prisons were ever built as a result of the act. The Transportation, etc. Act 1784 (24 Geo. 3 c. 56) and the Transportation, etc. Act 1785 (25 Geo. 3 c. 46) also resulted to help alleviate overcrowding. Both acts empowered the Crown to appoint certain places within his dominions, or outside them, as the destination for transported criminals; the acts would move convicts around the country as needed for labour, or where they could be utilized and accommodated.
The overcrowding situation and the resumption of transportation would be initially resolved by Orders in Council on 6 December 1786, by the decision to establish a penal colony in New South Wales, on land previously claimed for Britain in 1770, but as yet not settled by Britain or any other European power. The British policy toward Australia, specifically for use as a penal colony, within their overall plans to populate and colonise the continent, would differentiate it from America, where the use of convicts was only a minor adjunct to its overall policy. In 1787, when transportation resumed to the chosen Australian colonies, the far greater distance added to the terrible experience of exile, and it was considered more severe than the methods of imprisonment employed for the previous decade. The Transportation Act 1790 (30 Geo. 3 c. 47) officially enacted the previous orders in council into law, stating "his Majesty hath declared and appointed... that the eastern coast of New South Wales, and the islands thereunto adjacent, should be the place or places beyond the seas to which certain felons, and other offenders, should be conveyed and transported ... or other places". The act also gave "authority to remit or shorten the time or term" of the sentence "in cases where it shall appear that such felons, or other offenders, are proper objects of the royal mercy"
At the beginning of the 19th century, transportation for life became the maximum penalty for several offences which had previously been punishable by death. With complaints starting in the 1830s, sentences of transportation became less common in 1840 since the system was perceived to be a failure: crime continued at high levels, people were not dissuaded from committing felonies, and the conditions of convicts in the colonies were inhumane. Although a concerted program of prison building ensued, the Short Titles Act 1896 lists seven other laws relating to penal transportation in the first half of the 19th century.
The system of criminal punishment by transportation, as it had developed over nearly 150 years, was officially ended in Britain in the 1850s, when that sentence was substituted by imprisonment with penal servitude, and intended to punish. The Penal Servitude Act 1853 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 99), long titled "An Act to substitute, in certain Cases, other Punishment in lieu of Transportation," enacted that with judicial discretion, lesser felonies, those subject to transportation for less than 14 years, could be sentenced to imprisonment with labour for a specific term. To provide confinement facilities, the general change in sentencing was passed in conjunction with the Convict Prisons Act 1853 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 121), long titled "An Act for providing Places of Confinement in England or Wales for Female Offenders under Sentence or Order of Transportation." The Penal Servitude Act 1857 (20 & 21 Vict. c. 3) ended the sentence of transportation in virtually all cases, with the terms of sentence initially being of the same duration as transportation. While transport was greatly reduced following passage of the 1857 act, the last convicts sentenced to transportation arrived in Western Australia in 1868. During the 80 years of its use to Australia, the number of transported convicts totaled about 162,000 men and women. Over time the alternative terms of imprisonment would be somewhat reduced from their terms of transportation.
Transportation locations
Transportation to North America
From the early 1600s until the American Revolution of 1776, the British colonies in North America received transported British criminals. Destinations were the island colonies of the West Indies and the mainland colonies that became the United States of America.
In the 17th century transportation was carried out at the expense of the convicts or the shipowners. The Transportation Act 1717 allowed courts to sentence convicts to seven years' transportation to America. In 1720, an extension authorized payments by the Crown to merchants contracted to take the convicts to America. The Transportation Act made returning from transportation a capital offence. The number of convicts transported to North America is not verified: John Dunmore Lang has estimated 50,000, and Thomas Keneally has proposed 120,000. Maryland received a larger felon quota than any other province. Many prisoners were taken in battle from Ireland or Scotland and sold into indentured servitude, usually for a number of years. The American Revolution brought transportation to the North American mainland to an end. The remaining British colonies (in what is now Canada) were regarded as unsuitable for various reasons, including the possibility that transportation might increase dissatisfaction with British rule among settlers and/or the possibility of annexation by the United States – as well as the ease with which prisoners could escape across the border.
After the termination of transportation to North America, British prisons became overcrowded, and dilapidated ships moored in various ports were pressed into service as floating gaols known as "hulks". Following an 18th-century experiment in transporting convicted prisoners to Cape Coast Castle (modern Ghana) and the Gorée (Senegal) in West Africa, British authorities turned their attention to New South Wales (in what would become Australia).
From the 1820s until the 1860s, convicts were sent to the Imperial fortress colony of Bermuda (part of British North America) to work on the construction of the Royal Naval Dockyard and other defence works, including at the East End of the archipelago, where they were accommodated aboard the hulk of HMS Thames at an area still known as "Convict Bay", at St. George's town.
Transportation to Australia
In 1787, the First Fleet, a group of convict ships departed from England to establish the first colonial settlement in Australia, as a penal colony. The First Fleet included boats containing food and animals from London. The ships and boats of the fleet would explore the coast of Australia by sailing all around it looking for suitable farming land and resources. The fleet arrived at Botany Bay, Sydney on 18 January 1788, then moved to Sydney Cove (modern-day Circular Quay) and established the first permanent European settlement in Australia. This marked the beginning of the European colonisation of Australia.
Violent conflict on the Australian frontier between indigenous Australians and the colonists began only months after the First Fleet landed, lasting over a century. Convicts forced to work in the bush on the frontier were sometimes the victims of indigenous attacks, while convicts and ex-convicts also attacked indigenous people in some instances, such as the Myall Creek Massacre. In the Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars, a group of Irish convicts joined the Aboriginal coalition of Eora, Gandangara, Dharug and Tharawal nations in their fight against the colonists.
Norfolk Island, east of the Australian mainland, was a convict penal settlement from 1788 to 1794, and again from 1824 to 1847. In 1803, Van Diemen's Land (modern-day Tasmania) was also settled as a penal colony, followed by the Moreton Bay Settlement (modern Brisbane, Queensland) in 1824. The other Australian colonies were established as "free settlements", as non-convict colonies were known. However, the Swan River Colony (Western Australia) accepted transportation from England and Ireland in 1851, to resolve a long-standing labour shortage.
Two penal settlements were established near modern day Melbourne in Victoria but both were abandoned shortly after. Later, a free settlement was established and this settlement later accepted some convict transportation.
Until the massive influx of immigrants during the Australian gold rushes of the 1850s, free settlers had been outnumbered by penal convicts and their descendants. However, compared to the British American colonies, Australia received a larger number of convicts.
Convicts were generally treated harshly, forced to work against their will, often doing hard physical labour and dangerous jobs. In some cases they were cuffed and chained in work gangs. The majority of convicts were men, although a significant portion were women. Some were as young as 10 when convicted and transported to Australia. Most were guilty of relatively minor crimes like theft of food/clothes/small items, but some were convicted of serious crimes like rape or murder. Convict status was not inherited by children, and convicts were generally freed after serving their sentence, although many died during transportation and during their sentence.
Convict assignment (sending convicts to work for private individuals) occurred in all penal colonies aside from Western Australia, and can be compared with the practice of convict leasing in the United States.
Transportation from Great Britain and Ireland ended at different times in different colonies, with the last being in 1868, although it had become uncommon several years earlier thanks to the loosening of laws in Britain, changing sentiment in Australia, and groups such as the Anti-Transportation League.
In 2015, an estimated 20% of the Australian population had convict ancestry. In 2013, an estimated 30% of the Australian population (about 7 million) had Irish ancestry - the highest percentage outside of Ireland - thanks partially to historical convict transportation.
Transportation from British India
In British India – including the province of Burma (now Myanmar) and the port of Karachi (now part of Pakistan) – Indian independence activists were penally transported to the Andaman Islands. A penal colony was established there in 1857 with prisoners from the Indian Rebellion of 1857. As the Indian independence movement swelled, so did the number of prisoners who were penally transported.
The Cellular Jail, also called Kālā Pānī or Kalapani (Hindi for black waters), was constructed between 1896 and 1906 as a high-security prison with 698 individual cells for solitary confinement. Surviving prisoners were repatriated in 1937. The penal settlement was shut down in 1945. An estimated 80,000 political prisoners were transported to the Cellular Jail which became known for its harsh conditions, including forced labor; prisoners who went on hunger strikes were frequently force-fed.
Use by France
France transported convicts to Devil's Island and New Caledonia in the 19th and early-to-mid 20th centuries. Devil's Island, a French penal colony in Guiana, was used for transportation from 1852 to 1953. New Caledonia became a French penal colony from the 1860s until the end of the transportations in 1897; about 22,000 criminals and political prisoners (most notably Communards) were sent to New Caledonia.
The most famous transported prisoner is probably French army officer Alfred Dreyfus, wrongly convicted of treason in a trial in 1894, held in an atmosphere of antisemitism. He was sent to Devil's Island. The case became a cause célèbre known as the Dreyfus Affair, and Dreyfus was fully exonerated in 1906.
Deportations in the Soviet Union
Unlike normal penal transportation, many Soviet people were transported as criminals in forms of deportation being proclaimed as enemies of people in a form of collective punishment. During the Second World War, the Soviet Union transported up to 1.9 million people from western republics to Siberia and the Central Asian republics of the Union. Most were persons accused of treasonous collaboration with Nazi Germany, or of Anti-Soviet rebellion. Following death of Joseph Stalin, most of them rehabilitated. Populations targeted included Volga Germans, Chechens, and Caucasian Turkic populations. The transportations had a twofold objective: to remove potential liabilities from the warfront, and to provide human capital for the settlement and industrialization of the largely underpopulated eastern regions. The policy continued until February 1956, when Nikita Khrushchev in his speech On the Personality Cult and its Consequences condemned the transportation as a violation of Leninist principles. Whilst the policy itself was rescinded, the transported populations did not begin to return to their original metropoles until after the collapse of the Soviet Union, in 1991.
In popular culture
Performing arts
Penal transportation is a feature of many broadsides, a new type of folk song that developed in eighteenth-century England. A number of these transportation ballads have been collected from traditional singers. Examples include "Van Diemen's Land," "The Black Velvet Band," and "The Fields of Athenry."
Timberlake Wertenbaker's play Our Country's Good is set in 1780s in the first Australian penal colony. In the 1988 play, convicts and Royal Marines arrive aboard a First Fleet ship and settle New South Wales. Convicts and guards interact as they rehearse a theatre production, which the governor had suggested as an alternate form of entertainment instead of watching public hangings.
In the TV show American Gods, episode 7 season 1, for one of a side story Emily Browning is playing Essie that is transported twice in her life, bringing with her in America the Leprechaun legend.
In the TV show, Murdoch Mysteries, episode 6 season 14, "The Ministry of Virtue," Murdoch must investigate the death of a woman who was sentenced to a bridal version of the punishment. Namely, Murdoch learns of "Virtue Girls," British female convicts who have accepted the alternative of agreeing to marry bachelors in Canada instead of being sentenced to prison.
Literature
One of the key characters in Charles Dickens's novel Great Expectations is an escaped convict, Abel Magwitch. Pip helps him in the opening pages of the novel, and he later turns out to be Pip's secret benefactor – the source of his "great expectations". Magwitch, who had been apprehended shortly after the young Pip had helped him, was thereafter sentenced to transportation for life to New South Wales in Australia. While so exiled, he earned the fortune that he later would use to help Pip. Further, it was Magwitch's desire to see the "gentleman" that Pip had become that motivated him to illegally return to England, which ultimately led to his arrest and death. Great Expectations was published in serial form in 1860–1861.
My Transportation for Life, Indian freedom fighter Veer Savarkar's memoir of his imprisonment, is set in the British Cellular Jail in the Andaman Islands. Savarkar was imprisoned there from 1911 to 1921.
Franz Kafka's story "In der Strafkolonie" ("In the Penal Colony"), published in 1919, was set in an unidentified penal settlement where condemned prisoners were executed by a brutal machine. The work was later adapted for several other media, including an opera by Philip Glass.
The novel Papillon tells the story of Henri Charrière, a French man convicted of murder in 1931 and exiled to the French Guiana penal colony on Devil's Island. A film adaptation of the book was made in 1973, starring Steve McQueen and Dustin Hoffman.
The British author W. Somerset Maugham set several stories in the French Caribbean penal colonies. In 1935 he had stayed at Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni in French Guiana. His 1939 novel Christmas Holiday and two short stories in 1940's The Mixture as Before were set there, although he "ignored the brutal punishments and painted a pleasant picture of the infamous colony."
Penal transportation, typically to other planets, sometimes appears in works of science fiction. A classic example is The Moon is a Harsh Mistress by Robert Heinlein (1966), in which convicts and political dissidents are transported to lunar colonies in order to grow food for Earth. In Heinlein's book, a sentence of lunar transportation is necessarily permanent, as the long-term physiological effects of the moon's weak surface gravity (about one-sixth that of Earth) leave "loonies" unable to return safely to Earth.
See also
Home children
Millbank Prison
Penology
Prison
Windrush scandal
:Category:Australian penal colonies
Notes
References
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Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish. "Convict Transportation from Britain and Ireland 1615–1870", History Compass 8#11 (2010): 1221–42.
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External links
UK National archives
Convict life – State Library of NSW
Convict Transportation Registers
Convict Queenslanders
Forced migration
History of immigration to Australia
Convictism in Australia
Punishments
Crime in Australia
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241956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish%20Agency%20for%20Israel | Jewish Agency for Israel | The Jewish Agency for Israel () is the largest Jewish non-profit organization in the world. It was established in 1929 as the operative branch of the World Zionist Organization (WZO). The stated mission of the Agency is to "ensure that every Jewish person feels an unbreakable bond to one another and to Israel no matter where they live in the world, so that they can continue to play their critical role in our ongoing Jewish story."
It is best-known as the primary organization fostering the immigration of Jews in diaspora to the Land of Israel (known as aliyah) and overseeing their integration with the State of Israel. Since 1948, the Jewish Agency has brought 3 million immigrants to Israel, and offers them transitional housing in "absorption centres" throughout the country.
The Jewish Agency played a central role in the founding and the development of the State of Israel. David Ben-Gurion served as its Chairman of the Executive Committee from 1935, and in this capacity on 14 May 1948, he proclaimed Israel's independence, following which he served as the first Israeli prime minister. In the years preceding the founding of Israel, the Jewish Agency oversaw the establishment of about 1,000 towns and villages in the British Mandate of Palestine. The organization serves as the main link between Israel and Jewish communities around the world.
As of 2019, the Jewish Agency operates and/or funds programs worldwide that:
Connect young Jews to Israel and their Jewish identity, such as "Israel experience" trips, Jewish summer camps and day school programs, and encounters with Israelis.
Connect young Israelis to the Jewish people and their Jewish identity, such as sister-city style partnerships in "Partnership2Gether"; support for Reform, Conservative and Modern Orthodox educational programs; and the "Ami-Unity" initiative.
Facilitate aliyah and immigrant absorption, such as pre-aliyah services, post-aliyah transitional housing and lessons to learn the Hebrew language.
Help vulnerable populations in Israel, such as "Youth Futures" mentoring programs, residential "Youth Villages" for at-risk teenagers, and subsidized housing for the elderly.
By law, the Jewish Agency is a parastatal organization, but does not receive core funding from the Israeli government. The Jewish Agency is funded by the Jewish Federations of North America (JFNA), Keren Hayesod, major Jewish communities and federations, and foundations and donors from Israel and around the world.
In 2008, the Jewish Agency won the Israel Prize for its historical contribution to Israel and to the Jewish community worldwide.
Current programs
As of 2019, the Jewish Agency sponsors dozens of programs that connect Jews to Israel and to each other. The Agency organizes the programs into four different categories: 1. Connecting young Jews to Israel and their Jewish identity (Jewish and Zionist education in the Jewish diaspora), 2. Connecting young Israelis to the Jewish people and their Jewish identity, 3. Aliyah and absorption, 4. Supporting vulnerable populations in Israel.
Some programs:
Connecting young Jews to Israel and their Jewish identity
Israel experiences
The Israel Experience programs bring young Jews from around the globe to Israel to get to know the country and deepen their Jewish identities.
Taglit-Birthright Israel provides ten-day educational trips to Israel, Jerusalem and the Golan Heights for Jews ages 18 to 26 from around the world, completely free of charge. The Jewish Agency is the largest organizational partner in the initiative and is directly involved in bringing thousands of participants on Taglit-Birthright each year, with a special focus on facilitating Taglit-Birthright experiences for participants from the United States and from the former Soviet Union (FSU).
Masa Israel Journey is a public-service organization founded in 2004 by the Government of Israel's Office of the Prime Minister, together with the Jewish Agency. It includes programs in Israel for Jews aged 18–30, including study programs, service programs, and career development. Programs last from 2–12 months. In 2018 it provided scholarships to nearly 9,800 participants. Masa also performs outreach and operates alumni activities.
Israel Tech Challenge is a partnership of the Jewish Agency with the National Cyber Bureau and other partners and donors. It offers trips to Israel of varying lengths for students and young professionals (aged 18–30) with knowledge in the field of computer science and programming. The programs offer visits with Israeli hi-tech professionals and academics, along with experience or training in coding, cyber security and/or data science.
Machon Le Madrichim trains Jewish counselors from Zionist youth movements around the world in Israel, to give them tools for running educational Zionist programs in their home communities when they return. It was founded in 1946 by the World Zionist Organization. As of 2018, it had 17,000 alumni from around the world. Today the Machon trains several hundred young leaders each year.
Na'ale allows Jewish teenagers from the diaspora to study in Israel and earn a high school diploma. Students start the program in ninth or tenth grade and graduate after the twelfth grade with a full Israeli matriculation certificate (bagrut). During the first year, students follow an intensive Hebrew-language program so that they become able to speak, read and write in Hebrew. The program is fully subsidized by the Israeli government. The Na'ale scholarship includes: fully subsidized tuition, free ticket to Israel, room and board, health insurance, trips, and extra curricular activities. Na'ale offers a variety of schools all over Israel from which candidates may choose, including secular, national religious, ultra-orthodox, kibbutz, and urban boarding schools. The Jewish Agency is involved in recruitment in the former Soviet Union.
Jewish and Zionist education outside Israel
In its mission to strengthen the ties between Israel and worldwide Jewry and to promote Jewish culture and identity, the Jewish Agency sends out shlichim, or emissaries, to Jewish communities across the globe; partners with Israel and Diaspora communities, and operates and/or funds Jewish educational programs. It also supports Jewish inclusion and diversity programs.
Jewish Agency Israel Fellows are Israeli young adults who have completed army service and university study. These "Campus Shlichim" travel for two years university campuses with the goal of empowering student leadership and promoting positive engagement with Israel. According to the Jewish Agency, the aims of an Israel Fellow are to "create an ongoing Israel presence for Jewish students and the broader community . . . . partner with student organizations, campus study abroad offices, Jewish and Israel studies departments, local Jewish federations, Israeli consulates, and Jewish Community Centers ... [and] follow through with Taglit-Birthright trip alumni via one-on-one meetings and special programs and events to keep them active and encourage them to continue their Jewish journeys while in college." In 2017-18, 92 Fellows were sent to campuses in North America, South America, and other regions.
Shlichim (Jewish Agency "emissaries") are active in communal organizations, Jewish schools, community centers, synagogues and youth movements. There are also summer Shlichim who serve in Jewish summer camps. They serve as a central resource for Israel education in the local community. In the 2017-18 program year, the Jewish Agency sent 1,388 short-term emissaries to summer camps and other programs, and around 400 long-term emissaries to countries around the world (not including the Israel Fellows).
Programs for Russian-speaking Jewry: The organization has developed special outreach to Russian Jewry, because they have largely been separated from Jewish communities even after the fall of the Soviet Union. Only an estimated 20 percent of the 800,000 Jews across former Soviet states are engaged in Jewish life. And Russian Jews who have emigrated to other countries have often been separated from Jewish community life. The Agency runs programs for them (in the former Soviet Union, Germany, Austria and Israel) that fall are organized into four areas: (1) Camping, youth education, and counselor training (2) leadership training (3) visits to Israel (4) Focus on facilitation of Aliyah from the former Soviet Union and Germany.
FSU Summer and Winter Camps introduce young Russian-speaking Jews in the former Soviet Union to their Jewish heritage. Staffed by trained local counselors and Russian-speaking Israeli counselors, participants are introduced to Jewish history, Jewish customs and practices, and Israel. The Agency organizes counselors to follow up with attendees in year-round Jewish educational activities. In 2018, some 8,200 participants in the former Soviet Union attended sleepaway camps and 1,487 went to day camps.
Partnership2Gether and the Global School Twinning Network: see below.
The Emergency Assistance Fund provides for physical security improvements, such as video surveillance & CCTV, alarms, locks, gates, and reinforced walls/doors/windows, at synagogues, Jewish community centers, schools, and camps so that Jewish communal life can continue in greater safety. Jewish institutions outside Israel and North America are eligible for assistance. The 2018 allocations totaled around $1.4 million: $781,000 to institutions in Europe, $423,000 to facilities in Latin America, $82,000 to those in the former Soviet Union, and $109,000 to the Middle East. As of the end of 2018, the Fund has allocated over $11.5 million to hundreds of institutions in dozens of countries.
Jewish People Policy Institute focuses on strategic thinking and global policy planning on six issues critical to the Jewish future: geopolitics; Jewish identity; community bonds; economic assets and influence; demography; and literacy, creativity, and innovation. The institute, established by the Jewish Agency in 2002 as an independent think tank, has engaged the best minds in the areas of strategy and planning in the Jewish world. The staff examines the challenges, threats, and opportunities faced by the Jewish people and develops action-oriented policy recommendations for the government of Israel and major Jewish organizations. JPPI holds annual conferences and meetings that explore the Jewish condition. Participants have included Dennis Ross, Shimon Peres, Natan Sharansky, Malcolm Hoenlein, and Tzipi Livni. The Institute conducts meetings, publishes reports and position papers, and produces contingency plans that help the development of Jewish communities around the world.
Connecting young Israelis to the Jewish people and their Jewish identity
Partnership 2gether (P2G, previously known as Partnership 2000) is the "peoplehood platform" that connects some 450 Jewish and Israeli communities in 46 partnerships. The program has more than 350,000 participants each year. Its goals are to "connect the global Jewish family, increase Jewish identity, strengthen Israeli society, create living bridges to Israel and understanding of life in the Jewish state, and increase understanding of the rich variety of religious expression and renewal around the world."
The Global School Twinning Network connects schools in Israel to Jewish schools around the world, usually as part of a P2G partnership. Students share projects and communicate via Skype and Facebook. The Network includes 668 schools in 334 pairings, serving about 52,000 children and teens.
Support for Religious Streams: In 2014, the Jewish Agency allocated $2.8 million to 30 educational programs in Israel under the auspices of the Reform, Conservative, and Modern Orthodox movements. Their goal is to "help Israelis understand the varied expressions of Judaism outside Israel, and help Jews worldwide feel that their styles of Jewish expression can find a home in Israel."
Ami-Unity is a comprehensive strategy to encourage Israelis to explore the rich tapestry of Jewish life worldwide and stimulate them assume responsibility for ensuring that Israel is the national home for all Jews. Aimed at Israelis aged 7–25, Ami-Unity increases interest in the global Jewish community, exposes them to the diversity of Jewish life, cultivates feelings of being part of a larger Jewish family, instills tolerance and inclusiveness, and stresses the importance of religious pluralism. Ami-Unity is an umbrella partnership that aims to achieve long-term systemic change. To maximize impact, Ami-Unity builds cross-sector partnerships and trains educators in the partner organizations to develop and implement high-quality content to their own audiences. Those partners include bodies that provide formal education (the Ministry of Education's Division of Jewish-Israeli Culture), informal education (the Council of Youth Movements and the Council of Youth Organizations), pre-army education (the Council of Pre-Army Academies) and post-army education (the Student Union and Hillel Israel). In 2018, a total of 250,000 Israeli children, teens and young adults engaged in the resulting curricula.
Mechinot: Post-High School Service Learning programs provide Israeli 18–19-year-olds with a 6-month opportunity for Jewish study, volunteering, skill-building, and personal development in the period between their graduation from high school and their induction to the IDF. The programs introduce participants to the diversity of Israeli society and the Jewish world, and encourage a mix of self-reliance and communal responsibility; they give the high school graduates a framework in which to develop leadership abilities, and increase their chances of acceptance to a more high-level or elite army unit. This preparation can improve their career trajectory for the long-term. Participants live, work, and study together in small groups with inspiring role models. There are four clusters of such programs: (a) Derech Eretz, Alma, and Harel are pre-army mechinot, or preparatory programs, for young people from Israel's outlying regions with few educational or professional opportunities, or from socio-economically depressed neighborhoods. (b) Kol Ami brings together Israeli and Diaspora Jews. The Diaspora participants stay for three months, during which the entire group explores issues of the Jewish people and Israel; the Israelis stay on for another three months of army preparation. (c) Aharai! B'Ir, whose curriculum is similar to that of Derech Eretz, but differs in that it is a day program, based in urban settings, and therefore meets the needs of those Israeli high school graduates whose families are so poor that the young people must stay at home to work or care for family members until their army inductions. (d) Post-Army Mechinot helps just-released IDF soldiers transition into civilian life and learn vocational skills.
Aliyah
The Jewish Agency still brings thousands of Jews to move to Israel each year. In 2014, The Agency helped a total of nearly 26,500 olim (immigrants) make Aliyah, the highest number in 13 years. They noted significant growth in immigration from Ukraine and France. The Agency continues to support these olim as they integrate into Israeli society.
Aliyah of Rescue is the Jewish Agency's Aliyah infrastructure that brings Jews suffering persecution or economic distress to Israel. The services include covert operations to help Jews move out of Middle Eastern and North African countries with which Israel does not have diplomatic relations.
Pre-Aliyah Services are provided by the Jewish Agency to prospective immigrants around the world. Agency shlichim, or emissaries, give guidance on issues such as education, housing, health and employment opportunities in Israel. For those who do not have an emissary nearby, The Agency provides assistance online and on the phone through its Global Service Center. Additionally, The Agency is responsible for verifying that each potential immigrant is eligible for Aliyah under Israel's Law of Return and, once eligibility is proven, for facilitating the receipt of the Aliyah visa via the local Israeli embassy or consulate.
Absorption Centers around the country offer temporary housing for new immigrants and provide space for Hebrew instruction, preparation for life and employment in Israel, events, activities and cultural presentations. 17 of The Agency's 22 Absorption Centers cater specifically to Ethiopian olim and provide services tailored to the needs of the Ethiopian community. The other five house immigrants from around the world, primarily the FSU, South America, and the Middle East.
Ulpan: Intensive Hebrew language programs for new immigrants include five hours of immersive language instruction, five days a week, for five months. The programs are offered free of charge to all new immigrants. Ulpan instructors are certified by the Ministry of Education.
Centers for Young Adults provide ulpan classes, accommodations and a range of services to ease absorption for olim ages 18–35. These centers include the Ulpan Etzion network for college graduates and young professionals; Beit Brodetzky in Tel Aviv and Ulpan Kinneret in Tiberias, for high school graduates looking for job or army preparation; and Kibbutz Ulpan, combining Hebrew instruction with volunteer work on ten different kibbutzim. It also includes Selah, a program for high school graduates from the Former Soviet Union, and TAKA, which combines ulpan studies with pre-academic preparatory courses for immigrants headed to Israeli colleges who wish to polish their skills.
Wings encompasses an array of services including practical guidance and personal mentorship for young immigrants who join the IDF as lone soldiers, far from their families.
Supporting vulnerable populations in Israel
The Jewish Agency also helps vulnerable populations in Israel and around the world.
Youth Futures is a community-based initiative for mentoring at-risk pre-teens and adolescents. Each Youth Futures "mentor" works with 16 at-risk children over the course of three years, teaching skills for academic improvement and social integration. In 2014–15, approximately 350 trained Youth Futures staff members worked with 5,000 children and teens, plus 7,000 of their family members, in 200 schools in 35 communities in Israel. In addition to secular and traditional Jews, Youth Futures serves Arab, Bedouin, Druze, and Ultra-Orthodox communities.
Youth Villages provide safe, cost-effective boarding school settings for 850 young people ages 12 to 18 who have severe emotional, behavioral and family problems. The four Jewish Agency youth villages provide intensive, holistic services and help the youths succeed in and complete high school, and enter the Israeli army with their peers.
Project TEN brings together young Israelis and their Jewish peers from across the globe to work on sustainable projects in developing regions. Participants spend three months working in onsite service projects in vulnerable communities. Project TEN is a service-learning program designed to build participants' Jewish identities while they serve others. In 2016, Project TEN runs volunteer centers in Winneba, Ghana; Oaxaca, Mexico; Gondar, Ethiopia; Kibbutz Harduf, Israel; and Arad, Israel. In 2015 the program involved 200 volunteers around the world. Young Activism includes programs that train and support young-adult Israeli volunteers, who go on to create their own social entrepreneurship projects, thus widening the circles of influence. The Young Activism programs include (a) support for Young Communities, groups of idealistic young Israelis who commit to settling long-term in Israel's high-need areas and creating programs that increase local quality of life. (b) Choosing Tomorrow, which encourages university students in Israel's outlying areas to create young communities and settle long-term in the region (c) Ketzev, which provides extra training and mentoring to some of the young communities to help them build self-sustaining "social entrepreneurship" businesses, that provide cultural or educational benefits to customers. (d) Click, which provides microgrants to individual volunteers or very small groups, to help them launch small-scale local projects. (e) The Young Adults' Hub in Arad, where dozens of Israelis and Diaspora Jews receive subsidized housing in exchange for their volunteer activities for the city.
Net@ gives high-performing teenagers an opportunity to rise above their families' socio-economic backgrounds by training them for four years in marketable computer skills, leading to certification as computer and network technicians through Cisco Systems. The program is in addition to the participants' high school course load and also increases their English comprehension skills. In 2014, around 1,100 teens participated in the program, and another 400 children participated in Net@ Junior.
Loan funds assist entrepreneurs and business owners in Israel to open or expand their businesses, through loans with highly attractive conditions as well as comprehensive business guidance. The Jewish Agency acts as a partial guarantor for the loans, to support those businesses that otherwise would have a difficult time qualifying for loans or presenting the necessary collateral for them. The various funds have different eligibility criteria, with some focusing on stimulating the economy in specific regions of Israel, and others focusing on specific populations of business owners, such as Israeli Arabs, Ethiopian-Israelis, immigrants, etc.
The Fund for Victims of Terror provides two forms of financial assistance to those who have been wounded, or had family members killed, in a terrorist attack or war against Israel. It provides immediate assistance in the 24–48 hours after the attack, and it provides subsidies for long-term rehabilitation needs. In 2014, the fund provided emergency grants to 120 families impacted by Operation Protective Edge, and more than 1 million shekels (around $250,000 according to the exchange rate at the time) to 80 families with long-term effects from Operation Pillar of Defense.
Amigour is a Jewish Agency subsidiary that provides housing for Israel's elderly. In 2014 it operated 57 facilities that housed 7,500 seniors, mainly Holocaust survivors. Additionally, it operates 13,000 public housing apartments that provide government-subsidized housing to 40,000 single-parent families, elderly, and new immigrants.
Services for Israeli Arabs and minorities
As part of its efforts to strengthen Israeli society and to support vulnerable populations in Israel, the Jewish Agency has, for many years, supported or operated programs that encourage co-existence between Israeli Jews and Israeli Arabs, and programs designed specifically to serve Israel's non-Jewish citizens, and they continue to create new ones. Some of the programs:
Youth Futures, the mentorship program for middle-school students, is active in 36 locations around Israel. Some localities served by Youth Futures are Jewish, while others are mixed and, in recent years, the Jewish Agency has begun to serve children and families living in completely non-Jewish locales: East Jerusalem (100% Arab participants), Tel Aviv-Yafo (32% of participants are Arab), Acco and Matte Asher (34%), Lod (57% Arab/Bedouin), Horfeish (100% Druze), and El Kassum (100% Bedouin).
Choosing Tomorrow, one of The Agency's "Young Activism" social entrepreneurship training programs, includes three groups of Arab university and college students (total 40 students) who are being trained to create their own social-welfare programs that will specifically benefit their local (Arab) communities. These groups are in Be'er Sheva, the Jezre'el Valley, and a group at the Alkassemy Arab College. Additionally, Choosing Tomorrow groups in the Negev work to improve medical services to the Bedouin population, by teaching Arabic to local doctors and helping them understand and connect with Bedouin culture.
Neve Midbar is a boarding school that develops leadership among teenage Bedouin boys.
Net@ is a program supported by the Jewish Agency. In its chapters in Ramle, Nazareth, Acre, Jerusalem, and Tel Aviv-Yafo, Jewish and Arab teenagers study computers together, volunteer in community computer labs together, and serve as mentors together to junior-high school participants. In addition, Net@ has all-Arab chapters in Umm Al Fahm, Yirka, and Tira. 25% of all counselors in Net@ are Israeli Arab.
Acharai Pre-Army Academy (Mechinah) includes a mixed Jewish-Druze group and a mixed Jewish-Christian group in which soon-to-be-enlisted young Israelis of both religions work together to volunteer, promote co-existence, and prepare for their IDF service.
Atidim is a national Israeli program provides scholarships and educational activities to gifted students, funded in part by the Jewish Agency. Most programs serve both Jewish and non-Jewish students, and there are some programs dedicated specifically to the Arab sector. All told, in 2014 Atidim programs included more than 2,340 non-Jewish participants, including Druze, Bedouin, Arabs and other non-Jewish Israelis. Additionally the alumni association includes hundreds of Arab, Druze, and Bedouin graduates.
Jewish Agency scholarship funds benefit Arab recipients as well as Jewish ones.
Jewish Agency loan funds often help Israeli-Arab small business owners to receive bank loans at favorable rates. The nine different funds act as guarantors. One of the funds specifically aims to assist small business owners who are Arab, ultra-Orthodox, female, Ethiopian, or immigrants.
Emergency projects
Responses to military crises in Israel
During times of military crisis, the Jewish Agency for Israel provides a comprehensive range of services that, for the sake of efficiency and to avoid duplicating resources, are coordinated fully with the Government of Israel and other major organizations. Among them are:
Respite camping for children in the line of fire: For example, During the 2006 Lebanon War, the Jewish Agency moved 50,000 children from northern Israel to 50 residential camps out of the rocket range. 12,000 children went to Jewish Agency-equipped camp-style day care held in community centers. During the 2014 Israel-Gaza conflict (Operation Protective Edge) the Jewish Agency arranged for children from Israeli areas in the line of fire to enjoy "days of respite" for fun activities in regions less likely to experience air raids. According to the organization's Annual Report for 2014-15, they provided 73,500 such experiences.
Special services for lone soldiers on the front: During the 2014 Israel-Gaza conflict, the Jewish Agency provided mental health intervention and financial support to 340 "lone soldiers," IDF soldiers from overseas who do not have close family members living in Israel.
Trauma therapy and other extra support for residents of absorption centers: During the 2006 Lebanon War, after a number of absorption centers were hit by rockets, the Jewish Agency moved 2,100 new immigrants to safety and distributed 2,700 bomb shelter kits. During the 2014 Israel-Gaza conflict, they provided 2,000 hours of therapy for new immigrants.
Special loan funds for small businesses in affected areas, to prevent them from going out of business and to boost the local economy during times of distress. For example, during the 2006 Lebanon War, the Jewish Agency established a micro-business loan fund in the north.
Fund for the Victims of Terror: During the 2014 Israel-Gaza conflict, for example, the Jewish Agency gave 120 grants from the Fund for the Victims of Terror to Israeli families who had suffered death or major physical injury.
Scholarships for university students in affected areas: In the aftermath of the 2014 Israel-Gaza conflict, for example, the Jewish Agency distributed 1,300 scholarships in March 2015 to students who live , or study , from the Gaza border.
Sderot
The Jewish Agency has played an important role in supporting the residents of Sderot and the surrounding area, which has been the target of many rockets launched from Gaza. More than 12,000 children have enjoyed respite activities in the center and north of the country (during Operation Protective Edge); 300 educators have been trained to work with children living through trauma (during Operation Cast Lead); supplemental educational activities have been offered to more than 2,000 students; the S.O.S. Emergency Fund for Victims of Terror helped more than 200 people whose lives were directly affected by the Kassam attacks; 100 bomb shelters were renovated in the region during Cast Lead and 500 during Operation Protective Edge; and 500 students received scholarships (during Cast Lead) to study at Sapir College in Sderot, with more scheduled to receive scholarships as of the aftermath of Operation Protective Edge.
Israel Fires Emergency Fund
In November 2016, Israel experienced eight days of devastating fires. At least 75,000 people were evacuated from their residences, as 1,773 blazes razed over 600 homes and damaged hundreds more. The Government of Israel determined that while most were caused by weather conditions and negligence, many had been acts of terror.
Within days, the Jewish Agency created the Israel Fires Emergency Fund, modeled on the Fund for Victims of Terror. Generous contributions from partners, the Jewish Federations of North America—led by the Jewish United Fund/Jewish Federation of Metropolitan Chicago and CJP-Greater Boston's Jewish Federation—as well as Keren Hayesod and other donors, allowed the Jewish Agency to issue grants of $1,000 per household to victims right away. These funds provided immediate support as families faced urgent needs of food, shelter and clothing. By the end of December 2016, the Jewish Agency had delivered 618 grants across the country, with 29 additional grants in the first months of 2017.
History
Name
Established as the Palestine Office (of the Zionist Organization) in 1908, the organization became the Zionist Commission, later Palestine Zionist Executive, which was designated in 1929 as the "Jewish agency" provided for in the League of Nations' Palestine Mandate and was thus again renamed as The Jewish Agency for Palestine. After the establishment of the State it received its current name, The Jewish Agency for Israel.
1908–1928: Beginnings as an arm of the World Zionist Organization
The Jewish Agency began as the Palestine Office (Hebrew: המשרד הארץ-ישראלי, HaMisrad HaEretz Yisraeli, lit. "Office for the Land of Israel"), founded in Jaffa in 1908, as the operational branch of the Zionist Organization (ZO) in Ottoman-controlled Palestine under the leadership of Arthur Ruppin. The main tasks of the Palestine Office were to represent the Jews of Palestine in dealings with the Turkish sultan and other foreign dignitaries, to aid Jewish immigration, and to buy land for Jews to settle.
The Palestine Office was established under the inspiration of Theodor Herzl's vision for a solution to "the Jewish question": the issue of anti-Semitism and the place of Jews in the world. In his pamphlet "The Jewish State," Herzl envisioned the Jewish people settled as an independent nation on its own land, taking its place among the other nation-states of the world. The Palestine Office, which eventually became the Jewish Agency, was based upon Herzl's organizational ideas for how to bring a Jewish state into being.
The influx of Jews to Palestine on the Second Aliyah (1904-1914) made the purchase of land particularly urgent. With the aid of the Jewish National Fund (JNF), the Palestine Office bought land for newcomers in two locations: Chavat Kinneret (near the Sea of Galilee), and Kibbutz Ruhama (near Sderot of today). Kibbutz Ruhama was specifically designated for Russian Jews from the Second Aliyah. Over the following decades, the Palestine Office established hundreds more moshavim and kibbutzim throughout Palestine. The Palestine Office continued to purchase land together with JNF (In Hebrew: Keren Kayemet L'Yisrael, KKL).
With the outbreak of World War I, the anticipated disintegration of the Ottoman Empire raised hopes among Zionists for increased Jewish immigration and eventual sovereignty in Palestine. In 1918, Great Britain conquered the region and it fell under British military rule.
Following the promulgation of the pro-Zionist Balfour Declaration, Dr. Chaim Weizmann, president of the British Zionist Federation formed the Zionist Commission in March 1918 to go to Palestine and make recommendations to the British government. The Commission reached Palestine on 14 April 1918 and proceeded to study conditions and to report to the British government, and was active in promoting Zionist objectives in Palestine. Weizmann was instrumental in restructuring the ZO's Palestine office into departments for agriculture, settlement, education, land, finance, immigration, and statistics. The Palestine Office was merged into the Zionist Commission, headed by Chaim Weizmann.
On 25 April 1920, the Principal Allied Powers agreed at the San Remo conference to allocate the Ottoman territories to the victorious powers and assigned Palestine, Transjordan and Iraq as Mandates to Britain, with the Balfour Declaration being incorporated into the Palestine Mandate. The League of Nations formally approved these mandates in 1922. Article 4 of the Mandate provided for "the recognition of an appropriate Jewish agency as a public body for the purpose of advising and co-operating with the Administration of Palestine in such economic, social and other matters as may affect the establishment of the Jewish National Home and the interests of the Jewish population of Palestine."Israel Pocket Library (IPL), "Zionism". Keter, 1973. . p. 76 The ZO leaders had contributed to the drafting of the Mandate. In November 1921, the Zionist Commission became the Palestine Zionist Executive and was designated as the Jewish agency for Palestine for the purpose of Article 4 of the Palestine Mandate.Palestine Jewry and the Arab Question, 1917–1925, Neil Caplan, London and Totowa, New Jersey: F. Cass, 1978.
In 1921 Ze'ev Jabotinsky was elected to the Executive but he resigned in 1923, accusing Weizmann of not being vigorous enough with the Mandatory Government. Other issues between the Revisionists and the agency were the distribution of entry permits, Weizmann's support for the Zionist Labour Movement, and the proposal to expand the Agency. The Revisionists broke completely with Agency in 1935, but rejoined ZO in 1947. In 1951 the ZO/JA included all Zionist organizations except Herut.
The Palestine Zionist Executive was charged with facilitating Jewish immigration to Palestine, land purchase, and planning the general policies of the Zionist leadership. It ran schools and hospitals, and formed a defence force, the Haganah. Chaim Weizmann was the leader of both the World Zionist Organization and the Palestine Zionist Executive until 1929. The arrangement enabled the ZO to issue entry permits to new immigrants.
Jewish Agency for Palestine 1929–1948
Non-Zionists representation
In 1929, the Palestine Zionist Executive was renamed, restructured and officially inaugurated as The Jewish Agency for Palestine by the 16th Zionist Congress, held in Zurich, Switzerland. The new body was larger and included a number of Jewish non-Zionist individuals and organizations, who were interested in Jewish settlement in Palestine. They were philanthropic rather than political, and many opposed talk of a Jewish State. With this broader Jewish representation, the Jewish Agency for Palestine was recognized by the British in 1930, in lieu of the Zionist Organization, as the appropriate Jewish agency under the terms of the Mandate. The 16th Zionist Congress determined that in the event of the future dissolution of the Agency, the Zionist Organisation would replace it as representative of the Jews for the purpose of the Mandate.
There was strong opposition within the ZO when the idea of enlargement of the Board of Governors of the Jewish Agency was first raised in 1924 to include non-Zionist Jews, and the idea was accepted by the Zionist Congress only in 1927.
Even though non-Zionists took part in the Agency, it was still closely tied to the Zionist Organization. The President of the ZO served as the chair of the Executive Council and the Assembly of the Jewish Agency, and half of the members of the Agency's governing bodies were chosen by the ZO, ensuring a unified policy and close cooperation between the two organizations.Resolutions of the 16th Zionist Congress With a Summary Report of the Proceeding. World Zionist Organization (WZO), 1929
"The Council shall appoint an Executive of not more than . . . members to hold office until the next ordinary meeting of the Council. Of the persons so appointed, one half shall be persons nominated by the non-Zionist members of the Council, and the remainder shall be persons nominated by the Zionist Organisation." see pp. 13–14. On The change was Chaim Weizmann's initiative and was established on the principle of parity between Zionist and non-Zionist Jews working together in the building of a Jewish national home.
Those participating included Sholem Asch, H.N. Bialik, Leon Blum, Albert Einstein, Immanuel Löw, Lord Melchett and Herbert Samuel. American non-Zionists received 44 of the 112 seats allotted to non-Zionists. The British Board of Deputies joined as a constituent body.
Weizmann was criticized for being too pro-British. When the 1930 White Paper was published recommending restricting Jewish immigration, his position became untenable and he resigned from the ZO and the Jewish Agency. He protested that the British had betrayed their commitment expressed in the Balfour Declaration and that he could no longer work with them. Nahum Sokolow, who had been elected to succeed Weizmann, remained in his position. Arthur Ruppin succeeded Sokolow as Chairman of the Jewish Agency in 1933 and David Ben-Gurion and Moshe Shertok joined the executive. In 1935, Ben-Gurion was elected Chairman of the Agency to succeed Ruppin.
In 1937 The Peel Commission published its report into the disturbances of the year before. For the first time, partition and the setting up of a Jewish State was recommended. The 1937 Zionist Congress rejected the Commission's conclusions, a majority insisting that the Balfour Declaration referred to all of Palestine and Transjordan, but the executive was authorized to continue exploring what the "precise terms" were. This decision revealed differences within the Jewish Agency, with the non-Zionists disagreeing with the decision and some calling for a conference of Jews and Arabs.
In 1947 the last non-Zionist member of the Jewish Agency, Werner Senator, resigned and while the 50 percent participation of non-Zionists in the Agency before had not worked in practice, the Jewish Agency and the World Zionist Organization now became de facto identical.
Organization
From 1929 to 1948, the Jewish Agency was organized into four departments: the Government Department (performing foreign relations on behalf of the Jewish community of Palestine); the Security Department; the Aliyah Department, and the Education Department. The Jewish Agency Executive included David Ben-Gurion as chairman, and Rabbi Yehuda Leib Maimon and Yitzhak Gruenbaum, among others.
The Jewish Agency was (and is still) housed in a fortress-like building in the Rehavia neighborhood of Jerusalem. The land for the Rehavia neighborhood had been purchased in 1922 by the Palestine Land Development Corporation, and construction of the Jewish Agency headquarters was paid for by the ZO. The three-winged structure with a large open courtyard was designed by Yochanan Rattner. Along with the Jewish Agency it also houses the headquarters of the JNF and Keren Hayesod-United Israel Appeal. On March 11, 1948, a bomb planted in the courtyard of the building by Arab militants killed 13 and wounded many others. The Keren Hayesod wing was completely destroyed. Leib Yaffe, director-general of Keren Hayesod, was among those killed in the bombing.
The building continues to serve as the headquarters of the Jewish Agency as of 2019. Another building "Kiriyat Moria" is located in southern-east Jerusalem, Armon Hanatziv, Ha-Askan 3. The organization also has satellite sites worldwide.
Pre-state immigration and settlement 1934–1948
Throughout the years 1934–1948, in a phenomenon known as the Ha'apala (ascension), the Jewish Agency facilitated clandestine immigration beyond the British quotas. In 1938 it established HaMosad LeAliyah Bet (, lit. Institution for Immigration B), which took charge of the effort. Overall, in these years, The Agency, in partnership with other organizations, helped over 150,000 people in their attempt to enter Palestine, organizing a total of 141 voyages on 116 ships. The potential immigrants were Jews fleeing Nazi atrocities in Europe and, after the war, refugees from DP camps who sought a home in Palestine. Most of the Ma'apilim ships (of the Ha'apala movement) were intercepted by the British, but a few thousand Jews did manage to slip past the authorities. The operation as a whole also helped to unify the long-standing Jewish community in Palestine as well as the newcomer Jewish refugees from Europe.In these years The Agency made use of the "tower and stockade" (Hebrew: חומה ומגדל) method to establish dozens of new Jewish settlements literally overnight, without obtaining permission from the Mandate authorities. These settlements were built on land purchased by the JNF and relied on an Ottoman law stating that any building with a full roof could not be torn down.
In 1933 the Jewish Agency negotiated a Ha'avara (Transfer) Agreement with Nazi Germany under which approximately 50,000 German Jews were allowed to immigrate to Palestine and retain some of their assets as German export goods.
In 1943, the Jewish Agency's Henrietta Szold joined Recha Freier in developing the Youth Aliyah program, which between 1933 and 1948 rescued more 5,000 young Jews from Europe, brought them to Palestine, and educated them in special boarding schools.https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Immigration/youth aliyah.html (Accessed 8 August 2013) According to Professor Dvora Hacohen, between 1933 and 2011 the Youth Aliyah movement helped over 300,000 young people make Aliyah.
When World War II broke out, the Jewish Agency established a committee to aid European Jewry by finding them entry permits to Palestine, sending them food, and maintaining contact. The Agency also helped recruit 40,000 members of the Palestinian Jewish community (a full 8 percent of the Jewish population of Palestine) to be trained by the British military and aid in the Allies' struggle against the Nazis; most served in the Middle East and Africa, but some served behind enemy lines in Europe, among them a group of 32 parachutists that included Hannah Szenes. In total, 800 were killed in their efforts.
When World War II ended the Agency continued to aid illegal immigration to Palestine through HaMossad LeAliyah Bet in an effort known as the Bricha. Between 1945 and 1948 the Jewish Agency sent 66 ships of refugees to Palestine. Most were intercepted by British authorities, who placed the illegal immigrants, who had just survived the Holocaust, in detention camps in Palestine and later in Cyprus. Only with the establishment of the State of Israel were the detainees allowed to enter the country.
Resistance, and formation of Israel's first government
Frustrated with Great Britain's continued anti-Zionist stance, the Jewish Agency helped put together an agreement signed by the Hagannah, the Irgun, and the Lehi to form a United Resistance Movement against the British. In 1946 British troops raided Jewish Agency headquarters as part of Operation Agatha, a broad effort to quash Jewish resistance in Palestine. Important figures in The Agency including Moshe Sharett, head of the Agency's political department, and Dov Yosef, member of the Agency's Executive Committee, were arrested and imprisoned in Latrun.
The United Nations recommended the partition of Palestine on 29 November 1947. Meanwhile, the Jewish Agency collaborated with the Jewish National Council to set up a People's Council (Mo'ezet Ha'am) and National Administration (Minhelet Ha'am). After the declaration of independence on 14 May 1948, these two bodies formed the provisional government of the State of Israel.
The Jewish Agency for Israel
Post-State immigration, settlement, and infrastructure
Following the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, the Jewish Agency for Israel shifted its focus to facilitating economic development and absorbing immigrants. Organizationally, it changed its structure: The Aliyah Department remained, as well as the Education Department (which promoted Jewish and Zionist education in the diaspora), but the Security and Government Departments were replaced by the Department of Agriculture and Settlement, and by the Israel Department (supporting activities that help vulnerable populations within Israel).
The Agency's budget in 1948 was IL 32 million; its funding came from Keren Hayesod, the JNF, fund-raising drives, and loans.
In 1949, the Jewish Agency brought 239,000 Holocaust survivors, from DP camps in Europe and detention camps in Cyprus, to Israel. In the years following Israel's founding, Jews in many Arab countries suffered from violence and persecution, and fled or were driven from their homes. The Agency helped to airlift 49,000 Yemenite Jews to Israel on Operation Magic Carpet, and over the next few years brought hundreds of thousands of Jewish refugees to Israel from Northern Africa, Turkey, Iraq, and Iran.
Between 1948 and 1952, about 700,000 immigrants arrived in the new state. The Jewish Agency helped these immigrants acclimate to Israel and begin to build new lives. It established schools to teach them Hebrew, beginning with Ulpan Etzion in 1949. (The first student to register for Ulpan Etzion was Ephraim Kishon.) It also provided them with food, housing, and vocational training. For a time the construction of new housing could not keep up with demand, and many of the new immigrants were placed in temporary ma'abarot, or transit camps.
In 1952 the "Zionist Organization-Jewish Agency for Israel Status Law" was passed by the Knesset formalizing the roles of each group. It was agreed that the WZO and the Jewish Agency would continue to supervise Aliyah, absorption, and settlement, while the state would handle all other matters previously dealt with by The Agency including security, education, and employment. Article 4 of the Status Law stipulated that the World Zionist Organization (clarified in Article 3 as "also the Jewish Agency") is an "authorized agency" of the State, establishing its ongoing parastatal rather than purely nongovernmental status.
In the early years of the state the Jewish Agency aided in the establishment of a variety of different institutions that developed the country's economic and cultural infrastructure. These included El Al, the national airline; Binyanei HaUma, the national theater and cultural center; and museums, agricultural, and land development companies.
In the years after 1948, the Agency's Department of Agricultural Settlement established an additional 480 new towns and villages throughout Israel. It provided them with equipment, livestock, irrigation infrastructure, and expert guidance. By the late 1960s these towns produced 70% of Israel's total agricultural output.
The Agency also focused its energies on Jews outside of Israel. The Department for Education and Culture in the Diaspora and the Department of Torah Education and Culture in the Diaspora were created to help replace the loss of centers of Jewish learning destroyed by the Holocaust. They trained Hebrew teachers; sent Israelis abroad to supplement Diaspora schools, camps, and youth organizations; and trained cantors, (ritual slaughterers) and (ritual circumcisers) in Diaspora communities.
Immigration and absorption, 1967–1990s
Jewish pride and euphoria following Israel's dramatic victory in the Six Day War of 1967 prompted a new wave of immigration. In order to aid in the absorption of this influx of immigrants, the Israeli government's Ministry for Absorption was created in June 1968, taking over some aspects of absorption from The Agency and the ZO.
In the 1980s, the Jewish Agency began to bring the Ethiopian Jewish Community to Israel. On Operation Moses and Operation Joshua more than 8,000 immigrants were airlifted out of Ethiopia. In 1991 about 14,400 Ethiopian Jews were flown to Israel in the space of 36 hours on Operation Solomon. Since then, a steady trickle of immigrants have been brought to Israel from Ethiopia by the Jewish Agency. The Agency has taken charge of housing them in absorption centers, teaching them Hebrew, helping them find employment and in general easing their integration into Israeli society. In 2013 most of the "olim," or new immigrants, in absorption centers are from Ethiopia.
With the collapse of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s, Russian and Eastern European Jews began to stream to Israel in the tens of thousands. In 1990, about 185,000 immigrants arrived from the FSU; in the following year, nearly 150,000 came; and for the rest of the decade a steady average of 60,000 immigrants from the region made their way to Israel every year. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, nearly a million Jews and their family members from the former Soviet Union have made Aliyah, presenting tremendous absorption challenges. The Jewish Agency has helped them to integrate through a variety of programs including Hebrew language instruction, placement in absorption centers, and job training.
Program expansion, 1990s–2009
In 1994, the Jewish Agency, together with the United Jewish Communities and Keren Hayesod-United Israel Appeal, established Partnership 2000. Now known as Partnership2Gether or P2G, the program connects 45 Israeli communities with over 500 Jewish communities around the globe in a "sister city"-style network. Diaspora participants travel to Israel and vice versa, and are hosted by their partner communities; schools are connected through the Global Twinning Network; global Jewish communities support loan funds helping entrepreneurs and small business owners in their partner cities; and young Jewish adults in Israel on long-term programs meet with their Israeli peers for dialogue and workshops.
The Jewish Agency provides Jewish communities outside Israel a continuum of programming to "bring Israel" to local worldwide Jewish communities. They do this in part through "shlichim," or emissaries. Shlichim are Israeli educators or cultural ambassadors, who spend an extended period of time (2 months to 5 years) abroad to "bring Israel" to the community. Shlichim'' are also posted at college campuses in organizations like Hillel or active in youth organizations.
Other Jewish Agency-sponsored programs that are instrumental in inspiring Jewish youth with a connection to Israel are "Israel Experiences" (educational visits to Israel) such as Taglit-Birthright Israel, a 10-day visit to Israel provided free-of-charge to young Jewish adults. The Jewish Agency is an important organizational partner in the Taglit-Birthright initiative.
In 2004, the Jewish Agency and the Government of Israel together created (and continue to co-sponsor as of 2016) Masa Israel Journey, which provides stipends to young Jews between the ages of 18–30 who would like to study, volunteer, or perform internships in Israel for a period of 5–12 months.
During this period, the Jewish Agency's Israel Department focused (and continues to focus) on strengthening Israel's periphery, namely the Galilee region in the north and the Negev in the South. The emergence of the high-tech industry in Israel created a significant socio-economic disparity between the center of country and the outer regions. Thus, the Jewish Agency sought (and continues to seek) to "lessen cultural and economic gaps."
For example, its Youth Futures program, founded in 2006, includes a holistic approach to dealing with at-risk youth in Israel: each child, referred to the program by a teacher or social worker, is connected to a "Mentor" who is responsible for connecting the child to resources and community services. The Jewish Agency is also a significant partner in the Net@ program offered by Cisco Systems. Program participants are Israeli high school students in socio-economically disadvantaged areas, who study the Cisco computer curriculum and earn certification as computer technicians; they also engage in volunteering and study democratic values.
Strategic plans
2010
At the February 2010 Board of Governors meeting, Natan Sharansky announced a shift in the priorities of the Jewish Agency from Aliyah to strengthening Jewish identity for young adults around the world.
From 1948 until 2009, the Jewish Agency was organized into departments: the Aliyah and Absorption department, which was responsible for the immigration and integration of Jews coming to Israel; the Education department, which worked to deepen the connection of Jews worldwide to Israel; and the Israel department, which focused on improving the lives of socio-economically vulnerable Israelis. (A fourth department, for Agriculture and Settlement, had been in operation starting in 1948, but had closed long before 2009.)
In order to increase efficiency, the Jewish Agency, under the leadership of its new Chairman of the Executive, Natan Sharansky, decided to restructure the organization. The three main departments were reorganized into the following six program units:
Israel Experiences – provides opportunities for young Jews from around the world to encounter Israel and meet Israelis, and for Israelis to meet them
Shlichim and Israel Fellows – sends Israeli emissaries to Diaspora communities worldwide to strengthen Jewish identity and connection to Israel
Russian-Speaking Jewry – runs programs for Russian-speaking Jews of all ages around the world, with a focus on Jewish education and building Jewish communal leadership
Social Activism – aids the vulnerable in Israel and around the world, and trains young Jews and Israelis to engage in social activism
Partnerships – oversees Partnership2Gether, connecting Jewish communities in Israel and the Diaspora to learn from each other and to build a sense of global Jewish peoplehood
Aliyah, Absorption, and Special Operations – aids all immigrants with the Aliyah (resettlement in Israel) process and integration both before and after their arrival, and rescues Jews from areas of distress to bring them to Israel
Each program unit reports directly to the Jewish Agency's Director General. Additionally, The Agency's support units – such as human resources, marketing, and finance – which had until 2009 existed independently for each department, were trimmed and consolidated into single units that serve the entire organization.
Along with the organizational restructuring came a new focus. As the first decade of the 21st century came to a close, The Agency noted that most of global Jewry was now located in democratic, stable societies that were relatively friendly to Jewish residents. As "Aliyah of Rescue" became urgent for decreasing numbers of Jews, new challenges were arising for world Jewry, most notably, Agency leaders remarked, the need to engage young Jews in Jewish culture and to help Israeli Jews and those who live outside Israel to understand each other and feel connected to what they call the "global Jewish family." While continuing "Aliyah of Rescue" operations, The Agency decided to focus its primary energies on fostering a strong relationship between world Jewry and Israel, and on encouraging Aliyah based on a love for the country, what it calls "Aliyah of Choice." Its main vehicle for doing so would be to bring Jews from around the world to Israel on short- and long-term tourist programs to allow them to get to know the country and to give Israelis the opportunity to get to know them and vice versa. Parallel to these efforts, The Agency decided to increase its investment in strengthening Jewish communities around the globe. Its goals would be to grow local Jewish leadership, to strengthen Jewish identity, and to deepen the connection of communities worldwide to Israel and to the Jewish people as a whole.
2019
At the October 2019 Board of Governors meeting, which marked the 90th anniversary of the organization, the Board passed a decision to somewhat shift the Jewish Agency's areas of focus, in response to new critical challenges that had arisen for the Jewish people. Its "renewed mission" moving into its tenth decade focuses on three areas:
Continuing to promote Aliyah and ensure Jewish safety: continuing to facilitate both Aliyah of Rescue and Aliyah of Choice; working with other organizations and communities in a common struggle against anti-Semitism and delegitimization of Israel.
Connecting Jews worldwide to one another and to Israel: bridging the diversity of identities, interests and religious streams in the Jewish world; developing global Jewish leadership
Advocacy and impact on behalf of world Jewry in Israel: bringing the diversity of voices in the Jewish world to Israeli policy makers and Israeli society at large; helping the Israeli public understand the diversity of Jewish life while building a personal commitment to the Jewish People as a whole; developing a new paradigm for the involvement of world Jewry in Israeli society.
Governance
The Jewish Agency Executive is charged with administering the operations of the Jewish Agency, subject to the control of the Board of Governors. It has 26 members, of which 24 are chosen by the Board of Governors. The Executive is composed in the following manner: 12 members designated by WZO and 12 members designated jointly by JFNA/UIA and Keren Hayesod. In addition, the World Chairperson of Keren Hayesod and the Chairperson of the JFNA Executive are ex-officio members in the Executive. Yaakov Hagoel is serving as acting chairman since Isaac Herzog vacated the position upon becoming Israel's 11th president.
Over the years the Executive board has included many prominent members of Israeli society. Some of the famous Israelis who have served on the board include: M. D. Eder – 1922; Frederick Kisch – 1922–31; Haim Arlosoroff – 1931–33; Moshe Shertok – 1933–48; Arthur Ruppin – 1933–35; David Ben-Gurion (Chairman of the Executive) – 1935–48.
Past Chairmen of the Executive
Source:
Frederick Hermann Kisch – 1923–31
Haim Arlosoroff – 1931–33
Arthur Ruppin – 1933–35
David Ben-Gurion – 1935–48
Berl Locker – 1948–56
Zalman Shazar – 1956–61
Moshe Sharett – 1961–65
Louis Arie Pincus – 1965–74
Pinhas Sapir – 1974–75
Yosef Almogi 1976–78
Arieh Dulzin – 1974 1978–87
Simha Dinitz – 1987–94
Avraham Burg – 1995–99
Sallai Meridor – 1999–2005
Ze'ev Bielski – 2005–09
Natan Sharansky – 2009–18
Isaac Herzog – 2018–2021
Yaakov Hagoel (acting chairman) – 2021 –
The Board of Governors, which meets not less than three times a year, is the central policy-making body of the Jewish Agency. The 120 Governors play a crucial role in the governance of the Agency in overseeing budgets and operations and in recommending policy to the Agency. Members of the Board are elected to serve for a two-year term in the following manner: 60 of the members (50 percent) are designated by WZO; 36 of the members (30 percent) are designated by JFNA/UIA; 24 members (20 percent) are designated by Keren Hayesod. The Board of Governors determines policy of the Jewish Agency for Israel and manages, supervises, controls, and directs its operations and activities. The current chairperson of the Board of Governors, as of July 2014, is Mr. Charles (Chuck) Horowitz Ratner.
The Assembly, which meets at least once every two years, is the supreme governing body of the Jewish Agency. It has 518 delegates who are elected in the following manner: 259 of the members (50 percent) are designated by the WZO; 155 of the members (30 percent) are designated by the Jewish Federations of North America/United Israel Appeal (JFNA/UIA); and 104 of the members (20 percent) are designated by Keren Hayesod. The Assembly is responsible for determining basic policies and goals of the Jewish Agency; receiving and reviewing reports from the Board of Governors; making recommendations on major issues; and adopting resolutions on the above.
The Director General is responsible, under the direction of the Chairperson of the Executive, for the implementation of policies established by the Assembly, the Board of Governors and the Executive. In addition, he/she is responsible for all operations and administration of the Jewish Agency, including implementation of long-term strategic goals. The current Director General is Amira Ahronoviz, the first woman to hold the position.
Funding and budget
The Jewish Agency is funded by the Jewish Federations of North America, Keren Hayesod, major Jewish communities and federations, and foundations and donors from Israel and around the world.
Due to the volatile U.S. dollar, the global economic crisis and the Madoff scandal, the Jewish Agency for Israel was forced to make significant cuts to its budget. The Board of Governors voted to cut $45 million in November 2008 and an additional $26 million at the February 2009 meeting.
The organization's total operating budget in 2013 was US$355,833,000, and its projected operating budget for 2014 was US$369,206,000. Its operating budget for 2019 is US$379,807,000.
Jewish Agency International Development, the organization's main fundraising arm in North America, is a registered 501(c)(3).
Awards and recognition
On May 8, 2008, at the Israeli government's 60th Independence Day celebration, the Jewish Agency for Israel was awarded the Israel Prize for lifetime achievement & special contribution to society and the State of Israel.
See also
List of Israel Prize recipients
Nefesh B'Nefesh
References
External links
Official Jewish Agency Website
The Jewish Agency for Israel
The Jewish Agency for Israel (@JewishAgency) | Twitter
הסוכנות היהודית לארץ ישראל
Taglit-Birthright Official Website
Onward Israel Official Website
MyIsraelSummer Official Website (Jewish Agency portal)
Project Ten Official Website (Program is a Jewish Agency initiative)
Partnership2Gether Official Website
Connect Israel (Jewish Agency program)
Makom (creates Jewish Agency educational content)
Jewish People Policy Planning Institute Official Website
The Central Zionist Archives in Jerusalem. Collections of the Jewish Agency for Israel.
Masa Israel Journey Official Website
Israel Tech Challenge Official Website
Net@ (a program of the Jewish Agency, Cisco, and Appleseeds Academy)
Amigour (Jewish Agency subsidiary)
Aliyah Assistance
Aliyah
History of Zionism
Israel Prize for lifetime achievement & special contribution to society recipients
Israel Prize recipients that are organizations
Jewish organizations based in Israel
Jewish outreach
Jewish refugee aid organizations
Non-profit organizations based in Israel
Organizations based in Jerusalem
Jewish organizations in Mandatory Palestine
Political history of Israel
Politics of Mandatory Palestine
Refugees in Israel
Zionist organizations
Zionism in Mandatory Palestine
1929 establishments in Mandatory Palestine
Mandatory Palestine in World War II
Yishuv during World War II | [
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241961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My%20Family%20and%20Other%20Animals | My Family and Other Animals | My Family and Other Animals (1956) is an autobiographical book by British naturalist Gerald Durrell. It tells in an exaggerated and sometimes fictionalised way of the years that he lived as a child with his siblings and widowed mother on the Greek island of Corfu between 1935 and 1939. It describes the life of the Durrell family in a humorous manner, and explores the fauna of the island. It is the first and most well-known of Durrell's Corfu trilogy, which also includes Birds, Beasts, and Relatives (1969) and The Garden of the Gods (1978).
Durrell had already written several successful books about his trips collecting animals in the wild for zoos when he published My Family and Other Animals in 1956. Its comic exaggeration of the foibles of his family – including his eldest brother Lawrence Durrell, who became a celebrated novelist and poet – and his heartfelt appreciation of the natural world made it very successful. Durrell was able to found the Jersey Zoological Park (now known as the Durrell Wildlife Park) in the Channel Islands. He also became known as a novel-writer and television personality. His books helped stimulate the development of tourism in Corfu.
Summary
The book is an autobiographical account of five years in the childhood of naturalist Gerald Durrell, aged 10 at the start of the saga, of his family, pets and life during a sojourn on Corfu. The book is divided into three sections, marking the three villas where the family lived on the island. Gerald is the youngest in a family consisting of their widowed mother, writer and eldest son Larry, the gun-mad Leslie, and diet-obsessed sister Margo together with Roger the dog. They are fiercely protected by their taxi-driver friend Spiro (Spiro "Americano" Hakiaopulos) and mentored by the polymath Dr. Theodore Stephanides who provides Gerald with his education in natural history. Other human characters, chiefly eccentric, include Gerald's private tutors, the artistic and literary visitors Larry invites to stay, and the local people who befriend the family.
Background
The book was written in 1955 in Bournemouth, where Durrell was recuperating from a severe attack of jaundice. Whereas Durrell often claimed to find writing a chore, this book was different: his first wife Jacquie recalled: "Never have I known Gerry work as he did then; it seemed to pour out of him". Durrell maintained that "he had started off like a good cook with three ingredients which, delicious alone, were even better in combination: namely, the spellbinding landscape of a Greek island before tourism succeeded in spoiling it for tourists; his discovery of and friendship with the wild denizens, both animal and Greek, of that island; and the eccentric conduct of all members of his family." The book was an instant success.
Although My Family and Other Animals is presented as autobiographical, the events described are not always true. In particular, Larry lived in another part of Corfu with his first wife Nancy Durrell, whom Gerald does not mention at all. The chronology of events as they occur in the book is also inaccurate, and the reason for the Durrells' departure from Corfu (imminent outbreak of World War II) is not given; instead, it is implied that the family returned to England for the sake of Gerald's education.
However, the book does succeed in preserving the impressions of ten- to fourteen-year-old Gerald extremely vividly and with a great deal of light-hearted humour. Despite the omissions and inaccuracies, Lawrence Durrell commented: "This is a very wicked, very funny, and I'm afraid rather truthful book – the best argument I know for keeping thirteen-year-olds at boarding-schools and not letting them hang about the house listening in to conversations of their elders and betters".
The book was first published by Rupert Hart-Davis Ltd in 1956, and in paperback by Penguin Books in 1959, and has remained in print ever since.
Adaptations
Television and film
1987
In 1987, the book was made into a ten-part BBC television series, My Family and Other Animals, written by Charles Wood and directed by Peter Barber-Fleming. It starred Hannah Gordon as Louisa Durrell and Brian Blessed as Spiro Amerikanos, with Darren Redmayne playing the young Gerry. Nigel Marven of the Natural History Unit, Bristol was responsible for the animals side of the production; Denis McKeown, then PhD student in Psychology University of Sussex, did the training of the famous pigeon Quasimodo in the series. The whistling for the theme tune was provided by Ken Barrie, who was the original voice of the children's television character Postman Pat.
2005
In 2005, it was adapted by the BBC as a 90-minute film, My Family and Other Animals, starring Eugene Simon as the young Gerry, Imelda Staunton as Mrs. Durrell and Omid Djalili as Spiro. This adaptation was written by Simon Nye.
2016–2019
On 3 April 2016 ITV began running the six-part series The Durrells, also adapted by Simon Nye. Loosely based on the Corfu trilogy, it stars Keeley Hawes as Louisa Durrell and Milo Parker as Gerald Durrell. Three subsequent series of The Durrells were broadcast, in 2017, 2018, and 2019. The first series is set in 1935, the second in 1936, the third in 1937, and the fourth in 1938–39.
Theatre
In 2006, the Jersey Arts Centre's Theatre in Education company produced the first stage version, in celebration of the 50th anniversary of the book's publication in 1956. Adapted and directed by Daniel Austin, the play premiered on 22 February 2007 at Rouge Bouillon School in St Helier.
Similar titles
Several books have alluded to the title of Durrell's book, including Josephine Feeney's 1995 novel My Family and Other Natural Disasters, Simon Doonan's 2005 memoir Nasty: My Family and Other Glamorous Varmints, Kirin Narayan's 2007 memoir My Family and Other Saints, and Clare Balding's 2014 autobiography, My Animals and Other Family.
In Nanny Ogg's Cookbook by Terry Pratchett, there is reference to a fictional book titled My Family and Other Werewolves.
Martin Clunes hosted a British reality TV show on ITV called My Travels and Other Animals
References
.
External links
1956 books
British autobiographies
Books by Gerald Durrell
Books about Greece
British novels adapted into films
1930s in Greece | [
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241964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jersey%20Zoo | Jersey Zoo | Jersey Zoo (formerly Durrell Wildlife Park) is a zoological park established in 1959 on the island of Jersey in the English Channel by naturalist and writer Gerald Durrell (1925–1995). It is operated by the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust. It has approximately 169,000 visitors per year; visitor numbers tend to vary with the tourist trade to Jersey.
Jersey Zoo has always concentrated on rare and endangered species. It has mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles, comprising over 130 species.
Since 1964, the zoo has been home to the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust (formerly the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust).
Overview
The park is located at Les Augrès Manor, Trinity, Jersey, north of Saint Helier. It officially opened on 26 March 1959.
The park is situated in of landscaped parkland and water-gardens. The Trust has a strong commitment to looking after the Island's native wildlife, and large areas within the grounds have been designated native habitat areas. The extensive planting of flowering and fruiting trees throughout the grounds also serves to attract a plethora of wild birds and insects. Included in the former are several species of bird which used to be commonly seen in island gardens but have become increasingly scarce, including the house sparrow and song thrush.
There are over 50 nest-boxes positioned around the grounds, which are used by a variety of birds including barn owls, kestrels, swallows and house martins. Other animals which are commonly seen within the grounds are the red squirrel, bank vole, and the short-toed treecreeper.
History
Gerald Durrell began his career capturing animals for other zoos, but thought that the facilities needed to concentrate more on animal conservation rather than mere entertainment. He started the zoo in 1959. Durrell tells the story of starting the zoo in his book "Menagerie Manor" and others.
In January 2008 plans known as "New Vision" were unveiled for the future of the zoo. These ambitious plans had an emphasis on the notion of 'TopSpots'; places where the greatest diversity of animals are found such as islands and highlands. The plan included projects including African Bai, an environment mirroring the ecology of the African habitat that the western lowland gorillas would need to adapt to if one day it would be safe for them to be left alone in the wild; Mascarenia, to the mammals, birds and terrapins of Madagascar, Mauritius and islands of the western Indean Ocean; and eco-lodge cabins for visitors to stay in.
It was budgeted that the cost of the redevelopment would be in the region of £46 million over the next five years. All funds needed to be raised through public and private donations. But most of the plan was eventually cancelled due to costs.
In May 2011, a new visitor centre and restaurant was officially opened by Princess Anne. Access to the zoo is not required for access to the restaurant. A webcam service has been recently developed at Durrell Wildlife Park. Cameras have been installed in the meerkat enclosure, as well as in those of the Telfair's skinks, the Livingstone's fruit bats and in the Kirindy Forest, the home of a rare and colourful bird collection. The webcam lets viewers to those species at times when they are often inaccessible, including watching the fruit bats during the evening when they are most active. In 2015 an infant silverback gorilla named Indigo who lived at the park was chosen to be the mascot of the 2015 Island Games which were held on the island.
Exhibits
Jewels of the Forest
Opened in 2004, this exhibit houses various Asian birds such as:
Palawan peacock-pheasant
Blue-crowned laughingthrush
Red-tailed laughingthrush
White-rumped shama
Nicobar pigeon
Emerald dove
Mindanao bleeding-heart dove
Java sparrow
Pekin robin
Hooded pitta
Chestnut-backed thrush
Asian fairy-bluebird
Grey-faced liocichla
Cloud Forest
Opened in 1999, the Cloud Forest is the first enclosure at Durrell to feature mixed animals, including carnivorous species.
Andean bear
Ring-tailed coati
Black howler monkey
Brazilian tanager
Orange-bellied euphonia
Red-cowled cardinal
Silver-throated tanager
Princess Royal Pavilion
The Pavilion was opened by HRH Princess Anne in the 1970s, and serves as a conference centre, and classroom. The theatre shows films depicting the work of the trust, and also exhibits artwork. It highlights the work undertaken by the Trust around the world.
The Pavilion also houses a number of species which are used for educational aspect of conservation. They include corn snakes, rainbow boas, milk snakes, New Guinea blue-tongued skinks, giant African land snails, giant millipedes, Madagascar hissing cockroaches, and Macleays spectre, a large stick insect.
The Gaherty Reptile and Amphibian Centre
The reptile house is the home of many species of reptiles and amphibians. The Gaherty Reptile and Amphibian Centre was so named because of a gift from Canadian philanthropist Geoff Gaherty.
Reptiles
Burmese python
Radiated tortoise
Galapagos giant tortoise
Flat-backed spider tortoise
Lesser Antillean iguana
Komodo dragon
Round Island skink
Spiny turtle
Panther chameleon
Rio Fuerte beaded lizard
Lesser night gecko
Martinique's anole
Serrated casquehead iguana
European adder
Amphibians
Strawberry poison-dart frog
Blue poison dart frog
Golden poison dart frog
Mountain chicken
Mission golden-eyed tree frog
Jersey agile frog
Alien Invaders
One issue which Durrell highlights is the effect of what happens when a non-native species is introduced to an environment and the damaging effect they can have. Case examples in the park include
Cane toad
Discovery Desert
The Discovery Desert was opened in April 2009, and was designed to give the family of meerkats more room to roam, and ensure they don't dig for freedom. Discovery desert is a mixed species exhibit featuring other animals which share the meerkat's habitat in the wild, and pose no threat to each other, such as the yellow mongoose.
Gorillas
The western lowland gorilla family has been represented at Durrell since it first opened in 1959, when they had only an infant female (thought to be male at first) gorilla named N'Pongo, who was later joined by a younger infant female gorilla named Nandi, and continue today to be one of the icons of the park.
The current enclosure includes a good sized outdoor play area, and three internal rooms, two large on-show ones and a smaller off-show one.
The current family of five is led by a silverback called Badongo, who was born in La Vallée des Singes. Badongo is the successor of Ya Kwanza. The remaining members of the family are female. From the Jambo era, are Kishka, and Kahilli, (Jambo x N'Pongo). There is also a young female named Bahasha. Kahilli has had two offspring from Ya Kwanza, a male named Mapema, and a female named Ya Pili. In 2007 the family suffered the loss of the youngest gorilla Ya Pili.
The other three females did not bred with Ya Kwanza.
One of the plans for the future is a new larger gorilla complex, allowing for a larger family, top rated facilities and a chance to start familiarising the species with others they would come across in the wild such as the red river hog.
Jambo
Jambo was a gorilla who was born in 1961, in the Zoo Basel, Switzerland. Jambo shot to international news stardom overnight on 31 August 1986, when five-year-old Levan Merritt fell into the gorilla enclosure and lost consciousness. Jambo stood guard over the boy when he was unconscious, placing himself between the boy and other gorillas in what ethnologists analyze as a protective gesture. He later stroked the unconscious boy. When the boy regained consciousness and started to cry, Jambo and the other gorillas retreated, and an ambulance paramedic and two keepers rescued the boy. Most of the drama was shot on home video by Brian Le Lion, and extensively photographed by other zoo visitors. The publicity on major news channels and newspapers helped the reputations of gorillas.
Red river hogs
In the past there were Red river hogs, which had been introduced to the zoo in August 2009, a transferral of two sows from Whipsnade. They had a brand new enclosure built by zoo volunteers, with a viewing platform in which to view them. The aim of the Trust was to highlight the issue of the illegal trade of bushmeat in Africa, which also affects other species such as gorillas. A breeding programme was started in 2011 with the arrival of the boar hog. However, there are no longer any hogs at the zoo.
Tamarins and marmosets
The tamarins are kept in two areas of the park, some such as the golden lion and emperor tamarins are best kept within their own enclosures. Meanwhile, others such as the black lion tamarin and the silvery marmoset are allowed to run free in a small wooded area which helps them thrive.
Silvery marmoset
Goeldi's monkey
Golden lion tamarin
Golden-headed lion tamarin
Emperor tamarin
Black lion tamarin
Pied tamarin
Central Valley
The Central Valley, expands across the centre of the park, creating a natural barrier and water resource for local species. A£1 million project to redevelop the central valley, completed in 2002, has created a haven for kingfishers, bank voles, butterflies, dragonflies, and several species of waterfowl. During the valley restoration two species of locally rare orchid were encouraged, and first flowered in 2005. They are Anacamptis laxiflora and Dactylorhiza praetermissa.
Oriental small-clawed otter
Red-breasted goose
Chilean flamingo
Grey crowned crane
Swan goose
White-naped crane
Blue crane
Red-billed chough
The red-billed chough became extinct on Jersey in the nineteenth century, but they have once again returned. Durrell has joined a breeding programme and so a group are being kept at Durrell to form a captive colony, with hope to establish a free flying colony in the Trust's grounds.
Aviaries
Dotted around the Central Valley are a number of aviaries which house a selection of birds from different parts of the world. The aviaries are specialised to reflect habitat the birds should become adapted to should they be released back into the wild. They are large enough for them to fly short distances, or search the ground for food.
Northern bald ibis
Congo peafowl
Edward's pheasant
Vietnamese pheasant
Red-crested turaco
St. Lucia amazon
Bali starling
Pink pigeon
Echo parakeet
Black bulbul
Montserrat oriole
Wrinkled hornbill
White-crowned robin-chat
Indonesian teal
Tropical mockingbird
Orangutans and gibbons
In an enclosure which was revamped in the 1990s the orang utans have a large outdoor play area for them to swing around. The enclosure consists of one large main house, with two extensive external islands surrounded by a moat.
The orangutan family have been in Durrell since 1968, and come from Sumatra. Durrell used to have the Bornean orangutans, until it was decided that Durrell should focus on the rarest when the redevelopment took place. There are currently seven orangutans at Durell; The dominant male is called Dagu. The adult females are, Annette and Dana. The three offspring are Mawar (who moved to Prague Zoo with her son Gempa in 2011)'s eldest son Jiwa, Annette's son Jantho and Dana's daughter Kea.
Sharing the island play areas is a female lar gibbon named Hazel.
Sumatran orangutan
Lar gibbon
Macaques
Since 1964 Durrell have been working with the macaque family, in the same location, just to the side of the valley. The family have bred well, though events in Sulawesi counterbalance the work in Durrell.
Celebes crested macaque
Teal Aviary
Madagascar teal
Meller's duck
Marbled duck
Ferruginous duck
Blue-billed teal
Lemurs
Durrell is the home to six species of lemur. Five species (excluding the red-fronted brown lemurs which are solely in Kirindy Forest) are dotted around the grounds and some form the vocal point of the Madagascan exhibit Kirindy Forest.
Ring-tailed lemur
Black-and-white ruffed lemur
Red ruffed lemur
Alaotran gentle lemur
Aye-aye
Red-fronted brown lemur
Bat tunnel
A large polytunnel was built with used tyres in spring 2011. It is the new home of two species of bat. An additional tunnel was completed in summer 2017. It was also built using recycled materials and will provide more room for the bats to fly, in particular creating a circular flying pattern.
Rodrigues flying fox
Livingstone's fruit bat
Kirindy Forest
A major renovation project was to transform the Walled Gardens into an area marked Kirindy Forest. Based on the dry forests of Madagascar, the area is designed to showcase the work being done with the native species. There are new homes for the aye-ayes, giant jumping rats and mongooses, and a new walkthrough aviary.
Ring-tailed lemur
Red-fronted brown lemur
Aye-aye
Narrow-striped mongoose
Malagasy giant rat
Madagascar teal
Black-winged stilt
White-backed duck
White-faced whistling duck
African pygmy goose
Madagascar turtle dove
Madagascar crested ibis
Red fody
Hammerkop
Conservation successes
Proof that conservation does work, some species have returned home for continuation of programmes to reintroduce them to their own environment
Mauritius kestrel
In 1976 there were only four individuals in the wild with one female. Durrell took the risk of taking a recent clutch of eggs and had them hatched successfully – rebuilding the species, almost from scratch. The conservation for the species has moved on to the next stage and its focus has returned to Mauritius, re-establishing the species in the community and ecosystem.
Przewalski's horse
With the newly established wild population of these species, originally extinct from the wild the zoo was part of the coalition of 'zoos' which together brought the species from the brink of extinction.
Work in Jersey
Helping the local species
Durrell is working closely with local wildlife groups to help with the declining populations of Jersey's sand lizard, the Jersey crapaud / common toad, and Jersey's agile frog.
Local rare and declining plant propagation
The aim is maintain the genetic diversity of the locally rare plants.
Currently four species are being grown in the propagation unit. Fragaria vesca (wild strawberry), Dianthus gallicus (Jersey pink), Anogramma leptophylla (Jersey fern) and Linaria vulgaris (common toadflax).
Other plant species will be propagated as seed or cutting material becomes available. As some of these plant species are severely threatened, finding specimens for propagation will be a challenge.
Bird reintroductions
In 2010 Durrell undertook a project to reintroduce birds that once populated the island's clifftops, but have long disappeared. The red-billed chough is the first focus of the programme, and they can now be found in the central valley area. There are also plans to do something similar with the yellowhammer should the project prove successful.
Durrell overseas
Pygmy hog
Although no longer located in Jersey, conservation is still monitored by Durrell in Assam, India and other locations. The species is still in dire need of funding and help. During 2008 some pygmy hogs were released into the wild in Assam, early reports show good progress with the species
Blue iguana
Hitting headlines recently is some success in Grand Cayman with the blue iguana. Working alongside local authorities the iguana is being saved from extinction. It shows what can be done. In 2008 the project suffered a drawback when intruders broke into the complex and killed numerous iguanas, including juveniles and expecting females.
Madagascar pochard
Previously thought extinct, (found when looking for something else), Durrell have recently teamed up with Madagascar to help research and study the species. With scouts unable to locate more individuals, it has become a possibility that experts will have to bring the survivors back to Jersey, using expertise from the Madagascar teal and Meller's duck to help the duck get back from the brink.
Antiguan racer
In 1995 it was dubbed the world's rarest snake. More recently the species have been relocated back to Antigua on some islands where they are free from predators and pests.
Mauritius olive white-eye
White-footed tamarin
Ploughshare tortoise
Round Island day gecko
Round Island skink
Round Island boa
Mangrove finch
Mauritius fody
Giant hispaniolan galliwasp
Cuban solenodon
Floreana mockingbird
Hispaniolan hutia
Hispaniolan solenodon
Mountain coati
Completed programmes
Partula snails
Rhinoceros iguana 1974–2010
African crested porcupine
White-headed marmoset
Cuvier's dwarf caiman
Cottontop tamarin 1972–2009
Parma wallaby 1959–2008
Trinidad stream frog
Green and black poison dart frog
Standing's day gecko
Plumed basilisk
Snow leopard
Cheetah
Babirusa
Snowy owl
White-eared pheasant
Bornean orangutan
Serval
Volcano rabbit
Chimpanzee
African lion
Brazilian tapir
Leopards
Peccaries
Macaws
Porcupines
Humboldt penguin
African elephant
Durrell Wildlife Camp
Work began on the Durrell Wildlife Camp in early 2012, which will allow the park to sell lodging and services to visitors.
A wooded copse to the west of Les Augrès Manor has been landscaped to provide a nine-metre-square level wooden deck roughly every seven metres. These decks will house twelve geodesic dome-shaped, semi permanent tent structures and a separate shower and toilet cubicle for each. A further two platforms will house a communal structure and a pod for health and beauty treatments.
Durrell Wildlife Camp is described as a 'glamorous camping' resort. The site has WiFi coverage, and each pod has a hard-wired electrical feed for running AC 240 V appliances.
References
External links
Zoos in Jersey
Trinity, Jersey
Zoos established in 1959 | [
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241965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals%20of%20Improbable%20Research | Annals of Improbable Research | The Annals of Improbable Research (AIR) is a bimonthly magazine devoted to scientific humor, in the form of a satirical take on the standard academic journal. AIR, published six times a year since 1995, usually showcases at least one piece of scientific research being done on a strange or unexpected topic, but most of their articles concern real or fictional absurd experiments, such as a comparison of apples and oranges using infrared spectroscopy. Other features include such things as ratings of the cafeterias at scientific institutes, fake classifieds and advertisements for a medical plan called HMO-NO, and a very odd letters page. The magazine is headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
AIR awards the annual science Ig Nobel Prizes, for ten achievements that "first make people laugh, and then make them think". AIR also runs the Luxuriant Flowing Hair Club for Scientists.
History
AIR is not the first science parody magazine. The Journal of Irreproducible Results (JIR) was founded by Alex Kohn and Harry Lipkin in 1955, but its editorial staff, including editor Marc Abrahams, left after the magazine was bought by publisher George Scherr in 1994. Scherr filed a number of court actions against AIR, alleging that it was deceptively similar to the Journal and that it had stolen the name "Ig Nobel Prize", but these actions were unsuccessful.
Profile
Occasional AIR articles are factual and illuminating, if a bit offbeat. For example, in 2003 researcher-documentary producer Nick T. Spark wrote about the background and history of Murphy's Law in a four-part article, "Why Everything You know About Murphy's Law is Wrong". It was revised, expanded and later published in June 2006 as the book A History of Murphy's Law. Another example: it was scientifically proved and waggishly reported that instruments can distinguish shit from Shinola.
See also
Worm Runner's Digest
References
External links
Bimonthly magazines published in the United States
Satirical magazines published in the United States
Science and technology magazines published in the United States
Humor magazines
Ig Nobel Prize
Magazines established in 1995
Magazines published in Boston
Professional humor | [
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241967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesura | Caesura | A caesura (, . caesuras or caesurae; Latin for "cutting"), also written cæsura and cesura, is a metrical pause or break in a verse where one phrase ends and another phrase begins. It may be expressed by a comma (,), a tick (✓), or two lines, either slashed (//) or upright (||). In time value, this break may vary between the slightest perception of silence all the way up to a full pause.
Poetry
In classical Greek and Latin poetry a caesura is the juncture where one word ends and the following word begins within a foot. In contrast, a word juncture at the end of a foot is called a diaeresis. Some caesurae are expected and represent a point of articulation between two phrases or clauses. All other caesurae are only potentially places of articulation. The opposite of an obligatory caesura is a bridge where word juncture is not permitted.
In modern European poetry, a caesura is defined as a natural phrase end, especially when occurring in the middle of a line. A follows a stressed syllable while a follows an unstressed syllable. A caesura is also described by its position in a line of poetry: a caesura close to the beginning of a line is called an initial caesura, one in the middle of a line is medial, and one near the end of a line is terminal. Initial and terminal caesurae are rare in formal, Romance, and Neoclassical verse, which prefer medial caesurae.
Mark
In verse scansion, the modern caesura mark is a double vertical bar ⟨⟩ or ⟨⟩, a variant of the single-bar ("twig") used as a caesura mark in medieval manuscripts. The same mark separately developed as the virgule, the single slash used to mark line breaks in poetry.
Examples
Homer
Caesurae were widely used in Greek poetry. For example, in the opening line of the Iliad:
μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ || Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος
("Sing, o goddess || the rage of Achilles, the son of Peleus.")
This line includes a masculine caesura after θεὰ, a natural break that separates the line into two logical parts. Unlike the tragedians in their hexameters, Homeric lines more commonly employ feminine caesurae; this preference is observed to an even higher degree among the Alexandrian poets.
Latin
Caesurae were widely used in Latin poetry, for example, in the opening line of Virgil's Aeneid:
Arma virumque cano || Troiae qui primus ab oris
(Of arms and the man, I sing. || Who first from the shores of Troy...)
This line uses caesura in the medial position. In dactylic hexameter, a caesura occurs any time the ending of a word does not coincide with the beginning or the end of a metrical foot; in modern prosody, however, it is only called one when the ending also coincides with an audible pause in the line.
The ancient elegiac couplet form of the Greeks and Romans contained a line of dactylic hexameter followed by a line of pentameter. The pentameter often displayed a clearer caesura, as in this example from Propertius:
Cynthia prima fuit; || Cynthia finis erit.
(Cynthia was the first; Cynthia will be the last)
Old English
In Old English, the caesura has come to represent a pronounced pause in order to emphasize lines in Old English poetry that would otherwise be considered to be a droning, monotonous line. This makes the caesura arguably more important to the Old English verse than it was to Latin or Greek poetry. In Latin or Greek poetry, the caesura could be suppressed for effect in any line. In the alliterative verse that is shared by most of the oldest Germanic languages, the caesura is an ever-present and necessary part of the verse form itself. The opening line of Beowulf reads:
Hwæt! We Gardena || in gear-dagum,
þeodcyninga, || þrym gefrunon,
hu ða æþelingas || ellen fremedon.
(Behold! The Spear-Danes in days gone by,)
(and the kings who ruled them had courage and greatness,)
(We have heard of these princes' heroic campaigns.)
The basic form is accentual verse, with four stresses per line separated by a caesura. Old English poetry added alliteration and other devices to this basic pattern.
Middle English
William Langland's Piers Ploughman:
I loked on my left half || as þe lady me taughte
And was war of a woman || worþeli ycloþed.
(I looked on my left half / as the lady me taught)
(and was aware of a woman / worthily clothed.)
Kabir (Sant Kabir Das)
One of the widely used examples of caesurae in Indian poetry was in the 'dohas' or couplet poems of Sant Kabir Das, a 15th-century poet who was central to the Bhakti movement in Hinduism. An example of his doha or couplet:
Other examples
Caesurae can occur in later forms of verse, where they are usually optional. The so-called ballad meter, or the common meter of the hymnodists (see also hymn), is usually thought of as a line of iambic tetrameter followed by a line of trimeter, but it can also be considered a line of heptameter with a fixed caesura at the fourth foot.
Considering the break as a caesura in these verse forms, rather than a beginning of a new line, explains how sometimes multiple caesurae can be found in this verse form (from the ballad, Tom o' Bedlam):
From the hag and hungry goblin || that into rags would rend ye,
And the spirits that stand || by the naked man || in the Book of Moons, defend ye!
In later and freer verse forms, the caesura is optional. It can, however, be used for rhetorical effect, as in Alexander Pope's line:
To err is human; || to forgive, divine.
Polish
Caesura is very important in Polish syllabic verse (as in French alexandrine). Every line longer than eight syllables is divided into two half-lines. Lines composed of the same number of syllables with division in different place are considered to be completely different metrical patterns. For example, Polish alexandrine (13) is almost always divided 7+6. It has been very common in Polish poetry for last five centuries. But the metre 13(8+5) occurs only rarely and 13(6+7) can be hardly found. In Polish accentual-syllabic verse caesura is not so important but iambic tetrametre (very popular today) is usually 9(5+4). Caesura in Polish syllabic verse is almost always feminine, while in accentual-syllabic (especially iambic) verse it is often masculine: sSsSsSsS//sSsSsSsSs. There are also metrical patterns with two or three caesuras, for example 18[9(5+4)+9(5+4)].
Music
In music, a caesura denotes a brief, silent pause, during which metrical time is not counted. Similar to a silent fermata, caesurae are located between notes or measures (before or over bar lines), rather than on notes or rests (as with a fermata). A fermata may be placed over a caesura to indicate a longer pause.
In musical notation, a caesura is marked by double oblique lines, similar to a pair of slashes . The symbol is popularly called "tram-lines" in the UK and "railroad tracks" or "train tracks" in the US.
The length of a caesura where notated is at the discretion of the conductor.
See also
Anacrusis
Line break
Ellipsis
Kireji
Meter (poetry)
Old English poetry
Prosody (Latin)
Regulated verse
Saturnian (poetry)
Tacet
References
Latin words and phrases
Poetic rhythm
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241970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReBoot | ReBoot | ReBoot is a Canadian computer-animated TV series that originally aired on YTV from 1994 to 2001. It was produced by Vancouver-based Mainframe Entertainment, Alliance Communications and BLT Productions. The animated series was created by Gavin Blair, Ian Pearson, Phil Mitchell, and John Grace, with the visuals designed by Brendan McCarthy after an initial attempt by Ian Gibson. It was one of the world's first CGI television series.
The series follows the adventures of a Guardian named Bob and his companions Enzo and Dot Matrix as they work to keep the computer system of Mainframe safe from the viruses and other threats.
A reimagined, live-action/CGI-animated series, ReBoot: The Guardian Code, was announced in 2015, and the first ten episodes debuted on Netflix worldwide (excluding Canada) on March 30, 2018. YTV aired all twenty episodes from June 4 to July 5, 2018.
Plot
The series follows the adventures of a Guardian named Bob and his companions Enzo and Dot Matrix as they work to keep the computer system of Mainframe safe from the viruses known as Megabyte and Hexadecimal. The setting is in the inner world of a computer system known by its inhabitants as Mainframe. It was deliberately chosen due to technological constraints at the time, as the fictional computer world allowed for blocky looking models and mechanical animation.
A recurring plot thread is when the User loads a game, an electrical violet cube lowers onto part of the city. Anyone trapped inside becomes NPCs and have the chance to stop the User. If the User wins, the area is destroyed and the residents reduced to leech like creatures called Nulls.
Cast and characters
The main characters included:
Bob – Guardian 452. He acts as the Guardian of Mainframe.
Phong – The original of Mainframe. Phong serves as a mentor and adviser to its inhabitants and works with Bob in defense of the system.
Dot Matrix – Originally owns a local diner and many other "businesses" (as seen at the end of the third episode of the first season). She takes over as in the third season.
Enzo Matrix – Dot's younger brother who idolized Bob as a hero. Enzo later grows up to become the renegade simply known as Matrix. Enzo's name is not a reference to computer terminology but instead the real world Italian name "Enzo", as suggested to the co-creators by Chris Brough.
Frisket – A red and yellow dog. He is feral, and only listens to Enzo.
AndrAIa – A game sprite and friend (and later girlfriend) of Enzo introduced in season two. The "AI" in her name refers to artificial intelligence.
Megabyte (Gigabyte) – A "command and conquer, and infectious" computer virus, and the series' main villain. Megabyte is an "Order Virus". He came from the virus known as Kilobyte and when merged with his sister Hexadecimal, they form an even more powerful virus called Gigabyte.
Hexadecimal – Megabyte's sister is a "chaotic" computer virus whose face is represented by a series of masks, each portraying a different emotion.
Mouse – A freelance hacker who is mentioned briefly before her first appearance. Mouse works for Megabyte in a one-shot early in the season, but switches sides to join Dot and Enzo. Together they defend Mainframe when Bob is trapped in "The Web".
Hack & Slash – Comic-relief bumblers, they are two most commonly seen henchmen in Megabyte's employ. During the third season they switch sides and join the side of Mainframe.
Ray Tracer – A web surfer that helps Matrix and Bob return to Mainframe, and becomes romantically linked to Mouse.
Mike the TV – A walking TV that aids and hinders the heroes. Mike the TV is shown speaking in a commercial narration-like voice.
Voice cast
Bob (seasons one, two and four and Second Bob in season four) – Michael Benyaer
Bob (season three), Glitch Bob – Ian James Corlett
Dot Matrix, Princess Bula, System Voice – Kathleen Barr
Enzo Matrix (young) – Jesse Moss (season one), Matthew Sinclair (seasons one and two), Christopher Gray (season three), Danny McKinnon (season four (flashback))
Welman Matrix – Dale Wilson
Matrix (adult Enzo Matrix) – Paul Dobson
Enzo Matrix (copy) – Christopher Gray (season three), Giacomo Baessato (season four)
Megabyte – Tony Jay
Hexadecimal – Shirley Millner
AndrAIa (young) – Andrea Libman
AndrAIa (adult) – Sharon Alexander
Phong, Mike the TV, Cecil, Al – Michael Donovan
Mouse, Rocky the Raccoon – Stevie Vallance
Ray Tracer – Donal Gibson
Captain Capacitor, Old Man Pearson – Long John Baldry
Slash, Turbo, Mr. Mitchell, Herr Doktor, Cyrus, Al's Waiter (front counter) – Garry Chalk
Hack (seasons 1 to 2) – Phil Hayes
Hack (seasons 2 to 4), Specky, Praying Mantis Virus – Scott McNeil
Daemon – Colombe Demers
Daecon – Richard Newman
Killabyte, Gigabyte – Blu Mankuma
Gigagirl, Copygirl – Venus Terzo
Spectral Leader – David Kaye
Hue Branch – Christopher Gaze
Lens – Don Brown
Maxine – Janyse Jaud
Various – Brad Bent
Production
Development
ReBoot was initially conceived in 1984 by the British creative collective The Hub, made up of John Grace, Ian Pearson, Gavin Blair and Phil Mitchell. After about 8 years of development Pearson, Blair and Mitchell moved to Vancouver, British Columbia to produce the series. Pearson and Blair by this time had created some of the first widely seen CGI characters, in the Dire Straits music video "Money for Nothing". However, technology was not yet advanced enough to make the show in the desired way. 3D animation tests began in earnest in 1990 and ReBoot had achieved its detailed look by 1991. Production continued on future episodes and the show aired in 1994 after enough episodes had been produced. This was a painstaking process, as no other company had at this time worked on a 3D animation project of this scale. Furthermore, the software used was new to all in the company.
ReBoot was created on Silicon Graphics workstations using Softimage Creative Environment software.
Network censorship
The show's early jokes at the expense of Board of Standards and Practices (BS&P) came from frustration encountered by the show's makers brought about by an abundance of script and editing changes that were imposed upon Mainframe before episodes were allowed to air. These changes were all aimed at making the show "appropriate" for kids, and to prevent even the slightest appearance of "inappropriate" content, imitable violence or sexuality.
The character Dot was considered too sexualized by the BS&P even though she was "never one to expose much cleavage" so the animators were forced to make her breasts less curvy and form them into a lumpy "monobreast", as lightly referred to by the staff. However, starting with season three, after severing ties with ABC, the "monobreasts" of all adult female characters were replaced with more anatomically correct versions. In another case, the word "hockey", as well as the sport itself, was cut in some countries as it was supposedly used as a vulgar slang term there. In the episode "Talent Night", one scene of Dot giving her brother Enzo "a sisterly kiss on the chin" was cut due to BS&P's fear of promoting incest, an insinuation which Pearson described as "one of the sickest things I've heard."
Episodes
Season 1
Each installment of the first season was a self-contained episode except for the two-part finale. When the User loads a game, a game cube drops on a random location in Mainframe, sealing it off from the rest of the system and turning it into a gamescape. Bob frequently enters the games, reboots to become a game character, and fights the User's character to save the sector. If the User wins a game, the sector the cube fell in is destroyed, and the sprites and binomes who were caught within are turned into energy-draining, worm-like parasites called nulls. When this happens, they are said to be "nullified".
In the United States, the show was aired on the ABC Network and had to comply with Broadcast Standards and Practices. This was lampooned in "Talent Night", where almost every act for Enzo's party is banned by Prog Censor Emma See and the Small Town Binomes sing their hit BSnP ("It's fun to play/In a non-violent way").
Season 2
The second season was initially as episodic as the first but later featured an extended story arc that began with the season's fifth episode, "Painted Windows". The arc revealed that Hexadecimal and Megabyte are siblings, and introduced an external threat to Mainframe: the Web, which was set up in fearful mentions in "High Code" and "Painted Windows". The sixth episode, "AndrAIa", also saw a new character in the titular AndrAIa join the cast. Creator Gavin Blair has said the move to a longer arc came from "shrugging off the shackles of ABC and their BS&P" after being cancelled. (The last episode would reveal Megabyte's ships were called ABCs.)
A creature from the Web entered Mainframe from Hexadecimal's looking glass (which was shattered by Mike the TV), bonding with her. Mainframe's nulls reacted spontaneously and covered her to form a monster dubbed Nullzilla, which was defeated and neutralized by the protectors of Mainframe. The Web creature located Megabyte, took him over and forced him to merge with Hexadecimal, forming a next-gen super-virus called Gigabyte. Gigabyte was eventually neutralized as well, but the Web creature escaped into the bowels of Mainframe, where it began stealing energy to stay alive and grow. Mouse, a mercenary and old friend of Bob's, helped to find the Web Creature, but was almost destroyed by a bomb set by her employer, Turbo. The explosion created a "tear" (an unstable energy-based anomaly) which the Web creature used to create a portal to the Web. The protectors of Mainframe had to team up with Megabyte and Hexadecimal to close the portal. An army of CPU police clashed with an invasion of creatures from the Web. In the midst of the chaos, Megabyte betrayed the alliance (with the CPUs calling the ABCs "treacherous dogs!"), crushing Bob's keytool, Glitch, and sending him into the Web portal before closing it.
Season 3
Originally, Mainframe thought they'd follow up the second season with a film. The treatment was called Terabyte Rising and was to include flashbacks to the destruction of Mainframe's Twin City. This was dropped but much of it would be used for the fourth season.
