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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamhad
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Yamhad
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Yamhad was an ancient Semitic kingdom centered on Ḥalab (Aleppo), Syria. The kingdom emerged at the end of the 19th century BC, and was ruled by the Yamhadite dynasty kings, who counted on both military and diplomacy to expand their realm. From the beginning of its establishment, the kingdom withstood the aggressions of its neighbors Mari, Qatna and Assyria, and was turned into the most powerful Syrian kingdom of its era through the actions of its king Yarim-Lim I. By the middle of the 18th century BC, most of Syria minus the south came under the authority of Yamhad, either as a direct possession or through vassalage, and for nearly a century and a half, Yamhad dominated northern, northwestern and eastern Syria, and had influence over small kingdoms in Mesopotamia at the borders of Elam. The kingdom was eventually destroyed by the Hittites, then annexed by Mitanni in the 16th century BC.
Yamhad's population was predominately Amorite, and had a typical Bronze Age Syrian culture. Yamhad was also inhabited by a substantial Hurrian population that settled in the kingdom, adding the influence of their culture. Yamhad controlled a wide trading network, being a gateway between the eastern Iranian plateau and the Aegean region in the west. Yamhad worshiped the traditional Northwest Semitic deities, and the capital Halab was considered a holy city among the other Syrian cities as a center of worship for Hadad, who was regarded as the main deity of northern Syria.
History
Little of Halab has been excavated by archaeologists, as Halab was never abandoned during its long history and the modern city is situated above the ancient site. Therefore, most of the knowledge about Yamhad comes from tablets discovered at Alalakh and Mari.
Establishment
The name Yamhad was likely an Amorite tribal name and is used synonymously with Halab when referring to the kingdom. The city of Halab was a religious center in northern Syria, and was mentioned by the name Ha-lam, as a vassal of the Eblaite empire, which controlled most of Syria in the middle of the third millennium BC. Halab's fame as a Holy City contributed to its later prominence; the main temple of the north Syrian storm god Hadad was located in the city, which was known as the "City of Hadad".
The name Halab as well as that of Yamhad appeared for the first time during the Old Babylonian period, when Sumu-Epuh, the first Yamhadite king, was attested in a seal from Mari as the ruler of the land of Yamhad, which included, in addition to Halab, the cities of Alalakh and Tuba. Sumu-Epuh consolidated the kingdom and faced Yahdun-Lim of Mari who had a dynastic alliance with Yamhad to oppose Assyria, but eventually campaigned in the north threatening the kingdom. The Yamhadite king supported the Yaminite tribes and formed an alliance with other Syrian states including Urshu, Hassum and Carchemish, against the Mariote king who defeated his enemies, but was eventually killed by his son Sumu-Yamam.
Rivalry with Assyria and expansion
The rise of Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria proved more dangerous to Yamhad than Mari. The Amorite king of Assyria was an ambitious conqueror with the aim to rule Mesopotamia and the Levant, and styled himself as "king of the world". Shamshi-Adad surrounded Yamhad by way of alliances with Charchemish, Hassum and Urshu to the north and by conquering Mari to the east, forcing Zimri-Lim the heir of Mari to flee. Sumu-Epuh welcomed Zimri-Lim and aimed to use him against Assyria since he was the legitimate heir of Mari.
Shamshi-Adad's most dangerous alliance was with Qatna, whose king Ishi-Addu became Assyria's agent at Yamhad's borders and married his daughter to Yasmah-Adad, the son of the Assyrian king who was installed by his father as king of Mari. Sumu-Epuh was apparently killed during his fight with Shamshi-Adad and was succeeded by his son Yarim-Lim I, who consolidated his father's kingdom and turned it into the most powerful kingdom in Syria and northern Mesopotamia. Yarim-Lim surrounded Shamshi-Adad by alliances with Hammurabi of Babylon and Ibal-pi-el II of Eshnunna, then in 1777 BC he advanced to the east conquering Tuttul and installing Zimri-Lim as governor of the city. The death of the Assyrian king came a year later. Yarim-Lim then sent his army with Zimri-Lim, to restore his ancestors throne as an ally-vassal to Yamhad, cementing the relationship through a dynastic marriage between the new Mariote king and Shibtu, the daughter of Yarim-Lim.
Yarim-Lim spent the next years of his reign expanding the kingdom, which reached Mamma in the north. The Syrian city-states were subdued through alliances or force; Mamma, Ebla and Ugarit became vassals of Yamhad, while Qatna remained independent but came to peace with Yamhad following the death of its ally, the late Shamshi-Adad I. A sample of Yarim-Lim policy of diplomacy and war can be read in a tablet discovered at Mari, that was sent to the king of Dēr in southern Mesopotamia, which included a declaration of war against Der and its neighbor Diniktum, the tablet mentions the stationing of 500 Yamhadite warships for twelve years in Diniktum, and the Yamhadite military support of Der for 15 years. Yarim-Lim's accomplishments elevated Yamhad into the status of a Great Kingdom and the Yamhadite king title became the Great King.
Yarim-Lim I was succeeded by his son Hammurabi I who had a peaceful reign. He was able to force Charchemish into submission, and sent troops to aid Hammurabi of Babylon against Larsa and Elam. The alliance ended after the Babylonian king sacked Mari and destroyed it. Babylon did not attack Yamhad, however, and the relations between the two kingdoms remained peaceful in later years; the power vacuum caused by Mari's fall opened the way for Hammurabi to extend Yamhad's hegemony over the upper Khabur valley in the east, where the ruler of Shubat Enlil became his vassal. Hammurabi I was succeeded by his son Abba-El I, whose reign witnessed the rebellion of the city Irridu, which was under the authority of prince Yarim-Lim, Abba-El's brother. The king responded to the rebellion by destroying Irridu, and compensating his brother by giving him the throne of Alalakh, thus creating a cadet branch of the dynasty.
Decline and end
The era of Abba-El I's successors is poorly documented, and by the time of Yarim-Lim III in the mid-17th century BC, the power of Yamhad declined due to internal dissent. Yarim-Lim III ruled a weakened kingdom, and although he imposed Yamhadite hegemony over Qatna, the weakening was obvious as Alalakh had become all but independent under the self-declared king Ammitakum. In spite of this regression, the king of Yamhad remained the strongest king of the Syrian states, as he was referred to as a Great King by the Hittites, the diplomatic equal of the Hittite king.
The rise of the Hittite kingdom in the north posed the biggest threat to Yamhad, although Yarim-Lim III and his successor Hammurabi III were able to withstand the aggressions of the Hittite king Hattusili I through alliances with the Hurrian principalities. Hattusili chose not to attack Halab directly and began with conquering Yamhad's vassals and allies, starting with Alalakh in the second year of his Syrian campaigns c. 1650 BC (Middle chronology) or slightly later. Hattusili then turned to attack the Hurrians in Urshu northeast of Halab, and won in spite of military support from Halab and Carchemish for the Hurrians. The Hittite king then defeated Yamhad in the battle of Mount Atalur, and sacked Hassum along with several other Hurrian cities in the sixth year of his Syrian wars. After many campaigns, Hattusili I finally attacked Halab during the reign of Hammurabi III. The attack ended in a defeat, the wounding of the Hittite king and his later death c. 1620 BC. Hattusili's campaigns considerably weakened Yamhad, causing it to decline in status: the monarch ceased to be styled a Great King.
Hattusili was succeeded by his grandson Mursili I, who conquered Halab c. 1600 BC and destroyed Yamhad as a major power in the Levant. Mursili then left for Babylon and sacked it, but was assassinated upon his return to his capital Hattusa, and his empire disintegrated. Halab was rebuilt and the kingdom expanded to include Alalakh again. The reestablished kingdom was ruled by kings of whom nothing but their names is known; the first is Sarra-El, who might have been the son of Yarim-Lim III. The last king of the dynasty to rule as king of Halab was Ilim-Ilimma I, whose reign ended c. 1524 when he was killed during a rebellion orchestrated by king Parshatatar of Mitanni who annexed Halab. Ilim-Ilimma's son, Idrimi, fled to Emar then conquered Alalakh c. 1517 BC. Seven years following his conquest of Alalakh, Idrimi made peace with Mitanni and was acknowledged as a vassal, and allowed to control Halab, though he had to relocate the dynasty's residence to Alalakh and relinquish the title of "King of Halab"; the use of the name Yamhad also ended.
Kings of Yamhad
Dates are estimated and given by the Middle chronology.
People and culture
The people of Yamhad were Amorites and spoke the Amorite language, and apart from a few Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Aegean influences, Yamhad belonged mainly to middle Bronze Age Syrian culture. This culture influenced the architecture and the functions of the temples, which were mainly cultic, while political authority was invested in the royal palace, in contrast to the important political role of the temples in Mesopotamia.
Since the capital Halab has not been excavated, the architecture of the kingdom is archaeologically best represented by the city of Alalakh, which was subordinate to Halab and ruled by a king belonging to the Yamhadite royal house. The Amorites in general built large palaces that bear architectural similarities to old Babylonian-era palaces. They were adorned with grand central courtyards, throne rooms, tiled floors, drainage systems and plastered walls, which suggest the employment of specialized labor. Evidence exists for the presence of Minoan Aegean fresco artists who painted elaborate scenes on the walls of the palaces in Alalakh.
Yamhad had a distinctive Syrian iconography, which is clear in the seals of the kings that gave prominence to the Syrian gods. Egyptian influence was minimal and limited to the ankh, which cannot be interpreted as an emulation of Egyptian rituals but rather as merely a substitute for the cup held by the deity elsewhere. Yamhad had a special pattern of trim called the Yamhad style, which was favored in Mari during the reign of king Zimri-Lim, whose queen Shibtu was the daughter of Yarim-Lim I.
After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, Hurrians began to settle in the city and its surroundings, and by c. 1725 BC they constituted a sizable portion of the population. The presence of a large Hurrian population brought Hurrian culture and religion to Halab, as evidenced by the existence of certain religious festivals that bear Hurrian names.
Economy
Halab's location has always been a factor in its prominence as an economic center. Yamhad's economy was based on trade with the Iranian Plateau, Mesopotamia, Cyprus and Anatolia, with the city of Emar as its port on the Euphrates, and Alalakh with its proximity to the sea as its port on the Mediterranean.
The actions of Yarim-Lim I and his alliance with Babylon proved vital for the kingdom's economy, for they secured the trade between Mesopotamia and northern Syria, with the king of Mari protecting the caravans crossing from the Persian Gulf to Anatolia. Emar attracted many Babylonian merchants, who lived in the city and had a lasting impact on the local scribal conventions. As late as the 14th century BC, texts of the so-called Syrian type from Emar preserve distinct Babylonian traits.
The markets of Yamhad became a source of copper, which was imported from the mountains (probably Anatolian) and Cyprus. However, the Babylonian invasion of Mari had a negative impact on the trade between the two kingdoms, as the road became dangerous because of the loss of Mari's protection to the caravans. This led the Babylonian king Samsu-iluna to build many strongholds up the river valley, and to establish colonies of mercenaries known as the "Kassite Houses" to protect the middle Euphrates area. Those colonies later evolved into semi-independent polities that waged a war against the Babylonian king Ammi-Saduqa and caused the trade temporarily to stop.
Religion
The people of Yamhad practiced the Amorite religion, and mainly worshiped the Northwest Semitic deities. The most important of these were Dagon, who was considered the father of the gods, and Hadad, who was the most important deity and the head of the pantheon. The kingdom was known as the "land of Hadad", who was famous as the Storm-God of Halab beginning in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. His main temple was located on the citadel hill in the center of the city and remained in use from the 24th century BC, until at least the 9th century BC.
The title "Beloved of Hadad" was one of the king's titles. Hadad was the kingdom's patron god, and all treaties were concluded in his name, which was also used to threaten other kingdoms, and to declare wars. As the Hurrian presence grew, so did Hurrian religious influences and some of the Hurrian deities found a place in the Yamhadite pantheon. King Abba-El I mentioned receiving the support of the Hurrian goddess Hebat in one of the Alalakh tablets (Hebat was the spouse of the Hurrian main deity Teshub, but in Abba-El I's tablet, she is associated with Hadad). Later, the Hurrians started to identify Teshub with Hadad, who became Teshub the Storm-God of Halab.
Beside the general gods, the kings had a "head god", that is, a deity who had an intimate connection for the worshiper. King Yarim-Lim I described Hadad as the god of the state, but the Mesopotamian deity Sin as the god of his head. His son Hammurabi I did likewise.
See also
Armi
Yamhad dynasty
List of rulers of Aleppo
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Hadad temple discovery. Kay Kohlmeyer, an archaeologist at Berlin's University of Applied Sciences and the excavation co-director explain about the temple.
Ansari- ancient Halab.
Ancient Syria
History of Aleppo
Amorite cities
2nd-millennium BC establishments
States and territories established in the 19th century BC
States and territories disestablished in the 16th century BC
2nd-millennium BC disestablishments
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curt%20Schilling
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Curt Schilling
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Curtis Montague Schilling (born November 14, 1966) is an American former Major League Baseball right-handed pitcher who is a commentator for conservative media outlet BlazeTV. He helped lead the Philadelphia Phillies to a World Series appearance in 1993, and won championships in 2001 with the Arizona Diamondbacks and in 2004 and 2007 with the Boston Red Sox. Schilling retired with a career postseason record of 11–2, and his .846 postseason winning percentage is a major-league record among pitchers with at least ten decisions. He is a member of the 3,000 strikeout club and has the highest strikeout-to-walk ratio of any of its inactive members. He is tied for third for the most 300-strikeout seasons.
After retiring, he founded Green Monster Games, which was renamed 38 Studios. The company released Kingdoms of Amalur: Reckoning in February 2012. Three months later, they laid off their entire staff amid severe financial troubles.
As a radio personality, Schilling was signed by the Howie Carr radio network to do a Saturday morning politics and sports show. An outspoken conservative, Schilling joined the far-right website Breitbart in 2016.
Playing career
Amateur baseball
Schilling played for Shadow Mountain High School in Phoenix, Arizona before attending Yavapai College in Prescott, Arizona in 1985.
Orioles and Astros (1988–1992)
Schilling began his professional career in the Boston Red Sox farm system as a second-round pick in what would be MLB's final January draft. He began his professional career with the Elmira Pioneers, then a Red Sox minor-league affiliate.
After beginning 1988 with an 8–4 record and a 2.97 earned run average in 21 games with the New Britain Red Sox, he was traded along with Brady Anderson to the Baltimore Orioles for Mike Boddicker on July 29, two days prior to the trade deadline. Schilling allowed three runs in seven innings as the starter in a 4–3 win over the Red Sox in his MLB debut at Memorial Stadium on September 7, 1988. Orioles manager Frank Robinson said of Schilling's performance, "He showed he doesn't get rattled out there." He was the losing pitcher in each of his remaining three starts of 1988, including a season-ending 9–3 defeat to the Toronto Blue Jays at Exhibition Stadium on October 2.
Schilling earned both his first save and win in 1990. The save was the result of not allowing a run in the last innings of a 6–2 victory over the Minnesota Twins at the Metrodome which was his first Orioles appearance of the year on June 29. The win came two weeks later when he pitched two shutout innings in relief in a 7–5 home triumph over the Kansas City Royals on July 11. Working exclusively out of the bullpen, he finished the season with a 1–2 record and a 2.54 ERA.
In a transaction considered by Orioles fans as the worst in team history according to Thom Loverro, Schilling was dealt along with Steve Finley and Pete Harnisch to the Houston Astros for Glenn Davis on January 10, 1991. He joined an Astros organization that was for sale and lightening its payroll by going with younger, inexpensive players.
Schilling was traded to the Philadelphia Phillies for pitcher Jason Grimsley on April 2, 1992.
Philadelphia Phillies (1992–2000)
After having struggled with the Orioles and Astros, Schilling was given the chance to pitch and start with the Philadelphia Phillies on a regular basis and flourished as the ace of the Phillies staff, leading the team in wins (14), ERA (2.35), strikeouts (147) and shutouts (4) in his first season with them in 1992. During the Phillies' pennant run in 1993, Schilling went 16–7 with a 4.02 ERA and 186 strikeouts. Schilling led the Phillies to an upset against the two-time defending National League champion Atlanta Braves in the National League Championship Series. Although he received no decisions during his two appearances in the six-game series, Schilling's 1.69 ERA and 19 strikeouts (including the first 5 Braves hitters of Game 1, an NLCS record) were enough to earn him the 1993 NLCS Most Valuable Player Award. The Phillies went on to face the defending world champion Toronto Blue Jays in the World Series. After losing Game 1, he pitched brilliantly in his next start. With the Phillies facing elimination the day after losing a bizarre 15–14 contest at home in Veterans Stadium, Schilling pitched a five-hit shutout that the Phillies won, 2–0.
Schilling was named to the NL All-Star team in 1997, 1998, and 1999 and started the 1999 game. In 1997, he finished 14th in NL MVP voting and fourth in NL Cy Young voting. During this season he set the Phillies single-season strikeout record with 319, surpassing the previous record of 310 strikeouts set by Steve Carlton who had held the record since 1972. Schilling either led or tied for the Phillies leader in wins, complete games, shutouts, and ERA among starters each season from 1997 to 1999, averaging 16 wins per season over those three years despite the team never finishing the season with a winning record. Unhappy with the team's performance, he requested a trade to a more competitive team in 2000 and was subsequently dealt to the Arizona Diamondbacks. His 101 career victories ranks sixth all-time for Phillies pitchers, 20th in ERA (3.35), 23rd in games appeared in (242), sixth in games started (226), 34th in complete games (61), 13th in shutouts (14), fourth in strikeouts (1554), and eighth in innings pitched (1659.1).
Arizona Diamondbacks (2000–2003)
Schilling was traded to the Diamondbacks on July 26, 2000, for first baseman Travis Lee and pitchers Vicente Padilla, Omar Daal, and Nelson Figueroa. With Arizona, he went 22–6 with a 2.98 ERA in 2001, leading the majors in wins and innings pitched. He also went 4–0 with a 1.12 ERA in the playoffs. In the 2001 World Series, the Diamondbacks beat the New York Yankees in seven games. Schilling was 1–0 in that World Series with a 1.69 ERA and 26 strikeouts in 21 innings, though he also allowed a go-ahead home run in the 8th inning of Game Seven. He shared the 2001 World Series MVP Award with teammate Randy Johnson (who relieved Schilling in Game Seven and got the win after the Diamondbacks' dramatic ninth-inning comeback). Schilling and Johnson also shared Sports Illustrated magazine's 2001 "Sportsmen of the Year" award. During the World Series Schilling received two other honors, as he was presented that year's Roberto Clemente and Branch Rickey Awards, the first Arizona Diamondback so honored for either award.
In 2002, he went 23–7 with a 3.23 ERA. He struck out 316 batters while walking 33 in 259.1 innings. On April 7, 2002, Schilling threw a one-hit shutout striking out 17 against the Milwaukee Brewers. Both years he finished second in the Cy Young Award voting to Johnson. Schilling finished the 2003 season with an 8–9 record and a 2.95 ERA in 168 innings while striking out 194 batters. In November 2003, the Diamondbacks traded Schilling to the Boston Red Sox in exchange for Jorge de la Rosa, Casey Fossum, Mike Goss, and Brandon Lyon.
Boston Red Sox (2004–2008)
The trade to Boston reunited Schilling with Terry Francona, his manager during his final four years with the Philadelphia Phillies. On September 16, 2004, Schilling won his 20th game of 2004 for the Red Sox, becoming the fifth Boston pitcher to win 20 or more games in his first season with the team, and the first since Hall of Famer Dennis Eckersley in 1978. Schilling ended his regular season with a 21–6 record.
On October 19, 2004, Schilling won Game 6 of the 2004 American League Championship Series against the New York Yankees. Notably, he won this game playing on an injured ankle—the same injuries that contributed to his disastrous outing in Game 1 of the ALCS. These injuries were so acute that by the end of his Game 6 performance, blood visibly soaked part of his white sock, which is now referred to as "the bloody sock". The victory forced a Game 7, which the Red Sox would go on to win to capture the pennant and make their first World Series appearance since 1986. Schilling pitched (and won) Game 2 of the 2004 World Series for the Red Sox against the St. Louis Cardinals. In both series, he had to have the tendon in his right ankle stabilized repeatedly, in what has become known as the Schilling tendon procedure, after the tendon sheath was torn during his Game 1 ALDS appearance against the Anaheim Angels. As in Game 6 of the ALCS, Schilling's sock was soaked with blood from the sutures used in this medical procedure, but he still managed to pitch seven strong innings, giving up one run on four hits and striking out four. This second bloody sock was placed in the Baseball Hall of Fame after Boston's victory over St. Louis in the World Series. A four-game sweep of the World Series erased the Curse of the Bambino. On February 23, 2013, the first bloody sock was sold at a live auction at the Fletcher-Sinclair Mansion for $92,613 to an anonymous bidder.
Schilling was once again runner-up in Cy Young voting in 2004, this time to Minnesota Twins hurler Johan Santana, who was a unanimous selection, receiving all 28 first-place votes. Schilling received 27 of the 28 second-place votes. Later, the entire Red Sox team was named Sports Illustrated 2004 Sportsmen of the Year, making Schilling only the second person to have won or shared that award twice.
Schilling began 2005 on the disabled list due to recurrent ankle injuries. He returned in July as Boston's closer. He eventually returned to the starting rotation and continued to struggle. The Red Sox made it to the playoffs, but were swept by the Chicago White Sox in three games.
For the 2006 season, Schilling was said to be healthy. He began the season 4–0 with a 1.61 ERA. He finished the year with a 15–7 record and 198 strikeouts, with a respectable 3.97 ERA. On May 27, he earned his 200th career win, the 104th major league pitcher to accomplish the feat. On August 30, Schilling collected his 3,000th strikeout. Schilling has the highest ratio of strikeouts to walks of any pitcher with at least 3,000 strikeouts, and is one of four pitchers to reach the 3,000-K milestone before reaching 1,000 career walks. The other three who accomplished this feat are Fergie Jenkins, Greg Maddux, and former Boston Red Sox ace and teammate Pedro Martínez.
In January 2007, Schilling announced on the Dennis and Callahan show that after talking with his family, he had changed his mind and did not want to retire at the conclusion of the 2007 season. He sought to negotiate an extension to his current contract, but Red Sox executives announced that they would not negotiate with him until after the season citing Schilling's age and physical condition as factors in their decision. Schilling went on to say he would become a free agent at the end of the season, for the first time in his career, and would not negotiate with the Red Sox during the 15 days after the end of the World Series when the team has exclusive negotiating rights with potential free agents. On a June appearance on the Dennis and Callahan Show, Schilling stated he would accept a one-year extension to his contract at his current salary if the Red Sox offered it to him. Questioned on his statement, Schilling said, "I said I wouldn't negotiate a deal during the season, and I'm saying that now. But I would accept that offer."
On June 7, 2007, Schilling came within one out of his first career no-hitter. Schilling gave up a two-out single to Oakland's Shannon Stewart, who lined a 95-mph fastball to right field for the A's only hit. Schilling followed up his one-hitter with two poor starts and was sent back to Boston on June 20 for an MRI on his shoulder and was placed on the disabled list. He returned from the disabled list on August 6, pitching at least six innings in each of his nine starts following the All-Star break.
Schilling continued his career postseason success in 2007, throwing seven shutout innings in a 9–1 victory over the Angels in the ALDS, wrapping up a three-game sweep for Boston. However, he did not fare as well pitching in Game 2 of the ALCS against Cleveland, surrendering nine hits—two of them home runs—and five earned runs in just innings. He did start again in the sixth game of the series, pitching seven complete innings during which he recorded five strikeouts, surrendering no walks with only two earned runs to gain the victory and force a Game 7. He earned his third win of the 2007 playoffs in Game 2 of the 2007 World Series leaving after innings, striking out four while allowing only four hits. With this win, he became only the second pitcher over the age of 40 to start and win a World Series game (Kenny Rogers became the first just one year prior). As Schilling departed in the 6th inning, fans at Fenway Park gave Schilling a standing ovation.
Schilling filed for free agency on October 30, 2007. He said he would seek a one-year deal, and according to ESPN First Take and his own blog page 38 Pitches. Schilling later signed a one-year deal with the Boston Red Sox for the 2008 season. Schilling missed all of the 2008 season because of a shoulder injury. The injury was first revealed in February 2008 and the treatment options became a point of contention between Schilling and the Red Sox management. On March 13, 2008, the Red Sox placed Schilling on the 60-day disabled list as he continued to rehabilitate his right shoulder. On June 18, 2008, Curt Schilling left the team to be reevaluated after suffering pain when throwing off the mound. On June 20, 2008 Schilling stated on WEEI's Dennis and Callahan show that he would undergo season-ending surgery and that he had possibly thrown the last pitch of his career. On June 23, 2008, Schilling underwent biceps surgery, during which a small undersurface tear on the rotator cuff was discovered and stitched, and a separation of the labrum was repaired. According to his surgeon, he could begin throwing in four months.
Retirement and honors
On March 23, 2009, Schilling officially announced his retirement from professional baseball after 20 seasons. Schilling ended his career with a 216–146 record, 3.46 ERA and 3116 strikeouts, 15th-most in MLB history. He was selected to the Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame in 2012. On August 2, 2013, Schilling was inducted into the Philadelphia Phillies Wall of Fame.
National Baseball Hall of Fame consideration
Having last pitched in 2007, Schilling became eligible for election to the National Baseball Hall of Fame with the 2013 ballot, when he received 38.8% of the vote, well short of the 75% required for induction, but well above the 5% required to remain on the ballot. His support ramped in subsequent elections; in 2020 balloting he appeared on 278 of the 397 ballots cast (70.0%), just 20 votes short. In 2021 balloting, announced on January 26, 2021, Schilling appeared on 71.1% of the ballots cast, again falling short of the 75% election threshold. The degree to which Schilling's "propensity for divisive statements" may have influenced voters has been discussed by media. Schilling has now appeared on the BBWAA ballot nine times; players may appear a maximum of 10 times. Following the announcement of 2021 balloting results, Schilling announced on Facebook that he would be asking the Hall of Fame to remove his name from the 2022 ballot and that he would defer to the Veterans Committee to judge his career. The BBWAA enjoined the Hall of Fame to ignore his request and leave him on the ballot for 2022. He was not selected on the 2022 ballot, receiving 58.6% of the vote in his 10th and final year on the BBWAA ballot. He will be eligible for the National Baseball Hall of Fame as part of the Today's Game Committee in December 2022.
Scouting report
During the prime of his career, Schilling was capable of reaching and sustaining speeds of 94–98 mph on his four-seam fastball. Throughout his career, he was characterized by a determination to go deep into ballgames, routinely pitching past the sixth and seventh innings. He combined his endurance with pinpoint control, especially on his fastball. Schilling's "out" pitch was a split-finger fastball, which he generally located beneath the strike zone (resulting in many swinging strikeouts). He also possessed an above-average changeup, an effective slider, and mixed in an occasional curveball, though he mainly alternated between his fastball and splitter. Though his velocity decreased in later years (to the 89–93 range on his fastball), his control remained excellent, and he is currently fifth in career strikeout to walk ratio.
Awards and accomplishments
Awards
Babe Ruth Award (2001)
2× Baseball Digest Pitcher of the Year (2001, 2004)
Branch Rickey Award (2001)
Hutch Award (2001)
Lou Gehrig Memorial Award (1995)
6× MLB All-Star (1997, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2004)
4× MLB Pitcher of the Month (May 1999, May 2001, May 2002, July 2002)
3× MLB Player of the Week (May 27, 2001; August 5, 2001; August 17, 2003)
National League Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award (1993)
Philadelphia Baseball Wall of Fame inductee (2013)
Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame inductee (2014)
2× Players Choice Award for NL Outstanding Pitcher (2001, 2002)
Roberto Clemente Award (2001)
2× Sporting News NL Pitcher of the Year (2001, 2002)
Sporting News Sportsman of the Year (2001)
2× Sports Illustrated Sportsperson of the Year (2001, 2004)
3× World Series champion (2001, 2004, 2007)
World Series Most Valuable Player Award (2001)
Accomplishments
3× 300 strikeouts in one season (1996, 1997, 2002)
3,000 strikeout club (2006)
4× NL complete games leader (1996, 1998, 2000, 2001)
MLB hits per nine innings pitched leader (1992)
3× NL games started leader (1997, 1998, 2001)
2× NL innings pitched leader (1998, 2001)
2× NL strikeout leader (1998, 2001)
5× AL/NL strikeout-to-walk ratio leader (2001–04, 2006)
2× AL/NL walks per nine innings pitched leader (2002, 2006)
2× NL walks plus hits per inning pitched leader (1992, 2002)
2× MLB wins leader (2001, 2004)
Personal life
Schilling is one of 11 MLB players born in Alaska. He considers his family's native Pittsburgh metro area to be home and is a fan of the Pittsburgh Steelers.
He went to high school in Phoenix, Arizona, attending Shadow Mountain High School. Until 2013, Schilling lived in Medfield, Massachusetts, in Drew Bledsoe's former home. In late 2013, Schilling's house in Massachusetts was listed for sale at $3 million. Various personal belongings, including a golf cart, were also listed.
He is married to Shonda Schilling. They have four children, all of their names beginning with the letter G: Gehrig (born 1995), Gabriella (born 1997), Grant (born 1999), and Garrison (born 2002).
Schilling is a born-again Christian. Schilling opposes same-sex marriage and believes that each state should decide its laws on the topic rather than the federal government.
He has an extensive collection of World War II memorabilia, including "numerous Nazi uniforms with swastikas" and "uniforms worn by various SS divisions, including Hitler’s personal bodyguards"; Schilling has specified that it is "not a Nazi collection. It's a collection of World War II stuff," further stating that he doesn't "have a racist bone in (his) body".
Before the 2007 season, Schilling started a blog called 38pitches.com in which he answered fan questions, documented his starts, and refuted press coverage about him or the team that he believed to be inaccurate. After retiring, he moved his blog to the WEEI sports radio website. After a disagreement with the station, Schilling removed it from that site. Schilling periodically contributes on the ESPN Boston website answering fan questions about the Red Sox or baseball in general. Schilling can also be found on Twitter under the handle gehrig38.
Cancer
On February 5, 2014, Schilling revealed that he was being treated for throat cancer. On June 25 of that year, Schilling announced that the cancer was in remission. Schilling said his cancer was a result of using smokeless tobacco for 30 years. He also used his experiences to warn pitcher Madison Bumgarner, a long-time smokeless tobacco user, of risks.
Political involvement
Schilling campaigned for President George W. Bush in 2004 while certain members of the ownership of the Red Sox campaigned for the Democratic challenger, Senator John Kerry. Schilling said he was encouraged to run for Kerry's seat in the U.S. Senate in 2008 as a Republican. Schilling was quoted in The Boston Globe as saying that he intended to pitch in 2008, which would preclude a Senate run.
He was called to Capitol Hill to testify about anabolic steroid use in March 2005, not as a suspected user but rather as a vocal opponent. He has said that Jose Canseco's statistics should be thrown out due to his admitted use of steroids, and has also said that unless he can refute allegations that he used performance-enhancing drugs, Roger Clemens should be stripped of the four Cy Young Awards he has won since 1997.
On January 29, 2007, Schilling announced in an interview that he would support Senator John McCain, who became the Republican nominee in the 2008 presidential election. In the same interview, he criticized then-presidential candidate and Senator Hillary Clinton (D) for comments criticizing the war in Iraq. Schilling also turned up on the campaign trail several times stumping for McCain.
Schilling was mentioned as a possible candidate for U.S. Senate in the special election in Massachusetts for the seat left vacant by the death of Senator Ted Kennedy. He ruled out a run during his September 24, 2009 appearance on sports radio talk show Dennis and Callahan. In 2009, Schilling endorsed Scott Brown for the seat. During the campaign, Martha Coakley, the Democratic candidate, called Schilling a Yankee fan. Coakley was ridiculed for the comment; critics said it showed she was out of touch with the Boston community. Schilling joked about the incident: "I've been called a lot of things... But never, and I mean never, could anyone ever make the mistake of calling me a Yankee fan. Well, check that, if you didn't know what the hell is going on in your own state, maybe you could."
In October 2016, Schilling joined Breitbart News, a far-right opinion and news organization.
Schilling announced that he would challenge Senator Elizabeth Warren in the 2018 U.S. Senate election in Massachusetts but ended up dropping out and supported politician and conspiracy theorist Shiva Ayyadurai in the race. Schilling expressed interest in running for president in 2024 had Donald Trump been re-elected in 2020.
Charity work
Schilling has worked on behalf of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis sufferers. His organization, Curt's Pitch for ALS, allowed fans and organizations to sponsor him, donating to the ALS Association for every strikeout he throws. He also donated to the charity his $25,000 winnings in a celebrity version of Jeopardy! that originally aired on November 9, 2006. In the 2004 playoffs, after the operation on his ankle, Schilling wrote "K ALS" (short for "strike out ALS") on his shoe, knowing that the cameras would be focusing on his foot numerous times while he was pitching. Schilling does a weekly radio show with WEEI-FM in Boston that raises over $100,000 each year for ALS patients and research.
Conflicts with players and management
The outspoken Schilling has engaged in several conflicts with fellow players. Schilling was publicly criticized by Phillies teammates Mitch Williams, Larry Andersen, and Danny Jackson for his conduct during the 1993 World Series. Whenever Williams, a hard-throwing closer with a penchant for unpredictability and erratic control, was on the mound, CBS television cameras caught Schilling in the dugout hiding his face with a towel. Although Schilling said he was nervous in the heat of the World Series, his teammates criticized him for being disrespectful.
Schilling has directed comments toward New York Yankees third baseman Alex Rodriguez, calling a Rodríguez tag in Game 6 of the ALCS a "bush-league play" on The Jim Rome Show.
During a radio show appearance on May 8, 2007, Schilling criticized Barry Bonds, stating: "He admitted to cheating on his wife, cheating on his taxes and cheating on the game." Soon after, Schilling issued an apology on his blog, stating "it was absolutely irresponsible and wrong to say what I did".
After the 2008 season, Schilling released a blog post blasting former teammate Manny Ramirez's conduct before Ramirez left the Red Sox.
While with the Phillies, Schilling was a vocal critic of team management.
During a game as a Diamondback in 2003, he damaged a QuesTec camera with a bat. According to Schilling, the umpire behind the plate had said "I can't call that pitch a strike, the machine won't let me." This led to a fine and a public exchange of insults with Major League Baseball executive Sandy Alderson, who accused Schilling of whining and wanting balls to be called strikes. In response Schilling said Alderson was "ignorant to the facts and ignorant about what I said."
Conflicts with media
Schilling has a longstanding feud with ESPN and former Arizona Republic reporter Pedro Gomez, initially over a Gomez article that criticized Diamondbacks manager Buck Showalter. Gomez then published a column critical of Schilling, the same day Schilling was pitching in Game 7 of the 2001 World Series. In his column, Gomez stated, "During the past few days, the country...has discovered Schilling's little secret, the one baseball insiders have known for years but has rarely surfaced into the mainstream. Schilling is something of a con man, someone more intent on polishing his personal image through whatever means possible." A year later, Gomez further angered Schilling by calling the friendship between Schilling and teammate Randy Johnson "cosmetic."
In interviews in October 2004 and February 2006, Schilling, while criticizing Baltimore Sun sports columnist Laura Vecsey, compared her to Gomez and sportswriter Jon Heyman:
There are a lot of her in that industry, Pedro Gomez, Joel Heyman, to name a few. People with so little skill in their profession that they need to speculate, make up, fabricate, to write something interesting enough to be printed. What makes them bad people? I am sure I cannot nail the exact reason, but I know some. Jealousy, bitterness, the need to be 'different.'
In 2007, Schilling spoke out against Boston Globe sports columnist Dan Shaughnessy, who had been criticizing Schilling for the condition he showed up in for spring training, referred to him as "the Big Blowhard" and mocked Schilling's blog and radio appearances. Schilling responded on a local baseball web forum and his own blog to claim to have found errors in Shaughnessy's columns.
On April 27, 2007, broadcaster Gary Thorne said that he overheard Red Sox catcher Doug Mirabelli say that the blood on the sock used by Schilling in Game 6 of the 2004 ALCS was actually paint. Mirabelli accused Thorne of lying and a day later, after talking to Mirabelli, Thorne backed off his statement saying he misinterpreted what was intended as a joke, "Having talked with him today, there's no doubt in my mind that's not what he said, that's not what he meant. He explained that it was in the context of the sarcasm and the jabbing that goes on in the clubhouse."
Schilling responded in his blog by saying the following:
So Gary Thorne says that Doug told him the blood was fake. Which even when he's called out he can't admit he lied. Doug never told Gary Thorne anything. Gary Thorne overheard something and then misreported what he overheard. Not only did he misreport it, he misinterpreted what he misreported.
Gaming
Schilling plays the board wargame Advanced Squad Leader.
ASL has become his constant companion on road trips, and every National League city is now his playground for baseball at night and ASL in the day. (All of which has become a bonanza for ASL players of his acquaintance, who are sometimes Curt's guests at stadiums around the country.)
Schilling's disappointment at not being able to attend the game's annual convention led him to create his own, The ASL Open, which debuted the weekend of January 15, 1993, in Houston. Schilling started a gaming publication, Fire for Effect, a bi-monthly magazine featuring "some of the ASL hobby's best writers".
When his favorite game was sold along with Avalon Hill to Hasbro, Schilling joined the small gaming company Multi-Man Publishing which maintained ASL and other Avalon Hill titles. MMP also started a new, professional publication entitled ASL Journal and contributed articles, editorials, and game scenarios.
Schilling has played EverQuest and EverQuest II and has reviewed two of the game's many expansion packs for PC Gamer magazine. Schilling has played World of Warcraft and became a regular guest on the World of Warcraft podcast The Instance. In 2006, Schilling created Green Monster Games, which Schilling stated was not named after the Fenway left field wall. In early 2007, the company's name changed to 38 Studios.
In January 2008, Schilling announced that he would be focusing on an MMORPG project after his retirement. Comic book creator Todd McFarlane and fantasy author R.A. Salvatore were working with Schilling on the project. The new game was developed under the code-name Copernicus. A single-player RPG set in the same setting, titled Kingdoms of Amalur: Reckoning, was released by 38 Studios in February 2012. Executives from 38 Studios introduced the game at the Comic-Con 2010 convention in San Diego.
In July 2010, the Rhode Island Board of Economic Development approved a $75 million guaranteed loan to 38 Studios. 38 Studios promised to bring 450 jobs to the state by the end of 2012. In May 2012, 38 Studios defaulted on its loan from the state of Rhode Island and failed to meet payroll obligations to its employees. 38 Studios and its subsidiary, Big Huge Games, then laid off their staffs with a mass email. Some of the laid-off employees may have had second mortgages, because the company had not actually sold homes for them as part of a relocation package. Some have accused Schilling of hypocrisy based on the conflict between his professed views on "big government" and the studio's relationship with "big government". On November 1, 2012, Schilling was sued by the state in connection with the loan. Governor Lincoln Chafee said: "My message to Rhode Islanders is this: I know that you work hard for your paychecks, and for your tax dollars to be squandered is unacceptable. The Board's legal action was taken to rectify a grave injustice put upon the people of Rhode Island."
In a July 2012 interview, Schilling discussed the downfall of 38 Studios, citing the Rhode Island governor and his own optimism as the primary reasons for the demise of the company. Ultimately, the company filed for bankruptcy; Schilling, other 38 Studios executives, and other parties associated with the company agreed in a court settlement to repay the state of Rhode Island $61 million.
He has a custom avatar in EverQuest II, as the creators of the game have made Schilling a special online character. From June 5 to June 7, 2006, fans were able to battle a virtual Curt Schilling in the game. Every time the virtual Schilling was defeated, Sony Online Entertainment donated $5 towards ALS research.
Twitter controversies
In November 2014, Schilling got into a day-long Twitter argument with baseball writer Keith Law over the creation–evolution controversy, where he argued for creationism against Law's defense of evolution, after which ESPN decided to suspend Law's Twitter account. ESPN commented that "Keith's Twitter suspension had absolutely nothing to do with his opinions on the subject", but it remains unclear what other motivation is behind the act, since the conversation between Schilling and Law reportedly "never really turned hostile", with many reading the details feeling that his suspension was "ridiculous". Schilling's account was not suspended, and he continued to tweet. Returning to Twitter after the ban expired, Law's first tweet "Eppur si muove" ("And yet it moves") made clear that Schilling's complaints about his posts contradicting his argument were in fact the reason for the suspension.
On February 25, 2015, Schilling posted a congratulatory tweet to his then-17-year-old daughter Gabby for her acceptance to college and the school's softball team. Some responses to his tweet made crude references to rape, fisting and anal sex, among other sexual references. Schilling posted to his blog screen captures of some offending tweets, along with the real identities of the Twitter handles, whose jobs, schools and relatives he claimed to have contacted. At least two of the Twitter users were known to have been punished, with one losing his part-time job as a ticket seller for the Yankees, and still another being suspended from Brookdale Community College. Schilling claimed at least seven others were also penalized by their jobs or athletic teams.
Public speaking
Schilling was selected as the commencement speaker for Worcester Polytechnic Institute's 2010 commencement and awarded a Doctorate of Science, honoris causa.
Broadcast analyst
Schilling debuted on ESPN as a baseball color analyst on April 4, 2010, on the pre-game show for the 2010 season opener between the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox. He has written for WEEI.com, 38pitches.com, and WordPress.com. In 2014, he was named as an analyst for ESPN's Sunday Night Baseball, although his subsequent cancer diagnosis prevented him from working the telecasts for most of the season. On September 14, 2014, Schilling returned to the Sunday Night Baseball booth as the Yankees played the Baltimore Orioles.
On August 25, 2015, ESPN.com suspended Schilling's coverage of the ongoing Little League World Series and Sunday Night Baseball after he posted a Twitter meme that compared Muslim Jihadism and German Nazis, "the math is staggering when you get to the true [number]s". Schilling deleted and apologized for the controversial tweet the same day. Schilling was also suspended from the next Sunday night game, in which Chicago Cubs pitcher Jake Arrieta threw a no-hitter. On September 3, 2015, ESPN announced his suspension would cover all remaining 2015 Sunday Night Baseball games as well as its 2015 MLB playoff coverage.
On April 20, 2016, ESPN announced that they had fired Schilling after he shared an "anti-transgender" Facebook post, saying, "ESPN is an inclusive company. Curt Schilling has been advised that his conduct was unacceptable and his employment with ESPN has been terminated." Schilling's social media post came shortly after passage of the North Carolina transgender restroom law. In September 2017, Schilling accused ESPN of a double standard when reporter Jemele Hill was not fired or suspended following a controversial social media post about Donald Trump. In an on-air phone interview with CNN, Schilling defended Hill's right to speak her mind, then stated, "I wasn't fired for speaking my mind; I was fired for being a conservative."
See also
100 Inning Game – annual event to raise funds for Curt's Pitch for ALS
List of Major League Baseball career wins leaders
List of Major League Baseball annual strikeout leaders
List of Major League Baseball annual wins leaders
List of Major League Baseball career strikeout leaders
References
External links
Curt Schilling at SABR (Baseball BioProject)
Curt Schilling at Baseball Gauge
Curt Schilling at Astros Daily
1966 births
American Christian creationists
American League wins champions
American League All-Stars
Arizona Diamondbacks players
Baltimore Orioles players
Baseball players from Alaska
Baseball players from Arizona
Boston Red Sox players
Breitbart News people
Charlotte Knights players
Clearwater Phillies players
Collectors
Elmira Pioneers players
Greensboro Hornets players
Houston Astros players
Living people
Major League Baseball broadcasters
Major League Baseball pitchers
Massachusetts Republicans
National League All-Stars
National League Championship Series MVPs
National League strikeout champions
National League wins champions
New Britain Red Sox players
Pawtucket Red Sox players
Pennsylvania Republicans
People from Medfield, Massachusetts
People in the video game industry
Philadelphia Phillies players
Reading Phillies players
Rochester Red Wings players
Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Red Barons players
Sportspeople from Anchorage, Alaska
Tucson Sidewinders players
Tucson Toros players
World Series Most Valuable Player Award winners
Yavapai Roughriders baseball players
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] |
241657
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LaTeX%20Project%20Public%20License
|
LaTeX Project Public License
|
The LaTeX Project Public License (LPPL) is a software license originally written for the LaTeX system. Software distributed under the terms of the LPPL can be regarded as free software; however, it is not copylefted.
Besides the LaTeX base system, the LPPL is also used for most third-party LaTeX packages. Software projects other than LaTeX rarely use it.
Unique features of the license
The LPPL grew from Donald Knuth's original license for TeX, which states that the source code for TeX may be used for any purpose but a system built with it can only be called 'TeX' if it strictly conforms to his canonical program. The incentive for this provision was to ensure that documents written for TeX will be readable for the foreseeable future and TeX and its extensions will still compile documents written from the early 1980s to produce output exactly as intended. Quoting Frank Mittelbach, the main author of the license: "LPPL attempts to preserve the fact that something like LaTeX is a language which is used for communication, that is if you write a LaTeX document you expect to be able to send it to me and to work at my end like it does at yours".
The most unusual part of the LPPL and equally the most controversial used to be the 'filename clause': You must not distribute the modified file with the filename of the original file. This feature made some people deny that the LPPL is a free software license. In particular the Debian community considered in 2003 excluding LaTeX from its core distribution because of this.
However, version 1.3 of the LPPL has weakened this restriction. Now it is only necessary that modified components identify themselves "clearly and unambiguously" as modified versions, both in the source and also when called in some sort of interactive mode. A name change of the work is still recommended, however.
In order to provide project continuity in the case that the copyright holder no longer wishes to maintain the work, maintenance can be passed on to another (or from maintainer to maintainer). This can either be declared by the copyright holder or, in the event that the copyright holder is no longer able to be contacted, by the individual taking over maintenance, with a three-month gap after their public intention to take over the maintenance. The modifying clause discussed above does not hold for the current maintainer of the work.
Copyright holders
The LaTeX project holds the copyright for the text of the LPPL, but it does not necessarily hold the copyright for a work released under the LPPL. The author of the work holds copyright for the work, and is responsible for enforcing any violations of the license (or not).
Unlike the works released under the LPPL, the LPPL itself is not freely modifiable. While copying and distribution is allowed, changing the text of the LPPL is not. However, it may be used as a model for other licenses provided they do not reference the LPPL.
See also
Software using the LPPL (category)
References
External links
The LaTeX Project Public license
Open Source Initiative (OSI) approval of license
Free and open-source software licenses
TeX
|
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] |
241659
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cessnock
|
Cessnock
|
Cessnock can refer to:
Cessnock, Glasgow
Cessnock subway station, an underground station in Glasgow
Cessnock, New South Wales
Electoral district of Cessnock, an electoral district in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly
City of Cessnock, the local government area
Cessnock Correctional Centre, a prison in the area
HMAS Cessnock, one of two Royal Australian Navy ships:
HMAS Cessnock (J175), a Bathurst class corvette
HMAS Cessnock (FCPB 210), a Fremantle class patrol boat
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maitland%2C%20New%20South%20Wales
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Maitland, New South Wales
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Maitland () is a city in the Lower Hunter Valley of New South Wales, Australia and the seat of Maitland City Council, situated on the Hunter River approximately by road north of Sydney and north-west of Newcastle. It is on the New England Highway approximately from its origin at Hexham.
At the it had approximately 78,015 inhabitants, spread over an area of , with most of the population located in a strip along the New England Highway between the suburbs of Rutherford and Metford respectively. The city centre is located on the right bank of the Hunter River, protected from moderate potential flooding by a levee.
Surrounding areas include the cities of Cessnock and Singleton local government areas.
History
The Wonnarua People were the first known people of this land. They called the area where Maitland is now situated, by the name Bo-un after a species of bird.
From around 1816, cedar logging parties from the convict settlement of Newcastle were the first Europeans to stay on the site. Governor Lachlan Macquarie visited the area in 1818, naming it Wallis Plains after Captain James Wallis who was commandant of the Newcastle penal colony at the time. In 1819, convict farmers were allowed to select land at Wallis Plains, the most notable of which was Molly Morgan. By 1821 the first British government buildings, consisting of a cottage and barracks, were constructed, and in 1823 James Mudie financed the construction of a wharf. Two years later William Powditch opened the first general store at Wallis Plains.
In 1829, assistant surveyor George Boyle White, officially laid out a township on the site of Wallis Plains. The village was called Maitland possibly in honour of Frederick Lewis Maitland. Due to population growth, Maitland was partitioned in 1835 into West Maitland (which was the original Wallis Plains settlement) and East Maitland. The nearby town of Morpeth developed at the same time from the Green Hills land grant given to Lieutenant Edward Charles Close, a Peninsular War veteran. Morpeth served as the head of navigation for larger ships (later, steamships), and goods were transhipped upriver to West Maitland on barges and smaller vessels. Originally the river route between Morpeth and West Maitland was , today after various floods and river course changes this has reduced to just .
West Maitland was therefore the point at which goods were unloaded for, and distributed to, the prosperous riverland of the Hunter Valley. Accordingly, there were large warehouses (some of which still exist) built, which faced onto the main High Street and backed onto the Hunter River. The arrival of the railway from Newcastle in the 1850s, coupled with the increasing silting of the river and larger ships spelt the end of the traditional river traffic.
The municipalities of West and East Maitland were merged in 1944 and the name of West Maitland was officially reverted to Maitland in 1949, from which the present city is now known. The city's boundaries have been increased by incorporating parts of other local government areas since then (most notably Kearsley Shire which from 1946 to 1949 was the only local government area in Australia's history to have a Communist majority of councillors).
The first electricity connected in the area was to Maitland Town Hall in 1922, to the Hall's front light.
Belmore Bridge
The first bridge to link West Maitland with what is now the suburb of Lorn was opened in 1869 and named in honour of the then Governor of New South Wales, the 4th Earl of Belmore. Although the bridge proved vital to the city's development, the floods of 1893, 1913 and 1930 began to heighten the need for a new bridge that could withstand periodic flooding. A second Belmore Bridge, designed to withstand the impact of debris during floods, was built adjacent to the 1869 bridge in 1964. The new bridge, which redirected traffic away from St Andrews Street to a new intersection at the Maitland Court House, is one of the city's three main river crossings.
Floods
Maitland's proximity to the Hunter River has resulted in a succession of floods since European settlement. Over 200 floods have occurred on the Hunter River since settlement, 13 of those higher than the river's normal peak limit of . Of these 13, all have had a direct effect on the city of Maitland.
Between 1830 and 1834 Maitland experienced five floods. The 1832 flood was severe with water reaching about and killing seven people. The 1834 flood water reached the same height. In the winter of 1857 the Hunter River rose again to record heights, reaching . Flooding continued for the next 30 years with the floods of the 1890s being the most disastrous. Much of the riverbank collapsed and many people were left without homes or personal possessions.
However, the 1940s and 1950s saw an increase in rainfall and the river rose again and again. In February 1955, Maitland and the Hunter Valley experienced its most severe flood in recorded history. The 1955 Hunter Valley floods, also commonly known as "The Maitland Flood", was the first Australian natural disaster to be broadcast by the media on an international scale. This flood is considered to be one of Australia's worst floods. The waters reached and caused catastrophic damage. The volume of flood water was approximately and the cost of damage, in today's currency, would have been over A$2 billion. Seven thousand buildings and homes were damaged and the flood claimed the lives of 14 people.
In early June 2007 an intense low pressure system which caused devastating storms to hit the city of Newcastle and the Central Coast also caused major flooding throughout the lower Hunter Region including the Maitland area. During the flooding in 2007, the Hunter River was expected to reach a peak of at Maitland's Belmore Bridge and break levee banks. Some 4000 residents of the suburb of Lorn were evacuated before the floodwaters became stable at and did not inundate central Maitland. Other areas did not escape with waters inundating homes in Branxton, Louth Park and Raymond Terrace. The flood has been compared to the devastating 1955 Hunter Valley floods.
From 20 to 22 April 2015, heavy rainfall in the Hunter, Central Coast and Sydney regions of New South Wales resulted in flash flooding and extended power outages to over 200,000 homes. Maitland was badly affected and the flood gates at Maitland railway station were reinforced with sandbags to prevent flooding in central Maitland. Four people died as a result of the storms and a further four died in traffic related incidents. The towns of and Gillieston Heights, the homes of the four flood victims, were also badly affected, becoming isolated from other communities.
Jewish community
The Maitland Jewish Cemetery in Louth Park, one of only two provincial Jewish cemeteries in New South Wales, is testament to the Jewish community that was active in Maitland up until the 1930s. Between about 1846 and 1934, 53 Jewish people were buried in the low-lying cemetery. Burials ceased after this time due to dissipation of the community and the cemetery reaching capacity. One exception was Lea Abadee in 2010. The former Maitland Synagogue, located on Church Street, was the place of worship for about 70 families between 1879 and 1898.
Hospital
The Immigrants Home was founded by Caroline Chisholm in East Maitland and was the first public building that was used to treat the sick. The site eventually became known as Maitland Benevolent Asylum. In 1835, when the population hit 1900, residents started to petition for a new hospital. In 1843 a meeting was called to discuss applying to Benevolent Asylum in Sydney. A committee was formed and succeeded in obtaining a grant of £1000 for a new hospital on 5 December 1844. In April 1845 Sir George Gipps approved a grant of a site at Campbell's Hill, West Maitland opposite Boyne's Inn. The foundation stone was laid by Edward Denny Day on 26 January 1846. In April 1846 the foundation stone was removed and was never recovered. In September 1847 the Building Committee announced that plans for the building of the new hospital would be accepted. The cost of the building was not to exceed £2000 and fifteen guineas would be awarded to the party furnishing the approved plan. By May 1848 the Maitland Mercury was reporting that the walls of the new hospital were visible from the town. Opened in 1850 its first years saw 231 patients and 26 deaths. Between 1903 and 1905 saw the competition of the Ward Block 1 at the southern end of the hospital. With the growth of population in the district, it was found that the accommodation was inadequate and a new building was erected and opened in 1905. In 1916 a blood bank and isolation cottage were completed. In 1926 the hospital became a training school for nurses. New nurses' quarters which occupied the site of the old Royal Oak Hotel was built during the twelve months from October 1927 to October 1928. In the 1930s Ward Block 3 was built and extensions were completed to the nurses home in 1932 and 1937.
The Addison Building (Ward Block 2) was progressively built and opened between 1942 and 1947. In 1960 new Nurses homes was built. In 1973 a new pathology building was opened. From 1975 to 1979 a new boilerhouse and workshops were built and the kitchen, cafeteria and storage areas were refurbished.
The hospital was funded through subscribers, collection boxes, donations and state revenue for fines. In 1847 Governor Sir Charles Fitzroy visited to the hospital to hand over a £10.
The Maitland Hospital was listed as a public hospital under the Second Schedule of the Public Hospitals Act, 1898 (Act No.16, 1898). Maitland Hospital was registered as a training hospital under the Nurses Registration Act, 1924 (Act No.37, 1924). From 1 November 1929 'The Maitland Hospital' was a hospital incorporated under Part IV of the Public Hospitals Act 1929 (Act No.8, 1929). Under this Act The Maitland Hospital was to be governed by a board of directors which could make by-laws and its subscribers were a body corporate which could be sue and be sued in its corporate name. ·The Area Health Services Act 1986 (Act No.50, 1986), which commenced on1 July 1986, effectively abolished the boards of directors and replaced them with area health boards this made the hospital a part of the Lower Hunter Area Health Service. From 1 August 1988 following the amalgamation of area health services the Maitland Hospital became part of the Hunter Area Health Service. Following amendments to the Health Services Act 1997 the Maitland Hospital became part of the Hunter and New England Area Health Service from 1 January 2005.
Heritage listings
Maitland has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
Church Street: Brough House
47 Church Street: Maitland Synagogue
66 Church Street: St Mary's the Virgin Anglican Church
71 Church Street: Grossmann House
12–14 Free Church Street: Presbyterian High School
High Street: Maitland Court House
High Street: Maitland Town Hall
381 High Street: Maitland Post Office
473 High Street: Barden and Ribee Saddlery
516 High Street: Department of Mineral Resources Historic Photographs Collection
Main Northern railway: Maitland railway station
34 Regent Street: Cintra House
5 Victoria Street: Maitland Lodge of Unity Masonic Hall and Lodge
Population
According to the , there were 78,015 people in Maitland.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 5.4% of the population.
86.5% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were England 1.8%, New Zealand 1.0%, India 0.5%, Philippines 0.5% and South Africa 0.4%.
90.9% of people spoke only English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Mandarin 0.4%, Cantonese 0.2%, Tagalog 0.2%, Afrikaans 0.2% and Malayalam 0.2%.
The most common responses for religion were Catholic 26.2%, Anglican 24.3% and No Religion 24.2%.
Crime
Maitland has an assault rate of 1,110.4 per 100,000 population, which is significantly higher than the NSW state average of 823.4 per 100,000 population.
Climate
Maitland has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with hot summers and cool winters. On average, it has 90.3 clear days per year.
Economy
Retail
Maitland has many shopping precincts including Stockland Green Hills (East Maitland), Centro Maitland Hunter Mall, High Street Mall (City Centre), Rutherford, Melbourne Street (East Maitland) and Lawes Street (East Maitland). Morpeth, a suburb of Maitland, is also popular for its fashion boutiques, cafes and speciality shops.
Transport
Rail
Maitland railway station lies on the Hunter line and is the branch point for the Main North Line and the North Coast Line.
Other railway stations in Maitland include:
East Maitland
High Street
Metford
Mindaribba
Telarah
Victoria Street
Thornton
A passenger tram system ran from East Maitland to West Maitland between 1909 and 1926 after which it was replaced by buses which continue to service the route today.
Air
Maitland Airport is a general aviation airfield located beside the New England Highway at Rutherford. Construction was started in 1948 by the now-defunct Maitland Aero Club. In 1957, operation of the airfield transferred to the Royal Newcastle Aero Club (RNAC) which moved from Broadmeadow Aerodrome, its original base of operations, in 1963. The closest commercial airport is Newcastle Airport which is at Williamtown.
Media
Maitland is serviced by a number of regional newspapers, radio stations and television stations.
Print
The Maitland Mercury and The Newcastle Herald are the foremost newspapers in the city. The Mercury, established in 1843, operates out of offices on High Street and is Australia's oldest regional newspaper. The Lower Hunter Star is an adjunct to the Mercury and is published every Thursday. With a circulation of almost 20,000, The Lower Hunter Star is delivered to most residents within the City of Maitland.
Radio
Radio stations include:
AM stations
2HD (commercial)
1233 ABC Newcastle (ABC Local Radio)
2HRN (off band commercial)
Sky Sports Radio (as part of statewide network)
FM stations
Triple M Newcastle (commercial)
hit106.9 Newcastle (commercial)
New FM (commercial)
2NUR (community)
2CHR (Central Hunter Radio) 96.5 FM – (community)
Rhema FM Newcastle (Christian)
Triple J (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)
Government broadcasters
Australian Broadcasting Corporation
1233 ABC Newcastle
ABC Radio National
ABC News Radio
Triple J (youth station)
ABC Classic FM (classical music)
SBS Radio (foreign language service)
Television
Maitland is part of the Newcastle-Hunter Region television market, which is served by 5 television networks, three commercial and two national services. These networks are listed as follows:
Nine Network, 9Gem (digital only) and 9Go! (digital only), 9Life : (Nine Network O&O station, incumbent station, (NBN TV) established 1962).
10 Northern NSW , 10 Bold (digital only) and 10 Peach (digital only) : (Network Ten affiliate, (formerly known as Southern Cross Ten, TEN Northern N.S.W.,NRTV and WIN Television) was established as a result of aggregation on 31 December 1991).
Prime7 (formerly known as Prime Television), 7Two (digital only) and 7mate (digital only), 7flix: (Seven Network / Prime affiliate was established as a result of aggregation on 31 December 1991).
ABC Television including ABC1, ABC Comedy/ABC 4 Kids/ABC Arts (digital only), ABC ME (digital only) and ABC News 24. The ABC TV service was established in the 1960s.
SBS Television including SBS ONE and SBS Two (digital only). SBS Television is Australian government operated. This service was introduced in the 1980s.
NBN produces an evening news bulletin combining local, state, national and international news screening nightly at 6.00PM on Channel 9, while Prime7 and WIN Television produce short local updates to fulfil local content quotas.
Subscription television service Foxtel is also available via satellite.
Theatre
The famous Scottish entertainer Sir Harry Lauder performed to a packed audience in Maitland Town Hall on Saturday 15 August 1925.
Culture
Art
Maitland Regional Art Gallery, or MRAG, opened at its current site in November 2003. In 2008, the gallery closed for redevelopment and was reopened on the 15 August 2009 by the artist Margaret Olley.
Library
Maitland and the surrounding area is serviced by the Maitland City Library and branches.
Annual events
Hunter Valley Steamfest is an annual festival celebrating the history of steam power and industry in the Maitland area. It was established in 1986 in response to the closure of the last coal operated steam hauled freight service on the South Maitland Railway network in 1983.
Bitter & Twisted Beer Festival is an annual international boutique beer festival held at the historic Maitland Gaol in East Maitland.
ChapelJazz (formerly Morpeth Jazz Festival) is an annual music festival held at the popular historic riverside port of Morpeth. It is a celebration of music, wine and food.
Groovin' the Moo is an annual music festival held at the Maitland Showground since 2006.
Maitland Show is an annual agricultural show held at the Maitland Showground.
Education
Maitland has many educational facilities ranging from primary and high schools to short course vocational training operations. The Hunter Institute of TAFE has a campus in Maitland, as does the privately owned Hunter Valley Training Company that is Australia's largest group trainer. These facilities provide excellent training in all fields, especially building and construction, engineering, mining, tourism and business administration.
Maitland has twenty primary schools and seven high schools. Local high schools include:
All Saints College, St Joseph's Campus
All Saints College, St Mary's Campus
All Saints College, St Peter's Campus
Hunter Valley Grammar School
Maitland Christian School
Maitland Grossmann High School (formerly Maitland Girls' High School)
Maitland High School (formerly Maitland Boys' High School)
Rutherford Technology High School
Francis Greenway High School
There are also numerous pre-school and day care facilities.
Sport and recreation
Maitland has a strong sporting community with a range of sporting competitions and clubs based in the city. This includes, but is not limited to, the following:
Maitland FC - Association football club that competes in the National Premier Leagues Northern NSW competition.
Maitland Pickers - Rugby league club that competes in the Newcastle Rugby League competition.
Maitland Blacks - Rugby union club that competes in the Newcastle and Hunter Rugby Union competition.
Maitland Saints - Australian rules football club that competes in the AFL Hunter Central Coast competition.
Maitland Off-road Radio Car Club, racing at Harold Gregson Reserve.
Maitland is generally accepted to be the birthplace of Motorcycle speedway when New Zealand born promoter Johnny S. Hoskins organised a series of motorcycle races at the West Maitland Showground on Saturday, 15 December 1923.
Notable people
William Arnott (1827–1901) biscuit manufacturer
John Bell (1940–) actor
David Berthold theatre director
Greg Bird (1984–) professional rugby league player
Alexander Brown (1851–1926) merchant and politician
George Lyndon Carpenter (1872–1948) Salvation Army general
Caroline Chisholm (1808–1877) philanthropist, sheltered homeless immigrants in a cottage at Maitland
Percy Brereton Colquhoun (1866–1936) sportsman, lawyer and politician
Abbie Cornish (1982–) actress
Michael Cox (born 1956), cricketer, born in Newcastle, raised in Maitland
Ruth Cracknell (1925–2002) actress
Les Darcy (1895–1917) boxer and folk hero
Edward Davis (1816–1841) "Teddy the Jewboy", Australian convict turned bushranger
Edward Denny Day (1801–1876), police magistrate
Justin Dooley (1970–) rugby league player
Luke Dorn (1982–) professional rugby league player
Joseph Wilfrid Dwyer (1869–1939) Roman Catholic Bishop of Wagga Wagga
Nick Enright (1950–2003) playwright
H. V. Evatt (1894–1965) Third President of the United Nations General Assembly, Justice of the High Court of Australia, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of New South Wales
Clive Evatt (1900–1984) Australian politician, barrister and raconteur
Allen Fairhall (1909–2006) politician and Member of the Parliament of Australia for the Division of Paterson
Brett Finch (1981–) rugby league player and sportscaster
Robert Finch (1956–) rugby league player
Michael Scott Fletcher (1868–1947) Methodist minister, foundation master of Wesley College, University of Sydney
Allan Grice (1942–) Motor racing driver, two-time winner of the Bathurst 1000
Ben Hall (1837–1865) bushranger
Harry Holgate (1933–1997) politician, 36th Premier of Tasmania
Matt Jobson (1980–) rugby league player
Ellis Lawrie (1907–1978) politician
Frank Liddell (1862–1939) politician
Edmund Lonsdale (1843–1913) politician
Charles Macartney (1886–1958) cricketer
Jack Marx (1965–) journalist and author
Charles Stuart Mein (1841–1890) barrister, politician and judge
Jim Morgan (1943–2005) rugby league player
George Moore (1820–1916), cricketer, born in England, but lived most of his live in Maitland
Milton Morris (1924–2019) NSW state politician known for his role in the Supercar scare of 1972
Sir Arthur William Morrow (1903–1977) physician
Nell (1975–) artist
Ziggy Niszczot (1955–) rugby league player
Walter O'Hearn (1890–1950) politician
Margaret Olley (1923–2011) painter
Noel Pidding (1927–2013) rugby league player
Baker Russell (1837–1911) Australian-born British Army officer
Henry Chamberlain Russell (1836–1907) astronomer and meteorologist
David Trewhella (1962–) rugby league player
William Samuel Viner (1881–1933) Australian chess master
Walter Lawry Waterhouse (1887–1969) agricultural scientist
Alasdair Webster (1934–) politician
Mary Dunstan Wilson (1870–1959) Sister of Charity, educator
Leonora Wray (1886–1979) golfer
Peter Wynn (1957–) rugby league player
Hudson Young (1998–) rugby league player
See also
Maitland, South Australia
South Maitland coalfields
References
External links
Maitland City Council
Maitland City Library
Hunter Region
History of the Maitland Mercury – State Library of NSW
Hunter River (New South Wales)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connoisseur
|
Connoisseur
|
A connoisseur (French traditional, pre-1835, spelling of , from Middle-French , then meaning 'to be acquainted with' or 'to know somebody/something') is a person who has a great deal of knowledge about the fine arts; who is a keen appreciator of cuisines, fine wines, and other gourmet products; or who is an expert judge in matters of taste. In many areas, the term now has an air of pretension, and may be used in a partly ironic sense. In the art trade, however, expert connoisseurship remains a crucial skill for the identification and attribution to individual artists of works by the style and technique, where documentary evidence of provenance is lacking. The situation in the wine trade is similar, for example in assessing the potential for ageing in a young wine through wine tasting.
Connoisseurship in art
"The ability to tell almost instinctively who painted a picture is defined ... as connoisseurship". Connoisseurs evaluate works of art on the basis of their experience of the style and technique of artists. Judgment informed by intuition is essential, but it must be grounded in a thorough understanding of the work itself. On the basis of empirical evidence, refinement of perception about technique and form, and a disciplined method of analysis, the responsibility of the connoisseur is to attribute authorship, validate authenticity and appraise quality. These findings are crucial for the valuation of works, and can be collected and organized into a catalogue raisonné of the work of a single artist or a school.
In his Meaning in the Visual Arts (1955), Erwin Panofsky explains the difference between a connoisseur and an art historian: "The connoisseur might be defined as a laconic art historian, and the art historian as a loquacious connoisseur."
The English dealer and art historian, Philip Mould says, "it is about noticing things which have specific characteristics of the artists involved, as opposed to general characteristics of the era". He points out the importance of condition and understanding what the artist originally painted (as opposed to how the painting now looks). His colleague, Bendor Grosvenor takes the view that connoisseurship is learned by looking at paintings and cannot be taught in the classroom. He believes that it has become unfashionable in the world of art history and as a result, activities such as producing a catalogue raisonné are undervalued by the art history establishment. Svetlana Alpers confirms the art historians reservations that the identification of individual style in works is "essentially assigned to a group of specialists in the field known as conoisseurs". Nonetheless, Christie's Education offers an MA in the History of Art and the Art Market that includes a seminar on connoisseurship. This covers "the critical skills needed to look at art, write about art, research and evaluate works, including handling and viewing art objects and visiting artists' studios, conservation labs and museums."
Earlier views of connoisseurship
During the 18th century, the term was often used as a synonym for a still vaguer man of taste or a pretend critic.
In 1760, Oliver Goldsmith said, "Painting is and has been and now will someday become the sole object of fashionable care; the title of connoisseur in that art is at present the safest passport into every fashionable Society; a well timed shrug, an admiring attitude and one or two exotic tones of exclamation are sufficient qualifications for men of low circumstances to curry favour."
In 1890, Giovanni Morelli wrote, "art connoisseurs say of art historians that they write about what they do not understand; art historians, on their side, disparage the connoisseurs, and only look upon them as the drudges who collect materials for them, but who personally have not the slightest knowledge of the physiology of art."
The attributions of painted pottery were an important project to the History of Ancient Art and Classical Archeology (Ancient Greece and South Italy). Two specialists were the most important authorities in archaeological connoisseurship: John Davidson Beazley (1885-1970) and Arthur Dale Trendall (1909-1995).
Connoisseurs in other fields
Connoisseur is also used in the context of gastronomy, i.e. in connection with fine food, beer, wine, coffee, tea and many other products whose consumption can be pleasing to the senses.
See also
Amateur, dilettante
Appraiser
Collector
Enthusiast
Expert
Fan, aficionado
Gourmet, gourmand
Sommelier
References
Further reading
Beck, James H., From Duccio to Raphael: Connoisseurship in Crisis (Fucecchio: European Press Academic Publishing, 2006).
Friedländer, Max J., On Art and Connoisseurship, trans. Tancred Borenius (London: B. Cassierer, 1942).
L'art du connaisseur = The art of connoisseurship (Montréal: Musée des beaux-arts de Montréal, 1978).
Robinson, Terry F., "Eighteenth-Century Connoisseurship and the Female Body" Oxford Handbooks Online. Oxford University Press. Web. 10 May 2017.
Scallen, Catherine B. Rembrandt, Reputation, and the Practice of Connoisseurship (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2004).
Trummers, Anna, and Koenraad Jonckheere, eds., Art market and connoisseurship : a closer look at paintings by Rembrandt, Rubens and their contemporaries (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2008).
Art history
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerson%20Fittipaldi
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Emerson Fittipaldi
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Emerson Wojciechowska Fittipaldi (; born 12 December 1946) is a semi-retired Brazilian automobile racing driver who won both the Formula One World Championship and the Indianapolis 500 twice each and the CART championship once.
Moving up from Formula Two, Fittipaldi made his race debut for Team Lotus as a third driver at the 1970 British Grand Prix. After Jochen Rindt was killed at the 1970 Italian Grand Prix, the Brazilian became Lotus's lead driver in only his fifth Grand Prix. He enjoyed considerable success with Lotus, winning the World Drivers' Championship in 1972 at the age of 25. At the time, he was the youngest ever F1 world champion, and he held the record for 33 years. He later moved to McLaren for 1974, winning the title once again. He surprised the paddock by moving to his brother's Fittipaldi Automotive team prior to the 1976 season, being replaced by James Hunt. Success eluded him during his final years in Formula One, with the Fittipaldi cars not competitive enough to fight for victories. Fittipaldi took two more podium finishes, before retiring in 1980.
Following his Formula One career, Fittipaldi moved to the American CART series, achieving successful results, including the 1989 CART title and two wins at the Indianapolis 500 in 1989 and 1993, the final at an unprecedented 46 years old.
Since his retirement from Indy Car racing in 1996, Fittipaldi races only occasionally. In 2008, he became one of only three people in history to have a Corvette production car named in his honor. At age 67, he entered the 2014 6 Hours of São Paulo.
Early life
Emerson Fittipaldi was born in São Paulo, Brazil. He is the younger son of prominent Italian-Brazilian motorsports journalist and radio commentator Wilson Fittipaldi Sr and his wife Józefa "Juzy" Wojciechowska, an immigrant from Saint Petersburg of Polish and Russian descent.
He was named after American author and philosopher, Ralph Waldo Emerson. Both his parents had raced production cars shortly after the Second World War and Wilson Sr was also responsible for the first Mil Milhas race in 1956, in São Paulo, having been inspired by the 1949 Italian Mille Miglia. Emerson, along with his brother Wilson, became motorsports enthusiasts as young children.
Career history
At age 14, Fittipaldi was racing motorcycles, and at 16, hydroplanes. While racing one day, his brother Wilson blew over at and landed upside down. Wilson was uninjured in the accident, but it prompted both Fittipaldi brothers to stop competing in boat racing and focus solely on racing land vehicles. In 1967, Fittipaldi won the 6 Hours of Interlagos in a Volkswagen Karmann Ghia at the age of 20, and a year later the 12 Hours of Porto Alegre.
The pair moved to racing Formula Vees, and built up a company with their parents. In his second season in single-seaters, Fittipaldi won the Brazilian Formula Vee title at age 21. He left for Europe in 1969, with the ambition to convince team owners of his talent in three months. After some podiums and his first victories in Formula Ford, Fittipaldi was first trained and then subsequently engaged by the Jim Russell Driving School Formula Three team. He won nine F3 races on the Jim Russell Lotus 59 in the MCD Lombard Championship to become the 1969 champion.
Formula Two
For , Fittipaldi moved up to F2 by joining the Lotus semi-works Team Bardahl campaigning Lotus 59B. With six finishes in the points and four on the podium, he ended the eight-race season in third place behind Clay Regazzoni and Derek Bell. While this result was very impressive for the newcomer to the series, the spotlight was on Fittipaldi that year because of his activities in Formula One instead.
Formula One
Based on the success of the Cosworth DFV engine and Lotus 49/49B cars in 1968, Team Lotus was enjoying the reputation as one of the top F1 teams with the inflow of sponsorship money, and Colin Chapman used the third seat on the team for championship races as the testing ground for younger drivers. This was in contrast to the team's tradition to use non-championship F1 events for the purpose.
The third seat was given to Alex Soler-Roig in early 1970, and then to Fittipaldi starting with the British GP in July, with Jochen Rindt and John Miles as the regular seat holders. Fittipaldi scored a fourth place as the No. 3 driver at the next German GP where the No. 1 Jochen Rindt won, and the No. 2 John Miles retired.
Team Lotus plans for the season drastically changed when Jochen Rindt was killed at Monza in September and became the only driver to win the championship posthumously. John Miles also left the team, and Fittipaldi was promoted to be the Lotus No. 1 driver on his fifth F1 race at the United States GP with Reine Wisell and Pete Lovely as the teammates. Fittipaldi proved up to the task and won this first post-Rindt race for Lotus.
In his first full year as Lotus's lead driver in 1971, Fittipaldi finished sixth in the Drivers' Championship as the team further developed the previous season's Lotus 72. Armed with what was arguably the greatest Formula one design of all time, the Lotus 72D, Fittipaldi proved dominant in 1972 as he won five of 11 races and claimed the F1 Drivers' Championship.
At 25 he was then the youngest champion in F1 history. It appeared he might do it again in 1973. But after three wins in four attempts with the 72D, he began to struggle in the new 72E that was unveiled mid-year. It resulted in the reverse of the previous year, with Stewart beating Fittipaldi for the Drivers' Championship.
Fittipaldi left Lotus to sign with the promising McLaren team. Driving the highly efficient McLaren M23, he had three victories in 1974, reached the podium four other times, and beat out Clay Regazzoni in a close battle for his second championship. The following season, he notched two more victories and four other podiums, but was second to a dominant Niki Lauda. However, at the height of his F1 success, Fittipaldi shocked everyone by leaving McLaren to race for older brother Wilson Fittipaldi's Copersucar-sponsored Fittipaldi Automotive team.
He remained with the team for five seasons but only managed a best finish of second. Fittipaldi decided to retire from racing at the end of 1980. He has since said that his last two years in Formula One were very unhappy: "I was too involved in the problems of trying to make the team work, and I neglected my marriage and my personal life", although at the time he cited the deaths of many of his colleagues as his reason. He was only 33, but had been racing in Formula One for a decade. He had failed to finish seven of the last ten races that year and had several times been outpaced by his Finnish teammate Keke Rosberg (a future champion himself). He moved into the management of the team alongside his brother. The team struggled on for another two years with minimal sponsorship, going into receivership at the end of 1982.
CART
After leaving F1 in 1980, Fittipaldi took time out from major racing for four years. In 1984, the 37-year-old Fittipaldi made his debut in the American CART series. He spent his first season acclimatising to IndyCars, driving for two teams before joining Patrick Racing as a replacement for an injured driver. Fittipaldi stayed five years with the team, recording six victories and solid finishes in the overall standings.
In 1989 Fittipaldi had five wins, finished in the top five in every race he completed, and was the CART champion. Among his wins was a dominant performance in the 1989 Indianapolis 500 where he led 158 of 200 laps and won by two laps, but only after a dramatic duel with Al Unser, Jr. in the closing laps of the race. Unser ran down Fittipaldi after a late-race restart and passed him for the lead on lap 196. Three laps later, Fittipaldi used lapped traffic to his advantage to pull alongside Unser on the backstretch. Neither driver would give way, and the two cars touched wheels as they went through turn three side by side. Unser's car spun out of control to hit the outside wall, while Fittipaldi was able to maintain sufficient control to keep his car moving straight. In spite of the altercation, Unser applauded Fittipaldi from the infield as Fittipaldi passed by on the final lap.
Roger Penske hired Fittipaldi for his racing team in 1990 and he continued to be among the top drivers in CART, winning at least one race with Penske for six straight years. But for bad luck he might have won three consecutive Indianapolis 500s, suffering blistered tires in 1990 and a gearbox failure in 1991, both while leading. In 1993 he added a second Indianapolis 500 victory by taking the lead from reigning Formula One World Champion Nigel Mansell on lap 185 and holding it for the remainder.
The race saw him break Indianapolis victory lane tradition when he drank a celebratory bottle of orange juice instead of the traditional bottle of milk. He was only the second driver to not drink milk at Indianapolis since the tradition was founded in 1936 (and firmly established in 1956). Fittipaldi owned several orange groves in his native Brazil, and wanted to promote the citrus industry. Fan reaction was negative to the break in tradition despite the fact that Fittipaldi did drink milk shortly after. As a result of drinking the juice, Fittipaldi forfeited $5,000 from the winner's purse and publicly apologized to the American Dairy Association.
Fan reaction to the milk snub was highly negative, and he was booed a week later at Milwaukee, a center of the American dairy industry. In the years that followed, many fans continued to hold the action against him. In interviews since, Fittipaldi explained his action, and apologised for the wave of negativity that followed. Fittipaldi returned to Indianapolis to drive the Chevrolet Corvette Pace Car for the 2008 Indianapolis 500. Despite the passage of 15 years, he was again booed and heckled by some fans during the parade laps.
In May 1994, Fittipaldi skipped a practice session for the Indianapolis 500 after his close friend Ayrton Senna, also a native of Brazil and a former Formula One champion, died in a crash. Fittipaldi was one of the pallbearers during Senna's funeral, alongside Jackie Stewart, Alain Prost and several other F1 world champions. Fittipaldi nearly won his third 500 but clipped the turn 4 wall with 15 laps to go while he was holding a nearly full lap lead over teammate Unser Jr.
Approaching 50, Fittipaldi was still driving in CART in 1996 when an injury at Michigan International Speedway ended his career. Fittipaldi did not return to the series as a driver after the injury. Fittipaldi finished his CART career with 22 wins. In 2003 he made a return to CART as a team owner.
Later career
Fittipaldi was the acting team principal for the Brazilian A1 GP entry. In 2005 Fittipaldi made a surprise return to competitive racing in the Grand Prix Masters event held at Kyalami in South Africa, finishing second behind fellow F1 driver Nigel Mansell.
In 2008, Emerson and his brother Wilson entered the Brazilian GT3 Championship, driving a Porsche 997 GT3 for the WB Motorsports team. In 2011, he started embracing social media and became a Chairman of Motorsport.com. In 2013 he began writing a regular monthly blog column on the official website of McLaren.
Awards
He was inducted in the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2001.
Fittipaldi was inducted into the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame in 2004.
Racing record
Career summary
Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Non-championship Formula One results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)
(Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
USAC
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)
CART
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)
Indy 500 results
Complete 24 Hours of Daytona results
Complete Grand Prix Masters results
(key) Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap.
Complete FIA World Endurance Championship results
Personal life
Family
Fittipaldi is the younger brother of former Formula One driver and team owner Wilson Fittipaldi. He is the uncle of TUDOR United Sports Car Championship driver Christian Fittipaldi. He was married to Maria Helena from 1970-82. They had three children. He was married a second time, to Teresa, in the mid-1980s. They have two children.
In early December 2012 he married economist Rossana Fanucchi in São Paulo after a partnership of eleven years. They have a son, Emerson Jr., born in 2007, and daughter Vittoria, born in early 2012. Emerson Jr. competed in the 2021 F4 Danish Championship, finishing third overall.
His daughter Tatiana, married racing driver Max Papis. They have two children, Marco Papis and Matteo Papis; Emerson's grandsons.
His daughter Juliana, had two sons with Carlos da Cruz, Pietro and Enzo Fittipaldi. Pietro and Enzo are also racing drivers, with Enzo being announced as a member of the Ferrari Driver Academy in December 2016. Pietro made his Formula 1 debut at the 2020 Sakhir Grand Prix driving for the Haas F1 Team.
Life
In September 1997, while recovering from injuries in a crash at Michigan International Speedway a year earlier, he was flying his private plane across his orange tree farm in the state of São Paulo. The plane lost power and plunged to the ground, leaving him with serious back injuries. Though Fittipaldi had converted to Christianity the year prior, his beliefs were reinforced after the crash. Fittipaldi is a Protestant in the Presbyterian tradition.
He was a friend of Beatles guitarist George Harrison and was with him shortly before Harrison died in November 2001.
In 2016, Fittipaldi established Fittipaldi Motors, and along with Pininfarina and HWA AG, created his first sports car project, the Fittipaldi EF7.
In popular culture
Fittipaldi is mentioned in the first episode of the third season of the British comedy series The Good Life.
See also
Ayrton Senna and Nelson Piquet - Formula One world champions from Brazil.
Mario Andretti, Nigel Mansell and Jacques Villeneuve - Formula One and CART champions.
Jim Clark, Graham Hill, Mario Andretti, and Jacques Villeneuve - Formula One world champions and Indianapolis 500 winners.
Jody Scheckter and Michael Schumacher - Formula One world champions whose brothers also drove in the series.
References
Books
External links
The Greatest 33
Emerson embracing social media
1946 births
Living people
Converts to evangelical Christianity from Roman Catholicism
Brazilian racing drivers
Brazilian Formula One drivers
Formula One team owners
Team Lotus Formula One drivers
McLaren Formula One drivers
Fittipaldi Formula One drivers
Formula One World Drivers' Champions
Formula One race winners
Champ Car champions
Champ Car drivers
Indianapolis 500 drivers
Indianapolis 500 polesitters
Indianapolis 500 winners
Brazilian Champ Car drivers
International Motorsports Hall of Fame inductees
BRDC Gold Star winners
International Race of Champions drivers
European Formula Two Championship drivers
British Formula Three Championship drivers
Brazilian IndyCar Series drivers
Racing drivers from São Paulo
Grand Prix Masters drivers
A1 Grand Prix team owners
Formula Ford drivers
Brazilian Baptists
People from Key Biscayne, Florida
Brazilian people of Italian descent
Brazilian people of Russian descent
Brazilian people of Polish descent
World Sportscar Championship drivers
Sportspeople from Miami-Dade County, Florida
FIA World Endurance Championship drivers
Emerson Fittipaldi
Team Penske drivers
|
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241679
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne%20Museum
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Melbourne Museum
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Melbourne Museum is a natural and cultural history museum located in the Carlton Gardens in Melbourne, Australia.
Located adjacent to the Royal Exhibition Building, the museum was opened in 2000 as a project of the Government of Victoria, on behalf of Museums Victoria which administers the venue.
Melbourne museum is a rich response to Melbourne's urban condition, and provides a place for education, history, culture and society to engage with each other in a contemporary setting. It is now an important part of Melbourne's soft infrastructure and is consistently ranked as one of the most popular museums and tourist attractions in Australia, winning the Best Tourist Attraction award at the Australian Tourism Awards in 2011.
In addition to its galleries, the museum features spaces such as Curious?, which is a place to meet staff and find answers relating to the collections, research and behind-the-scenes work of Museums Victoria; as well as a cafe and a gift shop. The back-of-house areas are home to some of Museums Victoria's State Collections, which holds over 17 million items including objects relating to Indigenous Australian and Pacific Islander cultures, geology, historical studies, palaeontology, technology and society, and zoology, as well as a library collection that holds some of Australia's rarest and finest examples of 18th and 19th century scientific monographs and serials. The world's largest IMAX theatre screen, which is also part of the museum complex, shows movies and documentary films in large-screen 3-D format.
Description
The Melbourne Museum is a post-modernist building designed by Denton Corker Marshall architects. Construction was managed by Baulderstone Hornibrook and completed in 2001, with the museum's official opening in 2000.
The building features a grid-like order that embraces eccentric metal clad forms extruding out and creating an irregular sculptural composition with moments of abstract colour throughout the building. The museum is arranged in an individual layout, referencing Melbourne's iconic Hoddle Grid, which allows the importance of each component of the buildings historical, cultural and social significance to be read in loosely equal hierarchy and individuality. The building can be dissected into different spaces so an individual can navigate through and around the building in an orthogonal manner. It is designed as both a single building and a network of individual buildings integrated into the landscape of the Carlton Gardens.
The museum is axially aligned with the adjacent Italianate Royal Exhibition Building and references it, along with the skyscrapers of Melbourne's central business district, with its monumental scale and protruding vertical facets. The sticks and blades that make up the Melbourne Museum are hallmarks of Denton Corker Marshall's architecture.
The most prominent element of the building are the two very long, very high, sloping canopies (or blades) that rise up from the centrally placed entrance opposite the north door of the Royal Exhibition Building; each act to guide visitors from the street into the Museum.
On the northern side of the building another larger blade-like roof rises up from the centre to the north, a landmark of similar scale to the central Florentine dome of the Royal Exhibition building.
Key influences and design approach
Denton Corker Marshall specialise in city planning and urban design, and mainly concern their practise with responding to social desires. The Melbourne Museum is situated in a precinct adjacent to a large local landmark within a large public park. Contrasted against the neo-classical Royal Exhibition centre, Denton Corker Marshall separates the two with an events plaza, yet connects them again underground with a car park, defining their motto "A new connection between the old, the new, past and future." Their approach to such a prominent part of Melbourne's historical and cultural infrastructure was to bring the past and existing exhibition building, into a new context and attempting to redefine a museums role as a public building. Denton Corker Marshall also envision the building to be just as responsive to its context as it is now, in the future. In a meeting place for community, the building itself acts as a community of different programs and meanings, combining to make a whole. In a wider context, the museum refers to Melbourne's city grid in its planning, and integrates the landscape of Carlton Gardens, housing a Forest Gallery which is situated within the building, and also providing areas of exterior circulation around the building. Formally the Melbourne Museum is motivated by sculpture. Denton Corker Marshall manipulates sculptural forms to meet the constraints of the buildings context and program.
History
The museum had its earliest beginnings in the Government Assay Office which on 9 March 1854, opened some displays in La Trobe Street. In 1858, Prof. Frederick McCoy (Sir Frederick from 1891), who was Professor of Natural History at the University of Melbourne, was appointed Director of the National Museum.
Melbourne Museum was originally located (along with the State Library and the old state gallery) in the city block between La Trobe, Swanston, Little Lonsdale and Russell Streets - the nearby Museum underground railway station was originally named after it, although following the move the station was renamed Melbourne Central. The State Library now uses all the space in that building, the gallery also having moved to the NGV site in St Kilda Road.
The period in which the Victorian government was led by the Premier Sir Rupert Hamer (1972–1981) was one of policy development for museums in Victoria. Hamer's Arts Minister the Hon. Norman Lacy established a Museums Development Committee consisting of representatives of the Science Museum of Victoria, the National Museum of Victoria and the Ministry for the Arts. It considered such matters as the development of a single City Museum complex (leading eventually to the establishment of the new Melbourne Museum in Carlton) and programs in fields such as social history. The committee also joined with a working party of the Victorian Council of the Arts to develop a comprehensive museums policy for Victoria. Lacy also began the establishment of the Heide Museum of Modern Art with the acquisition of the property Heide II (in Bulleen east of Melbourne) and a collection of 113 art works from John and Sunday Reed in August 1980. It was officially opened in November 1981. He also developed a proposal for a Museum of Social and Political History at the Old Treasury Building for the Executive Committee of Victoria's 150th Anniversary Celebrations in July 1981 which led to the establishment of the City Museum.
The new Melbourne Museum next to the Exhibition Building in Carlton was constructed during the period of the Kennett government (1992–1999) was opened on 21 October 2000 by the Premier of Victoria at the time The Hon. Steve Bracks. The new Melbourne Museum included some significant changes to the historic methods of interpretation. One notable change was the inclusion of living organisms within the galleries. The centerpiece of the new building houses the Forest Gallery; a massive living and breathing exhibition offering a window into the tall forests of eastern Victoria. The Forest Gallery is home to the ongoing Forest Secrets exhibition which examines the agents of change within the forests. It includes hundreds of living plants and live animals such as birds, reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates. In 2004 Melbourne Museum took another unique step for an Australian museum and created the permanent Bugs Alive! exhibition. This groundbreaking exhibition showcases the roles and life-cycles of the critically important animal group - the invertebrates. It features 50 living displays with an even greater number of species.
The new Melbourne Museum is located on the site of the former Melbourne Exhibition Speedway which operated from 5 November 1928 until 7 March 1936. The dirt track speedway took place on a track laid out on the former sports oval and generally catered to motorcycle Solo and Sidecar racing and is considered to be the birthplace of Sidecar speedway racing. The inaugural Australian Sidecar Speedway Championship was staged there in 1931 and was won by Victorians Les Medlycott and "Tich" Jones. The Exhibition Speedway also hosted the Victorian Solo Championship from 1928/29 until 1934/35.
Main permanent exhibits
The main permanent exhibits include:
Science and Life Gallery - The museum's natural history wing. Its centerpiece is Dinosaur Walk, which features fossil mounts not limited to:
Tarbosaurus
Mamenchisaurus
Tsintaosaurus
Deinonychus
Pteranodon
Gallimimus
Hypsilophodon
Protoceratops
Megalania, Diprotodon, and Genyornis
The Science & Life Gallery also contains the exhibitions:
Dynamic Earth - The museum's geology gallery.
Bugs Alive! - featuring live specimens and displays of arthropods..
Marine Life: Exploring our Seas
A large skeleton of a pygmy blue whale
Wild: Amazing Animals in a Changing World - The museum's taxidermy gallery open from 2009 to 2021, featuring a plethora of specimens from its collection. In 2012, the website Bad Taxidermy featured a Giant otter specimen in it, which made brought much fame, with museum ven selling plush toys of it.
In 2010 an exhibit called 600 Million Years: Victoria Evolves opened, which includes some more prehistoric animals, all native to Victoria, such as:
Muttaburrasaurus
Tiktaalik
Anomalocaris
An upcoming exhibit is one for a highly complete specimen of Triceratops, first acquired in 2020. The exhibit will occupy the space held by Wild, which closed on January 26, 2021, with the specimens going back into storage for maintenance.
Melbourne Gallery - where the mounted hide of Phar Lap, a race horse that won the Melbourne Cup during the depression era, is exhibited.
The Melbourne Story - A History of Melbourne from the early 19th century through to present day
Mind and Body Gallery - a gallery regarding the human body. It also features a world first exhibition about the mind called 'Mind: enter the labyrinth'.
Evolution Gallery - the upper level featured the exhibition 'Darwin to DNA'.
Forest Gallery - a living temperate Victorian forest environment, complete with live birds, reptiles, and other fauna
Bunjilaka Aboriginal Cultural Centre - including galleries with exhibitions by and about the Aboriginal peoples of Victoria
Te Pasifika Gallery - an exhibition which highlights the history and watercraft of Pacific Islanders
The Pauline Gandel Children's Gallery - hands-on exhibits and learning through play aimed at 0 to 5 year olds
Touring Hall - is where international touring exhibitions are displayed. A Day In Pompeii which was on display at Melbourne Museum from 26 June to 25 October 2009 was Melbourne Museum's most popular temporary exhibition. Past Touring Hall exhibitions include Hatching the Past: Dinosaur Eggs and Babies (30 May 2008 to 24 August 2008), The Great Wall of China: Dynasties, Gragons and Warriors (23 March 2007 to 22 July 2007), Spirit of the Games: the Opening Ceremony revealed (18 March to 23 July 2006) and Dinosaurs from China (2005).
Public spaces - Outside the main galleries are various displays relating to Victoria's and Australia's history, including CSIRAC (an early computer built in Australia) and a pygmy blue whale.
Festival Melbourne 2006
Melbourne Museum was one of the venues of Festival Melbourne 2006, a citywide art festival held in conjunction of the 2006 Commonwealth Games, which was held in Melbourne. Among the exhibitions held in the museum were 'Common Goods:Cultures Meet Through Craft', which featured crafts made by artists from various Commonwealth countries and 'CARVE:Indigenous carving practices', a series of demonstrations of traditional indigenous carving practices and techniques from Australia, New Zealand and Canada.
Besides that, there was a producers' market, 'Victorian Producers' Market', where the best produces from regional Victoria such as wine, cheese and others were sold. A cooking competition, 'Culinary Pro Am of the Commonwealth' was also held between top Melbourne chefs, each representing a Commonwealth country.
Another crowd drawer was the large screen on museum grounds where live actions of the Games were shown.
Awards
The Melbourne Museum was one of Denton Corker Marshall's award-winning projects. One award in particular was the RACV Award for major tourist attraction, where it received 1,428,238 visitors during the years 2010–2011, which the Melbourne Museum received top honours for. In March 2012, the Qantas Australian Tourism Awards will be held in Cairns, where the Melbourne Museum will be represented for Victoria as a national level.
Melbourne Museum's Science and Life gallery was honoured with the Large Permanent Exhibition Award due to its outstanding design and flow, among many other awards during 2010–2011. Their accomplishments have given them a place in numerous awards, being honoured for their high design quality throughout their international practises. They have received awards from the Royal Australian Institute of Architects (RAIA) that top any other firm, one of which was rated most prestigious and highest honour; of their contributions to Australian architecture.
See also
Phar Lap
H. L. White Collection
Gallery
References
External links
Denton Corker Marshall Architects
Australian Institute of Architects
RACV Tourism Awards
Melbourne Museum
Disability information
Melbourne Food and Wine during the 2006 Commonwealth Games
Reference of Museum items
Museums in Melbourne
IMAX venues
Natural history museums in Australia
Museums established in 2000
1854 establishments in Australia
Tourist attractions in Victoria (Australia)
Buildings and structures in Victoria (Australia)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terence%20McKenna
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Terence McKenna
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Terence Kemp McKenna (November 16, 1946 – April 3, 2000) was an American ethnobotanist and mystic who advocated for the responsible use of naturally occurring psychedelic plants. He spoke and wrote about a variety of subjects, including psychedelic drugs, plant-based entheogens, shamanism, metaphysics, alchemy, language, philosophy, culture, technology, environmentalism, and the theoretical origins of human consciousness. He was called the "Timothy Leary of the '90s", "one of the leading authorities on the ontological foundations of shamanism", and the "intellectual voice of rave culture".
McKenna formulated a "novelty theory" regarding the nature of time based on fractal patterns, which he claimed to discover in the I Ching, and predicting a transition of consciousness in the year 2012. Despite the pseudoscientific nature of novelty theory, promotion of its ideas and its connection to the Maya calendar helped fuel widespread beliefs about 2012 eschatology.
Biography
Early life
Terence McKenna was born and raised in Paonia, Colorado,
with Irish ancestry on his father's side of the family.
McKenna developed a hobby of fossil-hunting in his youth and from this he acquired a deep scientific appreciation of nature. He also became interested in psychology at a young age, reading Carl Jung's book Psychology and Alchemy at the age of 14. This was the same age McKenna first became aware of magic mushrooms, when reading an essay titled "Seeking the Magic Mushroom" which appeared in the May 13, 1957 edition of LIFE magazine.
At age 16 McKenna moved to Los Altos, California to live with family friends for a year. He finished high school in Lancaster, California. In 1963, he was introduced to the literary world of psychedelics through The Doors of Perception and Heaven and Hell by Aldous Huxley and certain issues of The Village Voice which published articles on psychedelics.
McKenna said that one of his early psychedelic experiences with morning glory seeds showed him "that there was something there worth pursuing", and in interviews he claimed to have smoked cannabis daily since his teens.
Studying and traveling
In 1965, McKenna enrolled in the University of California, Berkeley and was accepted into the Tussman Experimental College. In 1967, while in college, he discovered and began studying shamanism through the study of Tibetan folk religion. That same year, which he called his "opium and kabbala phase" he traveled to Jerusalem, where he met Kathleen Harrison, an ethnobotanist who would later become his wife.