The show's third season exhibited a marked improvement in modeling and animation quality due to the advancement of Mainframe Entertainment's software capabilities during the time between seasons. Subtle details, such as eyelashes and shadows, as well as generally more lifelike polygonal characters, were among several visual improvements. The show's target audience shifted to children aged 12 and older, resulting in a darker and more mature storyline. After severing ties with ABC following the second season, the show reached a greater number of households through syndication.
Enzo, freshly upgraded into a Guardian candidate by Bob during the Web incursion, defends Mainframe from Megabyte and Hexadecimal, with Dot and AndrAIa at his side. When Enzo entered a game he could not win, he, AndrAIa, and Frisket changed their icons to game sprite mode and rode the game out of Mainframe. The accelerated game time resulted in Enzo and AndrAIa's aging. Subsequent episodes follow adult versions of Enzo and AndrAIa, who are now in a romantic relationship, as they travel from system to system in search of Mainframe. The older Enzo adopts the name "Matrix" (his and Dot's surname), carrying a weapon named "Gun" and Bob's damaged Glitch. The time spent in games and away from Mainframe hardened both Matrix and AndrAIa: Matrix developed a pathological hatred of viruses, and grew into a muscular, shoot-first-ask-questions-later antihero, while AndrAIa turned into a level-headed warrior. As the season progresses, Matrix and AndrAIa are reunited with Bob and the crew of the Saucy Mare and return to Mainframe, which has been almost completely destroyed by Megabyte and his forces. The group reunites with Dot and the resistance, then heads to the Principal Office for a final battle with Megabyte. Megabyte is defeated by Matrix, but not before Megabyte's handiwork causes the system to crash. All final problems in Mainframe were dealt with by The User restarting the system, setting everything right and restoring everything as it was again for the protagonists, with one major exception: younger and older Enzo now exist simultaneously, as Matrix's icon was still set to "Game Sprite" mode and was not recognized properly by the system when it rebooted, so that the system restored a copy of his younger self.
Season 4
After the end of the third season, two TV movies were produced in 2001: Daemon Rising, which addressed the problem the Guardians were facing in season three (and used much of Terabyte Rising), and My Two Bobs, which brings back a corroded and mutated Megabyte in a cliffhanger ending. The two movies, broken up into eight episodes in its U.S. run on Cartoon Network's Toonami, revealed much of Mainframe's history, including the formation of Lost Angles, Bob's arrival in the system, and the origin of Megabyte and Hexadecimal. The films end with Megabyte in control of the Principal Office, and the characters scattered and about to be hunted down. It is revealed that the nulls still possess their old sentience and intelligence: The heroes manage to put the null that was once Dot's father into a robot, enabling him to move and speak like he used to.
Initial plans for the fourth season included three films broken into 12 episodes, followed by a 13th musical-special episode. Due to a change in deals and budget, the series was reduced to eight episodes. The following plan was to produce 30-minute episodes. These would be edited down to 21 minutes for broadcast and the extra scenes added to the film versions for DVD release. Against the writer's wishes, these scenes were cut from the scripts. After this decision was made, the eighth episode was rewritten to end on a cliffhanger.
Creator Gavin Blair has publicly refused to reveal the plans for the resolution and final episodes, in case he ever got the chance to resolve the cliffhanger.
In other media
Video game
Based on the TV series, a ReBoot video game was developed and published by EA for the PlayStation video game console. It was rated E for Everyone. It received a positive rating of 69.50% based on six reviews at the aggregator GameRankings.com.
Webcomic
Following its acquisition by the Rainmaker Income Fund in 2006, Mainframe Entertainment was renamed Rainmaker Animation. In 2007, Rainmaker announced plans to create a trilogy of ReBoot films with illustrator/animator Daniel Allen as the lead character designer. In conjunction with the website Zeroes2Heroes, Rainmaker announced an intention to allow fans greater access to the development of the movie plans and also to the development of a ReBoot webcomic. Fans were given the chance to submit their own art and designs, with the potential to become an artist on the project, and their feedback helped decide which of five ReBoot pitches was developed.
The winning pitch was ReBoot: Arrival. Rainmaker said it would monitor feedback for the webcomic but may not use it as the basis for the company's movie plans. Four fans were chosen to work as artists on the Arrival comic. According to the pitch at the Zeroes2Heroes website, Megabyte's Hunt has developed into a Net-wide war so pervasive that even other viruses united against it. The Users have gone, spending their time in an unending massively multiplayer online game. A sentient system named Gnosis is created as a way to stop Megabyte but goes rogue and begins enslaving other systems in its attempt to gain User-like powers. To stop Gnosis and bring back the Users, two teams of heroes are assembled which will include new characters and Lens the Codemaster, who appeared in the season 2 episode "High Code". Elements of this would be dropped in the comic.
The official ReBoot website was updated with a countdown, which ended on May 30, 2008, at 12:00 a.m. EST. Shortly afterwards, the site was updated with information about the first webcomic from the Arrival team and ongoing community input. The comic, renamed Code of Honor, was viewable after creating an account or using an existing Zeros 2 Heroes account.
A new countdown appeared on the official ReBoot website on August 18, 2008 to launch the second installment of the webcomic. Updates to the comic were posted on Mondays, with two pages each update. The comic ended shortly after Christmas, and surveys were added to the site. The Art of ReBoot, a 104-page hardcover artbook, was published in February 2007 by Beach Studios; it contained copies of various rare and never-before-seen conceptual artwork, with the work of Brendan McCarthy being a major focus.
On July 24, 2009, the ReBoot website was upgraded into the official ReBoot fansite, with the webcomic freely available. The website was set to shut down for July 30, 2012 after several years of inactivity; an announcement on July 27, 2012 revealed that the site would remain open.
Synopsis
The first Paradigms Lost issue opens with the aftermath of the Hunt: Mainframe is devastated and overrun with Zombinomes, the User is missing, and the entire population is being evacuated to the Super Computer. Worse still, the weakened Guardian Collective is facing viral attacks and uprisings across the entire Net. Turbo blames Bob for this, saying that his views on viruses became widespread and left them weakened. Enzo Matrix, meanwhile, is a star pupil in the Guardian Academy. The viral threat is ended when the Codemasters pledge their help, offering a firmware named Gnosis. Gnosis is uploaded to every System on the Net, erasing all viruses and ending the crisis. The first issue ends with the Codemasters' Guildmaster activating a "Phase Two" for the implemented Gnosis.
The second and third issues had the heroes, now joined by Lens, try to stop the Codemasters from using Gnosis to access the Code itself, allowing the Guildmaster total control. However, Gnosis swiftly decides that it can complete its task better with the Guildmaster deleted, and following that it eliminates the Guardians. Mainframe and 36 other systems are enslaved as power sources for its mission. Dot tries to carry out rebel action in Mainframe, Bob and Lens retreat to the bowels of the Super-Computer to hide, and Enzo is captured and discovers Megabyte (his code retained by Gnosis) is a key Gnosis advisor.
Bob is recruited by Exidy, an entity that is the source of the Code and trapped by Gnosis in the Net; intent on restoring balance and stability, she gives Bob the ability to wield the Code. While the main heroes link up and Bob is sent to take on Gnosis directly, Enzo verbally battles with Megabyte for influence over Gnosis, pointing out that it could accomplish its task quicker if it was cooperative and asked for assistance. When Gnosis comes around to this, Bob decides to allow the weapon to live and reprograms it, and has it restore the Net to the way it was. That done, he frees Exidy and returns home.
Unmade spin-offs
Television
A spinoff called Binomes was planned towards the end of 2004, featuring a family of Binomes who lived on a "chip farm". The series would have been composed of fifty-two 11-minute episodes and aimed at a pre-school audience, but nothing of this project came to pass after the initial announcement.
Film trilogy
In June 2008, Rainmaker Animation announced plans for a trilogy of theatrical ReBoot films, with the first to be written by Jon Cooksey. By August 2008, however, he was no longer involved with the project. A teaser for the film was released on October 5, 2009, on Rainmaker's official site, and in March 2011, Rainmaker said a ReBoot film remained in the company's plans. In a podcast released April 8, 2013, Rainmaker president and executive producer Michael Hefferon said the film trilogy was no longer being worked on.
ReBoot: The Guardian Code
A reimagining of ReBoot blending live-action and computer animation, ReBoot: The Guardian Code, debuted in 2018 on YTV and Netflix. It features four high schoolers who physically enter cyberspace as "next-generation Guardians" to combat Megabyte and the human hacker who now controls him. The concept was not well received.
Distribution
Television broadcasts
ReBoot was first broadcast on Saturday mornings in Canada on YTV and in the United States in 1994 by ABC. It was canceled on ABC after The Walt Disney Company purchased the network in 1996. Episodes continued to air in Canada. Some episodes from the first and second seasons could still be seen in the U.S. when Claster Television distributed them during the 1996-1997 season. It was on Thursday's "The Power Block". It would be a year before new episodes aired on YTV due to Mainframe's involvement in Beast Wars: Transformers (known as Beasties in Canada) and Shadow Raiders, and the third season aired only on YTV at the time. In April 1999, years after Canadian audiences saw the third season, U.S. audiences saw the episodes on Cartoon Network.
Production on other series delayed the fourth season of ReBoot, the eight episodes of which eventually were released in the U.S. as two 90-minute direct-to-DVD features that ended on a cliffhanger season finale. Series creators Blair and Pearson resigned from Mainframe Entertainment in 2004 to form their own independent studio, The Shop.
The show also aired in the United Kingdom from January 4. 1995 until April 9, 1998, on the ITV network as part of their CITV programming block. When it came to the third season, Meridian only purchased the broadcasting rights for the first 10 episodes of the season and on July 17, 1997, CITV started airing season 3 before anywhere else in the world; however, this run came to a halt in August after the sixth episode, "Where No Sprite Has Gone Before". On February 12, 1998, CITV repeated the series from the season 2 episode "Trust No One" before going into the episodes that had yet to be aired at that point. When "To Mend and Defend" should have aired, the episode "Firewall" was substituted since "To Mend And Defend" received 19 complaints from viewers who claimed "the violence was unacceptable and the characters were inappropriate in a children's programme shown at this time" on its original airing in July 1997. It was not specified, however, why the following episode, "Between a Raccoon and a Hard Place", was omitted from the run. The run was abruptly stopped without warning after the episode "Return of the Crimson Binome", and the remainder of the series wasn't aired due to ITV deeming the content unsuitable. After the abrupt end of the run, several UK fans contacted ITV in order to persuade them to air the remaining episodes, and ITV replied saying that the show's low ratings made them wary of acquiring the broadcast rights to the remaining episodes.
The first season was shown in the Republic of Ireland on RTE Two in 1995. In Germany it debuted on Kinderkanal in 1997.
Home media
In Canada, four VHS tapes were released in 1995 with individual episodes from the first season through Polygram Video. Each release contained a single episode: "Medusa Bug", "Wizards, Warriors, and a Word from Our Sponsor", "The Great Brain Robbery", and "Talent Night". The UK received two VHS releases, but with two episodes each: Volume 1 contained "The Tearing" and "Racing the Clock", while Volume two had "The Quick and the Fed" and "Medusa Bug".
The second season was never released, even though Polygram retained the rights to publish the episodes on home video with their deal for the first season. Despite this, in 2000 Mainframe struck a deal with A.D. Vision to release the third season on DVD.
Shout! Factory acquired the rights to the show in October 2010 and released seasons 1 and 2 as a standalone title on March 1, 2011. On the same date, the complete series went on sale as a box set (dubbed "ReBoot: The Definitive Mainframe Collection") exclusively through Shout’s official online store months before the set was scheduled to be on retail shelves. Season 3 and 4 were released on June 28, 2011, as well as a general retail release of the complete series set.
Awards
ReBoot has been the recipient of several awards. The show received Gemini Awards for Best Animated Program Series for three straight years between 1995 and 1997, as well as a 1996 Outstanding Technical Achievement Award. Other honors include the 1995 Award of Excellence and Best Animated Program from the Alliance for Children and Television and a Prix Aurora Award in 1996.
Other Gemini Award nominations include "Best Children's or Youth Program or Series" in 1998, and "Best Sound – Comedy, Variety, or Performing Arts Program or Series" for My Two Bobs and "Best Sound – Dramatic Program" for Daemon Rising, both in 2002.
See also
List of ReBoot characters
List of ReBoot episodes
ReBoot (video game)
History of computer animation
List of amusement rides based on television franchises
Timeline of computer animation in film and television
References
External links
Rainmaker Entertainment official site. Archived from the original on July 26, 2015.
1994 Canadian television series debuts
1990s Canadian animated television series
1990s Canadian science fiction television series
2000s Canadian animated television series
2000s Canadian science fiction television series
2001 Canadian television series endings
Canadian children's animated action television series
Canadian children's animated adventure television series
Canadian children's animated drama television series
Canadian children's animated science fantasy television series
Canadian computer-animated television series
Cyberpunk television series
English-language television shows
Television series by Alliance Atlantis
Television series by Rainmaker Studios
Television shows filmed in Vancouver
Television shows about video games
Toonami
Works set in computers
YTV (Canadian TV channel) original programming
Television series by Claster Television | [
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241972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reboot%20%28disambiguation%29 | Reboot (disambiguation) | A reboot is the process of restarting a computer system.
Reboot may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Reboot (fiction), to discard all previous continuity in a fiction series and start anew
Music
ReBoot (Sam Brown album), a 2000 album by the English singer-songwriter Sam Brown
Reboot (London album), a 2012 album by the British rock band London
Reboot (Wonder Girls album), a 2015 album by South Korean K-pop girl group Wonder Girls
Re-Boot: Live '98, a 1998 album by the band Front 242
Reboot (Brooks & Dunn album), a 2019 album by Brooks & Dunn
"Reboot" (song), a 2017 song by Tohoshinki from Tomorrow
"[Reboot]", a single from the 2019 Waterparks album, Fandom
Television
ReBoot, a Canadian CGI-animated television series which debuted in 1994, making it the world's first ever computer animated TV series
ReBoot: The Guardian Code, a CGI / live-action reboot of the 1994 series released in 2018
Reboot (Adventure Time), a 2016 episode of Adventure Time
Other
ReBoot (video game), a 1998 video game based on the television series
Reboot (novel), a novel by Amy Tintera
See also
Booting
Reset (disambiguation)
Restart (disambiguation)
Revival (television) | [
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241973 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Wolff | Christian Wolff | Christian Wolff may refer to:
People
Christian Wolff (philosopher) (1679–1754), German philosopher and mathematician
Christian Wolff (baroque composer) (1705–1773), German composer
Christian Wolff (composer) (born 1934), American composer of experimental classical music
Christian Wolff (actor) (born 1938), German actor
Characters
The main character in the 2016 American action thriller film The Accountant
See also
Christian Wolf, board game designer
Christian Wulff (born 1959), President of Germany, 2010–2012
Christian Wulff (disambiguation) | [
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241976 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Wolff%20%28composer%29 | Christian Wolff (composer) | Christian G. Wolff (born March 8, 1934) is an American composer of experimental classical music.
Biography
Wolff was born in Nice, France, to the German literary publishers Helen and Kurt Wolff, who had published works by Franz Kafka, Robert Musil, and Walter Benjamin. After relocating to the U.S. in 1941, they helped to found Pantheon Books with other European intellectuals who had fled Europe during the rise of fascism. The Wolffs published a series of notable English translations of European literature, mostly, as well as an edition of the I Ching that came to greatly impress John Cage after Wolff had given him a copy.
Wolff became an American citizen in 1946. When he was sixteen (in 1950) his piano teacher Grete Sultan sent him for lessons in composition to the new music composer John Cage. Wolff soon became a close associate of Cage and his artistic circle which was part of the New York School and included the fellow composers Earle Brown and Morton Feldman, the pianist David Tudor, and the dancer and choreographer Merce Cunningham. Cage relates several anecdotes about Wolff in his one-minute Indeterminacy pieces.
Almost completely self-taught as composer, Wolff studied music under Sultan and Cage. Later Wolff studied classics at Harvard University (BA, PhD) and became an expert on Euripides. Wolff taught Classics at Harvard until 1970; thereafter he taught classics, comparative literature, and music at Dartmouth College. After nine years, he became Strauss Professor of Music there. He retired from teaching at Dartmouth in 1999. In 2004, he received an honorary degree from the California Institute of the Arts. He was also awarded the Foundation for Contemporary Arts John Cage Award (1996).
Wolff is married and has four children.
Music
Wolff's early compositional work included a lot of silence and was based initially on complicated rhythmic schema, and later on a system of aural cues. He innovated unique notational methods in his early scores and found creative ways of dealing with improvisation in his music. During the 1960s he developed associations with the composers Frederic Rzewski and Cornelius Cardew who spurred each other on in their respective explorations of experimental composition techniques and musical improvisation, and then, from the early 1970s, in their attempts to engage with political matters in their music. For Wolff this often involved the use of music and texts associated with protest and political movements such as the Wobblies. His later pieces, such as the sequence of pieces Exercises (1973-), offer some freedom to the performers. Some works, such as Changing the System (1973), Braverman Music (1978, after Harry Braverman), and the series of pieces Peace March (1983–2005) have an explicit political dimension, in that they respond to contemporary world events and express political ideals.
Wolff collaborated with Merce Cunningham for many years and developed a style which is more common now, but was revolutionary when they began working together in the 1950s – a style where music and dance occur simultaneously, yet somewhat independently of one another. Wolff stated, of any influence or affect, the greatest influence on his music over the years was the choreography of Cunningham. Wolff recently said of his work that it is motivated by his desire "to turn the making of music into a collaborative and transforming activity (performer into composer into listener into composer into performer, etc.), the cooperative character of the activity to the exact source of the music. To stir up, through the production of the music, a sense of social conditions in which we live and of how these might be changed."
Wolff's music reached a new audience when Sonic Youth's SYR4: Goodbye, 20th Century featured works by avant-garde classical composers such as John Cage, Yoko Ono, Steve Reich, and Christian Wolff played by Sonic Youth along with several collaborators from the modern avant-garde music scene, such as Christian Marclay, William Winant, Wharton Tiers, Takehisa Kosugi and others, as well as Wolff himself.
Major works
Duo for Violins (1950)
For Prepared Piano (1951)
Duo for Pianists I (1957)
For Piano With Preparations (1957)
For Pianist (1959)
Summer (for string quartet) (1961)
For 1, 2, or 3 People (1964)
Edges (1968)
Pairs (1968)
Prose Collection (1968–71)
Tilbury 1, 2, and 3 (for piano) (1969)
Snowdrop (for trombone, violin, and piano) (1970)
Burdocks (1970–71)
Exercises (1973- )
Wobbly Music (1975–76)
I Like to Think of Harriet Tubman (1985)
Piano Trio (Greenham-Seneca-Camiso) (1985) Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp The Seneca Women's Encampment for a Future of Peace and Justice
Piano Miscellany (1988)
Percussionist Songs (1994–95)
Spring (for chamber orchestra) (1995)
Berlin Exercises (2000)
Ordinary Matter (2001–04)
John Heartfield (Peace March 10) (2002)
Long Piano (Peace March 11) (2004-05)Microexercises (2006)Winter Exercise (2013)Trio IX – Accanto (2017)Resistance (2017)Mountain Messengers (2020)
References
Further reading
(1998) Wolff, Christian, Cues: Writings & Conversations/Hinweise: Schriften und Gespräche, Köln: Musiktexte (eds.) G. Gronemeyer & R. Oehlschagel.
(2001) Robert Carl, Christian Wolff: On tunes, politics, and mystery, in Contemporary Music Review. Issue 4, pp. 61–69.
(2004) Stephen Chase & Clemens Gresser, 'Ordinary Matters: Christian Wolff on his Recent Music', in Tempo 58/229 (July), pp. 19–27.
(2006) Rzewski, Frederic "The Algebra of Everyday Life". Liner note essay on Christian Wolff. New World Records.
(2009) Steenhuisen, Paul. "Interview with Christian Wolff". In Sonic Mosaics: Conversations with Composers. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 2009.
(2009) Tilbury, John "Christian Wolff and the Politics of Music". Liner note essay. New World Records.
(2010) Chase, Stephen & Thomas, Philip (editors), "Changing the System: the Music of Christian Wolff" Ashgate, 2010
(2012) Bredow, Moritz von, "Rebellische Pianistin. Das Leben der Grete Sultan zwischen Berlin und New York." (Biography). Schott Music, Mainz, Germany. (Detailed account of the life of pianist Grete Sultan, Christian Wolff's piano teacher who eventually acquainted him with Cage. Contains many references to the New York Avant-garde).
(2017) Wolff, Christian, Occasional Pieces – Writings and Interviews, 1952–2013, New York: Oxford University Press
(2018) Jim Igor Kallenberg, "Intergalactic mutant music: The music of Christian Wolff and the politics of 1968. Christian Wolff in conversation with Jim Igor Kallenberg", Wien Modern 31: Sicherheit. 28.10.-30.11.2018. Essays (Festivalkatalog Band 2), pp. 90–95.
(2020) Zimmerman, Walter, Desert Plants – Conversations with 23 American Musicians'', Berlin: Beginner Press in cooperation with Mode Records (originally published in 1976 by A.R.C., Vancouver). The 2020 edition includes a cd featuring the original interview recordings with Larry Austin, Robert Ashley, Jim Burton, John Cage, Philip Corner, Morton Feldman, Philip Glass, Joan La Barbara, Garrett List, Alvin Lucier, John McGuire, Charles Morrow, J.B. Floyd (on Conlon Nancarrow), Pauline Oliveros, Charlemagne Palestine, Ben Johnston (on Harry Partch), Steve Reich, David Rosenboom, Frederic Rzewski, Richard Teitelbaum, James Tenney, Christian Wolff, and La Monte Young.
External links
Art of the States: Christian Wolff
Works
Interview
Two pieces
Improvisations with Kui Dong and Larry Polansky
19 interpretations of the piece "Stones" (1968)
Christian Wolff papers, 1947-2017 Music Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
1934 births
Living people
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
American male classical composers
American classical composers
French emigrants to the United States
Harvard College alumni
French people of German descent
American people of German descent
Dartmouth College faculty
Experimental composers
Tzadik Records artists
21st-century American composers
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians
Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni | [
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241977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson%20%28proposed%20Pacific%20state%29 | Jefferson (proposed Pacific state) | The State of Jefferson is a proposed U.S. state that would span the contiguous, mostly rural area of southern Oregon and northern California, where several attempts to separate from Oregon and California, respectively, have taken place.
This region on the Pacific Coast is the most famous of several that have sought to adopt the name of Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States. Jefferson, who sent the Lewis and Clark expedition into the Pacific Northwest in 1803, envisioned the establishment of an independent nation in the western portion of North America that he dubbed the "Republic of the Pacific"; hence, the association of his name with regional autonomy. The independence movement, rather than statehood, is known as Cascadia.
This region encompasses most of Northern California's land but does not include San Francisco or other Bay Area counties that account for the majority of Northern California's population.
The name "Jefferson" has also been used for other proposed states: the name was proposed in the 19th century for Jefferson Territory (roughly modern Colorado), as well as in 1915 in a bill in the Texas Legislature for a proposed state that would be created from the Texas Panhandle region.
If the proposal were ever approved, the new state's capital city would have to be determined by a constitutional convention. Yreka, California, was named the provisional capital in the original 1941 proposal, although Port Orford, Oregon, had also been up for consideration. Some supporters of the more recent revival have also identified Redding, California, as a potential capital, even though Redding is not included in all versions of the proposal and its City Council voted in 2013 to reject participation in the movement.
20th century
In October 1941, the Mayor of Port Orford, Oregon, Gilbert Gable, said that the Oregon counties of Curry, Josephine, Jackson, and Klamath should join with the California counties of Del Norte, Siskiyou, and Modoc to form a new state, later named Jefferson.
He was motivated by the belief that these heavily rural areas were underrepresented in state government, which tended to cater to more populous areas. Gilbert Gable was joined in his efforts by Siskiyou State Senator Randolph Collier, whose support led to Yreka being picked as the capital.
On November 27, 1941, a group of young men gained national media attention when, brandishing hunting rifles for dramatic effect, they stopped traffic on U.S. Route 99 south of Yreka, the county seat of Siskiyou County, and handed out copies of a Proclamation of Independence, stating that the State of Jefferson was in "patriotic rebellion against the States of California and Oregon" and would continue to "secede every Thursday until further notice."
The state split movement ended quickly, though not before Del Norte County District Attorney John Leon Childs (1863–1953) of Crescent City was inaugurated as the Governor of the State of Jefferson on December 4, 1941.
The first blow was the death of Mayor Gable on December 2, followed by the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7. Those in favor of splitting the state focused their efforts on the war effort, which crippled the movement.
San Francisco Chronicle journalist Stanton Delaplane won the 1942 Pulitzer Prize for Reporting for his articles on the State of Jefferson.
In 1989, KSOR, the National Public Radio member station based at Southern Oregon University in Ashland, near Medford, rebranded itself as Jefferson Public Radio. It had built a massive network of low-powered translators earlier in the 1980s. By the time KSOR began building full-power stations later in the decade, it realized that the combined footprint of its translator network was roughly coextensive with the original State of Jefferson. It thus felt "Jefferson Public Radio" was an appropriate name when it decided to rebrand itself as a network.
In 1992, California State Assemblyman Stan Statham placed an advisory vote in 31 counties asking if the state should be split into two. All of the proposed Jefferson counties voted in favor of the split (except Humboldt County which did not have the issue on the ballot). Based on these results, Statham introduced legislation in California in an attempt to split the state, but the bill died in committee.
In the late 1990s, the movement for statehood was promoted by a group called the State of Jefferson Citizens Committee, which was originally formed in 1941. Two of the members, Brian Helsaple and Brian Petersen, gathered an extensive collection, including both verbal and written accounts mostly surrounding the 1941 movement. They published a book, "Jefferson Saga," in 2000. This, along with revealing the lack of representation and over-regulations, fanned the flame.
21st century
Jefferson is commemorated by the State of Jefferson Scenic Byway between Yreka and O'Brien, Oregon, which runs along State Route 96 and U.S. Forest Service Primary Route 48. Near the California – Oregon border, a turnout provides scenic views of the Klamath River valley and three informative display signs about the republic. The region retains this identity reinforced by institutions such as Jefferson Public Radio.
As of the 2020 Census, if the Jefferson counties were a state (original 1941 counties), the state's population would be 484,727: smaller than any state at the time. Approximately 83% of those residents live in Oregon. Its land area would be – a little smaller than West Virginia. The area was almost evenly divided between Oregon and California. Its population density would be – a little more than Idaho. With the addition of the more modern Jefferson movement (Coos and Douglas and Lake Counties in Oregon, and Humboldt, Trinity, Shasta, Lassen, Mendocino, Lake, Tehama, Plumas, Glenn, Butte, Colusa, Sierra, Sutter, Yuba, Nevada, Placer, El Dorado, Amador, Calaveras, Tuolumne, Stanislaus and Mariposa Counties in California), the population as of the 2020 Census would be 3,138,324, making it the 33rd most populous state in the United States.
Counties intending to leave California
On September 3, 2013, the Siskiyou County, California Board of Supervisors voted 4 to 1 in favor of withdrawal from California to form a proposed state named Jefferson. The proposal was joined by the Modoc County Board of Supervisors (September 24) and Glenn County Board of Supervisors (January 21, 2014). On April 15, 2014 Yuba County Supervisors joined the State of Jefferson movement to separate from California and create a new U.S. state. On July 15, 2014 the Tehama County Board of Supervisors voted unanimously to adopt a resolution supporting the declaration of withdrawal from California based on an advisory vote taken on June 6, 2014 where the public voted 56% to 44% in favor of splitting the state. On July 22, 2014 the Board of Supervisors of Sutter County unanimously adopted a resolution supporting a declaration and petition to the Legislature to withdraw from California to redress a lack of representation. On March 3, 2015, Lake County supervisors voted 3 to 2 to submit the question of secession to voters and on March 17, Lassen County supervisors made a similar declaration that also has the voters deciding in 2016. The Jefferson Declaration Committee is reportedly aiming to get at least 12 counties in support.
On October 24, 2014, Modoc and Siskiyou Counties delivered their declarations for independence from the state of California to the California Secretary of State's office. On January 15, 2015, three more counties, Glenn, Tehama, and Yuba, submitted their official declarations as well.
The 2013 revival was based almost entirely in California. It includes all major parts of California north of 39°. Although some individual residents in Oregon have lobbied for the movement, no county government in that state has endorsed the proposal to date. As of January 6, 2016, 21 northern California counties have sent a declaration or have approved to send a declaration to the State of California with their intent of leaving the state and forming the State of Jefferson. The population of the 21 California counties was 1,747,626 as of the 2010 U.S. Census, which would be 39th most populous state in the Union.
2016 presidential election
After the 2016 presidential election, it was noted that most of the rural California counties which would belong to the State of Jefferson were won in a landslide by Republican nominee Donald Trump, whereas Democrat Hillary Clinton enjoyed an unprecedented level of support in the rest of California, indicating a growing demographic and political divide between the proposed State of Jefferson and the rest of California. While Clinton beat Trump by almost 80 points in San Francisco, he led her by more than 50 points in Lassen County. The election of Trump led to calls for a secession of California and a similar proposal in Oregon, where Clinton won the popular vote while Trump captured the majority of counties.
With the election of President Donald Trump, some who are considering joining the modern State of Jefferson or are observing the movement have stated that if California secedes, the movement's supporting counties could appeal directly to the United States Congress for statehood, similar to how West Virginia was formed, claiming California would be in insurrection and petitioning to rejoin the Union as an independent state.
On May 8, 2017, the State of Jefferson as "Citizens for Fair Representation" filed a lawsuit against the California Secretary of State Alex Padilla. The suit alleges that California's 1862 law limiting Senators to no more than 40, and Assembly Members to no more than 80, creates an unconstitutional imbalance of representation that precludes effective "self-governance" as protected by the 14th Amendment. The desired result of suing California, for lack of representation and dilution of vote, is better representation across all of California, and ultimately an independent State of Jefferson. The case was dismissed by the lower court and appealed to the Ninth Circuit.
Flag and seal
The field of the flag is green, and the charge is the Seal of the State of Jefferson: a gold mining pan with the words "The Great Seal Of State Of Jefferson" engraved into the lip, and two Xs askew of each other.
The two Xs are known as the "Double Cross" and signify the two regions' "sense of abandonment" by the central state governments, in both Southern Oregon and Northern California.
The gold pan is on display at the Yreka California Siskiyou Museum.
Appearances in popular culture
Jefferson was featured by Huell Howser in Road Trip Episode 143.
See also
List of U.S. state partition proposals
Absaroka (proposed state)
Cascadia (independence movement)
Franklin (proposed state)
Jefferson (proposed Mountain state)
Jefferson (proposed Southern state)
Lincoln (proposed Northwestern state)
Lincoln (proposed Southern state)
Superior (proposed U.S. state)
Secession in the United States
American Redoubt
Northwest Territorial Imperative
Yes California Independence Campaign
California National Party
References
Further reading
James T. Rock. The State of Jefferson: the Dream Lives on! Siskiyou County Museum, 1999.
External links
State Of Jefferson Home Page — History of the State
Jefferson Public Radio
Jefferson Public Radio on the State of Jefferson
State of Jefferson by Ian Jones
The Mythical State of Jefferson by Megan Shaw at Bad Subjects
A State of Mind:Exploring the untamed wonders of Jefferson by Glenn Garnett at CottageLink Magazine
A Jefferson State of Mind by Christopher Hall at AAA's Via Magazine
The Jefferson Proposal Official Jefferson State Joint Committee website
The State of Jefferson Images of America series (Google Books)
State of Jefferson Documentary produced by Oregon Public Broadcasting
Cellophane Start, Eruption Hoax, Parking Lot King on Mysteries at the Museum
State of Jefferson Formation site Primary website for the 2013+ modern statehood movement
Jefferson Declaration Blog Very active movement for withdrawal of the rural northern California counties to form a new state of Jefferson
Findagrave memorial for John Leon Childs, Inaugurated Governor of the State of Jefferson
Proposed states and territories of the United States
Jefferson, State of
Jefferson, State of
History of Siskiyou County, California
Jefferson, State of
Yreka, California | [
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241979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxim | Maxim | Maxim or Maksim may refer to:
Entertainment
Maxim (magazine), an international men's magazine
Maxim (Australia), the Australian edition
Maxim (India), the Indian edition
Maxim Radio, Maxim magazine's radio channel on Sirius Satellite Radio
Maxim, a fictional ship in the manga and anime series One Piece
Maxim, the hero of the video game Lufia II: Rise of the Sinistrals and its remake, Lufia: Curse of the Sinistrals
Literature and language
A species of adage, aphorism, or saying that expresses a general moral rule, especially a philosophical maxim
Maxims (Old English poems), examples of gnomic poetry
Maximes (1665–78) of François de La Rochefoucauld (1613–80)
Organizations
Maxim Healthcare Services, a medical staffing and home healthcare company
Maxim Institute, a public policy think tank in New Zealand
Maxim Integrated, a manufacturer of analog and mixed signal integrated circuits
Maxim's Catering, a chain of caterers, restaurants, and fast food shops in Hong Kong
Maxim's Paris, a Parisian restaurant of the Belle Epoque
Maxim Brewery, a brewing company in England
People
Carl Maximowicz, botanist (author abbreviation Maxim)
Hiram Maxim (1840–1916), inventor of the Maxim Gun, the first machine gun
Hiram Percy Maxim (1869–1936), radio pioneer, inventor of the automobile muffler and the firearm silencer; son of Hiram Maxim
Hudson Maxim (1853–1927), a U.S. inventor and chemist; brother of Hiram Maxim and uncle of Hiram Percy Maxim
Maksim, Metropolitan of all Rus, Metropolitan of Kiev (1283–1305)
Maksim, Bulgarian Patriarch (1914–2012), Patriarch of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church
Maksim, Serbian Patriarch (d. 1680), Patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church (1655-1674)
Maksim Branković (d. 1516), Serbian Orthodox Metropolitan of Belgrade and Syrmia
Maxim (musician), stage name of Keith Palmer, member of the British electronic band The Prodigy
Maxim (artist), German Europop artist
Maxim Afinogenov Russian professional hockey player who spent 10 years playing in the NHL
Maxim Antoniuc (b. 1991), Moldovan footballer
Maxim "Max" Birbraer (born 1980), Kazakhstan-born Israeli professional ice hockey forward
Maxim Cojocaru (b. 1998), Moldovan footballer
Maxim Gorky (1868–1936), Russian author and activist
Maxim Kontsevich (b. 1964), Russian and French mathematician and winner of the Fields Medal
Maxim Litvinov (1876-1951), Russian revolutionary and Soviet statesman
Maxim Mihaliov (b. 1986), Moldovan footballer
Maksim Mrvica (b. 1975), Croatian pianist
Maksim Vasiljević, Serbian Orthodox Bishop of Western America (since 2006)
Maxim Vengerov (born 1974), Russian-born Israeli violinist, violist, and conductor
Other uses
Legal maxim, certain guiding principles of law and jurisprudence
Maxim (coffee), the first American brand of freeze-dried coffee, made by General Foods
Maxim Cup, South Korean Go competition
Maxim (philosophy), a principle that an individual uses in making a decision
Maxim gun, the first self-acting machine gun
Maxim, New Jersey, an unincorporated community in Monmouth County, New Jersey, United States
SilencerCo Maxim 50, a muzzle-loading rifle that includes an integrated sound suppressor
See also
Aphorism
Maxim (given name)
Maxim (surname)
Maxima (disambiguation)
Maxime (disambiguation) | [
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241981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois%20Lyotard | Jean-François Lyotard | Jean-François Lyotard (; ; ; 10 August 1924 – 21 April 1998) was a French philosopher, sociologist, and literary theorist. His interdisciplinary discourse spans such topics as epistemology and communication, the human body, modern art and postmodern art, literature and critical theory, music, film, time and memory, space, the city and landscape, the sublime, and the relation between aesthetics and politics. He is best known for his articulation of postmodernism after the late 1970s and the analysis of the impact of postmodernity on the human condition. Lyotard was a key personality in contemporary Continental philosophy and author of 26 books and many articles. He was a director of the International College of Philosophy founded by Jacques Derrida, François Châtelet, Jean-Pierre Faye, and Dominique Lecourt.
Biography
Early life, educational background, and family
Jean François Lyotard was born on August 10, 1924, in Vincennes, France, to Jean-Pierre Lyotard, a sales representative, and Madeleine Cavalli. He went to school at the Lycée Buffon (1935–42) and Louis-le-Grand, Paris. As a child, Lyotard had many aspirations: to be an artist, a historian, a Dominican friar, and a writer. He later gave up the dream of becoming a writer when he finished writing an unsuccessful fictional novel at the age of 15. Ultimately, Lyotard described the realization that he would not become any of these occupations as "fate" in his intellectual biography called Peregrinations, published in 1988.
Lyotard served as a medic during the liberation of Paris in the Second World War, and soon after began studying philosophy at the Sorbonne in the late 1940s, after failing the entrance exam to the more prestigious École normale supérieure twice. His 1947 DES thesis, Indifference as an Ethical Concept (L'indifférence comme notion éthique), analyzed forms of indifference and detachment in Zen Buddhism, Stoicism, Taoism, and Epicureanism. In 1950, Lyotard took up a position teaching philosophy in Constantine in French Algeria but returned to mainland France in 1952 to teach at the Prytanée military academy in La Flèche, where he wrote a short work on Phenomenology, published in 1954. Lyotard moved to Paris in 1959 to teach at the Sorbonne: introductory lectures from this time (1964) have been posthumously published under the title Why Philosophize? Having moved to teach at the new campus of Nanterre in 1966, Lyotard participated in the events following March 22 and the tumult of May 1968. In 1971, Lyotard earned a State doctorate with his dissertation Discours, figure under Mikel Dufrenne—the work was published the same year. Lyotard joined the Philosophy department of the experimental University at Vincennes, later Paris 8, together with Gilles Deleuze, in the academic year 1970-71; it remained his academic home in France until 1987. He married his first wife, Andrée May, in 1948 with whom he had two children, Corinne and Laurence, and later married for a second time in 1993 to Dolores Djidzek, the mother of his son David (born in 1986).
Political life
In 1954, Lyotard became a member of Socialisme ou Barbarie ("Socialism or Barbarism"), a French political organization formed in 1948 around the inadequacy of the Trotskyist analysis to explain the new forms of domination in the Soviet Union. Socialisme ou Barbarie and the publication of the same name had an objective to conduct a critique of Marxism from within the left, including the dominance of bureaucracy within the French Communist Party and its adherence to the dictats of the Soviet Union. His writings in this period are mostly concerned with far-left politics, with a focus on the Algerian situation—which he witnessed first-hand while teaching philosophy in Constantine. As the principle correspondent on Algeria for Socialisme ou Barbarie, during the period of Algeria's struggle for independence, Lyotard wrote a dozen essays analyzing the economic and political situation (1956–63), which were later reproduced in La Guerre des Algeriens (1989) and translated in Political Writings (1993). Lyotard hoped to encourage an Algerian fight for independence from France, and a social revolution, actively supporting the FLN in secret, whilst also being critical of its approach. Following disputes with Cornelius Castoriadis in 1964, Lyotard left Socialisme ou Barbarie for the newly formed splinter group Pouvoir Ouvrier ("Worker Power"), from which he resigned in turn in 1966. Although Lyotard played an active part in the May 1968 uprisings, he distanced himself from revolutionary Marxism with his 1974 book Libidinal Economy. He distanced himself from Marxism because he felt that Marxism had a rigid structuralist approach and they were imposing "systematization of desires" through a strong emphasis on industrial production as the ground culture.
Academic career
Lyotard taught at the , Algeria from 1950 to 1952. In 1952 Lyotard returned to mainland France to teach at the Prytanée military academy, La Flèche, Sarthe. He published the book La phénoménologie (Phenomenology) in 1954 and began to write for the journal Socialisme ou Barbarie under the psudonym François Laborde. In 1972, Lyotard began teaching at the University of Paris VIII; he taught there until 1987 when he became Professor Emeritus. In 1982-3 Lyotard was involved in the foundation of the Collège International de Philosophie, Paris, serving as its second Director in 1985. Lyotard frequently lectured outside France as visiting professor at universities around the world. From 1974, these included trans-Atlantic visits, including: Johns Hopkins University, University of California, Berkeley, Yale University, Stony Brook University and the University of California, San Diego in the U.S., the Université de Montréal in Quebec (Canada), and the University of São Paulo in Brazil. In 1987 he took a part-time professorship at the University of California, Irvine where he held a joint post with Jacques Derrida and Wolfgang Iser in the Department of Critical Theory. Before his death, he split his time between Paris and Atlanta, where he taught at Emory University as the Woodruff Professor of Philosophy and French from 1995-8.
Work
Lyotard's work is characterized by a persistent opposition to universals, métarécits (meta-narratives), and generality. He is fiercely critical of many of the "universalist" claims of the Enlightenment, and several of his works serve to undermine the fundamental principles that generate these broad claims.
In his writings of the early 1970s, he rejects what he regards as theological underpinnings of both Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud: "In Freud, it is Judaical, critical sombre (forgetful of the political); in Marx it is catholic. Hegelian, reconciliatory (...) in the one and in the other the relationship of the economic with meaning is blocked in the category of representation (...) Here a politics, there a therapeutics, in both cases a laical theology, on top of the arbitrariness and the roaming of forces". Consequently, he rejected Theodor W. Adorno's negative dialectics because he viewed them as seeking a "therapeutic resolution in the framework of a religion, here the religion of history." In Lyotard's "libidinal economics" he aimed at "discovering and describing different social modes of investment of libidinal intensities".
Academic legacy
Throughout his academic career Jean-François Lyotard has contributed to the magazines L'Âge nouveau, Les Temps modernes, Socialisme ou barbarie, Cahiers de philosophie, Esprit, Revue d'esthétique, Musique en jeu, L'Art vivant, Semiotexte, October, Art Press International, Critique, Flash Art, Art Forum, Po&sie, among others.
The Postmodern Condition
Lyotard is a skeptic of modern cultural thought. According to his 1979 The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, the impact of the postmodern condition was to provoke skepticism about universalizing theories. Lyotard argues that we have outgrown our needs for metanarratives () due to the advancement of techniques and technologies since World War II. He argues against the possibility of justifying the narratives that bring together disciplines and social practices, such as science and culture; according to James Williams, for Lyotard "the narratives we tell to justify a single set of laws and stakes are inherently unjust." A loss of faith in metanarratives has an effect on how we view science, art, and literature. Little narratives have now become the appropriate way for explaining social transformations and political problems. Lyotard argues that this is the driving force behind postmodern science. As metanarratives fade, science suffers a loss of faith in its search for truth, and therefore must find other ways of legitimating its efforts. Connected to this scientific legitimacy is the growing dominance for information machines. Lyotard argues that one day, in order for knowledge to be considered useful, it will have to be converted into computerized data. Years later, this led him into writing his book The Inhuman, published in 1988, in which he illustrates a world where technology has taken over.
The Inhuman (1988)
In his book, The Inhuman, Lyotard explores the philosophy of Kant, Heidegger, Adorno, and Derrida, as well as the works of modernist and postmodernist artists like Cézanne, Debussy, and Boulez, in a wide-ranging debate. Time and memory, the sublime and the avant-garde, and the link between aesthetics and politics are all topics Lyotard addresses in the book. He analyzes the close but problematic ties between modernity, development, and humanity, as well as the shift to postmodernity, throughout his study. The job of literature, philosophy, and the arts, according to Lyotard, is to give witness to and explain this arduous shift.
Lyotard rejected classical humanism mainly because he paradoxically assumes that the humane is something that every person has inherently from birth but can only be realized through education. Lyotard essentially asks if humanity is so inherent to all of us, can we only gain it by undergoing education? By using the concept of the inhuman, Lyotard described all those things that humanism has excluded from its definition of man.
He developed a science fiction thought experiment that would take place in 4.5 billion years, at the time of the explosion of the sun. Should the human species put itself in the position to live on without Earth, and if so what would then remain of "humanity"? Everything that is of importance for our present determination of what is "human" would fall away if the human species began living an extra-planetary existence. Lyotard's opinion on this remained divided: on the one hand, he criticized the dehumanizing effects of modern technology that can already be observed today; on the other hand, he saw in them the chance to open up a space of possibilities, since they do not fix the human being to one image.
The collapse of the "grand narrative" and "language-games"
Most famously, in La Condition postmoderne: Rapport sur le savoir (The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge) (1979), he proposes what he calls an extreme simplification of the "postmodern" as an 'incredulity towards meta-narratives'. These meta-narratives—sometimes 'grand narratives'—are grand, large-scale theories and philosophies of the world, such as the progress of history, the knowability of everything by science, and the possibility of absolute freedom. Lyotard argues that we have ceased to believe that narratives of this kind are adequate to represent and contain us all. He points out that no one seemed to agree on what, if anything, was real and everyone had their own perspective and story. We have become alert to difference, diversity, the incompatibility of our aspirations, beliefs, and desires, and for that reason postmodernity is characterized by an abundance of micronarratives. For this concept, Lyotard draws from the notion of "language-games" found in the work of Ludwig Wittgenstein. Lyotard notes that it is based on the mapping of society according to the concept of the language games.
In Lyotard's works, the term "language games", sometimes also called "phrase regimens", denotes the multiplicity of communities of meaning, the innumerable and incommensurable separate systems in which meanings are produced and rules for their circulation are created. This involves, for example, an incredulity towards the metanarrative of human emancipation. That is, the story of how the human race has set itself free that brings together the language game of science, the language game of human historical conflicts, and the language game of human qualities into the overall justification of the steady development of the human race in terms of wealth and moral well-being. According to this metanarrative, the justification of science is related to wealth and education. The development of history is seen as steady progress towards civilization or moral well-being. The language game of human passions, qualities and faults (c.f. character flaws (narratives)), is seen as steadily shifting in favor of our qualities and away from our faults as science and historical developments help us to conquer our faults in favor of our qualities. The point is that any event ought to be able to be understood in terms of the justifications of this metanarrative; anything that happens can be understood and judged according to the discourse of human emancipation. For example, for any new social, political or scientific revolution we could ask the question, "Is this revolution a step towards the greater well-being of the mass of human beings?" It should always be possible to answer this question in terms of the rules of justification of the metanarrative of human emancipation.
This becomes more crucial in Au juste: Conversations (Just Gaming) (1979) and Le Différend (The Differend) (1983), which develop a postmodern theory of justice. It might appear that the atomization of human beings implied by the notion of the micronarrative and the language game suggests a collapse of ethics. It has often been thought that universality is a condition for something to be a properly ethical statement: "thou shalt not steal" is an ethical statement in a way that "thou shalt not steal from Margaret" is not. The latter is too particular to be an ethical statement (what's so special about Margaret?); it is only ethical if it rests on a universal statement ("thou shalt not steal from anyone"). But universals are impermissible in a world that has lost faith in metanarratives, and so it would seem that ethics is impossible. Justice and injustice can only be terms within language games, and the universality of ethics is out of the window. Lyotard argues that notions of justice and injustice do in fact remain in postmodernism. The new definition of injustice is indeed to use the language rules from one "phrase regimen" and apply them to another. Ethical behavior is about remaining alert precisely to the threat of this injustice, about paying attention to things in their particularity and not enclosing them within abstract conceptuality. One must bear witness to the "differend". In a differend, there is a conflict between two parties that cannot be solved in a just manner. However, the act of being able to bridge the two and understand the claims of both parties, is the first step towards finding a solution.
"I would like to call a differend the case where the plaintiff is divested of the means to argue and becomes for that reason a victim. If the addressor, the addressee, and the sense of the testimony are neutralized, everything takes place as if there were no damages. A case of differend between two parties takes place when the regulation of the conflict that opposes them is done in the idiom of one of the parties while the wrong suffered by the other is not signified in that idiom."
In more than one book, Lyotard promoted what he called a new paganism. Plato, in Book II of the Republic, condemns pagans for their shape-shifting and deceitful gods, antithetical to universal truth. Lyotard prefers a mirror image of Plato's critique, vindicating the pagans as Plato sees them. A new paganism would revolt against a Greek masculinist, such as that of Plato. The revolt would be led by women, for woman is antirational and anti-philosophical (at least as Plato understands what it is to be philosophical). Woman, as "the little girl", is "the antonym of the adult male questioner" and would release us from the mental illness evident in Platonic philosophy, in Judaism and in the American, French and Russian revolutions.
The Differend
In The Differend, based on Immanuel Kant's views on the separation of Understanding, Judgment, and Reason, Lyotard identifies the moment in which language fails as the differend, and explains it as follows: "...the unstable state and instant of language wherein something which must be able to be put into phrases cannot yet be… the human beings who thought they could use language as an instrument of communication, learn through the feeling of pain which accompanies silence (and of pleasure which accompanies the invention of a new idiom)". Lyotard undermines the common view that the meanings of phrases can be determined by what they refer to (the referent). The meaning of a phrase—an event (something happens)--cannot be fixed by appealing to reality (what actually happened). Lyotard develops this view of language by defining "reality" in an original way, as a complex of possible senses attached to a referent through a name. The correct sense of a phrase cannot be determined by a reference to reality, since the referent itself does not fix sense, and reality itself is defined as the complex of competing senses attached to a referent. Therefore, the phrase event remains indeterminate.
Lyotard uses the example of Auschwitz and the revisionist historian Robert Faurisson’s demands for proof of the Holocaust to show how the differend operates as a double bind. Faurisson will only accept proof of the existence of gas chambers from eyewitnesses who were themselves victims of the gas chambers. However, any such eyewitnesses are dead and are not able to testify. Either there were no gas chambers, in which case there would be no eyewitnesses to produce evidence, or there were gas chambers, in which case there would still be no eyewitnesses to produce evidence, because they would be dead. Since Faurisson will accept no evidence for the existence of gas chambers, except the testimony of actual victims, he will conclude from both possibilities (gas chambers existed and gas chambers did not exist) that gas chambers did not exist. This presents a double bind. There are two alternatives, either there were gas chambers or there were not, which lead to the same conclusion: there were no gas chambers (and no final solution). The case is a differend because the harm done to the victims cannot be presented in the standard of judgment upheld by Faurisson.
The sublime
Lyotard was a frequent writer on aesthetic matters. He was, despite his reputation as a postmodernist, a great promoter of modernist art. Lyotard saw postmodernism as a latent tendency within thought throughout time and not a narrowly limited historical period. He favored the startling and perplexing works of the high modernist avant-garde. In them he found a demonstration of the limits of our conceptuality, a valuable lesson for anyone too imbued with Enlightenment confidence. Lyotard has written extensively also on many contemporary artists of his choice: Valerio Adami, Daniel Buren, Marcel Duchamp, Jacques Monory, Ruth Francken, Shusaku Arakawa, Bracha Ettinger, Sam Francis, Karel Appel, Barnett Newman, René Guiffrey, , and Albert Ayme as well as on earlier artists, notably Paul Cézanne and Paul Klee.
He developed these themes in particular by discussing the sublime. The "sublime" is a term in aesthetics whose fortunes revived under postmodernism after a century or more of neglect. It refers to the experience of pleasurable anxiety that we experience when confronting wild and threatening sights like, for example, a massive craggy mountain, black against the sky, looming terrifyingly in our vision. A sublime is the conjunction of two opposed feelings, which makes it harder for us to see the injustice of it, or a solution to it.
Lyotard found particularly interesting the explanation of the sublime offered by Immanuel Kant in his Critique of Judgment (Kritik der Urtheilskraft, more exactly Critique of the Power of Judgment). In this book, Kant explains this mixture of anxiety and pleasure in the following terms: there are two kinds of "sublime" experience. In the "mathematically" sublime, an object strikes the mind in such a way that we find ourselves unable to take it in as a whole. More precisely, we experience a clash between our reason (which tells us that all objects are finite) and the imagination (the aspect of the mind that organizes what we see, and which sees an object incalculably larger than ourselves, and feels infinite). In the "dynamically" sublime, the mind recoils at an object so immeasurably more powerful than we, whose weight, force, scale could crush us without the remotest hope of our being able to resist it. (Kant stresses that if we are in actual danger, our feeling of anxiety is very different from that of a sublime feeling. The sublime is an aesthetic experience, not a practical feeling of personal danger.) This explains the feeling of anxiety.
What is deeply unsettling about the mathematically sublime is that the mental faculties that present visual perceptions to the mind are inadequate to the concept corresponding to it; in other words, what we are able to make ourselves see cannot fully match up to what we know is there. We know it is a mountain but we cannot take the whole thing into our perception. Our sensibility is incapable of coping with such sights, but our reason can assert the finitude of the presentation. With the dynamically sublime, our sense of physical danger should prompt an awareness that we are not just physical material beings, but moral and (in Kant's terms) noumenal beings as well. The body may be dwarfed by its power but our reason need not be. This explains, in both cases, why the sublime is an experience of pleasure as well as pain.
Lyotard is fascinated by this admission, from one of the philosophical architects of the Enlightenment, that the mind cannot always organize the world rationally. Some objects are simply incapable of being brought neatly under concepts. For Lyotard, in Lessons on the Analytic of the Sublime, but drawing on his argument in The Differend, this is a good thing. Such generalities as "concepts" fail to pay proper attention to the particularity of things. What happens in the sublime is a crisis where we realize the inadequacy of the imagination and reason to each other. What we are witnessing, says Lyotard, is actually the differend; the straining of the mind at the edges of itself and at the edges of its conceptuality.
Aesthetics
Lyotard's thesis, published under the title Discours, Figure (1971), focused on aesthetics. Lyotard devoted himself a lot to aesthetic issues, in a way that sought to break with the Hegelian perspective, in which art had to think of itself as a materialization of the mind.
Lyotard's thought on modern and contemporary art focused on a few artists who allowed him to emphasize the flagship issues of French thought after the Second World War, particularly those of conceptual mastery of the artist as an author: Paul Cézanne and Wassily Kandinsky as well as Bracha L. Ettinger, Albert Ayme, Daniel Buren, Marcel Duchamp, Valerio Adami, Jacques Monory, Shusaku Arakawa, Ruth Francken, Sam Francis, Barnett Newman, Joseph Kosuth, Karel Appel, René Guiffrey, and Gianfranco Baruchello.
Libidinal Economy
In one of Lyotard's most famous books, Libidinal Economy, he offers a critique of Marx’s idea of "false consciousness" and claims that the 19th-century working class enjoyed being a part of the industrialization process. Lyotard claims that this was due to libidinal energythe term "libidinal" coming from the term libido, used in psychoanalysis to refer to the desires of our deeper consciousness. Libidinal Economy has been called an achievement in our attempts to live with the rejection of all religious and moral principles through an undermining of the structures associated with it. Structures conceal libidinal intensities while intense feelings and desires force us away from set structures. However, there also can be no intensities or desires without structures, because there would be no dream of escaping the repressive structures if they do not exist. "Libidinal energy comes from this disruptive intervention of external events within structures that seek order and self-containment." This was the first of Lyotard's writings that had really criticized a Marxist view. It achieved great success, but was also the last of Lyotard's writings on this particular topic where he really opposed the views of Marx.
Les Immatériaux
In 1985, Lyotard co-curated the exhibition Les Immatériaux at the Centre de Création Industrielle at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, together with the design theorist and curator Thierry Chaput. At that point, Les Immatériaux was the largest exhibition held at the Centre Georges Pompidou. The exhibition was framed in a pre-1989 context that predicted globalization to be a melancholy foreshadowing of contemporary art's shifting function in the era of increasing transnational exchange, and as a turning point in a history of exhibits in the aftermath of what was formerly known as aesthetics.
John Rajchman says this about the exhibition: "We might imagine Les Immatériaux as an extravagant staging of a peculiar moment in the role of information in the history of aesthetics after so-called ‘modernism’, yet before the ‘contemporary’ configuration of biennials that was already taking shape in the 1990s, within or against which the question of a new ‘history of exhibition’ now itself arises."
"Mainmise"
Lyotard was impressed by the importance of childhood in human life, which he saw as providing the opportunity of creativity, as opposed to the settled hubris of maturity. In "Mainmise", however, he also explored the hold of childhood experience on the individual through the (Roman) concept of mancipium, an authoritative right of possession. Because parental influences affect the new-born before it has the linguistic skill even to articulate them, let alone oppose them, Lyotard considered that "We are born from others but also to others, given over defenseless to them. Subject to their mancipium."
Later life and death
Some of the latest works that Lyotard had been working on were both writings about a French writer, activist, and politician, André Malraux. One of them being a biography, Signed, Malraux. Lyotard was interested in the aesthetic views of society that Malraux shared. Lyotard's other book was named The Confession of Augustine and was a study in the phenomenology of time. This work-in-progress was published posthumously in the same year of Lyotard's death. Two of his latest essays on art were on the artwork of artist Bracha L. Ettinger: Anima Minima (Diffracted Traces), 1995, and Anamnesis (L'anamnese), 1997.
Lyotard repeatedly returned to the notion of the Postmodern in essays gathered in English as The Postmodern Explained to Children, Toward the Postmodern, and Postmodern Fables. In 1998, while preparing for a conference on postmodernism and media theory, he died unexpectedly from a case of leukemia that had advanced rapidly. He is buried in Division 6 of Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.
Criticism
There are three major criticisms of Lyotard's work. Each coincides with a school of thought. Jacques Derrida and Jean-Luc Nancy have written deconstructions of Lyotard's work (Derrida 1992; Nancy 1985). They focus on Lyotard's postmodern work and on The Differend in particular. A differend depends upon a distinction drawn between groups that itself depends upon the heterogeneity of language games and genres of discourse. Why should these differences be privileged over an endless division and reconstruction of groups? In concentrating on specific differences, Lyotard's thought becomes overly dependent on differences; between categories that are given as fixed and well defined. From the point of view of deconstruction, Lyotard's philosophy gives too much credit to illegitimate categories and groups. Underlying any differend there is a multiplicity of further differences; some of these will involve crossing the first divide, others will question the integrity of the groups that were originally separated.
Manfred Frank (1988) has put the Frankfurt School criticism best. It attacks Lyotard's search for division over consensus on the grounds that it involves a philosophical mistake with serious political and social repercussions. Lyotard has failed to notice that an underlying condition for consensus is also a condition for the successful communication of his own thought. It is a performative contradiction to give an account that appeals to our reason on behalf of a difference that is supposed to elude it. So, in putting forward a false argument against a rational consensus, Lyotard plays into the hands of the irrational forces that often give rise to injustice and differ ends. Worse, he is then only in a position to testify to that injustice, rather than put forward a just and rational resolution. In turn, these criticisms have been met with responses arguing that Frank misreads Lyotard's work, for example, failing to recognize the role of the sublime, as well as failing to see that Lyotard wants to go beyond the monopoly of the cognitive, argumentative genre, in order to give other genres a right to exist as well.
From a Nietzschean and Deleuzian point of view (James Williams 2000), Lyotard's postmodern philosophy took a turn toward a destructive modern nihilism that his early work avoids. The different and the sublime are negative terms that introduce a severe pessimism at the core of Lyotard's philosophy. Both terms draw lines that cannot be crossed and yet they mark the threshold of that which is most valuable for the philosophy, that which is to be testified to and its proper concern. It is not possible repetitively to lend an ear to the sublime without falling into despair due to its fleeting nature. Whenever we try to understand or even memorize: the activity of testimony through the sublime, it can only be as something that has now dissipated and that we cannot capture.
Charles J. Stivale reviewed Lyotard's The Differend (in English translation) in 1990, stating:
Influence
The collective tribute to Lyotard following his death was organized by the Collège International de Philosophie, and chaired by Dolores Lyotard and Jean-Claude Milner, the College's director at that time. The proceedings were published by PUF in 2001 under the general title Jean-François Lyotard, l'exercice du différend.
Lyotard's work continues to be important in politics, philosophy, sociology, literature, art, and cultural studies. To mark the tenth anniversary of Lyotard's death, an international symposium about Jean-François Lyotard organized by the Collège International de Philosophie (under the direction of Dolores Lyotard, Jean-Claude Milner and Gerald Sfez) was held in Paris from January 25–27 in 2007.
Miscellaneous
In Pierre Gripari's novel Pierrot la lune, he writes about a Lyotard, who is given the name "Jef" in the novel, saying that he was the only person with whom he could open up about his homosexuality: "I do not understand Jef, but I need him."
In a 1984 interview with Georges Van Den Abbeele, Lyotard discusses how he views all the work he's published as rough drafts, noting that, "Even Le différend (1984), which I spent nine years elaborating and writing, remains a sketch, whose master I have not been. And in this sense, I can without lying plead limited responsibility. That is to say: a reader cannot incorrectly locate in a piece of writing an aspect which, according to me, is not at all there."
Lyotard was quoted as having privately said, in a conversation with David Hawkes, that "capital is the enemy".
Selected publications
Phenomenology. Trans. Brian Beakley. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991 [La Phénoménologie. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1954], .
Discourse, Figure. Trans. Antony Hudek and Mary Lydon. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011 [Discours, figure. Paris: Klincksieck, 1971], .
Libidinal Economy. Trans. Iain Hamilton Grant. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993 [Économie libidinale. Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1974], .
Duchamp's TRANS/formers. Trans. Ian McLeod. California: Lapis Press, 1990 [Les transformateurs Duchamp. Paris: Editions Galilée, 1977], .
Just Gaming. Trans. Wlad Godzich. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985 [Au juste: Conversations. Paris: Christian Bourgois, 1979], .
The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Trans. Geoffrey Bennington and Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984 [La Condition postmoderne: Rapport sur le savoir. Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1979], .
Pacific Wall. Trans. Bruce Boone. California: Lapis Press, 1989 [Le mur du pacifique. Paris: Editions Galilée, 1979].
The Differend: Phrases in Dispute. Trans. Georges Van Den Abbeele. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988 [Le Différend. Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1983].
The Assassination of Experience by Painting – Monory. Trans. Rachel Bowlby. London: Black Dog, 1998 [L’Assassinat de l’expérience par la peinture, Monory. Bègles: Castor Astral, 1984].
Driftworks. Ed. Roger McKeon. New York: Semiotext(e), 1984. [Essays and interviews dating from 1970 to 1972.]
Enthusiasm: The Kantian Critique of History. Trans. George Van Den Abbeele. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009 [L'enthousiasme, la critique kantienne de l'histoire. Paris: Galilée, 1986].
The Postmodern Explained: Correspondence, 1982–1985. Ed. Julian Pefanis and Morgan Thomas. Trans. Don Barry. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993 [Le Postmoderne expliqué aux enfants: Correspondance, 1982–1985. Paris: Galilée, 1986].
The Inhuman: Reflections on Time. Trans. Geoffrey Bennington and Rachel Bowlby. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991 [L’Inhumain: Causeries sur le temps. Paris: Galilée, 1988].
Heidegger and "the jews." Trans. Andreas Michael and Mark S. Roberts. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990 [Heidegger et "les juifs." Paris: Galilée, 1988].
The Lyotard Reader. Ed. Andrew Benjamin. Oxford: Blackwell, 1989.
Peregrinations: Law, Form, Event. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988 [Pérégrinations: Loi, forme, événement. Paris: Galilée, 1990].
Lessons on the Analytic of the Sublime: Kant’s Critique of Judgment, §§ 23–29. Trans. Elizabeth Rottenberg. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994 [Leçons sur l’"Analytique du sublime": Kant, "Critique de la faculté de juger," paragraphes 23–29. Paris: Galilée, 1991].
The Hyphen: Between Judaism and Christianity. Trans. Pascale-Anne Brault and Michael Naas. Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 1999 [Un trait d’union. Sainte-Foy, Quebec: Le Griffon d’argile, 1993].
Political Writings. Trans. Bill Readings and Kevin Paul Geiman. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993. [Political texts composed 1956–1989.]
Postmodern Fables. Trans. Georges Van Den Abbeele. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997 [Moralités postmodernes. Paris: Galilée, 1993].
Toward the Postmodern. Ed. Robert Harvey and Mark S. Roberts. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1993. [Essays composed 1970–1991].
Signed, Malraux. Trans. Robert Harvey. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999 [Signé Malraux. Paris: B. Grasset, 1996].
The Politics of Jean-François Lyotard. Ed. Chris Rojek and Bryan S. Turner. New York: Routledge, 1998.
The Confession of Augustine. Trans. Richard Beardsworth. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000 [La Confession d’Augustin. Paris: Galilée, 1998].
Soundproof Room: Malraux’s Anti-Aesthetics. Trans. Robert Harvey. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001 [Chambre sourde: L’Antiesthétique de Malraux. Paris: Galilée, 1998].
Jean-François Lyotard : Writings on Contemporary Art and Artists, Six volumes. Ed. Herman Parret, Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2010–2013.
Jean-François Lyotard: The Interviews and Debates. Ed. Kiff Bamford. London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2020.
See also
Continental philosophy
Post-structuralism
Aestheticism
References
Notes
Further reading
Bamford, Kiff. Jean-François Lyotard: Critical Lives. London: Reaktion Books, 2017.
Bamford, Kiff. Lyotard and the "figural" in Performance, Art and Writing. London: Bloomsbury, 2012.
Callinicos, Alex. Social theory: a historical introduction. New York: New York University Press, 1999.
Elliott, Anthony, and Larry J. Ray. "Jean Francois Lyotard." Key contemporary social theorists. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2003.
Ford Derek R. Inhuman Educations: Jean-Francois Lyotard, Pedagogy, Thought. Leiden: Brill. 2021.
Grebowicz, Margret. Gender After Lyotard. SUNY Press, 2007.
Lemert, Charles C.. "After Modern." Social theory: the multicultural and classic readings. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993.
Lewis, Jeff. Cultural Studies. London: Sage, 2008.
Lyotard, Dolorès, et al. Jean-François Lyotard. L'Exercice du Différend (with essays by Alain Badiou, Jean-Luc Nancy, Jacques Derrida, Jean-Claude Milner). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2001.
Mann, Doug. "The Postmodern Condition." Understanding society: a survey of modern social theory. Don Mills, Ont.: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Parker, Noel. The A–Z guide to modern social and political theorists. London: Prentice Hall/Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1997.
Readings, Bill. Introducing Lyotard: Art and Politics. New York: Routledge, 1991.
Robbinis, Derek, ed. 2004 J.F. Lyotard. Sage Publishing.
Sica, Alan. Social thought: from the Enlightenment to the present. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2005.
The critical analysis of David Harvey in his book The Condition of Postmodernity (Blackwell, 1989).
External links
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Jean-François Lyotard
Jean-Francois Lyotard at European Graduate School (Biography, bibliography, quotes and web resources)
The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (The first 5 chapters)
International symposium. Collège International de Philosophie January 25–27, 2007
Les Immatériaux: A Conversation with Jean-François Lyotard
1924 births
1998 deaths
People from Versailles
20th-century French philosophers
Continental philosophers
Critical theorists
Deconstruction
French literary theorists
Philosophers of art
Postmodern theory
Postmodern writers
French rhetoricians
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
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University of Paris alumni
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Paris 8 University Vincennes-Saint-Denis faculty | [
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241982 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hit-and-run%20tactics | Hit-and-run tactics | Hit-and-run tactics are a tactical doctrine of using short surprise attacks, withdrawing before the enemy can respond in force, and constantly maneuvering to avoid full engagement with the enemy. The purpose is not to decisively defeat the enemy or capture territory but to weaken enemy forces over time through raids, harassment, and skirmishing and limiting risk to friendly forces. Such tactics can also expose enemy defensive weaknesses and achieve a psychological effect on the enemy's morale.
Hit-and-run is a favored tactic where the enemy overmatches the attacking force and any sustained combat is to be avoided, such as guerrilla warfare, militant resistance movements, and terrorism. However,
regular army forces often employ hit-and-run tactics in the short term, usually in preparation for a later full-scale engagement with the enemy when and where conditions are more favorable. Examples of the latter include commando or other special forces attacks, reconnaissance-in-force, or sorties from a fortress, castle, or other strongpoint. Hit-and-run tactics were also used by the lightly-armed horse archers, typical of the Eurasian steppe peoples, who excelled at them. That holds especially true for such troops that were not part of a large army (such as scouting parties), but it was common to see them employed in such a way even as part of a major force.
Historical use
Romans first encountered that tactic in the Lusitanian War in which Lusitanians used the tactic called concursare ("bustling"). It involved charging forwards against the enemy lines, only to retreat after a brief clash or without clashing, which would be followed by more attacks in a similar cadence. The Lusitanians drove the Roman armies to break formation and chase them, leading them to traps and ambushes.
The Seljuk victory over the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Manzikert was preceded by hit-and-run attacks of Seljuk cavalry, which threw the Byzantine army into confusion and proved fatal once it started to retreat. Similarly, the earlier Parthian and Sassanid Persian horse archers paved the way for their cataphracts' attack, which achieved the decisive victories at the Battle of Carrhae and Battle of Edessa. The use of hit-and-run tactics dates back even earlier to the nomadic Scythians of Central Asia, who used them against Darius the Great's Persian Achaemenid Empire and later against Alexander the Great's Macedonian Empire. The Turkish general Baibars also successfully used hit-and-run during the Battle of Ain Jalut, the first defeat of the quickly expanding Mongol Empire. Vastly outnumbered in North America, the French made effective use of hit-and-run raids during the various French and Indian Wars. In the Turkish War of Independence, the Turks fought against the Greeks by hit-and-run tactics before a regular army was set up.
Marathas under shivaji and his successors also resorted to hit and run tactics against Mughal Empire.
During the Vietnam War, Viet Cong forces used hit-and-run tactics to great effectiveness against U.S. military forces. The tactic was also used in Afghanistan by rebel forces during the Soviet–Afghan War. Various Iraqi insurgent groups have also used hit-and-run tactics against Iraqi Security Forces and American-led coalition forces in Iraq. Improvised fighting vehicles, called "technicals", are often used in such operations.
In economics
The term "hit-and-run" is also used in economics to describe a firm that enters a market to take advantage of abnormal profits and then leave. These tactics can be seen in a contestable market.
See also
Reconnaissance-in-force
Parthian shot
Chevauchée
Shoot-and-scoot
Fire and movement
Demoralization (warfare)
List of military tactics
Drive-by shooting
References
Bibliography
Hit-and-run
Business economics | [
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241983 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactical%20%28album%29 | Tactical (album) | Tactical is the debut studio album by American melodic death metal band World Under Blood. Recorded at HIV + Cocksplitter and Keene Machine Studios in Los Angeles, California with Logan Mader and Michael Keene, it was produced by the band's frontman Deron Miller and guest musician James Murphy. The album was released on July 26, 2011 by Nuclear Blast Records.
The material for Tactical was written by Miller and arranged with drummer Tim Yeung, with the exception of the two cover versions: Megadeth's "Wake Up Dead" and Malevolent Creation's "Alliance or War". Murphy mixed and mastered the album. Tactical reached number 23 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers chart, selling around 900 copies in its first week.
Recording and production
Deron Miller (vocals, guitar, bass, keyboards) and Tim Yeung (drums, keyboards) first began performing together as World Under Blood in October 2006, recording three demo tracks with engineer Logan Mader in Los Angeles, California. The demo recordings, for the songs "Under the Autumn Low", "God Among the Waste", and "Dead and Still in Pain", were eventually released between November 2006 and September 2007.
Recording for Tactical took place at Mader's HIV + Cocksplitter Studios and second engineer Michael Keene's Keene Machine Studios in Los Angeles. Death guitarist James Murphy joined the group as a guest musician, performing guitar solos, bass and keyboards on numerous songs on the album, which he also mixed and mastered.
Release and reception
Recording for the album was completed by March 2010, but due to Miller's return to working with CKY its release was pushed back from July 2010 to July 2011. Although no singles were released from Tactical, a music video (directed by Shan Dan Horan) was produced for the song "Into the Arms of Cruelty". Upon its release, Tactical reached number 32 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers chart, selling approximately 900 copies in the week of release.
Composition
Lyrically, Tactical deals with a number of complex personal and philosophical concepts, which Miller detailed in a track-by-track feature prior to the album's release. Within the feature, the band's frontman proclaimed that he was "obsessed with mental illness", and noted that at least three tracks on the album featured lyrical references to various mental conditions – "Pyro-Compulsive" is based on "the idea of someone lusting over lighting their house on fire while they're inside"; "Dead and Still in Pain" is written about depression and anxiety, in particular "not knowing what to do with yourself or where to turn"; and "Under the Autumn Low" references seasonal affective disorder, from which Miller claims he suffers on a regular basis.
"Into the Arms of Cruelty", which Miller has claimed is one of his favourite songs on the album, is described as the vocalist's "unrestrained opinion" on child abuse, which he says makes him "fucking sick". A number of tracks also deal with viewpoints on political issues – opening track "A God Among the Waste", for example, is described as a song about "finding a legitimate political leader, and finally cleaning up the U.S.", while the lyrics of "Purgatory Dormitory" discuss the idea of using torture as a punishment for criminals, with Miller theorising about "numbing every nerve in a criminal’s body, blinding and deafening them, and leaving them with just their brain ... to think and to suffer".
Organized religion is another subject discussed on Tactical, in particular on the track "I Can't Stand His Name", which is aimed at no particular faith or religious practice in particular but instead concerns the general power and style of organized religion, including preaching. The final original track on the album, "Revere's Tears", is based on the story of George Revere, who is described by Miller as "a genius doctor" who allegedly discovered a cure for cancer before being murdered; the song is essentially written about the conspiracy theory that "if you do discover a cure for cancer, you will either be privately bought out, or killed", with the singer making reference to other diseases such as HIV/AIDS and diabetes.
Track listing
Personnel
Deron Miller – vocals, guitar, bass, keyboards, production, arrangements
Tim Yeung – drums, keyboards, arrangement assistance
Luke Jaeger – lead guitar
Risha Eryavec – bass
James Murphy – guitar solos, bass, keyboards, production, mixing, mastering
Logan Mader – engineering, recording
Michael Keene – engineering, recording
Dan Malloy – editing assistance
Nick Millard – additional editing assistance
Pär Olofsson – cover artwork
Travis Smith – inside booklet artwork
Rob Kimura – layout
References
2011 debut albums
World Under Blood albums
Albums with cover art by Pär Olofsson | [
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241984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videl | Videl | is a fictional character from the Dragon Ball media franchise. Created by Akira Toriyama, she first appears in Chapter 421 of the Dragon Ball manga originally published in Issue 23 of Weekly Shōnen Jump on May 11, 1993. Her name is a play on words with her father's name Mr. Satan. Within the series, she is adept in martial arts like her father and using her abilities to fight crime in the city. She is the love interest of Gohan and plays an important role during the story arc where he is the lead character of Dragon Ball. When Gohan appears as a costumed vigilante known as the Great Saiyaman, she quickly figures out his identity, and blackmails him into teaching her new techniques using her ki. After the main antagonist of the story arc Majin Buu is defeated, the two establish a settled lifestyle and later have a daughter named Pan.
Videl's reception has been generally positive with series fans, whereas commentators have mixed views about her relevance as a character. As one of the few major female Dragon Ball characters, her role in the series as well as other Dragon Ball media has been variously described as important or inconsequential by commentators.
Development
Like many Dragon Ball characters whose names are puns, the character's name is an anagram of devil as her father's name is Mr. Satan; he is known as Hercule in edited versions of the English dub and in the English manga published by Viz Media. Videl's mother is never named or discussed within the series, though Toriyama suggested that her mother is a beautiful singer named "Miguel" (ミゲル, migeru), based on the notion of an unconventional marriage between her (an "archangel") and him (a "devil"). In keeping with the theme of her naming convention, the numerical registration identifier for Videl's vehicle registration plate is 666.
Unlike her father, who is depicted as a showboating yet cowardly comic relief character, Videl is characterized with more heroic traits and displays an admirable fighting potential. Her hairstyle went through multiple drafts before the final design of twin pigtails was chosen in 1992, though the alternate hair designs have been used for other characters in the series, including Bulma.
Portrayal
Videl is voiced by Yūko Minaguchi in the original Japanese anime, and by Shino Kakinuma in Dragon Ball Kai. In English localizations, Videl is voiced by Moneca Stori in the Ocean dub, Kara Edwards in the Funimation dub, and Erika Harlacher in the Bang Zoom! Entertainment dub. Minaguchi and Edwards are the most consistent voice actresses for the majority of Videl's appearances in video games and other media.
Appearances
Dragon Ball Z
Videl first appears as a headstrong, tomboyish vigilante who assists the police force of Satan City. Gohan, her classmate at Orange Star High School, soon learns that she is the daughter of Mr. Satan, who took credit for his defeat of the superpowered villain Cell years ago and is celebrated worldwide as a hero. While she is raised with celebrity and fame surrounding her, her father is very protective of her, particularly with respect to her interactions with boys. She grew up learning martial arts in order to emulate father, and uses her fighting abilities in her crimefighting activities.
She becomes suspicious of Gohan after she notices him at school, and tails him in order to learn more about him. Videl eventually discovers Gohan's secret identity as the Great Saiyaman; realizing Gohan is more powerful then he seems, she blackmails him into teaching her combat techniques using her knowledge of his secret identity. In a matter of days she learns how to fly by utilizing her ki and surpasses her father in fighting ability. She also gradually develops a liking for Gohan, even cutting her hair at his innocuous suggestion that long hair may get in the way of a fight. Videl later enters the 25th Tenka'ichi Budokai martial arts tournament, but is brutally beaten to near-death by a magically-empowered man named Spopovitch in a slanted match, enraging Gohan and sparking a chain of events which leads to the revival of the ancient primordial creature Majin Buu.
Videl is devastated when she learns that Gohan is presumed dead as a result of his initial defeat by Buu. Along with the family members and associates of the series' main characters, Videl is relocated to Kami's Lookout after Buu goes on a murderous rampage throughout the world, but is later killed when Buu discovers and reaches the refuge. Videl is later returned to life through the power of the Namekian Dragon Balls, and is reunited with Gohan and her father. By the ending of the original series following a ten-year gap, Videl is married to Gohan and they have a daughter named Pan.
Dragon Ball Super
Videl's appearance is redesigned for Dragon Ball Super, which takes place chronologically after the defeat of Majin Buu but prior to the ending of the original Dragon Ball series. During Bulma's birthday party, Videl reveals that she is pregnant, and participates in a ritual on behalf of her unborn daughter Pan to enable Goku to transform into a Super Saiyan God, where her hair briefly turns golden yellow like that of a Super Saiyan. Pan is born later in the series and makes recurring appearances as a minor supporting character cared for by her mother.
A noteworthy subplot in the anime version of Super involves Videl being coveted by famed actor Barry Kahn, who is corrupted by an alien organism and later defeated by Gohan who revives his Great Saiyaman gimmick.
In Akira Toriyama's films
Videl appears as a supporting character in multiple films with the Dragon Ball Z branding. In Broly – Second Coming, she accompanies Gohan, Goten and Trunks in their search for the Dragon Balls and encounters a revived Broly. In Fusion Reborn she assists Chi-Chi with domestic chores, and later Gohan with fending off a horde of revived villains from the series' history; in Wrath of the Dragon, she pursues criminals as a costumed vigilante alongside Gohan, and calls herself the "Great Saiyaman 2" or "Great Saiyawoman".
Her participation in the Super Saiyan God ritual in Dragon Ball Super is an adaptation of a similar scene from the 2014 film Dragon Ball Z: Battle of Gods. In this version, Gohan discovers that Videl is pregnant with their child after she is accidentally injured by a pistol-wielding Mai from the Pilaf Gang.
Other appearances
Videl appears in the 2008 Dragon Ball: Yo! Son Goku and His Friends Return!! television special, and the 2013 crossover show Dream 9 Toriko & One Piece & Dragon Ball Z Super Collaboration Special!!. Videl plays a minor role in the Dragon Ball GT series, and is often seen in the company of her mother-in-law Chi-Chi. Videl and her husband are later possessed by Baby, and attack their daughter Pan when she attempts to help other civilians who are under Baby's influence, but they are intercepted by Uub and are later cured from Baby's influence. She is last seen when Goku says goodbye to everyone and departs the mortal world with Shenron at the end of the series.
Videl has appeared in several Dragon Ball video games, often as a playable character: examples include the Dragon Ball Z: Budokai series, the Dragon Ball Z: Budokai Tenkaichi, Super Dragon Ball Z, Dragon Ball Xenoverse and its sequel. She appears in post-launch downloadable content DLC for 2018's Dragon Ball FighterZ, initially as a match commentator in March 2018, and later as a playable character in 2019. Videl's unique gameplay mechanics reflect her portrayal in the original source material as a skilled human martial artist who is underpowered compared to other recurring series characters, but nevertheless is bolstered by her partnership with Gohan. Videl is the only character in FighterZ with an alternate appearance: players may toggle between her default short haired look and her original twin pigtail hairstyle.
Reception
Videl is one of the Dragon Ball franchise's most popular female characters. In a 2004 popularity poll participated by Japanese voters, Videl was ranked the twentieth most popular character of the Dragon Ball series. Videl remains a popular subject for cosplay activities and fan art by Dragon Ball fandom.
In his review of the DVD compilation of the original anime's season 8, Anime News Network's Theron Martin criticized the naming convention of the daughter of a man named Mr. Satan as "corny" and part of the series' "grating jokes". Martin found that Videl's voice actress for the Funimation English dub, Kara Edwards, were among the few weak performances in the series, which surprised him as he considered her performance as Goten to be vastly superior.
Some commentators have discussed Videl's role within the context of the overall portrayal of female characters in the Dragon Ball series. Antonio Sánchez-Migallón from HobbyConsolas lamented that Videl went from a strong heroic character who is determined to defend her city as a vigilante to emulating her mother-in-law as a domesticated housewife whose only function is to look after Pan and her home. Similarly, Martin said Videl is too underutilized to make much of an impact. Conversely, Valdez praised Videl's characterization as a supportive wife to Gohan and dedicated mother to Pan during the Barry Kahn subplot in Super. In response to a Valencian television network's decision to ban the airing of Dragon Ball due to allegations of its sexist content, Maigo Gomez from GeeksTerra argued that Videl is one of several examples of a strong female character with agency in the series, as opposed to a damsel in distress who is in need of rescuing.
Ian Walker from Kotaku reported that multiple professional esports competitors praised Videl's playable appearance in Dragon Ball FighterZ for her “fast, tricky” style as well as her strong "mix ups", which refers to a combination of different attacks that require the opposing player to employ specific defenses to guard against. On the other hand, Kevin Cardignan from PV Invasion claimed that Videl is one of the worst characters in FighterZ as she lacks a standard reflect mechanic and could only dodge instead, rendering her "susceptible to levels of pressure" which can be easily ignored by other characters.
Notes
References
Animated human characters
Anime and manga sidekicks
Comics characters introduced in 1993
Dragon Ball characters
Fictional housewives
Fictional female martial artists
Fictional vigilantes
Female characters in anime and manga
Female superheroes
Martial artist characters in anime and manga
Superheroes in anime and manga
Superheroes with alter egos
Teenage characters in anime and manga | [
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241985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal%20Biodome | Montreal Biodome | The Montreal Biodome () is a facility located at Olympic Park in the Mercier–Hochelaga-Maisonneuve neighbourhood of Montreal, Quebec, Canada, that allows visitors to walk through replicas of four ecosystems found in the Americas. The building was originally constructed for the 1976 Olympic Games as a velodrome. It hosted both track cycling and judo events. Renovations on the building began in 1989 and in 1992 the indoor nature exhibit was opened.
The Montreal Biodome is one of four facilities that make part of the largest natural science museum complex in Canada, Space for Life, which also includes the Montreal Insectarium, Montreal Botanical Garden, and Rio Tinto Alcan Planetarium. It is an accredited member of both the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) and the Canada's Accredited Zoos and Aquariums association (CAZA).
History
The building was designed by French architect Roger Taillibert as part of his larger plan for an Olympic park that included the Montreal Olympic Stadium and the Olympic pool. The venue was a combined velodrome and judo facility. Construction of the building began in August 1973, and the facility was officially opened in April 1976.
The velodrome, along with the accompanying Olympic pool, inspired Tallibert's later designs for Luxembourg's National Sports and Culture Centre.
In 1988, a feasibility study was conducted for converting the velodrome into a biodome. Construction started in 1989, and the facility was opened to the public on 18 June 1992 as the Montreal Biodome.
In the summer of 2003, the Biodome installed an audio guide system that lets visitors get information about what they are viewing, and also provides statistics to the facility about what the visitors find most interesting. Visitors can rent a receiver programmed to receive French, Spanish, or English for adults, or French or English for children.
Exhibits
The facility allows visitors to walk through replicas of four ecosystems found in the Americas:
The Tropical Forest is a replica of the South American rainforest.
The Laurentian Forest is a replica of the North American wilderness.
The Saint Lawrence Marine Eco-system is an estuary habitat modelled on the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.
The Sub-Polar Region is a habitat that is divided into Arctic and Antarctic.
All the exhibits are housed inside the former velodrome (cycling stadium) that was used for the cycling and judo events of the 1976 Summer Olympics, with each of the four environments taking up a portion of the stadium. A variety of animals live in each simulated habitat, ranging from the macaws in the Tropical Forest, to the lynx in the Laurentian Forest, to the penguins in the Antarctic and the different kinds of fish that inhabit the waters of the Saint Lawrence River. As well, two new species have been discovered living in the Biodome: the acarian Copidognathus biodomus in the simulated estuary in 1996, and the bacterium Nitratireductor aquibiodomus in the water reprocessing system in 2003.
Renovation
In October 2015, it was announced that both the Biodome and the Insectarium would be closing their doors to the public from September 2016 to December 2017, in order to receive a facelift, as part of the city of Montreal's 375th anniversary; however, in August 2016, the mayor of Montreal cancelled the contract to renovate the Biodome, because the bid results received by the city were much higher than the initial estimates. The facelift project went back to a bidding process. The Biodome closed for renovations on April 2, 2018. The reopening was pushed back from September 2019 to December 2019, and then to the spring of 2020 due to a shortage of supplies and specialized labourers. The COVID-19 pandemic caused additional delays, and the Biodome finally reopened to the public on August 31, 2020. A mobile app was also released, offering augmented reality features and more in-depth information about the different plants and animals.
Gallery
See also
Bio-Dome, the film
Biosphere 2, the attempt to create a self-contained ecological system
Olympic Stadium (Montreal)
References
External links
Space for Life Foundation home page
The Glass Ark, a National Film Board of Canada documentary
Biodome
Zoos in Quebec
Aquaria in Canada
Covered stadiums
Buildings and structures completed in 1976
Zoos established in 1992
Tourist attractions in Montreal
Venues of the 1976 Summer Olympics
Indoor zoos
Event venues established in 1976
Sports venues completed in 1976
Defunct sports venues in Canada
Olympic cycling venues
Olympic judo venues
Mercier–Hochelaga-Maisonneuve
1976 establishments in Quebec
1992 establishments in Quebec | [
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241988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxim%20%28magazine%29 | Maxim (magazine) | Maxim is an international men's magazine, devised and launched in the UK in 1995, but based in New York City since 1997, and prominent for its photography of actors, singers, and female models whose careers are at a current peak. Maxim has a circulation of about 9 million readers each month. Maxim Digital reaches more than 4 million unique viewers each month. Maxim magazine publishes 16 editions, sold in 75 countries worldwide.
History
Maxim was founded by Felix Dennis in 1995 and expanded to the United States in 1997.
Maxim has expanded into many other countries, including Australia.
In 1999, MaximOnline.com (now maxim.com) was created. It contains content not included in the print version, and focuses on the same general topics, along with exclusive sections such as the "Girls of Maxim" galleries and the "Joke of the Day". "Maxim Video" contains video clips of interviews, music videos, photo shoots, and original content.
On December 2001, Editorial Televisa published the Spanish-language edition of Maxim magazine for Latin America and the Hispanic communities of the United States, its first cover was Colombian model and actress Sofía Vergara. In 2002, it expanded to the film industry with a first look deal at New Line Cinema.
On February 5, 2005, Maxim Radio, featuring male-oriented talk programming, debuted on Sirius Satellite Radio. Following the Sirius-XM merger in late 2008, the Maxim brand was dropped, and the channel is now known as Sirius XM Stars Too.
Since 2005, in Argentina, the Argentinian edition of Maxim magazine began to adapt and approximate the styles of the American adult magazines Penthouse and Hustler, publishing photos of Argentinian models and vedettes in thongs and topless.
On June 5, 2006, the magazine announced plans to build a casino on the Las Vegas Strip north of Circus Circus, but the casino plan failed after local condominium owners complained that the proposed casino would ruin their view. The land was sold to MGM Mirage.
On June 15, 2007, private equity firm Quadrangle Group, along with long-time media executive Kent Brownridge, announced the acquisition of the parent company of Maxim, Blender, Stuff, and MaximOnline.com in the United States, under the name Alpha Media Group. As of April 23, 2009, Dennis Publishing has announced that it will no longer produce a print edition of Maxim in the UK, though the website for the UK version will remain.
In July 2009, Maxim partnered with the UFC for the first-ever Maxim UFC Octagon Girl Search at the UFC Fan Expo; 40 girls participated in the contest, and the winner was Natasha Wicks.
Quadrangle Group gave up on its investment in Alpha Media Group in August 2009, making Cerberus Capital Management the majority partner. In 2013, Alpha announced the sale of Maxim to the newly created Darden Media Group, but Darden was unable to raise the money. Calvin Darden Jr. was later charged with fraud relating to the transaction.
Between 2010 and 2012, Maxim eliminated two issues, going from 12 issues a year to 10, and decreased its circulation numbers by 20%, from a reported 2.5 million to only 2.0 million.
Maximum Warrior debuted in 2011, as an online reality competition that tests 10 of America's most elite military operators in 10 military-inspired challenges. The videos are available online and on the Maxim app on Xbox Live. Several episodes feature Dakota Meyer, Maxims military advisor. Maximum Warrior is produced by Grand Street Media.
The Argentinian edition of the magazine Maxim stopped circulating in March 2013 in Argentina and its last cover was the Argentinian model and vedette Valeria Degenaro.
On February 27, 2014, entrepreneur Sardar Biglari, the founder of Biglari Holdings and Biglari Capital, purchased Maxim. "We plan to build the business on multiple dimensions," he said at the time, "thereby energizing our readership and viewership." In September 2014, he hired Kate Lanphear, former style director of Elle and T: The New York Times Style Magazine, as editor, in an attempt to remake it as a luxury, lifestyle, and fashion journal, at an annual salary that was thought to be more than $700,000. During Lanphear's tenure, the September 2015 issue featured actor Idris Elba on its cover, marking the first time that the magazine did not have a woman on the cover. Lanphear left the magazine in November 2015.
In January 2016, Biglari officially took over as editor-in-chief of Maxim, though a Maxim staffer said that the new masthead title just formalizes what has always been clear; Biglari exercises full editorial control over Maxim. At one point last year, the staffer said, Biglari decided to throw out a nearly complete version of the December issue to completely redesign the magazine. On January 13, 2016, Gilles Bensimon joined Biglari as a special creative director. "What drew me to Maxim was Sardar's vision for the brand," said Bensimon.
Events and controversies
In 2004, the Gender Issues Centre, an on-campus feminist organization at Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, Ontario, protested an on-campus "Thunder Bay Boob Idol" event sponsored by Maxim and Coors Light. The Centre described Maxim as consisting of "sexist bravado and racist imagery". In 2006, Alok Jha of The Guardian criticized Maxim for encouraging excessive alcohol consumption and sexual objectification of women.
In June 2007, Israeli diplomat David Saranga invited Maxim to the country. In what came to be known as "beers and babes", the magazine did photo shoots of near-naked Israeli women who serve in the army. The campaign drew an angry reaction from lawmaker Colette Avital, a former diplomat who served as Israel's consul-general in New York City in the 1990s. Prof. John H. Brown of Georgetown University described the spread as the first event in a new branch of public diplomacy.
In February 2008, Maxim was criticized by The Black Crowes for rating their upcoming CD, Warpaint, without hearing the entire album. Black Crowes manager Pete Angelus said, "Maxims actions seem to completely lack journalistic integrity and intentionally mislead their readership." According to Crowes, the magazine stated in an email, "Of course, we always prefer to hearing music, but sometimes there are big albums that we don’t want to ignore that aren’t available to hear, which is what happened with the Crowes. It’s either an educated guess preview or no coverage at all, so in this case we chose the former." The magazine's editorial director James Kaminsky later apologized, stating, "It is Maxim's editorial policy to assign star ratings only to those albums that have been heard in their entirety. Unfortunately, that policy was not followed in the March 2008 issue of our magazine and we apologize to our readers." Facing more criticism over rating albums without listening to them, Maxim magazine maintains it was previewing CDs in its March 2008 issue, not reviewing them, and the mistake was to include star ratings.
In December 2019, Presto Media Productions, criticized the "Maxim Cover Girl 2019" competition with an independent documentary created by model, actor, and producer Valentina Lucia Faltoni. Her documentary is visible on Vimeo and it is titled: "The Ugly $ide of Beauty Conte$t$"
International editions
Maxim has launched international editions of its magazines since 1995. Most recently, it has launched its 26th and 27th international editions in Serbia and Greece, where it is published by Attica Media. Notably, the magazine has been circulating editions in South Korea, Indonesia, India (defunct), Japan, Portugal (as Maxmen), the United States, Thailand, France (as Maximal), Russia, Turkey, Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Argentina, Canada, Poland, Brazil, Germany, Australia, Mexico, and the Philippines (defunct).
Celebrity profiles
Singers
Christina Aguilera (January 2003, March 2007, and October 2013)
Michelle Branch (January 2004)
Hilary Duff (August 2007, January 2009)
Avril Lavigne (March 2008, November 2010)
Lady Gaga (2009)
Marion Raven (2009)
Fergie (2009)
Britney Spears (January 2010 and 2011)
Lana Del Rey (December 2014)
Taylor Swift (June 2015)
Film actors
Rebecca Romijn (June 1998, July 2000, November 2002), age 27
Jennifer Love Hewitt (November 1999, March 2005, May 2009, April 2012), age 20
Shannon Elizabeth (January 2000, December 2003, June 2008), age 26
Jessica Alba (October 2000, November 2003), age 19; (September 2014), age 34
Laura Prepon (January 2001, November 2004), age 22
Eliza Dushku (May 2001, March 2009), age 21
Shawnee Smith (June 2001), age 30
Brittany Murphy (July 2001, May 2005), age 24
Helena Bonham Carter (September 2001), age 35
Lucy Liu (September 2002, July 2003), age 34
Milla Jovovich (September 2004, September 2009), age 27
Kristen Bell (March 2006), age 25
Sophia Bush (November 2006), age 23
Mary Elizabeth Winstead (March 2007), age 22
Sarah Michelle Gellar (December 2007), age 30
Amber Heard (August 2008)
Danneel Harris (2008, 2009), age 27
Kourtney Kardashian (April 2009), age 28
Amy Weber (January 2010), age 39
Amanda Bynes (February 2010), age 25
Kaley Cuoco (March 2010), age 24
Alice Eve (April 2010), age 27
Cobie Smulders (December 2010), age 27
Yvonne Strahovski (October 2011), age 28
Elisha Cuthbert (March 2013), age 30
Alyssa Milano (July 2013), age 40
Idris Elba (September 2015) first actor
Models
Irina Shayk (July 2014)
Candice Swanepoel (March 2015)
Lily Aldridge (April 2015)
Emily DiDonato (August 2015)
Alessandra Ambrosio (December 2015)
Elsa Hosk (February 2016)
Hannah Davis (March 2016)
Ashley Graham (April 2016)
Sara Sampaio (May 2016)
Stella Maxwell (June/July 2016)
Maxim Hot 100
Each year since 2000, Maxim has released the Maxim Hot 100. The winners and their corresponding ages and the year in which the magazine was released are listed below. The winners of the Hot 100 are often a contested matter, since individual tastes regarding attractiveness vary widely from person to person.
From 2000 until 2015, Maxim released the rest of the Hot 100 in order. Since 2016, Maxim released the rest of the hot 100 in random order. These are the rest of the Top 10 each year.
See also
Glamour photography
List of men's magazines
Maxim Radio
Dennis Digital
References
zimbio.com
External links
Maxim U.S. site
Maxim U.K. site
1995 establishments in the United Kingdom
1998 establishments in the United States
2009 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Men's magazines published in the United States
Monthly magazines published in the United States
Men's magazines published in the United Kingdom
Defunct magazines published in the United Kingdom
Magazines established in 1995
Magazines disestablished in 2009
Magazines published in New York City
2014 mergers and acquisitions
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241991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poo%20poo | Poo poo | Poo poo, or variants, may refer to:
Art, entertainment, and media
PooPoo, a character in the film National Lampoon's Pledge This!
PuPu, a fictional piglet
Pupu Tupuna, a fictional rabbit
Other uses
Feces, sometimes called "poo poo"
Poo Poo Point, a bare shoulder of West Tiger Mountain in Washington, U.S.
Pooh-pooh, a fallacy in informal logic
Pu pu platter, tray of American Chinese cuisine
See also
Poo (disambiguation)
Poop (disambiguation)
Pooh (disambiguation)
Poupou (disambiguation)
Pupupu, setting for the Manga series Kirby of the Stars
Te Waikoropupū Springs, also known as Pupu Springs | [
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241994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen%20Angus | Aberdeen Angus | The Aberdeen Angus, sometimes simply Angus, is a Scottish breed of small beef cattle. It derives from cattle native to the counties of Aberdeen, Banff, Kincardine and Angus in north-eastern Scotland. In 2018 the breed accounted for over 17% of the UK beef industry.
The Angus is naturally polled and solid black or red, although the udder may be white. The cattle have been exported to many countries of the world; there are large populations in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South America and the United States, where it has developed into two separate and distinct breeds, the American Angus and Red Angus. In some countries it has been bred to be taller than the native Scottish stock.
Its conservation status worldwide is "not at risk"; in the United Kingdom the original Native Aberdeen Angus – cattle not influenced by cross-breeding with imported stock – is listed by the Rare Breeds Survival Trust as "at risk".
History
Aberdeen Angus cattle have been recorded in north-eastern Scotland since at least the sixteenth century. For some time before the 1800s, the hornless cattle in Aberdeenshire and Angus were called Angus doddies.
In 1824, William McCombie of Tillyfour, later the Member of Parliament for West Aberdeenshire, began to improve the stock and is regarded today as the father of the breed. Many local names emerged, including doddies or hummlies.
The breed was officially recognised in 1835, and was initially registered together with the Galloway in the Polled Herd Book. A society was formed in 1879. The cattle became commonplace throughout the British Isles in the middle of the twentieth century.
Argentina
As stated in the fourth volume of the Herd Book of the UK's Angus, this breed was introduced to Argentina in 1879 when "Don Carlos Guerrero" imported one bull and two cows for his Estancia "Charles" located in Juancho, Partido de General Madariaga, Provincia de Buenos Aires. The bull was born on 19 April 1878; named "Virtuoso 1626" and raised by Colonel Ferguson. The cows were named "Aunt Lee 4697" raised by J. James and "Cinderela 4968" raised by R. Walker and were both born in 1878, on 31 January and 23 April respectively.
Australia
Angus cattle were first introduced to Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) in the 1820s, and to the southern mainland in 1840. The breed is now found in all Australian states and territories with 62,000 calves registered with Angus Australia in 2010.
Canada
In 1876 William Brown, a professor of agriculture and then superintendent of the experimental farm at Guelph, Ontario, was granted permission by the government of Ontario to purchase Aberdeen Angus cattle for the Ontario Agricultural College. The herd comprised a yearling bull, Gladiolus, and a cow, Eyebright, bred by the Earl of Fife and a cow, Leochel Lass 4th, bred by R.O. Farquharson. On 12 January 1877, Eyebright gave birth to a calf, sired by Sir Wilfrid. It was the first to be born outside of Scotland. The OAC went on to import additional bulls and cows, eventually began selling Aberdeen Angus cattle in 1881.
United States
On 17 May 1873, George Grant brought four Angus bulls, without any cows, to Victoria, Kansas. These were seen as unusual as the normal American cattle consisted of Shorthorns and Longhorns, and the bulls were used only in crossbreeding. However, the farmers noticed the good qualities of these bulls and afterwards, many more cattle of both sexes were imported.
On 21 November 1883, the American Angus Association was founded in Chicago, Illinois. The first herd book was published on March 1885. At this time both red and black animals were registered without distinction. However, in 1917 the Association barred the registering of red and other coloured animals in an effort to promote a solid black breed.
The Red Angus Association of America was founded in 1954 by breeders of Red Angus cattle. It was formed because the breeders had had their cattle struck off the herd book for not conforming to the changed breed standard regarding colour.
Germany
A separate breed was cross bred in Germany called the German Angus. It is a cross between the Angus and several different cattle such as the German Black Pied Cattle, Gelbvieh, and Fleckvieh. The cattle are usually larger than the Angus and appear in black and red colours.
Characteristics
Because of their native environment, the cattle are very hardy and can survive the Scottish winters, which are typically harsh, with snowfall and storms. Cows typically weigh and bulls weigh . Calves are usually born smaller than is acceptable for the market, so crossbreeding with dairy cattle is needed for veal production. The cattle are naturally polled and black in colour. They typically mature earlier than other native British breeds such as the Hereford or North Devon. However, in the middle of the 20th century a new strain of cattle called the Red Angus emerged. The United States does not accept Red Angus cattle into herd books, while the UK and Canada do. Except for their colour genes, there is no genetic difference between black and red Angus, but they are regarded as different breeds in the US. However, there have been claims that black angus are more sustainable to cold weather, though unconfirmed.
The cattle have a large muscle content and are regarded as medium-sized. The meat is very popular in Japan for its marbling qualities.
Genetic disorders
There are four recessive defects that can affect calves worldwide. A recessive defect occurs when both parents carry a recessive gene that will affect the calf. One in four calves will show the defect even when both parents carry the defective gene. The four recessive defects in the Black Angus breed that are currently managed with DNA tests are arthrogryposis multiplex (AM), referred to as curly calf, which lowers the mobility of joints; neuropathic hydrocephalus (NH), sometimes known as water head, which causes an enlarged malformed skull; contractural arachnodactyly (CA), formerly referred to by the name of "fawn calf syndrome", which reduces mobility in the hips; and dwarfism, which affects the size of calves. Both parents need to carry the genes for a calf to be affected with one of these disorders.
Because of this, the American Angus Association will remove the carrier cattle from the breed in an effort to reduce the number of cases.
Between 2008 and 2010, the American Angus Association reported worldwide recessive genetic disorders in Angus cattle. It has been shown that a small minority of Angus cattle can carry osteoporosis. A further defect called notomelia, a form of polymelia ("many legs") was reported in the Angus breed in 2010.
Uses
The main use of Angus cattle is for beef production and consumption. The beef can be marketed as superior due to its marbled appearance. This has led to many markets, including Australia, Japan and the United Kingdom to adopt it into the mainstream. Angus cattle can also be used in crossbreeding to reduce the likelihood of dystocia (difficult calving), and because of their dominant polled gene, they can be used to crossbreed to create polled calves.