In 1969, McKenna traveled to Nepal led by his interest in Tibetan painting and hallucinogenic shamanism. He sought out shamans of the Tibetan Bon tradition, trying to learn more about the shamanic use of visionary plants. During his time there, he also studied the Tibetan language and worked as a hashish smuggler, until "one of his Bombay-to-Aspen shipments fell into the hands of U. S. Customs." He then wandered through southeast Asia viewing ruins, and spent time as a professional butterfly collector in Indonesia.
After his mother's death from cancer in 1970, McKenna, his brother Dennis, and three friends traveled to the Colombian Amazon in search of oo-koo-hé, a plant preparation containing dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Instead of oo-koo-hé they found fields full of gigantic Psilocybe cubensis mushrooms, which became the new focus of the expedition. In La Chorrera, at the urging of his brother, McKenna was the subject of a psychedelic experiment in which the brothers attempted to bond harmine (harmine is another psychedelic compound they used synergistically with the mushrooms) with their own neural DNA, through the use of a set specific vocal techniques. They hypothesised this would give them access to the collective memory of the human species, and would manifest the alchemists' Philosopher's Stone which they viewed as a "hyperdimensional union of spirit and matter". McKenna claimed the experiment put him in contact with "Logos": an informative, divine voice he believed was universal to visionary religious experience. McKenna also often referred to the voice as "the mushroom", and "the teaching voice" amongst other names. The voice's reputed revelations and his brother's simultaneous peculiar psychedelic experience prompted him to explore the structure of an early form of the I Ching, which led to his "Novelty Theory".
During their stay in the Amazon, McKenna also became romantically involved with his interpreter, Ev.
In 1972, McKenna returned to U.C. Berkeley to finish his studies and in 1975, he graduated with a degree in ecology, shamanism, and conservation of natural resources. In the autumn of 1975, after parting with his girlfriend Ev earlier in the year, McKenna began a relationship with his future wife and the mother of his two children, Kathleen Harrison.
Soon after graduating, McKenna and Dennis published a book inspired by their Amazon experiences, The Invisible Landscape: Mind, Hallucinogens and the I Ching. The brothers' experiences in the Amazon would later be the main focus of McKenna's book True Hallucinations, published in 1993. McKenna also began lecturing locally around Berkeley and started appearing on some underground radio stations.
Psilocybin mushroom cultivation
McKenna, along with his brother Dennis, developed a technique for cultivating psilocybin mushrooms using spores they brought to America from the Amazon. In 1976, the brothers published what they had learned in the book Psilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide, under the pseudonyms "O.T. Oss" and "O.N. Oeric". McKenna and his brother were the first to come up with a reliable method for cultivating psilocybin mushrooms at home. As ethnobiologist Jonathan Ott explains, "[the] authors adapted San Antonio's technique (for producing edible mushrooms by casing mycelial cultures on a rye grain substrate; San Antonio 1971) to the production of Psilocybe [Stropharia] cubensis. The new technique involved the use of ordinary kitchen implements, and for the first time the layperson was able to produce a potent entheogen in his [or her] own home, without access to sophisticated technology, equipment, or chemical supplies." When the 1986 revised edition was published, the Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide had sold over 100,000 copies.
Mid- to later life
Public speaking
In the early 1980s, McKenna began to speak publicly on the topic of psychedelic drugs, becoming one of the pioneers of the psychedelic movement. His main focus was on the plant-based psychedelics such as psilocybin mushrooms (which were the catalyst for his career), ayahuasca, cannabis, and the plant derivative DMT. He conducted lecture tours and workshops promoting natural psychedelics as a way to explore universal mysteries, stimulate the imagination, and re-establish a harmonious relationship with nature. Though associated with the New Age and Human Potential Movements, McKenna himself had little patience for New Age sensibilities. He repeatedly stressed the importance and primacy of the "felt presence of direct experience", as opposed to dogma.
In addition to psychedelic drugs, McKenna spoke on a wide array of subjects including; shamanism; metaphysics; alchemy; language; culture; self-empowerment; environmentalism, techno-paganism; artificial intelligence; evolution; extraterrestrials; science and scientism; the Web; virtual reality (which he saw as a way to artistically communicate the experience of psychedelics); and aesthetic theory, specifically about art/visual experience as information representing the significance of hallucinatory visions experienced under the influence of psychedelics.
McKenna soon became a fixture of popular counterculture with Timothy Leary once introducing him as "one of the five or six most important people on the planet" and with comedian Bill Hicks' referencing him in his stand-up act and building an entire routine around his ideas. McKenna also became a popular personality in the psychedelic rave/dance scene of the early 1990s, with frequent spoken word performances at raves and contributions to psychedelic and goa trance albums by The Shamen, Spacetime Continuum, Alien Project, Capsula, Entheogenic, Zuvuya, Shpongle, and Shakti Twins. In 1994 he appeared as a speaker at the Starwood Festival, documented in the book Tripping by Charles Hayes.
McKenna published several books in the early-to-mid-1990s including: The Archaic Revival; Food of the Gods; and True Hallucinations. Hundreds of hours of McKenna's public lectures were recorded either professionally or bootlegged and have been produced on cassette tape, CD and MP3. Segments of his talks have gone on to be sampled by many musicians and DJ's.
McKenna was a colleague and close friend of chaos mathematician Ralph Abraham, and author and biologist Rupert Sheldrake. He conducted several public and many private debates with them from 1982 until his death. These debates were known as trialogues and some of the discussions were later published in the books: Trialogues at the Edge of the West and The Evolutionary Mind.
Botanical Dimensions
In 1985, McKenna founded Botanical Dimensions with his then-wife, Kathleen Harrison. Botanical Dimensions is a nonprofit ethnobotanical preserve on the Big Island of Hawaii, established to collect, protect, propagate, and understand plants of ethno-medical significance and their lore, and appreciate, study, and educate others about plants and mushrooms felt to be significant to cultural integrity and spiritual well-being. The botanical garden is a repository containing thousands of plants that have been used by indigenous people of the tropical regions, and includes a database of information related to their purported healing properties. McKenna was involved until 1992, when he retired from the project, following his and Kathleen's divorce earlier in the year. Kathleen still manages Botanical Dimensions as its president and projects director.
After their divorce, McKenna moved to Hawaii permanently, where he built a modernist house and created a gene bank of rare plants near his home. Previously, he had split his time between Hawaii and Occidental, CA.
Death
McKenna was a longtime sufferer of migraines, but on 22 May 1999 he began to have unusually extreme and painful headaches. He then collapsed due to a brain seizure. McKenna was diagnosed with glioblastoma multiforme, a highly aggressive form of brain cancer. For the next several months he underwent various treatments, including experimental gamma knife radiation treatment. According to Wired magazine, McKenna was worried that his tumor may have been caused by his psychedelic drug use, or his 35 years of daily cannabis smoking; however, his doctors assured him there was no causal relation.
In late 1999, McKenna described his thoughts concerning his impending death to interviewer Erik Davis:
McKenna died on April 3, 2000, at the age of 53.
Library fire and insect collection
On February 7, 2007, McKenna's library of over 3000 rare books and personal notes was destroyed in a fire at the Esalen Institute in Big Sur, California. An index of McKenna's library was made by his brother Dennis. His daughter, the artist and photographer Klea McKenna, subsequently preserved his insect collection, turning it into a gallery installation, and then publishing it in book form as The Butterfly Hunter, featuring her selected photos of 122 insects119 butterflies/moths and three beetles or beetle-like insectsfrom a set of over 2000 he collected between 1969 and 1972, as well as maps showing his collecting routes through the rainforests of Southeast Asia and South America. McKenna had intensively studied Lepidoptera and entomology in the 1960s, and as part of his studies hunted for butterflies primarily in Colombia and Indonesia. McKenna's insect collection was consistent with his interest in Victorian-era explorers and naturalists, and his worldview based on close observation of nature. In the 1970s, when he was still collecting, he became quite squeamish and guilt-ridden about the necessity of killing butterflies in order to collect and classify them, and that's what led him to stop his entomological studies, according to his daughter.
Thought
Psychedelics
Terence McKenna advocated the exploration of altered states of mind via the ingestion of naturally occurring psychedelic substances; for example, and in particular, as facilitated by the ingestion of high doses of psychedelic mushrooms, ayahuasca, and DMT, which he believed was the apotheosis of the psychedelic experience.
He was less enthralled with synthetic drugs, stating, "I think drugs should come from the natural world and be use-tested by shamanically orientated cultures ... one cannot predict the long-term effects of a drug produced in a laboratory."
McKenna always stressed the responsible use of psychedelic plants, saying: "Experimenters should be very careful. One must build up to the experience. These are bizarre dimensions of extraordinary power and beauty. There is no set rule to avoid being overwhelmed, but move carefully, reflect a great deal, and always try to map experiences back onto the history of the race and the philosophical and religious accomplishments of the species. All the compounds are potentially dangerous, and all compounds, at sufficient doses or repeated over time, involve risks. The library is the first place to go when looking into taking a new compound."
He also recommended, and often spoke of taking, what he called "heroic doses", which he defined as five grams of dried psilocybin mushrooms, taken alone, on an empty stomach, in silent darkness, and with eyes closed. He believed that when taken this way one could expect a profound visionary experience, believing it is only when "slain" by the power of the mushroom that the message becomes clear.
Although McKenna avoided giving his allegiance to any one interpretation (part of his rejection of monotheism), he was open to the idea of psychedelics as being "trans-dimensional travel". He proposed that DMT sent one to a "parallel dimension" and that psychedelics literally enabled an individual to encounter "higher dimensional entities", or what could be ancestors, or spirits of the Earth, saying that if you can trust your own perceptions it appears that you are entering an "ecology of souls". McKenna also put forward the idea that psychedelics were "doorways into the Gaian mind", suggesting that "the planet has a kind of intelligence, it can actually open a channel of communication with an individual human being" and that the psychedelic plants were the facilitators of this communication.
Machine elves
McKenna spoke of hallucinations while on DMT in which he claims to have met intelligent entities he described as, "self-transforming machine elves".
Psilocybin panspermia speculation
In a more radical version of biophysicist Francis Crick's hypothesis of directed panspermia, McKenna speculated on the idea that psilocybin mushrooms may be a species of high intelligence, which may have arrived on this planet as spores migrating through space and which are attempting to establish a symbiotic relationship with human beings. He postulated that "intelligence, not life, but intelligence may have come here [to Earth] in this spore-bearing life form". He said, "I think that theory will probably be vindicated. I think in a hundred years if people do biology they will think it quite silly that people once thought that spores could not be blown from one star system to another by cosmic radiation pressure," and also believed that "few people are in a position to judge its extraterrestrial potential, because few people in the orthodox sciences have ever experienced the full spectrum of psychedelic effects that are unleashed."
Opposition to organized religion
McKenna was opposed to Christianity and most forms of organized religion or guru-based forms of spiritual awakening, favouring shamanism, which he believed was the broadest spiritual paradigm available, stating that:
What I think happened is that in the world of prehistory all religion was experiential, and it was based on the pursuit of ecstasy through plants. And at some time, very early, a group interposed itself between people and direct experience of the 'Other.' This created hierarchies, priesthoods, theological systems, castes, ritual, taboos. Shamanism, on the other hand, is an experiential science that deals with an area where we know nothing. It is important to remember that our epistemological tools have developed very unevenly in the West. We know a tremendous amount about what is going on in the heart of the atom, but we know absolutely nothing about the nature of the mind.
Technological singularity
During the final years of his life and career, McKenna became very engaged in the theoretical realm of technology. He was an early proponent of the technological singularity and in his last recorded public talk, Psychedelics in the age of intelligent machines, he outlined ties between psychedelics, computation technology, and humans. He also became enamored with the Internet, calling it "the birth of [the] global mind", believing it to be a place where psychedelic culture could flourish.
Admired writers
Either philosophically or religiously, he expressed admiration for Marshall McLuhan, Alfred North Whitehead, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, Carl Jung, Plato, Gnostic Christianity, and Alchemy, while regarding the Greek philosopher Heraclitus as his favorite philosopher.
McKenna also expressed admiration for the works of writers including Aldous Huxley, James Joyce, whose book Finnegans Wake he called "the quintessential work of art, or at least work of literature of the 20th century," science fiction writer Philip K. Dick, who he described as an "incredible genius," fabulist Jorge Luis Borges, with whom McKenna shared the belief that "scattered through the ordinary world there are books and artifacts and perhaps people who are like doorways into impossible realms, of impossible and contradictory truth" and Vladimir Nabokov; McKenna once said that he would have become a Nabokov lecturer if he had never encountered psychedelics.
"Stoned ape" theory of human evolution
In his 1992 book Food of the Gods, McKenna proposed that the transformation from humans' early ancestors Homo erectus to the species Homo sapiens mainly had to do with the addition of the mushroom Psilocybe cubensis in the diet, an event that according to his theory took place in about 100,000 BCE (which is when he believed that the species diverged from the genus Homo). McKenna based his theory on the main effects, or alleged effects, produced by the mushroom while citing studies by Roland Fischer et al. from the late 1960s to early 1970s.
McKenna stated that, due to the desertification of the African continent at that time, human forerunners were forced from the increasingly shrinking tropical canopy into search of new food sources. He believed they would have been following large herds of wild cattle whose dung harbored the insects that, he proposed, were undoubtedly part of their new diet, and would have spotted and started eating Psilocybe cubensis, a dung-loving mushroom often found growing out of cowpats.
McKenna's hypothesis was that low doses of psilocybin improve visual acuity, particularly edge detection, meaning that the presence of psilocybin in the diet of early pack hunting primates caused the individuals who were consuming psilocybin mushrooms to be better hunters than those who were not, resulting in an increased food supply and in turn a higher rate of reproductive success. Then at slightly higher doses, he contended, the mushroom acts to sexually arouse, leading to a higher level of attention, more energy in the organism, and potential erection in the males, rendering it even more evolutionarily beneficial, as it would result in more offspring. At even higher doses, McKenna proposed that the mushroom would have acted to "dissolve boundaries," promoting community bonding and group sexual activities. Consequently, there would be a mixing of genes, greater genetic diversity, and a communal sense of responsibility for the group offspring. At these higher doses, McKenna also argued that psilocybin would be triggering activity in the "language-forming region of the brain", manifesting as music and visions, thus catalyzing the emergence of language in early hominids by expanding "their arboreally evolved repertoire of troop signals." He also pointed out that psilocybin would dissolve the ego and "religious concerns would be at the forefront of the tribe's consciousness, simply because of the power and strangeness of the experience itself."
Therefore, according to McKenna, access to and ingestion of mushrooms was an evolutionary advantage to humans' omnivorous hunter-gatherer ancestors, also providing humanity's first religious impulse. He believed that psilocybin mushrooms were the "evolutionary catalyst" from which language, projective imagination, the arts, religion, philosophy, science, and all of human culture sprang.
McKenna's hypothesis concerning the influence of psilocybin mushrooms on human evolution is known as "the 'stoned ape' theory."
In 2019 McKenna's theory was supported by the mycologist Paul Stamets.
Criticism
McKenna's "stoned ape" theory has not received attention from the scientific community and has been criticized for a relative lack of citation to any of the paleoanthropological evidence informing our understanding of human origins. His ideas regarding psilocybin and visual acuity have been criticized as misrepresentations of Fischer et al.'s findings, who published studies about visual perception in terms of various specific parameters, not acuity. Criticism has also been expressed due to the fact that in a separate study on psilocybin induced transformation of visual space. Fischer et al. stated that psilocybin "may not be conducive to the survival of the organism". There is also a lack of scientific evidence that psilocybin increases sexual arousal, and even if it does, it does not necessarily entail an evolutionary advantage. Others have pointed to civilisations such as the Aztecs, who used psychedelic mushrooms (at least among the Priestly class), that didn't reflect McKenna's model of how psychedelic-using cultures would behave, for example, by carrying out human sacrifice. Although, it has been noted that psilocybin usage by the Aztec civilisation is far removed from the type of usage on which McKenna was speculating. There are also examples of Amazonian tribes such as the Jivaro and the Yanomami who use ayahuasca ceremoniously and who are known to engage in violent behaviour. This, it has been argued, indicates the use of psychedelic plants does not necessarily suppress the ego and create harmonious societies.
Archaic revival
One of the main themes running through McKenna's work, and the title of his second book, was the idea that Western civilization was undergoing what he called an "archaic revival".
His notion was that Western society has become "sick" and is undergoing a "healing process", in the same way that the human body begins to produce antibodies when it feels itself to be sick, humanity as a collective whole (in the Jungian sense) was creating "strategies for overcoming the condition of dis-ease" and trying to cure itself, by what he termed as "a reversion to archaic values." McKenna pointed to phenomena including surrealism, abstract expressionism, body piercing and tattooing, psychedelic drug use, sexual permissiveness, jazz, experimental dance, rave culture, rock and roll and catastrophe theory, amongst others, as his evidence that this process was underway. This idea is linked to McKenna's "stoned ape" theory of human evolution, with him viewing the "archaic revival" as an impulse to return to the symbiotic and blissful relationship he believed humanity once had with the psilocybin mushroom.
In differentiating his idea from the "New Age", a term that he felt trivialized the significance of the next phase in human evolution, McKenna stated that: "The New Age is essentially humanistic psychology '80s-style, with the addition of neo-shamanism, channeling, crystal and herbal healing. The archaic revival is a much larger, more global phenomenon that assumes that we are recovering the social forms of the late neolithic, and reaches far back in the 20th century to Freud, to surrealism, to abstract expressionism, even to a phenomenon like National Socialism which is a negative force. But the stress on ritual, on organized activity, on race/ancestor-consciousness – these are themes that have been worked out throughout the entire 20th century, and the archaic revival is an expression of that."
Novelty theory and Timewave Zero
Novelty theory is a pseudoscientific idea that purports to predict the ebb and flow of novelty in the universe as an inherent quality of time, proposing that time is not a constant but has various qualities tending toward either "habit" or "novelty". Habit, in this context, can be thought of as enthalpic, repetitious, or conservative; and novelty as creative, disjunctive, or progressive phenomena. McKenna's idea was that the universe is an engine designed for the production and conservation of novelty and that as novelty increases, so does complexity. With each level of complexity achieved becoming the platform for a further ascent into complexity.
The basis of the theory was originally conceived in the mid-1970s after McKenna's experiences with psilocybin mushrooms at La Chorrera in the Amazon led him to closely study the King Wen sequence of the I Ching.
In Asian Taoist philosophy the concept of opposing phenomena is represented by the yin and yang. Both are always present in everything, yet the amount of influence of each varies over time. The individual lines of the I Ching are made up of both Yin (broken lines) and Yang (solid lines).
When examining the King Wen sequence of the 64 hexagrams, McKenna noticed a pattern. He analysed the "degree of difference" between the hexagrams in each successive pair and claimed he found a statistical anomaly, which he believed suggested that the King Wen sequence was intentionally constructed, with the sequence of hexagrams ordered in a highly structured and artificial way, and that this pattern codified the nature of time's flow in the world. With the degrees of difference as numerical values, McKenna worked out a mathematical wave form based on the 384 lines of change that make up the 64 hexagrams. He was able to graph the data and this became the Novelty Time Wave.
Peter J. Meyer (Peter Johann Gustav Meyer) (born 1946), in collaboration with McKenna, studied and improved the foundations of novelty theory, working out a mathematical formula and developing the Timewave Zero software (the original version of which was completed by July 1987), enabling them to graph and explore its dynamics on a computer. The graph was fractal, it exhibited a pattern in which a given small section of the wave was found to be identical in form to a larger section of the wave. McKenna called this fractal modeling of time "temporal resonance", proposing it implied that larger intervals, occurring long ago, contained the same amount of information as shorter, more recent, intervals. He suggested the up-and-down pattern of the wave shows an ongoing wavering between habit and novelty respectively. With each successive iteration trending, at an increasing level, towards infinite novelty. So according to novelty theory, the pattern of time itself is speeding up, with a requirement of the theory being that infinite novelty will be reached on a specific date.
McKenna suspected that notable events in history could be identified that would help him locate the time wave's end date and attempted to find the best-fit placement when matching the graph to the data field of human history. The last harmonic of the wave has a duration of 67.29 years. Population growth, peak oil, and pollution statistics were some of the factors that pointed him to an early twenty-first century end date and when looking for an extremely novel event in human history as a signal that the final phase had begun McKenna picked the dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima. This worked out to the graph reaching zero in mid-November 2012. When he later discovered that the end of the 13th baktun in the Maya calendar had been correlated by Western Maya scholars as December 21, 2012, he adopted their end date instead.
McKenna saw the universe, in relation to novelty theory, as having a teleological attractor at the end of time, which increases interconnectedness and would eventually reach a singularity of infinite complexity. He also frequently referred to this as "the transcendental object at the end of time." When describing this model of the universe he stated that: "The universe is not being pushed from behind. The universe is being pulled from the future toward a goal that is as inevitable as a marble reaching the bottom of a bowl when you release it up near the rim. If you do that, you know the marble will roll down the side of the bowl, down, down, down – until eventually it comes to rest at the lowest energy state, which is the bottom of the bowl. That's precisely my model of human history. I'm suggesting that the universe is pulled toward a complex attractor that exists ahead of us in time, and that our ever-accelerating speed through the phenomenal world of connectivity and novelty is based on the fact that we are now very, very close to the attractor." Therefore, according to McKenna's final interpretation of the data and positioning of the graph, on December 21, 2012, we would have been in the unique position in time where maximum novelty would be experienced. An event he described as a "concrescence", a "tightening 'gyre'" with everything flowing together. Speculating that "when the laws of physics are obviated, the universe disappears, and what is left is the tightly bound plenum, the monad, able to express itself for itself, rather than only able to cast a shadow into physis as its reflection...It will be the entry of our species into 'hyperspace', but it will appear to be the end of physical laws, accompanied by the release of the mind into the imagination."
Novelty theory is considered to be pseudoscience. Among the criticisms are the use of numerology to derive dates of important events in world history, the arbitrary rather than calculated end date of the time wave and the apparent adjustment of the eschaton from November 2012 to December 2012 in order to coincide with the Maya calendar. Other purported dates do not fit the actual time frames: the date claimed for the emergence of Homo sapiens is inaccurate by 70,000 years, and the existence of the ancient Sumer and Egyptian civilisations contradict the date he gave for the beginning of "historical time". Some projected dates have been criticised for having seemingly arbitrary labels, such as the "height of the age of mammals" and McKenna's analysis of historical events has been criticised for having a eurocentric and cultural bias.
The Watkins Objection
The British mathematician Matthew Watkins of Exeter University conducted a mathematical analysis of the Time Wave, and claimed there were various mathematical flaws in its construction.
Critical reception
One expert on drug treatment attacked McKenna for popularizing "dangerous substances." Judy Corman, vice president of Phoenix House of New York, a drug treatment center, said in a letter to The New York Times in 1993: "Surely the fact that Terence McKenna says that the psilocybin mushroom 'is the megaphone used by an alien, intergalactic Other to communicate with mankind' is enough for us to wonder if taking LSD has done something to his mental faculties."
"I suffered hallucinatory agonies of my own while reading his shrilly ecstatic prose," Peter Conrad wrote in The New York Times in a 1993 review of McKenna's book True Hallucinations.
Harvard University biologist Richard Evans Schultes wrote in American Scientist, in a 1993 review of McKenna's Food of the Gods, that the book was "a masterpiece of research and writing" and that it "should be read by every specialist working in the multifarious fields involved with the use of psychoactive drugs." Concluding that, "[i]t is, without question, destined to play a major role in our future considerations of the role of the ancient use of psychoactive drugs, the historical shaping of our modern concerns about drugs and perhaps about man's desire for escape from reality with drugs."
John Horgan, in a 2012 blog post for Scientific American, also commented that Food of the Gods was "a rigorous argument...that mind-expanding plants and fungi catalyzed the transformation of our brutish ancestors into cultured modern humans."
"To write him off as a crazy hippie is a rather lazy approach to a man not only full of fascinating ideas but also blessed with a sense of humor and self-parody," Tom Hodgkinson wrote in The New Statesman and Society in 1994.
Mark Jacobson said of True Hallucinations, in a 1992 issue of Esquire Magazine that, "it would be hard to find a drug narrative more compellingly perched on a baroquely romantic limb than this passionate Tom-and-Huck-ride-great-mother-river-saga of brotherly bonding," adding "put simply, Terence is a hoot!"
Wired called him a "charismatic talking head" who was "brainy, eloquent, and hilarious" and Jerry Garcia of the Grateful Dead also said that he was "the only person who has made a serious effort to objectify the psychedelic experience."
Bibliography
Spoken word
History Ends in Green: Gaia, Psychedelics and the Archaic Revival, 6 audiocassette set, Mystic Fire audio, 1993, (recorded at the Esalen Institute, 1989)
TechnoPagans at the End of History (transcription of rap with Mark Pesce from 1998)
Psychedelics in the Age of Intelligent Machines (1999) (DVD) HPX/SurrealStudio
Conversations on the Edge of Magic (1994) (CD & Cassette) ACE
Rap-Dancing into the Third Millennium (1994) (Cassette) (Re-issued on CD as The Quintessential Hallucinogen) ACE
Packing For the Long Strange Trip (1994) (Audio Cassette) ACE
Global Perspectives and Psychedelic Poetics (1994) (Cassette) Sound Horizons Audio-Video, Inc.
The Search for the Original Tree of Knowledge (1992) (Cassette) Sounds True
The Psychedelic Society (DVD & Video Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
True Hallucinations Workshop (Audio/Video Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
The Vertigo at History's Edge: Who Are We? Where Have We Come From? Where Are We Going? (DVD & Video/Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Ethnobotany and Shamanism (DVD & Video/Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Shamanism, Symbiosis and Psychedelics Workshop (Audio/Video Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Shamanology (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Shamanology of the Amazon (w/ Nicole Maxwell) (Audio/Video Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Beyond Psychology (1983) (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Understanding & the Imagination in the Light of Nature Parts 1 & 2 (DVD & Video/Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Ethnobotany (a complete course given at The California Institute of Integral Studies) (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Non-ordinary States of Reality Through Vision Plants (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Mind & Time, Spirit & Matter: The Complete Weekend in Santa Fe (Audio/Video Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Forms and Mysteries: Morphogenetic Fields and Psychedelic Experiences (w/ Rupert Sheldrake) (DVD & Video/Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
UFO: The Inside Outsider (DVD & Video/Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
A Calendar for The Goddess (DVD & Video/Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
A Magical Journey: Including Hallucinogens and Culture, Time and The I Ching, and The Human Future (Video Cassette) TAP/Sound Photosynthesis
Aliens and Archetypes (Video Cassette) TAP/Sound Photosynthesis
Angels, Aliens and Archetypes 1987 Symposium: Shamanic Approaches to the UFO, and Fairmont Banquet Talk (DVD & Video/Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Botanical Dimensions (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Conference on Botanical Intelligence (w/ Joan Halifax, Andy Weil, & Dennis McKenna) (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Coping With Gaia's Midwife Crisis (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Dreaming Awake at the End of Time (DVD & Video/Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Evolving Times (DVD, CD & Video/Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Food of the Gods (Audio/Video Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Food of the Gods 2: Drugs, Plants and Destiny (Video Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Hallucinogens in Shamanism & Anthropology at Bridge Psychedelic Conf.1991 (w/ Ralph Metzner, Marlene Dobkin De Rios, Allison Kennedy & Thomas Pinkson) (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Finale – Bridge Psychedelic Conf.1991 (Audio/Video Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Man and Woman at the End of History (w/ Riane Eisler) (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Plants, Consciousness, and Transformation (1995) (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Metamorphosis (w/ Rupert Sheldrake & Ralph Abraham) (1995) (Video Cassette) Mystic Fire/Sound Photosynthesis
Nature is the Center of the Mandala (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Opening the Doors of Creativity (1990) (DVD & Video/Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Places I Have Been (CD & Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Plants, Visions and History Lecture (Audio/Video Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Psychedelics Before and After History (DVD & Video/Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Sacred Plants As Guides: New Dimensions of the Soul (at the Jung Society Clairemont, California) (DVD & Video/Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Seeking the Stone (Video Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Shamanism: Before and Beyond History – A Weekend at Ojai (w/ Ralph Metzner) (Audio/Video Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Shedding the Monkey (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
State of the Stone '95 (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
The Ethnobotany of Shamanism Introductory Lecture: The Philosophical Implications of Psychobotony: Past, Present and Future (at CIIS) (Audio/Video Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
The Ethnobotany of Shamanism Workshop: Psychedelics Before and After History (at CIIS) (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
The Grammar of Ecstasy – the World Within the Word (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
The Light at the End of History (Audio/Video Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
The State of the Stone Address: Having Archaic and Eating it Too (Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
The Taxonomy of Illusion (at UC Santa Cruz) (DVD & Video/Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
This World ...and Its Double (DVD & Video/Audio Cassette) Sound Photosynthesis
Trialogues at the Edge of the Millennium (w/ Rupert Sheldrake & Ralph Abraham) (at UC Santa Cruz) (1998) (Video Cassette) Trialogue Press
Discography
Re : Evolution with The Shamen (1992)
Dream Matrix Telemetry with Zuvuya (1993)
Alien Dreamtime with Spacetime Continuum & Stephen Kent (2003)
"Reclaim Your Mind" with Mark Pontius (2020)
Filmography
Experiment at Petaluma (1990)
Prague Gnosis: Terence McKenna Dialogues (1992)
The Hemp Revolution (1995)
Terence McKenna: The Last Word (1999)
Shamans of the Amazon (2001)
Alien Dreamtime (2003)
2012: The Odyssey (2007)
The Alchemical Dream: Rebirth of the Great Work (2008)
Manifesting the Mind (2009)
Cognition Factor (2009)
DMT: The Spirit Molecule (2010)
2012: Time for Change (2010)
The Terence McKenna OmniBus (2012)
The Transcendental Object at the End of Time (2014)
Terence McKenna's True Hallucinations (2016)
See also
Benny Shanon
David E. Nichols
Exopheromone
Jeremy Narby
Jonathan Ott
Luis Eduardo Luna
Omega Point
Rick Strassman
Notes
References
External links
Botanical Dimensions
Erowid's Terence McKenna Vault
Psychedelic Salon, Over 100 podcasts of Terence McKenna lectures
Tao of Terence, a 12-part series of essays on McKenna by Tao Lin at Vice
Terence McKenna Bibliography, list of references to books, articles, audio, video, interviews and translations by and about Terence McKenna
Terrence McKenna's True Hallucinations Documentary by Peter Bergmann
The Transcendental Object At The End Of Time Documentary by Peter Bergmann
1946 births
2000 deaths
2012 phenomenon believers
20th-century alchemists
20th-century American writers
20th-century historians
American alchemists
American anarchists
American book and manuscript collectors
American cannabis activists
American people of Irish descent
American people of Welsh descent
American religious skeptics
Antelope Valley High School alumni
Counterculture festivals activists
Deaths from brain tumor
Deaths from cancer in Hawaii
Ethnobotanists
Mystics
People from Occidental, California
People from Paonia, Colorado
Psychedelic drug advocates
Psychedelic drug researchers
Public orators
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241686
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troll%20A%20platform
|
Troll A platform
|
The Troll A platform is a Condeep gravity-based structure offshore natural gas platform in the Troll gas field off the west coast of Norway. Built from reinforced concrete, , it was the tallest structure that has ever been moved to another position, relative to the surface of the Earth, and is among the largest and most complex engineering projects in history. The platform was a televised sensation when it was towed into the North Sea in 1996, where it is now operated by Equinor. It is often incorrectly referenced as the heaviest object ever moved as well, but it is actually the second largest after another Condeep Oil platform the Gullfaks C, which had a displacement approaching 1.5 million tons in comparison with Troll A's 1.2 million.
Dimensions
The Troll A platform has an overall height of , weighs 683,600 tons (1.2 million tons with ballast) and has the distinction of being the tallest and second heaviest structure ever moved by humankind. The platform stands on four legs extending down to the sea floor 303 meters (994 feet) below the surface of the sea, and the leg containing the import and export risers has an elevator that takes over nine minutes to travel from the platform above the waves to the sea floor.
The legs must be able to withstand intense pressures, so the walls of Troll A's legs are over 1 metre thick and are made of steel-reinforced concrete that was formed in one continuous poura lengthy process that takes 20 minutes per 5 cm laid. Each leg is a mathematically joined composite of several conical cylinders that flares out smoothly to greater diameters at the top and bottom, so each support is somewhat wasp-waisted when viewed in profile and circular in any cross-section (see picture at right).
The four legs are joined by a "chord shortener" (not present in the picture at right), a reinforced concrete box connecting the legs that damps out any potentially destructive wave-leg resonances by retuning the legs' natural frequencies. Each leg is also sub-divided along its length into compartments a third of the way from each end which act as independent water-tight compartments. The legs use groups of six tall vacuum-anchors holding them fixed in the mud of the sea floor.
Construction
Troll A was built by Norwegian Contractors for Norske Shell, with base construction beginning in September 1991 at a cost of 4150 million NOK, or approximately US$650 million at the time. The base and the deck were built separately, and were joined in 1998 while the base was partially submerged. The base is a Condeep gravity base structure built from reinforced concrete.
The Troll platform was towed over from Vats, in the northern part of Rogaland, to the Troll field, north-west of Bergen. The tow took seven days.
Expansion
In the autumn of 2010 the Troll A platform was expanded with a new module. This module contains living quarters and a new control room. The new control room and expanded facilities are needed to support the new compressors (a third and fourth are planned and being installed in 2014). These compressors are needed due to the dropping reservoir pressure in the wells.
On 18 June 2013 the new support module M12 for compressors 3 and 4 was lifted on board Troll A. The increased electricity consumption of these compressors required new power cables from shore, and due to grid constraints the platform is cut off from shore power if a grid emergency arises.
Operation
Gas rises from 40 wells and is exported through a number of pipes to a processing plant at Kollsnes. Troll A is scheduled to receive two additional gas compressors to increase production volume and compensate for dropping reservoir pressure in the wells.
World records
In 1996, the platform set the Guinness World Record for the largest offshore gas platform.
In 2006, the 10th anniversary of Statoil's operatorship of Troll gas production was celebrated with a concert by Katie Melua held at the base of one of the hollow legs of the platform. The concert set a new world record for the deepest underwater concert, at below sea level.
See also
HVDC Troll
Ursa tension leg platform, another, taller record-breaking platform
Magnolia extended tension leg platform, the world's deepest ETLP
References
External links
Offshore-Technology.com: Troll
Natural gas platforms
Natural gas industry in Norway
North Sea energy
Equinor
1996 establishments in Norway
|
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] |
241688
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submerged%20arc%20welding
|
Submerged arc welding
|
Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a common arc welding process. The first SAW patent was taken out in 1935. The process requires a continuously fed consumable solid or tubular (metal cored) electrode. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from atmospheric contamination by being "submerged" under a blanket of granular fusible flux consisting of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, and other compounds. When molten, the flux becomes conductive, and provides a current path between the electrode and the work. This thick layer of flux completely covers the molten metal thus preventing spatter and sparks as well as suppressing the intense ultraviolet radiation and fumes that are a part of the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process.
SAW is normally operated in the automatic or mechanized mode, however, semi-automatic (hand-held) SAW guns with pressurized or gravity flux feed delivery are available. The process is normally limited to the flat or horizontal-fillet welding positions (although horizontal groove position welds have been done with a special arrangement to support the flux). Deposition rates approaching 45 kg/h (100 lb/h) have been reported — this compares to ~5 kg/h (10 lb/h) (max) for shielded metal arc welding. Although currents ranging from 300 to 2000 A are commonly utilized, currents of up to 5000 A have also been used (multiple arcs).
Single or multiple (2 to 5) electrode wire variations of the process exist. SAW strip-cladding utilizes a flat strip electrode (e.g. 60 mm wide x 0.5 mm thick). DC or AC power can be used, and combinations of DC and AC are common on multiple electrode systems. Constant voltage welding power supplies are most commonly used; however, constant current systems in combination with a voltage sensing wire-feeder are available.
Features
Welding head
It feeds flux and filler metal to the welding joint. The electrode (filler metal) gets energized here.
Flux hopper
It stores the flux and controls the rate of flux deposition on the welding joint.
Flux
The granulated flux shields and thus protects molten weld from atmospheric contamination. The flux cleans weld metal and can also modify its chemical composition. The flux is granulated to a definite size. It may be of fused, bonded or mechanically mixed type. The flux may consist of fluorides of calcium and oxides of calcium, magnesium, silicon, aluminium and manganese. Alloying elements may be added as per requirements. Substances evolving large amount of gases during welding are never mixed with the flux. Flux with fine and coarse particle sizes are recommended for welding heavier and smaller thickness respectively.
Electrode
SAW filler material usually is a standard wire as well as other special forms. This wire normally has a thickness of 1.6 mm to 6 mm (1/16 in. to 1/4 in.). In certain circumstances, twisted wire can be used to give the arc an oscillating movement. This helps fuse the toe of the weld to the base metal.
The electrode composition depends upon the material being welded. Alloying elements may be added in the electrodes. Electrodes are available to weld mild steels, high carbon steels, low and special alloy steels, stainless steel and some of the nonferrous of copper and nickel. Electrodes are generally copper coated to prevent rusting and to increase their electrical conductivity. Electrodes are available in straight lengths and coils. Their diameters may be 1.6, 2.0, 2.4, 3, 4.0, 4.8, and 6.4 mm. The approximate value of currents to weld with 1.6, 3.2 and 6.4 mm diameter electrodes are 150–350, 250–800 and 650–1350 Amps respectively.
Welding Operation
The flux starts depositing on the joint to be welded. Since the flux is not electrically conductive when cold, the arc may be struck either by touching the electrode with the work piece or by placing steel wool between electrode and job before switching on the welding current or by using a high frequency unit. In all cases the arc is struck under a cover of flux. Flux otherwise is an insulator but once it melts due to heat of the arc, it becomes highly conductive and hence the current flow is maintained between the electrode and the workpiece through the molten flux. The upper portion of the flux, in contact with atmosphere, which is visible remains granular (unchanged) and can be reused. The lower, melted flux becomes slag, which is waste material and must be removed after welding.
The electrode is continuously fed to the joint to be welded at a predetermined speed. In semi-automatic welding sets the welding head is moved manually along the joint. In automatic welding a separate drive moves either the welding head over the stationary job or the job moves/rotates under the stationary welding head.
The arc length is kept constant by using the principle of a self-adjusting arc. If the arc length decreases, arc voltage will increase, arc current and therefore burn-off rate will increase thereby causing the arc to lengthen. The reverse occurs if the arc length increases more than the normal.
A backing plate of steel or copper may be used to control penetration and to support large amounts of molten metal associated with the process.
Key SAW process variables
Wire feed speed (main factor in welding current control)
Arc voltage
Travel speed
Electrode stick-out (ESO) or contact tip to work (CTTW)
Polarity and current type (AC or DC) and variable balance AC current
Material applications
Carbon steels (structural and vessel construction)
Low alloy steels
Stainless steels
Nickel-based alloys
Surfacing applications (wear-facing, build-up, and corrosion resistant overlay of steels)
Advantages
High deposition rates (over 45 kg/h (100 lb/h) have been reported).
High operating factors in mechanized applications.
Deep weld penetration.
Sound welds are readily made (with good process design and control).
High speed welding of thin sheet steels up to 5 m/min (16 ft/min) is possible.
Minimal welding fume or arc light is emitted.
Practically no edge preparation is necessary depending on joint configuration and required penetration.
The process is suitable for both indoor and outdoor works.
Welds produced are sound, uniform, ductile, corrosion resistant and have good impact value.
Single pass welds can be made in thick plates with normal equipment.
The arc is always covered under a blanket of flux, thus there is no chance of spatter of weld.
50% to 90% of the flux is recoverable, recycled and reused.
Limitations
Limited to ferrous (steel or stainless steels) and some nickel-based alloys.
Normally limited to the 1F, 1G, and 2F positions.
Normally limited to long straight seams or rotated pipes or vessels.
Requires relatively troublesome flux handling systems.
Flux and slag residue can present a health and safety concern.
Requires inter-pass and post weld slag removal.
Requires backing strips for proper root penetration.
Limited to high thickness materials.
References
Further reading
American Welding Society, Welding Handbook, Vol 2 (9th ed.)
External links
Submerged arc welding pamphlet
Arc welding
de:Schweißen#Unterpulverschweißen
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingsnake
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Kingsnake
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Kingsnakes are colubrid New World members of the genus Lampropeltis, which includes milk snakes and four other species. Among these, about 45 subspecies are recognized. They are nonvenomous and ophiophagous in diet.
Description
Kingsnakes vary widely in size and coloration. They can be as small as 24" (61cm) or as long as 60" (152cm). Some kingsnakes are colored in muted browns to black, while others are brightly marked in white, reds, yellows, grays, and lavenders that form rings, longitudinal stripes, speckles, and saddle-shaped bands.
Most kingsnakes have quite vibrant patterns. Some species, such as the scarlet kingsnake, Mexican milk snake, and red milk snake, have coloration and patterning that can cause them to be confused with the highly venomous coral snakes. One of the mnemonic rhymes to help people distinguish between coral snakes and their nonvenomous lookalikes in the United States is "red on black, a friend of Jack; red on yellow, kill a fellow". Other variations include "red on yellow kill a fellow, red on black venom lack", and referencing the order of traffic lights "yellow, red, stop!" All these mnemonics apply only to the three species of coral snakes native to the southern United States: Micrurus fulvius (the eastern or common coral snake), Micrurus tener (the Texas coral snake), and Micruroides euryxanthus (the Arizona coral snake). Coral snakes found in other parts of the world can have distinctly different patterns, such as having red bands touching black bands, having only pink and blue bands, or having no bands at all.
Etymology
Lampropeltis includes the Greek words for "shiny shield": ("shiny") + ("peltē shield") + (a Latin suffix). The name is given to them in reference to their smooth, enamel-like dorsal scales.
The "king" in the common name (as with the king cobra) refers to its preying on other snakes.
Taxonomy
Taxonomic reclassification of the kingsnakes is an ongoing process and different sources often disagree, one source granting full species status to a group of these snakes that another source considers a subspecies group. In the case of L. catalinensis, for example, only a single specimen exists, so classification is not necessarily finite. In addition, hybridization between species with overlapping geographic ranges is not uncommon, confusing taxonomists further.
Geographic range and habitat
Kingsnakes are native to North America, where they are found all over the United States and into Mexico. This genus has adapted to a wide variety of habitats, including tropical forests, shrublands, and deserts.
Predators
Kingsnakes are often preyed upon by large vertebrates, such as birds of prey. Tarantulas also sometimes prey on them.
Behavior and diet
Kingsnakes are primarily terrestrial, but they are also known to be capable climbers and swimmers.
Kingsnakes use constriction to kill their prey and tend to be opportunistic in their diet; they eat other snakes (ophiophagy), including venomous snakes. Kingsnakes also eat lizards, rodents, birds, and eggs. The common kingsnake is known to be immune to the venom of other snakes and does eat rattlesnakes, but it is not necessarily immune to the venom of snakes from different localities.
Kingsnakes such as the California kingsnake can exert twice as much constriction force relative to body size as rat snakes and pythons. Scientists believe such strong coils may be an adaptation to snake and other reptile prey, which can endure lower blood-oxygen levels before asphyxiating.
List of kingsnake species and subspecies
Kingsnake species and subspecies include (listed here alphabetically by specific and subspecific name):
Guatemalan milk snake, Lampropeltis abnorma (Bocourt, 1886)
Gray-banded kingsnake, Lampropeltis alterna (A. E. Brown, 1901)
Mexican milk snake, Lampropeltis annulata Kennicott, 1860
California kingsnake, Lampropeltis californiae (Blainville, 1835)
Prairie kingsnake, Lampropeltis calligaster (Harlan, 1827)
Santa Catalina Island kingsnake, Lampropeltis catalinensis (Van Denburgh & Slevin, 1921)
Scarlet kingsnake or scarlet milk snake, Lampropeltis elapsoides (Holbrook, 1838)
Short-tailed snake, Lampropeltis extenuata (Brown, 1890)
Central Plains milk snake, Lampropeltis gentilis (Baird & Girard, 1853)
Common kingsnake, Lampropeltis getula (Linnaeus, 1766)
Brooks' kingsnake, L. g. brooksi Barbour, 1919
Florida kingsnake, L. g. floridana (Blanchard, 1919)
Eastern kingsnake, L. g. getula (Linnaeus, 1766)
Apalachicola Lowlands kingsnake, L. g. meansi Krysko & Judd, 2006
Mexican black kingsnake, L. g. nigrita Zweifel & Norris, 1955
Greer's kingsnake, Lampropeltis greeri (Webb, 1961)
Speckled kingsnake, Lampropeltis holbrooki Stejneger, 1902
Madrean mountain kingsnake, Lampropeltis knoblochi Taylor, 1940
Nuevo León kingsnake, Lampropeltis leonis (Günther, 1893)
Mexican kingsnake, Lampropeltis mexicana (Garman, 1884)
Ecuadorian milk snake, Lampropeltis micropholis Cope, 1860
Black kingsnake, Lampropeltis nigra (Yarrow, 1882)
South Florida mole kingsnake, Lampropeltis occipitolineata Price, 1987
Central American milk snake, Lampropeltis polyzona Cope, 1860
Arizona mountain kingsnake, Lampropeltis pyromelana (Cope, 1866)
Utah mountain kingsnake, L. p. infralabialis W. W. Tanner, 1953
Arizona mountain kingsnake, L. p. pyromelana (Cope, 1866)
Mole kingsnake, Lampropeltis rhombomaculata (Holbrook, 1840)
Ruthven's kingsnake, Lampropeltis ruthveni (Blanchard, 1920)
Desert kingsnake, Lampropeltis splendida (Baird & Girard, 1853)
Eastern milk snake, Lampropeltis triangulum (Lacépède, 1789)
Lampropeltis webbi Bryson, Dixon & Lazcano, 2005
California mountain kingsnake, Lampropeltis zonata (Lockington, 1876 ex Blainville, 1835)
San Pedro kingsnake, L. z. agalma (Van Denburgh & Slevin, 1923)
Todos Santos Island kingsnake, L. z. herrerae (Van Denburgh & Slevin, 1923)
Sierra Nevada mountain kingsnake, L. z. multicincta (Yarrow, 1882)
Coast Ranges mountain kingsnake, L. z. multifasciata (Bocourt, 1886)
San Bernardino mountain kingsnake, L. z. parvirubra Zweifel, 1952
San Diego mountain kingsnake, L. z. pulchra Zweifel, 1952
Saint Helena mountain kingsnake, L. z. zonata (Lockington, 1876 ex Blainville, 1835)
Additionally, Pyron and Burbrink have argued that the short-tailed snake (Stilosoma extenuatum) (Brown, 1890) should be included in Lampropeltis.
References
Further reading
Hubbs, Brian (2009). Common Kingsnakes: A Natural History of Lampropeltis getula. Tricolor Books, Tempe, Arizona
External links
Desert USA: Common Kingsnake
Common Kingsnake - Lampropeltis getula Species account from the Iowa Reptile and Amphibian Field Guide
Kingsnake eating a garter snake
Lampropeltis
Taxa named by Leopold Fitzinger
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossrail
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Crossrail
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Crossrail is a railway construction project underway mainly in central London. Its aim is to provide a high-frequency suburban passenger service crossing the capital from west to east, by connecting two major railway lines terminating in London, the Great Western Main Line and the Great Eastern Main Line. The project was approved in 2007, and construction began in 2009 on the central section and connections to existing lines that will become part of the route, to be branded the Elizabeth line.
The main feature of the project is the construction of a new railway line that will run underground from near Paddington Station via central London and Liverpool Street Station to Stratford. Another almost entirely new line will branch off the main line at Whitechapel in east London. It will run to Canary Wharf, cross the Thames and connect with the North Kent Line at Abbey Wood in southeast London.
New nine-carriage Class 345 trains will run at frequencies in the central section of up to 24 trains per hour in each direction. At each end of its central core services it will divide into two branches: in the west to and to ; in the east to and to . In May 2015, services on a section of one of the eastern branches, between and Shenfield, were transferred to TfL Rail; this precursor service also took control of Heathrow Connect in May 2018 and the to Reading line in December 2019.
The Elizabeth line will be operated by MTR Corporation (Crossrail) Ltd as a London Rail concession of Transport for London, in a similar manner to London Overground. TfL's annual revenues from the line were forecast in 2018 to be nearly £500million per year in 2022/23 and over £1billion per year from 2024/25.
The total estimated cost rose from an initial budget of £14.8billion to £18.7billion by August 2020. Originally planned to open in 2018, the project continues to be delayed. The central section is planned to open in the first half of 2022. The COVID-19 pandemic paused works for several months and in late 2020 reduced the number of workers that could be safely on-site.
History
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="width:350px; font-size:90%;"...
|+ Crossrail timeline
|-
! Date !! Event
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| style="white-space:nowrap;"| 1941–48|| Proposals for cross-London railway tunnel(s), of the national network, by George Dow
|-
| 1974 || London Rail Study Report recommends a – "Crossrail" tunnel
|-
| 1989|| Central London Rail Study proposes three Crossrail schemes, including an east–west Paddington/–Liverpool Street route
|-
| 1991 || Private bill promoted by London Underground and British Rail submitted to Parliament proposing a Paddington–Liverpool Street tunnel; it is rejected in 1994
|-
| 2001 || Crossrail scheme promoted through Cross London Rail Links (CLRL)
|-
| 2004 || Senior railway managers promote an expanded regional Superlink scheme
|-
| 2005 || Crossrail Bill put before Parliament
|-
| 2008|| Crossrail Act 2008 receives royal assent
|-
| 2009 || Construction work begins at
|-
| 2015 || Liverpool Street– service transferred to TfL Rail
|-
| 2017 || New Crossrail trains introduced on Liverpool Street–Shenfield route
|-
| 2018 || Paddington–Heathrow services transferred to TfL Rail
|-
| 2019 || TfL Rail begin operating Paddington-Reading services
|}
Early proposals
The concept of large-diameter tunnels crossing central London to connect Paddington in the west and Liverpool Street in the east was first proposed by railwayman George Dow in The Star newspaper in June 1941. The project that became Crossrail has origins in the 1943 County of London Plan and 1944 Greater London Plan by Patrick Abercrombie. These led to a specialist investigation by the Railway (London Plan) Committee, appointed in 1944 and reporting in 1946 and 1948.
The term "Crossrail" emerged in the 1974 London Rail Study Report. Although the idea was seen as imaginative, only a brief estimate of cost was given: £300million. A feasibility study was recommended as a high priority so that the practicability and costs of the scheme could be determined. It was also suggested that the alignment of the tunnels should be safeguarded while a final decision was taken.
Later proposals
The Central London Rail Study of 1989 proposed tunnels linking the existing rail network as the "East–West Crossrail", "City Crossrail", and "North–South Crossrail" schemes. The east–west scheme was for a line from Liverpool Street to Paddington/Marylebone with two connections at its western end linking the tunnel to the Great Western Main Line and the Metropolitan line on the Underground. The City route was shown as a new connection across the City of London linking the Great Northern Route with London Bridge.
The north–south line proposed routing West Coast Main Line, Thameslink, and Great Northern trains through Euston and King's Cross/, then under the West End via , and Victoria towards and . The report also recommended a number of other schemes including a "Thameslink Metro" route enhancement, and the Chelsea–Hackney line. The cost of the east–west scheme including rolling stock was estimated at £885million.
In 1991 a private bill was submitted to Parliament for a scheme including a new underground line from Paddington to Liverpool Street. The bill was promoted by London Underground and British Rail, and supported by the government; it was rejected by the Private Bill Committee in 1994 on the grounds that a case had not been made, though the government issued "Safeguarding Directions", protecting the route from any development that would jeopardise future schemes.
In 2001 Cross London Rail Links (CLRL), a joint-venture between TfL and the DfT, was formed to develop and promote the Crossrail scheme, and also a Wimbledon–Hackney scheme.
While CLRL was promoting the Crossrail project, alternative schemes were being proposed. In 2002 GB Railways put forward a scheme called SuperCrossRail which would link regional stations such as , , , , and via a west–east rail tunnel through central London. The tunnel would follow an alignment along the River Thames, with stations at , and . In 2004 another proposal named Superlink was promoted by a group of senior railway managers. Like SuperCrossRail, Superlink envisaged linking a number of regional stations via a tunnel through London, but advocated the route already safeguarded for Crossrail. CLRL evaluated both proposals and rejected them due to concerns about network capacity and cost issues.
Approval
The Crossrail Act 2008 was given royal assent in July 2008, giving CLRL the powers necessary to build the line. In September 2009, Tfl was loaned £1billion towards the project by the European Investment Bank. Both Conservatives and Labour made commitments in their 2010 election manifestos to deliver Crossrail, and the coalition government following the election was committed to the project.
Route
Crossrail's central section uses new east–west twin tunnels under central London, splitting into two branches at the eastern end. The tunnelled sections are altogether approximately in length.
In the east, the line splits at , with one branch running over the existing Great Eastern Main Line via to (already open and branded as TfL Rail since its inauguration into the TfL network in 2015, and running trains), and the other branch running through then emerging from the tunnel at Custom House on a disused part of the North London Line, and continuing under the River Thames to .
In the west, the route connects with the Great Western Main Line at and runs to , where it splits. One branch runs to (for Terminals 2 and 3), (already open and branded as TfL Rail since its inauguration into the TfL network in 2018, and running trains), and Terminal 5, while the other runs over the existing main line to .
Western branches
The main western section runs on the Great Western Main Line from Reading to Paddington. Existing stations are being refurbished and upgraded, including the provision of step-free access at all stations and platform lengthening for the new, longer trains.
A "dive-under" was constructed at Acton to allow passenger trains to pass slower freight trains leaving and entering a goods yard. It was completed in July 2016 and was brought into use in 2017.
The Heathrow spur has three stations – (for Terminals 2 and 3), and Terminal 5 – and joins the main route at Airport Junction, between West Drayton and Hayes & Harlington. A flyover near Hayes & Harlington station will allow Heathrow Express trains to pass over the track used by Crossrail, avoiding delays caused by crossings.
Crossrail had been planned to terminate at Maidenhead, with an extension to Reading safeguarded. Various commentators advocated an extension further west as far as Reading because it was seen as complementary to the Great Western Electrification project which was announced in July 2009. A Reading terminus was also recommended by Network Rail's 2011 Route Utilisation Strategy. On 27 March 2014 it was announced that the line would indeed extend to Reading.
Central section
The central tunnels run from a portal just west of Paddington to Whitechapel, with further tunnelling to Stratford and to Canary Wharf.
There are new stations at Paddington, , , , and Whitechapel, with interchanges with London Underground and other National Rail services. The stations in the central section all have distinctive architecture at street level; at platform level stations have identical "kit-of-parts" architecture, including full height platform screen doors with integrated passenger information displays.
Due to the size and positioning of the new platforms, Farringdon station will also be connected to station, and Liverpool Street to station.
Eastern branches
One of the two eastern sections runs underground from Whitechapel to Stratford, then on the surface on the existing main line. The service will replace the "Shenfield metro", with key stops at , (for interchange with London Overground services to ), (where some peak hour trains will start or terminate), and Shenfield.
The other eastern branch runs underground from Whitechapel to Abbey Wood via Canary Wharf, Custom House and Woolwich. This branch takes over a stretch of the former North London line built by the Eastern Counties and Thames Junction Railway, and connects it with the North Kent Line via a tunnel under the Thames at North Woolwich.
Map
Design and infrastructure
Name and identity
Crossrail is the name of the construction project and of the limited company, wholly owned by TfL, that was formed to carry out construction works.
The Elizabeth line is the public-facing brand name of the new service that will be seen on signage throughout the stations. It is named in honour of Queen Elizabeth II. The Elizabeth line logo will feature a Transport for London roundel with a purple ring and blue bar with white text.
TfL Rail is an intermediate brand name which was introduced in May 2015. It is used by Transport for London (TfL) on services between Paddington and Heathrow and Reading, as well as trains between Liverpool Street and Shenfield.
Tunnels
of twin-bore tunnels were constructed by tunnel boring machines (TBM), each with an internal diameter of (compared with for the deep-level Victoria line). The wide-diameter tunnels allow for new rolling stock, which is larger than the traditional deep-level tube trains. The tunnels allow for the emergency evacuation of passengers through the side doors rather than along the length of the train.
The tunnels are made up of three main sections: a tunnel from Royal Oak portal near Royal Oak station to Victoria Dock portal near Custom House station, a tunnel from to Stepney Green junction, and a tunnel from Plumstead to North Woolwich underneath the Thames.
Crossrail has often been compared to Paris's RER system due to the length of the central tunnel.
Stations
Ten new stations will be built in the central and south east sections of the line, and 31 existing stations will be upgraded and refurbished. All stations will be fully equipped with CCTV and, due to the length of the platforms, train indicators will be above the platform-edge doors in central stations.
Although initially the trains will be long, platforms at the new stations in the central core are built to enable -long trains in case of possible future need. In the eastern section, and will not have platform extensions, so trains will use selective door opening instead. At Maryland this is because of the prohibitive cost of extensions and the poor business case, and at Manor Park it is due to the presence of a freight loop that would otherwise be cut off.
A mock-up of the new stations was built in Bedfordshire in 2011 to ensure that their architectural integrity would last for a century. It was planned to bring at least one mock-up to London for the public to view the design and give feedback before final construction commenced.
It was announced in July 2017 that Crossrail services would be extended to Heathrow Terminal 5, meaning that all Heathrow terminals will have a Crossrail service when the full service commences.
All 41 stations will be step-free, with 13 of these stations (the Central and Heathrow stations) having level access from the train to platforms.
Planned
As part of the High Speed 2 (HS2) rail link from London to Birmingham, a new station would be built at between Paddington and Acton Main Line station. The new station would connect HS2 services with Crossrail and National Rail services on the Great Western Main Line, as well as London Overground services running through the area. The station would open with High Speed 2 in 2026, with preliminary construction beginning in 2019.
Rolling stock
Crossrail will operate using the new Class 345 trains. These are currently being used on the two interim TfL rail branches that will later become part of the Elizabeth line when it first opens. The requirement was for 65 trains, each long and carrying up to 1,500 passengers. The trains are accessible, including dedicated areas for wheelchairs, with audio and visual announcements, CCTV and speaker-phones connected to the driver in case of emergency. They will run at up to on certain parts of the route.
In March 2011, Crossrail announced that five bidders had been shortlisted for the contract to build the Class 345 and its associated depot. One of the bidders, Alstom, withdrew from the process in July 2011. In February 2012, Crossrail issued an invitation to negotiate to CAF, Siemens, Hitachi and Bombardier, with tenders expected to be submitted by mid-2012. In 2013, Siemens also withdrew from the bid, but will provide signalling and control systems for Crossrail. In December 2013, the European Investment Bank (EIB) agreed to provide loans to Transport for London for the rolling stock of up to £500M. On 6 February 2014, it was announced that Canada's Bombardier had been awarded a £1bn contract to supply 66 trains, with an option for 18 more.
The first train entered service on 22 June 2017 on the current TfL Rail route between London Liverpool Street and Shenfield as a seven-carriage unit, since, until the platforms can be lengthened at the former, the complete nine-car sets cannot be accommodated at Liverpool Street.
In July 2017 an option for five more units was exercised taking the order to 70 units.
Electrification and signalling
Crossrail will use 25 kV, 50Hz AC overhead lines, already in use on the Great Eastern and Great Western Main Lines.
The Heathrow branch started using the European Train Control System (ETCS) in 2020. The Automatic Warning (AWS) and Train Protection & Warning (TPWS) Systems are used on the Great Western and Great Eastern Main Lines, with possible later upgrades to ETCS. Communications-based train control (CBTC) is installed in the central section and the Abbey Wood branch.
Depots
Crossrail will have depots in west London at Old Oak Common TMD, in south-east London at Plumstead Depot, and in east London at Ilford EMU Depot and at a new signalling centre at in Havering, East London.
Construction
Chronology
In April 2009, Crossrail announced that 17 firms had secured 'Enabling Works Framework Agreements' and would now be able to compete for packages of works. At the peak of construction up to 14,000 people were expected to be needed in the project's supply chain.
Work began on 15 May 2009 when piling works started at the future Canary Wharf station.
The threat of diseases being released by work on the project was raised by Lord James of Blackheath at the passing of the Crossrail Bill. He told the House of Lords select committee that 682 victims of anthrax had been brought into Smithfield in Farringdon with some contaminated meat in 1520 and then buried in the area. On 24 June 2009 it was reported that no traces of anthrax or bubonic plague had been found on human bone fragments discovered during tunnelling.
Invitations to tender for the two principal tunnelling contracts were published in the Official Journal of the European Union in August 2009. 'Tunnels West' (C300) was for twin tunnels from Royal Oak through to the new Crossrail Farringdon Station, with a portal west of Paddington. The 'Tunnels East' (C305) request was for three tunnel sections and 'launch chambers' in east London. Contracts were awarded in late 2010: the 'Tunnels West' contract was awarded to BAM Nuttall, Ferrovial Agroman and Kier Construction (BFK); the 'Tunnels East' contract was awarded to Dragados and John Sisk & Son. The remaining tunnelling contract (C310, Plumstead to North Woolwich), which included a tunnel under the Thames, was awarded to Hochtief and J. Murphy & Sons in 2011.
By September 2009, preparatory work for the £1billion developments at had begun, with buildings (including the Astoria Theatre) being compulsorily purchased and demolished.
In March 2010, contracts were awarded to civil engineering companies for the second round of 'enabling work' including 'Royal Oak Portal Taxi Facility Demolition', 'Demolition works for Crossrail Bond Street Station', 'Demolition works for Crossrail Tottenham Court Road Station' and 'Pudding Mill Lane Portal'. In December 2010, contracts were awarded for most of the tunnelling work. To assist with the skills required for the Crossrail project, Crossrail Ltd opened in 2011 the Tunnelling and Underground Construction Academy in Ilford. The Academy was handed over to Transport for London in 2017, who have sub-contracted its management to PROCAT.
In February 2010, Crossrail was accused of bullying residents whose property lay on the route into selling for less than the market value. A subsequent London Assembly report was highly critical of the insensitive way in which Crossrail had dealt with compulsory purchases and the lack of assistance given to the people and businesses affected. There were also complaints from music fans, as the London Astoria was forced to close.
In December 2011, a contract to ship the excavated material from the tunnel to Wallasea Island was awarded to a joint venture comprising BAM Nuttall Limited and Van Oord UK Limited. Between 4.5 and 5 million tonnes of soil would be used to construct a new wetland nature reserve (Wallasea Wetlands). The project eventually moved seven million tons of earth.
Restoration of Connaught Tunnel by filling with concrete foam and reboring, as originally intended, was deemed too great a risk to the structural integrity of the tunnel, and so the docks above were drained to give access to the tunnel roof in order to enlarge its profile. This work took place during 2013.
Boring of the railway tunnels was officially completed at Farringdon on 4 June 2015 in the presence of the Prime Minister and the Mayor of London.
Installation of the track was completed in September 2017. The ETCS signalling was scheduled to be tested in the Heathrow tunnels over the winter of 2017/18. The south east section of the infrastructure was energised in February 2018, with the first test train run between Plumstead and Abbey Wood that month. In May 2018 the overhead lines were powered up between Westbourne Park and Stepney, the installation of platform doors was completed, and video was released of the first trains travelling through the tunnels.
TfL Rail took over Heathrow Connect services from Paddington to Heathrow in May 2018.
At the end of August 2018, four months before the scheduled opening of the core section of the line, it was announced that completion was delayed and that the line would not open before autumn 2019.
In April 2019, it was announced that Crossrail would be completed between October 2020 and March 2021, two years behind schedule, and that it would not include the opening of the Bond Street station, one of ten new stations on the line. The London Assembly's transport committee concluded that Transport for London (TfL) played down the prospect of delays to the project in updates to Mayor of London Sadiq Khan, and called for TfL commissioner Mike Brown to consider his position. Crossrail said major challenges before completion included writing and testing the software that would integrate the train with three different track signalling systems, and installing equipment inside the tunnels.
In July 2019, it was announced that the line would not open in 2021, with TfL not expecting the full line from Heathrow to Shenfield to open until the early part of the 2023/24 financial year.
In August 2020, Crossrail announced that the central section would be ready to open "in the first half of 2022".
In May 2021 trial running commenced.
Tunnel boring machines
The project used eight diameter tunnel-boring machines (TBM) from Herrenknecht AG (Germany). Two types are used; 'slurry' type for the Thames tunnel, which involves tunnelling through chalk; and 'Earth Pressure Balance Machines' (EPBM) for tunnelling through clay, sand and gravel (at lower levels through Lambeth Group and Thanet Sands ground formation). The TBMs weigh nearly 1,000tonnes and are over long. The main tunnelling contracts are valued at around £1.5billion.
The TBMs were named (per tradition). Crossrail ran a competition in January 2012 in which over 2500 entries were received and 10 pairs of names short-listed. After a public vote in February 2012, the first three pairs of names were announced on 13 March and the last pair on 16 August 2013:
Ada and Phyllis, Royal Oak to Farringdon section, named after Ada Lovelace and Phyllis Pearsall
Victoria and Elizabeth, Limmo Peninsula to Farringdon section, named after Queen Victoria and Queen Elizabeth II
Mary and Sophia, Plumstead to North Woolwich section, named after Mary and Sophia, the wives respectively of Isambard Kingdom Brunel and his father Marc Isambard Brunel, builders of the first tunnel under the Thames
Jessica and Ellie, Pudding Mill Lane to Stepney Green and Limmo Peninsula to Victoria Dock sections, named after Jessica Ennis and Ellie Simmonds
Health, safety, and industrial relations
In 2012, Crossrail faced accusations of blacklisting. It was revealed that an industrial relations manager, Ron Barron, employed by Bechtel, had routinely cross-checked job applicants against the Consulting Association database. An employment tribunal in 2010 heard that Barron introduced the use of the blacklist at his former employer, the construction firm Chicago Bridge & Iron Company (CB&I), and referred to it more than 900 times in 2007 alone. He was found to have unlawfully refused employment to a Philip Willis. Aggravated damages were awarded because Barron had added information about Willis to the blacklist.
In May 2012, a BFK manager challenged their subcontractor, Electrical Installations Services Ltd. (EIS), saying that one of their electricians was a trade union activist. Some days later, Pat Swift, the HR manager for BFK and a regular user of the Consulting Association, again challenged EIS. EIS refused to dismiss their worker and lost the contract. Flash pickets were held at the Crossrail site and also at the sites of the BFK partners. The Scottish Affairs Select Committee called on the UK Business Secretary, Vince Cable, to set up a government investigation into blacklisting at Crossrail. The electrician was reinstated. Further allegations of blacklisting against Crossrail were made in Parliament in September 2017.
In September 2012, a gantry supporting a spoil hopper, used to load rail wagons with excavated waste at a construction site near Westbourne Park Underground station, collapsed. It tipped sideways, causing the adjacent Network Rail line to be closed.
On 7 March 2014, Rene Tkacik, a Slovakian construction worker, was killed by a piece of falling concrete while working in a tunnel. In April 2014, The Observer reported details of a leaked internal report, compiled for the Crossrail contractors by an independent safety consultancy. The report was alleged to have pointed to poor industrial relations arising from safety concerns, and that workers were "too scared to report injuries for fear of being sacked".
Three construction workers died from suspected heart attacks over six months in 2019, but Crossrail announced that, following extensive testing, the air quality at Bond Street station was within acceptable limits.
Archaeology
Much like the Thames Tideway Scheme and the High Speed 2 projects that were under development in London at the same time as Crossrail, the excavation works that took place during the project gave archaeologists a valuable opportunity to explore the earth underneath London's streets that was previously seen as inaccessible. Crossrail undertook what was described as one of the most extensive archaeological programmes ever seen in the UK. Over 100 archaeologists have found tens of thousands of items from 40 sites, spanning 55 million years of London's history and prehistory. Many of the items were placed on show at the Museum of London Docklands from February to September 2017.
Some of the most notable finds include:
Victims of the Great Plague, a mass grave of 42 skeletons found at Liverpool Street station
Thirteen skeletons, thought to be of victims of the Black Death in the 14th century, uncovered under the road that surrounds the gardens in Charterhouse Square, Farringdon in March 2013
Prehistoric knapped flints discovered in North Woolwich
A Tudor period bowling ball found in Stepney Green
Medieval ice skates found near Liverpool Street station
Bison and reindeer bones
Leather shoes dating from the Tudor period
Roman coins and a Roman medallion found at Liverpool Street which was issued to mark the New Year celebrations in AD 245. This medallion was only the second ever of its kind to be found in Europe.
Two parts of a woolly mammoth jawbone
The largest piece of amber ever found in the UK, discovered at Canary Wharf
A Victorian chamber pot found near Stepney Green
13,000 Crosse & Blackwell jars found near Tottenham Court Road from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Part of a small barge or fishing vessel from 1223 to 1290 found at Canning Town
Operational testing
In the first half of 2021, Crossrail entered trial running stage of construction. This means that Crossrail in partnership with Transport for London are running trains to a timetable through the core section, to check the reliability of the railway. In November 2021, Crossrail entered trial operation which is the final stage before opening.
Expected completion
With an initial budget of £14.8bn, the total cost has risen to £18.25bn. As of August 2021, seven of the nine new stations have been handed over to TfL.
TfL expects that the full line will not be completely operational until 2023, and Crossrail have indicated that the central section (the tunnels under Central London) would open "in the first half of 2022".
Services
Once fully opened, the Elizabeth line will run a familiar London Underground-style all-stops service in the central core section and eastern branches, but initial timetable plans suggest that several trains on the western branches will run semi-fast. Initial proposals suggest , West Ealing and will be served only by Heathrow T4-bound trains.
Like the outer sections of Thameslink, the Elizabeth line will share platforms and tracks with other services outside the tunnelled sections. Some run by other train companies will continue to call at various stations on the Great Western Main Line branch, and Heathrow Express will continue to run between and Heathrow stations.
The eastern section via is expected to see an additional four trains per hour (tph) during peak times between and the existing main line station's high level terminating platforms. Since these trains run over existing above-ground lines from Liverpool Street to , they will not call at .
The proposed timetable consists of the following services on the Elizabeth line during peak hours:
Timeline
Though the main tunnels under central London have not yet been opened, passenger operations on the outer branches of the Crossrail system have been transferred to TfL for inclusion in the Crossrail concession - this took place over several stages beginning May 2015. During this initial phase of operation, services are being operated by MTR under the TfL Rail brand. Following the practice adopted during the transfer of former Silverlink services to London Overground in 2007, TfL will carry out a deep clean of stations and trains on the future Elizabeth line route, install new ticket machines and barriers, introduce Oyster card and contactless payment, and ensure all stations are staffed. Existing rolling stock has been rebranded with the TfL Rail identity.
Journey times
Ticketing
Ticketing is intended to be integrated with the other London transport systems, but Oyster pay as you go will not be accepted on the western section between West Drayton (the limit of TfL's Zone 6) and Reading, with only contactless cards valid there. Travelcards and concessionary passes will be valid within Greater London. Like TfL Rail's Heathrow service (formerly Heathrow Connect), trips to or from Heathrow Airport will be priced at a premium owing to the additional cost of using the rail tunnel between the airport and Hayes & Harlington, but Heathrow will be included within travelcards and daily/weekly fare capping as a Zone 6 station. Crossrail will be integrated with the Underground and National Rail networks, and it is planned to include it on the standard London Underground Map.
Passenger numbers
Crossrail has predicted annual passenger numbers of over 200 million from its opening; this is expected to relieve pressure on London Underground's lines, especially the Central line. is expected to become one of the busiest stations in the UK, due to it being the key interchange stations with Thameslink services. Once Crossrail is fully open, TfL expects total annual revenues from the line of nearly £500million per year in 2022/23 (its first full year of operation) and over £1billion per year from 2024/25.
Further proposals
Additional stations
Silvertown (London City Airport)
Although the Crossrail route passes very close to London City Airport, there will not be a station serving the airport directly. London City Airport has proposed the re-opening of Silvertown railway station, in order to create an interchange between the rail line and the airport. The self-funded £50m station plan is supported 'in principle' by the London Borough of Newham. Provisions for re-opening of the station were made in 2012 by Crossrail. However, it is alleged by the airport that Transport for London is hostile to the idea of a station on the site, a claim disputed by TfL.
In 2018, the airport's chief development officer described the lack of a Crossrail station as a "missed opportunity", but did not rule out a future station for the airport. The CEO stated in an interview that a station is not essential to the airport's success. In May 2019, the chief development officer confirmed discussions are ongoing about a station for the airport as part of the proposed extension to Ebbsfleet.
Extensions
To Ebbsfleet and Gravesend
In the 2003 and 2004 consultations into Crossrail, the South East branch was proposed to go beyond Abbey Wood, running along the North Kent Line to Ebbsfleet, linking up with the (then under construction) Channel Tunnel Rail Link. However, prior to the submission of the Crossrail Hybrid Bill to Parliament in 2005, the branch was truncated at Abbey Wood to cut overall project costs. Although dropped from the main scheme, the route was safeguarded by the Department for Transport as far as Gravesend and Hoo Junction, protecting the route from development.
With the Crossrail project nearing completion in 2018, local MPs, council leaders and local businesses began lobbying the government to fund the development of a business case for the extension to Ebbsfleet, with the Mayor of London, Sadiq Khan including the project into his Mayor's Transport Strategy. The Mayor's Transport Strategy estimated that an extension could assist in delivering 55,000 new homes and 50,000 new jobs planned along the route in Bexley and north Kent. In March 2019, the Government committed £4.8m on exploratory work into the extension as part of the Thames Estuary 2050 Growth Commission.
The following stations are on the protected route extension to Gravesend: , , , , , for Bluewater, , Ebbsfleet, , and .
To the West Coast Main Line
Network Rail's July 2011 London & South East Route Utilisation Strategy (RUS) recommended that a short railway line could be built to connect the West Coast Main Line (WCML) with the Crossrail route. This would enable train services that currently run between and London Euston to be re-routed via Old Oak Common to serve central London, and . The report argued that this would free up capacity at Euston for the planned High Speed 2, reduce London Underground congestion at Euston, make better use of Crossrail's capacity west of Paddington, and improve access to Heathrow Airport from the north. Under this scheme, all Crossrail trains would continue west of Paddington, instead of some of them terminating there. They would serve Heathrow Airport (10 tph), stations to Maidenhead and Reading (6 tph), and stations to Milton Keynes Central (8 tph).
In August 2014, a statement by transport secretary Patrick McLoughlin indicated that the government was actively evaluating the extension of Crossrail as far as and , with potential Crossrail stops at , , , , , , , , , , and . The extension would relieve some pressure from London Underground and London Euston station while also increasing connectivity. Conditions to the extension were that any extra services should not affect the planned service pattern for confirmed routes, as well as affordability. This proposal was shelved in August 2016 due to "poor overall value for money to the taxpayer".
To Staines
As part of the Heathrow Southern Railway scheme proposed in 2017, the western extent of the Crossrail route could be extended beyond Heathrow Airport to terminate at . This extension would form part of a wider scheme to create new rail links in west London and Surrey serving Heathrow, and would require the construction of an extra platform at Staines station. This proposal has not been approved or funded.
To Southend Airport
Stobart Aviation, the company that operates Southend Airport in Essex, has proposed that Crossrail should be extended beyond Shenfield along the Shenfield–Southend line to serve Southend Airport and . The company has suggested that a direct Heathrow-Southend link could alleviate capacity problems at Heathrow. The extension proposal has been supported by Southend-on-Sea City Council.
Management and franchise
Funding for the project came from:
Transport for London
Mayoral Community Infrastructure Levy (a local tax charged on property developments across Greater London, with different charging rates for each London borough)
Crossrail Business Rate Supplement (additional business rates)
Section 106 Agreement payments
Over-site development opportunities
UK Government
City of London Corporation
Major landowners: Canary Wharf Group, Heathrow Airport Holdings, and Berkeley Homes.
Crossrail is being built by Crossrail Ltd, jointly owned by Transport for London and the Department for Transport until December 2008, when full ownership was transferred to TfL. In 2007, Crossrail had a £15.9billion funding package in place for the construction of the line. Although the branch lines to the west and to Shenfield will still be owned by Network Rail, the tunnel will be owned and operated by TfL.
On 18 July 2014, TfL London Rail said that MTR Corp had won the concession to operate the services for eight years, with an option for two more years. The concession will be similar to London Overground. It is planned for the franchise to run for eight years from May 2015, taking over control of Shenfield metro services from Abellio Greater Anglia in May 2015, and Reading / Heathrow services from Great Western Railway in 2018.
In anticipation of a May 2015 transfer of Shenfield to Liverpool Street services from the East Anglia franchise to Crossrail, the invitation to tender for the 2012–2013 franchise required the new rail operator to set up a separate "Crossrail business unit" for those services before the end of 2012, to allow transfer of services to the new Crossrail Train Operating Concession (CTOC) operator during the next franchise.
See also
Transport in London
Crossrail 2 – second proposed Crossrail route providing a new North–South rail link across Greater London.
References
Sources
External links
|-
|-
London Rail
Crossrail 1
Rail infrastructure in London
Railway operators in London
Underground commuter rail
Heathrow Airport transport proposals
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work%20design
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Work design
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Work design (also referred to as job design or task design) is area of research and practice within industrial and organizational psychology, and is concerned with the "content and organization of one's work tasks, activities, relationships, and responsibilities" (p. 662). Research has demonstrated that work design has important implications for individual employees (e.g., employee engagement, job strain, risk of occupational injury), teams (e.g., how effectively groups co-ordinate their activities), organisations (e.g., productivity, occupational safety and health targets), and society (e.g., utilizing the skills of a population or promoting effective aging).
The terms job design and work design are often used interchangeably in psychology and human resource management literature, and the distinction is not always well-defined. A job is typically defined as an aggregation of tasks assigned to individual. However, in addition to executing assigned technical tasks, people at work often engage in a variety of emergent, social, and self-initiated activities. Some researchers have argued that the term job design therefore excludes processes that are initiated by incumbents (e.g., proactivity, job crafting) as well as those that occur at the level of teams (e.g., autonomous work groups). The term work design has been increasingly used to capture this broader perspective. Additionally, deliberate interventions aimed at altering work design are sometimes referred to as work redesign. Such interventions can be initiated by the management of an organization (e.g., job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment) or by individual workers (e.g., job crafting, role innovation, idiosyncratic deals).
History
Interest in the question of what makes good work was largely initiated during the industrial revolution, when machine-operated work in large factories replaced smaller, craft-based industries. In 1776, Adam Smith popularized the concept of division of labor in his book The Wealth of Nations, which states that dividing production processes into different stages would enable workers to focus on specific tasks, increasing overall productivity. This idea was further developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor in the late 19th century with his highly influential theory of scientific management (sometimes referred to as Taylorism). Taylor argued that jobs should be broken down into the smallest possible parts and managers should specify the one best way that these tasks should be carried out. Additionally, Taylor believed that maximum efficiency could only be achieved when managers were responsible for planning work while workers were responsible for performing tasks.
Scientific management became highly influential during the early 20th century, as the narrow tasks reduced training times and allowed less skilled and therefore cheaper labor to be employed. In 1910, Henry Ford took the ideas of scientific management further, introducing the idea of the automotive assembly line. In Ford's assembly lines, each worker was assigned a specific set of tasks, standing stationary while a mechanical conveyor belt brought the assemblies to the worker. While the assembly line made it possible to manufacture complex products at a fast rate, the jobs were extremely repetitive and workers were almost tied to the line.
Researchers began to observe that simplified jobs were negatively affecting employees' mental and physical health, while other negative consequences for organizations such as turnover, strikes, and absenteeism began to be documented. Over time, a field of research within industrial and organizational psychology known as job design, and more recently work design, emerged. Empirical work in the field flourished from the 1960s, and has become ever more relevant with modern technological developments that have changed the fundamental nature of work, such as automation, AI, telecommuting, and uberisation.
Theoretical perspectives
Job characteristics model
Hackman & Oldham's (1976) job characteristics model is generally considered to be the dominant motivational theory of work design. The model identifies five core job characteristics that affect five work-related outcomes (i.e. motivation, satisfaction, performance, and absenteeism and turnover) through three psychological states (i.e. experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility, and knowledge of results):
Skill variety – The degree to which a job involves a variety of activities, requiring the worker to develop a variety of skills and talents. Workers are more likely to have a more positive experience in jobs that require several different skills and abilities than when the jobs are elementary and routine.
Task identity – The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work with a clear outcome. Workers are more likely have a more positive experience in a job when they are involved in the entire process rather than just being responsible for a part of the work.
Task significance – The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of others. Workers are more likely have a more positive experience in a job that substantially improves either psychological or physical well-being of others than a job that has limited effect on anyone else.
Autonomy – The degree to which the job provides the employee with significant freedom, independence, and discretion to plan out the work and determine the procedures in the job. For jobs with a high level of autonomy, the outcomes of the work depend on the workers' own efforts, initiatives, and decisions; rather than on the instructions from a manager or a manual of job procedures. In such cases, the jobholders experience greater personal responsibility for their own successes and failures at work.
Feedback – The degree to which a job incumbent has knowledge of results. When workers receive clear, actionable information about their work performance, they have better overall knowledge of the effect of their work activities, and what specific actions they need to take (if any) to improve their productivity.
The central proposition of job characteristics theory - that is, that work characteristics affect attitudinal outcomes - is well established by meta analysis. However, some have criticized the use of job incumbents' perceptions to assess job characteristics, arguing that individuals' perceptions are constructions arising from social influences, such as the attitudes of their peers.
Job characteristics theory has been described as the logical conclusion of efforts to understand how work can satisfy basic human needs. The development of the job characteristics model was largely stimulated by Frederick Herzberg's two factor theory (also known as motivator-hygiene theory). Although Herzberg's theory was largely discredited, the idea that intrinsic job factors impact motivation sparked an interest in the ways in which jobs could be enriched which culminated in the job characteristics model.
Sociotechnical systems
Sociotechnical systems is an organizational development approach which proposes that the technical and social aspects of work should be jointly optimized when designing work. This contrasts with traditional methods that prioritize the technical component and then 'fit' people into it, often resulting in mediocre performance at a high social cost. Application of sociotechnical theory has typically focused on group rather than individual work design, and is responsible for the rise of autonomous work groups, which are still popular today.
One of the key principles of sociotechnical system design is that overall productivity is directly related to the system's accurate analysis of the social and technical needs. Accurate analysis of these needs typically results in the following work characteristics:
Minimal critical specification of rules – Work design should be precise about what has to be done, but not how to do it. The use of rules, policies and procedures should be kept to a minimum.
Variance control – Deviations from the ideal process should be controlled at the point where they originate.
Multiskills – A work system will be more flexible and adaptive if each member of the system is skilled in more than one function.
Boundary location – Interdependent roles should fall within the same departmental boundaries, usually drawn on the basis of technology, territory, and/or time.
Information flow – Information systems should provide information at the point of problem solving rather than being based on hierarchical channels.
Support congruence – The social system should reinforce behaviours which are intended by the work group structure.
Design and human values – The design should achieve superior results by providing a high quality of work life for individuals.
Job demands-control model
Karasek's (1979) job demands-control model is the earliest and most cited model relating work design to occupational stress. The key assumption of this model is that low levels of work-related decision latitude (i.e. job control) combined with high workloads (i.e. job demands) can lead to poorer physical and mental health. For example, high pressure and demands at work may lead to a range of negative outcomes such as psychological stress, burnout, and compromised physical health. Additionally, the model suggests that high levels of can buffer or reduce the adverse health effects of high job demands. Instead, this high decision latitude can lead to feelings of mastery and confidence, which in turn aid the individual in coping with further job demands.
The job demands-control model is widely regarded as a classic work design theory, spurring large amounts of research. However, the model has been criticized for its focus on a narrow set of work characteristics. Additionally, while strong support has been found for the negative effects of high job demands, some researchers have argued that the buffering effect of high job control on the negative effects of demand is less convincing.
Job demands-resources model
The job demands-resources model was introduced as a theoretical extension to the job demands-control model, and recognizes that other features of work in addition to control and support might serve as resources to counter job demands. The authors of the job demands-resources model argued that previous models of employee well-being "have been restricted to a given and limited set of predictor variables that may not be relevant for all job positions" (p. 309). Examples of the resources identified in this model include career opportunities, participation in decision making, and social support.
Relational job design theory
Relational job design theory is a popular contemporary approach to work design developed by American organizational psychologist Adam Grant, which builds on the foundations laid by Hackman & Oldham's (1976) job characteristics model. The core thesis of relational work design is that the work context shapes workers' motivations to care about making a prosocial difference (i.e. the desire to help or benefit others). Rather than focusing on the characteristics of tasks which make up jobs, relational work design is concerned with the 'relational architecture' of the workplace that influences workers' interpersonal relationships and connections with beneficiaries of the work. In this context, beneficiaries refer to the people whom the worker believes are affected by his or her work. An employer can design the relational architecture of the workplace as a means of motivating workers to care about making a prosocial difference.
Grant's theory makes a distinction between two key components of relational architecture:
Impact on beneficiaries – This refers to the perception that one's work has a positive impact on the lives and well-being of others. A visible, positive impact of the job provides employees with a feeling that their tasks matter, which in turn results in higher prosocial motivation.
Contact with beneficiaries – This refers to opportunities for employees to communicate and interact with the people who benefit from their work. Increased interaction with clients will result in employees will become more emotionally engaged "as a result of first-hand exposure to their actions affecting a living, breathing human being" (p. 307). Thus, increasing job contact results in higher prosocial motivation.
Learning and development approach
The learning and development approach to work design, advanced by Australian organizational behavior Professor Sharon K. Parker, draws on the findings of a diverse body of research which shows that certain job characteristics (e.g. high demands and control, autonomy, complex work with low supervision) can promote learning and development in workers. Parker argues that work design can not only shape cognitive, identity, and moral processes, but also speed up an individuals' learning and development.
Economic theory
In economics, job design has been studied in the field of contract theory. In particular, Holmström and Milgrom (1991) have developed the multi-task moral hazard model. Some of the tasks are easier to measure than other tasks, so one can study which tasks should be bundled together. While the original model was focused on the incentives versus insurance trade-off when agents are risk-averse, subsequent work has also studied the case of risk-neutral agents who are protected by limited liability. In this framework, researchers have studied whether tasks that are in direct conflict with each other (for instance, selling products that are imperfect substitutes) should be delegated to the same agent or to different agents. The optimal task assignment depends on whether the tasks are to be performed simultaneously or sequentially.
Measurement and diagnostics
Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS)
The Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) was developed by Hackman and Oldham in 1975 to assess perceptions of the core job characteristics outlined in job characteristics theory. The JDS consists of seven scales measuring variety, autonomy, task identity, significance, job feedback, feedback from others, and dealing with others. Prior to the development of viable alternatives, the JDS was the most commonly used job design measure. However, some authors have criticised its focus on a narrow set of motivational characteristics and neglect of other important work characteristics. Additionally, the psychometric properties of the JDS have been brought into question, including a low internal consistency and problems with the factor structure.
Multimethod Job Design Questionnaire (MJDQ)
The Multimethod Job Design Questionnaire (MJDQ) was developed by Michael Campion in 1988 to assess what were, at the time, the main interdisciplinary approaches to work design (i.e. motivational, mechanistic, biological, perceptual motor). Intended to address the weaknesses of the JDS, the MJDQ suffered from both measurement problems and gaps in construct measurement.
Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ)
The Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ) was developed by Morgeson and Humphrey in 2006 as a comprehensive and integrative work design measure which addresses the inadequacies of its predecessors. The WDQ focuses not only on the tasks that make up a person's job, but also the relations between workers and the broader environment. The WDQ has since been translated into several languages other than English, including German, Italian, and Spanish.
Antecedents of work design behaviours
Decisions about the organization of work are typically made by those in positions of formal authority, such as executives, managers, and team leaders. These decisions, which usually regard the division of labor and the integration of effort, create work designs in which employees have assigned tasks and responsibilities. In addition to work design arising from formal decision-making, work design can also be created through emergent, informal, and social processes (e.g. role expectations from peers). Usually, these types of processes arise from the actions and decisions of employees, meaning employees have a certain degree of agency in shaping their own work designs.
Motivation, knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs)
In accordance with the ability-motivation-opportunity model of behaviour, the work design-related decisions of individuals are shaped by their motivation and knowledge, skills, and abilities. These proximal processes apply to decision making in both people in formal positions of authority (i.e. managers) as well as individual employees. With respect to motivation, managers' decisions could be shaped by autonomous motivation (e.g. the desire the retain employees) or controlled motivation (e.g. reducing staffing costs). In terms of KSAs, managers' knowledge about work design options and their skills to engage employees in the decision making process may shape their decisions. It is believed that these same processes apply to employees' work design-related actions and decisions.
Opportunity
Opportunity, in this context, refers to the uncontrollable forces surrounding an individual that enable or constrain the individuals task performance. Regardless of an individual's motivation or KSAs regarding a particular work design-related decision, that individual can only implement change if they have the opportunity to do so. For example, if a manager lacks the power to mobilise necessary resources, perhaps due to a rigid organizational hierarchy, their work design-related actions would be constrained.
Individual influences
Demographics – Characteristics such as age, gender, and ethnicity can shape work design decisions. The more these attributes signal assumptions that the employee is competent and trustworthy, the more managers will be motivated to make role adjustments to improve work design. Additionally, there is evidence that demographic characteristics can affect the work design decision of employees. For example, older workers may be discouraged to renegotiate their work designs due to discriminatory attitudes in the workplace. Gender and ethnicity can make some workers more vulnerable to low-quality work designs, with data showing that female workers have less autonomy, fewer development opportunities, and reduced career possibilities. Evidence also suggests that migrant workers often have less enriched work designs compared to non-migrant workers.
Competence and learning – Karasek and Theorell propose that enriched work designs create a self-perpetuating spiral by which the promotion of learning builds employees' mastery and competence, which in turn enables employees to take on more challenging tasks and responsibilities, generating further learning.
Other individual differences – Personality traits and stable individual differences such as motivation and initiative can affect both managerial and individual work design-related decision making. For example, personality traits may affect who managers select for particular jobs as well as an employees choice of occupation.
Contextual influences
International – Organizations operate today under the influence of globalization and market liberalization. While there is little empirical work on the direct effects of these factors, some have argued that globalization has increased the perceived threat of competition and job insecurity, leading to increased expectations about working harder. Additionally, increased access to new suppliers in other countries, especially developing countries, has increased the potential for organizations to influence work design in these countries. Evidence has shown that cost pressures on suppliers are linked to poor work designs, such as high workloads and physical demands.
National – Organizations are subject to the economic, cultural, and institutional context of the country they operate in. Work designs in economies with a relatively high GDP and low employment typically have lower workloads and higher job resources (e.g. autonomy, skill variety, challenge) due to higher investment in practices aimed at attracting and retaining employees. Additionally, some have argued that national culture shapes individual preferences for particular working conditions. For example, managers and employees from cultures with a preference for structure and formal rules might prefer work designs which are clearly defined. Finally, national institutions such as trade unions, national employment policies, and training systems policies may have direct or indirect effects on work design.
Occupational – Occupations shape the distribution of tasks as well as the influence of skills used in completing those tasks, both of which are key to work design. Additionally, occupations tend to encourage and reinforce particular values, which may or may not be congruent with the values of individual workers. For example, occupations which value independence (e.g. police detectives) are likely to reward actions which demonstrate initiative and creativity, giving rise to job characteristics such as autonomy and variety.
Organizational – According to strategic human resource management theory (SHRM), a key task for managers is to adopt HR practices which are internally consistent with the strategic objectives of the organization. For example, if an organization's strategy is to gain competitive advantage by minimizing costs, managers may be motivated to adopt work designs based on scientific management (i.e. low training and induction costs to allow low-skill and low-paid workers to be employed). In contrast, managers working for an organization that aims to gain competitive advantage through quality and innovation may be motivated to provide employees with opportunities to use specialist knowledge and skills, resulting in enriched work designs.
Work groups – Drawing on the sociotechnical theory and team effectiveness literature, some authors argue that key characteristics of work groups (i.e. composition, interdependence, autonomy, and leadership) can influence the work design of individual team members, although it is acknowledged that evidence on this particular topic is limited.
Strategies for work (re)design
Managerial strategies
Job rotation
Job rotation is a job design process by which employee roles are rotated in order to promote flexibility and tenure in the working environment. Through job rotation, employees laterally mobilize and serve their tasks in different organizational levels; when an individual experiences different posts and responsibilities in an organization, the ability to evaluate his or her capabilities in the organization increases. By design, it is intended to enhance motivation, develop workers' outlook, increase productivity, improve the organization's performance on various levels by its multi-skilled workers, and provides new opportunities to improve the attitude, thought, capabilities and skills of workers.
Job enlargement
Hulin and Blood (1968) define job enlargement as the process of allowing individual workers to determine their own pace (within limits), to serve as their own inspectors by giving them responsibility for quality control, to repair their own mistakes, to be responsible for their own machine set-up and repair, and to attain choice of method. By working in a larger scope, as Hulin and Blood state, workers are pushed to adapting new tactics, techniques, and methodologies on their own. Frederick Herzberg referred to the addition of interrelated tasks as 'horizontal job loading,' or, in other words, widening the breadth of an employee's responsibilities.
Job enrichment
Job enrichment increases the employees' autonomy over the planning and execution of their own work, leading to self-assigned responsibility. Because of this, job enrichment has the same motivational advantages of job enlargement, however it has the added benefit of granting workers autonomy. Frederick Herzberg viewed job enrichment as 'vertical job loading' because it also includes tasks formerly performed by someone at a higher level where planning and control are involved.
Individual strategies
Job crafting
Job crafting can be defined as the proactive changing the boundaries and conditions of the tasks, relationships, and meaning of a job. These changes are not negotiated with the employer and may not even be noticed by the manager. Job crafting behaviours have been found to lead to a variety of positive work outcomes, including work engagement, job satisfaction, resilience, and thriving.
Role innovation
Role innovation occurs when an employee proactively redefines a work role by changing the mission or practice of the role. When work roles are defined by organizations they do not always adequately address the problems faced by the profession. When employees notice this, they can attempt to redefine the role through innovation, improving the resilience of the profession in handling future situations.
Task revision
Task revision is seen as a form of counter-role behavior in that it is about resistance to defective work procedures, such as inaccurate job descriptions and dysfunctional expectations. This may involves acting against the norms of the organization with the end goal of making corrections to procedures. It has been noted that task revision rarely occurs in work settings as this type of resistance is often seen as inappropriate by managers and employees alike. However, a work environment which is supportive of deviation from social norms could facilitate task revision.
Voice
In the context of job redesign, voice refers to behaviours which emphasize challenging the status quo with the intention of improving the situation rather than merely criticizing. This can be as simple as suggesting more effective ways of doing things within the organization. When individuals stand up and express innovating ideas, the organization may benefit from these fresh perspectives. Voice may be particularly important in organizations where change and innovation is necessary for survival. While the individual employee does not immediately benefit from this expression, successful innovations may lead to improved performance appraisals.
Idiosyncratic deals
Idiosyncratic deals, also known as i-deals, is a concept developed by American organizational psychologist Denise Rousseau which refers to individualized work arrangements negotiated proactively by an employee with their employer. The most common forms of i-deals are flexible working hours and opportunities for personal development. However, also other forms of Idiosyncratic deals are known from previous research, such as task and work responsibilities, workload reduction, location flexibility, and financial Incentives These arrangements may be put in place because an employer values the negotiating employee, and by granting the i-deal the likelihood of retaining the employee is increased. This can be seen as a win-win scenario for both parties.
Personal initiative
Personal initiative refers to self-starting behaviours by an employee that are consistent with the mission of the organization, has a long term focus, are goal directed and action oriented, and are persistent in the face of difficulty. Additionally, these behaviours typically go beyond what is required of the employee in their work role.
See also
Industrial and organizational psychology
Applied psychology
Occupational health psychology
Management
Organizational behaviour
Work motivation
Applied psychology
Occupational health psychology
References
Industrial and organizational psychology
Organizational theory
Systems psychology
Human resource management
Motivation
Organizational behavior
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241696
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read%2C%20Lancashire
|
Read, Lancashire
|
Read is a village in Lancashire 5 miles west northwest of Burnley and 2 miles east of Whalley. It is on the A671 which is the main road between Burnley and Clitheroe. The population of the civil parish as taken at the 2011 census was 1,419.
History
The name "Read" is a contraction of Old English words meaning female roe deer and ridge or headland.
The old village developed in the 16th century along the main mediaeval road between Whalley and Padiham.
The Battle of Read Old Bridge was fought in 1643 between the Royalist and Parliamentarian forces. The Royalist force of about 4,000 men, commanded by the Earl of Derby, had taken the village of Whalley. The Parliamentary force, numbering only about 400 men, were positioned near Read Old Bridge. As the Royalist forces approached the bridge they faced withering musket fire causing them to retreat in confusion. The Royalists gave up Whalley; about 400 largely untrained soldiers had beaten 4,000, winning Lancashire for Parliament.
Governance
Read was once a township in the ancient parish of Whalley, with the River Calder forming the boundary with Altham and Sabden Brook with Whalley. This became a civil parish in 1866, forming part of the Burnley Rural District from 1894 to 1974. Parts of the parish transferred to Sabden on its creation in 1904. It has since become part of the borough of Ribble Valley.
Together with Simonstone, the parish forms the Read and Simonstone ward of Ribble Valley Borough Council. The ward had a population of 2,535 in 2001, rising to 2,573 in 2011. The ward elects two councillors, who currently are Richard Bennett and Lesley Graves, both of the Conservative Party.