See also
List of cattle breeds originating in Scotland
References
External links
Beef cattle breeds
Cattle breeds
Cattle breeds originating in Scotland
Red cattle | [
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241996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauchat | Chauchat | The Chauchat ("show-sha", ) was the standard light machine gun or "machine rifle" of the French Army during World War I (1914–18). Its official designation was "Fusil Mitrailleur Modele 1915 CSRG" ("Machine Rifle Model 1915 CSRG"). Beginning in June 1916, it was placed into regular service with French infantry, where the troops called it the FM Chauchat, after Colonel Louis Chauchat, the main contributor to its design. The Chauchat in 8mm Lebel was also extensively used in 1917–18 by the American Expeditionary Forces (A.E.F.), where it was officially designated as the "Automatic Rifle, Model 1915 (Chauchat)". A total of 262,000 Chauchats were manufactured between December 1915 and November 1918, including 244,000 chambered for the 8mm Lebel service cartridge, making it the most widely manufactured automatic weapon of World War I. The armies of eight other nations—Belgium, Finland, Greece, Italy, Poland, Romania, Russia, and Serbia—also used the Chauchat machine rifle in fairly large numbers during and after World War I.
The Chauchat was one of the first light, automatic rifle-caliber weapons designed to be carried and fired by a single operator and an assistant, without a heavy tripod or a team of gunners. It set a precedent for several subsequent 20th-century firearm projects, being a portable, yet full-power automatic weapon built inexpensively and in very large numbers. The Chauchat combined a pistol grip, an in-line stock, a detachable magazine, and a selective fire capability in a compact package of manageable weight (20 pounds) for a single soldier. Furthermore, it could be routinely fired from the hip and while walking (marching fire). The Chauchat is the only mass produced fully-automatic weapon actuated by long recoil, a Browning-designed system already applied in 1906 to the Remington Model 8 semi-automatic rifle: extraction and ejection of the empties takes place when the barrel returns forward, while the bolt is retained in the rear position. Afterwards the barrel trips a lever which releases the bolt and allows it to chamber another round.
The muddy trenches of northern France exposed a number of weaknesses in the Chauchat's design. Construction had been simplified to facilitate mass production, resulting in low quality of many metal parts. The magazines in particular were the cause of about 75% of the stoppages or cessations of fire; they were made of thin metal and open on one side, allowing for the entry of mud and dust. The weapon also ceased to function when overheated, the barrel sleeve remaining in the retracted position until the gun had cooled off. Consequently, in September 1918, barely two months before the Armistice of November 11, the A.E.F. in France had already initiated the process of replacing the Chauchat with the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle. Shortly after World War I, the French army replaced the Chauchat with the new gas-operated Mle 1924 light machine gun.
It was mass manufactured during World War I by two reconverted civilian plants: "Gladiator" and "Sidarme". Besides the 8mm Lebel version, the Chauchat machine rifle was also manufactured in U.S. .30-06 Springfield and in 7.65×53mm Argentine Mauser caliber to arm the American Expeditionary Forces (A.E.F.) and the Belgian Army, respectively. The Belgian military did not experience difficulties with their Chauchats in 7.65mm Mauser and kept them in service into the early 1930s, as did the Polish Army. Conversely, the Chauchat version in U.S. .30-06 made by "Gladiator" for the A.E.F., the Model 1918, proved to be fundamentally defective and had to be withdrawn from service. The weapon has a poor reputation in some quarters, with some experts assessing it as the worst machine gun ever fielded. Although this may be the case, outside of the muddy conditions of the trenches, many say the gun is easy to control, has a good sight picture, and is actually quite reliable when not jammed with mud and dirt.
History
The design of the Chauchat dates back to 1903, and its long recoil operation is based on the John Browning-designed Remington Model 8 semi-automatic rifle of 1906, not (as so often repeated in the past) on the later designs (1910) of Rudolf Frommer, the Hungarian inventor of the commercial Frommer Stop pistol. The Chauchat machine rifle project was initiated between 1903 and 1910 in a French Army weapon research facility located near Paris: Atelier de Construction de Puteaux (APX). This development was aiming at creating a very light, portable automatic weapon served by one man only, yet firing the 8 mm Lebel service ammunition. The project was led from the beginning by Colonel Louis Chauchat, a graduate from Ecole Polytechnique, assisted by senior armorer Charles Sutter. Not less than eight trial prototypes were tested at APX, between 1903 and 1909. As a result, a small series (100 guns) of 8 mm Lebel CS (Chauchat-Sutter) machine rifles was ordered in 1911, then manufactured between 1913 and 1914 by Manufacture d'armes de Saint-Étienne (MAS). Because they were light, they were used temporarily during the early part of World War I to arm observation crews on French military aircraft. None of these CS machine rifles have survived, either in public museums or in private collections. Only a fairly complete photographic record of their past existence remains.
In 1914, when World War I broke out, French troops did not operate any light machine gun. It was clear that this type of weapon had become indispensable in modern warfare, because of the increase in firepower it could provide to an infantry section. Spurred by General Joseph Joffre, it was decided to adopt the Chauchat, above all else because the pre-war CS (Chauchat-Sutter) machine rifle was already in existence, thoroughly tested, and designed to fire the 8mm Lebel service ammunition. Furthermore, due to its projected low manufacturing costs and relative simplicity, the newly adopted (1915) CSRG machine rifle could be mass-produced by a converted peacetime industrial plant. The term CSRG is made up of the initials of Chauchat, Sutter, Ribeyrolles and Gladiator, the respective manufacturers. Paul Ribeyrolles was the general manager of the Gladiator company, a peacetime manufacturer of motor cars, motorcycles, and bicycles located in Pre-Saint-Gervais (a northern suburb of Paris). The fairly large Gladiator factory was thus converted into an arms manufacturer in 1915 and became the principal industrial producer of Chauchat machine rifles during World War I. Later on, in 1918, a subsidiary of Compagnie des forges et acieries de la marine et d'Homecourt named SIDARME and located in Saint-Chamond, Loire, also participated in the mass manufacture of CSRGs.
Design details
The Chauchat machine rifle or "automatic rifle" functioned on the long barrel recoil principle with a gas assist.
The Chauchat machine rifle (CSRG) delivered to the French Army fired the 8mm Lebel cartridge at the slow rate of 240 rounds per minute. At , the gun was much lighter than the contemporary portable light machine guns of the period, such as the Hotchkiss M1909 Benét–Mercié machine gun and the Lewis gun. It was a selective fire weapon, either on automatic or semi-automatic mode.
The Chauchat's construction was a mix of new, high quality components, re-used parts proven in other designs, and the shoddy and sub standard . This combination did not help in the reliability of the weapon. The recoiling barrel sleeve, as well as all the bolt moving parts, were precision milled from solid steel and always fully interchangeable. The barrels were standard Lebel rifle barrels that had been shortened from the muzzle end. The barrel radiators were made of ribbed cast aluminum. On the other hand, the outer breech housing was a simple tube, and the rest of the gun was built of stamped metal plates of mediocre quality. Side plate assemblies were held by screws that could become loose after prolonged firings. The sights were always misaligned on the Gladiator-made guns, creating severe aiming problems that had to be corrected by the gunners. The exact number on record of Chauchat machine rifles manufactured between 1916 and the end of 1918 is 262,300. The Gladiator factory manufactured 225,700 CSRGs in 8 mm Lebel plus 19,000 in the U.S. caliber .30-06 between April 1916 and November 1918. SIDARME manufactured 18,600 CSRGs, exclusively in 8mm Lebel, between October 1917 and November 1918. The SIDARME-manufactured Chauchats were generally better finished and better functioning than those made by Gladiator. The French Army had a stock of 63,000 CSRG's just before the Armistice.
The French military at the time considered the Chauchat's performance as inferior in comparison to the reliable heavy Hotchkiss M1914 machine gun. However, whereas the Hotchkiss was a weighty, tripod-mounted weapon, the Chauchat was a light, portable gun that could be mass-produced quickly, cheaply, and in very large numbers. It was also never intended to take the role of static defense of the heavy machine gun. On the contrary, it was designed to be a light, thus highly portable, automatic weapon that would increase the firepower of infantry squads while they progressed forward during assaults. A significant plus is that it could easily be fired while walking (marching fire), by hanging the Chauchat's sling over a shoulder hook located onto the gunner's upper left side of his Y–strap.
The CSRG 1915 Chauchat was operated with Balle D 8mm ammunition, which was standard for the French until 1932 when they went to an improved Balle N 8mm Lebel cartridge. The Chauchats, as they were retired, were not converted to the Balle N, and as a result, they do not operate well with the Balle N cartridge (French World War I weapons converted to Balle N will have a noticeable "N" markings). Only Balle D 8mm should be used in the Chauchat 1915. The quickest way to identify the different cartridge is that the Balle D bullet is brass colored while the Balle N is a shiny silver.
Service
The Mle 1915 Chauchat's performance on the battlefield drew decidedly mixed reviews from the users when the war was stagnating in the mud of the trenches in 1916. This brought about a survey, regiment by regiment, requested by General Pétain in late 1916; the survey's essential conclusion was that the open-sided half-moon magazines were defective and caused about two thirds of all stoppages. For instance, it was a common practice for the gunners to oil up the inside of the magazines to facilitate movement of the 8mm Lebel rounds. Also, loose earth, grit, and other particles easily entered the gun through these open-sided magazines, an ever-present risk in the muddy environment of the trenches. An insistence on using only good, undeformed magazines with strong springs was the most practical solution to this problem. Chauchat gunners were also known to load their magazines with 18 or 19 rounds, instead of the maximum 20, in order to avoid the dreaded first-round failure to feed. The Chauchat's long recoil system is often cited as a source of excessive stress on the gunner when firing, though recent and extensive firing tests have demonstrated that it is the Chauchat's ergonomics and its loose bipod, rather than its recoil, that makes it a difficult gun to keep on target beyond very short bursts. On most of the Gladiator-made guns, the sights also made the Chauchat shoot systematically too low and to the right, a failing which was soon recognized but never corrected. Overheating during uninterrupted periods of full automatic fire (about 120 rounds with the 8mm Lebel version) often resulted in the barrel sleeve assembly locking in the rear position due to thermal expansion, causing stoppage of fire until the gun had cooled off. Hence, French and US Army manuals recommended firing in short bursts or semi-auto. In 1918, the A.E.F. officially labeled the Chauchat in its user manuals as an "automatic rifle", a product of mistranslation of the term "Fusil Mitrailleur", instead of "Machine Gun Rifle", a more accurate description.
American service
While rate of fire restrictions (250 rounds/minute) made the gun manageable in its 8mm Lebel version, the U.S. .30-06 version fired more powerful cartridges that exacerbated the problems of overheating. Furthermore, the 18,000 Chauchats in .30-06 delivered to the A.E.F. were not conversions of the French model. Rather, they were newly manufactured guns which had been delivered directly to the A.E.F. by the Gladiator factory. As documented from the original American and French military archives, most of these Mle 1918 Chauchats in .30-06 were flawed from the beginning due to incomplete chamber reaming and other dimensional defects acquired during the manufacturing process at the Gladiator factory. Very few .30-06 Chauchats reached the front lines of northern France; however, when they did, it was reportedly not uncommon for U.S. units to simply discard their Chauchats in favor of M1903 Springfield rifles and cease to function as an auto-rifle squad altogether. Whereas instruction manuals in both French and English for the 8mm Lebel Chauchat are still commonly found today, instruction manuals for the US 30-06 "American Chauchat" have never been seen in U.S. and French military archives or in private collections.
Chauchat in American service
After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) arrived in France without automatic weapons or field artillery. Consequently, it turned to its French ally to purchase ordnance. General Pershing chose the Hotchkiss M1914 machine gun and the Chauchat machine rifle (designated as "Automatic Rifle, Model 1915 (Chauchat)" by the AEF and nicknamed the "Sho-Sho" by the troops) to equip U.S. infantry. Between August 1917 and the November 11, 1918 Armistice with Germany, the Gladiator factory delivered to the AEF 16,000 Chauchats in 8 mm Lebel and, late in 1918, 19,000 Chauchats in .30-06.
While the performance of the M1915 Chauchat in 8 mm Lebel was combat-effective, judging by the numbers of decorated U.S. Chauchat gunners found in the U.S. Divisional Histories, the performance of the M1918 Chauchat in .30-06 was soon recognized as abysmal (and in large part the reason for the gun's bad reputation). The most common problem was a failure to extract after the gun had fired only a few rounds and became slightly hot. A modern-day test firing of the M1918 30-06 Chauchat was performed at Aberdeen Proving Grounds in July 1973, but no particular problem was described in the official report, which is accessible on open file. Conversely, an exhaustive firing test of the M1918 Chauchat in .30-06 was also carried out in 1994 near Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, by R. Keller and W. Garofalo. Their testing, which is reported in "The Chauchat Machine Rifle" volume, did expose severe extraction problems caused by incorrect chamber measurements and other substandard manufacturing. During World War I, in 1918, the preserved U.S. archival record also documents that American inspectors at the Gladiator factory had rejected about 40% of the .30-06 Chauchat production, while the remaining 60% proved problematic when they reached the front lines. Supplies of the newly manufactured and superior M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR) were allocated sparingly and only very late, during the Meuse-Argonne offensive, which began in late September 1918. Therefore, about 75% of the U.S. Divisions were still equipped with the Chauchat – in its original French M1915 version in 8 mm Lebel – at the time of the Armistice of November 11, 1918. It is also well documented that General Pershing had been holding back on the BAR until victory was certain, for fear it would be copied by Germany. However, it is also known that the very first BARs delivered had improperly tempered recoil springs, and had these guns been prematurely introduced during the summer of 1918, their employment may also have been problematic. One of the most significant accounts of the Chauchat's poor performance was from then-lieutenant Lemuel Shepherd, who was quoted saying:
As documented by World War I veteran Laurence Stallings (in The Doughboys, 1963) and by U.S. Divisional Histories, the Medal of Honor was awarded to three American Chauchat gunners in 1918: 1) Private Nels Wold (35th Division, 138th Infantry, KIA, posthumous), 2) Private Frank Bart (2nd Division, 9th Infantry) and 3) Private Thomas C. Neibaur (42nd Division, 107th Infantry).
Improvements
Several prototypes of dirt-proof, fully enclosed Chauchat magazines were successfully tested in May and June 1918, but came too late to be placed into service. Stronger open-sided standard magazines, as well as tailored canvas gun covers protecting the gun against mud during transport, had previously been issued in late 1917; as well as a flash hider. The initial two-man Chauchat team was considered effective and grew to a four-man squad by October 1917 (the squad leader, the gunner, the first ammo bearer who handled the magazines plus one additional ammo bearer). Both the gunner and the assistant gunner (pourvoyeur, ammo bearer) carried at all times a .32 ACP Ruby pistol with three magazines, each one loaded with 9 rounds, as part of their regular equipment. The squad leader and the magazine carrier were both equipped with a rifle or with a Berthier carbine. The additional men provided assistance in carrying loaded magazines, helping manage malfunctions, and protecting the gunner, but mainly to carry more ammunition; thus boosting the combat load. This is still the basic layout of a modern infantry squad or fire-team, with the suppressive fire as the center of its combat formations.
Tactical Innovation
The French infantry section/platoon took its modern form in the years 1916-1918. It was then equipped with six portable light machine guns (Chauchat) and four to six rifle grenade launchers (VB rifle grenade) and its voltigeurs started being equipped with semi-automatic rifles, some with scopes. This differentiation induces an interdependence of the men which increases the psychological resistance superior to that of the aligned bayonet-men of 1914. Above all, the infantry platoon can maneuver other than in line, as an articulated unit at intervals thanks to its autonomous combat groups. The qualitative leap in a few years is enormous and modern squads and platoons still function in the same manner, albeit with more sophisticated equipment such as portable radios and night vision devices.
A specially lightened assault order was introduced in June 1915. The pack was now to be left behind in the second line; instead, rations and spare ammunition were rolled up in a blanket and worn bandolier-style. Steel helmets were standard for the infantry in September 1915, in time for the Champagne offensive; standard issue for other arms occurred in October. Experience at Verdun showed how difficult it was to keep men in the front lines supplied with fresh water, so every man was given a second water bottle and a second haversack to carry necessities for a day or two of unsupported fighting; plus two gas masks (one in the ready position, one in a tin box); tools like an M1909 folding pick/shovel; extra ammunition and grenades, and sandbags for consolidating the objective.
The rifle grenadiers and bombers (hand grenadiers) each carried a special haversack, which held the grenades in individual pouches inside. The rifle grenade cup was carried in its own pouch attached to the user's waistbelt. The men of the new fire and support teams were given new equipment for their spare ammunition. The Chauchat gunners each wore semi-circular pouches on the waistbelt, containing one spare magazine each, as well as a pack containing a further eight magazines and 64 loose rounds, and a haversack containing a further four magazines. Riflemen would be discouraged to fire, as this slowed the advance, their job was to leapfrog while being covered; firing by the platoon and half-platoon was only permitted to cover its own advance or that of a neighbouring platoon, or to deal with enemy pockets on their way.
The principal role of the Chauchat was to provide a mobile barrage during the advance. This required skilled teamwork on the part of the crew, changing the magazines while on the move to keep up the volume of fire. As the center of the tactical device, the Chauchat gunner (tireur) would expect casualties - but also decorations:"Soldat Carpentier, 20e RI, near Nogentel, Oise, 31 August 1918... he advanced on the enemy, firing while walking, the rest of the platoon led by Sergeant Berthault. He succeed in maneuvering around the flank of an island of resistance and in capturing, with his comrades, four machine guns and twenty-five German gunners".Carpentier was awarded the Croix de Guerre with palm.
By 1916, French Army tactical methods started emphasizing concentrated firepower and the flexible use of infantry. The experience of Verdun would carry to the Somme, and French units were successful in capturing their objectives at the beginning of the offensive, as well as suffering less casualties.
From October 1917 the platoon had two LMG/rifle-grenadier sections, one hand grenade section and one rifle section. This new system would fight the Battle of La Malmaison, from 23 to 27 October, with the French interarms infantry beating back enemy attacks where the German infantry attacked en masse, shoulder to shoulder. At the same battle, General Franchet d'Espèrey the commander of 6th Army, successfully introduced specially trained squads of infantry whose role was to accompany the tanks (chars d'assaut, as they were called). In a series of instructions in 1918, General Philippe Pétain sought to achieve greater cooperation between air power, artillery and tanks, all acting in support of the assaulting infantry; measures which bore fruit in the counter-offensives of summer 1918.
By mid-1918, the Allies managed to restore some degree of mobility to the war and the end of the stalemate on the Western Front; with less muddy trenches and more open fields. Furthermore, French infantry regiments had been reorganized into multiple small (18 men) combat groups ("Demi-Sections de Combat"). The infantry platoon now had a platoon leader and platoon sergeant, formed in two half-platoons commanded by sergeants. The 1st half-platoon had a Grenadier Squad (Corporal, 2x hand grenadiers, 2x grenade carriers, 2x riflemen) and a LMG Squad (Corporal, 3x rifle grenadiers, 2x ammo carriers, 1x LMG gunner), the 2nd half-platoon had a LMG Squad (Corporal, 3x rifle grenadiers, 2x ammo carriers, 1x LMG gunner) and a Rifle Squad (Corporal, 6x riflemen).
The French regimental records and the statistics of medals given to Chauchat gunners document that they were an essential contribution to the success of these updated infantry tactics. Those were applied to suppress enemy machine gun nests, that would be approached by fire on the move, and destroyed by the combined action of Chauchat automatic fire coming from the sides and VB rifle grenades fired from the front, within less than 200 yards (182.9 meters); in military terms, assault distance. Captured terrain would be defended by emplaced Chauchat fire bases suppressing enemy counter-attacks until heavier machine guns could be brought from the rear.
WWI German use
A number of captured Chauchats were used by German front-line infantrymen in flamethrower units and assault troops because they had no equivalent light machine guns of their own until their attempt at one such portable weapon - the Maxim MG 08-15 lightened machine guns - that were issued to them during early 1917. The German army tried to modify some of these guns to fire the 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge.
Belgian use
The Belgian Army, which held a large sector of the Western Front, acquired nearly 7,000 Chauchats for its infantry. About half of those Belgian Chauchats were successfully converted to fire their standard 7.65 mm Mauser ammunition and were also fitted with better protections against mud and dust. Post-war modified guns were designated FM 15/27. They were kept in service into the 1930s.
Serbian use
The Royal Serbian Army received at least 1,400 Chauchat between December 1916 and April 1917. Some were modified to fire 8mm Mauser.
Greek use
Chauchat entered service with Hellenic Army in 1917. The guns fired the 6.5×54mm Mannlicher–Schönauer cartridge, stored in semi-circular magazine. Turkish National Movement forces used captured guns during the Greco-Turkish War. The Chauchat was still in frontline use during the Greco-Italian War.
Polish use
Poland received French military assistance, notably infantry weapons and artillery, after World War I. As a part of those French weaponry transfers, Poland received over 2,000 Chauchats, which they used extensively during the Polish–Soviet War (1919–1921). After that war, Poland bought more of them, and their numbers reached 11,869, becoming a standard Polish light machine gun (the RKM wz 15). Eventually, about half of them were successfully converted during the mid-1920s to 7.92×57mm Mauser (or 8mm Mauser) and kept in service until the early 1930s under the designation RKM wz 15/27. One remaining specimen of these Polish Chauchats in 8mm Mauser is preserved and visible in the MoD (Ministry of Defence) National Firearms Centre which is a part of the Royal Armouries in Leeds, Great Britain. Later, in 1936–1937, some 2,650 Chauchats were sold abroad by Poland, some to the Mexican Army, others to Republican Spain and also on the international surplus weapon market.
Finnish use
During the Winter War between Soviet Union and Finland, over 5,000 surplus Chauchats were donated by France to Finland, which was short on automatic weapons. The weapons arrived too late to see action but were used in Continuation War, mostly on the home front. After the war they were warehoused until 1955 and sold to Interarmco in 1959–1960.
WWII use
Chinese-made copies of the Chauchat were captured by Japanese forces during the Second Sino-Japanese War. French third-line units that faced the German breakthrough during the Fall of France in May and June 1940 were still equipped with Chauchat machine guns.
Nazi Germany seized Chauchats from Poland, Belgium, France, Greece and Yugoslavia. Ex-French guns were designated LeMG 156(f), ex-Yugoslav and ex-Polish LeMG 147(j), ex-Greek LeMG 156(g) and ex-Belgian LeMG 126(b). A small number of Chauchats captured by the Germans were issued to the Hungarians.
Other uses
The Chauchat saw service by Syria in the 1948 Arab-Israel war.
Comparison
The Chauchat was not comparable to the submachine guns of World War I, which used pistol, rather than rifle, ammunition and were thus less powerful. Compared to the Chauchat, the early submachine guns were used in relatively small numbers (thousands, rather than hundreds of thousands), had much shorter effective ranges and were used in different missions.
Unlike much heavier air- and water-cooled machine guns (such as the Hotchkiss machine gun and the various belt-fed Maxim gun derivatives), and like the Madsen machine gun and Lewis gun, the Chauchat was not designed for sustained defensive fire from fixed positions. The tactical edge expected from the light and portable Chauchat machine rifle was to increase the offensive firepower of advancing infantry during the assaults. This particular tactic became known as marching fire. Colonel Chauchat had already formulated this tactical vision since the early 1900s, in his many proposals to the highest levels of the French military command structure, including General Joffre.
Users
: 6,935 (about half of them converted to 7.65×53mm Mauser)
: Used captured examples
: About 100 copies of the Chauchat were produced by Jinglin Arsenal and used during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
: The Czechoslovak Legion brought back 130 Chauchat guns from Russia in 1920
: over 100,000 placed in front-line service at the infantry squad level between April 1916 and November 1918.
: delivered by France from 1917 and 3,950 received from Poland
: 546 used by the Latvian Army (by April 1936)
: 1,729
: 7,200
: 6,100
Soviet Russia: several Red Army units used Chauchats during Russian Civil War
: 3,838
: at least 100,000, many of them converted to 7.92×57mm Mauser
: Captured from Republicans or intercepted during transport
: used during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War
Turkish National Movement: captured examples
(1917–1918): 15,918 in 8mm Lebel plus 19,241 in US 30-06. The latter model (in US .30-06), being unsatisfactory, was never deployed in significant numbers.
Replacement
After the Armistice of 11 November 1918, the French military decided to upgrade to a more reliable light squad automatic weapon that would be designed and manufactured nationally. Experimentation was carried out at the Manufacture d'Armes de Châtellerault during the early 1920s, culminating in the adoption of the new light machine gun (in French: fusil-mitrailleur), the FM Mle 1924. Gas-operated, and using a new 7.5 mm rimless cartridge (that would evolve into the 7.5x54mm French), this finally corrected all the problems associated with the Chauchat, and was manufactured in large numbers (232,000) and widely used by the French Army until the late 1950s.
See also
Chauchat-Ribeyrolles 1918 submachine gun
Hotchkiss M1909 light machine gun
List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces
List of infantry weapons of World War I
References
Bibliography
The most complete (209 pages), best documented and profusely illustrated (246 illustrations) source on the subject.
Unpublished Report based on material in the Polish Army Archives.
External links
Detailed description page
(1942) Istruzione Provvisoria sul Fucile Mitragliatore C.S.R.G. – Cal. 8 (Chauchat)
YouTube animation showing mechanism of Chauchat automatic rifle
French World War I small arms
Light machine guns
Long recoil firearms
Machine guns of France
World War I weapons of Greece
World War I infantry weapons of the United States
World War I Italian infantry weapons
World War I machine guns
World War I Russian infantry weapons
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1908
World War II infantry weapons of Greece | [
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242001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear%20chemistry | Nuclear chemistry | Nuclear chemistry is the sub-field of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes, and transformations in the nuclei of atoms, such as nuclear transmutation and nuclear properties.
It is the chemistry of radioactive elements such as the actinides, radium and radon together with the chemistry associated with equipment (such as nuclear reactors) which are designed to perform nuclear processes. This includes the corrosion of surfaces and the behavior under conditions of both normal and abnormal operation (such as during an accident). An important area is the behavior of objects and materials after being placed into a nuclear waste storage or disposal site.
It includes the study of the chemical effects resulting from the absorption of radiation within living animals, plants, and other materials. The radiation chemistry controls much of radiation biology as radiation has an effect on living things at the molecular scale. To explain it another way, the radiation alters the biochemicals within an organism, the alteration of the bio-molecules then changes the chemistry which occurs within the organism; this change in chemistry then can lead to a biological outcome. As a result, nuclear chemistry greatly assists the understanding of medical treatments (such as cancer radiotherapy) and has enabled these treatments to improve.
It includes the study of the production and use of radioactive sources for a range of processes. These include radiotherapy in medical applications; the use of radioactive tracers within industry, science and the environment, and the use of radiation to modify materials such as polymers.
It also includes the study and use of nuclear processes in non-radioactive areas of human activity. For instance, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is commonly used in synthetic organic chemistry and physical chemistry and for structural analysis in macro-molecular chemistry.
History
After Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays in 1882, many scientists began to work on ionizing radiation. One of these was Henri Becquerel, who investigated the relationship between phosphorescence and the blackening of photographic plates. When Becquerel (working in France) discovered that, with no external source of energy, the uranium generated rays which could blacken (or fog) the photographic plate, radioactivity was discovered. Marie Curie (working in Paris) and her husband Pierre Curie isolated two new radioactive elements from uranium ore. They used radiometric methods to identify which stream the radioactivity was in after each chemical separation; they separated the uranium ore into each of the different chemical elements that were known at the time, and measured the radioactivity of each fraction. They then attempted to separate these radioactive fractions further, to isolate a smaller fraction with a higher specific activity (radioactivity divided by mass). In this way, they isolated polonium and radium. It was noticed in about 1901 that high doses of radiation could cause an injury in humans. Henri Becquerel had carried a sample of radium in his pocket and as a result he suffered a highly localized dose which resulted in a radiation burn. This injury resulted in the biological properties of radiation being investigated, which in time resulted in the development of medical treatment.
Ernest Rutherford, working in Canada and England, showed that radioactive decay can be described by a simple equation (a linear first degree derivative equation, now called first order kinetics), implying that a given radioactive substance has a characteristic "half-life" (the time taken for the amount of radioactivity present in a source to diminish by half). He also coined the terms alpha, beta and gamma rays, he converted nitrogen into oxygen, and most importantly he supervised the students who conducted the Geiger–Marsden experiment (gold foil experiment) which showed that the 'plum pudding model' of the atom was wrong. In the plum pudding model, proposed by J. J. Thomson in 1904, the atom is composed of electrons surrounded by a 'cloud' of positive charge to balance the electrons' negative charge. To Rutherford, the gold foil experiment implied that the positive charge was confined to a very small nucleus leading first to the Rutherford model, and eventually to the Bohr model of the atom, where the positive nucleus is surrounded by the negative electrons.
In 1934, Marie Curie's daughter (Irène Joliot-Curie) and son-in-law (Frédéric Joliot-Curie) were the first to create artificial radioactivity: they bombarded boron with alpha particles to make the neutron-poor isotope nitrogen-13; this isotope emitted positrons. In addition, they bombarded aluminium and magnesium with neutrons to make new radioisotopes.
Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner discovered radioactive isotopes of radium, thorium, protactinium and uranium. He also discovered the phenomena of radioactive recoil and nuclear isomerism, and pioneered rubidium–strontium dating. In 1938, Hahn, Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission, for which Hahn received the 1944 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Nuclear fission was the basis for nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Hahn is referred to as the father of nuclear chemistry and godfather of nuclear fission.
Main areas
Radiochemistry is the chemistry of radioactive materials, in which radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being inactive as the isotopes are stable).
For further details please see the page on radiochemistry.
Radiation chemistry
Radiation chemistry is the study of the chemical effects of radiation on the matter; this is very different from radiochemistry as no radioactivity needs to be present in the material which is being chemically changed by the radiation. An example is the conversion of water into hydrogen gas and hydrogen peroxide. Prior to radiation chemistry, it was commonly believed that pure water could not be destroyed.
Initial experiments were focused on understanding the effects of radiation on matter. Using a X-ray generator, Hugo Fricke studied the biological effects of radiation as it became a common treatment option and diagnostic method. Fricke proposed and subsequently proved that the energy from X - rays were able to convert water into activated water, allowing it to react with dissolved species.
Chemistry for nuclear power
Radiochemistry, radiation chemistry and nuclear chemical engineering play a very important role for uranium and thorium fuel precursors synthesis, starting from ores of these elements, fuel fabrication, coolant chemistry, fuel reprocessing, radioactive waste treatment and storage, monitoring of radioactive elements release during reactor operation and radioactive geological storage, etc.
Study of nuclear reactions
A combination of radiochemistry and radiation chemistry is used to study nuclear reactions such as fission and fusion. Some early evidence for nuclear fission was the formation of a short-lived radioisotope of barium which was isolated from neutron irradiated uranium (139Ba, with a half-life of 83 minutes and 140Ba, with a half-life of 12.8 days, are major fission products of uranium). At the time, it was thought that this was a new radium isotope, as it was then standard radiochemical practice to use a barium sulfate carrier precipitate to assist in the isolation of radium. More recently, a combination of radiochemical methods and nuclear physics has been used to try to make new 'superheavy' elements; it is thought that islands of relative stability exist where the nuclides have half-lives of years, thus enabling weighable amounts of the new elements to be isolated. For more details of the original discovery of nuclear fission see the work of Otto Hahn.
The nuclear fuel cycle
This is the chemistry associated with any part of the nuclear fuel cycle, including nuclear reprocessing. The fuel cycle includes all the operations involved in producing fuel, from mining, ore processing and enrichment to fuel production (Front-end of the cycle). It also includes the 'in-pile' behavior (use of the fuel in a reactor) before the back end of the cycle. The back end includes the management of the used nuclear fuel in either a spent fuel pool or dry storage, before it is disposed of into an underground waste store or reprocessed.
Normal and abnormal conditions
The nuclear chemistry associated with the nuclear fuel cycle can be divided into two main areas, one area is concerned with operation under the intended conditions while the other area is concerned with maloperation conditions where some alteration from the normal operating conditions has occurred or (more rarely) an accident is occurring. Without this process, none of this would be true.
Reprocessing
Law
In the United States, it is normal to use fuel once in a power reactor before placing it in a waste store. The long-term plan is currently to place the used civilian reactor fuel in a deep store. This non-reprocessing policy was started in March 1977 because of concerns about nuclear weapons proliferation. President Jimmy Carter issued a Presidential directive which indefinitely suspended the commercial reprocessing and recycling of plutonium in the United States. This directive was likely an attempt by the United States to lead other countries by example, but many other nations continue to reprocess spent nuclear fuels. The Russian government under President Vladimir Putin repealed a law which had banned the import of used nuclear fuel, which makes it possible for Russians to offer a reprocessing service for clients outside Russia (similar to that offered by BNFL).
PUREX chemistry
The current method of choice is to use the PUREX liquid-liquid extraction process which uses a tributyl phosphate/hydrocarbon mixture to extract both uranium and plutonium from nitric acid. This extraction is of the nitrate salts and is classed as being of a solvation mechanism. For example, the extraction of plutonium by an extraction agent (S) in a nitrate medium occurs by the following reaction.
Pu4+aq + 4NO3−aq + 2Sorganic → [Pu(NO3)4S2]organic
A complex bond is formed between the metal cation, the nitrates and the tributyl phosphate, and a model compound of a dioxouranium(VI) complex with two nitrate anions and two triethyl phosphate ligands has been characterised by X-ray crystallography.
When the nitric acid concentration is high the extraction into the organic phase is favored, and when the nitric acid concentration is low the extraction is reversed (the organic phase is stripped of the metal). It is normal to dissolve the used fuel in nitric acid, after the removal of the insoluble matter the uranium and plutonium are extracted from the highly active liquor. It is normal to then back extract the loaded organic phase to create a medium active liquor which contains mostly uranium and plutonium with only small traces of fission products. This medium active aqueous mixture is then extracted again by tributyl phosphate/hydrocarbon to form a new organic phase, the metal bearing organic phase is then stripped of the metals to form an aqueous mixture of only uranium and plutonium. The two stages of extraction are used to improve the purity of the actinide product, the organic phase used for the first extraction will suffer a far greater dose of radiation. The radiation can degrade the tributyl phosphate into dibutyl hydrogen phosphate. The dibutyl hydrogen phosphate can act as an extraction agent for both the actinides and other metals such as ruthenium. The dibutyl hydrogen phosphate can make the system behave in a more complex manner as it tends to extract metals by an ion exchange mechanism (extraction favoured by low acid concentration), to reduce the effect of the dibutyl hydrogen phosphate it is common for the used organic phase to be washed with sodium carbonate solution to remove the acidic degradation products of the tributyl phosphate.
New methods being considered for future use
The PUREX process can be modified to make a UREX (URanium EXtraction) process which could be used to save space inside high level nuclear waste disposal sites, such as Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository, by removing the uranium which makes up the vast majority of the mass and volume of used fuel and recycling it as reprocessed uranium.
The UREX process is a PUREX process which has been modified to prevent the plutonium being extracted. This can be done by adding a plutonium reductant before the first metal extraction step. In the UREX process, ~99.9% of the uranium and >95% of technetium are separated from each other and the other fission products and actinides. The key is the addition of acetohydroxamic acid (AHA) to the extraction and scrubs sections of the process. The addition of AHA greatly diminishes the extractability of plutonium and neptunium, providing greater proliferation resistance than with the plutonium extraction stage of the PUREX process.
Adding a second extraction agent, octyl(phenyl)-N,N-dibutyl carbamoylmethyl phosphine oxide (CMPO) in combination with tributylphosphate, (TBP), the PUREX process can be turned into the TRUEX (TRansUranic EXtraction) process this is a process which was invented in the US by Argonne National Laboratory, and is designed to remove the transuranic metals (Am/Cm) from waste. The idea is that by lowering the alpha activity of the waste, the majority of the waste can then be disposed of with greater ease. In common with PUREX this process operates by a solvation mechanism.
As an alternative to TRUEX, an extraction process using a malondiamide has been devised. The DIAMEX (DIAMideEXtraction) process has the advantage of avoiding the formation of organic waste which contains elements other than carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. Such an organic waste can be burned without the formation of acidic gases which could contribute to acid rain. The DIAMEX process is being worked on in Europe by the French CEA. The process is sufficiently mature that an industrial plant could be constructed with the existing knowledge of the process. In common with PUREX this process operates by a solvation mechanism.
Selective Actinide Extraction (SANEX). As part of the management of minor actinides, it has been proposed that the lanthanides and trivalent minor actinides should be removed from the PUREX raffinate by a process such as DIAMEX or TRUEX. In order to allow the actinides such as americium to be either reused in industrial sources or used as fuel the lanthanides must be removed. The lanthanides have large neutron cross sections and hence they would poison a neutron-driven nuclear reaction. To date, the extraction system for the SANEX process has not been defined, but currently, several different research groups are working towards a process. For instance, the French CEA is working on a bis-triazinyl pyridine (BTP) based process.
Other systems such as the dithiophosphinic acids are being worked on by some other workers.
This is the UNiversal EXtraction process which was developed in Russia and the Czech Republic, it is a process designed to remove all of the most troublesome (Sr, Cs and minor actinides) radioisotopes from the raffinates left after the extraction of uranium and plutonium from used nuclear fuel. The chemistry is based upon the interaction of caesium and strontium with poly ethylene oxide (poly ethylene glycol) and a cobalt carborane anion (known as chlorinated cobalt dicarbollide). The actinides are extracted by CMPO, and the diluent is a polar aromatic such as nitrobenzene. Other diluents such as meta-nitrobenzotrifluoride and phenyl trifluoromethyl sulfone have been suggested as well.
Absorption of fission products on surfaces
Another important area of nuclear chemistry is the study of how fission products interact with surfaces; this is thought to control the rate of release and migration of fission products both from waste containers under normal conditions and from power reactors under accident conditions. Like chromate and molybdate, the 99TcO4 anion can react with steel surfaces to form a corrosion resistant layer. In this way, these metaloxo anions act as anodic corrosion inhibitors. The formation of 99TcO2 on steel surfaces is one effect which will retard the release of 99Tc from nuclear waste drums and nuclear equipment which has been lost before decontamination (e.g. submarine reactors lost at sea). This 99TcO2 layer renders the steel surface passive, inhibiting the anodic corrosion reaction. The radioactive nature of technetium makes this corrosion protection impractical in almost all situations. It has also been shown that 99TcO4 anions react to form a layer on the surface of activated carbon (charcoal) or aluminium. A short review of the biochemical properties of a series of key long lived radioisotopes can be read on line.
99Tc in nuclear waste may exist in chemical forms other than the 99TcO4 anion, these other forms have different chemical properties.
Similarly, the release of iodine-131 in a serious power reactor accident could be retarded by absorption on metal surfaces within the nuclear plant.
Education
Despite the growing use of nuclear medicine, the potential expansion of nuclear power plants, and worries about protection against nuclear threats and the management of the nuclear waste generated in past decades, the number of students opting to specialize in nuclear and radiochemistry has decreased significantly over the past few decades. Now, with many experts in these fields approaching retirement age, action is needed to avoid a workforce gap in these critical fields, for example by building student interest in these careers, expanding the educational capacity of universities and colleges, and providing more specific on-the-job training.
Nuclear and Radiochemistry (NRC) is mostly being taught at university level, usually first at the Master- and PhD-degree level. In Europe, as substantial effort is being done to harmonize and prepare the NRC education for the industry's and society's future needs. This effort is being coordinated in a project funded by the Coordinated Action supported by the European Atomic Energy Community's 7th Framework Program. Although NucWik is primarily aimed at teachers, anyone interested in nuclear and radiochemistry is welcome and can find a lot of information and material explaining topics related to NRC.
Spinout areas
Some methods first developed within nuclear chemistry and physics have become so widely used within chemistry and other physical sciences that they may be best thought of as separate from normal nuclear chemistry. For example, the isotope effect is used so extensively to investigate chemical mechanisms and the use of cosmogenic isotopes and long-lived unstable isotopes in geology that it is best to consider much of isotopic chemistry as separate from nuclear chemistry.
Kinetics (use within mechanistic chemistry)
The mechanisms of chemical reactions can be investigated by observing how the kinetics of a reaction is changed by making an isotopic modification of a substrate, known as the kinetic isotope effect. This is now a standard method in organic chemistry. Briefly, replacing normal hydrogen (protons) by deuterium within a molecule causes the molecular vibrational frequency of X-H (for example C-H, N-H and O-H) bonds to decrease, which leads to a decrease in vibrational zero-point energy. This can lead to a decrease in the reaction rate if the rate-determining step involves breaking a bond between hydrogen and another atom. Thus, if the reaction changes in rate when protons are replaced by deuteriums, it is reasonable to assume that the breaking of the bond to hydrogen is part of the step which determines the rate.
Uses within geology, biology and forensic science
Cosmogenic isotopes are formed by the interaction of cosmic rays with the nucleus of an atom. These can be used for dating purposes and for use as natural tracers. In addition, by careful measurement of some ratios of stable isotopes it is possible to obtain new insights into the origin of bullets, ages of ice samples, ages of rocks, and the diet of a person can be identified from a hair or other tissue sample. (See Isotope geochemistry and Isotopic signature for further details).
Biology
Within living things, isotopic labels (both radioactive and nonradioactive) can be used to probe how the complex web of reactions which makes up the metabolism of an organism converts one substance to another. For instance a green plant uses light energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into glucose by photosynthesis. If the oxygen in the water is labeled, then the label appears in the oxygen gas formed by the plant and not in the glucose formed in the chloroplasts within the plant cells.
For biochemical and physiological experiments and medical methods, a number of specific isotopes have important applications.
Stable isotopes have the advantage of not delivering a radiation dose to the system being studied; however, a significant excess of them in the organ or organism might still interfere with its functionality, and the availability of sufficient amounts for whole-animal studies is limited for many isotopes. Measurement is also difficult, and usually requires mass spectrometry to determine how much of the isotope is present in particular compounds, and there is no means of localizing measurements within the cell.
2H (deuterium), the stable isotope of hydrogen, is a stable tracer, the concentration of which can be measured by mass spectrometry or NMR. It is incorporated into all cellular structures. Specific deuterated compounds can also be produced.
15N, a stable isotope of nitrogen, has also been used. It is incorporated mainly into proteins.
Radioactive isotopes have the advantages of being detectable in very low quantities, in being easily measured by scintillation counting or other radiochemical methods, and in being localizable to particular regions of a cell, and quantifiable by autoradiography. Many compounds with the radioactive atoms in specific positions can be prepared, and are widely available commercially. In high quantities they require precautions to guard the workers from the effects of radiation—and they can easily contaminate laboratory glassware and other equipment. For some isotopes the half-life is so short that preparation and measurement is difficult.
By organic synthesis it is possible to create a complex molecule with a radioactive label that can be confined to a small area of the molecule. For short-lived isotopes such as 11C, very rapid synthetic methods have been developed to permit the rapid addition of the radioactive isotope to the molecule. For instance a palladium catalysed carbonylation reaction in a microfluidic device has been used to rapidly form amides and it might be possible to use this method to form radioactive imaging agents for PET imaging.
3H (tritium), the radioisotope of hydrogen, is available at very high specific activities, and compounds with this isotope in particular positions are easily prepared by standard chemical reactions such as hydrogenation of unsaturated precursors. The isotope emits very soft beta radiation, and can be detected by scintillation counting.
11C, carbon-11 is usually produced by cyclotron bombardment of 14N with protons. The resulting nuclear reaction is . Additionally, carbon-11 can also be made using a cyclotron; boron in the form of boric oxide is reacted with protons in a (p,n) reaction. Another alternative route is to react 10B with deuterons. By rapid organic synthesis, the 11C compound formed in the cyclotron is converted into the imaging agent which is then used for PET.
14C, carbon-14 can be made (as above), and it is possible to convert the target material into simple inorganic and organic compounds. In most organic synthesis work it is normal to try to create a product out of two approximately equal sized fragments and to use a convergent route, but when a radioactive label is added, it is normal to try to add the label late in the synthesis in the form of a very small fragment to the molecule to enable the radioactivity to be localised in a single group. Late addition of the label also reduces the number of synthetic stages where radioactive material is used.
18F, fluorine-18 can be made by the reaction of neon with deuterons, 20Ne reacts in a (d,4He) reaction. It is normal to use neon gas with a trace of stable fluorine (19F2). The 19F2 acts as a carrier which increases the yield of radioactivity from the cyclotron target by reducing the amount of radioactivity lost by absorption on surfaces. However, this reduction in loss is at the cost of the specific activity of the final product.
Nuclear spectroscopy
Nuclear spectroscopy are methods that use the nucleus to obtain information of the local structure in matter. Important methods are NMR (see below), Mössbauer spectroscopy and Perturbed angular correlation. These methods use the interaction of the hyperfine field with the nucleus' spin. The field can be magnetic or/and electric and are created by the electrons of the atom and its surrounding neighbours. Thus, these methods investigate the local structure in matter, mainly condensed matter in condensed matter physics and solid state chemistry.
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
NMR spectroscopy uses the net spin of nuclei in a substance upon energy absorption to identify molecules. This has now become a standard spectroscopic tool within synthetic chemistry. One major use of NMR is to determine the bond connectivity within an organic molecule.
NMR imaging also uses the net spin of nuclei (commonly protons) for imaging. This is widely used for diagnostic purposes in medicine, and can provide detailed images of the inside of a person without inflicting any radiation upon them. In a medical setting, NMR is often known simply as "magnetic resonance" imaging, as the word 'nuclear' has negative connotations for many people.
See also
Important publications in nuclear chemistry
Nuclear physics
Nuclear spectroscopy
References
Further reading
Handbook of Nuclear Chemistry
Comprehensive handbook in six volumes by 130 international experts. Edited by Attila Vértes, Sándor Nagy, Zoltán Klencsár, Rezső G. Lovas, Frank Rösch. , Springer, 2011.
Radioactivity Radionuclides Radiation
Textbook by Magill, Galy. , Springer, 2005.
Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry, 3rd Ed
Comprehensive textbook by Choppin, Liljenzin and Rydberg. , Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001 .
Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry, 4th Ed
Comprehensive textbook by Choppin, Liljenzin, Rydberg and Ekberg. , Elsevier Inc., 2013
Radioactivity, Ionizing radiation and Nuclear Energy
Basic textbook for undergraduates by Jiri Hála and James D Navratil. , Konvoj, Brno 2003
The Radiochemical Manual
Overview of the production and uses of both open and sealed sources. Edited by BJ Wilson and written by RJ Bayly, JR Catch, JC Charlton, CC Evans, TT Gorsuch, JC Maynard, LC Myerscough, GR Newbery, H Sheard, CBG Taylor and BJ Wilson. The radiochemical centre (Amersham) was sold via HMSO, 1966 (second edition)
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242005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tex | Tex | Tex may refer to:
People and fictional characters
Tex (nickname), a list of people and fictional characters with the nickname
Joe Tex (1933–1982), stage name of American soul singer Joseph Arrington Jr.
Entertainment
Tex, the Italian comic book series by Sergio Bonelli Editore
Tex (novel) (1979), by S.E. Hinton
Tex (film), a 1982 film based on S.E. Hinton's novel, starring Matt Dillon
Tex, the robot mascot for the American audio company THX
Computing
TeX, a typesetting system created by Donald Knuth and released in 1978
.tex, a file extension for TeX and LaTeX
Text Executive Programming Language, introduced by Honeywell in 1979
Other uses
TEX (explosive), an explosive chemical compound
Tex (unit), a unit of measure for the linear mass density of fibers
Nestlé Tex, a South African chocolate bar
IATA airport code for Telluride Regional Airport
See also
Big Tex, the icon of the annual State Fair of Texas
Textainer Group Holdings, whose shipping containers are labeled "tex"
Tekes (disambiguation) | [
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242006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction%20rate | Reaction rate | The reaction rate or rate of reaction is the speed at which a chemical reaction takes place, defined as proportional to the increase in the concentration of a product per unit time and to the decrease in the concentration of a reactant per unit time. Reaction rates can vary dramatically. For example, the oxidative rusting of iron under Earth's atmosphere is a slow reaction that can take many years, but the combustion of cellulose in a fire is a reaction that takes place in fractions of a second. For most reactions, the rate decreases as the reaction proceeds. A reaction's rate can be determined by measuring the changes in concentration over time.
Chemical kinetics is the part of physical chemistry that concerns how rates of chemical reactions are measured and predicted, and how reaction-rate data can be used to deduce probable reaction mechanisms. The concepts of chemical kinetics are applied in many disciplines, such as chemical engineering, enzymology and environmental engineering.
Formal definition
Consider a typical chemical reaction:
{\mathit{a}A} + {\mathit{b}B} -> {\mathit{p}P} + {\mathit{q}Q}
The lowercase letters (a, b, p, and q) represent stoichiometric coefficients, while the capital letters represent the reactants (A and B) and the products (P and Q).
According to IUPAC's Gold Book definition
the reaction rate v for a chemical reaction occurring in a closed system at constant volume, without a build-up of reaction intermediates, is defined as:
where [X] denotes the concentration of the substance X (= A, B, P or Q). Reaction rate thus defined has the units of mol/L/s.
The rate of a reaction is always positive. A negative sign is present to indicate that the reactant concentration is decreasing. The IUPAC recommends that the unit of time should always be the second. The rate of reaction differs from the rate of increase of concentration of a product P by a constant factor (the reciprocal of its stoichiometric number) and for a reactant A by minus the reciprocal of the stoichiometric number. The stoichiometric numbers are included so that the defined rate is independent of which reactant or product species is chosen for measurement. For example, if a = 1 and b = 3 then B is consumed three times more rapidly than A, but v = -d[A]/dt = -(1/3)d[B]/dt is uniquely defined. An additional advantage of this definition is that for an elementary and irreversible reaction, v is equal to the product of probability of overcoming the transition state activation energy and the number of times per second the transition state is approached by reactant molecules. When so defined, for an elementary and irreversible reaction, v is the rate of successful chemical reaction events leading to the product.
The above definition is only valid for a single reaction, in a closed system of constant volume, an assumption which should be stated explicitly in the definition. If water is added to a pot containing salty water, the concentration of salt decreases, although there is no chemical reaction.
For an open system, the full mass balance must be taken into account:
,
where FA0 is the inflow rate of A in molecules per second, FA the outflow, and v is the instantaneous reaction rate of A (in number concentration rather than molar) in a given differential volume, integrated over the entire system volume V at a given moment. When applied to the closed system at constant volume considered previously, this equation reduces to:
,
where the concentration [A] is related to the number of molecules NA by [A] = . Here N0 is the Avogadro constant.
For a single reaction in a closed system of varying volume the so-called rate of conversion can be used, in order to avoid handling concentrations. It is defined as the derivative of the extent of reaction with respect to time.
Here νi is the stoichiometric coefficient for substance i, equal to a, b, p, and q in the typical reaction above. Also V is the volume of reaction and Ci is the concentration of substance i.
When side products or reaction intermediates are formed, the IUPAC recommends the use of the terms the rate of increase of concentration and rate of the decrease of concentration for products and reactants, properly.
Reaction rates may also be defined on a basis that is not the volume of the reactor. When a catalyst is used the reaction rate may be stated on a catalyst weight (mol g−1 s−1) or surface area (mol m−2 s−1) basis. If the basis is a specific catalyst site that may be rigorously counted by a specified method, the rate is given in units of s−1 and is called a turnover frequency.
Influencing factors
Factors that influence the reaction rate are the nature of the reaction, concentration, pressure, reaction order, temperature, solvent, electromagnetic radiation, catalyst, isotopes, surface area, stirring, and diffusion limit. Some reactions are naturally faster than others. The number of reacting species, their physical state (the particles that form solids move much more slowly than those of gases or those in solution), the complexity of the reaction and other factors can greatly influence the rate of a reaction.
Reaction rate increases with concentration, as described by the rate law and explained by collision theory. As reactant concentration increases, the frequency of collision increases. The rate of gaseous reactions increases with pressure, which is, in fact, equivalent to an increase in concentration of the gas. The reaction rate increases in the direction where there are fewer moles of gas and decreases in the reverse direction. For condensed-phase reactions, the pressure dependence is weak.
The order of the reaction controls how the reactant concentration (or pressure) affects reaction rate.
Usually conducting a reaction at a higher temperature delivers more energy into the system and increases the reaction rate by causing more collisions between particles, as explained by collision theory. However, the main reason that temperature increases the rate of reaction is that more of the colliding particles will have the necessary activation energy resulting in more successful collisions (when bonds are formed between reactants). The influence of temperature is described by the Arrhenius equation. For example, coal burns in a fireplace in the presence of oxygen, but it does not when it is stored at room temperature. The reaction is spontaneous at low and high temperatures but at room temperature its rate is so slow that it is negligible. The increase in temperature, as created by a match, allows the reaction to start and then it heats itself, because it is exothermic. That is valid for many other fuels, such as methane, butane, and hydrogen.
Reaction rates can be independent of temperature (non-Arrhenius) or decrease with increasing temperature (anti-Arrhenius). Reactions without an activation barrier (e.g., some radical reactions), tend to have anti Arrhenius temperature dependence: the rate constant decreases with increasing temperature.
Many reactions take place in solution and the properties of the solvent affect the reaction rate. The ionic strength also has an effect on reaction rate.
Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy. As such, it may speed up the rate or even make a reaction spontaneous as it provides the particles of the reactants with more energy. This energy is in one way or another stored in the reacting particles (it may break bonds, promote molecules to electronically or vibrationally excited states...) creating intermediate species that react easily. As the intensity of light increases, the particles absorb more energy and hence the rate of reaction increases. For example, when methane reacts with chlorine in the dark, the reaction rate is slow. It can be sped up when the mixture is put under diffused light. In bright sunlight, the reaction is explosive.
The presence of a catalyst increases the reaction rate (in both the forward and reverse reactions) by providing an alternative pathway with a lower activation energy. For example, platinum catalyzes the combustion of hydrogen with oxygen at room temperature.
The kinetic isotope effect consists in a different reaction rate for the same molecule if it has different isotopes, usually hydrogen isotopes, because of the relative mass difference between hydrogen and deuterium.
In reactions on surfaces, which take place for example during heterogeneous catalysis, the rate of reaction increases as the surface area does. That is because more particles of the solid are exposed and can be hit by reactant molecules.
Stirring can have a strong effect on the rate of reaction for heterogeneous reactions.
Some reactions are limited by diffusion. All the factors that affect a reaction rate, except for concentration and reaction order, are taken into account in the reaction rate coefficient (the coefficient in the rate equation of the reaction).
Rate equation
For a chemical reaction a A + b B → p P + q Q, the rate equation or rate law is a mathematical expression used in chemical kinetics to link the rate of a reaction to the concentration of each reactant. For a closed system at constant volume, this is often of the form
For reactions that go to completion (which implies very small kr), or if only the initial rate is analyzed (with initial vanishing product concentrations), this simplifies to the commonly quoted form
For gas phase reaction the rate equation is often alternatively expressed in terms of partial pressures.
In these equations k(T) is the reaction rate coefficient or rate constant, although it is not really a constant, because it includes all the parameters that affect reaction rate, except for time and concentration. Of all the parameters influencing reaction rates, temperature is normally the most important one and is accounted for by the Arrhenius equation.
The exponents n and m are called reaction orders and depend on the reaction mechanism. For an elementary (single-step) reaction, the order with respect to each reactant is equal to its stoichiometric coefficient. For complex (multistep) reactions, however, this is often not true and the rate equation is determined by the detailed mechanism, as illustrated below for the reaction of H2 and NO.
For elementary reactions or reaction steps, the order and stoichiometric coefficient are both equal to the molecularity or number of molecules participating. For a unimolecular reaction or step the rate is proportional to the concentration of molecules of reactant, so that the rate law is first order. For a bimolecular reaction or step, the number of collisions is proportional to the product of the two reactant concentrations, or second order. A termolecular step is predicted to be third order, but also very slow as simultaneous collisions of three molecules are rare.
By using the mass balance for the system in which the reaction occurs, an expression for the rate of change in concentration can be derived. For a closed system with constant volume, such an expression can look like
Example of a complex reaction: hydrogen and nitric oxide
For the reaction
2H2(g) + 2NO(g) -> N2(g) + 2H2O(g)
the observed rate equation (or rate expression) is:
As for many reactions, the experimental rate equation does not simply reflect the stoichiometric coefficients in the overall reaction: It is third order overall: first order in H2 and second order in NO, even though the stoichiometric coefficients of both reactants are equal to 2.
In chemical kinetics, the overall reaction rate is often explained using a mechanism consisting of a number of elementary steps. Not all of these steps affect the rate of reaction; normally the slowest elementary step controls the reaction rate. For this example, a possible mechanism is:
\quad 2NO(g) <=> N2O2(g) \qquad(fast\ equilibrium)
\quad {N2O2} + H2 -> {N2O} + H2O \qquad(slow)
\quad {N2O} + H2 ->{N2} + H2O\qquad(fast)
Reactions 1 and 3 are very rapid compared to the second, so the slow reaction 2 is the rate determining step. This is a bimolecular elementary reaction whose rate is given by the second order equation:
,
where k2 is the rate constant for the second step.
However N2O2 is an unstable intermediate whose concentration is determined by the fact that the first step is in equilibrium, so that , where K1 is the equilibrium constant of the first step. Substitution of this equation in the previous equation leads to a rate equation expressed in terms of the original reactants
This agrees with the form of the observed rate equation if it is assumed that . In practice the rate equation is used to suggest possible mechanisms which predict a rate equation in agreement with experiment.
The second molecule of H2 does not appear in the rate equation because it reacts in the third step, which is a rapid step after the rate-determining step, so that it does not affect the overall reaction rate.
Temperature dependence
Each reaction rate coefficient k has a temperature dependency, which is usually given by the Arrhenius equation:
Ea is the activation energy; R is the gas constant. Since at temperature T the molecules have energies given by a Boltzmann distribution, one can expect the number of collisions with energy greater than Ea to be proportional to e. The coefficient, A, is the pre-exponential factor or frequency factor.
The values for A and Ea are dependent on the reaction. There are also more complex equations possible, which describe temperature dependence of other rate constants that do not follow this pattern.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the reactants. As temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the reactants increases. That is, the particles move faster. With the reactants moving faster this allows more collisions to take place at a greater speed, so the chance of reactants forming into products increases, which in turn results in the rate of reaction increasing. A rise in ten degrees Celsius results in approximately twice the reaction rate.
The minimum kinetic energy required for a reaction to occur is called the activation energy and is denoted by Ea or ΔG‡. The transition state or activated complex shown on the diagram is the energy barrier that must be overcome when changing reactants into products. The molecules with an energy greater than this barrier have enough energy to react.
For a successful collision to take place, the collision geometry must be right, meaning the reactant molecules must face the right way so the activated complex can be formed.
A chemical reaction takes place only when the reacting particles collide. However, not all collisions are effective in causing the reaction. Products are formed only when the colliding particles possess a certain minimum energy called threshold energy. As a rule of thumb, reaction rates for many reactions double for every ten degrees Celsius increase in temperature. For a given reaction, the ratio of its rate constant at a higher temperature to its rate constant at a lower temperature is known as its temperature coefficient, (Q). Q10 is commonly used as the ratio of rate constants that are ten degrees Celsius apart.
Pressure dependence
The pressure dependence of the rate constant for condensed-phase reactions (i.e., when reactants and products are solids or liquid) is usually sufficiently weak in the range of pressures normally encountered in industry that it is neglected in practice.
The pressure dependence of the rate constant is associated with the activation volume. For the reaction proceeding through an activation-state complex:
A + B |A⋯B|‡ → P
the activation volume, ΔV‡, is:
where V̄ denotes the partial molar volume of a species and ‡ indicates the activation-state complex.
For the above reaction, one can expect the change of the reaction rate constant (based either on mole fraction or on molar concentration) with pressure at constant temperature to be:
In practice, the matter can be complicated because the partial molar volumes and the activation volume can themselves be a function of pressure.
Reactions can increase or decrease their rates with pressure, depending on the value of ΔV‡. As an example of the possible magnitude of the pressure effect, some organic reactions were shown to double the reaction rate when the pressure was increased from atmospheric (0.1 MPa) to 50 MPa (which gives ΔV‡ = −0.025 L/mol).
See also
Rate of solution
Dilution (equation)
Diffusion-controlled reaction
Steady state approximation
Collision theory and transition state are chemical theories that attempt to predict and explain reaction rates.
Isothermal microcalorimetry
Notes
External links
Chemical kinetics, reaction rate, and order (needs flash player)
Reaction kinetics, examples of important rate laws (lecture with audio).
Rates of reaction
Overview of Bimolecular Reactions (Reactions involving two reactants)
pressure dependence Can. J. Chem.
Chemical kinetics
Chemical reaction engineering
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242016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20McCoy%2C%20Florida | Fort McCoy, Florida | Fort McCoy is an unincorporated community in Marion County, Florida, United States. It is situated northeast of Ocala and lies between the towns of Sparr and Eureka on County Road 316 and is directly north of Silver Springs on County Road 315. The community is part of the Ocala Metropolitan Statistical Area.
Geography
Fort McCoy is located at . The community is located west of the Ocala National Forest.
History
Fort McCoy was originally named Fort Mackay. MacKay and MacCoy were both settlers in the area who were killed by Indians during the war. The town of Fort McCoy is named after the settler Jeb MacCoy but spelled differently. When hostilities with Native Americans worsened, Jeb MacCoy was killed by Indians while bringing his family into Fort Russell. Captain Mackay was head of the local militia, and was killed while surveying Itonia Scrub on March 20, 1839.
Education
The first school in Fort McCoy was supposedly a log cabin that was built near the fort; and it is thought to have been abandoned during the Second Seminole War. When the Union Church was built near the Fort McCoy Cemetery, it was used as the school, with church services on the weekends. Sometime between the 1890s and the first decade of the 1900s, a wooden building was built to serve as the school. In 1935, this building was destroyed in a fire. A small new school (to serve the approximate 75 pupils at the time) was built on the land donated by Dr Percy F. Lisk, which was right in front of the old schools location. The new brick school opened in 1936. The earliest known student grade levels are from the 1940s, when the school was known as Fort McCoy High School.
Fort McCoy High School was closed in 1963 and re-opened soon after as Fort McCoy Elementary School. The population of Fort McCoy increased over the years, and by the 1980s the property was a vast land full of "portable classrooms". Due to the population increase and age of the building (50 years old), the Marion County School Board decided to have a new school built in 1986. The original brick building became the Fort McCoy Public Library in 1996, after a $60,000 renovation. In 1988, the new campus opened, renamed as Fort McCoy School, which now served elementary and middle school students (Pre-K to Eighth grade). That campus is still being used today, as well as the same grade levels being served.
Most kids from kindergarten through eighth grade attend Fort McCoy School. Most high school students in Fort McCoy attend North Marion High School, while some attend Lake Weir High School.
References
External links
Veterans of Foreign Wars Veterans Village at Fort McCoy, Florida
McCoy
Unincorporated communities in Marion County, Florida
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242017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Simple%20Things | The Simple Things | The Simple Things is a 1953 animated short subject, part of the Mickey Mouse series, produced by Walt Disney Productions. Released by RKO Radio Pictures on March 27, 1953, the short is notable as the 126th and final regular entry in the Mickey Mouse theatrical cartoon series.
Following this short, one-shot Mickey shorts were produced: the featurettes Mickey's Christmas Carol (1983) and The Prince and the Pauper (1990), and the shorts Runaway Brain (1995), and Get a Horse! (2013).
Plot
At the start of the cartoon, Mickey is seen whistling to the tune of the song "The Simple Things” while walking along a rocky seashore, fishing gear in hand. Pluto, sniffing behind him, spots a mussel as he tries to cover up miniature geysers along the way. The mussel then squirts water at him. Pluto barks at the mussel and the mussel barks back. The mussel gets trapped on Pluto's tail after they fight. He pulls the mussel up and attempts to shove it off his tail but instead, he pulls the mussel up and down like a yo-yo. The mussel accidentally gets stuck in his mouth. Pluto then rushes to Mickey for assistance. At first, Mickey thinks that Pluto is asking for food and feeds him a hot dog. The mussel then steals Mickey's sandwich and a full pepper shaker which causes the mussel to sneeze thus freeing itself from Pluto's mouth. The mussel bounces around sneezing and wakes up a seagull that decides to eat the mussel. The sneezing mussel escapes the seagull by entering the sea. The hungry seagull steals the hot dog that Mickey is feeding Pluto instead. The seagull then sets his sights on the fish bait Mickey is using and unsuccessfully attempts to steal the fish while the line is being cast. Dejected but determined, the seagull then sits on top of Mickey's hat and easily steals the fish as he is baiting the hook until Mickey shoos the seagull away. He then floats under the hat to the other bait bucket and again eats the fish until Pluto notices and shoos him away and the seagull by tying up Pluto using his own tail and ears. Mickey again catches the seagull in his bait and after the bird tries to fly away carrying the bait, Mickey throws a rock in it which weighs it down. To overcome this, the seagull spells out "FREE FRESH FISH" using flag semaphore to get the other seagulls to chase Mickey and Pluto away. The short ends with the seagull floating away with his portable radio and fish in his mouth singing the song "The Simple Things".
Other appearances
The cartoon was featured in the video game Disney's Magical Mirror Starring Mickey Mouse.
Voice cast
Mickey Mouse: Jimmy MacDonald
Pluto: Pinto Colvig
Home media
The short was released on May 18, 2004 on Walt Disney Treasures: Mickey Mouse in Living Color, Volume Two: 1939-Today.
See also
Mickey Mouse (film series)
References
External links
1953 films
1953 animated films
Mickey Mouse short films
1950s Disney animated short films
Films about fishing
American films
Films produced by Walt Disney
Films scored by Paul Smith (film and television composer)
Films directed by Charles August Nichols
Films set on beaches
1950s American animated films | [
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242023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey%20the%20Bear | Humphrey the Bear | Humphrey the Bear is a cartoon character created in 1950 at Walt Disney Animation Studios. He first appeared in the 1950 Goofy cartoon Hold That Pose, in which Goofy tried to take his picture. After that he appeared in four classic Donald Duck cartoons: Rugged Bear (1953), Grin and Bear It (1954), Bearly Asleep (1955), and Beezy Bear (1955).
Disney gave him his own series in 1955, but only two films resulted (Hooked Bear and In the Bag, both 1956) before Disney discontinued making theatrical short subjects. When the shorts division closed, Humphrey was the last of only seven Disney characters who had been given a series of their own, starring in cartoons who opened with their own logo (the six others were Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, Pluto, Chip 'n' Dale (counting as one), and Figaro).
The Humphrey cartoons feature a broader, wilder style of comedy than the usually cute or coy Disney gags; critic Leonard Maltin described them as "belly-laugh comedies that can hold their own against the best of MGM and Warner Brothers."
Development
The bear that would become Humphrey first appeared in the 1950 Goofy cartoon Hold That Pose! Three years later, Donald Duck series animator Jack Hannah revived the ursine character:
Personality
Humphrey is a big, opportunistic, neurotic brown bear who lives in Brownstone National Park. He is constantly trying different ways to catch food and/or shelter from unsuspecting visitors, often violating the park rules in the process. However, his habit of fulfilling his wants/needs in this manner is not entirely unjustified, as it is often shown that he is seldom rewarded when he follows the rules. Unlike most Disney characters, Humphrey does not speak, but instead makes an assortment of inarticulate sounds to convey his emotions; those grunts were supplied by Disney staffer Jimmy MacDonald. When stricken by worry or panic, Humphrey runs desperately in place, with his feet seemingly headed in all directions. Humphrey's foil is most often Donald Duck, one of his antagonists; otherwise it is typically an officious park ranger voiced by Bill Thompson. The ranger's name was never identified in the theatrical shorts, but when the films were re-edited into an hour-long Disney TV episode, he was referred to as J. Audubon Woodlore.
Popularity
The films were popular in theaters, and the character was familiar enough to be included in the Mickey Mouse Club opening (Humphrey is one of the characters who holds the trampoline that bounces Mickey Mouse in the air).
Later appearances
Although the series Humphrey starred in enjoyed only a short run, a later generation of Disney artists and directors remembered Humphrey fondly, and cast him in episodes of Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers, Goof Troop, Mickey Mouse Works, House of Mouse, and Mickey Mouse Clubhouse. Humphrey returned to the screen in three new shorts: Donald's Grizzly Guest and Donald's Fish Fry reunite Humphrey with Donald Duck, and in Hot Tub Humphrey Humphrey is once again in the title role, alongside Ranger Woodlore. In these appearances, his vocals alternated between Frank Welker and Jim Cummings. Due to adding Humphrey to these Disney programs he became a more current character and can be seen in more Disney-related merchandise such as watches, cards, pins, T-shirts, and posters. In 2018, he returned in the series Legend of the Three Caballeros, where he is re-imagined as a bear rug reanimated by a magical artifact called the Spark of Life. He later made a cameo in Ralph Breaks the Internet, where he is seen doing a dance and picking up trash on the floor in the background.
Filmography
Theatrical cartoons
Hold That Pose (1950)
Working for Peanuts (1953) (cameo)
Rugged Bear (1953)
Grin and Bear It (1954)
Bearly Asleep (1955)
Beezy Bear (1955)
Hooked Bear (1956)
In the Bag (1956)
Television
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (1989)
Bearing Up Baby, May 14, 1989
Goof Troop (1992)
You Camp Take It with You, September 9, 1992
Mickey Mouse Works (1999)
Donald's Grizzly Guest, November 7, 1999
Donald's Fish Fry, September 23, 2000
Hot Tub Humphrey
Survival of the Woodchucks
Disney's House of Mouse (2001)
Humphrey in the House, September 2, 2002
Mickey Mouse Clubhouse (2006)
Clarabelle's Clubhouse Carnival, May 10, 2008
Mickey Mouse (2013)
The Birthday Song, November 18, 2017
Springtime!, May 12, 2018
Legend of the Three Caballeros (2018)
Movies
The Ranger of Brownstone Park
Mickey's House of Villains
Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse
Ralph Breaks the Internet (background)
Comic book appearances
Humphrey appeared in two American comic stories drawn by Paul Murry in 1959 and in another one drawn by Tony Strobl in 1966. Strobl also drew comic stories with Humphrey for the market outside of the US, most of them also featuring Grandma Duck. Ed Nofziger wrote scripts for many foreign market stories with Humphrey. Most of those ones were drawn by cartoonists of the Argentinian art studio Jaime Diaz Studio.
Popular culture
Jack Hannah, who directed the 1950s Humphrey shorts, revived the "dumb bear" idea for Walter Lantz's "Fatso the Bear" cartoons in 1960 and 1961. It would also seem probable that the Hanna-Barbera animation studio was somewhat inspired by Humphrey in its creation of the somewhat smarter Yogi Bear (from 1958), who lives at Jellystone Park, begs, steals, and plays tricks to steal picnic baskets from campers, and is constantly on the lookout for Ranger Smith.
Humphrey is currently the spokescharacter for Disney's Wilderness Lodge Resort at Walt Disney World in Florida. He is featured on the totem pole in the lobby along with Mickey, Donald Duck, and Goofy. His merchandise is featured in the Briar Patch in the Magic Kingdom.
References
External links
Humphrey Bear at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on February 5, 2016.
Film characters introduced in 1950
Fictional bears
Disney core universe characters
Male characters in animation | [
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242024 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank%20account | Bank account | A bank account is a financial account maintained by a bank or other financial institution in which the financial transactions between the bank and a customer are recorded. Each financial institution sets the terms and conditions for each type of account it offers, which are classified in commonly understood types, such as deposit accounts, credit card accounts, current accounts, loan accounts or many other types of account. A customer may have more than one account. Once an account is opened, funds entrusted by the customer to the financial institution on deposit are recorded in the account designated by the customer. Funds can be withdrawn from loan loaders.
The financial transactions which have occurred on a bank account within a given period of time are reported to the customer on a bank statement, and the balance of the accounts of a customer at any point in time is their financial position with the institution.
Nature of a bank account
In most legal systems, a deposit of funds in a bank is not a bailment - that is, the actual funds deposited by a person in a bank cease to be the property of the depositor and become the property of the bank. The depositor acquires a claim against the bank for the sum deposited but not to the actual cash handed over to the bank. In accounting terms, the bank creates ("opens") an account in the name of the depositor or a name directed by the depositor in which the amount received by it is recorded as a transaction. The deposit account is a liability of the bank and an asset of the depositor (the account holder).
On the other hand, a bank can lend some or all of the money it has on deposit to a third party/s. Such accounts, generally called loan or credit accounts, are subject to similar but reverse principles of a deposit account. In accounting terms, a loan account is an asset of the bank and a liability of the borrower. Loan accounts may be unsecured or secured by the borrower, and they may be guaranteed by a third person, with or without security.
Each financial institution sets the terms and conditions for each type of account it offers, and when a customer applies for the opening of an account, and accepted by the institution, they form the contract between the financial institution and the customer in relation to the account.
The laws of each country specify how bank accounts may be opened and operated. They may specify who may open an account, for example, how the signatories can identify themselves, deposit, withdrawal limits among other specifications.
The minimum age for opening a bank account is most commonly 18 years of age. However, in some countries, the minimum age to open a bank account can be 16 years, and accounts may be opened in the name of minors but operated by their parent or guardian. In general, it is unlawful to open an account in a false name.
Account structure
From the customer’s point of view, bank accounts may have a positive, or credit balance, when the financial institution owes money to the customer; or a negative, or debit balance, when the customer owes the financial institution money.
Broadly, accounts that hold credit balances are referred to as deposit accounts, and accounts opened to hold debit balances are referred to as loan accounts. Some accounts can switch between credit and debit balances.
Some accounts are categorized by the function rather than nature of the balance they hold, such as savings account, which routinely are in credit.
Financial institutions have an account numbering scheme to identify each account, which is important as a customer may have multiple accounts.
Types of accounts
Each financial institution has its own names for the various accounts it offers to customers, but these can be categorised as:
See also
References
Bank account
Banking | [
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242026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardee%27s | Hardee's | Hardee's Restaurants LLC is an American fast-food restaurant chain operated by CKE Restaurants Holdings, Inc. ("CKE") with locations primarily in the Southern and Midwestern United States. The company has evolved through several corporate ownerships since its establishment in 1960 in North Carolina.
In April 1997, CKE Restaurants Holdings, Inc., the parent company of Carl's Jr., paid $327 million to Montreal-based Imasco Limited for Hardee's. The merger created a chain of 3,828 restaurants – 3,152 Hardee's outlets in 40 states and 10 foreign countries and 676 Carl's Jr. outlets, primarily in California. In June 2018, former CKE CEO Jason Marker announced that Carl's Jr. and Hardee's would become separate brands, claiming that CKE's racy advertising and marketing campaigns were incompatible with a family-oriented chain like Hardee's. In April 2019 Ned Lyerly, a 30-year veteran of the company & formerly President of CKE's International division, was named CEO replacing Jason Marker.
History
Hardee's founder, Wilber Hardee, opened his first restaurant in Greenville, North Carolina, on September 3, 1960. After a year of success, Wilber decided to look into expanding his restaurant and opening another location so he met with James Gardner and Leonard Rawls to discuss doing so. Shortly thereafter, the first company store was opened in Rocky Mount, North Carolina, in May 1961 by James Carson Gardner and Leonard Rawls on McDonald Street on North Church Street in Rocky Mount, known within the chain as building number 1. That location was demolished in 2007 and replaced with a veterans' park named for Jack Laughery, a former Hardee's chairman and military veteran.
According to Wilbur Hardee, Gardner and Rawls won a controlling share of the company from him during a game of poker. After realizing that he had lost control over his namesake company, Hardee sold his remaining shares to them as well.
However, this story has been disputed by Gardner & Rawls, who bought out Wilbur Hardee and began establishing franchises in 1961. According to Jack Laughery, CEO of Hardee's from 1975 to 1990, "Leonard put together an organization with relatively little capital. If it weren't for him and Jim Gardner, there wouldn't be anything of Hardee's Food Systems."
Rawls and Gardner sold their first franchises to a small group of longtime friends and acquaintances who formed their own companies and over time, built hundreds more franchised locations. Hardee's Food Systems went public in 1963 with Rawls as president. Gardner, who was vice president, had political ambitions and left the company when he was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1966.
The 1964 menu included hamburger for 15 cents, cheeseburgers for 20 cents, french fries for 10 cents, apple turnovers for 15 cents, milk for 12 cents, coffee for 10 cents, soft drinks for 10 cents, and milkshakes (chocolate-strawberry-vanilla) for 20 cents. Strawberry milkshakes were created from vanilla by addition of a berry syrup which had to be mixed with a spindle.
At the end of the 1960s, the corporation operated nearly 200 restaurants in the Midwest and Southwestern U.S., as well as its first international locations in Germany. Around this same time, Hardee's began an expansion into the mid-Atlantic states, notably Southeastern Pennsylvania, southern New Jersey, and Delaware. The expansion was done via the franchisee Hardee Northern, Inc, which was a subsidiary of Acme Markets, a prominent grocery store chain based in Philadelphia.
Hardee's purchased Sandy's in 1972. During the mid-and-late 1970s, Hardee's saw rapid chain growth and high profits on the strength of its two key sandwiches: the "Big Twin" and the "Big Deluxe". Another acquisition occurred in the late 1970s when Hardee's purchased the Utah-based burger chain Dee's Drive-In.
Hardee's was purchased by Canadian company Imasco Limited in 1981. In 1982, General Foods sold Burger Chef to Imasco for $44 million. Imasco converted many locations to Hardee's restaurants and let franchises and locations near existing Hardee's locations convert to other brands. Remaining restaurants that did not convert to Hardee's or new names and branding simply closed.
A new management team, in the early 1980s, seeking to cut costs, changed the signature burger recipe and eliminated the flagship menu item, the Big Twin. The Big Deluxe continued to be offered throughout the 1990s.
For a few years after acquiring the Roy Rogers Restaurants fast food chain in the early 1990s, Hardee's outlets sold the popular Roy Rogers Restaurant fried chicken recipe, hoping it could compete with KFC. In addition to Roy Rogers, Hardee's also owned Rax Roast Beef for a period of time and sold roast beef sandwiches throughout the Hardee's system.
In April 1997, CKE Restaurants Holdings, Inc., the parent company of Carl's Jr., bought Hardee's from Imasco for $327 million. The merger created a chain of 3,828 restaurants – 3,152 Hardee's outlets in 40 states and 10 foreign countries and 676 Carl's Jr. outlets primarily in California.
In 2001, Hardee's headquarters moved to St. Louis, Missouri. In 2005, Hardee's introduced Hand-Scooped Ice Cream Shakes & Malts.
In September 2013, it was announced that Hardee's would expand into the Northeastern United States. In April 2015, Hardee's announced the opening of its 300th restaurant in the Middle East with longtime franchisee, The Americana Group.
In 2015, Nation's Restaurant News ranked Hardee's as the No. 28 foodservice chain by sales in the United States through 2011. Carl's Jr. was ranked at No. 37. Combined sales would rank the two at No. 15. In 2013, QSR listed Hardee's at No. 20 and Carl's Jr. at No. 24; if combined they would have been listed at No. 14.
In July 2015, Hardee's announced that it would be offering The All-Natural Burger, which launched at sister-chain Carl's Jr. restaurants in December 2014.
As of March 2016, CKE has a total of 3,664 franchised or company-operated restaurants in 44 states and 37 foreign countries and U.S. territories.
Controversies, disputes, and legal issues
Burger Chef trademark dispute
In January 2007, Hardee's had a challenge filed against it with the U.S. Patents and Trademarks Office by River West Brands, LLC of Chicago for the use of the Burger Chef trademark and name. Shortly thereafter, Hardee's reissued the Burger Chef Big Shef sandwich in Terre Haute, Indiana, as a trial offering and later in additional Indiana markets and Dayton, Ohio for a limited time. The reissue of the Big Shef has also used the Burger Chef name and logo in advertisements in the markets in which it is offered, and has claimed to provide Burger Chef fans with their Big Shef "fix". On April 16, 2009, River West Brands dropped their petition for cancellation and both parties agreed to pay their own attorney's fees.
Harvey's controversy
Due to a trademark dispute with Canada's Harvey's burger chain, the Hardee's brand name cannot be used in the country. Instead, CKE Restaurants operates exclusively under the Carl's Jr. banner.
Advertising
A new Hardee's logo was unveiled in 2006 that featured script lettering and retained the iconic Happy Star, further unifying the Hardee's and Carl's Jr. brands. Hardee's also marketed special Super Bowl celebratory pins in the early 1990s.
Controversy
Several Hardee's ad campaigns in the 2000s have been criticized by groups including Parents Television Council for their sexually suggestive nature. A campaign titled "More Than a Piece of Meat" featured scantily clad women appearing to receive sexual gratification from consuming Hardee's products, and "Name Our Holes" — an ad campaign and website promoting Hardee's Biscuit Holes.
In January 2015, Carl's Jr. released a commercial online featuring model Charlotte McKinney advertising its new All Natural Burger to air regionally during Super Bowl XLIX. The ad features McKinney walking around a farmers' market, implying that she is "all natural" and uses double entendres to suggest that she is naked with strategically placed items in the market until it reveals McKinney in a bikini eating the All Natural Burger. Critics suggest that the ad "sets feminism back four decades," while others, including McKinney's elderly grandfather, enjoyed the ad. Until the YouTube video of the ad got privatized by Carl's Jr in March 2017, it had over 13 million views and 10 thousand likes.
Carl Hardee Sr. Campaign
In March 2017, Hardee's began to move away from the sexualized ads by releasing a commercial featuring a white bearded character played by Charles Esten as "Carl Hardee Sr." who had come back into the office (much to the delight of the employees) to find his son (Drew Tarver), a.k.a. "Carl Jr." who was focusing on sex appeal over its food. The commercial marked a turning point in CKE's advertising, as the company wanted to move away from its provocative ads and focus more on food and as a competitor to Five Guys, Steak 'n Shake, and In-N-Out Burger. "Carl Hardee Sr." was also expected to become the new company spokesperson.
Tastes Like America
In 2018, CKE resumed producing separate campaigns for their Hardee's and Carl's Jr. brands. For Hardee's, it started the Tastes Like America campaign with music by Big Wet. For this campaign, Hardee's restored its 1976 logo, now in white; however, the Happy Star still appears, replacing the A in "Tastes". The previous logo will also continue to be used as well.
International franchises
Many international Hardee's franchises are located in countries in the Middle East and Pakistan, most being owned and operated by Americana Group. The Americana Group opened the Middle East's first Hardee's restaurant in Kuwait in June 1980. As of 2016, there are over 300 Hardee's restaurants throughout Asia and the Middle East, specifically in Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and plans to open in Israel. Singapore had a Hardee's franchise first opened in 1984, but the last three outlets closed in 1988. Hardee's opened a store in South Korea in 1990, but it pulled in 2004, due to poor performance. Hardee's also used to operate in Hong Kong, but it pulled out in 2006, due to licensing issues with its US parent. Specifically, in the Middle East, the Hardee's menu does not include any pork items and each beef is certified Halal due to religious and cultural beliefs. The same menu is offered at Hardee's locations in Pakistan, which opened its first location in the country in 2009 in Lahore. Hardee's currently has eighteen locations in Pakistan, with six in Lahore, four in Karachi, two each in Islamabad & Rawalpindi and one each in Faisalabad, Bhera, Peshawar and Multan. In 2014, it opened a restaurant in Erbil, Iraqi Kurdistan.
See also
Carl's Jr.
Jack Laughery
References
Historical, promotional franchise materials, on display in lobby of Hardee's, Chipley, Florida, as of December 27, 2006. Sign options drawing by Allen Displays, dated December 29, 1964.
External links
CKE Restaurants
Companies based in St. Louis
Economy of the Midwestern United States
Economy of the Southeastern United States
Fast-food chains of the United States
Fast-food franchises
Fast-food hamburger restaurants
Regional restaurant chains in the United States
Restaurants established in 1960
1960 establishments in North Carolina | [
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242029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word%20of%20mouth | Word of mouth | Word of mouth or viva voce, is the passing of information from person to person using oral communication, which could be as simple as telling someone the time of day. Storytelling is a common form of word-of-mouth communication where one person tells others a story about a real event or something made up. Oral tradition is cultural material and traditions transmitted by word of mouth through successive generations. Storytelling and oral tradition are forms of word of mouth that play important roles in folklore and mythology. Another example of oral communication is oral history—the recording, preservation and interpretation of historical information, based on the personal experiences and opinions of the speaker. Oral history preservation is the field that deals with the care and upkeep of oral history materials collected by word of mouth, whatever format they may be in.
Storytelling
Storytelling often involves improvisation or embellishment. Stories or narratives have been shared in every culture as a means of entertainment, education, cultural preservation and in order to instill moral values.
The earliest forms of storytelling were thought to have been primarily oral combined with gesture storytelling for many of the ancient cultures. The Australian Aboriginal people painted symbols from stories on cave walls as a means of helping the storyteller remember the story. The story was then told using a combination of oral narrative, music, rock art, and dance.
Traditionally, oral stories were committed to memory and then passed from generation to generation. However, in literate societies, written, televised, and internet media have largely replaced this method of communicating local, family, and cultural histories. Oral storytelling remains the dominant medium of learning in some countries with low literacy rates.
Oral tradition
Oral tradition (sometimes referred to as "oral culture" or "oral lore") is cultural material and traditions transmitted orally from one generation to another. The messages or testimony are verbally transmitted in speech or song and may take the form, for example, of folktales, sayings, ballads, songs, or chants. In this way, it is possible for a society to transmit oral history, oral literature, oral law and other knowledges across generations without a writing system.
Sociologists emphasize a requirement that the material is held in common by a group of people, over several generations, and thus distinguish oral tradition from testimony or oral history. In a general sense, "oral tradition" refers to the transmission of cultural material through vocal utterance, and was long held to be a key descriptor of folklore (a criterion no longer rigidly held by all folklorists). As an academic discipline, it refers both to a set of objects of study and a method by which they are studied—the method may be called variously "oral traditional theory", "the theory of Oral-Formulaic Composition" and the "Parry-Lord theory" (after two of its founders). The study of oral tradition is distinct from the academic discipline of oral history, which is the recording of personal memories and histories of those who experienced historical eras or events. It is also distinct from the study of orality, which can be defined as thought and its verbal expression in societies where the technologies of literacy (especially writing and print) are unfamiliar to most of the population.
Oral history
Oral history is the recording of personal memories and histories of those who experienced historical eras or events. Oral history is a method of historical documentation, using interviews with living survivors of the time being investigated. Oral history often touches on topics scarcely touched on by written documents, and by doing so, fills in the gaps of records that make up early historical documents. Oral history preservation is the field that deals with the care and upkeep of oral history materials, whatever format they may be in.
Systems
Long-established systems using word-of-mouth include:
the "grapevine"
the salon
the "bush telegraph"
the lecture circuit
preaching
See also
References
Communication
Human communication
History of communication
Promotion and marketing communications | [
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242030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Park%20%28disambiguation%29 | South Park (disambiguation) | South Park may refer to:
Fiction
South Park, an American animated television series
South Park (film series), a film series originating with the series containing theatrically released and direct to streaming films including:
South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut, a 1999 full-length feature film
South Park: Post Covid, a 2021 television film
South Park: Post Covid: The Return of Covid, sequel to the 2021 television film South Park: Post Covid
South Park (franchise), a media franchise originating with the series, including:
South Park (video game), a first-person shooter game
South Park: Chef's Luv Shack, a game-show style video game
South Park: The Stick of Truth, a role-playing video game
South Park: The Fractured but Whole, sequel to the 2014 video game South Park: The Stick of Truth.
South Park Rally, a racing video game
South Park (pinball), a 1999 pinball game
South Park Hospital (nicknamed Sparky's), a fictional hospital used as the setting for the UK children's TV show Children's Ward
Malls
United States
South Park Mall (San Antonio), Texas
SouthPark Mall (Moline, Illinois)
SouthPark Mall (Charlotte, North Carolina)
SouthPark Mall (Strongsville, Ohio)
Southpark Mall (Colonial Heights, Virginia)
Elsewhere
Ayala Malls South Park, Muntinlupa, Metro Manila
Südpark or Southpark, Klagenfurt, Austria, see List of shopping malls in Austria
Places
Ireland
South Park, an area in Galway
United Kingdom
South Park, Fulham, city park in west London
South Park, Ilford, area in East London
South Park Primary School
South Park, Oxford, a city park in Oxford
Southpark Village, an estate in Glasgow
United States
South Park Historic District (disambiguation)
California
South Park, Los Angeles, a residential neighborhood in South Los Angeles, California
South Park (Downtown Los Angeles), a commercial development
South Park, San Diego, one of the major historic Urban Communities of San Diego
South Park, San Francisco, a neighborhood and a city park in San Francisco, California
South Park, Santa Rosa, California, a neighborhood in Santa Rosa, California
Colorado
South Park, a historical name for Alamo Square Park, Colorado Springs
South Park (Saguache County, Colorado), a geologic flat near Mount Lion in the La Garita Mountains
South Park National Heritage Area
South Park (Park County, Colorado), a broad, flat valley surrounded by mountains
South Park City, alternate name of the town of Fairplay, Colorado in Park County
South Park City, a museum in Fairplay
South Park Railroad, the nickname name for the Denver, South Park and Pacific Railroad
Indiana
South Park, Indiana
Kentucky
South Park, Louisville, Kentucky
New York
Cazenovia Park-South Park System, Buffalo, New York, listed on the NRHP in 1982
North Carolina
SouthPark, Charlotte, North Carolina
Ohio
South Park (RTA Rapid Transit station), Cleveland, Ohio
South Park Historic District (Dayton, Ohio)
South Park Site, a prehistoric site of the Whittlesey culture on the National Register of Historic Places
Oregon
South Park Blocks, a city park in downtown Portland, Oregon
Pennsylvania
South Park (PAT station), Bethel Park, Pennsylvania
South Park (Pittsburgh)
South Park Township, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania
South Park School District, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania
Texas
South Park, Houston, Texas
Washington
South Park, Seattle
West Virginia
South Park, a neighborhood in Morgantown, West Virginia
Wyoming
South Park, Wyoming
Other uses
South Park F.C., a non-league football club in England
South Park Bridge, a bridge in Seattle, Washington, United States | [
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242031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milton%20Obote | Milton Obote | Apollo Milton Obote (28 December 1925 – 10 October 2005) was a Ugandan political leader who led Uganda to independence from British colonial rule in 1962. Following the nation's independence, he served as prime minister of Uganda from 1962 to 1966 and the second president of Uganda from 1966 to 1971, then again from 1980 to 1985. He was overthrown in a coup d'état by Idi Amin in 1971, but was re-elected in 1980 a year after Amin's 1979 overthrow. His second period of rule ended after a long and bloody conflict known as the Ugandan Bush War, during which he was overthrown a second time by another coup d'état in 1985, prompting him to live the rest of his life in exile.
Early life
Milton Obote was born at Akokoro village in Apac district in northern Uganda. He was the third born of nine children of a tribal chief of the Oyima clan Lango ethnic group. He began his education in 1940 at the Protestant Missionary School in Lira, and later attended Gulu Junior Secondary School, Busoga College and eventually university at Makerere University. Having intended to study law, a subject not taught at the university, Obote took a general arts course, including English and geography. At Makerere, Obote honed his natural oratorical skills; he may have been expelled for participating in a student strike, or alternatively left after a place to study law abroad was not funded by the protectorate government. He worked in Buganda in southern Uganda before moving to Kenya, where he worked as a construction worker at an engineering firm.
While in Kenya, Obote became involved in the national independence movement. Upon returning to Uganda in 1956, he joined the political party Uganda National Congress (UNC), and was elected to the colonial Legislative Council in 1957. In 1959, the UNC split into two factions, with one faction under the leadership of Obote merging with the Uganda People's Union to form the Uganda People's Congress (UPC).
Obote represented the UPC at the Ugandan Constitutional Conference, held at Lancaster House in 1961, alongside fellow Ugandan politician A. G. Mehta. The Conference was organised by the British Government to pave the way for Ugandan independence.
Prime Minister
In the runup to independence elections, Obote formed a coalition with the Buganda royalist party, Kabaka Yekka. The two parties controlled a Parliamentary majority and Obote became Prime Minister in 1962. He assumed the post on 25 April 1962, appointed by Sir Walter Coutts, then Governor-General of Uganda. The following year the position of Governor-General was replaced by a ceremonial presidency to be elected by the parliament. Mutesa, the Kabaka (King) of Buganda, became the ceremonial President, with Obote as executive prime minister.
In January 1964, a mutiny occurred at the military barracks at Jinja, Uganda's second city and home to the 1st Battalion of the Uganda Army. There were similar mutinies in two other eastern African states; all three countries requested the support of troops from the British military. Before they arrived, however, Obote sent his defence minister Felix Onama to negotiate with the mutineers. Onama was held hostage, and agreed to many demands, including significant pay increases for the army, and the rapid promotion of many officers, including the future president Idi Amin. In 1965, Kenyans had been barred from leadership positions within the government, and this was followed by the removal of Kenyans en masse from Uganda in 1969, under Obote's guidance.
As prime minister, Obote was implicated in a gold smuggling plot, together with Idi Amin, then deputy commander of the Ugandan armed forces. When the Parliament demanded an investigation of Obote and the ousting of Amin, he suspended the constitution and declared himself President in March 1966, allocating to himself almost unlimited power under state of emergency rulings. Several members of his cabinet, who were leaders of rival factions in the party, were arrested and detained without charge. Obote responded with an armed attack upon Mutesa's palace, which ended with Mutesa fleeing to exile. In 1967, Obote's power was cemented when the parliament passed a new constitution that abolished the federal structure of the independence constitution and created an executive presidency.
First presidency
On 19 December 1969, there was an assassination attempt against Obote. As he was leaving the UPC annual delegates' conference at Lugogo Indoor Stadium in Kampala, Mohamed Sebaduka fired one shot at the president. The bullet struck Obote in the face, breaking two of his teeth and passing through his cheek. Sebaduka's pistol jammed, and another assassin, Yowana Wamala, threw a grenade at the president, but it failed to explode. Sebaduka was shot by Obote's bodyguards, but both conspirators escaped in the pandemonium following the attempt. Investigators later arrested them and several members of the Democratic Party—the leading opposition party—accusing former prime minister Benedicto Kiwanuka of orchestrating the plot. In the aftermath of the attempt, all opposition political parties were banned, leaving Obote as an effectively absolute ruler. A state of emergency was in force for much of the time and many political opponents were jailed without trial for life. Obote's regime terrorised, harassed, and tortured people. His secret police, the General Service Unit, led by Obote's cousin, was responsible for many cruelties.
In 1969–70, Obote published a series of pamphlets that were supposed to outline his political and economic policy. The Common Man's Charter was a summary of his approach to socialism, which became known as the Move to the Left. The government took over a 60% share in major private corporations and banks in the country in 1970. During Obote's regime, flagrant and widespread corruption emerged in the name of his version of "socialism". Food shortages sent prices through the ceiling. Obote's persecution of Indian traders contributed to this rise in prices.
The Israeli government was training the Ugandan police and military and providing arms to the Anyanya in Southern Sudan who were engaged in a guerilla war with the Sudanese government. The Obote government withdrew support for the rebels and arrested a German mercenary called Steiner and extradited him to Sudan for trial. The Israeli government was very unhappy with these events.
In January 1971, Obote was overthrown by the army while on a visit to Singapore to attend a Commonwealth conference, and Amin became President. In the two years before the coup Obote's relations with the West had become strained. Some have suggested that Western Governments were at least aware of, and may have aided, the coup. The Israeli government certainly played an active role in planning and implementing the coup. They operated mechanized equipment and maintained a high profile in and around the capital including manning roadblocks. According to one source, "They were to be seen everywhere." The fall of Obote's regime was welcomed and celebrated by many Ugandans.
First exile and attempts to regain power
Once he was informed of the coup, Obote immediately flew to Nairobi to rally loyalist army elements in Uganda to oppose Amin's takeover. However, Kenyan authorities blocked his attempts to contact his followers, and the remaining pro-Obote soldiers failed to organize a counteroffensive. The pro-Amin forces were consequently able to swiftly eliminate them in a series of purges. Still, Obote refused to give up, and moved to Tanzania where he received much more support. Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere had close ties with Obote and had supported his socialist orientation. The Tanzanian and Somali governments initially planned to help Obote regain power by invading Uganda through the Kagera Salient. This project was never implemented, as Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai informed the involved parties that he opposed a military intervention, while the Tanzanians feared that Western powers might intervene on Amin's side. At this point, Obote's loyalists in the Uganda Army had been crushed, and Nyerere offered Obote training camps in Tanzania to organize a guerrilla army in exile. Meanwhile, thousands of Obote supporters (including many soldiers) escaped to Sudan whose government also offered them sanctuary and training camps. From late March 1971, Obote built up a rebel army, and moved to Sudan.
However, Obote's exile efforts were hampered by his lack of support among Ugandans, as many other opposition groups –both leftists and conservatives– were more willing to support Amin than offer him any aid. Even part of the UPC had decided to split from him. There were also considerable ethnic tensions as well as personal rivalries in Obote's camps, undermining the military training. In addition, the Sudanese government signed a treaty with Amin in early 1972, expelling Obote and his followers, greatly weakening them. Overall, Obote was unable to mobilize more than about 1,000 insurgents, many of whom lacked proper training. As tensions mounted between Tanzania and Uganda, even escalating in occasional border clashes, Nyerere finally greenlit the planned invasion. Even some exiles critical of Obote, such as Yoweri Museveni's group, joined the operation. The 1972 invasion of Uganda by Obote's rebel alliance was a military disaster, with much of the insurgent force destroyed. This failure contributed to the existing tensions among the anti-Amin forces. On his part, Obote would accuse Museveni of having lied about controlling an underground network in southern Uganda. This alleged network was supposed to cause a popular uprising, but the latter did not materialize, thereby contributing to the invasion's defeat. Obote never forgave Museveni for this, creating a lasting rift. The attempted invasion was also met with international condemnation, forcing the Tanzanian government to officially close the insurgent camps and pledge to stop supporting anti-Amin rebels. Obote and members of his inner circle consequently relocated to Dar es Salaam where many began to work as teachers, lawyers, doctors, etc., while his common fighters were moved to Tabora to become coffee farmers.
The Tanzanian government informed Obote that it would continue tolerating anti-Amin insurgent activities as long as they remained cladestine, despite the international agreement signed after the failed invasion. As a result, Obote kept a low-profile in the next years, as he continued his efforts to regain power. As he had not siphoned off money to overseas banks during his first presidency, Obote mostly lived off a Tanzanian pension. He gave no more interviews, and rarely ventured abroad to meet other opposition figures. Most of the time, he stayed at a comfortable beach house close to Nyerere's private residence; Tanzanian officials initially continued to call him "President", and later "Mzee". Despite his rare public appearances and public restraint, Obote vigorously plotted to overthrow Amin: He set up a small rebel force of 100 guerrillas which occasionally launched raids from Kenya into Uganda, and created his own "navy" of six boats which smuggled coffee on Lake Victoria to finance political and militant activities. The navy also built up an underground network in Uganda. These operations were entrusted to some of his most trusted followers such as David Oyite-Ojok. Obote hoped to gradually undermine Amin's regime until being able to launch a general uprising with support by the exiles in Tanzania. However, the efforts of his rebel network produced few tangible results, as his movement was unable to assassinate important followers of Amin and lacked support among most Ugandans. In fact, Obote remained deeply unpopular in much of Uganda, and even those opposed to Amin did not want to see him return to power.
Second presidency
In 1979, Idi Amin was ousted by Tanzanian forces aided by Ugandan exiles. By 1980, Uganda was governed by an interim Presidential Commission. At the time of the 1980 elections, the chairman of the commission was a close associate of Obote, Paulo Muwanga. Muwanga had briefly been the de facto President of Uganda from 12–20 May 1980, as one of three presidents who served for short periods of time between Amin's ousting and the setting up of the Presidential Commission. The other two presidents were Yusuf Lule and Godfrey Binaisa.
The elections in 1980 were won by Obote's Uganda People's Congress (UPC) party. However, the UPC's opposition believed that the elections were rigged, which led to a guerrilla war by Yoweri Museveni's National Resistance Army (NRA) and several other military groups. Obote held the additional title of Minister of Finance.
In 1983, the Obote government launched Operation Bonanza, a military expedition that claimed tens of thousands of lives and displaced a significant portion of the population. The brunt of the blame for this massacre was placed on the people of northern Uganda for supporting the action of the Prime Minister which increased the existing regional tensions in the country. It has been estimated that approximately 100,000 to 500,000 people died as a result of fighting between Obote's Uganda National Liberation Army (UNLA) and the guerrillas.
On 27 July 1985, Obote was deposed again. As in 1971, he was overthrown by his own army commanders in a military coup d'état; this time the commanders were Brigadier Bazilio Olara-Okello and General Tito Okello. The two men briefly ruled the country through a Military Council, but after a few months of near-chaos, Museveni's NRA seized control of the country. By July 1985, Amnesty International estimated that the Obote regime had been responsible for more than 300,000 civilian deaths across Uganda. Abuses were particularly conspicuous in an area of central Uganda known as the Luweero Triangle.
Death in exile
After his second removal from power, Obote fled to Kenya and later to Zambia. For some years, it was rumoured that he would return to Ugandan politics. In August 2005, however, he announced his intention to step down as leader of the UPC. In September 2005, it was reported that Obote would return to Uganda before the end of the year. On 10 October 2005, Obote died of kidney failure in a hospital in Johannesburg, South Africa.
Milton Obote was given a state funeral, attended by President Museveni, in the Ugandan capital Kampala in October 2005, to the surprise and appreciation of many Ugandans because he and Museveni had been bitter rivals. Other groups, such as the Baganda survivors of the Luweero Triangle massacres, were bitter that Obote was given a state funeral.
He was survived by his wife and five children. On 28 November 2005, his wife Miria Obote was elected UPC party president.
References
Works cited
Further reading
1925 births
2005 deaths
Deaths from kidney failure
Leaders ousted by a coup
Anti-Indian racism in Africa
Makerere University alumni
People from Apac District
Presidents of Uganda
Prime Ministers of Uganda
Finance Ministers of Uganda
Lango people
Ugandan exiles
Uganda National Congress politicians
Ugandan nationalists
Uganda People's Congress politicians
People educated at Busoga College
Leaders of the Opposition (Uganda) | [
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242033 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Park%20%28Park%20County%2C%20Colorado%29 | South Park (Park County, Colorado) | South Park is a grassland flat within the basin formed by the Rocky Mountains' Mosquito and Park Mountain Ranges within central Colorado. This high valley ranges in elevation from approximately 9,000 to 10,000 ft (3,000 m). It encompasses approximately 1,000 square miles (2,590 km2 or 640,000 acres) around the headwaters of the South Platte River in Park County approximately 60 mi (100 km) southwest of Denver. It is the largest and southernmost of three similarly named high altitude basins in the Front Range of Colorado, the others being North Park and Middle Park. The largest town in the basin is Fairplay, with a population of 724.
Geology
Geologically, the valley is a wide faulted syncline of sedimentary rocks, sitting between the predominantly Precambrian igneous rocks of the Front Range to the east and the Sawatch Uplift to the west. The Mosquito Range forms a high barrier along the western side of the valley. The long-extinct Thirty-Nine Mile volcanic field is located just to the southeast.