Landmarks
Read Hall and Park was the seat of the Nowell family from the 14th century and Roger Nowell was a magistrate at the time of the Lancashire Witches in 1612 sending them to Lancaster for trial and eventual execution.
In the 1870s Victoria Mill, together with a few houses for employees, was built alongside the turnpike road by the Kemp family and this area of Read became known as Newtown. More houses and shops were built using stone quarried in the village and Read now has a variety of small businesses catering for many needs.
The parish church is dedicated to St John the Evangelist by Henry Ross of Accrington, 1884, with the west steeple dating from 1911.
The nearby Martholme Viaduct, about south-west carried the defunct Great Harwood loop line of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway over the River Calder between Simonstone and Great Harwood and was built by Sturges Meek, 1870–77, and consists of ten 65 ft high arches on a gentle curve.
See also
Listed buildings in Read, Lancashire
References
Notes
Citations
External links
Read Parish Council website
Villages in Lancashire
Civil parishes in Lancashire
Geography of Ribble Valley
|
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241697
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California%20kingsnake
|
California kingsnake
|
The California kingsnake (Lampropeltis californiae) is a nonvenomous colubrid snake endemic to the western United States and northern Mexico, and is found in a variety of habitats. Due to ease of care and a wide range of color variations, the California kingsnake is one of the most popular snakes in captivity. The California Kingsnake's length is, on average, three to four feet (91.4 to 122 cm), with occasional individuals exceeding 60 inches (152.4 cm), and California Kingsnakes on Islas Angel de la Guarda, Baja California, Mexico, can reach 78 inches (2 m). Their colors may vary, but they are usually found with brown/black and white/tan bands (also referred to as “rings”).
Range and habitat
The California kingsnake is widespread along the West Coast of North America to elevations of approximately in the Tehachapi Mountains and to over in the southeastern Sierra Nevada Mountains. This species lives in a wide variety of habitats, including woodland chaparral, grassland, deserts, marshes, and even suburban areas. These snakes live in Oregon, California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, southwestern Colorado, northwestern New Mexico, and northwestern Mexico. In Arizona, they intergrade with the desert kingsnake (Lampropeltis splendida) and the Mexican black kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula nigrita). The species has also become invasive on the Spanish island of Gran Canaria.
Behavior and diet
The California kingsnake is primarily diurnal, but may become increasingly nocturnal during periods of particularly hot weather. In the winter, they retreat underground and enter a hibernation-like state called brumation. When disturbed, California kingsnakes will often coil their bodies to hide their heads, hiss, and rattle their tails, which can produce a sound somewhat resembling that of a rattlesnake. When they are nervous they tend to twitch their tails. They are considered harmless to humans, but if handled it is common for this species to bite, as well as excrete musk and fecal contents from their cloaca.
The California Kingsnake, like all snakes, has a special way of "smelling". Instead of using nostrils, snakes have developed a forked tongue and a Jacobson's organ. The Jacobson's organ allows the California Kingsnake to analyze what is around it through scent particles. The snake's forked tongue will grab onto the scent particles and place those particles onto the top of the buccal cavity, or mouth, where the Jacobson's organ opens. This process helps with the snake's tropotaxis, which may allow the snake to become better at hunting down their prey. That said, California kingsnakes are opportunistic feeders and common food items include rodents, birds, other reptiles and amphibians. All kingsnakes are non-venomous, but are powerful constrictors and generally kill their prey through suffocation. The "king" in their name refers to their propensity to hunt and eat other snakes, including venomous rattlesnakes, that are commonly indigenous to their natural habitat. California kingsnakes are naturally resistant to the venom of rattlesnakes, but are not totally immune. It has been recorded that kingsnakes are known to swallow their own shed skin.
As was discovered in studies of kingsnake muscle power, California kingsnakes seem to have the strongest squeeze proportionate to body size of any snakes, like larger snakes such as the Burmese python, green anaconda, reticulated python and twice that of a similarly sized rat snake or python. This adaptation may have evolved in response to the snake's diet of reptilian prey, which needs less oxygen to survive an attack by constriction than mammals do.
Reproduction
The California kingsnake is an oviparous internal fertilization animal, meaning it lays eggs, as opposed to giving live birth like some other snakes. Courtship for this kingsnake begins in the spring usually sometime after their hibernation or first shedding and involves the males competing for available females. In order to assert dominance when fighting another male, the California Kingsnake will get onto the other male and proceed biting the other snake. Their mating ritual begins by the male snake vibrating uncontrollably. Eggs are laid between May and August, which is generally 42–63 days after mating; in preparation the female will have chosen a suitable location. The typical clutch size is five to 12 eggs with an average of nine, though clutches of 20 or more eggs are known. The hatchlings usually emerge another 40–65 days later and are approximately eight to 13 inches in length. Adult California kingsnakes are most commonly 2.5–3.5 feet in length, and rarely exceed four feet.
In captivity
The California kingsnake is one of the most popular pet reptiles due to its ease of care, attractive appearance and docile demeanor. Due to natural color and pattern variability between individual snakes, snake enthusiasts have selectively bred for a variety of color patterns and morphs. Dozens of color variations are sold in the pet trade. Wildtype California kingsnakes are technically illegal to sell without special permits in their home state of California. These increased restrictions are due to a law that prohibits trafficking native California species within state lines. As captive-bred morphs are generally exempt from these rules, the law is loosely enforced. This snake's status is currently of least concern. However, with its popularity as a pet, it has faced troubles in the past.
References
External links
Lampropeltis californiae – California Kingsnake – information and photos of wild snakes.
California Kingsnake – information on captive care.
DesertUSA: Common Kingsnake – information about wild common kingsnakes.
Control of the invasive alien species Lampropeltis getula californiae on the island of Gran Canaria (Spain).
California Kingsnake Care Sheet REPTILES magazine
Lampropeltis
Reptiles of the United States
Fauna of California
|
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241700
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognomen
|
Cognomen
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A cognomen (; plural cognomina; from con- "together with" and (g)nomen "name") was the third name of a citizen of ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. Initially, it was a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became hereditary. Hereditary cognomina were used to augment the second name, the gens (the family name, or clan name), in order to identify a particular branch within a family or family within a clan. The term has also taken on other contemporary meanings.
Roman names
Because of the limited nature of the Latin praenomen, the cognomen developed to distinguish branches of the family from one another, and occasionally, to highlight an individual's achievement, typically in warfare. One example of this is Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, whose cognomen Magnus was earned after his military victories under Sulla's dictatorship. The cognomen was a form of distinguishing people who accomplished important feats, and those who already bore a cognomen were awarded another exclusive name, the agnomen. For example, Publius Cornelius Scipio received the agnomen Africanus after his victory over the Carthaginian general Hannibal at Zama, Africa (Africanus here means "of Africa" in the sense that his fame derives from Africa, rather than being born in Africa, which would have been Afer); and the same procedure occurred in the names of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus (conqueror of Numidia) and Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus.
In contrast to the honorary cognomina adopted by successful generals, most cognomina were based on a physical or personality quirk; for example, Rufus meaning "red-haired" or Scaevola meaning "left-handed". Some cognomina were hereditary (such as Caesar among a branch of the Julii, Brutus and Silanus among the Junii, or Pilius and Metellus among the Caecilii): others tended to be individual. And some names appear to have been used both as praenomen, agnomen, or non-hereditary cognomen. For instance, Vopiscus was used as both praenomen and cognomen in the Julii Caesares; likewise Nero among the early imperial Claudii, several of whom used the traditional hereditary Claudian cognomen as a praenomen.
The upper-class usually used the cognomen to refer to one another.
In present academic context, many prominent ancient Romans are referred to by only their cognomen; for example, Cicero (from cicer "chickpea") serves as a shorthand for Marcus Tullius Cicero, and Caesar for Gaius Julius Caesar.
As a contemporary term
The term "cognomen" (sometimes pluralized "cognomens") has come into use as an English noun used outside the context of Ancient Rome. According to the 2012 edition of the Random House Dictionary, cognomen can mean a "surname" or "any name, especially a nickname". The basic sense in English is "how one is well known". For example Alfred the Great. (This is more similar to the Roman use of agnomen than their use of cognomen.)
Catalan cognom and Italian cognome, derived from the Latin cognomen, mean "family name". Maltese kunjom is derived from the Italian version, retaining the same meaning.
The term "cognomen" can also be applied to cultures with a clan structure and naming conventions comparable to those of Ancient Rome; thus, hereditary "cognomina" have been described as in use among the Xhosa (Iziduko), the Yoruba (Oriki), and the Zulu (Isibongo).
See also
List of Roman cognomina
Agnomen
Courtesy name
Namesake
References
External links
Harold Whetstone Johnston (revised Mary Johnston), The Private Life of the Romans, 1932, Chapter 2: Roman Names
Roman naming conventions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth%20International%20Party
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Youth International Party
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The Youth International Party (YIP), whose members were commonly called Yippies, was an American youth-oriented radical and countercultural revolutionary offshoot of the free speech and anti-war movements of the late 1960s. It was founded on December 31, 1967. They employed theatrical gestures to mock the social status quo, such as advancing a pig ("Pigasus the Immortal") as a candidate for president of the United States in 1968. They have been described as a highly theatrical, anti-authoritarian and anarchist youth movement of "symbolic politics".
Since they were well known for street theatre and politically themed pranks, they were either ignored or denounced by many of the "old school" political left. According to ABC News, "The group was known for street theater pranks and was once referred to as the 'Groucho Marxists'."
Background
The Yippies had no formal membership or hierarchy. It was founded by Abbie and Anita Hoffman, Jerry Rubin, Nancy Kurshan, and Paul Krassner, at a meeting in the Hoffmans' New York apartment on December 31, 1967. According to his own account, Krassner coined the name. "If the press had created 'hippie,' could not we five hatch the 'yippie'?" Abbie Hoffman wrote.
Other activists associated with the Yippies include Stew Albert, Judy Gumbo, Ed Sanders, Robin Morgan, Phil Ochs, Robert M. Ockene, William Kunstler, Jonah Raskin, Steve Conliff, Jerome Washington, John Sinclair, Jim Retherford, Dana Beal, Betty (Zaria) Andrew, Joanee Freedom, Danny Boyle, Ben Masel, Tom Forcade, Paul Watson, David Peel, Wavy Gravy, Aron Kay, Tuli Kupferberg, Jill Johnston, Daisy Deadhead, Leatrice Urbanowicz, Bob Fass, Mayer Vishner,web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/03/18/nyregion/bomb-burns-two-detectives-outside-building-of-yippies.html|title=BOMB BURNS TWO DETECTIVES OUTSIDE BUILDING OF YIPPIES|author=Montgomery, Paul L.|website=New York Times|date=18 March 1981}}</ref> Patrick K. Kroupa, Judy Lampe, Steve DeAngelo, Dean Tuckerman, Dennis Peron, Jim Fouratt, Steve Wessing, John Penley, Pete Wagner and Brenton Lengel.
A Yippie flag was often seen at anti-war demonstrations. The flag had a black background with a five-pointed red star in the center, and a green cannabis leaf superimposed over it. When asked about the Yippie flag, an anonymous Yippie identified only as "Jung" told The New York Times that "The black is for anarchy. The red star is for our five point program. And the leaf is for marijuana, which is for getting ecologically stoned without polluting the environment." This flag is also mentioned in Hoffman's Steal This Book.
Abbie Hoffman and Jerry Rubin became the most famous Yippies—and bestselling authors—in part due to publicity surrounding the five-month Chicago Seven Conspiracy trial of 1969. They both used the phrase "ideology is a brain disease" to separate the Yippies from mainstream political parties that played the game by the rules. Hoffman and Rubin were arguably the most colorful of the seven defendants accused of criminal conspiracy and inciting to riot at the August 1968 Democratic National Convention. Hoffman and Rubin used the trial as a platform for Yippie antics—at one point, they showed up in court attired in judicial robes.
Origins
The term Yippie was invented by Krassner, as well Abbie and Anita Hoffman, on New Year's Eve 1967. Paul Krassner wrote in a January 2007 article in the Los Angeles Times:
Anita Hoffman liked the word, but felt that The New York Times and other "strait-laced types" needed a more formal name to take the movement seriously. That same night she came up with Youth International Party, because it symbolized the movement and made for a good play on words.
Along with the name Youth International Party, the organization was also simply called Yippie!, as in a shout for joy (with an exclamation mark to express exhilaration). "What does Yippie! mean?" Abbie Hoffman wrote. "Energy – fun – fierceness – exclamation point!"
First press conference
The Yippies held their first press conference in New York at the Americana Hotel March 17, 1968, five months before the August 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. Judy Collins sang at the press conference. The Chicago Sun-Times reported it with an article titled: "Yipes! The Yippies Are Coming!"
The New Nation concept
The Yippie "New Nation" concept called for the creation of alternative, counterculture institutions: food co-ops; underground newspapers and zines; free clinics and support groups; artist collectives; potlatches, "swap-meets" and free stores; organic farming/permaculture; pirate radio, bootleg recording and public-access television; Squatting; free schools; etc. Yippies believed these cooperative institutions and a radicalized hippie culture would spread until they supplanted the existing system. Many of these ideas/practices came from other (overlapping and intermingling) counter-cultural groups such as the Diggers, the San Francisco Mime Troupe, the Merry Pranksters/Deadheads, the Hog Farm, the Rainbow Family, the Esalen Institute, the Peace and Freedom Party, the White Panther Party and The Farm. There was much overlap, social interaction and cross-pollination within these groups and the Yippies, so there was much crossover membership, as well as similar influences and intentions.
"We are a people. We are a new nation," YIP's New Nation Statement said of the burgeoning hippie movement. "We want everyone to control their own life and to care for one another ... We cannot tolerate attitudes, institutions, and machines whose purpose is the destruction of life, the accumulation of profit."
The goal was a decentralized, collective, anarchistic nation rooted in the borderless hippie counterculture and its communal ethos. Abbie Hoffman wrote:
We shall not defeat Amerika by organizing a political party. We shall do it by building a new nation—a nation as rugged as the marijuana leaf.John Anthony Moretta, The Hippies: A 1960s History, p. 260. McFarland & Company, Jefferson, NC. 2017.
The flag for the "new nation" consisted of a black background with a red five pointed star in the center and a green marijuana leaf superimposed over it (same as the YIP flag).
The Chicago History Museum shows a different flag for the new nation. It is not the marijuana leaf. It has the word NOW under what looks like the all-seeing eye on a pyramid seen on the back of a dollar bill.
Culture and activism
The Yippies often paid tribute to rock 'n' roll and irreverent pop-culture figures such as the Marx Brothers, James Dean and Lenny Bruce. Many Yippies used nicknames which contained Baby Boomer television or pop references, such as Pogo or Gumby. (Pogo was notable for creating the famous slogan: "We have met the enemy and he is us"—first used on a 1970 Earth Day poster.)
The Yippies' love of pop-culture was one way to differentiate the Old and New Left, as Jesse Walker writes in Reason magazine:
At demonstrations and parades, Yippies often wore face paint or colorful bandannas to keep from being identified in photographs. Other Yippies reveled in the spotlight, allowing their stealthier comrades the anonymity they needed for their pranks.
One cultural intervention that misfired was at Woodstock, with Abbie Hoffman interrupting a performance by The Who, trying to speak against the incarceration of John Sinclair, sentenced to 10 years in prison in 1969 after giving two joints to an undercover narcotics officer. Guitarist Pete Townshend used his guitar to bat Hoffman off the stage.
The Yippies were the first on the New Left to make a point of exploiting mass media. Colorful, theatrical Yippie actions were tailored to attract media coverage and also to provide a stage where people could express the "repressed" Yippie inside them. "We believe every nonyippie is a repressed yippie," Jerry Rubin wrote in Do it! "We try to bring out the yippie in everybody."
Early Yippie actions
Yippies were famous for their sense of humor. Many direct actions were often satirical and elaborate pranks or put-ons. An application to levitate The Pentagon during the October, 1967 March on the Pentagon, and a mass protest/mock levitation at the building organized by Rubin, Hoffman and company at the event, helped to set the tone for Yippie when it was established a couple of months later.
Another famous prank just before the term "Yippie" was coined was a guerrilla theater event in New York City on August 24, 1967. Abbie Hoffman and a group of future Yippies managed to get into a tour of the New York Stock Exchange, where they threw fistfuls of real and fake US$ from the balcony of the visitors' gallery down to the traders below, some of whom booed, while others began to scramble frantically to grab the money as fast as they could. The visitors' gallery was closed until a glass barrier could be installed, to prevent similar incidents.
On the 40th anniversary of the NYSE event, CNN Money editor James Ledbetter described the now-famous incident:
There was a clash with police on March 22, 1968, where a large group of countercultural youths led by the Yippies descended into Grand Central Station for a "Yip-In". The night erupted into a violent clash with police that Don McNeill of The Village Voice called a "pointless confrontation in a box canyon". A month later, Yippies organized a "Yip-Out," a be-in style event in Central Park that went off peacefully and drew 20,000 people.
In his book A Trumpet to Arms: Alternative Media in America, author David Armstrong points out that the Yippie hybrid of performance art, Guerilla theatre and political irreverence was often in direct conflict with the sensibility of the 60s American Left/peace movement:
The Yippies' unorthodox approach to revolution, which emphasized spontaneity over structure, and media blitz over community organizing, put them almost as much at odds with the rest of the left as with mainstream culture. Wrote (Jerry) Rubin in the Berkeley Barb, "The worst thing you can say about a demonstration is that it is boring, and one of the reasons that the peace movement has not grown into a mass movement is that the peace movement—its literature and its events—is a bore. Good theatre is needed to communicate revolutionary content.
House Un-American Activities Committee
The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) subpoenaed Jerry Rubin and Abbie Hoffman of the Yippies in 1967, and again in the aftermath of the 1968 Democratic National Convention. The Yippies used media attention to make a mockery of the proceedings: Rubin came to one session dressed as an American Revolutionary War soldier, and passed out copies of the United States Declaration of Independence to people in attendance.
On another occasion, police stopped Hoffman at the building entrance and arrested him for wearing an American flag. Hoffman quipped for the press, "I regret that I have but one shirt to give for my country", paraphrasing the last words of revolutionary patriot Nathan Hale; meanwhile Rubin, who was wearing a matching Viet Cong flag, shouted that the police were Communists for not arresting him also.
According to The Harvard Crimson:
In the fifties, the most effective sanction was terror. Almost any publicity from HUAC meant the 'blacklist.' Without a chance to clear his name, a witness would suddenly find himself without friends and without a job. But it is not easy to see how in 1969 a HUAC blacklist could terrorize an SDS activist. Witnesses like Jerry Rubin have openly boasted of their contempt for American institutions. A subpoena from HUAC would be unlikely to scandalize Abbie Hoffman or his friends.
Chicago '68
Yippie theatrics culminated at the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. YIP planned a six-day Festival of Life – a celebration of the counterculture and a protest against the state of the nation. This was supposed to counter the "Convention of Death." This promised to be "the blending of pot and politics into a political grass leaves movement – a cross-fertilization of the hippie and New Left philosophies." Yippies' sensational statements before the convention were part of the theatrics, including a tongue-in-cheek threat to put LSD in Chicago's water supply. "We will fuck on the beaches! ... We demand the Politics of Ecstasy! ... Abandon the Creeping Meatball! ... And all the time 'Yippie! Chicago – August 25–30.'" First on a list of Yippie demands: "An immediate end to the war in Vietnam."
Yippie organizers hoped that well-known musicians would participate in the Festival of Life and draw a crowd of tens if not hundreds of thousands from across the country. The city of Chicago refused to issue any permits for the festival and most musicians withdrew from the project. Of the rock bands who had agreed to perform, only the MC5 came to Chicago to play and their set was cut short by a clash between the audience of a couple thousand and police. Phil Ochs and several other singer-songwriters also performed during the festival.
In response to the Festival of Life and other anti-war demonstrations during the Democratic convention, Chicago police repeatedly clashed with protesters, as many millions of viewers watched the extensive TV coverage of the events. On the evening of August 28 the police attacked the protesters in front of the Conrad Hilton hotel as the demonstrators chanted "The whole world is watching". This was a "police riot," concluded the US National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence, stating:"On the part of the police there was enough wild club swinging, enough cries of hatred, enough gratuitous beating to make the conclusion inescapable that individual policemen, and lots of them, committed violent acts far in excess of the requisite force for crowd dispersal or arrest."
The conspiracy trial
Following the convention, eight protesters were charged with conspiracy to incite the riots. Their
trial, which lasted five months, was heavily publicized. The Chicago Seven represented a cross-section of the New Left, including Abbie Hoffman and Jerry Rubin.
In his book, American Fun: Four Centuries of Joyous Revolt, John Beckman writes:
Never mind Hair, the so-called Chicago Eight (then Seven) trial was the countercultural performance of the sixties. Guerrilla theater stared down courtroom farce to decide the civil dispute of the era: the Movement vs. the Establishment. The eight defendants seemed finically chosen to represent the world of dissent: SDS leaders Rennie Davis and Tom Hayden (who had authored "The Port Huron Statement"); graduate students Lee Weiner and John Froines; portly fifty-four-year-old Christian socialist David Dellinger; Yippies Rubin and Hoffman; and—briefly--Black Panther Bobby Seale. "Conspire, hell," Hoffman quipped. "We couldn't agree on lunch."
Several other Yippies – including Stew Albert, Wolfe Lowenthal, Brad Fox and Robin Palmer – were among another 18 activists named as "unindicted co-conspirators" in the case. While five of the defendants were initially convicted of crossing state lines to incite a riot, all convictions were soon reversed in appeal court. Defendants Hoffman and Rubin became popular authors and public speakers, spreading Yippie militancy and comedy wherever they appeared. When Hoffman appeared on The Merv Griffin Show, for example, he wore a shirt with an American flag design, prompting CBS to black out his image when the show aired.
The Yippie movement
The Youth International Party quickly spread beyond Rubin, Hoffman and the other founders. YIP had chapters all over the US and in other countries, with particularly active groups in New York City, Vancouver, Washington, D.C., Detroit, Milwaukee, Los Angeles, Tucson, Houston, Austin, Columbus, Dayton, Chicago, Berkeley, San Francisco and Madison. There were YIP conferences through the 1970s, beginning with a "New Nation Conference" in Madison, Wisconsin in 1971.
On the final day of the Madison conference, April 4, 1971, hundreds of riot police broke up a block party organized by local Yippies to cap the event, resulting in a street clash between Yippies and police.
Street protests
During an anti-war protest in Washington, D.C., on November 15, 1969, East Coast Yippies led thousands of youths in the storming of the Justice Department building.
On August 6, 1970, L.A. Yippies invaded Disneyland, hoisting the New Nation flag at City Hall and taking over Tom Sawyer's Island. While riot police confronted the Yippies, the theme park was closed early for only the second time in the park's history (the first being shortly after the assassination of President Kennedy.). As many as 23 of the 200 Yippies attending were arrested.
Vancouver Yippies invaded the US border town of Blaine, Washington, on May 9, 1970, to protest Richard Nixon's invasion of Cambodia and the shooting of students at Kent State.
Columbus Yippies were charged with inciting the rioting that occurred in the city on May 11, 1972, in response to Nixon's mining of North Vietnam's Haiphong harbor. They were acquitted.
YIP was a member of the coalition of anti-Vietnam War activists who, over several days in early May 1971, tried to shut down the US government by occupying intersections and bridges in Washington, D.C. The May Day protests resulted in the largest mass arrest in American history.
A frequent 'national' complaint among Yippies was that the New York 'central HQ' chapter acted as if other chapters did not exist and kept them out of the decision-making process. At one point, at a YIP conference in Ohio in 1972, Yippies voted to 'exclude' Abbie and Jerry as official spokespersons from the party, since they had become too famous and rich.
In 1972, Yippies and Zippies (a younger YIP radical breakaway faction whose "guiding spirit" was Tom Forcade) staged protests at the Republican and Democratic Conventions in Miami Beach. Some of the Miami protests were larger and more militant than the ones in Chicago in 1968. After Miami, the Zippies evolved back into Yippies.
In 1973, Yippies marched on the Manhattan home of Watergate conspirator John Mitchell:
... five hundred die-hard Yippies staged one last march on the Mitchell home, no longer the Watergate but a grand apartment building on Manhattan's Fifth Avenue. "Free Martha Mitchell!" they chanted. "Fuck John!" When the Mitchells finally appeared at the window to see what all the commotion was about, the stoners cherished their last "eye-to-eyeball confrontation with Mr. Law 'n' Order." To commemorate the moment, they placed a giant marijuana joint on the Mitchells' doorstep.
Yippies regularly protested at US presidential inaugurations, with a particularly strong presence at the 1973 inauguration of Richard Nixon. Yippies also demonstrated at the 1980 Republican National Convention in Detroit, as well as the subsequent 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, where 99 Yippies were arrested:
Smoke-ins
Yippies organized marijuana "smoke-ins" across North America through the 1970s and into the 1980s. The first YIP smoke-in was attended by 25,000 in Washington, D.C. on July 4, 1970. There was a culture clash when many of the hippie protesters strolled en masse into the nearby "Honor America Day" festivities with Billy Graham and Bob Hope.
On August 7, 1971, a Yippie smoke-in in Vancouver was attacked by police, resulting in the Gastown Riot, one of the most famous protests in Canadian history.
The annual July 4 Yippie smoke-in in Washington, D.C., became a counterculture tradition.
Alternative culture
Yippies organized alternative institutions in their counterculture communities. In Tucson, Yippies operated a free store; in Vancouver, Yippies established the People's Defense Fund to provide legal help for the often-harassed hippie community; in Milwaukee, Yippies helped launch the city's first food co-op.
Many Yippies were involved in the underground press. Some were the editors of major underground newspapers or alternative magazines, including Yippies Abe Peck (Chicago Seed), Jeff Shero Nightbyrd (New York's Rat and Austin Sun), Paul Krassner (The Realist), Robin Morgan (Ms. magazine), Steve Conliff (Purple Berries, Sour Grapes and Columbus Free Press), Bob Mercer (The Georgia Straight and Yellow Journal), Henry Weissborn (ULTRA), James Retherford (The Rag), Mayer Vishner (LA Weekly), Matthew Landy Steen and Stew Albert (Berkeley Barb and Berkeley Tribe), Tom Forcade (Underground Press Syndicate and High Times) and Gabrielle Schang (Alternative Media). New York Yippie Coca Crystal hosted the popular cable TV program If I Can't Dance You Can Keep Your Revolution.
Yippies were active in alternative music and movies. Singer-songwriters Phil Ochs and David Peel were Yippies. "I helped design the party, formulate the idea of what Yippie was going to be, in the early part of 1968," Ochs testified at the Chicago Eight trial.
The strange, legendary cult film Medicine Ball Caravan (partly financed by Tom Forcade), chronicled Yippie drop-outs and a variety of other fascinating and dynamic characters of the era. The movie title was later controversially changed to "We Have Come for your Daughters".
Radical musicians usually found enthusiastic audiences at Yippie-sponsored events and frequently offered to play. YIP-affiliated John Sinclair managed Detroit's proto-punk band the MC5, who played in Lincoln Park during protests at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. In 1970, Pete Seeger played a Vancouver Yippie rally against construction of a highway through Jericho Beach Park. The first-ever concert by the influential and iconic proto-punk band the New York Dolls, was a Yippie benefit to raise funds to pay legal fees for one of Dana Beal's marijuana arrests in the 1970s.
The Youth International Party founded the US branch of the Rock Against Racism movement in 1979. Rock Against Racism USA later morphed into the critically acclaimed, Yippie-organized, widely recognized national Rock Against Reagan tour in 1983. Well-known bands on the tour included Michelle Shocked, the Dead Kennedys, the Crucifucks, MDC, Cause for Alarm, Toxic Reasons and Static Disruptors. A young Whoopi Goldberg performed stand-up comedy (as did Will Durst) at the San Francisco R-A-R show.
Vancouver Yippies Ken Lester and David Spaner were the managers of Canada's two most notorious political punk bands, D.O.A. (Lester) and The Subhumans (Spaner). New York Yippie/High Times publisher Tom Forcade financed one of the first movies about punk rock, D.O.A., featuring footage of the Sex Pistols' 1978 tour of America.
Infamous Baltimore Yippie John Waters became a renowned independent filmmaker (Pink Flamingos, Polyester, Hairspray), once claiming in an interview that the Yippies influenced his irreverent sense of style: "I was a Yippie agitator, and I wanted to look like Little Richard. I dressed like a hippie pimp back then, because punk wasn't around yet."
Pranking the system
Yippies mocked the system and its authority. The Youth International Party, having nominated a pig (Pigasus) for US president in 1968, famously ran Nobody for President as its 'official' candidate in 1976.
Vancouver Yippie Betty "Zaria" Andrew ran as the Youth International Party's candidate for mayor in 1970. One of her campaign promises was to repeal every law, including the law of gravity so that everyone could get high. That same year, Berkeley Yippie Stew Albert ran for sheriff of Alameda County, challenging the incumbent sheriff to a high-noon duel and receiving 65,000 votes.
In 1970, Detroit Yippies went to city hall and applied for a permit to blow up the General Motors building. After the permit was denied, the Yippies said that it just goes to show you can't work within the system to change the system. "This destroys my last hope for legal channels," said Detroit Yippie Jumpin' Jack Flash.
Some Yippies, including Robin Morgan, Nancy Kurshan, Sharon Krebs and Judy Gumbo, were active in the Guerilla theatre feminist group W.I.T.C.H. (Women's International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell), which combined "theatricality, humor, and activism."
On November 7, 1970, Jerry Rubin and London Yippies took over The Frost Programme when he was the guest on the popular British host's TV program. In all the chaos, a Yippie fired a water pistol into host David Frost's open mouth, the broadcaster called for a commercial break and the show was over. The Daily Mirror'''s banner headline: "THE FROST FREAKOUT."
Pie-throwing
Pie-throwing as a political act was invented by Yippies. The first political pie throwing was carried out in Bloomington, Indiana, October 14, 1969, when Jim Retherford, former underground newspaper editor and ghost writer of Jerry Rubin's Do It!, landed a cream pie in the face of former UC Berkeley president Clark Kerr. Retherford was also the first to be arrested. The next pie was thrown by Tom Forcade, who nailed a member of the President's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography in 1970. Columbus Yippie Steve Conliff pied Ohio Governor James Rhodes in 1977 to protest the Kent State shootings.
Aron "The Pieman" Kay became the best-known Yippie pie-thrower. Kay's many targets included Sen. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, New York City Mayor Abe Beame, conservative activist Phyllis Schlafly, Watergate burglar Frank Sturgis, ex-CIA head William Colby, National Review publisher/editor William F. Buckley, and the owner of disco Studio 54, Steve Rubell.
Nobody for President and "None of the Above"
Perhaps one of the swan songs of Yippies was a groundbreaking effort to place a new voting option, None of the Above, on the election ballot in Santa Barbara County, in California, by the Isla Vista Municipal Advisory Council in 1976. This represented an incipient libertarian impulse of Yippies and the first example in the United States of this election ballot alternative, in what one of the resolution's two co-sponsors, Matthew Steen, described as an "anti-institutional Yippie up-yours." Years earlier Steen had been a Yippie activist with Stew Albert, as a reporter with the Berkeley Tribe. This novel motion was adopted unanimously by the council, having a ripple effect across the country, with voters in Nevada approving this option in a change to state election laws in 1986.
In 1976, national Yippies took a cue from Isla Vistans, backing Nobody for President, a campaign that took on a life of its own in the post-Watergate malaise of the mid-70s. The Yippie campaign slogan: "Nobody's perfect." (Meanwhile, in a strange twist of Yippie fate, Matthew Steen had become treasurer of a student-led campaign to elect Jerry Brown for president, competing against both "Nobody for President" and Jimmy Carter during the presidential primary campaign of that year.)
From the experimental combination of Isla Vista local politics, presidential campaigns and the Yippies, the name and spirit of this unexpected ballot initiative spread quickly—in the form of None of the Above music festivals, radio and television shows, rock bands, T-shirts, buttons, (decades later) countless websites and other related social phenomena. The die-hard dedication to the 'option' of Nobody for President and None of the Above has not abated since the counter-cultural 70s, but has only grown, unexpectedly taking the Yippie legacy into a new century and succeeding generations.Nobody for President 2020
Writings
"An exegesis on women's liberation" by the Women's Caucus within the Youth International Party was included in the 1970 anthology Sisterhood is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings From The Women's Liberation Movement, edited by Robin Morgan.
In June 1971 Abbie Hoffman and Al Bell started the pioneer phreak magazine The Youth International Party Line (YIPL). Later, the name was changed to TAP for Technological American Party or Technological Assistance Program.Milwaukee Yippies published Street Sheet, the first of the anarchist zines later to become so popular in many cities. The Open Road, an internationally known journal of the anti-authoritarian left, was founded by a core of Vancouver Yippies.
The semi-official Yippie house organ, The Yipster Times, was founded by Dana Beal in 1972 and published in New York City; the name was changed to Overthrow in 1979.
The mercurial Yippie-turned-Zippie Tom Forcade founded the very-successful High Times magazine in 1974. So many writers for Yipster Times would go on to write for High Times, it was often referred to as the farm team.
The most famous writing to come out of the Yippie movement is Abbie Hoffman's Steal This Book, which is considered to be a guidebook in causing general mischief and capturing the spirit of the Yippie movement. Hoffman is also the author of Revolution for the Hell of It which has been called the original Yippie book. This book claims that there were no actual yippies, and that the name was just a term used to create a myth.
Jerry Rubin published his account of the Yippie movement in his book Do IT!: Scenarios of Revolution.Books on Yippie by Yippies include Woodstock Nation and Soon to Be a Major Motion Picture (Abbie Hoffman), We Are Everywhere (Jerry Rubin), Trashing (Anita Hoffman), Who the Hell is Stew Albert? (Stew Albert), Confessions of a Raving, Unconfined Nut (Paul Krassner) and Shards of God: A Novel of the Yippies (Ed Sanders). Some other books about that era: Woodstock Census: The Nationwide Survey of the Sixties Generation (Deanne Stillman and Rex Weiner), The Panama Hat Trail (Tom Miller),Can't Find My Way Home: America in the Great Stoned Age, 1945-2000 (Martin Torgoff), Groove Tube: Sixties Television and the Youth Rebellion (Aniko Bodroghkozy), and The Ballad of Ken and Emily: or, Tales from the Counterculture (Ken Wachsberger).Buy This Book, written and illustrated by political cartoonist and post-'60s Yippie activist Pete Wagner, who distributed copies of the Yipster Times on the University of Minnesota campus in the mid-1970s, was promoted by Hoffman, who said the book "manages to reach to the limits of bad taste." Buy This Too recounts efforts by a guerrilla street theater gang named the 1985 Brain Trust to "fight the New Right with Yippie-like myth-making tactics." The Brain Trust was inspired by a series of meetings and interviews between Wagner and Paul Krassner in Minneapolis during May 1981, as Krassner performed stand-up comedy at Dudley Riggs ETC Theater.
In 1983, a group of Yippies published Blacklisted News: Secret Histories from Chicago '68, to 1984 (Bleecker Publishing), a large, 'phone-book sized anthology' (733 pages) of Yippie history, including journalistic accounts from both alternative and mainstream media, as well as many personal stories and essays. Includes countless photographs, old leaflets and posters, 'underground' comics, newspaper clippings, and various other historical ephemera. The editors (often doubling as authors) officially called themselves "The New Yippie Book Collective"; which included Steve Conliff (who wrote over half the volume), Dana Beal (head archivist), Grace Nichols, Daisy Deadhead, Ben Masel, Alice Torbush, Karen Wachsman, and Aron Kay. It is still in print.
Vancouver Yippie Bob Sarti's play Yippies in Love, premiered in June 2011. POSTER : YIPPIES IN LOVE Theatre in the Raw, Vancouver East Cultural Centre, 2011
Later years
In 1989, Abbie Hoffman, who had been suffering intermittent bouts of depression, committed suicide with alcohol and about 150 phenobarbital pills. By contrast, Jerry Rubin became a fast-talking (and by all accounts, fairly successful) stockbroker and showed no regrets. In 1994 he was fatally injured by a car while jaywalking. By the age of 50, Rubin had broken with many of his previous countercultural views; he was interviewed by The New York Times, which described him as a "yippie-turned-conspicuous-yuppie." In the interview, he stated that "Until me, nobody had really taken off their clothes and screamed out loud, 'It's O.K. to make money!'"
In 2000, a Hollywood film based on the life of Abbie Hoffman, titled Steal This Movie (spoofing the title of his book, Steal This Book), was released to mixed reviews, with Vincent D'Onofrio in the title role. Noted film critic Roger Ebert gave the movie a positive review, remarking that although it is often difficult to credibly bring historic events to life, he believed the movie succeeded:
The Yippies continued as a small movement into the early 2000s. The New York chapter was known for their annual marches for decades in New York City to legalize marijuana; NYC Yippie Dana Beal started the Global Marijuana March in 1999. Beal also continued to crusade for the use of Ibogaine Beal was a forum participant. to treat heroin addicts. Another Yippie, A.J. Weberman, continued the deconstruction of the poetry of Bob Dylan and speculation about tramps on the Grassy Knoll through various websites. Weberman has for a long time been active in the Jewish Defense Organization.
Throughout this decade, NYC Yippies frequently joined in local anti-gentrification protests over the continuing transformation of New York's Lower East Side.
In 2008, there was a very public feud between A.J. Weberman and fellow founding-Yippie, popular New York radio host Bob Fass of WBAI. Related incidents briefly brought the Yippies back into the media, particularly since they coincided with a new PBS movie about the Chicago riots that drew national attention. The film, which featured Hank Azaria as Abbie Hoffman and Mark Ruffalo as Jerry Rubin, attracted interest in the topic from a new generation.
Yippie Museum and Cafe
In 2004, the Yippies, along with the National AIDS Brigade, purchased the long-time Yippie "headquarters" (which had initially been acquired by squatting) at 9 Bleecker Street in New York City for $1.2 million. After official purchase, it was converted into the "Yippie Museum/Café and Gift Shop", housing a multitude of counter-cultural and leftist memorabilia from all over the world, as well as providing an independently operated café that featured live music on scheduled nights. The cafe closed in summer 2011 and reopened in December the same year with a renovated basement. The museum was chartered by the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York.
According to the original curator's message, the museum was founded "to preserve the history of the Youth International Party and all of its offshoots." The Board of Directors: Dana Beal, Aron Kay, David Peel, William Propp, Paul DeRienzo, and A. J. Weberman.
George Martinez was a semi-frequent speaker at the Yippies' Open-Mic, known as "Occupational Hazards/The People's Soapbox."
In Summer 2013, The Yippie Cafe officially closed. At the beginning of 2014, the Yippie building (Museum) at #9 Bleecker was sold, closed and permanently cleaned out; most of the memorabilia and historic materials dispersed among the remaining New York Yippies.
As of 2017, the old Yippie building at #9 Bleecker had been totally transformed into a successful Bowery-area Boxing club called "Overthrow", deliberately and artfully retaining much of its original Yippie/60s-revolutionary decor. Tourists still drop by to see it.
The Trial of the Chicago 7
In 2020, Netflix released the film The Trial of the Chicago 7, directed by Aaron Sorkin, which featured depictions of Yippie members Abbie Hoffman and Jerry Rubin. The film received mostly positive reviews and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture.
See also
1968 Democratic National Convention protest activity
1971 May Day protests
Cannabis political parties of the United States
Freak scene
Gastown riots
Human Be-In
List of anti-war organizations
List of incidents at Disneyland Resort
List of peace activists
Medium Cool – Haskell Wexler's groundbreaking, fictional cinéma vérité account of Chicago during the '68 convention, using actual riot footage as backdrop for the actors and (improvised) events.
Nobody for President
None of the Above
Pigasus
Protests of 1968
Summer of Love
Yuppie, a term coined in 1980 and popularized by a 1983 newspaper column about Jerry Rubin written by Bob Greene, "From Yippie to Yuppie"
ZengerReferences
Further reading
NEIGHBORHOOD REPORT: GREENWICH VILLAGE; House of Yippies: Chicago Convention A Recurring Dream New York Times – April 7, 1996
Throwing Custard Pies Looks Like Fun. It’s Also Art. – A history of political pie-throwing by Anthony Haden-Guest in The Daily Beast, February 18, 2018.
Once a Jewish hero of the counterculture, Aron Kay looks back on his pie-throwing days by Jon Kalish in The Forward'', January 18, 2022.
Anarchist organizations in the United States
Anti-consumerist groups
Anti-corporate activism
Articles containing video clips
Cannabis law reform organizations based in the United States
Cannabis political parties of the United States
Counterculture of the 1960s
Critics of work and the work ethic
Culture jamming
Hippie movement
Joke political parties in the United States
Performance art in New York City
New Left
Political parties in the United States
|
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] |
241704
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor
|
Taylor
|
Taylor, Taylors or Taylor's may refer to:
People
Taylor (surname)
List of people with surname Taylor
Taylor (given name), including Tayla and Taylah
Taylor sept, a branch of Scottish clan Cameron
Justice Taylor (disambiguation)
Places
Australia
Electoral district of Taylor, South Australia
Taylor, Australian Capital Territory, planned suburb
Canada
Taylor, British Columbia
United States
Taylor, Alabama
Taylor, Arizona
Taylor, Arkansas
Taylor, Indiana
Taylor, Louisiana
Taylor, Maryland
Taylor, Michigan
Taylor, Mississippi
Taylor, Missouri
Taylor, Nebraska
Taylor, North Dakota
Taylor, New York
Taylor, Beckham County, Oklahoma
Taylor, Cotton County, Oklahoma
Taylor, Pennsylvania
Taylors, South Carolina
Taylor, Texas
Taylor, Utah
Taylor, Washington
Taylor, West Virginia
Taylor, Wisconsin
Taylor, Wyoming
Taylor County (disambiguation)
Taylor Township (disambiguation)
Businesses and organisations
Taylor's (department store) in Quebec, Canada
Taylor Guitars, an American guitar manufacturer
Taylor University, in Upland, Indiana, U.S.
Taylor's University, commonly referred to as Taylor's, in Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
Taylor's College
John Taylor & Co, or Taylor's Bell Foundry, Taylor's of Loughborough, or Taylor's, in England
Taylor Company, a maker of foodservice equipment owned by Middleby Corporation
Science and technology
Taylor's theorem, in calculus
Taylor series, in mathematics
AMD Taylor, alternate name for the Turion 64 X2 computer processor
Taylor knock-out factor, for evaluating the stopping power of hunting cartridges
Other uses
Taylor Series, infinite series of polynomials which asymptotically approaches infinitely differentiable functions
Taylor's law, an empirical law in ecology
Taylor rule, in economics
Taylor Law, an article of New York State Law
Taylor (crater), on the Moon
"Taylor" (song) by Jack Johnson, 2004
, the name of several American ships
See also
Tailor (disambiguation)
Taylorism, a theory of scientific management, named after Frederick Winslow Taylor
Tylor
|
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] |
241706
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City%20of%20London%20School%20for%20Girls
|
City of London School for Girls
|
The City of London School for Girls (CLSG) is an independent school in the Barbican in the City of London. It is the partner school of the all-boys City of London School and the City of London Freemen's School. All three schools receive funding from the City's Cash. It is a member of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference (HMC) and the Girls' Schools Association.
History
The school was founded using a bequest by William Ward, a merchant of Brixton, in 1881 and opened in Carmelite Street in 1894. It was his conviction that girls should be given a broad and liberal education with an emphasis on scholarship; he left a third of his fortune to the City of London to fund the foundation of a girls' school. The school is still administered by the Corporation of London, and the Board of Governors is appointed by the Court of Common Council. The school also receives financial support from the City Livery Companies as well as banks and other City firms. The school has strong links with the all-boys City of London School, 15 minutes' walk away, which likewise is run by the Corporation.
The school moved to new buildings in the Barbican Estate in 1969.
General
The school has an excellent academic reputation. In 2018, it was rated by The Sunday Times as the second-best independent school in the UK, based on GCSE and A-Level results. It has previously topped The Times A-level league table of England's independent schools and its table of prep schools. It has contributed two female participants to UK International Mathematical Olympiad teams.
The Good Schools Guide describes City as having a "famously diverse mix of pupils and staff as befits the school's situation in the heart of the city". The school has a small prep school taking pupils from the age of 7, although most students join at 11. The school admits some students at 16. The secondary school's capacity is roughly 680 pupils.
Fees are currently £6,404 per term for the senior school exclusive of school lunches, and entrance is by examination. Approximately 25% of students receive bursary assistance of some kind, including full bursaries.
The school is secular, yet has mildly Christian traditions, with an optional annual Carol Service in the neighbouring St Giles' Church. There is a Jewish Society as well as an Asian Society, an Oriental Society and an African-Caribbean Society.
City has a house system which consists of four houses. The four houses are Fleet (after Fleet Street), Tudor (after Tudor Street), St. Bride (after St. Bride church on Fleet Street), Ward (after William Ward, the founder of the school). There are a variety of inter-house competitions, including Drama, Debating, Maths, Art, Music, the Inter-House Quiz and at Sports Day, as well as several other sports competitions throughout the year.
There have been 12 headmistresses of the school; the headmistress is Jenny Brown.
Extracurricular
The school is adjacent to the Barbican Arts Centre and the Guildhall School of Music and Drama, and has a strong focus on the arts. The school offers joint music scholarships with the Guildhall Music School. Since 2005, the school has held a drama festival called Moat Fest.
The school has a swimming pool, a lecture theatre, two netball/tennis courts, a drama studio, an all weather playing field and an indoor gym with climbing wall, as well as a gym complete with exercise equipment such as treadmills and weights. The school has several times won the national European Youth Parliament competition and has a strong debating program.
The school offers language exchanges to France, Spain, Germany and China, as well as other travelling opportunities through schemes such as World Challenge, which has seen girls go recently to Venezuela. Duke of Edinburgh Award expeditions have been confined to the UK since 2001 when student Amelia Ward was killed whilst abseiling on a Duke of Edinburgh trip in South Africa.They regularly have exchanges from countries such as Australia, China, Germany, France, and Spain.
It is the only school to have won the international Kids' Lit Quiz twice, in 2010 and 2014.
Buildings
The school is situated in a Grade II listed building in the Barbican.
The school has attracted controversy with recent expansion plans. In January 2018 plans were advanced to expand prep school for four- to seven-year-olds in an underground car park of an adjoining tower block, Thomas More House. The plans met with significant local opposition. A further plan for expansion was prepared by Nicholas Hare Architects, again meeting with strong opposition, and was subsequently abandoned.
Head Mistresses
1894–1910 Alice Blagrave
1910–1927 Ethel Strudwick
1927–1932 Hilda Doris Bugby (died in office)
1932–1937 Julia Elizabeth Turner
1937–1949 E. D. M. Winters
1949–1972 Gladys Colton (1909–1986)
1972–1986: Lily M. Mackie
1986–1995: Lady Valerie France
1995-2007: Yvonne Burne
2007–2014: Diana Vernon
2014–2019: Ena Harrop
2019–present: Jenny Brown
Notable former pupils
For a fuller list, see Category:People educated at the City of London School for Girls
Wilhelmina Hay Abbott, suffragist
Dido Armstrong, singer
Anna Blundy, journalist
Margaret Boden, scientist
Fiona Caldicott, psychiatrist and psychotherapist, Principal of Somerville College, Oxford
Hilary Cass, President of the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health
Daisy Christodoulou, educationalist
Jean Dawnay, fashion model
Elizabeth Emanuel, fashion designer
Romola Garai, actress
Grace Golden, artist
Florence Harmer, historian
Sarah B Hart, mathematician, first female Gresham Professor of Geometry
Sahar Hashemi, entrepreneur
Tin-Tin Ho, table tennis player
Phyllis Margaret Tookey Kerridge, scientist
Hermione Lee, professor of English at the University of Oxford, President of Wolfson College, Oxford
Megan Lloyd George, politician
Tasmin Lucia Khan, ITV news presenter
Georgina Mace DBE FRS, Conservation scientist
Sara Nathan, journalist
Mary Nighy, actress
Melinda Camber Porter, artist, journalist, & filmmaker
Ella Purnell, actress
Claire Rayner, journalist
Dinah Rose, barrister, President of Magdalen College, Oxford
Dorothy Spiers, first female actuary in the UK
Margaret Stacey, sociologist
Olivia Sudjic, novelist
Margaret Turner-Warwick, first female president of the Royal College of Physicians
Alison Weir, historian, writer
Claudia Winkleman, television presenter
Sophie Winkleman, actress
Otegha Uwagba, Author, Speaker & Brand consultant
References
External links
The school's official site
2003 Report on the school from the independent schools Inspectorate.
League Table results from BBC News.
Preparatory department profile on Times Online
Profile at the Good Schools Guide
School profile at the Schools Guidebook
Independent girls' schools in London
Independent schools in the City of London
Educational institutions established in 1894
Member schools of the Girls' Schools Association
Kids' Lit Quiz winners
Barbican Estate
1894 establishments in England
Member schools of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City%20of%20Lake%20Macquarie
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City of Lake Macquarie
|
The City of Lake Macquarie is a local government area in Greater Newcastle and part of the Hunter Region in New South Wales, Australia. It was proclaimed a city from 7 September 1984. The area is situated adjacent to the city of Newcastle and is part of the Greater Newcastle Area. The city is approximately north of Sydney. One of its major tourist attractions is its lake, also named Lake Macquarie.
The mayor of the City of Lake Macquarie Council is Councillor Kay Fraser, a member of the Labor Party.
The Royal Australian Navy ship was granted the Right of Freedom of Entry to the City of Lake Macquarie on 9 August 1991.
History
The Shire of Lake Macquarie was proclaimed on 6 March 1906. It became a Municipality on 1 March 1977, and a city on 7 September 1984.
Main towns and villages
Lake Macquarie is home to several prominent coastal suburbs such as Catherine Hill Bay, Caves Beach, Blacksmiths Beach and Redhead. Retail centres include Belmont, Cardiff, Charlestown, Glendale, Swansea, Toronto, and Morisset with its large area and rapidly increasing developments.
Significant population centres include:
Belmont
Cardiff
Charlestown
Cooranbong
Glendale
Morisset
Mount Hutton
Swansea
Toronto
Valentine
Warners Bay
The Australian Bureau of Statistics classifies various towns and suburbs in the LGA as being part of the Newcastle Statistical District. The City of Lake Macquarie has its own independent local government (Lake Macquarie City Council). The largest commercial centre in the region is Charlestown.
Demographics
The area is a set of contiguous towns that surround a coastal saltwater lake. These towns merge with the suburbs of Newcastle to the north. Some suburbs, such as Adamstown Heights are partly in the City of Newcastle and partly within the City of Lake Macquarie. There are 92 identified settlements ranging from small rural style communities through to larger and higher density areas such as Toronto, Warners Bay, Belmont, Charlestown and Morisset.
At the , there were 189,006 people in the Lake Macquarie local government area, of these 48.8% were male and 51.2% were female. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 3.0% of the population, which was higher than the national and state averages. The median age of people in the City of Lake Macquarie was 41 years, which was significantly higher than the national median of 37 years. Children aged 0 – 14 years made up 18.6% of the population and people aged 65 years and over made up 18.4% of the population. Of people in the area aged 15 years and over, 51.0% were married and 12.2% were either divorced or separated.
Population growth in the City of Lake Macquarie between the and the was 3.36%; and in the subsequent five years to the 2011 Census, population growth was 3.20%. When compared with total population growth of Australia for the same periods, being 5.78% and 8.32% respectively, population growth in Lake Macquarie local government area was approximately half the national average. The median weekly income for residents within the City of Lake Macquarie was marginally below the national average.
At the 2011 Census, the proportion of residents in the Lake Macquarie local government area who stated their ancestry as Australian or Anglo-Celtic exceeded 81% of all residents (national average was 65.2%). In excess of 58% of all residents in the City of Lake Macquarie nominated a religious affiliation with Christianity at the 2011 census, which was slightly higher than the national average of 50.2%. Meanwhile, as at the census date, compared to the national average, households in the Lake Macquarie local government area had a significantly lower than average proportion (5.4%) where two or more languages are spoken (national average was 20.4%); and a significantly higher proportion (93.0%) where English only was spoken at home (national average was 76.8%).
Economics
Lake Macquarie has a significant coal mining industry and smaller agriculture and manufacturing industries. Eraring power station, a 1980s-era coal-fired power station, supplies 25% of New South Wales' power. Lake Macquarie has a number of Constructed Wetlands with the council placing an emphasis on the environment.
Council
Current composition and election method
Lake Macquarie City Council is composed of thirteen Councillors, including the mayor, for a fixed four-year term of office. The mayor is directly elected while the twelve other Councillors are elected proportionally as three separate wards, each electing four Councillors. The most recent election was held on 10 September 2016, and the makeup of the council, including the mayor, is as follows:
The current Council, elected in 2016, in order of election by ward, is:
Shopping
Major shopping centres include:
Charlestown Square
Stockland Glendale
Lake Macquarie Square
Arts and culture
Lake Macquarie has a number of cultural and artistic locations:
Dobell House - last residence of William Dobell, Wangi Wangi
Finite Gallery, Caves Beach Fine Arts and Crafts
Lake Macquarie City Art Gallery, Booragul
South Sea Islands Museum and Sunnyside Historic Home, Cooranbong
The Friends of Rathmines Incorporated, Rathmines Park
Sister cities
The City of Lake Macquarie has sister city relations with the following cities:
Hakodate, Hokkaidō, Japan
Tanagura, Fukushima, Japan
Rotorua, Bay of Plenty, New Zealand
Round Rock, Texas, United States of America
References
External links
Lake Macquarie City Council
Lake Macquarie Business Directory
Lake Macquarie City
Clickable map of New South Wales LGAs (NSW Dept. of Local Government)
Rathmines Community Website and Forum
Coastal cities in Australia
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241708
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curonian%20language
|
Curonian language
|
The Curonian language (; ; ), or Old Curonian, is a nearly unattested Baltic extinct language spoken by the Curonians, a Baltic tribe who inhabited the Courland Peninsula (now western Latvia) and the nearby Baltic shore. Curonian was a Baltic language; some scholars consider it to have been an Eastern Baltic, intermediate between Lithuanian and Latvian, while others like Vytautas Mažiulis classify it as Western Baltic. Linguist Eduard Vääri argues that it is possible that Curonians were Baltic Finns. The attested local Finnic language, Livonian, may be the source of Finnic elements in Curonian. In 1912 Latvian linguist Jānis Endzelīns finally proved that Curonian was a Baltic language; according to him, Curonian by its qualities was in between Lithuanian and Latvian languages.
History
Old Curonian disappeared in the course of the 16th century, leaving substrata in western dialects of the Latvian and Lithuanian, namely the Samogitian dialect. No written documents in this language are known, but some ancient Lithuanian texts from western regions show some Curonian influence. According to Lithuanian linguist Zigmas Zinkevičius, long and intense Curonian–Lithuanian bilingualism existed.
There are attested names of Curonian noblemen such as: , , , , . Samogitian words such as (mosquito), (duck), (swallow), (skylark), (rabbit), (stone), (marsh), and (winter wheat) are considered to be of Curonian origin.
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Baltic states saw a revival of scientific and cultural interest in extinct Baltic languages and tribes, including Yotvingian, Curonian, and Old Prussian.
See also
Kursenieki language
References
Literature
Ambrassat, August "Die Provinz Ostpreußen", Frankfurt/ Main 1912
Endzelin, J.: Über die Nationalität und Sprache der Kuren, in Finnisch-Ungarische Forschungen, XII, 1912
Gaerte, Wilhelm "Urgeschichte Ostpreussens", Königsberg 1929
Gimbutas, Marija "Die Balten", München-Berlin 1983
Kurschat, Heinrich A.: Das Buch vom Memelland, Siebert Oldenburg 1968
Kwauka, Paul, Pietsch, Richard: Kurisches Wörterbuch, Verlag Ulrich Camen Berlin, 1977,
Kwauka, Paul: Namen des Memellandes/ Unsere „fremdartigen“ Familiennamen, Archiv AdM, Oldenburg
Lepa, Gerhard (Hrsg) "Die Schalauer", Tolkemita-Texte Dieburg 1997
Mortensen, Hans und Gertrud "Die Besiedlung des nordöstlichen Ostpreußens bis zum Beginn des 17. Jahrhunderts", Leipzig 1938
Mortensen, Hans und Gertrud: Kants väterliche Ahnen und ihre Umwelt, Rede von 1952 in Jahrbuch der Albertus-Universität zu Königsberg / Pr., Holzner- Verlag Kitzingen/ Main 1953 Bd. 3
Peteraitis, Vilius: Mažoji Lietuva ir Tvanksta (Lithuania Minor and Tvanksta) Vilnius 1992
Pietsch, Richard (künstlerischer Entwurf und Text): Bildkarte rund um das Kurische Haff, Heimat-Buchdienst Georg Banszerus, Höxter, Herstellung: Neue Stalling, Oldenburg
Pietsch, Richard: Deutsch-Kurisches Wörterbuch, Verlag Nordostdeutsches Kulturwerk Lüneburg 1991,
Pietsch, Richard: Fischerleben auf der Kurischen Nehrung dargestellt in kurischer und deutscher Sprache, Verlag Ulrich Camen Berlin 1982
Schmid, Wolfgang P. (Hrg): Nehrungskurisch, Sprachhistorische und instrumentalphonetische Studien zu einem aussterbenden Dialekt, Stuttgart 1989
Schmid, Wolfgang P.: Das Nehrungskurische, ein sprachhistorischer Überblick
Tolksdorf, Ulrich "Fischerei und Fischerkultur in Ostpreußen", Heide/ Holstein 1991
Žadeikiene, Daiva, Krajinskas, Albertas: Kurenkahnwimpel,
External links
Pietsch-Bildkarte „Kurisches Haff“
Der Kurenwimpel
Curonians in Memelland
Curonian placenames in Memelland
Studentu zinātniskās konferences "Aktuāli baltistikas jautājumi" tēzes Loreta Stonkutė. Kuršininkų tarmės lituanizmai. p.43, 44
Baltic languages
West Baltic languages
Extinct Baltic languages
Extinct languages of Europe
Medieval languages
Languages extinct in the 16th century
16th-century disestablishments in Europe
|
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] |
241709
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus%20Fulvius%20Flaccus
|
Marcus Fulvius Flaccus
|
Marcus Fulvius Flaccus was the name of several Romans, including:
Marcus Fulvius Flaccus (consul 264 BC)
Marcus Fulvius Flaccus (consul 125 BC)
See also
Fulvius or Fulvia gens, for other members of the gens
Flaccus, on the cognomen
|
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241713
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus%20Fulvius%20Flaccus%20%28consul%20237%20BC%29
|
Quintus Fulvius Flaccus (consul 237 BC)
|
Quintus Fulvius Flaccus (c. 277 BC202 BC), son of Marcus Fulvius Flaccus (consul 264 BC), was consul in 237 BC, fighting the Gauls in northern Italy. He was censor in 231 BC, and again consul in 224 BC, when he subdued the Boii. He was a praetor in 215 BC and in 213 BC Master of Horse in the dictatorship of Gaius Claudius Centho.
He was again consul in 212 BC, during the Second Punic War, winning a victory over Hanno, son of Bomilcar and capturing his camp at Beneventum. He was defeated by Hannibal at the first Battle of Capua, then captured Capua in 211 BC while serving as a proconsul. In his fourth term as consul (209 BC), he retook Lucania and Bruttium. He opposed the African expedition of Scipio Africanus in 205 BC, and died sometime not long thereafter.
Quintus Fulvius Flaccus was one of the three candidates for the position of Pontifex Maximus c. 212 BC, when he and another senior candidate Titus Manlius Torquatus, both former censors, were pipped at the post by a younger man, Publius Licinius Crassus who was not yet a curule aedile and thus probably aged in his middle thirties. Nevertheless, Flaccus made the new Pontifex his own Master of the Horse some years later.
Flaccus was known for his severity towards the disloyal citizens of Capua, of whom he had the senior men executed and the rest of the citizenry condemned to slavery for their disloyalty to Rome. According to Livy, the Capuans complained of his behavior to the Roman Senate, which, however, ruled that Flaccus was within his rights.
Flaccus was the grandfather of Marcus Fulvius Flaccus, consul in 125 BC, who was an ardent supporter of the Brothers Gracchi. He attempted to warn Tiberius Gracchus of the plots against his life on the day that he was killed; in 121 BC, having supported Gaius Gracchus in his reform program and tried to lead an armed resistance against the Senate, he and his elder son were tracked down and executed (beheaded) without trial on the orders of the consul Lucius Opimius; the youngest son, too young to have participated in any plotting or armed revolt, died in prison, again without trial (another son was apparently the father of Fulvia, third wife of Mark Antony). The grandfather, a stern conservative, could probably never have imagined the fates of his descendants.
270s BC births
202 BC deaths
3rd-century BC Roman consuls
3rd-century BC Roman generals
3rd-century BC Roman praetors
Magistri equitum (Roman Republic)
Roman censors
Flaccus, Quintus consul 517 AUC
Year of birth uncertain
|
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241714
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Miles
|
Tony Miles
|
Anthony John Miles (23 April 1955 – 12 November 2001) was an English chess player and the first Englishman to earn the Grandmaster title.
Early and personal life
Miles was an only child, born 23 April 1955 in Edgbaston, a suburb of Birmingham, and attended King Edward's School, Birmingham. He was married and divorced twice, and had no children. Miles's first wife was Jana Hartston, who had previously been married to William Hartston.
Early chess career
He learned the game of chess early in life and made good progress nationally, taking the titles of British under-14 Champion and under-21 Champion in 1968 and 1971, respectively.
In 1973, Miles won the silver medal at the World Junior Chess Championship at Teesside, his first important event against international competition. Both he and compatriot Michael Stean defeated the tournament winner Alexander Beliavsky, but were unable to match the Soviet player's ruthlessness in dispatching lesser opponents. Miles went on to win this prestigious title the following year in Manila, while a mathematics undergraduate of the University of Sheffield.
Taking the decision to pursue the game professionally, Miles did not complete his studies, but, in 1975, was awarded an MA by the university in respect of his chess achievements.
Later career
In 1976, Miles became the first UK-born, chess grandmaster, narrowly beating Raymond Keene to the accolade. The naturalised, German-born Jacques Mieses was awarded the GM title in 1950, while Keith Richardson had been awarded the GM title for correspondence chess earlier in the 1970s. For his achievement, Miles won a £5,000 prize, put up by wealthy businessman and chess backer Jim Slater.
Miles had a string of good results in the late 1970s and 1980s. He matured into a world class player and won games against high calibre opponents, such as former World Chess Champions Vasily Smyslov, Mikhail Tal and Boris Spassky.
In 1980 at the European Team Championship in Skara, he beat reigning World Champion Anatoly Karpov with Black, using the extremely unorthodox opening 1. e4 a6!?, the St. George Defence. It is often said that Miles learned the line from offbeat openings enthusiast Michael Basman, but in his book Play the St. George, Basman asserts there is no truth to this. Miles beat Karpov again three years later in Bath in a game that was part of the BBC's Master Game series, but it was shown only by the (co-producing) German television network, due to a BBC technicians' strike at the time of broadcast.
Miles won the British Championship just once, in 1982 when the event was held in Torquay. His prime time as a chess player was the mid-1980s. On 20 May 1984 in Roetgen (Germany), Miles set a European record in blind simultaneous chess with 22 games (+10−2=10); this record was not broken until 2009. On the January 1984 Elo rating list, he ranked No. 18 in the world with a rating of 2599. One of his best results occurred at the Tilburg tournament in 1984, where, from a strong field, he emerged sole winner by a clear margin of one and one-half points. The following year, he tied for first at the same event with Robert Hübner and Viktor Korchnoi, playing several of his games while lying face down on a table, having injured his back. The result was controversial, as many of Miles's opponents felt they were distracted by the unusual circumstances. A string of good performances culminated in a good showing on the January 1986 Elo rating list, where he climbed to a best-ever position of World No. 9 with a rating of 2610. During this period, there was considerable rivalry with John Nunn over who was the United Kingdom's best player, the two protagonists regularly leapfrogging each other in the world rankings. Nigel Short and Speelman soon added to the competition, as the English national squad entered its strongest period.
Never able to qualify out of the Interzonal stages into the Candidates' series, Miles eventually lost the race to become the first British Candidate when Short did so in 1985. However, he retained top board for England at the Thessaloniki and Dubai Olympiads of 1984 and 1986, helping the team to silver medals at each.
Against Garry Kasparov, Miles had little success, not winning a game against him, and losing a 1986 match in Basel by the score of 5½–½. Following this encounter, Miles commented "I thought I was playing the world champion, not a monster with a thousand eyes who sees everything" (some sources alternatively quote Miles as having the opinion that Kasparov had 22 or 27 eyes).
After he was hospitalised because of a mental breakdown in late 1987, Miles moved to the United States. He finished last in the 1988 U.S. Championship, but continued to play there and had some good results. In 1991, he played in the Championship of Australia, but eventually moved back to England and began to represent his native country again. He was equal first at the very strong Cappelle-la-Grande Open in 1994, 1995, and 1997, and caused a shock at the PCA Intel Rapid Chess Grand Prix in London in 1995, when he knocked out Vladimir Kramnik in the first round and Loek van Wely in the second. His bid to win the event was finally halted in the semifinal by English teammate Michael Adams.
There were four notable victories at the Capablanca Memorial in Cuba (1994, 1995, 1996, and 1999). Miles also tied for first in the 1999 Continental Open in Los Angeles with Alexander Beliavsky, Ľubomír Ftáčnik and Suat Atalık. His last tournament victory was the 2001 Canadian Open Chess Championship in Sackville, New Brunswick.
Miles entered and played at the 2001 British Championship in Scarborough, but withdrew before the final round, apparently because of ill health. His final two games before his death were short draws in the Four Nations Chess League. Miles played in an extraordinary number of chess events during his career, including many arduous weekend tournaments.
The Miles Variation (1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nf3 b6 4.Bf4) in the Queen's Indian Defence is named after him.
Death
Miles died from heart failure on 12 November 2001. His body was found at his home in Harborne, Birmingham, after a friend called on him to take him to a bridge club. He had suffered from diabetes and a post mortem found that this contributed to his death. He was cremated at Lodge Hill Crematorium in Selly Oak on 23 November. There was a moment of silence before the seventh round of the European Team Championships in León, Spain, in his memory.
Personality
Miles was often seen as a controversial figure. Once, in the last round of a tournament (Luton, UK, 1975), with Miles needing a draw for first place, and his opponent, Stewart Reuben, wanting a draw for a high placing, he agreed a draw without playing any moves. The arbiter decided to give both players no points for this non-game; the players claimed this "game" had been played often, when players prearranged a draw – this was the only time it had been scored 0–0, rather than playing out some meaningless moves. This sparked lengthy correspondence in British chess journals.
Miles also clashed with chess authorities and with his fellow English players, particularly Keene and Short. Miles made accusations regarding payments that Keene had received from the British Chess Federation for acting as his assistant in the 1985 Interzonal tournament in Tunis. Miles became obsessed with the affair, eventually suffering a mental breakdown over it. He was arrested in September 1987 in Downing Street, apparently under the belief that he had to speak to then-Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher about the matter; he was subsequently hospitalised for two months. Writing in The Daily Telegraph in November 2003, Short said that "Tony was insanely jealous of my success, and his inability to accept that he was no longer the UK's number one was an indication of, if not a trigger for, his descent into madness."
Miles was also noted for his acerbic wit. He often attacked chess personalities in published articles. He attacked former World Champion Anatoly Karpov in an article entitled "Has Karpov Lost his Marbles?". Other victims of his published attacks were Woman Grandmaster Martha Fierro, and Indian chess organizer Umar Koya. His review of Eric Schiller's book Unorthodox Chess Openings (Cardoza Publishing, 1998) which appeared in Kingpin consisted of just two words: "Utter crap."
Notable games
Karpov vs. Miles, Skara 1980. St. George Defence: 0–1. The game between Karpov and Miles with the opening line 1.e4 a6.
Miles vs. Spassky, 1982. Queen's Indian Opening: 1–0. A crushing sacrificial attack against Spassky, then still one of the world's strongest players.
Karpov vs. Miles, Bath 1983, Caro–Kann: 0–1. Another win against Karpovthen world championand again with black. Miles chooses a less popular system in the Caro–Kann and succeeds in creating an unbalanced game where both sides can play for the win.
References
Further reading
Geoff Lawton (compiler), Tony Miles: "It's Only Me" (an anagram of Miles's name) (Batsford, 2003) – mainly articles by Miles and games annotated by him, with a small number of tributes from other writers
External links
Obituary at the British Chess Federation site
1955 births
2001 deaths
Chess grandmasters
Chess theoreticians
Chess Olympiad competitors
English chess players
People from Birmingham, West Midlands
British chess players
British chess writers
People educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham
Alumni of the University of Sheffield
World Junior Chess Champions
People from Edgbaston
20th-century chess players
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicky%20Leandros
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Vicky Leandros
|
Vasiliki Papathanasiou (; born 23 August 1949), generally known as Vicky Leandros (), is a Greek singer living in Germany. She is the daughter of singer, musician and composer Leandros Papathanasiou (also known as Leo Leandros as well as Mario Panas). In 1967 she achieved worldwide fame after gaining fourth place for the country of Luxembourg in the Eurovision Song Contest with the song "L'amour est bleu", which became a worldwide hit. She further established her career by winning the Eurovision Song Contest in 1972 with the song "Après Toi", again representing Luxembourg.
On 15 October 2006, Vicky Leandros was elected town councillor of the Greek harbour town of Piraeus on the Pasok list. Her task concerned the Cultural and International development of Piraeus. She was also Deputy Mayor of Piraeus.
It was announced in June 2008 that Leandros decided to leave her position in Greek politics with immediate effect stating that she had underestimated the work load and time needed to fulfil her political obligations and that it had become impossible to combine those duties with her singing career.
Early career
Leandros was born as Vasiliki Papathanasiou in Palaiokastritsa, Corfu. Her father wanted to expand his career and went to West Germany while she grew up at her grandmother's house until the age of eight. In 1958 her parents took her to West Germany where she stayed with her father permanently after her parents' divorce. She revealed her talent at a young age while taking guitar, music, dance, ballet and voice lessons.
In 1965, she released her first single "Messer, Gabel, Schere, Licht". This was the beginning of a successful career for her with her father as composer, manager and producer. In 1967 she received an offer to sing for Luxembourg at the Eurovision Song Contest with the song "L'amour est bleu". She finished in fourth place but the song became one of the biggest worldwide hits of the year and was covered by other artists. She was shortly singing in eight languages with her albums, singles and EPs being sold all over the world.
The 1970s
In 1970 her first TV show Ich Bin was broadcast in 13 European countries. It received many awards for its originality and thought-provoking contemporary graphics including in 1971 the world-famous Bronze Rose of Montreux. It was also the first time that Vicky used the same stage surname as her father (actually his real Christian name) and became known from then onwards as Vicky Leandros having been known simply as Vicky during the 1960s. Guests appearing were Julien Clerc and Deep Purple. The show has been repeated over the years and is seen as a classic piece very evocative of the era though at first it was not well received in all quarters owing to its surprising even shocking imagery in an age when songs were not generally accompanied by visuals for marketing purposes. Throughout the 1970s other film portraits by prominent film makers were to follow which attracted interest around the world. She later went on to host a television series in the UK for the BBC, entitled Music My Way.
In 1972 she represented Luxembourg at Eurovision for the second time and won the contest with the song "Après Toi". Translated into English as "Come What May" it was also a hit in the UK reaching #2 on the UK Singles Chart. The song peaked at number 23 in Australia. Globally it sold over six million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. Leandros recorded the song in seven languages. Later in the year she released her version of the Theodorakis composition "O Kaymos (Sorrow, in Greek: Καημός) (The Love in Your Eyes)" which became a hit all over the world in various language versions. It peaked at #40 in the UK Singles Chart. In 1973 "When Bouzoukis Played" became another massive selling world hit in several languages reaching #44 in the UK chart. and 45 in Australia. In 1974 she recorded "Theo, wir fahr'n nach Lodz" a song that was a #1 hit in Germany. She also found much success in South Africa during the 1970s.
In Japan she reached her peak during the late 1960s and early 1970s and recorded many times in Japanese. Her second Japanese single "Watashi no Sukina Chocolate" (The Chocolate That I Like) became a notable hit. She also recorded many cover versions of songs, "Mamy Blue", "You Don't Have To Say You Love Me" and "My Sweet Lord" among others.
In 1975 she recorded the album entitled Across the Water in Nashville, Tennessee, and Miami, Florida. A departure from her previous works by combining country, rock, and soul The release was well received by critics upon its release in the United States. In 1976 she signed a multimillion-dollar contract with CBS Records for albums to be released in the US market and started working in Hollywood California with Kim Fowley but soon returned to Europe after CBS' support faltered.
After returning to Europe Leandros released albums of various genres which included German folk music and Christmas songs. Her career showed signs of fading and she had her last top 20 hit in Germany with the song Kali Nichta. She recorded an album in Spanish-language that gained her attention in Latin America. The first single, "Oh Mi Mama", was a minor hit, but the second single "Tu Me Has Hecho Sentir” although not promoted by Leandros or CBS due to differences between the two and a reported health scare, was a big hit in Spanish-speaking countries in 1979 . It regularly appears on compilation albums and is easily the most famous and remembered song by Vicky Leandros in Spanish. A new album, Wie am Allerersten Tag went unreleased and Leandros became pregnant and took time off over the next 18 months.
The 1980s
In 1981 she recorded the album Love is Alive including duets with Demis Roussos, Johnny Hallyday and US star David Soul for a United Nations Benefit. Also in 1981 she released the album Ich gehe neue Wege and its Greek version, Irtha Yia Sena. This comeback was consolidated in 1982 by the success of the song "Verlorenes Paradies" from the same titled next album which saw Leandros back in the upper reaches of the singles charts in many territories after a few years absence. It was also recorded in Dutch.
In 1983 came the album Vicky containing the popular song and single "Grüße an Sarah" which is regularly still sung in concerts often a cappella with the other musicians and vocalists making the sounds of the beats and instruments vocally to combine with Leandros' main vocal. Later in 1983 she recorded again in Dutch a song specially for the Dutch-speaking market; "Ver van het leven". In 1984 the French version - "A l'Est d'Eden" - was a big success in France reaching #2 on the singles chart. This single and corresponding album (Vicky) gave Leandros a notable comeback in Canada and she toured there after a gap of many years in 1985. Two more single releases from the album also became Canadian hits - "Tu as sept Ponts a traverser" and "Salut bien Sarah" the French version of "Gruesse an Sarah".
In 1986 following her 1985 album entitled Eine Nacht in Griechenland Leandros again took time off to concentrate on her private life. The album achieved Gold status in the Benelux and German speaking countries. It was early 1988 before the next album, "Ich bin ich", would be released. Working with Klaus "Nick" Munro, the album contained many new rhythms and was more rock- oriented than previous works. Leandros did not tour and made very limited appearances during this period concentrating mainly on her family life and her three young children. Nevertheless, two singles were released from the album "Du hast schon laengst Goodbye gesagt" and "Oh Oh Oh" in a remixed version. In 1989 she returned to her music career in Greece and charted with her comeback album Piretos tou Erota.
The 1990s
In 1990 Leandros released the album "Starkes Gefühl" (Strong Feeling) which notably contained a new version of "Apres Toi" her Eurovision song contest winner of 1972. The album also contained the German version of “Piretos tou erota” now "Süchtig nach Geborgenheit" which was the first single cut. The early 1990s saw her scoring successful albums in Greece with "Prosexe" (1991), "Andres" (1993), and in Germany with the singles "Du Bist Mein Schönster Gedanke" (1994), and a duet with Tony Christie, "We're Gonna Stay Together" (1995).
The resurgence of popularity in Greece saw first the re-release on vinyl of Leandros' early albums (with different sleeves) and later a CD release of them all with bonus tracks. From 1995 to 1998 she collaborated with German hit-maker Jack White and released three Top-10 albums as well as the German version of the Titanic song "My Heart Will Go On". This song "Weil mein Herz dich nie mehr vergisst" gave Leandros her highest-charting record since Verlorenes Paradies in 1982.
Recent career
In 2000 Leandros started producing her own records. The album Jetzt / Now was a success and her own compositions received critical praise. Her duet with Chris De Burgh was one of the highlights of the album. Following this she featured again on the charts of several countries such as Canada, China, Japan, Belgium and South Africa due to the many greatest hits collections that several companies released.
In 2003 she recorded a new album Tragoudi Alliotiko with songs by Mikis Theodorakis accompanied by the Kamerata Orchestra under Theodorakis's supervision. The album became a success in Germany, central Europe and in Greece. TV stations and tabloid newspaper reviewers celebrated her comeback while other publications and reviewers questioned the rationale behind Leandros' performance of songs from a political composer like Theodorakis. Around this time she appeared in many TV shows on German and Greek television including galas with José Carreras. The album made it to the 100 best selling records of 2003, and Theodorakis wrote that he considered her "among the two or three most important interpreters of [my] work".
In 2003, she received two prestigious awards from the Greek government for her promotion of Greek culture and music abroad and another from the Greek Orthodox Church for her work for poor children in Africa. The latter award was presented to her at her classical concert held at the Herod Atticus amphitheatre in October 2003 and is the highest honour that the Greek Orthodox church can bestow. Leandros is the only woman to date to be awarded such an honor. 2005 saw the release of a double album Ich Bin Wie Ich Bin containing new recordings of her songs. The album charted in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Her Jubilee Tour of Europe started in February 2006. A month later she took part in the German pre-selection for the Eurovision Song Contest 34 years since "Après Toi". Her song "Don't Break My Heart" which had already entered the charts failed to win the most votes from the televoting public.
Leandros released a CD in March 2009 titled Möge der Himmel. This album contained soul elements combined with some R&B flavour, hip hop and rap. The change in direction was headline news and the album received mixed reviews. The next album Zeitlos in 2010 returned to the idea born in 2008 of recording a collection of French songs and World hits in the German language. In 2011, she re-recorded her hit "L'amour est bleu" as "C'est Bleu" for the Scooter album The Big Mash Up. The unusual collaboration was named a highlight of the record and was released as a single on 2 December 2011. A new studio album with the title “Ich weiss, dass ich nichts weiss” was released on the Ariola (Sony) label in 2015 . The majority of the tracks contained were co-composed (music and lyrics) by Leandros. The themes of the songs are based to some extent on personal life experiences of the singer.
Personal life
From 1982 to 1986, Leandros was married to Greek entrepreneur Ivan Zissiadis, the father of her son, Leandros Zissiadis (born 6 June 1980). She married Enno von Ruffin, son of Freiherr Franz von Ruffin in May 1986. Enno von Ruffin has owned and managed his country estate, Gut Basthorst, since 1982. In 2005, Leandros and Enno separated after 19 years of marriage. The couple has two daughters: Maximiliane von Ruffin ("Milana"; born 31 January 1985) and Alessandra von Ruffin ("Sandra"; born 2 December 1986).
Awards and collaborations
Leandros has received various awards including gold and platinum records from all around the world for discs that have sold in excess of 150 million copies.
She worked with many composers, producers and conductors. She was awarded with the "Bronze Rose of Montreux", "Goldene Europa", "Record Award of USA", and "Song Statue of Japan".
1967: Fourth place at the Eurovision with the song „L´amour est bleu“
1968: Goldene Europa
1971: Bronze Rose von Montreux for the TV-Show "Ich bin"
1971: Bronze Lion of the Radio Luxembourg
1972: First Place at the Eurovision with the song "Aprés toi“
1972: Best Selling Artist Internationally
1974: Goldene Europa
2001: Goldene Stimmgabel German pop
2001: Internationaler Schlagerpreis in the category of „Beste Künstlerin International“
2003: Hospitality Zeus
2005: Woman of the year in Greece
2009: Orinocoradio bubbling after hitsong "Theo wir fahr'n nach Lodz"
2011: Commander of the Order of Merit of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
2018: Orinocoradio bubbling after hitsong "Verloren zijn wij niet"
Discography
References
External links
Year of birth uncertain
Living people
English-language singers from Germany
English-language singers from Greece
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1967
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1972
Eurovision Song Contest winners
French-language singers
Greek emigrants to Germany
20th-century German women singers
20th-century Greek women singers
Schlager musicians
Greek pop singers
20th-century Greek women politicians
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Luxembourg
Philips Records artists
Musicians from Corfu
Musicians from Hamburg
PASOK politicians
Officers of the Order of Merit of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
Recipients of the Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
1949 births
German baronesses
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical%20trial
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Clinical trial
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Clinical trials are experiments or observations done in clinical research. Such prospective biomedical or behavioral research studies on human participants are designed to answer specific questions about biomedical or behavioral interventions, including new treatments (such as novel vaccines, drugs, dietary choices, dietary supplements, and medical devices) and known interventions that warrant further study and comparison. Clinical trials generate data on dosage, safety and efficacy. They are conducted only after they have received health authority/ethics committee approval in the country where approval of the therapy is sought. These authorities are responsible for vetting the risk/benefit ratio of the trial—their approval does not mean the therapy is 'safe' or effective, only that the trial may be conducted.
Depending on product type and development stage, investigators initially enroll volunteers or patients into small pilot studies, and subsequently conduct progressively larger scale comparative studies. Clinical trials can vary in size and cost, and they can involve a single research center or multiple centers, in one country or in multiple countries. Clinical study design aims to ensure the scientific validity and reproducibility of the results.
Costs for clinical trials can range into the billions of dollars per approved drug. The sponsor may be a governmental organization or a pharmaceutical, biotechnology or medical device company. Certain functions necessary to the trial, such as monitoring and lab work, may be managed by an outsourced partner, such as a contract research organization or a central laboratory. Only 10 percent of all drugs started in human clinical trials become approved drugs.
Overview
Trials of drugs
Some clinical trials involve healthy subjects with no pre-existing medical conditions. Other clinical trials pertain to people with specific health conditions who are willing to try an experimental treatment. Pilot experiments are conducted to gain insights for design of the clinical trial to follow.
There are two goals to testing medical treatments: to learn whether they work well enough, called "efficacy" or "effectiveness"; and to learn whether they are safe enough, called "safety". Neither is an absolute criterion; both safety and efficacy are evaluated relative to how the treatment is intended to be used, what other treatments are available, and the severity of the disease or condition. The benefits must outweigh the risks. For example, many drugs to treat cancer have severe side effects that would not be acceptable for an over-the-counter pain medication, yet the cancer drugs have been approved since they are used under a physician's care and are used for a life-threatening condition.
In the US, the elderly constitute 14% of the population, while they consume over one-third of drugs. People over 55 (or a similar cutoff age) are often excluded from trials because their greater health issues and drug use complicate data interpretation, and because they have different physiological capacity than younger people. Children and people with unrelated medical conditions are also frequently excluded. Pregnant women are often excluded due to potential risks to the fetus.
The sponsor designs the trial in coordination with a panel of expert clinical investigators, including what alternative or existing treatments to compare to the new drug and what type(s) of patients might benefit. If the sponsor cannot obtain enough test subjects at one location investigators at other locations are recruited to join the study.
During the trial, investigators recruit subjects with the predetermined characteristics, administer the treatment(s) and collect data on the subjects' health for a defined time period. Data include measurements such as vital signs, concentration of the study drug in the blood or tissues, changes to symptoms, and whether improvement or worsening of the condition targeted by the study drug occurs. The researchers send the data to the trial sponsor, who then analyzes the pooled data using statistical tests.
Examples of clinical trial goals include assessing the safety and relative effectiveness of a medication or device:
On a specific kind of patient
At varying dosages
For a new indication
Evaluation for improved efficacy in treating a condition as compared to the standard therapy for that condition
Evaluation of the study drug or device relative to two or more already approved/common interventions for that condition
While most clinical trials test one alternative to the novel intervention, some expand to three or four and may include a placebo.
Except for small, single-location trials, the design and objectives are specified in a document called a clinical trial protocol. The protocol is the trial's "operating manual" and ensures all researchers perform the trial in the same way on similar subjects and that the data is comparable across all subjects.
As a trial is designed to test hypotheses and rigorously monitor and assess outcomes, it can be seen as an application of the scientific method, specifically the experimental step.
The most common clinical trials evaluate new pharmaceutical products, medical devices, biologics, psychological therapies, or other interventions. Clinical trials may be required before a national regulatory authority approves marketing of the innovation.
Trials of devices
Similarly to drugs, manufacturers of medical devices in the United States are required to conduct clinical trials for premarket approval. Device trials may compare a new device to an established therapy, or may compare similar devices to each other. An example of the former in the field of vascular surgery is the Open versus Endovascular Repair (OVER trial) for the treatment of abdominal aortic aneurysm, which compared the older open aortic repair technique to the newer endovascular aneurysm repair device. An example of the latter are clinical trials on mechanical devices used in the management of adult female urinary incontinence.
Trials of procedures
Similarly to drugs, medical or surgical procedures may be subjected to clinical trials, such as case-controlled studies for surgical interventions.
History
The concepts behind clinical trials are ancient. The Book of Daniel chapter 1, verses 12 through 15, for instance, describes a planned experiment with both baseline and follow-up observations of two groups who either partook of, or did not partake of, "the King's meat" over a trial period of ten days. Persian physician Avicenna, in The Canon of Medicine (1025) gave similar advice for determining the efficacy of medical drugs and substances.
Development
Although early medical experimentation was performed often, the use of a control group to provide an accurate comparison for the demonstration of the intervention's efficacy was generally lacking. For instance, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, who campaigned for the introduction of inoculation (then called variolation) to prevent smallpox, arranged for seven prisoners who had been sentenced to death to undergo variolation in exchange for their life. Although they survived and did not contract smallpox, there was no control group to assess whether this result was due to the inoculation or some other factor. Similar experiments performed by Edward Jenner over his smallpox vaccine were equally conceptually flawed.
The first proper clinical trial was conducted by the Scottish physician James Lind. The disease scurvy, now known to be caused by a Vitamin C deficiency, would often have terrible effects on the welfare of the crew of long-distance ocean voyages. In 1740, the catastrophic result of Anson's circumnavigation attracted much attention in Europe; out of 1900 men, 1400 had died, most of them allegedly from having contracted scurvy. John Woodall, an English military surgeon of the British East India Company, had recommended the consumption of citrus fruit (it has an antiscorbutic effect) from the 17th century, but their use did not become widespread.
Lind conducted the first systematic clinical trial in 1747. He included a dietary supplement of an acidic quality in the experiment after two months at sea, when the ship was already afflicted with scurvy. He divided twelve scorbutic sailors into six groups of two. They all received the same diet but, in addition, group one was given a quart of cider daily, group two twenty-five drops of elixir of vitriol (sulfuric acid), group three six spoonfuls of vinegar, group four half a pint of seawater, group five received two oranges and one lemon, and the last group a spicy paste plus a drink of barley water. The treatment of group five stopped after six days when they ran out of fruit, but by then one sailor was fit for duty while the other had almost recovered. Apart from that, only group one also showed some effect of its treatment.
After 1750, the discipline began to take its modern shape. The English doctor John Haygarth demonstrated the importance of a control group for the correct identification of the placebo effect in his celebrated study of the ineffective remedy called Perkin's tractors. Further work in that direction was carried out by the eminent physician Sir William Gull, 1st Baronet in the 1860s.
Frederick Akbar Mahomed (d. 1884), who worked at Guy's Hospital in London, made substantial contributions to the process of clinical trials, where "he separated chronic nephritis with secondary hypertension from what we now term essential hypertension. He also founded the Collective Investigation Record for the British Medical Association; this organization collected data from physicians practicing outside the hospital setting and was the precursor of modern collaborative clinical trials."
Modern trials
Sir Ronald A. Fisher, while working for the Rothamsted experimental station in the field of agriculture, developed his Principles of experimental design in the 1920s as an accurate methodology for the proper design of experiments. Among his major ideas, was the importance of randomization—the random assignment of individuals to different groups for the experiment; replication—to reduce uncertainty, measurements should be repeated and experiments replicated to identify sources of variation; blocking—to arrange experimental units into groups of units that are similar to each other, and thus reducing irrelevant sources of variation; use of factorial experiments—efficient at evaluating the effects and possible interactions of several independent factors.
The British Medical Research Council officially recognized the importance of clinical trials from the 1930s. The council established the Therapeutic Trials Committee to advise and assist in the arrangement of properly controlled clinical trials on new products that seem likely on experimental grounds to have value in the treatment of disease.
The first randomised curative trial was carried out at the MRC Tuberculosis Research Unit by Sir Geoffrey Marshall (1887–1982). The trial, carried out between 1946 and 1947, aimed to test the efficacy of the chemical streptomycin for curing pulmonary tuberculosis. The trial was both double-blind and placebo-controlled.
The methodology of clinical trials was further developed by Sir Austin Bradford Hill, who had been involved in the streptomycin trials. From the 1920s, Hill applied statistics to medicine, attending the lectures of renowned mathematician Karl Pearson, among others. He became famous for a landmark study carried out in collaboration with Richard Doll on the correlation between smoking and lung cancer. They carried out a case-control study in 1950, which compared lung cancer patients with matched control and also began a sustained long-term prospective study into the broader issue of smoking and health, which involved studying the smoking habits and health of more than 30,000 doctors over a period of several years. His certificate for election to the Royal Society called him "...the leader in the development in medicine of the precise experimental methods now used nationally and internationally in the evaluation of new therapeutic and prophylactic agents."
International clinical trials day is celebrated on 20 May.
The acronyms used in the titling of clinical trials is often contrived, and has been the subject of derision.
Types
Clinical trials are classified by the research objective created by the investigators.
In an observational study, the investigators observe the subjects and measure their outcomes. The researchers do not actively manage the study.
In an interventional study, the investigators give the research subjects an experimental drug, surgical procedure, use of a medical device, diagnostic or other intervention to compare the treated subjects with those receiving no treatment or the standard treatment. Then the researchers assess how the subjects' health changes.
Trials are classified by their purpose. After approval for human research is granted to the trial sponsor, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) organizes and monitors the results of trials according to type:
Prevention trials look for ways to prevent disease in people who have never had the disease or to prevent a disease from returning. These approaches may include drugs, vitamins or other micronutrients, vaccines, or lifestyle changes.
Screening trials test for ways to identify certain diseases or health conditions.
Diagnostic trials are conducted to find better tests or procedures for diagnosing a particular disease or condition.
Treatment trials test experimental drugs, new combinations of drugs, or new approaches to surgery or radiation therapy.
Quality of life trials (supportive care trials) evaluate how to improve comfort and quality of care for people with a chronic illness.
Genetic trials are conducted to assess the prediction accuracy of genetic disorders making a person more or less likely to develop a disease.
Epidemiological trials have the goal of identifying the general causes, patterns or control of diseases in large numbers of people.
Compassionate use trials or expanded access trials provide partially tested, unapproved therapeutics to a small number of patients who have no other realistic options. Usually, this involves a disease for which no effective therapy has been approved, or a patient who has already failed all standard treatments and whose health is too compromised to qualify for participation in randomized clinical trials. Usually, case-by-case approval must be granted by both the FDA and the pharmaceutical company for such exceptions.
Fixed trials consider existing data only during the trial's design, do not modify the trial after it begins, and do not assess the results until the study is completed.
Adaptive clinical trials use existing data to design the trial, and then use interim results to modify the trial as it proceeds. Modifications include dosage, sample size, drug undergoing trial, patient selection criteria and "cocktail" mix. Adaptive trials often employ a Bayesian experimental design to assess the trial's progress. In some cases, trials have become an ongoing process that regularly adds and drops therapies and patient groups as more information is gained. The aim is to more quickly identify drugs that have a therapeutic effect and to zero in on patient populations for whom the drug is appropriate.
Clinical trials are conducted typically in four phases, with each phase using different numbers of subjects and having a different purpose to construct focus on identifying a specific effect.
Phases
Clinical trials involving new drugs are commonly classified into five phases. Each phase of the drug approval process is treated as a separate clinical trial. The drug development process will normally proceed through phases I–IV over many years, frequently involving a decade or longer. If the drug successfully passes through phases I, II, and III, it will usually be approved by the national regulatory authority for use in the general population. Phase IV trials are performed after the newly approved drug, diagnostic or device is marketed, providing assessment about risks, benefits, or best uses.
{| class=wikitable
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! Phase !! Aim!! Notes
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| Phase 0 || Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics in humans || Phase 0 trials are optional first-in-human trials. Single subtherapeutic doses of the study drug or treatment are given to a small number of subjects (typically 10 to 15) to gather preliminary data on the agent's pharmacodynamics (what the drug does to the body) and pharmacokinetics (what the body does to the drugs). For a test drug, the trial documents the absorption, distribution, metabolization, and clearance (excretion) of the drug, and the drug's interactions within the body, to confirm that these appear to be as expected.
|-
| Phase I || Screening for safety || Often are first-in-person trials. Testing within a small group of people (typically 20–80) to evaluate safety, determine safe dosage ranges, and identify side effects.
|-
| Phase II || Establishing the preliminary efficacy of the drug in a "treatment group", usually against a placebo control group|| Phase IIa is specifically designed to assess dosing requirements (how much drug should be given), while a Phase IIb trial is designed to determine efficacy, and studies how well the drug works at the prescribed dose(s), establishing a therapeutic dose range.
|-
| Phase III || Final confirmation of safety and efficacy || Testing with large groups of people (typically 1,000–3,000) to confirm its efficacy, evaluate its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow it to be used safely.
|-
| Phase IV || Safety studies during sales || Postmarketing studies delineate risks, benefits, and optimal use. As such, they are ongoing during the drug's lifetime of active medical use.
|}
Trial design
A fundamental distinction in evidence-based practice is between observational studies and randomized controlled trials. Types of observational studies in epidemiology, such as the cohort study and the case-control study, provide less compelling evidence than the randomized controlled trial. In observational studies, the investigators retrospectively assess associations between the treatments given to participants and their health status, with potential for considerable errors in design and interpretation.
A randomized controlled trial can provide compelling evidence that the study treatment causes an effect on human health.
Currently, some Phase II and most Phase III drug trials are designed as randomized, double-blind, and placebo-controlled.
Randomized: Each study subject is randomly assigned to receive either the study treatment or a placebo.
Blind: The subjects involved in the study do not know which study treatment they receive. If the study is double-blind, the researchers also do not know which treatment a subject receives. This intent is to prevent researchers from treating the two groups differently. A form of double-blind study called a "double-dummy" design allows additional insurance against bias. In this kind of study, all patients are given both placebo and active doses in alternating periods.
Placebo-controlled: The use of a placebo (fake treatment) allows the researchers to isolate the effect of the study treatment from the placebo effect.
Clinical studies having small numbers of subjects may be "sponsored" by single researchers or a small group of researchers, and are designed to test simple questions or feasibility to expand the research for a more comprehensive randomized controlled trial.
Active control studies
In many cases, giving a placebo to a person suffering from a disease may be unethical. To address this, it has become a common practice to conduct "active comparator" (also known as "active control") trials. In trials with an active control group, subjects are given either the experimental treatment or a previously approved treatment with known effectiveness.
Master protocol
In such studies, multiple experimental treatments are tested in a single trial. Genetic testing enables researchers to group patients according to their genetic profile, deliver drugs based on that profile to that group and compare the results. Multiple companies can participate, each bringing a different drug. The first such approach targets squamous cell cancer, which includes varying genetic disruptions from patient to patient. Amgen, AstraZeneca and Pfizer are involved, the first time they have worked together in a late-stage trial. Patients whose genomic profiles do not match any of the trial drugs receive a drug designed to stimulate the immune system to attack cancer.
Clinical trial protocol
A clinical trial protocol is a document used to define and manage the trial. It is prepared by a panel of experts. All study investigators are expected to strictly observe the protocol.
The protocol describes the scientific rationale, objective(s), design, methodology, statistical considerations and organization of the planned trial. Details of the trial are provided in documents referenced in the protocol, such as an investigator's brochure.
The protocol contains a precise study plan to assure safety and health of the trial subjects and to provide an exact template for trial conduct by investigators. This allows data to be combined across all investigators/sites. The protocol also informs the study administrators (often a contract research organization).
The format and content of clinical trial protocols sponsored by pharmaceutical, biotechnology or medical device companies in the United States, European Union, or Japan have been standardized to follow Good Clinical Practice guidance issued by the International Conference on Harmonization of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH). Regulatory authorities in Canada and Australia also follow ICH guidelines. Journals such as Trials, encourage investigators to publish their protocols.
Design features
Informed consent
Clinical trials recruit study subjects to sign a document representing their "informed consent". The document includes details such as its purpose, duration, required procedures, risks, potential benefits, key contacts and institutional requirements. The participant then decides whether to sign the document. The document is not a contract, as the participant can withdraw at any time without penalty.
Informed consent is a legal process in which a recruit is instructed about key facts before deciding whether to participate. Researchers explain the details of the study in terms the subject can understand. The information is presented in the subject's native language. Generally, children cannot autonomously provide informed consent, but depending on their age and other factors, may be required to provide informed assent.
Statistical power
In any clinical trial, the number of subjects, also called the sample size, has a large impact on the ability to reliably detect and measure the effects of the intervention. This ability is described as its "power", which must be calculated before initiating a study to figure out if the study is worth its costs. In general, a larger sample size increases the statistical power, also the cost.
The statistical power estimates the ability of a trial to detect a difference of a particular size (or larger) between the treatment and control groups. For example, a trial of a lipid-lowering drug versus placebo with 100 patients in each group might have a power of 0.90 to detect a difference between placebo and trial groups receiving dosage of 10 mg/dL or more, but only 0.70 to detect a difference of 6 mg/dL.