The valley is mostly underlain by Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks concealed by a thin layer of gravel laid down by glaciation during Pleistocene time. The underlying rocks are dipping slightly to the east. The eastern (and newer) side of the valley is underlain primarily by Pierre Shale laid down during Cretaceous time. The western (and older) side of the valley, on the west side of Red Hill, is underlain primarily by Permian and Pennsylvanian rocks. Red Hill runs through the center of the valley as a hogback ridge of tilted Cretaceous and Jurassic sedimentary rocks.
Gold
Gold mining in South Park began in 1859. Extensive placer deposits were mined along the west side of the park, and lode deposits were mined in the Mosquito Range. The extensive gravel ridges east of Fairplay are the result of dredging for gold. (see Gold mining in Colorado).
Petroleum
Although South Park contains some of the same geologic formations that yield oil and gas in the Denver Basin further east, efforts to find commercial oil and gas in South Park have so far proven unsuccessful.
Uranium
A minor amount of uranium has been mined from sandstone in South Park (see Uranium mining in Colorado).
Transportation
The valley is traversed by several highways, including U.S. Highway 285, which enters the valley from the eastern side over the Front Range at Kenosha Pass, providing a vehicle link to Denver. The highway crosses Red Hill at Red Hill Pass. On its northern side, the valley is connected by several high mountain passes to the valley of the North Fork of the South Platte River (a tributary of the South Platte). It is also connected by CO Route 9 via Hoosier Pass to the valley to the Blue River near Breckenridge. To the west, the extremely high Mosquito Pass crosses the Mosquito Range to Leadville. (Mosquito Pass is no longer a practical transportation route, but is now a historical and recreation site.) On its southwestern side, at the southern end of the Mosquito Range, it is connected by Trout Creek Pass to the upper valley of the Arkansas River near Buena Vista. U.S. Highway 24 enters South Park from the east at Wilkerson Pass, where the highway provides vehicle access to Colorado Springs. To the very south, CO Route 9 crosses Currant Creek Pass, which marks the southern edge of the South Park region.
History
Like much of the mountainous areas of Colorado, the valley was inhabited by Utes before the arrival of European settlers in the middle 19th century. However, from the 1850s onward, the area was increasingly encroached on by Southern Arapaho bands, who came to cherish it as an important buffalo range after witnessing the continued degradation of their typical hunting grounds on the plains and who repeatedly became entangled in skirmishes with the Utes over the territory. It was explored by John C. Fremont during his second expedition in 1844, at which time it was referred to as "Bayou Salade," a corruption of Spanish "Valle Salado," meaning salty valley. In 1859 the discovery of placer gold in the streams of the valley during the Colorado Gold Rush led to an influx of prospectors and miners. The town of Fairplay was founded as a more law-abiding place to live than the older, nearby town of Tarryall during this time and continued to be a center of gold, and later silver mining up through the middle 20th century. South Park City, an open-air museum outside Fairplay, provides a historical recreation of the gold rush days. The basin was connected to Denver by railroad with the extension of the Denver, South Park and Pacific Railroad over Kenosha Pass in 1879.
See also
Grass valley
In popular culture
Since the late 1990s, South Park has been best known as the eponymous setting of the animated series South Park. Trey Parker, one of the creators of the South Park series, grew up in Conifer, about 40 miles (65 km) east of Fairplay.
References
External links
South Park Colorado Region – Visitor Guide
South Park Bulletin – A website about and for the real South Park, Colorado
Geologic provinces of Colorado
Valleys of Colorado
Landforms of Park County, Colorado
South Park | [
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242036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Plimpton | George Plimpton | George Ames Plimpton (March 18, 1927 – September 25, 2003) was an American journalist, writer, literary editor, actor and occasional amateur sportsman. He is widely known for his sports writing and for helping to found The Paris Review, as well as his patrician demeanor and accent. He was also known for "participatory journalism," including accounts of his active involvement in professional sporting events, acting in a Western, performing a comedy act at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, and playing with the New York Philharmonic Orchestra and then recording the experience from the point of view of an amateur.
Early life
Plimpton was born in New York City on March 18, 1927, and spent his childhood there, attending St. Bernard's School and growing up in an apartment duplex on Manhattan's Upper East Side located at 1165 Fifth Avenue. During the summers, he lived in the hamlet of West Hills, Huntington, Suffolk County on Long Island.
He was the son of Francis T. P. Plimpton and the grandson of Frances Taylor Pearsons and George Arthur Plimpton. His father was a successful corporate lawyer and partner of the law firm Debevoise and Plimpton; he was appointed by President John F. Kennedy as U.S. deputy ambassador to the United Nations, serving from 1961 to 1965.
His mother was Pauline Ames, the daughter of botanist Oakes Ames and artist Blanche Ames. Both of Plimpton's maternal grandparents were born with the surname Ames; his mother was the granddaughter of Medal of Honor recipient Adelbert Ames (1835-1933), an American sailor, soldier, and politician, and Oliver Ames, a US political figure and the 35th Governor of Massachusetts (1887–1890). She was also the great-granddaughter on her father's side of Oakes Ames (1804–1873), an industrialist and congressman who was implicated in the Crédit Mobilier railroad scandal of 1872; and Governor-General of New Orleans Benjamin Franklin Butler, an American lawyer and politician who represented Massachusetts in the United States House of Representatives and later served as the 33rd Governor of Massachusetts.
Plimpton's son described him as a White Anglo-Saxon Protestant and wrote that both of Plimpton's parents were descended from Mayflower passengers.
George had three siblings: Francis Taylor Pearsons Plimpton Jr., Oakes Ames Plimpton, and Sarah Gay Plimpton.
Education
After St. Bernard's School, Plimpton attended Phillips Exeter Academy (from which he was expelled just shy of graduation), and Daytona Beach High School, where he received his high school diploma, before entering Harvard College in July 1944. He wrote for the Harvard Lampoon, was a member of the Hasty Pudding Club, Pi Eta, the Signet Society, and the Porcellian Club. He majored in English. Plimpton entered Harvard as a member of the Class of 1948, but did not graduate until 1950 due to intervening military service. He was also an accomplished birdwatcher.
Plimpton's studies at Harvard were interrupted by military service from 1945 to 1948, during which time he served in Italy as an Army tank driver. After finishing at Harvard in 1950, he attended King's College, Cambridge, from 1950 to 1952, and graduated with third class honors in English.
Career
Literary criticism
In 1953, Plimpton joined the influential literary journal The Paris Review, founded by Peter Matthiessen, Thomas H. Guinzburg, and Harold L. "Doc" Humes, becoming its first editor in chief. This periodical has carried great weight in the literary world, but has never been financially strong; for its first half-century, it was allegedly largely financed by its publishers and by Plimpton. Peter Matthiessen took the magazine over from Humes and ousted him as editor, replacing him with Plimpton, using it as his cover for Matthiessen's CIA activities. Jean Stein became his co-editor. Plimpton was associated with the literary magazine in Paris, Merlin, which folded because the State Department withdrew its support. Future Poet Laureate Donald Hall, who had met Plimpton at Exeter, was Poetry Editor. One of the magazine's most notable discoveries was author and screenplay writer Terry Southern, who was living in Paris at the time and formed a lifelong friendship with Plimpton, along with writer Alexander Trocchi and future classical and jazz pioneer David Amram.
Sports journalism
Outside the literary world, Plimpton was famous for competing in professional sporting events and then recording the experience from the point of view of an amateur. In 1958, prior to a post-season exhibition game at Yankee Stadium between teams managed by Willie Mays (National League) and Mickey Mantle (American League), Plimpton pitched against the National League. His experience was captured in the book Out of My League. (He intended to face both line-ups, but tired badly and was relieved by Ralph Houk.) Plimpton sparred for three rounds with boxing greats Archie Moore and Sugar Ray Robinson while on assignment for Sports Illustrated.
In 1963, Plimpton attended preseason training with the Detroit Lions of the National Football League as a backup quarterback, and he ran a few plays in an intrasquad scrimmage. These events were recalled in his best-known book Paper Lion, which was later adapted into a 1968 feature film starring Alan Alda. Plimpton revisited pro football in 1971, this time joining the defending Super Bowl champion Baltimore Colts and seeing action in an exhibition game against his previous team, the Lions. These experiences served as the basis of another football book, Mad Ducks and Bears, although much of the book dealt with the off-field escapades and observations of football friends Alex Karras ("Mad Duck") and John Gordy ("Bear"). Another sports book, Open Net, saw him train as an ice hockey goalie with the Boston Bruins, even playing part of a National Hockey League preseason game.
Plimpton's The Bogey Man chronicles his attempt to play professional golf on the PGA Tour during the Nicklaus and Palmer era of the 1960s. Among other challenges for Sports Illustrated, he attempted to play top-level bridge, and spent some time as a high-wire circus performer. Some of these events, such as his stint with the Colts, and an attempt at stand-up comedy, were presented on the ABC television network as a series of specials.
In 1994, Plimpton appeared several times in the Ken Burns series Baseball, in which he shared some personal baseball experiences as well as other memorable events throughout the history of baseball.
Sidd Finch
In the April 1, 1985 issue of Sports Illustrated, Plimpton pulled off a widely reported April Fools' Day prank. With the help of the New York Mets organization and several Mets players, Plimpton wrote a convincing account of a new unknown pitcher in the Mets spring training camp named Siddhartha Finch, who threw a baseball over 160 mph, wore a heavy boot on one foot, and was a practicing Buddhist with a largely unknown background. The prank was so successful that many readers believed the story, and the ensuing popularity of the joke resulted in Plimpton's writing an entire book on Finch.
Other writing
A friend of the New England Sedgwick family, Plimpton edited Edie: An American Biography with Jean Stein in 1982. He also appeared in a brief interview about Edie Sedgwick in the DVD extra for the film Ciao! Manhattan. He appeared in the PBS American Masters documentary on Andy Warhol. Plimpton also appeared in the closing credits of the 2006 film Factory Girl. Between 2000 and 2003, Plimpton wrote the libretto to a new opera, Animal Tales, commissioned by Family Opera Initiative, with music by Kitty Brazelton directed by Grethe Barrett Holby. He wrote, "I suppose in a mild way there is a lesson to be learned for the young, or the young at heart – the gumption to get out and try one's wings".
Acting
Plimpton also appeared in a number of feature films as an extra and in cameo appearances. He had a small role in the Oscar-winning film Good Will Hunting, playing a psychologist. Plimpton played Tom Hanks's antagonistic father in Volunteers. He was also notable for his appearance in television commercials during the early 1980s, including a memorable campaign for Mattel's Intellivision. In this campaign, Plimpton aggressively touted the superiority of Intellivision video games over those of competitors such as the Atari 2600.
He hosted Disney Channel's Mouseterpiece Theater (a Masterpiece Theatre spoof which featured Disney cartoon shorts). In the "I'm Spelling as Fast as I Can" episode of The Simpsons, he hosts the "Spellympics" and attempts to bribe Lisa Simpson to lose with the offer of a scholarship at a Seven Sisters College and a hot plate; "it's perfect for soup!" He had a recurring role as the grandfather of Dr. Carter on the NBC series ER. He also appeared in an episode of the NBC sitcom Wings.
Plimpton appeared in the 1989 documentary The Tightrope Dancer which featured the life and the work of the artist Vali Myers. He was one of her original supporters and had published an article about her work in The Paris Review. He also appeared in the 1996 documentary When We Were Kings about the "Rumble in the Jungle" 1974 Ali-Foreman Championship fight opposite Norman Mailer crediting Muhammad Ali as a poet who composed the world's shortest poem: "Me? Whee!!"
Plimpton was a member of the cast of the A&E TV series A Nero Wolfe Mystery (2001–02). In 2013, the documentary Plimpton! Starring George Plimpton as Himself, directed by Tom Bean and Luke Poling, was released. The film used archival audio and video of Plimpton lecturing and reading to create a posthumous narration.
Fireworks
Plimpton was a demolitions expert in the post-World War II Army. After returning to New York from Paris, he routinely launched fireworks at his evening parties.
His enthusiasm for fireworks grew, and he was appointed Fireworks Commissioner of New York by Mayor John Lindsay, an unofficial post he held until his death.
In 1975, in Bellport, Long Island, Plimpton, with Fireworks by Grucci attempted to break the record for the world's largest firework. His firework, a Roman candle named "Fat Man", weighed and was expected to rise to or more and deliver a wide starburst. When lit, the firework remained on the ground and exploded, blasting a crater wide and deep. A later attempt, fired at Cape Canaveral, rose approximately into the air and broke 700 windows in Titusville, Florida.
With Felix Grucci, Plimpton competed in the 16th International Fireworks Festival in 1979 in Monte Carlo. After several problems with transporting and preparing the fireworks, Plimpton and Grucci became the first competitors from the United States to win the event. Plimpton later wrote the book Fireworks, and hosted an A&E Home Video with the same name featuring his many fireworks adventures with the Gruccis of New York in Monte Carlo and for the 1983 Brooklyn Bridge Centennial.
Parodies of Plimpton's career
A November 6, 1971, cartoon in The New Yorker by Whitney Darrow Jr. shows a cleaning lady on her hands and knees scrubbing an office floor while saying to another one: "I'd like to see George Plimpton do this sometime." In another cartoon in The New Yorker, a patient looks up at the masked surgeon about to operate on him and asks, "Wait a minute! How do I know you're not George Plimpton?" A feature in Mad titled "Some Really Dangerous Jobs for George Plimpton" spotlighted him trying to swim across Lake Erie, strolling through New York's Times Square in the middle of the night, and spending a week with Jerry Lewis.
Personal life
Plimpton was known for his distinctive accent which, by Plimpton's own admission, was often mistaken for an English accent. Plimpton himself described it as a "New England cosmopolitan accent" or "Eastern seaboard cosmopolitan" accent. His son, Taylor, described it as a mixture of "old New England, old New York, tinged with a hint of King's College King's English."
Plimpton was married twice. His first wife, whom he married in 1968 and divorced in 1988, was Freddy Medora Espy, a photographer's assistant. She was the daughter of writers Willard R. Espy and Hilda S. Cole, who had, earlier in her career, been a publicity agent for Kate Smith and Fred Waring. They had two children: Medora Ames Plimpton and Taylor Ames Plimpton, who has published a memoir entitled Notes from the Night: A Life After Dark.
In 1992, Plimpton married Sarah Whitehead Dudley, a graduate of Columbia University and a freelance writer. She is the daughter of James Chittenden Dudley, a managing partner of Manhattan-based investment firm Dudley and Company, and geologist Elisabeth Claypool. The Dudleys established the Highstead Arboretum in Redding, Connecticut. Plimpton and Dudley were the parents of twin daughters Laura Dudley Plimpton and Olivia Hartley Plimpton.
Friendship with Robert F. Kennedy
At Harvard, Plimpton was a classmate and close personal friend of Robert F. Kennedy. Plimpton, along with former decathlete Rafer Johnson and American football star Rosey Grier, was credited with helping wrestle Sirhan Sirhan to the floor when Kennedy was assassinated following his victory in the 1968 California Democratic primary at the former Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles, California. Kennedy died the next day at Good Samaritan Hospital.
Death and tributes
Plimpton died on September 25, 2003, in his New York City apartment from a heart attack later determined to have been caused by a catecholamine surge. He was 76.
An oral biography titled George, Being George was edited by Nelson W. Aldrich Jr., and released on October 21, 2008. The book offers memories of Plimpton from among other writers, such as Norman Mailer, William Styron, Gay Talese and Gore Vidal, and was written with the cooperation of both his ex-wife and his widow.
In the movie Plimpton! Starring George Plimpton as Himself, the writer James Salter said of Plimpton that "he was writing in a genre that really doesn't permit greatness."
In 2006, the musician Jonathan Coulton wrote the song entitled "A Talk with George", a part of his 'Thing a Week' series, in tribute to Plimpton's many adventures and approach to life.
Plimpton is the protagonist of the semi-fictional George Plimpton's Video Falconry, a 1983 ColecoVision game postulated by humorist John Hodgman and recreated by video game auteur Tom Fulp.
Researcher and writer Samuel Arbesman filed with NASA to name an asteroid after Plimpton; NASA issued the certificate 7932 Plimpton in 2009.
His final interview appeared in The New York Sports Express of October 2, 2003 by journalist Dave Hollander.
Selected works
Publications
Author
Letters in Training (letters to home from Italy, privately printed, 1946)
The Rabbit's Umbrella (children's book, 1955)
Out of My League (baseball, 1961)
Go Caroline, (about Caroline Kennedy, privately printed, 1963)
Paper Lion (about his experience playing professional football with the Detroit Lions, 1966)
The Bogey Man (about his experiences travelling with the PGA Tour, 1967)
Mad Ducks and Bears (about Detroit Lions linemen Alex Karras and John Gordy, with extensive chapters focused on Hall of Fame quarterback Bobby Layne and Plimpton's return to football, this time with the Baltimore Colts, 1973)
One for the Record: The Inside Story of Hank Aaron's Chase for the Home Run Record (1974)
Shadow Box (about boxing, author's bout with Archie Moore, Ali-Foreman showdown in Zaire, 1977)
One More July (about the last NFL training camp of former Packer and future coach Bill Curry, 1977)
Fireworks: A History and Celebration (1984)
Open Net (about his experience playing professional ice hockey with the Boston Bruins, 1985)
The Curious Case of Sidd Finch (a novel that extends a Sports Illustrated April Fools piece about a fictitious baseball pitcher who could throw at over , 1987)
The X Factor: A Quest for Excellence (1990)
The Best of Plimpton (1990)
Truman Capote: In Which Various Friends, Enemies, Acquaintances, and Detractors Recall His Turbulent Career (1997)
The Man in the Flying Lawn Chair: And Other Excursions and Observations (2004)
Editor
Writers at Work (The Paris Review Interviews), several volumes
American Journey: the Times of Robert Kennedy (with Jean Stein)
As Told at the Explorers Club: More Than Fifty Gripping Tales of Adventure.
“Edie: An American Girl”
Introductions
The Writer's Chapbook: A Compendium of Fact, Opinion, Wit, and Advice from the 20th Century's Preeminent Writers
Above New York, by Robert Cameron
Film appearances
Lawrence of Arabia (1962) – Bedouin (uncredited)
Beyond the Law (1968) – Mayor
Hickory Hill (1968) – narrator in Richard Leacock's documentary on the Annual Spring Pet Show at Robert F. Kennedy's Virginia estate, Hickory Hill (McLean, Virginia)
The Detective (1968) – Reporter (uncredited)
Paper Lion (1968) – Plimpton, played by Alan Alda, is the lead character in the largely fictional film, loosely based on the 1966 nonfiction book. Anecdotally, Plimpton appeared in the film in an uncredited cameo in a crowd scene.
Rio Lobo (1970) – 4th Gunman (Plimpton's preparation and filming for his role as "Fourth Gunman" was the subject of a 1972 television program.)
The Private Files of J. Edgar Hoover (1977) – Quentin Reynolds
If Ever I See You Again (1978) – Lawrence Lawrence
Reds (1981) – Horace Whigham
Garbo Talks (1984) – Himself (uncredited)
Volunteers (1985) – Lawrence Bourne Jr.
A Fool and His Money (1989) – God
Easy Wheels (1989) – Surgeon
The Bonfire of the Vanities (1990) – Well Wisher
L.A. Story (1991) – Straight Weatherman
Little Man Tate (1991) – Winston F. Buckner
Ken Burns' Baseball (1994) – Himself
Just Cause (1995) – Elder Phillips
Nixon (1995) – President's Lawyer
When We Were Kings (1996) – Himself – Writer
Good Will Hunting (Miramax, 1997) – Henry Lipkin – Psychologist
The Last Days of Disco (1998) – Clubgoer
EDtv (1999) – Panel Member
Just Visiting (2001) – Dr. Brady
Sam the Man (2001) – Himself
The Devil and Daniel Webster (2003) – Himself (uncredited)
Factory Girl (2006) – Himself
Soul Power (2008) – Himself
Plimpton! Starring George Plimpton as Himself (2012) – Himself
Television appearances
Plimpton! The Man on the Flying Trapeze, (documentary), himself, ABC, February 1971
Mouseterpiece Theater, host, himself, Disney Channel, 1983–1984
Uncensored Channels: TV Around the World with George Plimpton, 1986
The Civil War, reading the diary of New Yorker, George Templeton Strong, 1990
Wings, "The Shrink", Dr. Grayson 1994
Voice, Baseball: A Film by Ken Burns, PBS 1994
Married... with Children, 200 Episode Special Host "Best O' Bundy" 1995
ER, playing "John Truman Carter, Sr.", 1998 and 2001
Saturday Night Live, as himself, uncredited, 1999 and 2002. In the March 13 episode of Saturday Night Live Season 1, he is one of the audience cutaway shots (usually featured in the early seasons with comedic and fictitious non-sequitur captions as to who the audience member was, or what they did). He is labelled as having "Roomed with Wendy Yoshimura".
Just Shoot Me, playing himself in the show's A&E Biography of fictional character 'Nina Van Horn', 2000
A Nero Wolfe Mystery (2001–02) – Member of the repertory cast, playing various roles in "Eeny Meeny Murder Mo", "Over My Dead Body", "Death of a Doxy", "Murder Is Corny", "Help Wanted, Male", "The Silent Speaker" and "Immune to Murder"
The Simpsons, playing himself in the episode "I'm Spelling as Fast as I Can", originally aired February 16, 2003
Commercial appearances on television
Oldsmobile Vista Cruiser, pitchman, himself, released by Oldsmobile in late 1968 for the 1969 model year
Intellivision, pitchman, himself, released by Mattel in 1980. Plimpton was featured in a string of Intellivision commercials and print ads in the early 1980s.
"Pop-Secret", pitchman, himself.
Literary characterizations
Plimpton appears as a character in Philip Roth's novel, Exit Ghost.
See also
Notes
References
Aldrich, Nelson W. George, Being George: George Plimpton's Life as Told, Admired, Deplored, and Envied by 200 Friends, Relatives, Lovers, Acquaintances, Rivals—and a Few Unappreciative Observers New York. Publisher: Random House, Inc., 2009 .
Chase, Levi Badger. A genealogy and historical notices of the family of Plimpton or Plympton in America: and of Plumpton in England (1884) Publisher: Plimpton Mfg. Company 1884.
Miller, Alice Duer. A History of Barnard College: The First Fifty Years New York. Publisher: Columbia University Press (January 1, 1939).
Further reading
Aldrich, Nelson W.George, Being George: George Plimpton's Life as Told, Admired, Deplored, and Envied by 200 Friends, Relatives, Lovers, Acquaintances, Rivals—and a Few Unappreciative Observers. New York: Random House, 2009. .
Chase, Levi Badger A genealogy and historical notices of the family of Plimpton or Plympton in America and of Plumpton in England. Plimpton Mfg. Company 1884.
Swetz, Frank, J. (1987). Capitalism and Arithmetic. La Salle: Open Court.
The author describes his years of working with Plimpton in Paris.
An essay by George Plimpton.
External links
1969 St. Louis Literary Award Recipient
Animal Tales Official Site
1927 births
2003 deaths
20th-century American journalists
21st-century American journalists
Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
American magazine editors
American magazine founders
American male actors
American male journalists
20th-century American memoirists
United States Army personnel of World War II
Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy
Butler–Ames family
Detroit Lions players
The Harvard Lampoon alumni
Harvard College alumni
Mainland High School alumni
Military personnel from New York City
Journalists from New York City
People from the Upper East Side
People from West Hills, New York
Phillips Exeter Academy alumni
The Paris Review
United States Army soldiers
Writers from Manhattan
World Football League announcers
Hasty Pudding alumni
St. Bernard's School alumni
Sportswriters from New York (state) | [
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242038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer%20Chicken | Pioneer Chicken | Pioneer Chicken (or Pioneer Take Out, as it is officially named) is an American fried chicken restaurant chain which was founded in Echo Park, Los Angeles in 1961 by H.R. Kaufman. When Kaufman sold the chain in 1987, there were 270 restaurants operated by 220 franchisees.
During the 1970s, several locations operated in Honolulu on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. As of 2021, there are only two locations remaining, one in the Boyle Heights district of Los Angeles and the other in Bell Gardens, California, both unrelated former franchises.
Origins
It was named after Pioneer Market, a now-defunct small chain of supermarkets in Los Angeles. The original location in Echo Park was located next to the 1980s-era Pioneer Market (the original 1932 market was razed in the 1980s due to the Sylmar earthquake) at Echo Park Avenue and Sunset Boulevard, which was replaced by a Walgreens Pharmacy in 2004. Due to considerable redevelopment activity in the neighborhood, the original Pioneer Chicken location was shut down in March 2009 and replaced by a Little Caesar's Pizza the following year. During the 1980s, Los Angeles Lakers announcer Chick Hearn and former football player O. J. Simpson advertised for the restaurant.
Pioneer Chicken was remembered for its bright orange deep fried chicken, menu option of gizzards and livers as appetizers, and Pioneer Pete, the company mascot and main character in comic books that were provided with their kid's meals.
Bankruptcy
In 1988 founder H. R. Kaufman and business associate Terrence P. Goggin filed for Chapter 11 in Federal Bankruptcy Court. At that point, Pioneer Chicken had 220 franchise owners and 270 stores. The company faltered under competition pressure from Kentucky Fried Chicken.
AFC Enterprises acquisition
In 1993, Popeyes Chicken & Biscuits owner AFC Enterprises purchased the franchise and converted most locations to Popeyes.
Locations
There are two remaining locations in the Los Angeles area: 1) 904 S. Soto Street, Los Angeles; 2) 6323 E. Florence Avenue, Bell Gardens.
In Indonesia
In 1983, three Indonesian alumni from the University of Southern California decided to open a Pioneer Chicken franchise in Jakarta under the name California Fried Chicken.
As of 2013, the parent company of the stores in Indonesia, Pioneerindo Gourmet International, have over 200 CFC restaurants throughout that nation. CFC had a few franchises in Shanghai during the 1990s, but they may not currently exist.
Media
Warren Zevon's song "Carmelita" refers to Pioneer Chicken: "I pawned my Smith Corona/And I went to meet my man / He hangs out down on Alvarado Street/By the Pioneer chicken stand". In The Aquabats 1997 song "Magic Chicken!", the singer invites the listener to "Do the Pioneer!" during a funk breakdown where various chicken restaurant franchises are named.
The opening of the film The Last American Virgin shows a Pioneer Chicken location at the northeast corner of Hollywood & Western in the background as the protagonist Gary (Lawrence Monoson), drives off making a pizza delivery. The same location is shown in one scene in Death Wish II and towards the end of the music video for DeBarge's "Rhythm Of The Night"
A Pioneer Chicken location is briefly shown in the background in the 1982 film Fast Times at Ridgemont High during the restaurant scene involving the dissatisfied customer. The site was located on San Vicente Boulevard in Brentwood, Los Angeles. The Silverlake location can be seen in the background of The Hollywood Strangler Meets the Skid Row Slasher.
A Pioneer Chicken outlet is shown at the beginning of Armed And Dangerous when one of the film's protagonists, Frank Dooley (John Candy) is on patrol just before he is framed.
In the first season opening montage of the television series Full House, a jumbo pack box of chicken is shown next to baby Michelle with the slogan "Home of the Golden Pioneer Chicken" on the side. This montage is also seen in the first episode of the reboot Fuller House.
The pilot episode of The White Shadow shows Pioneer Chicken in the last 15 minutes of the episode as the team travels down the boulevard.
Pioneer Chicken was also seen in the "Brat Patrol" episode of the TV series CHiPs.
In the Hughes Brothers documentary American Pimp the Pioneer Chicken 904 S. Soto Street is featured as described by Rosebudd, one of the pimps interviewed.
In Straight Time, the character Max Dembo (Dustin Hoffman) is shown at a Pioneer Chicken stand counting his money after having robbed a grocery store.
In Hot Moves, Michael (Adam Silbar) and his three high school buddies drive past a Pioneer Chicken in Venice Beach, CA while looking to pick up a prostitute for Joey (Jeff Fishman).
See also
List of fast-food chicken restaurants
Further reading
Vintage Pioneer Chicken Sign Heading to Museum Los Angeles Magazine March 2, 2016
References
Fast-food poultry restaurants
Fast-food chains of the United States
Restaurants in Los Angeles
History of Los Angeles
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1988
Restaurants established in 1961
1961 establishments in California
Bell Gardens, California
Chicken chains of the United States | [
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242039 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NZ%20Post | NZ Post | NZ Post (), shortened from New Zealand Post, is a state-owned enterprise responsible for providing postal service in New Zealand.
The New Zealand Post Office, a government agency, provided postal, banking, and telecommunications services in New Zealand until 1987. By the 1980s, however, economic difficulties made the government reconsider how it delivered postal services. For example, in 1987–1988, the postal division lost NZ$50 million. In 1985, the Labour Party government under Prime Minister David Lange launched a review, led by New Zealand Motor Corporation CEO Roy Mason and KPMG New Zealand Chairman Michael Morris, to find solutions to the Post Office's problems. In its final report, the team recommended transforming the New Zealand Post Office into three state-owned enterprises. The government in 1986 decided to follow the Mason-Morris review's recommendations, and passed through parliament the State-Owned Enterprises Act, which corporatised several government agencies into state-owned enterprises. The Post Office's corporatisation was then completed with the 1987 passage of the Postal Services Act. The two acts broke up the New Zealand Post Office into three corporations: the postal service firm New Zealand Post Limited, the savings bank Post Office Bank Limited, later rebranded as PostBank, and the telecommunications company Telecom New Zealand Limited. Today, only NZ Post remains a state-owned enterprise, as PostBank and Telecom were privatised in 1989 and 1990, respectively.
In its first year of operation, New Zealand Post turned the losses of previous years into a NZ$72 million profit.
A year after the 1987 Post Office Act, the Lange Government declared its plan to fully privatise the post. To prepare for privatisation, it decided to gradually reduce NZ Post's monopoly. When it was corporatised in 1987, New Zealand Post had a monopoly for mail up to 500 grams and NZ$1.75 value. This was first reduced to $1.35, then $1, and finally 80 cents. The government also let NZ Post downsize by closing a third of its locations. In 1991–1992, another review came out in support of the government's privatisation plan. However, by the end of 1993 the government abandoned its plan because of public opposition.
New Zealand Post began its life with 1,244 post offices, later rebranded as PostShops, of which 906 were full post offices and 338 were postal agencies. After government subsidies expired in February 1988, 600 post offices or bank branches were downsized or closed. As of March 1998, there were 297 PostShops and 705 Post Centres. However, there are now more outlets than before corporatisation, with 2,945 other retailers of postage stamps.
There was a reduction in the "real" price of postage, with a nominal drop of the postage rate from 45 cents to 40 cents in 1996, and restoration of the 45 cent rate in 2004. Since then the cost has risen to 50 cents in 2007, to 60 cents in 2010 and to 70 cents in 2012. On 1 July 2016 postage for standard letters will increase by 20 cents to $1.00 and Fastpost by 40 cents to $1.80.
Regulation
The Lange government's Postal Services Act 1987 reduced the monopoly of New Zealand Post to a limit of $1.75 and 500 grams. It was gradually reduced to 80 cents in December 1991 until the 1998 legislation took effect.
The Postal Services Act 1998, passed by a National-New Zealand First coalition government, repealed the 1987 Act. The new law provides for any person to become a registered postal operator by applying to the Ministry of Economic Development (now Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment). Registration as a postal operator is compulsory for letters with postage less than 80 cents. Despite the Act, government regulation of the company still requires it to maintain certain minimum service levels, such as frequency of delivery.
New Zealand Post's exclusive right to be the 'sole operator' under the Act for the purposes of the Universal Postal Union (UPU) expired on 1 April 2003. For practical purposes, this meant another postal operator could theoretically issue stamps identified simply as 'New Zealand' with UPU membership. At around the same time, New Zealand Post adopted a fern-shaped identifying mark on its postage stamps, to be used on the majority of its future issues.
Since 1998 NZ Post has been legally obliged to deliver six days a week, but in 2013 the company outlined a plan to reduce this to three, in the wake of falling mail volumes. Prime Minister John Key backed the idea, saying people "genuinely understand that the world is changing".
NZ Post is legally obligated to maintain a certain service level under a deed of understanding it signed with the New Zealand government following the post's corporatisation in 1987. According to the agreement, last amended in 2013, New Zealand Post has to operate at least 880 service points where basic postal services are available, and within this network 240 so-called “Personal Assistance Service Points,” where additional postal services, such as priority or parcel services, are available. As of 30 June 2016, New Zealand Post maintained 987 service points, 511 which were personal assistance service points. In all, the post operated 882 retail locations in mid-2016.
The standard of signature/non-signature parcel delivery services, varies with their customers sometimes left a mailbox card instructing them to pick up parcels from the nearest NZ Post Depot or if a small address discrepancy/address damage is discovered, the parcel is invariably returned to the sender, usually with no efforts directed toward telephoning, emailing or looking up the recipient in a directory, whist more effort is prioritised into delivering miss-addressed letters.
Operations
In 1989 New Zealand Post established CourierPost, a nationwide courier company designed to protect the company's parcel business from private competition. By 1998 CourierPost had become the number one player in the express courier market.
In 1999 New Zealand Post launched a 50:50 joint operation with Blue Star. The new brand – Books and More – combined bookshop operations with the more traditional PostShop services. After acquiring 100% of the company in 2004 (by this stage the other 50% had been owned by WH Smith, owner of Whitcoulls bookshops) the entire operation was eventually sold to Paper Plus in 2005 and by 2006 all had been re-branded as Take Note.
In 2002 New Zealand Post, as part of government policy, opened the bank Kiwibank Limited in the majority of its PostShop and Books and More (now Take Note) branches. Kiwibank is wholly owned by New Zealand Post through subsidiaries.
In 2002 NZ Post bought The ECN Group which is now New Zealand Post's corporate venturing arm. Its purpose is to develop and market technologies and services that may replace or enhance New Zealand Post's traditional services. The ECN Group focuses on B2B messaging, business process management and systems integration, with a presence in New Zealand, Australia and Asia.
In 2004 New Zealand Post announced the formation of Express Couriers Ltd (ECL), a 50:50 joint venture with courier company DHL. In 2008 New Zealand Post and DHL commenced a similar joint venture in Australia called Parcel Direct Group Pty Limited (PDG). In 2012 New Zealand Post purchased DHL's holdings in these two companies. ECL operates extensive courier and logistics services throughout New Zealand and encompasses the CourierPost, Pace, RoadStar and Contract Logistics brands.
New Zealand Post also owned 35% of IT firm Datacom Group until December 2012.
New Zealand Post also runs the Electoral Enrolment Centre as a business unit under contract to the Ministry of Justice. Its function is to compile and maintain all electoral rolls for parliamentary and local government elections.
On 6 July 2010, New Zealand Post registered a 100 percent stake in Localist Limited, a local directory and social media site focusing initially on the Auckland region. This holding was sold in 2014 in a management buyout led by the then CEO, Christine Domecq.
By end of June 2011, New Zealand Post will have 910 postal outlets and 280 PostShop Kiwibank stores after shuts and downgrades more than a dozen branches nationwide. To compensate, the company was also planning to install new self-service kiosks similar to ATMs for handling letters, bill payments and parcels.
One of the ways New Zealand Post is trying to make up for lost revenue due to fewer people sending letters is partnering with other companies. The Post on 3 April 2017 announced that it will work with fast food restaurant chain KFC to have postal drivers deliver KFC's food to customers. The partnership will be piloted in the northern city of Tauranga, then expanded to more locations across New Zealand.
On the 24 June 2021, New Zealand Post announced a new logo and rebranding to unite their NZ Post, Pace and CourierPost brands into one brand in order to reduce confusion among customers. This rebranding exercise costs NZ$15 million and will take place over a period of three years; focusing on the repainting of courier vans. The company is also spending $170 million to establish new processing centres in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.
Issue of stamps
NZ Post is responsible for deciding on stamp design and stamp production. From 1 April 1998 until 1 April 2003, only New Zealand Post was allowed to issue postage stamps that bear the words "New Zealand," according to New Zealand law. Each year the Post's stamp business unit sets how many stamps it will issue and what the stamps will depict. The Post considers suggestions from New Zealand citizens and people around the world when deciding the subject of stamps. It also works with organizations to create commemorative stamps. For example, in 2014, the Post collaborated with Air New Zealand to issue a stamp for the airline's 75th anniversary.
Once a decision on the stamp's subject is made, the Post asks at least two designers to draw a sketch, from which the final design is chosen. There are four things each stamp design must include: the stamp's denomination, the words New Zealand, a fern, one of the country's unofficial symbols, and a description of what the stamp depicts. Finally, the Post uses printers from around the world to print the stamps–it does not print them itself.
New Zealand's first stamp was issued by NZ Post's predecessor, the Post Office Department of the New Zealand government, in 1855. The stamp depicted Queen Victoria, then the Queen of New Zealand, and was printed in one penny, two pence and one shilling denominations.
See also
Postcodes in New Zealand
Royal Mail
Canada Post
Australia Post
References
External links
NZ Post
Postal Policy at the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment
Kiwibank Limited
NZ Post Collectables
Postal organizations
Government-owned companies of New Zealand
Postal system of New Zealand | [
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242042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lili%20Marleen | Lili Marleen | "Lili Marleen" (also spelled "Lili Marlen'", "Lilli Marlene", "Lily Marlene", "Lili Marlène" among others; ) is a German love song that became popular during World War II throughout Europe and the Mediterranean among both Axis and Allied troops. Written in 1915 as a poem, the song was published in 1937 and was first recorded by Lale Andersen in 1939 as "Das Mädchen unter der Laterne" ("The Girl under the Lantern").
In 2005, Bear Family Records released a 7-CD set Lili Marleen an allen Fronten ("Lili Marleen on all Fronts"), including nearly 200 versions of "Lili Marleen" with a 180-page booklet. ().
Creation
The words were written in 1915 as a poem of three verses by Hans Leip (1893–1983), a school teacher from Hamburg who had been conscripted into the Imperial German Army. Leip reportedly combined the nickname of his friend's girlfriend, Lili, with the name of another friend, Marleen, who was a nurse. The poem was later published in 1937 as "Das Lied eines jungen Soldaten auf der Wacht" ("The Song of a Young Soldier on Watch"), with two further verses added.
It was set to music by Norbert Schultze in 1938 and recorded by Lale Andersen for the first time in 1939. In early 1942 she recorded the song in English, the lyrics translated by Norman Baillie-Stewart, a turncoat former British army officer working for German propaganda .
Songwriter Tommie Connor also wrote English lyrics with the title "Lily of the Lamplight" in 1944. Another English translation was done by Dr. Theodore Stephanides during World War II and published in his memoir Climax in Crete in 1946.
Exposure and reception
After the occupation of Belgrade in 1941, Radio Belgrade became the German forces' radio station under the name of Soldatensender Belgrad (Soldiers' Radio Belgrade), with transmissions heard throughout Europe and the Mediterranean.
While on leave in Vienna, a lieutenant working at the station was asked to collect a pile of second-hand records from the Reich radio station. Among them was "Lili Marleen" sung by Lale Andersen, which up till then had sold around 700 copies. Karl-Heinz Reintgen, the German officer in charge of the station, began playing the song on the air. For lack of other recordings, Radio Belgrade played the song frequently.
At one point the Nazi government's propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels, ordered broadcasting of the song to stop. Radio Belgrade received letters from Axis soldiers all over Europe asking them to play "Lili Marleen" again. Erwin Rommel, commander of the Afrika Korps, admired the song and asked Radio Belgrade to incorporate it into their broadcasts. Goebbels reluctantly changed his mind, and from then on the tune was used to sign-off the broadcast at 9:55 p.m.
The song was published in South Africa, in a wartime leaflet, with an anonymous English translation, as "Lili Marleen: The Theme Song of the Eighth Army and the 6th Armoured Division".
Lale Andersen was awarded a gold disc for over one million sales (HMV - EG 6993). It is thought she was awarded her copy after hostilities ended. HMV's copy was discarded during renovations to their Oxford Street store in the 1960s, but the disc was recovered and is now in a private collection.
Many Allied soldiers made a point of listening to the song at the end of the day. For example, in his memoir Eastern Approaches, Fitzroy Maclean describes the song's effect in the spring of 1942 during the Western Desert Campaign: "Husky, sensuous, nostalgic, sugar-sweet, her voice seemed to reach out to you, as she lingered over the catchy tune, the sickly sentimental words. Belgrade... The continent of Europe seemed a long way away. I wondered when I would see it again and what it would be like by the time we got there."
The next year, parachuted into the Yugoslav guerrilla war, Maclean wrote: "Sometimes at night, before going to sleep, we would turn on our receiving set and listen to Radio Belgrade. For months now, the flower of the Afrika Korps had been languishing behind the barbed wire of Allied prison camps. But still, punctually at ten o'clock, came Lale Andersen singing their special song, with the same unvarying, heart-rending sweetness that we knew so well from the desert. [...] Belgrade was still remote. But, now [...] it had become our ultimate goal, which Lili Marlene and her nostalgic little tune seemed somehow to symbolise."
In the autumn of 1944, the liberation of Belgrade seemed not far away. "Then, at ten o'clock, loud and clear, Radio Belgrade; Lili Marlene, sweet, insidious, melancholy. 'Not much longer now,' we would say, as we switched it off." As the Red Army was advancing on Belgrade, he reflected again on the song. "At Valjevo, as at so many other places [...] we would tune our wireless sets in the evening to Radio Belgrade, and night after night, always at the same time, would come, throbbing lingeringly over the ether, the cheap, sugary and almost painfully nostalgic melody, the sex-laden, intimate, heart-rending accents of Lili Marlene. 'Not gone yet,' we would say to each other. 'I wonder if we'll find her when we get there.' Then one evening at the accustomed time there was silence. 'Gone away,' we said."
Allied soldiers in Italy later adapted the tune to their own lyrics, creating the "D-Day Dodgers" song. A cartoon by Bill Mauldin in the American army newspaper Stars and Stripes shows two soldiers in a foxhole, one playing a harmonica, while the other comments, "The krauts ain't following ya too good on 'Lili Marlene' tonight, Joe. Think somethin' happened to their tenor?"
Marlene Dietrich version
In 1944, the Morale Operations Branch of the U.S. Office of Strategic Services (OSS) initiated the Muzak Project, musical propaganda broadcasts designed to demoralize enemy soldiers. Marlene Dietrich, the only performer who was told her recordings would be for OSS use, recorded a number of songs in German for the project, including "Lili Marleen".
Dietrich also performed "Lili Marlene", as well as many other songs, live in Europe for Allied troops, often on rickety, makeshift stages.
"Lili Marleen" became a massive success, specifically on the German language OSS MO radio station Soldatensender, where it became the station's theme song. After its warm reception by the troops in Europe, the song was re-recorded and released, with the spelling "Lili Marlene" after her name, Marlene, with Charles Magnante on the accordion, citing him as the "orchestra director" for both it and the single's B-side, "Symphonie", sung in French. The single was released by Decca Records in 1945. The original OSS recording of "Lili Marleen" remains unissued.
In 1961, Dietrich starred in the film Judgment at Nuremberg, a dramatization of the war trials. In one scene she walks down a rubbled street, ravaged by Allied attacks, with Spencer Tracy's character. As they approach a bar they hear men inside singing "Lili Marleen" in German. Dietrich begins to sing along with the song, translating a few lyrics for Tracy, referring to the German lyrics as "much sadder" than the English.
While she was touring the world in live one-woman cabaret shows from 1953 to 1975, the song was part of Dietrich's usual line-up, usually following "Falling in Love Again". She always introduced her signature song with some variation of this quote, from a 1960s concert, somewhere in Europe:
Dietrich sang "Lili Marlene" in her television special An Evening with Marlene Dietrich, which aired on the BBC in the UK and on CBS in the US in 1973, and was featured on four of her six original albums.
She also recorded and performed it in both the original German version and the English adaptation. Both versions have appeared on countless compilation albums worldwide, several of them titled after the song. After 5 shows in Japan, between 15 and 25 December 1974, two singles of the song were released by both EMI and MCA Records in 1975. The MCA Records release (D-1284) peaked #93 in the Oricon charts and spend three weeks there, and sold a total of 8,000 copies, this version has "Falling in Love Again" as a B-side. The EMI release (EMR-10761) peaked #42 in the charts and spend 11 weeks in it, selling a total of 56,000 in the country, this version has "Die Antwort Weiss Ganz Allein Der Wind" (Blowin' In The Wind) as a B-side.
Track listings
English version
10" single
Original issuing of the song by Decca Records in the US and Brunswick Records in the UK was on 10". Decca re-issued the single on 7" during the 1950s and early 1970s. This is also the version of the single that was reissued by MCA in 1978 and 1980 on 7".
7" Brunswick re-issue
Most likely re-issued in the 1970s, it was originally released in the Netherlands on 7" by Brunswick Records. This version of the single was re-issued again in the UK in 1989, and in 1992 it was issued in Germany, both by MCA, the 1989 re-issue also having been released by Old Gold Records.
German version
7" EP Philips issue
Released in 1959 by Philips Records in association with Columbia Records on 7" in the Netherlands, it was intended as an abridged extended play version of an internationally released compilation album of the same name, consisting of songs sung in German by Dietrich.
7" Columbia International issue
Released in 1961 by CBS Records on 7" in the Netherlands.
7" EMI Italiana issue
Released in 1962 by EMI Italiana on 7" in Italy.
Personnel
List of personnel for the original 1945 single.
Marlene Dietrich - vocalist
Charles Magnante - orchestra director, accordion
Charles Magnate Orchestral
Connie Francis version
American entertainer Connie Francis recorded "Lili Marlene" on 3 June 1961. She recorded the single's B-side, "Mond von Mexico", on 5 October 1961. Both songs were recorded in Vienna, Austria at the Austrophon Studio. The single was released in 1962, marking her seventh single in German. Francis also recorded the song in Italian and French. Her version of "Lili Marleen" peaked at number 9 on the German music charts.
Track listing
7"
Credits adapted from the liner notes of original release.
Personnel
Fini Busch - composer (B)
Connie Francis - vocalist
Hans Leip - composer (A)
Gerhard Mendelsohn - producer
Werner Scharfenberger - composer (B)
Norbert Schultze - composer (A)
Chart performance
Amanda Lear version
French singer Amanda Lear recorded a Eurodisco cover of the song in 1978 and released it as the B-side of the single "Gold" as well as a standalone single. The German-English language version later appeared on her third studio LP Never Trust a Pretty Face. French editions of the album included a German-French version of the track.
Lear performed "Lili Marleen" in the 1978 Italian film Zio Adolfo in arte Führer.
The singer later re-recorded the song for her albums Cadavrexquis (1993) and Heart (2001), the latter version with updated lyrics, written by Norbert Schultze shortly before his passing.
Track listing
7" single (1978)
A. "Lili Marleen" – 4:45
B. "Pretty Boys" – 2:55
7" Argentine single (1979)
A. "Lili Marlene" – 4:45
B. "Soñador (Sur Pacifico)" ("Dreamer (South Pacific)") – 5:15
Chart performance
Other versions
While the Italian version, translated by lyricist Nino Rastelli and recorded in 1942 by Lina Termini, was probably the first to be released, the earliest English language recording of the song was probably Anne Shelton's, but a number of cover versions followed. A version called "The D-Day Dodgers" with words by Harry Pynn was sung by the allied troops in Italy once the Normandy invasion had begun in 1944. A recording was made by Perry Como on 27 June 1944 and issued by RCA Victor on 78 rpm (catalog number 20-1592-A) with the flip side "First Class Private Mary Brown". This recording was later re-issued as catalog number 20-2824-A with flip side "I Love You Truly". The song reached chart position #13 on the United States charts. The song was recorded during the musicians' strike and consequently has a backing chorus instead of an orchestral backup. A version with French words by Henri Lemarchand was recorded by Suzy Solidor in 1941.
Other artists who recorded the song included Hildegarde (on Decca), Bing Crosby (recorded 30 December 1947), Martha Tilton (on Coral), and Vaughn Monroe (on V-Disc). Al Martino revived the song for Capitol Records in 1968. Another version was recorded in the 1960s by Hank Locklin, Connie Francis and Vera Lynn. A German version of the song also covered by Edith 'Lolita' Zuser. An instrumental version was also covered by Billy Vaughn. Hank Snow also recorded a version in 1963 on his album "I've Been Everywhere". Another French singer, Patricia Kaas used "Lili Marlene" as an intro for her song "D'Allemagne" and sang the entire song during concerts in the 1990s. Matia Bazar (Italy) recorded an uptempo beat song called "Lili Marleen" on her 1982 album Berlino, Parigi, Londra. The song is a "spoken words" early 1980s dance track. Spanish group Olé Olé, led by Marta Sánchez, released an electro-pop version of the song in 1985. It became one of the best-selling singles in Spain of the 1980s, and paved way for the singer to have a successful career. The song was eventually included in the also best-selling album Bailando sin salir de casa in 1986. German blackmetal band Eisregen recorded a version of "Lili Marlene" on their album Hexenhaus. The German Gothic metal/Industrial metal band Atrocity released the song in both languages (English & German) on Gemini: on the blue edition was the German version, and on the red edition was the English version. Kid Creole and the Coconuts included an uptempo, disco-influenced version of "Lili Marlene", with German lyrics sung by Coconut Adriana Kaegi, on their 1980 debut LP release Off the Coast of Me. Carly Simon recorded the song as the third track on her 1997 Arista CD Film Noir. It has also been translated into Hawaiian by Kiope Raymond, and recorded by Raymond and Pearl Rose on Rose's 2000 album Homecoming. Most recently it was recorded by Neil Hannon of the Irish pop group The Divine Comedy as a B-side to the 2006 single "A Lady of a Certain Age". A slow-tempo instrumental version can be found on the compilation LP, Vienna: City of Dreams, by the Austrian zither master Anton Karas. "Lili Marlene" has been adopted as the regimental slow march by the Special Air Service, Special Air Service Regiment and Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry, and its melody is the basis of the official march of Kodam III/Siliwangi in the Indonesian Army.
During WWII Soviet counterpropaganda officer (and future dissident) Lev Kopelev wrote a mockery parody of the original song for demoralization of enemy soldiers. The original text (in German) of this parody is lost, but famous Russian poet Joseph Brodsky wrote a poem in Russian, based on this parody. The poem is quite different from the original German song, though many Russians think the Brodsky version is an exact translation.
Other interpretations
It has been sung and marched as 'passacaille' and slow march by the Military of Chile in its adaptation to the Spanish Language. See the following video as an example.
It is also adapted to Indonesian as "March of Siliwangi Division" of the Indonesian Army. It was first sung by the Siliwangi Division while marching from West Java to Yogyakarta as a result of the Renville Agreement with the Dutch Government in February 1948. The song has 2 languages in 1 song, Indonesian and Sundanese (language used by the people of West Java). See following song.
Humphrey Jennings directed the 29-minute-long film The True Story of Lili Marlene in 1944 about the song.
The song features prominently in Lili Marlene (1950), starring Lisa Daniely. The film tells a fictionalised version of the story of the woman (played by Daniely) who purportedly inspired the song.
The song is sung in a bar in Germany in the 1961 film Judgment at Nuremberg. In a scene featuring Marlene Dietrich (who famously recorded the song several times), and Spencer Tracy, Dietrich's character explains to Tracy's that the German words are much sadder than the English translations.
The song's popularity among both Allied and Axis troops in the Western Desert front during World War Two was described in the British television program The World at War, a signal documentary series broadcast in 1973-74 and narrated by Laurence Olivier, in Episode 8, "The Desert: North Africa 1940-1943".
Malcolm Arnold took inspiration from "Lili Marleen" in the opening theme to the "St. Trinians" films.
Rainer Werner Fassbinder directed the 1980 film Lili Marleen, the story of Lale Andersen and her version of the song.
The song is featured prominently in a scene of a 1983 Yugoslavian film Balkan Express set during World War II. In the scene, a bar singer (portrayed by popular folk singer Toma Zdravković) refuses to sing the song to some German soldiers who then escort him out of the bar. Later in the scene, he returns to the stage and is depicted singing the song with blood on his face, implying he had been persuaded into singing by beating.
In the 1983 film The Right Stuff, a group of German rocket scientists working for NASA sing the song around a piano in a bar the night before one of the space flights.
The song appears several times during the World War II-themed 1988-1989 television miniseries War and Remembrance. On the Allied side, it is played during a party attended by some of the British and American characters, prompting the British journalist Philip Rule to sarcastically lament that the only memorable song to come out of the war would be "a cheap Hun ballad." On the German side, the SS men riding on the train taking the last Theresienstadt Jews to Auschwitz slowly sing it.
Estonian punk rock band Vennaskond released an Estonian version of the song on their album Usk. Lootus. Armastus. in 1993. Another Estonian group, Swing Swindlers, recorded a melancholy swinging version in 2007 (both in German and Estonian) and featured the song in their film Berlin 1945: Musik Unter Bomben with vocals by Mart Sander, Kelli Uustani, Nele-Liis Vaiksoo, and Pirjo Levandi.
The 2009 film Bad Day to Go Fishing, directed by Alvaro Brechner, showed an uncontrollable titan (Jouko Ahola) who could only be appeased by the melody of "Lili Marlene".
British singer-songwriter Katy Carr featured this song in English on her album Coquette (2009).
Dutch folk band Omnia recorded a version of the song on their 2011 album Musick and Poëtree.
It is often used as a song on the I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue round One Song to the Tune of Another. Whenever it is used, jokes are often made to the German heritage of the song, by making allusions to the Third Reich. (The song "Bermuda Triangle" was sung to the tune of "Lili Marlene" in one episode of the show.)
The song is referenced by Leonard Cohen in his 1971 released song, Famous Blue Raincoat.
Spanish singer Marta Sánchez sang a Spanish version both solo, and with her band Olé Olé.
In 2019 TV series Pennyworth, the SAS veterans, to whom the main character belongs, use Lili Marleen as their funeral march.
References
Further reading
Andersen, Lale (1981). Leben mit einem Lied. Munich
Leibovitz, Liel and Miller, Matthew (2008). Lili Marlene: The Soldiers' Song of World War II. New York: Norton.
Peters, Christian, Lili Marleen. Ein Schlager macht Geschichte, Aust.-Kat. Haus der Geschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Bonn 2001
Protte, Katja, "Mythos 'Lili Marleen': Ein Lied im Zeitalter der Weltkriege", in: Militärgeschichtliche Zeitschrift, Jg. 63 (2004), Heft 2, S. 355-400
Rose, Rosa Sala (2008/2010). Lili Marleen: Canción de amor y muerte/Geschichte eines Liedes von der Liebe und vom Tod. . English version (ebook): Lili Marlene: The Biography of a Song. .
Schultze, Norbert (1995). Mit dir, Lili Marleen. .
Wilson, Patrick Maitland (2002). Where the Nazis Came. .
External links
The Official Lili Marleen Page
Lili Marleen by Lale Anderson on Internet Archive
The Story Behind the Song: Lili Marleen, published in The Telegraph, 11 October 2008.
1938 songs
1945 singles
1962 singles
1978 singles
Marlene Dietrich songs
Amanda Lear songs
Connie Francis songs
German songs
Signature songs
German military marches
Songs about the military
Songs about fictional female characters
Songs about soldiers
Songs of World War II
Songs written by Tommie Connor | [
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242045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%B4nio%20Carlos%20Gomes | Antônio Carlos Gomes | Antônio Carlos Gomes (; Campinas, July 11, 1836 – Belém, September 16, 1896) was the first New World composer whose work was accepted by Europe. He was the only non-European who was successful as an opera composer in Italy, during the "golden age of opera", contemporary to Verdi and Puccini and the first composer of non-European lineage to be accepted into the Classic tradition of music.
Younger than Verdi, yet older than Puccini, Carlos Gomes achieved his first major success in a time when the Italian audiences were eager for a new name to celebrate and Puccini had not yet officially started his career. After the successful premiere of Il Guarany, Gomes was considered the most promising new composer. Verdi said his work was an expression of "true musical genius". Liszt said that “it displays dense technical maturity, full of harmonic and orchestral maturity.”
Life
He was born in Campinas, Empire of Brazil, son of Maestro Manuel José Gomes and Fabiana Maria Jaguari Cardoso.
His childhood's musical tendencies were soon stimulated by his father and by his older brother, José Pedro de Sant'Ana Gomes, also a conductor. José Pedro was the most dedicated guide and adviser in his brother's artistic career. He convinced Antônio to visit the Court where he became a protégé of Emperor Dom Pedro II, who, being notoriously interested in the careers of Brazilian artists and intellectuals, made it possible for Antônio Carlos to study at the Musical Conservatory of Rio de Janeiro.
After having graduated with honours, Carlos produced his first opera, A noite do castelo (September 1861), which was a big success. Two years later, he repeated it with his second opera, Joana de Flandres, which was considered superior to the first. These two pieces convinced the Emperor to offer him a Royal scholarship to study in Italy in 1864. He studied in Milan at the local conservatory with Lauro Rossi and Alberto Mazzucato and completed in three years a course which was normally completed in four years, obtaining the title of Maestro Composer.
Interested in composing an opera which dealt with a truly Brazilian subject, Carlos Gomes chose as the theme of his next work the romance novel O Guarani, by Brazilian writer José de Alencar. The opera was given an Indian subject and setting and it premiered in May 1870 at the La Scala Theater in Milan as Il Guarany.
The success was enormous. Even the most strict musical critics compared the Brazilian musician to the great European maestros, such as Rossini and Verdi. The King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel II, decorated the creator of the opera, which was presented in all major European capitals. Before that year was over, Gomes returned to Brazil, where he organized the premiere of Il Guarany in Rio de Janeiro. The piece achieved the same success Gomes had seen in Italy.
Returning to Italy, Carlos Gomes married Adelina Peri, an Italian pianist he had met while studying in Milan.
He wrote the hymn Il saluto del Brasile for the centenary of American independence which was performed in Philadelphia, on July 19, 1876.
In 1883 the maestro traveled to Brazil, receiving homages in every city he visited. When he returned to Italy, he dedicated himself to the composition of an opera themed against slavery, inspired by the liberation struggle of black slaves in Brazil, which got the title of Lo schiavo. The composition, which had been suggested by a great friend of Antônio's, a black engineer named André Rebouças, only debuted several years later in 1889.
When the Brazilian republic was proclaimed in 1889, Carlos Gomes, who at this time was in Campinas, sailed once more to Italy. Faithful to the Brazilian monarchy and Dom Pedro II, Gomes refused the opportunity given to him by president Deodoro da Fonseca to compose the new Brazilian National Anthem. In the following years, he composed the opera Condor and the cantata Colombo, for the Columbus Festival (October 12, 1892), in celebration of the fourth centenary of the discovery of America.
Invited by the governor of the Brazilian province of Pará to direct the Musical Conservatory, the maestro traveled to the capital Belém, willing to take the position. However, shortly after arriving, Carlos Gomes, by then an elderly man in poor health, died on September 16, 1896. Besides his eight operas, he composed songs (3 books), choruses, and piano pieces.
Gallery
Many honours were given to conductor Carlos Gomes throughout Brazil and abroad where he ruled and made fame.
Antônio Carlos Gomes's operas
See List of works for the stage by Antônio Carlos Gomes
References
Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, 8th ed., s.v. "Antonio Carlos Gomes."
Brazilian National Library Virtual Archives
Score.ePartitura small Brazilian website with digitalized scores (PDF) by Carlos Gomes.
Bibliography
Góes, Marcus: Carlos Gomes – A Força Indômita; Secult, Pará, 1996
Kaufman: Annals of Italian Opera: Verdi and his Major Contemporaries; Garland Publishing, New York and London, 1990. (contains premiere casts and performance histories of the operas by Gomes)
Vetro, Gaspare Nello: Antônio Carlos Gomes; Nuove Edizione, Milano, 1977
Vetro, Gaspare Nello: Antônio Carlos Gomes Il Guarany, Parma, 1996
Vetro, Gaspare Nello: A. Carlos Gomes Carteggi Italiani, Parma, 2002
External links
Free scores by Antonio Carlos Gomes at Musica Brasilis website
1836 births
1896 deaths
19th-century Brazilian musicians
19th-century Brazilian people
19th-century classical composers
19th-century male musicians
Brazilian classical composers
Brazilian male composers
Brazilian monarchists
Brazilian opera composers
Male classical composers
Male opera composers
People from Campinas
Romantic composers
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242046 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20Antarctic%20Territory | Australian Antarctic Territory | The Australian Antarctic Territory (AAT) is a part of East Antarctica administered by the Australian Antarctic Division, an agency of the federal Department of Agriculture, Water, and the Environment. The territory's history dates to a claim on Enderby Land made by the United Kingdom in 1841, which was subsequently expanded and eventually transferred to Australia in 1933. It is the largest territory of Antarctica claimed by any nation by area. In 1961, the Antarctic Treaty came into force. Article 4 deals with territorial claims, and although it does not renounce or diminish any pre-existing claims to sovereignty, it also does not prejudice the position of Contracting Parties in their recognition or non-recognition of territorial sovereignty. As a result, only four other countries—New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, and Norway—recognise Australia's claim to sovereignty in Antarctica.
Area
The AAT consists of all the islands and territory south of 60°S and between 44°38'E and 160°E, except for Adélie Land (136°E to 142°E), which divides the territory into Western AAT (the larger portion) and Eastern AAT. It is bounded by Queen Maud Land in the West and by Ross Dependency in the East. The Australian Antarctic Territory is the largest of any claims to the continent, and covers nearly 5.9 million square kilometres, which is about 42% of Antarctica.
The territory is mostly inhabited by the staff of research stations. The Australian Antarctic Division administers the area primarily by maintaining three year-round stations—Mawson, Davis, and Casey—which support various research projects.
Subdivisions
The territory is divided into nine districts, which are from west to east:
These regions are split into two separate areas geographically, with George V Land and Oates Land lying to the east of the French Territorial claim of Adélie Land, and all other districts lying to its west.
Exclusive economic zone
Australia claims an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) from the Australian Antarctic Territory. However, the Australian proclamation of an Antarctic EEZ is contested. The effect of Article IV of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty (which prohibits new territorial claims or the extension of existing claims in the Antarctic) would seem to be that an EEZ cannot be claimed in relation to territory to which that Treaty applies (south of 60° South). The provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) define the exclusive economic zone of a coastal state as up to from the baseline from which the territorial sea is measured.
Whaling
Whaling in Australian Antarctic territorial waters is controversial and has received international attention. Anti-whaling protest groups, in particular Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, have been active within the Australian Antarctic territorial waters. Sea Shepherd small boat crews have had multiple encounters with Japanese ships that claim to be on research expeditions while opponents argue this is only a "cover" for banned commercial whaling. The Australian Whale Sanctuary, in Australian Antarctic territory, is not recognised by the government of Japan. Anti-whaling legislation passed by the Australian Government applies to Australian territorial waters. However, Australia's claims of sovereignty over the Australian Antarctic Territory—and thus sovereignty over Australian Antarctic territorial waters—are recognised by only the United Kingdom, New Zealand, France and Norway.
Stations
Active and closed stations in the territory, from West to East:
History
The United Kingdom first claimed Victoria Land on 9 January 1841 and then claimed Enderby Land in 1930. In 1933, a British imperial order transferred most of the territory south of 60° S and between meridians 160° E and 45° E to Australia.
That part of His Majesty's dominions in the Antarctic Seas which comprises all the islands and territories other than Adélie Land which are situated south of the 60th degree of South Latitude and lying between the 160th degree of East Longitude and the 45th degree of East Longitude is hereby placed under the authority of the Commonwealth of Australia.
Australian Antarctic Territory Acceptance Act 1933That part of the territory in the Antarctic seas which comprises all the islands and territories, other than Adelie Land, situated south of the 60th degree south latitude and lying between the 160th degree east longitude and the 45th degree east longitude, is hereby declared to be accepted by the Commonwealth as a Territory under the authority of the Commonwealth, by the name of the Australian Antarctic Territory.
The borders with Adélie Land were fixed definitively in 1938. In 1947, Britain transferred Heard Island and McDonald Islands to the territory. On 13 February 1954, Mawson Station was established as the first Australian station on the continent proper.
Recognition of Australian sovereignty
Australia's claim to sovereignty over the Australian Antarctic Territory is recognised by the United Kingdom, New Zealand, France and Norway. Japan does not recognise the Australian claim to the Australian Antarctic territorial waters in which Japanese ships conduct whaling.
Mining in Antarctica
During the early 1980s there was a brief debate in Australia on whether or not to allow mining on the mineral-rich continent. Several mining proposals have been discussed and have all been rejected.
On 9 August 2011, influential Australian think-tank, the Lowy Institute, published a report warning Canberra against complacency when it comes to its claim. The global treaty banning resource exploitation becomes reviewable in 2041, and some states may then decide to withdraw from it considering the continent's mineral deposits. These include coal seams, manganese, iron and uranium, while Antarctica's forecast oil reserves are estimated as among the largest in the world after Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. Lowy's national security fellow Ellie Fogarty said in the paper that Australia cannot adequately patrol its claim, lacking the kind of ski-planes it needs to reach some areas.
Postage stamps
Australia issues postage stamps for the Australian Antarctic Territory. The first issues came in 1957, and sporadically thereafter, settling into a pattern of an annual issue by the 1990s. All have been Antarctic-themed, and all are valid for postage in Australia and its territories, including Antarctica.
Telephone connections
Assigned the country calling code +672 1[0-4] XXXX, the four stations and the Aurora Australis operated by the Australian Antarctic Division can be reached by direct calling from anywhere in the world. The area codes are 10 for Davis, 11 for Mawson, 12 for Casey, 13 for Macquarie Island and 14 for Wilkins and the Aurora Australis, in each case followed by four additional digits.
People
As of May 2018 the AAT was believed to have a population of around 80 people during winters and 200 during summers.
Iran's claim to a part of the Antarctic
Iran's claim to a part of the Antarctic.
The Antarctic region is claimed by Iran in the coordinates of 59/50 to 63/14 East, this is area overlaps with the area claimed by Australia.
Australia has set up Mawson Station in the disputed area with Iran.
See also:
Australian Antarctic Building System
References
External links
Australian Antarctic Division
Australian Antarctic Gazetteer
Antarctic region
States and territories established in 1933
1933 establishments in Antarctica | [
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242047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos%20Gomes | Carlos Gomes | Carlos Gomes may refer to:
Antônio Carlos Gomes, Brazilian composer
Carlos Gomes, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazilian municipality
Carlos Gomes Júnior, Prime Minister of Guinea-Bissau
Pintinho, real name Carlos Alberto Gomes, born 1954, represented Brazil at the 1972 Summer Olympics
Carlos Alberto Gomes de Jesus, Brazilian footballer
Carlos Alberto Gomes de Lima, Brazilian footballer
Carlos António Gomes, Portuguese football goalkeeper
Carlos Domingomes Gomes, Portuguese film director
Carlos Alberto Parreira Gomes, Brazilian footballer and manager
Carlos Alberto dos Santos Gomes, Brazilian footballer
Carlos Carvalhas, full name Carlos Alberto do Vale Gomes Carvalhas, Portuguese politician | [
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242050 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junkers | Junkers | Junkers Flugzeug- und Motorenwerke AG (JFM, earlier JCO or JKO in World War I, English: Junkers Aircraft and Motor Works) more commonly Junkers , was a major German aircraft and aircraft engine manufacturer. It produced some of the world's most innovative and best-known airplanes over the course of its fifty-plus year history in Dessau, Germany. It was founded there in 1895 by Hugo Junkers, initially manufacturing boilers and radiators. During World War I, and following the war, the company became famous for its pioneering all-metal aircraft. During World War II the company produced some of the most successful Luftwaffe planes, as well as piston and jet aircraft engines, albeit in the absence of its founder, who had been removed by the Nazis in 1934.
History
World War I
The history of Junkers aircraft production begins with the Junkers J 1 mid-wing monoplane (not to be confused with the later, all-metal sesquiplane ground attack aircraft with the IdFlieg designation J.I which had a factory designation of J 4). Research for this aircraft began in 1914 and was interrupted by the start of the First World War. The prototype aircraft, named the Blechesel (Tin or Sheet-metal Donkey), was completed in very late 1915 after the outbreak of the war. This aircraft is significant in that it was the first flyable aircraft to utilize an all-metal "total structural" design. Contemporary aircraft were built around wooden frames constructed in a rib-and-stringer fashion, reinforced with wires, and covered with a stretched fabric. The J 1 was a semi-monocoque design, using steel ribs and sheeting that formed both the stringers and the skin. At the time aluminium was still fairly expensive; and the desirable 1906 invention of German metallurgist Alfred Wilm, that of duralumin alloy, could not be worked in sheet form without damaging flaking occurring, so the J 1 was made of sheet electrical steel. It was quite heavy as a result, which translated into poor climb and maneuverability, yet its clean monoplane layout, which even featured a "belly" radiator installation for its Mercedes D.II inline-six cylinder engine, had very low drag, and the J 1 was one of the fastest aircraft of its day, reaching speeds of 170 km/h, with only a 120 hp engine for power.
Following the J 1, a series of "J-designated" (by the Junkers firm itself) aircraft followed, each advancing the state of the art in terms of strength and weight, but no single design progressed much beyond the prototype stage in terms of production potential. The Junkers J 2 was an extensively "cleaned up" and armed single-seat fighter descendent of the J 1, while the J 3, a never-completed single rotary engined mid-wing monoplane design that only consisted of covered wing panels and a nearly complete fuselage frame, replaced the smooth exterior electrical steel sheeting with corrugated duralumin. IdFlieg, in charge of aircraft evaluation, was unconvinced of the monoplane layout of these designs, and ordered a sesquiplane design as the J 4. Junkers took this opportunity to produce all the flying surfaces (wings and horizontal stabilizer) of the J 4 aircraft of corrugated duralumin (except for some fabric on the rear fuselage, and the armored steel fuselage "bathtub") in order to lower weight. The J 4 became Junkers' first design to enter production, with orders totalling 283, of which about 184 were delivered to operational units. Since it was the first design from Junkers to serve in the Luftstreitkräfte's "J-class" of armored, infantry co-operation aircraft, which also had the Albatros J.I and AEG J.I serving with it in the same capacity, the curious and confusing instance of the Junkers J 4 armored all-metal sesquiplane getting the German military designation "J.I" was one caused solely by the Luftstreitkräfte's choice of designation letter for all of its armored, ground forces co-operation aircraft.
Junkers continued to believe in the monoplane layout constructed entirely in metal, and continued the J-series with a number of newer monoplane designs. One of the most successful was the all-duralumin J 7 technology demonstrator aircraft prototype, which went through five major and minor changes in its airframe design during tests throughout 1917 and which was later stretched to form the two-seat J 8. The J 8 was the first cantilever monoplane design, and looked extremely "modern" when compared to contemporary wire-braced biplane designs. The J 8 was put into limited production by the Junkers-Fokker Werke (a collaborative firm founded through strong influence of the German government on October 20, 1917) as the J 10, receiving the IdFlieg designation of CL.I, a small number of which saw service on the Eastern Front just before the war ended. Likewise, the single-seat J 7 itself led to the J 9 design, built in small numbers as the Junkers D.I low wing fighter by both the Junkers firm itself (abbreviated "Jco" or "Jko") and the Junkers-Fokker-Werke AG (abbreviated "Jfa") — with the resulting three-letter abbreviation of either firm usually marked on the J-9's landing gear wheel covers.
The corrugated duralumin wing and fuselage "skin" introduced in the J-series became a trademark of Junkers aircraft built in the 1920s and '30s. Development continued during the course of World War I, including a growing (but troublesome) partnership with Fokker, as the Junkers-Fokker Aktiengesellschaft. Several Junkers designs were licensed to Fokker during this period. The visual similarity of Junkers and Fokker aircraft during the next decade, especially after Reinhold Platz adapted some of the Junkers design concepts, but mostly crafted in wood for the Fokker designs' wing structures instead of the all-metal Junkers construction techniques, is attributable to this early affiliation. The Great War ended with German Navy trials of the model J 11, which was an all-metal floatplane prototype.
Early inter-war period
In the immediate post-war era, Junkers used their J8 layout as the basis for the F-13, first flown on 25 June 1919 and certified airworthy in July of the same year. This four passenger monoplane was the world's first all-metal airliner. Of note, in addition to significant European sales, some twenty-five of these airplanes were delivered to North American customers under the Junkers-Larsen affiliate and were used primarily as airmail planes.
The Treaty of Versailles signed only days after the F-13 flew, initially forbade any aircraft construction in Germany for several months. After that span of time only the design of civilian aircraft was permitted to Germany. With a partial relocation of the Junkers firm to the Fili western suburb of Moscow, the Junkers firm was able to restart its aircraft manufacturing concern within the borders of the Soviet Union in 1922, the partly revitalized Junkers firm developed a series of progressively larger civil aircraft including the single-engined G.24 and three-engined G.31. Neither aircraft was a commercial success. With the expiration of treaty restrictions in 1926, Junkers introduced the Junkers W33 and Junkers W34 series which did find significant commercial success via large production orders in passenger, freight hauling, and, somewhat later, military configurations. The W-33/W-34 series also set multiple aviation "firsts" including records for flight duration, flight distance, altitude, rocket assisted take-off and inflight refueling between 1926 and 1930.
Junkers' produced a design study in 1924 for a visit to the United States. The study outlined a four-engined 80-passenger plane, incorporating a forward canard wing, as well as a main wing, both of which were fitted above twin pylons. Called the Junkers J.1000 Super Duck passenger seating was to be provided both in the main wing and the hull sections of the craft. This Junkers design, including a scale model, was intended to illustrate an aircraft capable of trans-Atlantic operations of 8 to 10 hours and was completely revolutionary for its day.
It was in 1922 that American engineer William Bushnell Stout, and in 1924 that Soviet engineer Andrei Tupolev each adapted the Junkers corrugated duralumin airframe design technologies for their own initial examples of all-metal aircraft in their respective nations – for Stout, the Stout ST twin-engined naval torpedo bomber prototype aircraft, and for Tupolev, the Tupolev ANT-2 small passenger aircraft, who had the assistance of the Soviet government's TsAGI research center in achieving success with light-weight metal airframes.
The basic principles outlined in this design were later introduced in the Junkers G.38, which was introduced and put into regular service by Deutsche Luft Hansa. At the time of its introduction, this four-engined transport was the largest landplane in the world carrying thirty-four passengers and seven crew members. The G.38 sat some of its passengers in the wing area outboard of the fuselage, the front of which was covered with windows.
Also, in 1932, Junkers joint project with Maybach designed and built an aerodynamic car but found due to the depression that the market for high end luxury cars was saturated.
Financial troubles
Around 1931 the company suffered from a series of financial difficulties that led to the collapse of the group of companies. The existing shareholders pressured Hugo to leave the company. Hugo, however, was the patent holder on a wide variety of the technologies used in most of the existing Junkers designs, including many of their engines.
A plan was started to solve both problems by "buying out" Hugo's engine patent portfolio and placing it into the hands of a new company, the Junkers Motoren-Patentstelle GmbH, which was eventually formed in November 1932. The new company would then license the technologies back to the various companies, most notably what was then Junkers Motorenbau (one of many "Jumo" companies). However, before Junkers actually transferred his patents to the Patentstelle, the collapse of the Junkers consortium was solved by the sale of the Junkers Thermo Technik GmbH to Robert Bosch, whose company still uses the brand name. Adolf Dethmann, a Communist activist and friend of Hugo, was appointed managing director.
Nazi takeover
The Nazi party came to power in Germany in 1933, and all German aviation development was shifted away from long-range civil aircraft types. Hugo Junkers himself was forced to transfer all his patents to the Nazis, who doubted that Junkers (a socialist and pacifist) would comply with their plans. Shortly after, his holdings were expropriated and he was placed under house arrest. The company that had pioneered commercial aviation development for at least a decade was relegated to relatively small one- and two-engined military design competitions issued by the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM) the "Reich Aviation Ministry". Two exceptions to this were the Ju 52 and the Ju 90.
Ju 52 development had started in 1928 as a single-engined commercial transport and evolved, initially to a two-engined, later into the classic "trimotor" design for which the Tante Ju became world-famous. The Ju 52 was a bona fide commercial success, with over 400 airplanes delivered to various airlines around the world prior to the outbreak of World War II, including the countries of: Finland, Sweden, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Ecuador, Peru, Mexico, South Africa, Denmark, Norway, Italy, UK, Belgium, Hungary, Estonia, Greece, Spain, and of course, Germany. As a consequence of its rugged design, Spain and France resumed Ju 52 production after cessation of the Second World War.
With the introduction of the Junkers Ju 86 bomber of 1934, Junkers abandoned the corrugated sheeting of his earlier designs. The basic layout was used in the four-engine Junkers Ju 89 heavy bomber, but this program ended with the death of Walther Wever, and his Ural bomber program along with him. Junkers then adapted the Ju 89 to passenger use, introducing the Junkers Ju 90, one of the first planes specifically designed for scheduled trans-Atlantic flights to the US. Developed in 1937, the aircraft suffered multiple setbacks with crashes of prototypes in 1937 and 1938. Further refinements enabled certification in 1939 and spurred South African Airways to make an initial order for two aircraft fitted with US-built Pratt & Whitney engines. Just as the aircraft was being readied for its first commercial flights, World War II began. With the outbreak of hostilities, all models were requisitioned by the Luftwaffe for military air-transport roles, and later, long-range maritime patrol.
World War II
Military aircraft production was begun by the company in the 1930s and eventually monopolized all its resources. Perhaps the most notable design was the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bomber, one of the Luftwaffe's most effective aerial weapons in the early-war period and continually used for bombing attacks as an integral part of the Blitzkrieg strategy. The Stuka was used both for precision tactical bombing and the strafing of enemy positions, acting as a sort of "airborne artillery" that was able to keep up with the fast-moving tanks and attack defended points long before traditional artillery could be brought into range. Later in the war it was fitted with two large-calibre, Bordkanone 3,7 37mm underwing autocannon and employed in a "tank busting" role against Soviet armour. It gained notoriety for its use at both Dunkirk and later Stalingrad, where it caused enormous destruction under Field Marshal Wolfram von Richthofen's VIII Air Corps.
Perhaps even more successful was the Junkers Ju 88, the primary medium bomber of the German forces. It was used in practically every role imaginable; level bomber, shallow-angle dive bomber, night fighter, and bomber destroyer, as well as in anti-shipping raids. A variety of improved versions were also produced over the course of the war, including the Ju 188 and Ju 388 which included numerous features for better performance, but never replaced the Ju 88 outright. A much more formidable aircraft was also planned, the Junkers Ju 288 for the Bomber B design competition, which it handily won — but the required high-power engines never worked properly in tests, and as the design was also plagued with insufficiently strong main landing gear, the effort was eventually abandoned.
The Ju 52 was a transport aircraft, roughly equivalent to the Allies' DC-3 Dakota, that was also modified to carry out bombing raids. A total of 4,845 Ju 52 were produced before and during World War II, leading to widespread use delivering men and supplies in support of the German war effort. The Ju 52 had previously seen service in the Spanish Civil War, where it took part in the Condor Legion's destructive raids on Durango and Guernica in 1937 which illustrated to the world—for the first time—the destructive potential and horror of strategic bombing. Unfortunately for its pilots and military passengers, by the outbreak of World War II, the Ju 52 was a thoroughly obsolete military design and unlike many other famous Luftwaffe aircraft, the Tante Ju was cumbersome, slow, and therefore vulnerable to attack. This resulted in many losses, namely at Crete and Stalingrad.
The abortive Amerika Bomber design competition for a trans-Atlantic range strategic bomber saw the Junkers firm build two prototypes of its six-engined Junkers Ju 390, basically a stretch of the four-engined Ju 290 transport — competing against the trio of Me 264 four-engined prototypes as the only fully airworthy competitors for the contract, which had included designs from Focke-Wulf and Heinkel that were never built, with the competition ended in July 1944 due to the developing need for interceptors to defend the Reich.
Post World War II
The Junkers company survived the Second World War and the formation of East Germany, and was reconstituted as Junkers GmbH and eventually merged into the MBB consortium (via joint venture Flugzeug-Union-Süd between Heinkel and Messerschmitt in 1958). Messerschmitt ended the joint venture in 1965 by acquiring control of JFM AG and absorbing it within Messerschmitt in 1967. Within West Germany, Junkers GmbH was engaged in research on the future of aerospace transportation during the fifties and early-1960s. During this period, Junkers employed the famous Austrian engineer and space travel theorist, Eugen Sänger, who in 1961 completed work for the design of an advanced orbital spacecraft at Junkers. Junkers GmbH was absorbed within MBB and the Junkers name disappeared in 1969.
Junkers Jumo
Junkers also ran an engine factory, and in 1923 they separated it from the parent to form its own company, Junkers Motorenwerke, or Jumo. This company expanded greatly in the 1920s and 30s, with factories spread across Germany. Jumo was the first company to produce a successful aircraft diesel engine in material numbers, the opposed-piston layout two stroke Jumo 205, and it was the first German company to offer a truly modern engine suitable for aviation in the form of the 650 hp, inverted-V12 Jumo 210. But, with the rapid advances in airframes, after a few years this engine was considered to be underpowered, causing Jumo to respond with the much larger Jumo 211, the most-produced German aviation engine of any type during the war years. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the 211 saw widespread use in Junkers bombers — most often in a "unitized" form for the Junkers Ju 88A, and also in the competing Heinkel He 111H medium bomber — but was little used otherwise, due largely to the better power output of the competing Daimler-Benz DB 601. Further development of the 211 led to the superb Jumo 213, which was in high demand for an increasingly large variety of late-war piston-engined aircraft. Their only attempt at an over-1,500 kW output piston engine, the Junkers Jumo 222, suffered from inadequate metallurgy and internal design for what was otherwise a very innovative engine design, with nearly 300 examples produced solely as test examples — the aviation engine firms of the Third Reich had considerable challenges in developing piston engines that could exceed the 1,500 kW output level that would be able to operate with proven combat reliability. However, the world's first production axial-flow compressor-equipped turbojet engine, emerged from the "Jumo" firm in 1944 as the Jumo 004, becoming the first turbojet engine to be considered of production quality, and was used in the then revolutionary Messerschmitt Me 262A jet fighter.
Products
Aircraft
The Junkers firm's early aircraft were identified by the letter J for Junkers followed by an Arabic type number. From 1919 they introduced an additional sales designation using the same number but prefixed by a letter indicating the role of the aircraft:
A = Austauschflugzeug (suitable for either civil or military use)
EF = Entwurfsflugzeug (experimental aircraft)
F = Flugzeug (aircraft)
G = Großflugzeug (large aircraft)
H = aircraft built at Junkers' Moscow plant
K = Kampfflugzeug (bomber)
S = Spezial (special)
T = Schulflugzeug (trainer aircraft)
W = Wasserflugzeug (seaplane).
Just once, the same number was used to identify two different completed types. This pair was the T 23 and G23, both also known as J 23.
During World War I, machines in service used the regular Idflieg aircraft designation system to specify their design's purpose, also promoted by the Flugzeugmeisterei (Air Ministry), again a letter number system indicating role:
CL = two-seat ground attack
D = single-seat biplane scout, by 1918 used for all single seat scouts.
E = single-seat monoplane scout
J = two-seat armoured close support biplane.
The best known and most confusing example is the Junkers J 4 armored-fuselage, all-metal sesquiplane, known to the military as the Junkers J.I.
The single letter company prefix was not replaced by the twin-letter Ju prefix until 1933. This RLM system – from the Third Reich's air ministry – applied to all German manufacturers; the first Junkers aircraft to receive a Ju number was the W 33, so retrospectively it became the Ju 33. However, earlier aircraft built in Moscow like the H 21 were often described by a Ju number, e.g. Ju 21.
Junkers J 1, (no military designation) world's first-ever full metal-structure aircraft, 1915.
Junkers J 2, (no military designation) experimental all-metal single seater, designed as fighter, 1916.
Junkers J 3, mid-wing monoplane, cancelled before completion, first proposed corrugated-skin duralumin design.
Junkers J 4, (military J.I) armored-fuselage sesquiplane full metal close support aircraft, 1917
Junkers J 5, unbuilt monoplane scout with engine behind pilot.
Junkers J 6, unbuilt parasol monoplane scout.
Junkers J 7, prototype for J 9, 1917.
Junkers J 8, twin-seat development of J 7, 1917.
Junkers J 9, (military D.I) all-duralumin single-seat fighter, built in J.9/I and J.9/II (lengthened wingspan and rear fuselage) versions, 1918.
Junkers J 10, (military CL.I) all-duralumin monoplane close support aircraft, 1918.
Junkers J 11, (navy C3MG, military CLS.I) floatplane version of J 10, 1918.
Junkers J 12, prototype four-seat airliner developed from the J 10, precursor of F.13, 1919.
Junkers F 13, passenger plane, 1919 originally J 13, sold as Junkers-Larsen in US, 1919.
Junkers JG1, large monoplane project, 1921.
Junkers J 15, precursor of J/K 16, 1920
Junkers K 16, small single-engined passenger plane, alternatively known as J 16, 1922.
Junkers J 17, improved K 16, not built.
Junkers J 18, navy survey aircraft, not built.
Junkers T 19, trainer and tourer, alternately known as J 19, 1922.
Junkers A 20, light transport, 1923.
Junkers J 21, also known as T 21 and H 21, reconnaissance aircraft for Red Army built in Russia, 1923.
Junkers J 22, also known as H 22, for Red Army, fighter similar to J 21, 1922.
Junkers T 23, sports mono- or biplane, 1923.
Junkers G 23, 3-engined 10-seat airliner, 1923.
Junkers G 24, enlarged G 23, 1925.
Junkers F 24, single-engined development of G 23, 1928.
Junkers A 25, A 20s re-engined with Junkers L2 engines, 1926.
Junkers T 26, training and sports aircraft, 1925.
Junkers T 27, a re-engined T 26, 1925.
Junkers J 28, two-seat version of T.21, not built.
Junkers J 29, sports monoplane, double wing development aircraft, 1925.
Junkers K 30, military version of G 24, 1930.
Junkers G 31, 15 seat airliner, 1926.
Junkers A 32, experimental monoplane, 1926.
Junkers W 33, single-engined light transport, (developed from F.13) 1926.
Junkers W 34, single-engine light transport+reconnaissance (development of W33), 1933.
Junkers A 35, postal, training and military aircraft, 1926.
Junkers S 36, twin-engined mail plane, 1927.
Junkers K 37, military version of S 36, 1928.
Junkers G.38, four-engined commercial transport, world's largest landplane when built, 1929.
Junkers K 39, experimental reconnaissance-bomber (development of A 32), 1927.
Junkers J 40, prototype large flying boat airliner (G.38 derived), 1926.
Junkers W 41, an F 24 re-engined with a Junkers Fo 4 diesel engine, 1928.
Junkers R 42, designation for Swedish built K 30s.
Junkers K 43, reconnaissance monoplane, 1927.
Junkers J 44, prototype replacement for A 35, 1927.
Junkers K 45, a single Ju 52 converted to a torpedo bomber, 1932.
Junkers Ju 46, catapult mailplane derived from W 34.
Junkers K 47, close support aircraft, prototype of K.48, 1927.
Junkers A 48, production dive bomber, 1928.
Junkers Ju 49, high altitude research aircraft, 1931.
Junkers A50, sports monoplane, 1929.
Junkers K 51, Ki-20 heavy bomber for Japan, c.1934.
Junkers Ju 52, single-engined precursor to Ju 52/3m, 1930
Junkers Ju 52/3m Tante Ju (Auntie Ju), passenger airliner and freighter, used as transport + bomber during World War II, 1932.
Junkers K 53, designation for Swedish built A 35's.
Junkers J 54, prototype replacement for A 35, 1929.
Junkers J 56, prototype replacement for K 16, 1930.
Junkers J 58, prototype replacement for F 13 & W 34, 1929.
Junkers Ju 60, low wing high speed airliner, 1932.
Junkers K 85, proposed torpedo bomber version of Ju 86 for Sweden, 1933.
Junkers Ju 85, prototype twin-engined bomber similar to Ju 86, not built.
Junkers Ju 86, twin-engined airliner, bomber + reconnaissance, 1934.
Junkers Ju 87, Stuka, dive-bomber, 1935.
Junkers Ju 88, bomber + reconnaissance + night-fighter.
Junkers Ju 89, heavy transport, heavy bomber (prototype), 1936.
Junkers Ju 90, four-engined airliner, transport developed from Ju 89, 1937.
Junkers Ju 160, low wing high speed airliner developed from Ju 60, 1934.
Junkers Ju 186, four-engined high-altitude prototype version of Ju 86, not built.
Junkers Ju 187, close support aircraft project, cancelled after mock-up built.
Junkers Ju 188, Rächer, bomber, 1941.
Junkers Ju 248, re-designation of Me 263.
Junkers Ju 252, transport developed from the EF 77, 1941.
Junkers Ju 268, parasite bomber project, 1944.
Junkers Ju 286, six-engined high-altitude version of Ju 86, not built.
Junkers Ju 287, prototype jet-engined bomber with swept forward wings, 1945.
Junkers Ju 288, bomber (prototype), 1941.
Junkers Ju 290, transport, patrol, 1941.
Junkers Ju 322, Mammut (Mammoth), transport glider (prototype), 1941.
Junkers Ju 352, Herkules (Hercules), transport, 1944.
Junkers Ju 388, Störtebeker, reconnaissance + night-fighter, 1943.
Junkers Ju 390, long-range bomber (Amerika Bomber) (prototype) developed from Ju 290, 1943.
Junkers Ju 488, proposed heavy bomber design.
Junkers J 1000, large flying-wing airliner, 1924.
Experimental
Junkers EFo 008
Junkers EFo 009, Hubjäger (Lift-Fighter), jet fighter project
Junkers EFo 010
Junkers EFo 011
Junkers EFo 012
Junkers EFo 015
Junkers EFo 017
Junkers EFo 018
Junkers EFo 019
Junkers EFo 021, 40-passenger double-deck trans-Atlantic airliner project, 1938.
Junkers EFo 043, glider transport or remote controlled glider bomb
Junkers EF 017, design designation for A 32/K 39
Junkers EF 024, design designation for A 48
Junkers EF 029, design designation for Ju 49
Junkers EF 030, design designation for W41 (and possibly for Ju 52)
Junkers EF 031, design designation for A50
Junkers EF 034, four-seat traveling aircraft, "Luftlimousine" (flying limousine), 1929.
Junkers EF 037, twin-engined military aircraft, 1930.
Junkers EF 048, twin-engined multipurpose military aircraft developed from the K 37, 1933.
Junkers EF 049, twin engine development of the Ju 52/1m, 1933.
Junkers EF 050, VTOL design study, similar to the Fa 269
Junkers EF 052, K 85 design study
Junkers EF 053, trans-Atlantic airliner project, later redesigned as the EF 100.
Junkers EF 055, Ju 287 design study
Junkers EF 056, Ju 287 design study
Junkers EF 057, Ju 287 design study
Junkers EF 058, Ju 287 design study
Junkers EF 059, Ju 88 design study
JUnkers EF 060, early design for EF 127 and EF 128.
Junkers EF 061, high-altitude fighter + reconnaissance (prototype), 1936.
Junkers EF 062, early EF 128 design study
Junkers EF 063, early EF 128 design study
Junkers EF 065, possible early EF 082 design study, 1939.
Junkers EF 072, early EF 077 design study
Junkers EF 073, design designation for Ju 288.
Junkers EF 077, design designation for Ju 252.
Junkers EF 082, combat battle aircraft project.
Junkers EF 094, design designation for Ju 322.
Junkers EF 100, long-range maritime reconnaissance/bomber developed from the EF 053, 1940.
Junkers EF 101, a design for a carrier aircraft that carried one "parasite" plane. It had a range of 10564 miles, and carried twin propellers on each of its four engines.
Junkers EF 112, twin-boom ground attack aircraft project, 1942.
Junkers EF 115, bomber project
Junkers EF 116, W-wing jet bomber project, 1943.
Junkers EF 122, four engine development of Ju 287.
Junkers EF 125, two-engine development of Ju 287, developed into the EF 140.
Junkers EF 126, 1944 pulse-jet fighter project, completed post-war in the USSR.
Junkers EF 127, rocket powered version of EF 126.
Junkers EF 128, jet fighter project
Junkers EF 130, four-engined flying wing bomber project, 1943.
Junkers EF 131, six-engine development of Ju 287, completed post-war in USSR.
Junkers EF 132, heavy bomber, partly built in USSR but not completed.
Junkers EF 135, development of EF 130
Junkers EF 137, jet fighter design study, 1943.
Junkers EF 140, bomber/reconnaissance, forward sweep, completed post-war in USSR.
Junkers EF 150, bomber, largely Russian designed and completed post-war in USSR.
Aircraft engines
All Junkers diesel engines were two stroke, opposed piston designs, an arrangement he invented in the early 1890s. It was intended to provide an alternative to Nicholaus Otto's patented four stroke which would run on low grade fuels such as blast furnace waste gases. By 1896 Junkers engines were generating electrical power in steelworks.
Junkers Fo2, horizontal, petrol, c.1923.
Junkers L1, petrol, c. 1924.
Junkers L2, petrol, 1925.
Junkers L5, enlarged L 2, petrol, 1925.
Junkers Fo3, diesel, 1926.
Junkers L55, "double L5" (V12), petrol, 1927
Junkers L7, small version of L2, petrol; not flown.
Junkers Fo4, diesel, commercially called the Junkers SL1, 1928.
Junkers L8, petrol, geared, higher power development of L5, 1929.
Junkers L88, "double L8" (V12), petrol.
Jumo 204, development of the SL1, initially referred to as the Jumo 4, 1930.
Jumo 205, diesel, reduced displacement version of the Jumo 204, initially known as the Jumo 5, 1933.
Jumo 206, diesel, higher power version of 205, 1936.
Jumo 207, diesel, supercharged version of 205, 1939.
Jumo 208, diesel, c.1940
Jumo 209, diesel, unbuilt development of 207/208
Jumo 210, initially known as L10, petrol inverted V12, c. 1932.
Jumo 211, petrol, inverted V12, enlarged variant of 210, 1936.
Jumo 212, petrol, projected inverted V24 with two Jumo 211 engines.
Jumo 213, petrol, inverted V12, smaller version of 211, 1940.
Jumo 218, diesel, unbuilt 12 cylinder version with two 208 engines.
Jumo 222, petrol, 24-cylinder, 6-bank radial, 1939.
Jumo 223, diesel, experimental 24 cylinder with four 207 engines arranged in a box shape.
Jumo 224, diesel, higher power version of 223, development continued in the Soviet Union.
Jumo 225, petrol, projected 36-cylinder, multi-bank radial developed from the 222.
Junkers 109-004, turbojet, 1940.
Junkers 109-012, turbojet, few completed by Soviets, 1946.
Junkers 109-022, turboprop, project completed by Soviets, 1950.
See also
Jägerstab (Fighter Staff)
Rüstungsstab (Armament Staff)
References
Cited sources
External links
by Bernd Junkers, Hugo Junkers' grandson
Junkers Museum in Dessau, Germany
Hugo Junkers Homepage
Luft '46
Dessau
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of Germany
Defunct aircraft engine manufacturers of Germany
Companies involved in the Holocaust | [
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242053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hikaru%20Utada | Hikaru Utada | , who is also known by the mononym Utada, is a Japanese-American singer-songwriter and producer. Born in the United States to Japanese parents, record producer Teruzane Utada and singer Keiko Fuji, Utada began to write music and lyrics at an early age and often traveled to Tokyo as a result of her father's job. Eventually, a recording contract with Toshiba-EMI was signed. Under the stage name Cubic U, she released an English-language debut album Precious in early 1998, but it was a commercial failure. In the following year, heavily influenced by R&B and dance-pop, a Japanese-language debut First Love was released and became an immediate success. Backed by the success of singles "Automatic", "Time Will Tell", and "Movin' On Without You", the album sold two million copies in its first week in Japan, topped the Oricon charts for six non-consecutive weeks and went on to sell six million more throughout the rest of 1999. First Love eventually became the country's best-selling album of all time.
The following album, Distance, was released in early 2001 and spawned Utada's biggest hit singles—"Addicted to You", "Wait & See (Risk)" and "Can You Keep a Secret?"—which became million-sellers. The album was commercially successful and broke several sales records after three million copies were sold in its first week of availability in Japan, instantly becoming the country's fastest-selling album. In 2002, backed by chart-topping singles such as "Traveling", "Hikari" and "Sakura Drops", Deep River, which incorporates elements of pop folk, was released and went on to become one of Japan's top-selling records of all-time. Subsequent full-length releases—Exodus, Ultra Blue and Heart Station—achieved million-selling status certified by the Recording Industry Association of Japan. After a prolonged hiatus, she released the acoustic-driven albums Fantôme and Hatsukoi, which reached number one on the Oricon album charts.
By the end of the 2000s, Utada was deemed "the most influential artist of the decade" in the Japanese music landscape by The Japan Times. Commercial success has made her one of Japan's top-selling recording artists of all time with over 50 million records sold since launching her career in the late 1990s. Twelve of her singles have reached number one on the Oricon Singles Chart, while ten albums have become chart-toppers. Six of her full-length releases are among the country's highest-selling albums of all time, including First Love, Distance and Deep River, which are among the top ten best-selling records of Japan's music history. She is best known by international audiences for writing and producing four theme-song contributions to Square Enix and Disney's collaborative video game series Kingdom Hearts: "Simple and Clean", "Sanctuary", "Don't Think Twice", and "Face My Fears".
Life and career
Early life and beginnings
Hikaru Utada was born in New York City as the only child of Teruzane Utada, a Japanese record producer, and his wife Junko, an singer performing under the stage name Keiko Fuji. At the age of 10, Utada began to write music and lyrics. She made recordings with Keiko, releasing songs under a band named "U3" until 1996, when she started a solo project as Cubic U.
The first Cubic U single, "I'll Be Stronger", was released as a limited pressing in Japan in 1996. The next year, Utada started another project, releasing "Close to You", a cover of the Carpenters' song. She included it on her debut album Precious the following year. Both the album and single failed to chart on Oricon in Japan.
1998–2003: Japanese debut, First Love, Distance, and Deep River
Utada moved to Tokyo in the summer of 1998 and attended Seisen International School, and later the American School in Japan, while continuing to record on a new contract with Toshiba-EMI. Early success came from Japanese FM radio. She was at the forefront of a new wave of singer-songwriters in Japan, branching out from the previously dominant idol singers. Leading up to the release of her Japanese debut album First Love, at the age of 15, she released two successful million-selling singles: "Automatic/Time Will Tell" and "Movin' On Without You". "Automatic/Time Will Tell" sold over two million copies. Backed by these singles, First Love went on to sell over 7 million units in Japan alone (with an additional 3 million overseas, bringing it to a sum of at least 10 million units), becoming the highest selling album in Japan's recent history. The album yielded the single "First Love", which peaked at the number 2 spot. By the end of the year, Utada was ranked 5th on Japanese radio station Tokio Hot 100 Airplay's Top 100 Artists of the 20th Century by the station and its listeners.
After a two-year break, Utada released the follow-up album Distance, garnering first-week sales of 3 million units. On the strength of its singles — "Addicted to You", "Wait & See (Risk)", "For You", "Time Limit", and "Can You Keep a Secret?" — Distance became the best-selling album of the year, with 4.47 million copies sold in Japan alone. Additionally, "Addicted to You" became her best-selling single, moving a million copies in its first week, the highest first week sales for a female solo artist, and staying on top of the chart for two consecutive weeks. "Wait & See: Risk" and "Can You Keep a Secret?" also were later ranked at number 6 and number 10 respectively on Oricon's list of 10 Best-Selling Singles from January 1, 1999, to April 24, 2006. Utada also went on to release a single, titled "Final Distance", which was dedicated to the female victim of a murder case in Ikeda, Osaka.
In 2001, Utada recorded the song "Blow My Whistle" for the action-comedy film Rush Hour 2. It was a collaboration with American rapper Foxy Brown, and was written by Utada alongside Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo. The song is included on Def Jam's Rush Hour 2 soundtrack, which peaked the 11th spot on both the Billboard 200 and number 1 on the Top Soundtracks. While most of her work has been self-produced, Blow My Whistle was produced by the Neptunes.
Leading up to the third album, Deep River, Utada released "Traveling", "Hikari", and "Sakura Drops/Letters"; all the songs reached the top of the charts. Before the release of the album, she underwent surgery after being diagnosed with a benign ovarian tumor. After recovering, she released Deep River and immediately went on promotional tours.
Deep River sold 2.35 million copies in its first week. Oricon reported that sales eventually surpassed 3.6 million, making Utada the only singer or group in Japanese music history to have three consecutive albums surpass the three-million mark, by RIAJ standards. It was her third consecutive album to reach number 1 on Oricon's Yearly Albums chart and became the eighth best selling album of all time in Japan.
In 2003, Utada's promotional and personal life schedules became more active due to her marriage and an agreement with Island Records in the United States to release a "proper" full-English debut album. "Colors" was her only single release for 2003.
2004–2005: Foray into international market, and Exodus
Utada's first singles compilation album Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol. 1 was released on March 31, 2004. It became the best-selling album of 2004 in Japan, making her the only solo or group artist to reach number 1 four times on the yearly charts. It was the first compilation album to reach number 1 in six years on the yearly charts, and the first compilation album to reach number 1 in twenty-six years by a female artist. Despite its success, the album received little promotion and no new material; moreover, it charted longer on the Oricon Albums chart than any other Utada release to date (over two years). The album sold 2.58 million units in Japan, making it the 34th best-selling album ever in the country. A month later, on April 21, she released a lone Japanese single for 2004, "Dareka no Negai ga Kanau Koro", which topped the singles chart for two consecutive weeks and sold 365,000 units by the year's end. It was also the main theme song for Casshern, directed by her husband at the time, Kazuaki Kiriya.
In mid-2004, Utada moved back to New York, and began work on a new recording contract with Island Def Jam Music Group. On October 5, 2004, she released a North American English-language debut album, Exodus, under the newly announced stage name "Utada". It was released on September 9 in Japan, with a special booklet and housed in a cardboard slipcase. In an MTV interview, she expressed skepticism about this American success: "I don't think it's the music that I'm concerned about. It's obviously that I look really different and there really aren't any completely Asian people [who are popular singers in the U.S.] right now." She also remarked on the album not being one that pandered to fans, but wanting to make it anyway. Exodus became her fourth consecutive release to debut at number 1 and boasted 500,000 copies in its first-week sales in Japan. American sales were not quite as successful: it reached number 160 in the US Billboard 200 chart; and peaked at number 5 in the Heatseekers chart. "Easy Breezy" was released as the lead single in early August 2004, followed up by "Devil Inside" six weeks later. Utada appeared on the cover of Interview magazine's June 2005 issue.
"Exodus '04" was released at the end of June 2005 and featured remixes from the Scumfrog, Richard Vission, JJ Flores and Peter Bailey. In the UK, Mercury added another two remixes for "You Make Me Want to Be a Man" in the original album, titled "You Make Me Want to Be a Man (Bloodshy & Avant Mix)" and "You Make Me Want to Be a Man (Junior Jack Mix)". By the end of the year, Utada was voted "Number 1 Favorite Artist of 2004" by Oricon's annual readers poll.