Placebo groups
Merely giving a treatment can have nonspecific effects. These are controlled for by the inclusion of patients who receive only a placebo. Subjects are assigned randomly without informing them to which group they belonged. Many trials are doubled-blinded so that researchers do not know to which group a subject is assigned.
Assigning a subject to a placebo group can pose an ethical problem if it violates his or her right to receive the best available treatment. The Declaration of Helsinki provides guidelines on this issue.
Duration
Clinical trials are only a small part of the research that goes into developing a new treatment. Potential drugs, for example, first have to be discovered, purified, characterized, and tested in labs (in cell and animal studies) before ever undergoing clinical trials. In all, about 1,000 potential drugs are tested before just one reaches the point of being tested in a clinical trial. For example, a new cancer drug has, on average, six years of research behind it before it even makes it to clinical trials. But the major holdup in making new cancer drugs available is the time it takes to complete clinical trials themselves. On average, about eight years pass from the time a cancer drug enters clinical trials until it receives approval from regulatory agencies for sale to the public. Drugs for other diseases have similar timelines.
Some reasons a clinical trial might last several years:
For chronic conditions such as cancer, it takes months, if not years, to see if a cancer treatment has an effect on a patient.
For drugs that are not expected to have a strong effect (meaning a large number of patients must be recruited to observe 'any' effect), recruiting enough patients to test the drug's effectiveness (i.e., getting statistical power) can take several years.
Only certain people who have the target disease condition are eligible to take part in each clinical trial. Researchers who treat these particular patients must participate in the trial. Then they must identify the desirable patients and obtain consent from them or their families to take part in the trial.
A clinical trial might also include an extended post-study follow-up period from months to years for people who have participated in the trial, a so-called "extension phase", which aims to identify long-term impact of the treatment.
The biggest barrier to completing studies is the shortage of people who take part. All drug and many device trials target a subset of the population, meaning not everyone can participate. Some drug trials require patients to have unusual combinations of disease characteristics. It is a challenge to find the appropriate patients and obtain their consent, especially when they may receive no direct benefit (because they are not paid, the study drug is not yet proven to work, or the patient may receive a placebo). In the case of cancer patients, fewer than 5% of adults with cancer will participate in drug trials. According to the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA), about 400 cancer medicines were being tested in clinical trials in 2005. Not all of these will prove to be useful, but those that are may be delayed in getting approved because the number of participants is so low .
For clinical trials involving potential for seasonal influences (such as airborne allergies, seasonal affective disorder, influenza, and skin diseases), the study may be done during a limited part of the year (such as spring for pollen allergies), when the drug can be tested.
Clinical trials that do not involve a new drug usually have a much shorter duration. (Exceptions are epidemiological studies, such as the Nurses' Health Study).
Administration
Clinical trials designed by a local investigator, and (in the US) federally funded clinical trials, are almost always administered by the researcher who designed the study and applied for the grant. Small-scale device studies may be administered by the sponsoring company. Clinical trials of new drugs are usually administered by a contract research organization (CRO) hired by the sponsoring company. The sponsor provides the drug and medical oversight. A CRO is contracted to perform all the administrative work on a clinical trial. For PhasesII–IV the CRO recruits participating researchers, trains them, provides them with supplies, coordinates study administration and data collection, sets up meetings, monitors the sites for compliance with the clinical protocol, and ensures the sponsor receives data from every site. Specialist site management organizations can also be hired to coordinate with the CRO to ensure rapid IRB/IEC approval and faster site initiation and patient recruitment. PhaseI clinical trials of new medicines are often conducted in a specialist clinical trial clinic, with dedicated pharmacologists, where the subjects can be observed by full-time staff. These clinics are often run by a CRO which specialises in these studies.
At a participating site, one or more research assistants (often nurses) do most of the work in conducting the clinical trial. The research assistant's job can include some or all of the following: providing the local institutional review board (IRB) with the documentation necessary to obtain its permission to conduct the study, assisting with study start-up, identifying eligible patients, obtaining consent from them or their families, administering study treatment(s), collecting and statistically analyzing data, maintaining and updating data files during followup, and communicating with the IRB, as well as the sponsor and CRO.
Quality
In the context of a clinical trial, quality typically refers to the absence of errors which can impact decision making, both during the conduct of the trial and in use of the trial results.
Marketing
Janet Yang uses the Interactional Justice Model to test the effects of willingness to talk with a doctor and clinical trial enrollment. Results found that potential clinical trial candidates were less likely to enroll in clinical trials if the patient is more willing to talk with their doctor. The reasoning behind this discovery may be patients are happy with their current care. Another reason for the negative relationship between perceived fairness and clinical trial enrollment is the lack of independence from the care provider. Results found that there is a positive relationship between a lack of willingness to talk with their doctor and clinical trial enrollment. Lack of willingness to talk about clinical trials with current care providers may be due to patients' independence from the doctor. Patients who are less likely to talk about clinical trials are more willing to use other sources of information to gain a better insight of alternative treatments. Clinical trial enrollment should be motivated to utilize websites and television advertising to inform the public about clinical trial enrollment.
Information technology
The last decade has seen a proliferation of information technology use in the planning and conduct of clinical trials. Clinical trial management systems are often used by research sponsors or CROs to help plan and manage the operational aspects of a clinical trial, particularly with respect to investigational sites. Advanced analytics for identifying researchers and research sites with expertise in a given area utilize public and private information about ongoing research. Web-based electronic data capture (EDC) and clinical data management systems are used in a majority of clinical trials to collect case report data from sites, manage its quality and prepare it for analysis. Interactive voice response systems are used by sites to register the enrollment of patients using a phone and to allocate patients to a particular treatment arm (although phones are being increasingly replaced with web-based (IWRS) tools which are sometimes part of the EDC system). While patient-reported outcome were often paper based in the past, measurements are increasingly being collected using web portals or hand-held ePRO (or eDiary) devices, sometimes wireless. Statistical software is used to analyze the collected data and prepare them for regulatory submission. Access to many of these applications are increasingly aggregated in web-based clinical trial portals. In 2011, the FDA approved a PhaseI trial that used telemonitoring, also known as remote patient monitoring, to collect biometric data in patients' homes and transmit it electronically to the trial database. This technology provides many more data points and is far more convenient for patients, because they have fewer visits to trial sites.
Ethical aspects
Clinical trials are closely supervised by appropriate regulatory authorities. All studies involving a medical or therapeutic intervention on patients must be approved by a supervising ethics committee before permission is granted to run the trial. The local ethics committee has discretion on how it will supervise noninterventional studies (observational studies or those using already collected data). In the US, this body is called the Institutional Review Board (IRB); in the EU, they are called Ethics committees. Most IRBs are located at the local investigator's hospital or institution, but some sponsors allow the use of a central (independent/for profit) IRB for investigators who work at smaller institutions.
To be ethical, researchers must obtain the full and informed consent of participating human subjects. (One of the IRB's main functions is to ensure potential patients are adequately informed about the clinical trial.) If the patient is unable to consent for him/herself, researchers can seek consent from the patient's legally authorized representative. In California, the state has prioritized the individuals who can serve as the legally authorized representative.
In some US locations, the local IRB must certify researchers and their staff before they can conduct clinical trials. They must understand the federal patient privacy (HIPAA) law and good clinical practice. The International Conference of Harmonisation Guidelines for Good Clinical Practice is a set of standards used internationally for the conduct of clinical trials. The guidelines aim to ensure the "rights, safety and well being of trial subjects are protected".
The notion of informed consent of participating human subjects exists in many countries but its precise definition may still vary.
Informed consent is clearly a 'necessary' condition for ethical conduct but does not 'ensure' ethical conduct. In compassionate use trials the latter becomes a particularly difficult problem. The final objective is to serve the community of patients or future patients in a best-possible and most responsible way. See also Expanded access. However, it may be hard to turn this objective into a well-defined, quantified, objective function. In some cases this can be done, however, for instance, for questions of when to stop sequential treatments (see Odds algorithm), and then quantified methods may play an important role.
Additional ethical concerns are present when conducting clinical trials on children (pediatrics), and in emergency or epidemic situations.
Ethically balancing the rights of multiple stakeholders may be difficult. For example, when drug trials fail, the sponsors may have a duty to tell current and potential investors immediately, which means both the research staff and the enrolled participants may first hear about the end of a trial through public business news.
Conflicts of interest and unfavorable studies
In response to specific cases in which unfavorable data from pharmaceutical company-sponsored research were not published, the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America published new guidelines urging companies to report all findings and limit the financial involvement in drug companies by researchers. The US Congress signed into law a bill which requires PhaseII and PhaseIII clinical trials to be registered by the sponsor on the clinicaltrials.gov website compiled by the National Institutes of Health.
Drug researchers not directly employed by pharmaceutical companies often seek grants from manufacturers, and manufacturers often look to academic researchers to conduct studies within networks of universities and their hospitals, e.g., for translational cancer research. Similarly, competition for tenured academic positions, government grants and prestige create conflicts of interest among academic scientists. According to one study, approximately 75% of articles retracted for misconduct-related reasons have no declared industry financial support. Seeding trials are particularly controversial.
In the United States, all clinical trials submitted to the FDA as part of a drug approval process are independently assessed by clinical experts within the Food and Drug Administration, including inspections of primary data collection at selected clinical trial sites.
In 2001, the editors of 12 major journals issued a joint editorial, published in each journal, on the control over clinical trials exerted by sponsors, particularly targeting the use of contracts which allow sponsors to review the studies prior to publication and withhold publication. They strengthened editorial restrictions to counter the effect. The editorial noted that contract research organizations had, by 2000, received 60% of the grants from pharmaceutical companies in the US. Researchers may be restricted from contributing to the trial design, accessing the raw data, and interpreting the results.
Despite explicit recommendations by stakeholders of measures to improve the standards of industry-sponsored medical research, in 2013, Tohen warned of the persistence of a gap in the credibility of conclusions arising from industry-funded clinical trials, and called for ensuring strict adherence to ethical standards in industrial collaborations with academia, in order to avoid further erosion of the public's trust. Issues referred for attention in this respect include potential observation bias, duration of the observation time for maintenance studies, the selection of the patient populations, factors that affect placebo response, and funding sources.
During public health crises
Conducting clinical trials of vaccines during epidemics and pandemics is subject to ethical concerns. For diseases with high mortality rates like Ebola, assigning individuals to a placebo or control group can be viewed as a death sentence. In response to ethical concerns regarding clinical research during epidemics, the National Academy of Medicine authored a report identifying seven ethical and scientific considerations. These considerations are:
Scientific value
Social value
Respect for persons
Community engagement
Concern for participant welfare and interests
A balance towards benefit over risks
Post-trial access to tested therapies that had been withheld during the trial
Pregnant women and children
Pregnant women and children are typically excluded from clinical trials as vulnerable populations, though the data to support excluding them is not robust. By excluding them from clinical trials, information about the safety and effectiveness of therapies for these populations is often lacking. During the early history of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, a scientist noted that by excluding these groups from potentially life-saving treatment, they were being "protected to death". Projects such as Research Ethics for Vaccines, Epidemics, and New Technologies (PREVENT) have advocated for the ethical inclusion of pregnant women in vaccine trials. Inclusion of children in clinical trials has additional moral considerations, as children lack decision-making autonomy. Trials in the past had been criticized for using hospitalized children or orphans; these ethical concerns effectively stopped future research. In efforts to maintain effective pediatric care, several European countries and the US have policies to entice or compel pharmaceutical companies to conduct pediatric trials. International guidance recommends ethical pediatric trials by limiting harm, considering varied risks, and taking into account the complexities of pediatric care.
Safety
Responsibility for the safety of the subjects in a clinical trial is shared between the sponsor, the local site investigators (if different from the sponsor), the various IRBs that supervise the study, and (in some cases, if the study involves a marketable drug or device), the regulatory agency for the country where the drug or device will be sold.
A systematic concurrent safety review is frequently employed to assure research participant safety. The conduct and on-going review is designed to be proportional to the risk of the trial. Typically this role is filled by a Data and Safety Committee, an externally appointed Medical Safety Monitor, an Independent Safety Officer, or for small or low-risk studies the principal investigator.
For safety reasons, many clinical trials of drugs are designed to exclude women of childbearing age, pregnant women, or women who become pregnant during the study. In some cases, the male partners of these women are also excluded or required to take birth control measures.
Sponsor
Throughout the clinical trial, the sponsor is responsible for accurately informing the local site investigators of the true historical safety record of the drug, device or other medical treatments to be tested, and of any potential interactions of the study treatment(s) with already approved treatments. This allows the local investigators to make an informed judgment on whether to participate in the study or not. The sponsor is also responsible for monitoring the results of the study as they come in from the various sites as the trial proceeds. In larger clinical trials, a sponsor will use the services of a data monitoring committee (DMC, known in the US as a data safety monitoring board). This independent group of clinicians and statisticians meets periodically to review the unblinded data the sponsor has received so far. The DMC has the power to recommend termination of the study based on their review, for example if the study treatment is causing more deaths than the standard treatment, or seems to be causing unexpected and study-related serious adverse events. The sponsor is responsible for collecting adverse event reports from all site investigators in the study, and for informing all the investigators of the sponsor's judgment as to whether these adverse events were related or not related to the study treatment.
The sponsor and the local site investigators are jointly responsible for writing a site-specific informed consent that accurately informs the potential subjects of the true risks and potential benefits of participating in the study, while at the same time presenting the material as briefly as possible and in ordinary language. FDA regulations state that participating in clinical trials is voluntary, with the subject having the right not to participate or to end participation at any time.
Local site investigators
The ethical principle of primum non-nocere ("first, do no harm") guides the trial, and if an investigator believes the study treatment may be harming subjects in the study, the investigator can stop participating at any time. On the other hand, investigators often have a financial interest in recruiting subjects, and could act unethically to obtain and maintain their participation.
The local investigators are responsible for conducting the study according to the study protocol, and supervising the study staff throughout the duration of the study. The local investigator or his/her study staff are also responsible for ensuring the potential subjects in the study understand the risks and potential benefits of participating in the study. In other words, they (or their legally authorized representatives) must give truly informed consent.
Local investigators are responsible for reviewing all adverse event reports sent by the sponsor. These adverse event reports contain the opinions of both the investigator (at the site where the adverse event occurred) and the sponsor, regarding the relationship of the adverse event to the study treatments. Local investigators also are responsible for making an independent judgment of these reports, and promptly informing the local IRB of all serious and study treatment-related adverse events.
When a local investigator is the sponsor, there may not be formal adverse event reports, but study staff at all locations are responsible for informing the coordinating investigator of anything unexpected. The local investigator is responsible for being truthful to the local IRB in all communications relating to the study.
Institutional review boards (IRBs)
Approval by an Institutional Review Board (IRB), or Independent Ethics Committee (IEC), is necessary before all but the most informal research can begin. In commercial clinical trials, the study protocol is not approved by an IRB before the sponsor recruits sites to conduct the trial. However, the study protocol and procedures have been tailored to fit generic IRB submission requirements. In this case, and where there is no independent sponsor, each local site investigator submits the study protocol, the consent(s), the data collection forms, and supporting documentation to the local IRB. Universities and most hospitals have in-house IRBs. Other researchers (such as in walk-in clinics) use independent IRBs.
The IRB scrutinizes the study both for medical safety and for protection of the patients involved in the study, before it allows the researcher to begin the study. It may require changes in study procedures or in the explanations given to the patient. A required yearly "continuing review" report from the investigator updates the IRB on the progress of the study and any new safety information related to the study.
Regulatory agencies
In the US, the FDA can audit the files of local site investigators after they have finished participating in a study, to see if they were correctly following study procedures. This audit may be random, or for cause (because the investigator is suspected of fraudulent data). Avoiding an audit is an incentive for investigators to follow study procedures. A 'covered clinical study' refers to a trial submitted to the FDA as part of a marketing application (for example, as part of an NDA or 510(k)), about which the FDA may require disclosure of financial interest of the clinical investigator in the outcome of the study. For example, the applicant must disclose whether an investigator owns equity in the sponsor, or owns proprietary interest in the product under investigation. The FDA defines a covered study as "...any study of a drug, biological product or device in humans submitted in a marketing application or reclassification petition that the applicant or FDA relies on to establish that the product is effective (including studies that show equivalence to an effective product) or any study in which a single investigator makes a significant contribution to the demonstration of safety."
Alternatively, many American pharmaceutical companies have moved some clinical trials overseas. Benefits of conducting trials abroad include lower costs (in some countries) and the ability to run larger trials in shorter timeframes, whereas a potential disadvantage exists in lower-quality trial management. Different countries have different regulatory requirements and enforcement abilities. An estimated 40% of all clinical trials now take place in Asia, Eastern Europe, and Central and South America. "There is no compulsory registration system for clinical trials in these countries and many do not follow European directives in their operations", says Jacob Sijtsma of the Netherlands-based WEMOS, an advocacy health organisation tracking clinical trials in developing countries.
Beginning in the 1980s, harmonization of clinical trial protocols was shown as feasible across countries of the European Union. At the same time, coordination between Europe, Japan and the United States led to a joint regulatory-industry initiative on international harmonization named after 1990 as the International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH)
Currently, most clinical trial programs follow ICH guidelines, aimed at "ensuring that good quality, safe and effective medicines are developed and registered in the most efficient and cost-effective manner. These activities are pursued in the interest of the consumer and public health, to prevent unnecessary duplication of clinical trials in humans and to minimize the use of animal testing without compromising the regulatory obligations of safety and effectiveness."
Aggregation of safety data during clinical development
Aggregating safety data across clinical trials during drug development is important because trials are generally designed to focus on determining how well the drug works. The safety data collected and aggregated across multiple trials as the drug is developed allows the sponsor, investigators and regulatory agencies to monitor the aggregate safety profile of experimental medicines as they're developed. The value of assessing aggregate safety data is: a) decisions based on aggregate safety assessment during development of the medicine can be made throughout the medicine's development and b) it sets up the sponsor and regulators well for assessing the medicine's safety after the drug is approved.
Economics
Clinical trial costs vary depending on trial phase, type of trial, and disease studied. A study of clinical trials conducted in the United States from 2004 to 2012 found the average cost of PhaseI trials to be between $1.4 million and $6.6 million, depending on the type of disease. Phase II trials ranged from $7 million to $20 million, and PhaseIII trials from $11 million to $53 million.
Sponsor
The cost of a study depends on many factors, especially the number of sites conducting the study, the number of patients involved, and whether the study treatment is already approved for medical use.
The expenses incurred by a pharmaceutical company in administering a Phase III orIV clinical trial may include, among others:
production of the drug(s) or device(s) being evaluated
staff salaries for the designers and administrators of the trial
payments to the contract research organization, the site management organization (if used) and any outside consultants
payments to local researchers and their staff for their time and effort in recruiting test subjects and collecting data for the sponsor
the cost of study materials and the charges incurred to ship them
communication with the local researchers, including on-site monitoring by the CRO before and (in some cases) multiple times during the study
one or more investigator training meetings
expense incurred by the local researchers, such as pharmacy fees, IRB fees and postage
any payments to subjects enrolled in the trial
the expense of treating a test subject who develops a medical condition caused by the study drug
These expenses are incurred over several years.
In the US, sponsors may receive a 50 percent tax credit for clinical trials conducted on drugs being developed for the treatment of orphan diseases. National health agencies, such as the US National Institutes of Health, offer grants to investigators who design clinical trials that attempt to answer research questions of interest to the agency. In these cases, the investigator who writes the grant and administers the study acts as the sponsor, and coordinates data collection from any other sites. These other sites may or may not be paid for participating in the study, depending on the amount of the grant and the amount of effort expected from them. Using internet resources can, in some cases, reduce the economic burden.
Investigators
Investigators are often compensated for their work in clinical trials. These amounts can be small, just covering a partial salary for research assistants and the cost of any supplies (usually the case with national health agency studies), or be substantial and include "overhead" that allows the investigator to pay the research staff during times between clinical trials.
Subjects
Participants in Phase I drug trials do not gain any direct health benefit from taking part. They are generally paid a fee for their time, with payments regulated and not related to any risk involved. Motivations of healthy volunteers is not limited to financial reward and may include other motivations such as contributing to science and others. In later phase trials, subjects may not be paid to ensure their motivation for participating with potential for a health benefit or contributing to medical knowledge. Small payments may be made for study-related expenses such as travel or as compensation for their time in providing follow-up information about their health after the trial treatment ends.
Participant recruitment and participation
Phase 0 and Phase I drug trials seek healthy volunteers. Most other clinical trials seek patients who have a specific disease or medical condition. The diversity observed in society should be reflected in clinical trials through the appropriate inclusion of ethnic minority populations. Patient recruitment or participant recruitment plays a significant role in the activities and responsibilities of sites conducting clinical trials.
All volunteers being considered for a trial are required to undertake a medical screening. Requirements differ according to the trial needs, but typically volunteers would be screened in a medical laboratory for:
Measurement of the electrical activity of the heart (ECG)
Measurement of blood pressure, heart rate, and body temperature
Blood sampling
Urine sampling
Weight and height measurement
Drug abuse testing
Pregnancy testing
It has been observed that participants in clinical trials are disproportionately white. One recent systematic review of the literature found that race/ethnicity as well as sex were not well-represented nor at times even tracked as participants in a large number of clinical trials of hearing loss management in adults. This may reduce the validity of findings in respect of non-white patients by not adequately representing the larger population.
Locating trials
Depending on the kind of participants required, sponsors of clinical trials, or contract research organizations working on their behalf, try to find sites with qualified personnel as well as access to patients who could participate in the trial. Working with those sites, they may use various recruitment strategies, including patient databases, newspaper and radio advertisements, flyers, posters in places the patients might go (such as doctor's offices), and personal recruitment of patients by investigators.
Volunteers with specific conditions or diseases have additional online resources to help them locate clinical trials. For example, the Fox Trial Finder connects Parkinson's disease trials around the world to volunteers who have a specific set of criteria such as location, age, and symptoms. Other disease-specific services exist for volunteers to find trials related to their condition. Volunteers may search directly on ClinicalTrials.gov to locate trials using a registry run by the U.S. National Institutes of Health and National Library of Medicine.
Research
The risk information seeking and processing (RISP) model analyzes social implications that affect attitudes and decision making pertaining to clinical trials. People who hold a higher stake or interest in the treatment provided in a clinical trial showed a greater likelihood of seeking information about clinical trials. Cancer patients reported more optimistic attitudes towards clinical trials than the general population. Having a more optimistic outlook on clinical trials also leads to greater likelihood of enrolling.
See also
Outcome measure
Odds algorithm
References
Further reading
External links
The International Conference on Harmonization of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH)
ClinicalTrials.gov
Clinical Trials for cancer research
Design of experiments
Clinical pharmacology
Clinical research
Pharmaceutical industry
Medical statistics
Drug discovery
Food and Drug Administration
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241718
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minishogi
|
Minishogi
|
Minishogi (5五将棋 gogo shōgi "5V chess" or "5×5 chess") is a modern variant of shogi (Japanese chess). The game was invented (or rediscovered) around 1970 by Shigenobu Kusumoto of Osaka, Japan. The rules are nearly identical to those of standard shogi, with the exception that it is played on a 5x5 board with a reduced number of pieces, and each player's promotion zone consists only of the rank farthest from the player.
Rules of the game
Objective
Like in standard shogi, each player aims to checkmate the opponent's king.
Game equipment
Two players play on a board ruled into a grid of five ranks (rows) by five files (columns). The squares are undifferentiated by marking or color.
Each player begins with a set of 6 wedge-shaped pieces; these are:
1 king
1 rook
1 bishop
1 gold general
1 silver general
1 pawn
Their movements are identical to those of their namesakes in standard shogi.
Setup
Each player places his/her pieces in the positions shown below, pointing towards the opponent.
In the rank nearest to the player:
The king is placed in the leftmost file;
The gold general is placed in the adjacent file to the king;
The silver general is placed adjacent to the gold general;
The bishop is placed adjacent to the silver general;
The rook is placed in the rightmost file, adjacent to the bishop.
That is, the setup of the first rank is as follows: |K|G|S|B|R|.
In the second rank, each player places the pawn in the same file as the king (i.e. directly in front of the king).
Promotion
Like in standard shogi, a piece may (but is not obliged to) be promoted when it is moves into, within, or out of the promotion zone. The zone only lies within the rank farthest from the player (unlike in the standard game, where it lies within the last three ranks). All pieces promote the same way as their namesakes in standard shogi (and likewise, the kings and gold generals do not promote at all). The pawns must be promoted once they reach the farthest rank (since otherwise they would not have any legal moves).
Drops
The rules for dropping pieces are identical to those in standard shogi: all dropped pieces must start unpromoted (even if they have been captured as promoted pieces and/or are dropped into the farthest rank); a pawn may not be dropped onto the farthest rank, or onto a square that results in an immediate checkmate; the two pawns may not lie in the same file when they belong to the same player.
Repetition
If the same position (with the same side to move and same pieces in hand) occurs for the fourth time, the game ends and the final result is a loss for the player that made the very first move in the game (this is different from regular shogi, where such a scenario would result in a draw). The only exception to this rule is when one player perpetually checks the opponent; in that case the checking side loses the game.
Strategy
Due to the small size of the board, the rook and bishop lose a significant amount of their relative strength, relative to the gold and silver generals. Because of the reduced ability for each player to achieve king safety, threats of checkmate are always present, and having pieces on hand presents many checkmate threats which reduce the opponent's mobility. This must be balanced against the defense of one's own king by friendly pieces on the board.
As in many variants of chess, a common strategy is to develop the less powerful pieces (i.e. gold and silver generals) before the more powerful pieces (i.e. rooks and bishops).
Handicap play
The traditional rook, bishop, and 2-piece handicaps in shogi may be applied to this game. Additionally, there exist 3-piece, 4-piece, and even naked-king handicaps. In naked-king-handicap game, black can theoretically force a mate in 8 plies.
Computer Minishogi
Minishogi is popular with artificial-intelligence researchers and there are many strong programs that play it. Due to minishogi being smaller, it can play a much stronger game than on the standard board size. Several tournaments in which such programs can enter to compete against each other are organized yearly, often associated with scientific conferences. The most prestigious of these tournaments is the UEC Cup, organized by the University of Electro-Communication in Tokyo. Other such events are TAAI (in Taiwan) and the ICGA Computer Olympiad.
Minishogi can use the same standard protocols as regular shogi for communicating between graphical interfaces (which display a shogi board) and the artificial intelligence modules ('engines'), such as USI (Universal Shogi Interface) or XBoard protocol. There are several free strong minishogi engines that can be used with the WinBoard interface, which support both XBoard protocol and USI.
See also
Shogi variant
Tori shogi
Microshogi
Judkins shogi
Kyoto shogi
Cannon shogi
Yari shogi
External links
Minishogi at The Chess Variant Pages
Website of the Japanese Minishogi Association (in Japanese, but contains game records which can be understood without knowing Japanese)
Mini Shogi 6x5 Mini Shogi iPhone software
UEC Minishogi website (mostly Japanese)
free PC software for playing Minishogi
Shogi variants
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie%20Lennox
|
Annie Lennox
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Ann Lennox (born 25 December 1954) is a Scottish singer-songwriter, political activist and philanthropist. After achieving moderate success in the late 1970s as part of the new wave band the Tourists, she and fellow musician Dave Stewart went on to achieve international success in the 1980s as Eurythmics. Appearing in the 1983 music video for "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)" with orange cropped hair and wearing a man's business suit, the BBC states, "all eyes were on Annie Lennox, the singer whose powerful androgynous look defied the male gaze". Subsequent hits with Eurythmics include "There Must Be an Angel (Playing with My Heart)" and "Here Comes the Rain Again".
Lennox embarked on a solo career in 1992 with her debut album, Diva, which produced several hit singles including "Why" and "Walking on Broken Glass". The same year, she performed "Love Song for a Vampire" for Bram Stoker's Dracula. Her 1995 studio album, Medusa, includes cover versions of songs such as "No More 'I Love You's and "A Whiter Shade of Pale". To date, she has released six solo studio albums and a compilation album, The Annie Lennox Collection (2009). With eight Brit Awards, which includes being named Best British Female Artist a record six times, Lennox has been named the "Brits Champion of Champions". She has also collected four Grammy Awards and an MTV Video Music Award. In 2002, Lennox received a Billboard Century Award; the highest accolade from Billboard. In 2004, she received the Golden Globe and the Academy Award for Best Original Song for "Into the West", written for the soundtrack to the feature film The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King.
Lennox's vocal range is contralto. She has been named "The Greatest White Soul Singer Alive" by VH1 and one of The 100 Greatest Singers of All Time by Rolling Stone. In 2012, she was rated No. 22 on VH1's 100 Greatest Women in Music. In June 2013 the Official Charts Company called her "the most successful female British artist in UK music history". , including her work with Eurythmics, Lennox had sold over 80 million records worldwide. As part of a one-hour symphony of British Music, Lennox performed "Little Bird" during the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony in London. At the 2015 Ivor Novello Awards, Lennox was made a fellow of the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors, the first woman to receive the honour.
In addition to her career as a musician, Lennox is also a political and social activist, notable for raising money and awareness for HIV/AIDS as it affects women and children in Africa. She founded the SING Campaign in 2007 and founded a women's empowerment charity called The Circle in 2008. In 2011, Lennox was appointed an OBE by Queen Elizabeth II for her "tireless charity campaigns and championing of humanitarian causes". On 4 June 2012, she performed at the Queen's Diamond Jubilee Concert in front of Buckingham Palace. In 2017, Lennox was appointed Glasgow Caledonian University's first female chancellor.
Early life
Annie Lennox was born on Christmas Day 1954 in Aberdeen, Scotland. She is the daughter of Dorothy Farquharson (née Ferguson; 1930–2003) and Thomas Allison Lennox (1925–1986).
In the 1970s, Lennox won a place at the Royal Academy of Music in London, where she studied the flute, piano and harpsichord for three years. She lived on a student grant and worked at part-time jobs for extra money. Lennox was unhappy and doubted her own talent when compared to her student contemporaries while at the Royal Academy and deliberated on what other direction she could take.
Lennox's flute teacher's final report stated: "Ann has not always been sure of where to direct her efforts, though lately she has been more committed. She is very, very able, however." Two years later, Lennox reported to the Academy: "I have had to work as a waitress, barmaid, and shop assistant to keep me when not in musical work." She also played and sang with a few bands, such as Windsong, during the period of her course. In 2006, the academy made her an honorary Fellow. Lennox also was made a Fellow of the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama that year.
Career
1976–1990: Dragon's Playground, The Tourists and Eurythmics
In 1976, Lennox was a flute player with a band called Dragon's Playground, leaving before they appeared on ITV's talent show New Faces. From 1977 to 1980, she was the lead singer of the Tourists, a British pop band and her first collaboration with Dave Stewart.
Lennox and Stewart's second collaboration, the 1980s synth-pop duo Eurythmics, resulted in her most notable fame, as the duo's alto, soul-tinged lead singer. Early in Eurythmics' career, Lennox was known for her androgyny, wearing suits and once impersonating Elvis Presley. Eurythmics released a long line of singles in the 1980s, including "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)" (a U.S. number one and UK number two), "There Must Be an Angel (Playing with My Heart)" (UK number one), "Love Is A Stranger", "Here Comes the Rain Again", "Sisters Are Doin' It for Themselves", "Who's That Girl?", "Would I Lie to You?" (Australian number one), "Missionary Man" (Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group), "You Have Placed a Chill in My Heart", "Thorn in My Side", "The Miracle of Love" and "Don't Ask Me Why". Although the Eurythmics never officially disbanded, Lennox made a fairly clear break from Stewart in 1990. Thereafter, she began her solo career.
Lennox and Stewart reconvened Eurythmics in the late 1990s with the album Peace, their first album of new material in ten years. A subsequent concert tour was completed, with profits going to Greenpeace and Amnesty International. Lennox has received eight Brit Awards, including being named Best British Female Artist a record six times. Four of the awards were given during her time with Eurythmics, and another was given to the duo for Outstanding Contribution to Music in 1999.
The 1988 single "Put a Little Love in Your Heart" was a duet with Al Green recorded for the soundtrack of the movie Scrooged. Though it was produced by Dave Stewart, it was credited to Lennox and Green. This one-off single peaked at No. 9 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, 6 in Australia, and was a top 40 hit in the UK. Lennox performed the song "Ev'ry Time We Say Goodbye", a Cole Porter song, that same year for a cameo appearance in the Derek Jarman film Edward II. She then appeared with David Bowie and the surviving members of Queen at 1992's Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert at London's Wembley Stadium, performing "Under Pressure".
1992–1993: Diva
Lennox began working with former Trevor Horn protégé Stephen Lipson, beginning with her 1992 solo debut album, Diva. It was a commercial and critical success, charting No. 1 in the UK, No. 7 in Australia, No. 6 in Germany, and No. 23 in the U.S. where it went double platinum. Lennox's profile was boosted by Diva'''s singles, which included "Why" and "Walking on Broken Glass". "Why" won an MTV Award for Best Female Video at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards, while the video for "Walking on Broken Glass", set in the Rococo period, featured actors Hugh Laurie and John Malkovich. "Little Bird" also formed a double A-side with "Love Song for a Vampire", a soundtrack cut for Francis Ford Coppola's 1992 movie Bram Stoker's Dracula. The B-side of her single "Precious" was a self-penned song called "Step by Step", which was later a hit for Whitney Houston for the soundtrack of the film The Preacher's Wife. The song "Keep Young and Beautiful" was included on the CD release as a bonus track (the original vinyl album had only ten tracks).
The album entered the UK album chart at no.1 and has since sold over 1.2 million copies in the UK alone, being certified quadruple platinum. It was also a success in the US where it was a top 30 hit and has sold in excess of 2,700,000 copies. In 1993, the album was included in Q magazine's list of the "50 Best Albums of 1992". Rolling Stone magazine (25 June 1992, p. 41) described the album as "...state-of-the-art soul pop..." and it is included in Rolling Stone's (13 May 1999, p. 56) "Essential Recordings of the 90's" list. The album won Best British Album at the 1993 Brit Awards.
1995–2000: Medusa and return to Eurythmics
Although Lennox's profile decreased for a period because of her desire to bring up her two children outside of the media's glare, she continued to record. Her second album, Medusa, was released in March 1995. It consisted solely of cover songs, all originally recorded by male artists including Bob Marley, The Clash, and Neil Young. It entered the UK album chart at No. 1 and peaked in Australia at No. 5, and in the US at number 11, spending 60 weeks on the Billboard 200 chart and selling over 2,000,000 to date in the United States. It has achieved double platinum status in both the UK and the US. The album yielded four UK singles: "No More 'I Love You's (which entered the UK singles chart at No. 2, Lennox's highest ever solo peak), "A Whiter Shade of Pale", "Waiting in Vain" and "Something So Right". The album was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album at the Grammy Awards of 1996, losing to Turbulent Indigo by Joni Mitchell, however, Lennox won the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for the single "No More 'I Love You's. Although Lennox declined to tour for the album, she did perform a large scale one-off concert in New York's Central Park, which was filmed and later released on home video. Lennox provided an extensive solo vocal performance (without lyrics) for the soundtrack score of the film Apollo 13 in 1995.
Managed by Simon Fuller since the beginning of her solo career, he said that Lennox played an important but unheralded role in the success of the Spice Girls, encouraging the group to "ham up" their characters, which helped them top the charts around the world. In 1997, Lennox re-recorded the Eurythmics track "Angel" for the Diana, Princess of Wales: Tribute album, and also recorded the song "Mama" for The Avengers soundtrack album. In 1998, following the death of a mutual friend (former Tourists member Peet Coombes), she re-united with Dave Stewart. Following their first performance together in eight years at a record company party, Stewart and Lennox began writing and recording together for the first time since 1989. This resulted in the album Peace. The title was designed to reflect the duo's ongoing concern with global conflict and world peace. The record was promoted with a concert on the Greenpeace vessel Rainbow Warrior II, where they played a mixture of old and new songs. "I Saved the World Today" was the lead single, reaching number eleven on the UK singles chart. Another single, released at the beginning of 2000, "17 Again", made the UK top 40, and topped the US dance chart. In 2002, Lennox received a Billboard Century Award; the highest accolade from Billboard Magazine, with Editor-in-Chief Timothy White describing her as one of "the most original and unforgettably affecting artists in the modern annals of popular music."
2003–2007: Bare and work in Africa
In 2003, Lennox released her third solo album, Bare. The album peaked at No. 3 in the UK, No. 10 in Australia, and No. 4 in the US – her highest charting album in the US to date. She embarked on her first tour as a solo artist to promote the album. The tour, simply titled Solo Tour, pre-dated the release of the album and visited both the US and Europe, with only a two-night stop in the UK at Saddler's Wells Theatre in London. The album has been certified Gold in both the UK and the US and was nominated for Best Pop Album at the 46th Grammy Awards. The album was released with a DVD which included interviews and acoustic versions of songs by Lennox.
In 2004, Lennox won the Academy Award for Best Song for "Into the West" from the film The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, which she co-wrote with screenwriter Fran Walsh and composer Howard Shore. Lennox performed the song live at the 76th Academy Awards. The song also won a Grammy award and a Golden Globe award. She had previously recorded "Use Well the Days" for the movie, which incorporates a number of quotations from Tolkien in its lyrics. This features on a bonus DVD included with the "special edition" of the movie's soundtrack CD. In mid-2004, Lennox embarked on an extensive North American tour with Sting. In July 2005, Lennox performed at Live 8 in Hyde Park, London, along with Madonna, Sting, and other popular musicians.
In 2005, Lennox and Stewart collaborated on two new songs for their Eurythmics compilation album, Ultimate Collection, of which "I've Got a Life" was released as a single in October 2005. The promotional video for the song features Lennox and Stewart performing in the present day, with images of past Eurythmics videos playing on television screens behind them. The single peaked at number fourteen in the UK Singles Chart and was a number-one US Dance hit. On 14 November 2005, Sony BMG repackaged and released Eurythmics' back catalogue as 2005 Deluxe Edition Reissues. Lennox also collaborated with Herbie Hancock doing the song "Hush, Hush, Hush" on his collaboration album, Possibilities in August 2005.
2007–2008: Songs of Mass Destruction and AIDS activism
Ending her long association with Stephen Lipson, Lennox's fourth solo album, Songs of Mass Destruction, was recorded in Los Angeles with veteran producer Glen Ballard (known for producing Alanis Morissette's album, Jagged Little Pill). It was released on 1 October 2007, and was the last studio album of Lennox's contract with BMG. It peaked at No. 7 in the UK and No. 9 in the US. Lennox stated that she believed the album consisted of "twelve strong, powerful, really emotive songs that people can connect to". If she achieves that, she says, "I can feel proud of [it], no matter if it sells ten copies or 50 million." Lennox described it as "a dark album, but the world is a dark place. It's fraught, it's turbulent. Most people's lives are underscored with dramas of all kinds: there's ups, there's downs – the flickering candle." She added, "Half the people are drinking or drugging themselves to numb it. A lot of people are in pain."
The album's first single was "Dark Road", released on 24 September 2007. Another song on the album, "Sing", is a collaboration between Lennox and 23 prominent female artists: Anastacia, Isobel Campbell, Dido, Céline Dion, Melissa Etheridge, Fergie, Beth Gibbons, Faith Hill, Angelique Kidjo, Beverley Knight, Gladys Knight, k.d. lang, Madonna, Sarah McLachlan, Beth Orton, Pink, Kelis, Bonnie Raitt, Shakira, Shingai Shoniwa, Joss Stone, Sugababes, KT Tunstall, and Martha Wainwright. The song was recorded to raise money and awareness for the HIV/AIDS organisation Treatment Action Campaign. Included among the group of vocalists are TAC activist members' own vocal group known as The Generics, whose CD of music inspired Lennox to make "Sing". To promote Songs of Mass Destruction, Lennox embarked on a primarily North American tour called Annie Lennox Sings, which lasted throughout October and November 2007.
2008–2009: The Annie Lennox Collection and departure from Sony
Finishing out her contract with Sony BMG, Lennox released the compilation album The Annie Lennox Collection. Initially intended for release in September 2008, the release date was pushed back several months to allow Lennox to recuperate from a back injury. The compilation was eventually released in the US on 17 February 2009, and in the UK and Europe on 9 March 2009. Included on the track listing are songs from her four solo albums, one from the Bram Stoker's Dracula soundtrack, and two new songs. One of these is a cover of Ash's single, "Shining Light". The other is a cover of a song by the English band Keane, originally the B-side of their first single in 2000. Lennox renamed the song from its original title "Closer Now" to "Pattern of My Life". A limited 3-disc edition of the album included a DVD compilation featuring most of Lennox's solo videos since 1992, and also featured a second CD of rarer songs including a version of R.E.M.'s "Everybody Hurts" with Alicia Keys and Lennox's Oscar-winning "Into the West" from the third Lord of the Rings film. The album entered the UK Album Chart at No. 2 and remained in the top 10 for seven weeks.
Lennox's recording contract with Sony BMG concluded with the release of Songs of Mass Destruction and the subsequent retrospective album The Collection, and much was made in the press in late 2007/early 2008 about the apparent animosity between Lennox and the record company. Lennox stated that while on a trip to South Africa in December 2007 to appear at the 46664 campaign in Johannesburg, the regional company office of the label failed to return phone calls and e-mails she made to them for three weeks, and had completely failed to promote the Sing project as planned. Upon her return to the UK, Lennox met with the head of Sony BMG UK, Ged Docherty, who was "mortified" by the problems she had encountered with the South African branch. However, the debacle (partly inflamed when Lennox's dissatisfaction with the South African office was made public on her blog) led to press reports falsely stating that she was being dropped by Sony BMG. The record company themselves quickly refuted the rumour stating that Lennox's contract with them had merely been fulfilled and that they hoped she would consider remaining with them. The British tabloid, Daily Mirror, subsequently printed a retraction of its story about her being dropped by the label.
2010–2013: Island Records and A Christmas Cornucopia
In August 2010, Lennox signed a new contract with Island Records in the UK and Decca Records in the US (both part of the Universal Music Group). Her first release was a Christmas album entitled A Christmas Cornucopia, issued on 15 November 2010. The album is a collection of Lennox's interpretations of traditional festive songs such as "Silent Night" and "The First Noel", along with one new composition, "Universal Child", which was released as a download-only single on 13 October 2010. Lennox had previously showcased the song on the American Idol Gives Back TV show in April 2010. She sang the song "Angels from the Realms of Glory" from the album for the TNT special Christmas in Washington.
A music video was produced for a second single from the album, "God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen". Lennox also performed the track on the UK chat show Loose Women in December 2010, and was also interviewed. According to Metacritic, A Christmas Cornucopia has gained "generally favourable reviews". Ian Wade of BBC Music gave the album a very positive review, saying "this collection could find itself becoming as much a part of the holiday season as arguments with loved ones." Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine awarded the album 3.5/5 and said "Lennox seems more inspired on A Christmas Cornucopia than she has in years." John Hunt of Qatar Today magazine gave the album 9/10 and said "in particular, the vocal work and musical arrangement of 'God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen' are impactful to the point of being intimidating."
On 4 June 2012, Lennox performed, as part of the Queen's Diamond Jubilee Concert, in front of Buckingham Palace in London and on 12 August she performed "Little Bird" at the 2012 Summer Olympics Closing Ceremony.
2014–2019: Nostalgia
In October 2014, Lennox released her sixth solo album, Nostalgia. The album is a collection of Lennox's childhood favourite soul, jazz and blues songs. Critic Mike Wass of Idolator stated that Lennox "puts her own inimitable spin" on the selected tracks. The lead single "I Put a Spell on You" received its first radio play on 15 September 2014 by Ken Bruce on BBC Radio 2. Upon release, the album entered the UK and US Top 10, and reached number one on the US Billboard Top Jazz Albums chart. The album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album. On 28 January 2015, Lennox performed a live concert at the Orpheum Theatre in Los Angeles entitled An Evening of Nostalgia with Annie Lennox. The show aired on PBS in the US in April 2015, and was released on DVD and Blu-ray internationally in May 2015.
2019–present: Lepidoptera
In May 2019, Lennox released Lepidoptera, containing four extemporised piano songs. The EP serves as a companion piece to Lennox's art installation, "Now I Let You Go..." at MASS MoCA. It is Lennox's first independently distributed record.
Public image
Charity and political activism
Lennox appeared on stage at the 1988 Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Concert and commenced activist work with the Sing Foundation afterwards. In 1990, Lennox recorded a version of Cole Porter's "Ev'ry Time We Say Goodbye" for the Cole Porter tribute album Red Hot + Blue, a benefit for AIDS awareness. A video was also produced. Lennox has been a public supporter of Amnesty International and Greenpeace for many years, and she and Dave Stewart donated all of the profits from Eurythmics' 1999 Peacetour to both charities. Concerned by Tibet freedom, she supported Amnesty International campaigns for the release of Tibetan prisoners Palden Gyatso and Ngawang Choephel.
Lennox was a signatory to the "No war on Iraq" campaign started in 2003, her album "Songs of Mass Destruction" and her rendition of "Dark Road" were deeply critical of the war. In conversation with Melvyn Bragg in 2006, she expressed her anger at how the UK was misled over Iraq's alleged 'weapons of mass destruction'.
After being forced to pull out of performing at Live Aid held at Wembley Stadium in 1985 due to a serious throat infection, Lennox appeared at Live 8 held in Hyde Park, London in 2005. In 2006, in response to her humanitarian work, Lennox became patron of the Master's Course in Humanitarian and Development Practice for Oxford Brookes University. In October 2006, Lennox spoke at the British House of Commons about the need for children in the UK to help their counterparts in Africa. On 25 April 2007, Lennox performed "Bridge over Troubled Water" during the American Idol "Idol Gives Back" fundraising drive. Lennox's 2007 song "Sing" was born out of her involvement with Nelson Mandela's 46664 campaign and Treatment Action Campaign (TAC), both of which are human rights groups which seek education and health care for those affected by HIV. In December 2007, Lennox established The SING Campaign, an organisation dedicated to raising funds and awareness for women and children affected by HIV and AIDS.
On 11 December 2007, she performed in the Nobel Peace Prize Concert in Oslo, Norway together with a variety of artists, which was broadcast to over 100 countries. Lennox appeared at the Nelson Mandela 90th Birthday Tribute in June 2008 and then led a rally against the Gaza War in London on 3 January 2009.
Lennox opened the 2009 Edinburgh Festival of Politics with commentary on Pope Benedict XVI's approach to HIV/AIDS prevention in Africa. She said that the Pope's denunciation of condoms on his recent tour of Africa had caused "tremendous harm" and she criticised the Roman Catholic Church for causing widespread confusion on the continent. Lennox also condemned the media's obsession with "celebrity culture" for keeping the AIDS pandemic off the front page. During her address, Lennox wore a T-shirt emblazoned with the words "HIV positive". Lennox wore similar T-shirts at the 25th Anniversary Rock & Roll Hall of Fame concert at Madison Square Garden on 30 October 2009, during her appearance on The Graham Norton Show on 30 November 2009 (where she performed the new song "Full Steam", a duet with singer David Gray), during a recorded performance for American Idol during a 21 April 2010 fundraiser, entitled Idol Gives Back, and during a performance on the live Comic Relief show on 18 March 2011.
In June 2010, Lennox was named as a UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador for AIDS, a role that continues . Lennox also works with other organisations such as Oxfam, Amnesty International and the British Red Cross in regard to the issue. Lennox also supports the Burma Campaign UK, a non-governmental organisation that addresses the suffering in Burma and promotes democratisation.
In December 2010, it was confirmed that Lennox was in the New Years Honours List and would become an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in recognition of her humanitarian work. She received the award from Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace on 28 June 2011.
In November 2013, Lennox received the Music Industry Trusts Award for her career achievements in music and her charity commitments. Elton John said of her award; "It is so well deserved and not only for your extraordinary contribution to music and songwriting but also for your outstanding and tireless work as an HIV and AIDS activist and supporter of women's rights," while Adele stated; "Annie Lennox has been a constant part of my life. An example of a brilliant talent that exudes excellence and influence on everyone."
In 2015, Lennox attended, performed at and hosted several charitable events including: the 50th Amnesty International Annual Conference where she was a guest speaker, Elton John and David Furnish's at home Gala in aid of the Elton John Aids Foundation where she performed, held a screening of He Named Me Malala, and hosted a Mothers2mothers 15th Anniversary gala. In 2016 Lennox was awarded the Elle Style Awards 'Outstanding Achievement' award, and the Royal Scottish Geographical Society award, the Livingstone Medal, in recognition of her outstanding contribution to the fight against AIDS and support of women's rights.
Relationship with the LGBTQ+ community
Lennox's longtime support for LGBT rights have helped garner a significant following within the LGBTQ+ community. According to The Advocate, "her distinctive voice and provocative stage persona have made Lennox a longtime gay icon."
Known for her androgynous look in the 1980s–first widely seen in the 1983 music video for "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)" where she had close-cropped, orange-coloured hair, and wore a man's suit brandishing a cane, a video which made her a household name–Lennox was viewed as the female version of Boy George. They appeared together on the front cover of the British music magazine Smash Hits in December 1983 with the headline "Which one is the boy?". This was followed by Newsweek magazine in the US who ran an issue which featured Lennox and George on the cover of its 23 January 1984 edition with the caption Britain Rocks America – Again, marking the Second British Invasion.Simon Reynolds, Rip It Up and Start Again Postpunk 1978–1984, pp. 340, 342–3. The following month Lennox impersonated Elvis Presley at the 1984 Grammy Awards.
Exhibition
In conjunction with the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, Lennox put many items from her collection—costumes, accessories, photographs, awards, ephemera from her political campaigns, and personal belongings—on display. This collection, which spanned her entire career, along with music videos and interviews, became The House of Annie Lennox at the institution from 15 September 2011 to 26 February 2012. An expanded version of the exhibit was later installed at The Lowry in Salford, England from 17 March 2012 to 17 June, before moving to Aberdeen for twelve weeks.
Music videos
Both as part of Eurythmics and in her solo career, Lennox has made over 60 music promo videos. The 1987 Eurythmics album Savage and her 1992 solo album Diva were both accompanied by video albums, both directed by Sophie Muller. The music video for "Missionary Man" featured stop-animation techniques and received five nominations at the 1987 MTV Video Music Awards. Actors Hugh Laurie and John Malkovich appeared in the music video for "Walking on Broken Glass" in period costume, while the video for "Little Bird" paid homage to the different images and personas that have appeared in some of Lennox's previous videos. The clip features Lennox performing on stage with several lookalikes (male and female) that represent her personas from "Why", "Walking on Broken Glass", "Sweet Dreams", "Beethoven (I Love To Listen To)", "I Need a Man", "Thorn in My Side", "There Must Be an Angel", and even her stage image from the 1992 Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert.
The Circle NGO
In 2008, Lennox founded The Circle of Women, known as The Circle, a private charitable organisation to network and fund-raise for women’s projects around the world.
Personal life
Lennox has been married three times. Her first marriage, from 1984 to 1985, was to German Hare Krishna devotee Radha Raman.
From 1988 to 2000, Lennox was married to Israeli film and record producer Uri Fruchtmann and they lived in The Grove, Highgate. The couple have two daughters, Lola and Tali. A son, Daniel, was stillborn in 1988.
While fundraising in 2009, Lennox met Mitch Besser and his wife who had started an AIDS charity in Africa. Besser had divorce proceedings brought against him after his relationship with Lennox became public. On 15 September 2012 Lennox married Besser at a private ceremony in London. Besser is the brother of Richard E. Besser.
In September 2012 Lennox featured in Series 9 of the BBC's Who Do You Think You Are?, in which she discovered that her great-great-grandmother Jessie Fraser worked at the Broadford Flax Mill in Aberdeen. Her maternal grandmother, Dora Paton, was a dairy maid at the Balmoral Royal Estate and her maternal grandfather, William Ferguson, was a gamekeeper also at Balmoral.
Both of Lennox's parents died of cancer. Lennox is agnostic and a feminist. Lennox became a vegetarian at age 29.Obis, Paul. (1984). Annie Lennox: Complex Character/Complex Image. The Vegetarian Times. Issue 88. pp. 40-41 In the 2010 Sunday Times Rich List of British millionaires from the world of music, Lennox was estimated to have a fortune of £30 million.
Discography
Studio albums
Diva (1992)
Medusa (1995)
Bare (2003)
Songs of Mass Destruction (2007)
A Christmas Cornucopia (2010)
Nostalgia (2014)
Lepidoptera (EP) (2019)
Compilation albums
• The Annie Lennox Collection'' (2009)
Awards and nominations
Lennox has received a variety of major awards during her career:
ASCAP Pop Music Awards
!Ref.
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| 1994
| "Walking on Broken Glass"
| Most Performed Song
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Academy Awards
Billboard Music Awards
American Music Awards
2008 – AMA Award of Merit for her work and her humanitarian efforts
Ivor Novello Awards
1984 – Songwriter of the Year for Lennox and Dave Stewart
1987 – Songwriter of the Year for Lennox and Dave Stewart
1987 – Best contemporary song ("Its Alright, (Baby's Coming Back)")
1993 – Best Song ("Why")
honorary degrees and awards
1986 – Associate – Royal Academy of Music London
1997 – Fellowship – Royal Academy of Music London
2006 – Honorary Doctor of Music – The Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama
2006 – Fellowship – Edinburgh College of Art
2009 – Honorary Doctorate at the University of Edinburgh (awarded 20 October 2009), in recognition of her work in the field of HIV/AIDS, and her success as a recording artist.
2011 – Honoured by the University for her International Humanitarian Efforts – Glasgow Caledonian University
2012 – Honorary Degree – Open University of Scotland
2013 – Honorary Degree – Williams College
2013 – Honorary Doctorate in Music – Berklee College of Music
2013 – Honorary Degree – University of Essex
Other awards/titles/ambassadorships
2002 – Billboard Century Award by Billboard
2008 – OUT magazine honoured Lennox for her work in the HIV and AIDS field. The top 100 most influential people in Gay Culture.
2008 – The British Red Cross Services to Humanity Award
2008 – Glamour Magazine's Inspirational Woman of the Year Award
2008 – Honoured at the 2008 Youth AIDS Gala, for her contribution in helping the fight against HIV and AIDS
2008 – The German Sustainability "special achievement" award for her commitment in the fight against HIV and AIDS
2008 – Webby Award for official website www.annielennox.com
2009 – Save the Children "Amigo de los Niños" Award
2009 – Awarded the "Freedom of the City of London" by the British Red Cross for services to humanity in the field of HIV and AIDS
2009 – Nobel Peace Laureates for services to humanity
2010 – Patron of the Elton John AIDS Foundation
2010 – Special Envoy for HIV/AIDS in Scotland
2010 – Ambassador for HIV/AIDS in London
2010 – UNAIDS Goodwill Ambassador
2010 – Barclays Women of the Year Award
2010 – International Service Award for Global Defence of Human Rights
2010 – GQ Charity Woman of the Year Award
2010 – Harper's Bazaar Lifetime Achievement Award
2010 – Appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for her work fighting AIDS and poverty in Africa
2013 – Music Industry Trust Award (MITS) for her creativity and work that inspires those who work within the music business and millions of others worldwide
2016 – Elle Style Awards – Outstanding Achievement Award
2016 – Awarded Livingstone Medal by Royal Scottish Geographical Society
2016 – Harper's Bazaar Philanthropy Award
References
External links
Annie Lennox in libraries (WorldCat catalogue)
19 Recordings artists
1954 births
20th-century Scottish women singers
21st-century Scottish women singers
Alumni of the Royal Academy of Music
Arista Records artists
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songwriters
Brit Award winners
British women singer-songwriters
British synth-pop new wave musicians
Decca Records artists
Eurythmics members
Women new wave singers
Feminist musicians
Golden Globe Award-winning musicians
Grammy Award winners
Fellows of the Royal Academy of Music
HIV/AIDS activists
Island Records artists
Ivor Novello Award winners
LGBT rights activists from Scotland
Living people
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at Harlaw Academy
Musicians from Aberdeen
RCA Records artists
Scottish activists
Scottish agnostics
Scottish contraltos
Scottish electronic musicians
Scottish feminists
Scottish new wave musicians
Scottish pop singers
Scottish rock singers
Scottish singer-songwriters
Scottish soul singers
Torch singers
Universal Music Group artists
British women in electronic music
People associated with Glasgow Caledonian University
Ballad musicians
Fellows of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society
The Tourists members
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] |
241722
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Latvians
|
List of Latvians
|
This is a list of prominent Latvians with Wikipedia articles. It includes:
persons who were born in the historical territory of what is now Latvia, regardless of ethnicity, citizenship, or time period; and
persons of Latvian descent regardless of their place of birth or citizenship.
A
Valerians Abakovskis (1895–1921) – inventor of a propeller-powered railcar, the aerowagon
Rutanya Alda (Rutanya Alda Skrastiņa, born 1942) – actress (Mommie Dearest, The Deer Hunter)
Viktor Alksnis (born 1950) – Soviet military officer and Russian communist politician known as "the Black Colonel"
Juris Alunāns (1832–1864) – writer and philologist
Ingrīda Andriņa (1944–2015) – actress
Iveta Apkalna (born 1976) – organist
Fricis Apšenieks (1894–1941) – chess player
Vija Artmane (1929–2008) – actress
Aspazija, pen-name of Elza Pliekšāne (1865–1943) – poet and playwright
Gunārs Astra (1931–1988) – dissident, fighter for human rights
Auseklis, pseudonym of Miķelis Krogzemis (1850–1879) – poet, author and translator of German poets
B
Ainars Bagatskis (born 1967) – basketball player
Helmuts Balderis (born 1952) – ice hockey player, forward
Jānis Balodis (1881–1965) – army officer and politician
Kārlis Balodis (1864–1931) – economist, financist, statistician and demographist
Krišjānis Barons (1835–1923) – "the father of Latvian folk songs"; compiled and edited the first publication of Latvian folk-song texts, Latvju Dainas (1894–1915)
Mikhail Baryshnikov (born 1948) – ballet dancer
Kārlis Baumanis (1835–1905) – composer, author of the national anthem of the Republic of Latvia "Dievs, svētī Latviju!" ("God Bless Latvia!")
Vizma Belševica (1931–2005) – author, candidate for the Nobel Prize in Literature
Eduards Berklavs (1914–2004) – politician, leader of Latvian national-communists
Krišjānis Berķis (1884–1942) – general
Dairis Bertāns (born 1989) – basketball player
Isaiah Berlin (Jesaja Berlins, 1909–1997) – philosopher
Eduards Bērziņš (1894–1938) – soldier in the Red Army, later head of Dalstroy, the Kolyma forced-labour camps in North-Eastern Siberia
Kaspars Bērziņš (born 1985) – basketball player
Kārlis Bētiņš (1867–1943) – chess player
Andris Biedriņš (born 1986) – basketball player
Gunārs Birkerts (1925–2017) – architect
Miervaldis Birze (1921–2000) – writer
Ernests Blanks (1894–1972) – publicist, writer, historian, the first to publicly advocate for Latvia's independence
Rūdolfs Blaumanis (1863–1908) – writer and playwright
Himans Blūms (1913–2009) – painter
Jānis Blūms (born 1982) – basketball player
Ārons Bogoļubovs (born 1938) – Olympic medalist in judoka
Mairis Briedis (born 1985) – world boxing champion
Baiba Broka (born 1973) – actress
Baiba Broka (born 1975) – lawyer and politician
Ingūna Butāne (born 1986) – fashion model
C
Frīdrihs Canders (1887–1933) – pioneer of rocketry and spaceflight
Valters Caps (1905–2003) – designed first Minox 8 x 11 photo cameras
Aleksandrs Cauņa (born 1988) – footballer
Gustavs Celmiņš (1899–1968) – fascist politician, leader of Pērkonkrusts movement
Vija Celmins (born 1938) – American painter born in Latvia
Tanhum Cohen-Mintz (1939–2014) – Latvian-born Israeli basketball player
Č
Māris Čaklais (1940–2003) – poet
Aleksandrs Čaks (1901–1950) – poet
Jānis Čakste (1859–1927) – first President of Latvia
D
Roberts Dambītis (1881–1957) – general and politician
Jānis Dāliņš (1904–1978) – athlete, race walker
Emīls Dārziņš (1875–1910) – composer
Volfgangs Dārziņš (1906–1962) – composer, pianist and music critic
Kaspars Daugaviņš (born 1988) – ice hockey player
Jacob Davis (1834–1908) – inventor of denim
Johans Aleksandrs Heinrihs Klapje de Kolongs (1839–1901) – naval engineer
Eliass Eliezers Desslers (1892–1953) – Orthodox rabbi, Talmudic scholar, and Jewish philosopher
Leor Dimant (born 1972) – DJ for the rap metal group Limp Bizkit
Anatols Dinbergs (1911–1993) – diplomat
Aleksis Dreimanis (1914–2011) – geologist
Inga Drozdova (born 1975) – model and actress
Domenique Dumont – music producer
Oļģerts Dunkers (1932–1997) – actor and film director
Christine Dzidrums (born 1971) – author
E
Mihails Eizenšteins (1867–1921) – architect
Sergejs Eizenšteins (1898–1948) – film director
Modris Eksteins (born 1943) – Canadian historian and writer
Ēriks Ešenvalds (born 1977) – composer
Andrievs Ezergailis (born 1930) – historian of the Holocaust
F
Movša Feigins (1908–1950) – chess player
Gregors Fitelbergs (1879–1953) – conductor, composer and violinist
Vesels fon Freitāgs-Loringhofens (1899–1944) – colonel and member of the German resistance against German dictator Adolf Hitler
Laila Freivalds (born 1942) – former Swedish Minister for Foreign Affairs
G
Inese Galante (born 1954) – opera singer; soprano
Gints Gabrāns (born 1970) – artist
Elīna Garanča (born 1976) – opera singer; mezzo-soprano
Zemgus Girgensons (born 1994) – ice hockey centre
Kārlis Goppers (1876–1941) – general; founder of Latvian Boy Scouts
Andrejs Grants (born 1955) – photographer
Kristers Gudļevskis (born 1992) – ice hockey goaltender
Ernests Gulbis (born 1988) – tennis player
Natālija Gulbis (born 1983) – Latvian-descent LPGA golfer
Ģ
Uldis Ģērmanis (1915–1997) – historian; under the alias of Ulafs Jāņsons, a social commentator
Aivars Ģipslis (1937–2000) – chess player
H
Moriss Halle (1923–2018) – linguist
Filips Halsmans (1906–1979) – Latvian-American photographer
Juris Hartmanis (born 1928) – computer scientist; Turing Award winner
Uvis Helmanis (born 1972) – basketball player
I
Artūrs Irbe (born 1967) – ice hockey player, goalkeeper
Kārlis Irbītis (1904–1997) – aviation inventor, engineer, designer
J
Gatis Jahovičs (born 1984) – basketball player
Mariss Jansons (1943–2019) – conductor
Inese Jaunzeme (1932–2011) – athlete
K
Aivars Kalējs (born 1951) – organist, composer
Konrāds Kalējs (1913–2001) – alleged war criminal
Sandra Kalniete (born 1952) – politician, diplomat, former Latvia's EU commissioner
Bruno Kalniņš (1899–1990) – Saeima member, Red Army General
Imants Kalniņš (born 1941) – composer, politician
Oskars Kalpaks (1882–1919) – colonel, first Commander of Latvian National Armed Forces
Kaspars Kambala (born 1978) – basketball player
Mārtiņš Karsums (born 1986) – ice hockey player
Reinis Kaudzīte (1839–1920) – writer and journalist
Renārs Kaupers (born 1974) – musician
Jēkabs Ketlers (1610–1682) – Duke of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
Gustavs Klucis (1895–1938) – painter and graphic designer
Aleksandrs Koblencs (1916–1993) – chess player
Ābrams Izāks Kūks (1864–1935) – chief rabbi, Jewish thinker, statesman, diplomat, mediator and scholar
Aleksandrs Kovaļevskis (1840–1901) – zoologist
Ilsa Konrads (born 1944) – Olympic swimmer
John Konrads (1942–2021) – Olympic swimmer
Gidons Krēmers (born 1947) – violinist and conductor
Miķelis Krogzemis (1850–1879) – poet, author and translator of German poets
Juris Kronbergs (born 1946) – poet, writer, free-lance journalist, translator
Atis Kronvalds (1837–1875) – teacher and journalist; reformed the Latvian language; organized the first Latvian Song and Dance Festival
Dainis Kūla (born 1959) – athlete (Olympic gold medal in javelin)
Alberts Kviesis (1881–1944) – President of Latvia
L
Aleksandrs Laime (1911–1994) – explorer
Vilis Lācis (1904–1966) – author and politician
Ginta Lapiņa (born 1989) – fashion model
Natālija Lašenova (born 1973) – gymnastics Olympic champion (team)
Edvards Liedskalniņš (1887–1951) – builder of Coral Castle in Florida; claimed to have discovered the ancient magnetic levitation secrets used to construct the Egyptian pyramids
Jēkabs Mihaels Reinholds Lencs (1751–1792) – author
Marija Leiko (1887–1937) – actress
Māris Liepa (1936–1989) – ballet dancer
Peggy Lipton (1946–2019) – Latvian-American actress
Nikolajs Loskis (1870–1965) – philosopher
Jānis Lūsis (born 1939) – athlete; Olympic champion
Ļ
Jevgēnija Ļisicina (born 1942) – organist
M
Māris Martinsons (born 1960) – film director, producer, screenwriter and film editor
Hermanis Matisons (1894–1932) – chess player
Zenta Mauriņa (1897–1978) – writer, literary scholar, culture philosopher
Juris Māters (1845–1884) – author, lawyer and journalist; translated laws to Latvian and created the foundation for Latvian law
Jānis Medenis (1903–1961) – poet
Arnis Mednis (born 1961) – singer
Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics (1887–1925) – first Latvian Minister of Foreign Affairs
Alan Melikdjanian (born 1980) – independent filmmaker, YouTuber
Leo Mihelsons (1887–1978) – artist
Arnolds Mikelsons (1922–1984) – artist
Jevgēņijs Millers (1867–1938) – czarist Russian general
Kārlis Mīlenbahs (1853–1916) – linguist
N
Arkādijs Naidičs (born 1985) – chess player; now resident in Germany
Andris Nelsons (born 1978) – conductor, Boston Symphony Orchestra
Andrievs Niedra (1871–1941) – pastor, writer, prime minister of German puppet government (1919)
Arons Nimcovičs (1886–1935) – chess player
Reinis Nitišs (born 1995) – World Rallycross driver
Fred Norris (born 1955) – radio personality, The Howard Stern Show
O
Staņislavs Olijars (born 1979) – athlete (European champion in 110m hurdles)
Jeļena Ostapenko (born 1997) – tennis player (Grand Slam champion)
Vilhelms Ostvalds (1853–1932) – received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1909 for his work on catalysis, chemical equilibria and reaction velocities
Elvīra Ozoliņa (born 1939) – athlete (Olympic gold medal in javelin)
Sandis Ozoliņš (born 1972) – ice hockey player, defense
Valdemārs Ozoliņš (1896–1973) – composer, conductor
Auseklis Ozols (born 1941) – artist
P
Artis Pabriks (born 1966) – Latvian Minister of Foreign Affairs (2007–2007)
Ināra Petrusēviča (born 1969) – artist
Kārlis Padegs (1911–1940) – graphic artist, painter
Marians Pahars (born 1976) – soccer player
Raimonds Pauls (born 1936) – composer; widely known in Russia
Lūcija Peka (1912–1991) – artist of the Latvian diaspora
Konstantīns Pēkšēns (1859-1928) - Art nouveau architect
Jēkabs Peterss (1886–1938) – revolutionary and Soviet Cheka leader
Kaspars Petrovs (born 1978) – serial killer
Vladimirs Petrovs (1907–1943) – chess player
Oskars Perro (1918–2003) – soldier and writer
Andris Piebalgs (born 1957) – politician and diplomat; European Commissioner for Energy
Jānis Pliekšāns (1865–1929) – writer; author of a number of poetry collections
Juris Podnieks (1950–1992) – film director, producer
Nikolajs Poļakovs (1900–1974) – circus performer; creator of Coco the Clown
Jānis Poruks (1871–1911) – writer
Kristaps Porziņģis (born 1995) – basketball player, New York Knicks
Rosa von Praunheim (born 1942) – film director, author, painter and gay rights activist
Sandis Prūsis (born 1965) – athlete, bobsleigh
Uldis Pūcītis (1937–2000) – actor, director
Jānis Pujāts (born 1930) – Roman Catholic cardinal
Andrejs Pumpurs (1841–1901) – poet; author of Latvian national epic Lāčplēsis
R
Rainis, pseudonym of Jānis Pliekšāns (1865–1929) – poet and playwright
Dan Rapoport (born 1970) – American financier and philanthropist
Lauris Reiniks (born 1979) – singer-songwriter, actor and television personality
Einars Repše (born 1961) – politician
Lolita Ritmanis (born 1962) – orchestrator, composer
Iļja Ripss (born 1948) – inventor of the Bible code
Fricis Rokpelnis (1909–1969) – author
Markuss Rotkovičs (1903–1970) – abstract expressionist painter
Elza Rozenberga (1865–1943) – poet, playwright; married to Jānis Pliekšāns
Juris Rubenis (born 1961) – Lutheran pastor
Mārtiņš Rubenis (born 1978) – athlete; bronze medalist at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin
Brunis Rubess (1926–2009) – businessman
Inta Ruka (born 1958) – photographer
Wolf Ruvinskis (1921–1999) – versatile actor, a memorable face of the Cinema of Mexico
S
Rudolfs Saulē (1903–1975) – ballet master; performer with the Latvian National Ballet
Uļjana Semjonova (born 1952) – basketball player
Haralds Silovs (born 1986) – short track and long track speed skater
Kārlis Skalbe (1879–1945) – poet
Kārlis Skrastiņš (1974–2011) – ice hockey player
Baiba Skride (born 1981) – violinist
Konstantīns Sokoļskis (1904–1991) – romance and tango singer
Ksenia Solo (born 1987) – Latvian-Canadian actress
Serge Sorokko (born 1954) – art dealer and publisher
Raimonds Staprans (born 1926) – Latvian-American painter
Jānis Šteinhauers (1705–1779) – industrialist, entrepreneur, and civil rights activist
Gotthard Friedrich Stender (1714–1796) – first Latvian grammarian
Līna Šterna (1878–1968) – biologist and social activist
Roze Stiebra (born 1942) – animator
Henrijs Stolovs (1901–1971) – stamp dealer
Jānis Streičs (born 1936) – film director, screenwriter, actor
Jānis Strēlnieks (born 1989) – basketball player
Pēteris Stučka (1865–1932) – author, translator, editor, jurist and educator
Jānis Sudrabkalns (1894–1975) – poet and journalist
Jevgēņijs Svešņikovs (born 1950) – chess player
Staņislavs Svjanevičs (1899–1997) – economist and historian
Š
Viktors Ščerbatihs (born 1974) – athlete, weightlifter
Pauls Šīmanis (1876–1944) – Baltic German journalist, politician, activist defending and preserving European minority cultures
Vestards Šimkus (born 1984) – pianist
Aleksejs Širovs (born 1972) – chess player
Andris Šķēle (born 1958) – politician; Prime Minister of Latvia
Armands Šķēle (born 1983) – basketball player
Ernests Štālbergs (1883–1958) – architect, ensemble of the Freedom Monument
Īzaks Nahmans Šteinbergs (1888–1957) – politician, lawyer and author
Māris Štrombergs (born 1987) – BMX cyclist; gold medal winner at 2008 and 2012 Olympics
T
Esther Takeuchi (born 1953) – materials scientist and chemical engineer
Mihails Tāls (1936–1992) – the 8th World Chess Champion
Jānis Roberts Tilbergs (1880–1972) – painter, sculptor
U
Guntis Ulmanis (born 1939) – President of Latvia
Kārlis Ulmanis (1877–1942) – Prime Minister of Latvia; President of Latvia
Juris Upatnieks (born 1936) – physicist and inventor; pioneer in the field of holography
Andrejs Upīts (1877–1970) – poet and writer
V
Ojārs Vācietis (1933–1983) – writer
Romāns Vainšteins (born 1973) – cyclist, World Road Champion in 2000
Krišjānis Valdemārs (1825–1891) – public figure, writer, publicist and economist
Pauls Valdens (1863–1957) – chemist
Miķelis Valters (1874–1968) – state official, journalist, diplomat
Valdis Valters (born 1957) – basketball player
Aleksandrs Vanags (1918–1986) – footballer
Jānis Vanags (born 1958) – Lutheran archbishop
Jūlijs Vanags (1903–1984) – author and translator
Pēteris Vasks (born 1946) – contemporary composer
Jukums Vācietis (1873–1938) – first commander of the Soviet Army
Ojārs Vācietis (1933–1983) – poet
Kaspars Vecvagars (born 1993) – basketball club BC Žalgiris player
Eduards Veidenbaums (1867–1892) – poet and translator
Makss Veinreihs (1893–1969) – linguist
Ed Viesturs (Edmunds Viesturs, born 1959) – mountaineer
Igors Vihrovs (born 1978) – gymnast, gold medalist at Sydney Olympics in 2000
Edvarts Virza (1883–1940) – writer
Alvis Vītoliņš (1946–1997) – chess master
Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga (born 1937) – former President of Latvia
Jāzeps Vītols (1863–1948) – composer
Māris Verpakovskis (born 1979) – footballer
Aleksandrs Voitkevičs (1963–2006) – chess player
Z
Kārlis Zāle (1888–1942) – sculptor; author of the Freedom Monument in Riga
Juris Zariņš (born 1945) – archaeologist and professor at Missouri State University
Kārlis Zariņš (Charles Zarine) (1879–1963) – diplomat
Rihards Zariņš (1869–1939) – graphic artist
Valdis Zatlers (born 1955) – former President of Latvia
Elmārs Zemgalis (1923–2014) – chess player
Gustavs Zemgals (1871–1939) – former President of Latvia
Imants Zemzaris (born 1951) – contemporary composer
Valdis Zeps (1932–1996) – author and linguist; pseudonym Jānis Turbads
Imants Ziedonis (1933–2013) – poet and folklorist
Mārtiņš Zīverts (1903–1990) – playwright
Kaspars Znotiņš (born 1975) – stage and film actor
Ž
Sergejs Žoltoks (1972–2004) – ice hockey player, forward
See also
Latvian American
References
|
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241732
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Basketball%20League%20%281996%E2%80%931998%29
|
American Basketball League (1996–1998)
|
The American Basketball League, often abbreviated to the ABL of 1996 was a professional women's basketball league in the United States. At the same time the ABL was being formed, the National Basketball Association (NBA) was creating the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). The ABL began league competition in the Fall of 1996, while the WNBA launched its first game in June 1997. Both organizations came into existence during a surge in popularity for women's basketball in the United States that followed the perfect 35–0 national championship season for the Connecticut Huskies in 1995 and the undefeated, gold medal-winning performance of the United States Women's basketball team at the 1996 Summer Olympics.
The ABL lasted two full seasons: 1996–97 and 1997–98. The Atlanta Glory and Long Beach Stingrays folded prior to the start of the 1998–99 season, and were replaced by two expansion teams, the Chicago Condors and Nashville Noise. On December 22, 1998, with almost no warning, the ABL declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy and suspended operations. Each team had played between 12 and 15 games of the 1998–99 season.
The ABL got off the ground before the WNBA, and at least early on its quality of play was higher than the rival league. This was partly due to the league's signing of a majority of players from the 1996 USA women's national team. Although the WNBA was bankrolled by the NBA, the ABL offered higher salaries. The two leagues did not compete directly; the ABL played during the winter while the WNBA played during the summer. Despite this, the ABL ultimately found the WNBA's stronger financial resources—augmented by the NBA's marketing muscle—to be too much to overcome.
The league operated as a single-entity structure, which was intended to control costs until it found its feet. However, it also meant that even the most basic decisions related to team operations had to go through the league office in Palo Alto, California. League officials were so fixated on national sponsorships that they hamstrung the teams' efforts to market themselves locally. The ABL was also underfinanced. Allison Hodges, general manager of the short-lived Condors, later told The New York Times that she was led to believe league officials rejected her marketing ideas because they clashed with its national focus, only to find out that the league did not have enough money to finance them. Hodges also believed the league had already planned to shut down before announcing the Chapter 11 filing.
Of all the ABL cities, Chicago, Seattle, and Atlanta now have WNBA teams.
1996–98 clubs
Seasons
1996–97
The 1996–97 ABL All-Star Game was played on December 15, 1996, at the Hartford Civic Center. The Western Conference defeated the Eastern Conference, 81–65, and the game's MVP was Tari Phillips.
1997–98
The 1997–98 ABL All-Star Game was played on January 18, 1998, at Disney's Wide World of Sports Complex in Lake Buena Vista, Florida. The Eastern Conference defeated the Western Conference, 102–73.
1998–99
The 1998–99 ABL All-Star Game was scheduled to be played on January 24, 1999, in San Jose, California, but was canceled when the league ceased operations in December 1998.
Notable players
Jennifer Azzi
Debbie Black
Cindy Brown
Edna Campbell
Sylvia Crawley
Teresa Edwards
Tonya Edwards, now head coach at Alcorn State University
Shalonda Enis
Jackie Joyner-Kersee, the Olympic-champion long jumper and heptathlete
Molly Goodenbour
Yolanda Griffith
Sonja Henning
Kedra Holland-Corn
Shannon Johnson
Carolyn Jones-Young
Venus Lacy
Andrea Lloyd-Curry
Stacey Lovelace
Michelle Marciniak
Nikki McCray
Carla McGhee
Chasity Melvin
Delisha Milton
Taj McWilliams-Franklin
Kate Paye, now an assistant coach at Stanford University
Tari Phillips
Elaine Powell
Katrina Price
Jennifer Rizzotti, now the President of the Connecticut Sun
Crystal Robinson
Saudia Roundtree
Sheri Sam
Katie Smith, now an assistant coach for the Minnesota Lynx
Charlotte Smith, now the head coach at Elon University
Dawn Staley, now the head coach at the University of South Carolina
Katy Steding
Kate Starbird
Sonja Tate
Val Whiting
Natalie Williams
Kara Wolters
See also
National Women's Basketball League
Women's American Basketball Association
Women's National Basketball Association
Women's Professional Basketball League
American Basketball League (1996–1998) on television
References
External links
John Sage's ABL webpage capture, containing old interviews, articles, and final statistics
ABL on APBR.org website
All-Star cards
Professional basketball research
Defunct women's basketball leagues in the United States
Defunct professional sports leagues in the United States
Articles which contain graphical timelines
1996 establishments in the United States
1998 disestablishments in the United States
Sports leagues established in 1996
Sports leagues disestablished in 1998
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund%20Pendleton
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Edmund Pendleton
|
Edmund Pendleton (September 9, 1721 – October 23, 1803) was a Virginia planter, politician, lawyer, judge, and a Founding Father of the United States. He served in the Virginia legislature before and during the American Revolutionary War, rising to the position of speaker. Pendleton attended the First Continental Congress as one of Virginia's delegates alongside George Washington and Patrick Henry, signed the Continental Association, and led the conventions both wherein Virginia declared independence (1776) and adopted the United States Constitution (1788).
Unlike his sometime political rival Henry, Pendleton was a moderate who initially hoped for reconciliation rather than revolt. With Thomas Jefferson and George Wythe, Pendleton revised Virginia's legal code after the break with Britain. To contemporaries, Pendleton may have distinguished himself most as a judge, particularly in the appellate roles in which he spent his final 25 years, including leadership of what is now known as the Supreme Court of Virginia.
On hearing of his death, Congress agreed to wear badges of mourning for 30 days and expressed "their regret that another star is fallen from the splendid constellation of virtue and talents which guided the people of the United States, in their struggle for independence".
Early life
Pendleton was born in Caroline County, Virginia, to Mary Bishop Taylor, whose young husband (and father of her six other children), Henry Pendleton, had died four months earlier. Pendleton's maternal grandfather, James Taylor, was a large landowner in nearby Rappahannock County and may have helped raise the children until the widow remarried Edward Watkins two years later. When Edmund was 14 years old, he became apprenticed to Benjamin Robinson, clerk of the Caroline County Court, which is where he learned about political issues and soon began reading law books and learning legal procedures. In 1737, Pendleton was made clerk of the vestry of St. Mary's Parish in Caroline, which began his involvement with practical church-related matters which would continue throughout his life.
Career
Pendleton received a license to practice law in April 1741. His success before nearby county courts, including as the prosecuting attorney for Essex County, allowed Pendleton to become a member of the General Court bar in October 1745. When attorneys were forbidden to practice before both courts, Pendleton chose the General Court and wrapped up his lower court practice—which allowed him to accept appointment as a justice of the peace for Caroline County in 1751. Pendleton also trained many young lawyers, including his nephews John Penn (later one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence) and John Taylor of Caroline (who became a U.S. Senator).
From 1752 to 1776, Pendleton represented Caroline County in the House of Burgesses. In May 1766, his mentor, the powerful speaker John Robinson died, and Pendleton was appointed one of the executors, thus becoming involved in the John Robinson estate scandal throughout the rest of his legal career.
Pendleton was on the Virginia Committee of Correspondence in 1773 and was a delegate to Continental Congress from Virginia in 1774. A moderate among the revolutionaries, in a resolution at the Second Continental Congress he said: "The ground and foundation of the present unhappy dispute between the British Ministry and Parliament and America, is a Right claimed by the former to tax the Subjects of the latter without their consent, and not an inclination on our part to set up for independency, which we utterly disavow and wish to restore to a Constitutional Connection upon the most solid and reasonable basis."
Pendleton served as president of the Virginia Committee of Safety from August 16, 1775, to July 5, 1776 (effectively serving as governor of the colony), and as president of the Virginia Convention which authorized Virginia's delegates to propose a resolution to move for the break from Britain and create a Declaration of Independence. The Convention debated the Virginia Declaration of Rights, drafted by George Mason, which served as a model for the Declaration of Independence. Pendleton proposed the modification in the statement of universal rights in Virginia's declaration to exclude slaves, thus winning support of slave owners.
Fellow delegates elected Pendleton the first speaker of Virginia's new House of Delegates, although he dislocated his hip in a fall from a horse in March 1777 which caused him to miss the first session. He used crutches the rest of his life. Pendleton, along with Thomas Jefferson and George Wythe, revised Virginia's law code. He became judge of the High Court of Chancery in 1777. When Virginia created a Supreme Court of Appeals in 1778, Pendleton was appointed its first president and served until his death. In 1788 delegates unanimously selected Pendleton president of the Virginia Ratifying Convention. When Wythe took the chair, Pendleton addressing colleagues thus: "...the people by us are peaceably assembled, to contemplate in the calm lights of mild philosophy, what Government is best calculated to promote their happiness, and secure their liberty. This I am sure we shall effect, if we do not lose sight of them by too much attachment to pictures of beauty, or horror, in our researches into antiquity, our travels for examples into remote regions".
Family
Pendleton married twice. He married Betty Roy on January 21, 1741, but she died in childbirth on November 16, 1742, and their infant son died shortly thereafter. On June 20, 1743, Pendleton married Sarah Pollard, daughter of Joseph Pollard and Priscilla Hoomes. Edmund and Sarah had no children, but in his extensive correspondence with contemporaries he often referred to their marriage as happy.
Since Pendleton had no direct descendants, his nieces, nephews, grandnieces, and grandnephews became his heirs. Pendleton did not grant freedom to any slaves in his will, unlike George Washington who similarly died without direct descendants, and Wythe who freed all his slaves in his lifetime. His brother John Pendleton's son, also named Edmund Pendleton (1743–1827), added "Jr." to distinguish himself from the judge whose principal heir he became. His oldest brother, James Pendleton, 19 years his senior, died in 1762 and left a large estate in Culpeper that Edmund administered for the widow and four children.
Many relatives were named after the judge, including grandnephews Edmund Pendleton (1776–1820, Edmund Jr.'s son), Edmund Pendleton (1790–1823, son of Nathaniel Pendleton's son Philip), Edmund Pendleton (1786–1838, son of Henry Pendleton), and General Edmund Pendleton Gaines (1777–1849). His nephew Nathaniel Pendleton, Jr. distinguished himself in the American Revolution as an aide to General Nathaniel Greene and later became a lawyer and United States district judge for Georgia. In turn his son Edmund Henry Pendleton (1788–1862) also became a judge, as well as a U.S. congressman for New York. Another descendant, Edmund Monroe Pendleton (1815–1884), distinguished himself in developing fertilizer products, and became a professor of agriculture and horticulture at the University of Georgia.
Philip Clayton Pendleton (1779–1863) also served as a United States District Judge, and Philip P. Barbour (1783–1841) served as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court after serving as Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (his brother James Barbour was Virginia's 18th governor as well as later a United States Senator and Secretary of War). Edmund Henry Pendleton (1843–1910) served in the 4th New York artillery as a Union staff officer in the Civil War; Reverend and Brigadier General William Nelson Pendleton (1809–1883) commanded the Rockbridge Artillery and Confederate artillery units in that war, and his son Sandie Pendleton (1840–1864) became a distinguished staff officer before dying in the Valley campaigns of 1864.
Death and legacy
Pendleton died in 1803, and after lying in state in Richmond he was buried at his home, Edmundsbury, in Caroline County. Because of the ravages of time upon the estate's buildings, his body was removed circa 1907 and moved to Bruton Parish Church in what became Colonial Williamsburg. A memorial to Pendleton is located near the former estate. Pendleton County, West Virginia (formed 1788) and Pendleton County, Kentucky (formed 1798) are both named in Pendleton's honor.
See also
Fifth Virginia Convention
Virginia Ratifying Convention
Notes
References
Autobiography, Edmund Pendleton, completed on July 20, 1793, it was first published in the Richmond Enquirer, April 11, 1828
Leftwich, George J. Colonel George Strother Gaines and Other Pioneers in Mississippi Territory. Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, v. 1. Jackson, Miss: Mississippi Historical Society, 1916. googlebooks.com Accessed October 20, 2007
Page, Richard Channing Moore. Genealogy of the Page Family in Virginia. Also a Condensed Account of the Nelson, Walker, Pendleton and Randolph Families, with References to the Byrd, Carter, Cary, Duke, Gilmer, Harrison, Rives, Thornton, Wellford, Washington, and Other Distinguished Families in Virginia. New York: Jenkins & Thomas, printers, 1883. googlebooks.com Accessed October 20, 2007
Understanding the American Revolution: issues and actors, Jack P. Greene, University of Virginia Press, 1995
Further reading
David J. Mays Edmund Pendleton, 1721–1803: A Biography; 1952, Harvard University Press; 1984 reprint: Library of Virginia, ; (paperback: ).
David J. Mays (editor); The Letters and Papers of Edmund Pendleton (2 volumes);1967, Charlottesville, Virginia, The University Press of Virginia.
The Life and Times of Edmund Pendleton, Robert Leroy Hilldrup, 1939, University of North Carolina Press
External links
Pendleton's Congressional Biography
1721 births
1803 deaths
American slave owners
Delegates to the Virginia Ratifying Convention
House of Burgesses members
Continental Congressmen from Virginia
American people of English descent
18th-century American politicians
Speakers of the Virginia House of Delegates
People from Caroline County, Virginia
Burials at Bruton Parish Church
Chief Justices of the Virginia Supreme Court
Pendleton family
Virginia colonial people
Signers of the Continental Association
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esslingen%20%28district%29
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Esslingen (district)
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Esslingen is a Landkreis (district) in the centre of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from north clockwise) Rems-Murr, Göppingen, Reutlingen, Böblingen and the district-free city Stuttgart.
Until 15 October 1964 the district's name was written officially as Landkreis Eßlingen.
History
The district dates back to the Oberamt Esslingen, which was created when the previously free imperial city of Esslingen am Neckar became part of Württemberg in 1803. It was changed several times in the course of history. Since 1810 it belonged to the Landvogtei Rothenberg and from 1818 until it was dissolved in 1924 to the Neckarkreis. In 1934 the Oberamt was renamed Kreis Eßlingen and the now termed Landkreis Eßlingen was enlarged by several municipalities of the dissolved Oberamt Stuttgart and the Kreise Schorndorf, Kirchheim unter Teck and Göppingen on 1 October 1938.
After several changes over the next century, it was converted into a district in 1938. Additionally, with the territorial Partition act on 24 April 1938, it was enlarged by adding several municipalities from the neighboring Amtsoberamt Stuttgart, Oberamt Schorndorf, Oberamt Kirchheim and Göppingen.
On 16 October 1964 the state government allowed the change from the previous spelling to the current Landkreis Esslingen.
In 1973, the district was merged with the district Nürtingen (without Grafenberg). In 1975, two municipalities (Leinfelden and Musberg) from the district Böblingen were added to give the district today's borders.
Since the completion of the municipality reform the Landkreis Esslingen yet consists of 44 municipalities, amongst them 13 towns and among those, in turn, six Major district towns (Esslingen am Neckar, Filderstadt, Kirchheim unter Teck, Leinfelden-Echterdingen, Nürtingen and Ostfildern). The districts largest town is Esslingen am Neckar, the smallest municipality Altdorf near Nürtingen. In 1980 German right-wing extremists of the Deutsche Aktionsgruppen committed a bomb attack on the administrative district office and the district administrators house.
Geography
The district is cut into two halves by the river Neckar. The west part is part of the Filder plain, while the east is part of the mountains of the Swabian Alb (Schwäbische Alb) and the Schurwald (part of the Swabian-Franconian mountain range).
At Plochingen the Fils flows into the Neckar river which leaves the district near Esslingen-Mettingen heading towards Stuttgart. With 229 m above sea level the water level of the Neckar near Mettingen represents the districts lowest Point. The highest point is located 830 m above SL in the Brucker Hölzle near Bissingen-Ochsenwang.
Places
The list of localities in the district Esslingen consists of about 185 places (Cities, towns, villages, hamlets, smallholdings and dwelling places) as far as they are geographically separate.
Neighbouring districts
The Landkreis Esslingen borders in clockwise direction starting in the North the Landkreise (districts) Rems-Murr-Kreis, Göppingen, Reutlingen and Böblingen as well as the Stadtkreis (urban district) Stuttgart.
Natural reserves
The Landkreis Esslingen owns the following natural reserves. According to the reserves statistic of the Landesanstalt für Umwelt, Messungen und Naturschutz Baden Württemberg (LUBW) 2320,57 hectare of the districts area is under nature protection (3,62 %).
Alter Neckar: 21,3 ha; Esslingen am Neckar and Altbach
Am Rank (Röhmsee): 13 ha; Unterensingen
Denkendorfer Erlachsee: 4,4 ha; Denkendorf
Eichhalde: 85 ha; Bissingen an der Teck
Erkenbergwasen: 15,7 ha; Neidlingen
Grienwiesen (Schülesee): 11,5 ha; Unterensingen
Häslachwald: 53,6 ha (thereoff 8,6 ha in the district Esslingen); City Ostfildern - area Kemnat
Jusi/Auf dem Berg: 48,9 ha; Kohlberg and Kappishäusern
Krähenhäule: 5,3 ha; Esslingen am Neckar
Kurzer Wasen/Roter Wasen: 29,1 ha; Weilheim an der Teck
Limburg: 161,5 ha; Weilheim an der Teck
Musberger Eichberg: 14,4 ha; Leinfelden-Echterdingen
Nägelestal: 20,0 ha; Kirchheim unter Teck
Neckarwasen: 13,3 ha; Köngen and Wendlingen am Neckar
Neuffener Heide: 16,9 ha; Neuffen
Neuffener Hörnle-Jusenberg: 48,0 ha; Neuffen
Oberes Lenninger Tal including side valleys: 593 ha; municipality Lenningen - areas Gutenberg and Oberlenningen
Randecker Maar including Zipfelbachschlucht: 110,0 ha; Ochsenwang and Hepsisau
Schaichtal: 467,8 ha; Aich, Grötzingen and Neuenhaus, Altenriet and Schlaitdorf, Waldenbuch (Landkreis Böblingen), Walddorf and Häslach (Landkreis Reutlingen) and Dettenhausen (Landkreis Tübingen)
Schönrain: 7,1 ha; Neckartenzlingen
Schopflocher Moor (Torfgrube): 50,4 ha; municipality Lenningen - Schopfloch and Ochsenwang
Siebenmühlental: 98,5 ha; 52,6 ha on the Areas of Filderstadt and Leinfelden-Echterdingen in the Landkreis Esslingen and 45,8 ha on the area of Steinenbronn and Waldenbuch in the Landkreis Böblingen
Stettener Bach: 49,6 ha; Esslingen am Neckar and Schanbach
Teck: 386,0 ha; Bissingen an der Teck, Dettingen unter Teck, Unterlenningen and Owen
Tobeltal including Mittagsfels and Wielandstein: 151,4 ha; municipality Lenningen, area Oberlenningen
Unter dem Burz: 26,9 ha; Neidlingen
Wernauer Baggerseen: 32,1 ha; Köngen, Wendlingen am Neckar and Wernau (Neckar)
Wernauer Lehmgrube: 5,5 ha; Wernau (Neckar)
Wiestal mit Rauber: 136,5 ha; Jesingen, Holzmaden and Ohmden
Demographics
The numbers of inhabitants are census results (¹) or official updates of the Statistischen Landesamts Baden-Württemberg (only main residence). The demographic development before 1973 includes the sums of the inhabitants of those municipalities which nowadays belong to the district Esslingen but prior belonged to other administrative units (Oberämtern, Landkreisen).
With almost 525,000 inhabitants the district Esslingen stands in 6th place in Germany, slightly behind the district Ludwigsburg which pushed him back from the 5th Position in the first quarter of 2007.
Politics
The district is administered by the Kreistag (district council) and the Landrat (District Administrator).
Kreistag (district council)
The Kreistag is elected every 5 years by the districts eligible voters. The election on 25. Mai 2014 led to following provisional results. The official result was published by the statistical state Office towards the end of 2014.
WG: free voters, as the results from 1989 until 2004 are not dividable into individual free voter groups.
Landrat (district Administrator)
The Kreistag elects the Landrat for a period of 8 years. The Landrat is the legal representative of the district as well as head of the Kreistag and its committees, but is not eligible to vote in those bodies. He leads the Landratsamt (courthouse) and is public servant of the district.
Among his responsibilities belongs the preparation of the district councils and ist committees sessions. He convokes the sessions, leads them and administers the decisions made there. His Proxy is the Erste Landesbeamte.
1933–1938: Ernst Mäulen
1938–1945: Hans Häcker
1945–1946: Fritz Landenberger
1946–1966: Georg Geist
1966–1972: Richard Schall
1973–2000: Hans Peter Braun
since 2000: Heinz Eininger
Coat of arms
The coat of arms shows the imperial eagle taken from the coat of arms of the city of Esslingen. The checkered diamonds in the bottom are the symbol of the Dukes of Teck, and the horn on the breast of the eagle is the symbol of the Counts of Urach. Both symbols were taken from the coat of arms of the district of Nürtingen, as the two families played a major role in the history of the area.
Economy and Infrastructure
In the "Zukunftsatlas 2016" the district Esslingen ranked 22nd out of 402 districts, municipal associations and district free cities in Germany and therefore belongs to the regions with "very high opportunities for the future".
Economy
The most labour-intensive sectors in the district Esslingen are according to the states statistical office:
car manufacturing: 14,500 employees
health, veterinary and social services: 13,100 employees
Mechanical Engineering: 23,300 employees
services close to companies: 14,100 employees
Transportation
Air
Stuttgart Airport lays on the eastern border of the city Leinfelden-Echterdingen. The runways are situated mostly on grounds belonging to Filderstadt-Bernhausen.
Public transport
Since 1845 the eventual Württembergische Staatsbahn runs from Stuttgart to the district City Esslingen, since 1846 as far as Plochingen and 1847 as Filsbahn towards the crossing of the Swabian Albs in the direction of Geislinger Steige–Ulm.
In 1859 the Neckar-Alb-Bahn was attached starting in Plochingen towards Nürtingen–Reutlingen an. From this railway the Teckbahn of the Kirchheimer Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft branched off in Wendlingen (back then Unterbohingen) in 1864 and extended as far as Oberlenningen by the Staatsbahn in 1899. Another meanwhile defunct local branch line was the railway line Kirchheim (Teck) Süd–Weilheim (Teck, opened in 1908.
The Tälesbahn Nürtingen–Neuffen belongs to the Württembergischen Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft since its opening in 1900.
Over the course of 100 years a diverse public transport network developed on Filder plains at the southern border of Stuttgart, the Filderbahn-Gesellschaft. In Leinfelden-Echterdingen the S-Bahn (S2 and S3) to Stuttgart Airport put into operation between 1989 and 1993 uses partly the alignment of the line Vaihingen–Echterdingen put in use by the Deutsche Reichsbahn in 1920, from which in 1928 in Leinfelden a line branched off heading to Waldenbuch. The S2 line was extended from the Airport to Filderstadt-Bernhausen in the autumn of 2001.
In Echterdingen they linked to the line Möhringen–Neuhausen, built by the Filderbahn-Gesellschaft in metre gauge in 1897 and changed to Standard gauge in 1902. The part Möhringen–Echterdingen was replaced by a connection Möhringen–Leinfelden, which was built as an electric cross-country railway in meter gauge in 1928 and had been – parallel to the standard gauge line to Neuhausen – extended up to Echterdingen Ort. Since 1990 a standard gauge light rail called Stadtbahn (Line U5) runs only up to Leinfelden Bahnhof instead from where the S-Bahn carries on.