The fourth single from Exodus, "You Make Me Want to Be a Man", was released in October 2005 in the UK. "Devil Inside" became a club hit in the U.S. and topped the Billboard Hot Dance/Club Airplay charts. Both the Exodus album and the "You Make Me Want to Be a Man" single were released in the UK, with different artwork from the US and Japanese versions.
2005–2008: Return to Japan, Ultra Blue, and Heart Station
A year after the release of Exodus, Utada moved back to Tokyo and returned to the Japanese music scene. Leading up the release of a fourth album, Ultra Blue, she released a string of successful hit singles: "Colors" (number 1), "Dareka no Negai ga Kanau Koro" (number 1), "Be My Last" (number 1), "Passion" (number 4), and "Keep Tryin'" (number 2). The digital single "This Is Love" was released to promote the album, netting 1,000,000 downloads.
Ultra Blue sold 500,317 copies in the first week, lower than that of the previous album, although it still topped the Oricon Daily, Weekly, and Monthly charts. Ultra Blue was Utada's fifth consecutive chart-topping Japanese album (excluding the English-language Exodus) to sell in excess of 500,000 copies in the first week. On July 13, Toshiba EMI published a report stating that Ultra Blue had sold over one million copies worldwide and four million digital ringtones already making it one of EMI's 10 best-selling albums of the past year. The album, which did not contain much pop music, was met with mixed reception, although the album was certified Million by RIAJ. Additionally, it was the highest-selling original studio album by a Japanese female artist in 2006.
Ultra Blue later became available on the iTunes Japan online music store, charting at number 4 on the 2006 yearly download rankings. Two weeks after the release of Ultra Blue, she went on a nationwide tour titled Utada United 2006, from June 30 through September 12. This was her second concert tour after the Bohemian Summer 2000 tour.
The singles that were released prior to Utada's fifth studio album, Heart Station, were able to reach the Top Five position on the chart, including the number 1 hit "Flavor of Life", which would become the best selling digital single in Japan with over 7,500,000 copies downloaded. Around the same time, she visited New York to talk with producers and executives at Island/Def Jam about recording a new English album. Later in the year a digital track by American R&B artist Ne-Yo, titled "Do You" from his 2007 album Because of You, featured Utada and was released in Japan on November 21 (the song was later featured on Ne-Yo's "best of" album, Ne-Yo: The Collection, released on September 2, 2009, in Japan and November 2009 in the US).
On June 30, 2007, the British EMI Group, which had held a 55% stake in Toshiba EMI since before Utada's debut in Japan, purchased the remaining 45% stake from the Japanese Toshiba Corporation, therefore making Toshiba EMI a wholly owned subsidiary of the London-based record label. Toshiba EMI then changed its name to EMI Music Japan to reflect Toshiba's divestiture from the business. Utada's first single under the new label, "Beautiful World"/"Kiss & Cry" was released as a double A-side single on August 29, 2007, and also reached number 1 on the Oricon Daily Chart. Beautiful World was used as the theme song for Evangelion 1.0: You Are (Not) Alone, the 2007 film reboot of the anime, Neon Genesis Evangelion, while Kiss & Cry was used in a series of commercials for Nissin Foods' Freedom Project advertising campaign starting April 20, 2007 and was previously released as a digital download on May 31, 2007.
The year 2007 ended with the single "Flavor of Life" becoming the best seller of 2007 and with Utada again voted "Number 1 Favorite Artist of 2007" by Oricon's annual readers poll, after a two-year absence from the top spot. She sold 12 million digital ringtones and songs in 2007, with "Flavor of Life" accounting for 7.5 million, the second-highest of any song worldwide that year. The single was featured as the main song in the second season of TV drama Hana Yori Dango.
Utada's fifth studio album, Heart Station, was released on March 19, 2008, becoming her fifth consecutive number-one Japanese studio album. Although it had collected the lowest first week sales for her career, with 480,081 copies sold, the sales of this album reached a million on the Oricon charts in January 2009, making it her first Japanese album to do so since the 2004 compilation album. It was given a certification of one million for shipments by the RIAJ. Heart Station became the best-selling digital-format album on the iTunes 2008 yearly album charts in Japan, and was also the highest-selling original studio album by a solo female artist on the Oricon Yearly Chart.
The song "Prisoner of Love" was used as the theme-song for the television drama Last Friends. Although "Prisoner of Love" was not initially released as a single alone, it reached number 1 in iTunes and the Chako-Uta charts after it was released as a single for the drama. It reached number 2 at the Oricon Weekly charts. It marked the fourth successful drama tie-in for Utada, following 1999's Majo no Jōken and First Love, 2001's Hero and Can You Keep a Secret and 2007's Hana Yori Dango and Flavor of Life.
On October 20, 2008, the song "Eternally" from Utada's 2001 album Distance was used as the theme for the drama Innocent Love. The song was later released as a digital single.
By the end of the year, Utada was also voted the "Number 1 Favorite Artist of 2008" by Oricon's annual readers poll for the second consecutive year, and third time overall.
2009–2010: Return to the US, and This Is the One
On December 16, 2008, information leaked onto the internet that Utada's next English-language single, titled "Come Back to Me", would be scheduled for airplay release through U.S. Rhythmic/Crossover and Mainstream formats on February 9 and 10, 2009 respectively via Island Records. The new English album, titled This Is the One, was released on March 14, 2009, in Japan and on May 12, 2009, in the United States. This Is the One debuted at number 1 in Japan on March 13, 2009, the day it was released in Japan, but became her first album not to top the weekly chart since Precious. On March 30, 2009, Utada appeared on New York City radio station Z-100, the largest pop radio program in the U.S., and granted a live on-air interview on the station's Elvis Duran Morning Show, a breakthrough that would lead to a promotional schedule through the album's international physical release on May 12. She also sang the theme song for the second Evangelion film, Evangelion: 2.0 You Can (Not) Advance. The single was released on June 27, 2009, and is a remix of a previous single, "Beautiful World". The new single is titled "Beautiful World -PLANiTb Acoustica Mix-".
On November 30, 2009, at Studio Coast, Tokyo, Utada sung a duet of Let It Snow with pop singer Mika.
On December 21, 2009, Utada's Dirty Desire remixes were released only on Amazon.com, Zune Marketplace, and the U.S. iTunes Store, in support of This Is the One and an upcoming tour. The tour, Utada: In the Flesh 2010, was her first concert tour outside Japan and included eight cities in the US and two dates in London, UK. The tickets for the second London performance went on public sale November 13, and reportedly sold out in just five hours.
2010–2015: Second return to Japan, Single Collection Vol. 2, Wild Life, and hiatus
In a personal blog post on August 9, 2010, Utada announced a long hiatus, writing "I don't know if it will be 2 years or 5 years." After having been focused on music from age 15 to 27, she expressed a need to have a broader range of experiences, and grow as a person.
However, she also wrote that before the hiatus began, some new music would be released. Soon after the post, a new compilation album was announced: Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol. 2, with a release date of November 24, 2010. This new album would include all of Utada's Japanese singles, from "Dareka no Negai ga Kanau Koro" to "Prisoner of Love", on disc one, as well as an extra EP featuring five new tracks. Later it was announced a DVD containing the promotional video for Goodbye Happiness would be included in all first-press edition pre-orders.
On September 27, 2010, Utada revealed a new single, entitled "Hymne à l'amour (Ai no Anthem)", which became a commercial tie-in for Pepsi NEX. The song features both Japanese and French lyrics, written and translated by Utada herself. She performed a concert series titled Wild Life at Yokohama Arena to promote the album, her first Japanese concert since 2006's Utada United.
On October 3, 2010, Utada's official EMI website was updated with the album artwork and final track list for Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol. 2. First-press editions included a three-fold paper slip case, along with a good luck charm, and a lottery slip for fans to have a chance at winning one of 1000 tickets to Wild Life.
In late October, it was revealed online at Tower Records Japan and several other websites that an English-language "best-of album" titled Utada the Best" would become available in Japan on the same day as Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol. 2, November 24. Utada reacted to the news, stating: "I understand that if it doesn't sell, I'm the one who will take the hit, but to be honest, I don't want my fans putting down money for something that my heart isn't in." and "The release of Utada the Best is entirely against my will. I wish that my fans won't have to buy it. There's no new material in it."
Utada later announced a new single, "Goodbye Happiness", with its accompanying PV appearing publicly on November 9, 2010. The song was also chosen as the new Recochoku Chaku-Uta TV commercial theme song. She also appeared on a track entitled "London City" with English rapper Devlin on his first studio album, Bud, Sweat and Beers, which was also released on November 1.
On November 8, 2010, EMI Japan announced on its Web site that the company had made a new global recording deal with Utada, also stating that all of her future work regardless of language would be released under one name: Hikaru Utada. This signaled the retirement of her Western stage name, Utada.
First-week sales for Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol. 2 were 231,000 units according to Oricon. The release marked Utada's seventh consecutive number 1 album (5 original and two best-ofs) since her debut, surpassing KinKi Kids' previous record of six. On April 10, 2011, she won the award for "Best Conceptual Video" in the Space Shower Music Video Awards for the promotional video for "Goodbye Happiness", which was also her directorial debut.
The two-concert Wild Life tour took place on December 8 and 9, 2010 at Yokohama Arena. The opening concert was broadcast in 64 cinemas in Japan while it was simultaneously broadcast on Ustream, a live video streaming website. The two channels set up for the concert on Ustream were accessed a total of 925,000 times, with 345,000 unique viewers, which was a global record on Ustream.tv for the highest number of simultaneous accesses of any video, with the previous highest being only 100,000.
Japanese TV station NHK premiered a documentary about Utada on January 15, 2011, entitled , a documentary featuring studio performances ("Show Me Love (Not a Dream)" and "Goodbye Happiness") as well as a few clips from the Wild Life performances. It also featured a post–Wild Life interview with J-Wave host Chris Peppler, in which she expressed a desire to travel and do volunteer work overseas. She said she would continue writing music during the hiatus. The documentary was also broadcast internationally, in Europe on February 2, 2011, and in the US on February 12, 2011, on the NHK channel (TV Japan in America, and JSTV in Europe).
A DVD and Blu-ray release of Wild Life were confirmed and initially set for release on April 6, 2011. However, on March 24, 2011, Utada tweeted that both the DVD/Blu-ray of the Wild Life tour had been postponed, due to the earthquake and resulting tsunami in Japan damaging the pressing factories. The DVD was released on April 20, 2011, with the Blu-ray following.
On December 7, 2011, Recochoku updated their yearly download and awards chart, with her Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol. 1 listed as the second-most-downloaded album of 2011.
On November 16, 2012, Utada's YouTube account uploaded a video entitled "桜流し" ("Sakura Nagashi", meaning "Flowing Cherry Blossoms"). The single was co-written with Paul Carter, and was digitally released on November 17, 2012. A DVD single was released a month later. "Sakura Nagashi" is the theme song from the animation movie Evangelion: 3.0 You Can (Not) Redo.
In September 2012, the British EMI group was broken up and sold to various companies. On April 1, 2013, Utada's record company, EMI Music Japan, was absorbed into Universal Music Japan, became defunct as a company and was renamed to EMI Records Japan. Therefore, all of her further releases before switching to Sony Music Entertainment Japan would be through Universal Music Japan.
On December 9, 2013, to celebrate the 15th anniversary of First Love, EMI Records released Utada: In the Flesh 2010 tour footage on iTunes and announced a re-release of First Love, including a special limited edition that contained the original album remastered, instrumentals from the original tracks, unreleased tracks and live footage from Utada's first live show, Luv Live.
On December 8, 2014, Universal Music Japan released a tribute album entitled Utada Hikaru no Uta. The album features cover versions of Utada's back catalogue of songs by different popular artists such as AI, Ayumi Hamasaki, Peabo Bryson, Ringo Shiina, and more.
On December 26, 2014, Universal Music Japan revealed through media outlet Weekly Bunshun that Utada only has one album left before the contract with the label ends, and that a comeback in the music industry was under discussion.
2015–2016: Parenthood and Fantôme
On July 3, 2015, Utada revealed the birth of a son on her blog, and mentioned work on a new album primarily written during pregnancy. She asked for patience leading up to the release during the transition into parenthood.
In January 2016, it was reported that Utada would release a new song in the spring. "Hanataba o Kimi ni" ("Bouquet for You") was the theme for the television show ), which aired on April 4, 2016. In February 2016, "Manatsu no Tōriame" was aired on April 4, 2016, to be the theme to a late-night TV station's news show, News Zero. That same day, Utada's website announced the official song's release, as digital singles, on April 15.
Utada's website was also updated with the announcement of a project titled "New-Turn", in which fans were encouraged to purchase her music and to use the hashtag "#おかえりHIKKI" ("Welcome Back Hikki") on Twitter. The aim was to use proceeds from the music purchased to plant more cherry blossom trees in the tsunami-damaged areas of Japan after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake. The website also confirmed her return to artistic activities.
On August 8, 2016, the album's title, track list and cover were released. The album's title was announced as Fantôme (French: 'ghost'), containing eight new songs, as well as the previous three singles, for a track listing totaling eleven tracks. Following its release on September 28, Fantôme was commercially and critically successful. It debuted atop the Oricon Albums Chart and stayed there for four consecutive weeks, the most of any Utada studio album since First Love. It was awarded Album of the Year at the Japan Record Awards and received positive reviews from media outlets. At the end of the year, it was ranked the third-best-selling physical record of the year by Oricon, as well as the best-selling digital album, according to Billboard Japan.
2017–2019: Label transfer to Sony Music, Hatsukoi and tour
On February 9, 2017, it was announced that Utada would switch labels to Sony Music Japan sub-label Epic Records once the contract with Universal expired in March. The label announced that new material would be released later in 2017. The first digital single under the label, called "Ōzora de Dakishimete", was released digitally worldwide on July 10, 2017. The second one, called "Forevermore", was released on July 28. It features the drummer Chris Dave. A third digital single, called "Anata", was released on December 8. The song was chosen as the theme for the movie Destiny: Kamakura Monogatari. On December 8, she announced that the Japanese repertoire, from debut single Automatic to the sixth album Fantôme would be simultaneously available on all streaming services but Spotify, where it would be available a month later on January 8, 2018.
In 2018, Utada released a seventh Japanese album, the first under Epic, and embarked on a domestic tour, her first since 2006. She also co-produced the singer-songwriter Nariaki Obukuro's major label debut album, Bunriha no Natsu, under Epic. The first single off the album, "Lonely One", has Utada credited as a featured artist and was released on January 17, 2018, through streaming services.
On February 10, 2018, it was announced that Utada would provide the theme song for the video game Kingdom Hearts III, called "Chikai" ("Oath"), along the English version, called "Don't Think Twice", for international audiences. It was confirmed that "Chikai" would be included in her seventh Japanese album, set for release in 2018. A third studio collaboration with Obukuro was announced to be released in Sheena Ringo's tribute album, Adam to Eve no Ringo, a cover of Ringo's song "Marunouchi Sadistic", which they both covered one year earlier in Obukuro's radio show.
On April 17, 2018, a new single by Utada, "Hatsukoi", was unveiled in the drama Hana Nochi Hare ~Hanadan Next Season~ as an image song. It was the second song she delivered to the Hana Yori Dango drama series, after "Flavor of Life" in 2007. The single was released on May 30. On the next day, a single was announced for release on April 25 called "Play a Love Song", the theme song for Suntory Water SWITCH&SPARKLE.
On June 27, Utada's seventh Japanese album Hatsukoi was released. It contained all previous six singles, for a total of 12 songs. A new domestic concert tour, called Hikaru Utada Laughter in the Dark Tour 2018 was held from November 6 until December 9 (which was her 20th debut anniversary day), for a total of 12 dates at 6 different venues. The album debuted at number 1 in Oricon physical and digital weekly charts, with total sales combined of over 242,000.
On September 28, it was reported that Utada would release a new single titled "Face My Fears" as the theme song for Kingdom Hearts III. She co-produced the song with American musicians Skrillex and Poo Bear. "Face My Fears" was released as a CD single on January 18, 2019, making it her first release on the format in eleven years since her 2008 single "Prisoner of Love". It was also her first release with original English songs since This Is the One in 2009. The song became her first US Billboard Hot 100 at number 98, and it peaked at number 9 in Hot Dance/Electronic Songs chart.
On June 26, 2019, Utada's Laughter in the Dark tour film was released worldwide on Netflix, with English subtitles personally translated by the singer.
On November 1, 2019, an Utada collaboration with singer-songwriter Sheena Ringo was released, called "Roman to Soroban LDN ver." ("The Sun and the Moon", in English). It was featured in Sheena's best-of album Apple of Universal Gravity. An alternative version of the song, called "Roman to Soroban TYO ver.", was available on November 25. On November 27, 2019, Utada released the first single in over a year with "Shonen Jidai". It appears as track number 5 on the Inoue Yosue Tribute album. She also included a live rendition of the song on her 2003 DVD UH Live Streaming 20 Dai wa Ikeike!
2020–present: Bad Mode
On May 8, 2020, Utada released "Time", the theme song for the NTV drama Bishoku Tantei Akechi Goro. The single "Darenimo Iwanai" was released on May 29 as the music for a Suntory mineral water campaign, with Utada starring in the commercial.
In the second episode of Instagram live series Jitaku Kakuri-chu no Hikaru Paisen ni Kike!, Utada confirmed that work was underway on both new Japanese and English songs for the next album, including English versions of the Japanese songs.
On December 3, 2020, it was announced that Takeru Sato and Hikari Mitsushima will star in a Netflix based on Utada's songs "First Love" and "Hatsukoi". The streaming show, titled First Love Hatsukoi, is scheduled to be released in 2022.
On December 25, 2020, Utada's official website announced a new single titled "One Last Kiss" as the theme song for the film Evangelion: 3.0+1.0 Thrice Upon a Time. The song was later postponed 'until further notice' due to the COVID-19 pandemic, along with the movie. The single was released on March 8, 2021, with the release of the film.
Utada sang the theme "Pink Blood" for the 2021 anime To Your Eternity which was released in April. On 12 November, the management announced that the currently untitled eight studio album is set to be released next year. The announcement was preceded with the release of new single "Kimini Muchuu" for TBS drama series Saiai, also on 12 November. Accompanying the release of the album, an online concert is in the works, with ticket pre-orders opened on 9 December. On 9 December, Utada announced the title of her 8th studio album, Bad Mode, to be released digitally on 19 January, her birthday, with a physical release planned for 23 February.
Artistry and legacy
Utada is a core component of the ever-changing J-pop music genre, bringing her American-inflected R&B vocal style to a mix of soulful ballads, bouncy dance-pop, and standard pop songs.
Utada's official website cites 16 musicians and composers as her favorite artists: Freddie Mercury, Cocteau Twins, Nine Inch Nails, Jimi Hendrix, Prince, Amel Larrieux, Édith Piaf, Chick Corea, the Blue Nile, Björk, Kate Bush, Akino Arai, Lenny Kravitz, Béla Bartók, Mozart, Jeff Buckley, Yutaka Ozaki, and Hibari Misora. Elsewhere, she has also listed R&B artists Aaliyah, Mariah Carey, and Mary J. Blige as inspirations, and has previously mentioned growing up as a fan of Madonna, Sting, and the Cure.
Personal life
Utada is bilingual and speaks English and Japanese fluently. On September 7, 2002, she married Kazuaki Kiriya, a photographer and film director who had directed several of her music videos. He was fifteen years her senior. On March 2, 2007, the couple announced their divorce, citing personal changes and lack of communication due to the nature of their jobs.
On August 22, 2013, Utada's mother, Keiko Fuji, died by apparent suicide by jumping from the thirteenth floor of a 28-floor condominium building in Shinjuku, Tokyo.
On February 3, 2014, Utada announced plans to be wedded to an Italian man, asking for fans and the media to view their personal lives from a "respectable distance" as he was not in the entertainment industry. On the same day, ex-husband Kazuaki Kiriya congratulated her on the new marriage. On February 10, 2014, Utada and fiancé Francesco Calianno left a message on her official website explaining how they met each other while Calianno was a bartender in a London hotel, and asking for privacy. The couple were married on May 23, 2014. On July 3, 2015, the couple announced the birth of a son. On April 6, 2018, it was announced that they had divorced.
On June 26, 2021, Utada came out as non-binary in an Instagram livestream. Utada uses both she/her and they/them pronouns. Utada has supported same-sex marriage and, in discussing discomfort with how titles like Ms. or Mrs. closely identify someone by sex and marital status, supported widespread use of the gender-neutral title Mx.
Discography
Japanese studio albums
First Love (1999)
Distance (2001)
Deep River (2002)
Ultra Blue (2006)
Heart Station (2008)
Fantôme (2016)
Hatsukoi (2018)
Bad Mode (2022)
English studio albums
Precious (as Cubic U) (1998)
Exodus (2004)
This Is the One (2009)
Awards
See also
Capitol Records
List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. dance chart
List of best-selling music artists in Japan
List of number-one dance hits (United States)
Notes
References
External links
1983 births
20th-century Japanese women singers
21st-century Japanese women singers
American School in Japan alumni
Citizens of Japan through descent
Columbia University alumni
English-language singers from Japan
EMI Music Japan artists
Island Records artists
Japanese dance musicians
Japanese electronic musicians
Japanese rhythm and blues singers
LGBT musicians from Japan
Living people
Mercury Records artists
Non-binary musicians
Singers from New York City
Singers from Tokyo
Universal Music Japan artists
Video game musicians
Virgin Records artists
World Music Awards winners | [
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242055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postage%20stamps%20and%20postal%20history%20of%20British%20Columbia | Postage stamps and postal history of British Columbia | The postage stamps and postal history of British Columbia started in 1860 with the issue of a single brownish-rose stamp depicting Queen Victoria in profile and denominated as 2½ pence. It was issued jointly by Vancouver Island and British Columbia as each colony had insufficient postal trade to justify printing separate stamps. In 1862, Vancouver Island adopted decimal currency and sold the stamp for 5 cents, before issuing its own 5 and 10 cent stamps in September 1865. Meanwhile, British Columbia had increased the postal rate to 3 pence but continued to use the unified stamp. In November 1865, British Columbia issued its own stamps and the unified stamp became invalid. In 1866, the two colonies were united as British Columbia.
Colonies
In 1860, the colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia issued a postage stamp inscribed with the names of both British Columbia and Vancouver Island.
The British Colony of Vancouver Island (also known as Vancouver's Island) was established in 1849, after the Hudson's Bay Company founded Fort Camosack (later Fort Victoria) in 1843.
The Fraser River Gold Rush of 1858 caused an influx of settlers to the mainland, via Vancouver Island, and after this, British Columbia was made a new colony on the mainland. In 1866, the two colonies were united as British Columbia and, in 1871, this became a province of Canada.
Stamp details
The unified stamp was issued for reasons of economy, both colonies having sufficient customers to justify the printing of stamps, but not enough to justify separate issues for each colony. The one stamp was denominated 2½ pence, depicting Queen Victoria in profile, and was surface-printed in a brownish-rose color by De La Rue. 235,440 were printed.
In 1862, Vancouver Island switched to decimal currency, and sold the unified stamp for 5 cents. It first issued its own 5- and 10-cent stamps in September 1865. In June 1864, British Columbia increased its postal rate to 3 pence, selling the unified stamp for 3d until its own stamps became available in November 1865. Pairs of stamps, used to pay a special rate to Vancouver Island, were also sold at 15 cents per pair. Although after 1865, the 2½d stamp was officially invalid, in 1867 some were made available at a 6¼ cent rate to express mail operators.
The upshot of all this was the single type of stamp was sold for 2½d, 3d, 5c, 6¼c, and 7½c without ever receiving a surcharge indicating a changed value.
The surviving unified stamps sell for about US$250 , but much more if they are in good condition and well-centered.
See also
Postage stamps and postal history of Canada
References
Sources
Stanley Gibbons Ltd, various catalogues
Stanley Gibbons Ltd, British Commonwealth 1966, Stanley Gibbons Ltd, 1965
Rossiter, Stuart & John Flower. The Stamp Atlas. London: Macdonald, 1986.
XLCR Stamp Finder and Collector's Dictionary, Thomas Cliffe Ltd, c.1960
Robson Lowe, The Encyclopaedia of British Empire Postage Stamps, vol. 5, pt. 4
External links
AskPhil – Glossary of Stamp Collecting Terms
Encyclopaedia of Postal Authorities
History of Vancouver Island
Philately of Canada | [
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242056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House%20of%20Burgesses | House of Burgesses | The House of Burgesses was the elected representative element of the Virginia General Assembly, the legislative body of the Colony of Virginia. With the creation of the House of Burgesses in 1642, the General Assembly, which had been established in 1619, became a bicameral institution.
From 1642 to 1776, the House of Burgesses was an instrument of government alongside the royally-appointed colonial governor and the upper-house Council of State in the General House.
When the Virginia colony declared its independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain at the Fifth Virginia Convention in 1776 and became the independent Commonwealth of Virginia, the House of Burgesses became the House of Delegates, which continues to serve as the lower house of the General Assembly.
Title
Burgess originally referred to a freeman of a borough, a self-governing town or settlement in England.
Early years
The Colony of Virginia was founded by a joint-stock company, the Virginia Company, as a private venture- though under a royal charter. Early governors provided the stern leadership and harsh judgments required for the colony to survive its early difficulties.
Early crises with famine, disease, Native American raids, the need to establish cash crops, and lack of skilled or committed labor, meant the colony needed to attract enough new and responsible settlers if it were to grow and prosper.
To encourage settlers to come to Virginia, in November 1618 the Virginia Company's leaders gave instructions to the new governor, Sir George Yeardley, which became known as "the great charter."
Emigrants who paid their own way to Virginia would receive fifty acres of land and not be mere tenants. The civil authority would control the military. In 1619, based on the instructions, Governor Yeardley initiated the election of 22 burgesses by the settlements and Jamestown. They, together with the royally-appointed Governor and six-member Council of State, would form the first General Assembly as a unicameral body.
The governor could veto its actions and the Company still maintained overall control of the venture, but the settlers would have a limited say in the management of their own affairs, including their finances.
A House of Assembly was created at the same time in Bermuda (which had also been settled by the Virginia Company, and was by then managed by its offshoot, the Somers Isles Company) and held its first session in 1620.
A handful of Polish craftsmen, brought to the colony to supply skill in the manufacture of pitch, tar, potash, and soap ash, were initially denied full political rights. They downed their tools in protest but returned to work after being declared free and enfranchised, apparently by agreement with the Virginia Company.
First session
On July 30, 1619, Governor Yeardley convened the General Assembly as the first representative legislature in the Americas for a six-day meeting at the new timber church on Jamestown Island, Virginia. The unicameral Assembly was composed of the Governor, a Council of State appointed by the Virginia Company, and the 22 locally elected representatives.
The Assembly's first session of July 30, 1619, was cut short by an outbreak of malaria and adjourned after five days. On the third day of the assembly, the assembly's Journal noted "Mr. Shelley, one of the Burgesses, deceased." Twenty-two (22) members were sent to the assembly from the following constituencies: From James City: (Captain William Powell, Ensign William Spence of Spence); From Charles City: (Samuel Sharpe, Samuel Jordan); From the City of Henricus: (Thomas Dowse, John Pollington sometimes shown as Polentine or similar variations); From Kecoughtan: (Captain William Tucker, William Capps); From Smythe's Hundred (Captain Thomas Graves, Walter Shelley); From Martin's Hundred (John Boys, John Jackson); From Argall's Gift Plantation (Thomas Pawlett, Edward Gourgainy); From Flowerdew (or Flowerdieu) Hundred Plantation: (Ensign Edmund Rossingham, John Jefferson (burgess); From Captain Lawne's Plantation: (Captain Christopher Lawne, Ensign Washer); From Captain Ward's Plantation: (Captain John Warde or Ward, Lieutenant John Gibbs or Gibbes); and From Martin's Brandon (Captain John Martin's Plantation): (Thomas Davis, Robert Stacy). The latter two burgesses were excluded from the assembly because John Martin refused to give up a clause in his land patent that exempted his borough "from any command of the colony except it be aiding and assisting the same against any foreign or domestic enemy."
Later 17th century
Especially after the massacre of almost 400 colonists on March 22, 1621/22 by Native Americans, and epidemics in the winters before and after the massacre, the governor and council ruled arbitrarily, showing great contempt for the assembly and allowing no dissent.
By 1624, the royal government in London had heard enough about the problems of the colony and revoked the charter of the Virginia Company. Virginia became a crown colony and the governor and council would be appointed by the Crown. Nonetheless, the Assembly maintained management of local affairs with some informal royal assent, although it was not royally confirmed until 1639.
In 1634, the General Assembly divided the colony into eight shires (later renamed counties) for purposes of government, administration, and the judicial system. By 1643, the expanding colony had 15 counties. All of the county offices, including a board of commissioners, judges, sheriff, constable, and clerks, were appointed positions. Only the burgesses were elected by a vote of the people. Women had no right to vote. Only free and white men originally were given the right to vote, by 1670 only property owners were allowed to vote.
In 1642, Governor William Berkeley urged the creation of a bicameral legislature, which the Assembly promptly implemented; the House of Burgesses was thus formed and met separately from the Council of State.
In 1652, the parliamentary forces of Oliver Cromwell forced the colony to submit to being taken over by the English government. Again, the colonists were able to retain the General Assembly as their governing body. Only taxes agreed to by the assembly were to be levied. Still, most Virginia colonists were loyal to Prince Charles and were pleased with his restoration as King Charles II in 1660. He went on to directly or indirectly restrict some of the liberties of the colonists, such as requiring tobacco to be shipped only to England, only on English ships, with the price set by the English merchant buyers; but the General Assembly remained.
A majority of the members of the General Assembly of 1676 were supporters of Nathaniel Bacon. They enacted legislation designed to further popular sovereignty and representative government and to equalize opportunities. Bacon took little part in the deliberations since he was busy fighting the Native Americans.
The statehouse in Jamestown burned down for the fourth time on October 20, 1698. The General Assembly met temporarily in Middle Plantation, inland from Jamestown, and then in 1699 permanently moved the capital of the colony to Middle Plantation, which they renamed Williamsburg.
Moving toward independence
The French and Indian War in North America from 1754 to 1763 resulted in local colonial losses and economic disruption. Higher taxes were to follow, and adverse local reactions to these and how they were determined would drive events well into the next decade.
In 1764, desiring revenue from its North American colonies, Parliament passed the first law specifically aimed at raising colonial money for the Crown. The Sugar Act increased duties on non-British goods shipped to the colonies. The same year, the Currency Act prohibited American colonies from issuing their own currency. These angered many American colonists and began colonial opposition with protests. By the end of the year, many colonies were practicing non-importation, a refusal to use imported British goods.
In 1765, the British Quartering Act, which required the colonies to provide barracks and supplies to British troops, further angered American colonists; and to raise more money for Britain, Parliament enacted the Stamp Act on the American colonies, to tax newspapers, almanacs, pamphlets, broadsides, legal documents, dice, and playing cards. American colonists responded to Parliament's acts with organized protest throughout the colonies. A network of secret organizations known as the Sons of Liberty was created to intimidate the stamp agents collecting the taxes, and before the Stamp Act could take effect, all the appointed stamp agents in the colonies had resigned. The Massachusetts Assembly suggested a meeting of all colonies to work for the repeal of the Stamp Act, and all but four colonies were represented. The colonists also increased their non-importation efforts, and sought to increase in local production.
In May 1765, Patrick Henry presented a series of resolves that became known as the Virginia Resolves, denouncing the Stamp Act and denying the authority of the British parliament to tax the colonies, since they were not represented by elected members of parliament. Newspapers around the colonies published all his resolves, even the most radical ones which had not been passed by the assembly. The assembly also sent a 1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance to Parliament.
From 1769 -1775 Thomas Jefferson represented Albemarle County as a delegate in the Virginia House of Burgesses. He pursued reforms to slavery and introduced legislation allowing masters to take control over the emancipation of slaves in 1769, taking discretion away from the royal Governor and General Court. Jefferson persuaded his cousin Richard Bland to spearhead the legislation's passage, but the reaction was strongly negative.
In 1769 the Virginia House of Burgesses passed several resolutions condemning Britain's stationing troops in Boston following the Massachusetts Circular Letter of the previous year; these resolutions stated that only Virginia's governor and legislature could tax its citizens. The members also drafted a formal letter to the King, completing it just before the legislature was dissolved by Virginia's royal governor.
In 1774, after Parliament passed the Boston Port Act to close Boston Harbor, the House of Burgesses adopted resolutions in support of the Boston colonists which resulted in Virginia's royal governor, John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, dissolving the assembly. The burgesses then reassembled on their own and issued calls for the first of five Virginia Conventions. These conventions were essentially meetings of the House of Burgesses without the governor and Council, Peyton Randolph the Speaker of the House would serve as the President of the convention, and they would elect delegates to the Continental Congress. The First Continental Congress passed their Declaration and Resolves, which inter alia claimed that American colonists were equal to all other British citizens, protested against taxation without representation, and stated that Britain could not tax the colonists since they were not represented in Parliament.
In 1775 the burgesses, meeting in conventions, listened to Patrick Henry deliver his "give me liberty or give me death" speech and raised regiments. The House of Burgesses was called back by Lord Dunmore one last time in June 1775 to address British Prime Minister Lord North's Conciliatory Resolution. Randolph, who was a delegate to the Continental Congress, returned to Williamsburg to take his place as Speaker. Randolph indicated that the resolution had not been sent to the Congress (it had instead been sent to each colony individually in an attempt to divide them and bypass the Continental Congress). The House of Burgesses rejected the proposal, which was also later rejected by the Continental Congress. The burgesses formed a Committee of Safety to take over governance in the absence of the royal governor, Dunmore, who had organized loyalists forces but after defeats, he took refuge on a British warship.
In 1776 the House of Burgesses ended. The final entry in the Journals of the House of Burgesses is "6th of May. 16 Geo. III. 1776 … FINIS." Edmund Pendleton, a member of the House of Burgesses (and President of the Committee of Safety) who was present at the final meeting, wrote in a letter to Richard Henry Lee on the following day, "We met in an assembly yesterday and determined not to adjourn, but let that body die."
Later on the same morning, the members of the fifth and final Virginia Revolutionary Convention met in the chamber of the House of Burgesses in Williamsburg and elected Pendleton its president. The convention voted for independence from Britain. The former colony had become the independent Commonwealth of Virginia and the convention created the Constitution of Virginia with a new General Assembly, composed of an elected Senate and an elected House of Delegates. The House of Delegates acceded to the role of the former House of Burgesses.
Meeting places
In 1619, the General Assembly first met in the church in Jamestown. Subsequent meetings continued to take place in Jamestown.
In 1700, the seat of the House of Burgesses was moved from Jamestown to Middle Plantation, near what was soon renamed Williamsburg. The Burgesses met there, first (1700 to 1704) in the Great Hall of what is now called the Wren Building at the College of William and Mary, while the Capitol was under construction. When the Capitol burned in 1747, the legislature moved back into the college until the second Capitol was completed in 1754. The present Capitol building at Colonial Williamsburg is a reconstruction of the earlier of the two lost buildings.
In 1779, and effective in April 1780, the House of Delegates moved the capital city to Richmond during the American Revolutionary War for safety reasons.
Legacy
The House of Burgesses became the House of Delegates in 1776, retaining its status as the lower house of the General Assembly, the legislative branch of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Through the General Assembly and House of Burgesses, the Virginia House of Delegates is considered the oldest continuous legislative body in the New World.
In honor of the original House of Burgesses, every four years, the Virginia General Assembly traditionally leaves the current Capitol in Richmond, and meets for one day in the restored Capitol building at Colonial Williamsburg. The most recent commemorative session (the 26th) was held in January 2016.
In January 2007, the Assembly held a special session at Jamestown to mark the 400th anniversary of its founding as part of the Jamestown 2007 celebration, including an address by then-Vice-President Dick Cheney.
In January 2019, to mark the 400th anniversary of the House of Burgesses, the Virginia House of Representatives Clerk's Office announced a new Database of House Members called "DOME" that "[chronicles] the 9,700-plus men and women who served as burgesses or delegates in the Virginia General Assembly over the past four centuries."
See also
List of members of the Virginia House of Burgesses
List of speakers of the Virginia House of Burgesses
Virginia Slave Codes of 1705
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Hatch, Charles E., Jr., (1956 rev). America's Oldest Legislative Assembly & Its Jamestown Statehouses, Appendix II. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service.
Rubin, Jr. Louis D. Virginia: A History.New York W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1977. .
Salmon, Emily J. and Campbell, Jr., Edward D. C., editors, The Hornbook of Virginia History. Richmond, Virginia: The Library of Virginia, 1994.
External links
A History of the Virginia House of Delegates: Commemorating the First and Oldest Continuous English-Speaking Representative Legislative Assembly in the Western Hemisphere
Generall Historie of Virginia by Captaine John Smith
Evolution of the Virginia Colony, 1610–1630 (Library of Congress)
.
1619 establishments in Virginia
1776 disestablishments in Virginia
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242057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Alberta | University of Alberta | The University of Alberta, also known as U of A or UAlberta, is a public research university located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. It was founded in 1908 by Alexander Cameron Rutherford, the first premier of Alberta, and Henry Marshall Tory, the university's first president. It was enabled through the Post-secondary Learning Act.
The university is considered a "comprehensive academic and research university" (CARU), which means that it offers a range of academic and professional programs that generally lead to undergraduate and graduate level credentials.
The university comprises four campuses in Edmonton, an Augustana Campus in Camrose, and a staff centre in downtown Calgary. The original north campus consists of 150 buildings covering 50 city blocks on the south rim of the North Saskatchewan River valley, directly across from downtown Edmonton. 39,000 students from Canada and 150 other countries participate in 400 programs in 18 faculties.
The university is a major economic driver in Alberta. Its impact on Alberta's economy is estimated at $12.3 billion annually, or five per cent of the province's gross domestic product.
History
The university was chartered in 1906 in Edmonton, Alberta as a single, public provincial university through the University Act, passed during the first session of the then-new Legislative Assembly, with Premier Alexander C. Rutherford as the legislation's sponsor. The university was modelled on the American state university, with an emphasis on extension work and applied research. The governance was modelled on Ontario's University of Toronto Act of 1906, with a bicameral system consisting of a senate (faculty) responsible for academic policy, and a board of governors (citizens) controlling financial policy and having formal authority in all other matters. The president, appointed by the board, was to provide a link between the two bodies and perform institutional leadership.
Establishment in Edmonton
Heated wrangling took place between the cities of [Calgary] and Edmonton over the location of the provincial capital and of the university. It was stated that the capital would be north of the North Saskatchewan River and that the university would be in a city south of it. The city of Edmonton became the capital and the then-separate city of Strathcona on the south bank of the river, where Premier Alexander Rutherford lived, was granted the university. When the two cities were amalgamated in 1912, Edmonton became both the political and academic capital.
With Henry Marshall Tory as its first president, the University of Alberta started operation in 1908. Forty-five students attended classes in English, mathematics and modern languages, on the top floor of the Queen Alexandra Elementary School in Strathcona, while the first campus building, Athabasca Hall, was under construction. In a letter to Alexander Cameron Rutherford in early 1906, while he was in the process of setting up McGill University College in Vancouver, Tory wrote, "If you take any steps in the direction of a working University and wish to avoid the mistakes of the past, mistakes which have fearfully handicapped other institutions, you should start on a teaching basis."
Of the 45 students in the university's first cohort in 1908, seven were women. These original seven formed a type of sorority, called Seven Independent Spinsters, or S.I.S., with the intention of supporting the women's social and academic needs. In 1909, the group changed its name to the Wuaneita Club, and then to the Wuaneita Society in 1910. All female students at the university were initiated into the Society every fall. The group heavily appropriated from Cree culture: the name Wuaneita is a rough equivalent to the Cree word meaning "kind-hearted"; their initiation ceremonies featured costumes with feathers and headdresses; the society president was called the "Big Chief": and the motto of the group was "payuk uche kukeyow, mena kukeyow uche payuk,” a rough translation into Cree of "all for one, one for all" that is still engraved above the outer doors of Pembina Hall on main campus. For much of the Wuaneita Society's existence, as they were coopting First Nations traditions and ceremonies, the Potlatch ban was in effect in Canada. The group wound down in 1973 once the population of female students on campus had outgrown the need for a supportive society.
Under Tory's guidance, the early years were marked by recruitment of professors and construction of the first campus buildings. Today, he has a building named after him that houses classes of all types. Percy Erskine Nobbs & Frank Darling designed the master plan for the University of Alberta in 1909–10. Nobbs designed the Arts Building (1914–15), laboratories and Power House (1914). With Cecil S. Burgess, Nobbs designed the Provincial College of Medicine (1920–21). Architect Herbert Alton Magoon designed several buildings on campus, including St. Stephen's Methodist College (1910) and the residence for professor Rupert C. Lodge (1913). The University of Alberta awarded its first degrees in 1912, the same year it established the Department of Extension. The Faculty of Medicine was established the following year and the Faculty of Agriculture began in 1915.
But along with these early milestones came the First World War and the global influenza pandemic of 1918, whose toll on the university resulted in a two-month suspension of classes in the fall of 1918. The university organized the recruitment of staff and students for XI Canadian Field Ambulance (Western Universities) in early 1916, and soon afterward it raised 'C' Company of the 196th (Western Universities) Battalion. Both of these units were organized by a committee composed of representatives from the University of British Columbia, University of Alberta, University of Saskatchewan, and University of Manitoba, with each institution encouraging their staff and students to volunteer. The University of Alberta's recruits for XI Canadian Field Ambulance were billeted in Athabasca Hall before departing for Winnipeg in March 1916, while the men of C Company stayed in Assiniboia Hall until June of that same year. Between 1914-1918, the number of students and staff serving overseas (in a number of different units) was greater than the number of students registered in each academic year. Roughly half of the university's staff and students were serving overseas by 1916. 82 staff and students from the University of Alberta died during their service in the First World War, and hundreds more were wounded.
Despite these setbacks, the university continued to grow. By 1920, it had six faculties (Arts and Sciences, Applied Science, Agriculture, Medicine, Dentistry, and Law) and two schools (Pharmacy and Accountancy). It awarded a range of degrees: Bachelor of Arts (BA), Bachelor of Science (BSc), Bachelor of Science in Agriculture (BSA), Bachelor of Laws (LLB), Bachelor of Pharmacy (PhmB), Bachelor of Divinity (BD), Master of Arts (MA), Master of Science (MSc), and Doctor of Laws (LLD). There were 851 male students and 251 female students, and 171 academic staff, including 14 women.
Campus expansion
The Breton Soil Plots were established at the faculty of agriculture from 1929 – present to provide agricultural research on fertilization, usage, crop rotations and farming practices on Gray-Luvisolic soils (Gray-Wooded), which cover many regions in western Canada.
The University of Alberta spearheaded an extraordinary rate of volunteerism in the Province of Alberta to the First World War, especially from its medical faculty. Experience gained was used by returning veterans to rapidly mature the young Faculty of Medicine. The War Memorial Committee commissioned a War Memorial Pipe Organ to be erected by the Casavant Frères in U of A Convocation Hall in 1925 in memory of 80 University of Alberta comrades who gave up their lives during the Great War.
In the early part of the 20th century, professional education expanded beyond the traditional fields of theology, law and medicine. Graduate training based on the German-inspired American model of specialized course work and the completion of a research thesis was introduced. In 1929, the university established a College of Education. This period of growth was to be short-lived, though, as the Great Depression and the Second World War curtailed enrolment and expansion until 1945. The university also gained new public powers. In 1928, the university's senate was granted the power to oversee and appoint half of the Alberta Eugenics Board, charged with recommending individuals for sterilization.
Spurred by postwar growth in the student population and the discovery of oil in Leduc in 1947, the University of Alberta underwent expansion through the 1950s that continued through the 1960s as the baby-boom generation swelled the enrolment ranks. These two decades also saw expansion of campus buildings, including new buildings for the faculties of physical education and education, and the Cameron Library. The University of Alberta Press, concentrating on western Canadian history, general science and ecology, was founded in 1969.
The policy of university education initiated in the 1960s responded to population pressure and the belief that higher education was a key to social justice and economic productivity for individuals and for society. In addition, the single-university policy in the West was changed as existing colleges of the provincial universities gained autonomy as universities. On September 19, 1960, the university opened a new 130-hectare campus in Calgary. By 1966, the University of Calgary had been established as an autonomous institution.
From the mid-1970s to the late 1980s, the university enjoyed sustained growth. In 1970, the Collège Saint-Jean began offering French-language instruction in arts, science and education. In 1984, the School of Native Studies was established. Buildings that had been started in the 1960s, such as Biological Sciences, its biotron facility, and the Central Academic Building, were completed in the early 1970s. Extensive renovations restored the venerable Arts Building, as well as the Athabasca and Pembina halls. New buildings completed in the early 1980s included the Business Building and the first phase of the Walter C. Mackenzie Health Sciences Centre. Another new building, the distinctive Universiade Pavilion (nicknamed the "Butterdome"), was completed as part of the university's preparations to host the World University Games in 1983, the first time the event was held in North America.
Modern challenges
The 1990s were a time of financial constraint as the Alberta government made budgetary cutbacks. However, there was a time in which the university benefited from philanthropic support. The $11 million Timms Centre for the Arts, which began construction in 1993, was made possible by a large donation from its namesake, Albert Timms. In 1998, Gladys Young's $3.5-million donation to the university undergraduate scholarship fund in memory of Roland Young, who graduated from the U of A in 1928, was the largest private donation for undergraduate scholarships in the university's history.
The early 2000s brought substantial funding increases. High energy prices drove Alberta's energy boom resulting in multibillion-dollar government surpluses and the subsequent creation of a $4.5 billion provincial post-secondary educational endowment. In 2005, the university hired Indira Samarasekera as its 12th president, embarking on an ambitious plan to establish itself as one of the world's top public research universities. These plans were hampered by the 2008 economic downturn, and by late March 2008, the university's endowment had shrunk by more than $100 million, almost 14 per cent of its value. The university predicted a $59-million budget shortfall in 2009 before provincial cuts brought that figure to $79 million. To close the budgetary gap, the university increased non-instructional fees by $290 per year laid off teaching and support staff, and even eliminated phones in some departments (such as English and Film Studies).
The 2013 Alberta Budget cut provincial post-secondary grants by $147 million, including a 7.2 per cent cut to the university's base operating grant. The university is covering its resulting shortfall by reducing total spending in 2013 by $28 million, then cutting an additional $56 million to balance its budget by the spring of 2015.
The 2015 Alberta Budget released in October 2015 restored a 1.4 per cent cut to the U of A's operational funding, and provided for an additional two per cent increase in the 2015-16 fiscal year. The budget also included a two-year tuition freeze. October also saw the launch of an institutional strategic planning process intended to prompt discussion and gather feedback on the university's strategic priorities, with the goal of assuming a national leadership role in post-secondary education.
The 2019 Alberta Budget released in October 2019 reduced grants to the provincial post-secondary sector, including a $44-million reduction for the U of A and an additional freeze of $35 million allocated for infrastructure. In early 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada, the United Conservative Party announced an additional $110-million cut to funding for the U of A. While outgoing University President David Turpin announced that the cuts would necessitate 400 job losses by March 31 and more than 600 additional positions would need to be eliminated in 2020–2021, incoming University President Bill Flanagan began campus discussions about how to manage the cuts, including reducing the number of faculties and departments, and streamlining administration staffing.
Academics
The U of A has about 39,300 students, including 7,700 graduate students and 7,800 international students representing 151
countries. The university has 3,620 academic staff along with 15,380 support and trust staff. University professors have won more 3M Teaching Fellowships (Canada's top award for undergraduate teaching excellence) than any other Canadian university, 41 awards since 1986. The university offers post-secondary education in about 388 undergraduate and 500 graduate programs. Tuition and fees for both fall and winter semesters are slightly more than $5,000 for a typical undergraduate arts student, although they vary widely by program. The University of Alberta switched from a 9-point grading scale to the more common 4-point grading scale in September 2003. Seventy-two Rhodes Scholars have come from the University of Alberta. The University of Alberta also holds 2,599 Academic All-Canadians, the most of any University in Canada.
Faculties and colleges
The university has 18 faculties:
Faculty of Agricultural, Life and Environmental Sciences focuses on natural, biological, and human resources. The faculty is home to the Devonian Botanic Garden in Devon, Alberta. The garden runs a series of winter hardiness trials on trees, shrubs, herbs, annuals and bulbs. The garden collection consists of Primula, Meconopsis, Allium Rosa (shrub), alpines, and herbs and plants traditionally used by Aboriginal Peoples. There is a microfungus collection and a herbarium that contains more than 4,800 livery genotypic filamentous fungi.
Alberta School of Business offers MBA, BCom, PhD, ExecEd, Exec MBA, and Master of Financial Management degrees.
Faculty of Arts is home to a spectrum of arts programs and departments, from Anthropology and Community Service Learning to History and Women's Studies.
Augustana Campus is located in a satellite campus in Camrose, Alberta. It comprises the departments of Fine Arts, Humanities, Physical Education, Science, and Social Sciences.
Campus Saint-Jean is a francophone faculty with programs in Sciences, Fine Arts and Languages, Social Sciences, and Education.
Faculty of Education offers undergraduate and graduate degrees in elementary and secondary education, or a combined program. The School of Library and Information Studies is also a part of this Faculty.
Faculty of Engineering offers undergraduate degrees in five engineering departments. Students can choose to specialize in the following disciplines: Chemical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Computer Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Engineering Physics, Materials Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Mining Engineering and Petroleum Engineering.
Faculty of Extension offers more than 300 courses in over 30 programs focusing on lifelong Continuing Education and Professional Development. Among the faculty's contributions to Alberta's educational and cultural life are the creation of the CKUA public radio station in 1927 and the Banff School of Fine Arts in 1933.
Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research maintains more than 170 programs in graduate studies.
Faculty of Law is the oldest law school in Western Canada. It is home to interdisciplinary institutes of constitutional studies, health law, science policy and law reform in Alberta.
Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry has 20 departments, seven divisions, eight research groups, and 31 centres and institutes. The faculty is internationally known for research in diabetes, obesity, virology, cardiology, cancer and spinal injury rehabilitation.
Faculty of Native Studies is Canada's only stand-alone faculty of native studies. The faculty began offering a master's program in the 2012–13 academic year.
Faculty of Nursing is one of Canada's largest nursing faculties, and was the first in Canada to offer a fully funded PhD program.
Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences is one of Canada's largest and finest pharmacy faculties. Its students excel nationally, achieving the highest combined score on the Pharmacy Examining Board of Canada exam in 2009, 2010 and 2012.
Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation focuses on the studies of human movement through sport science, kinesiology, physical education, physical activity and health, and tourism studies. The Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation offers four undergraduate programs: Bachelor of Arts in Recreation, Sport and Tourism; Bachelor of Physical Education; Bachelor of Physical Education/Bachelor of Education (five-year combined degree offered in conjunction with the Faculty of Education); and Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology.
Faculty of Rehabilitation Medicine is North America's only stand-alone faculty dedicated to rehabilitation science, physical therapy, occupational therapy and speech-language pathology. The faculty is a research leader in musculoskeletal health, spinal cord injuries, seniors' health, and use of communication technologies to support local community care.
School of Public Health was established in March 2006 as Canada's first stand-alone faculty with a sole focus on public health. In October 2012, it became the only school in Canada and only the second outside the United States to be accredited by the U.S. Council on Education for Public Health.
Faculty of Science is made up of seven departments (Biological Sciences, Chemistry, Computing Science, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, Physics, and Psychology.) The faculty includes 6 E.W.R. Steacie Memorial Fellowship winners, 16 winners of Rutherford Awards for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching, 26 Canada Research Chairs, 5 iCORE Chairs, 3 NSERC Chairs, 2 Alberta Ingenuity Centres of Excellence, and 10 members of the Royal Society of Canada. It has more than 70 Bachelor of Science (BSc) programs in 39 subject areas.
The university has two affiliated colleges:
St. Joseph's College offers undergraduate courses in applied ethics, philosophy, religious education and theology, for credit in degree programs with arts options. The college also offers specific courses for education students intending to teach within Alberta's Catholic school system.
St. Stephen's College offers graduate degree, diploma and certificate programs in theological studies, with courses designed to allow distance learning.
Academic Restructuring Model
The University of Alberta made the decision to academically restructure its faculties in response to a reduction in its provincial operating grant, which would require the university to reduce expenses by $120 million in the next three years. Three restructuring models were proposed before the university's Board of Governors approved the academic restructuring plans on December 11, 2020. This restructuring model will be effective as of July 1, 2021.
The approved restructuring model will allocate 13 previous stand-alone faculties into three colleges that center around shared disciplinaries:
The remaining faculties (Augustana, Campus Saint-Jean, and Faculty of Native Studies) will remain as stand-alone faculties
Libraries
The University of Alberta library system received a tremendous boost with the opening of the Rutherford Library in May 1951. , according to the Association of Research Libraries, the library system is rated 11th in North America and is the second-largest, by number of volumes held, among all Canadian universities, after the University of Toronto Library. With over 10.6 million items combined with online access to more than one million electronic books and more than 1,500 electronic databases, the library system ranks first in Canada in terms of the number of volumes per student.
The library system comprises the following specialty libraries:
Augustana Campus Library
Bibliothèque Saint-Jean
Research & Collections Resource Facility (RCRF)
incorporating the University of Alberta Archives and the former Book and Record Depository (BARD)
Cameron Library (Science & Technology)
Data Library
Digital Scholarship Centre (DSC)
Herbert T. Coutts Library (Education & Physical Education - closed in 2020 )
John A. Weir Memorial Law Library
John W. Scott Health Sciences Library
Rutherford Library (Humanities & Social Sciences)
Bruce Peel Special Collections
St. Joseph's College Library
Winspear Business Reference Library (closed in 2020 )
The university is home to an American Library Association-accredited School of Library and Information Studies, which offers a Master of Library and Information Studies (MLIS) program. The school was housed in Rutherford South, the original four-storey brick, marble and oak main campus library, which opened in 1951. As of 2018, the school has since moved into the Education North building.
Research
The university is a member of the U15 universities and the Worldwide Universities Network, an organization of 19 universities on six continents. In 2018, Research Infosource named the University of Alberta the fifth best research university, with a sponsored research income (external sources of funding) of $513.313 million in 2017. In the same year, the university's faculty averaged a sponsored research income of $242,100, while its graduate students averaged a sponsored research income of $69,400. The university receives nearly $500 million each year for research from external sources. The university houses over 400 distinct research laboratories.
The university's research performance has been noted in several bibliometric university rankings, which uses citation analysis to evaluates the impact a university has on academic publications. In 2019, the Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities ranked the university 81st in the world, and fourth in Canada, whereas the University Ranking by Academic Performance 2018–19 rankings placed the university 78th in the world, and fourth in Canada.
The University of Alberta is the national scientific and administrative headquarters for:
Sustainable Forest Management Network
Canadian Obesity Network
Canadian Centre for Ethnomusicology
Antarctic Institute of Canada
Researchers at the University of Alberta have made discoveries in a number of fields.
Arts and humanities research
The Faculty of Arts includes eight Canada Research Chairs in fields as diverse as English and Film Studies, Sociology, Philosophy, Art and Design, and History and Classics.
In 2014 the Department of English and Film Studies ranked #22 in the World QS University Rankings by subject.
In 2018, the Faculty of Arts launched several Signature Areas of Research and Creative Collaboration: Digital Synergies; Language, Communication and Culture; Mediating Science and Technology; Shifting Praxis in Artistic Research/Research-Creation; and Stories of Change.
The Faculty houses several research centres and institutes, including:
Canadian Indigenous Languages and Literacy Development Institute (CILLDI)
Canadian Institute for Research Computing in the Arts (CIRCA)
Canadian Institute for Ukrainian Studies
Canadian Literature Centre/Centre de literature canadienne Institute for Public Economics
Institute of Prairie and Indigenous Archaeology
Kule Folklore Centre
Kule Institute for Advanced Studies (KIAS)
Parkland Institute
Prince Takamado Japan Centre for Teaching and Research
Sound Studies Institute
Wirth Institute for Austrian and Central European Studies
Scientific and medical research
In 1917, physics professor Robert Boyle developed sonar.
Biochemistry professor and alumnus James Collip played a key role in discovering insulin by refining the pancreatic extract obtained by Frederick Banting, Charles Best and John Macleod so it could be used in humans.
Chemistry professor Raymond Lemieux was the first to synthesize sucrose. The breakthrough laid the groundwork for new antibiotics and blood reagents, anti-rejection drugs for organ transplants, and better treatments for leukemia and hemophilia.
In 1956, surgeon John Callaghan performed the first successful open-heart surgery.
Canada's first organ transplant research group was established at the University of Alberta on April 2, 1970, by the Medical Research Council.
In 1982, the University of Alberta introduced the Centre for Gerontology, which was renamed the Alberta Centre on Aging in the early 1990s.
In 1995, engineer Robert Burrell used nanotechnology to develop a form of silver that could be made into a bandage for burns and other wounds. The dressings are used worldwide.
Medical researchers James Shapiro, Jonathan Lakey and Edmond Ryan developed the Edmonton Protocol, a revolutionary treatment for Type 1 diabetes that enables people with the disease to break their insulin dependence. The first patient was treated in 1999. , the project is developed through the Clinical Islet Transplant Program.
In 2008, medical researcher David Bundle and his colleagues Glen Armstrong and Pavel Kitov made a breakthrough in treating E. coli infection by creating a drug that prevents the E. coli bacterium from making contact with kidney cells.
In 2013, Michael Houghton, Canada Excellence Research Chair and Li Ka Shing Chair in Virology, showed that a vaccine created from one strain of the hepatitis C virus can be effective against all known strains of the virus. Houghton was also the researcher who originally identified the hepatitis C virus. The discovery paves the way for developing a vaccine to prevent future hepatitis C infections.
The University of Alberta consistently ranks as the second best university in the world when it comes to Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning. The university plays host to world class research and development in such subject areas, and in 2017, was awarded $125 Million in funding from the Government of Canada to be shared amongst four other Canadian universities for further research and advancements in the field.
Nanotechnology research
In June 2006, a $120-million building for the National Institute for Nanotechnology (NINT) was opened on campus. NINT occupies five floors of the new building, with the top two floors being reserved by the university for nanotechnology-related research. Some staff members have been jointly recruited by the NRC and the University of Alberta.
Arctic research
The University of Alberta is home to the Canadian Circumpolar Institute, which supports research into social and environmental issues including climate change, cultural identity and natural resource development.
In 2011, researchers at the University of Alberta linked the reproductive ecology of polar bears in Canada's Hudson Bay with decreasing litter sizes and loss of sea ice.
Agriculture
Cattle researcher Roy Berg revolutionized the world's beef industry with his innovations in crossbreeding, which led to a 30 to 40 per cent increase in production and contributed to Alberta's world leadership in beef production.
Energy, oilsands and environment
In the 1920s, engineering professor Karl Clark developed a hot-water extraction process to separate bitumen from oilsands. Geology professor Charlie Stelck's idea to search for oil and gas deposits near ancient coral reefs led to the discovery of oil in Leduc, Alberta, in 1947 and in the Pembina Oil Field in 1953. Today, more than 1,000 researchers at the University of Alberta are working together on oilsands issues and their environmental effects, including carbon capture and storage, tailings-pond reclamation and water preservation.
University of Alberta's SLOWPOKE-2 non-power reactor operating licence was renewed and will be valid from July 1, 2013, until June 30, 2023. The SLOWPOKE reactor is used for research and education.
Machine learning and artificial intelligence
The University of Alberta hosts the Alberta Machine Intelligence Institute (AMII), an institute dedicated to machine learning and artificial intelligence, formerly known as Alberta Innovates Centre for Machine Learning (AICML). AMII is home to world-renowned computer scientists including Professors Rich Sutton (Reinforcement Learning), Osmar R. Zaiane (Data Mining), Russell Greiner (Health Informatics), Michael Bowling (Game Theory), Dale Schuurmans (Machine Learning), Csaba Szepesvari (Reinforcement Learning), Martha White (Machine Learning), among others. The computing science department at University of Alberta is ranked #1 in Canada and averaged #2 in the world in terms of number of publications at top Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning venues in the last 10 years. In 2017, the Government of Canada Budget included an investment of $125 million into a Pan-Canadian Artificial Intelligence Strategy, which features a major investment in research at the University of Alberta.
Other
The university participated in the initial development of the Mizar system.
The asteroid 99906 Uofalberta is named in the university's honour, in part because the initials of its motto Quaecumque Vera ("Whatsoever things are true") appeared in the object's provisional designation .
The university is also a leading institution for the study of Ukraine and is home to the Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies.
Reputation
The University of Alberta has ranked in a number of post-secondary rankings. In the 2021 Academic Ranking of World Universities rankings, the university ranked 101–150 in the world and 5–6 in Canada. The 2022 QS World University Rankings ranked the university 126th in the world, and fifth in Canada. The 2022 Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked the university 125th in the world, and sixth in Canada. In the 2022 U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Ranking, the university ranked 135th in the world, and fifth in Canada. The Canadian-based Maclean's magazine ranked the University of Alberta sixth in their 2022 Canadian Medical Doctoral university category. The university was ranked in spite of having opted out — along with several other universities in Canada — of participating in Maclean's graduate survey since 2006.
Along with academic and teaching rankings, the university has also been ranked by publications that evaluate the employment prospects of its graduates. In the Times Higher Education's 2020 global employability ranking, the university ranked 131st in the world, and sixth in Canada. In QS's 2020 graduate employability ranking, the university ranked 87th in the world, and fourth in Canada.
Campuses
The university has five distributed campuses including, in addition to the North Campus, two auxiliary satellites: Campus Saint-Jean in southeast Edmonton, and Augustana Campus in Camrose, 90 kilometres southeast of Edmonton. An extensively renovated and refurbished historic Hudson's Bay department store in downtown Edmonton, renamed Enterprise Square, serves as a campus for adult students belonging to the Faculty of Extension. The university owns a set of large parcels of mostly undeveloped land (used as an experimental farm and the site of several agricultural and sports facilities) slightly south of the main campus, called South Campus (previously the University Farm), in which an entire new university complex of similar magnitude to the North Campus will be constructed.
Detailed Google Maps views and 360-degree interactive panoramas of the campus can be seen on the University of Alberta website.
North Campus
The North Campus is the original location of the University of Alberta. Located on the southern banks of the North Saskatchewan River, it has 150 buildings on of land.
Architect Barton Myers completed the long-range campus plan in 1969 and continued as a planner for the university until 1978.
The distinctive cupola of the Dentistry/Pharmacy Centre on North Campus was featured in a commemorative stamp issued by Canada Post in 2008, the year of the university's centenary.
South Campus
Located two kilometres south of the North Campus, the South Campus is much larger in terms of land area. The two campuses are linked by Light Rail Transit. South Campus station is near Foote Field and the Saville Community Sports Centre, forming a natural gateway to the new campus architectural model, since 2009. Along with Health Sciences, University, and Enterprise Square stations, the LRT connects the U of A through four stations. In addition to educational facilities, the university is closely affiliated with six non-profit day care centres, many of which run partnered initiatives such as the Physical Literacy for Active Youth (PLAY) Program as an educational practical learning experience for University of Alberta students.
Much of the university's agricultural research in food safety and crop use for food and industrial products happens at the Edmonton Research Station Experimental Farms on South Campus. This campus is also home to the Saville Community Sports Centre, a 32,500-square-metre, multi-use recreation facility that hosts 14 varsity teams and several community sports clubs. In 2013, the Saville Centre became the new training centre for the Canadian senior women's basketball team.
Campus Saint-Jean
The Campus Saint-Jean is a francophone campus located five kilometres east of the main campus, in Bonnie Doon, formerly named "Faculté Saint-Jean". It is the only French-language university campus west of Manitoba. Due to increasing enrolment, the Campus Saint-Jean is undergoing expansion, acquiring new laboratory and classroom spaces. Students at Campus Saint-Jean pursue bachelor's degrees in the sciences or arts, or complete their first year of Engineering, after which they often transfer to the University of Alberta's main campus. Bilingual Nursing and Business programs are also available.
Augustana Campus
The Augustana Campus is located in Camrose, a small city in rural Alberta about 100 km southeast of Edmonton. In 2004, the former Augustana University College in Camrose merged with the University of Alberta, thus creating the new satellite Augustana Campus. Students enrolled at the Augustana Campus currently pursue four-year bachelor's degrees in arts, sciences, or music.
Enterprise Square
Enterprise Square opened for business January 15, 2008 on the north side of the North Saskatchewan river in downtown Edmonton. It is located in the historical building previously occupied by the Hudson's Bay Company. The building underwent major renovations. Enterprise Square houses the University of Alberta Faculty of Extension, the professional development activities of the Alberta School of Business, the Alberta Business Family Institute, and the Design Gallery. It is the home of the University of Alberta Alumni Association.
Investment in health and science
$1.6 billion in construction has been undertaken at the university related to fields in health and science. The projects expand the University of Alberta's research capacity in the field of health. Over the past five years, the University of Alberta has averaged nearly $500 million in external research funding a year. The funding is expected to increase due to added research and teaching capacity.
Centennial Centre for Interdisciplinary Science
A major project, completed in the spring of 2011 with a grand opening on September 23, 2011, was the $400-million, Centennial Centre for Interdisciplinary Science (CCIS), a facility for interdisciplinary research groups, as well as the Department of Physics, the Faculty of Science offices and the Interdepartmental Science Students' Society's office. Three buildings – V-Wing (a large one-floor building composed of 10 lecture halls, of which two will remain), the Avadh Bhatia Physics Building (a six-storey building formerly housing the Department of Physics offices and laboratories), and the old Centre for Subatomic Research – were demolished to make way for CCIS.
Edmonton Clinic Health Academy
The Edmonton Clinic (formerly the Health Science Ambulatory Learning Centre) is a joint project with Alberta Health Services, and consists of two separate buildings. Construction started in 2008 on the multidisciplinary health science facilities totalling $909 million and 170,000 square metres surrounding the Health Sciences LRT Station. Edmonton Clinic South (now known as Kaye Edmonton Clinic), a nine-storey building, will focus on patient care and house most of the medical and dental clinics, while the Edmonton Clinic Health Academy (ECHA) is a six-storey building that is the home of interdisciplinary health research and education currently held at the university. The Edmonton Clinic Health Academy, owned and operated by the University of Alberta, officially opened in January 2012. The Kaye Edmonton Clinic, owned and operated by Alberta Health Services, opened in December 2012.
Health research innovation facilities
Two new $300-million buildings adjacent to the Heritage Medical Research Centre building on the main campus, along with existing health-care and health research facilities and the Edmonton Clinic Health Academy, form a health precinct of two city blocks dedicated to health research, education and patient care. The newest facilities form a translational research centre designed to create an environment for "bench-to-bedside" health research by increasing interaction between researchers and clinicians focused on common medical issues. A total of 65,000 square metres (699,700 square feet) gross area constructed on two sites contribute to research by allowing the university to hire over 100 additional biomedical and health researchers. This is projected to result in a doubling of research funding by 2014.
Katz Group Centre for Pharmacy and Health Research
The hub of the complex is the Katz Group Centre for Pharmacy and Health Research (formerly HRIF West), an eight-storey building that provides the main entrance to the complex and becomes the critical link between Medical Sciences Building and Heritage Medical Research Centre. The Katz Group Centre is a teaching and research facility. It is home to the Li Ka Shing Institute of Virology, led by scientific director Lorne Tyrrell, MD, PhD, and includes some of the world's top virologists, including Michael Houghton, PhD, Canada Excellence Research Chair and Li Ka Shing Chair in Virology, who co-led the team that discovered the hepatitis C virus during his previous career in private industry. The facility is located on the corner of 89 Avenue and 114 Street in Edmonton, Alberta.
Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Research Innovation
The Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Research Innovation (formerly HRIF East) anchors the southeast corner of the health precinct and is also home to the Alberta Diabetes Institute (ADI). Both the east and west buildings of HRIF are linked at every floor to the Heritage Medical Research Centre with the exception of Level 1 of HRIF West. The facility is dedicated to health research. The facility is named in honour of a gift in 2010 of $28 million from the Li Ka Shing (Canada) Foundation that helped establish the Li Ka Shing Institute of Virology ($25M) and a joint PhD program ($3M) between the university's Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry and Shantou University Medical College in China. As of fall 2012, this remains the largest single cash gift to the University of Alberta. The facility is located on the corner of 89 Avenue and 112 Street in Edmonton, Alberta.
Student life
The student body of the University of Alberta is represented by two students' unions, the University of Alberta Students' Union for all undergraduate students, and the Graduate Student Association for all graduate students. In addition, a number of the university's academic programs also manage their own student representative body. Students within the residences are represented by a number of associations, primarily the University of Alberta Residence Halls Association. As of 2014, there are more than 450 student organizations and clubs, covering a wide range of interests such as academics, culture, religion, social issues, and recreation. The student unions, as well as many of the student organizations, are centred in the university's student activity centre, the Students' Union Building. The building was opened in 1967, and hosts the majority of the Students' Union services and business operations. The two primary media outlets amongst the student population is the student newspaper, The Gateway, and campus radio, CJSR-FM.
Greek life
From 1909 to 1929, the university held a ban against fraternities and sororities, since Henry Marshall Tory, the first president of the university, ordered all secret societies, including Upsilon Upsilon and Pi Sigma Phi, to be disbanded. The drive to remove the ban begun in 1927, when students had formed the Athenian Club to lobby the university. During the same year, several men had formed the Rocky Mountain Goat Club, which was only official sanctioned due to the lack of any secret rituals or a written constitution. The ban on fraternities and sororities would end in 1929, with the departure of President Tory. Members of the Rocky Mountain Goat Club had later formed the nucleus of the university's first fraternities. Phi Delta Theta was the first fraternity officially recognized and chartered on September 2, 1930. Fraternities and sororities are recognized as student groups by the university and Students' Union through Student Group Services. They are supported by local alumni advisors, their international headquarters, and a fraternity and sorority advisor. In addition, the fraternities are also governed by the Interfraternity Council and the Panhellenic Council.
There are eleven fraternity chapters recognized as a student group by the university, and the Students' Union: Delta Chi, Delta Kappa Epsilon, Delta Upsilon, FarmHouse, Kappa Sigma, Lambda Chi Alpha, Phi Delta Theta, Phi Gamma Delta, Pi Kappa Alpha, Theta Chi, and Zeta Psi. There are currently six sorority chapters recognized as a student group by the university, and the Students' Union: Alpha Gamma Delta, Alpha Psi, Ceres, Delta Gamma, Kappa Alpha Theta, and Pi Beta Phi.
Athletics
The Athletics program at the university is managed by the Athletics Department, a service unit under the Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation. The university's male varsity teams are known as the University of Alberta Golden Bears, while the female varsity team is known as the University of Alberta Pandas. The university's varsity teams compete in the Canada West Universities Athletic Association conference of U Sports. The university's varsity sports programs include basketball, cross-country, curling, football, golf, hockey, rugby, soccer, swimming, track and field, tennis, volleyball, and wrestling. The university athletic's department manages more than 500 students in over 24 teams.
The Golden Bears and Pandas have won 68 national championships since 1961. The men's ice hockey team has won the Canada West Conference Championships championship 25 times, and the national championship 15 times, making it the Golden Bears' most successful team at the regional and national level.
The Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation also operate a number of intramural, sport club and group fitness programs, available to any undergraduate and graduate student that pays the Athletic and Recreation fee through the Campus & Community Recreation service unit. Sports offered include traditional sports like volleyball, basketball, soccer and cricket, as well as less traditional events like dodgeball, inner tube water polo, and wallyball.
The university has athletic facilities open to both their varsity teams as well as to their students. Opened in 2015, the Physical Activity and Wellness (PAW) Centre opened as a partnership between the Students' Union, Graduate Students Association, the Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation, University of Alberta, the Government of Alberta and the Hanson and Wilson Family. The PAW Centre encourages healthy lifestyles choices by offering a variety of activities related to wellness. Components include a new student fitness centre, sports-related research and lab facilities, a variety of student service spaces as well as the new home of the Steadward Centre, a high-caliber research and program delivery centre for people with disabilities. Foote Field is a multi-sport facility named after its benefactor, Eldon Foote. The sports facility is home to the varsity Golden Bears and Pandas track and field, football, soccer and rugby. Depending on the sporting event, the field's seating capacity ranges from 1,500 to 3,500. Foote Field also hosts the Canadian Athletics Coaching Centre, and had previously hosted events in international athletics competitions, such as the 2001 World Championships in Athletics. Other facilities include the Van Vliet Complex, named after Maury Van Vliet, the first director of the Faculty of Physical Education (Now the Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation). The facility holds physical activity spaces including; the Clare Drake Arena several gymnasium, an aquatic centre, fitness centres, and courts for racquetball and squash. The Saville Community Sports Centre is another multi-sport complex located on the university's campus. The centre is also home of the Golden Bears and Pandas basketball, curling, tennis and volleyball teams, and houses the Canadian Curling Association National Training Centre, Tennis Canada High Performance Tennis Development Centre, and Team Ortona Gymnastics. The university also operates the Universiade Pavilion, a multi-sport facility constructed for the 1983 Summer Universiade.
History of Queer life
In 1984, students formed "Gays and Lesbians On Campus" (GALOC). In 1985, a "Pink Triangle" supplement first appeared in The Gateway student newspaper. That same year, GALOC organized U of A's first pride event, GALA Week, which became an annual event. In 1990, GALOC held "Blue Jean Day", when gays, lesbians, and supporters wore denim jeans for a day; incidences of homophobia were reported. Since 2013, the university has held a Pride Week each mid-March, which includes a pride parade across North Campus. In 2021, events were held virtually.
Insignias and other representations
Coat of arms
The university coat of arms was adopted in 1909, following the recommendations of the university's senate to adopt the coat of arms of the province of Alberta as its emblem, with the addition of an open book superimposed upon the cross and a new motto. The coat of arms had undergone a number of changes, with the arms changing in the 1950s in keeping with the graphic style of the time, and in the early 1990s, in the university's efforts to have their arms gain official heraldic authority. The latest design was completed in 1994, being registered with the Canadian Heraldic Authority on 31 May 1994, and was presented to the university on 13 June 1994.
The coat of arms consists of a shield displaying the topography of Alberta rendered in the colours of the university. At the base is a prairie wheat field symbolizing Alberta's agricultural industry. The wavy gold line above represent the hills and rivers of Alberta. The top of the shield is in gold and separated from the rest of the shield by a line suggesting the Rocky Mountains. The book of learning dominates the design. A great horned owl, the provincial bird and an accepted symbol of knowledge is used as the crest of the coat of arms. The arm's supporters is the pronghorn, taken from the provincial coat of arms, and the golden bear, the mascot of the university.
Motto and song
The motto of the university, Quaecumque vera, translates to "whatsoever things are true." The original motto lux et lex, was first adopted in 1907, and was translated as "light and law" in Latin. The motto was substituted with the present motto in 1909. The motto was adopted from the Latin Vulgate version of the Bible, the Epistle to the Philippians, where it states that,
Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at events such as commencement and convocation, and athletic games are: Alberta, with words and music by Emma Newton; Alberta Cheer Song, with words by R.K. Michael, and music by Charleston Lamberston; The Evergreen and Gold, with words by William H. Alexander, and the music taken from the National Anthem of Russia; and Quaecumque vera, with words and music by Ewart W. Stutchbury.
Symbols
The official colours of the university are green and gold. The green represents the wide stretches of prairie land flanked by deep spruce forests and is symbolic of hope and optimism; the gold represents the golden harvest fields and is symbolic of the light of knowledge. The original suggestion for green and gold colours came from Marion Kirby Alexander, drawing inspiration from the autumn colours of the river valley below the campus. Her husband, William Hardy Alexander, a professor at the university, relayed the suggestion to a faculty meeting on 5 October 1908 and would later gain the approval of the senate. The university colours are present throughout the institution. These colours are also displayed on the university flag. The university flag consists of the shield of the coat of arms on a gold background.
Notable people
The University of Alberta has 260,000 living graduates, 93 per cent of whom reside in Canada. Outside of Canada, the United States holds the greatest amount of alumni, nearly four per cent of all living graduates. Alumni and former students have won awards, including 68 Rhodes Scholarships. Distinguished alumni include Raymond Lemieux, awarded the Albert Einstein World Award of Science in 1992, and former faculty member Malcolm Forsyth, three-time award winner of the Juno Award for Classical Composition In the literary arts there are writers Aritha Van Herk, Caterina Edwards, and Joseph Pivato. The university is also associated with three Nobel laureates: alumnus Richard E. Taylor, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1990, and faculty members Derek Walcott, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1992, and Michael Houghton, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2020.
A number of graduates have achievements in business, including Daryl Katz, chair of the Katz Group of Companies and owner of the Edmonton Oilers, Bernard Ebbers, former CEO of WorldCom, and Greg Zeschuk, and Ray Muzyka, co-founders of BioWare. In academia, a number of faculty members and graduates also gained prominence including faculty member Ludwig von Bertalanffy, for his work systems theory, and alumni Tak Wah Mak, discoverer of the T-cell receptor.
Eric Allan Kramer graduated from the University of Alberta with a Bachelor in Fine Arts. He is most notable in the role of Bob Duncan in the Disney Channel sitcom "Good Luck Charlie".
The author of the bestseller 12 Rules for Life: An Antidote to Chaos, Jordan Peterson, graduated from the University of Alberta with a Bachelor of Arts in Political Science (1982) and Psychology (1984).
Many former students have gained local and national prominence for serving in government. Alumnus Roland Michener served as the 20th Governor General of Canada. The 16th Prime Minister of Canada, Joe Clark, also graduated from Alberta. A number of graduates have served at the provincial level, as premiers and lieutenant governors, including George Stanley, the 25th Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick and designer of the Canadian flag. Lois Hole, the former chancellor of the university, served as the 15th Lieutenant Governor of Alberta. Graduates who served as provincial premiers include Pat Binns, the 30th Premier of Prince Edward Island, Peter Lougheed, the 10th Premier of Alberta, Dave Hancock, the 15th Premier of Alberta, Jim Prentice, the 16th Premier of Alberta, and Rachel Notley, the 17th Premier of Alberta. Ed Stelmach, the 13th Premier of Alberta, attended the university but did not finish. The third chancellor of the university, Alexander Cameron Rutherford, also served as the first premier of Alberta. A number of graduates also held office in the Parliament of Canada, including Rona Ambrose, who served as the President of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, and David Emerson, who served as the Minister of Foreign Affairs. In Nigeria Olawale Sulaiman is the special adviser to the Governor of Kwara State on health matters.
The 17th Chief Justice of Canada, Beverley McLachlin, the first female chief justice, is a graduate from the university. Other faculty and alumni who have served on Canada's highest court include Justice Henry Grattan Nolan, who served for a year before dying in 1957; Justice Ronald Martland, who served on the court for 24 years beginning in 1958; Justice Gérard Vincent La Forest, a former dean of law at the U of A who was elevated to the court in 1985 and served for 12 years; former law professor and alumnus Justice William Stevenson, who served two years on the court beginning in 1990; and former law professor Justice Russell Brown, who was named to the court in 2015.
Violet King Henry was the first black woman lawyer in Canada, the first black person to graduate law in Alberta and the first black person to be admitted to the Alberta Bar. She was also the first woman named to a senior management position with the American national YMCA.
See also
Canadian government scientific research organizations
Canadian industrial research and development organizations
Canadian university scientific research organizations
Folkways Records
Higher education in Alberta
List of agricultural universities and colleges
List of universities in Canada
University of Alberta Protective Services
University of Alberta shooting
References
Further reading
Maureen Aytenfisu, "The University of Alberta: Objectives, Structures, and Role, 1908–1928" (MA thesis). University of Alberta, 1982.
External links
Universities and colleges in Edmonton
Forestry education
Universities in Alberta
Educational institutions established in 1906
1906 establishments in Alberta
Commonwealth Games wrestling venues
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242060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-Star%20Baseball%202003 | All-Star Baseball 2003 | All Star Baseball 2003 is a baseball video game published by Acclaim Entertainment in 2002. The game features Derek Jeter on the cover.
There are several different modes of play, such as exhibition, managing an existing Major League Baseball team, creating a team or creating a player. Many United States cities are available for "expansion", in addition to Mexico City and Puerto Rico.
Reception
The game received "generally favorable reviews" on all platforms according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. In Japan, where the GameCube and Xbox versions were ported for release on August 8, 2002, followed by the PS2 version on November 14, 2002, Famitsu gave it a score of 25 out of 40 for the GameCube version, and 26 out of 40 for the Xbox version.
By the end of 2002, the game sold over 563,000 copies in North America, becoming the best-selling baseball game of the year in the region. The game sold over 600,000 copies worldwide, becoming the best-selling title in the series.
References
External links
2002 video games
Acclaim Entertainment games
All-Star Baseball video games
Baseball video games
Game Boy Advance games
GameCube games
PlayStation 2 games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in 2003
Xbox games | [
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242065 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20bee-eater | Little bee-eater | The little bee-eater (Merops pusillus) is a near passerine bird species in the bee-eater family, Meropidae. They are residents in much of Sub-Saharan Africa. They should not be confused with the little green bee-eater (Merops orientalis). Migration is limited to seasonal movements depending on rainfall patterns.
Members of this species, like other bee-eaters, are rich and brightly-coloured slender birds. They have green upper parts, yellow throats, black gorgets, and rich brown upper breasts fading to buffish ochre on the belly. Their wings are green and brown, and their beaks are black. They reach a length of 15–17 cm, which makes them the smallest African bee-eater. Sexes are alike. Often silent, their call is a soft "seep."
These are abundant and tame birds, familiar throughout their range. There have been estimated to be between 60-80 million little bee-eaters. They breed in open country with bushes, preferably near water. Just as the name suggests, bee-eaters predominantly eat insects, especially bees, wasps and hornets, who are caught in the air by sorties from an open perch. This species often hunts from low perches, maybe only a metre or less high. Before eating their meal, a bee-eater removes the sting by repeatedly hitting the insect on a hard surface.
Unlike most bee-eaters, these are solitary nesters, making a tunnel in sandy banks, or sometimes in the entrance to an Aardvark den. They lay 4 to 6 spherical white eggs. Both the male and the female take care of the eggs. These birds roost communally, lined up on a tree branch.
Sub-species and plumages
References
Kingfishers, Bee-eaters and Rollers by Fry, Fry and Harris,
The Hamlyn photographic guide to birds of the world, foreword by Christopher Perrins; general editor: Andrew Gosler, London : Hamlyn, 1991,
External links
Little bee-eater - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.
little bee-eater
Birds of Sub-Saharan Africa
little bee-eater
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242066 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule | Rule | Rule or ruling may refer to:
Education
Royal University of Law and Economics (RULE), a university in Cambodia
Human activity
The exercise of political or personal control by someone with authority or power
Business rule, a rule pertaining to the structure or behavior internal to a business
School rule, a rule that is part of school discipline
Sport rule, a rule that defines how a sport is played
Game rule, a rule that defines how a game is played
Moral, a rule or element of a moral code for guiding choices in human behavior
Norm (philosophy), a kind of sentence or a reason to act, feel or believe
Rule of thumb, a principle with broad application that is not intended to be strictly accurate or reliable for every situation
Unspoken rule, an assumed rule of human behavior that is not voiced or written down
Science
Rule of inference or transformation rule, a term in logic for a function which takes premises and returns a conclusion
Phrase structure rule or rewrite rule, used in some theories of linguistics
"Rule X" elementary cellular automaton, where X is a number between 0-255 characterizing a specific model (e.g. Rule 110)
Ruler, or "rule"; a distance measuring device
Phonological rule
Social norm, explicit or implicit rules used within society or by a group
Law and government
Advance tax ruling, a tool for conforming taxation arrangements
Court order, a decision by a court
Government
In rulemaking by the federal government of the United States, a regulation mandated by Congress, but written or expanded upon by the executive branch
Law, which may informally be called a "rule"
Military rule, governance by a military body
Monastic rule, a collection of precepts that guides the life of monks or nuns in a religious order
Procedural law, a ruleset governing the application of laws to cases
Rule of law, government based not on arbitrary decisions of officials but on laws
Geography
Rule, Arkansas
Rule, Texas, a town in Texas, United States
Literature
The Rules, bestselling self-help book
Rules (novel), 2007 Newbery Honor book by Cynthia Lord
"The Rulers", a science fiction short story by A. E. van Vogt
Music
Ja Rule (born 1976), hip hop artist
Albums
R.U.L.E., by Ja Rule, 2004
Rule, by Anna Tsuchiya, 2010
Rules (album), by the Whitest Boy Alive, 2009
Rules, by First Blood, 2017
Rules!, by Manila Luzon, 2019
Songs
"Rule" (Nas song), 2001
"Rule"/"Sparkle", a double A-side by Ayumi Hamasaki, 2009
"Rule", by X Ambassadors from Orion, 2019
"Rules" (Doja Cat song), 2019
"Rules" (KMFDM song), 1996
"Rules", by Shakira from Laundry Service, 2001
Other uses
Rule (surname)
The Rule (film), a 2014 American documentary
Ruler (film), a 2019 Telugu-language film
Rules: Pyaar Ka Superhit Formula, a 2003 Bollywood film
rule: a snippet of code which can perform email filtering
Rule (horse) (born 2007), American racehorse
Rules (restaurant), upscale English restaurant in London
Rules!, a 2014 iOS video game
"Rule #1" (Batwoman)
See also
Debate (parliamentary procedure) for rules governing discussion on the merits of a pending question. | [
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242067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel%20P.%20Langford | Nathaniel P. Langford | Nathaniel Pitt Langford (August 9, 1832 – October 18, 1911) was an American explorer, businessman, bureaucrat, vigilante and historian from Saint Paul, Minnesota who played an important role in the early years of the Montana gold fields, territorial government and the creation of Yellowstone National Park.
Early life
Langford was born in Upstate New York and moved to Saint Paul in 1854. He worked as a banker and was involved with the investment of the Saint Anthony Park neighborhood.
Montana gold fields
On June 16, 1862, Langford, as a member and officer of the Northern Overland Expedition, commanded by Captain James L. Fisk, left Saint Paul to establish a wagon road to the Salmon river mine regions of the Rocky Mountains via Fort Benton. The expedition ended up at the Grasshopper Creek gold fields in the area soon to be named Bannack, Montana. There Langford and his fellow businessmen established freight companies, a saw mill and other businesses.
Vigilante
Langford was also part of the vigilante movement, the infamous Montana Vigilantes, that dealt with lawlessness in Virginia City and Bannack, Montana during 1863–64.
In 1890, Langford wrote Vigilante Days and Ways to chronicle the era of pioneer justice in the American Old West.
Territorial tax collector
In 1864, shortly after the Montana Territory was established on May 28, 1864, Langford was appointed Collector of Internal Revenue and National Bank Examiner, positions he held for five years in the Montana Territorial government.
Yellowstone exploration and creation
Langford was a member of the 1870 Washburn–Langford–Doane Expedition which explored portions of the region that soon would become the Yellowstone National Park. Mount Langford, in the Absaroka Range, east of Yellowstone Lake, was scaled by Langford and Doane during the expedition and named after him.
After his participation in the Washburn expedition, Langford was appointed as the first superintendent of the park. He soon got the nickname National Park Langford because of his initials N.P. There was no money available to offer him a salary for this new position, so he had to make his living elsewhere. This left Langford with little time to run the park, and he entered it only twice during his five years as superintendent. The first time was as a guest on the second Hayden Expedition in 1872, and his second took place in 1874 to evict a man named Matthew McGuirk. McGuirk claimed to own the Boiling River – one of the park's hot springs rumored to have healing powers.
Langford had no salary, no funding for the park, and no legal way to enforce protection for its wildlife and geologic features. Political pressure, which took the guise of accusing Langford of neglect, forced the removal of Yellowstone's first superintendent in 1877. He was replaced by Philetus W. Norris. In 1905, Langford published Diary of the Washburn Expedition to the Yellowstone and Firehole In the Year 1870 as a comprehensive insider's view of the expedition.
Historian
After his Yellowstone experiences, Langford returned to his home state of Minnesota and began a career as a Western historian. Prior to his passing he served as the President of and on the Board of Directors of the Minnesota Historical Society.
Notes
References
Initial text adapted from
Further reading
Correspondence, diaries, genealogical data, clippings, and other papers relating to Nathaniel Pitt Langford and his family are available for research use: Nathinal Pitt Langford and Family: An Inventory of Their Papers.
Included is data regarding the family's life in New York before migrating to the Lake Pepin area of Minnesota in 1854; on numerous aspects of life in Minnesota Territory (1854–1857); and on Nathaniel's career as Montana collector of internal revenue and on lawlessness and vigilante activity there (1863–1869).
External links
1832 births
1911 deaths
Yellowstone National Park
19th-century explorers
Businesspeople from Saint Paul, Minnesota
People of the American Old West
Montana pioneers
Historians from Minnesota
19th-century American businesspeople | [
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242068 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulldog | Bulldog | The Bulldog, also known as the English Bulldog or British Bulldog, is a medium-sized dog breed. It is a muscular, hefty dog with a wrinkled face and a distinctive pushed-in nose. The Kennel Club (UK), the American Kennel Club (US), and the United Kennel Club (US) oversee breeding records. Bulldogs are popular pets; they were the fifth most popular purebreed in the US in 2017 according to the American Kennel Club.
Bulldogs have a longstanding association with British culture, as the BBC wrote: "to many the Bulldog is a national icon, symbolising pluck and determination." During World War II, Bulldogs were often likened to Prime Minister Winston Churchill and his defiance of Nazi Germany. The Bulldog Club (England) was formed in 1878, and the Bulldog Club of America was formed in 1890.
Appearance
Bulldogs have characteristically wide heads and shoulders along with a pronounced mandibular prognathism. There are generally thick folds of skin on the brow; round, black, wide-set eyes; a short muzzle with characteristic folds called a rope or nose roll above the nose; hanging skin under the neck; drooping lips and pointed teeth, and an underbite with an upturned jaw. The coat is short, flat, and sleek with colours of red, fawn, white, brindle, and piebald.
In the United Kingdom, the breed standards are for a male and for a female. In the United States, a typical mature male weighs , while mature females weigh about . The Bulldog Club of America recommends the average weight of a bulldog to be .
Bulldogs are one of the few breeds whose tail is naturally short and either straight, screwed or thin and thus is not cut or docked as with some other breeds. A straight tail is a more desirable tail according to the breed standard set forth by the BCA if it is facing downward, not upward.
Temperament
According to the American Kennel Club (AKC), a Bulldog's disposition should be "equable and kind, resolute, and courageous (not vicious or aggressive), and demeanor should be pacifist and dignified. These attributes should be countenanced by the expression and behavior".
Breeders have worked to reduce/remove aggression from these dogs. Most have a friendly, patient, but stubborn nature. Bulldogs are recognized as excellent family pets because of their tendency to form strong bonds with children.
Generally, Bulldogs are known for getting along well with children, other dogs, and other pets.
History
The first reference to the word "Bulldog" is dated 1631 or 1632 in a letter by a man named Preswick Eaton where he writes: "procuer mee two good Bulldogs, and let them be sent by ye first shipp". In 1666, English scientist Christopher Merret applied: "Canis pugnax, a Butchers Bull or Bear Dog", as an entry in his Pinax Rerum Naturalium Britannicarum.
The designation "bull" was applied because of the dog's use in the sport of bull-baiting. This entailed the setting of dogs (after placing wagers on each dog) onto a tethered bull. The dog that grabbed the bull by the nose and pinned it to the ground would be the victor. It was common for a bull to maim or kill several dogs at such an event, either by goring, tossing, or trampling over them. Over the centuries, dogs used for bull-baiting developed the stocky bodies and massive heads and jaws that typify the breed, as well as a ferocious and savage temperament. Bull-baiting was made illegal in England by the Cruelty to Animals Act 1835. This amended the existing legislation to protect animals from mistreatment and included (as "cattle") snakes, dogs, owls, and donkeys, so that bull- and bear-baiting, as well as cockfighting, became prohibited. Therefore, the Old English Bulldog had outlived its usefulness in England as a sporting animal and its active or "working" days were numbered. However, emigrants did have a use for such dogs in the New World. In mid-17th century New York, Bulldogs were used as a part of a citywide roundup effort led by Governor Richard Nicolls. Because cornering and leading wild bulls were dangerous, Bulldogs were trained to seize a bull by its nose long enough for a rope to be secured around its neck. Bulldogs as pets were continually promoted by dog dealer Bill George.
Despite slow maturation so that growing up is rarely achieved by two and a half years, Bulldogs' lives are relatively short. At five to six years of age, they start to show signs of aging.
Though today Bulldogs look tough, they cannot perform the job they were originally created for, as they cannot withstand the rigors of running after and being thrown by a bull, and also cannot grip with such a short muzzle. Although not as physically capable as their ancestors, decreased levels of aggression associated with modern Bulldogs have resulted in a far calmer temperament.
In 1864, a group of bulldog breeders under R. S. Rockstro founded the first Bulldog Club. Three years after its opening the Club ceased to exist, not having organized a single show. The main achievement of the Rockstro Bulldog Club was a detailed description of the Bulldog, known as the Philo-Kuan Standard. Samuel Wickens, treasurer of the club, published this description in 1865 under the pseudonym Philo-Kuan.
On 4 April 1873, The Kennel Club was founded, the first in the world dog breeding club dealing with the registration of purebred dogs and dog breeds. Bulldogs were included in the first volume of the Kennel Club Stud Book, which was presented at the Birmingham Show on 1 December 1874. The first English Bulldog entered into the register was a male dog named Adam (Adamo), born in 1864.
In March 1875, the third Bulldog Club was founded, which still exists today. Members of this club met frequently at the Blue Post pub on Oxford Street in London. The founders of the club collected all available information about the breed and its best representatives and developed a new standard for the English Bulldog, which was published on 27 May 1875. Also, the club held its first show of the breed in 1875. Since 1878, exhibitions of the club were held annually, except during the Second World War. On 17 May 1894, the Bulldog Club was granted the status of a corporation and since then has carried the official name "The Bulldog Club, Inc.", being the oldest mono-breed dog kennel club in the world.
In 1894 the two top Bulldogs, King Orry and Dockleaf, competed in a contest to see which dog could walk . King Orry was reminiscent of the original Bulldogs, lighter boned and very athletic. Dockleaf was smaller and heavier set, more like modern Bulldogs. King Orry was declared the winner that year, finishing the walk while Dockleaf collapsed. The Bulldog was officially recognized by the American Kennel Club in 1886.
At the turn of the 20th century, Ch. Rodney Stone became the first Bulldog to command a price of $5,000 when he was bought by controversial Irish American political figure Richard Croker.
Health
A 2004 UK survey of 180 Bulldog deaths puts the median age at death at 6 years 3 months. The leading cause of death of Bulldogs in the survey was cardiac related (20%), cancer (18%), and old age (9%). Those that died of old age had an average lifespan of 10 to 11 years. A 2013 UK vet clinic survey of 26 Bulldogs puts the median lifespan at 8.4 years with an interquartile range of 3.2–11.3 years. The UK Bulldog Breed Council website lists the average life span of the breed as 8–10 years.
Statistics from the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals indicate that of the 467 Bulldogs tested between 1979 and 2009 (30 years), 73.9% were affected by hip dysplasia, the highest amongst all breeds. Similarly, the breed has the worst score in the British Veterinary Association/Kennel Club Hip Dysplasia scoring scheme, although only 22 Bulldogs were tested in the scheme. Patellar luxation affects 6.2% of Bulldogs.
Some individuals of this breed are prone to interdigital cysts—cysts that form between the toes. These cause the dog some discomfort, but are treatable either by vet or an experienced owner. They may also suffer from respiratory problems. Other problems can include cherry eye, a protrusion of the inner eyelid (which can be corrected by a veterinarian), allergies, and hip issues in older Bulldogs.
Over 80% of Bulldog litters are delivered by Caesarean section because their characteristically large heads can become lodged in the mother's birth canal. The folds, or "rope", on a Bulldog's face should be cleaned daily to avoid infections caused by moisture accumulation. Some Bulldogs' naturally curling tails can be so tight to the body as to require regular cleaning and ointment. Due to the high volume of skin folds on the Bulldog's body, they have high prevalence of skin-fold dermatitis.
Like all dogs, Bulldogs require daily exercise. If not properly exercised it is possible for a Bulldog to become overweight, which could lead to heart and lung problems, as well as stress on the joints.
Like all brachycephalic dogs, bully breeds often suffer from brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome. The condition manifests in a variety of ways, often in the form of intolerance to heat and physical exertion. The English bulldog is among the breeds that are most severely affected by brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome. Bulldogs have very small nasal cavities and this makes them have great difficulty keeping their bodies cool. Bulldogs are very sensitive to heat. Extra caution should be practiced in warmer climates and during summer months. Bulldogs must be given plenty of shade and water, and must be kept out of standing heat. Air conditioning and good ventilation are required to keep them healthy and safe. Bulldogs actually do most of their sweating through the pads on their feet and accordingly enjoy cool floors. Like all brachycephalic, or "short faced", breeds, their inefficient and sometimes labored breathing can cause overheating. They can even die from hyperthermia. Bulldog owners can keep these issues under control by staying aware and protecting their Bulldog(s) from these unsafe conditions. They can be heavy breathers and tend to be loud snorers; another indicator of brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome. In 2019 the Dutch Kennel Club implemented some breeding rules to improve the health of the Bulldog. Among these is a fitness test where the dog has to walk 1 km (0.62 miles) in 12 minutes. Its temperature and heart rate has to recover after 15 minutes.
In January 2009, after the BBC documentary Pedigree Dogs Exposed, The Kennel Club introduced revised breed standards for the British Bulldog, along with 209 other breeds, to address health concerns. Opposed by the British Bulldog Breed Council, it was speculated by the press that the changes would lead to a smaller head, fewer skin folds, a longer muzzle, and a taller thinner posture, in order to combat problems with respiration and breeding due to head size and width of shoulders.
Based on a study done by Sari Helena Mölsä, Heli Katariina Hyytiäinen, Kaj Mikael Morelius, Maria Katariina Palmu, Tommi Sakari Pesonen, and Anu Katriina Lappalainen, they found that "The English bulldogs carried a mean of 67.3% and 62.1% of their body weight in front limbs while standing and trotting, respectively" They also found that, "Front and hind limb lameness was seen in 20.8% (5/24) and 12.5% (3/24) of dogs, respectively" English bulldogs show more weight distribution in the front limbs of their bodies. This study shows that English bulldogs are prone to having abnormalities with their radiographic findings and many orthopaedic diseases. These studies also found that there are many hip dysplasia being seen within a large number of the English bulldog breed. They also found that English bulldogs have low range of motion because of the way their musculoskeletal function is.
In 2019, the Dutch government forbade breeding of Bulldogs. In 2022, the Oslo District Court made a ruling that banned the breeding of Bulldogs in Norway due to their propensity for developing health problems. In its verdict the court judged that no dog of this breed could be considered healthy, therefore using them for breeding would be a violation of Norway’s Animal Welfare Act.
See also
Dogs portal
List of bulldog mascots
List of dog breeds
British Bulldog (game)
Bulldog type
References
FCI breeds
Bulldog breeds
Dog breeds originating in England
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242069 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backyard%20Baseball | Backyard Baseball | Backyard Baseball is a series of baseball video games for children which was developed by Humongous Entertainment and published by Atari. It was first released in October 1997 for Macintosh and Microsoft Windows. Later games were featured on Game Boy Advance, PlayStation 2, GameCube, Wii, and iOS. It is part of the Backyard Sports series. There have been eleven different versions of the game since 1997. Some of the game titles that were created include Backyard Baseball, Backyard Baseball 2001-2010, and Backyard Sports: Sandlot Sluggers.
The original game consisted of 30 neighborhood kids from which the player must build a team. Over the years, the idea of "Pro players as kids" became popular, and the original statistics and looks of the players changed. Some of the professional players that were available included Chipper Jones, Frank Thomas, Alex Rodriguez, Alfonso Soriano, Ichiro Suzuki, Sammy Sosa, Jim Thome, Albert Pujols, Nomar Garciaparra, Ken Griffey Jr., and Barry Bonds. As the game progresses, there are some professionals that become available or "unlockable" including Randy Johnson, Derek Jeter, and Mike Piazza.
In Backyard Baseball, players take a managerial role by creating a team of different players to compete against opponents. In the different installments, one could choose to play a one-off exhibition game or a seasonal league, followed by the "Backyard Baseball League" playoffs, which contains the American League and National League divisional series, the AL and NL championship series and finally the "Backyard Baseball World Series". Series games will vary per game.
This game has various playable modes, they include: Single Game, Batting Practice, Spectator, and Season Game.
In 2013, The Evergreen Group acquired the intellectual property from Atari.
Legacy
Pablo Sanchez, one of the fictional playable characters in the game, has been regarded as the strongest character in video game history.
The game has also been noted for its diversity (gender, race,disability) of characters, both in ratio of white to non-white and male to female, as well as skill level and the distribution of the best characters.
Players
In Backyard Baseball 2001, the Backyard kids are joined by 31 MLB pro players, many of which were all-stars during the 1999 Major League Baseball All Star Game. Eventual Hall of Fame players featured include Barry Larkin, Vladimir Guerrero, Jeff Bagwell, Larry Walker, Chipper Jones, Derek Jeter, Mike Piazza, Tony Gwynn, Ken Griffey Jr., Cal Ripken Jr., Ivan Rodriguez, and Randy Johnson, who are all playable characters to choose from.
Several of these players would be featured in multiple releases including Nomar Garciaparra, Derek Jeter, and Alex Rodriguez.
Installments
References
External links
Official Backyard Baseball website
1997 video games
Humongous Entertainment games
Infogrames games
Atari games
Major League Baseball video games
ScummVM-supported games
Baseball genres
Classic Mac OS games
Video games developed in Canada
Video games developed in the United States
Video game franchises
Windows games | [
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242070 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian%20green%20bee-eater | Asian green bee-eater | The Asian green bee-eater (Merops orientalis), also known as little green bee-eater, is a near passerine bird in the bee-eater family. It is resident but prone to seasonal movements and is found widely distributed across Asia from coastal southern Iran east through the Indian subcontinent to Vietnam. Populations in Africa and the Arabian Peninsula that were formerly assigned to this species (under the name Green Bee-eater) are now considered distinct species. They are mainly insect eaters and they are found in grassland, thin scrub and forest often quite far from water. Several regional plumage variations are known and several subspecies have been named.
Taxonomy and systematics
The Asian green bee-eater was first described by the English ornithologist John Latham in 1801 using its current binomial name. Several populations have been designated as subspecies:
M. o. beludschicus(=M. o. biludschicus) Iran to Pakistan (paler colours with a blue throat)
M. o. orientalis in India and Sri Lanka (has head and neck tinged with rufous).
M. o. ferrugeiceps (=birmanus) in northeastern India, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam (has rufous crown, mane and mantle). I
M. o. ceylonicus in Sri Lanka has the nape and hindneck with more pronounced golden brown sheen often included within the nominate race
The African green bee-eater (M. viridissimus, along with its subspecies M. v. viridissimus, M. v. cleopatra, and M. v. flavoviridis) and Arabian green bee-eater (M. cyanophrys, along with its subspecies M. c. cyanophrys and M. c. muscatensis) were formerly considered conspecific, but were split as distinct species by the IOC in 2021.