In Esslingen the tram Straßenbahn Esslingen am Neckar was inaugurated in 1912, which from 1919 on provided a link to the tram network of the Stuttgarter Straßenbahnen (SSB). It was replaced in 1944 through the trolleybus Esslingen am Neckar. In 1926 the interurban tram Esslingen–Nellingen–Denkendorf (END) was added, which did run up to the Filder until 1978 as well. Unlike the Filderbahn lines not from the west but rather from the northern side. Since 1929 it had a branch line from Nellingen towards Neuhausen.
Regarding the railways only two smaller sections have been defunct:
1955: Leinfelden–Musberg–Waldenbuch (Siebenmühlentalbahn, 11.7 km)
1982: Kirchheim Süd–Holzmaden–Weilheim (7.7 km)
In the year 2000 the SSB opened the light rail Stuttgart–Nellingen.
Responsible for the public transport is the Verkehrs- und Tarifverbund Stuttgart (VVS).
Individual transport
From west to east the Bundesautobahn 8, connecting Stuttgart and Ulm, is running through the district area. The most important Bundesstraßen are the B 10 Stuttgart–Ulm, the B 27 Stuttgart–Tübingen, the B 312 Flughafen–Reutlingen and the B 313 Plochingen–Reutlingen.
District institutions
The district Esslingen is Provider of the following vocational schools: Friedrich-Ebert-Schule (industrial school) Esslingen, John-F.-Kennedy-Schule (commercial school) Esslingen, Käthe-Kollwitz-Schule (domestic Management school) Esslingen, Max-Eyth-Schule (industrial school) Kirchheim unter Teck, Jakob-Friedrich-Schöllkopf-Schule (commercial school) Kirchheim unter Teck, Philipp-Matthäus-Hahn-Schule (industrial school) Nürtingen, Otto-Umfrid-Schule (industrial school) Nürtingen, Albert-Schäffle-Schule (commercial school) Nürtingen and Fritz-Ruoff-Schule (domestic Management and agricultural school) Nürtingen, moreover the Rohräcker schools Esslingen (School for mentally disabled, physically disabled and speech impaired pupils and correspondingly with School kindergarten and also School for sick pupils with longer lasting Hospital treatment) and the Bodelschwinghschule for mentally impaired Nürtingenwith school kindergarten. In Dettingen unter Teck another school for mentally and speech impaired school with school kindergarten was constructed.
Additionally the district is shareholder of the medius KLINIKEN gGmbH. This association is carrier of the Paracelsus-hospital Ruit in Ostfildern-Ruit and the Hospital Kirchheim-Nürtingen with ist two sites Kirchheim unter Teck and Nürtingen. Both are academic teaching hospitals for the University of Tübingen.
Towns and villages
Vereinbarte Verwaltungsgemeinschaften / Gemeindeverwaltungsverbände (municipal administration unions):
Vereinbarte Verwaltungsgemeinschaft of the town Kirchheim unter Teck together with the municipalities of Dettingen unter Teck and Notzingen
Gemeindeverwaltungsverband Lenningen with office in Lenningen; Members: Municipalities of Lenningen and Erkenbrechtsweiler as well as the town Owen
Gemeindeverwaltungsverband Neckartenzlingen with office in Neckartenzlingen; Members: Altdorf, Altenriet, Bempflingen, Neckartailfingen, Neckartenzlingen and Schlaitdorf
Vereinbarte Verwaltungsgemeinschaft of the town Neuffen with the municipalities Beuren and Kohlberg
Vereinbarte Verwaltungsgemeinschaft of the town Nürtingen with the municipalities Frickenhausen, Großbettlingen, Oberboihingen, Unterensingen and Wolfschlugen
Gemeindeverwaltungsverband Plochingen with office in Plochingen; Members: Town Plochingen and the municipalities Altbach and Deizisau
Gemeindeverwaltungsverband Reichenbach an der Fils with office in Reichenbach an der Fils; Members: Baltmannsweiler, Hochdorf, Lichtenwald and Reichenbach an der Fils
Vereinbarte Verwaltungsgemeinschaft of the town Weilheim an der Teck with the municipalities Bissingen an der Teck, Holzmaden, Neidlingen and Ohmden
Gemeindeverwaltungsverband Wendlingen am Neckar with Office in Wendlingen am Neckar; Members: Town Wendlingen am Neckar and municipality Köngen
References
External links
Stuttgart (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturnian%20%28poetry%29
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Saturnian (poetry)
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Saturnian meter or verse is an old Latin and Italic poetic form, of which the principles of versification have become obscure. Only 132 complete uncontroversial verses survive. 95 literary verses and partial fragments have been preserved as quotations in later grammatical writings, as well as 37 verses in funerary or dedicatory inscriptions. The majority of literary Saturnians come from the Odysseia (more commonly known as the Odissia or Odyssia), a translation/paraphrase of Homer's Odyssey by Livius Andronicus (c. 3rd century BC), and the Bellum Poenicum, an epic on the First Punic War by Gnaeus Naevius (c. 3rd century BC).
The meter was moribund by the time of the literary verses and forgotten altogether by classical times, falling out of use with the adoption of the hexameter and other Greek verse forms. Quintus Ennius is the poet who is generally credited with introducing the Greek hexameter in Latin, and dramatic meters seem to have been well on their way to domestic adoption in the works of his approximate contemporary Plautus. These Greek verse forms were considered more sophisticated than the native tradition; Horace called the Saturnian horridus. Consequently, the poetry in this meter was not preserved. Cicero regretted the loss in his Brutus:
Atque utinam exstārent illa carmina, quae multīs saeclīs ante suam aetātem in epulīs esse cantitāta ā singulīs conuīuīs dē clārōrum uirōrum laudibus in Orīginibus scrīptum relīquit Catō.
'I heartily wish those venerable Odes were still extant, which Cato informs us in his Antiquities, used to be sung by every guest in his turn at the homely feasts of our ancestors, many ages before, to commemorate the feats of their heroes.'
However, it has been noted that later poets like Ennius (by extension Virgil, who follows him in both time and technique) preserve something of the Saturnian aesthetic in hexameter verse. Ennius explicitly acknowledges Naevius' poem and skill (lines 206–7 and 208–9 in the edition of Skutsch, with translations by Goldberg):
[...] scrīpsēre aliī rem
vorsibus quōs ōlim Faunei vātesque canēbant
'[...] Others have given an account
in rhythms which the Fauns and seers sang.'
nam neque Mūsārum scopulōs ēscendit ad altōs
nec dictī studiōsus fuit Rōmānus homō ante hunc.
'For no Roman scaled the Muses' lofty crags
or was careful with his speech before this man.'
Ancient grammarians sought to derive the verse from a Greek model, in which syllable weight or the arrangement of light and heavy syllables was the governing principle. Scholars today remain divided between two approaches:
The meter was quantitative (but not borrowed from Greek).
The meter was accentual or based on accented and unaccented syllables.
Despite the division, there is some consensus regarding aspects of the verse's structure. A Saturnian line can be divided into two cola or half-lines, separated by a central caesura. The second colon is shorter than or as long as the first. Furthermore, in any half-line with seven or more syllables, the last three or four are preceded by word-end. This is known as Korsch's caesura or the caesura Korschiana, after its discoverer.
The Saturnian as quantitative
Most—but not all—Saturnians can be captured by the following scheme:
∪ = light syllable
– = heavy syllable
∪∪ = two light syllables that occupy the space of one heavy
|| = caesura
∪ over – (x at verse-end) = position can be occupied by either light or heavy syllable
∪∪ over – over ∪ = position can be occupied by any of the three
Examples
Numeration of literary fragments is according to Warmington's edition; translations are also by Warmington (see bibliography infra).
(1) Livius Andronicus, Odissia fragment 1
Virum mihī Camēna īnsece versūtum
∪ – ∪ – || ∪ – ∪ || – ∪ ∪ – – x
'Tell me, O Goddess of song, of the clever man'
(2) Naevius, Bellum Poenicum fragments 2–4
Postquam avem aspexit in templō Anchīsa
sacr(ā) in mēnsā Penātium ordine pōnuntur
immolābat auream victimam pulchram
– ∪ ∪ ∪ || – – ∪ || – – – – – x
∪ – – – || ∪ – (∪) – || – ∪ – – – x
– ∪ – – || – ∪ – || – ∪ – – x
'After Anchises had seen a bird within the range of view,
hallowed offerings were set in a row on the table of the Household Gods;
and he busied himself in sacrificing a beautiful golden victim.'
(3) Epitaph for Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus (c. 270–150 BC)
GNAIVOD•PATRE
PROGNATVS•FORTIS•VIR•SAPIENSQVE—QVOIVS•FORMA•VIRTVTEI•PARISVMA
FVIT—CONSOL CENSOR•AIDILIS•QVEI•FVIT•APVD•VOS—TAVRASIA•CISAVNA
SAMNIO•CEPIT—SVBIGIT•OMNE•LOVCANA•OPSIDESQVE•ABDOVCIT
In regularized orthography (note the punctuation on the stone, viz. — = verse-end):
Gnaevō patre / prōgnātus, fortis vir sapiēnsque
cuius fōrma virtūtī parissuma / fuit
cōnsul, cēnsor, aedīlis quī fuit apud vōs
Taurāsiam, Cisaunam, / Samnium cēpit
subigit omnem Lūcānam, opsidēsque abdūcit.
– – ∪ ∪ || – – – || – – – || ∪ ∪ – x
– ∪* – ∪ || – – – || ∪ – ∪ ∪ ∪ x
– – – ∪† || – – ∪* || – ∪ ∪† ∪ –** x
– – ∪ – || ∪ – – || – ∪ – – x
∪∪ ∪ – – || – – ∪ || – ∪ – ∪ || – – x
* As in early Latin poetry, if not – as in later.
** Some early Latin poetry treats this as ∪.
† This syllable is historically –.
'Sprung from Gnaeus his father, a man strong and wise,
whose appearance was most in keeping with his virtue,
who was consul, censor, and aedile among you,
he captured Taurasia, Cisauna, Samnium,
he subdued all Lucania and led off hostages.'
The Saturnian as accentual
W.M. Lindsay formalizes the accentual scheme of the Saturnian as follows:
´ = accented syllable
∪ = unaccented
Handbooks otherwise schematize the verse as 3+ || 2+ stresses. This theory assumes Classical Latin accentuation. However, there is reason to believe that the Old Latin accent may have played a role in the verse. Afterwards, Lindsay himself abandoned his theory.
Examples
Here are the same texts from above, scanned accentually.
(4) Livius Andronicus, Odissia fragment 1
Virum mihī Camēna īnsece versūtum
´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪ ∪ (Old Latin)
´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪ (Classical Latin)
(5) Naevius, Bellum Poenicum fragments 2–4
Postquam avem aspexit in templō Anchīsa
sacr(ā) in mēnsā Penātium ordine pōnuntur
immolābat auream victimam pulchram
(Old Latin)
´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ ´ ∪ ∪
´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ (∪) ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪ ∪
´ ∪ ` ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪
(Classical Latin)
´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪
´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ (∪) ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪
` ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪
(6) Epitaph of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus
Gnaevō patre / prōgnātus, fortis vir sapiēnsque
cuius fōrma virtūtī parissuma / fuit
cōnsul, cēnsor, aedīlis quī fuit apud vōs
Taurāsiam, Cisaunam, / Samnium cēpit
subigit omnem Lūcānam, opsidēsque abdūcit.
(Old Latin)
´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ´ || ´ ∪ ` ∪
´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪
´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ´ ∪ ´ ∪ ´
´ ∪ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪
´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ` ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪
(Classical Latin)
´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ´ || ` ∪ ´ ∪
´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪
´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪
∪ ´ ∪ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪
´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ || ` ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪
The Saturnian in non-Latin Italic
Despite the obscurity of the principles of Saturnian versification in Latin, scholars have nonetheless attempted to extend analysis to other languages of ancient Italy related to Latin.
(7) Faliscan (two nearly identical inscriptions on cups from Civita Castellana, 4th century BC)
FOIED•VINO•(PI)PAFO•CRA•CAREFO
In Latin orthography:
foiēd vīnom (pi)pafō. crā(s) carēfō.
– – – – (||) ∪ (∪) – || – ∪ – x (Quantitative)
´ ∪ ´ ∪ (||) ´ (∪) ∪ || ´ ∪ ´ ∪ (Accentual)
'Today, I shall drink wine. Tomorrow, I shall go without.'
(8) Oscan (one of several similar inscriptions in Etruscoid script on vessels from Teano, 3rd century BC)
minis:beriis:anei:upsatuh:sent:tiianei*
* Sabellian inscriptional texts in native orthography are conventionally transcribed in bold-face minuscule, and those in the Latin script italicized.
In Latin orthography:
Minis Beris ā(n)nei opsātō sent Teānei.
(scansion of first three words uncertain) || – – – – || ∪ – x (Quantitative)
´ ∪ ´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ – ∪ – || ∪ – ∪ (Accentual)
' (these) were made at Teanum in Minius Berius' (workshop?).' (meaning of anei uncertain)
(9) Umbrian (inscription on a bronze plate from Plestia, 4th century BC)
cupras matres pletinas sacrụ [esu]**
** In epigraphy, graphemes transcribed with an underdot are of uncertain reading, and restorations are enclosed in square brackets.
In Latin orthography:
Cuprās Mātris Plestīnās sacrum esum.
∪ – – – || – – – || ∪ ∪ ∪ x (Quantitative)
´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ´ ∪ (Accentual)
'I am a sacred object of Mother Cupra from Plestia.' (Cupra was a Sabine goddess)
(10) Paelignian (final verse in an inscription on a stone from Corfinium, 1st century BC)
lifar dida vus deti hanustu herentas
In Latin orthography:
Līfar dida(t) vūs deti hanustō herentās.
– – ∪ – || – (scansion of deti uncertain) || ∪ – – ∪ – x (Quantitative)
´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪ (Accentual)
'May Liber grant you ... (good?) will ....' (meanings of deti and hanustu unknown)
Prehistory of the Saturnian
A large number of the verses have a 4 || 3 || 3 || 3 syllable count and division, which scholars have been inclined to take as underlying or ideal. This has permitted comparison with meters from related Indo-European poetic traditions outside Italic, such as Celtic, and a few scholars have tried to trace the verse back to Proto-Indo-European. John Vigorita derived the 4 || 3 || 5-6 syllable Saturnian from:
a Proto-Indo-European 7- or 8-syllable line combined with a shorter 5- or 6-syllable line, which is itself derivable from the octosyllable by undoing truncations (noted in metrical schemes by one or more ^'s, wherever in the meter the truncation has occurred).
M.L. West schematized this subset of verses as:
which he then traces to two Proto-Indo-European octosyllables:
one giving the Saturnian's heptasyllabic half-line by acephaly (truncation of line-beginning), the other yielding the hexasyllabic colon both by acephaly and catalexis (truncation of line-end). Ultimately, owing to the difficulties of describing and analyzing the Saturnian without taking its history into account, attempts at reconstruction have not won acceptance.
References
Sources
In English, two collections of the texts are available. Warmington's Loeb contains Livius Andronicus and Naevius' Saturnians, among other poetry and poets, and Courtney's anthology with commentary includes the Scipionic epitaphs and other inscriptions. Regarding the meter, the standard quantitative treatment is still Cole. The details of the accentual approach are set out in Lindsay. A new proposal that draws from generative linguistics has recently been put forward by Parsons (currently under follow-up investigation by Angelo Mercado, whose analysis is available at ref.).
No recent treatment of non-Latin Italic material is available in English; see Costa, Morelli, and Poccetti. Vigorita and West discuss the Saturnian and its prehistory in connection with the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European meter. Goldberg's book is an excellent treatment of the development of Roman epic from Livius Andronicus to Ennius to Virgil. The standard edition of Ennius' Annales is that of Skutsch. See also Whitman for a comparative study of Old Latin and Old English meter (he argues for alliteration and accent as definitive for both).
Latin poetry
Types of verses
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] |
241739
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescott
|
Prescott
|
Prescott may refer to:
People
Given name
Prescott E. Bloom, American lawyer and politician
Prescott Bush, American banker and politician
Samuel Prescott Bush, American industrialist
Samuel Prescott Hildreth, American physician, scientist, and historian
James Prescott Joule, English physicist
Surname
See: Prescott (surname)
Places
Canada
Prescott, Ontario
Prescott Island, Nunavut
England
Prescott, Gloucestershire
United States
Prescott, Arizona
Prescott, Arkansas
Prescott, Indiana
Prescott, Iowa
Prescott, Kansas
Prescott, Massachusetts
Prescott, Michigan
Prescott, Missouri
Prescott, Oregon
Prescott Township, Minnesota
Prescott, Washington
Prescott, Wisconsin
Other uses
Prescott and Northwestern Railroad, in Arkansas, US
Prescott College, in Arizona, US
Prescott Group, a fictional company and its eponymous subsidiaries, created by Stephen Colbert
Prescott Observatory, in Arizona, US
Prescott Schools, in Adelaide, Australia
Prescott Speed Hillclimb, a motorsport event in Gloucestershire, England
Prescott, the code name of a generation of Intel Pentium 4 processors
See also
Prescot, a town in Merseyside, England
|
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] |
241742
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline%20of%20organic%20chemistry
|
Outline of organic chemistry
|
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to organic chemistry:
Organic chemistry is the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives. These compounds may contain any number of other elements, including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens as well as phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur.
General topics
History of organic chemistry
IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry
Organic reaction
Organic compound
Organic synthesis
Retrosynthetic analysis
Current trends
Current trends in organic chemistry include (as of 2020):
Biocatalysis
Catalysis
Chemosensors
Chiral synthesis
Flow chemistry
Green chemistry
Mechanochemistry
Photoredox catalysis
Concepts
Acids and bases
Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory
Acid dissociation constants
Lewis acids and bases
Chemoselectivity
Molecular structure
Aromaticity
Chemical bonding
Covalent bonding
Lewis model
Molecule shapes
Bond angles
Resonance structures
Conjugated systems
Functional groups
Stereochemistry
Conformational isomerism
Diastereomer
Stereoisomerism
Chirality
Optical activity
Enantiomers
Regioselectivity
Stereoselectivity
Spectroscopy
Infrared spectroscopy
Mass spectrometry
NMR spectroscopy
Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy
Organometallic chemistry
Chemical species
Acetals
Hemiacetals
Thioacetals
Ketals
Alcohols and alkyl halides, diols, thiols
Alkanes and cycloalkanes
Alkenes
Alkynes
Amines
Amino acids, peptides, proteins
Aromatics
Acetophenones
Anilines
Anisoles
Benzene
Benzenesulfonic acids
Benzophenones
Nitrobenzenes
Phenols
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Toluene
Xylenes
m-Xylenes
o-Xylenes
p-Xylenes
Aryl halides
Carbohydrates
Sugar
Carbonyl compounds
Acid anhydride
Acyl halides
Acyl chlorides
Aldehydes
Amides
Lactams
Carboxylic acids
Dicarbonyl
Enones
Esters
Lactones
Imides
Ketones
Enols
Enolate anions
Enamines
Ethers
Epoxides
Sulfides
Imines
Schiff bases
Ketenes
Lipids
Nitriles
Nucleic acids
Organometallic compounds
Oximes
Reactions
Addition reaction
Aldol addition
Electrophilic addition
Michael addition
Mukaiyama aldol addition
Nucleophilic addition
Cyclization
Bergman cyclization
Nazarov cyclization reaction
Elimination reaction
Beta elimination
Cope elimination
E1cB elimination reaction
Hofmann elimination
Organic redox reaction
Cannizzaro reaction
Oxidation
Baeyer-Villiger oxidation
Corey-Kim oxidation
Dess-Martin oxidation
Fleming-Tamao oxidation
Jones oxidation
Nucleophilic epoxidation
Oppenauer oxidation
Prilezhaev reaction
Rubottom oxidation
Schmidt reaction
Swern oxidation
Wacker-Tsuji oxidation
Reduction
Birch reduction
Bouveault-Blanc reduction
CBS reduction
Clemmensen reduction
Corey-Bakshi-Shibata reduction
Corey–Itsuno reduction
Fukuyama reduction
Luche reduction
Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction
Rosenmund reduction
Staudinger reduction
Wolff-Kishner reduction
Pericyclic reaction
Cheletropic reaction
Cycloaddition
1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition
Azide-alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition
Diels–Alder reaction
Nitrone-olefin (3+2) cycloaddition
Staudinger ketene-imine cycloaddition
Dyotropic reaction
Electrocyclic reaction
Group transfer reaction
Sigmatropic reaction
Polymerization
Ring-opening metathesis polymerisation
Rearrangement reaction
Baker–Venkataraman rearrangement
Beckmann rearrangement
Benzilic acid rearrangement
Brook rearrangement
Claisen rearrangement
Cope rearrangement
Curtius rearrangement
Fries rearrangement
Ireland–Claisen rearrangement
Newman–Kwart rearrangement
Overman rearrangement
Oxy-Cope rearrangement
Pinacol rearrangement
1,2-Wittig rearrangement
2,3-Wittig rearrangement
Substitution reaction
Electrophilic aromatic substitution
Nucleophilic aromatic substitution
Electrophilic substitution
Nucleophilic substitution
SN1 reaction
SN2 reaction
Vicarious nucleophilic substitution
See also
Important publications in organic chemistry
List of organic reactions
References
External links
Organic Chemistry Lectures, Videos and Text
Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry
Organic Families and Their Functional Groups
Roger Frost's Organic Chemistry - multimedia teaching tools
Organic chemistry
Organic chemistry
Organic chemistry
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zariski%20topology
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Zariski topology
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In algebraic geometry and commutative algebra, the Zariski topology is a topology which is primarily defined by its closed sets. It is very different from topologies which are commonly used in the real or complex analysis; in particular, it is not Hausdorff. This topology was introduced primarily by Oscar Zariski and later generalized for making the set of prime ideals of a commutative ring a topological space, called the spectrum of the ring.
The Zariski topology allows tools from topology to be used to study algebraic varieties, even when the underlying field is not a topological field. This is one of the basic ideas of scheme theory, which allows one to build general algebraic varieties by gluing together affine varieties in a way similar to that in manifold theory, where manifolds are built by gluing together charts, which are open subsets of real affine spaces.
The Zariski topology of an algebraic variety is the topology whose closed sets are the algebraic subsets of the variety. In the case of an algebraic variety over the complex numbers, the Zariski topology is thus coarser than the usual topology, as every algebraic set is closed for the usual topology.
The generalization of the Zariski topology to the set of prime ideals of a commutative ring follows from Hilbert's Nullstellensatz, that establishes a bijective correspondence between the points of an affine variety defined over an algebraically closed field and the maximal ideals of the ring of its regular functions. This suggests defining the Zariski topology on the set of the maximal ideals of a commutative ring as the topology such that a set of maximal ideals is closed if and only if it is the set of all maximal ideals that contain a given ideal. Another basic idea of Grothendieck's scheme theory is to consider as points, not only the usual points corresponding to maximal ideals, but also all (irreducible) algebraic varieties, which correspond to prime ideals. Thus the Zariski topology on the set of prime ideals (spectrum) of a commutative ring is the topology such that a set of prime ideals is closed if and only if it is the set of all prime ideals that contain a fixed ideal.
Zariski topology of varieties
In classical algebraic geometry (that is, the part of algebraic geometry in which one does not use schemes, which were introduced by Grothendieck around 1960), the Zariski topology is defined on algebraic varieties. The Zariski topology, defined on the points of the variety, is the topology such that the closed sets are the algebraic subsets of the variety. As the most elementary algebraic varieties are affine and projective varieties, it is useful to make this definition more explicit in both cases. We assume that we are working over a fixed, algebraically closed field k (in classical geometry k is almost always the complex numbers).
Affine varieties
First, we define the topology on the affine space formed by the -tuples of elements of . The topology is defined by specifying its closed sets, rather than its open sets, and these are taken simply to be all the algebraic sets in That is, the closed sets are those of the form
where S is any set of polynomials in n variables over k. It is a straightforward verification to show that:
V(S) = V((S)), where (S) is the ideal generated by the elements of S;
For any two ideals of polynomials I, J, we have
It follows that finite unions and arbitrary intersections of the sets V(S) are also of this form, so that these sets form the closed sets of a topology (equivalently, their complements, denoted D(S) and called principal open sets, form the topology itself). This is the Zariski topology on
If X is an affine algebraic set (irreducible or not) then the Zariski topology on it is defined simply to be the subspace topology induced by its inclusion into some Equivalently, it can be checked that:
The elements of the affine coordinate ring
act as functions on X just as the elements of act as functions on ; here, I(X) is the ideal of all polynomials vanishing on X.
For any set of polynomials S, let T be the set of their images in A(X). Then the subset of X
(these notations are not standard) is equal to the intersection with X of V(S).
This establishes that the above equation, clearly a generalization of the previous one, defines the Zariski topology on any affine variety.
Projective varieties
Recall that n-dimensional projective space is defined to be the set of equivalence classes of non-zero points in by identifying two points that differ by a scalar multiple in k. The elements of the polynomial ring are not functions on because any point has many representatives that yield different values in a polynomial; however, for homogeneous polynomials the condition of having zero or nonzero value on any given projective point is well-defined since the scalar multiple factors out of the polynomial. Therefore, if S is any set of homogeneous polynomials we may reasonably speak of
The same facts as above may be established for these sets, except that the word "ideal" must be replaced by the phrase "homogeneous ideal", so that the V(S), for sets S of homogeneous polynomials, define a topology on As above the complements of these sets are denoted D(S), or, if confusion is likely to result, D′(S).
The projective Zariski topology is defined for projective algebraic sets just as the affine one is defined for affine algebraic sets, by taking the subspace topology. Similarly, it may be shown that this topology is defined intrinsically by sets of elements of the projective coordinate ring, by the same formula as above.
Properties
An important property of Zariski topologies is that they have a base consisting of simple elements, namely the for individual polynomials (or for projective varieties, homogeneous polynomials) . That these form a basis follows from the formula for the intersection of two Zariski-closed sets given above (apply it repeatedly to the principal ideals generated by the generators of ). The open sets in this base are called distinguished or basic open sets. The importance of this property results in particular of its use in the definition of an affine scheme.
By Hilbert's basis theorem and some elementary properties of Noetherian rings, every affine or projective coordinate ring is Noetherian. As a consequence, affine or projective spaces with the Zariski topology are Noetherian topological spaces, which implies that any closed subset of these spaces is compact.
However, except for finite algebraic sets, no algebraic set is ever a Hausdorff space. In the old topological literature "compact" was taken to include the Hausdorff property, and this convention is still honored in algebraic geometry; therefore compactness in the modern sense is called "quasicompactness" in algebraic geometry. However, since every point (a1, ..., an) is the zero set of the polynomials x1 - a1, ..., xn - an, points are closed and so every variety satisfies the T1 axiom.
Every regular map of varieties is continuous in the Zariski topology. In fact, the Zariski topology is the weakest topology (with the fewest open sets) in which this is true and in which points are closed. This is easily verified by noting that the Zariski-closed sets are simply the intersections of the inverse images of 0 by the polynomial functions, considered as regular maps into
Spectrum of a ring
In modern algebraic geometry, an algebraic variety is often represented by its associated scheme, which is a topological space (equipped with additional structures) that is locally homeomorphic to the spectrum of a ring. The spectrum of a commutative ring A, denoted , is the set of the prime ideals of A, equipped with the Zariski topology, for which the closed sets are the sets
where I is an ideal.
To see the connection with the classical picture, note that for any set S of polynomials (over an algebraically closed field), it follows from Hilbert's Nullstellensatz that the points of V(S) (in the old sense) are exactly the tuples (a1, ..., an) such that the ideal generated by the polynomials x1 - a1, ..., xn - an contains S; moreover, these are maximal ideals and by the "weak" Nullstellensatz, an ideal of any affine coordinate ring is maximal if and only if it is of this form. Thus, V(S) is "the same as" the maximal ideals containing S. Grothendieck's innovation in defining Spec was to replace maximal ideals with all prime ideals; in this formulation it is natural to simply generalize this observation to the definition of a closed set in the spectrum of a ring.
Another way, perhaps more similar to the original, to interpret the modern definition is to realize that the elements of A can actually be thought of as functions on the prime ideals of A; namely, as functions on Spec A. Simply, any prime ideal P has a corresponding residue field, which is the field of fractions of the quotient A/P, and any element of A has a reflection in this residue field. Furthermore, the elements that are actually in P are precisely those whose reflection vanishes at P. So if we think of the map, associated to any element a of A:
("evaluation of a"), which assigns to each point its reflection in the residue field there, as a function on Spec A (whose values, admittedly, lie in different fields at different points), then we have
More generally, V(I) for any ideal I is the common set on which all the "functions" in I vanish, which is formally similar to the classical definition. In fact, they agree in the sense that when A is the ring of polynomials over some algebraically closed field k, the maximal ideals of A are (as discussed in the previous paragraph) identified with n-tuples of elements of k, their residue fields are just k, and the "evaluation" maps are actually evaluation of polynomials at the corresponding n-tuples. Since as shown above, the classical definition is essentially the modern definition with only maximal ideals considered, this shows that the interpretation of the modern definition as "zero sets of functions" agrees with the classical definition where they both make sense.
Just as Spec replaces affine varieties, the Proj construction replaces projective varieties in modern algebraic geometry. Just as in the classical case, to move from the affine to the projective definition we need only replace "ideal" by "homogeneous ideal", though there is a complication involving the "irrelevant maximal ideal," which is discussed in the cited article.
Examples
Spec k, the spectrum of a field k is the topological space with one element.
Spec ℤ, the spectrum of the integers has a closed point for every prime number p corresponding to the maximal ideal (p) ⊂ ℤ, and one non-closed generic point (i.e., whose closure is the whole space) corresponding to the zero ideal (0). So the closed subsets of Spec ℤ are precisely the whole space and the finite unions of closed points.
Spec k[t], the spectrum of the polynomial ring over a field k: such a polynomial ring is known to be a principal ideal domain and the irreducible polynomials are the prime elements of k[t]. If k is algebraically closed, for example the field of complex numbers, a non-constant polynomial is irreducible if and only if it is linear, of the form t − a, for some element a of k. So, the spectrum consists of one closed point for every element a of k and a generic point, corresponding to the zero ideal, and the set of the closed points is homeomorphic with the affine line k equipped with its Zariski topology. Because of this homeomorphism, some authors call affine line the spectrum of k[t]. If k is not algebraically closed, for example the field of the real numbers, the picture becomes more complicated because of the existence of non-linear irreducible polynomials. For example, the spectrum of ℝ[t] consists of the closed points (x − a), for a in ℝ, the closed points (x2 + px + q) where p, q are in ℝ and with negative discriminant p2 − 4q < 0, and finally a generic point (0). For any field, the closed subsets of Spec k[t] are finite unions of closed points, and the whole space. (This is clear from the above discussion for algebraically closed fields. The proof of the general case requires some commutative algebra, namely the fact, that the Krull dimension of k[t] is one — see Krull's principal ideal theorem).
Further properties
The most dramatic change in the topology from the classical picture to the new is that points are no longer necessarily closed; by expanding the definition, Grothendieck introduced generic points, which are the points with maximal closure, that is the minimal prime ideals. The closed points correspond to maximal ideals of A. However, the spectrum and projective spectrum are still T0 spaces: given two points P, Q, which are prime ideals of A, at least one of them, say P, does not contain the other. Then D(Q) contains P but, of course, not Q.
Just as in classical algebraic geometry, any spectrum or projective spectrum is (quasi)compact, and if the ring in question is Noetherian then the space is a Noetherian space. However, these facts are counterintuitive: we do not normally expect open sets, other than connected components, to be compact, and for affine varieties (for example, Euclidean space) we do not even expect the space itself to be compact. This is one instance of the geometric unsuitability of the Zariski topology. Grothendieck solved this problem by defining the notion of properness of a scheme (actually, of a morphism of schemes), which recovers the intuitive idea of compactness: Proj is proper, but Spec is not.
See also
Spectral space
Citations
References
Algebraic varieties
Scheme theory
General topology
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241745
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dievs%2C%20sv%C4%93t%C4%AB%20Latviju%21
|
Dievs, svētī Latviju!
|
Dievs, svētī Latviju! (; ) is the national anthem of Latvia. Created in 1873 as a patriotic song, it did not gain official status until 1920.
History and composition
The music and lyrics were written in 1873 by Kārlis Baumanis, a teacher who was part of the Young Latvian nationalist movement. It has been speculated that Baumanis may have borrowed part of the lyrics from a popular song that was sung to tune of "God Save the Queen", modified them and set them to music of his own. Baumanis's lyrics were different from the modern ones: he used the term "Baltics" synonymously and interchangeably with "Latvia" and "Latvians", so "Latvia" was actually mentioned only at the beginning of the first verse. Later, the term "Latvia" was removed and replaced with "Baltics" to avoid a ban on the song. This has led to the misapprehension that the term "Latvia" was not part of the song until 1920, when it was chosen as national anthem, and the word "Baltics" was replaced with "Latvia".
During the annexation of Latvia by the Soviet Union, the singing of "Dievs, svētī Latviju!" was banned. The Soviet republic of Latvia had its own anthem. "Dievs, svētī Latviju!" was restored as the state anthem of Latvia on 15 February 1990, a very short period before Latvian independence was restored on 4 May.
The anthem's tune was modernized with a new F-major version that is used since 2014; formerly, a G-major version was used on LTV's sign-on and sign-offs daily from 2011 to 2013. However, the G-major version was still played on any occasion. The current version played on LTV for their sign-on and sign-offs daily is in the key of B-flat major.
Lyrics
Other uses
Latvian 2 euro coins bear the inscription DIEVS SVĒTĪ LATVIJU around the edge.
See also
Kārlis Baumanis
Flag of Latvia
Coat of arms of Latvia
Anthem of the Latvian SSR
References
External links
The National Anthem — the website "Welcome to Latvia" has a page about the national anthem with information, sheet music, and sound files.
Latvia: Dievs, svētī Latviju! - Audio of the national anthem of Latvia, with information and lyrics
Anthem sung at the Latvian Song and Dance Festival in Latvia
Anthem pipe organ recordings of Christian hymns and sung in church
National symbols of Latvia
European anthems
Latvian music
National anthems
National anthem compositions in B-flat major
1873 songs
|
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241746
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearer%20bond
|
Bearer bond
|
A bearer bond is a bond or debt security issued by a business entity such as a corporation or a government. As a bearer instrument, it differs from the more common types of investment securities in that it is unregistered—no records are kept of the owner, or the transactions involving ownership. Whoever physically holds the paper on which the bond is issued is the presumptive owner of the instrument. This is useful for investors who wish to retain anonymity.
Recovery of the value of a bearer bond in the event of its loss, theft, or destruction is usually impossible. Some relief is possible in the case of United States public debt. Furthermore, while all bond types state maturity dates and interest rates, bearer bond coupons for interest payments are physically attached to the security and must be submitted to an authorized agent, in order to receive payment.
Issuance of new bearer bonds has been effectively outlawed in the United States since the 1980s due to their use in illegal activities, but bearer bonds issued before this date can be redeemed if the issuer still exists.
History
Bearer bonds have been traced back as far as 1648, but there was a spike in popularity in the United States for these bonds during the Civil War, as government resources were strained and limited. Following the success and ease of transferring funds in the United States, Europe and South America also started issuing this type of bond.
The main appeal of bearer bonds is anonymity, which has led them to be the financial instrument of choice for money laundering, tax evasion and concealed business transactions in general. In response, new issuances of bearer bonds have been severely curtailed in the United States since 1982.
All the bearer bonds issued by the US Treasury had matured as of May 2016. The amount outstanding is approximately $87 million, as of March 2020.
Chiasso financial smuggling case
From 2009-2012, a series of incidents involving the forgery and smuggling of U.S. bearer bonds in Italy and Switzerland occurred, beginning with the Chiasso financial smuggling case in June 2009, in which Italian financial police and custom guards seized documents purporting to be U.S. bearer bonds, totaling $134.5 billion in Chiasso, Switzerland, on the Italian border. The bonds were readily determined to be phony, the latest in a series of "billion-dollar bond" schemes that the United States Treasury calls "Morgenthaus."
United States policy and practice
In the United States, the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 substantially curtailed the issue of debt in bearer form. The act disallowed a tax-deduction of interest paid on any such bonds issued after 1982 by the issuer in the case of corporate bonds and removed the tax-exemption of the interest to the holder in the case of municipal bonds. In contrast, registered bonds retained the tax-exempt treatment. A challenge to this tax treatment by the US state of South Carolina was heard by the US Supreme Court in the case of South Carolina v. Baker (1988), which upheld the law and brought to an end the further issue of virtually all US municipal bearer bonds.
See also
Stock certificate
References
External links
Bonds (finance)
Commercial bonds
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvian%20lats
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Latvian lats
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The lats (plural: lati or latu (if the number can be divided by 10), ISO 4217 currency code: LVL or 428) was the currency of Latvia from 1922 until 1940 and from 1993 until it was replaced by the euro on 1 January 2014. A two-week transition period during which the lats was in circulation alongside the euro ended on 14 January 2014. It is abbreviated as Ls and was subdivided into 100 santīmi (singular: santīms; from French centime).
The Latvian lats has been recognized as one of the 99 entries of the Latvian Culture Canon.
First lats, 1922–1940
The first lats (symbol: ℒ𝓈) was first introduced on 3 August 1922, replacing the Latvian rublis at a rate of ℒ𝓈 1 = Rub.50. The lats was pegged against the gold standard from its introduction till 1940.
On 17 June 1940, Latvia was occupied by the USSR. After the dismantling of the Bank of Latvia and its replacement with the Latvia Republican Office of the Gosbank on 10 October, the Soviet ruble was introduced alongside the lats on 25 November 1940 at par, although the real monetary value of the rouble was about three times lower and thus both wages and prices were gradually raised to devalue the lats from June to November 1940. To lessen the effect of the exodus of goods sent by Soviet occupational personnel to the USSR, taking advantage of the new exchange rate, buyer limits for various goods were introduced.
Although the Soviet authorities initially pledged not to abolish the lats, it was taken out of circulation without prior warning at 13:05 on 25 March 1941, simultaneously nationalising all deposits larger than ℒ𝓈 1000. A part of the Latvian gold, silver and currency reserves were sent to Moscow at the start of the occupation.
Coins
Coins were issued in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 santīmu, ℒ𝓈 1, ℒ𝓈 2 and ℒ𝓈 5. The 1s, 2s and 5s were in bronze (Cu, Sn, Zn), the 10s, 20s and 50s were nickel, while coins of ℒ𝓈 1 and above were struck in silver, with a purity of 83,5 percent.
Banknotes
The Latvian Bank issued notes from 1922 in denominations of ℒ𝓈 20, ℒ𝓈 25, ℒ𝓈 50, ℒ𝓈 100 and ℒ𝓈 500. They also issued ℒ𝓈 10 notes which were 500 rubli notes overprinted with the new denomination. The government issued currency notes from 1925 in denominations of ℒ𝓈 5, ℒ𝓈 10 and ℒ𝓈 20.
Second lats, 1993–2013
The lats was reintroduced on 5 March 1993, replacing the Latvian rublis, which continued to circulate and kept validity until and including 30 June 1994 at a rate of 200 rubļu being equivalent to Ls 1. The Ls 5 banknote was introduced first, and the last banknote to be introduced was the Ls 500 banknote on 20 July 1998. The lats was replaced on 1 January 2014 by the Euro, at the rate of Ls 0.702804 to €1. The second lats can be exchanged to euros at the official rate at the Bank of Latvia's cashier's office in Riga.
Until the end of its circulation in January 2014, lats was the fourth highest-valued currency unit per face value, after the Kuwaiti dinar, Bahraini dinar, and the Omani rial. The Ls 500 note was the world's third most valuable banknote after the $10,000 Brunei/Singaporean dollar note and the 1,000 Swiss franc note.
Coins
Coins were issued in denominations of 1s, 2s, 5s, 10s, 20s and 50s, Ls 1 and Ls 2. Besides standard coins in the list below and coins for collectors, the following coins were also issued: three commemorative circulation coins were issued in denominations of Ls 2, Ls 10 and Ls 100 (the latter two of which were, respectively, silver and gold), a Ls 100 gold bullion coin, and a series of limited design Ls1 coins twice a year from 2004 to 2013, and once in 2001 and 2003.
The initial standard Ls2 coin was issued only once in 1992, it was a copper-nickel coin of 6g and measured 24.35mm in diameter. It was gradually replaced in circulation from 1999 with the below bimetallic coin due to counterfeiting issues.
The standard coins were designed by Gunārs Lūsis and Jānis Strupulis.
Banknotes
All banknotes are 130 × 65 mm in size. They were printed by Giesecke & Devrient GmbH in Germany and were designed by Imants Žodžiks and Valdis Ošiņš.
See also
Bank of Latvia
Latvian euro coins
Commemorative coins of Latvia
Economy of Latvia
References
External links
Central bank of Latvia
The pre-euro banknotes of Latvia
Video: The story of Latvia's "lats" currency. 11 March 2020. Public Broadcasting of Latvia.
1922 establishments in Latvia
1993 establishments in Latvia
Currencies of Latvia
Economy of Latvia
Fixed exchange rate
Currencies replaced by the euro
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] |
241754
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simpson
|
Simpson
|
Simpson most often refers to:
Simpson (name), a British surname
The Simpsons, an animated American sitcom
The Simpson family, central characters of the series The Simpsons
Simpson may also refer to:
Organizations
Schools
Simpson College, in Indianola, Iowa
Simpson University, in Redding, California
Businesses
Simpson (appliance manufacturer), former manufacturer and brand of whitegoods in Australia
Simpson Investment Company, an American holding company, formerly a forest products manufacturer
Simpson Manufacturing Company, an engineering firm and building materials producer in the United States
Simpson Performance Products, an American motorsports parts supplier
Simpson Thacher & Bartlett, a law firm
Simpsons (department store), a defunct Canadian department store
Simpsons of Piccadilly, a defunct clothing store in London
Simpson's-in-the-Strand, one of London's oldest traditional English restaurants
Places
Australia
Simpson, Northern Territory, a locality
Simpson, Victoria, a town
Simpson Conservation Park, a protected area in South Australia
Canada
Simpson, Saskatchewan
Simpson Pass, a mountain pass on the British Columbia-Alberta boundary
Simpson Peak (Canada), the northernmost named peak in the Cassiar Mountains, British Columbia
Simpson Peninsula, Nunavut
Simpson River, a river in Kootenay National Park, British Columbia (also North Simpson River)
Simpson's River, an historical name for the Nass River
United States
Simpson, Arkansas
Simpson, Illinois
Simpson, Indiana
Simpson, Kansas
Simpson, Louisiana
Simpson, Minnesota
Simpson, Nevada
Simpson, North Carolina
Simpson County, Kentucky
Simpson County, Mississippi
Simpson Creek (disambiguation)
Simpson Township (disambiguation)
Elsewhere
Simpson, Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, England
Simpson Peak, a mountain in the Scott Mountains (Antarctica)
Simpson River, Chile
Cape Simpson (Greenland)
Science, technology, and mathematics
Simpson index, a diversity index in ecology
Simpson's paradox, in statistics
Simpson's rule, in mathematics
Simpson point, a Paleoindian projectile point
Simpson test, a test for the disease ocular myasthenia gravis
See also
Simson (disambiguation)
Justice Simpson (disambiguation)
Simpson Desert (disambiguation)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Grandison%20Finney
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Charles Grandison Finney
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Charles Grandison Finney (August 29, 1792 – August 16, 1875) was an American Presbyterian minister and leader in the Second Great Awakening in the United States. He has been called the "Father of Old Revivalism." In his beliefs and teachings Finney departed from traditional Reformed theology by teaching that people have free will to choose salvation.
Finney was best known as a flamboyant revivalist preacher from 1825 to 1835 in the Burned-over District in Upstate New York and Manhattan, an opponent of Old School Presbyterian theology, an advocate of Christian perfectionism, and a religious writer.
Together with several other evangelical leaders, his religious views led him to promote social reforms, such as abolitionism and equal education for women and African Americans. From 1835 he taught at Oberlin College of Ohio, which accepted students without regard to race or sex. He served as its second president from 1851 to 1865, and its faculty and students were activists for abolitionism, the Underground Railroad, and universal education.
Early life
Born in Warren, Connecticut, on August 29, 1792, Finney was the youngest of nine children. The son of farmers who moved to the upstate frontier of Jefferson County, New York, after the American Revolutionary War, Finney never attended college. His leadership abilities, musical skill, 6'3" height, and piercing eyes gained him recognition in his community. He and his family attended the Baptist church in Henderson, New York, where the preacher led emotional, revival-style meetings. The Baptists and the Methodists displayed fervor in the early 19th century. He "read the law", studying as an apprentice to become a lawyer under Benjamin Wright. In Adams, New York, he entered the congregation of George Washington Gale and became the director of the church choir. After a dramatic conversion experience and baptism into the Holy Spirit he gave up legal practice to preach the Gospel.
As a young man Finney was a Master Mason, but after his conversion, he left the group as antithetical to Christianity and was active in Anti-Masonic movements.
In 1821, Finney started studies at 29 under George Washington Gale, to become a licensed minister in the Presbyterian Church. Like his teacher Gale, he took a commission for six months of a Female Missionary Society, located in Oneida County. I went into the northern part of Jefferson County and began my labors at Evans' Mills, in the town of Le Ray. When Gale moved to a farm in Western, Oneida County, New York, Finney accompanied him and worked on Gale's farm in exchange for instruction, a forerunner of Gale's Oneida Institute. He had many misgivings about the fundamental doctrines taught in Presbyterianism. He moved to New York City in 1832, where he was minister of the Chatham Street Chapel and took the breathtaking step of barring from communion all slave owners and traders. Since the Chatham Street Chapel was not a church but a theater "fitted up" to serve as a church, a new Broadway Tabernacle was built for him in 1836 that was "the largest Protestant house of worship in the country." In 1835, he became the professor of systematic theology at the newly formed Oberlin Collegiate Institute in Oberlin, Ohio.
Revivals
Finney was active as a revivalist from 1825 to 1835 in Jefferson County and for a few years in Manhattan. In 1830-1831, he led a revival in Rochester, New York, that has been noted as inspiring other revivals of the Second Great Awakening. A leading pastor in New York who was converted in the Rochester meetings gave the following account of the effects of Finney's meetings in that city: "The whole community was stirred. Religion was the topic of conversation in the house, in the shop, in the office and on the street. The only theater in the city was converted into a livery stable; the only circus into a soap and candle factory. Grog shops were closed; the Sabbath was honored; the sanctuaries were thronged with happy worshippers; a new impulse was given to every philanthropic enterprise; the fountains of benevolence were opened, and men lived to good."
He was known for his innovations in preaching and the conduct of religious meetings, which often impacted entire communities. They included having women pray out loud in public meetings of mixed sexes; development of the "anxious seat," where those considering becoming Christians could sit to receive prayer; and public censure of individuals by name in sermons and prayers. He was also known for his extemporaneous preaching.
Finney "had a deep insight into the almost interminable intricacies of human depravity.... He poured the floods of gospel love upon the audience. He took short-cuts to men's hearts, and his trip-hammer blows demolished the subterfuges of unbelief."
Disciples of Finney were Theodore Weld, John Humphrey Noyes, and Andrew Leete Stone.
Abolitionism
In addition to becoming a widely-popular Christian evangelist, Finney was involved with social reforms, particularly the abolitionist movement. Finney frequently denounced slavery from the pulpit, called it a "great national sin," and refused Holy Communion to slaveholders.
President of Oberlin College
In 1835, the wealthy silk merchant and benefactor Arthur Tappan (1786-1865) offered financial backing to the new Oberlin Collegiate Institute (as Oberlin College had been known until 1850), and he invited Finney on the recommendation of abolitionist Theodore Dwight Weld (1803-1895), to establish its theological department. After much wrangling, Finney accepted if he was allowed to continue to preach in New York, the school admitted blacks, and free speech was guaranteed at Oberlin. After more than a decade, he was selected as its second president, serving from 1851 to 1866. (He had already served as acting president in 1849.) Oberlin was the first American college to accept women and blacks as students in addition to white men. From its early years, its faculty and students were active in the abolitionist movement. They participated together with people of the town in biracial efforts to help fugitive slaves on the Underground Railroad and to resist the Fugitive Slave Act. Many slaves escaped to Ohio across the Ohio River from Kentucky, which made Ohio a critical area for their passage to freedom.
Personal life
Finney was twice a widower and married three times. In 1824, he married Lydia Root Andrews (1804–1847) while he lived in Jefferson County. They had six children together. In 1848, a year after Lydia's death, he married Elizabeth Ford Atkinson (1799–1863) in Ohio. In 1865, he married Rebecca Allen Rayl (1824–1907), also in Ohio. Each of Finney's three wives accompanied him on his revival tours and joined him in his evangelistic efforts.
Finney's great-grandson, also named Charles Grandison Finney, became a famous author.
Theology
Finney was a New School Presbyterian, and his theology was similar to that of Nathaniel William Taylor. Finney departed from traditional Calvinist theology by teaching that people have free will to choose salvation. He taught that preachers had important roles in producing revival and wrote in 1835, "A revival is not a miracle, or dependent on a miracle, in any sense. It is a purely philosophical result of the right use of the constituted means."
A major theme of his preaching was the need for conversion. He also focused on the responsibilities that converts had to dedicate themselves to disinterested benevolence and to work to build the kingdom of God on earth. Finney's eschatology was postmillennial, meaning he believed the Millennium (a thousand-year reign of true Christianity) would begin before Christ's Second Coming. Finney believed Christians could bring in the Millennium by ridding the world of "great and sore evils." Frances FitzGerald wrote, "In his preaching the emphasis was always on the ability of men to choose their own salvation, to work for the general welfare, and to build a new society."
Finney was an advocate of perfectionism, the doctrine that through complete faith in Christ believers could receive a "second blessing of the Holy Spirit" and reach Christian perfection, a higher level of sanctification. For Finney, that meant living in obedience to God's law and loving God and one's neighbors but was not a sinless perfection. For Finney, even sanctified Christians are susceptible to temptation and capable of sin. Finney believed that it is possible for Christians to backslide and to lose their salvation.
Benjamin Warfield, a student of theology at Princeton Theological Seminary, claimed, "God might be eliminated from it [Finney's theology] entirely without essentially changing its character." Albert Baldwin Dod, another Old School Presbyterian, reviewed Finney's 1835 book, Lectures on Revivals of Religion. He rejected it as theologically unsound. Dod was a defender of Reformed orthodoxy and was especially critical of Finney's view of the doctrine of total depravity.
In popular culture
In Charles W. Chesnutt's short story "The Passing of Grandison" (1899), published in the collection The Wife of His Youth and Other Stories of the Color Line, the enslaved hero is named "Grandison," which is likely an allusion to the well-known abolitionist.
The Charles Finney School was established in Rochester, New York, in 1992.
See also
Manie Payne Ferguson
Theodore Pollock Ferguson
Keith Green
Joshua Hall McIlvaine
Nathaniel William Taylor
References
Sources
Perciaccante, Marianne. Calling Down Fire: Charles Grandison Finney and Revivalism in Jefferson County, New York, 1800-1840 (2005)
Guelzo, Allen C. "An heir or a rebel? Charles Grandison Finney and the New England theology," Journal of the Early Republic, Spring 1997, Vol. 17 Issue 1, pp 60–94
Hambrick-Stowe, Charles E. Charles G. Finney and the Spirit of American Evangelicalism (1996), a major scholarly biography
Hardman, Keith J. Charles Grandison Finney, 1792-1875: Revivalist and Reformer (1987), a major scholarly biography
Johnson, James E. "Charles G. Finney and a Theology of Revivalism," Church History, September 1969, Vol. 38 Issue 3, pp 338–358 in JSTOR
External links
The Theology of C. G. Finney explained and defended
"The COMPLETE WORKS of CHARLES G. FINNEY", collected by Gospel Truth Ministries
A biography of Charles Finney by G. Frederick Wright (Holiness perspective; supportive)
A Vindication of the Methods and Results of Charles Finney's Ministry (Revivalist perspective; supportive; answers many traditional Old School Calvinist critiques)
Charles Grandison Finney: New York Revivalism in the 1820-1830s by John H. Martin, Crooked Lake Review
Articles on Finney (conservative Calvinist perspective; critical)
How Charles Finney's Theology Ravaged the Evangelical Movement (conservative Calvinist perspective; critical)
"The Legacy of Charles Finney" by Dr. Michael S. Horton (conservative perspective; critical)
The Oberlin Heritage Center-Local history museum and historical society of Oberlin, OH, where Finney lived and worked for decades.
Finney's Lectures on Theology by Charles Hodge (conservative Calvinist perspective; critical)
The Church in Crisis A critical look at Finney's revivalist methods and their impact on the modern church in America
1792 births
1875 deaths
American abolitionists
American evangelicals
American Congregationalist ministers
Anti-Masonry
Christian revivalists
History of Christianity in the United States
Oberlin College faculty
People from Warren, Connecticut
Presbyterian Church in the United States of America ministers
Presidents of Oberlin College
Religious leaders from Connecticut
Oneida Institute
People from Troy, New York
People from Jefferson County, New York
People from Adams, New York
Presbyterian abolitionists
Hellfire preachers
19th-century American clergy
|
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241759
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand%20Walsin%20Esterhazy
|
Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy
|
Charles Marie Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy (16 December 1847 – 21 May 1923) was an officer in the French Army from 1870 to 1898. He gained notoriety as a spy for the German Empire and the actual perpetrator of the act of treason of which Captain Alfred Dreyfus was wrongfully accused and convicted in 1894.
After evidence against Esterhazy was discovered and made public, he was eventually subjected to a closed military trial in 1898, only to be officially found not guilty. Esterhazy retired from the military with the rank of major in 1898—presumably under pressure—and fled by way of Brussels to the United Kingdom, where he lived in the town of Harpenden in Hertfordshire until his death in 1923.
Biography
Ancestry
Charles Marie Ferdinand Walsin-Esterhazy was born in Paris, France, the son of General Ferdinand Walsin-Esterhazy (1807–1857), who later distinguished himself as division commander in the Crimean War.
His paternal grandfather, Jean Marie Auguste Walsin-Esterhazy, born in 1767 at Valleraugue, was the illegitimate son of Countess Marie Anne Esterhazy de Galántha (1741–1823), by her affair with Jean André César de Ginestous (1725–1810), governor of Le Vigan (Gard).
Jean-Marie was adopted by a Dr Walsin, a French doctor in the service of the Austrian emperor. Growing up under the name of Jean Marie Auguste Walsin, he became a business man and landowner in Nîmes, and added the name of Esterházy, apparently without the agreement of the family, after being acknowledged by his mother about 1797. This branch of the Esterházys had settled in France at the end of the 17th century and provided military officers to France, namely in its hussar regiments.
Early life and military career
Charles Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy was left an orphan in September 1857, aged only nine. After some schooling at the Lycée Bonaparte in Paris, he attempted in vain to enter the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr. He disappears from public records in 1865; by 1869 he had been enlisted in the Legion of Antibes, a unit of French volunteers in the service of Pope Pius IX.
Franco-Prussian War
In June 1870, his uncle's influence enabled Esterhazy to be commissioned into the French Foreign Legion. It was an irregular appointment as he had neither been promoted from the ranks after service as a non-commissioned officer, nor graduated from a military academy. However, the start of the Franco-Prussian War in July precluded any action being taken against him. He then assumed the title of count, to which he was not entitled.
There being a dearth of officers after the catastrophe of Sedan, Esterhazy was able to pass muster as a lieutenant and then as a captain. He served as an infantry officer in the campaigns of the Loire and of the Jura Mountains. After peace was declared, he remained in the army.
Post-war career
Between 1880 and 1882 Esterhazy was employed to translate German at the French military counter-intelligence section, where he became acquainted with Major Henry and Lieutenant Colonel Sandherr, both to become major figures in the Dreyfus affair. He was then employed at the French War Ministry. He never appeared in his regiment at Beauvais, and for about five years led a life of dissipation in Paris, as a result of which his small fortune was soon squandered.
In 1882 Esterhazy was attached to the expedition sent to Tunis. While there he was employed in the Intelligence Department, then in the Native Affairs Department of the regency. On his own initiative he inserted a citation within official records mention of his "exploits in war", which was later recognised as being falsely concocted.
Returning to France in 1885, Esterhazy remained in garrison at Marseille for a long time. Having come to the end of his financial resources, he married in 1886, but he soon spent his wife's dowry. In 1888 she demanded a separation.
In 1892, through the influence of General Félix Gustave Saussier, Esterhazy succeeded in getting a nomination as garrison-major in the Seventy-fourth Regiment of the line at Rouen. Being thus in the neighborhood of Paris, he resumed a life of speculation and excess. His inheritance squandered, Esterhazy had tried to retrieve his fortune in gambling-houses and on the stock-exchange; hard pressed by his creditors, he had recourse to extreme measures.
Having seconded André Crémieu-Foa in his duel with Édouard Drumont in 1892, Esterhazy claimed that this action had made his family, as well as his military seniors, quarrel with him. He produced false letters to support this allegation and threatened to kill both himself and his children. Through the medium of Zadoc Kahn, chief rabbi of France, Esterhazy obtained assistance from the Rothschild family (June 1894). At the same time he was on good terms with the editors of the antisemitic newspaper La Libre Parole, which he supplied with information.
For an officer whose original commission had been irregular, Esterhazy's military advancement had been unusually rapid: lieutenant in 1874, captain in 1880, decorated in 1882, major in 1892. The reports on him were generally excellent. Nevertheless, he considered himself wronged. In his letters he continually launched into recrimination and abuse against his chiefs. He made negative written comments on the French Army, and even France herself, for which he predicted and hoped that new disasters were in store.
Dreyfus affair
The Dreyfus affair was triggered in September 1894 when an office cleaner at the German Embassy in Paris, who was also an agent of French military intelligence, passed her French contacts a handwritten memorandum (widely known as the bordereau), evidently written by an unnamed French officer, offering the German Embassy various confidential military documents.
Captain Alfred Dreyfus was picked by the army as the alleged traitor in October 1894. Suspicion seems to have fallen on Dreyfus mainly because the handwriting was a match for his own, but also because he was a Jew. The official evidence against him depended overwhelmingly on the contention that his handwriting matched that on the bordereau. Convicted, he was formally stripped of his military rank in a public ceremony of degradation, and then shipped to the penal colony of Devil's Island (L'île du Diable) off the coast of French Guiana.
In 1896, Lieutenant-Colonel Georges Picquart, the then-new head of the Intelligence Service, uncovered a letter sent by Maximilian von Schwartzkoppen (at the time German Military Attache to Paris) to Esterhazy. After comparison of Esterhazy's handwriting with that of the bordereau, he became convinced of Esterhazy's guilt of the crime for which Dreyfus had been convicted.
In 1897, after fruitless efforts to persuade his superiors to take the new evidence seriously and being transferred to Tunisia in an effort to silence him, Picquart provided proof to Dreyfus' lawyers. They started a campaign to bring Esterhazy to justice. In 1898 an ex-lover of Esterhazy made public letters of his in which he expressed his hatred of France and his contempt for the army. However, Esterhazy was still protected by the Army's General Staff, which did not want to see the judgment of 1895 put into doubt.
Esterhazy asked for a trial behind closed doors by French Military Justice (10–11 January 1898). He was acquitted, a judgment which ignited anti-Semitic riots in Paris.
On 13 January 1898, Émile Zola published his famous J'Accuse…!, which accused the French government of anti-Semitism and especially focused on the court-martial and jailing of Dreyfus.
Flight to Britain and later years
Esterhazy was discreetly put on military pension with the rank of major. On 1 September 1898, having shaved off his moustache, he fled France, via Brussels, for the relative safety of England. Rachel Beer, editor of The Observer and the Sunday Times, English newspapers, knew that Esterhazy was in London because The Observer'''s Paris correspondent had made a connection with him; she interviewed him twice, and he confessed to being the culprit: I wrote the bordereau. She published the interviews in September 1898, reporting his confession and writing a leader column accusing the French military of antisemitism and calling for a retrial for Dreyfus.
From Milton Road in the town of Harpenden, Esterhazy continued to write in anti-Semitic papers such as La Libre Parole until his death in 1923. He is buried in St Nicholas' churchyard, Harpenden, under the name of Jean de Voilemont. A headstone was erected shortly after with the false name and a false birthdate with an inscription from Percy Bysshe Shelley: "He has outsoared the shadow of our night".
Revisionist thesis: Was Esterhazy a double agent?
The French historian Jean Doise espoused the revisionist hypothesis that Esterhazy might have been a French double agent masquerading as a traitor in order to pass along misinformation to the German Army. Doise was not the first writer to explore the hypothesis of Esterhazy as a double agent: earlier writings by Michel de Lombarès and Henri Giscard d'Estaing, though they differed in the details of their theories, also presented this line of argument. According to Doise, Esterhazy's perceived bitterness and utter lack of patriotic feeling, along with his fluency in German, were qualities that would have helped him to pose as an effective and unrepentant traitor.
In Tunis, he was judged to have become too intimate with the German military attaché. In 1892, he was the object of an accusation made to the head of the staff, General Brault. In 1893, he entered (or, if one accepts the revisionist explanation, pretended to enter) the service of Maximilian von Schwartzkoppen, the German military attaché in Paris.
According to later disclosures he received from the German attaché a monthly pension of 2000 marks (equivalent to over €12000 in 2015 terms). In return, Esterhazy furnished him in the first place with information (or, as argued, misinformation) about artillery.
Esterhazy reported that he got his information from Major Henry, who had been his comrade in the French military counter-intelligence section of the War Ministry, in 1876. However, Henry, limited to a very special branch of the service, was hardly in a position to furnish details on technical questions. The main architect of the disinformation campaign is claimed to have been Colonel Sandherr, head of French military counter-intelligence.
The lack of value of the material furnished by Esterhazy soon became so apparent that Alessandro Panizzardi, the Italian military attaché, to whom Schwartzkoppen communicated it without divulging the name of his informant, began to doubt his qualifications as an officer. To convince the attaché, it was necessary for Esterhazy to show himself one day in uniform, galloping behind a well-known general.
The infamous document, or bordereau, which was used to convict Dreyfus had been retrieved from a wastepaper basket at the German Embassy by a cleaning lady who was in the employ of French military counterintelligence. This document had been torn up but was easily pieced together. It announced, among other items, a forthcoming report on a new French 120mm howitzer Canon de 120C Modele 1890 Baquet and the comportment of its hydraulic recoil mechanism, as well as detailed manuals describing the current organization of French field artillery."
However, the French Army had already rejected the 120 mm model as unworkable and had begun development of the revolutionary (for its time) 75 mm field gun. The argument is this bordereau'' document was a supposed design to prevent German military from discovering French development of the French 75.
However, there are reports of Esterhazy admitting that he had "indeed been a spy for Germany". As such, the historical revisionism theories proposing that Esterhazy was merely pretending to be a spy are controversial as they deny concrete evidence of Esterhazy spying against French interests.
References
External links
Dreyfus Rehabilitated
1847 births
1923 deaths
Burials in Hertfordshire
Military personnel from Paris
People associated with the Dreyfus affair
French people of Hungarian descent
Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy
Officers of the French Foreign Legion
|
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] |
241761
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical%20species
|
Chemical species
|
A chemical species is a chemical substance or ensemble composed of chemically identical molecular entities that can explore the same set of molecular energy levels on a characteristic or delineated time scale. These energy levels determine the way the chemical species will interact with others (engaging in chemical bonds, etc.). The species can be atom, molecule, ion, radical, and it has a chemical name and chemical formula. The term is also applied to a set of chemically identical atomic or molecular structural units in a solid array.
In supramolecular chemistry, chemical species are those supramolecular structures whose interactions and associations are brought about via intermolecular bonding and debonding actions, and function to form the basis of this branch of chemistry.
For instance:
The chemical species argon is an atomic species of formula Ar;
dioxygen and ozone are different molecular species, of respective formulas O and O;
chloride is an ionic species; its formula is Cl;
nitrate is a molecular and ionic species; its formula is NO;
methyl is a molecular and radical species; its formula is CH;
sodium chloride
DNA is not a species: the name is generically applied to many molecules of different formulas (each DNA molecule is unique).
See also
List of particles
References
Chemistry
|
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] |
241762
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platt%20Amendment
|
Platt Amendment
|
On March 2, 1901, the Platt Amendment was passed as part of the 1901 Army Appropriations Bill. It stipulated seven conditions for the withdrawal of United States troops remaining in Cuba at the end of the Spanish–American War, and an eighth condition that Cuba signs a treaty accepting these seven conditions. It defined the terms of Cuban–U.S. relations essentially to be an unequal one of U.S. dominance over Cuba.
On June 12, 1901, Cuba amended its constitution to contain, word for word, the seven applicable demands of the Platt Amendment.
On May 22, 1903, Cuba entered into a treaty with the United States to make the same required seven pledges: the Cuban–American Treaty of Relations of 1903. Two of the seven pledges were to allow the United States to intervene unilaterally in Cuban affairs, and a pledge to lease land to the United States for naval bases on the island. (The Cuban-American Treaty of Relations of 1934 replaced the 1903 Treaty of Relations, and dropped three of the seven pledges.)
The 1903 Treaty of Relations was used as justification for the Second Occupation of Cuba from 1906 to 1909. On September 29, 1906, Secretary of War (and future U.S. president) William Howard Taft initiated the Second Occupation of Cuba when he established the Provisional Government of Cuba under the terms of the treaty (Article three), declaring himself Provisional Governor of Cuba. On October 23, 1906, President Roosevelt issued , ratifying the order.
On May 29, 1934, the United States and Cuba signed the 1934 Treaty of Relations that in its first article abrogates the 1903 Treaty of Relations.
Background
During the Spanish–American War, the United States maintained a large military arsenal in Cuba to protect U.S. holdings and to mediate Spanish–Cuban relations. In 1899, the McKinley administration settled on occupation as its response to the appearance of a revolutionary government in Cuba following the end of Spanish control.
The Platt Amendment was an addition to the earlier Teller Amendment, which had previously limited US involvement in Cuba relating to its treatment after the war, particularly in preventing its annexation which had been proposed by various expansionist political entities within the US. Senator Teller himself had a history of opposing American imperialism, criticising the American campaigns in Panama and the Philippines. Yet in 1894 he had been an arch-expansionist supporting potential plans to annex Cuba, and Teller would go on to support the Platt Amendment.
Some historians have questioned Teller's intentions, claiming that the real motive behind the resolution was to protect American beet sugar growers from Cuban competition. On the other hand, Teller became a leading opponent of land annexation in Cuba to grow sugar in the early 1900s, as well as President Roosevelt's plans to grant tariff preferences to Cuba in 1903.
The Platt Amendment originated from American mistrust in the Cuban Constituent Assembly to formulate a new relationship between Cuba and the U.S. Senator Orville H. Platt, chair of the Senate Committee with Relations on Cuba, spearheaded the bill alongside General Leonard Wood, the Governor of Cuba at the time and Secretary of War Elihu Root. Tasked with balancing Cuban independence with American desires to control Cuban politicians deemed unfit for self-governance, they established The Platt Amendment to maintain public order and turn Cuba into a "self-governing colony". The Platt Amendment was initially intended to be its own bill, but it became an amendment as the 56th Congress ended on March 4th, 1901, and there was no time for the proposal to be submitted as a separate bill.
General Leonard Wood used the financial resources of the Cuban treasury to create sanitation systems. A handful of civil rights, including the right to vote, were extended to literate, adult, male Cubans with property worth $250 or more, largely resulting in exclusion of the Afro-Cuban population and women from participation.
Provisions of the amendment
The Platt Amendment was introduced to Congress by Senator Orville H. Platt on February 25, 1901. It passed the U.S. Senate by a vote of 43 to 20, and although it was initially rejected by the Cuban assembly, the amendment was eventually accepted by a vote of 16 to 11 with four abstentions and integrated into the 1901 Cuban Constitution.
The Platt Amendment outlined the role of the United States in Cuba and the Caribbean, limiting Cuba's right to make treaties with other nations and restricting Cuba in the conduct of foreign policy and commercial relations. It also established that Cuba's boundaries would not include the Isle of Pines (Isla de la Juventud) until its title could be established in a future treaty, and that Cuba must sell or lease lands to the United States necessary for coaling or the development of naval stations.
It read:
After U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt withdrew American troops from the island in 1902, Cuba signed the treaty the next year after which Cuba executed a lease of land to the United States for a coaling and naval station at Guantánamo Bay. Originally the U.S. would have been able to build four military bases, but Cuba managed to negotiate this down to two, those being Guantanamo and Bahia Honda, which was traded in 1912 for more land at Guantanamo. This was a surprise given that Secretary Root had indicated his wish for the U.S. to become the owner and enforcer of Cuba's waterfront while the Platt Amendment was being drafted.
Aftermath
Following acceptance of the amendment, the United States ratified a tariff that gave Cuban sugar preference in the U.S. market and protection to select U.S. products in the Cuban market. The huge American investment into sugar led to land being concentrated into the hands of the largest sugar mills, however, with estimates that 20% of all Cuban land was owned by these mills. This led to further impoverishment of the rural masses. Workers on the mill were in constant fear of eviction, with cheap imported labor from other parts of the Caribbean keeping wages very low and the prices for independent cane pushed down to a minimum. In addition, the mills monopolized the railroads and ran them for private benefit. The lack of consumer purchasing power and the limited market available for manufactured goods meant that little industrialization would occur in the decade after the 1903 Treaty of Relations. Overall, over $200 million was spent by American companies on Cuban sugar between 1903 and 1913.
Tomás Estrada Palma, who had once favored outright annexation of Cuba by the United States, became president of Cuba on May 20, 1902. He was re-elected in 1905 despite accusations of fraud from his liberal opponents, but was forced to resign along with the rest of the executive when opposition against his rule turned violent. The U.S. invoked the Platt Amendment to begin the Second Occupation of Cuba and install a Provisional Government.
Political instability and frequent American occupation through the early 1900s meant that legitimate constitutional rule was increasingly difficult to come about. Though Cuban citizens enjoyed an improved standard of living in this period, Article 40 of the 1901 Cuban Constitution and Article III of the Platt Amendment meant that constitutional rights could be suspended under emergency provisions. Therefore, the Platt Amendment contributed to an erosion of the individual rights of the Cuban people, and it was not long before the Cuban public were calling for a replacement to the 1901 Constitution.
The Platt Amendment was a major blow to hopes of social advancement for Afro-Cubans, who hoped that their participation in the Spanish-American War would mean equality with the white planters and commercial elites of Cuba. Nearly 40% of the Cuban fighting force against Spain were made up of people of color, and Afro-Cubans had spent generations fighting for their country's independence. As well as becoming disenfranchised through voting acts, Afro-Cubans were also blocked from many state institutions as they now required educational or property qualifications to be gained.
Tensions between Afro-Cubans and U.S. military officials were rife, with hostile language and sometimes gunfire being exchanged between the two groups. Frustrated middle class blacks would launch the Independent Party of Colour (PIC) in 1908, but this was barred by the Cuban Congress soon along with all other parties of colour, accused of inciting race war. The PIC's call for limited armed protests would eventually spark the Negro Rebellion of 1912 which killed between 3,000 and 6,000 and led to the PIC dissolving afterwards. Many African-Americans also joined Afro-Cubans in solidarity, hoping that fighting for America would lead to more opportunities back home, but they too were left disappointed.
Women activists were also disappointed by the result of the Platt Amendment's conditions. As with Afro-Cubans, women played important roles in the Cuban independence movement and were characterised as 'mambisas', or courageous warrior mothers symbolizing the struggle for social justice. However, they were also denied voting rights and female suffrage would not be obtained until 1940. Any attempts by women to discuss gender equality with the Cuban government saw them labeled as nationalists or flat out ignored.
Most of the Platt Amendment provisions were repealed in 1934 when the Cuban-American Treaty of Relations of 1934 between the United States and Cuba was negotiated as a part of U.S. president Franklin Roosevelt's "Good Neighbor policy" toward Latin America. José Manuel Cortina and other members of the Cuban Constitutional Convention of 1940 eliminated the Platt Amendment from the new Cuban constitution.
The long-term lease of Guantanamo Bay Naval Base continues. The Cuban government since 1959 has strongly denounced the treaty as a violation of Article 52 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, which declares a treaty void if procured by the threat or use of force. However, Article 4 of the Vienna Convention states that its provisions shall not be applied retroactively.
Historian Louis A. Perez Jr. has argued that the Platt Amendment resulted in the conditions it had hoped to avoid, including Cuban volatility.
See also
Pearcy v. Stranahan (1907), U.S. Supreme Court case on the status of the Isle of Pines
Spooner Amendment (1901), pertaining to the Philippines
Teller Amendment (1898), recognising Cuba's right to independence
References
United States foreign relations legislation
1901 in American law
1901 in Cuba
Constitution of Cuba
Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)
History of the foreign relations of the United States
Treaties of Cuba
Treaties of the United States
Treaties concluded in 1903
Treaties entered into force in 1904
Spanish–American War
Banana Wars
Guantánamo Province
Guantanamo Bay Naval Base
Political history of Cuba
1900s in Cuba
1901 establishments in Cuba
1904 establishments in Cuba
Cuba–United States relations
Riders to United States federal appropriations legislation
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanation%20in%20Mesoamerica
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Trepanation in Mesoamerica
|
Trephination in Mesoamerica has been practised by a number of pre-Columbian cultures in the Mesoamerican region, dating from at least the mid-Preclassic era (ca. 1500 BCE), and continuing up to the late Postclassic, or ca. 1200 CE.
Trephination involves an intentional and planned operation to open or bore into the skull on a live subject, using tools specifically designed for the purpose. This can be accomplished by several techniques, such as drilling, incising and abrasion, or some combination of these. The purpose of such operations ranges from the medicinal (intended to relieve pressure, or address a number of other ailments) to the ritualised and experimental.
In pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, evidence for the practice of trephination and an assortment of other cranial deformation techniques comes from a variety of sources, including physical cranial remains of pre-Columbian burials, allusions in iconographic artworks and reports from the post-conquest period.
Overview
Trephination has been practised by a variety of historical cultures and societies across the globe, with evidence for it dating back to the Neolithic period, and its use has continued up to the present era under certain limited circumstances by a few cultures. If the patient manages to survive the procedure, the bone begins to slowly grow back from the rim of the hole towards the center. This new bone growth is measurably thinner than the undamaged bone at the rim, providing scientists examining a trephinated skull with a means to establishing whether or not the person lived beyond the operation.
Among New World societies, trephination is most commonly found in the Andean civilizations such as the Inca, where it is frequently associated with pre-existing cranial damage, indicating that it had a use as a reasonably-successful medical procedure— by one estimate, more than 70% of the patients survived the operation. Recently, anthropologists have discovered evidence which suggests that survival rates may have been as high as 80 to 90 percent.
Its prevalence among Mesoamerican civilizations is much lower, at least judging from the comparatively few trephinated crania which have been uncovered. The archaeological record is further complicated by the practice of skull mutilation and modification which was carried out after the death of the subject, in order to fashion "trophy skulls" and the like, of captives and enemies. This was a reasonably widespread tradition, illustrated in pre-Columbian art which on occasion depicts rulers adorned with or carrying the modified skulls of their defeated enemies, or of the ritualistic display of sacrificial victims. Several Mesoamerican cultures used a skull-rack (known by its Nahuatl term, tzompantli ) on which skulls were impaled in rows or columns of wooden stakes.
Even so, some evidence of genuine trepanation in Mesoamerica (i.e., where the subject was living) has been recovered.
Survey
Early colonial reports
Sixteenth-century Spanish colonial accounts like those of Bernardino de Sahagún and Bishop Diego de Landa contain references to the use of trepanation techniques among Mesoamericans to alleviate pain, such as for persistent headaches and that which results from the practice of deliberately deforming the cranium (for aesthetic purposes) by using compression boards and other methods.
Central Mexico and Oaxaca
The earliest archaeological survey published of trepanated crania was a late 19th-century study of several specimens recovered from the Tarahumara mountains by the Norwegian ethnographer Carl Lumholtz. Later studies documented cases identified from a range of sites in Oaxaca and central Mexico, such as Tilantongo, Oaxaca and the major Zapotec site of Monte Albán. Two specimens from the Tlatilco civilization's homelands (which flourished around 1400 BCE) indicate the practice has a lengthy tradition, although the cultural provenance of these particular specimens has been disputed.
A 1999 study of seven trepanated crania from Monte Albán showed a combination of single and multiple elliptical holes drilled or worn into the cranial cap, performed exclusively on the upper Parietal bones. The sample crania were from both male and female adults, and evidence of healing around the perforations suggested that about half had survived the operation. Most of the skulls in the study showed signs of earlier cranial damage, indicating (as with the Andean examples) that the operations were an attempt to repair or alleviate this head-trauma.
From these analyses, it appears that a technique of straightforward abrasion was employed in the earliest-dated finds, to be combined later on with drilling and incision techniques.
Crania recovered from Cholula show another form of trepanation ("supra-inial lesion"), where a depression has been worn into the back of the skull, without however substantially perforating it.
Maya region and Yucatán Peninsula
Specimens identified from the Maya civilization region of southern Mexico, Guatemala and the Yucatán Peninsula show no evidence of the drilling or cutting techniques found in central and highland Mexico. Instead, the pre-Columbian Maya seemed to have utilised an abrasive technique which ground away at the back of the skull, thinning the bone and sometimes perforating it, similar to the examples from Cholula. Many of the skulls from the Maya region date from the Postclassic period (ca. 950–1400), and include specimens found at Palenque in Chiapas, and recovered from the Sacred Cenote at the prominent Postclassic site of Chichen Itza in northern Yucatán.
The practice of deliberate cranial deformation or flattening is well documented among the pre-Columbian Maya peoples, and is evidenced from the Preclassic era onwards. By the use of cradleboards and other compression techniques applied to the growing skull from infancy, a variety of head-shapes were fashioned, with different regions and time-periods exhibiting a difference in style and ideal. The practice was applied to both males and females, and was not thought to be particularly associated with class or social standing. It was widely adopted however, to the point where one particular study which examined over 1,500 skulls drawn from across the Maya region determined that at least 88% exhibited some form of intentional cranial deformation. These practices have no known therapeutic value although they may have been intertwined with the expression of Maya cultural values, beliefs and identity. It is argued by some scholars in the field such as Vera Tiesler, that trepanation among the Maya was also imbued with a culturally-significant meaning apart from any medical benefit.
Notes
References
Science and technology in Mesoamerica
Mesoamerican society
Mesoamerican medicine
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbocation
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Carbocation
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A carbocation is an ion with a positively charged carbon atom. Among the simplest examples are the methenium , methanium and vinyl cations. Occasionally, carbocations that bear more than one positively charged carbon atom are also encountered (e.g., ethylene dication ).
Until the early 1970s, all carbocations were called carbonium ions. In the present-day definition given by the IUPAC, a carbocation is any even-electron cation with significant partial positive charge on a carbon atom. They are further classified in two main categories according to the coordination number of the charged carbon: three in the carbenium ions and five in the carbonium ions. This nomenclature was proposed by G. A. Olah. Carbonium ions, as originally defined by Olah, are characterized by a three-center two-electron delocalized bonding scheme and are essentially synonymous with so-called 'non-classical carbocations', which are carbocations that contain bridging C–C or C–H σ-bonds. However, others have more narrowly defined the term 'carbonium ion' as formally protonated or alkylated alkanes (, where R is H or alkyl), to the exclusion of non-classical carbocations like the 2-norbornyl cation.
Definitions
According to the IUPAC, a carbocation is any cation containing an even number of electrons in which a significant portion of the positive charge resides on a carbon atom. Prior to the observation of five-coordinate carbocations by Olah and coworkers, carbocation and carbonium ion were used interchangeably. Olah proposed a redefinition of carbonium ion as a carbocation featuring any type of three-center two-electron bonding, while a carbenium ion was newly coined to refer to a carbocation containing only two-center two-electron bonds with a three-coordinate positive carbon. Subsequently, others have used the term carbonium ion more narrowly to refer to species that are derived (at least formally) from electrophilic attack of H+ or R+ on an alkane, in analogy to other main group onium species, while a carbocation that contains any type of three-centered bonding is referred to as a non-classical carbocation. In this usage, 2-norbornyl cation is not a carbonium ion, because it is formally derived from protonation of an alkene (norbornene) rather than an alkane, although it is a non-classical carbocation due to its bridged structure. The IUPAC acknowledges the three divergent definitions of carbonium ion and urges care in the usage of this term. For the remainder of this article, the term carbonium ion will be used in this latter restricted sense, while non-classical carbocation will be used to refer to any carbocation with C–C and/or C–H σ-bonds delocalized by bridging.
Since the late 1990s, most textbooks have stopped using the term carbonium ion for the classical three-coordinate carbocation. However, some university-level textbooks continue to use the term carbocation as if it were synonymous with carbenium ion, or discuss carbocations with only a fleeting reference to the older terminology of carbonium ions or carbenium and carbonium ions. One textbook retains the older name of carbonium ion for carbenium ion to this day, and uses the phrase hypervalent carbonium ion for .
A carbocation with a two-coordinate positive carbon derived from formal removal of a hydride ion (H−) from an alkene is known as a vinyl cation. In the absence of geometric constraints, most substituted vinyl cations carry the formal positive charge on an sp-hydridized carbon atom of linear geometry. A two-coordinate approximately sp2-hybridized cation resulting from the formal removal of a hydride ion from an arene is termed an aryl cation. These carbocations are relatively unstable (aryl cations especially so) and are infrequently encountered. Hence, they are frequently omitted from introductory and intermediate level textbooks. The IUPAC definition stipulates that carbocations are even-electron species; hence, radical cations like that are frequently encountered in mass spectrometry are not considered to be carbocations.
History
The history of carbocations dates back to 1891 when G. Merling reported that he added bromine to tropylidene (cycloheptatriene) and then heated the product to obtain a crystalline, water-soluble material, . He did not suggest a structure for it; however, Doering and Knox convincingly showed that it was tropylium (cycloheptatrienylium) bromide. This ion is predicted to be aromatic by Hückel's rule.
In 1902, Norris and Kehrman independently discovered that colorless triphenylmethanol gives deep-yellow solutions in concentrated sulfuric acid. Triphenylmethyl chloride similarly formed orange complexes with aluminium and tin chlorides. In 1902, Adolf von Baeyer recognized the salt-like character of the compounds formed. Trityl carbocation (shown below) as a stable carbocationic system has been used as homogeneous organocatalyst in organic synthesis.
He dubbed the relationship between color and salt formation halochromy, of which malachite green is a prime example.
Carbocations are reactive intermediates in many organic reactions. This idea, first proposed by Julius Stieglitz in 1899, was further developed by Hans Meerwein in his 1922 study of the Wagner–Meerwein rearrangement. Carbocations were also found to be involved in the SN1 reaction, the E1 reaction, and in rearrangement reactions such as the Whitmore 1,2 shift. The chemical establishment was reluctant to accept the notion of a carbocation and for a long time the Journal of the American Chemical Society refused articles that mentioned them.
The first NMR spectrum of a stable carbocation in solution was published by Doering et al. in 1958. It was the heptamethylbenzenium ion, made by treating hexamethylbenzene with methyl chloride and aluminium chloride. The stable 7-norbornadienyl cation was prepared by Story et al. in 1960 by reacting norbornadienyl chloride with silver tetrafluoroborate in sulfur dioxide at −80 °C. The NMR spectrum established that it was non-classically bridged (the first stable non-classical ion observed).
In 1962, Olah directly observed the tert-butyl carbocation by nuclear magnetic resonance as a stable species on dissolving tert-butyl fluoride in magic acid. The NMR of the norbornyl cation was first reported by Schleyer et al. and it was shown to undergo proton-scrambling over a barrier by Saunders et al.
Structure and properties
Carbonium ions can be thought of as protonated alkanes. Although alkanes are usually considered inert, under superacid conditions (e.g., HF/SbF5), the C-H sigma bond can act as a donor to H+. This results in a species that contains a 3c-2e bond between a carbon and two hydrogen atoms, a type of bonding common in boron chemistry, though relatively uncommon for carbon. As an alternative view point, the 3c-2e bond of carbonium ions could be considered as a molecule of H2 coordinated to a carbenium ion (see below). Indeed, carbonium ions frequently decompose by loss of molecular hydrogen to form the corresponding carbenium ion. Structurally, the methanium ion is computed to have a minimum energy structure of Cs symmetry. However, the various possible structures of the ion are close in energy and separated by shallow barriers. Hence, the structure of the ion is often described as fluxional. Although there appear to be five bonds to carbon in carbonium ions, they are not hypervalent, as the electron count around the central carbon is only eight, on account of the 3c-2e bond.
In contrast, at least in a formal sense, carbenium ions are derived from the protonation (addition of H+) or alkylation (addition of R+) of a carbene or alkene. Thus, in at least one of their resonance depictions, they possess a carbon atom bearing a formal positive charge that is surrounded by a sextet of electrons (six valence electrons) instead of the usual octet required to fill the valence shell of carbon (octet rule). Therefore, carbenium ions (and carbocations in general) are often reactive, seeking to fill the octet of valence electrons as well as regain a neutral charge. In accord with VSEPR and Bent's rule, unless geometrically constrained to be pyramidal (e.g., 1-adamantyl cation), 3-coordinate carbenium ions are usually trigonal planar, with a pure p character empty orbital as its lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) and CH/CC bonds formed from C(sp2) orbitals. A prototypical example is the methyl cation, . For the same reasons, carbocations that are 2-coordinate (vinyl cations) are generally linear in geometry, with CH/CC bonds formed from C(sp) orbitals.
Alkyl-substituted carbocations follow the order 3° > 2° > 1° > methyl in stability, as can be inferred by the hydride ion affinity values (231, 246, 273, and 312 kcal/mol for (CH3)3C+, (CH3)2CH+, , and ). The effect of alkyl substitution is a strong one: tertiary cations are stable and many are directly observable in superacid media, but secondary cations are usually transient and only the isopropyl, s-butyl, and cyclopentyl cations have been observed in solution. There is seldom any experimental support for primary carbocations in the solution phase, even as transient intermediates (the ethyl cation has been proposed for reactions in 99.9% sulfuric acid and in FSO2OH·SbF5), and methyl cation has only been unambiguously identified in the gas phase. In most, if not all cases, the ground state of alleged primary carbocations consist of bridged structures in which positive charge is shared by two or more carbon atoms and are better described as side-protonated alkenes, edge-protonated cyclopropanes, or corner-protonated cyclopropanes rather than true primary cations. Even the simple ethyl cation, , has been demonstrated experimentally and computationally to be bridged and can be thought of as a symmetrically protonated ethylene molecule. The same is true for higher homologues like 1-propyl and 1-butyl cations. Neopentyl derivatives are thought to ionize with concomitant migration of a methyl group (anchimeric assistance); thus, in most if not all cases, a discrete neopentyl cation is not believed to be involved.
The stabilization by alkyl groups is explained by hyperconjugation. The donation of electron density from a β C-H or C-C bond into the unoccupied p orbital of the carbocation (a σCH/CC → p interaction) allows the positive charge to be delocalized.
Based on hydride ion affinity, the parent vinyl cation is less stable than even a primary sp2-hybridized carbocation, while an α alkyl-substituted vinyl cation has a stability that is comparable to the latter. Hence, vinyl cations are relatively uncommon intermediates. They can be generated by the ionization of a vinyl electrophile, provided the leaving group is sufficiently good (e.g., TfO−, IPh, or N2). They have been implicated as intermediates in some vinyl substitution reactions (designated as SN1(vinyl)) and as intermediates in the electrophilic addition reactions of arylalkynes. With the exception of the parent vinyl cation, which is believed to be a bridged species, and geometrically constrained cyclic vinyl cations, most vinyl cations take on sp hybridization and are linear.
Aryl cations are more unstable than vinyl cations, due to the ring-enforced distortion to a nonlinear geometry and approximately sp2-character of the unoccupied orbital. Only N2 in aryldiazonium salts is a good enough leaving group for the chemical generation of aryl cations.
Alkynyl cations are extremely unstable, much less stable than even (hydride ion affinity 386 kcal/mol versus 312 kcal/mol for ) and cannot be generated by purely chemical means. They can, however, be generated radiochemically via the beta decay of tritium:
RC≡CT → [RC≡C3He]+ + e− + e → RC≡C+ + 3He + e− + e
In terms of reactivity, carbocations are susceptible to attack by nucleophiles, like water, alcohols, carboxylates, azide, and halide ions, to form the addition product. Strongly basic nucleophiles, especially hindered ones, favor elimination over addition. Because even weak nucleophiles will react with carbocations, most can only be directly observed or isolated in non-nucleophilic media like superacids.
Carbocations typically undergo rearrangement reactions from less stable structures to equally stable or more stable ones by migration of an alkyl group or hydrogen to the cationic center to form a new carbocationic center. This often occurs with rate constants in excess of 1010 s−1 at ambient temperature and still takes place rapidly (compared to the NMR timescale) at temperatures as low as −120 °C (see Wagner-Meerwein shift). In especially favorable cases like the 2-norbornyl cation, hydrogen shifts may still take place at rates fast enough to interfere with X-ray crystallography at . Typically, carbocations will rearrange to give a tertiary isomer. For instance, all isomers of rapidly rearrange to give the 1-methyl-1-cyclopentyl cation. This fact often complicates synthetic pathways. For example, when 3-pentanol is heated with aqueous HCl, the initially formed 3-pentyl carbocation rearranges to a statistical mixture of the 3-pentyl and 2-pentyl. These cations react with chloride ion to produce about one third 3-chloropentane and two thirds 2-chloropentane. The Friedel–Crafts alkylation suffers from this limitation; for this reason, the acylation (followed by Wolff–Kishner or Clemmensen reduction to give the alkylated product) is more frequently applied.
A carbocation may be stabilized by resonance by a carbon–carbon double bond or by the lone pair of a heteroatom adjacent to the ionized carbon. In order for a carbocation to be resonance-stabilized, the molecular orbital of the donating group must have the proper symmetry, orientation, and energy level to interact with the empty 2p orbital of the carbocation. Such cations as allyl cation and benzyl cation are more stable than most other carbocations due to donation of electron density from π systems to the cationic center. Furthermore, carbocations present in aromatic molecules are especially stabilized, largely due to the delocalized π electrons characteristic of aromatic rings. Molecules that can form allyl or benzyl carbocations are especially reactive. These carbocations where the C+ is adjacent to another carbon atom that has a double or triple bond have extra stability because of the overlap of the empty p orbital of the carbocation with the p orbitals of the π bond. This overlap of the orbitals allows the positive charge to be dispersed and electron density from the π system to be shared with the electron-deficient center, resulting in stabilization. The doubly- and triply-benzylic carbocations, diphenylcarbenium and triphenylcarbenium (trityl) cation, are particularly stable. For the same reasons, the partial p character of strained C–C bonds in cyclopropyl groups also allows for donation of electron density and stabilizes the cyclopropylmethyl (cyclopropylcarbinyl) cation.
The stability order of carbocations, from most stable to least stable as reflected by hydride ion affinity (HIA) values, are as follows (HIA values in kcal/mol in parentheses):
As noted in the history section, the tropylium cation () was one of the first carbocations to be discovered, due to its aromatic stability. This carbocation is so stabilized that the molecule can be isolated and sold as a salt. On the other hand, the antiaromatic cyclopentadienyl cation () is destabilized by some 40 kcal/mol. The cyclopropenium cation (), although somewhat destabilized by angle strain, is still clearly stabilized by aromaticity when compared to its open-chain analog, allyl cation. These varying cation stabilities, depending on the number of π electrons in the ring system, can furthermore be crucial factors in reaction kinetics. The formation of an aromatic carbocation is much faster than the formation of an anti-aromatic or open-chain carbocation. Given the role of carbocations in many reaction schemes, such as SN1 for example, choosing the conjugation of starting materials can be a powerful method for conferring kinetic favorability or disfavorability, as the rate constant for any given step is dependent on the step's activation energy according to the Arrhenius equation.
The effect of hyperconjugation is strongly stabilizing for carbocations: hyperconjugation with alkyl substituents is often as stabilizing or even more so than conjugation with a π system. Although conjugation to unsaturated groups results in significant stabilization by the mesomeric effect (resonance), the benefit is partially offset by the presence of a more electronegative sp2 or sp carbon next to the carbocationic center. Thus, as reflected by hydride ion affinities, a secondary carbocation is more stabilized than the allyl cation, while a tertiary carbocation is more stabilized than the benzyl cation — results that may seem counterintuitive on first glance.
Oxocarbenium and iminium ions have important secondary canonical forms (resonance structures) in which carbon bears a positive charge. As such, they are carbocations according to the IUPAC definition although some chemists do not regard them to be "true" carbocations, as their most important resonance contributors carry the formal positive charge on an oxygen or nitrogen atom, respectively.
Non-classical ions
Some carbocations such as the 2-norbornyl cation exhibit more or less symmetrical three-center two-electron bonding. Such structures, referred to as non-classical carbocations, involve the delocalization of the bonds involved in the σ-framework of the molecule, resulting in C–C and C–H bonds of fractional bond order. This delocalization results in additional stabilization of the cation. For instance, depicted as a classical carbenium ion, 2-norbornyl cation appears to be a secondary carbocation. However, it is more stable than a typical "secondary" carbocation, being roughly as stable as a tertiary carbocation like t-butyl cation, according to hydride ion affinity.
The existence of non-classical carbocations was once the subject of great controversy. On opposing sides were Herbert C. Brown, who believed that the what appeared to be a non-classical carbocation represents the average of two rapidly equilibrating classical species (or possibly two structures exhibiting some degree of bridging or leaning but is nevertheless not symmetric) and that the true non-classical structure is a transition state between the two potential energy minima, and Saul Winstein, who believed that a non-classical structure that possessed a plane of symmetry was the sole potential energy minimum and that the classical structures merely two contributing resonance forms of this non-classical species. George Olah's discovery of superacidic media to allow carbocations to be directly observed, together with a very sensitive NMR technique developed by Martin Saunders to distinguish between the two scenarios, played important roles in resolving this controversy. At least for the 2-norbornyl cation itself, the controversy has been settled overwhelmingly in Winstein's favor, with no sign of the putative interconverting classical species, even at temperatures as low as 6 K, and a 2013 crystal structure showing a distinctly non-classical structure. A variety of carbocations (e.g., ethyl cation, see above) are now believed to adopt non-classical structures. However, in many cases, the energy difference between the two possible "classical" structures and the "non-classical" one is very small, and it may be difficult to distinguish between the two possibilities experimentally.
Specific carbocations
A non-classical structure for is supported by substantial experimental evidence from solvolysis experiments and NMR studies conducted in non-nucleophilic media. One or both of two structures, the cyclopropylcarbinyl cation and the bicyclobutonium cation, were invoked to account for the observed reactivity in various experiments, while the NMR data point to a highly fluxional system that undergoes rapid rearrangement to give an averaged spectrum consisting of only two 13C NMR signals, even at temperatures as low as −132 °C. Computationally, it was confirmed that the energetic landscape of the system is very flat, and that the two isomers postulated based on experimental data are very close in energy, the bicyclobutonium structure being computed to be just 0.4 kcal/mol more stable than the cyclopropylcarbinyl structure. In the solution phase (SbF5·SO2ClF·SO2F2, with as the counterion), the bicyclobutonium structure predominates over the cyclopropylcarbinyl structure in a 84:16 ratio at −61 °C.
Three other possible structures, two classical structures (the homoallyl cation and cyclobutyl cation) and a more highly delocalized non-classical structure (the tricyclobutonium ion), are now known to be less stable isomers (or merely a transition state rather than an energy minimum in the case of the cyclobutyl cation).
Substituted cyclopropylcarbinyl cations have also been studied by NMR:
In the NMR spectrum of a dimethyl derivative, two nonequivalent signals are found for the two methyl groups, indicating that the molecular conformation of this cation is not perpendicular (as in A), which possesses a mirror plane, but is bisected (as in B) with the empty p-orbital parallel to the cyclopropyl ring system:
In terms of bent bond theory, this preference is explained by assuming favorable orbital overlap between the filled cyclopropane bent bonds and the empty p-orbital.
Pyramidal carbocation
See also
Armilenium
Carbanion
Carbene
Carbo-mer
Oxocarbenium
References
External links
Press Release The 1994 Nobel Prize in Chemistry". Nobelprize.org. 9 Jun 2010
Reactive intermediates
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] |
241771
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine%20Millet
|
Catherine Millet
|
Catherine Millet (; born 1 April 1948 in Bois-Colombes, Hauts-de-Seine) is a French writer, art critic, curator, and founder and editor of the magazine Art Press, which focuses on modern art and contemporary art.
Biography
Born in Bois-Colombes, France, she is best known as the author of the 2002 memoir The Sexual Life of Catherine M.; the book details her sexual history, from childhood masturbation to an adult fascination with group sex. The book was reviewed by Edmund White as "the most explicit book about sex ever written by a woman".
In 2008 she published a sequel of sorts called Jour de Souffrance, translated to English in 2009 as Jealousy: The Other Life of Catherine M.
She is married to the poet and novelist Jacques Henric.
In April 2016, Catherine Millet received the Prix François Morellet from Régine Catin, Laurent Hamon and Philippe Méaille. Awarded during the National Days of Book and Wine (Saumur), in partnership with the Château de Montsoreau-Museum of Contemporary Art, it rewards a personality for his commitment and his writings in favor of contemporary art.
On December 2017, during an interview on the French radio France Culture she claimed "I really regret not having been raped, because I could show that you can recover from it".
In January 2018 she co-authored a public letter to Le Monde newspaper criticising the #MeToo movement. The letter was signed by over a hundred French women, including actress Catherine Deneuve, and generated considerable controversy.
Decorations
Officer of the Order of Arts and Letters (2016)
References
External links
Books That Changed My Life PEN World Voices at the New York Public Library May 4, 2008
Guardian Unlimited Book: Interview, Catherine Millet
The Actual Lives of Catherine Millet and Robert Storr
1948 births
Living people
People from Bois-Colombes
French art critics
French memoirists
French erotica writers
Officiers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
French art curators
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%20Snake
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King Snake
|
King Snake (Sir Edmund Dorrance) is a fictional character who appears in books published by DC Comics and who is a part of the DC universe, usually as an adversary of Robin (Tim Drake) and Batman. Created by writer Chuck Dixon and artist Tom Lyle, King Snake first appeared in Robin #2 (1991). He is a master martial artist and is the father of the villain Bane.
Fictional character biography
Sir Edmund Dorrance, a.k.a. King Snake, is a British native who first distinguished himself in the Royal Artillery (a corps of the British Army). He and some friends then became mercenaries, offering their professional expertise to various anti-communist rebels, and made considerable money in doing so. While in Santa Prisca working with local rebels, his camp was taken by surprise by government commandos and Edmund was blinded by gunfire. He fled the country, leaving for dead a female rebel with whom he had slept. The woman was actually alive and pregnant with Edmund's son. Both she and her child were imprisoned for Edmund's crimes against the Santa Prisca government, with the child growing up in prison to become the villainous Bane.
Edmund subsequently moved to Hong Kong and used the money he had acquired to start a double life. To the public, he was a Hong Kong businessman worth millions, with interests in shipping, banking, and electronics, while in secret he was one of the most feared men in Asia, a giant in the heroin trade. Taking on the name King Snake (after a snake known for its immunity to other snakes' venom and for eating them), he found willing soldiers in the Ghost Dragon Chinese youth gang of Macau, Kowloon, and Hong Kong. Although he had a strong power base in Hong Kong, he could not hope to stay when the island was handed over to China. He began extending his interests into France and the United States. A jingoistic man, he felt that Hong Kong had been made into a great city purely due to British influence, and decided to lay waste to the city rather than have it be soiled by falling into Chinese hands. His plans to release a Nazi-developed plague after leaving Hong Kong were foiled by Robin (Tim Drake). At the time, Tim was working with former DEA agent Clyde Rawlins, and the deadly martial artist Lady Shiva. The United States had attempted to stop Sir Edmund's expansion into America, to no avail. Edmund had killed Rawlins' family in retaliation, and Rawlins himself went rogue in order to pursue King Snake outside the law. Lady Shiva, meanwhile, sought King Snake because he was rumored to be the deadliest male martial artist in the world, and she wished to face him in battle. They eventually stormed King Snake's skyscraper headquarters and defeated him, though Rawlins died in the attempt and Shiva mostly watched the proceedings. Robin knocked Sir Edmund out a window, and Shiva ordered Robin to kill King Snake while he hung from the building. Robin refused to do so and left, believing Edmund was dead. Presumably Shiva either let Edmund fall or else threw him off the ledge of the building to die. King Snake actually landed on a parapet. Shiva examined him, and, satisfied that he had broken his back and was thus no longer a threat, left him.
After having his spine reinforced and regaining his mobility, Sir Edmund moved to Gotham, where he wrested control of the Chinatown district away from the Triad gangs, revealing himself to be alive, and initially focusing on Robin for revenge (although his memories of the battle in Hong Kong were muddled, he eventually remembered that it was Lady Shiva that was most responsible for his defeat there, although he still remained hostile to Robin). King Snake also begins his feud with Batman after he defeated him in combat. Not long after, however, he lost power in a gang war, with his own Ghost Dragons rebelling and the Triad gangs sending assassins (such as the Silver Monkey of the Brotherhood of the Fist) after him.
King Snake survived and joined the international terrorist cult Kobra. He took advantage of a leadership struggle in that organization, with the previous "Lord Naja-Naja" disgraced, and Danny Temple (a friend of Robin's) was revealed to be the next in line for leadership. Temple was abducted and taken to a mountain lair of the cult. During the ceremony intended to invest Temple with leadership, however, King Snake rebelled, declared himself the next Naja-Naja, and his followers healed his eyes in a Lazarus Pit the cult has access to (which could only be opened by Temple, explaining Sir Edmund's subterfuge). His eyesight restored, Sir Edmund battled against Robin (who was attempting to rescue Danny Temple), while Kobra (the prior leader of the cult) attempted to regain control of the cult. Luckily for Robin, Sir Edmund was unaccustomed to seeing, actually throwing his fighting style off. A vial of cobra poison used in the Kobra-cult initiation ceremony was knocked over, and in his attempts to warn King Snake, Robin accidentally caused the villain to be blinded a second time. Robin and Danny Temple escaped, while King Snake was left trapped in the base with no escape.
After a significant amount of time, the villain Bane finally learned the identity of his father and tracked King Snake down to the mountain base. Sir Edmund had survived months alone, and was barely alive and severely malnourished. Bane was emotionally conflicted during the reunion, and apparently intended to kill his father several times, but did not. King Snake tried once more to seize control of the Kobra Cult, this time with his son at his side. After Robin and Batman intervened, however, Bane sided with them. In the resulting struggle, King Snake was knocked down a deep crevice, apparently dying.
During the 2009 - 2010 "Blackest Night" storyline, King Snake is among the many deceased villains that receive a black power ring and is reanimated into a Black Lantern. Included are the Trigger Twins and Magpie. He takes a leadership role among the Black Lanterns, coordinating Black Lantern strikes throughout Gotham City.
King Snake is alive once again post the "DC Rebirth" reboot. He is one of the many villains taken down by Batman and Catwoman after he takes her along with him on an average night of his job.
Powers and abilities
The King Snake has no superhuman powers. However, he is a master of several of the world’s most deadly martial arts. He kills without conscience and has earned the title of "the most dangerous man alive". The King Snake is also blind but has made it an asset rather than a handicap, as he has honed all of his other senses to an uncanny degree. He uses the dark as his weapon, and has become so used to fighting in the dark that he was actually less effective as a combatant when his vision was briefly restored by a Lazarus Pit, allowing Robin to defeat him in the subsequent struggle.
In other media
While King Snake does not appear himself in the Fox series Gotham, he is alluded to in the fifth and final season. In this version, Bane (portrayed by Shane West) is given the real name Eduardo Dorrance, a reference to Edmund Dorrance, who was his father in the original comics.
King Snake (voiced by Patrick Seitz) appears in the animated film Batman: Soul of the Dragon as a minion of the Kobra cult. In the film's showdown, he challenges and is killed by Richard Dragon.
See also
List of Batman Family adversaries
References
Characters created by Chuck Dixon
DC Comics martial artists
Fictional blind characters
Comics characters introduced in 1991
Fictional mercenaries
Fictional drug dealers
Fictional English people
DC Comics male supervillains
DC Comics supervillains
|
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] |
241777
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachloroethylene
|
Tetrachloroethylene
|
Tetrachloroethylene, also known under the systematic name tetrachloroethene, or perchloroethylene, and many other names (and abbreviations such as "perc" or "PERC", and "PCE"), is a chlorocarbon with the formula Cl2C=CCl2 . It is a colorless liquid widely used for dry cleaning of fabrics, hence it is sometimes called "dry-cleaning fluid". It also has its uses as an effective automotive brake cleaner. It has a sweet odor detectable by most people at a concentration of 1 part per million (1 ppm). Worldwide production was about in 1985.
Production
British physicist and chemist Michael Faraday first synthesized tetrachloroethylene in 1821 by thermal decomposition of hexachloroethane.
C2Cl6 → C2Cl4 + Cl2
Most tetrachloroethylene is produced by high temperature chlorinolysis of light hydrocarbons. The method is related to Faraday's discovery since hexachloroethane is generated and thermally decomposes. Side products include carbon tetrachloride, hydrogen chloride, and hexachlorobutadiene.
Several other methods have been developed When 1,2-dichloroethane is heated to 400 °C with chlorine, tetrachloroethylene is produced by the chemical reaction:
ClCH2CH2Cl + 3 Cl2 → Cl2C=CCl2 + 4 HCl
This reaction can be catalyzed by a mixture of potassium chloride and aluminium chloride or by activated carbon. Trichloroethylene is a major byproduct, which is separated by distillation.
According to a United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) report of 1976, the quantity of tetrachloroethylene produced in the United States in 1973 totaled 320,000 metric tons (706 million lb). By 1993, the volume produced in the United States had dropped to 123,000 metric tons (271 million lb).
Uses
Tetrachloroethylene is an excellent solvent for organic materials. Otherwise it is volatile, highly stable, and nonflammable. For these reasons, it is widely used in dry cleaning. It is also used to degrease metal parts in the automotive and other metalworking industries, usually as a mixture with other chlorocarbons. It appears in a few consumer products including paint strippers and spot removers. It is also used in aerosol preparations.
It is used in neutrino detectors where a neutrino interacts with a neutron in the chlorine atom and converts it to a proton to form argon.
Historical applications
Tetrachloroethylene was once extensively used as an intermediate in the manufacture of HFC-134a and related refrigerants. In the early 20th century, tetrachloroethene was used for the treatment of hookworm infestation.
Health and safety
The acute toxicity of tetrachloroethylene "is moderate to low". "Reports of human injury are uncommon despite its wide usage in dry cleaning and degreasing".
The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified tetrachloroethylene as a Group 2A carcinogen, which means that it is probably carcinogenic to humans. Like many chlorinated hydrocarbons, tetrachloroethylene is a central nervous system depressant and can enter the body through respiratory or dermal exposure. Tetrachloroethylene dissolves fats from the skin, potentially resulting in skin irritation.
Animal studies and a study of 99 twins showed there is a "lot of circumstantial evidence" that exposure to tetrachloroethylene increases the risk of developing Parkinson's disease ninefold. Larger population studies are planned. Also, tetrachloroethylene has been shown to cause liver tumors in mice and kidney tumors in male rats.
At temperatures over , such as in welding, tetrachloroethylene can be oxidized into phosgene, an extremely poisonous gas.
The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has compiled extensive health and safety information for tetrachloroethylene, including recommendations for dry cleaning establishments.
Tetrachloroethylene exposure has been linked to pronounced acquired color vision deficiencies after chronic exposure.
Testing for exposure
Tetrachloroethylene exposure can be evaluated by a breath test, analogous to breath-alcohol measurements. Because it is stored in the body's fat and slowly released into the bloodstream, tetrachloroethylene can be detected in the breath for weeks following a heavy exposure. Tetrachloroethylene and trichloroacetic acid (TCA), a breakdown product of tetrachloroethylene, can be detected in the blood.
In Europe, the Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limits (SCOEL) recommends for tetrachloroethylene an occupational exposure limit (8 hour time-weighted average) of 20 ppm and a short-term exposure limit (15 min) of 40 ppm.
Environmental contamination
Tetrachloroethylene is a problematic soil contaminant because its density causes it to sink below the water table, inhibiting cleanup activities.
Remediation and degradation
Estimates state that 85% of tetrachloroethylene produced is released into the atmosphere; while models from OECD assumed that 90% is released into the air and 10% to water. Based on these models, its distribution in the environment is estimated to be in the air (76.39% - 99.69%), water (0.23% - 23.2%), soil (0.06-7%), with the remainder in the sediment and biota. Estimates of lifetime in the atmosphere vary, but a 1987 survey estimated the lifetime in the air to be about 2 months in the Southern Hemisphere and 5–6 months in the Northern Hemisphere. Degradation products observed in a laboratory include phosgene, trichloroacetyl chloride, hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Tetrachloroethylene is degraded by hydrolysis, and is persistent under aerobic conditions. It is degraded by reductive dechlorination under anaerobic conditions, with degradation products such as trichloroethylene, dichloroethylene, vinyl chloride, ethylene, and ethane. It has an ozone depletion potential of 0.005, where CFC-11 (CCl3F) is 1.
In principle, tetrachloroethylene contamination can be remediated by chemical treatment or bioremediation. Bioremediation entails reductive dechlorination by Dehalococcoides sp. under aerobic conditions by cometabolism by Pseudomonas sp. Partial degradation daughter products include trichloroethylene, cis-1,2-dichloroethene and vinyl chloride; full degradation converts tetrachloroethylene to ethylene and chloride. Implementation of bioremediation strategies would entail inoculation of contaminated sites.
See also
Tetrachlorodinitroethane
References
Further reading
External links
ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Tetrachloroethylene Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Tetrachloroethylene (Perchloroethylene) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Australian National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) page
"Toxic Fumes May Have Made Gunman Snap", by Julian Kesner, New York Daily News, April 20, 2007.
Sustainable uses and Industry recommendations
Commodity chemicals
Dry cleaning
Halogenated solvents
Hazardous air pollutants
IARC Group 2A carcinogens
Organochlorides
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delirious%3F
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Delirious?
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Delirious? (formerly known as The Cutting Edge Band) were an English contemporary Christian band. For the majority of their career, the lineup featured Martin Smith on vocals and guitar, Stu G (full name Stuart Garrard) on guitar and backing vocals, Jon Thatcher on bass guitar, Tim Jupp on keys and piano, and Stew Smith on drums and percussion. During their final two years, drumming duties were assumed by Paul Evans.
They are perhaps best known for their modern worship songs "Rain Down", "Majesty", "Lord You Have My Heart", "Thank You for Saving Me", "Did You Feel the Mountains Tremble?", "What a Friend I've Found" and their 1994 song "I Could Sing of Your Love Forever", which has been called a "modern worship classic" and is their most popular song in the United States.
The Cutting Edge Band had various members from 1992 to 1996 before the decision was made to take the band full-time as Delirious? with an established lineup. Between 1997 and 2001, the band targeted the majority of its work towards a mainstream audience, with several singles reaching the top 20 on the UK Singles Chart. However, between 2003 and 2009 the focus was mainly placed on the CCM market, although occasional singles were still released.
In the final years of their career, Delirious? began to place a strong focus on humanitarian issues in their music. Both Martin Smith and Stu G started charities. Drummer Stew Smith left the band at the end of April 2008, and it was announced via a press release on in July of the same year that Delirious? would soon embark on an indefinite and probably permanent hiatus from recording and touring in order to focus on these new projects. On 29 November 2009 they gave their final performance for a sold-out crowd at London's Hammersmith Apollo and have now officially disbanded.
History
Origins: The Cutting Edge years (1992–1996)
The origins of Delirious? stretch back to 1992. The band began life as a collection of musicians, known simply as 'The Cutting Edge Band'. The group's function was to be a Christian worship band for a youth outreach event called "Cutting Edge", instigated by the Arun Community Church in Littlehampton, West Sussex. The first members were Tim Jupp and Martin Smith, who became friends while working together at a recording studio. There they decided to form a band. Jupp had previously released an instrumental album titled "Hooked On Ishmael". Originally, Jupp fronted the band, which also contained youth worker and drummer Stew Smith. Several different musicians filled the role of guitarist and bass player. The events became popular via word-of-mouth, leading the band to play at other 'Cutting Edge' events along the south coast of England – monthly events in Portsmouth and Southampton. The events in Portsmouth only lasted a year but the events in Central Hall, Southampton were to run for three years, the duration of the Cutting Edge events. The group remained as the house band for Cutting Edge for several years, and they began to record and release the 'Cutting Edge' cassette tapes. The turnout at the events grew so much that the regular venue (a local school hall) had to be replaced with the school's sports hall, whilst the organizers had to charge a small fee to control the numbers attending. Similar challenges took place at the Central Hall in Southampton where up to 1200 people would gather each month. In 1996, an event was held in the open air, on the green next to Littlehampton's beach. An estimated 4000 people attended, while Channel 4 filmed it for a documentary.
The band were able to release their increasingly popular material thanks to lead singer Martin Smith and keyboardist Tim Jupp's roles as recording engineers and producers at a local recording studio. During this period, the lineup of the band began to take shape. Permanent guitar duties were taken up by Stu G shortly after the release of the band's first EP, whilst Jon Thatcher became permanent bassist for the band's fourth release, 'Cutting Edge Fore'. In total, four EPs were released under the "Cutting Edge" name, in addition to a solo EP from guitarist Stu Garrard, which featured the entire band. Many of the band's most famous songs were written and recorded during this time, including possibly their most famous: 'I Could Sing Of Your Love Forever.' Others included 'The Happy Song', 'Lord, You Have My Heart', 'Thank You For Saving Me', 'Did You Feel The Mountains Tremble?', 'I've Found Jesus', 'I'm Not Ashamed', 'Find Me In The River', 'Shout To The North', 'All I Want Is You' and 'Obsession'. The music became well known in Christian circles, and demand grew for recordings. By 1996, they had sold over seventy thousand EPs by mail order. These EPs were later released as two albums in the UK, and one double album in the US. A similar composite edition of Cutting Edge was released to retail and achieved 'Gold' status in Canada.
Taking the band full-time: King of Fools & early success (1997–1998)
The turning point came in 1995 when Martin, his wife Anna and Jon Thatcher, were involved in a serious road accident. Jon and Anna were unhurt, but Martin was hospitalized for several weeks with broken bones. While in the hospital, Smith went through a period of depression, before making the decision to become a full-time musician. At this point, Delirious? was conceptually born. The band changed its name in January 1996, and they began to start work recording their new album.
They gained unexpected mainstream success in 1997 following the release of King of Fools, the first studio album released under their new name. King of Fools eventually went 'Silver' in the United Kingdom, and Delirious? became one of the most popular and well-known Christian rock groups both in the UK and the United States. Songs such as "Deeper" gained anthemic status and still surface regularly at Christian youth events. Delirious? also released four singles to the mainstream UK Charts – "White Ribbon Day", "Deeper" (twice), and "Promise". 'Deeper' and 'Promise' both reached number twenty with very little radio airplay; For the majority of their career, "Deeper" was the band's best-selling single with over thirty thousand copies sold. The album also contained the song "History Maker", which arguably became one of the band's most popular anthems. The song was played regularly at gigs throughout the rest of the band's existence, and was eventually released as a successful UK single in 2010. During the summer of 1997, Stewart Smith and his wife lost their unborn baby through a miscarriage, inspiring the song "Summer of Love" on the "DeEPer EP", a re-release of the "Deeper" single. The re-release attained number thirty-six on the UK Charts.
The group signed to EMI for its British releases but in 1997 the group signed to both Virgin and Sparrow Records for distribution in secular and Christian markets in the United States.
The success of the King of Fools album allowed the band to tour the UK for the first time comprehensively in 1997's 'd:tour'. Delirious? chose to tour without a support band, instead using a DJ and a large visual aspect to the performance. In 1998, the band released their second live album, d:tour, which featured many of the songs from the King Of Fools album in addition to some songs from the Cutting Edge period. It was recorded at Southampton Guildhall on the final night of the 'd:tour'.
First mainstream push: Mezzamorphis & Glo (1999–2000)
After a brief hiatus, the 1999 album Mezzamorphis attained number 25 in the UK mainstream album charts (number two in the independent section), and soon became certified silver in the UK. During this time, the band found resistance in the mainstream due to their "Christian" label, despite widespread critical acclaim in the music press. However, the work was aimed at a "secular" audience, causing many former fans to shun the album and claiming that Delirious? had "sold out" to mainstream markets.
Several singles from Mezzamorphis gained some British chart success. For example, the first single, "See The Star", peaked at number sixteen on the charts (a career high for the band), following an appearance on television show The Big Breakfast. Despite the success of the single, the song choice was slightly controversial as it was arguably one of the weaker songs on the record.
The second single, "It's OK", subsequently reached number eighteen. In the US, "Gravity" was chosen over "See the Star" as lead radio single for promotion.
Exactly one year later, in 2000, the band released Glo (short for glorious). This album was the number one seller for eight months. Several songs from the album, while not being released as actual singles, gained immense popularity in the Christian-music world, most notably the guitar-driven "My Glorious" and the more introspective "Jesus' Blood". The track "Investigate" eventually became a favourite concert closer for the band. That year, Delirious? toured the US and appeared to an audience of 55,000 at the Creation Festival.
Second mainstream push: Audio Lessonover? (2001–2002)
The second attempted mainstream album, Audio Lessonover? (an anagram of 'Radio One Loves Us') was released in 2001. The band hired well known music producer Chuck Zwicky (Semisonic, Madonna). Zwicky wanted to go with a more stripped-down sound than the sonically layered Mezzamorphis and Glo. The band noted that there were tense and strained moments during the Audio Lessonover recording sessions, but in the end it stretched them as musicians and as a band. The first single "Waiting For The Summer" reached number twenty-six on the charts, hindered by limited radio airplay. This led to a planned second single, "Take Me Away", being cancelled. Critically, the record itself received less favourable reviews in comparison to their previous three albums, whilst commercial album sales were also lower.
Again they received criticism for "selling out" to achieve success in mainstream markets. The band members are often questioned about the apparent critical 'failure' of the album in interviews to this day.
That year the group took part in major tours with Bon Jovi and Matchbox Twenty.
The band's first compilation, Deeper, was released in early 2002. It was a double album, consisting of many remastered classic songs from the band, in addition to tracks taken from previous work such as Glo and King Of Fools. It also included several new versions of popular Cutting Edge tracks and a new song, 'Not Forgotten'. Later that year, Audio Lessonover? was significantly edited by the band, and restyled as Touch. This new version of the album was intended for the North American market, although it was also made available in the UK. Some editions of Touch included a second disc featuring several live tracks, although these recordings were later incorporated into the band's third live album, Access:D. Access:D was released towards the end of 2002, capping a year which had seen four full album releases from the band. A two disc set, it featured many tracks which had previously been seen on their studio albums King of Fools, Mezzamorphis, Glo, Audio Lessonover? and Touch. A special edition was made available in an exclusive tin case.
Return to roots: Post mainstream 'trilogy' (2003–early 2008)
In 2003, Delirious? released World Service, the first of what guitarist Stu G later described as 'a trilogy'. Although this was more of a worship-oriented album, Delirious? released two singles to the German market: "Inside Outside" and "Every Little Thing". The former sold over twelve thousand copies, was number one in German radio station SWR3's chart, and spent seven weeks in the German singles charts peaking at number seventy-two. Delirious? also released two free MP3 downloads on mp3.com, both topping the Guitar Rock charts (the first for a full month). The first MP3, "Majesty (Here I Am)", hit number fifteen on the worldwide charts; the second, "Rain Down", reached number twenty-eight. The two together had amassed over 500,000 listens/downloads after fifty days. Delirious?’s World Service is finding success in the United Kingdom and America as well. The band’s American single 'Rain Down' has become its biggest multi-format hit since "Deeper".
In 2005, long-term manager Tony Patoto parted company with the band, stating that he wanted a fresh challenge. The role was filled by band member and Delirious? keyboard player Tim Jupp.
The band's sixth studio album, The Mission Bell was released in the UK in 2005. The album received very positive reviews, with Christianity Today, Jesus Freak Hideout, and Cross Rhythms all praising The Mission Bell for "Effectively stretching the boundaries of music". "Paint The Town Red" was released as a CD and iTunes single in the UK, entering the charts at number fifty-six. Several singles were released to CrossRhythms radio in the UK, all charting at number one for several weeks. The Mission Bell was nominated for the May 2007 Dove Awards, in the Rock/Contemporary Album of the Year Category.
Delirious? spent much of 2007 recording and working on their new album Kingdom of Comfort with producer Sam Gibson. It was released internationally in April 2008. This strategically coincided with the launch of the third version of their official website. The first single from the album was God Is Smiling.
Retirement (mid-2008–2009)
Prior to the release of Kingdom of Comfort, long-time drummer Stew Smith announced that he would be leaving the band in April 2008. He made his final appearance on a recording during the production of a live album and DVD while on tour in Brazil. The album was titled Unidos, and served as a collaboration project with André Valadão. It has been released in several countries, although it remains unreleased in the UK. Stew Smith's final performance with the band took place at Sydney, Australia. His departure had a great impact upon the other members of the band, who came close to breaking up. However, Smith insisted that they should carry on. Paul Evans became the new drummer for Delirious? in May. He had previously played with Delirious? before when Stew Smith was unable to perform during a tour of the US.
On 6 July of the same year, the band announced via a press release that they would be "taking a break" at the end of 2009 to allow the band to focus on things close to them. Martin said that he wanted more time to spend with his family and devote more time to the CompassionArt project.
However, the band later announced that they would release the second single from Kingdom of Comfort to the UK charts in November, "Love Will Find A Way", which was featured on Kingdom of Comfort. The single entered the charts at number thirty, but had dropped to number fifty five by the end of the first week.
Another live album and DVD, My Soul Sings, was recorded in Colombia during that year, and released in 2009. Additionally, a Greatest Hits album, History Makers, was released in November.
Delirious? finished their career by conducting a small farewell tour of Europe which concluded at the end of 2009. They played their final show in front of a sell-out crowd at London's Hammersmith Apollo on 29 November 2009, including a cameo performance from Stew Smith alongside Paul Evans.
Post retirement (2010-present)
The three-and-a-half-hour final show was filmed for a live album, DVD and Blu-ray package, titled Farewell Show - Live In London. It was released in April 2010.
In February 2010, a campaign to get History Maker into the UK charts for Easter began on social networking site Facebook. In response to this, the version from the final live album was released as a single on 28 March 2010. The two versions of "History Makers" reached as high as numbers 3 and 21 on the iTunes Store during the week, and the combined sales placed the single at number 6 in the midweek charts of 31 March 2010. The single rose two places, to chart at number four in the Official Singles chart on 4 April 2010. It also reached number one in the UK Indie Singles Chart.
Away from the band, many of the members have started work on, or announced, future projects that they intended to pursue after the band ended in November 2009. Lead singer Martin Smith intends pursuing the Compassionart project, the decision that triggered the split. Smith has written an autobiography titled 'Delirious', providing a detailed account of his life and time with the band. It was released in February 2011, alongside a similar autobiography from his wife Anna, which provides an alternative perspective on the band's history. Smith has also been writing songs and leading worship at conferences around the world. A new website, launched to coincide with the autobiography, hints at future plans to 'record' and 'tour'.
Keyboard player Tim Jupp has been involved with a series of one-day Christian music festivals based mainly in West Sussex, England, called The Big Church Day Out Festival. Delirious? headlined the first annual event in May 2009. Another expanded event, held across three days, was held in May 2010.
Guitarist Stu G and bassist Jon Thatcher formed a new band with Jason Ingram as lead singer and Paul Mabury as drummer early in 2009. The band is called 'One Sonic Society', and they started work on their debut record in June 2009. As a group of four, the band released two EP's. The first, 'One', was released in June 2010, whilst the second, 'Sonic', was released in October 2010. Following the release of 'Sonic', all references to Jon Thatcher were removed from the band website and official press releases, and it was confirmed by a source close to the band that Thatcher was no longer a member and that the band were now officially a three-piece. There have been no official comments on Thatcher's departure from any of the band members, although the split is thought to have been an amicable one. As of March 2011, One Sonic Society have been recording 'Society', the third and final EP in the trilogy. A live album compiling the songs from the EP has also been planned.
Stu G also began writing and recording with many other artists around the world, and has continued to be a member of the Compassionart writing team. He has also toured extensively with other artists, most recently with Amy Grant and Michael W. Smith in 2011.
Thatcher has launched a creative solutions project called 'Arkyard'. The services of the organisation have been since used by several notable clients including David Byrne, in addition to Delirious?, One Sonic Society and producer Sam Gibson.
Former drummer Stew Smith has already launched his graphic design company, 'Smeezer', which has designed advertising campaigns for Premier Percussion, clothing lines for high street store Fat Face, and the marketing of 'The Big Church Day Out' festival.
However, in spite of all of these new projects, Martin Smith has hinted that the band may reunite some day.
Naming confusion
The question mark is part of the official name. On the band's early albums, the final s before the question mark was rendered as a 5. According to drummer/bandmember Stewart Smith, this occurred because the keyboard he was using at the time did not have the letter "s" and he improvised with the number 5 on the keypad—a convenient reflection of the band name. In some circles, therefore, the band's name often appears as Deliriou5?. The band's logo changed in 1999, and the glyph was replaced with a character that could be an s or a 5. The name has always been spelled as Delirious? in official, non-graphical literature. This is consistent with the names of the band's record company (Furious?) and publisher (Curious?).
Discography
King of Fools (1997)
Mezzamorphis (1999)
Glo (2000)
Audio Lessonover?/Touch (2001/2002)
World Service (2003)
The Mission Bell (2005)
Kingdom of Comfort (2008)
Delirious? live
During their career, Delirious? played in over forty countries around the world. In the United Kingdom, they played gigs at venues such as Wembley Stadium, Hyde Park and the o2 Arena in London, Hampden Park stadium in Glasgow, Millennium Stadium in Cardiff, Milton Keynes Bowl, Birmingham's NEC Arena in addition to a performance on the main stage at Glastonbury Festival in 1999. They frequently headlined festivals such as Greenbelt, and conducted many tours around the country. They supported Bon Jovi, Matchbox 20 and Bryan Adams on their UK tours in 2001 and 2002. Prior to the band's retirement, they played what were intended to be the first of many intimate 'Living Room' gigs, exclusively for fans. The first of these was at the London Embassy in Mayfair, and limited to only one hundred tickets. The band were supported by Huey of the Fun Lovin' Criminals.
Delirious? also played many major shows in mainland Europe. In 2004, they headlined the Olympic celebrations in Omonia Square, Athens. In 2005, the band performed to an audience of 1.2 million people in Cologne, Germany.
The band also had an extensive touring schedule outside of Europe. In 2006, they played again to 1.2 million people, this time during a four date tour of India, with up to 400,000 people attending in one day. In the US, they played at such events as Acquire the Fire (an event hosted by Teen Mania) and Spirit West Coast. In 2007, they headlined their own twenty-four date tour across the country. In New Zealand they made appearances at the Parachute Music Festival, a four-day Christian music festival, the largest in the southern hemisphere.
Tours
Delirious? have performed many UK tours throughout their career, in addition to many high-profile tours of the US, Europe and other parts of the world. The full list of UK tours can be found below:
These are only the UK tours, as Delirious? have played hundreds of shows around the globe.
During the d:tour in 1997, Delirious? travelled without a support act. During the History Makers tour in 2009, they supported themselves by playing a short set as 'The Cutting Edge Band' before returning to the stage to perform as 'Delirious?'. 'The Cutting Edge Band' played the songs found on the four Cutting Edge tapes.
Former band members
Delirious?
Martin Smith – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (1992–2009)
Stu G – lead guitar, backing vocals (1994–2009)
Tim Jupp – keyboards (1992–2009)
Jon Thatcher – bass guitar (1995–2009)
Stew Smith – drums, percussion (1992–2008)
Paul Evans – drums, percussion (2008–2009)
The Cutting Edge Band members
During the 'Cutting Edge' era, several other musicians played and recorded as part of the band before Stu Garrard and Jon Thatcher joined, including:
Dave Clifton – lead guitar (1993)
Jim Bryan – bass guitar (1993)
Les Driscoll – bass guitar (1994)
Dudley Phillips – bass guitar (1995)
Helen Burgess – bass guitar/backing vocals (1994-1995)
Timeline
References
Further reading
External links
Musical groups established in 1992
Musical groups disestablished in 2009
English Christian rock groups
People from Littlehampton
1992 establishments in England
2009 disestablishments in England
Musical quintets
|
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241782
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepidosauria
|
Lepidosauria
|
The Lepidosauria (, from Greek meaning scaled lizards) is a subclass or superorder of reptiles, containing the orders Squamata and Rhynchocephalia. Squamata includes snakes, lizards, and amphisbaenians. Squamata contains over 9,000 species, making it by far the most species-rich and diverse order of reptiles in the present day. Rhynchocephalia was a formerly widespread and diverse group of reptiles in the Mesozoic Era. However, it is represented by only one living species: the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus), a superficially lizard-like reptile native to New Zealand.
Lepidosauria is a monophyletic group (i.e. a clade), containing all descendants of the last common ancestor of squamates and rhynchocephalians. Lepidosaurs can be distinguished from other reptiles via several traits, such as large keratinous scales which may overlap one another. Purely in the context of modern taxa, Lepidosauria can be considered the sister taxon to Archosauria, which includes Aves (birds) and Crocodilia. Testudines (turtles) may be related to lepidosaurs or to archosaurs, but no consensus has been reached on this subject. Lepidosauria is encompassed by Lepidosauromorpha, a broader group defined as all reptiles (living or extinct) closer to lepidosaurs than to archosaurs.
Evolution
Lizards were originally split into two clades: the Iguania and the Scleroglossa. Snakes and amphisbaenians belong within the clade Scleroglossa. Analysis of teeth has indicated that Iguania is made up of the sister taxa Chamaeleonidae and Agamidae. Snakes are actually a branch within the lizard group. In fact, some lizards, such as the Varanids, are more closely related to snakes than they are to other lizards. Varanids are a diverse group of lizards living from Africa, throughout south, central, and east Asia, as well as the Indo-Pacific islands and Australia.
Snakes currently have about 3,070 extant species, which are grouped into the scolecophidians and the alethinophidians. The scolecophidians comprise about 370 species and are represented by small snakes with a limited gape size. The alethinophidians comprise about 2,700 species and are represented by the more common snakes. As snakes evolved, their gape size increased from the narrowness of the scolecophidians, which allowed for the digestion of larger prey. There are about 600 species of venomous snakes, which all belong to Caenophidia, although the majority of caenophidians are non-venomous colubrids.
While amphisbaenians are mostly limbless, three species have reduced forms of front limbs. Morphological data shows that species with front limbs form a sister group to those that are limbless. This means that the amphisbaenians’ loss of limbs occurred only once.
A genetic study on the genome of the tuatara suggests a divergence rate of around 240 million years ago during the Triassic.
Fossil record
Snakes do not have an extensive fossil record; the oldest known fossil is from between early and late Cretaceous period. There were Tertiary fossil snakes that became extinct by the end of the Eocene period. The first colubrid also appeared in the Eocene period. Lizards first appeared in the middle Jurassic period, and this is when the scincomorph and the anguimorph lizards were first seen. The Gekkotans first appear in the late Jurassic period and the iguanians first appear in the late Cretaceous period. The lizards of the Cretaceous period represent extinct genera and species. The majority of amphisbaenians first appeared during the early Cenozoic period. Rhynchocephalian fossils first appear in the Middle Triassic period, between 238-240 million years ago, making them the earliest lepidosaurian fossils found to date. The tuatara can now only be found on small islands off the New Zealand coast. However, fossil records show that it once lived on mainland New Zealand and Rhynchocephalia as a whole was once distributed globally.
The Rhynchocephalia originated by the Middle Triassic period and were distributed worldwide. Except for the single species of tuatara that now lives in New Zealand, all species became extinct in the late Cretaceous, although material is known from the Miocene of New Zealand. This extinction is associated with the introduction of mammals, such as rats. The modern tuatara's skull anatomy is significantly different from the best known Mesozoic taxa. Wild populations of tuatara can be found on 32 islands; in addition to three islands in which populations have formed due to migration.
Description
Extant reptiles are in the clade Diapsida, named for a pair of temporal fenestrations on each side of the skull. Until recently, Diapsida was said to be composed of Lepidosauria and their sister taxa Archosauria. The subclass Lepidosauria is then split into Squamata and Rhynchocephalia. More recent morphological studies and molecular studies also place turtles firmly within Diapsida, even though they lack temporal fenestrations.
The group Squamata includes snakes, lizards, and amphisbaenians. Squamata can be characterized by the reduction or loss of limbs. Snakes, some lizards, and most amphisbaenians have evolved the complete loss of their limbs. The skin of all squamates is covered in scales. The upper jaw of Squamates is movable on the cranium, a configuration called kinesis. This is made possible by a loose connection between the quadrate and its neighboring bones. Without this, snakes would not be able consume prey that are much larger than themselves. However, the tuatara does not share this characteristic with the other Lepidosauria. Amphisbaenians are mostly legless like snakes, but are generally much smaller. Three species of amphisbaenians have kept reduced front limbs and these species are known for actively burrowing in the ground.
Rhynchocephalia, which includes the tuatara and their extinct relatives, can presently only be found on some small islands off New Zealand. The tuatara has amphicoelous vertebrae, which means that the vertebrae are hollowed out at both ends. Tuataras also have the ability to autotomize their tails. A well-developed median or pineal eye is present on the top of the head (parietal region) and an additional row of upper teeth is located on the palatine bone.
Diagnosis
The reptiles in the subclass Lepidosauria can be distinguished from other reptiles by a variety of characteristics. First, the males have evolved a hemipenis instead of a single penis with erectile tissue that is found in crocodilians, birds, mammals, and turtles. The hemipenis can be found in the base of the tail. The tuatara has not fully evolved the hemipenis, but instead has shallow paired outpocketings of the posterior wall of the cloaca that have been determined to be precursors to the hemipenis.
Second, most lepidosaurs have the ability to autotomize their tails. However, this trait has been lost on some recent species. In lizards, fracture planes are present within the vertebrae of the tail that allow for its removal. Some lizards have multiple fracture planes, while others just have a single fracture plane. The regrowth of the tail is not always complete and is made of a solid rod of cartilage rather than individual vertebrae. In snakes, the tail separates between vertebrae and some do not experience regrowth.
Third, the scales in lepidosaurs are horny (keratinized) structures of the epidermis, allowing them to be shed collectively, contrary to the scutes seen in other reptiles. This is done in different cycles, depending on the species. However, lizards generally shed in flakes while snakes shed in one piece. Unlike scutes, lepidosaur scales will often overlap like roof tiles.
Biology and ecology
Squamates are represented by viviparous, ovoviviparous, and oviparous species. Viviparous means that the female gives birth to live young, Ovoviviparous means that the egg will develop inside the female's body and Oviparous means that the female lays eggs. A few species within Squamata have the ability to reproduce asexually. The tuatara lays eggs that are usually about one inch in length and which take about 14 months to incubate.
While in the egg, the Squamata embryo develops an egg tooth on the premaxillary that helps the animal emerge from the egg. A reptile will increase three to twentyfold in length from hatching to adulthood. There are three main life history events that lepidosaurs reach: hatching/birth, sexual maturity, and reproductive senility.
Most lepidosaurs rely on camouflage as one of their main defenses. Some species have evolved to blend in with their ecosystem, while others are able change their skin color to blend in with their current surroundings. The ability to autotomize the tail is another defense that is common among lepidosaurs. Other species, such as the Echinosauria, have evolved the defense of feigning death.
Hunting and diet
Viperines can sense their prey's infrared radiation through bare nerve endings on the skin of their heads. Also, viperines and some boids have thermal receptors that allow them to target their prey's heat. Many snakes are able to obtain their prey through constriction. This is done by first biting the prey, then coiling their body around the prey. The snake then tightens its grip as the prey struggles, which leads to suffocation. Some snakes have fangs that produce venomous bites, which allows the snake to consume unconscious, or even dead, prey. Also, some venoms include a proteolytic component that aids in digestion. Chameleons grasp their prey with a projectile tongue. This is made possible by a hyoid mechanism, which is the contraction of the hyoid muscle that drives the tip of the tongue outwards.
Within the subclass Lepidosauria there are herbivores, omnivores, insectivores, and carnivores. The herbivores consist of iguanines, some agamids, and some skinks. Most lizard species and some snake species are insectivores. The remaining snake species, tuataras, and amphisbaenians, are carnivores. While some snake species are generalist, others eat a narrow range of prey - for example, Salvadora only eat lizards. The remaining lizards are omnivores and can consume plants or insects. The broad carnivorous diet of the tuatara may be facilitated by its specialised shearing mechanism, which involves a forward movement of the lower jaw following jaw closure.
While birds, including raptors, wading birds and roadrunners, and mammals are known to prey on reptiles, the major predator is other reptiles. Some reptiles eat reptile eggs, for example the diet of the Nile monitor includes crocodile eggs, and small reptiles are preyed upon by larger ones.
Conservation
The geographic ranges of lepidosaurs are vast and cover all but the most extreme cold parts of the globe. Amphisbaenians exist in Florida, mainland Mexico, including Baja California, the Mediterranean region, the Middle East, North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, South America, and the Caribbean. The tuatara is confined to only a few rocky islands of New Zealand, where it digs burrows to live in and preys mostly on insects.
Climate change has led to the need for conservation efforts to protect the existence of the tuatara. This is because it is not possible for this species to migrate on its own to cooler areas. Conservationists are beginning to consider the possibility of translocating them to islands with cooler climates. The range of the tuatara has already been minimized by the introduction of cats, rats, dogs, and mustelids to New Zealand. The eradication of the mammals from the islands where the tuatara still survives has helped the species increase its population. An experiment observing the tuatara population after the removal of the Polynesian rat showed that the tuatara expressed an island-specific increase of population after the rats' removal. However, it may be difficult to keep these small mammals from reinhabiting these islands.
Habitat destruction is the leading negative impact of humans on reptiles. Humans continue to develop land that is important habitat for the lepidosaurs. The clear-cutting of land has also led to habitat reduction. Some snakes and lizards migrate toward human dwellings because there is an abundance of rodent and insect prey. However, these reptiles are seen as pests and are often exterminated.
Interactions with humans
Snakes are commonly feared throughout the world. Bounties were paid for dead cobras under the British Raj in India; similarly, there have been advertised rattlesnake roundups in North America. Data shows that between 1959 and 1986 an average of 5,563 rattlesnakes were killed per year in Sweetwater, Texas, due to rattlesnake roundups, and these roundups have led to documented declines and local extirpations of rattlesnake populations, especially Eastern Diamondbacks in Georgia.
People have introduced species to the lepidosaurs' natural habitats that have increased predation on the reptiles. For example, mongooses were introduced to Jamaica from India to control the rat infestation in sugar cane fields. As a result, the mongooses fed on the lizard population of Jamaica, which has led to the elimination or decrease of many lizard species. Actions can be taken by humans to help endangered reptiles. Some species are unable to be bred in captivity, but others have thrived. There is also the option of animal refuges. This concept is helpful to contain the reptiles and keep them from human dwellings. However, environmental fluctuations and predatorial attacks still occur in refuges.
Reptile skins are still being sold. Accessories, such as shoes, boots, purses, belts, buttons, wallets, and lamp shades, are all made out of reptile skin. In 1986, the World Resource Institute estimated that 10.5 million reptile skins were traded legally. This total does not include the illegal trades of that year. Horned lizards are popularly harvested and stuffed. Some humans are making a conscious effort to preserve the remaining species of reptiles, however.
References
External links
Animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu
Reptile taxonomy, Benton 2004
Lepidosaur phylogeny
Chordate superorders
Ladinian first appearances
Extant Middle Triassic first appearances
|
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] |
241784
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromomethane
|
Bromomethane
|
Bromomethane, commonly known as methyl bromide, is an organobromine compound with formula CH3Br. This colorless, odorless, nonflammable gas is produced both industrially and biologically. It has a tetrahedral shape and it is a recognized ozone-depleting chemical. It was used extensively as a pesticide until being phased out by most countries in the early 2000s.
Occurrence and manufacture
Bromomethane originates from both natural and human sources. In the ocean, marine organisms are estimated to produce 56,000 tonnes annually. It is also produced in small quantities by certain terrestrial plants, such as members of the family Brassicaceae. It is manufactured for agricultural and industrial use by treating methanol with bromine in the presence of sulfur or hydrogen sulfide:
6 CH3OH + 3 Br2 + S → 6 CH3Br + 2 H2O + H2SO4
Uses
In 1999, an estimated 71,500 tonnes of synthetic methyl bromide were used annually worldwide. 97% of this estimate was used for fumigation purposes, whilst 3% was used for the manufacture of other products. Moreover, 75% of the consumption used to take place in developed nations, led by the United States (43%) and Europe (24%). Asia and the Middle East combined to use 24% whereas Latin America and Africa had the lowest usage at 9%.
Until its production and use was curtailed by the Montreal Protocol, bromomethane was widely applied as a soil sterilant, mainly for production of seed but also for some crops such as strawberries and almonds. In commercial large-scale monoculture seed production, unlike crop production, it is of vital importance to avoid contaminating the crop with off-type seed of the same species. Therefore, selective herbicides cannot be used. Although bromomethane is dangerous, it is considerably safer and more effective than some other soil sterilants. Its loss to the seed industry has resulted in changes to cultural practices, with increased reliance on soil steam sterilization, mechanical rogueing, and fallow seasons. Bromomethane was also used as a general-purpose fumigant to kill a variety of pests including rats and insects. Bromomethane has poor fungicidal properties. Bromomethane is the only fumigant allowed (heat treatment is only other option) under ISPM 15 regulations when exporting solid wood packaging (forklift pallets, crates, bracing) to ISPM 15 compliant countries. Bromomethane is used to prepare golf courses, particularly to control Bermuda grass. The Montreal Protocol stipulates that bromomethane use be phased out.
Bromomethane is also a precursor in the manufacture of other chemicals as a methylating agent.
Bromomethane was once used in specialty fire extinguishers, prior to the advent of less toxic halons, as it is electrically non-conductive and leaves no residue. It was used primarily for electrical substations, military aircraft, and other industrial hazards. It was never as popular as other agents due to its high cost and toxicity. Bromomethane was used from the 1920s to the 1960s, and continued to be used in aircraft engine fire suppression systems into the late 1960s.
Regulation
Bromomethane is readily photolyzed in the atmosphere to release bromine radicals, which are far more destructive to stratospheric ozone than chlorine. As such, it is subject to phase-out requirements of the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances.
The London Amendment in 1990 added bromomethane to the list of ODS to be phased out. Phase-out began in the United States in 1993, manufactured amounts being capped at the 1991 level. All developed countries in the Montreal Protocol reduced both manufactured and imported amounts by 25% in 1999, 50% 2001, 75% 2003, 100% 2005. In 2003 the Global Environment Facility approved funds for a UNEP-UNDP joint project for methyl bromide total sector phase out in seven countries in Central Europe and Central Asia, which was due for completion in 2007.
Australia
In Australia, bromomethane is the preferred fumigant of the Department of Agriculture and Water Resources for most organic goods imported into Australia. The department conducts methyl bromide fumigation certification for both domestic and foreign fumigators who can then fumigate containers destined for Australia. A list of alternative fumigants is available for goods imported from Europe (in what's known as the BICON database), where methyl bromide fumigation has been banned. Alternatively, the department allows containers from Europe to be fumigated with methyl bromide on arrival to Australia.
New Zealand
In New Zealand, bromomethane is used as a fumigant for whole logs destined for export. Environmental groups and the Green Party oppose its use. In May 2011 the Environmental Risk Management Authority (ERMA) introduced new rules for its use which restrict the level of public exposure to the fumigant, set minimum buffer zones around fumigation sites, provide for notification to nearby residents and require users to monitor air quality during fumigations and report back to ERMA each year. All methyl bromide fumigations must use recapture technology by 2025.
United States
In the United States bromomethane is regulated as a pesticide under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA; 7 U.S.C. 136 et seq.) and as a hazardous substance under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA; 42 U.S.C. 6901 et seq.), and is subject to reporting requirements under the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA; 42 U.S.C. 11001 et seq.). The U.S. Clean Air Act (CAA; 42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq.). A 1998 amendment (P.L. 105-178, Title VI) conformed the Clean Air Act phase out date with that of the Montreal Protocol. Whereas the Montreal Protocol has severely restricted the use of bromomethane internationally, the United States has successfully lobbied for critical-use exemptions. Critical use exemptions allow the United States to continue using MeBr until it is scheduled to be completely phased out sometime in 2017.
In 2004, over of bromomethane were applied in California. Applications include tomato, strawberry, and ornamental shrub growers, and fumigation of ham/pork products. Also exempt is the treatment of solid wood packaging (forklift pallets, crates, bracing), and the packaged goods, being exported to ISPM 15 countries (to include Canada in 2012).
Chile
Chile has phased out the use of bromomethane in traditional agriculture as of 2015, with exemption of the 100% pure formulation that is largely used for quarantine pest control and at pre-shipments of the fruit export industry.
Alternatives
Alternatives to bromomethane in the agricultural field are currently in use and further alternatives are in development, including propylene oxide and furfural. For Australia a list of alternative fumigants is available for goods imported from Europe (in what's known as the BICON database), where methyl bromide fumigation has been banned.
Chloropicrin has been used in combination with bromomethane, and standalone is a common alternative fumigant. It has been widely used since its initial success against Verticillium dahliae in strawberry. It is a suitable alternative for fungicidal action but does not quite have BM's nematicide or herbicide efficacy, and so is commonly combined with yet another fumigant.
1,3-Dichloropropene replaces some of both the fungicide and nematicide effects of BM, but is not a full-efficacy replacement.
Methyl isothiocyanate is the breakdown product/a.i. of two applied products, metam sodium and granular dazomet. MITC does not redistribute through the soil as well as BM. Requires significantly more irrigation for activation. More strongly herbicidal than BM and so often used for that purpose alone. Much smaller doses stimulate weed germination.
Potential future alternatives
Iodomethane
Propargyl bromide
Ozone
Health effects
Brief exposure to high concentrations and prolonged inhalation of lower concentrations are problematic. Exposure levels leading to death vary from 1,600 to 60,000 ppm, depending on the duration of exposure (as a comparison exposure levels of 70 to 400 ppm of carbon monoxide cover the same spectrum of illness/death). Concentrations in the range of 60,000 ppm can be immediately fatal, while toxic effects can present following prolonged exposure to concentrations well under 1,000 ppm.
"A TLV–TWA of 1 ppm (3.89 mg/m3) is recommended for occupational exposure to methyl bromide"-ACGIH 8 hour time weighted average. Immediately Dangerous To Life or Health Concentration by NIOSH: "The revised IDLH for methyl bromide is 250 ppm based on acute inhalation toxicity data in humans [Clarke et al. 1945]. This may be a conservative value due to the lack of relevant acute toxicity data for workers exposed to concentrations above 220 ppm. [Note: NIOSH recommends as part of its carcinogen policy that the "most protective" respirators be worn for methyl bromide at any detectable concentration.]" Detectable concentration by Drager Tube is 0.5 ppm.
Respiratory, kidney, and neurological effects are of the greatest concern.
Treatment of wood packaging requires a concentration of up to 16,000 ppm.
NIOSH considers methyl bromide to be a potential occupational carcinogen as defined by the OSHA carcinogen policy [29 CFR 1990]. "Methyl bromide showed a significant dose-response relationship with prostate cancer risk."
Excessive exposure
Expression of toxicity following exposure may involve a latent period of several hours, followed by signs such as nausea, abdominal pain, weakness, confusion, pulmonary edema, and seizures. Individuals who survive the acute phase often require a prolonged convalescence. Persistent neurological deficits such as asthenia, cognitive impairment, optical atrophy, and paresthesia are frequently present after moderate to severe poisoning. Blood or urine concentrations of inorganic bromide, a bromomethane metabolite, are useful to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients or to assist in the forensic investigation of a case of fatal overdosage.
See also
References
External links
Chemical Alternatives to the agricultural use of Methyl Bromide
Biological, Chemical & Practice based alternatives to the agricultural use of Methyl Bromide.
Methyl Bromide Technical Fact Sheet - National Pesticide Information Center
Methyl Bromide General Fact Sheet - National Pesticide Information Center
Methyl Bromide Pesticide Information Profile - Extension Toxicology Network
IARC Summaries & Evaluations Vol. 71 (1999)
The banned pesticide in our soil
MSDS at Oxford University
Toxicological profile
Environmental Health Criteria 166
OECD SIDS document
EPA 2010 Critical Use Exemption Nominations
ChemSub Online (Methyl bromide, Bromomethane).
Del. family poisoned with methyl bromide in Caribbean in grave condition, governor says - July 2, 2015
Terminix Companies Sentenced for Applying Restricted-Use Pesticide to Residences in the U.S. Virgin Islands - November 20, 2017
Terminix Virgin Islands Branch Manager Pleads Guilty to Four Counts of Illegally Applying Restricted-Use Pesticide to Multiple Residences in the U.S. Virgin Islands - September 17, 2018
Bromoalkanes
Halomethanes
Halogenated solvents
Ozone depletion
Fumigants
IARC Group 3 carcinogens
Methylating agents
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s%20Professional%20Basketball%20League
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Women's Professional Basketball League
|
The Women's Professional Basketball League (abbreviated WBL) was a professional women's basketball league in the United States. The league played three seasons from the fall of 1978 to the spring of 1981. The league was the first professional women's basketball league in the United States.
Formation and 1978–79 season
The WPBL was founded by sports entrepreneur Bill Byrne. The league began with a player draft held in Manhattan's Essex House in July 1978, with eight teams participating. While few of the teams had firm commitments on playing locations (or team names, for that matter), the league planned to play a 34-game season with teams in Chicago, Houston, Iowa, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, New Jersey, New York City and Washington, D.C. Houston drafted Ann Meyers from UCLA, while New Jersey's top choice Carol Blazejowski of Montclair State College said that she wanted to retain her amateur standing to be eligible to play in the 1980 Summer Olympics. Lusia Harris, a collegiate star at Delta State University, was selected by the Houston team, but was reluctant to commit to playing after hearing the $3,000 to $5,000 salaries estimated by the Minnesota franchise. With its last pick in the draft, the Cornets selected Uljana Semjonova, a 6-foot-11-inch player for the Soviet Union's national women's basketball team who would be inducted as an inaugural member of the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame in the class of 1999, but would never play a game in the WBL. The New Jersey Gems selected Carol Blazejowski from Montclair State College, but she announced while on tour in Bulgaria with the U.S. national women's team through her coach Maureen Wendelken that she had no intention of playing professionally and that her goal was to retain her amateur standing to be able to play for the U.S. at the 1980 Summer Olympics. Molly Bolin, who grew up in Moravia, Iowa, became the first player signed by any team in the WBL when she was signed by the Iowa Cornets.
The league played its first game on December 9, 1978, between the Chicago Hustle and the Milwaukee Does at the Milwaukee Arena, with the league's inaugural game attracting four minutes of coverage in the previous night's CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite. Milwaukee mayor Henry Maier issued a proclamation likening this first game to the first professional football game, played in Latrobe, Pennsylvania, and the first pro baseball game, played in Cincinnati. The Does had a crowd of 7,824 at the game, which saw the hometown team lose to Chicago 92–87, with Debra Waddy Rossow scoring 30 points to lead the Hustle.
The league was divided into two divisions, with Chicago, Milwaukee, the Iowa Cornets and Minnesota Fillies playing in the Western Division, while the Dayton Rockettes, Houston Angels, New Jersey Gems and New York Stars were in the East. The eight initial teams paid $50,000 for their franchise, while the four teams to be added for the 1979–80 season were expected to pay $100,000, and $250,000 per team for each of four more teams in the following season.
The league was able to arrange an all-star game in 1979, which was played at the Felt Forum in New York City's Madison Square Garden in front of 2,731 fans. The game was hastily arranged and inserted into the league's schedule, using a court borrowed from the United States Military Academy at West Point, and forcing some players to have to make hectic travel arrangements to get to their next regular season game. The East beat the Midwest by a score of 112–99. Althea Gwyn of the New York Stars led the East with 19 points and 16 rebounds, while Chicago Hustle players Debra Waddy Rossow with 26 points and Rita Easterling with 19 points led the Midwest. Easterling, who also grabbed 18 rebounds, was named the game's most valuable player.
Behind 36 points by Paula Mayo, the Houston Angels defeated the Iowa Cornets on May 2, 1979, to take the league's first championship, 111–104 in the final game of a best three-out-of-five competition.
1979–80 season
The league made it through its first season with all eight teams in operation, though the Dayton Rockettes had been taken over by the league in February 1979 and was to be relocated to either Indianapolis or Los Angeles. New franchises had been awarded to Dallas, New Orleans, San Francisco and St. Louis, Missouri, while applications were received for potential franchises from Baltimore, Boston, Los Angeles, Philadelphia and Washington, D.C.
The Eastern Division included the New Jersey Gems, New Orleans Pride, New York Stars, Philadelphia Fox, St. Louis Streak and Washington Metros. The Midwest Division included the Chicago Hustle, Iowa Cornets, Milwaukee Does and Minnesota Fillies. The Western Division included the California Dreams, Dallas Diamonds, Houston Angels and San Francisco Pioneers.
On April 9, 1980, despite Iowa's league-leading scorer Molly Bolin's 36 points, the New York Stars held on to win game four of the finals 125–114, behind 27 points by Pearl Moore and 22 by Janice Thomas. Stars coach Dean Meminger called the game the "culmination of a year of hard work". In what proved to be a harbinger of things to come, however, the Stars asked to go on a two-year hiatus not long after winning the title.
1980–81 season and demise
In a game scheduled in Chicago on March 21, 1981, players of the Minnesota Fillies, one of only three teams to play in all three seasons that the league was in existence, walked off the court before the starting lineups were announced in a game against the Chicago Hustle in a protest over unpaid salaries. Referees and team coach Terry Kunze tried to cajole the players back onto the court to play their game, but were unsuccessful. The team, which had been averaging 1,000 to 1,500 in attendance per game, were suspended from the WPBL by commissioner Sherwin Fischer, who called the walkout as "very detrimental to the league".
On February 7, 1981, Nebraska Wranglers player Connie Kunzmann was reported missing and was later pronounced dead. Police arrested Lance Tibke, who later pleaded guilty to her second degree murder.
The Nebraska Wranglers won the league's 1980–81 title, defeating the Dallas Diamonds three games to two. In the fifth and final game, Rosie Walker led the victors with 39 points, while the Wranglers' defense held Nancy Lieberman of Dallas to 12 points, less than half of her season average.
Bill Byrne had founded the league hoping that the 1980 Summer Olympics would showcase the game's stars and bring media and public attention to women's basketball, but the United States-led boycott of the Moscow games only added to the league's misfortunes.
By the fall of 1981, the league was showing what The New York Times described as "feeble flickers of life." That November, commissioner Dave Almstead announced the league had disbanded, having generated $14 million in losses in its three years on the court. Almstead, who had succeeded Fischer as league commissioner in May 1981, announced the league's shutdown after trying unsuccessfully to contact the surviving eight teams' investors and team owners. Fischer, owner of the Chicago Hustle, insisted that he would field a team that would go barnstorming if the league went out of existence, and thought that teams would be fielded for a fourth season by Chicago, Nebraska and New Orleans. Some of the players were able to play professionally again in the 1984 Women's American Basketball Association.
Teams
California Dreams (1979–80) / Nebraska Wranglers (1980–81)
Chicago Hustle (1978–81)
Dallas Diamonds (1979–81)
Dayton Rockettes (1978–79) / Washington Metros (1979–80)
Houston Angels (1978–80)
Iowa Cornets (1978–80)
Milwaukee Does (1978–80)
Minnesota Fillies (1978–81)
New England Gulls (1980–81)
New Jersey Gems (1978–81)
New Orleans Pride (1979–81)
New York Stars (1978–80)
Philadelphia Fox (1979–80)
St. Louis Streak (1979–81)
San Francisco Pioneers (1979–81)
Tampa Bay Sun (1980–81 planned expansion team, never played)
San Francisco Women's Warriors
League champions
1978–79 Houston Angels
1979–80 New York Stars
1980–81 Nebraska Wranglers
Selected notable players
Carol Blazejowski, now the General Manager for the New York Liberty
"Machine Gun" Molly Bolin, Co-MVP for the 1979–80 season
Brenda Chapman, the WBL scoring leader in the 1978–79 season
Denise "Neicy" Craig, former Dayton Rockettes player, Hall of Fame inductee of Shaw University, Hall of Fame inductee of CIAA, Hall of Fame inductee of Princeton High School Athletics, Princeton, New Jersey
Rita Easterling, MVP for the 1978–79 season
Donna Geils, now Donna Orender, former President of the WNBA
Althea Gwyn
Marie Kocurek
Nancy Lieberman, former Phoenix Mercury player, first-ever coach of the Detroit Shock, now a basketball analyst on ESPN
Muffet McGraw, former Head Coach at University of Notre Dame
Ann Meyers, top pick in the WBL draft in 1978 for the Houston Angels, WBL Co-MVP for the 1979–1980 season playing for the New Jersey Gems, now the General Manager for the Phoenix Mercury
Anita Ortega, played with the San Francisco Pioneers and a brief stint with the Minnesota Fillies. She was one of the women that decided not to play in a Fillies game due to contractual violations by the owners. She was a 1980 WBL All-Star and described as the "Dr.J" of her time because of her crafty athletic moves. She later became the highest ranking Afro-Puerto Rican in the Los Angeles Police Department.
Rhonda Rompola, now Head Coach at Southern Methodist University
Mary Jo Peppler, renowned volleyball player and coach and ABC Superstars champion who played for the New Jersey Gems in 1978-79
Susan Summons, 3rd round draft pick by the New Jersey Gems and later traded to the New England Gulls, now Head Coach at Miami Dade College
Rosie Walker, MVP for the 1980–81 season
Kaye Young, later known as Kaye Young Cowher, the late wife of American football coach Bill Cowher
Standings
1978–79 season
Eastern Division
Midwest Division
Semifinals
Houston 2–0 New York
Iowa 2–1 Chicago
Finals
Houston 3–1 Iowa
1979–80 season
Eastern Division
Midwest Division
Western Division
Philadelphia and Washington disbanded after 10 games.
Quarterfinals
San Francisco 2–1 Houston
Minnesota 2–1 New Orleans
Semifinals
Iowa 2–1 Minnesota
New York 2–0 San Francisco
Finals
New York 3–2 Iowa
New York 89–85 Iowa
New York 112–98 Iowa
Iowa 110–101 New York
Iowa 89–79 New York
New York 111–104 Iowa
1980–81 season
Coastal Division
Central Division
New England disbanded after 12 games.
Division playoffs
Dallas defeated New Jersey, 2 games to 1.
Game 1 (April 3) in West Orange, NJ: New Jersey 91, Dallas 86.
Game 2 (April 4) in Dallas: Dallas 92, New Jersey 85.
Game 3 (April 6) in Dallas: Dallas 107, New Jersey 88.
Nebraska defeated Chicago, 2 games to 0.
Game 1 (April 4) at Chicago: Nebraska 97, Chicago 75.
Game 2 (April 5) at Omaha: Nebraska 81, Chicago 61.
Finals
Nebraska defeated Dallas, 3 games to 2.
Game 1 (April 14) in Omaha: Nebraska 89, Dallas 72.
Game 2 (April 15) in Omaha: Dallas 106, Nebraska 93.
Game 3 (April 17) in Dallas: Dallas 96, Nebraska 88.
Game 4 (April 18) in Dallas: Nebraska 94, Dallas 93.
Game 5 (April 20) in Dallas: Nebraska 99, Dallas 90.
See also
American Basketball League
National Women's Basketball League
Women's American Basketball Association
Women's National Basketball Association
Timeline of women's basketball history
Scoring (film)
References
External links
WBL history with standings
Women's Professional basketball research
1978 establishments in New York City
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animatism
|
Animatism
|
Animatism is a term coined by British anthropologist Robert Marett in the context of his teleological theory of the evolution of religion. It refers to "a belief in a generalized, impersonal power over which people have some measure of control". Marett argues that certain cultures believe "people, animals, plants, and inanimate objects were endowed with certain powers, which were both impersonal and supernatural." Mana, Marett states, is a concentrated form of animatistic force found within any of these objects that confer power, strength, and success.
Animatism is a belief that inanimate, miraculous qualities exists in the natural world. It also talks about the belief that everything is infused with a life force giving each lifeless object personality or perception, but not a soul as in animism. It is a widespread belief among small-scale societies. In South Pacific regions, such as Melanesia and Polynesia, this belief comes in form of manaism, which is derived from mana
Many indigenous cultures believe in animatism. They believe that worshipping inanimate objects will drive them away from the evil forces around. These groups also believe that the inanimate objects they worship have mystical powers that are sent by God to help them on Earth.
Manaism and Animatism
Manaism is derived from the Melanesian term "mana", which refers to the supernatural force or power that can be ascribed to either inanimate objects or humans . Although Manaism focuses on the mana, or power, the people who practiced this religion believes that once the mana appears as a supernatural attribute of people and objects. This idea can be compared to animatism because both believes on the supernatural forces that are endowed on inanimate objects, which is common among the primitive forms of religions. Like animatism, manaism is a widespread belief among small societies.
See also
Animism
Religion
References
Anthropology of religion
Religious belief and doctrine
|
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] |
241792
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faenius
|
Faenius
|
Faenius is a Roman nomen, sometimes confused with Fenius.
Faenius Rufus, praetorian prefect under Nero
Lucius Faenius Eumenes, mentioned in a vadimonium (legal document) found at Puteoli
Lucius Faenius Felix, tribune in Britain mentioned several times in inscriptions.
Faenii
|
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] |
241793
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20Wilson
|
Roger Wilson
|
Roger Wilson may refer to:
Roger Wilson (ice hockey) (born 1946), Canadian/American professional ice hockey player
Roger B. Wilson (born 1948), American Democratic politician, former Governor of Missouri
Roger Wilson (actor) (born 1956), American film and TV actor
Roger Wilson (folk musician), British folk musician
Roger "Hurricane" Wilson (born 1953), American electric blues guitarist, singer and songwriter
Roger Wilson (rugby union) (born 1981), Irish rugby player
Roger Wilson (bishop) (1905–2002), Bishop of Wakefield and of Chichester
Roger Wilson (Indian Army officer) (1882–1966), Indian Army general
Roger C. Wilson (1912–1988), composer of church music
the birth name of Sophie Wilson (born 1957), British computer scientist
Roger H. Wilson (born 1937), American politician in the state of Florida
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narathiwat%20province
|
Narathiwat province
|
Narathiwat (, ) is one of the southern provinces (changwat) of Thailand. Neighboring provinces are (from west clockwise) Yala and Pattani. To the south it borders the Malaysian state of Kelantan and Perak. The southern railway line ends in this province, which is one of the nation's four provinces that border Malaysia. The province features a range of cultures as well as natural resources, and is relatively fertile. Narathiwat is about 1,140 kilometers south of Bangkok and has an area of . Seventy-five percent of the area is jungle and mountains and has a tropical climate.
Geography
Narathiwat province is on the Gulf of Thailand, on the Malay Peninsula. The Bang Nara is the main river and enters the Gulf of Thailand at the town of Narathiwat. Narathat Beach, the most popular in the province, is near the estuary.
Budo–Su-ngai Padi National Park is in the Sankalakhiri mountain range. Established in 1974, the park covers an area of , extending into neighbouring Yala and Pattani provinces. The main attraction is Pacho Waterfall. The total forest area is or 26.6 percent of provincial area.
Toponymy
The former name of Narathiwat was Menara (Jawi: ), meaning 'minaret' or 'tower' in Malay, the pre-Islamic name is unknown. This became Bang Nara () or Bang Nak () in Thai, but was changed to Narathiwat by King Rama VI in 1915. "Narathiwat", from the Sanskrit (Nara+adhivāsa), means the residence of wise people. Today, traffic signs in Malaysia still use Menara.
History
Historically, Narathiwat was the part of the semi-independent Malay Sultanate of Patani, paying tribute to the Thai kingdoms of Sukhothai and Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom. After the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, the Sultanate of Patani gained full independence but returned under Thai control during the reign of King Rama I (r. 1782–1809), 18 years later, and in the early–1800s was divided into seven smaller kingdoms.
In 1909, Narathiwat was fully integrated into Siam as part of Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 negotiated with the British Empire. Along with Yala, Narathiwat was then part of Monthon Pattani.
Demographics
Narathiwat is one of four Thai provinces (along with Yala, Pattani, and Satun) with a predominantly Muslim population; 82% are Muslim and 17.9% are Buddhist. Also 80.4% speak the Patani Malay as their first language. Narathiwat Malays are very similar in ethnicity and culture to the Malays of Kelantan, Malaysia.
In 1963, the Thai government launched the Nikhom Sang Ton Eng Pak Tai ('self-development community in the south') program to move families from Thailand's northeastern and central provinces to the Sukhirin and Chanae Districts of Narathiwat. A total of 5,633 families were relocated to Narathiwat, where each family was rewarded with 18 rai of land. In Phukhao Thong Subdistrict , most inhabitants migrated from the Northeast region. They speak Isan and are 90% Theravadin Buddhists in what is a predominantly Muslim province.
The inhabitants of Narathiwat are largely farmers and fishermen. Narathiwat is an area with various religious places of historical significance.
Symbols
The provincial seal shows a sailing boat with a white elephant on the sail. A white elephant is a royal symbol, and was put on the seal to commemorate the white elephant Phra Sri Nararat Rajakarini which was caught here and presented to the king.
The provincial symbol is the longkong fruit (Lansium parasiticum). The provincial tree is the Chengal (Neobalanocarpus heimii), and the provincial flower is the Odontadenia macrantha.
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
Narathiwat is divided into 13 districts (amphoe), which are further divided into 77 subdistricts (tambon) and 551 villages (muban).
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Narathiwat Provincial Administration Organisation () and 16 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Narathiwat, Sungai Kolok and Tak Bai have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 13 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 72 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations – SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Transportation
Air
Narathiwat Airport has a direct flight from and to Bangkok daily, operated by Air Asia, departing from Bangkok in the morning and leaving Narathiwat for Bangkok in the afternoon.
It also has Thai Smile from Narathiwat to Suvanrabhumi airport.
Rail
Although there is no direct access to Mueang Narathiwat District, Narathiwat's main railway station and nearest to Mueang District is Tanyong Mat Railway Station, on the Southern Line, in Ra-ngae District. Other major stations along the line in Narathiwat include Rueso, Su-ngai Kolok, Su-ngai Padi and Cho-airong. Distance to Narathiwat by rail is roughly 1100 kilometres from Bangkok Railway Station.
Health
Narathiwat is mostly served by public hospitals. Its main hospital is Naradhiwas Rajanagarindra Hospital and the province has one university hospital which is Galyanivadhanakarun Hospital of the Faculty of Medicine, Princess of Naradhiwas University.
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
Recent history
There has been growing violence in southern Thailand since 4 January 2004, especially in the majority Muslim provinces of Narathiwat, Yala, and Pattani. Most of the inhabitants of these provinces are ethnic Malays, though the cities are mainly Thai, Thai Chinese, and Indian. Violent mujahideen activity has happened since the 1980s, but this lessened when Thaksin Shinawatra became prime minister in 2001.
Most of the violence has been directed towards the minority Buddhist population in the province.
Religious sites
Central Mosque of Narathiwat
The important religious site for Muslims is the central mosque of Narathiwat. This mosque is on Pitchitbamrung Road, Tambon Bangnark, Amphoe Muang, about 1 kilometer from the provincial town. This mosque is the center for Thai Muslims who come to worship on Fridays. It was built in 1981 in a three-storied Arabian-style building with a high tower and a domed roof as other mosques. The tower is used to call Muslims to prayer.
Khao Kong Buddhist Park
A minority of the people in Narathiwat are Buddhist. Although a minority, there are Buddhist temples in the same amphoe as the mosque. These include Khao Kong Buddhist Park, which occupies an area of 142 rai () in Tambon Lamphu about nine kilometers from town on the Narathiwat-Rangae Road.
Phra Buddha Thaksin Ming Mongkol
The main attraction in this site is a southern Buddha image, the golden "Pra Buddha Thaksin Ming Monkol", which is seated in the lotus position and giving posture. "This mountaintop Buddha image which is considered to be the most beautiful and largest (17 meters wide and 24 meters high) outdoor Buddha image in southern Thailand is decorated in the South Indian style". It is highly respected by locals and Buddhists in the south.
Notable residents
Attachai Anantameak, actor and political activist
Naraporn Chan-o-cha, Spouse of Prime Minister of Thailand
References
External links
http://www.narathiwat.go.th/ Website of province (Thai)
Province page from the Tourist Authority of Thailand
Southern Comforts; Narathiwat Province (article in The Nation)
Provinces of Thailand
Gulf of Thailand
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlordane
|
Chlordane
|
Chlordane, or chlordan, is an organochlorine compound that was used as a pesticide. It is a white solid. In the United States, chlordane was used for termite-treatment of approximately 30 million homes until it was banned in 1988. Chlordane was banned 10 years earlier for food crops like corn and citrus, and on lawns and domestic gardens.
Like other chlorinated cyclodiene insecticides, chlordane is classified as an organic pollutant hazardous for human health. It is resistant to degradation in the environment and in humans/animals and readily accumulates in lipids (fats) of humans and animals. Exposure to the compound has been linked to cancers, diabetes, and neurological disorders.
Production, composition and uses
Technical chlordane development was by chance at Velsicol Chemical Corporation by Julius Hyman in 1948, during a search for possible uses of a by-product of synthetic rubber manufacturing. By chlorinating this by-product, persistent and potent insecticides were easily and cheaply produced. The chlorine atoms, 7 in the case of heptachlor, 8 in chlordane, and 9 in the case of nonachlor, surround and stabilize the cyclodiene ring and thus these compounds are referred to as cyclodienes. Other members of the cyclodiene family of organochlorine insecticides are aldrin and its epoxide, dieldrin, as well as endrin, which is a stereoisomer of dieldrin. Cyclodiene derives its name from hexachlorocyclopentadiene, a precursor in its production.
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene forms a Diels-Alder adduct with cyclopentadiene to give chlordene intermediate [3734-48-3]; chlorination of this adduct gives predominantly two chlordane isomers, α and β, in addition to other products such as trans-nonachlor and heptachlor. The β-isomer is popularly known as gamma and is more bioactive. The mixture that is composed of 147 components is called technical chlordane.
Chlordane appears as a white or off-white crystals when synthesized, but it was more commonly sold in various formulations as oil solutions, emulsions, sprays, dusts, and powders. These products were sold in the United States from 1948 to 1988.
Because of concern for harm to human health and to the environment, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) banned all uses of chlordane in 1983, except termite control in wooden structures (e.g. houses). After many reports of chlordane in the indoor air of treated homes, EPA banned the remaining use of chlordane in 1988. The EPA recommends that children should not drink water with more than 60 parts of chlordane per billion parts of drinking water (60 ppb) for longer than 1 day. EPA has set a limit in drinking water of 2 ppb.
Chlordane is very persistent in the environment because it does not break down easily. Tests of the air in the residence of U.S. government housing, 32 years after chlordane treatment, showed levels of chlordane and heptachlor 10-15 times the Minimal Risk Levels (20 nanograms/cubic meter of air) published by the Centers for Disease Control. It has an environmental half-life of 10 to 20 years.
Origin, pathways of exposure, and processes of excretion
In the years 1948–1988 chlordane was a common pesticide for corn and citrus crops, as well as a method of home termite control. Pathways of exposure to chlordane include ingestion of crops grown in chlordane-contaminated soil, inhalation of air in chlordane-treated homes and from landfills, and ingestion of high-fat foods such as meat, fish, and dairy, as chlordane builds up in fatty tissue. The United States Environmental Protection Agency reported that over 30 million homes were treated with technical chlordane or technical chlordane with heptachlor. Depending on the site of home treatment, the indoor air levels of chlordane can still exceed the Minimal Risks Levels (MRLs) for both cancer and chronic disease by orders of magnitude. Chlordane is excreted slowly through feces, urine elimination, and through breast milk in nursing mothers. It is able to cross the placenta and become absorbed by developing fetuses in pregnant women. A breakdown product of chlordane, the metabolite oxychlordane, accumulates in blood and adipose tissue with age.
Environmental impact
Being hydrophobic, chlordane adheres to soil particles and enters groundwater only slowly, owing to its low solubility (0.009 ppm). It requires many years to degrade. Chlordane bioaccumulates in animals. It is highly toxic to fish, with an of 0.022–0.095 mg/kg (oral).
Oxychlordane (C10H4Cl8O), the primary metabolite of chlordane, and heptachlor epoxide, the primary metabolite of heptachlor, along with the two other main components of the chlordane mixture, cis-nonachlor and trans-nonachlor, are the main bioaccumulating constituents. trans-Nonachlor is more toxic than technical chlordane and cis-nonachlor is less toxic.
Chlordane and heptachlor are known as persistent organic pollutants (POP), classified among the "dirty dozen" and banned by the 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.
Health effects
Exposure to chlordane/heptachlor and/or its metabolites (oxychlordane, heptachlor epoxide) are risk factors for type-2 diabetes, for lymphoma, for prostate cancer, for obesity, for testicular cancer, for breast cancer.
An epidemiological study conducted by the National Cancer Institute reported that higher levels of chlordane in dust on the floors of homes were associated with higher rates of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in occupants. Breathing chlordane in indoor air is the main route of exposure for these levels in human tissues. Currently, EPA has defined a concentration of 24 nanogram per cubic meter of air (ng/M3) for chlordane compounds over a 20-year exposure period as the concentration that will increase the probability of cancer by 1 in 1,000,000 persons. This probability of developing cancer increases to 10 in 1,000,000 persons with an exposure of 100 ng/m3 and 100 in 1,000,000 with an exposure of 1000 ng/m3.
The non-cancer health effects of chlordane compounds, which include diabetes, insulin resistance, migraines, respiratory infections, immune-system activation, anxiety, depression, blurry vision, confusion, intractable seizures as well as permanent neurological damage, probably affects more people than cancer. Trans-nonachlor and oxychlordane in serum of mothers during gestation has been linked with behaviors associated with autism in offspring at age 4-5. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) has defined a concentration of chlordane compounds of 20 ng/m3 as the Minimal Risk Level (MRLs). ATSDR defines Minimal Risk Level as an estimate of daily human exposure to a dose of a chemical that is likely to be without an appreciable risk of adverse non-cancerous effects over a specific duration of exposure.
Remediation
Chlordane was applied under the home/building during treatment for termites and the half-life can be up to 30 years. Chlordane has a low vapor pressure and volatilizes slowly into the air of home/building above. To remove chlordane from indoor air requires either ventilation (Heat Exchange Ventilation) or activated carbon filtration.
Chemical remediation of chlordane in soils was attempted by the US Army Corps of Engineers by mixing chlordane with aqueous lime and persulfate. In a phytoremediation study, Kentucky bluegrass and Perennial ryegrass were found to be minimally affected by chlordane, and both were found to take it up into their roots and shoots. Mycoremediation of chlordane in soil have found that contamination levels were reduced. The fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium has been found to reduce concentrations of chlordane by 21% in water in 30 days and in solids in 60 days.
References
External links
Chlordane Technical Fact Sheet - National Pesticide Information Center
Chlordane General Fact Sheet - National Pesticide Information Center
Chlordane Pesticide Information Profile - Extension Toxicology Network
ATSDR - ToxFAQs: Chlordane
CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Chlordane
Obsolete pesticides
Organochloride insecticides
IARC Group 2B carcinogens
Endocrine disruptors
Persistent organic pollutants under the Stockholm Convention
Persistent organic pollutants under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
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] |
241803
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cresol
|
Cresol
|
Cresols (also hydroxytoluene) are a group of aromatic organic compounds. They are widely-occurring phenols (sometimes called phenolics) which may be either natural or manufactured. They are also categorized as methylphenols. Cresols commonly occur as either solids or liquids because their melting points are generally close to room temperature. Like other types of phenols, they are slowly oxidized by exposure to air, and the resulting impurities often give the samples a yellow to brownish red tint. Cresols have an odor characteristic to that of other simple phenols, reminiscent to some of a "coal tar" smell. The name "cresol" is an adduct of phenol and their traditional source, creosote.
Structure and production
In its chemical structure, a molecule of cresol has a methyl group substituted onto the ring of phenol. There are three forms (isomers) of cresol: ortho-cresol (o-cresol), meta-cresol (m-cresol), and para-cresol (p-cresol). These forms occur separately or as a mixture, which can also be called cresol or more specifically, tricresol. About half of the world's supply of cresols are extracted from coal tar. The rest is produced by hydrolysis of chlorotoluenes or the related sulfonates. Another method entails methylation of phenol with methanol over a solid acid catalyst, often comprising magnesium oxide or alumina. Temperatures above 300 °C are typical. Anisole converts to cresols under these conditions.
Applications
Cresols are precursors or synthetic intermediates to other compounds and materials, including plastics, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and dyes.
For cresol bactericides or disinfectants the mechanism of action is due to the destruction of bacterial cell membranes.
Most recently, cresols have been used to create a breakthrough in manufacturing carbon nanotubes at scale that are separated and not twisted, without additional chemicals that change the surface properties of the nanotubes.
Commercial examples
Creolin, a 19th-century disinfectant.
Derivatives of p-cresol include:
Butylated hydroxytoluene, a common antioxidant
Derivatives of o-cresol include:
Indo-1, a popular calcium indicator
MCPA, (4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)acetic acid
MCPB, 4-(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)butanoic acid
Mecoprop, (RS)-2-(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)propanoic acid
the amine atomoxetine, (3R)-N-methyl-3-(2-methylphenoxy)-3-phenylpropan-1-amine
the diol mephenesin, 3-(2-methylphenoxy)propane-1,2-diol
Derivatives of m-cresol include:
Amylmetacresol, an antiseptic
Bevantolol, (RS)-[2-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)ethyl][2-hydroxy-3-(3-methylphenoxy)propyl]amine
Bromocresol green
Bupranolol, a non-selective beta blocker
Chloro-m-cresol which is used as a household disinfectant
Tolimidone, 5-(3-methylphenoxy)pyrimidin-2(1H)-one
Health effects
When cresols are inhaled, ingested, or applied to the skin, they can be very harmful. Effects observed in people include irritation and burning of skin, eyes, mouth, and throat; abdominal pain and vomiting; heart damage; anemia; liver and kidney damage; facial paralysis; coma; and death.
Breathing high levels of cresols for a short time results in irritation of the nose and throat. Aside from these effects, very little is known about the effects of breathing cresols, for example, at lower levels over longer times.
Ingesting high levels results in kidney problems, mouth and throat burns, abdominal pain, vomiting, and effects on the blood and nervous system.
Skin contact with high levels of cresols can burn the skin and damage the kidneys, liver, blood, brain, and lungs.
Short-term and long-term studies with animals have shown similar effects from exposure to cresols. No human or animal studies have shown harmful effects from cresols on reproduction.
It is not known what the effects are from long-term ingestion or skin contact with low levels of cresols.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set a permissible exposure limit at 5 ppm (22 mg/m3) over an eight-hour time-weighted average, while the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recommends a limit of 2.3 ppm (10 mg/m3).
See also
Dihydroxytoluene
Trihydroxytoluene
References
Antiseptics
Hazardous air pollutants
C
|
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] |
241806
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1%2C2-Dibromoethane
|
1,2-Dibromoethane
|
1,2-Dibromoethane, also known as ethylene dibromide (EDB), is an organobromine compound with the chemical formula . Although trace amounts occur naturally in the ocean, where it is formed probably by algae and kelp, it is mainly synthetic. It is a dense colorless liquid with a faint sweet odor, detectable at 10 ppm, is a widely used and sometimes-controversial fumigant. The combustion of 1,2-dibromoethane produces hydrogen bromide gas that is significantly corrosive.
Preparation and use
It is produced by the reaction of ethylene gas with bromine, in a classic halogen addition reaction:
CH=CH + Br → BrCH–CHBr
Historically, 1,2-dibromoethane was used as a component in anti-knock additives in leaded fuels. It reacts with lead residues to generate volatile lead bromides, thereby preventing fouling of the engine with lead deposits.
Pesticide
It has been used as a pesticide in soil and on various crops. The applications were initiated after the forced retirement of 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP). Most of these uses have been stopped in the U.S. It continues to be used as a fumigant for treatment of logs for termites and beetles, for control of moths in beehives.
Reagent
1,2-Dibromoethane has wider applications in the preparation of other organic compounds including those carrying modified diazocine rings and vinyl bromide that is a precursor to some fire retardants.
In organic synthesis, 1,2-dibromoethane is used as a source of bromine to brominate carbanions and to activate magnesium for certain Grignard reagents. In the latter process, 1,2-dibromoethane reacts with magnesium, producing ethene and magnesium bromide, and exposes a freshly etched portion of magnesium to the substrate.
Health effects
1,2-Dibromoethane causes changes in the metabolism and severe destruction of living tissues. The known empirical LD50 values for 1,2-dibromoethane are 140 mg kg−1 (oral, rat), and 300.0 mg kg−1 (dermal, rabbit). 1,2-Dibromoethane is a known carcinogen, with pre-1977 exposure levels ranking it as the most carcinogenic substance on the HERP Index.
The effects on people of breathing high levels are not known, but animal studies with short-term exposures to high levels caused depression and collapse, indicating effects on the brain. Changes in the brain and behavior were also seen in young rats whose male parents had breathed 1,2-dibromoethane, and birth defects were observed in the young of animals that were exposed while pregnant. 1,2-Dibromoethane is not known to cause birth defects in humans. Swallowing has caused death at 40ml doses.
References
External links
National Pollutant Inventory 1,2-Dibromoethane Fact Sheet
Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Ethylene Dibromide
ATSDR ToxFAQs
CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Endocrine disruptors
Insecticides
Bromoalkanes
Fumigants
Flame retardants
Hazardous air pollutants
Fuel additives
IARC Group 2A carcinogens
Sweet-smelling chemicals
|
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6528744
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral%20district%20of%20Burnett
|
Electoral district of Burnett
|
Burnett is an electoral division of the Legislative Assembly of Queensland in central Queensland, Australia.
It covers most of the coastal region south of Gladstone, as well as coastal and inland regions completely surrounding the district of Bundaberg. Towns within its boundaries include Miriam Vale, Agnes Water, Rosedale, Bargara, Woodgate and Childers. The Burnett River flows through the electoral district, hence its name.
Members for Burnett
Election results
References
Waterson, Duncan Bruce: Biographical Register of the Queensland Parliament 1860–1929 (second edition), Sydney 2001.
Waterson, Duncan Bruce: Biographical register of the Queensland Parliament 1930–1980 w.an outline of Queensland electorates 1859–1980 / D.B. Waterson and John Arnold
External links
Electorate Profile (Antony Green, ABC)
Burnett
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] |
241809
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon%20disulfide
|
Carbon disulfide
|
Carbon disulfide, also spelled as carbon disulphide, is a neurotoxic colorless volatile liquid with the formula CS2. The compound is used frequently as a building block in organic chemistry as well as an industrial and chemical non-polar solvent. It has an "ether-like" odor, but commercial samples are typically contaminated with foul-smelling impurities.
Occurrence, manufacture, properties
Small amounts of carbon disulfide are released by volcanic eruptions and marshes. CS2 once was manufactured by combining carbon (or coke) and sulfur at high temperatures.
C + 2S → CS2
A lower-temperature reaction, requiring only 600 °C, utilizes natural gas as the carbon source in the presence of silica gel or alumina catalysts:
2 CH4 + S8 → 2 CS2 + 4 H2S
The reaction is analogous to the combustion of methane.
Global production/consumption of carbon disulfide is approximately one million tonnes, with China consuming 49%, followed by India at 13%, mostly for the production of rayon fiber. United States production in 2007 was 56,000 tonnes.
Solvent
Carbon disulfide is a solvent for phosphorus, sulfur, selenium, bromine, iodine, fats, resins, rubber, and asphalt. It has been used in the purification of single-walled carbon nanotubes.
Reactions
CS2 is highly flammable. Its combustion affords sulfur dioxide according to this ideal stoichiometry:
CS2 + 3O2 → CO2 + 2SO2
With nucleophiles
Compared to the isoelectronic carbon dioxide, CS2 is a weaker electrophile. While, however, reactions of nucleophiles with CO2 are highly reversible and products are only isolated with very strong nucleophiles, the reactions with CS2 are thermodynamically more favored allowing the formation of products with less reactive nucleophiles. For example, amines afford dithiocarbamates:
2R2NH + CS2 → [R2NH2+][R2NCS2−]
Xanthates form similarly from alkoxides:
RONa + CS2 → [Na+][ROCS2−]
This reaction is the basis of the manufacture of regenerated cellulose, the main ingredient of viscose, rayon and cellophane. Both xanthates and the related thioxanthates (derived from treatment of CS2 with sodium thiolates) are used as flotation agents in mineral processing.
Sodium sulfide affords trithiocarbonate:
Na2S + CS2 → [Na+]2[CS32−]
Carbon disulfide does not hydrolyze readily, although the process is catalyzed by an enzyme carbon disulfide hydrolase.
Reduction
Reduction of carbon disulfide with sodium affords sodium 1,3-dithiole-2-thione-4,5-dithiolate together with sodium trithiocarbonate:
4Na + 4CS2 → Na2C3S5 + Na2CS3
Chlorination
Chlorination of CS2 provides a route to carbon tetrachloride:
CS2 + 3 Cl2 → CCl4 + S2Cl2
This conversion proceeds via the intermediacy of thiophosgene, CSCl2.
Coordination chemistry
CS2 is a ligand for many metal complexes, forming pi complexes. One example is CpCo(η2-CS2)(PMe3).
Polymerization
CS2 polymerizes upon photolysis or under high pressure to give an insoluble material called car-sul or "Bridgman's black", named after the discoverer of the polymer, Percy Williams Bridgman. Trithiocarbonate (-S-C(S)-S-) linkages comprise, in part, the backbone of the polymer, which is a semiconductor.
Uses
The principal industrial uses of carbon disulfide, consuming 75% of the annual production, are the manufacture of viscose rayon and cellophane film.
It is also a valued intermediate in chemical synthesis of carbon tetrachloride. It is widely used in the synthesis of organosulfur compounds such as metam sodium, xanthates and dithiocarbamates, which are used in extractive metallurgy and rubber chemistry.
Niche uses
It can be used in fumigation of airtight storage warehouses, airtight flat storages, bins, grain elevators, railroad box cars, shipholds, barges and cereal mills. Carbon disulfide is also used as an insecticide for the fumigation of grains, nursery stock, in fresh fruit conservation and as a soil disinfectant against insects and nematodes.
Health effects
Carbon disulfide has been linked to both acute and chronic forms of poisoning, with a diverse range of symptoms.
Concentrations of 500–3000 mg/m3 cause acute and subacute poisoning cause a set of mostly neurological and psychiatric symptoms, called encephalopathia sulfocarbonica. Symptoms include acute psychosis (manic delirium, hallucinations), paranoic ideas, loss of appetite, gastrointestinal and sexual disorders, polyneuritis, myopathy, and mood changes (including irritability and anger). Effects observed at lower concentrations include neurological problems (encephalopathy, psychomotor and psychological disturbances, polyneuritis, abnormalities in nerve conduction), vision problems (burning eyes, abnormal light reactions, increased ophthalmic pressure), heart problems (increased deaths for heart disease, angina pectoris, high blood pressure), and reproductive problems (increased miscarriages, immobile or deformed sperm), and decreased immune response.
Occupational exposure to carbon disulfide is also associated with cardiovascular disease, particularly stroke.
In 2000, the WHO believed that health harms were unlikely at levels below 100 μg/m3, and set this as a guideline level. Carbon sulfide can be smelled at levels above 200 μg/m3, and the WHO recommended a sensory guideline of below 20 μg/m3. Exposure to carbon disulfide is well-established to be harmful to health in concentrations at or above 30 mg/m3 Changes in the function of the central nervous system have been observed at concentrations of 20–25 mg/m3. There are also reports of harms to health at 10 mg/m3, for exposures of 10–15 years, but the lack of good data on past exposure levels make the association of these harms with concentrations of 10 mg/m3 findings uncertain. The measured concentration of 10 mg/m3 may be equivalent to a concentration in the general environment of 1 mg/m3.
Environmental sources
The primary source of carbon disulfide in the environment is rayon factories. Most global carbon disulfide emissions come from rayon production, as of 2008. Other sources include the production of cellophane, carbon tetrachloride, carbon black, and sulfur recovery. Carbon disulfide production also emits carbon disulfide.
, about 250 g of carbon disufide is emitted per kilogram of rayon produced. About 30 g of carbon disufide is emitted per kilogram of carbon black produced. About 0.341 g of carbon disufide is emitted per kilogram of sulfur recovered.
Japan has reduced carbon disulfide emissions per kilogram of rayon produced, but in other rayon-producing countries, including China, emissions are assumed to be uncontrolled (based on global modelling and large-scale free-air concentration measurements). Rayon production is steady or decreasing except in China, where it is increasing, . Carbon black production in Japan and Korea uses incinerators to destroy about 99% of the carbon disulfide that would otherwise be emitted. When used as a solvent, Japanese emissions are about 40% of the carbon disulfide used; elsewhere, the average is about 80%.
Most rayon production uses carbon sulfide. One exception is rayon made using the lyocell process, which uses a different solvent; the lyocell process is not widely used, because it is more expensive than the viscose process. Cupro rayon also does not use carbon disulfide.
Historic and current exposure
Industrial workers working with carbon disulfide are at high risk. Emissions may also harm the health of people living near rayon plants.
Concerns about carbon disulfide exposure have a long history. Around 1900, carbon disulfide came to be widely used in the production of vulcanized rubber. The psychosis produced by high exposures was immediately apparent (it has been reported with 6 months of exposure). Sir Thomas Oliver told a story about a rubber factory that put bars on its windows so that the workers would not jump out to their deaths. Carbon disulfide's use in the US as a heavier-than-air burrow poison for Richardson's ground squirrel also lead to reports of psychosis. No systematic medical study of the issue was published, and knowledge was not transferred to the rayon industry.
The first large epidemiological study of rayon workers was done in the US in the late 1930s, and found fairly severe effects in 30% of the workers. Data on increased risks of heart attacks and strokes came out in the 1960s. Courtaulds, a major rayon manufacturer, worked hard to prevent publication of this data in the UK. Average concentrations in sampled rayon plants were reduced from about 250 mg/m3 in 1955-1965 to about 20–30 mg/m3 in the 1980s (US figures only?). Rayon production has since largely moved to the developing world, especially China, Indonesia and India.
Rates of disability in modern factories are unknown, . Current manufacturers using the viscose process do not provide any information on harm to their workers.
History
In 1796, the German chemist Wilhelm August Lampadius (1772–1842) first prepared carbon disulfide by heating pyrite with moist charcoal. He called it "liquid sulfur" (flüssig Schwefel). The composition of carbon disulfide was finally determined in 1813 by the team of the Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779–1848) and the Swiss-British chemist Alexander Marcet (1770–1822). Their analysis was consistent with an empirical formula of CS2.
See also
Carbon monosulfide
Carbon subsulfide
Carbon diselenide
1949 Holland Tunnel fire, accident with truck carrying carbon disulfide.
References
External links
Australian National Pollutant Inventory: Carbon disulfide
CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Carbon Disulfide
Inno Motion Engineering
Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry Public Health Statement for Carbon Disulfide, 1996.
Resources on Carbon Disulfide by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Sulfides
Inorganic carbon compounds
Inorganic sulfur compounds
Inorganic solvents
Hazardous air pollutants
Neurotoxins
Dichalcogenides
Occupational safety and health
Foul-smelling chemicals
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diborane
|
Diborane
|
Diborane(6), generally known as diborane, is the chemical compound consisting of boron and hydrogen with the formula B2H6. It is a colorless, pyrophoric gas with a repulsively sweet odor. Synonyms include boroethane, boron hydride, and diboron hexahydride. Diborane is a key boron compound with a variety of applications. It has attracted wide attention for its electronic structure. Its derivatives are useful reagents.
Structure and bonding
The structure of diborane has D2h symmetry. Four hydrides are terminal, while two bridge between the boron centers. The lengths of the B–Hbridge bonds and the B–Hterminal bonds are 1.33 and 1.19 Å respectively. This difference in bond lengths reflects the difference in their strengths, the B–Hbridge bonds being relatively weaker. The weakness of the B–Hbridge compared to B–Hterminal bonds is indicated by their vibrational signatures in the infrared spectrum, being ≈2100 and 2500 cm−1 respectively.
The model determined by molecular orbital theory describes the bonds between boron and the terminal hydrogen atoms as conventional 2-center 2-electron covalent bonds. The bonding between the boron atoms and the bridging hydrogen atoms is, however, different from that in molecules such as hydrocarbons. Each boron uses two electrons in bonding to the terminal hydrogen atoms and has one valence electron remaining for additional bonding. The bridging hydrogen atoms provide one electron each. The B2H2 ring is held together by four electrons forming two 3-center 2-electron bonds. This type of bond is sometimes called a "banana bond".
B2H6 is isoelectronic with C2H62+, which would arise from the diprotonation of the planar molecule ethylene. Diborane is one of many compounds with such unusual bonding.
Of the other elements in group IIIA, gallium is known to form a similar compound digallane, Ga2H6. Aluminium forms a polymeric hydride, (AlH3)n; although unstable, Al2H6 has been isolated in solid hydrogen and is isostructural with diborane.
Production and synthesis
Extensive studies of diborane have led to the development of multiple syntheses. Most preparations entail reactions of hydride donors with boron halides or alkoxides. The industrial synthesis of diborane involves the reduction of BF3 by sodium hydride, lithium hydride or lithium aluminium hydride:
8 BF3 + 6 LiH → B2H6 + 6 LiBF4
Two laboratory methods start from boron trichloride with lithium aluminium hydride or from boron trifluoride ether solution with sodium borohydride. Both methods result in as much as 30% yield:
4 BCl3 + 3 LiAlH4 → 2 B2H6 + 3 LiAlCl4
4 BF3 + 3 NaBH4 → 2 B2H6 + 3 NaBF4
Older methods entail the direct reaction of borohydride salts with a non-oxidizing acid, such as phosphoric acid or dilute sulfuric acid.