A study of species within the genus Merops based on plumage characteristics found that most of the subspecies of M. o. orientalis grouping together with the most similar species being Merops leschenaulti and subspecies M. o. ferrugeiceps appeared closer to that group.
Description
Like other bee-eaters, this species is a richly coloured, slender bird. It is about 9 inches (16–18 cm) long with about 2 inches made up by the elongated central tail-feathers. The sexes are not visually distinguishable. The entire plumage is bright green and tinged with blue especially on the chin and throat. The crown and upper back are tinged with golden rufous. The flight feathers are rufous washed with green and tipped with blackish. A fine black line runs in front of and behind the eye. The iris is crimson and the bill is black while the legs are dark grey. The feet are weak with the three toes joined at the base. Southeast Asian birds have rufous crown and face, and green underparts, whereas Arabian beludschicus has a green crown, blue face and bluish underparts. The wings are green and the beak is black. The elongated tail feathers are absent in juveniles. Sexes are alike.
The calls is a nasal trill tree-tree-tree-tree, usually given in flight.
Leucistic individuals have been noted.
Distribution and habitat
This is an abundant and fairly tame bird, familiar throughout its range. It is a bird which breeds in open country with bushes. In Africa and Arabia it is found in arid areas, but is more diverse in its habitats further east. This species often hunts from low perches, maybe only a metre or less high. It readily makes use of fence wires and electric wires. Unlike some other bee-eaters, they can be found well away from water.
They are mostly seen in the plains but can sometimes be found up to 5000 or 6000 feet in the Himalayas. They are resident in the lowlands of South Asia but some populations move seasonally but the patterns are not clear, moving away to drier regions in the rainy season and to warmer regions in winter. In parts of Pakistan, they are summer visitors.
Behaviour and ecology
Like other species in the genus, bee-eaters predominantly eat insects, especially bees, wasps and ants, which are caught in the air by sorties from an open perch. Before swallowing prey, a bee-eater removes stings and breaks the exoskeleton of the prey by repeatedly thrashing it on the perch. Migration is not known but they make seasonal movements in response to rainfall. These birds are somewhat sluggish in the mornings and may be found huddled next to each other on wires sometimes with their bills tucked in their backs well after sunrise. They sand-bathe more frequently than other bee-eater species and will sometimes bathe in water by dipping into water in flight. They are usually seen in small groups and often roost communally in large numbers (200-300). The birds move excitedly at the roost site and call loudly, often explosively dispersing before settling back to the roost tree.
The little green bee-eater is also becoming common in urban and sub-urban neighborhoods, and has been observed perching on television antennae, only to launch into a brief, zig-zag flight formation to catch an insect, then return to the same perch and consume the meal. This behaviour is generally observed between the hours of 7:00 and 8:00am, and after 4:00pm.
The breeding season is from March to June. Unlike many bee-eaters, these are often solitary nesters, making a tunnel in a sandy bank. The breeding pairs are often joined by helpers. They nest in hollows in vertical mud banks. The nest tunnel that they construct can run as much as 5 feet long and the 3-5 eggs are laid on the bare ground in the cavity at the end of the tunnel. The eggs are very spherical and glossy white. Clutch size varies with rainfall and insect food density. Both sexes incubate. The eggs hatch asynchronously with an incubation period of about 14 days and the chicks grow fledge in 3 to 4 weeks and in the fledging stage show a reduction in body weight. A study suggested that green bee-eaters may be capable of interpreting the behaviour of human observers. They showed an ability to predict whether a human at a particular location would be capable of spotting the nest entrance and then behaved appropriately to avoid giving away the nest location. The ability to look at a situation from another's point of view was previously believed to be possessed only by primates.
Riverside habitats were found to support high populations in southern India (157 birds per square kilometre) dropping off too 101 per km² in agricultural areas and 43-58 per square km near human habitations.
They feed on flying insects and can sometimes be nuisance to bee-keepers. The preferred prey was mostly beetles followed by hymenopterans. Orthopterans appear to be avoided. They are sometimes known to take crabs. Like most other birds they regurgitate the hard parts of their prey as pellets.
An endoparasitic nematode (Torquatoides balanocephala) sometimes infects their gizzard. A protozoal parasite in their blood, Haemoproteus manwelli, has been described from India.
References
External links
Internet Bird Collection
green bee-eater
Birds of Africa
Birds of South Asia
Birds of Southeast Asia
green bee-eater
green bee-eater
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242074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philetus%20Norris | Philetus Norris | Philetus W. Norris (August 17, 1821 – January 14, 1885) was the second superintendent of Yellowstone National Park and was the first person to be paid for that position.
Early life
Philetus Walter Norris was born in Palmyra, New York on August 17, 1821, the son of John Norris, Jr. and Azubah Phelps. His father was a pioneer mill-builder, and had fought in the War of 1812. In the early 1820s, the family moved to Allegheny County in New York. In 1826, they bought in Michigan, moving there soon thereafter. There, they survived through the Black Hawk War and several cholera plagues. John Norris fell ill, and Philetus was forced to help his mother support their rather large family.
Pre-Yellowstone years
Norris left school early to become a trapper. He traveled all around the midwest to trap and trade. In 1838, Norris settled in northwest Ohio near the home of a good friend. In 1845, Norris married Jane K. Cottrell of Fayette, Ohio. Once married, the couple became two of the original settlers of Pioneer, Ohio. They had four children: Edward, Aurelia, Ida and Arthur. In Pioneer, Norris built a steam mill and worked as a land agent. In the span between 1850 and 1860, Norris also travelled to the western states.
When the Civil War began, Norris joined the Union troops, eventually rising to the rank of Colonel. He served as a spy behind Confederate Lines and Captain of the West Virginia Mountain Scouts. While fighting near Laurel Mountain, West Virginia, Norris's horse was shot out from underneath him, severely injuring his shoulder and spinal cord.
After his injury, Norris returned to Pioneer and was elected to the Ohio Legislature. Later, he became a member of the United States Sanitary Commission, caring for the wounded at the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House, and also served at the Confederate prison on Kelley's Island.
After the Civil War, Norris moved to Michigan, where he managed land which belonged to officers and soldiers of both the Union and Confederate armies as part of a federal contract. In 1873, he founded the town of Norris, now within the boundaries of Detroit but then in Wayne County and built the Two Way Inn, which was originally the village's jail and general store. He lived there for a few years until he built a nearby house, which is now on the National Register of Historic Places. There he ran a real estate business.
To ensure the success of his community, Norris drained the creek that ran through the area to open up land for farming. He also recruited the railroad to run through the area and maintained the plank road that ran between Detroit and Mount Clemens, operating a tollbooth located in the village.
In 1870, Norris again traveled west, entering the Yellowstone Park area; he returned again in 1875. During this time, Norris wrote a series of articles on "The Great West" which were published in the Norris, Michigan Suburban.
Yellowstone
In 1877, Norris became the second superintendent of Yellowstone National Park, a position he held until 1882. It was only in June 1878, however, that Congress finally approved a salary of $10,000 a year for the park's superintendent, as well as minimal funds "to protect, preserve, and improve the Park." Norris hired Harry Yount to control poaching and vandalism in the park, leading Yount to be considered the first National Park ranger.
When Norris arrived in 1877 there were approximately 32 miles (51 km) of roads and 108 miles (173 km) of trails. By the time he left in 1882, there were five times as many roads and twice as many trails. The roads were crude and many described them as only "fair" wagon trails. Still, they provided access to "the land of wonders."
While superintendent, Norris published five annual reports. Three mountain peaks, including Mount Norris, one geyser basin, and one pass in Yellowstone are named after Norris.
Afterward
Norris was removed from his post at Yellowstone in 1882 due to political maneuvering. In 1883, he published a volume of verse entitled, The calumet of the Coteau, and other poetical legends of the border. Also, a glossary of Indian names, words and western provincialisms. Together with a guide-book of the Yellowstone national park.
Afterward, he worked in ethnological research for the Smithsonian Institution. In 1885, Norris fell ill in Rocky Hill, Kentucky, while working for the Smithsonian. After a brief illness, he died in Rocky Hill, on January 14, 1885. He was buried at Elmwood Cemetery in Detroit three days later, and shortly thereafter his body was moved to Woodmere Cemetery.
References
External links
Philetus W. Norris, The calumet of the Coteau, and other poetical legends of the border. Also, a glossary of Indian names, words and western provincialisms. Together with a guide-book of the Yellowstone national park, 1883, J.B. Lippincott & co., Philadelphia. Read the full text from Google Books.
Don Binkowski, Col. P. W. Norris: Yellowstone's Greatest Superintendent, 1995, C & D of Warren .
See also
Criel Mound
1821 births
1885 deaths
National Park Service personnel
People from Palmyra, New York
Yellowstone National Park | [
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242079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Yount | Harry Yount | Henry S. Yount (March 18, 1839May 16, 1924) was an American Civil War soldier, mountain man, professional hunter and trapper, prospector, wilderness guide and packer, seasonal employee of the United States Department of the Interior, and the first game warden in Yellowstone National Park. He was nicknamed "Rocky Mountain Harry Yount".
Yount served two terms in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He first enlisted for a six-month term in November 1861. He was wounded and taken prisoner by the Confederate States Army in an opening skirmish of the Battle of Pea Ridge in Arkansas in March 1862, and held as a prisoner of war for nearly a month until released in a prisoner exchange. He re-enlisted in August 1862 and served until the end of the war. He was promoted three times and was a company quartermaster sergeant when he was discharged in July 1865.
He worked as a hunter and a prospector, and as a bullwhacker for the U.S. Army, in the years following the Civil War. For seven years in the 1870s he worked as a guide, hunter and wrangler for the expeditions of the Hayden Geological Surveys, which mapped vast areas of the Rocky Mountains.
In 1880, Yount was hired by the United States Secretary of the Interior, Carl Schurz, to be the first gamekeeper in Yellowstone National Park, and during his 14 months in that job wrote two annual reports for Schurz, which were then submitted to Congress. His reports described the challenges of protecting the wildlife in the first U.S. national park and influenced the culture of the National Park Service, which was founded 35 years later in 1916. Horace Albright, the second director of the National Park Service, called Yount the "father of the ranger service, as well as the first national park ranger". Yount was a prospector during much of the last four decades of his life.
Family background and early years
Harry Yount's paternal ancestors, Hans George Jundt and Anna Marie Jundt, arrived in Philadelphia in 1731, immigrants from Alsace-Lorraine. Their son, Johannes or John Yount, later moved to Lincoln County, North Carolina. Their grandson, Harry's paternal grandfather, Jacob A Yount, moved to present day Missouri with several other families shortly after the Louisiana Purchase. Harry's parents were David Yount (1795–1881) and Catherine Shell Yount. Harry Yount's father, David Yount, was about 44 years old at the time of Harry's birth, and Harry was the couple's tenth child.
Harry Yount's uncle, George C. Yount, was a trapper and explorer who moved on from Missouri to Santa Fe and then to California before Harry's birth. In the 1830s, George C. Yount became the first citizen of the United States to settle in Napa Valley in California, which was then Mexican territory. The town of Yountville, California, is named after him. Two of Harry's older brothers, Caleb and John Yount, also moved to the Napa Valley years later.
There are conflicting accounts of Harry Yount's place and date of birth. Ernest Ingersoll wrote that he was born in Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania, and different birth years have been mentioned by various writers, such as the anonymous author of a published biographical sketch who wrote that Yount was born in 1847, and Thomas J. Bryant, who interviewed Yount in the latter years of his life and who speculated that 1837 was his birth date in an article published in the Annals of Wyoming, journal of the Wyoming State Historical Society. However, research undertaken by William R. Supernaugh, an employee of the National Park Service, found military enlistment papers, Yount's Army pension file, and the 1840 United States Census records, all of which indicate that Yount was born on March 18, 1839. These records also show that his legal name was Henry S. Yount. His lifelong nickname was "Harry", and his middle name is unknown.
Although Yount's place of birth is uncertain, Supernaugh concludes it is highly unlikely he was born in Pennsylvania, but rather in Harmony Township, Washington County, Missouri, because the 1840 census shows his father living there with a baby son. Henry was listed as 11 years old in the 1850 census. Harmony Township is a rural area about southwest of St. Louis.
Civil War military service
Yount enlisted in the Union Army for a six-month term on November 9, 1861, and served in Company F of Phelps' Regiment of the Missouri Infantry. John S. Phelps was his commanding general. Yount was wounded in the leg in a skirmish just before the Battle of Pea Ridge began on March 6, 1862, and taken prisoner by the Confederates. As a captive, he was marched more than to Fort Smith in his bare feet on cold, wet roads, and was held there as a POW for 28 days before his release in a prisoner exchange. He was discharged from the Union Army in May 1862.
Yount re-enlisted in Lebanon, Missouri, on August 9, 1862, and served as a private in Company H of the 8th Regiment Missouri Volunteer Cavalry, a unit involved in 11 combat engagements during his service. On April 14, 1863, he was promoted to corporal and then to sergeant on December 9, 1863; he became company quartermaster sergeant on June 13, 1864. He was discharged in Little Rock, Arkansas, on July 20, 1865, after the war had ended.
As a result of his barefoot march to captivity, Yount developed rheumatism in both feet. When the Dependent and Disability Pension Act passed in 1890, he became eligible for a monthly partial disability pension of $6 in 1892, which was raised to $12 a month in 1900 and $25 in 1912. Yount was later an active member of the Grand Army of the Republic, the post-war organization of veterans of the Union Army.
Bullwhacker, hunter and trapper
After the Civil War ended, Yount became engaged to Estella Braun, a Western Union employee in Detroit, Michigan. She was killed in a train wreck before their wedding could take place, and he never married. Yount traveled to Fort Kearny, along the Oregon Trail in Nebraska. There he was hired as an Army bullwhacker, transporting supplies by wagon along the Bozeman Trail between Fort Laramie in modern-day Wyoming and Fort C.F. Smith in modern-day Montana. There was conflict with Native Americans in this region in those years, and Yount fought against Cheyenne and Sioux warriors several times while on the trail. In one incident, his ox wagon was harassed for four days by a party of Sioux warriors, until he fired his carbine at one warrior, hitting and probably killing the warrior's horse. Supernaugh comments that Yount believed that Indians would kill him if they could, but that he did not "blame the Indians for defending what was their country originally." Yount also worked as a buffalo hunter during this period. He sold buffalo tongues for $1 each to tourists in Cheyenne. Yount believed that "it was a pity to kill off the buffaloes, which were here in immense numbers, but it was the only way to get rid of the Indians, as the buffalo were their main source of subsistence."
The Smithsonian Institution engaged Yount's services to collect specimens of animals for taxidermy display in the early 1870s. Because he was successful in this first assignment, Spencer F. Baird of the Smithsonian again retained Yount's services in 1875 to collect specimens of many species of Rocky Mountain mammals. It is likely that many of these were displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, as extant photos of the exhibit halls show similar specimens. During those years, Yount also began his long career as prospector, achieving some success.
In 1877, Yount was the subject of a magazine profile written by Ernest Ingersoll and published in Appleton's Journal in New York. Ingersoll described Yount's expertise as a hunter, including a story that he once killed 70 antelope in one day during a competition with another hunter, but that Yount was ashamed of the accomplishment because "it went against his heart to kill so many innocent creatures just for the glory."
Yount would fill a wagon full of freshly killed game, and then sell the meat in towns such as Laramie and Cheyenne. According to Ingersoll, Yount was quite careful about his personal appearance: "his belt, holster, knife-sheath, bridle, and saddle are all set off with a barbaric glitter." Yount paid a Shoshone woman to decorate his buckskin jacket, "a marvel of fringes, fur trimming and intricate embroidery of beads." Ingersoll wrote that Yount was "by nature a gentleman, and under his sinewy frame and tireless strength, there is a heart as tender as a girl's, which hates the cruelty his profession unavoidably occasions. His eye is open to every beautiful feature of the grand world in which he lives; his heart is alive to all the gentle influences of the original wilderness." Ingersoll's 1883 book, Knocking 'Round the Rockies, describes Yount in a similar fashion.
Guide for the Hayden Geological Survey
In 1872 or 1873, Yount was hired as a seasonal guide, wrangler and packer for geological survey expeditions with the aim of mapping broad swaths of the Rocky Mountains. The Hayden Survey, led by Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden and funded by the Department of the Interior, was one of several regional survey projects that were combined to form the United States Geological Survey in 1879. Hayden had been one of the leading advocates for the creation of Yellowstone National Park, which President Ulysses S. Grant signed into law on March 1, 1872.
Yount worked for Hayden's expeditions each summer for seven years during the 1870s, in what are now the states of New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Wyoming and Colorado. Each winter during the period, Yount would hunt and trap in the Laramie Range in Wyoming.
In 1874, Yount was assigned to hunt for a party led by the geologist Archibald Marvine. Yount was later charged by a "huge" grizzly bear, and fired four gunshots – one through the skull, two through the flanks, and a final shot into the heart – before the bear was brought down.
During Hayden's expedition of 1877, Yount engaged in mountaineering with Ingersoll and the cartographer A. D. Wilson in the Wind River Range. They were the first to ascend the south slopes of Wind River Peak, and, with Wilson, Yount was the first to ascend West Atlantic Peak. Hayden's expedition of 1878 conducted surveys in Yellowstone National Park and surrounding areas in 1878. That expedition included the British mountaineer James Eccles and Eccles's favorite Swiss mountain guide, Michel Payot of Chamonix. Eccles wanted to attempt an ascent of the Grand Teton, then unclimbed. This was the third attempt to climb the Grand Teton by members of Hayden's expeditions. Yount served as the guide in a four-man party that included Eccles, Payot and Wilson. Eccles and Payot were held up by the disappearance of two mules carrying their gear, and so were unable to accompany Wilson and Yount on to the higher parts of the mountain. During the climb, Yount slipped on the ice and fell close to a deep chasm in the glacier, where water was streaming down from the cliff above. The hold of his buckskin pants on the ice reportedly prevented him from being carried down into the crevice. Wilson was quoted as saying that Yount was clinging to the rock like "a starfish hanging to a breakwater," and that he himself lowered a rope to assist Yount. Because of the delay and the absence of the experienced Alpine climbers, Yount and Wilson had to turn back a few hundred feet short of the summit, at a spur called The Enclosure. No previous party had come so close to reaching the summit. The undisputed first ascent of the Grand Teton took place 20 years later, in 1898.
Gamekeeper in Yellowstone National Park
Yount was hired as the first gamekeeper for Yellowstone National Park in 1880, at a salary of $1,000 per year, when the park's entire budget was just $15,000 per year. He was appointed by Carl Schurz, the Secretary of the Interior and a former Union Army general, on June 21, 1880, and reported for duty at Yellowstone on July 6. His supervisor was Philetus Norris, the second park superintendent. Shortly after Yount reported for duty, Yount escorted Schurz and his party on a tour of the park, and then conducted a survey of the park's wildlife. Yount began constructing a winter camp at the junction of the East Fork of the Yellowstone River and Soda Butte Valley, a location he chose because it allowed for the protection of herds of buffalo and elk against poachers.
Yount submitted his first Report of Gamekeeper on November 25, 1880, which was included as Appendix A to the annual report of the Secretary of the Interior. His report described his activities since being hired. He recommended:
In his report of September 30, 1881, Yount described how he spent the unusually severe winter of 1880–1881, and his efforts to prevent poaching by tourists and Indians, while still hunting to provide food for the park staff. Yount reported that snow had fallen on 66 of 90 days between December 1880 and February 1881. He described the range and habits of Yellowstone's large mammals and expressed regret for "the unfortunate breakage of my thermometer when it could not be replaced," along with a submitted synopsis of the weather the previous winter. In this report, he resigned his position "to resume private enterprises now requiring my personal attention," and concluded with a clear recommendation:
There are indications that Yount had a difference of opinion with park superintendent Norris, who wanted him to spend more of his time building roads for the convenience of tourists, while Yount preferred to concentrate on protecting the wildlife.
Recognition as first National Park ranger
Although Yount's official job title was "gamekeeper" rather than "park ranger", and although he only worked in Yellowstone National Park for 14 months, his two annual reports had a lasting impact on the administration of the national parks in the United States. He is "securely positioned in the legend and culture" of the National Park Service, and is considered a figure of "historic proportion". In Oh, Ranger!, a book published in 1928, Horace Albright, who later became the second director of the National Park Service, wrote that "Harry Yount pointed out in a report that it was impossible for one man to patrol the park. He urged the formation of a ranger force. So Harry Yount is credited with being the father of the ranger service, as well as the first US Park Ranger." Stephen Mather, the first director of the National Park Service, wrote the foreword of the book.
Prospecting and later years
After Yount resigned from his job in Yellowstone, he lived for a while in Uva, Wyoming. He homesteaded in the area in 1887 but his claim was sold in a sheriff's sale in 1892. He spent nearly 40 years prospecting in the Laramie Mountains, and developed copper and graphite mining claims. He settled in Wheatland, Wyoming, and worked on developing a marble mining claim west of there. Yount was actively involved in prospecting until the day before his death, when he had been looking for a ride to inspect a possible gold deposit. On May 16, 1924, he walked into downtown Wheatland, as was his daily habit, where he collapsed and died of heart failure near a Lutheran church. He was buried in the Lakeview Cemetery in Cheyenne.
Legacy
Younts Peak, which is high and located in the Absaroka Range at the headwaters of the Yellowstone River, is named after Yount. The peak's name was bestowed by the Hayden Geological Survey. Long after his death, in the 1970s, Yount's marble mining claim finally went into production. It yielded crushed marble for use in landscaping and aquariums.
In 1994, the National Park Service established the Harry Yount Award, given annually to an employee whose "overall impact, record of accomplishments, and excellence in traditional ranger duties have created an appreciation for the park ranger profession." This award is given both nationally and regionally. According to Supernaugh, Yount is "credited with setting the standards for performance and service by which the public has come to judge the rangers of today".
See also
Hayden Geological Survey of 1871
References
External links
Harry Yount (1837–1924) at the National Park Service
1839 births
1924 deaths
American Civil War prisoners of war
American hunters
American prospectors
Burials in Wyoming
Explorers of North America
Explorers of the United States
Mountain men
National Park Service personnel
People of Missouri in the American Civil War
Union Army soldiers
Yellowstone region | [
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242080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kmart | Kmart | Kmart Corporation ( , doing business as Kmart and stylized as kmart) is an American big box department store chain headquartered in Hoffman Estates, Illinois, United States.
The company was incorporated in 1899 as S. S. Kresge Corporation and renamed Kmart Corporation in 1977. The first store with the Kmart name opened in 1962. At its peak in 1994, Kmart operated 2,486 stores globally, including 2,323 discount stores and Super Kmart Center locations in the United States. As of February 28, 2022, six stores remained in operation four of in the U.S.From 2005 through 2019, Kmart was a subsidiary of Sears Holdings Corporation. Since 2019, Kmart has been a subsidiary of Transform SR Brands LLC, a privately held company that was formed in 2019 to acquire assets from Sears Holdings.
History
Early years
S. S. Kresge, the founder of the company that would become Kmart, met variety-store pioneer Frank Winfield Woolworth while working as a traveling salesman and selling to all 19 of Woolworth's stores at the time. In 1897, Kresge invested $6,700 saved from his job into a five-and-dime store in Memphis, Tennessee. He jointly owned the first store with his former tinware customer, John McCrory. Kresge and McCrory added a second store in downtown Detroit the following year. These were the first S.S. Kresge stores. After two years of partnership, he traded McCrory his share in the Memphis store, plus $3,000, for full ownership of the Detroit store, and formed the Kresge & Wilson Company with his brother-in-law, Charles J. Wilson.
In 1912, Kresge incorporated the S.S. Kresge Company in Delaware with eighty-five stores. In 1916, Kresge incorporated a new S.S. Kresge Company in Michigan and took over the operations of the original company; the new company in Michigan is the modern day Kmart company. The company was first listed on the New York Stock Exchange on May 23, 1918. During World War I, Kresge experimented with raising the limit on prices in his stores to $1. By 1924, Kresge was worth approximately $375 million and owned real estate of the approximate value of $100 million. Growth early in the 20th century remained brisk, with 257 stores in 1924, rising to 597 stores by 1929. Kresge retired as president in 1925. The Great Depression reduced profitability and resulted in store closings, with the number rising to 682 in 1940. After the war, shopping patterns changed and many customers moved out of the cities into the suburbs.
1960s–1970s
Under the leadership of executive Harry Cunningham, S.S. Kresge Company opened the first Kmart-named store, at , which was referred to by Kresge as a "bantam" Kmart and was in fact originally intended to be a Kresge store until late in the planning process, on January 25, 1962, in San Fernando, California, just six months before the first Walmart opened, while the first ground-up full-size Kmart with , opened on March 1, 1962, in Garden City, Michigan. Cunningham and Sam Walton were both inspired by Ann & Hope, which they each visited in 1961. Sixteen more Kmart stores opened in 1962. Kmart Foods, a now-defunct chain of Kmart supermarkets, opened in that decade. Though the store chain continued to open Kmart branded stores, the store chain was still officially called S.S. Kresge Company.
Company founder Kresge died on October 18, 1966 at age 99.
Around the time of the opening of the first Kmart, some poorly performing S.S. Kresge stores were converted to a new "Jupiter Discount Stores" brand, which was conceived as a bare-bones, deep discount outfit. During the 1970s, Kmart put a number of competing retailers out of business. Kresge, Jupiter and Kmart stores mainly competed with other store chains like Zayre, Ames, Bradlees, Caldor, Hills, and those that were operated by MMG-McCrory Stores (McCrory, McLellan, H.L. Green, J.J. Newberry, S.H. Kress, TG&Y, Silver's and eventually G.C. Murphy Co.). In 1977, S.S. Kresge Company changed its name to K Mart Corporation.
1980s
In 1980, Vice Chairman Bernard M. Fauber was elected as the Chairman and as the CEO of Kmart.
In 1981, the 2,000th Kmart store opened. By the end of 1981, there were 2,055 Kmart stores across the United States and Canada.
In 1987, the Kmart Corporation sold its remaining 76 Kresge and Jupiter stores in the United States to McCrory Stores, and the brands were almost entirely discontinued, although Canadian Kresge and Jupiter stores continued to operate until 1994.
Kmart experimented with co-branding in 1985, when the in-store cafeteria at the store in Canton, Michigan, was converted to a Wendy's.
Until November 1990, when it was passed by Walmart, Kmart was the second-largest retailer in the United States, after Sears. During the 1980s, the company's fortunes began to change; many of Kmart's stores were considered to be outdated and in decaying condition. In the late 1980s and into the 1990s, the corporate office shifted much of its focus from the Kmart stores to other companies it had acquired or created, such as Sports Authority, Builders Square, and Waldenbooks.
Blue Light Special
The Blue Light Special was a sale promotion within the store for a short period within store hours only. It was advertised using a rotating blue light, in the same style a police car used, and was announced over the store public address system with the phrase "attention Kmart shoppers", a phrase which became a pop culture reference. The original Blue Light Special, first introduced in 1965, was retired in 1991. The company brought back the Blue Light Special in 2001, but again discontinued it in 2002. The concept was briefly revived in 2005, though Kmart at that time had no plans to use the concept long-term. Blue Light Specials were revived again in 2009 on Saturdays, offering surprise hour-long sales on selected merchandise, but were discontinued again. Blue Light Specials were revived once again in November 2015.
1990–2001: New image
In 1990, in an effort to update its image, Kmart introduced a new logo. It dropped the old-style italic "K" with a turquoise "mart" in favor of a red block letter K with the word "mart" written in script and contained inside the "K". Kmart then began remodeling stores shortly thereafter. This logo was replaced in 2004 with the current logo. In 1990, Little Caesars Pizza opened its first in-store Kmart restaurant in Rochester, Michigan (coincidentally, both Little Caesars and Kmart were founded in Garden City, Michigan, in 1959 and 1962 respectively). In 1995, Kmart also tried to reinvent itself by using the short-lived name Today's Kmart.
In 1991, the company revised its name slightly to Kmart Corporation.
In 1992, Kmart entered the Eastern European market with the purchase of 13 stores in the former Czechoslovakia. These stores were sold off in 1996.
The company also began to offer exclusive merchandise by Martha Stewart, Kathy Ireland, Jaclyn Smith, Lauren Hutton, and Thalía. Other recognizable brands included exclusively licensed merchandising of products relating to Sesame Street and Disney. Actress and television personality Rosie O'Donnell and actress/director and producer Penny Marshall became among the company's most recognized spokespersons.
Super Kmart Center (Super Kmart) opened an all-new location on July 25, 1991 in Medina, Ohio, featuring a full-service grocery with a full-service deli, seafood counter and bakery. And it also had general merchandise like many Kmarts had. After the Medina and Copley store opened, many more super Kmarts were open nationwide. However, this location was downsized in 2011 and was one of a number of Kmarts closed in early 2012 due to dismal Christmas 2011 sales. The second ground-up Super Kmart Center opened in Copley Township, Ohio, featuring an in-store video rental center, and an in-store carryout Chinese restaurant. This location has also closed. The last Super Kmart Center in Howland Township, Ohio, closed on April 8, 2018. The largest super Kmart was in Euclid, Ohio as it was a former Hypermart.
Big Kmart opened in Chicago, Illinois, on April 23, 1997. The format focuses on home fashions, children's apparel, and consumables (The Pantry). Most Kmart stores were remodeled to this format during the late 1990s and the early 2000s. During 1997 and 1998, Kmart converted 1,245 of their regular Kmart stores into Big Kmart stores. Initially, the Big Kmart stores were successful, and by the end of 1997, Kmart had seen their sales numbers grow by 10% due to success of their Big Kmart stores. In 1998, Kmart acquired 45 former Venture stores and converted them into Big Kmart stores. By the end of 1998, 62% of Kmart's stores were Big Kmart stores. Kmart later converted nearly 1,900 of their regular Kmart stores into Big Kmart stores in 1999. By the end of 1999, Kmart saw another increase in sales numbers by 6.5% due to the success of their Big Kmart stores. The last Big Kmart in Marshall, Michigan, closed on November 22, 2021.
The Sports Authority was acquired by Kmart in 1990 and spun-off 5 years later.
Kmart's profitability and sales peaked in 1992, and have since declined due to competition with Walmart, Target, and internet shopping. In 1994, Kmart announced they would close 110 stores. Unlike its competitors Walmart and Target, Kmart failed to invest in computer technology to manage its supply chain. Furthermore, Kmart maintained a high dividend, which reduced the amount of money that was available for improving its stores. Many business analysts also faulted the company for failing to create a coherent brand image.
In September 1995, Kmart sold its money-losing in-store auto repair centers to Penske Corporation for $112 million to operate them as Penske Auto Centers. Penske later closed the auto repair centers in 2002 as a result of a payment dispute with Kmart.
In 1997, Kmart launched the Kmart Cash Card as a replacement for the paper gift certificates and to facilitate the return process.
In July 1999, Kmart hired SuperValu and Fleming to distribute $3.9 billion worth of food and other related products to all Kmart stores.
From 1999 to 2000 Kmart converted 150 regular Kmart stores into Big Kmart stores during the first half of 2000.
In 2000, Kmart and Capital One launched an all-new co-branded MasterCard as a replacement for the private label Kmart credit cards.
Also in 2000, Kmart expanded the Martha Stewart Everyday Garden Collection to include live plants and seeds. Kmart also launched the Martha Stewart Everyday Kitchen, which is a complete line of housewares essentials.
In July 2000, Kmart closed 72 underperforming stores due to poor sales, while opening 20 new Big Kmart stores, converting 12 regular Kmart stores into Super Kmart Center stores, and opening 5 new Super Kmart Center stores. and the company announced a planned major restructuring, in which Kmart would invest in new customer check-out and new inventory management technology and other related systems as well.
In 2001, Kmart opened several new Super Kmart stores as part of Kmart's plan to expand their Super Kmart Center store portfolio, along with Kmart trying to make groceries available at stores as well. However, due to Kmart filing for bankruptcy in January 2002, Kmart was unable to open any more new Super Kmart Center stores, and any of the Super Kmart Center stores that were under construction during Kmart's 2002 bankruptcy were halted, no matter how close the stores were to completion.
In 2001, Kmart signed a $4.5 billion arrangement with Fleming, making them the sole food and consumables distributor for the company's stores.
In February 2001, Japanese video game company Sega sued Kmart for failure to pay $2.2 million of $25.9 million for Sega Dreamcast game systems.
In August 2001, Target sued Kmart because the company's "Dare to Compare" advertising campaign inaccurately compared its own prices with those of Target a majority of the time on in-store signs.
2002–2009: Collapse and merger with Sears
On January 22, 2002, Kmart filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection under the leadership of its then-chairman Charles Conaway and president Mark Schwartz. Conaway, who successfully expanded CVS Corporation, accepted an offer to take the helm at Kmart along with a loan of $5 million (equivalent to $ in ). In a scandal similar to that involving Enron, Conaway and Schwartz were accused of misleading shareholders and other company officials about the company's financial crisis while making millions and allegedly spending the company's money on airplanes, houses, boats and other luxuries. At a conference for Kmart employees on January 22, Conaway accepted "full blame" for the financial disaster. As Kmart emerged from bankruptcy, Conaway was forced to step down, and was asked to pay back all the loans he had taken.
After dismissing Conaway and Schwartz, Kmart closed more than 300 stores in the U.S., including all the Kmart stores in Alaska, and laid off around 34,000 workers as part of the restructuring process. Kmart introduced five prototype stores with a new logo, layout, and lime green and gray color scheme, one in White Lake, Michigan, and four in central Illinois: (Peoria, Pekin, Morton and Washington). The new layout was touted as having wider aisles and improved selection and lighting, and the city or town's name was featured under the new Kmart logo at the front entrance. However, Kmart could not afford a full-scale rollout. The lime green prototype was abandoned for the new Kmart "Orange" concept that rolled out at several of its locations throughout the United States in 2006.
While Kmart was going through bankruptcy, a significant amount of Kmart's outstanding debt was purchased by ESL Investments, a hedge fund controlled by Edward Lampert. Lampert worked to accelerate the bankruptcy process.
On January 13, 2003, Kmart closed 326 stores due to a lack of profitability and poor sales.
On May 6, 2003, Kmart emerged from bankruptcy protection as a subsidiary of the new Kmart Holding Corporation. On June 10, 2003, Kmart began trading on the NASDAQ stock market with the ticker symbol of KMRT with Lampert serving as the chairman and with ESL Investments controlling 53% of the new company for an investment of less than $1 billion. Lampert dismissed his concerns that the smaller company would be at a disadvantage, stating "The focus that a lot of people have in retail revolves around sales, but sales without profit do not allow a business to be successful in the long term." He began to improve the company's balance sheet by reducing inventory, cutting costs, and closing underperforming stores. By the fourth quarter of 2003, Kmart posted its first profitable quarter in three years, although it has since returned to an operating loss.
On July 23, 2004, a new Kmart logo featuring a large red "K" with "kmart" in small block letters underneath it was announced. On August 12, 2004, Kmart and E! Entertainment Television announced a new, exclusive, cross-promotional clothing brand called Attention. Attention was launched as a new clothing brand that would be sold only at Kmart stores and would be used to promote E! News Live. Kmart had previously signed a similar deal with the WB Network to have the cast of five WB shows wear Kmart branded clothing during shows.
On November 8, 2004, Kmart launched the Kmart Rewards credit card that is managed by HSBC Bank.
On November 17, 2004, Kmart's management announced its intention to purchase Sears for $11 billion. As part of the merger, the Kmart Holding Corporation (the company that owns Kmart) would be transferred to the new Sears Holdings Corporation and Sears would be purchased by the new Sears Holdings Corporation. The new corporation announced that it would continue to operate stores under both the Sears and Kmart brands. Around this time, Kmart changed its logo from a red K with the script "mart" inside, to the same K with the chain's name in lowercase letters below it. Kmart's headquarters were relocated to Hoffman Estates, Illinois, and in 2012 the sprawling headquarters complex in Troy, Michigan, was acquired by the Forbes Company, which owns the nearby upscale mall, Somerset Collection. No concrete plans for redevelopment of the site had been announced.
In 2005, Sears Holdings Corporation introduced the Sears Essentials store format, which was supposed be like a Sears store and a Kmart store mixed together. Sears Essentials stores were freestanding (not located at a shopping mall) stores. In 2006, the company discontinued the Sears Essentials name, and renamed all of the Sears Essentials stores as Sears Grand stores.
Kmart started remodeling stores to the "Orange" prototype in 2005. In 2006, the typical white and blue interior of the stores was changed to orange and brown, and shelf heights were lowered to create better sightlines. The remodeled stores contain an appliance department with Kenmore Appliances and most have hardware departments that sell Craftsman tools, which prior to the merger had been exclusive to Sears stores. Some auto centers left vacant by Penske after Kmart filed for bankruptcy had been converted to Sears Auto Centers. As of 2009, 280 stores had been remodeled to this new prototype.
In July 2009, Sears Holdings opened its first Sears-branded appliance store inside a Kmart. The store-within-a-store opened inside the former garden department of a Birmingham, Alabama, Kmart. It is two-thirds the size of the appliance department in most Sears stores, but larger than the appliance department in remodeled Kmart stores.
In October 2009, it was reported that Kmart and Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia failed to come to a new agreement. This came after Stewart made remarks on CNBC that her line at Kmart had deteriorated, particularly after the Sears merger.
In November 2009, Kmart reported its first year-over-year sales increase of 0.5% since 2005, and only the second such increase since 2001.
2010–2018: Decline
On December 27, 2011, after a disastrous holiday sales season, Sears Holdings announced that 100 to 120 of Sears and Kmart stores would close.
In 2014, news reports indicated that Kmart was liquidating dozens of stores across the United States. Kmart's parent company, Sears Holdings Corporation, underwent financial distress throughout the year, sparking an unspecified number of closings of Sears and Kmart locations amid vendors' and lenders' concerns about its liquidity. Along with store closings, measures included the spinning off its Lands' End division, selling most of its stake in Sears Canada, issuing debt and taking on loans that cumulatively put it on track to raise $1.445 billion in cash in 2014. Howard Riefs, a company spokesman who has often spoken on behalf of Kmart, said, "Store closures are part of a series of actions we're taking to reduce on-going expenses, adjust our asset base and accelerate the transformation of our business model."
On October 10, 2014, Kmart was a victim of a data breach concerning customers' credit and debit card information. On October 19, Kmart stated, "Based on the forensic investigation to date, no personal information, no debit card PIN numbers, no email addresses and no social security numbers were obtained by those criminally responsible. There is also no evidence that kmart.com customers were impacted. This data breach has been contained and the malware has been removed. I sincerely apologize for any inconvenience this may cause our members and customers."
In January 2015, Kmart agreed to pay $102,048 and other consideration to settle a U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission disability discrimination lawsuit. According to the lawsuit, Kmart offered a job at its Hyattsville, Maryland, store to a candidate with kidney disease on dialysis. The candidate advised the hiring manager that he could not provide a urine sample for the company's mandatory pre-employment drug screening because of his medical condition, and requested a reasonable accommodation such as a blood test or other drug test that did not require a urine sample; Kmart had refused to provide an alternative test and denied the candidate employment.
In April 2016, Kmart announced that it was liquidating 68 stores. The chain announced in September 2016 that 64 more stores in 28 states would close by mid-December 2016. Sears Holdings CEO Eddie Lampert stated in October 2016 that there were not and never had been plans to close the Kmart format and that they are working hard to make it a "more fun, engaging place to shop, powered by our integrated retail innovations and Shop Your Way". In December 2016, at least 25 Kmart locations were targeted for closure in early 2017.
In January 2017, Kmart announced that 78 more stores would close, including the first Kmart location in Garden City, Michigan. Financial analysts began warning that the fate of Sears Holdings was nearing its end. In May 2017, Kmart announced the upcoming closure of 18 more stores. Sears Holdings admitted uncertainty regarding the survival of both Sears and Kmart. In early June 2017, Kmart announced that an additional 49 stores across the U.S. were to be shuttered by September 2017. In early July 2017, Kmart had announced that 35 more stores would close by early October 2017. In late August 2017, Kmart announced another 28 store closures, including the last Rhode Island location, in Cranston. On October 11, 2017, with no closing sale held, the Kmart store in Santa Rosa, California, was apparently burnt down by wildfires in the Bay Area, adding to the list of closed stores. On October 17, 2017, Kmart announced the liquidation of an unspecified number of locations by late November. On November 3, 2017, it was announced that a further 45 Kmarts (along with 18 Sears stores) were to close, effective by January 2018, including Kmart's last store in Alabama, in Albertville.
According to Fortune.com, Kmart and Sears did not run any television advertisements during the 2017 holiday season in order to focus on digital marketing after evaluating the effectiveness of its various marketing efforts.
On January 4, 2018, after yet another disappointing holiday sales season, Kmart announced the liquidation of 64 more stores in the spring of 2018. This included Kmart's only remaining Super Kmart location in Warren, Ohio, which officially discontinued the Super Kmart format. According to MSN Money, Kmart along with sister company Sears had an extremely high chance of disappearing and going defunct in 2018, such that 2017 would have marked its final holiday season as an independent brand.
On March 15, 2018, Sears Holdings announced that a small profit was made in the fourth quarter of 2017. However, investors claimed that it was due to tax refunds and that sales were still falling for both Kmart and Sears. On March 26, 2018, CEO Eddie Lampert said, "I'm not sure Kmart on its own could ever be a great retailer," implying that the company was trying to shift to online shopping as opposed to brick and mortar stores. On April 12, 2018, Sears announced plans to close and auction 16 of its Sears stores, and close several more Kmart locations, but did not specify how many. Two known locations on the list were Kmart stores in Brandon, Florida, and Saugus, Massachusetts. In early May, Sears announced the liquidation of several more Kmarts, including the last Kmart in Vermont, in Bennington.
On May 21, 2018, Sears Holdings announced yet another round of liquidation sales in forty Sears and Kmart stores across 24 states. These stores were closed by July 4, 2018. On May 31, Sears Holdings announced the liquidation of an additional 16 Kmart stores and 48 Sears stores, including the last Kmart in Hawaiʻi, in Līhuʻe. The closings announced May 31, 2018, were from among 100 unprofitable stores in Sears Holdings and the remaining 28 unprofitable stores were, "a small group of stores that was pulled from the closing list ... as they are being evaluated further," meaning even more store closings could occur later in the year. Sears Holdings did not disclose those locations at the time. On June 28, 2018, Sears Holdings disclosed 10 of the stores being evaluated and announced they would close by September 2018. Liquidation sales began on the same day. On July 13, 2018, news came through from multiple sources that even more Kmart stores were set to liquidate across the nation. On August 23, 2018, it was announced that 13 more stores would close by November.
2018–2019: Second bankruptcy
On October 15, 2018, Sears Holdings filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy and announced that it would close 142 stores, including 63 Kmart stores, which included the last Kmart in Arkansas, in Russellville, the last two Kmarts in Georgia, in Covington and Peachtree City, and the last two Kmarts in Kansas, in Kansas City and Salina. Sears Holdings' bankruptcy also marked Kmart's second bankruptcy in 16 years. On November 8, 2018, Sears Holdings announced it would close an additional 40 stores, including 11 Kmart stores. On November 23, 2018, Sears Holdings released a list of 505 stores, including 239 Kmart stores, to be presented for sale in the bankruptcy process while all other stores were holding liquidation sales. However, the stores for sale were not guaranteed to be protected from liquidation in the future. On December 28, 2018, Sears Holdings announced it would close 80 additional stores, consisting of 37 Kmart stores, which included the only remaining Kmarts in five states: Crystal City, Missouri; Rapid City, South Dakota; Alliance, Nebraska; Metairie, Louisiana; and Gulfport, Mississippi.
In a proposal announced in early January, Sears Holdings planned only to keep 202 Kmart stores along with 223 Sears stores open, assuming that it would survive the bankruptcy process. Most of the proposed locations were in highly populated coastal regions.
On January 15, 2019, when it had appeared that Kmart's parent, Sears Holdings, was preparing to file for Chapter 7 liquidation, the bankruptcy court judge ordered the company to return to the negotiating table and work out a new deal with Eddie Lampert to prevent the liquidation from occurring. A new deal was struck at the last minute that would keep up to 400 Sears and Kmart stores operating. On January 19, 2019, Sears Holdings officially announced that they had won the auction, and that some of the then existing stores were to remain open.
On January 24, 2019, a group of unsecured creditors, which included Simon Property Group, filed a motion with the bankruptcy court to overturn the deal Sears Holdings had recently made with Lampert, claiming Lampert had been "engaged in serial asset stripping" of the company at the expense of suppliers and landlords. The creditors had requested that the bankruptcy court rule to liquidate the company instead of allowing reorganization so that the creditors would be able to recover more money that was still owed to them. On January 28, the federal government-operated Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation announced that they were not in favor of Sears Holdings' current agreement with Lampert since that agreement would create a $1.7 billion funding gap in the employee pension fund, requiring American taxpayers to cover the shortfall. In papers filed on February 1 with the bankruptcy court, ESL "outlined plans to close three Kmart stores per month in 2019" if the court would decide to accept ESL's purchase bid.
In February 2019, it was announced that a U.S. bankruptcy judge approved the sale of the most lucrative part of Sears Holdings to Edward Lampert, allowing the surviving part of the company that operated both Sears and Kmart to remain in business at the expense of suppliers, landlords, employees, pensioners, the U.S. government, and other creditors. Kmart would have 202 locations after the sale was to be completed.
2019–present: New management and further decline
The sale of 202 Kmart stores to Transform Holdco was finalized in February 2019, with the remaining Kmart locations liquidated to partially pay off Sears Holdings creditors.
In May 2019, it was revealed that Kmart would close its store in Walla Walla, Washington in July, making it the first post-bankruptcy closure for the brand since being bought by ESL. On August 6, 2019, TransformCo announced plans to close five additional stores by October 2019. At the time of the announcement, TransformCo also added that it "cannot rule out additional store closures in the near term." Between August 5 and 23, 2019, it was later announced that four more Kmarts would close.
On August 29, 2019, the massive closure of 77 Kmart stores was announced, with the stores being closed by December 15, 2019. This was the first mass-closing post-bankruptcy for the brand since being bought by ESL. According to the announcement, there would be 115 locations remaining by December 2019. The company was expected to close more than 100 stores by January 2020.
In November 2019, Kmart announced the closing of 45 stores in February 2020. The Wall Street Journal reported that Transformco "would continue to evaluate its retail footprint, suggesting that additional closures are possible." On February 6, 2020, Kmart announced it would close 15 more stores.
By February 28, 2022, only six stores remained open, four of them being in the continental United States.
Corporate affairs
Headquarters
The owner of Kmart, Transform Holdco LLC, had its headquarters in Hoffman Estates, Illinois, just outside of Chicago since 1993 when it moved out of the Sears Tower in downtown Chicago. Kmart's headquarters had been in Hoffman Estates since Kmart bought Sears in 2005, but in December 2021, Transformco announced that it intended to put its corporate headquarters and 120 surrounding acres in the Northwest suburb on the market at the start of the new year.
The headquarters were formerly located in the Kmart International Headquarters at 3100 W. Big Beaver Road in Troy, Michigan, in Metro Detroit. The facility had 23 interconnected modules. Each had three stories, except for one module, which was one story. Based on the layout, Norm Sinclair of DBusiness concluded that it was "a study in inefficiency".
Subsidiaries
Current
Kmart is a chain of discount department stores that are usually free-standing or located in strip malls. They carry compact discs (CDs), DVDs, TV shows on DVD, electronics, bedding, household hardware, sporting goods, clothing, toys, jewelry, office supplies, health and beauty products, over-the-counter medications, home decor, and a limited selection of food items. Many also have a garden center, a Jackson Hewitt tax center, a pharmacy, and a K-Cafe or a deli serving Nathan's Hot Dogs and pizza. Kmart stores range from . Most of them were either converted to or rebranded as Big Kmart while some were converted into Super Kmart stores.
Former
American Fare was a chain of hypermarkets that operated from 1989 to 1994. It was a joint venture involving Kmart, which owned 51 percent of the store, and Birmingham, Alabama-based Bruno's Supermarkets, which owned 49 percent of the stores. The first store opened in Stone Mountain, Georgia, near Atlanta, on January 29, 1989. American Fare's of retail space included of groceries, of general merchandise, and of clothing (including apparel, footwear, and accessories). An area in the front of the store housed a music and video store, a food court, bank, hair salon, pharmacy and a card store. Charlotte, North Carolina, was home to the second American Fare, which opened on April 1, 1990 with of retail space. A third and final store opened in Jackson, Mississippi in August 1990, with plans for a fourth store in Birmingham, Alabama never coming to fruition. In June 1992, Bruno's announced the termination of its partnership with the Kmart Corporation, and that Kmart would assume ownership of the three stores. The three stores closed by May 1994. The Stone Mountain store now houses the DeKalb County Board of Education. The Charlotte store was converted to Super Kmart, then a Steve & Barry's, before closing in 2009. It now houses a Verizon call center, and the Jackson store's parking lot became a Carmax in 2007, while the building itself is now owned by Comcast. The American Fare brand is used on some Kmart store-brand consumable products.
Big Kmart was a chain of discount department stores that carried everything a regular Kmart carries, but emphasizes home decor, children's clothing, and more food items such as meat and poultry, baked goods, frozen foods and an extended, but limited section of garden produce. Big Kmart stores ranged from 84,000 to 120,000 sq ft (7,800–11,100 m2). Big Kmart stores also featured a garden center, a pharmacy, a branch of a local bank, a Jackson Hewitt tax center, an Olan Mills portrait studio, an arcade, a K-Café or Little Caesars Pizza Station, and sometimes a Kmart Express gas station. As noted above, Kmart introduced the Big Kmart brand company-wide when it was introduced in 1997. Some Big Kmart locations were either closed or converted to normal Kmart stores. The final Big Kmart store in Marshall, Michigan closed permanently on November 21, 2021.
. In 1999 Kmart began offering a dial-up Internet service called BlueLight, which was eventually spun off as an independent company. BlueLight was initially free and supported by banner ads. BlueLight dropped the free service in February 2001 and was reacquired by Kmart in July 2001. In 2002 United Online, which also owns NetZero and Juno, bought the BlueLight service after Kmart filed for bankruptcy. In August 2006, Bluelight dropped the banners. In August 2006, the service cost $14.95 a month and had around 165,000 subscribers.
Borders Books was a chain of bookstores acquired by Kmart in 1992. In 1994, Borders merged with the Kmart chain Waldenbooks to form Borders-Walden Group, which was sold in 1995. In February 2011, Borders filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy and announced plans to liquidate in July after failing to find a buyer to keep the chain's remaining 399 stores in operation. The remaining stores closed in September.
Builders Square was a home improvement superstore. In 1997, it was sold to Hechinger, which went out of business in 1999.
Designer Depot: A discount clothing store chain operated in Metro Detroit in the 1980s. The first opened in a former S. S. Kresge dime store in St. Clair Shores, Michigan in 1982, selling brand names such as Yves Saint Laurent, Izod Lacoste, and Calvin Klein at discount prices.
K-Café was an in-store restaurant that served a fairly standard menu of hamburgers, hot dogs, French fries, grilled cheese sandwiches and Philly cheesesteak. They also offered a full breakfast menu of baked goods, bagels and egg platters with bacon or sausage and such snacks as nachos, pretzels, popcorn and ice cream. In addition to the café's menu, hot food items could also be purchased at the deli and eaten in the Deli Café at Super Kmart Center stores. However, K-Café has been discontinued in all of their stores. Most restaurants that were located at Super Kmart Center stores were instead known as Super K-Café. However, some Kmart stores have Nathan's Famous Hot Dog Eateries and Little Caesars Pizza Stations instead of K-Cafés.
KDollar was a chain of discount stores/dollar stores that sold Kmart merchandise at a discount. The stores were often former Kmart or Big Kmart stores. Sears Brands filed for a trademark on the KDollar name on November 6, 2012. The first opened in a former regular Kmart store in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan in 2013. A second KDollar store opened in Waukegan, Illinois.
Kmart Chef restaurants were a small chain of free-standing fast-food restaurants owned by Kmart, started in 1967 with the first location on the parking lot of a Kmart in Pontiac, Michigan. The "limited, high-turnover menu" (as Kmart founder S.S. Kresge put it) consisted of hamburgers, French fries, hot dogs, and soft drinks. The Kmart Chef chain folded in 1974 after peaking at 11 locations.
Kmart Dental was an in-store dental office located in Kmart stores. There was only one such prototype in a Kmart store, in Miami, Florida. Despite the name, Kmart Dental was never technically owned by Kmart.
Kmart Express was a chain of gas stations/convenience stores located in out-parcels at some Kmart and Super Kmart stores, particularly in the Midwest. In the early 2000s, there were plans to expand this concept to most Kmarts, but the plan for more locations was canceled after Kmart's bankruptcy in 2002. The final Kmart Express, in Ionia, MI, closed in 2017.
Kmart Food Stores was a supermarket chain founded in 1962. Most Kmart Food locations were paired with Kmart stores, often operated by a local grocery chain but always branded as Kmart Food. The chain was discontinued in the early 1980s.
Kwash was an attached-to-store laundromat launched in May 2010. Only one such prototype existed. It was in a former auto bay in Iowa City, Iowa. It featured a separate entrance, laundromat attendants and free wi-fi along with a limited selection of laundry goods available for purchase. The Kwash closed along with the Kmart in 2017.
Makro, a Dutch warehouse club chain, operated locations in the U.S. from February 1981 to 1989, in Atlanta, Philadelphia, and the Washington, D.C. suburb of Largo, Maryland. Kmart bought the chain's entire American holdings in 1989, having owned a 49 percent share before. The Makro stores were later converted to Pace or closed in 1990.
Office Square was a chain selling office supplies and office furniture which was a spin-off of Builders Square. In 1991, OfficeMax was acquired by Kmart and Office Square was merged into OfficeMax stores.
OfficeMax is a chain selling office supplies and office furniture which was acquired in 1991 and sold in 1995. It was acquired by Office Depot in 2013.
Pace Membership Warehouse was Kmart's warehouse club brand, until the chain was purchased by Walmart. In 1993, Walmart converted most of the stores into its Sam's Club brand, and sold others to chains such as Bradlees.
PayLess Drugs was a chain of drug stores acquired by Kmart in 1985 and later sold to TCH Corporation in 1994. The resulting entity, Thrifty PayLess, was acquired by Rite Aid in 1996, which converted all of the PayLess and Thrifty stores into Rite Aid stores in 1999. The PayLess division also owned Bi-Mart, which was spun off along with sister stores such as Pay 'n Save.
The Sports Authority was a chain of sporting goods stores which was acquired in 1990 and sold in 1995. The Sports Authority went out of business in 2016.
Super Kmart Center was a chain of superstores that carried everything a regular Kmart carries, but also had a full grocery section with meat and poultry, baked goods, a delicatessen, garden produce, and fresh seafood. Super Kmart Centers ranged from . The first store opened in Medina, Ohio on July 25, 1991 which downsized to a regular Kmart before closing for good in 2012. In 1997 a few days after Kmart opened its first Big Kmart store in Chicago, the Super Kmart Center brand was renamed to Super Kmart. Super Kmart Center stores also featured a garden center, a video rental store, a branch of a local bank, an arcade, a portrait studio, a Jackson Hewitt tax center, a pharmacy, and usually a deli café or Little Caesars Pizza Station. Many of these services were closed and discontinued in recent years. Several locations also included Kmart Express gas stations, and most had an auto center. Most Super Kmarts were closed during the two rounds of closures in 2002 and 2003, and many had their groceries removed, converting them into regular Kmart locations. A typical Super Center sold around $30 million of merchandise during one fiscal year. In 2015, some stores were converted into a regular Kmart with a concept called K-Fresh. These stores feature an expanded pantry and a fresh-food department, though these types of items are no longer prepared on-site and are now prepackaged. The deli, butcher and bakery operations were also closed. Kmart gradually closed its Super Kmart stores; the last location was in Warren, Ohio and closed on April 8, 2018. It is scheduled to be replaced by Kmart competitor Meijer.
U-Pak was a single "no-frills" supermarket which sold items out of boxes instead of on shelves, and featured reduced hours. It opened adjacent to a Kmart on Opdyke Boulevard in Pontiac, Michigan in 1979 and closed less than a month later due to poor sales.
Variety Outlet. A closeout chain, typically operated out of closed Kmart stores. The first opened in Rome, Georgia in 1994.
Waldenbooks was a chain consisting primarily of shopping-mall–based book stores which was acquired in 1984. In 1994, Kmart chain Borders merged with Waldenbooks to form Borders-Walden Group, which was sold in 1995 (the company was subsequently renamed Borders Group, and went out of business in 2011).
Philanthropy
Kmart for Kids was the umbrella program for Kmart's philanthropic initiatives. The program had helped children across the country live happier, healthier lives through the support of: March of Dimes, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, and American Diabetes Association.
At one time, Kmart was March of Dimes' number one corporate sponsor, having raised $114 million for the charity over more than 30 years.
On July 29, 2008, Don Germano, SVP/GM of Kmart stores, was elected to a five-year term on the national Board of Trustees of the March of Dimes Foundation.
Kmart for Kids had supported St. Jude's Children's Research Hospital through its annual Thanks and Giving campaign, an opportunity for Kmart customers to give thanks for the healthy children in their lives and give to help those who are not. Kmart had been a partner of the campaign since 2006, and , had raised more than $59.2 million (equivalent to $ in ) for St. Jude's. A record $21.9 million (equivalent to $ in ) was donated for the tenth annual fundraising campaign during the 2013 holiday season.
In 2008, Kmart earned the "Outstanding Corporate Citizen" Award for its support of the American Diabetes Association's "Step Out: Walk to Fight Diabetes" program. The tribute honored Kmart for the most well-developed, proactive program in the areas of charity, community development, diversity, philanthropy, and associate development. In 2008, Kmart became a national sponsor of "Step Out: Walk to Fight Diabetes" and over the past two years, Kmart's customers and associates have raised approximately $1.5 million (equivalent to $ in ) through its in-store campaigns.
Environmental record
On May 9, 2007, Kmart was penalized $102,422 (equivalent to $ in ) for violations of federal hazardous waste, clean water, emergency planning and preparation regulations at 17 distribution centers. Kmart corrected the violations by preparing and implementing spill-prevention control and countermeasure plans, applying for appropriate storm-water permits, complying with hazardous-waste-generator requirements, and submitting reports to state and local emergency-planning and response organizations informing them of the presence of hazardous substances. The Environmental Protection Agency also accused Kmart of not maintaining adequate information and failing to act in accordance with hazardous-waste-storage and disposal requirements. For instance, the EPA reported having discovered improperly labeled oil-storage drums at a location in Falls, Pennsylvania.
Out of concern for the environment, Kmart promoted battery recycling. In 1990, Kmart even proposed spending about $80 million (equivalent to $ in ) on full-page newspaper advertisements offering to recycle junk batteries for $2 (equivalent to $ in ) each.
In 2012, Kmart and Sears began to allow customers who are members of their Shop Your Way Rewards program to receive receipts by e-mail, eliminating paper waste and cutting down on the usage of ink.
Animal welfare concerns
In 2012, Mercy for Animals, a non-profit organization working against cruelty to farmed animals, conducted an infiltration at Christensen Farms, a pork supplier to Kmart, Walmart and Costco, obtaining hidden-camera footage of pigs confined in small gestation crates and cruelty to piglets. In response to Mercy for Animals' infiltration, Kmart announced it would begin requiring its pork suppliers to phase out gestation crates.
Racing sponsorships
Kmart was a prominent sponsor in NASCAR and the now-defunct CART series. They were a longtime sponsor of Newman/Haas Racing, owned by actor Paul Newman and former racer Carl Haas. Their CART drivers included Nigel Mansell and the father-son duo of Michael and Mario Andretti. Michael Andretti and Mansell won championships under Kmart sponsorship in 1991 and 1993, respectively. When Michael Andretti moved to Formula One in 1993, Kmart sponsored his McLaren for the season. The store also sponsored the NASCAR-sanctioned Kmart 400 at Michigan and North Carolina Speedway. Lake Speed garnered Kmart's first win in NASCAR in 1988 at the Darlington Raceway. Kmart sponsored three-time champion Darrell Waltrip in 1999 and 2000, his last two full-time seasons. Most recently, in NASCAR, the store sponsored Boris Said's #60 No Fear Ford Fusion in 2006.
International
Australia and New Zealand
The first Kmart store in Australia opened in 1969 in Burwood East, Victoria; the site was renovated in 2010 to be a shopping mall known as Burwood One.
Kmart Australia was born out of a joint venture between G.J. Coles & Coy Limited (Coles) and the S.S. Kresge Company (Kresge), with Kresge owning 51% of the common stock in the company and the remaining 49% being owned by Coles. The first New Zealand store opened in Henderson a suburb of Auckland in 1988. Kresge later exited this partnership in 1994 selling their ownership in the company to Coles Myer the successor to G. J. Coles & Coy Limited. Since the dissolution of Coles Myer in 2007, the Australian and New Zealand Kmart stores are owned by Wesfarmers.
Canada
Kmart closed five Montreal stores and several other Quebec stores in 1983 due to the company restructuring. Kresge ceased to exist in Canada in 1994. In December 1997, it was announced that ten of the existing 122 stores were to be closed. However, as a result of Kmart's ongoing financial difficulties, the Canadian division comprising 112 stores was sold to competitor Zellers of the Hudson's Bay Company in May 1998, after which the stores were either closed or converted to Hudson's Bay Company brands, mostly Zellers.
Slogans
The Saving Place 1960s–1990
Your Lowest Price is a Kmart Price 1990–1998
Caribbean
In late 2000, Kmart tried to expand into Caribbean countries where Wal-Mart and Target had no presence, but ultimately none of the proposed stores advanced beyond the construction stage and none opened by the time Kmart filed for bankruptcy in 2002 when it stopped paying its construction contractors.
Kmart started construction of a Super Kmart in 2001 in Trinidad, but halted it in 2002 when the store was 80 percent complete. There were plans for more stores to be built in Trinidad, as well as in Millennium Heights in Barbados, five stores in the Dominican Republic, and a potential foray into Jamaica. The unfinished Super Kmart store in Trinidad and Tobago is now a Tru Value Supermarket.
Europe
In 1992, Kmart purchased several communist-era department stores in Eastern Europe, including 13 in the former Czechoslovakia that were bought from the former Czechoslovak government. One of those stores was the old MÁJ department store on Národní Třída in Prague. Many of these outlets were quite profitable, with the Bratislava location setting a single-store sales record for the company. In March 1996, due to its troubles in the U.S., the Kmart Corporation announced that it had agreed to sell the six Kmart stores in the Czech Republic and the seven in Slovakia to Tesco PLC of Britain for about $117.5 million (equivalent to $ in ), to focus on its core operations in North America.
Mexico
In the 1990s, Kmart opened four stores in Mexico, in partnership with the Mexican retailer Liverpool. All were supercenters located in suburbs of Mexico City. About half of the store area was devoted to groceries, and this part of the stores resembled those in the US with some adjustments to the local market. These plus an unfinished store were sold in 1997 to the Mexican hypermarket chain Mega (part of Comercial Mexicana) and remain open under that name, except the store in Tlalnepantla, which was demolished in 2004 to build a Costco.
Singapore
In 1994, Kmart opened a 9,700-square-metre (104,000 sq ft) store in the Marina Square Shopping Center in a joint venture with Metro (Private) Limited. The joint venture with Singapore was dissolved in 1996.
Management
S. S. Kresge, Founder (founder; 1899–1925, president; 1925–1966, CEO)
Charles Belden Van Dusen (1925–1938, president)
Robert R. Williams (1938–1946, president)
D. C. Fisher (1946–1953, president)
Franklin P. Williams (1953–1958, president)
Harry Blair Cunningham (1959–1972, president and general manager; 1966–1972, CEO)
Robert E. Dewar (1970, president; 1972–1980, CEO)
Ervin Wardlow (1972, president)
Bernard Fauber (1980–1987, chairman, CEO)
Joseph E. Antonini (1987 – May 1995, CEO)
Floyd Hall (June 1995 – April 2000, president, chairman; June 1995-March 2002 CEO)
Charles Conaway (2000–2002, chairman, CEO)
Mark Schwartz (-January 2003, president, COO)
James B. Adamson (2002 – January 2003, president, chairman, CEO; )
Julian Day (March 2002, president, COO; January 2003 – September 2004, president, COO, CEO)
Aylwin Lewis (October 2004 – December 2007, president, CEO)
W. Bruce Johnson (January 2008 – February 2011)
Herman Darling (March 2011 – December 2012)
Eddie S. Lampert (January 2013 – October 2018, still on board after filing for bankruptcy)
See also
Kmart Australia
Sears Holdings
Transformco
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
External links
1899 establishments in Michigan
Companies based in Cook County, Illinois
Hoffman Estates, Illinois
Companies based in Detroit
Companies based in Troy, Michigan
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2002
Defunct retail companies of Canada
Discount stores of the United States
Retail companies established in 1899
Sears Holdings
Superstores in the United States
Toy retailers of the United States
2005 mergers and acquisitions
American companies established in 1899 | [
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242081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astaroth | Astaroth | Astaroth (also Ashtaroth, Astarot and Asteroth), in demonology, is the Great Duke of Hell in the first hierarchy with Beelzebub and Lucifer; he is part of the evil trinity. He is a male figure most likely named after the Near Eastern goddess Astarte.
Background
The name Astaroth was ultimately derived from that of 2nd millennium BC Phoenician goddess Astarte, an equivalent of the Babylonian Ishtar, and the earlier Sumerian Inanna. She is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in the forms Ashtoreth (singular) and Ashtaroth (plural, in reference to multiple statues of her). This latter form was directly transliterated in the early Greek and Latin versions of the Bible, where it was less apparent that it had been a plural feminine in Hebrew.
Appearances in literature
The name "Astaroth" as a male demon is first known from The Book of Abramelin, purportedly written in Hebrew c. 1458, and recurred in most occult grimoires of the following centuries. Astaroth also features as an archdemon associated with the qliphoth (adverse forces) according to later Kabbalistic texts, as he rules over the qlipha of Jupiter, known as Gha'agsheblah.
Dutch demonologist Johann Weyer also described Astaroth in his Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (1577) thus: "Astaroth is a great and a strong duke, coming forth in the shape of a foul angel, sitting upon an infernal dragon, and carrying on his right hand a viper", who also claimed to rule 40 legions. Also, he had to be approached by the conjurer with a magical ring on account of his stinking breath. He is similarly referred to in the 17th-century work The Lesser Key of Solomon. He also makes an appearance in the notorious "Grimorium Verum" (True Grimoire), as the infernal principality which rules the Americas.
According to some demonologists of the 16th century, August is the month during which this demon's attacks against man are stronger. According to Sebastien Michaelis, he is a demon of the First Hierarchy, who seduces by means of laziness, self-doubt, and rationalized philosophies. His adversary is St. Bartholomew, who can protect against him for he has resisted Astaroth's temptations. To others, he teaches mathematical sciences and handicrafts, can make men invisible and lead them to hidden treasures, and answers every question formulated to him. He was also said to give to mortal beings the power over serpents.
Was mentioned as a co-signatory of a Diabolical pact with Urban Grandier.
According to Francis Barrett (c. 1801), Astaroth is the prince of accusers and inquisitors. In art, in the Dictionnaire Infernal (1818), Astaroth is depicted as a nude man with feathered wings, wearing a crown, holding a serpent in one hand, and riding a beast with dragon-like wings and a serpent-like tail.
Astaroth appears in the Science Fiction book, Monster Hunter International(book 1) by Larry Correia.
Appearances in film
Ashtaroth is one of three demons summoned by Faustus to attack Benvolio in Doctor Faustus.
The "Star of Astoroth" features prominently in the 1971 Disney film Bedknobs and Broomsticks, where it takes the form of a magical medallion.
Astaroth is named in the 1976 Hammer horror film To the Devil a Daughter.
In the 1920 silent horror film The Golem: How He Came into the World, Rabbi Loew and his assistant summon Astaroth to animate the Golem resulting in deadly and destructive results.
Astaroth also appears in the 2007 television series Blood Ties. Symbol appears in the first few episodes.
Astaroth symbolism is also prevalent in the 2018 movie Antrum: The Deadliest Film Ever Made and a symbol of Astaroth appears in the movie over 170 times.
The Solomonic seal of Astaroth makes an appearance in Pyewacket.
Astaroth is the title character in "Astaroth"/"Astaroth Female Demon", a film by the Brazilian director Larissa Anzoategui. The name of the company that made the film is also "Astaroth Produções".
See also
Asherah
Atargatis
References
Sources
S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (1904). 1995 reprint: .
Goetic demons
Qliphoth
Deities in the Hebrew Bible
Astarte | [
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242084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traceability%20matrix | Traceability matrix | In software development, a traceability matrix (TM) is a document, usually in the form of a table, used to assist in determining the completeness of a relationship by correlating any two baselined documents using a many-to-many relationship comparison. It is often used with high-level requirements (these often consist of marketing requirements) and detailed requirements of the product to the matching parts of high-level design, detailed design, test plan, and test cases.
A requirements traceability matrix may be used to check if the current project requirements are being met, and to help in the creation of a request for proposal, software requirements specification, various deliverable documents, and project plan tasks.
Common usage is to take the identifier for each of the items of one document and place them in the left column. The identifiers for the other document are placed across the top row. When an item in the left column is related to an item across the top, a mark is placed in the intersecting cell. The number of relationships are added up for each row and each column. This value indicates the mapping of the two items. Zero values indicate that no relationship exists. It must be determined if a relationship must be made. Large values imply that the relationship is too complex and should be simplified.
To ease the creation of traceability matrices, it is advisable to add the relationships to the source documents for both backward and forward traceability. That way, when an item is changed in one baselined document, it is easy to see what needs to be changed in the other.
Sample traceability matrix
See also
Requirements traceability
Software engineering
List of requirements engineering tools
References
External links
Bidirectional Requirements Traceability by Linda Westfall
StickyMinds article: Traceability Matrix by Karthikeyan V
Why Software Requirements Traceability Remains a Challenge by Andrew Kannenberg and Dr. Hossein Saiedian
Software testing
Software requirements | [
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242087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashuapmushuan%20River | Ashuapmushuan River | The Ashuapmushuan River is a river in the Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean region of the Canadian provinces of Quebec. It starts at the outlet of Lake Ashuapmushuan, and flows first in a north-easterly direction for about whereafter it continues south-east to Saint-Félicien. There it drains into Lac Saint-Jean of which it is the third largest tributary after the Peribonka and Mistassini Rivers. The river is long but its source is from its mouth.
Typical median summer flow is between , whereas during spring run-off, the median flow is , but the river could swell anywhere from . Lowest flow conditions occur in March with a median flow of and a minimum of to a maximum of .
The Ashuapmushuan River forms the northern boundary of the Ashuapmushuan Wildlife Reserve for most of its length. As a wild undeveloped river, and accessible from Quebec Route 167 close to Lake Ashuapmushuan, it is a popular destination for canoe camping.
A new aquatic reserve is being considered that would protect of the Ashuapmushuan River, including its floodplain and valley slopes. The reserve prohibits logging, mining, and hydro-electric development, while protecting critical landlocked salmon habitats, biodiversity, and sites of archaeological interest.
Etymology
The name Ashuapmushuan, which was not officially adopted until 1982, is an Innu word meaning "place where one lies in wait for moose".
The river was however first called Necouba by Louis Jolliet in 1679. This name was also used by Jean-Baptiste-Louis Franquelin and Guillaume Delisle in 1686 and 1703 respectively. But in 1732 surveyor Normandin considered this an error, who referred to the Necoubeau as a tributary to Lake Ashuapmushuan that was called Lake Chomonchouane by Laure on his maps of 1731 and 1732. Therefore, Normandin renamed the river to Chomontchouane. In 1917, the Commission de géographie officially adopted the modernized spelling of Chamouchouane.
Geography
The Ashuapmushuan basin is part of the Central Laurentians in the natural region of the Lake Manouane Depression. The river is enclosed in narrow valleys for a large part of its course, with powerful rapids and a dozen waterfalls, of which the most impressive are the Chaudière Falls.
From the mouth of Ashuapmushuan Lake, the course of the Ashuapmushuan river flows over , with a drop of , according to the following segments:
Upper course of the Ashuapmushuan river (segment of ; difference in height of )
northwards crossing Lake Denaut on (length: ; altitude: ), bending towards the north-east, bypassing an island before passing under the road bridge, to the la Loche river (coming from the north-west);
north-east to a bend in the river; then east, to the Mazarin River (coming from the north);
south-east, up to the confluence of the Du Chef River (coming from the north);
Intermediate course of the Ashuapmushuan river (upstream of the Chef river) (segment of ; difference in height of )
southeasterly, up to a bend in the river, corresponding to the outlet (coming from the north) of Desautels stream;
southeasterly in a straight line, up to a bend corresponding to the outlet (coming from the south) of several lakes including Lac en Dentelle and Lac Charles-Lacroix ;
towards the east by forming three large curves towards the north, until the confluence of the rivière aux Brochets (coming from east);
eastwards, to the confluence of the Kanishushteu River (coming from the west);
towards the east, then turning towards the south-east in a deep valley, until the confluence of the Chigoubiche River (coming from the west);
Intermediate course of the Ashuapmushuan river (upstream of the Chigoubiche river) (segment of ; drop in height of )
eastwards, up to a bend corresponding to the outlet of lakes André, Larouaque and Guillemet;
first towards the south by crossing a series of rapids, then the Chutes de la Chaudière; then turning southeast in a deep valley, to a bend in the river, then east (slightly to the south) almost in a straight line, collecting the outlet (coming from the south) from Lac de la Savane, to the confluence of the Moncou stream (coming from the north);
crossing the White Spruce Rapids, collecting the Petite rivière aux Saumons (coming from the north-west), collecting the outlet of Lac du Cran, until at the Cran river (coming from the south);
first towards the east by forming a hook towards the north, in particular by collecting the Rivière à la Loutre (coming from the northwest) and crossing the Rapides Plats; then a large loop to the north where the river bypass the island of the Notary (length: ), to turn southeast, until the confluence of the Pémonca river (coming from South West);
Lower Ashuapmushuan River (segment of ; difference in height of )
first by forming a loop towards the south-east by crossing two series of rapids going up towards the north; then forming a big M where the current crosses the Little Bear Falls, then the Big Bear Falls, up to a bend in the river;
south-east, bypassing Adhémar Island, until the confluence of the Salmon river (coming from the west);
towards the south-east by crossing the Michel waterfall, passing under the railway bridge, crossing two series of rapids, up to the Carbonneau bridge which connects downtown Saint-Félicien at the north shore;
towards the east by collecting the Petite rivière Eusèbe (coming from the west), by forming a curve towards the south while passing in front of the town of Saint-Félicien (located on the south side) and in front of the Saint-Félicien airfield (located on the north side), bypassing a group of islands including Hudon Island (length: , as well as collecting the rivière à l'Ours; then forming another curve going north on , where the river bypasses Michelangelo Island (length: ) and Île Sauvage, forming a gulf, gradually widens over , up to reach a width of at the height of Pointe Sainte-Method (located on the north shore), to its mouth.
The river finally flows into Lac Saint-Jean a few kilometers downstream from Saint-Félicien, near Saint-Prime. The river finally flows into Lac Saint-Jean a few kilometers downstream from Saint-Félicien, near Saint-Prime. From the mouth of the Ashuapmushuan river, the current crosses Lac Saint-Jean east on (its full length), follows the course of the Saguenay River via the Petite Décharge on east to Tadoussac where it merges with the Estuary of Saint Lawrence.
Municipal territories crossed by the river
Starting from the upstream (Ashuapmushuan Lake), the course of the Ashuapmushuan river descends, crossing the following municipal territories:
From the confluence of the Du Chef River and the Saint-Félicien limit, the course of the Ashuapmushuan river turns out to be the limit between the Maria-Chapdelaine Regional County Municipality (side north of the river) and Le Domaine-du-Roy Regional County Municipality (south side).
History
The Ashuapmushuan River Basin is home to several archaeological sites that show that indigenous people occupied the area for thousands of years. European explorers and missionaries came in the 17th century. For instance, Charles Albanel used the river for his voyage to Hudson Bay in 1672.
In 1685, French fur traders set up a trading post on the eastern shore of Lake Ashuapmushuan that remained almost continuously in operation until the middle of the 19th century. It successively came under control of the Traite de Tadoussac (French period), King's Posts (English period), the North West Company (1802), and the Hudson's Bay Company (1821). During this period, the river became a major link in the fur trade route from Tadoussac to Hudson Bay since its source is just east of Lake Mistassini on the Rupert River. The vestiges of the post are considered some of the most valuable and best preserved relics from the era.
After the fur trade, the Ashuapmushuan River was used by logging companies to drive logs downstream.
Fauna
The Ashuapmushuan River and its tributaries provide spawning grounds and habitats for landlocked salmon (Salmo salar ouananiche). Newly hatched salmon remain in the river for 2 to 4 years before migrating to Lake Saint-Jean where it remains for most of its adult life. Then, at age 4 to 8, it will return to the river to spawn. While the Ashuapmushuan River has significantly contributed to salmon production for the lake, the salmon population has seen a sharp decline in the 1990s. Despite conservation measures, its status remains of concern.
References
Rivers of Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean | [
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242089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandin%2C%20Quebec | Normandin, Quebec | Normandin is a city located on the west side of Lac Saint-Jean in the Canadian province of Quebec.
Normandin is named after the surveyor Joseph-Laurent Normandin. Its history of European-Canadian settlement began in 1878 when the first pioneers arrived. Alphonse Laliberté was elected as Normandin's first mayor in 1890. In 1926, the village was set up as a municipality distinct from the township; the notary J.S.N. Turcotte occupied the function of first magistrate.
The city is the birthplace of radio talk show psychiatrist Pierre Mailloux. It is also the hometown (though not birthplace) of André Dédé Fortin, the late lead singer of Les Colocs.
Demographics
Population trend:
Population in 2011: 3137 (2006 to 2011 population change: -2.6%)
Population in 2006: 3220
Population in 2001: 3524
Population in 1996: 3873
Population in 1991: 3957
Private dwellings occupied by usual residents: 1368 (total dwellings: 1414)
Mother tongue:
English as first language: 0%
French as first language: 99.7%
English and French as first language: 0%
Other as first language: 0.3%
Notable people
Gilles Bouchard (born 1971), Canadian ice hockey coach
Pierre Mailloux (born 1949), Canadian psychiatrist and radio host
References
External links
Cities and towns in Quebec
Incorporated places in Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean
Maria-Chapdelaine Regional County Municipality | [
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] |
242094 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Establishment | Establishment | Establishment may refer to:
The Establishment, the dominant group or elite holding effective power or authority in a society
The Establishment (club), an English satire club of the 1960s
The Establishment (comics), a comic book produced by Wildstorm
Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, forbidding Congress from establishing a religion
Establishment of a state religion ("established church"), the endorsement of a church by a nation's government
Freedom of establishment, the right of EU nationals to establish themselves economically in any member state of the Internal Market (European Union)
Establiments, a residential district in the Balearic Islands
ESTABLISHED, a Transmission Control Protocol connection state
- the beginnings of things
See also
Dissolution (law), with respect to an entity that was previously legally established | [
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242096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20theft%20auto | Grand theft auto | Grand theft auto may refer to:
Motor vehicle theft, a crime in virtually all jurisdictions of the world
Grand Theft Auto, a video game series developed by Rockstar Games
Grand Theft Auto (video game), the 1997 first video game in the series
Grand Theft Auto Advance, also known simply as Grand Theft Auto, 2004
Grand Theft Auto (film), a 1977 film directed by Ron Howard | [
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242097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-establishment | Anti-establishment | An anti-establishment view or belief is one which stands in opposition to the conventional social, political, and economic principles of a society. The term was first used in the modern sense in 1958, by the British magazine New Statesman to refer to its political and social agenda. Antiestablishmentarianism (or anti-establishmentarianism) is an expression for such a political philosophy.
By country
Australia
Pauline Hanson's One Nation Party and the United Australia Party (formerly Palmer United) have both been referred to as anti-establishment parties.
Canada
The People's Party of Canada is seen as anti-establishment political party. Bernier was accused by prominent Conservative politicians such as former prime ministers Stephen Harper and Brian Mulroney of trying to divide the political right. Bernier responded to Power and Politics that he wanted to focus on the disaffected voters stating that "there is 20 per cent of the population who do not even bother to vote that his party will debate discussions that "the leadership and the caucus" did not want to have when he was a party member.
Iceland
The Pirate Party of Iceland has a movement of anti-establishment.
India
In India, the 1960s saw emergence of a group of writers who called themselves Hungryalists. They were the first anti-establishment and counter culture writers in Bengal whose dissenting voice drew attention of the government and court cases were filed against them. The main anti-establishment voices in Bengali literature have been Malay Roy Choudhury, Samir Roychoudhury, Subimal Basak, Falguny Roy and Tridib Mitra.
However, anti-establishment littlemag movement is still active both in Bangladesh and West Bengal.
Italy
The Five Star Movement (M5S) and the League are considered anti-establishment parties. The M5S led by Luigi Di Maio won the most votes in the 2018 Italian general election and formed the largest groups in the Chamber of Deputies and in the Senate. The center-right electoral alliance led by League's secretary Matteo Salvini won a pluralities of seats in both houses. The M5S and the League agreed to form a government coalition, which resulted in Giuseppe Conte being appointed Prime Minister and forming the 65th government of the Italian Republic.
Power to the People, a left-wing to far-left electoral alliance comprising several parties, organizations, associations, committees and social centers, is also an anti-establishment movement. In its manifesto, membership to Power to the People is described as "social and political, anti-liberist and anti-capitalist, communist, socialist, environmentalist, feminist, secular, pacifist, libertarian and southernist left-wing", whose goal as coalition is "to create real democracy, through daily practices, self-governance experiments, socialisation of knowing and popular participation". In the 2018 general election, they obtained 370,320 votes for the Chamber of Deputies (1.13%) and 319,094 votes for the Senate (1.05%), without electing any representatives.
Mexico
The election of Andrés Manuel López Obrador as President of Mexico was deemed as anti-establishment by pundits.
Pakistan
The Pakistan Democratic Movement (PDM) is the biggest anti-establishment movement in Pakistan. The movement is a political coalition of the major political parties of Pakistan, including Pakistan Muslim League (N). In Pakistan, many voices have been taken and there have been several protests against the Establishment but these are not shown by Pakistani media channels since they aren't allowed. In Pakistan, especially in Balochistan, there is a famous slogan "ye jo dehshatgardi hai, iske peeche wardi hai" (Those in uniform are behind terrorism).
United Kingdom
In the UK anti-establishment figures and groups are seen as those who argue or act against the ruling class. Having an established church, in England, a British monarchy, an aristocracy, and an unelected upper house in Parliament made up in part by hereditary nobles, the UK has a clearly definable Establishment against which anti-establishment figures can be contrasted. In particular, satirical humour is commonly used to undermine the deference shown by the majority of the population towards those who govern them. Examples of British anti-establishment satire include much of the humour of Peter Cook and Ben Elton; novels such as Rumpole of the Bailey; magazines such as Private Eye; and television programmes like Spitting Image, That Was The Week That Was, and The Prisoner (see also the satire boom of the 1960s). Anti-establishment themes also can be seen in the novels of writers such as Will Self.
However, by operating through the arts and media, the line between politics and culture is blurred, so that pigeonholing figures such as Banksy as either anti-establishment or counter-culture figures can be difficult. The tabloid newspapers such as The Sun, are less subtle, and commonly report on the sex-lives of the Royals simply because it sells newspapers, but in the process have been described as having anti-establishment views that have weakened traditional institutions. On the other hand, as time passes, anti-establishment figures sometimes end up becoming part of the Establishment, as Mick Jagger, the Rolling Stones frontman, became a Knight in 2003, or when The Who frontman Roger Daltrey was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 2005 in recognition of both his music and his work for charity.
United States
Individuals who were anti-establishment often spoke of "fighting the man", not wanting to be "selling out to the Establishment", and "tearing down the Establishment." Many well renowned activists and activist groups innovated great changes to society by standing up to "the Establishment".
"The Establishment" to these, and these anti-establishment activists was not simply the people of the older generation. Dictionary.com defines the establishment as "the existing power structure in society; the dominant groups in society and their customs or institutions; institutional authority", Merriam-Webster defines the words as "a group of social, economic, and political leaders who form a ruling class" and The Free Dictionary defines it as "A group of people holding most of the power and influence in a government or society." Social critic and "people's" historian Howard Zinn defines the establishment as "Republicans, Democrats, newspapers [and] television" in his book, A People's History of the United States. Later Zinn calls out the "huge military establishment" which one could assume is part of his definition of the "Establishment." In a chapter of the book that expresses Zinn's political theory for the future he defines "the Establishment [as] that uneasy club of business executives, generals, and politicos."
Later in Zinn's book is a reprinted quote from Samuel Huntington, who was a Harvard University political science professor and White House political consultant, that describes the establishment and the coalition a president should establish upon being elected:
"...the President act[s]...with the support and cooperation of key individuals and groups in the executive office, the federal bureaucracy, Congress, and the more important businesses, banks, law firms, foundations, and media, which constitute the private sector's "Establishment."...The day after [the President's]...election, the size of his majority is almost — if not entirely — irrelevant to his ability to govern the country. What counts then is his ability to mobilize support from the leaders of key institutions in a society and government. ... This coalition must include key people in Congress, the executive branch, and the private-sector 'Establishment'."
Early usage
Anti-establishment in the United States began in the 1940s and continued through the 1950s.
Many World War II veterans, who had seen horrors and inhumanities, began to question every aspect of life, including its meaning. Urged to return to "normal lives" and plagued by post traumatic stress disorder (discussing it was "not manly"), in which many of them went on to found the outlaw motorcycle club Hells Angels. Some veterans, who founded the Beat Movement, were denigrated as Beatniks and accused of being "downbeat" on everything. Lawrence Ferlinghetti wrote a Beat autobiography that cited his wartime service.
Citizens had also begun to question authority, especially after the Gary Powers U-2 Incident, wherein President Eisenhower repeatedly assured people the United States was not spying on Russia, then was caught in a blatant lie. This general dissatisfaction was popularized by Peggy Lee's laconic pop song "Is That All There Is?", but remained unspoken and unfocused. It was not until the Baby Boomers came along in huge numbers that protest became organized, who were named by the Beats as "little hipsters".
1960s
"Anti-establishment" became a buzzword of the tumultuous 1960s. Young people raised in comparative luxury saw many wrongs perpetuated by society and began to question "the Establishment". Contentious issues included the ongoing Vietnam War with no clear goal or end point, the constant military build-up and diversion of funds for the Cold War, perpetual widespread poverty being ignored, money-wasting boondoggles like pork barrel projects and the Space Race, festering race issues, a stultifying education system, repressive laws and harsh sentences for casual drug use, and a general malaise among the older generation. On the other side, "Middle America" often regarded questions as accusations, and saw the younger generation as spoiled, drugged-out, sex-crazed, unambitious slackers.
Anti-establishment debates were common because they touched on everyday aspects of life. Even innocent questions could escalate into angry diatribes. For example, "Why do we spend millions on a foreign war and a space program when our schools are falling apart?" would be answered with "We need to keep our military strong and ready to stop the Communists from taking over the world." As in any debate, there were valid and unsupported arguments on both sides. "Make love not war" invoked "America, love it or leave it."
As the 1960s simmered, the anti-Establishment adopted conventions in opposition to the Establishment. T-shirts and blue jeans became the uniform of the young because their parents wore collar shirts and slacks. Drug use, with its illegal panache, was favored over the legal consumption of alcohol. Promoting peace and love was the antidote to promulgating hatred and war. Living in genteel poverty was more "honest" than amassing a nest egg and a house in the suburbs. Rock 'n roll was played loudly over easy listening. Dodging the draft was passive resistance to traditional military service. Dancing was free-style, not learned in a ballroom. Over time, anti-establishment messages crept into popular culture: songs, fashion, movies, lifestyle choices, television.
The emphasis on freedom allowed previously hushed conversations about sex, politics, or religion to be openly discussed. A wave of radical liberation movements for minority groups came out of the 1960s, including second-wave feminism; Black Power, Red Power, and the Chicano Movement; and gay liberation. These movements differed from previous efforts to improve minority rights by their opposition to respectability politics and militant tone. Programs were put in place to deal with inequities: Equal Opportunity Employment, the Head Start Program, enforcement of the Civil Rights Act, busing, and others. But the widespread dissemination of new ideas also sparked a backlash and resurgence in conservative religions, new segregated private schools, anti-gay and anti-abortion legislation, and other reversals. Extremists tended to be heard more because they made good copy for newspapers and television. In many ways, the angry debates of the 1960s led to modern right-wing talk radio and coalitions for "traditional family values".
As the 1960s passed, society had changed to the point that the definition of the Establishment had blurred, and the term "anti-establishment" seemed to fall out of use.
1960s to present: the use of anti-establishment rhetoric in American politics
Howard Zinn, in his bestseller titled A People's History of the United States mentions the concept of "establishment" several times in the book. In reference to the 1896 election and McKinley's victory, when talking about socialism in the early 20th century, a major WWI general strike in 1919, when writing about the aftermath of WWII, in the talk about the repression of a communist party organizer, in discussion of the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom led by Martin Luther King Jr. and others, when writing about how even when black leaders were elected, they couldn't overcome the establishment and in reference to opposition in the Vietnam war, the establishment before and after the Watergate Scandal, the establishment from Jimmy Carter's Administration to George H.W.'s administration, the Iran-Contra Affair and the establishment, the maintaining of the military establishment even after the Cold War ended, the Vietnam Syndrome that leads to anti-establishment thought, and in a discussion of the 2000 election.
1999 WTO protests, Occupy protests and anti-establishment thought
In 2011, with the rise of anti-austerity protests, online activism like Anonymous and the advent of the Occupy protests targeting the power of high finance and fighting for "the 99%," anti-establishment thought has reappeared. BBC News commented in one article that "The sinister Guy Fawkes mask made famous by the film V for Vendetta has become an emblem for anti-establishment protest groups." During the 1999 Seattle WTO protests the Earth Rainbow Network had (and still has) a page titled "The Anti-Establishment Files: Info and background material on the coming World Trade Organization meeting in Seattle."
Shift in usage
In recent years, with the rise of the populist right, the term anti-establishment has tended to refer to both left and right-wing movements expressing dissatisfaction with mainstream institutions. For those on the right, this can be fueled by feelings of alienation from major institutions such as the government, corporations, media, and education system, which are perceived as holding progressive social norms, an inversion of the meaning formerly associated with the term. This can be accounted for by a perceived cultural and institutional shift to the left by many on the right. According to Pew Research, Western European populist parties from both sides of the ideological spectrum tapped into anti-establishment sentiment in 2017, "from the Brexit referendum to national elections in Italy." Sarah Kendzior of QZ opines that "The term "anti-establishment" has lost all meaning," citing a campaign video from then candidate Donald Trump titled "Fighting the Establishment." The term anti-establishment has tended to refer to Right-wing populist movements, including nationalist movements and anti-lockdown protests, since Donald Trump and the global populist wave, starting as far back as 2015 and as recently as 2021.
See also
Anti-war
Conflict theories
The Establishment
Hungry generation
Neo-nationalism
New Left
Peace movement
Populism
Pro-democracy camp (Hong Kong)
Protest
Statism
Anti-authoritarianism
Political radicalism
References
1950s neologisms
Social theories
Sociolinguistics | [
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242098 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra%20Club | Sierra Club | The Sierra Club is an environmental organization with chapters in all 50 United States, Washington D.C., and Puerto Rico. The club was founded on May 28, 1892 in San Francisco, California by Scottish-American preservationist John Muir, who became the first president as well as the longest serving president, at approximately 20 years in this leadership position. The Sierra Club operates only in the United States and holds the legal status of 501(c)(4) nonprofit social welfare organization. Sierra Club Canada is a separate entity.
Traditionally associated with the progressive movement, the club was one of the first large-scale environmental preservation organizations in the world, and currently engages in lobbying politicians to promote environmentalist policies. Recent focuses of the club include promoting sustainable energy and mitigating global warming, as well as opposition to the use of coal, hydropower and nuclear power. The club is known for its political endorsements, which are often sought after by candidates in local elections; it generally supports liberal and progressive candidates in elections.
The Sierra Club is organized on both a national and state level with chapters named for the 50 states and two U.S. territories (Puerto Rico and Washington D.C.) California is the lone state to have numerous chapters named for California counties. The club chapters allow for regional groups and committees, some of which have many thousands of members. These chapters further allow for special interest sections (ex. Camera, Outings), committees (conservation and political), and task forces on a single issue with some kind of geography involved. While much activity is coordinated at a local level, the club is a unified organization; decisions made at the national level take precedence, including the removal and creation of Chapters, as well as recruiting and removing members.
In addition to political advocacy, the Sierra Club organizes outdoor recreation activities, and has historically been a notable organization for mountaineering and rock climbing in the United States. Members of the Sierra Club pioneered the Yosemite Decimal System of climbing, and were responsible for a substantial amount of the early development of climbing. Much of this activity occurred in the group's namesake Sierra Nevada. The Sierra Club does not set standards for or regulate alpinism, but it organizes wilderness courses, hikes, and occasional alpine expeditions for members. In California, the club, through its outdoor recreation groups, is usually considered the state's analogue to other state mountaineering clubs such as Mazamas, The Mountaineers, or the Colorado Mountain Club.
The current acting executive director is Dan Chu.
Overview
The Sierra Club's stated mission is "To explore, enjoy, and protect the wild places of the earth; To practice and promote the responsible use of the earth's ecosystems and resources; To educate and enlist humanity to protect and restore the quality of the natural and human environment; and to use all lawful means to carry out these objectives."
The Sierra Club is governed by a 15-member Board of Directors. Each year, five directors are elected to three-year terms, and all club members are eligible to vote. A president is elected annually by the Board from among its members. The Executive Director runs the day-to-day operations of the group. Michael Brune, formerly of Rainforest Action Network, has served as the organization's executive director since 2010. Brune succeeded Carl Pope. Pope stepped down amid discontent that the group had strayed from its core principles.
Sierra Club members belong to statewide chapters and local groups. National and local special-interest sections, committees, and task forces address particular issues. The national Sierra Club sets the organization's policy agenda and overarching rules.
The club is known for engaging in two main activities: promoting and guiding outdoor recreational activities, which is done throughout the United States but primarily in California (especially Southern California), and political activism to promote environmental causes. Sierra Club has been described as one of the United States' "leading environmental organizations." The Sierra Club makes endorsements of individual candidates for elected office.
History
Founding
Journalist Robert Underwood Johnson had worked with John Muir on the successful campaign to create a large Yosemite National Park surrounding the much smaller state park which had been created in 1864. This campaign succeeded in 1890. As early as 1889, Johnson had encouraged Muir to form an "association" to help protect the Sierra Nevada, and preliminary meetings were held to plan the group. Others involved in the early planning included artist William Keith, Willis Linn Jepson, Warren Olney, Willard Drake Johnson, Joseph LeConte and David Starr Jordan.
In May 1892, the young botany professor, Willis Linn Jepson from the University of California, Berkeley helped Muir and attorney Warren Olney launched the new organization modeled after the eastern Appalachian Mountain Club. The charter members of the Sierra Club elected Muir president, an office he held until his death in 1914.
The first goals of the Club included establishing Glacier and Mount Rainier national parks, convincing the California legislature to give Yosemite Valley to the U.S. federal government, and preserving coastal redwood forests of California.
Muir escorted President Theodore Roosevelt through Yosemite in 1903, and two years later the California legislature ceded Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove to the federal government. The Sierra Club won its first lobbying victory with the creation of the country's second national park, after Yellowstone in 1872.
In 2020, in wake of the George Floyd protests and subsequent public reconciliation of systematic racism in public history, the Sierra Club described their own early history as intermingled with racism. In particular, the early Sierra Club favored the needs of white members to the exclusion of people of color, and Muir and some of his associates, such as Joseph LeConte, David Starr Jordan, and Henry Fairfield Osborn were closely related to the early eugenics movement in the United States. Osborn cofounded the American Eugenics Society, which called Jews and other non-whites as racially inferior to white people.
Hetch Hetchy controversy
In the first decade of the 1900s, the Sierra Club became embroiled in the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir controversy that divided preservationists from "resource management" conservationists. In the late 19th century, the city of San Francisco was rapidly outgrowing its limited water supply, which depended on intermittent local springs and streams. In 1890, San Francisco mayor James D. Phelan proposed to build a dam and aqueduct on the Tuolumne River, one of the largest southern Sierra rivers, as a way to increase and stabilize the city's water supply.
Gifford Pinchot, a progressive supporter of public utilities and head of the US Forest Service, which then had jurisdiction over the national parks, supported the creation of the Hetch Hetchy dam. Muir appealed to his friend U.S. President Roosevelt, who would not commit himself against the dam, given its popularity with the people of San Francisco (a referendum in 1908 confirmed a seven-to-one majority in favor of the dam and municipal water). Muir and attorney William Edward Colby began a national campaign against the dam, attracting the support of many eastern conservationists. With the 1912 election of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, who carried San Francisco, supporters of the dam had a friend in the White House.
The bill to dam Hetch Hetchy passed Congress in 1913, and so the Sierra Club lost its first major battle. In retaliation, the Club supported creation of the National Park Service in 1916, to remove the parks from Forest Service oversight. Stephen Mather, a Club member from Chicago and an opponent of the Hetch Hetchy dam, became the first National Park Service director.
1920s–1940s
During the 1920s and 1930s, the Sierra Club functioned as a social and recreational society, conducting outings, maintaining trails and building huts and lodges in the Sierra. Preservation campaigns included a several-year effort to enlarge Sequoia National Park (achieved in 1926) and over three decades of work to protect and then preserve Kings Canyon National Park (established in 1940). Historian Stephen Fox notes, "In the 1930s most of the three thousand members were middle-aged Republicans."
The New Deal brought many conservationists to the Democratic Party, and many Democrats entered the ranks of conservationists. Leading the generation of Young Turks who revitalized the Sierra Club after World War II were attorneys Richard Leonard and Bestor Robinson, nature photographer Ansel Adams, and David Brower.
Adams sponsored Brower for membership in the club, and he was appointed to the editorial board of the Sierra Club Bulletin. After World War II Brower returned to his job with the University of California Press, and began editing the Sierra Club Bulletin in 1946.
National reach
In 1950, the Sierra Club had some 7,000 members, mostly on the West Coast. That year the Atlantic chapter became the first formed outside California. An active volunteer board of directors ran the organization, assisted by a small clerical staff. Brower was appointed the first executive director in 1952, and the club began to catch up with major conservation organizations such as the National Audubon Society, National Wildlife Federation, The Wilderness Society, and Izaak Walton League, which had long had professional staff.
The Sierra Club secured its national reputation in the battle against the Echo Park Dam in Dinosaur National Monument in Utah, which had been announced by the Bureau of Reclamation in 1950. Brower led the fight, marshaling support from other conservation groups. Brower's background in publishing proved decisive; with the help of publisher Alfred Knopf, This Is Dinosaur was rushed into press. Invoking the specter of Hetch Hetchy, conservationists effectively lobbied Congress, which deleted the Echo Park dam from the Colorado River project as approved in 1955. Recognition of the Sierra Club's role in the Echo Park dam victory boosted membership from 10,000 in 1956 to 15,000 in 1960.
The Sierra Club was now truly a national conservation organization, and preservationists took the offensive with wilderness proposals. The club's Biennial Wilderness Conferences, launched in 1949 in concert with The Wilderness Society, became an important force in the campaign that secured passage of the Wilderness Act in 1964.
Book series
In 1960, Brower launched the Exhibit Format book series with This Is the American Earth, and in 1962 In Wildness Is the Preservation of the World, with color photographs by Eliot Porter. These coffee-table books, published by their Sierra Club Books division, introduced the Sierra Club to a wider audience. Fifty thousand copies were sold in the first four years, and by 1960 sales exceeded $10 million. Soon Brower was publishing two new titles a year in the Exhibit Format series, but not all did as well as In Wildness. Although the books were successful in introducing the public to wilderness preservation and the Sierra Club, they lost money for the organization, some $60,000 a year after 1964. Financial management became a matter of contention between Brower and his board of directors.
Grand Canyon campaign
The Sierra Club's most publicized crusade of the 1960s was the effort to stop the Bureau of Reclamation from building two dams that would flood portions of the Grand Canyon. Opposing the Bridge Canyon and Marble Canyon dam projects, full-page ads the Club placed in the New York Times and the Washington Post in 1966 exclaimed, "This time it's the Grand Canyon they want to flood," and asked, "Should we also flood the Sistine Chapel so tourists can get nearer the ceiling?" The ads generated a storm of protest to the Congress, prompting the Internal Revenue Service to announce it was suspending the Sierra Club's 501(c)(3) status pending an investigation. The board had taken the precaution of setting up the Sierra Club Foundation as a (c)(3) organization in 1960 for endowments and contributions for educational and other non-lobbying activities. Even so, contributions to the Club dropped off, aggravating its annual operating deficits. Membership, however, climbed sharply in response to the investigation into the legitimacy of the society's tax status by the IRS from 30,000 in 1965 to 57,000 in 1967 and 75,000 in 1969.
The victory over the dam projects and challenges from the IRS did not come without costs. To make up for the power that would have been produced by the dams, the Sierra Club actually advocated for coal power plants. The result of the campaign and its trade-off was, in the words of historian Andrew Needham, that "the Grand Canyon became protected, sacred space," while "the Navajo Reservation"—which housed some of the main power plants picking up the slack—"became increasingly industrial."
End of the Brower era
Despite the club's success in blocking plans for the Grand Canyon dams and weathering the transition from 501(c)(3) to 501(c)(4) status, tension grew over finances between Brower and the board of directors. The club's annual deficits rose from $100,000 in 1967 and 1968 to some $200,000 in 1969. Another conflict occurred over the club's policy toward the nuclear power plant to be constructed by Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) at Diablo Canyon near San Luis Obispo, California. Although the club had played the leading role blocking PG&E's nuclear power plant proposed for Bodega Bay, California in the early 1960s, that case had been built around the local environmental impact and earthquake danger from the nearby San Andreas fault, not from opposition to nuclear power itself. In exchange for moving the new proposed site from the environmentally sensitive Nipomo Dunes to Diablo Canyon, the board of directors voted to support PG&E's plan for the power plant. A membership referendum in 1967 upheld the board's decision. But Brower concluded that nuclear power at any location was a mistake, and he voiced his opposition to the plant, contrary to the club's official policy. As pro- and anti-Brower factions polarized, the annual election of new directors reflected the conflict. Brower's supporters won a majority in 1968, but in the April 1969 election the anti-Brower candidates won all five open positions. Ansel Adams and president Richard Leonard, two of his closest friends on the board, led the opposition to Brower, charging him with financial recklessness and insubordination and calling for his ouster as executive director. The board voted ten to five to accept Brower's resignation. Eventually reconciled with the club, Brower was elected to the board of directors for a term from 1983 to 1988, and again from 1995 to 2000. Brower resigned from the board in 2000.