2 BH4− + 2 H+ → 2 H2 + B2H6
Similarly, oxidation of borohydride salts has been demonstrated and remains convenient for small-scale preparations. For example, using iodine as an oxidizer:
2 + → 2 NaI + +
Another small-scale synthesis uses potassium hydroborate and phosphoric acid as starting materials.
Reactions
Diborane is a highly reactive and versatile reagent.
Air, water, oxygen
As a pyrophoric substance, diborane reacts exothermically with oxygen to form boron trioxide and water:
2 B2H6 + 6 O2 → 2 B2O3 + 6 H2O (ΔHr = −2035 kJ/mol = −73.47 kJ/g)
Diborane reacts violently with water to form hydrogen and boric acid:
B2H6 + 6 H2O → 2 B(OH)3 + 6 H2 (ΔHr = −466 kJ/mol = −16.82 kJ/g)
Diborane also reacts with alcohols similarly. Methanol for example give hydrogen and trimethylborate:
B2H6 + 6 MeOH → 2 B(OMe)3 + 6 H2
Lewis acidity
One dominating reaction pattern involves formation of adducts with Lewis bases. Often such initial adducts proceed rapidly to give other products. For example, borane-tetrahydrofuran, which often behaves as an equivalently to diborane, degrades to borate esters. Its adduct with dimethyl sulfide is an important reagent in organic synthesis.
With ammonia diborane to form the diammoniate of diborane, DADB, with lesser quantities of ammonia borane, depending on the conditions.
Hydroboration
In the hydroboration reaction, diborane also reacts readily with alkenes to form trialkylboranes. This reaction pattern is rather general and the resulting alkyl borates can be readily derivatized, e.g. to alcohols. Although early work on hydroboration relied on diborane, it has been replaced by borane dimethylsulfide, which is more safely handled.
Other
Pyrolysis of diborane gives hydrogen and diverse boron hydride clusters. For example, pentaborane was first prepared by pyrolysis of diborane at about 200 °C. Although this pyrolysis route is rarely employed, it ushered in a large research theme of borane cluster chemistry.
Treating diborane with sodium amalgam gives NaBH4 and Na[B3H8]
When diborane is treated with lithium hydride in diethyl ether, lithium borohydride is formed:
B2H6 + 2 LiH → 2 LiBH4
Diborane reacts with anhydrous hydrogen chloride or hydrogen bromide gas to give a boron halohydride:
B2H6 + HX → B2H5X + H2 (X = Cl, Br)
Treating diborane with carbon monoxide at 470 K and 20 bar gives H3BCO.
Reagent in organic synthesis
Diborane and its variants are central organic synthesis reagents for hydroboration. Alkenes add across the B–H bonds to give trialkylboranes, which can be further elaborated. Diborane is used as a reducing agent roughly complementary to the reactivity of lithium aluminium hydride. The compound readily reduces carboxylic acids to the corresponding alcohols, whereas ketones react only sluggishly.
History
Diborane was first synthesised in the 19th century by hydrolysis of metal borides, but it was never analysed. From 1912 to 1936, Alfred Stock, the major pioneer in the chemistry of boron hydrides, undertook his research that led to the methods for the synthesis and handling of the highly reactive, volatile, and often toxic boron hydrides. He proposed the first ethane-like structure of diborane. Electron diffraction measurements by S. H. Bauer initially appeared to support his proposed structure.
Because of a personal communication with L. Pauling (who supported the ethane-like structure), H. I. Schlessinger and A. B. Burg did not specifically discuss 3-center 2-electron bonding in their then classic review in the early 1940s. The review does, however, discuss the bridged D2h structure in some depth: "It is to be recognized that this formulation easily accounts for many of the chemical properties of diborane..."
In 1943, H. Christopher Longuet-Higgins, while still an undergraduate at Oxford, was the first to explain the structure and bonding of the boron hydrides. The article reporting the work, written with his tutor R. P. Bell, also reviews the history of the subject beginning with the work of Dilthey. Shortly afterwards, the theoretical work of Longuet-Higgins was confirmed in an infrared study of diborane by Price.
The structure was re-confirmed by electron-diffraction measurement in 1951 by K. Hedberg and V. Schomaker, with the confirmation of the structure shown in the schemes on this page.
William Nunn Lipscomb Jr. further confirmed the molecular structure of boranes using X-ray crystallography in the 1950s and developed theories to explain their bonding. Later, he applied the same methods to related problems, including the structure of carboranes, on which he directed the research of future 1981 Nobel Prize winner Roald Hoffmann. The 1976 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Lipscomb "for his studies on the structure of boranes illuminating problems of chemical bonding".
Traditionally, diborane has often been described as electron-deficient, because the 12 valence electrons can only form 6 conventional 2-centre 2-electron bonds, which are insufficient to join all 8 atoms. However, the more correct description using 3-centre bonds shows that diborane is really electron-precise, since there are just enough valence electrons to fill the 6 bonding molecular orbitals. Nevertheless, some leading textbooks still use the term "electron-deficient".
Other uses
Because of the exothermicity of its reaction with oxygen, diborane has been tested as a rocket propellant. Complete combustion is strongly exothermic. However, combustion is not complete in the rocket engine, as some boron monoxide, B2O, is produced. This conversion mirrors the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons, to produce carbon monoxide (CO). Diborane also proved difficult to handle.
Diborane has been investigated as a precursor to metal boride films and for the p-doping of silicon semiconductors.
Safety
Diborane is pyrophoric gas. Commercially available adducts are typically used instead, at least for applications in organic chemistry. These adducts include borane-tetrahydrofuran (borane-THF) and borane-dimethylsulfide.
The toxic effects of diborane are mitigated because the compound is so unstable in air. The toxicity toward laboratory rats has been investigated.
References
Cited sources
Yerazunis, S., et al. “Solubility of Diborane in the Dimethyl Ether and Diethylene Glycol, in Mixtures of Sodium Borohydride and Dimethyl Ether of Diethylene Glycol, and in Ditertiary Butyl Sulfide.” Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data, vol. 7, no. 3, July 1962, pp. 337–39, doi:10.1021/je60014a004.
External links
International Chemical Safety Card 0432
National Pollutant Inventory – Boron and compounds
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
U.S. EPA Acute Exposure Guideline Levels
Boranes
Rocket fuels
Reducing agents
Industrial gases
Sweet-smelling chemicals
|
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] |
241812
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic%20fluid
|
Hydraulic fluid
|
A hydraulic fluid or hydraulic liquid is the medium by which power is transferred in hydraulic machinery. Common hydraulic fluids are based on mineral oil or water. Examples of equipment that might use hydraulic fluids are excavators and backhoes, hydraulic brakes, power steering systems, automatic transmissions, garbage trucks, aircraft flight control systems, lifts, and industrial machinery.
Hydraulic systems like the ones mentioned above will work most efficiently if the hydraulic fluid used has zero compressibility.
Functions and properties
The primary function of a hydraulic fluid is to convey power. In use, however, there are other important functions of hydraulic fluid such as protection of the hydraulic machine components. The table below lists the major functions of a hydraulic fluid and the properties of a fluid that affect its ability to perform that function:
Composition
Base stock
The original hydraulics fluid, dating back to the time of ancient Egypt, was water. Beginning in the 1920s, mineral oil began to be used more than water as a base stock due to its inherent lubrication properties and ability to be used at temperatures above the boiling point of water. Today most hydraulic fluids are based on mineral oil base stocks.
Natural oils such as rapeseed (also called canola oil) are used as base stocks for fluids where biodegradability and renewable sources are considered important.
Other base stocks are used for specialty applications, such as for fire resistance and extreme temperature applications. Some examples include: glycol ethers, organophosphate ester, polyalphaolefin, propylene glycol, and silicone oils.
NaK-77, a eutectic alloy of sodium and potassium, can be used as a hydraulic fluid in high-temperature and high-radiation environments, for temperature ranges of 10 to 1400 °F (-12 to 760 °C). Its bulk modulus at 1000 °F (538 °C) is 310,000 psi (2.14 GPa), higher than of a hydraulic oil at room temperature. Its lubricity is poor, so positive-displacement pumps are unsuitable and centrifugal pumps have to be used. Addition of caesium shifts the useful temperature range to -95 to 1300 °F (−70 to 704 °C). The NaK-77 alloy was tested in hydraulic and fluidic systems for the Supersonic Low Altitude Missile.
Other components
Hydraulic fluids can contain a wide range of chemical compounds, including: oils, butanol, esters (e.g. phthalates, like DEHP, and adipates, like bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate), polyalkylene glycols (PAG), organophosphate (e.g. tributylphosphate), silicones, alkylated aromatic hydrocarbons, polyalphaolefins (PAO) (e.g. polyisobutenes), corrosion inhibitors (incl acid scavengers), anti-erosion additives, etc.
Biodegradable hydraulic fluids
Environmentally sensitive applications (e.g. farm tractors and marine dredging) may benefit from using biodegradable hydraulic fluids based upon rapeseed (Canola) vegetable oil when there is the risk of an oil spill from a ruptured oil line. Typically these oils are available as ISO 32, ISO 46, and ISO 68 specification oils. ASTM standards ASTM-D-6006, Guide for Assessing Biodegradability of Hydraulic Fluids and ASTM-D-6046, Standard Classification of Hydraulic Fluids for Environmental Impact are relevant.
Anti-wear hydraulic fluids
Anti-wear (AW) hydraulic oils are made from a petroleum base fluid and commonly contain the anti-wear additive Zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP). This additive works to protect the hydraulic pump. They come in multiple viscosity grades that have varying applications. For example, AW 46 hydraulic oils can be used to operate the hydraulic systems in off-road equipment such as dump trucks, excavators, and backhoes, while AW 32 hydraulic oils may be more suitable for colder weather applications like in a snow plow's pump.
Safety
Because industrial hydraulic systems operate at hundreds to thousands of PSI and temperatures reaching hundreds of degrees Celsius, severe injuries and death can result from component failures and care must always be taken when performing maintenance on hydraulic systems.
Fire resistance is a property available with specialized fluids. Water-glycol and polyol-ester are some of these specialized fluids that contain excellent thermal and hydrolitic properties, which aid in fire resistance.
Uses
Brake fluid
Brake fluid is a subtype of hydraulic fluid with high boiling point, both when new (specified by the equilibrium boiling point) and after absorption of water vapor (specified by wet boiling point). Under the heat of braking, both free water and water vapor in a braking system can boil into a compressible vapor, resulting in brake failure. Glycol-ether based fluids are hygroscopic, and absorbed moisture will greatly reduce the boiling point over time. Mineral oil and silicone based fluids are not hygroscopic.
Power steering fluid
Power steering fluid is a sub type of hydraulic fluid. Most are mineral oil or silicone based fluids, while some use automatic transmission fluid, made from synthetic base oil. Automatic transmissions use fluids for their lubrication, cooling and hydraulic properties for viscous couplings.
Use of the wrong type of fluid can lead to failure of the power steering pump.
Aircraft hydraulic systems
As aircraft performance increased in the mid-20th century, the amount of force required to operate mechanical flight controls became excessive, and hydraulic systems were introduced to reduce pilot effort. The hydraulic actuators are controlled by valves; these in turn are operated directly by input from the aircrew (hydro-mechanical) or by computers obeying control laws (fly by wire).
Hydraulic power is used for other purposes. It can be stored in accumulators to start an auxiliary power unit (APU) for self-starting the aircraft's main engines. Many aircraft equipped with the M61 family of cannon use hydraulic power to drive the gun system, permitting reliable high rates of fire.
The hydraulic power itself comes from pumps driven by the engines directly, or by electrically-driven pumps. In modern commercial aircraft these are electrically-driven pumps; should all the engines fail in flight the pilot will deploy a propeller-driven electric generator called a Ram-Air Turbine (RAT) which is concealed under the fuselage. This provides electrical power for the hydraulic pumps and control systems as power is no longer available from the engines. In that system and others, electric pumps can provide both redundancy and the means of operating hydraulic systems without the engines operating, which can be very useful during maintenance.
Specifications
Mineral oil base:
Mil-PRF-5606 (originally Mil-H-5606): Mineral base, flammable, fairly low flashpoint, usable from to , red color, developed in the 1940s
MIL-PRF-6083: Usable from −54 °C to 135 °C "where corrosion protection is required and a determination has been made that MIL-PRF-46170 (FRH) hydraulic fluid cannot be used. This includes use in recoil mechanisms and hydraulic systems for rotating weapons or aiming devices of tactical and support ordnance equipment, except combat armored vehicles/equipment which require FRH. The hydraulic fluid is also used as a preservative fluid for aircraft hydraulic systems and components where MIL-H-5606 (OHA) or MIL-PRF-87257 is used as an operational fluid."
Synthetic hydrocarbon base:
These synthetic fluids are compatible with mineral-base hydraulic fluids and were developed to address the low flash point draw back of mineral based hydraulic fluids.
Mil-H-83282: Synthetic hydrocarbon base, higher flashpoint, self-extinguishing, backward compatible to -5606, red color, rated to degrees.
Mil-H-87257: A development of -83282 fluid to improve its low temperature viscosity.
Phosphate-ester base:
US/NATO Military specification - MIL-H-8446
Boeing Seattle - BMS3-11
Boeing Long Beach - DMS2014
Boeing Long Island - CDS5478
Lockheed - LAC C-34-1224
Airbus Industrie - NSA307110
British Aerospace - BAC M.333.B
Bombardier - BAMS 564-003
SAE - Ac974
SAE - AS1241
Skydrol
Contamination
Special, stringent care is required when handling aircraft hydraulic fluid as it is critical to flight safety that it stay free from contamination. It is also necessary to strictly adhere to authorized references when servicing or repairing any aircraft system. Samples from aircraft hydraulic systems are taken during heavy aircraft maintenance checks (primarily C and D checks) to check contamination.
Military Spec 1246C is one fluid contamination specification.
The ISO fluid contamination scale assigns a contamination category based on particle size count and distribution.
Other uses
The properties of HLP 32 hydraulic oil make it ideal for lubricating machine tools.
See also
Dexron
Hydraulic brake
Hydraulic fuse
Hydraulics International, INC.
Hydropneumatic suspension - automobile application
Oleo strut - aircraft application
Osmosis
Skydrol
References
External links
Information and purchase of military specification (mil-spec) hydraulic fluid
Information about Fluid Power is also available on the National Fluid Power Association web-site nfpa.com
USDA Research. Biodegradable Plant-Based Hydraulic Fluid
Biodegradable Hydraulic Oils
Industrial Hydraulic Oils
Aviation hydraulic fluids
Fluid dynamics
Gear oils
Hydraulics
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimbote
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Chimbote
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Chimbote ; ) is the largest city in the Ancash Region of Peru, and the capital of both Santa Province and Chimbote District.
The city is located on the coast in Ferrol Bay, 130 km south of Trujillo and north of Lima on the North Pan-American highway. It is the start of a chain of important cities on the Peruvian north coast like Trujillo, Chiclayo and Piura. The advantages of this geographic location made Chimbote into a transshipment junction for the Santa River valley.
History
In 1835, when General Santa Cruz granted Chimbote's first official acknowledgement, Chimbote was a village of fishermen with a population of no more than 800.
In 1871, an agreement was made with Henry Meiggs to build a railroad towards the interior of the country. Chimbote was classified as a port, even though its population remained around 1,000. The opening of the Pan-American Highway created easy access to Lima in the 1930s. In 1881, there was an attempt to cede a naval base to the U.S. in Chimbote Bay by Peru. The deal was blocked by Chile who sent its marines to occupy Chimbote after learning of the deal to cede a naval base to the U.S. Navy.
In 1940, Chimbote was still a small fishing port, with only 2,400 inhabitants in an urbanized area of . In 1943, the government created the Corporación Peruana del Santa (Peruvian Corporation of Santa). This entity assumed ownership of the railroad, made improvements to the port, and began work on a hydroelectric power station on the Río Santa (in the Cañón del Pato [Duck Canyon] in Huallanca). The first stage of the power station was inaugurated in 1958; also that year, an iron and steel plant was built. By 1943, the first companies dedicated to the extraction of liver from the Pacific bonito fish arrived. This liver was sold for a high price abroad due to World War II.
Geography
Climate
Chimbote's climate is comfortable, despite being located in the tropics and in a desert. Although classified as subtropical, Chimbote's proximity to the cool Humboldt current leads to temperatures much cooler than those expected for a tropical desert, and is classified as a desert climate. On average, the warmest month is February with temperatures a little over . September is considered the average coolest month, at around . The annual average temperature is around 20 °C (68 °F).
The city gets little to no precipitation; however, thick fog predominates through the months of May to November, usually overnight. Rainfall usually comes in February.
Population
A large number of people migrated to Chimbote in the early 1970s. By that time, less than 5 percent of the people from Chimbote would truly consider themselves native; between 1960 and 1970, Chimbote's population multiplied by more than a hundred times. In 1900, the population of the port was 1,400; after 1970, it was 170,000. As of 2005, its population was 324,398.
The influx of residents was closely bound to the creation of the Corporación Peruana del Santa, to the start and development of the fishing industry, and to the establishment of the iron and steel plant ("Siderperu"). Together, these multiplied the commercial and productive activities of the port. At the beginning of 1996, as Peruvian public companies were privatized, the Peruvian-Brazilian company Acerco bought Siderperu.
Districts and neighborhoods
The city of Chimbote, being a district itself, comprises 7 more districts: Santa, Coishco, Samanco, Nepeña, Macate, Moro, Cáceres del Perú, and Nuevo Chimbote. The neighborhoods of El Barrio de Acero, Barrio Bolivar, El Progreso, Miraflores Alto and Miraflores Bajo surround Chimbote.
Economy
During the 1970s, the El Niño climate pattern, an earthquake, and overfishing drastically affected the fishing industry, and restrictions were imposed to ensure its survival. More than 75 percent of Peru's fishing industry is based in Chimbote.
Chimbote is the largest fishing port in the world. Chimbote has more than 30 fish factories. Chimbote's active commerce and its diversified industrial development are characteristic of the city. Its population includes workers who have experience in fishing, naval, canning, and the iron-and-steel industry with the company SIDERPERU.
Chimbote also has beaches that support tourism.
Peruvian anchoveta "boom"
Shortly after the fish canning industry declined, the industrialization of anchoveta fishing peaked. This attracted people from all over Peru, due to the high wages paid in the fishing industry at the time, fueling Chimbote's suburban growth. The strong migratory wave toward the city increased because of the serious crisis of the countryside in the 1960s, particularly in Ancash, Cajamarca and the northern part of La Libertad Region. The axis of development moved from the Pima cotton, sugarcane, and rice plantations to the large city. In addition, Chimbote was a natural exit channel for the exports of the Santa valley, and a starting point for the entry to the Callejón de Huaylas.
The Peruvian anchoveta boom created wealth in the city, but it soon ended due to indiscriminate fishing that overwhelmed the bio-mass. An earthquake in 1970 damaged to the facilities of the fishing industries, causing unemployment and impoverishment. During this period, the Diocese of Chimbote created the Social Welfare Commission, to organize diverse popular dining places in conjunction with UNICEF. Since the 1960s, the Roman Catholic Diocese of Pittsburgh has served the poor at the Chimbote Mission, raising funds through the Chimbote Foundation.
Tourism
Chimbote is surrounded by two natural bays, the Bay of Chimbote (or Ferrol) and the Bay of Samanco, both with excellent harbor conditions. Chimbote forms a conurbation with Nuevo Chimbote District to the south. Between these districts, the Humedales de Villa María, a swamp, is home to a local species of heron, along with many species of frogs and fish. The swamp is formed by the Lacramarca River.
To the south of the city, there are many beaches, such as Vesique, Los Chimús, Tortugas, Caleta Colorada and el Dorado. Also located near Chimbote is the Isla Blanca (white isle, in English), which takes its name from the white color of the ground. Isla Blanca measures approximately in length and in width, and reaches above sea level.
Located next to the city is the Cerro de la Juventud (Mountain of Youth), also called Cerro de la Paz (Mountain of Peace). Since 1985, this tourist attraction attracts hundreds annually. Visitors appreciate a panoramic view of Chimbote's bay from the top of this mountain. Tourists can also visit Isla Blanca Boulevard, which has many beautiful marble sculptures and fountains.
From Chimbote, some short tourist circuits can be taken:
Chimbote - Casma - Sechín - Yaután
Chimbote - Nepeña - San Jacinto - Moro -Jimbe
Chimbote - Santa - Huallanca
The city is known for its ceviche, a popular Peruvian dish whose ingredients include white fish, octopus, seashell, squid, crab, and red hot pepper.
Festivals
Chimbote has two important celebrations during the year: Holy Week and The Festivity of San Pedrito of Chimbote (also called Chimbote's Civic Anniversary).
Patronal feast of San Pedrito, this festival has its origins in the 16th century with the first fishermen who populated Chimbote coming from Huanchaco. It is held from 23 to 30 June in devotion to the patron saint of fishermen San Pedro. The central feast day is on 29 June, the image of the saint is taken out in procession and It is paraded through the bay by boat.
Education
The Academia Preuniversitaria "Perpetuo Socorro" and the Catholic University Los Angeles of Chimbote are located in Chimbote.
Transportation
The Chimbote-Huallanca rail line, built in 1922, serves as a railway for coal and iron mines on the interior and a railway for the river valley by transporting rice, cotton, sugarcane, and bananas.
Bus terminal
El Chimbador Bus Terminal is Chimbote's primary ground transportation facility. The bus terminal is located outside of the city. It has become a vital connection for the region's workers, travelers and visitors, serving nearly 6,000 passengers a day. Currently there are 30 bus carriers offering services for national and international travel.
Port
The port of Chimbote is considered by some one of the most beautiful and safest ports in the Peruvian coast. It extends , from Caleta Colorada Bay (Red Creek Bay) in the north, where the present marine facilities are located, to Anconcillo in the south.
Airport
The city is served by the Teniente FAP Jaime Montreuil Morales Airport, operated by CORPAC S.A. It was created in 1957 under the government of President Manuel Prado Ugarteche. There are regular flights to Lima by LC Busre.
Sister cities
Asunción, Paraguay
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Huancayo, Peru
Yokohama, Japan
Nantes, France
Madrid, Spain
Pensacola, United States
San José, Costa Rica
Seattle, United States
Pittsburgh, United States
See also
Ancash Region
1970 Ancash earthquake
Notes
References
Populated places in the Ancash Region
Port cities in Peru
Cities in Peru
|
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241814
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Mesoamerica%20%28Paleo-Indian%29
|
History of Mesoamerica (Paleo-Indian)
|
In the History of Mesoamerica, the stage known as the Paleo-Indian period (or alternatively, the Lithic stage) is the era in the scheme of Mesoamerican chronology which begins with the very first indications of human habitation within the Mesoamerican region, and continues until the general onset of the development of agriculture and other proto-civilization traits. The conclusion of this stage may be assigned to approximately 9000 BP (there are differences in opinion between sources which recognize the classification), and the transition to the succeeding Archaic period is not a well-defined one.
Its starting-point is a matter for some contention, as is the more general question of when human habitation in the Americas was first achieved. It is accepted by a significant number of researchers that the peopling of the Americas had occurred by c. 11,200 years ago.
History
Migration
Scientific opinion regarding human antiquity in Mesoamerica has reflected larger trends in conceptualizing human antiquity in the western hemisphere in general. Within that foundational topic, the establishment of sites demonstrating human antiquity in Mesoamerica has centered on the association of remains and artifacts with geologic strata (context) and on the reliability of the dating of the remains and strata (methodologies).
At the beginning of the twentieth century, humans were believed to be very recent post-glacial immigrants to the western hemisphere. Although there was believed to have been anywhere from 20,000 to 60,000 years of post-glacial time in which such immigration could have occurred over the Bering land bridge, the antiquity of human presence in the western hemisphere was popularly fixed at about 5,000 BP ("before present", or 3000 BC). William H. Holmes and Ales Hrdlicka led this school of thought. The Folsom and Clovis discoveries of the 1920s and 1930s revised the minimum time frame for the initial occupation of the New World. The Folsom lithics dated to 10,000–11,000 BP, and the Clovis lithics dated to 12,000–12,500 BP, allowing for an original immigration date of about 14,000 BP.
Lithic period
In Mesoamerica, the period from about 9,000 BP back to the earliest occupations is referred to as the "Paleoindian period." Evidence of human occupation in Mesoamerica consistent with that 14,000 BP original occupation date has been presented, debated, and accepted. Fluted points have been found north of Mesoamerica in the states of Sonora and Durango as well as in central Mexico, with proof of a mammoth hunt being uncovered at Santa Isabel Iztapan. Pleistocene-age bone artifacts have been found at Los Reyes La Paz. Human presence during this period has been further documented by cranial finds at Peña, Xico, Tepexpan, Santa Maria Astahuacan, and San Vicente Chicoloapan. A variety of methods were used to determine the antiquity of the cranial remains, including chemical bone analysis (nitrogen and fluorine tests), geological analysis (stratigraphic, carbon-14, and volcanic ash composition tests), contextual association with faunal remains, and contextual association with lithic artifacts dated by obsidian hydration.
The 14,000 BP immigration date maximum, however, has been challenged. Claims have been made for human presence in the 20,000–30,000 BP timeframe at Pennsylvania's Meadowcroft Rock Shelter and in California's Yuha Desert as well as sites in South America, Central America, and Mesoamerica.
A bone artifact from Tequixquiac may come from a pre-projectile point horizon. Evidence from Tlapacoya suggests human occupation dating to 23,000 BP. Valsequillo has five sites that appear to date from at least 20,000 BP. Based upon increasing evidence for an earlier antiquity for human presence in the western hemisphere, in 1976 Irving Rouse and Richard MacNeish independently published proposals revising western hemisphere lithic stages, allowing for human occupation as early as 30,000 BP and leaving open the possibility of an even earlier initial arrival.
Post-Lithic period
See also
Archaeology of the Americas
Amazonas before the Inca Empire
Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Cultural periods of Peru
Indigenous American genetic studies
List of pre-Columbian civilizations
Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures
Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Pre-Columbian era
References
External links
Paleo-Indian Period in Chickasaw History – Chickasaw.TV
Mesoamerica
History of indigenous peoples of North America
Pre-Clovis archaeological sites in the Americas
|
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] |
241815
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanethiol
|
Methanethiol
|
Methanethiol (also known as methyl mercaptan) is an organosulfur compound with the chemical formula . It is a colorless gas with a distinctive putrid smell. It is a natural substance found in the blood, brain and feces of animals (including humans), as well as in plant tissues. It also occurs naturally in certain foods, such as some nuts and cheese. It is one of the chemical compounds responsible for bad breath and the smell of flatus. Methanethiol is the simplest thiol and is sometimes abbreviated as MeSH. It is very flammable.
Structure and reactions
The molecule is tetrahedral at the carbon atom, like methanol. It is a weak acid, with a pKa of ~10.4, but is about a hundred thousand times more acidic than methanol. The colorless salt can be obtained in this way:
CH3SH + CH3ONa → CH3SNa + CH3OH
The resulting thiolate anion is a strong nucleophile.
It can be oxidized to dimethyl disulfide:
2CH3SH + [O] → CH3SSCH3 + H2O
Further oxidation takes the disulfide to two molecules of methanesulfonic acid, which is odorless. Bleach deodorizes methanethiol in this way.
Occurrence
Methanethiol (MeSH) is released as a by-product of kraft pulping in pulp mills. In kraft pulping, lignin is depolymerized by nucleophilic attack with the strongly nucleophilic hydrosulfide ion (HS−) in a highly alkaline medium. However, in a side reaction, HS− attacks methoxyl groups (OMe) in lignin, demethylating them to give free phenolate groups (PhO−) and releasing MeSH. Due to alkalinity, MeSH is readily deprotonated (MeSNa), and the formed MeS− ion is also a strong nucleophile, reacting further to dimethyl sulfide. The compounds remain in the liquor and are burned in the recovery boiler, where the sulfur is recovered as sodium sulfide.
Methanethiol is released from decaying organic matter in marshes and is present in the natural gas of certain regions, in coal tar, and in some crude oils. It occurs in various plants and vegetables, such as radishes.
In surface seawater, methanethiol is the primary breakdown product of the algal metabolite dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP). Marine bacteria appear to obtain most of the sulfur in their proteins by the breakdown of DMSP and incorporation of methanethiol, despite the fact that methanethiol is present in seawater at much lower concentrations than sulfate (~0.3 nM vs. 28 mM). Bacteria in environments both with and without oxygen can also convert methanethiol to dimethyl sulfide (DMS), although most DMS in surface seawater is produced by a separate pathway. Both DMS and methanethiol can be used by certain microbes as substrates for methanogenesis in some anaerobic soils.
Methanethiol is a byproduct of the metabolism of asparagus. The production of methanethiol in urine after eating asparagus was once thought to be a genetic trait. More recent research suggests that the peculiar odor is in fact produced by all humans after consuming asparagus, while the ability to detect it (methanethiol being one of many components in "asparagus pee") is in fact the genetic trait. The chemical components responsible for the change in the odor of urine show as soon as 15 minutes after eating asparagus.
Preparation
Methanethiol is prepared commercially by the reaction of methanol with hydrogen sulfide gas over an aluminum oxide catalyst:
CH3OH + H2S → CH3SH + H2O
Although impractical, it can be prepared by the reaction of methyl iodide with thiourea.
Uses
Methanethiol is mainly used to produce the essential amino acid methionine, which is used as a dietary component in poultry and animal feed. Methanethiol is also used in the plastic industry as a moderator for free-radical polymerizations and as a precursor in the manufacture of pesticides.
This chemical is also used in the natural gas industry as an odorant, as it mixes well with methane. The characteristic "rotten eggs" smell of the mix is widely known by natural gas customers as an indicator of a possible gas leak, even a very minor one.
Safety
The safety data sheet (SDS) lists methanethiol as a colorless, flammable gas with an extremely strong and repulsive smell. At very high concentrations it is highly toxic and affects the central nervous system. Its penetrating odor provides warning at dangerous concentrations. An odor threshold of 1 ppb has been reported. The United States OSHA Ceiling Limit is listed as 10 ppm.
References
External links
NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Methyl mercaptan
CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Thiols
Flatulence
Foul-smelling chemicals
Organic compounds with 1 carbon atom
|
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241816
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weser%20Flugzeugbau
|
Weser Flugzeugbau
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Weser Flugzeugbau GmbH, known as Weserflug, was an aircraft manufacturing company in Germany.
History
The company was founded in 1934 as a subsidiary of the ship and machine company Deutsche Schiff- und Maschinenbau AG (DESCHIMAG). It began production that year at Berlin Tempelhof, and in Bremen.
In 1935, Dr. Adolf Rohrbach became technical director of a new Weserflug factory at Lemwerder, near Bremen, which opened in 1936. He had been working on ideas for VTOL (Vertical TakeOff and Landing) aircraft since 1933, and now developed them further.
In 1938, the company developed the Weserflug P.1003, a VTOL aircraft. It had 4 m diameter propellers that swivelled between horizontal and vertical, and could fly up to 650 km/h. It requires very complex gearing to tilt the wings without varying the power to the propellers, and therefore was never built.
World War II
During World War II Weserflug had another factory in Liegnitz. It built Ju 188 and Ju 388 bombers, one of which survives in the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, DC.
Perhaps foreseeing the end of the war, the management of Weserflug transferred in 1944 from Berlin to Hoykenkamp, 15 km west of Bremen. It took over buildings previously used by Focke Achgelis.
During 1940-5, Weserflug built 5215 Junkers Ju 87 Stuka planes at Tempelhof. This plant also constructed Fw 190 fighters. Forced labour was used; on 20 April 1944 2,103 of the 4,151 Tempelhof workers were foreign forced labourers.
Ju 86 aircraft were manufactured at Lemwerder.
After the war
At the end of the war, all aircraft production in Germany halted for several years. In 1948 a trustee, Horst Janson, was appointed to collect the assets of Weser AG, to which Weserflug belonged. He was responsible for some postwar reindustrialization in Bremen, such as reactivating the shipbuilding industry, and joined the board of Weser AG. Production of motorized aircraft was forbidden in Germany from 1945 until 1955. In the 1950s the Hoykenkamp area was used for small businesses.
In 1960, while retaining his other commitments to the reindustrialisation of Bremen, Janson became chairman of Weser AG. In 1961, Weserflug joined forces with Focke-Wulf - also of Bremen - and Hamburger Flugzeugbau in the Entwicklungsring Nord (ERNO) to develop rockets. Focke-Wulf and Weserflug formally merged in 1964, becoming Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke (VFW). Janson retired as chairman of Weser AG in 1969.
Aircraft
Weserflug We 271
Weserflug WP 1003
See also
Volksflugzeug
References
External links
Luft '46
Companies based in Bremen
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of Germany
Manufacturing companies based in Bremen (state)
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavian%20Simvastatin%20Survival%20Study
|
Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study
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The Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (also known as the 4S study), was a multicentre, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, which provided the initial data that supported the use of the cholesterol-lowering drug, simvastatin, in people with a moderately raised cholesterol and coronary heart disease (CHD); that is people who had previously had a heart attack or angina. The study was sponsored by the pharmaceutical company Merck and enrolled 4,444 people from 94 centres in Scandinavia.
Before the 4S study, it was not proven that lowering cholesterol could prolong life in people who had CHD. The study concluded that secondary prevention with simvastatin in a high risk group with CHD reduced overall mortality by 30%. Published in The Lancet in 1994, it is considered a "landmark paper".
Objective
The 4S multicentre, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial enrolled 4,444 people chosen from 7,027 people who had been followed up for two months after being given dietary advice. The objective of the study was to assess the effect of a cholesterol-lowering drug called simvastatin on mortality and morbidity in people with a history of a previous heart attack or angina, who also had a moderately raised cholesterol; between 5.5 and 8.0 mmol/L.
A second objective was to investigate whether the incidence of major coronary artery disease events (fatal and nonfatal myocardial infarction and sudden death) could be reduced with simvastatin.
Study details
The participants, all at high risk of death from CHD and death in general, were selected from 94 clinical centers in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden from 1988 to 1989, and were aged between 35 and 70 years, with the average age being 59. Of the 4,444 people enrolled in the study, 3,617 were men and 827 women, 2,223 were randomly assigned a placebo and 2,221 were given 20 to 40 mg of simvastatin daily. The plan was to follow the participants for a minimum of three years or until such a time as total mortality reached 440 deaths. In practice, the study carried for a median period of 5.4 years.
Results
After 5.4 years, compared to the group that were given placebo, the simvastatin group demonstrated a 35% reduction in LDL-C and 30% reduction in overall mortality. The risk of hospital-verified non-fatal myocardial infarction reduced by 37% and fatal and non-fatal cerebrovascular events (stroke and TIA) lessened by 28%. 30 people would need to be treated with simvastatin to prevent one death; number needed to treat around 30. There were no extra deaths from other non-cardiac causes such as cancer or trauma. The trial also showed benefits in diabetes, women and older people.
A follow-up of treatment with simvastatin for up to eight years was published in 2000. Ten years after the start of the 4S trial, a follow-up study published on 28 August 2004 in The Lancet, revealed that of those 2,221 people who continued to take simvastatin, there was a further reduction in number of deaths from CHD when compared to those who had switched from placebo to statin at the five year mark. The overall mortality also reduced by 15% at the 10 year mark.
Conclusion
The study concluded that secondary prevention with simvastatin in a high risk group with CHD reduced overall mortality by 30%. Non-fatal CHD events and fatal and non-fatal cerebrovascular events were reduced without an increase in risk of cancer.
Response
Published in The Lancet in 1994, the 4S trial, had an immediate influence on medical opinion, and is considered a "landmark paper". Several other large multicenter clinical trials followed, leading to widespread use of simvastatin.
Data from the 4S trial has frequently been used to analyse the cost-effectiveness of simvastatin in secondary prevention.
See also
Heart Protection Study
HDL-Atherosclerosis Treatment Study
West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study
Pravastatin or atorvastatin evaluation and infection therapy - thrombolysis in myocardial infarction 22
References
Further reading
Epidemiological study projects
Clinical trials related to cardiology
Statins
Cardiology
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] |
241818
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4S
|
4S
|
4S may refer to:
Places
4S Ranch, California, an unincorporated community in San Diego County
Other uses
iPhone 4S, the 5th generation of the iPhone
Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study, a multicenter clinical trial that was performed in 1990s in Scandinavia
Society for Social Studies of Science, a non-profit scholarly association devoted to the social studies of science and technology
Toshiba 4S, a nuclear reactor
Toyota S engine
4S, the production code for the 1977 Doctor Who serial The Talons of Weng-Chiang
See also
S4 (disambiguation)
SSSS (disambiguation)
Fours (disambiguation)
S (disambiguation)
4 (disambiguation)
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mathematical%20shapes
|
List of mathematical shapes
|
Following is a list of some mathematically well-defined shapes.
Algebraic curves
Cubic plane curve
Quartic plane curve
Rational curves
Degree 2
Conic sections
Unit circle
Unit hyperbola
Degree 3
Folium of Descartes
Cissoid of Diocles
Conchoid of de Sluze
Right strophoid
Semicubical parabola
Serpentine curve
Trident curve
Trisectrix of Maclaurin
Tschirnhausen cubic
Witch of Agnesi
Degree 4
Ampersand curve
Bean curve
Bicorn
Bow curve
Bullet-nose curve
Cruciform curve
Deltoid curve
Devil's curve
Hippopede
Kampyle of Eudoxus
Kappa curve
Lemniscate of Booth
Lemniscate of Gerono
Lemniscate of Bernoulli
Limaçon
Cardioid
Limaçon trisectrix
Trifolium curve
Degree 5
Quintic of l'Hospital
Degree 6
Astroid
Atriphtaloid
Nephroid
Quadrifolium
Families of variable degree
Epicycloid
Epispiral
Epitrochoid
Hypocycloid
Lissajous curve
Poinsot's spirals
Rational normal curve
Rose curve
Curves of genus one
Bicuspid curve
Cassini oval
Cassinoide
Cubic curve
Elliptic curve
Watt's curve
Curves with genus greater than one
Butterfly curve
Elkies trinomial curves
Hyperelliptic curve
Klein quartic
Classical modular curve
Bolza surface
Macbeath surface
Curve families with variable genus
Polynomial lemniscate
Fermat curve
Sinusoidal spiral
Superellipse
Hurwitz surface
Transcendental curves
Bowditch curve
Brachistochrone
Butterfly curve
Catenary
Clélies
Cochleoid
Cycloid
Horopter
Isochrone
Isochrone of Huygens (Tautochrone)
Isochrone of Leibniz
Isochrone of Varignon
Lamé curve
Pursuit curve
Rhumb line
Spirals
Archimedean spiral
Cornu spiral
Cotes' spiral
Fermat's spiral
Galileo's spiral
Hyperbolic spiral
Lituus
Logarithmic spiral
Nielsen's spiral
Syntractrix
Tractrix
Trochoid
Piecewise constructions
Bézier curve
Splines
B-spline
Nonuniform rational B-spline
Ogee
Loess curve
Lowess
Polygonal curve
Maurer rose
Reuleaux triangle
Bézier triangle
Curves generated by other curves
Caustic including Catacaustic and Diacaustic
Cissoid
Conchoid
Evolute
Glissette
Inverse curve
Involute
Isoptic including Orthoptic
Orthotomic
Negative pedal curve
Pedal curve
Parallel curve
Radial curve
Roulette
Strophoid
Space curves
Conchospiral
Helix
Tendril perversion (a transition between back-to-back helices)
Hemihelix, a quasi-helical shape characterized by multiple tendril perversions
Seiffert's spiral
Slinky spiral
Twisted cubic
Viviani's curve
Surfaces in 3-space
Plane
Quadric surfaces
Cone
Cylinder
Ellipsoid
Spheroid
Sphere
Hyperboloid
Paraboloid
Möbius strip
Torus
Minimal surfaces
Catalan's minimal surface
Costa's minimal surface
Catenoid
Enneper surface
Gyroid
Helicoid
Lidinoid
Riemann's minimal surface
Saddle tower
Scherk surface
Schwarz minimal surface
Triply periodic minimal surface
Non-orientable surfaces
Klein bottle
Real projective plane
Cross-cap
Roman surface
Boy's surface
Quadrics
Sphere
Spheroid
Oblate spheroid
Cone
Ellipsoid
Hyperboloid of one sheet
Hyperboloid of two sheets
Hyperbolic paraboloid (a ruled surface)
Paraboloid
Sphericon
Oloid
Pseudospherical surfaces
Dini's surface
Pseudosphere
Algebraic surfaces
See the list of algebraic surfaces.
Cayley cubic
Barth sextic
Clebsch cubic
Monkey saddle (saddle-like surface for 3 legs.)
Torus
Dupin cyclide (inversion of a torus)
Whitney umbrella
Miscellaneous surfaces
Right conoid (a ruled surface)
Fractals
Apollonian gasket
Apollonian sphere packing
Blancmange curve
Cantor dust
Cantor set
Cantor tesseract
Circle inversion fractal
De Rham curve
Douady rabbit
Dragon curve
Fibonacci word fractal
Flame fractal
Fractal curve
Gosper curve
Gosper island
H-fractal
Hénon map
Hexaflake
Hilbert curve
Ikeda map attractor
Iterated function system
Jerusalem cube
Julia set
Koch curve
Koch snowflake
L-system
Lévy C curve
Feigenbaum attractor
Lorenz attractor
Lyapunov fractal
Mandelbrot set
Mandelbrot tree
Mandelbulb
Menger sponge
Monkeys tree
Moore curve
N-flake
Pascal triangle
Peano curve
Penrose tiling
Pinwheel tiling
Pythagoras tree
Rauzy fractal
Rössler attractor
Sierpiński arrowhead curve
Sierpinski carpet
Sierpiński curve
Sierpinski triangle
Smith–Volterra–Cantor set
T-square
Takagi or Blancmange curve
Triflake
Vicsek fractal
von Koch curve
Weierstrass function
Z-order curve
Random fractals
von Koch curve with random interval
von Koch curve with random orientation
Boundary of Brownian motion
2D polymer
Percolation front in 2D, Corrosion front in 2D
diffusion-limited aggregation
Random walk with no self-intersection
3D polymer
2D percolation cluster hull
2D percolation cluster
Brownian motion
Lichtenberg figure
Percolation theory
Multiplicative cascade
Regular polytopes
This table shows a summary of regular polytope counts by dimension.
There are no nonconvex Euclidean regular tessellations in any number of dimensions.
Polytope elements
The elements of a polytope can be considered according to either their own dimensionality or how many dimensions "down" they are from the body.
Vertex, a 0-dimensional element
Edge, a 1-dimensional element
Face, a 2-dimensional element
Cell, a 3-dimensional element
Hypercell or Teron, a 4-dimensional element
Facet, an (n-1)-dimensional element
Ridge, an (n-2)-dimensional element
Peak, an (n-3)-dimensional element
For example, in a polyhedron (3-dimensional polytope), a face is a facet, an edge is a ridge, and a vertex is a peak.
Vertex figure: not itself an element of a polytope, but a diagram showing how the elements meet.
Tessellations
The classical convex polytopes may be considered tessellations, or tilings, of spherical space. Tessellations of euclidean and hyperbolic space may also be considered regular polytopes. Note that an 'n'-dimensional polytope actually tessellates a space of one dimension less. For example, the (three-dimensional) platonic solids tessellate the 'two'-dimensional 'surface' of the sphere.
Zero dimension
Point
One-dimensional regular polytope
There is only one polytope in 1 dimension, whose boundaries are the two endpoints of a line segment, represented by the empty Schläfli symbol {}.
Two-dimensional regular polytopes
Polygon
Equilateral
Cyclic polygon
Convex polygon
Star polygon
Pentagram
Convex
Regular polygon
Equilateral triangle
Simplex
Square
Cross-polytope
Hypercube
Pentagon
Hexagon
Heptagon
Octagon
Enneagon
Decagon
Hendecagon
Dodecagon
Tridecagon
Tetradecagon
Pentadecagon
Hexadecagon
Heptadecagon
Octadecagon
Enneadecagon
Icosagon
Hectogon
Chiliagon
Regular polygon
Degenerate (spherical)
Monogon
Digon
Non-convex
star polygon
Pentagram
Heptagram
Octagram
Enneagram
Decagram
Tessellation
Apeirogon
Three-dimensional regular polytopes
polyhedron
Convex
Platonic solid
Tetrahedron, the 3-space Simplex
Cube, the 3-space hypercube
Octahedron, the 3-space Cross-polytope
Dodecahedron
Icosahedron
Degenerate (spherical)
hosohedron
dihedron
Henagon#In spherical geometry
Non-convex
Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra
Small stellated dodecahedron
Great dodecahedron
Great stellated dodecahedron
Great icosahedron
Tessellations
Euclidean tilings
Square tiling
Triangular tiling
Hexagonal tiling
Apeirogon
Dihedron
Hyperbolic tilings
Lobachevski plane
Hyperbolic tiling
Hyperbolic star-tilings
Order-7 heptagrammic tiling
Heptagrammic-order heptagonal tiling
Order-9 enneagrammic tiling
Enneagrammic-order enneagonal tiling
Four-dimensional regular polytopes
convex regular 4-polytope
5-cell, the 4-space Simplex
8-cell, the 4-space Hypercube
16-cell, the 4-space Cross-polytope
24-cell
120-cell
600-cell
Degenerate (spherical)
Ditope
Hosotope
3-sphere
Non-convex
Star or (Schläfli–Hess) regular 4-polytope
Icosahedral 120-cell
Small stellated 120-cell
Great 120-cell
Grand 120-cell
Great stellated 120-cell
Grand stellated 120-cell
Great grand 120-cell
Great icosahedral 120-cell
Grand 600-cell
Great grand stellated 120-cell
Tessellations of Euclidean 3-space
Honeycomb
Cubic honeycomb
Degenerate tessellations of Euclidean 3-space
Hosohedron
Dihedron
Order-2 apeirogonal tiling
Apeirogonal hosohedron
Order-4 square hosohedral honeycomb
Order-6 triangular hosohedral honeycomb
Hexagonal hosohedral honeycomb
Order-2 square tiling honeycomb
Order-2 triangular tiling honeycomb
Order-2 hexagonal tiling honeycomb
Tessellations of hyperbolic 3-space
Order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb
Order-5 dodecahedral honeycomb
Order-5 cubic honeycomb
Icosahedral honeycomb
Order-3 icosahedral honeycomb
Order-4 octahedral honeycomb
Triangular tiling honeycomb
Square tiling honeycomb
Order-4 square tiling honeycomb
Order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb
Order-6 cubic honeycomb
Order-6 dodecahedral honeycomb
Hexagonal tiling honeycomb
Order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb
Order-5 hexagonal tiling honeycomb
Order-6 hexagonal tiling honeycomb
Five-dimensional regular polytopes and higher
5-polytope
Honeycomb
Tetracomb
Tessellations of Euclidean 4-space
honeycombs
Tesseractic honeycomb
16-cell honeycomb
24-cell honeycomb
Tessellations of Euclidean 5-space and higher
Hypercubic honeycomb
Hypercube
Square tiling
Cubic honeycomb
Tesseractic honeycomb
5-cube honeycomb
6-cube honeycomb
7-cube honeycomb
8-cube honeycomb
Hypercubic honeycomb
Tessellations of hyperbolic 4-space
honeycombs
Order-5 5-cell honeycomb
120-cell honeycomb
Order-5 tesseractic honeycomb
Order-4 120-cell honeycomb
Order-5 120-cell honeycomb
Order-4 24-cell honeycomb
Cubic honeycomb honeycomb
Small stellated 120-cell honeycomb
Pentagrammic-order 600-cell honeycomb
Order-5 icosahedral 120-cell honeycomb
Great 120-cell honeycomb
Tessellations of hyperbolic 5-space
5-orthoplex honeycomb
24-cell honeycomb honeycomb
16-cell honeycomb honeycomb
Order-4 24-cell honeycomb honeycomb
Tesseractic honeycomb honeycomb
Apeirotopes
Apeirotope
Apeirogon
Apeirohedron
Regular skew polyhedron
Abstract polytopes
Abstract polytope
11-cell
57-cell
Non-regular polytopes
2D with 1D surface
Convex polygon
Concave polygon
Constructible polygon
Cyclic polygon
Equiangular polygon
Equilateral polygon
Regular polygon
Penrose tile
Polyform
Balbis
Gnomon
Golygon
Star without crossing lines
Star polygon
Hexagram
Star of David
Heptagram
Octagram
Star of Lakshmi
Decagram
Pentagram
Polygons named for their number of sides
Monogon — 1 sided
Digon — 2 sided
Triangle
Acute triangle
Equilateral triangle
Isosceles triangle
Obtuse triangle
Rational triangle
Right triangle
30-60-90 triangle
Isosceles right triangle
Kepler triangle
Scalene triangle
Quadrilateral
Cyclic quadrilateral
square
kite
Parallelogram
Rhombus (equilateral parallelogram)
Lozenge
Rhomboid
Rectangle
square (regular quadrilateral)
Tangential quadrilateral
Trapezoid or trapezium
Isosceles trapezoid
Pentagon
Regular pentagon
Hexagon
Lemoine hexagon
Heptagon
Octagon
Regular octagon
Nonagon
Decagon
Regular decagon
Hendecagon
Dodecagon
Triskaidecagon
Tetradecagon
Pentadecagon
Hexadecagon
Heptadecagon
Octadecagon
Enneadecagon
Icosagon
Triacontagon
Tetracontagon
Pentacontagon
Hexacontagon
Heptacontagon
Octacontagon
Enneacontagon
Hectogon
257-gon
Chiliagon
Myriagon
65537-gon
Megagon
Apeirogon
Tilings
List of uniform tilings
Uniform tilings in hyperbolic plane
Archimedean tiling
Square tiling
Triangular tiling
Hexagonal tiling
Truncated square tiling
Snub square tiling
Trihexagonal tiling
Truncated hexagonal tiling
Rhombitrihexagonal tiling
Truncated trihexagonal tiling
Snub hexagonal tiling
Elongated triangular tiling
Uniform polyhedra
Regular polyhedron
Platonic solid
Tetrahedron
Cube
Octahedron
Dodecahedron
Icosahedron
Kepler–Poinsot polyhedron (regular star polyhedra)
Great icosahedron
Small stellated dodecahedron
Great dodecahedron
Great stellated dodecahedron
Abstract regular polyhedra (Projective polyhedron)
Hemicube
Hemi-octahedron
Hemi-dodecahedron
Hemi-icosahedron
Archimedean solid
Truncated tetrahedron
Cuboctahedron
Truncated cube
Truncated octahedron
Rhombicuboctahedron
Truncated cuboctahedron
Snub cube
Icosidodecahedron
Truncated dodecahedron
Truncated icosahedron
Rhombicosidodecahedron
Truncated icosidodecahedron
Snub dodecahedron
Prismatic uniform polyhedron
Prism
Antiprism
Uniform star polyhedron
Cubitruncated cuboctahedron
Cubohemioctahedron
Ditrigonal dodecadodecahedron
Dodecadodecahedron
Great cubicuboctahedron
Great dirhombicosidodecahedron
Great disnub dirhombidodecahedron
Great ditrigonal dodecicosidodecahedron
Great ditrigonal icosidodecahedron
Great dodecahemicosahedron
Great dodecahemidodecahedron
Great dodecicosahedron
Great dodecicosidodecahedron
Great icosicosidodecahedron
Great icosidodecahedron
Great icosihemidodecahedron
Great inverted snub icosidodecahedron
Great retrosnub icosidodecahedron
Great rhombidodecahedron
Great rhombihexahedron
Great snub dodecicosidodecahedron
Great snub icosidodecahedron
Great stellated truncated dodecahedron
Great truncated cuboctahedron
Great truncated icosidodecahedron
Icosidodecadodecahedron
Icositruncated dodecadodecahedron
Inverted snub dodecadodecahedron
Nonconvex great rhombicosidodecahedron
Nonconvex great rhombicuboctahedron
Octahemioctahedron
Rhombicosahedron
Rhombidodecadodecahedron
Small cubicuboctahedron
Small ditrigonal dodecicosidodecahedron
Small ditrigonal icosidodecahedron
Small dodecahemicosahedron
Small dodecahemidodecahedron
Small dodecicosahedron
Small dodecicosidodecahedron
Small icosicosidodecahedron
Small icosihemidodecahedron
Small retrosnub icosicosidodecahedron
Small rhombidodecahedron
Small rhombihexahedron
Small snub icosicosidodecahedron
Small stellated truncated dodecahedron
Snub dodecadodecahedron
Snub icosidodecadodecahedron
Stellated truncated hexahedron
Tetrahemihexahedron
Truncated dodecadodecahedron
Truncated great dodecahedron
Truncated great icosahedron
Duals of uniform polyhedra
Catalan solid
Triakis tetrahedron
Rhombic dodecahedron
Triakis octahedron
Tetrakis hexahedron
Deltoidal icositetrahedron
Disdyakis dodecahedron
Pentagonal icositetrahedron
Rhombic triacontahedron
Triakis icosahedron
Pentakis dodecahedron
Deltoidal hexecontahedron
Disdyakis triacontahedron
Pentagonal hexecontahedron
non-convex
Great complex icosidodecahedron
Great deltoidal hexecontahedron
Great deltoidal icositetrahedron
Great dirhombicosidodecacron
Great dirhombicosidodecahedron
Great disdyakis dodecahedron
Great disdyakis triacontahedron
Great disnub dirhombidodecacron
Great ditrigonal dodecacronic hexecontahedron
Great dodecacronic hexecontahedron
Great dodecahemicosacron
Great dodecicosacron
Great hexacronic icositetrahedron
Great hexagonal hexecontahedron
Great icosacronic hexecontahedron
Great icosihemidodecacron
Great inverted pentagonal hexecontahedron
Great pentagonal hexecontahedron
Great pentagrammic hexecontahedron
Great pentakis dodecahedron
Great rhombic triacontahedron
Great rhombidodecacron
Great rhombihexacron
Great stellapentakis dodecahedron
Great triakis icosahedron
Great triakis octahedron
Great triambic icosahedron
Medial deltoidal hexecontahedron
Medial disdyakis triacontahedron
Medial hexagonal hexecontahedron
Medial icosacronic hexecontahedron
Medial inverted pentagonal hexecontahedron
Medial pentagonal hexecontahedron
Medial rhombic triacontahedron
Hexahemioctacron
Hemipolyhedron
Octahemioctacron
Rhombicosacron
Small complex icosidodecahedron
Small ditrigonal dodecacronic hexecontahedron
Small dodecacronic hexecontahedron
Small dodecahemicosacron
Small dodecahemidodecacron
Small dodecicosacron
Small hexacronic icositetrahedron
Small hexagonal hexecontahedron
Small hexagrammic hexecontahedron
Small icosacronic hexecontahedron
Small icosihemidodecacron
Small rhombidodecacron
Small rhombihexacron
Small stellapentakis dodecahedron
Small triambic icosahedron
Tetrahemihexacron
Johnson solids
Augmented dodecahedron
Augmented hexagonal prism
Augmented pentagonal prism
Augmented sphenocorona
Augmented triangular prism
Augmented tridiminished icosahedron
Augmented truncated cube
Augmented truncated dodecahedron
Augmented truncated tetrahedron
Biaugmented pentagonal prism
Biaugmented triangular prism
Biaugmented truncated cube
Bigyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron
Bilunabirotunda
Diminished rhombicosidodecahedron
Disphenocingulum
Elongated pentagonal bipyramid
Elongated pentagonal cupola
Elongated pentagonal gyrobicupola
Elongated pentagonal gyrobirotunda
Elongated pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda
Elongated pentagonal orthobicupola
Elongated pentagonal orthobirotunda
Elongated pentagonal orthocupolarotunda
Elongated pentagonal pyramid
Elongated pentagonal rotunda
Elongated square bipyramid
Elongated square cupola
Elongated square gyrobicupola
Elongated square pyramid
Elongated triangular bipyramid
Elongated triangular cupola
Elongated triangular gyrobicupola
Elongated triangular orthobicupola
Elongated triangular pyramid
Gyrate bidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
Gyrate rhombicosidodecahedron
Gyrobifastigium
Gyroelongated pentagonal bicupola
Gyroelongated pentagonal birotunda
Gyroelongated pentagonal cupola
Gyroelongated pentagonal cupolarotunda
Gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid
Gyroelongated pentagonal rotunda
Gyroelongated square bicupola
Gyroelongated square bipyramid
Gyroelongated square cupola
Gyroelongated square pyramid
Gyroelongated triangular bicupola
Gyroelongated triangular cupola
Hebesphenomegacorona
Metabiaugmented dodecahedron
Metabiaugmented hexagonal prism
Metabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron
Metabidiminished icosahedron
Metabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
Metabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron
Metagyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron
Parabiaugmented dodecahedron
Parabiaugmented hexagonal prism
Parabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron
Parabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
Parabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron
Paragyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron
Pentagonal bipyramid
Pentagonal cupola
Pentagonal gyrobicupola
Pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda
Pentagonal orthobicupola
Pentagonal orthobirotunda
Pentagonal orthocupolarotunda
Pentagonal pyramid
Pentagonal rotunda
Snub disphenoid
Snub square antiprism
Sphenocorona
Sphenomegacorona
Square cupola
Square gyrobicupola
Square orthobicupola
Square pyramid
Triangular bipyramid
Triangular cupola
Triangular hebesphenorotunda
Triangular orthobicupola
Triaugmented dodecahedron
Triaugmented hexagonal prism
Triaugmented triangular prism
Triaugmented truncated dodecahedron
Tridiminished icosahedron
Tridiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
Trigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron
Other nonuniform polyhedra
Pyramid
Bipyramid
Disphenoid
Parallelepiped
Cuboid
Rhombohedron
Trapezohedron
Frustum
Trapezo-rhombic dodecahedron
Rhombo-hexagonal dodecahedron
Truncated trapezohedron
Deltahedron
Zonohedron
Prismatoid
Cupola
Bicupola
Spherical polyhedra
Dihedron
Hosohedron
Honeycombs
Convex uniform honeycomb
Cubic honeycomb
Truncated cubic honeycomb
Bitruncated cubic honeycomb
Cantellated cubic honeycomb
Cantitruncated cubic honeycomb
Rectified cubic honeycomb
Runcitruncated cubic honeycomb
Omnitruncated cubic honeycomb
Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb
Truncated alternated cubic honeycomb
Cantitruncated alternated cubic honeycomb
Runcinated alternated cubic honeycomb
Quarter cubic honeycomb
Gyrated tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb
Gyrated triangular prismatic honeycomb
Gyroelongated alternated cubic honeycomb
Gyroelongated triangular prismatic honeycomb
Elongated triangular prismatic honeycomb
Elongated alternated cubic honeycomb
Hexagonal prismatic honeycomb
Triangular prismatic honeycomb
Triangular-hexagonal prismatic honeycomb
Truncated hexagonal prismatic honeycomb
Truncated square prismatic honeycomb
Rhombitriangular-hexagonal prismatic honeycomb
Omnitruncated triangular-hexagonal prismatic honeycomb
Snub triangular-hexagonal prismatic honeycomb
Snub square prismatic honeycomb
Dual uniform honeycomb
Disphenoid tetrahedral honeycomb
Rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb
Others
Trapezo-rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb
Weaire–Phelan structure
Convex uniform honeycombs in hyperbolic space
Order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb
Order-5 cubic honeycomb
Order-5 dodecahedral honeycomb
Icosahedral honeycomb
Other
Apeirogonal prism
Apeirohedron
Bicupola
Cupola
Bifrustum
Boerdijk–Coxeter helix
Császár polyhedron
Flexible polyhedron
Gyroelongated square dipyramid
Heronian tetrahedron
Hexagonal bifrustum
Hexagonal truncated trapezohedron
Hill tetrahedron
Holyhedron
Infinite skew polyhedron
Jessen's icosahedron
Near-miss Johnson solid
Parallelepiped
Pentagonal bifrustum
Polytetrahedron
Pyritohedron
Rhombic enneacontahedron
Rhombic icosahedron
Rhombo-hexagonal dodecahedron
Rhombohedron
Scalenohedron
Schönhardt polyhedron
Square bifrustum
Square truncated trapezohedron
Szilassi polyhedron
Tetradecahedron
Tetradyakis hexahedron
Tetrated dodecahedron
Triangular bifrustum
Triaugmented triangular prism
Truncated rhombic dodecahedron
Truncated trapezohedron
Truncated triakis tetrahedron
Tridyakis icosahedron
Trigonal trapezohedron
Regular skew polyhedron
Waterman polyhedron
Wedge
Regular and uniform compound polyhedra
Polyhedral compound and Uniform polyhedron compound
Compound of cube and octahedron
Compound of dodecahedron and icosahedron
Compound of eight octahedra with rotational freedom
Compound of eight triangular prisms
Compound of five cubes
Compound of five cuboctahedra
Compound of five cubohemioctahedra
Compound of five great cubicuboctahedra
Compound of five great dodecahedra
Compound of five great icosahedra
Compound of five great rhombihexahedra
Compound of five icosahedra
Compound of five octahedra
Compound of five octahemioctahedra
Compound of five small cubicuboctahedra
Compound of five small rhombicuboctahedra
Compound of five small rhombihexahedra
Compound of five small stellated dodecahedra
Compound of five stellated truncated cubes
Compound of five tetrahedra
Compound of five tetrahemihexahedra
Compound of five truncated cubes
Compound of five truncated tetrahedra
Compound of five uniform great rhombicuboctahedra
Compound of four hexagonal prisms
Compound of four octahedra
Compound of four octahedra with rotational freedom
Compound of four tetrahedra
Compound of four triangular prisms
Compound of great icosahedron and great stellated dodecahedron
Compound of six cubes with rotational freedom
Compound of six decagonal prisms
Compound of six decagrammic prisms
Compound of six pentagonal antiprisms
Compound of six pentagonal prisms
Compound of six pentagrammic antiprisms
Compound of six pentagrammic crossed antiprisms
Compound of six pentagrammic prisms
Compound of six square antiprisms
Compound of six tetrahedra
Compound of six tetrahedra with rotational freedom
Compound of small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron
Compound of ten hexagonal prisms
Compound of ten octahedra
Compound of ten tetrahedra
Compound of ten triangular prisms
Compound of ten truncated tetrahedra
Compound of three cubes
Compound of three square antiprisms
Compound of three tetrahedra
Compound of twelve pentagonal antiprisms with rotational freedom
Compound of twelve pentagonal prisms
Compound of twelve pentagrammic antiprisms
Compound of twelve pentagrammic crossed antiprisms with rotational freedom
Compound of twelve pentagrammic prisms
Compound of twelve tetrahedra with rotational freedom
Compound of twenty octahedra
Compound of twenty octahedra with rotational freedom
Compound of twenty tetrahemihexahedra
Compound of twenty triangular prisms
Compound of two great dodecahedra
Compound of two great icosahedra
Compound of two great inverted snub icosidodecahedra
Compound of two great retrosnub icosidodecahedra
Compound of two great snub icosidodecahedra
Compound of two icosahedra
Compound of two inverted snub dodecadodecahedra
Compound of two small stellated dodecahedra
Compound of two snub cubes
Compound of two snub dodecadodecahedra
Compound of two snub dodecahedra
Compound of two snub icosidodecadodecahedra
Compound of two truncated tetrahedra
Prismatic compound of antiprisms
Prismatic compound of antiprisms with rotational freedom
Prismatic compound of prisms
Prismatic compound of prisms with rotational freedom
4-polytope
Hecatonicosachoron
Hexacosichoron
Hexadecachoron
Icositetrachoron
Pentachoron
Tesseract
Spherical cone
Convex regular 4-polytope
5-cell, Tesseract, 16-cell, 24-cell, 120-cell, 600-cell
Abstract regular polytope
11-cell, 57-cell
Schläfli–Hess 4-polytope (Regular star 4-polytope)
Icosahedral 120-cell, Small stellated 120-cell, Great 120-cell, Grand 120-cell, Great stellated 120-cell, Grand stellated 120-cell, Great grand 120-cell, Great icosahedral 120-cell, Grand 600-cell, Great grand stellated 120-cell
Uniform 4-polytope
Rectified 5-cell, Truncated 5-cell, Cantellated 5-cell, Runcinated 5-cell
Rectified tesseract, Truncated tesseract, Cantellated tesseract, Runcinated tesseract
Rectified 16-cell, Truncated 16-cell
Rectified 24-cell, Truncated 24-cell, Cantellated 24-cell, Runcinated 24-cell, Snub 24-cell
Rectified 120-cell, Truncated 120-cell, Cantellated 120-cell, Runcinated 120-cell
Rectified 600-cell, Truncated 600-cell, Cantellated 600-cell
Prismatic uniform polychoron
Grand antiprism
Duoprism
Tetrahedral prism, Truncated tetrahedral prism
Truncated cubic prism, Truncated octahedral prism, Cuboctahedral prism, Rhombicuboctahedral prism, Truncated cuboctahedral prism, Snub cubic prism
Truncated dodecahedral prism, Truncated icosahedral prism, Icosidodecahedral prism, Rhombicosidodecahedral prism, Truncated icosidodecahedral prism, Snub dodecahedral prism
Uniform antiprismatic prism
Honeycombs
Tesseractic honeycomb
24-cell honeycomb
Snub 24-cell honeycomb
Rectified 24-cell honeycomb
Truncated 24-cell honeycomb
16-cell honeycomb
5-cell honeycomb
Omnitruncated 5-cell honeycomb
Truncated 5-cell honeycomb
Omnitruncated 5-simplex honeycomb
5D with 4D surfaces
regular 5-polytope
5-dimensional cross-polytope
5-dimensional hypercube
5-dimensional simplex
Five-dimensional space, 5-polytope and uniform 5-polytope
5-simplex, Rectified 5-simplex, Truncated 5-simplex, Cantellated 5-simplex, Runcinated 5-simplex, Stericated 5-simplex
5-demicube, Truncated 5-demicube, Cantellated 5-demicube, Runcinated 5-demicube
5-cube, Rectified 5-cube, 5-cube, Truncated 5-cube, Cantellated 5-cube, Runcinated 5-cube, Stericated 5-cube
5-orthoplex, Rectified 5-orthoplex, Truncated 5-orthoplex, Cantellated 5-orthoplex, Runcinated 5-orthoplex
Prismatic uniform 5-polytope For each polytope of dimension n, there is a prism of dimension n+1.
Honeycombs
5-cubic honeycomb
5-simplex honeycomb
Truncated 5-simplex honeycomb
5-demicubic honeycomb
Six dimensions
Six-dimensional space, 6-polytope and uniform 6-polytope
6-simplex, Rectified 6-simplex, Truncated 6-simplex, Cantellated 6-simplex, Runcinated 6-simplex, Stericated 6-simplex, Pentellated 6-simplex
6-demicube, Truncated 6-demicube, Cantellated 6-demicube, Runcinated 6-demicube, Stericated 6-demicube
6-cube, Rectified 6-cube, 6-cube, Truncated 6-cube, Cantellated 6-cube, Runcinated 6-cube, Stericated 6-cube, Pentellated 6-cube
6-orthoplex, Rectified 6-orthoplex, Truncated 6-orthoplex, Cantellated 6-orthoplex, Runcinated 6-orthoplex, Stericated 6-orthoplex
122 polytope, 221 polytope
Honeycombs
6-cubic honeycomb
6-simplex honeycomb
6-demicubic honeycomb
222 honeycomb
Seven dimensions
Seven-dimensional space, uniform 7-polytope
7-simplex, Rectified 7-simplex, Truncated 7-simplex, Cantellated 7-simplex, Runcinated 7-simplex, Stericated 7-simplex, Pentellated 7-simplex, Hexicated 7-simplex
7-demicube, Truncated 7-demicube, Cantellated 7-demicube, Runcinated 7-demicube, Stericated 7-demicube, Pentellated 7-demicube
7-cube, Rectified 7-cube, 7-cube, Truncated 7-cube, Cantellated 7-cube, Runcinated 7-cube, Stericated 7-cube, Pentellated 7-cube, Hexicated 7-cube
7-orthoplex, Rectified 7-orthoplex, Truncated 7-orthoplex, Cantellated 7-orthoplex, Runcinated 7-orthoplex, Stericated 7-orthoplex, Pentellated 7-orthoplex
132 polytope, 231 polytope, 321 polytope
Honeycombs
7-cubic honeycomb
7-demicubic honeycomb
331 honeycomb, 133 honeycomb
Eight dimension
Eight-dimensional space, uniform 8-polytope
8-simplex, Rectified 8-simplex, Truncated 8-simplex, Cantellated 8-simplex, Runcinated 8-simplex, Stericated 8-simplex, Pentellated 8-simplex, Hexicated 8-simplex, Heptellated 8-simplex
8-orthoplex, Rectified 8-orthoplex, Truncated 8-orthoplex, Cantellated 8-orthoplex, Runcinated 8-orthoplex, Stericated 8-orthoplex, Pentellated 8-orthoplex, Hexicated 8-orthoplex
8-cube, Rectified 8-cube, Truncated 8-cube, Cantellated 8-cube, Runcinated 8-cube, Stericated 8-cube, Pentellated 8-cube, Hexicated 8-cube, Heptellated 8-cube
8-demicube, Truncated 8-demicube, Cantellated 8-demicube, Runcinated 8-demicube, Stericated 8-demicube, Pentellated 8-demicube, Hexicated 8-demicube
142 polytope, 241 polytope, 421 polytope, Truncated 421 polytope, Truncated 241 polytope, Truncated 142 polytope, Cantellated 421 polytope, Cantellated 241 polytope, Runcinated 421 polytope
Honeycombs
8-cubic honeycomb
8-demicubic honeycomb
521 honeycomb, 251 honeycomb, 152 honeycomb
Nine dimensions
9-polytope
9-cube
9-demicube
9-orthoplex
9-simplex
Hyperbolic honeycombs
E9 honeycomb
Ten dimensions
10-polytope
10-cube
10-demicube
10-orthoplex
10-simplex
Dimensional families
Regular polytope and List of regular polytopes
Simplex
Hypercube
Cross-polytope
Uniform polytope
Demihypercube
Uniform 1k2 polytope
Uniform 2k1 polytope
Uniform k21 polytope
Honeycombs
Hypercubic honeycomb
Alternated hypercubic honeycomb
Geometry
Triangle
Automedian triangle
Delaunay triangulation
Equilateral triangle
Golden triangle
Hyperbolic triangle (non-Euclidean geometry)
Isosceles triangle
Kepler triangle
Reuleaux triangle
Right triangle
Sierpinski triangle (fractal geometry)
Special right triangles
Spiral of Theodorus
Thomson cubic
Triangular bipyramid
Triangular prism
Triangular pyramid
Triangular tiling
Geometry and other areas of mathematics
Annulus
Apollonian circles
Apollonian gasket
Arbelos
Borromean rings
Circle
Circular sector
Circular segment
Cyclic quadrilateral
Cycloid
Epitrochoid
Epicycloid
Cardioid
Nephroid
Deferent and epicycle
Ex-tangential quadrilateral
Horocycle
Hypotrochoid
Hypocycloid
Astroid
Deltoid curve
Lune
Pappus chain
Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage
Robbins pentagon
Salinon
Semicircle
Squircle
Steiner chain
Tangential quadrilateral
Bicentric quadrilateral
Glyphs and symbols
Borromean rings
Crescent
Vesica piscis
Arc
Caustic
Cissoid
Conchoid
Cubic Hermite curve
Curve of constant width
hedgehog
Parametric curve
Bézier curve
Spline
Hermite spline
Beta spline
B-spline
Higher-order spline
NURBS
Ray
Reuleaux triangle
Ribaucour curve
References
Mathematical
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Malaysia
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Music of Malaysia
|
Music of Malaysia is the generic term for music that has been created in various genres in Malaysia. A great variety of genres in Malaysian music reflects the specific cultural groups within multiethnic Malaysian society: Malay, Chinese, Indian, Dayak, Kadazan-Dusun, Bajau, Orang Asli, Melanau, Kristang and others.
In general, music of Malaysia may be categorised as classical, folk, syncretic (or acculturated music), popular and contemporary art music. Classical and folk music emerged during the pre-colonial period and exists in the form of vocal, dance and theatrical music such as Nobat, Mak Yong, Mak Inang, Dikir barat, Ulek mayang and Menora. The syncretic music developed during the post-Portuguese period (16th century) and contains elements from both local music and foreign elements of Arabian, Persian, Indian, Chinese and Western musical and theatrical sources. Among genres of this music are Zapin, Ghazal, Dondang Sayang, Mata-kantiga, Joget, Jikey, Boria and Bangsawan.
Both Malaysian popular music and contemporary art music are essentially Western-based music combined with some local elements. In 1950s, the musician P. Ramlee helped in creating a Malaysian music that combined folks songs with Western dance rhythms and western Asian music.
Ethnic traditions
Besides Malay music, Chinese and Indian Malaysians have their own forms of music, and the indigenous tribes of Peninsula and East Malaysia have unique traditional instruments.
Malay music
Traditional Malay music spans from music for various theatrical forms such as wayang kulit, bangsawan and dance dramas as well as story-telling, to folk songs and music for dances, royal ceremonies, martial arts (silat), life cycle events, and religious occasions. Many forms of traditional Malay music and performing arts appear to have originated in the Kelantan-Pattani region with influence from India, China, Thailand and Indonesia. The music is based around percussion instruments, the most important of which is the gendang (drum). There are at least 14 types of traditional drums, including kompang and hadrah drums. Drums and other traditional percussion instruments are often made from natural materials. Besides drums, other percussion instruments (some made of shells) include: the rebab (a bowed string instrument), the serunai (a double-reed oboe-like instrument), the seruling (flute), and trumpets. Music is traditionally used for storytelling, celebrating life-cycle events, and times like harvest. It was once used as a form of long-distance communication.
In East Malaysia, gong-based musical ensemble such as agung and kulintang are commonly used in ceremonies such as funerals and weddings. These ensembles are also common in neighbouring regions such as in the southern Philippines, Kalimantan in Indonesia and Brunei.
The Malays of Kelantan and Terengganu are culturally linked to peoples from the South China Sea area, and are quite different from the West Coast of Malaya. The martial art of silat Melayu developed in the Malay peninsula since the beginning of common era also popular in Malaysia, while essentially still important as a branch of the self-defence form. Similar to t'ai chi, though of independent origin, it is a mix of martial arts, dance and music typically accompanied by gongs, drums and Indian oboes.
The natives of the Malay Peninsula played in small ensembles called kertok, which performed swift and rhythmic xylophone music. This may have led to the development of dikir barat. In recent years, the Malaysian government has promoted this Kelantanese music form as a national cultural icon.
Johor art performances such as Zapin and Hamdolok as well as musical instruments including Gambus and Samrah have apparent Arab and Persian influences.
Arabic-derived zapin music and dance is popular throughout Malaysia, and is usually accompanied by a gambus and some drums. Ghazals from Arabia are popular in the markets and malls of Kuala Lumpur and Johor, and stars like Kamariah Noor are very successful. In Malacca, ronggeng is the dominant form of folk music. It played with a violin, drums, guitar, bass, synthesizer, button accordion and a gong instrument. Another style, Dondang Sayang is slow and intense; it mixes influences from China, India, Arabia, and Portugal with traditional elements.
Chinese music
The Hua Yue Tuan (华乐团), or "Chinese orchestra," is made up of traditional Chinese musical instruments and some Western instruments. The music itself combines western polyphony with Chinese melodies and scales. Although the bulk of its repertoire consists of music originated from Hong Kong, Taiwan and China, many local Chinese orchestras also regularly perform Malay folk tunes with various local composers making a definite effort to absorb elements of surrounding musical cultures, especially Malay, into their compositions. In Malaysia, Chinese orchestras exist nationwide in urban areas which have large concentrations of Chinese Malaysians. Sponsored largely by various Chinese organisations including schools, clan associations and Buddhist societies, a typical orchestra consists of between 12 and 50 members. The orchestra is usually made up of four sections: bowed string instruments, plucked strings, the wind section, and percussion. Also commonly found are percussion troupes with drums, gongs and cymbals that provide rhythm for performances of Lion Dance.
There is no lack of virtuoso performers in the Chinese classical tradition in Malaysia. Advanced training is however not presently available with most Malaysian virtuoso musicians obtaining their advanced training either in China or Singapore. Various professional and semi-professional Chinese orchestras are in existence. Malaysian western trained classical conductors are employed full-time. Much of the music played is imported from China. There are however some accomplished Malaysian composers for this medium such as Saw Boon Kiat and Chew Hee Chiat.
There has been a local Malaysian Chinese recording industries since the 1960s with generations of Chinese singers involved in Mandopop music. In the 1960s singers such as Poon Sow Keng (潘秀瓊) achieved notable success in the region, and in the 1970s and 80s, Malaysian Chinese pop singers such as Wong Shiau Chuen, Lan Yin, Donny Yap, and Lee Yee were popular. In more recent times, popular singers include Eric Moo, Lee Sin Je, Fish Leong, Z Chen, Penny Tai and Daniel Lee.
Indian music
Traditional Indian music may be associated with religious tradition and faith. As its origins in India, there are two systems of traditional or classical Indian music in Malaysia: Carnatic music and Hindustani music. Since Tamils from South India are the predominant group among the Indian population in Malaysia, it is the South Indian Carnatic music which predominates. Simply speaking, Hindustani classical music is more lyric-oriented, while Carnatic classical music emphasises musical structure.
Indian classical music as it is performed in Malaysia has remained true to its origin. There is practically no other cultural influence. Other than reflecting Indian life, the purpose of Indian classical music is to refine the soul.
The fundamental elements of Carnatic music are the raga and the tala. A raga is a scale of notes, while the tala is the time-measure. A Carnatic music concert usually starts with a composition with lyrical and passages in a particular raga. This will be followed by a few major and subsequently some minor compositions.
In Malaysia, traditional and classical Indian music are studied and performed by Malaysians of Indian ethnic origin with material that still comes from India. Musical productions are mainly in the form of dance dramas incorporating instrumental ensemble, vocal music and dance. Musical instruments used in the performances are imported from India.
Over the years, Punjabi music has established itself in Malaysia. One example of famous Punjabi music is bhangra. Many Malaysian songs today have the Punjabi influence. For example, the sound of the dhol, an instrument used mainly by the Punjabis, has been incorporated in many Malay, Chinese and Indian songs in Malaysia.
Indigenous tribal music
The Orang Asli groups of West Malaysia, Semang, Senoi, and Orang Melayu Asli, have their own musical traditions. The Semang people are nomadic and their musical instruments are disposable and created when needed, and instruments used include nose flute (salet, nabad), Jew's harp and tube zither (kərɑtuŋ) which are also used by the Senoi. Instruments used by the Senoi are more long-lasting and include kərəb (a two-string chordophone). The Orang Melayu Asli however have closer contact with Malay and Chinese populations and used a wider range of musical instruments ranging from thigh xylophone (kongkong) to violin. The instruments may be used for shamanistic purposes such as singing and trance-dancing ceremonies, and healing rituals.
A number of ethnic groups such as the various Dayak tribes (e.g. Iban, Murut), Kadazan, and Bajau are found in Sabah and Sarawak. The music of these people include vocal music for epics and narratives; songs for life-cycle events and rituals associated with religion, healing, growing rice, hunting game, and waging war; songs for dancing and community entertainment; as well as a wide variety of instrumental music. Instruments used include drums, gongs, flutes, zithers, xylophones, and Jew's harps, of which the bronze gongs are the most significant. Ensembles of gongs of various sizes are played to welcome guests and in ceremonies and dances. A well-known instrument in Sarawak is the , a plucked lute of the Kayan and Kenyah people which is used for entertainment and dancing. Other instruments include the xylophone , bamboo flutes (), and sets of bamboo tubes called togunggak which were formerly played in headhunting ceremonies of the Murut.
World music
Ethnic music has also found a new and vigorous following, with world music festivals like the Rainforest World Music Festival, held annually since 1998 in a scenic open-air setting in Sarawak. The first Malaysian "ethnic fusion" group to play on this international platform was Akar Umbi - comprising Temuan ceremonial singer Minah Angong (1930–1999), Antares and Rafique Rashid. Unfortunately, the charismatic Minah Angong (better known as Mak Minah) died just three weeks after winning over the hearts of a whole new audience at the RWMF 1999. This left Akar Umbi with only one posthumously released CD to its name ('Songs of the Dragon,' Magick River, 2002).
Private companies like Trident Entertainment have begun to invest in the production, distribution and promotion of the "ethnic fringe" in Malaysian music.
Classical music
Within Malaysia, the largest performing arts venue is the Petronas Philharmonic Hall. The resident orchestra is the Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra (MPO). Malay popular music is a combination of the music from all ethnicities in the country. The Malaysian government has taken steps in controlling what music is available in Malaysia; rap music has been criticised, heavy metal has been limited, and foreign bands must submit a copy of a recent concert before playing in Malaysia. It is believed that this music is a bad influence on youth.
Fusion music
In the field of Malaysian contemporary music a number of composers have gained international recognition, for example composers Chong Kee Yong, Dr Tazul Izan Tajuddin, Yii Kah Hoe, Saidah Rastam, Adeline Wong and others, encompassing a diverse range of styles and aesthetics.
Pop
Malaysia's pop music scene developed from traditional social dance and entertainment music such as asli, inang, joget, dondang sayang, zapin and masri, which were adapted to Anglo-American dance band arrangement by Bangsawan troupes in the 1920s and 1930s. The Bangsawan troupes are in fact a type of Malaysian opera influenced by Indian opera at first known as Wayang Parsi (Persia) which was started by rich Persians residing in India. They portrayed stories from diverse groups such as Indian, Western, Islamic, Chinese, Indonesian and Malay. Music, dance, and acting with costumes are used in performance depending on the stories told. The musicians were mostly local Malays, Filipinos and Guanis (descendants from Goa in India).
One of the earliest modern Malay pop songs was "Tudung Periok", sung by Momo Latif, who recorded it in 1930. In the 1950s, P. Ramlee became the most popular Malay singer and composer with a range of slow ballads such as "Azizah", "Dendang Perantau" and the evergreen "Di Mana Kan Ku Cari Ganti".
In the 1960s, a genre of pop music influenced by The Beatles and other British rock and roll bands called 'Pop Yeh-yeh' appeared in Malaysia. The term "pop yeh-yeh" was taken from a line from the popular Beatles song, "She Loves You" ("she loves you, yeah-yeah-yeah"). In the 1960s and 1970s, a modified rock combo called kugiran (an abbreviation of "kumpulan gitar rancak", meaning rhythmic guitar bands) was also common, and was often used to accompany singers.
In the mid-1990s, Dangdut experienced a resurgence after lying dormant since the early 1980s with the debut of Amelina. Her least successful album sold in the 100,000s, a feat that is yet to be repeated in the 2010s. Composer Ruslan Mamat , who pioneered the modern Dangdut, credited Ace of Base for the tempo reference.
Contemporary pop music exchanges between Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Brunei are normal since the Malay language is widely spoken in all four countries.
Hip Hop
KRU is the most successful Hip Hop dance group in Malaysia. After bringing Rap music to the masses in 1982, they established their own record label creating the first Malaysian girl group Feminin and R&B crooners Indigo. Feminin debuted at RTM Eid ul-Fitr special in 1993 marking the start of the 80s girls group era.
SonaOne is a Malaysian rapper with notable songs like "I don't care" and "No More"
Rock
Malaysian rock reached its peak in the 80s and early 90s with the local adaptation of a fusion of blues rock and ballad. The popularity even reached the neighbouring country of Indonesia.
Awie is a Malaysian rock singer. Awie was extremely popular in 1990s
Other music genres represented in Malaysia
Indie rock
Modern rock
Punk rock
Pop punk
Ska punk
Ska
Metal
Nu metal
Death metal
Experimental
Emo
Electronica
Power pop
Hardcore punk
Alternative
Gothic Metal
Reggae
Funk
Industrial
See also
Anugerah Industri Muzik
Anugerah Juara Lagu
Recording Industry Association of Malaysia
References
Munan, Heidi. "Music at the Crossroads". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 175–182. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. .
External links
The traditional music of Malaysia
Malaysian Composers' Homepage
WWW.MALAYAPARK.COM - Malaysian Underground Community Resources
JamTank.com Indie Musicians & Fans Collective
|
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] |
241824
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How%20the%20West%20Was%20Won%20%28Led%20Zeppelin%20album%29
|
How the West Was Won (Led Zeppelin album)
|
How the West Was Won is a live triple album by the English rock group Led Zeppelin, released by Atlantic Records on compact disc on 27 May 2003, DVD-Audio on 7 October 2003 and Blu-Ray Audio in 2018. The recordings are taken from two 1972 performances in California during their tour of North America: L.A. Forum (25 June 1972) and Long Beach Arena (27 June 1972).
Background
Guitarist Jimmy Page considers Led Zeppelin at this point to have been at their artistic peak, as is mentioned in the album's liner notes and in an interview he gave to The Times newspaper in 2010.
For many years, live recordings of these two shows only circulated in the form of bootlegs, and even then only certain audience recordings were available to fans and collectors (for example, Burn Like a Candle). Though several soundboard recordings of Led Zeppelin concerts were circulated amongst fans after having been stolen from Page's personal archive some time in the mid-1980s, no soundboards of the 1972 Long Beach or LA Forum shows were taken, meaning the release of How the West Was Won was the first chance fans had of hearing the soundboard versions of these concerts. The songs from the two shows underwent extensive editing and audio engineering by Page at Sarm West Studios in London before being released on the album.
The album was remastered and reissued on 23 March 2018 in many formats, including 3CD, 4LP, Blu-Ray Audio and a Super Deluxe Edition box set.
Reception
{{Album ratings
| MC = 97/100
| rev1 = AllMusic
| rev1Score =
| rev2 = The Encyclopedia of Popular Music| rev2Score =
| rev3 = Entertainment Weekly| rev3Score = A−
| rev4 = Pitchfork
| rev4Score = 8.8/10
| rev5 = Rolling Stone| rev5Score =
| rev6 = Stylus Magazine| rev6Score = A−
| rev7 = Uncut| rev7Score =
}}
The album debuted on the Billboard 200 chart for the week ending 14 June 2003 at number 1, with sales of 154,000 copies. It remained on the chart for 16 weeks. It was certified gold and platinum by the RIAA on 30 June 2003. How the West Was Won received an overall score of 97 by review site Metacritic''.
Track listing
Notes:
The DVD-Audio version of the album has tracks 1–11 on disc one with tracks 12–18 on disc two. It features the whole album in 24bit/48 kHz for both 5.1 and Stereo.
The Blu-Ray Audio version of the albums has all tracks on one disc. It features the whole album in 24-bit/96kHz DTS-Master Audio 5.1, as well as two stereo tracks (PCM and DTS-MA)
The 4 LP version of the album has tracks 1–4 on Side A, tracks 5, 12 & 13 on Side B, track 6 & 7 on Side C, track 8–10 on Side D, tracks 11, 14 & 15 on Sides E, F & G respectively, and tracks 16–18 on Side H
The medley omitting "Hello Mary Lou" has a runtime of 20:59 in the 2018 reissue
Personnel
Led Zeppelin
Robert Plant – vocals, harmonica
Jimmy Page – guitars, mandolin
John Paul Jones – bass guitar, double bass, bass pedals, keyboards, mandolin, backing vocals
John Bonham – drums, percussion, backing vocals, co-lead vocals on "Bron-Yr-Aur Stomp"
Additional personnel
Jim Cummins – photography
James Fortune – photography
Drew Griffiths – sound assistant
Ross Halfin – package creative consultant
Eddie Kramer – engineering
Phil Lemon – design, artwork
Jeffrey Mayer – photography
Michael Putland – photography
Kevin Shirley – engineering, mixing
John Davis – mastering (2018 reissue)
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Release history
References
External links
How the West Was Won from Led Zeppelin's official site
The Garden Tapes – analysis of live tracks edits for the album
2003 live albums
Albums produced by Jimmy Page
Atlantic Records live albums
Led Zeppelin live albums
Live folk rock albums
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamai
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Mamai
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Mamai (Mongolian Cyrillic: Мамай, ; 1325?–1380/1381) was a powerful military commander of the Golden Horde. Contrary to popular misconception, he was not a khan (king), but a warlord and a kingmaker for several khans, and dominated parts or all of the Golden Horde for a period of almost two decades in the 1360s and 1370s. Although he was unable to stabilize central authority during a period of civil war, Mamai remained a remarkable and persistent leader for decades, while others came and went in rapid succession. His defeat in Battle of Kulikovo marked the beginning of the decline of the Horde, as well as his own rapid downfall.
Origins
Unlike the khans of the so-called Golden Horde, Mamai was not a descendant of Genghis Khan and his son Jochi, but belonged to the powerful Mongol Kiyat clan, which claimed descent from Mugetu Kiyan (Mūngdū Qayān), an older brother of Genghis Khan's father Yesugei Baghatur. While they served the rulers of the Golden Horde from at least Batu Khan, the Kiyats may have risen in importance after the fall of the rival khan Nogai in 1299. Abandoning Nogai in favor of the legitimate khan, Toqta, Aq-Buqa Kiyat enjoyed the favor of the khan and his successor, and served as one of the chief emirs. Another Kiyat, Isatai, was entrusted with governing the former ulus of Orda in the eastern part of the Golden Horde, by Öz Beg Khan. Isatai's son Jir-Qutluq and the latter's son Tingiz-Buqa enjoyed the same position under the next khans, Jani Beg and Berdi Beg. Specific information about Mamai's immediate origins is very limited, but his father is named as Alash Beg (possibly Ali Beg), probably the son of Tuluq-Timur Kiyat, and therefore possibly the brother of the aforementioned Isatai. At least part of the clan may have been ensconced in the Crimea, perhaps since the early 14th century, before several Kiyats appeared as governor on the eastern periphery of the Golden Horde. The date of Mamai's birth can be estimated only generally, to somewhere in the mid-to-late 1320s. At birth, he appears to have received the Muslim name Muḥammad, sometimes paired with the nickname Kičik ("little"), perhaps due to his short stature. Whether "Mamai" is a variation of that name or an additional, "folk" name, remains unclear.
Rise to Power
Mamai became an emir during the reign of Jani Beg (1342-1357). After the governorship of Crimea at Solkhat had been held by a member of a different family in 1349-1356, it seems to have been conferred on Ali Beg, perhaps Mamai's father. He died soon after, and the governorship was given to his brother, Qutluq-Timur. He appears to have died by 1359, and the governorship was entrusted to a member of another clan, Qutluq-Buqa of the Kungrat, a brother of the chief emir (beglerbeg) Mogul-Buqa. Mamai appears to have resented this apparent slight, and left the capital Sarai with his dependents and clansmen, to assert himself locally in and near the Crimea.
Troubled by this desertion and possibly already threatened by a rival claimant to the throne (Qulpa), Khan Berdi Beg (1357-1359) apparently recalled Mamai to the court and named him chief emir (beglerbeg). Moreover, perhaps at this time Berdi Beg gave his daughter in marriage to Mamai. Although the explicit reference to the marriage by Ibn Khaldun only refers to the princess by title (Ḫānum), she has been plausibly identified as Tulun Beg Khanum, whom Mamai would later briefly elevate to the throne, and who would later yet marry Tokhtamysh Khan. Perhaps in keeping with tradition within the Golden Horde, Mamai (like Edigu after him) does not appear to have taken the title of Güregen, commonly taken by men marrying women descended from Genghis Khan. According to the contemporary traveler Ibn Khaldun, Mamai was now in charge of all government, while Russian chronicles note him sending emissaries to Moscow.
Kingmaker after the death of Berdi Beg
The sudden (and probably violent) death of Berdi Beg in August 1359, and the resulting accession of Qulpa undermined Mamai's position of supremacy at court. Under Qulpa and his successor Nawruz Beg, Mogul-Buqa became beglerbeg again, confirming Mamai's exclusion from power at court, although his precise position and relations with the khans remains unclear. Still in control of at least part of the warriors associated with the Kiyat tribe, Mamai was apparently too powerful to eliminate. Until 1361, moreover, he may have had a formidable ally in his cousin governing the former Ulus of Orda. The elimination of Mamai's cousin, Tingiz-Buqa, by the local khan Qara-Noqai, may have threatened to undermine Mamai's safety and impelled him to act proactively. The murder of Khiḍr Khan, a descendant of Jochi's son Shiban, and the struggle among his kinsmen and rivals for possession of Sarai in 1361 gave Mamai the opportunity to do so. Since Mamai was not a descendant of Genghis Khan and Jochi in the male line, he assumed the role of kingmaker, promoting and supporting Jochid khans of his own choosing from a base in the Crimea and the western portion of Golden Horde. With Mamai's help, these khans sought to establish themselves at the capital Sarai, albeit with intermittent success. The precise origin of Mamai's protégés is nowhere stated clearly, and there has been a tendency to consider them descendants of Batu Khan. Nevertheless, the purge of the ruling family perpetrated by Mamai's father-in-law Berdi Beg in 1357 makes such identifications unlikely. A more plausible hypothesis identifies Mamai's puppet khans with a cluster of suitably-named princes listed among a "Crimean" branch of the descendants of Jochi's son Togai-Timur in the genealogical compendiums Muʿizz al-ansāb and Tawārīḫ-i guzīdah-i nuṣrat-nāmah. If this identification is accepted, Mamai's protégés as khans were as follows:
ʿAbdallāh (= ʿAbdal, son of Mīnkāsar, son of Abāy, son of Kay-Timur, son of Togai-Timur, son of Jochi, son of Genghis Khan), khan 1361-1370; recognized at Sarai 1362, 1367-1368, and 1369-1370.
Tūlūn-Bīk Khānum (daughter of Berdi Beg, wife of Mamai, later of Tokhtamysh), queen, recognized at Sarai 1370-1371, died 1386.
Muḥammad-Sulṭān (= Muḥammad, son of ʿAbdal), khan 1370-1379, recognized at Sarai 1371-1373 and in 1374.
Tūlāk (= Tawakkul, son of Tughluq Khwāja, brother of ʿAbdal), khan 1379-1380, never recognized at Sarai.
Mamai and the Civil War in the Golden Horde
After briefly supporting the impostor who pretended to be Kildi Beg, son of Jani Beg, Mamai proclaimed his own khan, ʿAbdallāh, in the Crimea in 1361, and succeeded in installing him at Sarai in 1362. However, later the same year ʿAbdallāh was ejected from the city by Murād (or Mürid, 1362-1363), a brother of the former ruler Khiḍr Khan. He was expelled by Khayr-Pūlād (or Mīr-Pūlād, 1363-1364), and he by ʿAzīz Shaykh (1364-1367). All three were descendants of Jochi's son Shiban. Mamai's inability to hold Sarai in 1362 is possibly to be attributed with his preoccupation with his western front, where the Lithuanians had inflicted a defeat on the representatives of the Golden Horde at the Battle of Blue Waters. Despite some territorial losses, Mamai was able to curb the Lithuanian advance. This allowed him to regroup in the Crimea, suppress local opposition (by besieging Solkhat), and eventually to make another attempt on Sarai.
In 1367 Mamai took advantage of (and possibly engineered) the murder of Khan ʿAzīz Shaykh to reinstall Khan ʿAbdallāh at Sarai. However, Mamai was unable to enjoy his success for long. His rival Ḥājjī Cherkes, ruler of Astrakhan, struck at Mamai's power base in the Crimea, forcing him to leave Sarai and rush home. Meanwhile, Ḥājjī Cherkes proclaimed a khan of his own, Ūljāy-Timur, a descendant of Jochi's son Toqai-Timur, and advanced on Sarai. Khan ʿAbdallāh was once more expelled from the capital, and Ūljāy-Timur was enthroned there by Ḥājjī Cherkes in 1368. Mamai now repaid his rival in kind, attacking Ḥājjī Cherkes' power base Astrakhan. While Ḥājjī Cherkes was distracted with defending Astrakhan, his protégé Ūljāy-Timur lost the throne of Sarai to Ḥasan Beg (1368-1369), a nephew of the earlier khan Khayr-Pūlād, and thus a descendant of Jochi's son Shiban.
Mamai was determined to recover control of Sarai. He captured and executed the exiled Ūljāy-Timur and in 1369 managed to expel Ḥasan Beg from the city, once more enthroning Khan ʿAbdallāh. When the latter died in 1370, Mamai seems to have hesitated before making ʿAbdallāh's young son Muḥammad-Sulṭān khan, at least at Sarai. Accordingly, in 1370-1371 he had Sarai recognize as reigning queen, Tulun Beg Khanum, apparently Mamai's wife, the daughter of Khan Berdi Beg. Meanwhile, Mamai's Crimean headquarters already coined in the name of Muḥammad-Sulṭān. After suppressing opposition in Volga Bulgaria with the help of Dmitrij of Suzdal', Mamai felt secure enough to proclaim Muḥammad-Sulṭān khan at Sarai the end of 1371 or the beginning of 1372.
Mamai's success once again proved ephemeral. Perhaps during Mamai's absence, in 1373, Sarai attracted a new conqueror, Urus Khan, another descendant of Jochi's son Tuqa-Timur, who had become ruler of the former Ulus of Orda in the eastern portion of the Golden Horde. Urus appears to have ejected Mamai's protégé Muḥammad-Sulṭān from Sarai, only to lose the city immediately (if he ever held it at this point) after failing to dislodge Ḥājjī Cherkes from Astrakhan. This rivalry allowed another descendant of Shiban, Khayr-Pūlād's brother Īl Beg, to seize Sarai briefly in 1374. Mamai returned to Sarai, defeating and expelling Īl Beg, and reinstalling Muḥammad-Sulṭān in 1374. No sooner had Mamai succeeded in this task, that he was again forced to attend to a crisis on the western frontier, where the Lithuanians and Wallachians had defeated one of his lieutenants. As in 1362, his rapid response met with some success, but in the process he lost control of Sarai: Muḥammad-Sulṭān was expelled by again by Urus Khan in 1374. He lost the city in his turn in 1375, to Qāghān Beg, the son of Īl Beg. Qāghān Beg subsequently yielded the throne of Sarai to his cousin ʿArab Shāh, son of Khayr-Pūlād, in 1377. Finally, in 1380, ʿArab Shāh was forced to yield Sarai to Tokhtamysh, the eventual nemesis of both Urus Khan and Mamai.