McCloskey years
Michael McCloskey, hired by Brower in 1961 as the club's first northwest field representative, became the club's second executive director in 1969. An administrator attentive to detail, McCloskey had set up the club's conservation department in 1965 and guided the campaigns to save the Grand Canyon and establish Redwoods National Park and North Cascades National Park. During the 1970s, McCloskey led the club's legislative activity—preserving Alaskan lands and eastern wilderness areas, and supporting the new environmental agenda: the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976, the Clean Air Act amendments, and the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977, passed during the administration of President Jimmy Carter. The Sierra Club made its first presidential endorsement in 1984 in support of Walter Mondale's unsuccessful campaign to unseat Ronald Reagan. McCloskey resigned as executive director in 1985 after years (the same length of time Brower had led the organization), and assumed the title of chairman, becoming the club's senior strategist, devoting his time to conservation policy rather than budget planning and administration. After a two-year interlude with Douglas Wheeler, whose Republican credentials were disconcerting to liberal members, the Club hired Michael Fischer, the former head of the California Coastal Commission, who served as executive director from 1987 to 1992. Carl Pope, formerly the club's legislative director, was named executive director in 1992.
Lobbying within the club
In the 1990s, club members Jim Bensman, Roger Clarke, David Dilworth, Chad Hanson and David Orr along with about 2,000 members formed the John Muir Sierrans (JMS), an internal caucus, to promote changes to club positions. They favored a zero-cut forest policy on public lands and, a few years later, decommissioning Glen Canyon Dam. JMS was successful in changing club positions on both counts.
21st century
In 2008, several Sierra Club officers quit in protest after the Sierra Club agreed to promote products by Clorox, which had been named one of a "dangerous dozen" chemical companies by the Public Interest Research Group in 2004. According to Carl Pope, the Sierra Club chairman, the deal brought the club US$1.3 million over the four-year term of the contract. In November 2011, Sierra Club chairman Carl Pope stepped down amid discontent about the Clorox deal and other issues.
Between 2007 and 2010, the Sierra Club accepted over US$25 million in donations from the gas industry, mostly from Aubrey McClendon, CEO of Chesapeake Energy, a large gas drilling company involved in fracking.
In January 2013, executive director Michael Brune announced that the Sierra Club would officially participate in the first civil disobedience action in its 120-year history as part of the ongoing protest calling on the Obama administration to reject the Keystone XL tar sands pipeline, stating, "We are watching a global crisis unfold before our eyes, and to stand aside and let it happen—even though we know how to stop it—would be unconscionable." On 13 February 2013, Brune was arrested along with forty-eight people, including civil rights leader Julian Bond and NASA climate scientist James Hansen.
In May 2015, the Sierra Club appointed its first black president of the board of directors, Aaron Mair.
The Sierra Club endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. It endorsed Joe Biden in the 2020 U.S. presidential election, citing its opposition to Donald Trump's environmental deregulation.
Outdoor programs
Mountaineering
In 1901, William Colby organized the first Sierra Club excursion to Yosemite Valley. The annual High Trips were led by mountaineers such as Francis P. Farquhar, Joseph Nisbet LeConte, Norman Clyde, Walter A. Starr, Jr., Jules Eichorn, Glen Dawson, Ansel Adams, and David R. Brower. A number of first ascents in the Sierra Nevada were made on Sierra Club outings. Sierra Club members were also early enthusiasts of rock climbing. In 1911, the first chapter was formed, Angeles, and it began conducting local excursions in the mountains surrounding Los Angeles and throughout the West. Steve Roper's Fifty Classic Climbs of North America, sponsored and published by the Sierra Club, is still considered one of the definitive rock climbing guidebooks in the United States. The Wilderness Travel Course is a basic mountaineering class that is administered by the Sierra Club.
Due to an increasing focus on political activity and concerns about financial liability, mountaineering activity in the Sierra Club has subsided since the 1980s. Some chapters, mostly in California, continue to maintain large mountaineering programs. The club currently occasionally awards the Francis P. Farquhar Mountaineering Award to outstanding member mountaineers.
Hiking and outings
In World War II, a number of Sierra Club leaders joined the 10th Mountain Division. Among them was David R. Brower, who managed the High Trip program from 1947 to 1954, while serving as a major in the Army Reserve.
In many areas of the country, Sierra Club also organizes hiking tours. Sierra Club's website has a "hiking near me" function. Section "Sierra Club Near You" shows all the upcoming trips in nearby area.
The historic High Trips, sometimes large expeditions with more than a hundred participants and crew, have given way to smaller and more numerous excursions held across the United States and abroad. These outings form a major part of Sierra Club culture, and in some chapters, constitute the majority of member activity. Other chapters, however, may sponsor very few outdoor or recreational activities, being focused solely on political advocacy. Generally, chapters in California are much more active with regard to outdoor activities.
Sierra Club awards
The Sierra Club presents a number of annual awards, such as the Sierra Club John Muir Award", the Ansel Adams Award for Conservation Photography, the Francis P. Farquhar Mountaineering Award, the Edgar Wayburn Award for public officials, the Rachel Carson Award for journalists and writers, the William O. Douglas Award for legal work, and the EarthCare Award for international environmental protection and conservation.
Policy positions
Land management
Land management, access, conservation are traditionally considered the core advocacy areas of the Sierra Club. Uniquely for a progressive organization, the Sierra Club has strong grassroots organization in rural areas, with much activity focused on ensuring equitable and environmentally-friendly use of public lands. This is particularly accentuated by the fact that the club attracts many people who primarily join the club for recreation and use of public land for hiking.
Some Sierra Club members have urged the club to be more forceful in advocating for the protection of National Forests and other federally owned public lands. For example, in 2002 the club was criticized for joining with the Wilderness Society in agreeing to a compromise that would allow logging in the Black Hills in South Dakota.
Opposition to coal
A goal of the Sierra Club is to replace coal with other energy sources. Through its "Beyond Coal" campaign, the Sierra Club has set a goal to close half of all coal plants in the U.S. by 2017. American business magnate and former New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg donated $50 million to the Sierra Club's anti-coal work in 2011, and announced another $30 million gift to Sierra's Beyond Coal campaign in 2015. The Beyond Coal campaign says 187 coal plants have been closed since 2010. Other funders of the Sierra Club's anti-coal campaign include the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation and the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. The CEO of Chesapeake Energy, a natural gas company, donated $26 million to the Beyond Coal campaign between 2007 and 2010.
Opposition to nuclear power
The Sierra Club is "unequivocally opposed" to nuclear power.
Opposition to hydropower and dams
The Sierra Club has lobbied against hydropower projects and large-scale dams. In lobbying against hydropower projects, the Sierra Club has expressed opposition to power lines and said that hydropower projects disrupt animal habitats.
The Sierra Club opposes dams it considers inappropriate, including some government-built dams in national parks. In the early 20th century, the organization fought against the damming and flooding of the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite National Park. Despite this lobbying, Congress authorized the construction of O'Shaughnessy Dam on the Tuolumne River. The Sierra Club continues to support removal of the dam.
The Sierra Club advocates the decommissioning of Glen Canyon Dam and the draining of Lake Powell. The club also supports removal, breaching or decommissioning of many other dams, including four dams on the lower Snake River in eastern Washington.
Mixed views on solar projects
Some chapters of the Sierra Club have lobbied against solar power projects, whereas other chapters have defended solar power projects. The Sierra Club opposed the Battle Born Solar Project, the largest solar project in the U.S., citing its potential impact on desert tortoise habitats.
Alliance with organized labor
The Sierra Club is a member of the BlueGreen Alliance, a coalition of environmental groups and labor unions. The BlueGreen Alliance was formed in 2006 and grew out of a less-formal collaboration between the Sierra Club and the United Steelworkers. In 2012, the Laborers' International Union of North America left the coalition due to the Sierra Club and other environmental groups' opposition to the Keystone Pipeline.
Population and immigration
Immigration was historically among the most divisive issues within the club. In 1996, after years of debate, the Sierra Club adopted a neutral position on immigration levels. As the club has shifted to the left over the years, this position was amended in 2013 to support "an equitable path to citizenship for undocumented immigrants".
History
Although the position of the Sierra Club has generally been favorable towards immigration, some critics of the Sierra Club have charged that the efforts of some club members to restrain immigration, are a continuation of aspects of human population control and the eugenics movement. In 1969, the Sierra Club published Paul R. Ehrlich's book, The Population Bomb, in which he said that population growth was responsible for environmental decline and advocated coercive measures to reduce it. Some observers have argued that the book had a "racial dimension" in the tradition of the Eugenics movement, and that it "reiterated many of Osborn's jeremiads."
During the 1980s, some Sierra Club members, including Paul Ehrlich's wife Anne, wanted to take the Club into the contentious field of immigration to the United States. The club's position was that overpopulation was a significant factor in the degradation of the environment. Accordingly, the Club supported stabilizing and reducing U.S. and world population. Some members argued that, as a practical matter, U.S. population could not be stabilized, let alone reduced, at the then-current levels of immigration. They urged the club to support immigration reduction. The club had previously addressed the issue of "mass immigration", and in 1988, the organization's Population Committee and Conservation Coordinating Committee stated that immigration to the U.S. should be limited, so as to achieve population stabilization.
Other Sierra Club members thought that the immigration issue was too far from the club's core environmentalist mission, and were also concerned that involvement would impair the organization's political ability to pursue its other objectives. In the mid 1990s, the club began gradually stepping away from the immigration restrictionist position, culminating with the board adopting a neutral position on immigration policy in 1996. In 1998, 60.1% of Sierra Club voting members voted that the organization should remain neutral on America's immigration policies, while 39.2% supported a measure calling for stricter curbs on immigration to the United States.
After the 1996 board policy adoption, some members who were advocates of immigration reduction organized themselves as "SUSPS", a name originally derived from "Sierrans for U.S. Population Stabilization", which now stands for "Support U.S. Population Stabilization." SUSPS advocates a return to the Sierra Club's "traditional" (1970–1996) immigration policy stance. SUSPS has called for fully closing the borders of the United States, and for returning to immigration levels established by the Immigration Act of 1924, which includes strict ethnic quotas. David Brower also cited the club's position shift on immigration as one of the reasons for his resignation from the board in 2000. Supporters of immigration reduction within the club also charged that the board had abandoned the restrictionist position on immigration due to donations from investor David Gelbaum, who reportedly gave $200 million to the club between the mid 1990s and early 2000s and threatened Carl Pope in the mid 1990s to cease donations if they did not change their position on immigration adopted in 1988.
The controversy resurfaced when a group of three immigration reduction proponents ran in the 2004 Sierra Club Board of Directors election, hoping to move the club's position away from a neutral stance on immigration, and to restore the stance previously held. Groups outside of the Club became involved, such as the Southern Poverty Law Center and MoveOn. Of the three candidates, two (Frank Morris and David Pimentel), were on the board of the anti-immigration group Diversity Alliance for a Sustainable America and two (Richard Lamm and Frank Morris) were on the board of directors or the board of advisors of the Federation for American Immigration Reform; both had also held leadership positions within the NAACP. Their candidacies were denounced by a fourth candidate, Morris Dees of the SPLC, as a "hostile takeover" attempt by "radical anti-immigrant activists." The immigration reduction proponents won 7% of all votes cast in the election. In 2005, members voted 102,455 to 19,898 against a proposed change to "recognize the need to adopt lower limits on migration to the United States."
With the increased number of progressive activists joining the club in recent years, the Sierra Club has dramatically shifted its stance on immigration further towards the affirmative. Today, the Sierra Club supports a path to citizenship for undocumented immigrants, opposes a border wall and works with immigrant groups to promote environmental justice.
Controversy over housing stance
The Sierra Club has come under criticism for opposing high-density housing development projects in California, which are intended to reduce the state's housing shortage and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Ethan Elkind, director of the climate program at the Center for Law, Energy and the Environment (CLEE) at UC Berkeley Law, said that the Sierra Club's opposition to California Senate Bill 827 - which would require cities to allow denser and taller housing near public transport centers and ease the parking requirements that cities can impose on housing developments - was "surprising." He wrote, "is Sierra Club an organization of wealthy homeowners who want to keep newcomers out of their upscale, transit-rich areas? Or are they actually committed to fighting climate change by providing enough housing for Californians in low-carbon, infill areas? Because their opposition to SB 827 unfortunately indicates more of the former than the latter."
Affiliates and subsidiaries
The Sierra Club Foundation was founded in 1960 by David R. Brower. A 501(c)(3) organization, it was founded after the Internal Revenue Service revoked the Sierra Club's tax-exempt status due to the group's political activities. The Sierra Club added its first Canadian chapter in 1963 and in 1989 opened a national office in Ottawa. Canadian affiliates of the Sierra Club operate under the Sierra Club Canada.
In 1971, volunteer lawyers who had worked with the Sierra Club established the Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund. This was a separate organization that used the "Sierra Club" name under license from the club; it changed its name to Earthjustice in 1997. The Sierra Student Coalition (SSC) is the student-run arm of the Sierra Club. Founded by Adam Werbach in 1991, it has 30,000 members. The Summer Program (SPROG) is a one-week leadership training program that teaches tools for environmental and social justice activism to young people across the country.
The organization maintains a publishing imprint, Sierra Club Books. They also publish the John Muir library, which includes many of their founder's titles.
The Sierra Club Voter Education Fund is a 527 group that became active in the 2004 Presidential election by airing television advertisements about the major party candidates' positions on environmental issues. Through the Environmental Voter Education Campaign (EVEC), the Club sought to mobilize volunteers for phone banking, door-to-door canvassing and postcard writing to emphasize these issues in the campaign.
Budget and funding
The Sierra Club's annual budget was $88 million in 2011 and $100 million in 2012. In 2013, the group's budget was $97.8 million.
In 2008, Clorox donated $1.3 million to the Sierra Club in exchange for the right to display the Sierra Club's logo on a line of cleaning products.
In February 2012, it was reported that the Sierra Club had secretly accepted over $26 million in gifts from the natural gas industry, mostly from Aubrey McClendon, CEO of Chesapeake Energy. The Sierra Club used the Chesapeake Energy money for its Beyond Coal campaign to block new coal-fired power plants and close old ones. Michael Brune reported that he learned of the gifts after he succeeded Carl Pope as executive director of the Sierra Club in 2010. Brune reported that he ended the financial agreement with natural gas industry interests.
In 2014, the Energy and Environment Legal Institute filed a referral with the Internal Revenue Service pointing out that Sierra Club and Sierra Club Foundation were not paying income taxes from sales of solar panels for their partners across the US.
The Sierra Club has an affiliated super PAC. It spent $1,000,575 on the 2014 elections, all of it opposing Republican candidates for office. The Sierra Club is a partner of America Votes, an organization that coordinates and promotes progressive issues.
Donors to the Sierra Club have included David Gelbaum, Michael Bloomberg, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation and the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. The Sierra Club has also received funding from the Democracy Alliance and the Tides Foundation Advocacy Fund.
In 2015, a PR front group, known as the Environmental Policy Alliance, claimed that the Sierra Club and other U.S. environmental groups received funding from groups with ties to Russia's state-owned oil company.
Leadership
Presidents
Presidents of the Sierra Club have included:
1892–1914 John Muir
1915–1917 Joseph N. LeConte
1919–1922 William F. Badè
1922–1924 Clair S. Tappaan
1925–1927 Walter L. Huber
1927–1928 Aurelia Harwood
1928–1931 Duncan McDuffie
1931–1933 Phil S. Bernays
1933–1935 Francis P. Farquhar
1936–1937 Ernest Dawson
1937–1940 Joel H. Hildebrand
1940–1941 Francis D. Tappaan
1941–1943 Walter A. Starr
1943–1946 Duncan McDuffie
1946–1948 Bestor Robinson
1948–1949 Francis P. Farquhar
1949–1951 Lewis F. Clark
1951–1953 Harold E. Crowe
1953–1955 Richard M. Leonard
1955–1957 Alexander Hildebrand
1957–1959 Harold C. Bradley
1959–1961 Nathan C. Clark
1961–1964 Edgar Wayburn
1964–1966 William E. Siri
1966–1967 George Marshall
1967–1969 Edgar Wayburn
1969–1971 Phillip S. Berry
1971–1973 Raymond Sherwin
1973–1974 Laurence I. Moss
1974–1976 Kent Gill
1976–1977 Brant Calkin
1977–1978 William Futrell
1978–1980 Theodore Snyder
1980–1982 Joseph Fontaine
1982–1984 Denny Shaffer
1984–1986 Michele Perrault
1986–1988 Lawrence (Larry) Downing
1988–1990 Richard Cellars
1990–1991 Susan Merrow
1991–1992 Phillip Berry
1993–1994 Michele Perrault
1994–1996 Robbie Cox
1996–1998 Adam Werbach
1998–2000 Chuck McGrady
2000–2001 Robbie Cox
2001–2003 Jennifer Ferenstein
2003–2005 Larry Fahn
2005–2007 Lisa Renstrom
2007–2008 Robbie Cox
2008–2010 Allison Chin
2010–2012 Robin Mann
2012–2013 Allison Chin
2013–2015 Dave Scott
2015–2017 Aaron Mair
2017–2020 Loren Blackford
2020– Ramón Cruz
Executive directors
The Sierra Club's executive directors have included:
1952–1969 David R. Brower
1969–1985 J. Michael McCloskey
1985–1986 Douglas Wheeler
1987–1992 Michael L. Fischer
1992–2010 Carl Pope
2010– Michael Brune
Directors
Ansel Adams, 1934–1971
David Brower, 1941–1953; 1983–1988; 1995–2000
William Edward Colby
Leland Curtis 1943–1946
George Davidson 1894–1910
Glen Dawson
Michael Dorsey 1997–2003; 2009–2010; 2014–2017
Jim Dougherty
William O. Douglas
Veronica Eady, 1998–1999
Anne H. Ehrlich
Jules Eichorn
Jennifer Ferenstein, 2001–2003
Dave Foreman
Lisa Force, 2003–2006
Betsy Gaines, 1997–2000
Marcia Hanscom, 2002–2005
Chad Hanson, 1997–2003, 2018–
David Starr Jordan
Doug La Follette, 2003–2006
Joseph LeConte, 1892–1898
Richard M. Leonard
Vivian Li
Martin Litton, 1964–1973
Norman Livermore
Alexander George McAdie
Duncan McDuffie
Maryann Nelson
Charlie Ogle, 1999–2002
Eliot Porter
Bestor Robinson
Richard C. Sill
William E. Siri
Wallace Stegner
René Voss, 1999–2002
Adam Werbach
Paul Watson, 2003–2006
Bernie Zaleha, 2003–2009
Ben Zuckerman, 2002–2005
Criticism
In late 2020, Representative Liz Cheney of Wyoming asked the Justice Department (DOJ) to investigate environmental groups such as the Sierra Club, saying that "robust political and judicial activism—combined with the fact that these groups often espouse views that align with those of our adversaries—makes it all the more critical that the Department is aware of any potential foreign influence within or targeting these groups."
Border wall
The Sierra Club has been criticized by anti-immigration groups such as the Center for Immigration Studies and the Federation for American Immigration Reform for opposing Trump's plan of creating a wall on the United States' southern border. These groups claim that the Sierra Club has criticized the plan for purely partisan reasons and not actually due to any environmental concerns.
See also
Biodiversity
Conservation movement
Conservation ethic
Earth Science
Ecology
Ecosystem
Environmental education
Environmental movement
Grassroots Campaigns, Inc.
Habitat conservation
List of environmental organizations
List of recreational organizations
Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency
Nature
Recycling
Sierra Club v. Morton
Sustainability
Timeline of environmental events
References
Further reading
David Brower, For Earth's Sake: The Life and Times of David Brower (Salt Lake City: Peregrine Smith Books, 1990)
Michael McCloskey, In the Thick of It: My Life in the Sierra Club (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2005)
Tom Turner, Sierra Club: 100 Years of Protecting Nature (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1991)
Holt-Atherton Special Collections John Muir Papers
External links
Sierra Club's Addup.org
The Sierra Club Foundation
Join the Sierra Club
Guide to the Sierra Club Members Papers at The Bancroft Library
Finding Aid to Sierra Club Southwest Office records, 1900–2000, The Bancroft Library
Finding Aid to the Sierra Club Board of Directors meeting minutes, 1892–1995, The Bancroft Library
Holt-Atherton Special Collections: John Muir Papers
Nature conservation organizations based in the United States
Environmental organizations based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Anti-nuclear organizations based in the United States
Anti–nuclear power movement
Climate change organizations based in the United States
Climbing organizations
Clubs and societies in California
Hiking organizations in the United States
History of California
John Muir
Water resource policy
Non-profit organizations based in California
527 organizations
Organizations based in San Francisco
Environmental organizations established in 1892
Sports organizations established in 1892
1892 establishments in California
Proponents of solar energy | [
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242099 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Berlin | History of Berlin | The history of Berlin starts with its foundation in the 13th century. It became the capital of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1417, and later of Brandenburg-Prussia, and the Kingdom of Prussia. Prussia grew about rapidly in the 18th and 19th centuries, and formed the basis of the German Empire in 1871, which survived until 1918, after the empire's defeat in World War I.
After 1900 Berlin became a major world city, known for its leadership roles in science, the humanities, music, museums, higher education, government, diplomacy and military affairs. It also had a role in manufacturing and finance.
During World War II, bombing, artillery, and ferocious street-by-street fighting destroyed large parts of Berlin. Troops would also hide in buildings. Berlin was divided among the four major Allied powers. For over four decades, it encapsulated the Cold War confrontation between West and East. With the reunification of Germany in 1990, Berlin was restored as a capital and as a major world city.
Etymology
The origin of the name Berlin is uncertain. It may have roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of today's Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl- ("swamp"). Folk etymology connects the name to the German word for bear, Bär. A bear also appears in the coat of arms of the city.
Prehistory
The oldest human traces, mainly arrowheads, in the area of later Berlin are dating to the 9th millennium BC. During Neolithic times a large number of villages existed in the area. During the Bronze Age it belonged to the Lusatian culture. For the time around 500 BC the presence of Germanic tribes can be evidenced for the first time in form of a number of villages in the higher situated areas of today's Berlin. After the Semnones left around 200 AD, the Burgundians followed. A large part of the Germanic tribes left the region around 500 AD.
In the 7th century Slavic tribes, the later known Hevelli and Sprevane, reached the region. Today their traces can mainly be found at plateaus or next to waters. Their main settlements were today's Spandau and Köpenick. No Slavic traces could be found in the city center of Berlin.
Emerging city (1100 – 1400)
In the 12th century the region came under German rule as part of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, founded by Albert the Bear in 1157. At the end of the 12th century German merchants founded the first settlements in today's city center, called Berlin around modern Nikolaiviertel and Cölln, on the island in the Spree now known as the Spreeinsel or Museum Island. It is not clear which settlement is older and when they got German town rights. Berlin is mentioned as a town for the first time in 1251 and Cölln in 1261.
The year 1237 was later taken as the year of founding. Afterwards the two settlements merged into the town of Berlin-Cölln; they formally merged in 1432. Albert the Bear also bequeathed to Berlin the emblem of the bear, which has appeared on its coat of arms ever since. By the year 1400 Berlin and Cölln had 8,000 inhabitants. A great town center fire in 1380 damaged most written records of those early years, as did the great devastation of the Thirty Years War 1618–1648.
Margraviate of Brandenburg (1400 – 1700)
In 1415, Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. Subsequent members of the Hohenzollern family ruled until 1918 in Berlin, first as electors of Brandenburg, then as kings of Prussia, and finally as German emperors. When Berlin became the residence of the Hohenzollerns, it had to give up its Hanseatic League free city status. Its main economical activity changed from trade to the production of luxurious goods for the court.
1443 to 1451: The first Berliner Stadtschloss was built on the embankment of the river Spree.
At that time Berlin-Cölln had about 8,000 inhabitants. Population figures rose fast, leading to poverty.
1448: The inhabitants of Berlin rebelled in the "Berlin Indignation" against the construction of a new royal palace by Elector Frederick II Irontooth. This protest was not successful, however, and the citizenry lost many of its political and economic privileges.
1451: Berlin became the royal residence of the Brandenburg electors, and Berlin had to give up its status as a free Hanseatic city.
In 1510: 100 Jews were accused of stealing and desecrating hosts. 38 of them were burned to death; others were banished, losing their possessions, only to be returned by later margraves.
1530: The Tiergarten park began when Elector Joachim I donated the property for use as a royal game preserve; it was opened to the public in the mid-17th century; it ceased being a hunting park in 1740 when the job of redesigning it in the English landscape style began.
1539: The electors and Berlin officially became Lutheran.
1540: Joachim II introduced the Protestant Reformation in Brandenburg and secularized church possessions. He used the money to pay for his projects, like building an avenue, the Kurfürstendamm, between his hunting castle Grunewald and his palace, the Berliner Stadtschloss.
1576, Bubonic plague killed about 6,000 people in the city.
Around 1600: Berlin-Cölln had 12,000 inhabitants.
1618 to 1648: The Thirty Years' War had devastating consequences for Berlin. A third of the houses were damaged, and the city lost half of its population.
1640: Frederick William, known as the “Great Elector”, succeeded his father George William as Elector of Brandenburg. Later he initiated a policy of promoting immigration and religious toleration. Over the following decades, Berlin expanded greatly in area and population with the founding of the new suburbs of Friedrichswerder and Dorotheenstadt. During his government Berlin reached 20,000 inhabitants and became significant among the cities in Central Europe for the first time. He also developed a standing army
1647: The boulevard Unter den Linden with six rows of trees was laid down between the Tiergarten park and the Palace.
1671: Fifty Jewish families from Austria were given a home in Berlin. With the Edict of Potsdam in 1685, Frederick William invited the French Calvinist Huguenots to Brandenburg. More than 15,000 Huguenots came, of whom 6,000 settled in Berlin. By 1687 they comprise 20% of the population, and many were bankers, industrialists and investors.
1674 and after: The Dorotheenstadt was built in a bow of the river Spree, north-west of the Spreeinsel (Spree Island), where the Palace was situated.
1688 and after: The Friedrichstadt was built and settled.
Around 1700: Many refugees from Bohemia, Poland, and Salzburg had arrived.
Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1871)
In 1701, Elector Frederick III (1688–1701) crowned himself as Frederick I (1701–1713), King in Prussia. He was mostly interested in decorum: he ordered the building of the castle Charlottenburg in the west of the city. He made Berlin the capital of the new kingdom of Prussia.
1709: Berlin counted 55,000 inhabitants, of whom 5,000 served in the Prussian Army. Cölln and Berlin were finally unified under the name of Berlin, including the suburbs of Friedrichswerder, Dorotheenstadt, and Friedrichstadt, with 60,000 inhabitants. Berlin and Cölln are on both sides of the river Spree, in today's Mitte borough.
On 1 January 1710, the cities of Berlin, Cölln, Friedrichswerder, Dorotheenstadt, and Friedrichstadt were united as the “Royal Capital and Residence of Berlin”.
Prussian capital
As Prussia grew, so too did Berlin, and the Kings made it the centerpiece of culture and the arts, as well as the Army. Under King Friedrich Wilhelm I (reigned 1713–40), Berlin's growth was encouraged by his determination to build a great military power. More men were needed, so he promoted immigration of Protestants from across Germany as well as France and Switzerland. He introduced universal primary education so that his soldiers could read and write. In 1720 he built the city's first major hospital and medical school, the Charité, now the largest teaching hospital in Europe. The city was now mainly a garrison and an armoury, for the crown heavily subsidised arms manufacturers in the capital, laying the foundations for the mechanics, engineers, technicians, and entrepreneurs who were to turn Berlin into an industrial powerhouse. The old defensive walls and moats were now useless, so they were turned down. A new customs wall (the Zoll- und Akzisemauer) was built further out, punctuated by 14 ornate gates. Inside the gates were parade grounds for Friedrich Wilhelm's soldiers: the Karree at the Brandenburg gate (now Pariserplatz), the Oktagon at the Potsdam gate (now Leipzigerplatz), the Wilhelmplatz on Wilhelmstrasse (abolished in the 1980s) and several others.
In 1740, Frederick the Great (Frederick II) began his 46-year reign. He was an enlightened monarch, who patronized Enlightenment thinkers like Moses Mendelssohn. By 1755 the population reached 100,000, including 26,000 soldiers.
Stagnation followed under the rule of Frederick William II, 1786-97 He had no use for the Enlightenment, but did develop innovative techniques of censorship and repression of political enemies.
1806: French troops marched into Berlin. Berlin was granted self-government and a far reaching military reform was started.
1809: The first elections for the Berlin parliament took place, in which only the well-to-do could vote.
1810: The Berlin University (now the Humboldt University) was founded. Its first rector was the philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte.
1812: Jews were allowed to practice all occupations.
1814: The French were defeated in the Sixth Coalition. Economically the city was in good shape. The population grew from 200,000 to 400,000 in the first half of the 19th century, making Berlin the fourth-largest city in Europe.
1815: Battle of Waterloo with Prussian troops from Potsdam and Berlin participating. Berlin becomes part of the Province of Brandenburg.
1827: Berlin is the capital of the Province of Brandenburg from 1827 to 1843.
1848: As in other European cities, 1848 was a revolutionary year in Berlin. Frederick William IV (1840–1861) managed to suppress the revolution. One of his reactions was to raise the income condition to partake in the elections, with the result that only 5% of the citizens could vote. This system would stay in place until 1918.
1861: German Emperor Wilhelm I (1861–1888) became the new king. In the beginning of his reign there was hope for liberalization. He appointed liberal ministers and built the city hall, Das Rote Rathaus. The appointment of Otto von Bismarck ended these hopes.
Economic growth
Prussian mercantilist policies supported manufacturing enterprises and Berlin had numerous small workshops. Lacking waterpower, Berlin entrepreneurs were early pioneers in the use of steam engines after 1815. Textiles, clothing, farm equipment, railway gear, chemicals and machinery were especially important; electrical machinery became important after 1880.
Berlin's central position after 1850 in the fast-growing German railway network facilitated the supply of raw materials and distribution of manufactures. As the administrative role of the Prussian state grew, so did the highly efficient, well-trained civil service. The bureaucracy and military expanded even faster when Berlin became the capital of unified Germany in 1871. the population grew rapidly, from 172,000 in 1800, to 826,000 in 1870. In 1861, outlying industrial suburbs such as Wedding, Moabit, and several others were incorporated into the city.
Religion
By 1900 about 85% of the people were classified as Protestants, 10% as Roman Catholics and 5% as Jews. Berlin's middle and upper classes were generally devout Protestants. The working classes increasingly became secularized. When workers moved to Berlin the Protestants among them largely abandoned the religious practices of their old villages. The labor unions promoted anticlericalism, and denounced the Protestant churches as aloof from the needs of the working class. However, the Catholic workers remained somewhat closer to their traditional churches, which featured liturgies that were more appealing to workers than wordy intellectual sermons at the Protestant churches. Adult attendance at Sunday church services in the early 20th century was 6% in Berlin, compared to 22% in London and 37% in New York.
Berlin Romanticism
The phase of German Romanticism after Jena Romanticism is often called Berlin Romanticism (see also Heidelberg Romanticism). Notable representatives of the movement include Friedrich Schleiermacher, Wilhelm von Humboldt and Alexander von Humboldt.
German Empire (1871–1918)
Imperial capital
After the quick victory of an alliance of German states over France in the 1870 war, the German Empire was established in 1871. Bismarck had fought and succeeded in leaving out Austria, Prussia's long standing competitor, and Prussia became the largest and by far most influential state in the new German Empire, and in turn Germany became the most powerful nation in Europe. Wilhelm I became emperor ("Kaiser"). Bismarck became Chancellor and made Berlin the center of European power politics. The imperial government and the military establishment expanded dramatically, bringing together the landed junker nobility, the rich bankers and industrialists, and the most talented scientists and scholars. In 1884 came the parliament building, the Reichstag. Municipal government was handled in two parts. The ministry of police reported to the Prussian government and took control of crime, markets, and fire fighting. The civil government had a mayor appointed by the city council. It comprised 144 members elected in 48 wards by universal manhood suffrage. It handled the water supply and sanitation, streets, hospitals and charitable operations and schools.
In 1870, the sanitary conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. August Bebel recalled conditions before a modern sewer system was built in the late 1870s:
"Waste-water from the houses collected in the gutters running alongside the curbs and emitted a truly fearsome smell. There were no public toilets in the streets or squares. Visitors, especially women, often became desperate when nature called. In the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelievably primitive....As a metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into civilization until after 1870."
The primitive conditions were intolerable for a world national capital, and the Imperial government brought in its scientists, engineers and urban planners to not only solve the deficiencies but to forge the world's model city. A British expert in 1906 concluded that Berlin represented "the most complete application of science, order and method of public life," adding "it is a marvel of civic administration, the most modern and most perfectly organized city that there is."
In the meantime, Berlin had become an industrial city with 800,000 inhabitants. Improvements to the infrastructure were needed; in 1896 the construction of the subway (U-Bahn) began and was completed in 1902. The neighborhoods around the city center (including Kreuzberg, Prenzlauer Berg, Friedrichshain and Wedding) were filled with tenement blocks. The surroundings saw extensive development of industrial areas East of Berlin and wealthy residential areas in the South-West.
In terms of high culture, museums were being built and enlarged, and Berlin was on the verge of becoming a major musical city. Berlin dominated the German theater scene, with the government-supported Opernhaus and Schauspielhaus, as well as numerous private playhouses included the Lessing and the Deutsches theatres. They featured the modern plays of Ernst von Wildenbruch, Hermann Sudermann, and Gerhart Hauptmann. who managed to work around the puritanical censorship imposed by the Berlin police.
Labour unions
Berlin, with its large numbers of industrial workers by 1871 became the headquarters for most of the national labor organizations, and the favorite meeting place for labor intellectuals. Inside the city, the unions had a turbulent history. The conservative aftermath of the Revolution of 1848 drained their strength, and internal bickering was characteristic of the 1850s and 1860s. Many locals were under the control of reformist, bourgeois leaders who competed with each other and had a negative view of Marxism and socialist internationalist. They concentrated on wages, hours and control the workplace, and gave little support to nationalist organizations such as the Allgemeine Deutsche Arbeiterverein (ADAV) founded in 1863. By the 1870s, however, the Lassallean ADAV finally gained strength; it joined together with the Social Democratic Worker's Party (SDAP) in 1874. Henceforth the city's labor movement supported radical socialism and gained preeminence within the German labor movement. Germany had universal manhood suffrage after 1871, but the government was controlled by hostile forces, and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck tried to undermine or destroy the union movement.
First World War
The "spirit of 1914" was the overwhelming, enthusiastic support of all elements of the population for war in 1914. In the Reichstag, the vote for credits was unanimous, with all the Socialists joining in. One professor testified to a "great single feeling of moral elevation of soaring of religious sentiment, in short, the ascent of a whole people to the heights." At the same time, there was a level of anxiety; most commentators predicted the short victorious war – but that hope was dashed in a matter of weeks, as the invasion of Belgium bogged down and the French Army held in front of Paris. The Western Front became a killing machine, as neither army moved more than a ten thousand yards at a time. There had been no preparations before the war, and no stockpiles of essential goods. Industry was in chaos, unemployment soared while it took months to reconvert to munitions productions. In 1916, the Hindenburg Program called for the mobilization of all economic resources to produce artillery, shells, and machine guns. Church bells and copper roofs were ripped out and melted down.
Conditions on the homefront worsened month by month, for the British blockade of Germany cut off supplies of essential raw materials and foodstuffs, while the conscription of so many farmers (and horses) reduced the food supply. Likewise, the drafting of miners reduced the main energy source, coal. The textile factories produced Army uniforms, and warm clothing for civilians ran short. The device of using replacement materials, such as paper and cardboard for cloth and leather proved unsatisfactory. Soap was in short supply, as was hot water.
Morale of both civilians and soldiers continued to sink but using the slogan of "sharing scarcity" the Berlin bureaucracy ran an efficient rationing system nevertheless. The food supply increasingly focused on potatoes and bread as it was harder and harder to buy meat. Rationing was installed, and soup kitchens were opened. The meat ration in late 1916 was only 31% of peacetime, and it fell to 12% in late 1918. The fish ration was 51% in 1916, and none at all by late 1917. The rations for cheese, butter, rice, cereals, eggs and lard were less than 20% of peacetime levels. In 1917 the harvest was poor, and the potato supply ran short, and Germans substituted almost inedible turnips; the "turnip winter" of 1917-18 was remembered with bitter distaste for generations.<ref>Chickering, Imperial Germany pp 140-145</ref>
German women were not employed in the Army, but large numbers took paid employment in industry and factories, and even larger numbers engaged in volunteer services. Housewives were taught how to cook without milk, eggs or fat; agencies helped widows find work. Banks, insurance companies and government offices for the first time hired women for clerical positions. Factories hired them for unskilled labor – by December 1917, half the workers in chemicals, metals, and machine tools were women. Laws protecting women in the workplace were relaxed, and factories set up canteens to provide food for their workers, lest their productivity fall off. The food situation in 1918 was better, because the harvest was better, but serious shortages continued, with high prices, and a complete lack of condiments and fresh fruit. Many migrants had flocked into Berlin to work in industry and the government ministries, which made for overcrowded housing. Reduced coal supplies left everyone in the cold. Daily life involved long working hours, poor health, and little or no recreation, as well as increasing anxiety for the safety of loved ones in the Army and in prisoner of war camps. The men who returned from the front were those who had been permanently crippled; wounded soldiers who recovered were sent back to the trenches.
Weimar Republic (1918–1933)
At the end of World War I, monarchy and aristocracy were overthrown and Germany became a republic, known as the Weimar Republic. Berlin remained the capital but faced a series of threats from the far left and far right.
In late 1918 politicians inspired by the Communist Revolution in Russia founded the Communist Party of Germany (Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands, KPD). In January 1919 it tried to seize power in the Spartacist revolt). The coup failed and at the end of the month right-wing Freikorps forces killed the Communist leaders Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht.
In March 1920 Wolfgang Kapp, founder of the right-wing German Fatherland Party (Deutsche Vaterlands-Partei), tried to bring down the government. The Berlin garrison chose his side, and the government buildings were occupied (the government had already left Berlin). A general strike stopped the putsch being successful.
On October 1, 1920: The Greater Berlin Act created "Greater Berlin" (Groß-Berlin) by incorporating several neighboring towns and villages like Charlottenburg, Köpenick or Spandau from the Province of Brandenburg into the city; Berlin's population doubled overnight from about 2 to nearly 4 million inhabitants.
In 1922: The foreign minister Walther Rathenau was murdered in Berlin, and half a million people attended his funeral.
The economic situation was bad. Germany owed reparation money after the Treaty of Versailles. The sums were reduced and paid using loans from New York banks. In response to French occupation, the government reacted by printing so much money that inflation was enormous. Especially pensioners lost their savings; everyone else lost their debts. At the worst point of the inflation, one dollar was worth about 4.2 trillion marks. From 1924 onwards the situation became better because of newly arranged agreements with the allied forces, American help, and a sounder fiscal policy. The heyday of Berlin began. It became the largest industrial city on the continent. People like the architect Walter Gropius, physicist Albert Einstein, painter George Grosz and writers Arnold Zweig, Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Tucholsky made Berlin one of the major cultural centers of Europe. Brecht spent his last years in the Weimar-era Berlin (1930–1933) working with his ‘collective’ on the Lehrstücke. Nightlife bloomed in 1920s Berlin.
In 1922, the railway system, that connected Berlin to its neighboring cities and villages was electrified and transformed into the S-Bahn, and a year later Tempelhof airport was opened. Berlin was the second biggest inland harbor in the country. All this infrastructure was needed to transport and feed the over 4 million Berliners.
Before the 1929 crash, 450,000 people were unemployed. In the same year, the Nazi Party won its first seats in the city parliament. Nazi Propaganda chief Joseph Goebbels became Gauleiter (party district leader) of Berlin in 1926. On July 20, 1932, the Prussian government under Otto Braun in Berlin was dismissed by presidential decree. The republic was nearing its breakdown, under attack by extreme forces from the right and the left. On January 30, 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany.
Nazi Germany (1933–1945)
By 1931, the Great Depression had severely damaged the city's economy. Politics were in chaos, as militias controlled by the Nazis and the Communists fought for control of the streets. President Hindenburg appointed Hitler chancellor in January 1933, and the Nazis quickly moved to take complete control of the entire nation. On February 27, 1933, a left-wing radical was alleged to have set afire the Reichstag building (a fire which was later believed to have been set by the Nazis themselves); the fire gave Hitler the opportunity to set aside the constitution. Tens of thousands of political opponents fled into exile or were imprisoned. All civic organizations, except the churches, came under Nazi control.
Around 1933, some 160,000 Jews were living in Berlin: one third of all German Jews, 4% of the Berlin population. A third of them were poor immigrants from Eastern Europe, who lived mainly in the Scheunenviertel near Alexanderplatz. The Jews were persecuted from the beginning of the Nazi regime. In March, all Jewish doctors had to leave the Charité hospital. In the first week of April, Nazi officials ordered the German population not to buy from Jewish shops.
The 1936 Summer Olympics were held in Berlin and used as a showcase for Nazi Germany (though the Games had been given to Germany before 1933). In order to not alienate the foreign visitors, the "forbidden for Jews" signs were temporarily removed.
Nazi rule destroyed Berlin's Jewish community, which numbered 160,000 before the Nazis came to power. After the pogrom of Kristallnacht in 1938, thousands of the city's Jews were imprisoned. Around 1939, there were still 75,000 Jews living in Berlin. The majority of German Jews in Berlin were taken to the Grunewald railway station in early 1943 and shipped in stock cars to death camps such as the Auschwitz, where most were murdered in the Holocaust. Only some 1200 Jews survived in Berlin by hiding. Approximately 800 Jews survived in Berlin's Jewish Hospital. Causes for their survival include bureaucratic infighting, hospital director Dr. Walter Lustig's relationship with Adolf Eichmann, the Nazis' bizarre system for classifying persons of partly Jewish ancestry, German leader Adolf Hitler's ambivalence about how to handle Jews of German descent, and the fact that the Nazis needed a place to treat Jews.
Thirty kilometers () northwest of Berlin, near Oranienburg, was Sachsenhausen concentration camp, where mainly political opponents and Russian prisoners of war were incarcerated. Tens of thousands died there. Sachsenhausen had subcamps near industries, where the prisoners had to work. Many of these camps were in Berlin.
Nazi plans
In the late 1930s Hitler and his architect Albert Speer made plans for the new Berlin—a world city or Welthauptstadt Germania. All the projects were to be of gigantic size. Adjacent to the Reichstag, Speer planned to construct the Volkshalle (The People's Hall), 250 m high, with an enormous copper dome. It would be large enough to hold 170,000 people. From the People's Hall, a southbound avenue was planned, the Avenue of Victory, 23 m wide and long. At the other end there would have been the new railway station, and next to it Tempelhof Airport. Halfway down the avenue there would have been a huge arch 117 m high, commemorating those fallen during the world wars. With the completion of these projects (planned for 1950), Berlin was to be renamed "Germania."
The war postponed all construction, as the city instead built giant concrete towers as bases for anti-aircraft guns. Today only a few structures remain from the Nazi era, such as the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (National Ministry of Aviation), Tempelhof International Airport, and Olympiastadion. Hitler's Reich Chancellery was demolished by Soviet occupation authorities.
Second World War
Initially Berlin was at the extreme range of British bombers and attacks had to be made in clear skies during summer, increasing the risk to the attackers. Better bombers came into service in 1942 but most of the British bombing effort that year was spent in support of the Battle of the Atlantic against German submarines.
1940: A token British air-raid on Berlin; Hitler responds by ordering the Blitz on London.
1943: Polish resistance group Zagra-Lin successfully carries out a series of small bomb attacks.
1943: The USAAF strategic bombing force began operations against Berlin. The RAF focused their strategic bombing efforts on Berlin in their "Battle of Berlin" from November. It was halted at the end of March 1944, after 16 mass bombing raids on the capital, due to unacceptable losses of aircraft and crew. By that point about half a million had been made homeless but morale and production was unaffected. About a quarter of the city's population was evacuated. Raids on major German cities grew in scope and raids of over 1,000 4-engined bombers were not uncommon by 1944. (On March 18, 1945 alone, for example, 1,250 American bombers attacked the city).
1944: USAAF bombing switched to forcing encounters with the German air force so that it could be defeated by the bombers' fighter escorts. Attacks on Berlin ensured a response from the Luftwaffe, drawing it into a battle where their losses could not be replaced at the same rate as the Allies. RAF focus switched to preparations for the invasion of France but Berlin was still subjected to regular nuisance and diversionary raids by the RAF.
March 1945: The RAF begins 36 consecutive nights of bombing by its fast de Havilland Mosquito medium bombers (from around 40 to 80 each night). British bombers dropped 46,000 tons of bombs; the Americans dropped 23,000 tons. By May 1945, 1.7 million people (40%) had fled.
April 1945: Berlin was the main objective for Allied armies. The Race to Berlin refers to the competition of Allied generals during the final months of World War II to enter Berlin first. U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower halted Anglo-American troops on the Elbe River, primarily because the Soviets made their capture of the city a high national priority in terms of prestige and revenge. The Red Army converged on Berlin with several Fronts (Army Groups). Hitler remained in supreme command and imagined that rescue armies were on the way; he refused to consider surrender.
The Battle of Berlin itself has been well chronicled.
April 30, 1945: Hitler committed suicide in the Führerbunker underneath the Reich Chancellery. Resistance continued, though most of the city was in Soviet hands by that point.
May 2, 1945: Berlin finally capitulated.
Hundreds of thousands of women were subjected to rape by Soviet soldiers.
Destruction of buildings and infrastructure was nearly total in parts of the inner city business and residential sectors. The outlying sections suffered relatively little damage. This averages to one fifth of all buildings, and 50% in the inner city.
West and East Germany (1945–1990)
By war's end up to a third of Berlin had been destroyed by concerted Allied air raids, Soviet artillery, and street fighting. The so-called Stunde Null—zero hour—marked a new beginning for the city. Greater Berlin was divided into four sectors by the Allies under the London Protocol of 1944, as follows:
the American sector (210.8 km2), consisting of the boroughs of Neukölln, Kreuzberg, Tempelhof, Schöneberg, Steglitz, and Zehlendorf; (see: commandants of Berlin American Sector)
the British sector (165.5 km2), consisting of the boroughs of Tiergarten, Charlottenburg, Wilmersdorf, and Spandau; (see: commandants of Berlin British Sector)
the French sector (110.8 km2), consisting of the boroughs of Wedding and Reinickendorf; (See: commandants of Berlin French Sector)
the Soviet sector (402.8 km2)), consisting of the boroughs of Mitte, Prenzlauer Berg, Pankow, Weißensee, Friedrichshain, Lichtenberg, Treptow, and Köpenick; (see: commandants of Berlin Soviet Sector).
The Soviet victors of the Battle of Berlin immediately occupied all of Berlin. They handed the American, British and French sectors (later known as West Berlin) to the American and British Forces in July 1945: the French occupied their sector later. Berlin remained divided until reunification in 1990.
The Soviets used the period from May 1945 to July 1945 to dismantle industry, transport and other facilities in West Berlin, including removing railway tracks, as reparations for German war damage in the Soviet Union. This practice continued in East Berlin and the Soviet occupation zone after 1945. Conditions were harsh, and hundreds of thousands of refugees from the east kept pouring in. Residents depended heavily on the black market for food and other necessities.
Berlin's unique situation as a city half-controlled by Western forces in the middle of the Soviet Occupation Zone of Germany made it a natural focal point in the Cold War after 1947. Though the city was initially governed by a Four Power Allied Control Council with a leadership that rotated monthly, the Soviets withdrew from the council as east–west relations deteriorated and began governing their sector independently. The council continued to govern West Berlin, with the same rotating leadership policy, though now only involving France, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
East Germany chose East Berlin as its capital when the country was formed out of the Soviet occupation zone in October 1949; however, this was rejected by Western allies, who continued to regard Berlin as an occupied city that was not legally part of any German state. In practice, the government of East Germany treated East Berlin as an integral part of the nation. Although half the size and population of West Berlin, it included most of the historic center.
By the establishment of the Oder-Neisse line and the complete expulsion of the German inhabitants east of this line, Berlin lost its traditional hinterlands of Farther Pomerania and Lower Silesia.
West Germany, formed on 23 May 1949 from the American, British, and French zones, had its seat of government and de facto capital in Bonn, although Berlin was symbolically named the de jure West German capital in West German Basic Law (Grundgesetz).
West Berlin de jure remained under the rule of the Western Allies, but for most practical purposes was treated as a part of West Germany; however the residents did not hold West German passports.
Blockade and airlift
In response to Allied efforts to fuse the American, French, and British sectors of western Germany into a federal state, and to a currency reform undertaken by Western powers without Soviet approval, the Soviets blocked ground access to West Berlin on 26 June 1948, in what became known as the "Berlin Blockade". The Soviet goal was to gain control of the whole of Berlin. The American and British air forces engaged in a massive logistical effort to supply the western sectors of the city through the Berlin Airlift, known by West Berliners as "die Luftbrücke" (the Air Bridge). The blockade lasted almost a year, ending when the Soviets once again allowed ground access to West Berlin on 11 May 1949. The Blockade and Airlift were iconic events in the early history of the Cold War, and made a profound impression on Berliners as to who their friends and their enemies were.
As part of this project, US Army engineers expanded Tempelhof Airport. Because sometimes the deliveries contained sweets and candy for children, the planes were also nicknamed "Candy Bombers".
The June 17 Uprising
With Stalin dead, the KGB chief Lavrenti Beria jockeyed for power in the Kremlin, putting forth the goal of German reunification. His plan was to set up a workers' demonstration that would allow the Kremlin to remove hardliner Walter Ulbricht and begin a program of economic concessions to the workers. The plan failed when the demonstrations assumed a mass character. The strike against poor wages and working conditions overnight became a workers' revolution for democratic rights. On 17 June, the Soviets used their tanks to restore order. This failure delayed German unification and contributed to the fall of Beria. It started when 60 construction workers building the showpiece Stalin-Allee in East Berlin went on strike on 16 June 1953, to demand a reduction in recent work-quota increases. They called for a general strike the next day, 17 June. The general strike and protest marches turned into rioting and spread throughout East Germany. The East German police failed to quell the unrest. It was forcibly suppressed by Soviet troops, who encountered stiff resistance from angry crowds across East Germany, and responded with live ammunition. At least 153 people were killed in the suppression of the uprising.Jonathan Sperber, "17 June 1953: Revisiting a German Revolution" German History (2004) 22#4 pp 619-643.
The continuation of the street "Unter den Linden" on the western side of the Brandenburg Gate was renamed Straße des 17. Juni in honor of the uprising, and 17 June was proclaimed a national holiday in West Germany. The 50th anniversary of 17 June 1953 in 2003 was marked by reflection on the role of memory in creating a national identity for a unified Germany.
Berlin Wall
Loshitzky depicts the role of the Berlin Wall as a symbol of the Cold War, détente, and the collapse of the Communist regimes in Eastern Europe. She divides the history of the Wall into six major stages: the erection of the Wall (1961); the period of the "geography of fear" from the Cold War; the period of détente; the short period of glasnost and perestroika; the fall of the Wall (1989); and after the Wall.
On August 13, 1961 the Communist East German government started to build a wall, physically separating West Berlin from East Berlin and the rest of East Germany, as a response to massive numbers of East German citizens fleeing into West Berlin as a way to escape. The wall was built overnight with no warning. This separated families for as long as the wall was up. The East German government called the Wall the "anti-fascist protection wall". The tensions between East and West were exacerbated by a tank standoff at Checkpoint Charlie on 27 October 1961. West Berlin was now a de facto part of West Germany, but with a unique legal status, while East Berlin remained part of East Germany.
The western sectors of Berlin were now completely separated from the surrounding territory of East Berlin and East Germany. It was possible for Westerners to pass from one to the other only through strictly controlled checkpoints. For most Easterners, travel to West Berlin or West Germany was no longer possible. During the Wall's existence there were around 5,000 successful escapes into West Berlin; 136 people were officially killed trying to cross (see List of deaths at the Berlin Wall) and around 200 were seriously injured. The sandy soil under the Wall was both a blessing and a curse for those who attempted to tunnel their way to West Berlin and freedom. Although it was easy to dig through quickly, it was also more prone to collapse.
When the first stone blocks were laid down at Potsdamer Platz in the early hours of August 13, US troops stood ready with ammunition and watched the wall being built, stone by stone. The US military with West Berlin police kept Berliners 300 meters away from the border. President John F. Kennedy and the United States Congress decided not to interfere and risk armed conflict. They conveyed their protest to Moscow, and Kennedy sent his vice president, Lyndon B. Johnson, together with Lucius D. Clay, the hero of the Airlift to the city. Massive demonstrations took place in West Berlin.
Almost two years later, on June 26, 1963, John F. Kennedy visited West Berlin and gave a much-acclaimed speech in front of the Schöneberg City Hall in which he said, "Ich bin ein Berliner"– "I am a Berliner". This was meant to demonstrate America's lasting solidarity with the city as a Western island in Soviet satellite territory.
Much Cold War espionage and counter-espionage took place in Berlin, against a backdrop of potential superpower confrontation in which both sides had nuclear weapons set for a range that could hit Germany. In 1971, the Four-Power Agreement on Berlin was signed. While the Soviet Union applied the oversight of the four powers only to West Berlin, the Western Allies emphasized in a 1975 note to the United Nations their position that four-power oversight applied to Berlin as a whole. The agreement guaranteed access across East Germany to West Berlin and ended the potential for harassment or closure of the routes.
As many businesses did not want to operate in West Berlin due to its physical and economic isolation from the outside, the West German government subsidized any businesses that did operate in West Berlin.
Student movement
In the 1960s, West Berlin became one of the centers of the German student movement. West Berlin was especially popular with young German left-wing radicals, as young men living in West Berlin were exempted from the obligatory military service required in West Germany proper: the Kreuzberg district became especially well known for its high concentration of young radicals.
The Wall afforded unique opportunities for social gatherings. The physical wall was set some distance behind the actual sector border, up to several meters behind in some places. The West Berlin police were not legally allowed to enter the space between the border and the wall, as it was technically in East Berlin and outside their jurisdiction: many people took the opportunity to throw loud parties in this space, with the West Berlin authorities powerless to intervene. In 1968 and after, West Berlin became one of the centers of the student revolt; in particular, the Kreuzberg borough was the center of many riots.
750th anniversary
Federal Republic of Germany (1990–today)
Reunification
The Fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 marks the end of the Cold War. On 9 November 1989, border guards allowed crowds from East Berlin to cross the frontier at the Bösebrücke. The guards believed that the authorities had decided to open the wall, but in reality no firm decision was taken and events gathered steam on their own.
People of East and West Berlin climbed up and danced on the wall at the Brandenburg Gate in scenes of wild celebration broadcast worldwide. This time no Soviet tanks rolled through Berlin. The wall never closed again, and was soon on its way to demolition, with countless Berliners and tourists wielding hammers and chisels to secure souvenir chunks. Kleinmachnow, a city located on the east side of where the wall was once standing, served as both a cultural and literal division between the two cities within one. Kleinmachnow was considered to be where the affluent and important members of the party lived.
On Christmas Day December 25, 1989, the American conductor Leonard Bernstein shared with East and West Berliners and the world his Berlin Celebration Concert in order to celebrate the Fall of the Berlin Wall. "Ode to Joy", which Bernstein had reworded "Ode to Freedom", was performed.
Capital
After the fall of Communism in Europe, on 3 October 1990 Germany and Berlin were both reunited. By then the Wall had been almost completely demolished, with only small sections remaining. Various impacts of partition on Berlin were removed in subsequent months - the ghost stations of Berlin U-Bahn were reopened and the Berlin S-Bahn which had been operated by the east German Deutsche Reichsbahn also in the west (until 1984) and consequently boycotted and neglected in the west was refurbished and traffic on the Berlin ring railway resumed along its full length in 2002. Still, many S-Bahn lines shut down during partition are not yet rebuilt as of 2020.
In June 1991 the German Parliament, the Bundestag, voted to move the (West) German capital back from Bonn to Berlin. The decision was reached after 10 hours of debate. In the voting Berlin won by a narrow margin: 338 for, 320 against. Berlin once more became the capital of a unified Germany.
In 1999 federal ministries and government offices moved back from Bonn to Berlin, but most employees in the ministries still work in Bonn. Also in 1999, about 20 government authorities moved from Bonn to Berlin, as planned in the compensation agreement of 1994, the Berlin/Bonn Act.
Berlin has been targeted by terrorists on several occasions; the most severe incident being a vehicle-ramming attack in 2016 that killed 13 and injured 55.
Today, Berlin has become a global city for international affairs, young business founders, creative industries, higher education services, corporate research, popular media and diverse cultural tourism. Population-wise, Berlin became one of the most rapidly growing urban centers in Europe after 2010, much of which has been due to immigration.
Land Berlin in reunified Germany
While the status of west Berlin was de facto that of a Bundesland of west Germany, the de jure situation remained unclear until reunification made it a moot point. In the 1990s there was an attempt to merge the Land with the adjacent State of Brandenburg which failed in a referendum due to opposition in Brandenburg. The Berlin banking scandal of 2001 led to strained state finances and austerity measures under then senator of finances Thilo Sarrazin. After the breakdown of Eberhard Diepgen's grand coalition over the banking scandal the snap 2001 Berlin state election produced the first German state government led by an openly homosexual man, Klaus Wowereit. Potsdamer Platz which had been a central traffic and commerce hub in the 1920s but heavily impacted by the wall during partition became one of Europe's biggest building sites and is now once again one of Berlin's most representative addresses. The museums on Museum Island were renovated and are once again museums of world renown. The Palast der Republik, the former seat of East Germany's parliament was torn down to make way for the Humboldtforum, a reconstruction of the former Stadtschloss on that site. The traffic infrastructure of Berlin became another post unification priority, leading to the shutdown of Tempelhof Airport in 2008, the opening of a new Berlin Hauptbahnhof in 2006, and finally the long delayed opening of Berlin Brandenburg airport in 2020 accompanied by the shutdown of Tegel Airport. The Central bus station ZOB Berlin which opened in the 1960s is undergoing renovations which began in 2016 and are ongoing as of 2020.
Historical population
Population since 1400:
1400: 8,000 inhabitants (Berlin and Kölln)
1600: 16,000
1618: 10,000
1648: 6,000
1709: 60,000 (union with Friedrichswerder, Dorotheenstadt and Friedrichstadt)
1755: 100,000
1800: 172,100
1830: 247,500
1850: 418,700
1880: 1,124,000
1900: 1,888,000
1925: 4,036,000 (1920 enlargement of the territory)
1942: 4,478,102
2003: 3,388,477
2007: 3,402,312
2012: 3,543,000
2018: 3,605,000
See also
Timeline of Berlin
History of Germany
List of Commandants of Berlin Sectors
List of films set in Berlin
List of people from Berlin
References
Bibliography
Published before 1945
; famous guidebook
Vizetelly, Henry. Berlin Under the New Empire: Its Institutions, Inhabitants, Industry, Monuments, Museums, Social Life, Manners, and Amusements (2 vol. London, 1879) online volume 2
Published Since 1945
Broadbent, Philip, and Sabine Hake, eds. Berlin: Divided City, 1945-1989 (Berghahn Books; 2010), 211 pages. Essays by historians, art historians, literary scholars, and others on perceptions and representations of the city.
Colomb, Claire. Staging the New Berlin: Place Marketing and the Politics of Urban Reinvention Post-1989 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011) 368 pp.
Davis, Belinda J. Home Fires Burning: Food, Politics, and Everyday Life in World War I Berlin (2000)
Emerson, Charles. 1913: In Search of the World Before the Great War (2013) compares Berlin to 20 major world cities on the eve of World War I; pp 59–77.
Friedrich, Thomas. Hitler's Berlin: Abused City (2012) excerpt and text search
Gehler, Michael. Three Germanies: West Germany, East Germany and the Berlin Republic (2011) excerpt and text search
Hake, Sabine. Topographies of Class: Modern Architecture and Mass Society in Weimar Berlin (2008)
Kellerhoff, Sven Felix. Hitlers Berlin (2005)
Krause, Scott H., Stefanie Eisenhuth, and Konrad H. Jarausch, eds. Cold War Berlin: Confrontations, Cultures, and Identities (Bloomsbury, 2021).
Large, David Clay. Berlin (2000) 736pp; general history since 1870
Lees, Andrew. "Berlin and Modern Urbanity in German Discourse, 1845–1945," Journal of Urban History (1991) 17#2 pp 153–78.
Long, Andrew. Berlin in the Cold War: Volume 2: The Berlin Wall 1959‒1961 (2021)
Moorhouse, Roger . Berlin at War: Life and Death in Hitler's Capital 1939‒1945 (2011)
MacDonogh, Giles . Berlin: A Portrait of Its History, Politics, Architecture, and Society (1999)
Richie, Alexandra. Faust's Metropolis: A History of Berlin (1998), 1168 pp by scholar; excerpt and text search; emphasis on 20th century.
Smith, Jean Edward. The defense of Berlin (1963), covers US & Britain 1945 to 1962, with emphasis on later period.
Tusa, Ann. The Last Division: A History of Berlin, 1945-1989 (1997)
Windsor, Philip. "The Berlin Crises" History Today (June 1962) Vol. 6, p375-384, summarizes the series of crises 1946 to 1961; online.
Winter, Jay, and Jean-Louis Robert, eds. Capital Cities at War: Paris, London, Berlin 1914-1919 (2 vol. 1999, 2007), 30 chapters 1200pp; comprehensive coverage by scholars vol 1 excerpt; vol 2 excerpt and text search
Guidebooks
Maik Kopleck: PastFinder Berlin 1933–1945. Traces of German History – A Guidebook (Pastfinder). Ch. Links Verlag; 2nd Ed. 2007, 978-3861533634 (Original title: Stadtführer zu den Spuren der Vergangenheit. Also available in French: Guide touristique sur les traces du passé)
Maik Kopleck: PastFinder Berlin 1945–1989. 2011, 978-9889978839
External links
Vintage Berlin: The Reunited City - slideshow by Life magazine''
http://www.weimarberlin.com/ A website about Berlin during the Weimar years (1919-1933)
Articles containing video clips
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242100 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroreceptor | Baroreceptor | Baroreceptors (or archaically, pressoreceptors) are sensors located in the carotid sinus (at the bifurcation of external and internal carotids) and in the aortic arch. They sense the blood pressure and relay the information to the brain, so that a proper blood pressure can be maintained.
Baroreceptors are a type of mechanoreceptor sensory neuron that are excited by a stretch of the blood vessel. Thus, increases in the pressure of blood vessel triggers increased action potential generation rates and provides information to the central nervous system. This sensory information is used primarily in autonomic reflexes that in turn influence the heart cardiac output and vascular smooth muscle to influence vascular resistance. Baroreceptors act immediately as part of a negative feedback system called the baroreflex, as soon as there is a change from the usual mean arterial blood pressure, returning the pressure toward a normal level. These reflexes help regulate short-term blood pressure. The solitary nucleus in the medulla oblongata of the brain recognizes changes in the firing rate of action potentials from the baroreceptors, and influences cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance.
Baroreceptors can be divided into two categories based on the type of blood vessel in which they are located: high-pressure arterial baroreceptors and low-pressure baroreceptors (also known as cardiopulmonary or volume receptors).
Arterial baroreceptors
Arterial baroreceptors are stretch receptors that are stimulated by distortion of the arterial wall when pressure changes. The baroreceptors can identify the changes in both the average blood pressure or the rate of change in pressure with each arterial pulse. Action potentials triggered in the baroreceptor ending are then directly conducted to the brainstem where central terminations (synapses) transmit this information to neurons within the solitary nucleus which lies in the medulla. Reflex responses from such baroreceptor activity can trigger increases or decreases in the heart rate. Arterial baroreceptor sensory endings are simple, splayed nerve endings that lie in the tunica adventitia of the artery. An increase in the mean arterial pressure increases depolarization of these sensory endings, which results in action potentials. These action potentials are conducted to the solitary nucleus in the central nervous system by axons and have a reflex effect on the cardiovascular system through autonomic neurons. Hormone secretions that target the heart and blood vessels are affected by the stimulation of baroreceptors.
At normal resting blood pressures, baroreceptors discharge with each heart beat. If blood pressure falls, such as on orthostatic hypotension or in hypovolaemic shock, baroreceptor firing rate decreases and baroreceptor reflexes act to help restore blood pressure by increasing heart rate. Signals from the carotid baroreceptors are sent via the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX). Signals from the aortic baroreceptors travel through the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X). Carotid sinus baroreceptors are responsive to both increases or decreases in arterial pressure, while aortic arch baroreceptors are only responsive to increases in arterial pressure. Arterial baroreceptors inform reflexes about arterial blood pressure but other stretch receptors in the large veins and right atrium convey information about the low pressure parts of the circulatory system.
Baroreceptors respond very quickly to maintain a stable blood pressure, but their responses diminish with time and thus are most effective for conveying short term changes in blood pressure. In people with essential hypertension the baroreceptors and their reflexes change and function to maintain the elevated blood pressure as if normal. The receptors then become less sensitive to change.
Electrical stimulation of baroreceptors has been found to activate the baroreflex, reducing sympathetic tone throughout the body and thereby reducing blood pressure in patients with resistant hypertension.
Low-pressure baroreceptors
The low-pressure baroreceptors, are found in large systemic veins, in pulmonary vessels, and in the walls of the right atrium and ventricles of the heart (the atrial volume receptors). The low-pressure baroreceptors are involved with the regulation of blood volume. The blood volume determines the mean pressure throughout the system, in particular in the venous side where most of the blood is held.
The low-pressure baroreceptors have both circulatory and renal effects; they produce changes in hormone secretion, resulting in profound effects on the retention of salt and water; they also influence intake of salt and water. The renal effects allow the receptors to change the mean pressure in the system in the long term.
Denervating these receptors 'fools' the body into thinking that it has too low blood volume and initiates mechanisms that retain fluid and so push up the blood pressure to a higher level than it would otherwise have.
Baroreceptor dysfunction
Baroreceptors are integral to the body's function: Pressure changes in the blood vessels would not be detected as quickly in the absence of baroreceptors. When baroreceptors are not working, blood pressure continues to increase, but, within an hour, the blood pressure returns to normal as other blood pressure regulatory systems take over.
Baroreceptors can also become oversensitive in some people (usually the carotid baroreceptors in older males). This can lead to bradycardia, dizziness and fainting (syncope) from touching the neck (often whilst shaving). This is an important cause to exclude in men having pre-syncope or syncope symptoms.
See also
Atrial volume receptors
Low pressure receptors
References
External links
Sensory receptors
Homeostasis
Receptor cells | [
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242101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Williams%20%28actor%29 | John Williams (actor) | John Williams (15 April 1903 – 5 May 1983) was a Tony Award-winning English stage, film, and television actor. He is remembered for his role as Chief Inspector Hubbard in Alfred Hitchcock's Dial M for Murder, as the chauffeur in Billy Wilder's Sabrina (both 1954), and as the second "Mr. French" on TV's Family Affair in its first season (1967).
Life and work
Born in Chalfont St Giles in Buckinghamshire, England, in 1903, Williams was educated at Lancing College. He began his acting career on the English stage in 1916, appearing in J. M. Barrie's Peter Pan, Frances Nordstrom's The Ruined Lady, and Frederick Lonsdale's The Fake.
In 1924 Williams moved to New York, where he was cast in a series of successful Broadway productions. He would appear in over 30 Broadway plays over the next four decades, performing on stage with performers such as Claudette Colbert in Clifford Grey's A Kiss in the Taxi in 1925, Helen Hayes in J. M. Barrie's Alice Sit-by-the-Fire and Gertrude Lawrence in George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion in 1946. In 1953, Williams won a Tony Award for Actor, Supporting or Featured (Dramatic) for his role as Chief Inspector Hubbard in Frederick Knott's Dial M for Murder on Broadway. Soon afterwards, when Alfred Hitchcock adapted the play to a film version released in 1954, he cast Williams in the same role.
Williams' first appearance in a Hollywood film was in director Mack Sennett's short The Chumps (1930). He ultimately appeared in more than 40 films, including two other Hitchcock films: The Paradine Case (1947) starring Gregory Peck, in which Williams held a minor role as a barrister, and To Catch a Thief (1955) with Cary Grant and Grace Kelly, in which Williams portrayed a major character—a Lloyd's of London insurance representative. In the 1960 thriller Midnight Lace, starring Doris Day, Williams played a London police inspector much like his character in Dial M for Murder.
He also made more than 40 guest appearances on television shows. He played in several episodes of Alfred Hitchcock Presents including: "The Long Shot" (1955), "Back for Christmas" (1956), "Whodunit" (1956), "Wet Saturday" (1956), "The Rose Garden" (1956), the three-part episode "I Killed the Count" (1957), "The Three Dreams of Mr. Findlater" (1957), and "Banquo’s Chair" (1959). Three of these episodes, "Back for Christmas", "Wet Saturday", and "Banquo’s Chair", were directed by Hitchcock himself.
Williams played William Shakespeare in The Twilight Zone episode "The Bard" (1963) and guest-starred on the sitcom My Three Sons (also 1963), portraying a stuffy, very precise English butler. In the latter role he was clean shaven, not sporting his customary mustache. Later, he was briefly part of the regular cast of the family comedy Family Affair (1967). He appeared as well on Night Gallery in the series' episode "The Doll" (1971). One of Williams' last performances was in 1979, playing alongside fellow actor Lorne Greene in a two-part episode of Battlestar Galactica titled "War of the Gods".
Williams gained notice too as the star of a frequently telecast commercial for 120 Music Masterpieces, a four-LP set of classical music excerpts from Columbia House. This became the longest-running nationally seen commercial in U.S. television history, for 13 years from 1971 to 1984. The commercial began with a brief selection of orchestral music being played. Williams then began the sales promotion with the following:
In addition to his longstanding association with Hitchcock, Williams appeared in three Billy Wilder films over the course of his career: Sabrina (1954), Witness for the Prosecution (1957), and The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes (1970). In Holmes, however, his scenes were among the 60 to 75 minutes cut by the studio prior to the film's release, when the studio decided not to release it in its intended roadshow format. Williams' scenes, along with the majority of the cut material, have not been recovered.
Death
Williams died at the age of 80 on 5 May 1983, in La Jolla, California. It was reported at the time of his death that he had been suffering from a heart condition. He was cremated, and there was no funeral.
Selected filmography
Television
Alfred Hitchcock Presents
"The Long Shot" (1955) – Walker Hendricks
"Back for Christmas" (1956) – Herbert Carpenter
"Whodunit" (1956) – Alexander Penn Arlington
"Wet Saturday" (1956) – Capt. Smollet
"The Rose Garden" (1956) – Alexander Vinton
"I Killed the Count" (3-part episode, 1957) – Inspector Davidson
"The Three Dreams of Mr. Findlater" (1957) – Ernest Findlater
"Banquo's Chair" (1959) – Inspector Brent
Hallmark Hall of Fame, "Dial M for Murder" (1958) – Chief Inspector Hubbard
The Investigators, "The Oracle" (1961) – Joseph Lombard
The Twilight Zone, "The Bard" (1963) – William Shakespeare
The Lucy Show, "Lucy and the Great Bank Robbery" (1964) – Gordon Bentley
Combat!, "The Furlough" (1966) – Edmund Tinsley
Family Affair (9 episodes, 1967) – Nigel "Niles" French (Replaced Sebastian Cabot while he was recovering from an injury to his wrist)
The Wild Wild West, "The Night of the Bleak Island" (1969) – Sir Nigel Scott
Mission: Impossible, "Lover's Knot" (1970) – Lord Richard Weston
Night Gallery, "The Doll" (1971) – Colonel Hymber Masters
Night Gallery, "The Caterpillar" (1972) – Doctor
Columbo "Dagger of the Mind" (1972) – Sir Roger Haversham
Battlestar Galactica, "War of the Gods" (2-part episode, 1979) – Council Member
Notes
References
External links
Later (1980s) version of 120 Music Masterpieces / 30 Piano Masterpieces ad campaign, originally produced in 1971
1903 births
1983 deaths
Donaldson Award winners
English male film actors
English male stage actors
English male television actors
English expatriates in the United States
People educated at Lancing College
Tony Award winners
People from Chalfont St Giles
20th-century English male actors | [
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242102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Williams%20%28Continental%20Congress%29 | John Williams (Continental Congress) | John Williams (March 14, 1731 – October 10, 1799) was a Founding Father of the United States and signer of its Articles of Confederation. He was one of the founders of the University of North Carolina. During the American Revolutionary War, Williams was a colonel in the North Carolina militia. In 1777 and 1778, he was a member of the North Carolina House of Commons and served as Speaker of the House. Williams was a member of the Continental Congress in 1778 and 1779.
Willams served as a superior court judge both during the colonial era and after the new state of North Carolina was established in 1776. Sitting alongside other superior court judges as part of a Court of Conference (forerunner to the North Carolina Supreme Court), Williams heard the landmark case, Bayard v. Singleton, which announced the principle of judicial review on the state level before Marbury v. Madison did so on the federal level.
Family and political career
John Williams was born on July 7, 1704 in Hanover County, Virginia, the son of John Williams Sr and Mary Keeling. He married Mary Womack. They had 6 children, John Williams III, William Williams and Mary (Williams) Farra, Charles, William, Nathaniel who married Elizabeth Keeling, half-sister to the mother of George Washington, and Agatha who married Col. Robert Burton of Granville Co NC. He died on December 1, 1799.
Revolutionary War
John Williams was commissioned on September 9, 1775 as a Lieutenant Colonel under Col. James Thackston in the Orange County Minutemen Regiment. Both men participated in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge on February 27, 1776. All Minutemen regiments were disbanded on April 10, 1776.
He was a colonel and commandant of the 9th North Carolina Regiment of the North Carolina Line from 1776 to 1778.
Family and namesakes
The town of Williamsboro, North Carolina, for which he donated the land, is named for Williams.
Williams was a first cousin and law partner of Judge Richard Henderson.
Notes
External links
Samuel A. Ashe, ed., Biographical History of North Carolina, vol. 3 (1905).
1731 births
1799 deaths
Continental Congressmen from North Carolina
18th-century American politicians
Signers of the Articles of Confederation
Members of the North Carolina House of Representatives
North Carolina state court judges
People from Vance County, North Carolina
Continental Army officers from North Carolina | [
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242103 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Williams%20%28missionary%29 | John Williams (missionary) | John Williams (27 June 1796 – 20 November 1839) was an English missionary, active in the South Pacific. Born at Tottenham, near London, England, he was trained as a foundry worker and mechanic.
In September 1816, the London Missionary Society (LMS) commissioned him as a missionary in a service held at Surrey Chapel, London.
South Pacific missionary
In 1817, John Williams and his wife, Mary Chawner Williams, voyaged to the Society Islands, a group of islands that included Tahiti, accompanied by William Ellis and his wife. John and Mary established their first missionary post on the island of Raiatea. From there, they visited a number of the Polynesian island chains, sometimes with Mr and Mrs Ellis and other London Missionary Society representatives. Landing on Aitutaki in 1821, they used Tahitian converts to carry their message to the Cook islanders. One island in this group, Rarotonga (Captain John Dibbs of the colonial schooner Endeavour in August 1823 was the first European to sight the islands, with Rev. Williams on board), rises out of the sea as jungle-covered mountains of orange soil ringed by coral reef and turquoise lagoon; Williams became fascinated by it. John and Mary had ten children, but only three survived to adulthood. The Williamses became the first missionary family to visit Samoa.
In 1827 Williams had heard of other heathen islands in the vicinity and in order to expand his ministry he built a ship from local materials, the Messenger of Peace, in fifteen weeks. He set sail by November 1827 for the Society Islands, not returning till February 1828, when he then removed his family to Raiatea.
John Williams arrived in Samoa in 1830, among his crew, a Samoan couple, Fauea and his wife Puaseisei, who joined them on their voyage and proved pivotal in the mission in Samoa. They set foot on the island of Savaii at Puaseisei's village of Safune, before arriving at Sapapalii on the 24th of August, 1830, to meet with Malietoa Vaiinuupo who had sole power over Samoa following the death of his rival Tamafaiga. Williams' meeting with Malietoa proved a success, as Malietoa accepted Christianity immediately.
The Williamses returned in 1834 to Britain, where John supervised the printing of his translation of the New Testament into the Rarotongan language. They brought back a native of Samoa named Leota, who came to live as a Christian in London. At the end of his days, Leota was buried in Abney Park Cemetery with a dignified headstone paid for by the London Missionary Society, recording his adventure from the South Seas island of his birth. Whilst back in London, John Williams published a "Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands", making a contribution to English understanding and popularity of the region, before returning to the Polynesian islands in 1837 on the ship Camden under the command of Captain Robert Clark Morgan.
Death
Most of the Williamses' missionary work, and their delivery of a cultural message, was very successful and they became famed in Congregational circles. However, in November 1839, while visiting a part of the New Hebrides where John Williams was unknown, he and fellow missionary James Harris were killed and eaten by cannibals on the island of Erromango during an attempt to bring them the Gospel.
A memorial stone was erected on the island of Rarotonga in 1839 and is still there. Mrs. Williams died in June 1852. She is buried with their son Rev Samuel Tamatoa Williams, who was born in the New Hebrides, at the old Cedar Circle in London's Abney Park Cemetery; the name of her husband and the record of his death were placed on the most prominent side of the stone monument.
John Williams' remains (bones) were shipped and are buried in Apia, Samoa. A monument was erected in front of the LMS church of Apia, with a 6-storey building housing the headquarters of the Congregational Church of Samoa named after John Williams was built commemorating his work in the Samoan islands.
Legacy
The LMS successively operated seven missionary ships in the Pacific which were named after John Williams. They were funded by donations from children. The first, John Williams, was launched in 1844, and the last, John Williams VII, was decommissioned in 1968.
In December 2009 descendants of John and Mary Williams travelled to Erromango to accept the apologies of descendants of the cannibals in a ceremony of reconciliation. To mark the occasion, Dillons Bay was renamed Williams Bay.
Notes
References
French, James. 1888. Walks in Abney Park Cemetery.
Hiney, Tom. 2000. On the Missionary Trail: a journey through Polynesia, Asia and Africa with the London Missionary Society.
Prout, Ebenezer. Memoirs of the Life of the Rev. John Williams, Missionary to Polynesia.
Williams, John. A Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands: With Remarks Upon the Natural History of the Islands, Origin, Traditions, and Usages of the Inhabitants, George Baxter Publisher
1796 births
1839 deaths
People from Tottenham
English Congregationalist missionaries
English evangelicals
Congregationalist missionaries in French Polynesia
Congregationalist missionaries in Samoa
Congregationalist missionaries in the Cook Islands
Congregationalist missionaries in Vanuatu
Foundrymen
British people murdered abroad
People murdered in Vanuatu
Translators of the Bible into Polynesian languages
19th-century Protestant martyrs
Cannibalised people
British expatriates in French Polynesia
British expatriates in Samoa
British expatriates in the Cook Islands
British expatriates in Vanuatu
British evangelicals
19th-century translators
Missionary linguists | [
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242104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local%20Hero%20%28film%29 | Local Hero (film) | Local Hero is a 1983 Scottish comedy-drama film written and directed by Bill Forsyth and starring Peter Riegert, Denis Lawson, Fulton Mackay and Burt Lancaster. Produced by David Puttnam, the film is about an American oil company representative who is sent to the fictional village of Ferness on the west coast of Scotland to purchase the town and surrounding property for his company. For his work on the film, Forsyth won the 1984 BAFTA Award for Best Direction.
A stage musical adaptation received its world premiere in 2019. In the same year a Criterion Collection DVD/Blu-ray was released in September.
Plot
"Mac" MacIntyre is a typical 1980s hot-shot executive working for Knox Oil and Gas in Houston, Texas. The eccentric head of the company, Felix Happer, sends him (largely because his surname sounds Scottish) to acquire the village of Ferness in the Scottish Highlands to make way for a refinery. Mac (who is actually of Hungarian extraction) is a little apprehensive about his assignment, complaining to a co-worker that he would much rather take care of business over the phone and via telex machines. Happer, an avid astronomy buff, tells Mac to watch the sky and to notify him immediately if he sees anything unusual.
Upon arriving in Scotland, Mac teams up with local Knox representative Danny Olsen. During a visit to a Knox research facility in Aberdeen, Dr Geddes and his assistant Watt inform them about the scope of the company's plans, which entail replacing Ferness with the refinery. They also meet (and admire) marine researcher Marina.
Mac ultimately spends several weeks in Ferness, gradually adapting to the slower-paced life and getting to know the eccentric residents, most notably hotel owner and accountant Gordon Urquhart, and his wife Stella. As time passes, Mac becomes more and more conflicted as he presses to close the deal that will spell the end of the quaint little village he has come to love. Unbeknownst to him, however, the villagers are tired of their hard life and are more than eager to sell, though they feign indifference to induce a larger offer. Mac receives encouragement from an unlikely source: Victor, a capitalistic Soviet fishing boat captain who periodically visits his friends in Ferness (and checks on his investment portfolio, managed by Gordon).
Meanwhile, Danny befriends Marina, who is under the impression that the company is planning to build a research centre at Ferness. During a date, he discovers that Marina, who seems more at home in the water than on land, has webbed toes. While watching some grey seals, Danny mentions that sailors used to believe they were mermaids. Marina tells him the sailors were wrong.
As the deal nears completion, Gordon discovers that Ben Knox, an old beachcomber who lives in a driftwood shack on the shore, owns the beach through a grant from the Lord of the Isles to his ancestor. MacIntyre tries everything to entice Ben to sell, even offering enough money to buy any other beach in the world, but the owner is content with what he has. Ben picks up some sand and offers to sell for the same number of pound notes as he has grains of sand in his hand. A suspicious MacIntyre declines, only to be told there could not have been more than ten thousand grains.
Happer finally arrives on site, just in time to unknowingly forestall a potential confrontation between some of the villagers and Ben. When Mac informs him of the snag in the proceedings, he decides to negotiate personally with Ben and, in the process, discovers a kindred spirit. Happer opts to locate the refinery offshore and set up an astronomical observatory instead. He sends MacIntyre home to implement the changes. Danny brings up Marina's dream of an oceanographic research facility and suggests combining the two into the "Happer Institute", an idea that Happer likes. A sombre MacIntyre returns to his apartment in Houston. He pulls from his pocket pebbles and shells and spreads them out on the work surface. The local phone box in Ferness starts ringing.
Cast
Production
Development
When producer David Puttnam approached his regular backers Warner Bros. and Goldcrest Films to fund Local Hero, they initially turned him down. When Puttnam won a BAFTA for Chariots of Fire in 1982 this convinced Goldcrest executives to finance the entire film. Warner Bros agreed to pay $1.5 million for US rights.
Casting
Puttnam always wanted Burt Lancaster to play Happer but the casting proved problematic because the Hollywood star wanted his $2 million salary, which was almost a third of the film's entire budget. However, upon learning of Lancaster's potential involvement in the project, Warner Bros. offered Puttnam a US distribution deal and provided the additional funding to secure Lancaster. After negotiations, Puttnam ended up having an additional $200,000 in the film's budget. He later remarked in an interview that "big stars are not a liability, they are an asset!".
Michael Douglas and Henry Winkler were both actively pursued by Bill Forsyth for the role of MacIntyre (which ultimately went to Peter Riegert).
Filming
Local Hero was filmed in several locations around Scotland. Most of the Ferness village scenes were filmed in Pennan on the Aberdeenshire coast, and most of the beach scenes at Morar and Arisaig on the west coast.
Aberdeenshire, Scotland, UK
Arisaig, Highland, Scotland, UK
The Ship Inn, Banff, Scotland, UK (interior bar scenes)
Ben Nevis Distillery, Fort William, Highland, Scotland, UK
Camusdarach Sands, Camusdarach, Morar, Mallaig, Highland, Scotland, UK (Ferness, beach scenes, including external scene of Ferness church, using a mock-up of Our Lady of the Braes church – see below – specially constructed beside the beach)
Fort William, Highland, Scotland, UK
Highlands, Scotland, UK
Hilton, Highland, Scotland, UK (Ferness, village hall ceilidh)
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 2101 NASA Road, Houston, Texas, US (Knox Oil testing lab)
Loch Eil, Highland, Scotland, UK
Lochaber, Highland, Scotland, UK
Lochailort, Highland, Scotland, UK (Ferness hotel, internal shots)
Loch Tarff, Fort Augustus, Highland, Scotland (fog and rabbit scenes)
Mallaig, Highland, Scotland, UK
Moidart, Highland, Scotland, UK (road scenes for drive to Ferness – A861 descent to Loch Moidart and descent to Inversanda Bay)
JPMorgan Chase Tower, formerly Texas Commerce Tower, 600 Travis St., Houston, Texas, US (Knox Oil headquarters)
Our Lady of the Braes Roman Catholic Church, Polish, Highland, Scotland, UK (Ferness, village church, internal scenes)
Pennan, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, UK (Ferness, includes red phone box)
Pole of Itlaw, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, UK (Ferness, village shop)
Soundtrack
The film's soundtrack was written and produced by Mark Knopfler of Dire Straits. This has led to the popularity of the film with fans of the band. Knopfler has since performed an arrangement of "Going Home (Theme of the Local Hero)" as an encore at many of his concerts. This tune borrows some melodic riffs from traditional songs. In his review of the album for AllMusic, William Ruhlmann wrote:
Gerry Rafferty provided the vocals for "The Way It Always Starts" on the soundtrack. The album was certified a BPI silver record.
Critical response
In his Chicago Sun-Times review, Roger Ebert gave the film his highest four stars, calling it "a small film to treasure". He gave particular praise to writer-director Bill Forsyth for his abilities as a storyteller.
James Berardinelli gave the film three and a half stars out of four, calling it "a fragment of cinematic whimsy—a genial dramatic comedy that defies both our expectations and those of the characters". Berardinelli also focused on Forsyth's abilities as a storyteller, noting that the director "finds the perfect tone for this not-quite-a-fairy-tale set in a quaint seaside Scottish village named Ferness. By injecting a little (but not too much) magical realism into the mix, Forsyth leavens his pro-environmental message to the point that those not looking for it might not be conscious of its presence." Berardinelli concluded that Local Hero represents "the best kind of light fare: a motion picture that offers a helping of substance to go along with an otherwise frothy and undemanding main course".
The New York Times critic Janet Maslin wrote, "Genuine fairy tales are rare; so is film-making that is thoroughly original in an unobtrusive way. Bill Forsyth's quirky disarming Local Hero is both." Maslin concluded:
In Variety magazine, film critic Todd McCarthy wrote, "After making the grade internationally with the sleeper hit, Gregory's Girl, Scottish writer-director Bill Forsyth has broken the sophomore sesh jinx the only way he could, by making an even better film ... Given a larger canvas, director Forsyth has in no way attempted to overreach himself or the material, keeping things modest and intimate throughout, but displaying a very acute sense of comic insight."
Almar Haflidason called Local Hero "a wry film that slowly slips under the skin to surprising effect" in BBC Home. Haflidason concludes, "Once over, the mood of the film hits home and a longing develops to visit once again the characters of this warm and deceptively slight comedy."
For Movie Gazette, Gary Panton described the film as a "magical, intelligent comedy". Panton praised the cinematography as "little short of amazing" and that Local Hero was "Bill Forsyth's finest work of all, this is a perfect film."
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film received a rare 100% positive rating based on 36 reviews, with a weighted average of 8.80/10. The site's consensus reads: "A charmingly low-key character study brought to life by a tremendously talented cast, Local Hero is as humorous as it is heartwarming". On Metacritic, the film has a score of 82 out of 100, based on reviews from 15 critics.
Some Scottish critics were less enthusiastic about the film, pointing out that it repeated and reinforced long-established cinematic representations of Scotland and the Scots and perpetuated a comforting but misleading narrative about Scotland's relationship with international capitalism. The Glasgow Women and Film Collective questioned what it saw as the film's male-oriented narrative about innocence and power and the marginal roles it accorded to women.
Box office
Local Hero earned $5,895,761 in total gross sales in the United States. Goldcrest Films invested £2,551,000 in the film and received £3,290,000, earning them a profit of £739,000.
Awards and nominations
Legacy
The minor planet 7345 Happer is named after Lancaster's character in the film and his quest to have a comet named after him.
Stage musical adaptation
A stage musical based on the film premiered at the Royal Lyceum Theatre, Edinburgh in spring 2019 before transferring to The Old Vic, London. The musical featured music and lyrics by Mark Knopfler (writer of the film soundtrack) and a book by Bill Forsyth (original film screenwriter and director) and David Greig, and was directed by John Crowley.
See also
BFI Top 100 British films
List of films with a 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes
Cinema of Scotland
References
External links
Local Hero at Bill Forsyth website
Local Hero: Our Man in Ferness an essay by Jonathan Murray at the Criterion Collection
1980s English-language films
1983 comedy films
1983 comedy-drama films
1983 drama films
1983 films
1983 independent films
British comedy-drama films
British films
British independent films
Films about mermaids
Films about real estate holdout
Films directed by Bill Forsyth
Films produced by David Puttnam
Films set in Houston
Films set on beaches
Films set in Scotland
Films shot in Houston
Films shot in Scotland
Films whose director won the Best Direction BAFTA Award
Goldcrest Films films
Scottish films
Warner Bros. films | [
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242108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newport%20RFC | Newport RFC | Newport Rugby Football Club () is a Welsh rugby union club based in the city of Newport, South Wales. They presently play in the Welsh Premier Division. Until 2021 Newport RFC were based at Rodney Parade situated on the east bank of the River Usk.
Every major rugby union touring team to visit Wales has played at Rodney Parade, and all of them were beaten at least once in the twentieth century by a side who, in 1951, played in the match at Cardiff RFC that attracted what was, a world-record crowd of 48,500 for a rugby union match between two clubs.
In addition to matches against all the major national sides a highlight of the Newport season was the annual match against the Barbarians, ensuring that the Newport fans enjoyed watching world-class players to supplement the Welsh internationals who were a common feature of the 'Black and Ambers'.
Newport supplied over 150 players to the Wales national team and international players to England, Scotland, Ireland, South Africa, Czech Republic, Canada and Fiji as well as over 80 Barbarians.
Following the regionalisation of Welsh rugby in 2003, Newport RFC are now a feeder club to the Dragons regional team.
In March 2017, sale of Rodney Parade to the Welsh Rugby Union was agreed following a vote of Newport RFC shareholders. The takeover was completed on 27 June 2017 and work started to install a hybrid grass pitch for the 2017–18 rugby and football season.
In October 2021 Newport RFC relocated their home matches to Newport Stadium whilst agreeing with the WRU to play two matches per season at Rodney Parade.
History
1874–1914
Newport RFC were formed in 1874 under the financial backing of the Phillips brewing family, and the playing talents of former pupils of Monmouth School, a public school which had adopted rugby union in 1873. Newport was originally intended as an association football club, but was unable to find any opponents, but they managed to organise a rugby match against Cardiff RFC, and in 1875 played Cardiff in both clubs' first-ever game.
Newport’s early success was remarkable, winning every match in their first four seasons between 1875 and 1879. They were also successful in other tournaments winning the first two South Wales Cup competitions. The club’s strength was reflected at international level, providing more players to the Welsh national team than any other club in the nineteenth century, including four captains. In 1881 Newport was one of the eleven clubs present at the forming of the Welsh Rugby Football Union, and provided six players in the first Welsh international match, more than any other club.
Partially due to their geographical location Newport also played against more established clubs from England and in 1878 a game was arranged against Manchester Athletic followed by games against Birmingham, Clifton, Gloucester and Swindon. Their dominance led Newport’s club secretary, Richard Mulloch to arrange a match against the English domestic champions Blackheath Rugby Club. With a record attendance of 5,000 spectators Newport were out-classed by their opponents, losing four goals and eight tries to nil. However, Newport had played two games in the previous five days and Blackheath brought in outside players to bolster their squad.
In October 1879 Newport played Cardiff RFC in a floodlit game at Rodney Parade; the first ground to have floodlights installed in Wales.
In 1887, Newport player Charlie Newman was given the captaincy of the Welsh national team, he was the first Newport player to achieve this honour. In 1887 Newport player Tom Clapp was given the Wales captaincy and in 1888 he led the first Welsh side to beat Scotland, a team that included Newport players Powell and Gould. During the 1891–92 season, under captain Tom Graham Newport went unbeaten, winning 29 games and drawing four. Graham brought a new professional attitude to the team, introducing weekly gym training and an avoidance of alcohol.
In 1912 Newport hosted the touring South Africa national team, and beat them 9 points to 3.
1919–1939
Invincible in 1922–23
Welsh Club Champions 1920,1923.
Provided 5 Welsh, 1 English and 1 Irish captains.
Provided 6 British Lions.
Golden era of Wetter, Uzzell, Griffiths, Morley, Bunner Travers etc.
1945–2003
Golden era of Jones, Burnett, Thomas, Meredith, Price, Watkins, Jarrett etc.
Beat Australia 1957, NZ 1963, SA 1969, Tonga 1974.
Welsh Club Champions 1951, 1956, 1962, 1969.
Won Welsh Merit Table and Anglo-Welsh Merit Table.
Provided 7 Welsh, 1 Czech Rep, 2 Canadian, 1 Fijian captains.
Provided 15 British Lions.
Introduced 7s to Wales and won Snellings 10 times and R/U 9 times.
One of pioneers of floodlights in Wales.
Introduced squad systems / players playing on rota in Wales.
Won Welsh Cup twice, R/U 3 times.
Welsh Premier League winners and R/U – twice.
In 1963 Newport, captained by Brian Price, claimed perhaps their greatest victory by defeating New Zealand led by Wilson Whineray 3–0. This turned out to be the All Blacks only defeat on their 1963 tour. The club was granted Freedom of the City of Newport on the 50th anniversary of this victory.
Club honours
South Wales Cup 1878, 1879, 1882, 1883, 1884, 1890.
Snelling Sevens 1954, 1956, 1957, 1959, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1965, 1967, 1985.
Welsh Cup 1977, 2001.
Welsh Division One Winners 1990–91
Welsh Premier League Winners 2003–04.
British and Irish Lions
The following former players were selected for the British and Irish Lions touring squads whilst playing for Newport RFC. Newport hold the record for the number of players from one club selected for a British Lions Tour with eight Newport players being selected for the 1910 British Lions tour to South Africa.
Wales International Captains
The following former players captained the Wales national rugby union team whilst playing for Newport RFC.
Other notable former players
Current squad
Newport RFC Squad 2015/16
Games played against international opposition
See also
Newport Gwent Dragons
Newport Saracens RFC
Newport HSOB RFC
Pill Harriers RFC
Bettws RFC
Bibliography
References
External links
Official Website
Newport RFC Supporters Club
Newport Rugby Trust
History of Newport RFC
External links
Official website
Welsh rugby union teams
Rugby clubs established in 1874
History of Newport, Wales
1874 establishments in the United Kingdom
Organisations based in Newport, Wales | [
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242110 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac%20output | Cardiac output | Cardiac output (CO), also known as heart output denoted by the symbols , or , is a term used in cardiac physiology that describes the volume of blood being pumped by both ventricles of the heart, per unit time (usually measured per minute). Cardiac output (CO) is the product of the heart rate (HR), i.e. the number of heartbeats per minute (bpm), and the stroke volume (SV), which is the volume of blood pumped from the left ventricle per beat; thus giving the formula:
CO = HR × SV
Values for cardiac output are usually denoted as L/min. For a healthy individual weighing 70 kg, the cardiac output at rest averages about 5 L/min; assuming a heart rate of 70 beats/min, the stroke volume would be approximately 70 ml.
Because cardiac output is related to the quantity of blood delivered to various parts of the body, it is an important component of how efficiently the heart can meet the body's demands for the maintenance of adequate tissue perfusion. Body tissues require continuous oxygen delivery which requires the sustained transport of oxygen to the tissues by systemic circulation of oxygenated blood at an adequate pressure from the left ventricle of the heart via the aorta and arteries. Oxygen delivery (DO2 mL/min) is the resultant of blood flow (cardiac output CO) times the blood oxygen content (CaO2). Mathematically this is calculated as follows: oxygen delivery = cardiac output × arterial oxygen content, giving the formula
DO2 = CO × CaO2.
With a resting cardiac output of 5 litre min−1, a 'normal' oxygen delivery is around 997.5 ml/min. The amount/percentage of the circulated oxygen consumed (VO2) per minute through metabolism varies depending on the activity level but at rest is circa 25% of the DO2. Physical exercise requires a higher than resting-level of oxygen consumption to support increased muscle activity. In the case of heart failure, actual CO may be insufficient to support even simple activities of daily living; nor can it increase sufficiently to meet the higher metabolic demands stemming from even moderate exercise.
Cardiac output is a global blood flow parameter of interest in hemodynamics, the study of the flow of blood. The factors affecting stroke volume and heart rate also affect cardiac output. The figure at the right margin illustrates this dependency and lists some of these factors. A detailed hierarchical illustration is provided in a subsequent figure.
There are many methods of measuring CO, both invasively and non-invasively; each has advantages and drawbacks as described below.
Definition
The function of the heart is to drive blood through the circulatory system in a cycle that delivers oxygen, nutrients and chemicals to the body's cells and removes cellular waste. Because it pumps out whatever blood comes back into it from the venous system, the quantity of blood returning to the heart effectively determines the quantity of blood the heart pumps out – its cardiac output, Q. Cardiac output is classically defined alongside stroke volume (SV) and the heart rate (HR) as:
In standardizing what CO values are considered to be within normal range independent of the size of the subject's body, the accepted convention is to further index equation () using body surface area (BSA), giving rise to the Cardiac index (CI). This is detailed in equation () below.
Measurement
There are a number of clinical methods to measure cardiac output, ranging from direct intracardiac catheterization to non-invasive measurement of the arterial pulse. Each method has advantages and drawbacks. Relative comparison is limited by the absence of a widely accepted "gold standard" measurement. Cardiac output can also be affected significantly by the phase of respiration – intra-thoracic pressure changes influence diastolic filling and therefore cardiac output. This is especially important during mechanical ventilation, in which cardiac output can vary by up to 50% across a single respiratory cycle. Cardiac output should therefore be measured at evenly spaced points over a single cycle or averaged over several cycles.
Invasive methods are well accepted, but there is increasing evidence that these methods are neither accurate nor effective in guiding therapy. Consequently, the focus on development of non-invasive methods is growing.
Doppler ultrasound
This method uses ultrasound and the Doppler effect to measure cardiac output. The blood velocity through the heart causes a Doppler shift in the frequency of the returning ultrasound waves. This shift can then be used to calculate flow velocity and volume, and effectively cardiac output, using the following equations:
where:
CSA is the valve orifice cross sectional area,
r is the valve radius, and,
VTI is the velocity time integral of the trace of the Doppler flow profile.
Being non-invasive, accurate and inexpensive, Doppler ultrasound is a routine part of clinical ultrasound; it has high levels of reliability and reproducibility, and has been in clinical use since the 1960s.
Echocardiography
Echocardiography is a non-invasive method of quantifying cardiac output using ultrasound. Two-dimensional (2D) ultrasound and Doppler measurements are used together to calculate cardiac output. 2D measurement of the diameter (d) of the aortic annulus allows calculation of the flow cross-sectional area (CSA), which is then multiplied by the VTI of the Doppler flow profile across the aortic valve to determine the flow volume per beat (stroke volume, SV). The result is then multiplied by the heart rate (HR) to obtain cardiac output. Although used in clinical medicine, it has a wide test-retest variability. It is said to require extensive training and skill, but the exact steps needed to achieve clinically adequate precision have never been disclosed. 2D measurement of the aortic valve diameter is one source of noise; others are beat-to-beat variation in stroke volume and subtle differences in probe position. An alternative that is not necessarily more reproducible is the measurement of the pulmonary valve to calculate right-sided CO. Although it is in wide general use, the technique is time-consuming and is limited by the reproducibility of its component elements. In the manner used in clinical practice, precision of SV and CO is of the order of ±20%.
Transcutaneous
Ultrasonic Cardiac Output Monitor (USCOM) uses continuous wave Doppler to measure the Doppler flow profile VTI. It uses anthropometry to calculate aortic and pulmonary valve diameters and CSAs, allowing right-sided and left-sided Q measurements. In comparison to the echocardiographic method, USCOM significantly improves reproducibility and increases sensitivity of the detection of changes in flow. Real-time, automatic tracing of the Doppler flow profile allows beat-to-beat right-sided and left-sided Q measurements, simplifying operation and reducing the time of acquisition compared to conventional echocardiography. USCOM has been validated from 0.12 L/min to 18.7 L/min in new-born babies, children and adults. The method can be applied with equal accuracy to patients of all ages for the development of physiologically rational haemodynamic protocols. USCOM is the only method of cardiac output measurement to have achieved equivalent accuracy to the implantable flow probe. This accuracy has ensured high levels of clinical use in conditions including sepsis, heart failure and hypertension.
Transoesophageal
The Transoesophageal Doppler includes two main technologies; transoesophageal echocardiogram—which is primarily used for diagnostic purposes, and oesophageal Doppler monitoring—which is primarily used for the clinical monitoring of cardiac output. The latter uses continuous wave Doppler to measure blood velocity in the descending thoracic aorta. An ultrasound probe is inserted either orally or nasally into the oesophagus to mid-thoracic level, at which point the oesophagus lies alongside the descending thoracic aorta. Because the transducer is close to the blood flow, the signal is clear. The probe may require re-focussing to ensure an optimal signal. This method has good validation, is widely used for fluid management during surgery with evidence for improved patient outcome, and has been recommended by the UK's National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE). Oesophageal Doppler monitoring measures the velocity of blood and not true Q, therefore relies on a nomogram based on patient age, height and weight to convert the measured velocity into stroke volume and cardiac output. This method generally requires patient sedation and is accepted for use in both adults and children.
Pulse pressure methods
Pulse pressure (PP) methods measure the pressure in an artery over time to derive a waveform and use this information to calculate cardiac performance. However, any measure from the artery includes changes in pressure associated with changes in arterial function, for example compliance and impedance. Physiological or therapeutic changes in vessel diameter are assumed to reflect changes in Q. PP methods measure the combined performance of the heart and the blood vessels, thus limiting their application for measurement of Q. This can be partially compensated for by intermittent calibration of the waveform to another Q measurement method then monitoring the PP waveform. Ideally, the PP waveform should be calibrated on a beat-to-beat basis. There are invasive and non-invasive methods of measuring PP.
Finapres methodology
In 1967, the Czech physiologist Jan Peňáz invented and patented the volume clamp method of measuring continuous blood pressure. The principle of the volume clamp method is to dynamically provide equal pressures, on either side of an artery wall. By clamping the artery to a certain volume, inside pressure—intra-arterial pressure—balances outside pressure—finger cuff pressure. Peñáz decided the finger was the optimal site to apply this volume clamp method. The use of finger cuffs excludes the device from application in patients without vasoconstriction, such as in sepsis or in patients on vasopressors.
In 1978, scientists at BMI-TNO, the research unit of Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research at the University of Amsterdam, invented and patented a series of additional key elements that make the volume clamp work in clinical practice. These methods include the use of modulated infrared light in the optical system inside the sensor, the lightweight, easy-to-wrap finger cuff with velcro fixation, a new pneumatic proportional control valve principle, and a set point strategy for the determining and tracking the correct volume at which to clamp the finger arteries—the Physiocal system. An acronym for physiological calibration of the finger arteries, this Physiocal tracker was found to be accurate, robust and reliable.
The Finapres methodology was developed to use this information to calculate arterial pressure from finger cuff pressure data. A generalised algorithm to correct for the pressure level difference between the finger and brachial sites in patients was developed. This correction worked under all of the circumstances it was tested in—even when it was not designed for it—because it applied general physiological principles. This innovative brachial pressure waveform reconstruction method was first implemented in the Finometer, the successor of Finapres that BMI-TNO introduced to the market in 2000.
The availability of a continuous, high-fidelity, calibrated blood pressure waveform opened up the perspective of beat-to-beat computation of integrated haemodynamics, based on two notions: pressure and flow are inter-related at each site in the arterial system by their so-called characteristic impedance. At the proximal aortic site, the 3-element Windkessel model of this impedance can be modelled with sufficient accuracy in an individual patient with known age, gender, height and weight. According to comparisons of non-invasive peripheral vascular monitors, modest clinical utility is restricted to patients with normal and invariant circulation.
Invasive
Invasive PP monitoring involves inserting a manometer pressure sensor into an artery—usually the radial or femoral artery—and continuously measuring the PP waveform. This is generally done by connecting the catheter to a signal processing device with a display. The PP waveform can then be analysed to provide measurements of cardiovascular performance. Changes in vascular function, the position of the catheter tip or damping of the pressure waveform signal will affect the accuracy of the readings. Invasive PP measurements can be calibrated or uncalibrated.
Calibrated PP – PiCCO, LiDCO
(PULSION Medical Systems AG, Munich, Germany) and PulseCO (LiDCO Ltd, London, England) generate continuous Q by analysing the arterial PP waveform. In both cases, an independent technique is required to provide calibration of continuous Q analysis because arterial PP analysis cannot account for unmeasured variables such as the changing compliance of the vascular bed. Recalibration is recommended after changes in patient position, therapy or condition.
In PiCCO, transpulmonary thermodilution, which uses the Stewart-Hamilton principle but measures temperatures changes from central venous line to a central arterial line, i.e., the femoral or axillary arterial line, is used as the calibrating technique. The Q value derived from cold-saline thermodilution is used to calibrate the arterial PP contour, which can then provide continuous Q monitoring. The PiCCO algorithm is dependent on blood pressure waveform morphology (mathematical analysis of the PP waveform), and it calculates continuous Q as described by Wesseling and colleagues. Transpulmonary thermodilution spans right heart, pulmonary circulation and left heart, allowing further mathematical analysis of the thermodilution curve and giving measurements of cardiac filling volumes (), intrathoracic blood volume and extravascular lung water. Transpulmonary thermodilution allows for less invasive Q calibration but is less accurate than PA thermodilution and requires a central venous and arterial line with the accompanied infection risks.
In LiDCO, the independent calibration technique is lithium chloride dilution using the Stewart-Hamilton principle. Lithium chloride dilution uses a peripheral vein and a peripheral arterial line. Like PiCCO, frequent calibration is recommended when there is a change in Q. Calibration events are limited in frequency because they involve the injection of lithium chloride and can be subject to errors in the presence of certain muscle relaxants. The PulseCO algorithm used by LiDCO is based on pulse power derivation and is not dependent on waveform morphology.
Statistical analysis of arterial pressure – FloTrac/Vigileo
FloTrac/Vigileo (Edwards Lifesciences) is an uncalibrated, haemodynamic monitor based on pulse contour analysis. It estimates cardiac output (Q) using a standard arterial catheter with a manometer located in the femoral or radial artery. The device consists of a high-fidelity pressure transducer, which, when used with a supporting monitor (Vigileo or EV1000 monitor), derives left-sided cardiac output (Q) from a sample of arterial pulsations. The device uses an algorithm based on the Frank–Starling law of the heart, which states pulse pressure (PP) is proportional to stroke volume (SV). The algorithm calculates the product of the standard deviation of the arterial pressure (AP) wave over a sampled period of 20 seconds and a vascular tone factor (Khi, or χ) to generate stroke volume. The equation in simplified form is: , or, . Khi is designed to reflect arterial resistance; compliance is a multivariate polynomial equation that continuously quantifies arterial compliance and vascular resistance. Khi does this by analyzing the morphological changes of arterial pressure waveforms on a bit-by-bit basis, based on the principle that changes in compliance or resistance affect the shape of the arterial pressure waveform. By analyzing the shape of said waveforms, the effect of vascular tone is assessed, allowing the calculation of SV. Q is then derived using equation (). Only perfused beats that generate an arterial waveform are counted for in HR.
This system estimates Q using an existing arterial catheter with variable accuracy. These arterial monitors do not require intracardiac catheterisation from a pulmonary artery catheter. They require an arterial line and are therefore invasive. As with other arterial waveform systems, the short set-up and data acquisition times are benefits of this technology. Disadvantages include its inability to provide data regarding right-sided heart pressures or mixed venous oxygen saturation. The measurement of Stroke Volume Variation (SVV), which predicts volume responsiveness is intrinsic to all arterial waveform technologies. It is used for managing fluid optimisation in high-risk surgical or critically ill patients. A physiologic optimization program based on haemodynamic principles that incorporates the data pairs SV and SVV has been published.
Arterial monitoring systems are unable to predict changes in vascular tone; they estimate changes in vascular compliance. The measurement of pressure in the artery to calculate the flow in the heart is physiologically irrational and of questionable accuracy, and of unproven benefit. Arterial pressure monitoring is limited in patients off-ventilation, in atrial fibrillation, in patients on vasopressors, and in those with a dynamic autonomic system such as those with sepsis.
Uncalibrated, pre-estimated demographic data-free – PRAM
Pressure Recording Analytical Method (PRAM), estimates Q from the analysis of the pressure wave profile obtained from an arterial catheter—radial or femoral access. This PP waveform can then be used to determine Q. As the waveform is sampled at 1000 Hz, the detected pressure curve can be measured to calculate the actual beat-to-beat stroke volume. Unlike FloTrac, neither constant values of impedance from external calibration, nor form pre-estimated in vivo or in vitro data, are needed.
PRAM has been validated against the considered gold standard methods in stable condition and in various haemodynamic states. It can be used to monitor pediatric and mechanically supported patients.
Generally monitored haemodynamic values, fluid responsiveness parameters and an exclusive reference are provided by PRAM: Cardiac Cycle Efficiency (CCE). It is expressed by a pure number ranging from 1 (best) to -1 (worst) and it indicates the overall heart-vascular response coupling. The ratio between heart performance and consumed energy, represented as CCE "stress index", can be of paramount importance in understanding the patient's present and future courses.
Impedance cardiography
Impedance cardiography (often abbreviated as ICG, or Thoracic Electrical Bioimpedance (TEB)) measures changes in electrical impedance across the thoracic region over the cardiac cycle. Lower impedance indicates greater intrathoracic fluid volume and blood flow. By synchronizing fluid volume changes with the heartbeat, the change in impedance can be used to calculate stroke volume, cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance.
Both invasive and non-invasive approaches are used. The reliability and validity of the non-invasive approach has gained some acceptance, although there is not complete agreement on this point. The clinical use of this approach in the diagnosis, prognosis and therapy of a variety of diseases continues.
Non-invasive ICG equipment includes the Bio-Z Dx, the Niccomo, and TEBCO products by BoMed.
Ultrasound dilution
Ultrasound dilution (UD) uses body-temperature normal saline (NS) as an indicator introduced into an extracorporeal loop to create an atriovetricular (AV) circulation with an ultrasound sensor, which is used to measure the dilution then to calculate cardiac output using a proprietary algorithm. A number of other haemodynamic variables, such as total end-diastole volume (TEDV), central blood volume (CBV) and active circulation volume (ACVI) can be calculated using this method.
The UD method was firstly introduced in 1995. It was extensively used to measure flow and volumes with extracorporeal circuit conditions, such as ECMO and Haemodialysis, leading more than 150 peer reviewed publications. UD has now been adapted to intensive care units (ICU) as the COstatus device.
The UD method is based on ultrasound indicator dilution. Blood ultrasound velocity (1560–1585 m/s) is a function of total blood protein concentration—sums of proteins in plasma and in red blood red cells—and temperature. Injection of body-temperature normal saline (ultrasound velocity of saline is 1533 m/s) into a unique AV loop decreases blood ultrasound velocity, and produces dilution curves.
UD requires the establishment of an extracorporeal circulation through its unique AV loop with two pre-existing arterial and central venous lines in ICU patients. When the saline indicator is injected into the AV loop, it is detected by the venous clamp-on sensor on the loop before it enters the patient's heart's right atrium. After the indicator traverses the heart and lung, the concentration curve in the arterial line is recorded and displayed on the COstatus HCM101 Monitor. Cardiac output is calculated from the area of the concentration curve using the Stewart-Hamilton equation. UD is a non-invasive procedure, requiring only a connection to the AV loop and two lines from a patient. UD has been specialised for application in pediatric ICU patients and has been demonstrated to be relatively safe although invasive and reproducible.
Electrical cardiometry
Electrical cardiometry is a non-invasive method similar to Impedance cardiography; both methods measure thoracic electrical bioimpedance (TEB). The underlying model differs between the two methods; Electrical cardiometry attributes the steep increase of TEB beat-to-beat to the change in orientation of red blood cells. Four standard ECG electrodes are required for measurement of cardiac output. Electrical Cardiometry is a method trademarked by Cardiotronic, Inc., and shows promising results in a wide range of patients. It is currently approved in the US for use in adults, children and babies. Electrical cardiometry monitors have shown promise in postoperative cardiac surgical patients, in both haemodynamicially stable and unstable cases.
Magnetic resonance imaging
Velocity-encoded phase contrast Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the most accurate technique for measuring flow in large vessels in mammals. MRI flow measurements have been shown to be highly accurate compared to measurements made with a beaker and timer, and less variable than the Fick principle and thermodilution.
Velocity-encoded MRI is based on the detection of changes in the phase of proton precession. These changes are proportional to the velocity of the protons' movement through a magnetic field with a known gradient. When using velocity-encoded MRI, the result is two sets of images, one for each time point in the cardiac cycle. One is an anatomical image and the other is an image in which the signal intensity in each pixel is directly proportional to the through-plane velocity. The average velocity in a vessel, i.e., the aorta or the pulmonary artery, is quantified by measuring the average signal intensity of the pixels in the cross-section of the vessel then multiplying by a known constant. The flow is calculated by multiplying the mean velocity by the cross-sectional area of the vessel. This flow data can be used in a flow-versus-time graph. The area under the flow-versus-time curve for one cardiac cycle is the stroke volume. The length of the cardiac cycle is known and determines heart rate; Q can be calculated using equation (). MRI is typically used to quantify the flow over one cardiac cycle as the average of several heart beats. It is also possible to quantify the stroke volume in real-time on a beat-for-beat basis.
While MRI is an important research tool for accurately measuring Q, it is currently not clinically used for haemodynamic monitoring in emergency or intensive care settings. , cardiac output measurement by MRI is routinely used in clinical cardiac MRI examinations.
Dye dilution method
The dye dilution method is done by rapidly injecting a dye, indocyanine green, into the right atrium of the heart. The dye flows with the blood into the aorta. A probe is inserted into the aorta to measure the concentration of the dye leaving the heart at equal time intervals [0, T] until the dye has cleared. Let c(t) be the concentration of the dye at time t. By dividing the time intervals from [0, T] into subintervals Δt, the amount of dye that flows past the measuring point during the subinterval from to is:
where is the rate of flow that is being calculated. The total amount of dye is:
and, letting , the amount of dye is:
Thus, the cardiac output is given by:
where the amount of dye injected is known, and the integral can be determined using the concentration readings.
The dye dilution method is one of the most accurate methods of determining cardiac output during exercise. The error of a single calculation of cardiac output values at rest and during exercise is less than 5%. This method does not allow measurement of 'beat to beat' changes, and requires a cardiac output that is stable for approximately 10 s during exercise and 30 s at rest.
Factors influencing cardiac output
Cardiac output is primarily controlled by the oxygen requirement of tissues in the body. In contrast to other pump systems, the heart is a demand pump that does not regulate its own output. When the body has a high metabolic oxygen demand, the metabolically controlled flow through the tissues is increased, leading to a greater flow of blood back to the heart, leading to higher cardiac output.
The capacitance, also known as compliance, of the arterio-vascular channels that carry the blood also controls cardiac output. As the body's blood vessels actively expand and contract, the resistance to blood flow decreases and increases respectively. Thin-walled veins have about eighteen times the capacitance of thick-walled arteries because they are able to carry more blood by virtue of being more distensible.
From this formula, it is clear the factors affecting stroke volume and heart rate also affect cardiac output. The figure to the right illustrates this dependency and lists a few of these factors. A more detailed hierarchical illustration is provided in a subsequent figure.
Equation () reveals HR and SV to be the primary determinants of cardiac output Q. A detailed representation of these factors is illustrated in the figure to the right. The primary factors that influence HR are autonomic innervation plus endocrine control. Environmental factors, such as electrolytes, metabolic products, and temperature are not shown. The determinants of SV during the cardiac cycle are the contractility of the heart muscle, the degree of preload of myocardial distention prior to shortening and the afterload during ejection. Other factors such as electrolytes may be classified as either positive or negative inotropic agents.
Cardiac response
Clinical significance
When Q increases in a healthy but untrained individual, most of the increase can be attributed to an increase in heart rate (HR). Change of posture, increased sympathetic nervous system activity, and decreased parasympathetic nervous system activity can also increase cardiac output. HR can vary by a factor of approximately 3—between 60 and 180 beats per minute—while stroke volume (SV) can vary between , a factor of only 1.7.
Diseases of the cardiovascular system are often associated with changes in Q, particularly the pandemic diseases hypertension and heart failure. Increased Q can be associated with cardiovascular disease that can occur during infection and sepsis. Decreased Q can be associated with cardiomyopathy and heart failure. Sometimes, in the presence of ventricular disease associated with dilatation, EDV may vary. An increase in EDV could counterbalance LV dilatation and impaired contraction. From equation (), the resulting cardiac output Q may remain constant. The ability to accurately measure Q is important in clinical medicine because it provides for improved diagnosis of abnormalities and can be used to guide appropriate management.
Example values
Related measurements
Ejection fraction
Ejection fraction (EF) is a parameter related to SV. EF is the fraction of blood ejected by the left ventricle (LV) during the contraction or ejection phase of the cardiac cycle or systole. Prior to the start of systole, during the filling phase or diastole, the LV is filled with blood to the capacity known as end diastolic volume (EDV). During systole, the LV contracts and ejects blood until it reaches its minimum capacity known as end systolic volume (ESV). It does not completely empty. The following equations help translate the effect of EF and EDV on cardiac output Q, via SV.
Cardiac input
Cardiac input (CI) is the inverse operation of cardiac output. As cardiac output implies the volumetric expression of ejection fraction, cardiac input implies the volumetric injection fraction (IF).
IF = end diastolic volume (EDV) / end systolic volume (ESV)
Cardiac index
In all resting mammals of normal mass, CO value is a linear function of body mass with a slope of 0.1 L/(min kg). Fat has about 65% of oxygen demand per mass in comparison to other lean body tissues. As a result, the calculation of normal CO value in an obese subject is more complex; a single, common "normal" value of SV and CO for adults cannot exist. All blood flow parameters have to be indexed. It is accepted convention to index them by the Body Surface Area, BSA [m2], by DuBois & DuBois Formula, a function of height and weight:
The resulting indexed parameters are Stroke Index (SI) and Cardiac Index (CI). Stroke Index, measured in ml/beat/m2, is defined as
Cardiac Index, measured in L/min/m2, is defined as
The CO equation () for indexed parameters then changes to the following.The normal range for these indexed blood flow parameters are between 35 and 65 mL/beat/m2 for SI and between 2.5 and 4 L/(min m2) for CI.
Combined cardiac output
Combined cardiac output (CCO) is the sum of the outputs of the right and left sides of the heart. It is a useful measurement in fetal circulation, where cardiac outputs from both sides of the heart work partly in parallel by the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus, which directly supply the systemic circulation.
Historical methods
Fick principle
The Fick principle, first described by Adolf Eugen Fick in 1870, assumes the rate of oxygen consumption is a function of the rate of blood flow and the rate of oxygen picked up by the red blood cells. Application of the Fick principle involves calculating the oxygen consumed over time by measuring the oxygen concentration of venous blood and arterial blood. Q is calculated from these measurements as follows:
VO2 consumption per minute using a spirometer (with the subject re-breathing air) and a CO2 absorber
the oxygen content of blood taken from the pulmonary artery (representing mixed venous blood)
the oxygen content of blood from a cannula in a peripheral artery (representing arterial blood)
From these values, we know that:
where
CA is the oxygen content of arterial blood, and,
CV is the oxygen content of venous blood.
This allows us to say
and therefore calculate Q. (CA – CV) is also known as the arteriovenous oxygen difference.
While considered to be the most accurate method of measuring Q, the Fick method is invasive and requires time for sample analysis, and accurate oxygen consumption samples are difficult to acquire. There have been modifications to the Fick method where respiratory oxygen content is measured as part of a closed system and the consumed oxygen is calculated using an assumed oxygen consumption index, which is then used to calculate Q. Other variations use inert gases as tracers and measure the change in inspired and expired gas concentrations to calculate Q (Innocor, Innovision A/S, Denmark).
The calculation of the arterial and venous oxygen content of the blood is a straightforward process. Almost all oxygen in the blood is bound to hæmoglobin molecules in the red blood cells. Measuring the content of hæmoglobin in the blood and the percentage of saturation of hæmoglobin—the oxygen saturation of the blood—is a simple process and is readily available to physicians. Each gram of haemoglobin can carry 1.34 mL of O2; the oxygen content of the blood—either arterial or venous—can be estimated using the following formula:
Pulmonary artery thermodilution (trans-right-heart thermodilution)
The indicator method was further developed by replacing the indicator dye with heated or cooled fluid. Temperature changes rather than dye concentration are measured at sites in the circulation; this method is known as thermodilution. The pulmonary artery catheter (PAC) introduced to clinical practice in 1970, also known as the Swan-Ganz catheter, provides direct access to the right heart for thermodilution measurements. Continuous, invasive, cardiac monitoring in intensive care units has been mostly phased out. The PAC remains useful in right-heart study done in cardiac catheterisation laboratories.
The PAC is balloon tipped and is inflated, which helps "sail" the catheter balloon through the right ventricle to occlude a small branch of the pulmonary artery system. The balloon is then deflated. The PAC thermodilution method involves the injection of a small amount (10 mL) of cold glucose at a known temperature into the pulmonary artery and measuring the temperature a known distance away using the same catheter with temperature sensors set apart at a known distance.
The historically significant Swan-Ganz multi-lumen catheter allows reproducible calculation of cardiac output from a measured time-temperature curve, also known as the thermodilution curve. Thermistor technology enabled the observations that low CO registers temperature change slowly and high CO registers temperature change rapidly. The degree of temperature change is directly proportional to the cardiac output. In this unique method, three or four repeated measurements or passes are usually averaged to improve accuracy. Modern catheters are fitted with heating filaments that intermittently heat up and measure the thermodilution curve, providing serial Q measurements. These instruments average measurements over 2–9 minutes depending on the stability of the circulation, and thus do not provide continuous monitoring.
PAC use can be complicated by arrhythmias, infection, pulmonary artery rupture and damage to the right heart valve. Recent studies in patients with critical illnesses, sepsis, acute respiratory failure and heart failure suggest that use of the PAC does not improve patient outcomes. This clinical ineffectiveness may relate to its poor accuracy and sensitivity, which have been demonstrated by comparison with flow probes across a sixfold range of Q values. Use of PAC is in decline as clinicians move to less invasive and more accurate technologies for monitoring hæmodynamics.
References
External links
Hemodynamics training for Junior Medical Staff
The Gross Physiology of the Cardiovascular System
The Determinants of Cardiac Output (online video)
Basic Principles in Cardiac Physiology
Cardiovascular physiology | [
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242118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Henry%20%28folklore%29 | John Henry (folklore) | John Henry is an American folk hero. An African American freedman, he is said to have worked as a "steel-driving man"—a man tasked with hammering a steel drill into rock to make holes for explosives to blast the rock in constructing a railroad tunnel.
The story of John Henry is told in a classic blues folk song, which exists in many versions, and has been the subject of numerous stories, plays, books, and novels.
Legend
According to legend, John Henry's prowess as a steel-driver was measured in a race against a steam-powered rock drilling machine, a race that he won only to die in victory with hammer in hand as his heart gave out from stress. Various locations, including Big Bend Tunnel in West Virginia, Lewis Tunnel in Virginia, and Coosa Mountain Tunnel in Alabama, have been suggested as the site of the contest.
The contest involved John Henry as the hammer man working in partnership with a shaker, who would hold a chisel-like drill against mountain rock, while the hammer man struck a powerful blow with a sledgehammer. Then the shaker would begin rocking and rolling: wiggling and rotating the drill to optimize its bite. The steam drill machine could drill but it could not shake the chippings away, so its bit could not drill further and frequently broke down.
History
The historical accuracy of many of the aspects of the John Henry legend are subject to debate. According to researcher Scott Reynolds Nelson, the actual John Henry was born in 1848 in New Jersey and died of silicosis and not due to exhaustion of work.
Several locations have been put forth for the tunnel on which John Henry died.
Big Bend Tunnel
Sociologist Guy B. Johnson investigated the legend of John Henry in the late 1920s. He concluded that John Henry might have worked on the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway's (C&O Railway) Big Bend Tunnel but that "one can make out a case either for or against" it. That tunnel was built near Talcott, West Virginia, from 1870 to 1872 (according to Johnson's dating), and named for the big bend in the Greenbrier River nearby.
Some versions of the song refer to the location of John Henry's death as "The Big Bend Tunnel on the C. & O." In 1927, Johnson visited the area and found one man who said he had seen it.
When Johnson contacted Chief Engineer C. W. Johns of the C&O Railroad regarding Big Bend Tunnel, Johns replied that "no steam drills were ever used in this tunnel." When asked about documentation from the period, Johns replied that "all such papers have been destroyed by fire."
Talcott holds a yearly festival named for Henry, and a statue and memorial plaque have been placed along West Virginia Route 3 south of Talcott as it crosses over the Big Bend tunnel. (Coords )
Lewis Tunnel
In the 2006 book Steel Drivin' Man: John Henry, the Untold Story of an American Legend, historian Scott Reynolds Nelson detailed his discovering documentation of a 19-year-old African-American man alternately referred to as John Henry, John W. Henry, or John William Henry in previously unexplored prison records of the Virginia Penitentiary. At the time, penitentiary inmates were hired out as laborers to various contractors, and this John Henry was notated as having headed the first group of prisoners to be assigned tunnel work. Nelson also discovered the C&O's tunneling records, which the company believed had been destroyed by fire. Henry, like many African Americans, might have come to Virginia to work on the clean-up of the battlefields after the Civil War. Arrested and tried for burglary, John Henry was in the first group of convicts released by the warden to work as leased labor on the C&O Railway.
According to Nelson, objectionable conditions at the Virginia prison led the warden to believe that the prisoners, many of whom had been arrested on trivial charges, would be better clothed and fed if they were released as laborers to private contractors. (He subsequently changed his mind about this and became an opponent of the convict labor system.) In the C&O's tunneling records, Nelson found no evidence of a steam drill used in Big Bend Tunnel.
The records Nelson found indicate that the contest took place away at the Lewis Tunnel, between Talcott and Millboro, Virginia, where prisoners did indeed work beside steam drills night and day. Nelson also argues that the verses of the ballad about John Henry being buried near "the white house," "in the sand," somewhere that locomotives roar, mean that Henry's body was buried in a ditch behind the so-called white house of the Virginia State Penitentiary, which photos from that time indicate was painted white, and where numerous unmarked graves have been found.
Prison records for John William Henry stopped in 1873, suggesting that he was kept on the record books until it was clear that he was not coming back and had died. Nelson stresses that John Henry would have been representative of the many hundreds of convict laborers who were killed in unknown circumstances tunneling through the mountains or who died shortly afterwards of silicosis from dust created by the drills and blasting.
Coosa Mountain Tunnel
There is another tradition that John Henry's famous race took place not in Virginia or West Virginia, but rather near Dunnavant, Alabama. Professor Johnson in the late 1920s received letters saying that John Henry worked on the A.G.S. Railway's Cruzee or Curzey Mountain Tunnel in 1882, and a third letter saying it was at Oak Mountain in 1887, but he discounted these reports after the A.G.S. told him that the railway had no such tunnel. Retired chemistry professor and folklorist John Garst, of the University of Georgia, has argued that the contest happened at the Coosa Mountain Tunnel or the Oak Mountain Tunnel of the Columbus and Western Railway (now part of Norfolk Southern Railway) near Dunnavant on September 20, 1887.
Based on documentation that corresponds with the account of C. C. Spencer, who claimed in the 1920s to have witnessed the contest, Garst speculates that John Henry may have been a man named Henry who was born a slave to P. A. L. Dabney, the father of the chief engineer of that railroad, in 1850. Since 2007, the city of Leeds has honored John Henry's legend during an annual September festival, held on the third weekend in September, called the Leeds Downtown Folk Festival & John Henry Celebration.
Garst and Nelson have debated the merits of their divergent research conclusions. Other claims have been made over the years that place Henry and his contest in Kentucky or Jamaica.
In other media
The tale of John Henry has been used as a symbol in many cultural movements, including labor movements and the Civil Rights Movement.
Film
In 1995, John Henry was portrayed in the movie Tall Tale by Roger Aaron Brown. In the 1996 film Basquiat, the story of John Henry was told to Basquiat by his friend Benny as words of wisdom.
In 2018, a film centered around characters from classic America Folklore was announced to be in development. Intended to be the start of a new film franchise, John Henry and the Statesmen includes Dwayne Johnson cast to portray John Henry. Jake Kasdan will serve as director, based on original story by Tom Wheeler and Hiram Garcia. Johnson, Garcia, Kasdan, and Beau Flynn will serve as producers. The project will be a joint-venture production between Seven Bucks Productions, Netflix Original Films, and Flynn Picture Company; and distributed by Netflix as a streaming exclusive movie. In November 2021, producer Hiram Garcia stated that development on the project continues, while confirming that the most recent draft of the script had been completed while it requires additional work.
In 2020, Terry Crews played a modern-day adaptation of the character in John Henry. The plot centers around a former gang member who takes in two young teens who are on the run from the leader of his past. The film was released by Saban Films.
Animation
In 1946, animator George Pal adapted the tale of John Henry into a short film titled John Henry and the Inky-Poo as part of his theatrical stop-motion Puppetoons series. The short is considered a milestone in American cinema as one of the first films to have a positive view of African-American folklore.
In 1974, Nick Bosustow and David Adams co-produced an 11-minute animated short, The Legend of John Henry, for Paramount Pictures.
The character later appeared in a Walt Disney Feature Animation short film, John Henry (2000). Directed by Mark Henn, plans for theatrical releases in 2000 and 2001 fell through after having a limited Academy Award qualifying run in Los Angeles, a shorter version was released as the only new entry in direct-to-video release, Disney's American Legends (2002). It was eventually released in its original format as an interstitial on the Disney Channel, and later as part of the home video compilation Walt Disney Animation Studios Short Films Collection in 2015.
The 88th episode of season 5 of SpongeBob SquarePants, titled "SpongeBob vs. The Patty Gadget", is a reference to the story of John Henry. It features SpongeBob competing against a machine called the Patty Gadget in an attempt to keep his job at the Krusty Krab.
Television
Danny Glover played the character in the series, Shelley Duvall's Tall Tales & Legends from 1985–1987. Duvall served as the series' creator, presenter, narrator, and executive producer. The show aired on Showtime Network as well as Disney Channel, and received a Primetime Emmy Award.
John Henry was mentioned in the season 7 premiere of Cheers.
The story of John Henry was prominently featured in a 2008 episode of the CBS crime drama, Cold Case.
In season 2 of the Smart Guy episode "TJ versus the machine", Floyd and TJ mentioned John Henry and his victory over the steam drill.
John Henry is briefly mentioned in an episode of 30 Rock, during season 6 titled “The Ballad of Kenneth Parcell”.
In Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles season 2 episode 10 John Henry is introduced both as the name of ZeiraCorp's A.I. and as the tale of a man who is unable to halt progress.
On the adult swim series, Saul of the Mole Men, John Henry (played by Tommy "Tiny" Lister) has been living at the centre of the Earth since his victory over the steam drill, having become a cyborg at sometime in the intervening centuries. He befriends and later sacrifices himself to save protagonist Saul Malone.
John Henry is also referenced in episode 4 of season 6 of the television show How I Met Your Mother, his legend briefly told through Marshall's song.
In the season 3 finale, "Kimmy Bites an Onion!", of Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt a version of The "Ballad of John Henry" is played with lyrics surmising the fight between Kimmy and a robot to become a crossing-guard. Like the legend, Kimmy gives her all to beat the robot and in doing so, effectively sacrifices her life.
In the Gravity Falls season 2 episode "The Golf War", an anthropomorphic golf ball named "Big Henry" undertakes the task of pushing a golf ball through a cave which has experienced a gas leak, as the only person who is strong enough to perform such a task. Once he reaches the other side and delivers the ball to its destination, he collapses due to gas inhalation.
Music
The story of John Henry is traditionally told through two types of songs: ballads, commonly called "The Ballad of John Henry", and "hammer songs" (a type of work song), each with wide-ranging and varying lyrics. Some songs, and some early folk historian research, conflate the songs about John Henry with those of John Hardy, a West Virginian outlaw. Ballads about John Henry's life typically contain four major components: a premonition by John Henry as a child that steel-driving would lead to his death, the lead-up to and the results of the legendary race against the steam hammer, Henry's death and burial, and the reaction of his wife.
The well-known narrative ballad of "John Henry" is usually sung in an upbeat tempo. Hammer songs associated with the "John Henry" ballad, however, are not. Sung more slowly and deliberately, often with a pulsating beat suggestive of swinging the hammer, these songs usually contain the lines "This old hammer killed John Henry / but it won't kill me." Nelson explains that:
... workers managed their labor by setting a "stint," or pace, for it. Men who violated the stint were shunned ... Here was a song that told you what happened to men who worked too fast: they died ugly deaths; their entrails fell on the ground. You sang the song slowly, you worked slowly, you guarded your life, or you died.
There is some controversy among scholars over which came first, the ballad or the hammer songs. Some scholars have suggested that the "John Henry" ballad grew out of the hammer songs, while others believe that the two were always entirely separate.
Songs featuring the story of John Henry have been recorded by many musical artists and bands of different ethnic backgrounds. These include:
Charley Crockett
Mississippi Fred McDowell
McDowell’s version is included on the ‘’Ann Arbor Blues Festival 1969: Vols 1&2’’ 2019 release.
Doc Watson
Burl Ives
Josh White
John Hartford (on Goin' Back to Dixie)
Cannonball Adderley
"Big Man- The Legend of John Henry" starring Joe Williams, Randy Crawford and Robert Guillaume, released 1975 on Fantasy Records F-79006 [r18596284]
Bill Monroe
John Hartford (on Goin' Back to Dixie)
Dave Van RonkDave Van Ronk Sings Ballads, Blues, and a Spiritual
Kabir Suman
Hemanga Biswas
Johnny Cash
Drive-By Truckers (on their The Dirty South album)
Joe Bonamassa
Furry Lewis
Big Bill Broonzy
Pink Anderson
Fiddlin' John Carson
Uncle Dave Macon
J. E. Mainer
Leon Bibb
Lead Belly
Woody Guthrie
Paul Robeson
Pete Seeger
Van Morrison
Bruce Springsteen
Gillian Welch
Cuff the Duke
Ramblin' Jack Elliott
Jerry Reed
Jerry Lee Lewis
Merle Travis, Jimmy Dean
Harry Belafonte
Mississippi John Hurt (as "Spike Driver Blues")
Lonnie Donegan
Jack Warshaw
Jason Molina
Trail West
Stafford Galli
John Fahey
Steve Earle
Justin Townes Earle
The Limeliters
Cecile McLorin Salvant
Those Poor Bastards
Marcus Martin
Emily Saliers
Grayson & Whitter
Willie Watson
The story also inspired the Aaron Copland's orchestral composition "John Henry" (1940, revised 1952), the 1994 chamber music piece Come Down Heavy by Evan Chambers and the 2009 chamber music piece Steel Hammer by the composer Julia Wolfe.
They Might Be Giants named their fifth studio album after John Henry.
The American cowpunk band Nine Pound Hammer is named after the traditional description of the hammer John Henry wielded.
Bengalee singer-songwriter and musician Hemanga Biswas (1912– 1987), considered to be as the Father of the Indian People's Theater Association Movement in Assam inspired by ’John Henry’, the American ballad translated the song in Bengali as well as the Assamese language and also composed its music for which he was well recognized among the masses. Bangladeshi mass singer Fakir Alamgir later covered Biswas' version of the song.
Literature
Henry is the subject of the 1931 Roark Bradford novel John Henry, illustrated by noted woodcut artist J. J. Lankes. The novel was adapted into a stage musical in 1940, starring Paul Robeson in the title role. According to Steven Carl Tracy, Bradford's works were influential in broadly popularizing the John Henry legend beyond railroad and mining communities and outside of African American oral histories. In a 1933 article published in The Journal of Negro Education, Bradford's John Henry was criticized for "making over a folk-hero into a clown." A 1948 obituary for Bradford described John Henry as "a better piece of native folklore than Paul Bunyan."
Ezra Jack Keats's John Henry: An American Legend, published in 1965, is a notable picture book chronicling the history of John Henry and portraying him as the "personification of the medieval Everyman who struggles against insurmountable odds and wins."
Colson Whitehead's 2001 novel John Henry Days uses the John Henry myth as story background. Whitehead fictionalized the John Henry Days festival in Talcott, West Virginia and the release of the John Henry postage stamp in 1996.
The textbook titled American Music: A Panorama by Daniel Kingman displays the lyrics of the ballad titled "John Henry", explores its style and relates the history of the hero. That's in Chapter 2: The African–American Tradition.
In the comic series DC: The New Frontier, an African American man named John Wilson becomes a vigilante in order to battle the Ku Klux Klan after his family is lynched. He names himself after John Henry and even uses John Henry's weapons/tools, two iron sledgehammers. For three months, he plagues the Klan in Tennessee. Unfortunately, he was wounded, discovered by a white girl, was caught by the Klan, and was burned alive.
The DC Comics superhero Steel's civilian name, "John Henry Irons," is inspired by John Henry. The story of John Henry is further referenced by Steel's weapon of choice, a sledgehammer. In DC's Super Friends #21 (January 2010), Superman encountered the actual John Henry after being placed in the folk tale by the Queen of Fables.
Tristan Strong Punches a Hole in the Sky by Kwame M’balia is a juvenile fantasy novel about seventh grader Tristan Strong who travels to another world, Alke, and encounters black African and African-American gods. These include Br'er Rabbit, Anansi, and John Henry. John Henry is a protector and defender of the inhabitants of Alke against ‘haints’ and monsters. In the second novel of the trilogy, John Henry is nearly defeated by his own hammer, wielded by a spirit gone mad with grief.
He appears as a character in Peter Clines' novel Paradox Bound.
He makes an appearance in the IDW Publishing miniseries The Transformers: Hearts of Steel
United States postage stamp
In 1996, the US Postal Service issued a John Henry postage stamp. It was part of a set honoring American folk heroes that included Paul Bunyan, Pecos Bill and Casey at the Bat.
Video games
John Henry was featured as a fictional character in the 2014 video game Wasteland 2. The story is referenced by various NPCs throughout the game and is also available in full as a series of in game books which tell the story of the competition between John Henry and a contingent of robotic workers.
He also appeared as a playable character in the 3DS game Code Name: S.T.E.A.M..
In the story of Team Fortress 2 comics, he was the first Heavy of the original BLU team.
In Civilization IV, the quote "Before that steam drill shall beat me down, I'll die with my hammer in my hand." appears when steel is researched.
The Big Bend Tunnel is a location of the multiplayer videogame Fallout 76, set in Appalachia region. The story surrounding the Miner Miracles quest is a reference to John Henry's competition.
See also
John Henryism
Alexey Stakhanov, Soviet miner
Paul Bunyan
Rosie the Riveter
References
Further reading
Johnson, Guy B. (1929). John Henry: Tracking Down a Negro Legend. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press
Chappell, Louis W. (1933). John Henry; A Folk-Lore Study. Reprinted 1968. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press
Keats, Ezra Jack (1965). John Henry, An American Legend. New York: Pantheon Books.
Williams, Brett (1983). John Henry: A Bio-Bibliography by Brett Williams. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press
Nelson, Scott. "Who Was John Henry? Railroad Construction, Southern Folklore, and the Birth of Rock and Roll", Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas Summer 2005 2(2): 53–80;
External links
Lyrics to various versions of "John Henry"
Survey of books about the legend of John Henry
Essay on resistance and rebellion in the legend of John Henry
John Henry bibliography compiled by the Archive of Folk Culture staff at the Library of Congress
American folk songs
Fictional African-American people
Fictional characters from Alabama
Fictional characters from Missouri
Fictional characters from West Virginia
Folklore of the Southern United States
Legendary American people
People whose existence is disputed
Folklore
Tall tales
West Virginia folklore | [
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242119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Henry%20%28horse%29 | John Henry (horse) | John Henry (March 9, 1975 – October 8, 2007) was an American champion Thoroughbred racehorse. He was sired by Ole Bob Bowers (by Prince Blessed) out of Once Double (by Double Jay). John Henry had 39 wins with $6,591,860 in earnings, was twice voted the Eclipse Award for Horse of the Year, and was listed as #23 on Blood Horse magazine's Top 100 U.S. Racehorses of the 20th Century.
Background
The horse was named after the folk hero John Henry. As a colt, John Henry had a habit of tearing steel water and feed buckets off stall walls and stomping them flat. This reminded his owners of the legendary John Henry, who was known as a "steel-drivin' man". He was gelded both for his temperament as well as his lack of good breeding, which meant that he would have been unlikely to be in much demand as a breeding stallion. John Henry was a Golden Chance Farm foal. His sire, Ole Bob Bowers, was sired by Prince Blessed and his dam, Once Double, was sired by Double Jay, a graded stakes race winner.
John Henry was back at the knee (a flaw in conformation that generally makes a long racing career unlikely), undersized, and plainly bred. He was sold as a yearling for $1,100 at the Keeneland January Mixed sale to John Callaway who is credited with giving John Henry his name.
Racing record
John Henry had a series of trainers, and earned money in minor stakes, allowance races, and mid-level claiming races. In 1978, New York City businessman Sam Rubin and his wife Dorothy paid $25,000 sight-unseen for the three-year-old John Henry. Racing under the Rubins' Dotsam Stable banner, he was first conditioned by trainer Robert Donato. Under him, John Henry won 6 of 19 starts and $120,000, starting the year as a cheap claimer and getting his first graded stakes win in the Round Table Handicap at Arlington Park.
In 1979, John Henry was given to a new trainer, Lefty Nickerson. Under him, John Henry won 4 of 11 races in 1979. When the grass season was over in New York, Rubin decided to send the horse to California under trainer Ron McAnally. Under McAnally, John Henry won six stakes races in a row.
Racing through the age of nine, John Henry won the 1981 Santa Anita Handicap and repeated in 1982 after Perrault was disqualified. He is one of only three horses with back-to-back victories in the race's 72-year history. He also won the Arlington Million Stakes twice and won three renewals of both the Hollywood Invitational Handicap and the Oak Tree Invitational Stakes, two Grade I turf stakes in Southern California. He won one of America's most important races for older horses, the 1981 Jockey Club Gold Cup at Belmont Park, at 1½ miles on the dirt. This victory clinched his first Horse of the Year title, and as noted on the CBS telecast of that race (October 10, 1981, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DHexkk8Xhl0), becoming the sport's all-time leading money earner.
A bronze statue called Against All Odds, created by Edwin Bogucki, stands on a balcony overlooking the paddock at Arlington Park. It commemorates one of John Henry's most famous finishes; in 1981, at the inaugural Arlington Million, John Henry won over 5-year-old The Bart in a photo finish.
On December 11, 1983, John Henry became the first racehorse to surpass $4 million in career earnings when he won the Hollywood Turf Cup Stakes with jockey Chris McCarron at Hollywood Park Racetrack.
John Henry's last race was the 1984 Ballantine Scotch Classic at the Meadowlands. As he took the lead in the stretch, Meadowlands track announcer Dave Johnson exclaimed, "And down the stretch they come! The old man, John Henry, takes command!" He pulled away to his 39th career victory and his second Horse of the Year title. The final time of 2:13 equaled the track record for 1⅜ mile.
John Henry was a late entry into the Inaugural Breeders Cup in 1984 but a strained ligament in his left foreleg caused him to be withdrawn from the race and retired.
John Henry's final race record stood at 83 starts, 39 wins, 15 seconds, and 9 thirds with $6,591,860 in earnings. He was twice voted the Eclipse Award for Horse of the Year in 1981 and 1984; 1981 being the first unanimous election of the winner. That feat was not repeated until 2015 when Triple Crown winner American Pharoah was also elected unanimously.
Retirement
After retirement, Rubin sent John Henry to the Hall of Champions at Kentucky Horse Park in Lexington. He joined three time Horse of the Year Forego, as well as Standardbred Rambling Willie, and Throroughbreds Rossi Gold and A Letter To Harry. The Hall Of Champions would in time become home to retired Thoroughbred champions Cigar, Da Hoss and Funny Cide.
Regular rider Chris McCarron often described John Henry as very smart, commenting: "I'm just along for the ride." John Henry, in the view of many followers of thoroughbred racing, was one of the best come-from-behind horses (or "closers") in recent history. In The Blood-Horse ranking of the top 100 U.S. thoroughbred champions of the 20th Century, he was ranked #23. John Henry was inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in Saratoga Springs, New York in 1990.
Death
John Henry was euthanized at 7:05 pm EDT (2305 UTC) on October 8, 2007, at the age of 32. He developed serious kidney problems and stopped responding to veterinary treatment, so the decision was made to put him down. He was buried on the night of his death in front of the Hall of Champions at a spot in front of his paddock. A memorial service was held at the park on October 19.
John Henry's accomplishments
Oldest horse to win Eclipse Award for Horse of the Year - at age 9
Oldest horse to win a Grade 1 race - at age 9 (tied)
Only horse to win the Arlington Million (G1) twice - 1981 & 1984
One of only three horses to win the Santa Anita Handicap (G1) twice - 1981 & 1982
Won more graded stakes than any other Thoroughbred - 25
Retired as the world's richest thoroughbred - July 28, 1985
Inducted into National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in 1990
Raced in 46 graded (G1, G2, G3) races
Raced on 18 different North American race tracks
Won inaugural running of the Arlington Million (1981)
Oldest horse at age 9 to win the Arlington Million (1984)
Won on 13 different North American Race Tracks
Pedigree
Through his sire, John Henry was inbred 4 × 4 to Bull Dog, meaning that this stallion appears twice in the fourth generation of his pedigree.
See also
List of leading Thoroughbred racehorses
Repeat winners of horse races
References
"Retirement Home" UPI August 2, 1985
"John Henry, at 11, is returning to races" New York Times May 1, 1986
"No Comeback" New York Times August 13, 1986
John Henry's page in the United States' Hall of Fame, with photo and videos
2005 Bloodhorse.com article Fans Celebrate John Henry's 30th Birthday
Haskin, Steve. John Henry Eclipse Press (2001)
John Henry at the Kentucky Horse Park
External links
A blog site dedicated to John Henry with current information and updates
Official website of the documentary film
1975 racehorse births
2007 racehorse deaths
Racehorses bred in Kentucky
Racehorses trained in the United States
Horse racing track record setters
American Grade 1 Stakes winners
American Thoroughbred Horse of the Year
United States Thoroughbred Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Eclipse Award winners
Horse monuments
Thoroughbred family 8-c | [
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242120 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Henry%20%28Maryland%20politician%29 | John Henry (Maryland politician) | John Henry (November 1750December 16, 1798) was the eighth Governor of Maryland and member of the United States Senate. He was born at his family's estate (Weston), located near Vienna in Dorchester County.
Early life
John Henry was born in November 1750. He was the son of Dorothy Rider and Col. John Henry and the grandson of Rev. John Henry, a Presbyterian minister who came to America in the early 1700s. His grandmother, Mary King, was the daughter of an Irish baronet. His mother was a descendant of one of the early settlers of Dorchester County.
Henry attended West Nottingham Academy in Cecil County, Maryland and graduated from the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University) in 1769; he then studied law at the Middle Temple (one of the Inns of Court where English barristers are trained) in London. He returned to the United States in 1775 and practiced law in Dorchester County.
Career
He was a member of the Episcopal Church and the United States Democratic-Republican Party. Originally, he was a member of the Federalist Party.
Henry served as a member of Maryland House of Delegates from 1777 to 1780 and a member of the Maryland State Senate from 1780 to 1790. During that time he was chosen as a delegate to the Continental Congress from Maryland from 1778 to 1780 and from 1785 to 1786; during his service, he was a member of the committee that prepared the ordinance for the government of the Northwest Territory. He was elected as an inaugural Senator from Maryland, serving 1789 as a Federalist till his resignation on December 10, 1797, to assume the Governorship.
In the 1796 election, Henry received two electoral votes for President of the United States. He served as Governor of Maryland from 1797 to 1798. In this capacity, he exchanged letters with then Vice-President, Thomas Jefferson.
Personal life
On March 6, 1787, Henry was married to Margaret Campbell (1769–1789), the daughter of John and Elizabeth (née Goldsborough) Campbell of Caroline County. Her sister married Philip Francis and was the grandmother of Gov. Philip Francis Thomas. Margaret died, aged 20, shortly after the birth of their second son. Their two sons were:
John Campbell Henry (1787–1857), who married Mary Nevett Steele (1789–1873), the daughter of James Steele (1760–1816) and a sister of U.S. Rep. John Nevett Steele and Isaac Nevett Steele, a Baltimore lawyer.
Francis Jenkins Henry (b. 1789), who died unmarried soon after becoming of age.
He died in Dorchester County, at Weston, the same estate where he had been born. Henry is buried in Christ Episcopal Church Cemetery in Cambridge.
Descendants
Henry was a grandfather to John and Mary's eight children, John Francis Henry (1813–1847), Dr. James Winfield Henry (1815–1889), Francis Jenkins Henry (1816–1902), Catherine Henry Lloyd (1818–1886), Daniel Maynadier Henry (1823–1899), Isabella Elizabeth Henry Steele (1825–1912), Mary Henry Goldsborough (1828–1911), Rider Henry (1828–1900), and Charlotte Augusta Page Henry Goldsborough (1834–1908).
External links
Notes
Sources
Henry’s Congressional biography
John Henry – Delmarva Heritage Series
1750 births
1798 deaths
People from Dorchester County, Maryland
People of colonial Maryland
American people of Scottish descent
American Episcopalians
Continental Congressmen from Maryland
Pro-Administration Party United States senators from Maryland
Federalist Party United States senators from Maryland
Maryland Democratic-Republicans
Governors of Maryland
Democratic-Republican Party state governors of the United States
Candidates in the 1796 United States presidential election
Princeton University alumni | [
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242123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Diary%20of%20a%20Nobody | The Diary of a Nobody | The Diary of a Nobody is an English comic novel written by the brothers George and Weedon Grossmith, with illustrations by the latter. It originated as an intermittent serial in Punch magazine in 1888–89 and first appeared in book form, with extended text and added illustrations, in 1892. The Diary records the daily events in the lives of a London clerk, Charles Pooter, his wife Carrie, his son William Lupin, and numerous friends and acquaintances over a period of 15 months.
Before their collaboration on the Diary, the brothers each pursued successful careers on the stage. George originated nine of the principal comedian roles in the Gilbert and Sullivan operas over 12 years from 1877 to 1889. He also established a national reputation as a piano sketch entertainer and wrote a large number of songs and comic pieces. Before embarking on his stage career, Weedon had worked as an artist and illustrator. The Diary was the brothers' only mature collaboration. Most of its humour derives from Charles Pooter's unconscious and unwarranted sense of his own importance, and the frequency with which this delusion is punctured by gaffes and minor social humiliations. In an era of rising expectations within the lower-middle classes, the daily routines and modest ambitions described in the Diary were instantly recognised by its contemporary readers, and provided later generations with a glimpse of the past that it became fashionable to imitate.
Although its initial public reception was muted, the Diary came to be recognised by critics as a classic work of humour, and it has never been out of print. It helped to establish a genre of humorous popular fiction based on lower or lower-middle class aspirations, and was the forerunner of numerous fictitious diary novels in the later 20th century. The Diary has been the subject of several stage and screen adaptations, including Ken Russell's "silent film" treatment of 1964, a four-part TV film scripted by Andrew Davies in 2007, and a widely praised stage version in 2011, in which an all-male cast of three played all the parts.
Authorship and origin
The Diary of a Nobody was the work of George Grossmith and his brother Weedon Grossmith, the sons of a court reporter and part-time stage entertainer, also named George. The younger George followed his father, first as a reporter and later on the stage; the 7-years-younger Weedon studied at the West London School of Art and had some success as a portrait painter before becoming a comic actor. The brothers were fascinated with the stage at an early age. In 1864, at 17 and 10, they hosted a complex programme of musical and dramatic entertainment in their parents' garden at Haverstock Hill. This included a 20-minute burlesque version of Hamlet, in which George played the title role; Weedon was Ophelia.
By 1877 the younger George Grossmith had established himself as a comic piano sketch entertainer in provincial institutes and literary societies. In that year he was seen by Arthur Sullivan and, separately, by W. S. Gilbert, in performances of their one-act comic opera Trial by Jury. Impressed, they engaged him to play the comic lead in their new, full-length work, The Sorcerer. Thereafter, Grossmith created the leading comic role in each of Gilbert and Sullivan's long-running comic operas until The Yeomen of the Guard, which closed in 1889. While appearing in the operas, Grossmith continued his piano entertainment career at private parties and matinees, writing and composing his own material. He became the most successful comic entertainer of his day, writing numerous operettas, around 100 piano sketches, some 600 songs and short piano pieces, and three books. For Punch magazine in 1884 he provided a series of short sketches based on his experiences as a court reporter at Bow Street Magistrates' Court. In 1889, Grossmith ended his connection with Gilbert and Sullivan to pursue his piano sketch career full-time and continued to perform until 1908. He died in 1912.
As an artist Weedon Grossmith exhibited at the Royal Academy and at the Grosvenor Gallery. He also contributed illustrations to Punch and the prestigious Art Journal. He was nevertheless dissatisfied with his financial prospects as an artist, and by 1885 was pursuing an alternative career as an actor. He continued his career on the stage with considerable success until 1918, making his name playing roles he described as "cowards, cads and snobs", and as browbeaten small men under the thumb of authority. He wrote several plays, of which The Night of the Party (1901) was his most successful, and from 1894 was engaged in the management of two West End theatres. He died in 1919. The literary scholar Peter Morton, who published an annotated edition of the Diary in 2009, suggests that many of the events depicted in it were drawn from the brothers' own home experiences, and that Weedon, "something of a scapegrace compared with his perfectionist brother", was the model for Lupin.
Synopsis
The diary begins on 3 April of an unstated year, and runs for approximately 15 months. In a short prologue, readers are informed that Charles Pooter and his wife Caroline (Carrie) have just moved to a new home at "The Laurels", Brickfield Terrace, Holloway. Mr Pooter is a City of London clerk with Perkupps, possibly an accountancy or private banking firm (though their business is not explicitly stated). The couple's 20-year-old son William works as a bank clerk in Oldham. The first entries describe the Pooters' daily lives and introduce their particular friends, such as their neighbour Gowing, the enthusiastic bicyclist Cummings, and the Jameses from Sutton. From the beginning a pattern is set whereby the small vexations of the Pooters' daily lives are recounted, many of them arising from Pooter's unconscious self-importance and pomposity. Trouble with servants, tradesmen, and office juniors occur regularly, along with minor social embarrassments and humiliations.
The rare formal social events in the Pooters' lives are particular magnets for misfortune. They receive an invitation from the Lord Mayor of London to attend a ball at the Mansion House for "Representatives of Trade and Commerce". After days of keen anticipation they are dismayed, when they arrive, to find that the gathering is undistinguished. Pooter is snobbishly upset to be greeted familiarly by his local ironmonger, even more so when this tradesman appears to be on social terms with some of the more important guests. Pooter overindulges in champagne and humiliates Carrie by collapsing on the dance floor.
In the summer their son arrives from Oldham and informs his parents that he wishes henceforth to be called by his middle name, "Lupin". He has been dismissed from his bank post for idleness; although dismayed, Pooter sees this as a chance to get his son into Perkupps. Lupin joins the couple for their annual holiday week in Broadstairs, but relationships are strained by Lupin's "fast" habits. On their return, Pooter's efforts to find Lupin a job at first prove fruitless. The boy is interested in amateur dramatics and joins an organisation called the "Holloway Comedians". With the help of Pooter's employer Mr. Perkupp, Lupin finally secures a clerical position with a firm of stockbrokers in November. He then shocks his parents by announcing his engagement.
Lupin's fiancée, Daisy Mutlar, is the sister of one of his theatrical friends and is, he says, "the nicest, prettiest, and most accomplished girl he ever met". Pooter is disappointed when he meets her: "She is a big young woman... at least eight years older than Lupin. I did not even think her good-looking". Nevertheless, in her honour the Pooters give a large dinner-party, to which Pooter invites Mr Perkupp. The party becomes boisterous; Mr Perkupp arrives at a particularly raucous moment, and decides not to stay. Pooter believes the party has failed, and is despondent, although Carrie deems it a great success. However, within a few days, Lupin informs them that the engagement is off.
In the following weeks Lupin often brings the Holloway troupe back to "The Laurels". These occasions are graced with the unexplained presence of a complete stranger, Mr Padge, who regularly occupies the best chair as if by right. Lupin opts out of the family's Christmas celebrations, and then announces, to everyone's astonishment, that the engagement to Daisy is back on. Christmas passes happily enough, despite a supper party which degenerates into a food fight instigated by Daisy.
In the New Year, Pooter is promoted to senior clerk at Perkupp's, and his salary raised by £100 a year, but his achievement is overshadowed by Lupin's announcement that he has just profited by £200 through a timely shares speculation. Lupin persuades his father, and Gowing and Cummings, to invest small sums in Parachikka Chlorates, the source of his gains. The Pooters meet a new friend of Lupin's, Mr Murray Posh, who Pooter thinks is somewhat over-familiar with Daisy and might, he warns Lupin, be a rival for her hand. Lupin pooh-poohs this notion. Later, Pooter learns that he and his friends have lost their investment; indeed, Lupin's stockbroking firm has collapsed entirely and its principal has fled. Lupin is thus unemployed; worse, that same day the engagement of Daisy Mutlar to Murray Posh is announced. Lupin's only consolation, he tells his father, is that he persuaded Posh to invest £600 in Parachikka Chlorates. However, in Pooter's eyes the situation is redeemed when Mr Perkupp offers Lupin a clerkship.
April begins with another social disaster. The Pooters receive an invitation to a ball given by the East Acton Rifle Brigade, which they imagine will be a glittering occasion. It turns out to be shabby and down-at-heel; furthermore, having liberally supplied fellow-guests—among them Mr Padge—with food and drink which he thinks is free, Pooter is presented at the end with a large bill that he can barely afford to pay. Other social events also turn sour: a lunch party with Mr Finsworth, the father of an old friend, is marred by some unfortunate comments by Pooter on the Finsworth family portraits. On another occasion they meet a loud and over-opinionated American, Mr Hardfur Huttle, who, Pooter realises, is like a mature version of Lupin.
Lupin is sacked from Perkupps for persuading their top client, Mr Crowbillon, to take his business to another firm. Pooter is mortified, but the new firm rewards Lupin with a £25 commission and a job at £200 a year. Lupin resumes his friendship with Murray Posh and Daisy, who is now Mrs Posh. Lupin moves to lodgings in Bayswater, where Pooter and Carrie are invited to dine and where they meet Murray's sister, known as "Lillie Girl", a woman of around 30. Pooter learns that Murray Posh has settled £10,000 on both Daisy and "Lillie Girl".
Pooter is summoned to meet Hardfur Huttle, who offers Perkupps a new client to replace Mr Crowbillon. Perkupp is so grateful to Pooter for this introduction that he buys up the freehold of "The Laurels" and presents the deeds to Pooter. As the couple celebrate, a letter arrives from Lupin announcing his engagement to "Lillie Girl": "We shall be married in August, and among our guests we hope to see your old friends Gowing and Cummings".
Publication and reception history
The Diary made its initial appearance as an intermittent serial in the satirical weekly magazine Punch. The first of the 26 instalments was announced in the issue of 26 May 1888 with a brief editorial note: "As everybody who is anybody is publishing Reminiscences, Diaries, Notes, Autobiographies, and Recollections, we are sincerely grateful to 'A Nobody' for permitting us to add to the historic collection". The diary entry dates are several weeks behind the dates on which they appear in Punch.
The Punch serialisation ended in May 1889 with the diary entry for 21 March, which records the Pooters and their friends celebrating the minor triumph of Lupin's appointment as a clerk at Perkupps. That was the intended end of the diary; however, when the writers were preparing the manuscript for publication as a book, they added a further four months' entries to the text, and included 26 illustrations by Weedon Grossmith.
In June 1892 J.W. Arrowsmith Ltd published the Diary in book form, although its critical and popular success was not evident until the third edition appeared in October 1910. After the First World War the book's popularity continued to grow; regular reprintings and new editions ensured that thereafter the book was never out of print. Audiobook versions have been available since 1982. The writer Robert McCrum, in a personal list of "The 100 greatest novels of all time" published in The Observer newspaper, listed the Diary at number 35.
Early indifference
The Punch serialisation attracted little critical comment; The Athenaeums literary critic thought the series "may have escaped unnoticed amid better jokes". When the Diary was published as a book, Punch heralded it in its issue of 23 July 1892 as "very funny", adding: "not without a touch of pathos". However, apart from a warmly approving report in The Saturday Review, the book's initial critical reception was lukewarm. The Reviews critic thought the book "admirable, and in some of its touches [it] goes close to genius", with a natural and irresistible appeal: "The Diary has amused us from cover to cover". This contrasted with the negative judgement of The Athenaeum, which opined that "the book has no merit to compensate for its hopeless vulgarity, not even that of being amusing". It questioned the tastefulness of jokes aimed almost exclusively at the poverty of underpaid city clerks, and concluded: "Besides, it is all so dull". The Speakers critic thought the book "a study in vulgarity", while The New York Times, reviewing the first American edition, found the work largely incomprehensible: "There is that kind of quiet, commonplace, everyday joking in it which we are to suppose is highly satisfactory to our cousins across the water ... Our way of manufacturing fun is different". Although details of sales figures are not given, Arrowsmiths later acknowledged that the early editions of the book did not have a wide public impact.
Growing reputation
By 1910 the Diary was beginning to achieve a reputation in London's literary and political circles. In his essay "On People in Books", published earlier that year, the writer and humourist Hilaire Belloc hailed the Diary as "one of the half-dozen immortal achievements of our time ... a glory for us all". Among others who recorded their appreciation of the work were Lord Rosebery, the former prime minister, who told Arrowsmiths that he thought he had "purchased and given away more copies than any living man ... I regard any bedroom I occupy as unfurnished without a copy of it". Another essayist-cum-politician who added his tribute was Augustine Birrell, who in 1910 occupied the cabinet post of Chief Secretary for Ireland. Birrell wrote that he ranked Charles Pooter alongside Don Quixote as a comic literary figure, and added a note of personal pride that one of the characters in the book—"an illiterate charwoman, it is true"—carried his name. Arrowsmiths printed these appreciations as prefaces in the 1910 and subsequent issues. The 1910 edition proved immediately popular with the reading public, and was followed by numerous reprintings. In its review of this edition The Bookman critic wrote of Charles Pooter: "You laugh at him—at his small absurdities, his droll mishaps, his well-meaning fussiness; but he wins upon you and obtains your affection, and even your admiration, he is so transparently honest, so delightfully and ridiculously human".
In its review of the book's fourth edition, published in 1919, The Bookman observed that the book was now a firm favourite with the public. "It has had many imitators ... but not one of them has rivalled the original, and they have all faded away". The reviewer recommended the book's "quaint drollery, its whimsical satire and delightfully quiet irony". In Canada, Queen's Quarterly magazine's sympathetic reception of the book contrasted with that of the New York Times nearly 30 years previously. It praises the understated but lovable self-portrait of Pooter, and adds that "It is not till the second or third reading—and you are bound to reread it—that the really consummate art of this artless book becomes apparent". The literary critic D. B. Wyndham Lewis summarised the Pooters as "warm, living, breathing, futile, half-baked, incredibly alive and endearing boneheads".
Acclaim
The novelist Evelyn Waugh had been familiar with the Diary since his childhood. It was a great favourite of his parents—Arthur Waugh used to read passages aloud to his family, and Evelyn's biographer Selina Hastings has drawn attention to the distinctly Pooterish elements in the Waugh household. Evelyn Waugh was initially contemptuous of the book, but grew to admire it, to the extent of writing in his 1930 essay "One Way to Immortality" that it was "the funniest book in the world". He added: "Nobody wants to read other people's reflections on life and religion and politics, but the routine of their day, properly recorded, is always interesting, and will become more so as conditions change with the years". Morton posits that several of the leading characters in Waugh's early novels, though socially far removed from the Pooters, share the bafflement of Charles and Carrie with the problems of a changing world. In his 1945 novel Brideshead Revisited, Waugh has Lady Marchmain comforting her family by reading aloud from the Diary "with her beautiful voice and great humour of expression". Morton suggests that one of the work's attractions to Waugh was his personal identification with Lupin, and the way in which the disapproved son (as Waugh saw himself) repeatedly manages to turn adverse circumstances to his ultimate advantage.
At about the time that Waugh was discovering his affection for the Diary another writer, J. B. Priestley, was extolling it as an exemplar of English humour; Jerome K. Jerome, Priestley asserted, never wrote anything as good: "[P]oor Mr Pooter, with his simplicity, his timidity, his goodness of heart, is not simply a figure of fun but one of those innocent, lovable fools who are dear to the heart". In a 1943 essay, George Orwell considered the book an accurate account of English life in the 1880s. In describing Pooter he revived the Don Quixote analogy but saw this English equivalent as a sentimentalised version of the original, one who "constantly suffers disasters brought upon him by his own folly". In the years after the Second World War the book's stock remained high; Osbert Lancaster deemed it "a great work of art", and similar enthusiasm was expressed by a new generation of writers and social historians. Gillian Tindall, writing in 1970, thought the Diary "the best comic novel in the language", and lauded Pooter as "the presiding shade" of his era. This accolade was echoed a further generation on by A. N. Wilson, who wrote in his study of the Victorian era: "Who is to say that Oscar Wilde and Aubrey Beardsley are more typical of the [1890s] than the lower-middle class Charles and Carrie Pooter?" Wilson also observed the extent to which the Pooters had become recognised as "arbiters of the greatest good taste", as the late 20th-century English middle classes sought to acquire or preserve authentic Victorian features in their carefully crafted "period" homes. A Spectator article of 2008 remarks on how such houses as "The Laurels", the humble habitats of 1890s City clerks, had by the 21st century become desirable £1 million-plus homes in what it terms "banker land".
Literary and cultural influence
Peter Bailey, in his study "White Collars, Gray Lives" (1999), traces the beginnings of literary interest in the lower-middle classes to the "disquieting irruption of a new breed of petty bourgeois shop and office workers" that faced Victorian writers in the last quarter of the 19th century. The Grossmiths' Diary was a typical satire of its time; it probed the lower-middle class lives of the Pooters and poked fun at their pretensions and petty concerns. Tony Joseph calls the Diary "a sharp analysis of social insecurity". Although many writers had themselves come from humble backgrounds, they often sought to disguise their origins through scorn: "putting the boot in on the lower middle classes", says Bailey, "has long been the intellectual's blood sport". However, the quarter-century following the publication of The Diary of a Nobody saw a tendency to mix mockery with sympathy, even approval. In the works of writers such as George Gissing, H. G. Wells, Arnold Bennett and E. M. Forster, characters emerged who, despite the recognisably Pooterish aspects of their lives, were by no means entirely absurd. Bennett and Wells could poke fun at figures such as "Denry Machin", "Mr Polly" or "Mr Lewisham", while at the same time celebrating their fortitude, energy and determination to look for better things. In cases such as these, writes Bailey, "disdain could change to admiration and national self-identification, as the Little Man ... was transposed into Everyman, a model of cheerful resilience in times of crisis."
During the past century, the fictitious diary has developed as an accepted means of comedic expression; the original has, says Morton, "been fertile ground which has germinated many seeds". An early example is Anita Loos's novel of 1925: Gentlemen Prefer Blondes: The Illuminating Diary of a Professional Lady in which the protagonist, Lorelei Lee, records her flirtatious adventure in prose that "follows the mannerisms of colloquial speech" and suggests innocence or ignorance yet, the critic Elyse Graham observes, "burlesques, in excoriating detail, the vernacular of the American middle class". The diary genre became particularly popular in the late 20th century. In 1978–81 Christopher Matthew produced three volumes of diaries recording the daily life of "Simon Crisp", a bachelor would-be man-about town of the era. The title of the first, The Diary of a Somebody, is a direct reference to the Grossmith original. Reviewing this volume in The Spectator, Benny Green points out several parallels with the original, in both character and event. Matthew's book, says Green, is amusing, but the Grossmiths' book is superior; it is "affecting as well as comical, in a way that the Matthew pastiche is not". In 1982 came the first appearance of Sue Townsend's teenage creation, Adrian Mole, whose passage into young manhood and early middle age is charted in a long series of diaries. The more middle-aged he becomes, says Morton, the more he resembles Pooter.
Keith Waterhouse's Mrs Pooter's Diary of 1983 is an adaptation of the Grossmith original that shifts the narrative voice to Carrie Pooter. In 1996 Helen Fielding used the imaginary diary format for Bridget Jones's Diary, which records the daily paraphernalia of a single woman's life. The New York Times critic wrote that it "captures neatly the way modern women teeter between 'I am woman' independence and a pathetic girlie desire to be all things to all men." This diary began as a weekly column in The Independent. In the 1990s the satirical magazine Private Eye lampooned John Major, British prime minister 1990–97, in "The Secret Diary of John Major aged 47", a hybrid of the Adrian Mole diaries with The Diary of a Nobody, which made much fun of Major's lower-middle class origins.
The social historian James Hammerton defines "Pooterism" as "the dependent weakness and inflated social pretension of white-collar workers, constructed in the workplace but expressed just as powerfully at home". Jon Wilde of The Guardian observes this characteristic in a number of British TV comedy creations of the late 20th and early 21st centuries: Captain Mainwaring, Victor Meldrew, and Peep Shows Mark Corrigan are all examples of characters "whose blinkered view of themselves is forever in sharp contrast to how they are perceived by the world". Charles Pooter, says Hammerton, was a metaphor for lower middle-class pretension, pomposity and self-importance, set up for mockery by the "elites". However, by the mid-20th century changes in the perception of masculine roles in lower middle-class society had stifled the mockery, as men increasingly embraced domesticity. Hammerton remarks that the Grossmiths "would surely appreciate the irony in seeing features of the lower middle-class existence they mocked so mercilessly becoming the more universal model for 20th century family life". Bailey remarks on how the poet John Betjeman presented the Pooters "not as objects of ridicule but of envy, snug and secure in their suburban retreat".
Adaptations
In September 1954 a stage version of the Diary, by Basil Dean and Richard Blake, was presented at London's Arts Theatre with a cast that included George Benson and Dulcie Gray as the Pooters and Leslie Phillips as Lupin. Anthony Hartley, writing in The Spectator, classed this production as "fair-to-middling", with sympathetic performances from the principals: "[I]t is a precondition of this kind of play that everybody concerned should have a heart of gold: only in the case of Mr. Pooter's employer, Mr. Perkupp, do we actually hear the metal chinking."
In 1986 Waterhouse presented an adaptation of his "Mrs Pooter" text at the Garrick Theatre, with Judi Dench and Michael Williams. This version was revived in 1993 at the Greenwich Theatre in a production by Matthew Francis. Clive Swift and Patricia Routledge played Charles and Carrie, in what Paul Taylor in The Independent described as "essentially a two-hander ... in which all the other folk (including Lupin Pooter, the uppish, worrying son) are either imagined characters or, at times, impersonated by the Pooters".
In March 2011 the Diary was the subject of an even less orthodox production at the Royal & Derngate Theatre, Northampton. Adapted by Hugh Osborne, with an all-male cast led by Robert Daws, this supposes that Pooter has arranged for his diaries to be performed by amateur actors. Lyn Gardner in The Guardian found it "a show of some charm – though one that, like Pooter himself, does not quite have the credentials to be quite so pleased with itself".
In 2014 a production of the Diary was staged in London by Rough Haired Pointer at the White Bear Theatre and later transferred to the King's Head Theatre. This production was revived at the King's |head in 2017; Time Out said of it: "It captures the original’s sharp subtext, frivolous wit and heavy irony, while also being very, very silly".
The first adaptation for screen was Ken Russell's short (40-minute) film for the BBC film unit in 1964. Russell shot this in the style of the silent films of Buster Keaton and Charlie Chaplin, with the text narrated in a voice-over. The BBC screened two subsequent adaptations: in 1979 a version dramatised by Basil Boothroyd, and in 2007 a four-part dramatisation by Andrew Davies, directed by Susanna White and first shown on BBC Four as part of the channel's Edwardian season. The Guardians critic wrote of the latter that Hugh Bonneville was "immaculate as the ignored kerfuffler [Pooter]."
BBC Radio 4 has broadcast several dramatisations of the Diary. These include Stephen Tompkinson and Annette Badland in a 2004 adaptation by Kelvin Segger, and Johnny Vegas and Katherine Parkinson in Andrew Lynch's 2012 adaptation. In May 1990, the BBC World Service broadcast a radio version of the 1986 Keith Waterhouse adaptation, starring Judi Dench and Michael Williams; this production was later re-broadcast on 24 December 1991 on BBC Radio 4.
Notes and references
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
(includes publisher's prefatory note)
(includes Introduction by "J.H.")
External links
"The Diary of a Nobody" at Project Gutenberg
Listen to Mr. and Mrs. Nobody with Judi Dench and Michael Williams on Internet Archive
1892 British novels
British comedy novels
English novels
Fictional diaries
J. W. Arrowsmith books
Collaborative novels
Novels first published in serial form
Novels set in London
Works originally published in Punch (magazine)
British novels adapted into plays
British novels adapted into films
British novels adapted into television shows | [
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] |
242128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20Caspian | Prince Caspian | Prince Caspian (originally published as Prince Caspian: The Return to Narnia) is a high fantasy novel for children by C. S. Lewis, published by Geoffrey Bles in 1951. It was the second published of seven novels in The Chronicles of Narnia (1950–1956), and Lewis had finished writing it in 1949, before the first book was out. It is volume four in recent editions of the series, sequenced according to the internal chronology of the books. Like the others, it was illustrated by Pauline Baynes and her work has been retained in many later editions.
Prince Caspian features a "return to Narnia" by the four Pevensie children of the first novel, about a year later in England but 1300 years later in Narnia. It is the only book of The Chronicles with men dominating Narnia. The talking animals and mythical beings are oppressed, and some may be endangered. The English siblings, legendary , are magically recalled, once again children, by the refugee Prince Caspian.
Macmillan US published an American edition within the calendar year.
Prince Caspian has been adapted and filmed as two episodes of BBC television series in 1989 and as a feature film in 2008.
Plot summary
Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy Pevensie are magically whisked away from a British railway station to a beach near an old and ruined castle. They determine the ruin is Cair Paravel, where they once ruled as the Kings and Queens of Narnia. They discover the treasure vault where Peter's sword and shield, Susan's bow and arrows, and Lucy's dagger and bottle of magical cordial are stored. Susan's horn for summoning help is missing, as she left it in the woods the day they returned to England after their prior visit to Narnia. Although only a year has passed in England, 1300 years have passed in Narnia.
The children rescue Trumpkin the dwarf from soldiers who are about to drown him. Trumpkin tells the children Narnia's history since their disappearance: Telmarines conquered Narnia, which is now ruled by King Miraz and his wife Queen Prunaprismia. Miraz usurped the throne by killing his brother, King Caspian IX, the father of Prince Caspian. Miraz tolerated the rightful heir, Prince Caspian, until his own son was born. Caspian escaped from Miraz's Castle with the aid of his tutor Doctor Cornelius, who schooled him in the lore of Old Narnia, and gave him Queen Susan's horn. Caspian fled into the forest but was knocked unconscious when his horse bolted. He awoke in the den of a Talking Badger, Trufflehunter, and two dwarfs, Nikabrik and Trumpkin, who accepted Caspian as their king.
The badger and dwarves took Caspian to meet many creatures of Old Narnia. During a midnight council, Doctor Cornelius arrived to warn them of the approach of King Miraz and his army; he urged them to flee to Aslan's How in the great woods near Cair Paravel. The Telmarines followed the Narnians to the How, and after several skirmishes the Narnians appeared close to defeat. At a second war council, they decided to wind Queen Susan's horn in the hopes that it would bring help.
Trumpkin and the Pevensies make their way to Caspian. The trek proves difficult, but Aslan appears to Lucy and instructs her to guide the others behind him. Aslan sends Peter, Edmund, and Trumpkin ahead to Aslan's How to deal with treachery brewing there, and follows with Susan and Lucy.
Peter, Edmund, and Trumpkin arrive and drive out or kill the creatures threatening Caspian. Peter challenges Miraz to single combat: the army of the victor in this duel will be considered the victor in the war. Miraz accepts the challenge, goaded by Lords Glozelle and Sopespian. Miraz loses the combat, but Glozelle and Sopespian declare that the Narnians have cheated and stabbed the King in the back while he was down. They command the Telmarine army to attack, and in the commotion that follows, Glozelle stabs Miraz in the back. Aslan, accompanied by Lucy and Susan, summons the gods Bacchus and Silenus, and with their help brings the woods to life. The gods and awakened trees turn the tide of battle and send the Telmarines fleeing. Discovering themselves trapped at the Great River, where their bridge has been destroyed by Bacchus, the Telmarines surrender.
Aslan gives the Telmarines a choice of staying in Narnia under Caspian or returning to Earth, their original home. After one volunteer disappears through the magic door created by Aslan, the Pevensies go through to reassure the other Telmarines, though Peter and Susan reveal to Edmund and Lucy that they are too old to return to Narnia. The Pevensies find themselves back at the railway station.
Characters
Lucy Pevensie, the youngest Pevensie child, is the first to see Aslan again.
Edmund Pevensie is the third Pevensie child. Unlike his older siblings, he trusts Lucy's sighting of Aslan, pointing out that in their first adventure she turned out to be right and he ended up looking silly.
Peter Pevensie, the oldest of the Pevensie siblings, is High-King of Narnia.
Susan Pevensie is the second oldest of the Pevensie children. She uses a bow and arrow.
Prince Caspian, the rightful Telmarine King, who becomes King of Narnia. He reappears in the next two books in the series: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader and The Silver Chair, and makes a brief appearance in the end of The Last Battle.
Aslan, the Great Lion, who created Narnia.
Miraz, Caspian's uncle, usurped the throne of the Telmarines. So long as Miraz has no son, he tolerates Caspian as heir, but when a son is born he moves to eliminate Caspian. He fights the Old Narnians, who support Caspian, and accepts a challenge to single combat with Peter to settle the matter; but he is killed treacherously by Lord Glozelle after the duel.
Trumpkin, a Red Dwarf who helps Caspian defeat Miraz. When he is captured by Miraz's soldiers and taken to Cair Paravel to be drowned, he is freed by the Pevensie children and leads them to Caspian. At the beginning of the novel he is entirely sceptical about the existence of Aslan and the ancient Kings and Queens, but learns better in the course of the story.
Doctor Cornelius, half-dwarf and half-human, is tutor to Caspian and aids in the Narnians' defeat of the Telmarines.
Reepicheep, a Talking Mouse (descended from the non-talking mice who freed Aslan from his bonds in the previous book, and were thus given the gift of speech), is a fearless swordsman and a staunch supporter of Aslan and Caspian.
Nikabrik, a Black Dwarf in Caspian's army, resists fighting alongside Caspian. Together with a Hag and a Wer-Wolf, he plots to resurrect the White Witch against the Telmarines through black magic, but all three are killed by Caspian and his allies.
Trufflehunter, a Talking Badger, holds faith with Aslan and Old Narnia, and aids Prince Caspian in his struggle against Miraz.
Bacchus and Silenus, Narnian forest gods (borrowed from Ancient Greece).
Lord Sopespian and Lord Glozelle, lords of Telmar. After being insulted by Miraz they manipulate him into accepting Peter's challenge. They cry treachery when Miraz falls, and Glozelle secretly stabs him in the back. Sopespian is beheaded by Peter as the all-out battle begins, but Lewis does not mention the fate of Glozelle.
Themes
The two major themes of the story are courage and chivalry and, as Lewis himself said in a letter to an American girl, "the restoration of the true religion after a corruption".
The Telmarine conquest of Narnia, as depicted in the book, is in many ways similar to the historical Norman Conquest of England. Though there is no precise parallel in actual English history to the specific events of this book, the end result – "Old Narnians" and Telmarines becoming a single people and living together in harmony – is similar to the historical process of Saxons and Normans eventually fusing into a single English people.
Adaptations
The BBC adapted Prince Caspian in two episodes of the 1989 series of The Chronicles of Narnia.
The second in the series of films from Walt Disney Pictures and Walden Media, titled The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian, was released in the US on 16 May 2008. The UK release date was 26 June 2008.
The book was the inspiration for a song of the same name on the Phish album Billy Breathes.
The script for a stage adaptation was written by Erina Caradus and first performed in 2007.
See also
Notes
References
Sources
External links
—immediately, the full-colour C. S. Lewis centenary edition
1951 fantasy novels
1951 British novels
1951 children's books
British novels adapted into films
British novels adapted into plays
High fantasy novels
Novels about orphans
British novels adapted into television shows
The Chronicles of Narnia books
Fratricide in fiction
Fiction about regicide
Dwarves in popular culture
Children's fantasy novels | [
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242130 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Lion%2C%20the%20Witch%20and%20the%20Wardrobe | The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe | The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe is a fantasy novel for children by C. S. Lewis, published by Geoffrey Bles in 1950. It is the first published and best known of seven novels in The Chronicles of Narnia (1950–1956). Among all the author's books, it is also the most widely held in libraries. Although it was originally the first of The Chronicles of Narnia, it is volume two in recent editions that are sequenced by the stories' chronology. Like the other Chronicles, it was illustrated by Pauline Baynes, and her work has been retained in many later editions.
Most of the novel is set in Narnia, a land of talking animals and mythical creatures that is ruled by the evil White Witch. In the frame story, four English children are relocated to a large, old country house following a wartime evacuation. The youngest, Lucy, visits Narnia three times via the magic of a wardrobe in a spare room. Lucy's three siblings are with her on her third visit to Narnia. In Narnia, the siblings seem fit to fulfill an old prophecy and find themselves adventuring to save Narnia and their own lives. The lion Aslan gives his life to save one of the children; he later rises from the dead, vanquishes the White Witch, and crowns the children Kings and Queens of Narnia.
Lewis wrote the book for (and dedicated it to) his goddaughter, Lucy Barfield. She was the daughter of Owen Barfield, Lewis's friend, teacher, adviser and trustee. In 2003, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe was ranked ninth on the BBC's The Big Read poll. Time magazine included the novel in its list of the 100 Best Young-Adult Books of All Time, as well as its list of the 100 best English-language novels published since 1923.
Plot
Peter, Susan, Edmund and Lucy Pevensie are evacuated from London in 1940, to escape the Blitz, and sent to live with Professor Digory Kirke at a large house in the English countryside. While exploring the house, Lucy enters a wardrobe and discovers the magical world of Narnia. Here, she meets the faun named Tumnus, whom she addresses as "Mr. Tumnus". Tumnus invites her to his cave for tea and admits that he intended to report Lucy to the White Witch, the false ruler of Narnia who has kept the land in perpetual winter, but he repents and guides her back home. Although Lucy's siblings initially disbelieve her story of Narnia, Edmund follows her into the wardrobe and winds up in a separate area of Narnia and meets the White Witch, who calls herself the Queen of Narnia. The Witch plies Edmund with Turkish delight and persuades him to bring his siblings to her with the promise of being made a prince. Edmund reunites with Lucy and they both return home. However, Edmund denies Narnia's existence to Peter and Susan after learning of the White Witch's identity from Lucy.
Soon afterwards, all four children enter Narnia together, but find that Tumnus has been arrested for treason. The children are befriended by Mr. and Mrs. Beaver, who tell them of a prophecy that claims the White Witch's rule will end when "two Sons of Adam and two Daughters of Eve" sit on the four thrones of Cair Paravel, and that Narnia's true ruler – a great lion named Aslan – is returning at the Stone Table after several years of absence. Edmund slips away to the White Witch's castle, where he finds a courtyard filled with the Witch's enemies turned into stone statues. Edmund reports Aslan's return to the White Witch, who begins her movement toward the Stone Table with Edmund in tow, and orders the execution of Edmund's siblings and the Beavers. Meanwhile, the Beavers realise where Edmund has gone, and lead the children to meet Aslan at the Stone Table. During the trek, the group notices that the snow is melting, and take it as a sign that the White Witch's magic is fading. This is confirmed by a visit from Father Christmas, who had been kept out of Narnia by the Witch's magic, and he leaves the group with gifts and weapons.
The children and the Beavers reach the Stone Table and meet Aslan and his army. The White Witch's wolf captain Maugrim approaches the camp and attacks Susan, but is killed by Peter. The White Witch arrives and parleys with Aslan, invoking the "Deep Magic from the Dawn of Time" which gives her the right to kill Edmund for his treason. Aslan then speaks to the Witch alone, and on his return he announces that the Witch has renounced her claim on Edmund's life. Aslan and his followers then move the encampment on into the nearby forest. That evening, Susan and Lucy secretly follow Aslan to the Stone Table. They watch from a distance as the Witch puts Aslan to death – as they had agreed in their pact to spare Edmund. The next morning, Aslan is resurrected by the "Deeper Magic from before the Dawn of Time", which has the power to reverse death if a willing victim takes the place of a traitor. Aslan takes the girls to the Witch's castle and revives the Narnians that the Witch had turned to stone. They join the Narnian forces battling the Witch's army. The Narnian army prevails, and Aslan kills the Witch. The Pevensie children are then crowned kings and queens of Narnia at Cair Paravel.
After a long and happy reign, the Pevensies, now adults, go on a hunt for the White Stag who is said to grant the wishes of those who catch it. The four arrive at the lamp-post marking Narnia's entrance and, having forgotten about it, unintentionally pass through the wardrobe and return to England; they are children again, with no time having passed since their departure. They tell the story to Kirke, who believes them and reassures the children that they will return to Narnia one day when they least expect it.
Main characters
Lucy is the youngest of four siblings. In some respects, she is the primary protagonist of the story. She is the first to discover the land of Narnia, which she enters inadvertently when she steps into a wardrobe while exploring the Professor's house. When Lucy tells her three siblings about Narnia, they do not believe her: Peter and Susan think she is just playing a game, while Edmund persistently ridicules her. In Narnia, she is crowned Queen Lucy the Valiant.
Edmund is the second-youngest of four siblings. He has a bad relationship with his brother and sisters. Edmund is known to be a liar, and often harasses Lucy. Lured by the White Witch's promise of power and an unlimited supply of magical treats, Edmund betrays his siblings. He later repents and helps defeat the White Witch. He is eventually crowned King Edmund the Just.
Susan is the second-oldest sibling. She does not believe in Narnia until she actually goes there. She and Lucy accompany Aslan on the journey to the Stone Table, where he allows the Witch to take his life in place of Edmund's. Tending to Aslan's carcass, she removes a muzzle from him to restore his dignity and oversees a horde of mice who gnaw away his bonds. She then shares the joy of his resurrection and the endeavor to bring reinforcements to a critical battle. Susan is crowned Queen Susan the Gentle.
Peter is the eldest sibling. He judiciously settles disputes between his younger brother and sisters, often rebuking Edmund for his attitude. Peter also disbelieves Lucy's stories about Narnia until he sees it for himself. He is hailed as a hero for the slaying of Maugrim and for his command in the battle to overthrow the White Witch. He is crowned High King of Narnia and dubbed King Peter the Magnificent.
Aslan, a lion, is the rightful King of Narnia and other magic countries. He sacrifices himself to save Edmund, but is resurrected in time to aid the denizens of Narnia and the Pevensie children against the White Witch and her minions. As the "son of the Emperor beyond the sea" (an allusion to God the Father), Aslan is the all-powerful creator of Narnia. Lewis revealed that he wrote Aslan as a portrait, although not an allegorical portrait, of Christ.
The White Witch is the land's self-proclaimed queen and the primary antagonist of the story. Her reign in Narnia has made winter persist for a hundred years with no end in sight. When provoked, she turns creatures to stone with her wand. She fears the fulfillment of a prophecy that "two sons of Adam and two daughters of Eve" (meaning two male humans and two female humans) will supplant her. She is usually referred to as "the White Witch", or just "the Witch". Her actual name, Jadis, appears once in the notice left on Tumnus's door after his arrest. Lewis later wrote a prequel to include her back story and account for her presence in the Narnian world.
The Professor is a kindly old gentleman who takes the children in when they are evacuated from London. He is the first to believe that Lucy did indeed visit a land called Narnia. He tries to convince the others logically that she did not make it up. After the children return from Narnia, he assures them that they will return one day. The book hints that he knows more of Narnia than he lets on (hints expanded upon in later books of the series).
Tumnus, a faun, is the first individual Lucy (who calls him "Mr. Tumnus") meets in Narnia. Tumnus befriends Lucy, despite the White Witch's standing order to turn in any human he finds. He initially plans to obey the order but, after getting to like Lucy, he cannot bear to alert the Witch's forces. He instead escorts her back towards the safety of her own country. His good deed is later given away to the Witch by Edmund. The witch orders Tumnus arrested and turns him to stone, but he is later restored to life by Aslan.
Mr. and Mrs. Beaver, two beavers, are friends of Tumnus. They play host to Peter, Susan and Lucy and lead them to Aslan.
Writing
Lewis described the origin of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe in an essay titled "It All Began with a Picture":
The Lion all began with a picture of a Faun carrying an umbrella and parcels in a snowy wood. This picture had been in my mind since I was about 16. Then one day, when I was about 40, I said to myself: 'Let's try to make a story about it.'
Shortly before the Second World War, many children were evacuated from London to the English countryside to escape bombing attacks on London by Nazi Germany. On 2 September 1939, three school girls, Margaret, Mary, and Katherine, came to live at The Kilns in Risinghurst, Lewis's home east of Oxford city centre. Lewis later suggested that the experience gave him a new appreciation of children, and in late September, he began a children's story on an odd sheet that has survived as part of another manuscript:
This book is about four children whose names were Ann, Martin, Rose and Peter. But it is most about Peter, who was the youngest. They all had to go away from London suddenly because of Air Raids, and because Father, who was in the Army, had gone off to the War and Mother was doing some kind of war work. They were sent to stay with a kind of relation of Mother's who was a very old professor who lived all by himself in the country.
How much more of the story Lewis then wrote is uncertain. Roger Lancelyn Green thinks that he might even have completed it. In September 1947, Lewis wrote in a letter about stories for children: "I have tried one myself, but it was, by the unanimous verdict of my friends, so bad that I destroyed it."
The plot element of entering a new world through the back of a wardrobe had certainly entered Lewis's mind by 1946, when he used it to describe his first encounter with really good poetry:
I did not in the least feel that I was getting in more quantity or better quality a pleasure I had already known. It was more as if a cupboard which one had hitherto valued as a place for hanging coats proved one day, when you opened the door, to lead to the garden of the Hesperides ...
In August 1948, during a visit by an American writer, Chad Walsh, Lewis talked vaguely about completing a children's book he had begun "in the tradition of E. Nesbit". After this conversation, not much happened until the beginning of the next year. Then everything changed. In his essay "It All Began With a Picture", Lewis continues: "At first I had very little idea how the story would go. But then suddenly Aslan came bounding into it. I think I had been having a good many dreams of lions about that time. Apart from that, I don't know where the Lion came from or why he came. But once he was there, he pulled the whole story together, and soon he pulled the six other Narnian stories in after him."
The major ideas of the book echo lines Lewis had written 14 years earlier in his alliterative poem "The Planets":
... Of wrath ended
And woes mended, of winter passed
And guilt forgiven, and good fortune
JOVE is master; and of jocund revel,
Laughter of ladies. The lion-hearted
... are Jove's children.
This resonance is a central component of the case, promoted chiefly by Oxford University scholar Michael Ward, for the seven Chronicles having been modelled upon the seven classical astrological planets, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe upon Jupiter.
On 10 March 1949, Roger Lancelyn Green dined with Lewis at Magdalen College. After the meal, Lewis read two chapters from his new children's story to Green. Lewis asked Green's opinion of the tale, and Green said that he thought it was good. The manuscript of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe was complete by the end of March 1949. Lucy Barfield received it by the end of May. When on 16 October 1950 Geoffrey Bles in London published the first edition, three new "chronicles", Prince Caspian, The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, and The Horse and His Boy, had also been completed.
Illustrations
Lewis's publisher, Geoffrey Bles, allowed him to choose the illustrator for the novel and the Narnia series. Lewis chose Pauline Baynes, possibly based on J. R. R. Tolkien's recommendation. In December 1949, Bles showed Lewis the first drawings for the novel, and Lewis sent Baynes a note congratulating her, particularly on the level of detail. Lewis's appreciation of the illustrations is evident in a letter he wrote to Baynes after The Last Battle won the Carnegie Medal for best children's book of 1956: "is it not rather 'our' medal? I'm sure the illustrations were taken into account, as well as the text".
The British edition of the novel had 43 illustrations; American editions generally had fewer. The popular U.S. paperback edition published by Collier between 1970 and 1994, which sold many millions, had only 17 illustrations, many of them severely cropped from the originals, giving many readers in that country a very different experience when reading the novel. All the illustrations were restored for the 1994 worldwide HarperCollins edition, although these illustrations lacked the clarity of early printings.
Reception
Lewis very much enjoyed writing The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe and embarked on the sequel Prince Caspian soon after finishing the first novel. He completed the sequel by end of 1949, less than a year after finishing the initial book. The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe had few readers during 1949 and was not published until late in 1950, so his initial enthusiasm did not stem from favourable reception by the public.
While Lewis is known today on the strength of the Narnia stories as a highly successful children's writer, the initial critical response was muted. At the time, children's stories being realistic was fashionable; fantasy and fairy tales were seen as indulgent, appropriate only for very young readers and potentially harmful to older children, even hindering their ability to relate to everyday life. Some reviewers considered the tale overtly moralistic or the Christian elements overstated attempts to indoctrinate children. Others were concerned that the many violent incidents might frighten children.
Lewis's publisher, Geoffrey Bles, feared that the Narnia tales would not sell, and might damage Lewis's reputation and affect sales of his other books. Nevertheless, the novel and its successors were highly popular with young readers, and Lewis's publisher was soon eager to release further Narnia stories.
A 2004 U.S. study found that The Lion was a common read-aloud book for seventh graders in schools in San Diego County, California. In 2005, it was included on TIME unranked list of the 100 best English-language novels published since 1923. Based on a 2007 online poll, the U.S. National Education Association listed it as one of its "Teachers' Top 100 Books for Children". In 2012, it was ranked number five among all-time children's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal, a monthly with primarily U.S. audience.
A 2012 survey by the University of Worcester determined that it was the second-most common book that UK adults had read as children, after Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. (Adults, perhaps limited to parents, ranked Alice and The Lion fifth and sixth as books the next generation should read, or their children should read during their lifetimes.)
TIME included the novel in its "All-TIME 100 Novels" (best English-language novels from 1923 to 2005). In 2003, the novel was listed at number 9 on the BBC's survey The Big Read. It has also been published in 47 foreign languages.
Reading order
The matter of the reading order of the Narnia series, in the context of the change in their publication order—from its original (beginning with The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe) to the later adopted, now pervasive chronology-of-events order (beginning with The Magician's Nephew)—has been a matter of extensive discussion for many years. The Lion... was originally published as the first book in the Chronicles, and most reprintings of the novels reflected that order, until departure with the Collins' "Fontana Lions" edition in 1980. Change, however, had begun earlier—the listing of the books in the English Puffins editions as early as 1974 presented a list as a suggested reading order that placed Magician's first—and with the Collins' edition, the move to the chronological order, and the series opening with Magician's was formalised. Walter Hooper, for one, was pleased with this, stating that the books could now be read in the order that Lewis' himself "said they should". When HarperCollins presented its uniform, worldwide edition of the series in 1994, it also used this sequence, going so far as to state that its "editions of the Chronicles... have been numbered in compliance with the original wishes of the author, C.S. Lewis."
In a work of literary criticism, Imagination and the Arts in C. S. Lewis, scholar Peter J. Schakel calls into question the clarity and simplicity of these conclusions, citing a variety of evidences that oppose a singular view of a correct viewing order, evidences that include Lewis' own words. Laurence Krieg, a young fan, wrote to Lewis, asking him to adjudicate between his views of the correct sequence of reading the novels; he held to reading The Magician's... first, while his mother thought The Lion... should be read first. Lewis wrote back, stating support for the younger Krieg's views, but called rigid conclusions into question, stating: "I think I agree with your order... [but] perhaps it does not matter very much in which order anyone reads them."
Schakel's writings go on to pointedly question the revised order in literary critical analyses that recognise the view of Hooper, documents such as the Krieg letter, as well as the commercial inclinations behind creation of later editions of works in a unique order, but nevertheless argue strenuously with regard to the change in the "imaginitive reading experience" in the later revised arrangement—the key difference being that, in the original publication order, the land of Narnia is carefully introduced in The Lion... (e.g., the children hearing the term and having to have it explained), whereas in The Magician's..., with its original publication second, has Narnia's mention appearing on the first page, without explanation; a similar disconnection in experience is noted with regard to how the central character Aslan is experienced in the two reading orders. Schakel argues the matter through repeated further examples (e.g., the appearances of the lamppost, the delineation of the characters of the White Witch and Jadis, etc.), concluding that, "the 'new' arrangement may well be less desirable that the original". Writer Paul Ford likewise cites several scholars who have weighed in against the decision of HarperCollins to present the books in the order of their internal chronology, and continues, "most scholars disagree with this decision and find it the least faithful to Lewis's deepest intentions".
Critically, the reissue of the Puffin series in England, which was proceeding at the time of Lewis' death in 1963 (with three volumes out beginning with The Lion..., and the remaining four soon due) maintained the original order, with contemporary comments ascribed to Lewis—made to Kaye Webb, the editor of that imprint—suggesting he yet intended "to re-edit the books... [to] connect the things that didn't tie up". Regardless, as of January 2022, the publication order placing The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe second in the series continues—in accord with Walter Hooper's perception of Lewis' intent, whether intended with or without further series changes—such that it remains the production design for the series as it is distributed worldwide.
Allusions
Lewis wrote, "The Narnian books are not as much allegory as supposal. Suppose there were a Narnian world and it, like ours, needed redemption. What kind of incarnation and Passion might Christ be supposed to undergo there?"
The main story is an allegory of Christ's crucifixion: Aslan sacrifices himself for Edmund, a traitor who may deserve death, in the same way that Christians believe Jesus sacrificed himself for sinners. Aslan is killed on the Stone Table, symbolising Mosaic Law, which breaks when he is resurrected, symbolising the replacement of the strict justice of Old Testament law with redeeming grace and forgiveness granted on the basis of substitutionary atonement, according to Christian theology.
The character of the Professor is based on W.T. Kirkpatrick, who tutored a 16-year-old Lewis. "Kirk", as he was sometimes called, taught the young Lewis much about thinking and communicating clearly, skills that would be invaluable to him later.
Narnia is caught in endless winter that has lasted a century when the children first enter. Norse tradition mythologises a "great winter", known as the Fimbulwinter, said to precede Ragnarök. The trapping of Edmund by the White Witch is reminiscent of the seduction and imprisonment of Kai by the Snow Queen in Hans Christian Andersen's novella of that name.
Several parallels are seen between the White Witch and the immortal white queen, Ayesha, of H. Rider Haggard's She, a novel greatly admired by Lewis.
Edith Nesbit's short story "The Aunt and Amabel" includes the motif of a girl entering a wardrobe to gain access to a magical place.
The freeing of Aslan's body from the Stone Table is reminiscent of a scene from Edgar Allan Poe's story "The Pit and the Pendulum", in which a prisoner is freed when rats gnaw through his bonds. In a later book, Prince Caspian, as reward for their actions, mice gained the same intelligence and speech as other Narnian animals.
Religious themes
One of the most significant themes seen in C. S. Lewis's The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe is the theme of Christianity. Various aspects of characters and events in the novel reflect biblical ideas from Christianity. The lion Aslan is one of the clearest examples, as his death is very similar to that of Jesus Christ. While many readers made this connection, Lewis denied that the themes of Christianity were intentional, saying that his writing began by picturing images of characters, and the rest just came about through the writing process. While Lewis denied intentionally making the story a strictly Christian theological novel, he did admit that it could help young children accept Christianity into their lives when they were older.
After the children enter the world of Narnia through the wardrobe, Edmund finds himself in trouble under service of the White Witch, as she tempts him with Turkish delight. When Edmund is threatened with death, Aslan offers to sacrifice himself as an atonement for the boy's betrayal. Aslan is shaved of his fur, and stabbed on an altar of stone. This is similar to how Jesus was publicly beaten, humiliated, and crucified. After his sacrifice, Aslan is reborn, and he continues to help the children save Narnia. While this sequence of events is comparable to the death of Jesus, it is not identical to it. A few differences exist, such as the fact that Aslan did not allow himself to be killed to save the entirety of Narnia, but only to save Edmund. Aslan is also only dead for one night, while Jesus returned on the third day. Despite these differences, the image of Aslan and the event of his death and rebirth reflect those of the biblical account of Jesus' death and resurrection, adding to the theme of Christianity throughout the novel.
Differences between editions
Due to labour-union rules, the text of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe was reset for the publication of the first American edition by Macmillan US in 1950. Lewis took that opportunity to make these changes to the original British edition published by Geoffrey Bles earlier that same year:
In chapter one of the American edition, the animals in which Edmund and Susan express interest are snakes and foxes rather than the foxes and rabbits of the British edition.
In chapter six of the American edition, the name of the White Witch's chief of police is changed to "Fenris Ulf" from "Maugrim" in the British.
In chapter 13 of the American edition, "the trunk of the World Ash Tree" takes the place of "the fire-stones of the Secret Hill".
When HarperCollins took over publication of the series in 1994, they began using the original British edition for all subsequent English editions worldwide. The current U.S. edition published by Scholastic has 36,135 words.
Adaptations
Television
The story has been adapted three times for television. The first was a 10-part serial produced by ABC Weekend Television for ITV and broadcast in 1967. In 1979, an animated TV movie, directed by Peanuts director Bill Melendez, was broadcast and won the first Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program. A third television adaptation was produced in 1988 by the BBC using a combination of live actors, animatronic puppets, and animation. The 1988 adaptation was the first of a series of four Narnia adaptations over three seasons. The programme was nominated for an Emmy Award and won a BAFTA.
Theatre
Stage adaptations include a 1984 version staged at London's Westminster Theatre, produced by Vanessa Ford Productions. The play, adapted by Glyn Robbins, was directed by Richard Williams and designed by Marty Flood.
Jules Tasca, Ted Drachman and Thomas Tierney collaborated on a musical adaptation published in 1986.
In 1997, Trumpets Inc., a Filipino Christian theatre and musical production company, produced a musical rendition that Douglas Gresham, Lewis's stepson (and co-producer of the Walden Media film adaptations), has openly declared that he feels is the closest to Lewis's intention. It starred among others popular young Filipino singer Sam Concepcion as Edmund Pevensie.
In 1998, the Royal Shakespeare Company did an adaptation by Adrian Mitchell, for which the acting edition has been published. The Stratford Festival in Canada mounted a new production of Mitchell's work in June 2016.
In 2003, an Australian commercial stage production by Malcolm C. Cooke Productions toured the country, using both life-sized puppets and human actors. It was directed by notable film director Nadia Tass, and starred Amanda Muggleton, Dennis Olsen, Meaghan Davies, and Yolande Brown.
In 2011, a two-actor stage adaptation by Le Clanché du Rand opened off-Broadway in New York City at St. Luke's Theatre. The production was directed by Julia Beardsley O'Brien and starred Erin Layton and Andrew Fortman. As of 2014, the production is currently running with a replacement cast of Abigail Taylor-Sansom and Rockford Sansom.
In 2012, Michael Fentiman with Rupert Goold co-directed The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe at a Threesixty 'tented production' in Kensington Gardens, London. It received a Guardian three-star review.
Audio
Multiple audio editions have been released, both straightforward readings and dramatisations.
In 1981, Michael Hordern read abridged versions of the classic tale (and the others in the series). In 2000, an unabridged audio book was released, narrated by Michael York. (All the books were released in audio form, read by different actors.)
In 1988, BBC Radio 4 mounted a full dramatisation. In 1998, Focus on the Family Radio Theatre also adapted this story. Both the original BBC version and the Focus on the Family version have been broadcast on BBC radio. Both are the first in a series of adaptations of all seven of the Narnia books. The BBC series uses the title Tales of Narnia, while the Focus on the Family version uses the more familiar Chronicles moniker. The Focus on the Family version is also longer, with a full orchestra score, narration, a larger cast of actors, and introductions by Douglas Gresham, C. S. Lewis's stepson.
Film
In 2005, the story was adapted for a theatrical film, co-produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Walden Media. It has so far been followed by two more films: The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian and The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader. The latter was co-produced by 20th Century Fox and Walden Media.
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Hooper, Walter, ed. (1982). On Stories and Other Essays on Literature. By C. S. Lewis. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. .
Further reading
External links
—immediately, the full-colour C. S. Lewis centenary edition
1950 British novels
1950 fantasy novels
British children's novels
British novels adapted into films
British novels adapted into plays
High fantasy novels
Jinn in popular culture
Novels adapted into radio programs
British novels adapted into television shows
The Chronicles of Narnia books
1950 children's books
British children's books
Deicide in fiction
Geoffrey Bles books
Fauns in popular culture
Children's fantasy novels
Portal fantasy | [
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] |
50231987 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016%20Hardee%27s%20Pro%20Classic%20%E2%80%93%20Singles | 2016 Hardee's Pro Classic – Singles | Louisa Chirico was the defending champion, but chose to participate in Stuttgart instead.
Rebecca Peterson won the title, defeating Taylor Townsend in the final, 6–4, 6–2.
Seeds
Main draw
Finals
Top half
Bottom half
References
Main draw
Hardee's Pro Classic - Singles
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