After the ejection of Mamai's protégé Muḥammad-Sulṭān from Sarai in 1374, apart from a possible brief occupation of the city in either 1375 or 1376, Mamai and his puppet khans no longer controlled the traditional capital of the Golden Horde. Nevertheless, they still exercised authority in the lands north, west, and south of the city, and in 1375 Mamai was able to have his khan recognized at Astrakhan, following the death of his old rival Ḥājjī Cherkes. Mamai's attempt to retain suzerainty over the Russian princes, however, was successfully challenged and undermined by the new Khan ʿArab Shāh, who in 1378 defeated and killed Mamai's subordinate ally Tagai, the governor of Mokhshi. Continued reverses in Volga Bulgaria and Russia (see below) threatened Mamai's position, and perhaps because of this he disposed of his puppet khan Muḥammad-Sulṭān and replaced him with a new protégé, Tūlāk, by February 1379.
Mamai and Overseas: Mamluks and Italians
During the 1370s, Mamai reestablished the traditional friendly relations between the Golden Horde and Mamluk Egypt, on behalf of his khan. Closer to home, he was in frequent diplomatic contact or armed conflict with the Italian merchant colonies in the Crimea and, more generally, the northern shores of the Black Sea. The rivalry between Venetians and Genoese exacerbated the difficulties involved in these relations. When the Venetians of Tana supported Kildi Beg as khan, Mamai punished their leadership, including the Venetian consul Jacopo Corner. Subsequently, he sought to improve relations with them by granting them a lower tribute in a diploma issued in the name of his khan, ʿAbdallāh, in 1362. Later, in 1369, Mamai lowered the Venetian tribute even more, restoring the amount paid before the wars between Öz Beg and Jani Beg and the Italians. Mamai, moreover, allowed the Venetians to build fortifications at Tana: they built a small fortress in 1370, which they expanded in 1375, to protect themselves from their Genoese rivals. Mamai's interactions with the Genoese appear to have been more frequent. In the early 1370s the relations were peaceful, and in 1374 Mamai himself was received with honor in Genoese Caffa. To maintain his good relations with the Genoese, Mamai went as far as to ignore their seizure of Soldaia from the Prince of Gothia, one of his vassals. After his loss of Sarai in 1374, Mamai became more concerned about these Genoese gains in the Crimea, confiscated Soldaia and other settlements that had been taken over by the Genoese, and proceeded to fortify his administrative center at Solkhat. Mamai may have shown favor to the Pisan colony at Porto Pisano on the Don, on the north coast of the Sea of Azov.
Mamai and Lithuania
Perhaps to offset the economic influence of the Italian merchants, Mamai also granted diplomas to merchants from Polish Cracow in 1372 and from its rival, Galician L'vov, in 1379. Relations with Lithuania, ruled by Algirdas (1345-1377) and Jogaila (1377-1434) were dominated by diplomatic and military concerns. On at least two occasions, in 1362 and 1374, Mamai lost control over Sarai, because he and the bulk of his forces had to rush to the western frontier to oppose Lithuanian advances from the northwest. Although for the most part he managed to stem these advances, Mamai lost territory to Lithuania, most notably the Podolia following the Lithuanian victory at the Battle of Blue Waters in 1362. The influence or overlordship of the Golden Horde in Moldavia also ended about this time, the principality becoming autonomous, albeit under Hungarian and Lithuanian influence. While the Lithuanians were exploiting the troubles within the Golden Horde to their advantage, Mamai appears to have attempted to do the same during the competition for power within Lithuania after the death of Algirdas in 1377 between his brother and son: in 1380 the Lithuanian prince Aleksandras Karijotaitis fell in battle against the Mongols. Algirdas' son Jogaila eventually decided that he needed Mongol support against his uncle, and sent an envoy to Mamai to make peace and arrange for an alliance between them.
Mamai could benefit from his new Lithuanian alliance to keep the Russians in line, especially as the prince of Moscow, also grand prince of Vladimir became increasingly recalcitrant and refused to pay his heavy tribute in silver to the Mongols. Military operations and raids for plunder yielded limited results. Although some other Russian princes did continue to pay their tribute (most notably that of Tver'), Mamai sought alternatives to make up for the lost influx of silver. One was to use gold obtained in long distance trade with India to mint coins for commerce with the Italians.
Attempts to control the Principalities of Rus'
Early in his political career, Mamai may have assisted the in the diplomatic initiative that secured the liberation of the Metropolitan Aleksej from Lithuanian captivity, and his return to Moscow in 1360. Even while ejected from Sarai in 1363, Mamai, in the name of his puppet khan ʿAbdallāh, sought to secure the service and tribute of the Russian princes, and to that end he came to an arrangement with Dmitrij of Moscow and the Metropolitan Aleksej, lowering the amount of tribute owed to the khan; the prince of Moscow was also confirmed in his possession of Rostov. The rival khan Murād accordingly invested another Russian prince, Dmitrij Konstantinovič of Suzdal', as grand prince of Vladimir. Similarly, Mamai and Khan ʿAzīz Shaykh supported rival claimants for the throne of Nižnij Novgorod in 1365; in this instance, Mamai supported Dmitrij Konstantinovič, who subsequently helped Mamai subdue opposition in Volga Bulgaria in 1370. The struggle for supreme authority in the Golden Horde thus presented the Russian princes with both challenges and opportunities.
In 1370, Mamai shifted his favor from Dmitrij of Moscow (who had failed to assist Mamai's cause in Volga Bulgaria) to the prince of Tver' Mihail Aleksandrovič, who was duly invested as grand prince of Vladimir. Dmitrij did not yield the grand princely throne, and in fact attacked Mihail as he was returning from Sarai, forcing him to flee to his brother-in-law Algirdas of Lithuania. Although the Lithuanians took up Mihail's cause and besieged Moscow in December 1370, the siege was lifted by the arrival of Dmitrij's allies. The Lithuanians returned home, while Mihail went to Sarai to seek Mamai's help. He received a second investiture with the grand princely throne of Vladimir in early 1371, but was refused entry into Vladimir by the inhabitants. Dmitrij ignored Mamai's instructions to submit to Mihail, but soon presented himself before Mamai with gifts, and secured his own confirmation as grand prince of Vladimir. In effect, Mamai had forced the princes of Moscow and Tver' to bid for the throne of Vladimir with gifts, which enriched Mamai and his followers. This opportunistic policy did not, however, solidify Mamai's control over the Russian princes, and in 1373 Dmitrij of Moscow assumed an ambivalent attitude during Mamai's raid into the lands of Rjazan'.
Mamai lost the cooperation of the Russian princes, and especially Dmitrij of Moscow, after his loss of Sarai in 1374. Dmitrij may have felt the need or opportunity to refuse Mamai's demands for tribute, as his influx of silver from Hanseatic trade in the Baltic declined, while the Golden Horde was apparently impacted by an outbreak of plague. Emboldened by the attitude of Moscow, Nižnij Novgorod arrested and beat Mamai's envoys in 1374. Mamai retaliated by raiding the lands of Nižnij Novgorod and sacking Novosil' in 1375; he also invested Mihail of Tver' with the title of grand prince of Vladimir once again. Dmitrij immediately besieged Tver' and secured Mihail's renunciation of the elusive claim, while signing a defense pact against the Mongols. By 1376, most Russian princes transferred their obedience to Qāghān Beg and his cousin ʿArab Shāh, serving them in a punitive expedition in Volga Bulgaria. When the Russian princes helped themselves to local wealth without authorization, they risked the khan's wrath, and in 1377 the Moscow and Nižnij Novgorod joined forces to defend themselves against their new overlord. But while ʿArab Shāh prepared to engage them, and in the absence of the Muscovite forces, Mamai intervened (assisted by the Mordva), defeated the Nižegorodians at the P'jana river, and then sacked and burned Nižnij Novgorod in 1377. Unwilling to see his overlordship over the Russian princes pass back to Mamai, ʿArab Shāh raided through Suzdalia and sacked Rjazan'.
Three final defeats: Vozha, Kulikovo, Kalka
In 1378, Mamai dispatched an army under several emirs against Rjazan', which had not yet recovered from the raid of ʿArab Shāh the previous year. Oleg Ivanovič, the prince of Rjazan' was unable to offer resistance, but Dmitrij of Moscow decided to oppose the Mongols. As they were crossing the Voža river on 11 August 1378, the Mongols were beset on three sides by the Muscovites, defeated, and turned to flight. The battle was Dmitrij's first victory against the Mongols, and resulted in heavy losses among the Mongol warriors and even commanders. Humiliated and irritated, Mamai led another raid on Rjazan', once more sacking the city.
Perhaps trying to recover his position by diplomacy, Mamai next showed favor to the Muscovite candidate for the newly vacant metropolitan throne, Archimandrite Mihail, granting him a diploma from the khan in February 1379, long before he could be appointed metropolitan by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. The friendly gesture did not yield the desired results, and Mihail perished during the sea voyage from Caffa to Constantinople. Mamai also made one more attempt to turn the Russian princes against each other, sending a renegade Muscovite boyar to incite Mihail of Tver' against Dmitrij of Moscow; the plan failed when he was recognized and arrested at Serpuhov, to be publicly executed in Moscow at the end of August 1379.
His other plans having failed, Mamai sent an ultimatum to Dmitrij of Moscow, demanding that the grand prince submit and pay an increased tribute to Mamai's new khan, Tūlāk. Dmitrij failed to accede to the demand, and Mamai prepared for war. He sought out the support of Jogaila of Lithuania and was also assured of the cooperation of Oleg Ivanovič of Rjazan'. While Mamai was still gathering his forces (including mercenaries from Transcaucasia and Genoese Crimea), an alliance of Russian forces under Dmitrij of Moscow, excluding the princes of Tver' and Rjazan', crossed southward into Mongol territory in an anticipatory advance. Abandoning their usual defence strategy, the Russian forces suddenly attacked Mamai's army on 8 September 1380 at Kulikovo Field on the banks of the Neprjadva river near the Don. Mamai's mercenaries were perhaps poorly coordinated, although they offered determined resistance. Mamai's puppet khan failed to reach safety and was forced to fight, perishing in the engagement. Much of Mamai's force failed to engage before a Russian ambush regimen turned the tide of the battle definitively in Dmitrij's favor. Mamai's forces routed and he fled the battlefield, leaving it in the hands of Dmitrij, who was later called Donskoj ("of the Don") in memory of his victory.
While Mamai was concentrating on Russian affairs, a descendant of Jochi's son Togai-Buqa named Tokhtamysh was rising to power in the east. Having already challenged his cousin Urus Khan, he sought the protection and support of Timur (Tamerlane), and then proceeded to replace Urus' sons as ruler of the former Ulus of Orda by 1379. In early 1380, Tokhtamysh was able to advance on Sarai and to obtain the submission and abdication of Khan ʿArab Shāh. The advance of Tokhtamysh, and his continued success (he conquered Astrakhan later in 1380), sabotaged Mamai's hopes of avenging his defeat at Kulikovo. Mamai was now forced to oppose Tokhtamysh on the Kalka River. Perhaps at the head of larger and better-rested forces, Mamai could hope for victory. However, he now lacked a legitimate khan to use as his protégé, and at any rate Tokhtamysh had already begun to suborn some of Mamai's emirs. In the resulting battle, many of Mamai's commanders deserted to Tokhtamysh together with their troops. Mamai fled the battlefield with his remaining loyal supporters, but lost his harem and much of his possessions to the victor.
Death
Mamai and his retinue made their way to the Crimea. Mistrusting the loyalty and ability of his governors there, Mamai decided to seek refuge in Genoese Caffa. However, fearing the wrath of Tokhtamysh, the city's commune refused to admit Mamai within the walls. Still pursued by Tokhtamysh's agents, Mamai now headed to his old headquarters at Solkhat. Here, too, he was refused admittance: the population and the governor, Qutluq-Buqa, did not want to provoke Tokhtamysh. Besides, the governor hoped to preserve his position under the new ruler, while the populace resented the heavy taxes Mamai had levied to fortify the city. At the end of 1380 or the beginning of 1381, the agents of Tokhtamysh caught up with Mamai outside Solkhat and killed him. Nevertheless, he was given an honorable burial by order of Tokhtamysh. The death of Mamai paved the way for Tokhtamysh to attempt the reunification of the Golden Horde.
Legacy
The memory of Mamai has endured for centuries. Contemporary Russian language has an expression "как Мамай прошёл" (kak Mamaj prošjol), which translates roughly to "it is as if Mamai came through", used to describe an utter mess.
The burial of Mamai was found by the native Crimean and famous Russian painter Ivan Aivazovsky. Mamai was buried in a village of Şeyh Mamay (today Aivazovske, Kirovske Raion).
Purported descendants: Princes Glinskie
Mamai's son Manṣūr Kiyat entered the service of Tokhtamysh; his son Aleksandr, who had converted to Christianity, entered the service of Vytautas of Lithuania and was made prince of Glinsk with multiple estates around the modern city of Poltava (Ukraine). This is supposed to have occurred in the early 15th century, although the first documented mention of the Glinski princes dates to 1437. Mihail L'vovič Glinskij was the most illustrious member of the family: he studied at the German university, took part as a knight in the Italian Wars, was the most powerful man in Lithuania in the 16th century, but later rebelled and ran away with his brothers to Muscovy and helped the Russians to retake the city of Smolensk. His niece Elena Glinskaya was married to Vasilij III of Moscow, and Ivan the Terrible was their son.
Mamai (d. 1380/1381)
Manṣūr Kiyat
Aleksandr (died after 1399)
Ivan Aleksandrovič m. Anastasija Danilovna Ostrožskaja
Fëdor Ivanovič
Semën Ivanovič
Fëdor Semënovič
Bogdan Fëdorovič (d. 1506/1512)
Boris Ivanovič (d. after 1451)
Lev Borisovič
Ivan L'vovič (d. before 1522)
Aleksandr Ivanovič
Mihail L'vovič (d. 1534) m. Elena Ivanovna Telepneva-Obolenskaja
Vasilij Mihajlovič (d. 1565)
Vasilij L'vovič (d. 1515) m. Ana Jakšić
Jurij Vasil'evič (d. 1547) m. Ksenija Vasil'evna
Mihail Vasil'evič (d. 1559)
Ivan Mihajlovič (d. 1602) m. Anna Grigor'evna Skuratova
Anna Ivanovna
Elena Vasil'evna (d. 1538) m. Vasilij III Ivanovič of Russia (d. 1533)
Ivan IV Vasil'evič of Russia (d. 1584) m. Anastasija Romanovna
Fëdor I Ivanovič of Russia (d. 1598) of Russia m. Irina Fëdorovna Godunova
Feodosija Fëdorovna (d. 1594)
Grigorij Borisovič
Ivan Borisovič
References
Gaev, A. G., "Genealogija i hronologija Džučidov: K vyjasneniju rodoslovija numizmatičeski zafiksirovannyh pravitelej Ulusa Džuči," Drevnosti Povolž'ja i drugih regionov 4: Numizmatičeskij sbornik 3 (2002) 9-55.
Howorth, H. H., History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th century, Part II.1, London, 1880.
Jackson, P., The Mongols and the West, 1221-1410, London, 2005.
Martin, J., Medieval Russia, 980-1584, Cambridge, 1995.
Mirgaleev, I. M., Političeskaja istorija Zolotoj Ordy perioda pravlenija Toktamyš-hana, Kazan', 2003.
Počekaev, R. J., Mamaj: Istorija “anti-geroja” v istorii, Sankt-Peterburg, 2010.
Sagdeeva, R. Z., Serebrjannye monety hanov Zolotoj Ordy, Moscow, 2005.
Sidorenko, V. A., "Hronologija pravlenii zolotoordynskih hanov 1357-1380 gg.," Materialov po arheologii, istorii i ètnografii Tavrii 7 (2000) 267-288.
Varvarovskij, J. E., Ulus Džuči v 60-70-e gody XIV veka, Kazan', 2008; posthumously published version of author's dissertation Raspad Ulusa Džuči v 60-70-e gody XIV veka (po dannym pis'mennyh istočnikov i numizmatiki, Kazan', 1994.
Vernadsky, G., The Mongols and Russia, New Haven, 1953.
Vohidov, Š. H. (trans.), Istorija Kazahstana v persidskih istočnikah. 3. Muʿizz al-ansāb. Almaty, 2006.
Golden Horde
1335 births
1380 deaths
14th-century Mongolian people
Ethnic Kazakh people
Generals of the Mongol Empire
Warriors of Asia
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241833
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erkki%20Tuomioja
|
Erkki Tuomioja
|
Erkki Sakari Tuomioja (born 1 July 1946) is a Finnish politician and a member of the Finnish Parliament. From 2000 to 2007 and 2011 to 2015, he served as the minister for foreign affairs. He was president of the Nordic Council in 2008.
Tuomioja is a member of the Social Democratic Party of Finland, although his political views are thought to be more to the left than the party line. He is also a member of ATTAC. In 1975, Tuomioja dated Tarja Halonen who later became the president of Finland.
Tuomioja comes from a family of politicians. His father Sakari Tuomioja was a prominent liberal Finnish politician and diplomat, and the challenger of Urho Kekkonen for the conservatives and liberals in the 1956 presidential elections. His maternal grandmother was Hella Wuolijoki, the Estonian born writer and socialist activist.
Tuomioja holds the degrees of Master of Social Sciences (1971) and Master of Science in Economics and Business Administration (1974) from the Helsinki School of Economics, as well as Licentiate in Social Sciences (1980) and Doctor in Social Sciences (1996) from the University of Helsinki. In addition to Finnish, Tuomioja speaks Swedish, English, French, German and Estonian.
Tuomioja has been a member of the Finnish Parliament 1970–1979 and 1991–present. He held the position of minister of trade and industry in Lipponen's 2nd government, and became the minister of foreign affairs after Tarja Halonen was elected as president of Finland. Tuomioja is the longest serving minister for foreign affairs of Finland.
Tuomioja, like several other Finnish socialist politicians of today, took part in the illegal occupation of the Old Student House (Vanha ylioppilastalo) in Helsinki on 25 November 1968. He was a member of the anti-war group Committee of 100 of Finland and took part in the so-called Erik Schüller case, in which a group of students made public incitement against obligatory conscription. Despite his anti-war stance, Tuomioja did carry out his own mandatory military service and is a reservist staff sergeant.
Tuomioja is the author of several books. His A Delicate Shade of Pink about his grandmother Hella Wuolijoki and her sister Salme Murrik won the Non-Fiction Finlandia Prize in 2006. The book was originally written in English and translated to Finnish as Häivähdys punaista.
Tuomioja was behind the initiative to establish Historians without Borders in Finland as an NGO. He has acted as Chairman of the Board of HWB Finland since the founding meeting in the summer of 2015. Tuomioja is a declared atheist.
European Union presidency
When Finland held the rotating European Union presidency in the second half of 2006, Tuomioja had a prominent role as the spokesman of European Union foreign policy. He was among the first to demand an immediate cessation of hostilities in the 2006 Israel–Lebanon conflict. He was one of Finland's most dominant politicians in the 1990s.
See also
Israel–Finland relations
References
External links
Official website (partly in English) at the Finnish parliament
Personal website
Finland's EU Presidency
Video interviews with Erkki Tuomioja
Speeches and Articles by Dr. Erkki Tuomioja
Dr. Erkki Tuomioja - The Role of Soft Power in EU Common Foreign Policy
|-
1946 births
Living people
Politicians from Helsinki
Finnish people of Estonian descent
Social Democratic Party of Finland politicians
Ministers for Foreign Affairs of Finland
Ministers of Trade and Industry of Finland
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1970–72)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1972–75)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1975–79)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1991–95)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1995–99)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1999–2003)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (2003–07)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (2007–11)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (2011–15)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (2015–19)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (2019–23)
Children of national leaders
Finnish historians
Finnish bloggers
Tieto-Finlandia Award winners
|
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] |
241834
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major%20League%20Lacrosse
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Major League Lacrosse
|
Major League Lacrosse (MLL) was a men's field lacrosse league in the United States. The league's inaugural season was in 2001. Teams played anywhere from ten to 16 games in a summertime regular season. This is followed by a four-team playoff for the championship trophy, the Steinfeld Trophy, named after founder Jake Steinfeld. League attendance peaked at 6,417 in 2011 and the 2019 average was 4,587.
The league was made up of the Chesapeake Bayhawks and New York Lizards (originally the Baltimore Bayhawks and Long Island Lizards), who competed in the first three championship games, with the Lizards winning two. The Philadelphia Barrage returned to the league in 2020 after an 11-season hiatus. After moving from Bridgeport to Philadelphia, the Barrage won three championships in four years from 2004 to 2007. The Boston Cannons, the last of the six charter franchises to remain in its original market with its original name, won its first championship in 2011. For much of the league's history, the Denver Outlaws have been the only team west of the Mississippi River, being part of the league's ambitious westward expansion in 2006. Being owned by the Pat Bowlen family and the Denver Broncos, the Outlaws have been successful from the start, missing the postseason only once in 14 seasons, while claiming three championships in ten appearances. The Connecticut Hammerheads are the league's youngest franchise, and were set to play at Rafferty Stadium near Bridgeport in 2020 before the COVID-19 pandemic forced a shortened, quarantined season.
The final champions were the Boston Cannons, who defeated the Denver Outlaws at Navy-Marine Corps Memorial Stadium in Annapolis, Maryland following a COVID-19-shortened 2020 season.
On December 16, 2020, the league announced that it would be merging with the Premier Lacrosse League. At the time of the announcement, the 2020 MLL champion Boston Cannons were announced as the only team continuing play in the 2021 season as members of the PLL. Their roster would be set via expansion draft and, following PLL style, dropping "Boston" from their name, becoming the Cannons Lacrosse Club.
History
Founding (2001–2005)
Major League Lacrosse was founded in 1999 by Jake Steinfeld, Dave Morrow and Tim Robertson. Steinfeld is the creator of the Body By Jake line of exercise equipment and videos. Morrow is a former All-American lacrosse player at Princeton and the president of Warrior Sports. Tim Robertson is the son of televangelist Pat Robertson and the former CEO of The Family Channel.
Steinfeld was a former lacrosse player at Cortland State (NY), read an article about Dave Morrow. After reading the article, Steinfeld couldn't believe that with the excitement the sport of lacrosse has, there was not a professional outdoor league. Steinfeld said, "For years, America's top collegiate lacrosse players have not had the opportunity to play in a professional outdoor league at the conclusion of their collegiate careers. Those days are over with the creation of Major League Lacrosse."
The league held two separate drafts to stock the six teams for the 2001 season. The first draft took place in 2000 for post-collegiate players. A second draft was held on June 1, 2001, in Baltimore, Maryland, for players whose college eligibility had expired in 2001. Ryan Mollett of Princeton was selected first overall by the Rochester Rattlers. In addition, each team was assigned three franchise players to each team before the initial draft.
MLL began play in 2001 with six teams in the northeastern U.S. split into two divisions. The American Division included teams in Boston, Bridgeport, Connecticut, and on Long Island; the National Division included teams in Baltimore, New Jersey, and Rochester. All teams were owned by the league, which assigned three franchise players to each team before the initial draft.
The first MLL game took place on June 7, 2001, with the Baltimore Bayhawks defeating the Long Island Lizards 16–13 at Homewood field in Baltimore, Maryland. Chris Turner scored the first goal in MLL history.
The MLL played a 14-game regular season its first two years, then the schedule was cut to 12 games. After the first year, the league's playoff format had the top teams in each division advancing to the semifinals, with two wild card playoff spots going to the teams with the next-best records regardless of division.
The first MLL Championship Game saw the Long Island Lizards beat the Baltimore Bayhawks 15–11 in September 2001. The game was played at the John F. Kennedy Stadium in Bridgeport, Connecticut. Paul Gait was named the game's MVP.
Four out of the first five championship games were between the Long Island Lizards and the Baltimore Bayhawks. The Lizards won titles in 2001 and 2003, while the Bayhawks won in 2002 and 2005. The recently relocated Philadelphia Barrage beat the Boston Cannons 13–11 in 2004's final.
In 2003, New Balance became a "founding member" and major sponsor of MLL. New Balance founder and CEO, Jim Davis got very involved in the operation of the league, including providing financial support. Davis still owns the Dallas Rattlers.
In 2005, Andrew Goldstein became the first American male team-sport professional athlete to be openly gay during his playing career. Goldstein played goalie for the Long Island Lizards from 2005 to 2007, although he only appeared in two games in 2006.
Expansion and contraction (2006–2011)
MLL added four teams for the 2006 season, bringing the league's number of teams up to ten. The expansion markets were Los Angeles, Denver, Chicago, and San Francisco, extending the league across the country and into top media markets. MLL combined the original six teams into the Eastern Conference and put the new teams into the Western Conference.
The Los Angeles Riptide were owned by the Anschutz Entertainment Group and played its home games at the Home Depot Center. Denver Broncos' owner Pat Bowlen brought the Denver Outlaws to an NFL stadium, Mile High. The other new franchises were the Chicago Machine and the San Francisco Dragons.
Despite winning championships in 2006 and 2007, Philadelphia didn't attract more than 2,500 fans to their games. So in 2008, the Barrage tested out new markets by playing all of its "home" matches in five other cities: Cary, North Carolina; Hillsboro, Oregon; Irving, Texas; St. Louis; and Virginia Beach. In addition, the Barrage's "home game" against the Cannons was played in Boston.
At the end of the 2008 season, four teams – Los Angeles, New Jersey, Philadelphia, and San Francisco – folded due to financial problems. Several of these teams suffered from poor attendance, San Francisco drew 2,808 per game and only 1,920 in New Jersey. This contraction forced the remaining six teams to form one conference.
The Rochester Rattlers won the 2008 Steinfeld Cup but like the Barrage, struggled at the gate. At the start of the 2009 season, a new ownership group in Toronto bought the rights to the Rochester franchise. The Toronto Nationals inherited the staff and players of the team, but the Rattlers' name and team colors were left in Rochester for the possibility of a future team. That same group of players went on to win another championship in 2009 playing for a different team in a different country.
The Chicago Machine played the entire 2010 season as a traveling team testing expansion markets for the league, before deciding that the franchise would be moving to Rochester and adopting the Rattlers name in 2011.
In 2010, the Bayhawks and Lizards met for the fifth time in the championship game. The Bayhawks prevailed 13–9, almost the same score as when they beat Long Island 15–9 five years earlier. The newly renamed Chesapeake Bayhawks went on to win two more championships in the next three years, in 2012 and 2013. Their five Steinfeld Cup trophies are the most in MLL history.
The league's attendance peaked at 6,417 per game in the 2011 season. The individual franchises had a wide range of local support. Denver lead the league in attendance, drawing 12,331 fans per game in 2011, while the relocated Hamilton Nationals had 1,214 people per game, one-tenth of Denver's attendance.
LXM Pro Tour
In late 2009, Kyle Harrison, Scott Hochstadt, Craig Hochstadt, Xander Ritz, and Max Ritz formed the LXM Pro Tour. The tour would feature two teams playing games across the country at special events involving the LXM Pro game and youth activities. The tour competed for players with the MLL as the more established league would not let players under contract play in other professional lacrosse events.
On February 13, 2014, MLL announced a partnership with the LXM Pro Tour, a week after the league announced a new equipment deal with STX, a sponsor of one of the LXM Pro teams. The deal moved LXM to the MLL off-season and allowed players to participate in both MLL and LXM. However, LXM Pro didn't hold any tour stops after the announcement.
Southern trend (2012–2018)
During the early years of MLL, the league did not have any teams in the southeast. In January 2011, Commissioner David Gross announced that Charlotte, North Carolina, as well as Columbus, Ohio, were granted expansion teams for the 2012 season. The Ohio Machine and Charlotte Hounds opened play in April 2012, with both teams missing the playoffs in their inaugural season. With the expansion, the league grew to eight teams and expanded its schedule to fourteen games.
In November 2013, the Hamilton Nationals folded and an expansion franchise was awarded to the Florida Launch for the 2014 season. The Launch inherited the Nationals roster. The Atlanta Blaze became the ninth MLL team in 2016. The Rattlers relocated [again] from Rochester, New York, in 2018 to Dallas, Texas, and began play as the Dallas Rattlers in 2018.
Second contraction (2019 to 2020)
On April 1, 2019, just two months before the start of the season, the league announced that the Charlotte Hounds, Florida Launch, and Ohio Machine would not be playing in 2019. While the Hounds announced they would be back in 2021 under new ownership in a renovated stadium, the Launch and Machine effectively folded. The announcement dropped the league down to six teams, the fewest teams since 2011, and meant all remaining owners owned only one team. Jim Davis, owner of New Balance, had owned the Hounds, Launch, and Machine, but he now owns only the Dallas Rattlers.
Returning from a two-year retirement, 44-year-old John Grant Jr. broke the record for career points scored during the 2019 season. Also in 2019, MLL saw its first goal by a Japanese player, Kohta Kurashima, who is also the first Japanese born player in MLL history. The Rattlers ceased operations after the 2019 season. and the staff and roster were shifted to an expansion team called the Connecticut Hammerheads. The Atlanta Blaze also ceased operations after the 2019 season and were replaced by a resurrected Philadelphia Barrage. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the league announced they would play a week-long quarantined season in Annapolis at Navy-Marine Corps Memorial Stadium with no fans. Every team would play each other once (five total games) before a four-team playoff as normal.
PLL Merger (2020)
On December 16, 2020, it was announced that the MLL had agreed to merge all operations with the Premier Lacrosse League. Under this agreement, the leagues will operate as one under the "PLL" brand and model. In order to accommodate the influx of players the PLL will be expanding the league to include its eighth touring team, known as Cannons Lacrosse Club, paying homage to the 2020 MLL champions, the Boston Cannons. The roster of this new team will be determined in the 2021 expansion draft, the details of which have not yet been announced.
Rules
A Major League Lacrosse Field is 110 yards long and 60 yards wide. The game is 60 minutes long, divided into four 15-minute quarters with 15-minute intermission at halftime, plus multiple 10-minute golden goal periods for regulation games ending in ties unless one team scores, which wins the game. Teams are required to dress twenty players, with ten players on the field at a time. MLL rules are based on NCAA rules with various changes. The most significant are a two-point goal line from each goal, a 60-second shot clock, the elimination of the restraining box, and allowing dive shots. The shot clock was originally 45 seconds before it was changed to 60 seconds for the 2005 season. From the inception of the league to 2008, there was a limit of three long-stick defensemen per team in order to promote scoring. Beginning in 2009, the league conformed to high school and college lacrosse rules and now allows four long–sticks per team on the field at any one time. 20 players dress for each regular-season game.
Teams
Timeline
Championship games
The MLL Championship Game was played at a neutral site decided by the league. Teams qualified for the playoffs by finishing with one of the top four records during the regular season. Those four teams played in a semifinal to determine who plays in the Championship Game.
Performance by team
Italics indicates a defunct team
Draft
Every year, Major League Lacrosse held a collegiate player draft. The collegiate player draft occurred prior to the league season. Only players who competed at the collegiate level and whose NCAA eligibility has expired in the previous season were eligible for the draft. The exact date, location, and number of rounds varied each year.
In addition, each off-season, MLL heald a supplemental player draft. The draft was held to expand a team's protected list to a pre-season active roster of 40 players. If a player wasn't selected, they returned to the player pool.
Top draft picks
Attendance
Since 2006, overall league attendance has varied between 3,800 and 6,500 per game, peaking in 2011 and steadily decreasing to an all-time low in 2018. There has always been a great deal of disparity in attendance figures for different teams in the league. Playing at Invesco Field at Mile High, the Denver Outlaws have led the league in attendance all but one year of their existence. A significant portion of Denver's attendance is from one game each year. The Outlaws established a tradition of having a game on the Fourth of July that always attracts the biggest single-game attendance in the league. 31,644 people attended the game and watched fireworks afterward in 2015. The Fourth of July game has regularly attracted over 25,000 people. Outside of this special event game, Denver currently draws about 6,000 per game.
League operations
The league is owned by Major League Lacrosse, LLC, which is controlled by the founders and the six franchises. The founders – Steinfeld, Morrow, Robertson, and Davis – control five of 14 ownership shares (36%); the nine franchises each have one ownership share (7%). Davis owns two of the nine franchises and has a stake in two others.
Atlanta Blaze owner Peter Trematerra sued Major League Lacrosse, LLC, Commissioner Gross, Jim Davis and several businesses controlled by the founders of the league in April 2017. Trematerra alleged that Gross provided inaccurate information about the profitability of the league in 2014, when Trematerra was considering buying an expansion franchise. The suit also claimed that because the league, some of its major sponsors, and Lax Sports Network were all controlled by the same people and entities, sponsorship and broadcast rights were sold for below market value.
In August 2017, the MLL accidentally exposed the confidential personal information of over 1,000 players, nearly everyone who has ever played in the league or tried out for a team. The information was stored in one excel spreadsheet that was publicly linked on the league's website for a day. It is unknown if any player experienced identity theft as a result of the incident.
Headquarters:
East Rutherford, New Jersey (1999–2001)
Secaucus, New Jersey (2001–2004)
Boston, Massachusetts (2004–2020)
Television coverage
Fox Sports Network broadcast games for the first two seasons, then ESPN2 televised a weekly MLL game from 2003 through 2011. In 2012, ESPN2 televised three regular season games, the All-Star Game, one semifinal, and the MLL Championship game. MLL games have not been regularly shown on ESPN2 since 2012 due to low ratings. Games continue to be streamed on ESPN3. CBS Sports Network has televised all-star games and the playoffs since 2013. MLL did not receive any money from these networks for these deals.
In 2017, Lax Sports Network was given exclusive rights to all 63 regular season games. Twitter streamed the semifinal games and CBS Sports Network broadcast the final.
On April 1, 2019, the league announced they had reacquired broadcast rights from Lax Sports Network. It was unclear where each team would broadcast its games, though the Cannons announced on March 28 that NBC Sports Boston would air all 16 of their games.
One day prior to the start of the 2019 season, the league announced that 12 games would be broadcast on Stadium and the network would air a weekly studio show.
Also in 2019, MLL re-partnered with the ESPN network. Weekly coverage was shown on ESPN+ and several games, including the league championship, were broadcast nationally on ESPN2. MLL saw their biggest television-reach in league history. The semi-finals and finals combined for 297 million total household viewers.
Major League Lacrosse would expand its relationship with ESPN for the COVID-19-shortened 2020 season. All 18 games (including postseason) will be available on the ESPN family of networks, including ESPN+. ESPN2 will broadcast two games on Sunday, July 19. A few days later, the partnership was expanded to TSN for Canadian viewers and ESPN Player to allow fans to watch from over 130 countries. The championship game will be broadcast on ESPN's flagship station on Sunday, July 26.
References
External links
Sports leagues established in 2001
Professional sports leagues in the United States
2001 establishments in the United States
|
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241838
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heidenheim%20%28district%29
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Heidenheim (district)
|
Heidenheim () is a Landkreis (district) in the east of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from north clockwise) Ostalbkreis, Dillingen, Günzburg, Alb-Donau and Göppingen.
History
The district dates back to the Oberamt Heidenheim, which was created at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1808 it was enlarged by merging with the Oberamt Giengen. It was converted into a district in 1934/38, and enlarged by municipalities from the Oberamt Neresheim and the Oberamt Ulm. The communal reform of 1973 left the district virtually unchanged.
Geography
The district is located in the high plains of the Swabian Alb (Schwäbische Alb) mountains.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms show the colors of the Lords of Hellenstein in the left half. They ruled the city Heidenheim until 1307. The castle tower to the right symbolizes the many castles in the district. The area was split between many ruling families, who built castles for protecting their ownership.
Cities and municipalities
Former cities and villages
References
External links
Official website (German)
Stuttgart (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg
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241841
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlo%C3%AB%20Annett
|
Chloë Annett
|
Chloë Victoria Annett (born 25 July 1971) is an English actress. She played Holly Turner in Crime Traveller and Kristine Kochanski in series 7 and 8 of the British sitcom Red Dwarf.
Biography
Early life and family
Annett was born and brought up in East Finchley in London, where she attended Mountview Theatre School. Originally, she was going to attend an art school but she went along with one of her friends who had an audition and got in. She reports that her parents were supportive of her career change and encouraged her.
Her father was director Paul Annett, who directed a large number of episodes of the British soap opera EastEnders. Annett's father also directed some episodes of children's drama series Byker Grove, in some of which Annett appeared. Her brother, Jamie Annett, has also directed EastEnders. Her mother is actress and voice expert Margo Annett, author of An Actor's Guide to Auditions and Interviews, who works closely with Thelma Holt and the Cameron Mackintosh foundation. She was married to Alec McKinlay, the manager for the rock groups Oasis and Crowded House with whom she has three children.
Television
Annett has spent time in America, where she had a part in the 1992 TV miniseries Jewels. Back in Britain, most of her roles were bit parts, although she played the starring role of Holly Turner in Crime Traveller in 1997 alongside Michael French, who played Jeff Slade. In 1992, she played the part of Gertrude Winkworth in one episode of the Granada's series Jeeves and Wooster, based on the novels of P.G. Wodehouse, in which Hugh Laurie and Stephen Fry starred. She also played Angela Mortimer, the great-niece of Mrs Pumphrey and the love interest of Tristan Farnon, in one episode ("Hampered") of All Creatures Great and Small.
Annett played Kristine Kochanski in the seventh and eighth series of the British science fiction comedy television series Red Dwarf, a role which she reprised in the final part of the 2009 special, Red Dwarf: Back to Earth.
She won Best Actress at the April 2011 London Independent Film Festival.
Selected filmography
References
External links
.
English soap opera actresses
English television actresses
1971 births
Living people
People from East Finchley
Actresses from London
20th-century English actresses
21st-century English actresses
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Clements
|
Andrew Clements
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Andrew Elborn Clements (May 29, 1949 – November 28, 2019) was an American author of children's literature. His debut novel Frindle won an award determined by the vote of U.S. schoolchildren in about 20 different U.S. states. In June 2015, Frindle was named the Phoenix Award winner for 2016, as it was the best book that did not win a major award when it was published.
Life
Clements was born in Camden, New Jersey, and lived in nearby Oaklyn and Cherry Hill before moving to Springfield, Illinois as a pre-teen. As a child, he enjoyed summers at a lakeside cabin in Maine where he spent his days swimming, hiking, water skiing, and his evenings reading books. After graduating with a Bachelor of Arts in English Literature from Northwestern University and a Masters of Arts in Elementary Education from National Louis University, he worked as a teacher, sharing his love of reading with elementary, middle, and high school students.
He worked for several publishing companies where he published, acquired, edited, marketed, and developed quality children's books. In 1985, Clements added his own work to the market with a picture book entitled Bird Delbert. His first novel was the award-winning Frindle, which has won 16 state book awards, as well as the Christopher Award.
Clements was married to the former Rebecca Pierpont, and they had three sons. He died at his home in Baldwin, Maine, on November 28, 2019, at age 70.
Awards
Frindle
The Children's Literature Association named Frindle the best English-language children's book published in 1996 that did not win a major contemporary book award, thus making it the winner of the Phoenix Award for 2016.
Contemporary Awards
2001: Utah Children's Choice Award
1999–2000: Pennsylvania Young Reader's Choice Award
1999: Texas Children's Crown Award
1999: Pacific Northwest Library Association Young Reader's Choice, (WA, OR, MT, AK, ID, AB, BC)
1999: South Dakota Prairie Pasque Award
1999: Sasquatch Children's Book Award, (WA)
1999: Rebecca Caudill Young Readers Award, (IL)
1998–1999: Maryland Black-Eyed Susan Book Award, 4–6
1998–1999: Young Hoosier Book Award, (IN)
1998–1999: North Carolina Children's Choice Award
1998–1999: Nevada Young Readers' Award
1998–1999: Charlie May Simon Children's Book Award, (AR)
1998–1999: Maud Hart Lovelace Award, MN Youth Reading Award
1998–1999: Georgia Children's Book Award
1998–1999: William Allen White Children's Book Award, (KS)
1998–1999: Massachusetts Children's Book Award
1998: Prize Cento, Cento, Italy
1998: Rhode Island Children's Book Award
1997–1998: Great Stone Face Book Award, (NH)
1997: Judy Lopez Memorial Honor Book (L.A.)Award
1997: Christopher Award
1998–1999 Georgia children's book award
Nominations and runners-up
1999–2000: Nutmeg Children's Book Award, (CT)
1999–2000: Land of Enchantment Book Award, (NM)
1999–2000: California Young Reader Medal
1999–2000: Iowa Children's Choice Award
1999: Garden State Children's Book Award, (NJ)
1998–1999: Wyoming Indian Paintbrush Book Award
1998–1999: Sunshine State Young Readers Award, (FL)
1998–1999: West Virginia Children's Book Award
1998–1999: Virginia Young Reader's Book Award
1998–1999: Sequoyah Children's Book Award, (WA)
1998–1999: Arizona Young Readers’ Award
1998–1999: Texas Bluebonnet Award
1998–1999: Nebraska Golden Sower Award
1998: Battle of the Books Reading List, (NM)
1998: NENE Award, (HI)
1997–1998: Kentucky Bluegrass Award
1997–1998: Dorothy Canfield Fisher Book Award (VT)
1997–1998: Maine Student Book Award
Listings and recommendations
1999: Capitol Choices list, best books for ages 7–10
1998: Chicago Public Library's Best of the Best
1997–1998: Indiana Read-Alouds Too Good to Miss
1997: Horn Book Magazine Fanfare Book
1997: Parents' Choice Honor Book
1996: New York Public Library One Hundred Titles for Reading and Sharing
Other
2004: California Young Readers Medal, The School Story
2004: American Library Association Schneider Family Book Award, Things Not Seen
2007: Edgar Allan Poe Award for best juvenile book, Room One: A Mystery or Two
Bibliography
For all
(As Andrew Elborn) Noah and the Ark and the Animals, illustrated by Ivan Gantschev, Picture Book Studio (Saxonville, MA), 1987.
Santa's Secret Helper, illustrated by Deborah Santini, Picture Book Studio (Saxonville, MA), 1990.
Temple Cat, illustrated by Alan Marks, Picture Book Studio, 1991, illustrated by Kate Kiesler, Clarion (New York, NY), 1996.
Mother Earth's Counting Book, illustrated by Lonni Sue Johnson, Picture Book Studio, 1992.
Billy and the Bad Teacher, illustrated by Elivia Savadier, Picture Book Studio, 1992.
Who Owns the Cow?, illustrated by Joan Landis, Clarion (New York, NY), 1995.
Bright Christmas: An Angel Remembers, illustrated by Kate Kiesler, Clarion (New York, NY), 1996.
Frindle (middle-grade novel), illustrated by Brian Selznick, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 1996.
(Adapter)Philipp's Birthday Book, illustrated by Hanne Turk, North-South Books, 1996.
Riff's BeBop Book, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 1996.
Real Monsters Go for the Mold!, illustrated by Matthew Stoddart, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 1997.
Things That Go EEK on Halloween, illustrated by George Ulrich, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 1997.
Real Monsters Stage Fright, illustrated by Matthew Stoddart, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 1997.
Music Time, Any Time!, illustrated by Tom Leigh, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 1997.
Double Trouble in Walla Walla, illustrated by Salvatore Murdocca, Millbrook Press (Brookfield, CT), 1997.
Workshop, illustrated by David Wisniewski, Clarion (New York, NY), 1998.
Gromble's Haunted Halloween, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 1998.
Hey Dad, Could I Borrow Your Hammer?, illustrated by Jackie Snider, Millbrook Press (Brookfield, CT), 1999.
The Landry News, (middle-grade novel), illustrated by Salvatore Murdocca, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 1999.
Look Who's in the Thanksgiving Play!, illustrated by Mavis Smith, Little Simon (New York, NY), 1999.
The Mouse Family, illustrated by Simon Galkin, Little Simon (New York, NY), 2000.
The Janitor's Boy, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2000.
Circus Family Dog, illustrated by Sue Truesdell, Clarion (New York, NY), 2000.
The Christmas Kitten, illustrated by Simon Galkin, Little Simon (New York, NY), 2000.
The School Story, illustrated by Brian Selznick, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2001.
Things Not Seen (middle-grade novel), Philomel (New York, NY), 2002.
The Jacket (originally serialized in Boston Globe), illustrated by McDavid Henderson, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2002.
A Week in the Woods, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2002.
Slippers at Home, illustrated by Janie Bynum, Dutton (New York, NY), 2004.
Naptime for Slippers, illustrated by Janie Bynum, Dutton (New York, NY), 2004.
The Report Card, illustrated by Brian Selznick, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2004.
The Last Holiday Concert, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2004.
Slippers at School, illustrated by Janie Bynum, Dutton (New York, NY), 2005.
Slippers Loves to Run, illustrated by Janie Bynum, Dutton (New York, NY), 2005.
A Million Is a Lot of Dots, illustrated by Rob Roth, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2005.
Lunch Money, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2005.
Things Hoped For, Philomel Books(New York, NY), 2006
Room One: A Mystery or Two, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2006
No Talking, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2007
Things That Are, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2008
Lost and Found, Atheneum Books (New York, NY), 2008
Extra Credit, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2009
Troublemaker, Atheneum Books (New York, NY), 2011
About Average, Atheneum Books {New York}, 2012
The Map Trap, Atheneum Books (New York, NY), 2014
The Friendship War, Random House Books for Young Readers (New York, NY), 2019
Pets to the Rescue series
Ringo Saves the Day!: A True Story, illustrated by Ellen Beier, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2001.
Brave Norman: A True Story, illustrated by Ellen Beier, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2001.
Tara and Tiree, Fearless Friends: A True Story, illustrated by Ellen Beier, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2002.
Delores and the Big Fire: A True Story, illustrated by Ellen Beier, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2002.
Jake Drake series
Jake Drake Know-It-All, illustrated by Dolores Avenaño, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2001.
Jake Drake, Bully Buster, illustrated by Amanda Harvey, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2001.
Jake Drake, Teacher's Pet, illustrated by Dolores Avenaño, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2002.
Jake Drake, Class Clown, illustrated by Dolores Avenaño, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 2002.
Benjamin Pratt and the Keepers of the School series
We the Children, Atheneum Books (New York, NY), 2010
Fear Itself, Atheneum Books (New York, NY), 2011
The Whites of Their Eyes, Atheneum Books (New York, NY), 2012
In Harm's Way, Atheneum Books (New York, NY), 2013 (with Adam Stower)
We Hold These Truths, Atheneum Books (New York, NY), 2013
Reading program books
Karen's Island, Houghton Mifflin (Boston, MA), 1995.
Three Wishes for Buster, Houghton Mifflin (Boston, MA), 1995.
Bill Picket: An American Original, Texas Style, Houghton Mifflin (Boston, MA), 1996.
Hurricane Andrew, Houghton Mifflin (Boston, MA), 1998.
Ham and Eggs for Jack, Houghton Mifflin (Boston, MA), 1998.
Life in the Desert, Steck-Vaughn, 1998.
Desert Treasure, illustrated by Wayne Anthony Still, Steck-Vaughn, 1998.
Inventors: Making Things Better, Steck-Vaughn, 1998.
Milo's Great Invention, illustrated by Johnansen Newman, Steck-Vaughn, 1998.
References
External links
Andrew Clements at Fantastic Fiction
1949 births
2019 deaths
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
American children's writers
National Louis University alumni
Northwestern University alumni
People from Baldwin, Maine
People from Cherry Hill, New Jersey
People from Oaklyn, New Jersey
Writers from Camden, New Jersey
Writers from Maine
Writers from Springfield, Illinois
|
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241846
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinar
|
Shinar
|
Shinar (; Hebrew , Septuagint ) is the southern region of Mesopotamia in the Hebrew Bible.
Etymology
Hebrew שנער Šinʿar is equivalent to the Egyptian Sngr and Hittite Šanḫar(a), all referring to southern Mesopotamia. Some Assyriologists considered Šinʿar a western variant or cognate of Šumer (Sumer), with their original being the Sumerians' own name for their country, ki-en-gi(-r), but this is "beset with philological difficulties".
Sayce (1895) identified Shinar as cognate with the following names: Sangara/Sangar mentioned in the context of the Asiatic conquests of Thutmose III (15th century BCE); Sanhar/Sankhar of the Amarna letters (14th century BCE); the Greeks' Singara; and modern Sinjar, in Upper Mesopotamia, near the Khabur River. Accordingly, he proposed that Shinar was in Upper Mesopotamia, but acknowledged that the Bible gives important evidence that it was in the south.
Albright (1924) suggested identification with the Kingdom of Khana.
Hebrew Bible
The name Šinʿar occurs eight times in the Hebrew Bible, in which it refers to Babylonia. This location of Shinar is evident from its description as encompassing both Babel/Babylon (in northern Babylonia) and Erech/Uruk (in southern Babylonia). In the Book of Genesis 10:10, the beginning of Nimrod's kingdom is said to have been "Babel [Babylon], and Erech [Uruk], and Akkad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar." Verse 11:2 states that Shinar enclosed the plain that became the site of the Tower of Babel after the Great Flood. After the Flood, the sons of Shem, Ham, and Japheth stayed first in the highlands of Armenia and then migrated to Shinar.
In Genesis 14:1,9, King Amraphel rules Shinar. Shinar is further mentioned in Joshua 7:21; Isaiah 11:11; Daniel 1:2; and Zechariah 5:11, as a general synonym for Babylonia.
Jubilees
The Book of Jubilees 9:3 allots Shinar (or, in the Ethiopic text, Sadna Sena`or) to Ashur, son of Shem. Jubilees 10:20 states that the Tower of Babel was built with bitumen from the sea of Shinar. David Rohl theorized that the Tower was actually located in Eridu, which was once located on the coast of the Persian Gulf, where there are ruins of a massive, ancient ziggurat worked from bitumen.
References
Upper Mesopotamia
Sumer
Torah places
Noach (parashah)
Nimrod
Book of Jubilees
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma%20Bunton
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Emma Bunton
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Emma Lee Bunton (born 21 January 1976) is an English singer, actress, and media personality. She rose to fame in the 1990s as a member of the girl group Spice Girls, in which she was nicknamed Baby Spice. With over 100 million records sold worldwide, the group became the best-selling female group of all time.
During the Spice Girls hiatus, Bunton released her debut solo album, A Girl Like Me (2001), which debuted at number four on the UK Albums Chart, and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry for sales in excess of 100,000 copies. The album spawned the single "What Took You So Long?", which topped the UK Singles Chart, as well as the top five singles "What I Am" and "Take My Breath Away" and the top 20 single "We're Not Gonna Sleep Tonight". Her second studio album, Free Me (2004), included the singles "Free Me", "Maybe", "I'll Be There", and "Crickets Sing for Anamaria". Following the release of her third studio album, Life in Mono (2006), Bunton reunited with the Spice Girls in 2007 for a one-off international tour and greatest hits album. Since 2018, she has reunited as the Spice Girls with Geri Halliwell, Melanie C and Mel B. In 2019, Bunton released her fourth studio album, My Happy Place.
Bunton's television appearances include a recurring role on the BBC One comedy series Absolutely Fabulous (2003-2012), being a contestant on the fourth series of the BBC dancing competition show Strictly Come Dancing, and being a judge on the ITV celebrity skating show Dancing on Ice (2010–2011) and entertainment series Your Face Sounds Familiar (2013). From 2013 to 2018, she was a radio presenter on the Heart Breakfast Show in London with Jamie Theakston, and also currently presents her own show on Sunday evenings.
Early life and career beginnings
Bunton was born in Finchley, Barnet, London. Her parents, Pauline, a karate instructor, and Trevor Bunton, a milkman, split when she was 11, after which she stayed with her mother. She has a younger brother, Paul James. As stated in a TV interview with Eamonn Holmes and Ruth Langsford on This Morning during August 2016, Bunton's maternal family originate from County Wexford, Ireland. Bunton went to St Theresa's Roman Catholic Primary School in Finchley.
She enrolled in the Sylvia Young Theatre School. At the SYTS, she became friendly with Keeley Hawes; they lived and travelled together for six months.
Bunton appeared briefly in the BBC soap opera EastEnders in 1992 as a mugger. In 1993, she appeared in the ITV police drama The Bill, and made a brief appearance as a prostitute in the BBC drama series To Play the King. Bunton also appeared in a public information film for the British government concerning firework safety.
Musical career
1994–2000: Spice Girls
In 1994, Melanie C (Chisholm), Mel B (Brown), Geri Halliwell, and Victoria Beckham responded to an advertisement in The Stage. Around 400 women who answered the ad went to Dance Works studios. Halliwell, Chisholm, Beckham (née Adams), and Brown were originally chosen as the members of the group, along with Michelle Stephenson, who due to her lack of commitment was replaced with Abigail Kis, then Bunton. The group felt insecure about the lack of a contract and were frustrated by the direction in which Heart Management was steering them.
In October 1994, armed with a catalogue of demos and dance routines, the group began touring management agencies. They persuaded Bob Herbert to set up a showcase performance for the group in front of industry writers, producers and A&R men in December 1994 at the Nomis Studios in Shepherd's Bush where they received an "overwhelmingly positive" reaction. Due to the large interest in the group, the Herberts quickly set about creating a binding contract for the group. Encouraged by the reaction they had received at the Nomis showcase, all five members delayed signing contracts on the legal advice from, amongst others, Adams' father Anthony Adams. In March 1995, because of the group's frustration at their management's unwillingness to listen to their visions and ideas, they parted with Heart Management.
The group began a relationship with Simon Fuller of 19 Entertainment and finally signed with him in March 1995. During the summer of that year the group toured record labels in London and Los Angeles with Fuller and finally signed a deal with Virgin Records in September 1995. From this point on, up to the summer of 1996, the group continued to write and record tracks for their debut album while extensively touring the west coast of the United States, where they had signed a publishing deal with Windswept Pacific. On 8 July 1996, the Spice Girls released their debut single "Wannabe" in the United Kingdom. In the weeks leading up to the release, the video for "Wannabe", got a trial airing on The Box music channel. "Wannabe" proved to be a major hit, topping the UK Singles Chart for seven weeks and also topping the charts in a further 34 countries, including Australia, Denmark, France, Germany and the United States. and becoming the all-time biggest-selling single by an all-female group. It was followed by nine further number-one singles from their albums Spice, Spiceworld and Forever. Each member of the group received a nickname from the media. Bunton was named "Baby Spice".
Other successful releases followed, including "Say You'll Be There", "2 Become 1", "Who Do You Think You Are" and "Mama" from Spice, and "Spice Up Your Life", "Too Much", "Stop" and "Viva Forever" from Spiceworld. In 1999, she presented Emma on VH1. She recorded "(Hey You) Free Up Your Mind" for the film Pokémon: The First Movie and contributed background vocals to Melanie B's song "Sophisticated Lady", which appeared as a B-side to her single "Word Up". In November 1999 she released her debut solo single, a cover of What I Am in collaboration with Tin Tin Out. In 2000, after the release of the group's comeback single, a double A-side of "Holler"/"Let Love Lead The Way" and the third studio album, Forever, which charted at number two in the UK, the Spice Girls stopped recording, concentrating on their solo careers in regards to their foreseeable future. She also provided background vocals for Melanie B's album track, "Hotter", which appeared on the latter's debut solo studio album Hot in October 2000.
2001–2005: A Girl Like Me and Free Me
Bunton's debut solo album, A Girl Like Me, was released in the United Kingdom on 16 April 2001 by Virgin Records. The album debuted and peaked at number four on the UK Albums Chart, with 21,500 copies sold in its first week. Its lead single, "What Took You So Long?", debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart. Although initial success was promising, A Girl Like Me fell down the chart quickly. However, the top five single "Take My Breath Away", and top twenty "We're Not Gonna Sleep Tonight" helped the album stay on the UK Albums Chart for several weeks. On 7 September 2001, A Girl Like Me was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for sales in excess of 100,000 copies, ultimately becoming the 147th best-selling album in the United Kingdom for 2001. The album sold 125,000 copies in the United Kingdom. The poor sales led to Bunton losing her contract with Virgin in 2002. Bunton performed at Party at the Palace, an event that was held at Buckingham Palace Garden on 3 June 2002 in commemoration of the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II. Her solo performances at the event were a cover of The Supremes' 1964 hit "Baby Love" and her own "What Took You So Long?".
After parting ways with Virgin, Bunton signed a new deal with 19 Recordings, run by former Spice Girls' manager Simon Fuller, to release her second album, Free Me, on 9 February 2004. The album was largely produced by Mike Peden and Yak Bondy. Other contributions on the album courtesy of Cathy Dennis, Henry Binns and Puerto Rican singer Luis Fonsi. Inspired by the Motown and the 1960s era, the album was widely acclaimed by critics by its "charm and grace". It debuted at number seven on the UK Albums Chart, spending over twelve weeks inside chart, and being certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). The album had three top five singles in the United Kingdom – the title track, "Maybe" and "I'll Be There" – and a top twenty single, "Crickets Sing for Anamaria". In the United States, both "Free Me" and "Maybe" were dance club regulars, reaching numbers four and six on the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart respectively. In 2005, Bunton appeared in the Bollywood film Chocolate: Deep Dark Secrets.
2006–2008: Life in Mono and Spice Girls reunion
In October 2006, Bunton was a contestant in the BBC programme Strictly Come Dancing, partnered with Darren Bennett. She reached the semi-final and finished in third place. On 13 November 2006, Bunton released the charity single for the BBC Children in Need appeal, recording Petula Clark's 1960s song "Downtown". It reached number three on the UK Singles Chart, and was followed by her third studio album, Life in Mono. Much like her previous album, Life in Mono experimented with elements of 1960s pop music. For this particular album, the musical arrangement was more directed towards the 1960s French pop music, with some elements of British 1960s pop and Motown. The album was Bunton's first not to reach the top ten in the United Kingdom, only reaching number 65 on the albums chart. The second single from it was "All I Need to Know", released on 12 February 2007, intended for Valentine's Day. Bunton shot the video around Old Street in East London, in the week before Christmas 2006. Entering the UK Singles Chart at number 60, "All I Need to Know" became the lowest-charting single of Bunton's solo career.
In 2007, the Spice Girls re-grouped and announced plans to tour as a quintet for the last time for a The Return of the Spice Girls, from which they were said to have earned £10 million each (approximately $20 million). The team's members said that they were still enjoying doing their "own thing". The group decided to release their first compilation album, a collection of their Greatest Hits. This album was released in early November 2007, and the tour began on 2 December 2007. During the reformation Film maker Bob Smeaton directed an official film of the tour, which he titled Spice Girls: Giving You Everything. As well as their sell-out tour, the Spice Girls were contracted to appear in Tesco advertisements, for which they were paid £1 million each.
2010–2014: Spice Girls musical and Olympics
Judy Craymer teamed up with the Spice Girls and Simon Fuller and began to develop a Spice Girls musical entitled Viva Forever. Although the girls were not to star in the show themselves, they were to influence the show's cast and production choices in a story which uses their music but bears no relation to their personal story; similar to that of ABBA's music in Mamma Mia!.
On 26 June 2012, all five Spice Girls were in attendance at a press conference in London to promote the launch of Viva Forever: The Musical. The press conference was held at St. Pancras Renaissance London Hotel, the location where the Spice Girls filmed the music video for their breakthrough hit "Wannabe", sixteen years earlier, to the day. The musical opened at the West End's Piccadilly Theatre on 11 December 2012. After poor reviews from critics and "a loss of £5 million", the show has its final performance on 29 June 2013.
On 12 August 2012, after much speculation, Bunton and the Spice Girls performed a medley of "Wannabe" and "Spice Up Your Life" at the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony, reuniting as a quintet for the last time for the event.
Their performance was the most tweeted moment of Olympics closing ceremony with over 116,000 tweets on Twitter per minute. Bunton also worked with fellow Spice Girl Melanie C on her 2012 album, Stages for the album track "I Know Him So Well". The song was released as a single on 11 November 2012. In March 2013, Bunton was named the Foxy Bingo Celebrity Mum of the Year. In March 2014, Bunton, along with Melanie C, took part in recording England's 2014 World Cup song. She collaborated with fellow pop stars Eliza Doolittle, Katy B, Conor Maynard, Kimberley Walsh and Pixie Lott on "Greatest Day", a track originally performed by British band Take That. The track was produced by Gary Barlow and recorded at Sarm Studios in London. The track also featured past footballers such as Gary Lineker, Michael Owen, Geoff Hurst, David Seaman, Peter Shilton, Glenn Hoddle and Dion Dublin on backing vocals.
2018–present: My Happy Place and second Spice Girls reunion
In June 2018, Bunton said during an interview on This Morning that she was back in the studio working on new material, more than a decade after her last album, Life in Mono. Bunton told host Phillip Schofield, "I am back in the studio, and I'm saying this here for the first time....I am in the studio having fun with some music of my own, just to see". In November 2018, Bunton announced she had signed a record deal with BMG Rights Management and was preparing a new album.
In September 2018, she voices the character Mama Bear in the UK version of the successful animated movie Smallfoot, starring Channing Tatum, James Corden, LeBron James and Danny DeVito. The movie is a success and grossed $83.2 million in the United States and Canada, and $130.9 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $214.1 million. In November 2018, Bunton reunited with the Spice Girls to announce a UK and Ireland Stadium tour, Spice World - 2019 Tour, which began at Croke Park, Dublin on 24 May 2019 and ended in London, England on 15 June 2019.
On 27 February 2019, she released the first single of the new album, "Baby Please Don't Stop", which received generally positive reviews. She later released a promo single, "Too Many Teardrops", on 9 March 2019. She then released her duet with her partner Jade Jones, "You're All I Need to Get By", a cover the Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell song. On 12 April 2019, Bunton released her fourth album, My Happy Place. The tracklist consists of two original songs and eight covers of songs beloved by Bunton. The album, which featured appearances from Jones, Robbie Williams, Will Young and Josh Kumra, sold 6,500 copies in its first week in the UK, and entered the UK Album Chart at number 11. My Happy Place became her first Top 20 album in 15 years.
She later released a promotional single, "Too Many Teardrops", on 9 March 2019.
In November 2019, Bunton released a Christmas single, "Coming Home For Christmas", which also included a cover of "Santa Baby". On 6 December 2019, Bunton performed her first solo show in over a decade at the Royal Albert Hall in London. The concert was a special one-off Christmas show that featured Bunton performing well known Christmas covers as well as duets onstage with Will Young, Matt Goss and her fiancé Jade Jones. The inclusive theater company, Chickenshed, of which Bunton has been a patron for many years, also joined her onstage for a rendition of the Spice Girls song "Mama".
Other ventures
Radio
In February, and again between May and June 2009, Bunton starred as guest presenter on Heart London's Heart Breakfast alongside Jamie Theakston and Harriet Scott. Bunton began hosting her own pre-recorded Saturday drive time radio show on Heart in the Saturday afternoon slot 4–7 pm starting on Saturday 13 June 2009. Bunton provided maternity leave cover for Heart Breakfast co-presenter Harriet Scott from 3 October until 23 December 2011 on Heart London. Following Harriet Scott's departure from Heart Breakfast in November 2012, it was announced Bunton would succeed her as co-host along with Jamie Theakston from 7 January 2013. She co-presented with Theakston until December 2018, making her final Heart Breakfast appearance on 14 December. In March 2017, Bunton won the awards for "Radio Presenter of the Year" and "Digital Radio Programme" at the annual Television and Radio Industries Club (TRIC) Awards for her work on Heart London. In January 2018, Bunton was offered a new Sunday night show that runs between 7 and 10. The first show aired on 14 January.
Bunton left Heart London Breakfast at Christmas 2018 to focus on the 2019 Spice Girls Tour. She currently still presents the Sunday Evening Heart Show, Hearts Feel Good Weekend with Emma Bunton.
Television and films
Bunton has been seen in a television commercial for the supermarket chain Tesco. She also had a cameo role on the Australian soap opera Neighbours in the episode "What's a Spice Girl Like You...?". In July 2008, Bunton stood in as co-presenter alongside Richard Madeley on the television show Richard & Judy while Judy Finnigan was recovering from a knee operation. In October 2008, Bunton appeared on the UK series of The X Factor to assist judge Dannii Minogue in choosing the three best over-25s acts to take through to the live shows. In December 2008, Bunton debuted as a member of the panel on Loose Women on ITV.
In February 2010, Bunton appeared in a UK National Television campaign first aired during Coronation Street, showing her in the Heart Radio studios at the start and the end of the advert. In January 2010, Bunton joined the "Ice Panel" on ITV dancing show Dancing on Ice replacing former judge Ruthie Henshall. She stepped down from this role on 2 December 2011. Bunton hosted Channel 5's Don't Stop Believing from July to August 2010. In August 2010, Bunton guest presented GMTV with Lorraine on GMTV. On 8 October 2010, 19 November 2010 and 7 January 2011, she guest presented Lorraine on ITV Breakfast.
In January 2012, Bunton reprised her role as one of fictional PR manager Edina Monsoon's disgruntled clients in a revival of the BBC's Absolutely Fabulous. In August that same year, Bunton made a cameo appearance in Keith Lemon: The Film. In the summer of 2013, Bunton was a judge on the ITV Saturday night entertainment series Your Face Sounds Familiar alongside Julian Clary and a different guest judge each week. In October 2014, Bunton appeared on The X Factor to assist judge and fellow Spice Girl Mel B in choosing the three best boys acts to take through to the live shows. In 2015, Bunton made a cameo appearance in Spanish comedy film Cómo sobrevivir a una despedida, during a scene in which the five main characters are seen impersonating the Spice Girls in a talent show. In March 2016, Bunton has co-presented Too Much TV, a daily magazine show on BBC Two. In 2015, Bunton made a cameo appearance in the 2016 film Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie. In addition, she gave her voice to Muhimu in the UK version of the episode "The Mbali Fields Migration" of the Disney Channel's television series The Lion Guard.
In 2017, she appeared as a judge in the TV show Boy Band alongside Nick Carter, Rita Ora and Timbaland.
Fashion
In 2011, Bunton teamed up with British retailer Argos to launch a series of childrenswear lines.
Philanthropy
In 1999, 2001 and 2003 she was one of the donors of the charity campaign Nordoff-Robbins, focused in therapy for children with psychological, physical or developmental disabilities. In April 1999 she helped launch the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children's anti-child abuse campaign with Tony Blair and Prince Andrew. She also starred in a government safety campaign to warn drinkers of the dangers of handling fireworks, recording commercials to air on television. In 2000 Bunton supported the charity campaign Children Nationwide, which raised money to finance the research into childhood diseases. In 2001 she donated £500,000 to performing arts and music charities funds. In 2006 she was ambassador of BBC's Children in Need and released the charity single "Downtown", donating the money for the campaign. In 2010 she supported the World Children's Champions. In 2011, Bunton was ambassador of Heart's Have a Heart campaign to help homeless people.
In 2013, she supported the UNICEF's campaign Every Parent's Dream, which raised money for vaccine against maternal and newborn tetanus (MNT). In 2014 she became an ambassador of UNICEF and travelled to Africa to assist in humanitarian work to eradicate the MNT. In April 2015, Bunton teamed up with Specsavers in Bishop's Stortford to launch a contest, where each entry would generate £1 to anti-bullying charity Kidscape to help vulnerable children.
Personal life
In 1997, Bunton dated British singer Lee Brennan. In the same year, she was briefly linked to American actor Leonardo DiCaprio. In 1998, she began dating British singer Jade Jones, from the group Damage, but they split for the first time in May 1999. From September 1999 to September 2000, Bunton was in a relationship with the England footballer Rio Ferdinand, who was introduced by her friends David Beckham and Victoria Beckham. In November 2000, she returned to Jones, but they split for the second time in March 2002, when Bunton decided to work again with Simon Fuller; Jones was against this decision. In 2003, she was briefly linked to American singer Justin Timberlake.
In 2004 she returned to Jade Jones and the relationship stabilised. On 26 January 2007 she announced her pregnancy. Her first child, Beau Lee Jones, was born on 10 August 2007. On 6 May 2011, her second child Tate Lee Jones was born. The couple became engaged on 21 January 2011 but Bunton said that she does not want to get married in a civil or religious ceremony, stating: "We don't need a wedding to justify our relationship." Bunton and Jones married on 13 July 2021.
In 1999, Bunton moved to a £1.6million penthouse in the Mount Vernon Village, in Hampstead, London. In 2003, she had some problems with neighbours, who complained about her late-night parties. In 2006, she and Jones moved to a mansion in Barnet, London. Bunton was diagnosed with endometriosis. She is also a godmother to Geri Halliwell's daughter, Bluebell Madonna Halliwell, born in 2006. Bunton is a supporter of Tottenham Hotspur football club.
Discography
A Girl Like Me (2001)
Free Me (2004)
Life in Mono (2006)
My Happy Place (2019)
Filmography
Television
Film
Tours
Live in Concert (2001)
Free Me Tour (2004)
Emma Bunton's Christmas Party - Live at the Royal Albert Hall (2019)
Radio
Awards and nominations
References
External links
Heart's Feel Good Weekend with Emma Bunton on Heart Radio
spicegirlsgem.com
1976 births
19 Recordings artists
20th-century English actresses
20th-century English women singers
20th-century English singers
21st-century English actresses
21st-century English women singers
21st-century English singers
Actresses from London
Alumni of the Sylvia Young Theatre School
British female karateka
British women pop singers
English feminists
English film actresses
English people of Irish descent
English radio presenters
English women pop singers
English women singer-songwriters
English television actresses
English television presenters
English voice actresses
Feminist musicians
Heart (radio network)
Living people
Participants in American reality television series
Participants in British reality television series
People educated at Queen Elizabeth's School for Girls
People from Finchley
Singers from London
Musicians from London
Spice Girls members
Virgin Records artists
Women radio presenters
Dance-pop musicians
|
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241851
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoception
|
Thermoception
|
Thermoception or thermoreception is the sensation and perception of temperature, or more accurately, temperature differences inferred from heat flux. It deals with a series of events and processes required for an organism to receive a temperature stimulus, convert it to a molecular signal, and recognize and characterize the signal in order to trigger an appropriate defense response.
Thermoception in larger animals is mainly done in the skin; mammals have at least two types. The details of how temperature receptors work are still being investigated. Ciliopathy is associated with decreased ability to sense heat, thus cilia may aid in the process. Transient receptor potential channels (TRP channels) are believed to play a role in many species in sensation of hot, cold, and pain. Vertebrates have at least two types of sensor: those that detect heat and those that detect cold.
A particularly specialized form of thermoception is used by Crotalinae (pit viper) and Boidae (boa) snakes, which can effectively see the infrared radiation emitted by hot objects. The snakes' face has a pair of holes, or pits, lined with temperature sensors. The sensors indirectly detect infrared radiation by its heating effect on the skin inside the pit. They can work out which part of the pit is hottest, and therefore the direction of the heat source, which could be a warm-blooded prey animal. By combining information from both pits, the snake can also estimate the distance of the object.
The Common vampire bat has specialized infrared sensors in its nose-leaf. Vampire bats are the only mammals that feed exclusively on blood. The infrared sense enables Desmodus to localize homeothermic (warm-blooded) animals (cattle, horses, wild mammals) within a range of about 10 to 15 cm. This infrared perception is possibly used in detecting regions of maximal blood flow on targeted prey.
Recent research has demonstrated that dogs, like vampire bats, can detect weak thermal radiation with their rhinaria (noses).
Other animals with specialized heat detectors are forest fire seeking beetles (Melanophila acuminata), which lay their eggs in conifers freshly killed by forest fires. Darkly pigmented butterflies Pachliopta aristolochiae and Troides rhadamantus use specialized heat detectors to avoid damage while basking. The blood sucking bugs Triatoma infestans may also have a specialised thermoception organ.
In humans, temperature sensation from thermoreceptors enters the spinal cord along the axons of Lissauer's tract that synapse on second order neurons in grey matter of the dorsal horn. The axons of these second order neurons then decussate, joining the spinothalamic tract as they ascend to neurons in the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus.
A study in 2017 shows that the thermosensory information passes to the lateral parabrachial nucleus rather than to the thalamus and this drives thermoregulatory behaviour.
Nobel Prize 2021
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2021 was attributed to David Julius (professor at the University of California, San Francisco, USA) and Ardem Patapoutian (neuroscience professor at Scripps Research in La Jolla, California, USA) "for their discovery of receptors for temperature and touch".
See also
Infrared sensing in snakes
Infrared sensing in vampire bats
List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine#Laureates
Notes
References
External links
A. Campbell, R. R. Naik, L. Sowards, M. O. Stone (2002) Biological infrared imaging and sensing. Micron 33:211-225.
Perception
Sensory systems
Temperature
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Grossmith
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George Grossmith
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George Grossmith (9 December 1847 – 1 March 1912) was an English comedian, writer, composer, actor, and singer. His performing career spanned more than four decades. As a writer and composer, he created 18 comic operas, nearly 100 musical sketches, some 600 songs and piano pieces, three books and both serious and comic pieces for newspapers and magazines.
Grossmith created a series of nine characters in the comic operas of Gilbert and Sullivan from 1877 to 1889, including Sir Joseph Porter, in H.M.S. Pinafore (1878), the Major-General in The Pirates of Penzance (1880) and Ko-Ko in The Mikado (1885–87). He also wrote, in collaboration with his brother Weedon, the 1892 comic novel The Diary of a Nobody.
Grossmith was also famous in his day for performing his own comic piano sketches and songs, both before and after his Gilbert and Sullivan days, becoming the most popular British solo performer of the 1890s. Some of his comic songs endure today, including "See Me Dance the Polka". He continued to perform into the first decade of the 20th century. His son, George Grossmith Jr., became an actor, playwright and producer of Edwardian musical comedies.
Life and career
George Grossmith was born in Islington, London, and grew up in St. Pancras and Hampstead, London. His father, also named George (1820–1880), was the chief reporter for The Times and other newspapers at the Bow Street Magistrates' Court and was also a lecturer and entertainer. His mother was Louisa Emmeline Grossmith née Weedon (d. 1882). Over the years, Grossmith's father spent less of his time at Bow Street and more of it touring as a performer. As a young man, Grossmith was usually credited as "Jnr" to distinguish him from his father, especially when they performed together, but for most of his career, he was credited simply as "George Grossmith". Later, his actor-playwright-theatre manager son was credited as George Grossmith "Jr" rather than "III"; some sources confuse the two men. His other son, Lawrence Grossmith, was also a successful actor, primarily in America.
Grossmith had a younger sister, Emily, and younger brother, Weedon. In 1855, he went to boarding school at Massingham House on Haverstock Hill in the district of Hampstead. There he studied the piano and began to amuse his friends and teachers with shadow pantomimes, and later by playing the piano by ear. His family moved to Haverstock Hill when young Grossmith was 10, and he became a day student. At the age of 12, he transferred to the North London Collegiate School in Camden Town. He was back in St. Pancras by age 13. He was an avid amateur photographer and painter as a teenager, but it was his brother Weedon who went to art school. The Grossmith family had many friends engaged in the arts, including J. L. Toole, Ellen Terry, Henry Irving, H. J. Byron, Tom Hood, T. W. Robertson, and John Hollingshead (later, the manager of the Gaiety Theatre, London).
Grossmith had hoped to become a barrister. Instead, he worked for many years, beginning in the 1860s, training and then substituting for his father as the Bow Street reporter for The Times, among other publications, when his father was on his lecture tours. Among the cases on which he reported was the Clerkenwell bombing by the Fenians in 1867. At the same time as he began reporting, he began to write humorous articles for periodicals and to participate in amateur theatrical performances. He also joined his father in his entertainments, lectures, and imitations, and began to add music to the entertainments, which his father had not done. In 1873, Grossmith married Emmeline Rosa Noyce (1849–1905), the daughter of a neighbourhood physician, whom he had met years earlier at a children's party. The couple had four children: George, Sylvia (1875–1932; married Stuart James Bevan in 1900), Lawrence and Cordelia Rosa (1879–1943). The family lived initially in Marylebone before moving, about 1885, to Dorset Square nearby.
Early performing career
Young Grossmith received some recognition for amateur songs and sketches at private parties and, beginning in 1864, at penny readings. He also participated in a small number of theatricals as an amateur, including playing John Chodd Jr. in Robertson's play, Society, at the Gallery of Illustration, in 1868. The after-piece was a burlesque, written by Grossmith's father, on the Dickens play No Thoroughfare. He then played the title role in Paul Pry, a comedy by Poole, also at the Gallery of Illustration, in 1870. But he and his father felt that his talents lay in "sketch" comedy rather than theatre. The younger Grossmith admired the comic pianist and entertainer John Orlando Parry, who created and performed in many of the German Reed Entertainments, and he tried to emulate Parry in developing his own sketches, consisting of humorous anecdotes, mildly satirical comment, ad lib chat, and comic songs centred on the piano.
Grossmith took to the professional stage in 1870 with a sketch called Human Oddities, written by his father, and a song called "The Gay Photographer" (that is, the "carefree" photographer). The song, with words by Grossmith's father and music by young Grossmith, concerns a photographer who broke the heart of a young lady named Miss Jenkins; so she drank his chemicals and died. In late 1870, the younger Grossmith appeared on his own with a nightly spot at the "old Polytechnic" in Regent Street, where comic sketches alternated with scientific and serious lectures for the entertainment of the public. Human Oddities and another sketch, The Yellow Dwarf, were successful for Grossmith, and he took the former work on tour for six months. An 1871 Grossmith sketch was called He was a Careful Man. Biographer Tony Joseph notes that, except for a few early pieces, nearly all of Grossmith's material was written and composed by Grossmith himself. Joseph describes the sketches as "a light-hearted sending up of various aspects of contemporary life and manners. ...he was the complete performer... as a pianist (he performed for the most part sitting at a piano)... as a raconteur... as a mimic, facial expression, timing—he had it all. A short, dapper figure, he turned his lack of inches to positive advantage, and audiences took to him everywhere."
Grossmith toured in the summer of 1871 with Mr and Mrs Howard Paul and occasionally afterwards. He and Mrs Paul would also appear together in The Sorcerer in 1877. Also in 1871, at the Polytechnic, he performed three more sketches, The Puddleton Penny Readings, Theatricals at Thespis Lodge and The Silver Wedding (including what would be one of his most popular songs, "I am so Volatile", with words by his father). On 14 February 1872, Grossmith gave a sketch parody of a penny reading at the Gaiety Theatre, London, since on Ash Wednesday, theatres refrained from presenting costumed performances out of respect for the holiday. At the time, coincidentally, the Gaiety was presenting Thespis, Gilbert and Sullivan's first collaboration. Throughout these years, Grossmith continued working at Bow Street during the day.
In 1873, Grossmith and his father began joint tours of humorous recitations and comic sketches at literary institutes and public halls, to church groups and to branches of the YMCA all over England and even in Scotland and Wales. Young Grossmith's sketches at this time included The Puddleton Penny Readings, Our Choral Society and In the Stalls. They toured almost constantly for the following three years, but they returned to see their families in London on weekends. Around this time, he met and became firm friends with Fred Sullivan, and afterwards, he met Sullivan's brother Arthur. Through Arthur Cecil, Sullivan, and some of their friends, Grossmith began to be invited to entertain at private "society" parties, which he continued to do throughout his career. Later, these parties would often occur late in the evening after Grossmith performed at the Savoy Theatre. In 1876, he collaborated with Florence Marryat, the author and reciter, on Entre Nous. This piece consisted of a series of piano sketches, alternating with scenes and costumed recitations, including a two-person "satirical musical sketch", really a short comic opera, called Cups and Saucers, which they then toured. Grossmith also took a number of engagements, including recitals at private homes. In 1877, Lionel Brough introduced another popular Grossmith song, "The Muddle Puddle Junction Porter". By then, Grossmith had become friendly with many in the music and theatre establishments, including Arthur Sullivan and impresario Richard D'Oyly Carte; and Grossmith had the opportunity to perform in Gilbert and Sullivan's Trial by Jury and other Sullivan works at charity benefits.
After entertaining professionally in sketch comedy for seven years, however, Grossmith discovered that his income decreased each year as his family and household expenses increased. He also disliked travelling. Accordingly, he was pleased when, despite his relative inexperience in legitimate theatre, he received a letter from Arthur Sullivan in November 1877 inviting him to take a part in his new piece with W. S. Gilbert: The Sorcerer.
D'Oyly Carte years
Grossmith had appeared in charity performances of Trial by Jury, where both Sullivan and Gilbert had seen him (indeed, Gilbert had directed one such performance, in which Grossmith played the judge), and Gilbert had earlier commented favourably on his performance in Tom Robertson's Society at the Gallery of Illustration. Sullivan mentioned to Arthur Cecil, the leading tenor from the Gallery of Illustration, that he was looking for someone to play the comic title role in his new comic opera, The Sorcerer. Cecil reminded Sullivan about Grossmith, and Sullivan seized on the idea. After singing for Sullivan, upon meeting Gilbert, Grossmith wondered aloud if the role shouldn't be played by "a fine man with a fine voice". Gilbert replied, "That is exactly what we don't want." Although Grossmith had reservations about cancelling his touring engagements and going into the "wicked" professional theatre (a move that might lose him church and other engagements in the future), and Richard D'Oyly Carte's backers objected to casting a sketch comedian in the central role of a comic opera, Grossmith was hired.
Grossmith was a hit as the tradesmanlike John Wellington Wells, the title role in The Sorcerer, and became a regular member of Richard D'Oyly Carte's company. He created all nine of the lead comic baritone roles in Gilbert and Sullivan's Savoy Operas in London from 1877 to 1889, including the pompous First Lord of the Admiralty, Sir Joseph Porter, in H.M.S. Pinafore (1878); Major-General Stanley in The Pirates of Penzance, who is an expert at everything except "military knowledge" (1880); the aesthetic poet, Reginald Bunthorne in Patience (1881); the love-lonely Lord Chancellor in Iolanthe (1882); the sarcastic cripple, King Gama, in Princess Ida (1884); Ko-Ko the cheap tailor, elevated to the post of Lord High Executioner, in The Mikado (1885); the accursed Robin Oakapple in Ruddigore (1887); and the pathetic jester, Jack Point, in The Yeomen of the Guard (1888). On 29 January 1887, one week after the opening night of Ruddigore, Grossmith fell dangerously ill.<ref>Sources vary on what the illness was. Lytton wrote in his memoir that the diagnosis was peritonitis. The Times reported, "It is feared that a severe cold, caught on Friday [28 January], has turned to inflammation" ("News in Brief", The Times, 2 February 1887, p. 10). The Pall Mall Gazette, quoting Grossmith's wife, called it "a chilled liver and thorough disorganization of the digestive organs" ("The Illness of Mr Grossmith, The Pall Mall Gazette, 3 February 1887, p. 8).</ref> However, by 13 February, his physicians pronounced him convalescent, and he resumed the role of Robin by 18 February. During Grossmith's absence, his understudy Henry Lytton, who would later become the principal comedian of the company, had the opportunity to perform the role in Grossmith's place.
Years later, Grossmith's obituary in The Times noted the comedian's "nimbleness, his diverting tricks, his still more diverting dignity—the dignity of a man of few inches high or round—and his incomparable power of rapid speech and singing." The Daily Telegraph wrote of his Jack Point: "Whether giving expression to poor Jack’s professional wit, or hiding a sorry heart behind light words... Mr Grossmith was master of the part he assumed." In 1883, The Times, reviewing a matinee performance of Iolanthe, wrote: "Mr. Grossmith's impersonation of the Lord Chancellor has ... become an exquisitely refined satire." On the other hand, his sketch comedy background had trained Grossmith to improvise comic business. Gilbert and the actor had an exchange during rehearsals for The Mikado about an improvised moment in which Jessie Bond pushed Grossmith, as they kneeled before the Mikado, and he rolled completely over. Gilbert requested that they cut out the gag, and Grossmith replied: "but I get an enormous laugh by it". Gilbert replied "So you would if you sat on a pork-pie."Grossmith (1888), p. Chapter VI, p. 116
The actor, jittery on opening nights, is depicted both on and off stage in the biographical film, Topsy Turvy. Hesketh Pearson wrote in 1935 that Grossmith injected himself with drugs to calm his nerves. and in the film he is shown injecting himself on the opening night of The Mikado. In his diary, Arthur Sullivan wrote afterwards, "All went very well except Grossmith, whose nervousness nearly upset the piece". Grossmith spoke self-deprecatingly about his own vocal prowess (Sullivan and others disagreed):
Of course, I haven't any voice to speak of, but I have a great register, and Sullivan used to amuse himself by making me sing bass in one number of an opera and tenor in another. In Ruddygore, Sir Arthur had engaged a man to play the servant, my menial, so to speak, who had an enormous bass voice, and who had to go down to the lower E flat. Singularly enough, he could go down to G, and then he dropped out entirely, and I did the [low E-flat] below. Generally the audience roared with laughter, and it absolutely brought down the house.
During his time with the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company, Grossmith's father and mother died (in 1880 and 1882, respectively). Throughout this period, Grossmith continued to perform his sketches, often late at night after performing at the Savoy, and continued to write new sketches, such as Amateur Theatricals (1878), A Juvenile Party (1879), A Musical Nightmare (1880), and A Little Yachting (1886). He also wrote the music for Arthur Law's short comic opera, Uncle Samuel (1881), the one-act curtain raiser that preceded Patience on the Opera Comique programme. His Cups and Saucers was revived and played with Pinafore and also played by the company on tour. Other comic operas by Grossmith during these years included Mr Guffin's Elopement (1882) and A Peculiar Case (1884, both with libretti by Arthur Law) and The Real Case of Hide and Seekyll (1886). Grossmith also continued to give his "society" and other entertainments, often late at night after his performance at the Savoy. He also composed the music for another comic opera, The Great Tay-Kin and another piece, both with libretti by Arthur Law, which were performed at Toole's Theatre in 1885.
Grossmith also wrote, composed, and performed in several one-man drawing room sketches, short comic operas or monologues that were given at the Opera Comique or the Savoy Theatre in place of the companion pieces when shorter matinee programmes were playing. These works included Beauties on the Beach (1878), Five Hamlets (1878), a revival of his A Silver Wedding (1879), The Drama on Crutches (1883), Homburg, or Haunted by The Mikado (1887–88),Programme from the first revival of Pinafore in 1887, with Homburg or Haunted by The Mikado as the afterpiece, The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive and Holiday Hall (1888). In reviewing a matinee performance of The Drama on Crutches, The Times commented, "he not only satirizes the present tendency of fashionable amateurs to join the stage, but also parodies ... the manner of Mr. Irving and other actors of the present day, including himself. The sketch created great amusement, though of course, it depends entirely for its success upon the actor's powers of mimicry." Grossmith also performed in charity events, including as Bouncer in Cox and Box in 1879 at the Opera Comique.
In addition, Grossmith's comic song written in 1886, "See Me Dance the Polka", was extremely popular. It has been used in a number of films and has been quoted or referred to in literature and music, including in the poem/song "Polka" from Façade by Edith Sitwell and William Walton. Other songs he wrote during this period include "An Awful Little Scrub" (1880), "The Speaker's Eye" (1882), "The 'Bus Conductor's Song" (1883), "How I Became an Actor" (1883), "See Me Reverse" (1884), "The Lost Key" (1885), and "The Happy Fatherland" (1887).
Later years
Grossmith left the D'Oyly Carte company near the end of the original run of The Yeomen of the Guard on 17 August 1889 and resumed his career entertaining at the piano, which he continued to do for more than 15 years afterwards. Despite his dislike of travelling, he toured in Britain, Ireland, and, on five occasions, North America. His drawing-room sketches included his own popular songs, such as "See Me Dance the Polka", "The Happy Fatherland", "The Polka and the Choir-boy", "Thou of My Thou", "The French Verbs", "Go on Talking – Don't Mind Me", "I Don't Mind Flies". His new sketches during this period included Modern Music and Morals (1889), On Tour; or, Piano and I (1891), A Seaside Holiday (1892), Fashionable Music (1892) and Is Music a Failure? (1892). According to The Times, "His genial satire was enjoyed even by those at whom its shafts were aimed." When he toured Scotland in the autumn of 1890, Grossmith gave a command performance for Queen Victoria at Balmoral Castle. He also composed the music for a three-act comic opera with a libretto by Gilbert, Haste to the Wedding (1892). In this piece, his son George Grossmith Jr. made his stage debut. Musically more challenging than any composition he had attempted before, this work was unsuccessful. Later, however, Grossmith said that the experience of writing with Gilbert was one of the happiest of his life. In 1892–93 he toured North America (his second tour there), writing successful new sketches, "How I Discovered America" and "Baby on the Shore" (1893).Banfield, p. 554
In 1892, Grossmith collaborated with his brother Weedon Grossmith to expand a series of amusing columns they had written in 1888–89 for Punch. The Diary of a Nobody was published as a novel and has never been out of print since. The book is a sharp analysis of social insecurity, and Charles Pooter of The Laurels, Brickfield Terrace, Holloway, was immediately recognised as one of the great comic characters of English literature. The work has itself been the object of dramatisation and adaptation, including three times for television: 1964, 1979 and 2007.
Grossmith had become the most popular solo entertainer of his day, and his tours earned him far more than he had earned while performing with the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company. He also continued to compose music, including the comic opera Castle Bang (1894) and the sketches The Ibsenite Drama (1895) and Do We Enjoy Our Holidays? (1897) and songs like "The Baby on the Shore" (1893), "Johnnie at the Gaiety" (1895), "Tommy's First Love" (1897), and "The Happy Old Days at Peckham" (1903). In 1894–95, however, Gilbert enticed Grossmith to take the role of George Griffenfeld in His Excellency, with music by Frank Osmond Carr. Also in 1897, he played briefly as King Ferdinand V of Vingolia in F. C. Burnand's His Majesty at the Savoy Theatre and made two more short London stage appearances thereafter, as Scoones in Young Mr Yarde (1898) and Lambert Simnel in The Gay Pretenders (1900).Who's Who in the Theatre, First Edition, London, Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, 1912, p. 214 An 1896 interview of Grossmith reveals him feeling his age and considering the end of his touring career, while enjoying time spent at home with his family, dogs and antique piano collection. Grossmith suffered from depression after the death of his wife of cancer in 1905, and his health began to fail, so that he increasingly missed engagements. He was nevertheless persuaded to continue giving his entertainments, which he did on a less frequent basis, until November 1908. The following year, Grossmith retired to Folkestone, Kent, a town that he had visited for many years, where he wrote his second volume of reminiscences, Piano and I (1910).
Grossmith died at his home in Folkestone at the age of 64. He is buried in Kensal Green Cemetery, in the London Borough of Brent. In his will, dated 26 October 1908, Grossmith left small bequests to a variety of charities and persons; 2,000 pounds, artworks and heirlooms to each of his children (except that Lawrence did not receive a cash bequest), his son George receiving also "two silver bowls presented to him by [Gilbert, Sullivan and] Carte [and] the ivory baton with which he conducted the orchestra on the occasion of his said son's first appearance on the stage" in Haste to the Wedding; and smaller bequests to his children's spouses and his nieces, nephews, grandchildren and some cousins, with the residuary estate shared equally by his children (although the residuary estate was not large).
Writings and compositions; legacy; recordings
Grossmith wrote numerous comic pieces for the magazine Punch, including a series of ten skits in 1884 inspired by his Bow Street experiences, which he called "Very Trying". He also wrote two memoirs, A Society Clown: Reminiscences (1888) and Piano and I: Further Reminiscences (1910). In his career, Grossmith wrote 18 comic operas, nearly 100 musical sketches, some 600 songs and piano pieces, and three books. He also wrote both serious and comic pieces for newspapers and magazines throughout his career, displaying a wide range of styles.
Grossmith was followed, in the Gilbert and Sullivan comic roles, by a number of other popular performers; those who played his roles at the Savoy Theatre for an extended period of time have included Henry Lytton, Martyn Green, Peter Pratt and John Reed, among others. Over forty of the songs that Grossmith wrote or performed in his one-man shows have been recorded by baritone Leon Berger (a British Gilbert & Sullivan singer and Grossmith scholar), accompanied by Selwyn Tillett (G&S scholar) on two CDs: A Society Clown: The Songs of George Grossmith and The Grossmith Legacy. The latter also contains the recorded voice of Grossmith's son, George Grossmith Jr. Both are on the Divine Art Label. No recordings of Grossmith's voice are known to exist, although wax cylinder recording technology was available during his lifetime. Cups and Saucers was recorded by Retrospect Opera in 2016, together with F. C. Burnand and Edward Solomon's Pickwick.
Writings
Accessed 9 March 2008
Portrayals
Grossmith was portrayed by Martyn Green in the 1953 film The Story of Gilbert and Sullivan and by Martin Savage in the 1999 film Topsy-Turvy. Simon Butteriss portrayed Grossmith in the 2006 television documentary A Salaried Wit: Grossmith, Gilbert and Sullivan and in the five-part 2015 15 Minute Drama "I Am the Very Model of a Modern Major-General" on BBC Radio 4. Butteriss also presents a documentary about Grossmith as a bonus disc to the 2010 Sky Arts DVD set, A Motley Pair. Many of Grossmith's songs have been recorded by baritone Leon Berger.
John Reed played Grossmith in Melvyn Morrow's one-man biographical musical A Song to Sing, O at the Savoy Theatre in 1981. The same role was later played in Australia by Anthony Warlow in 1987 and Dennis Olsen in 1991.
Notes
References
Banfield, Frank. "Mr. George Grossmith", Cassell's Family Magazine (1896), pp. 549–56
Accessed 9 March 2008
Johnson, Jan-Christine. "Discovering George Grossmith in Folkestone", The Gaiety'', Spring 2005, pp. 37–43. Editor: Roderick Murray, accessed 9 March 2008
Further reading
External links
Grossmith in the 1907 edition of Who's Who
"George Grossmith" (Memories of the D'Oyly Carte website)
Photo and list of Grossmith's Savoy roles (G&S Archive)
1847 births
1912 deaths
English male stage actors
19th-century British male singers
English composers
English entertainers
English humorists
English memoirists
People from Islington (district)
Male actors from London
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
English male novelists
English male non-fiction writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speedo
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Speedo
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Speedo International Limited is a distributor of swimwear and swim-related accessories based in Nottingham, England, known for their swim briefs. They have roots in Australia but are no longer manufactured in Australia. Founded in Sydney, Australia, in 1914 by Alexander MacRae, a Scottish emigrant, the industry-leading company is now a subsidiary of the British Pentland Group. Today, the Speedo brand can be found on products ranging from swimsuits and goggles to wristwatches. The Speedo brand was previously manufactured for and marketed in North America as Speedo USA by PVH under an exclusive perpetual licence, who acquired prior licensee Warnaco Group in 2013. As of January 2020, the Pentland Group purchased back the rights from PVH for $170 million in cash subject to regulatory approval.
In accordance with its Australian roots, Speedo uses a boomerang as their symbol. Due to their success in the swimwear industry, the word "Speedo" has become synonymous with racing bathing suits.
History
Speedo Knitting Mills
Company founder Alexander MacRae emigrated from Loch Kishorn in the western Highlands of Scotland to Sydney, Australia in 1910. Originally working as a milkman, he founded MacRae and Company Hosiery four years later, manufacturing underwear under the brand name Fortitude (taken from his family crest). The Australian Army's need for socks during the First World War provided MacRae with enough business to expand and in 1927 his first line of swimwear, called a "racer-back costume" was introduced. The following year, a naming contest held among the MacRae staff yielded the slogan "Speed on in your Speedos." The brand name was born. The contest winner, Captain Parsonson, was awarded £5 for his slogan and the company was renamed Speedo Knitting Mills.
The controversial yet revolutionary racerback style's open shoulder and exposed back allowed greater range of motion in water and was quickly adopted by competitive swimmers, despite being banned by some beaches. In 1932, Speedo made its Olympic debut when 16-year old Australian Clare Dennis won the Women's 200 Meter Breaststroke at the Los Angeles Olympic Games. After nearly being disqualified for "showing too much shoulder" in her regulation silk Speedo brand swimsuit, Dennis went on to set a world record time of 3:06.3. The 1936 Berlin Summer Games also saw some controversy as the men's Australian swim team featured shirtless swim trunks for the first time. Also in 1936, Alexander MacRae became involved in the Surf Life Saving Association. To this day, Speedo continues to support the Australian volunteer organisation.
Post-War expansion
After devoting most of its resources to the War effort during World War II, Speedo enjoyed a great post-war demand for swimsuits, specifically the recently invented bikini style. The company quickly reestablished itself as a leader in swimwear manufacturing and once again drew controversy when its two-piece was banned by Australian beach inspectors. In 1951, Speedo Knitting Mills (Holdings) Ltd. incorporated and went public, selling its stock on the Sydney Stock Exchange. In 1955, nylon was used for the first time in the company's swimsuits and the next year, the increasingly popular swimsuit brand returned to the Olympics when its home country hosted the Melbourne Summer Games. The Speedo sponsored Australian men's swim team took home eight gold medals and brought a new worldwide level of notoriety to the company which debuted the swim briefs that would become synonymous with the brand name. By 1957, Speedo had the exclusive licence to manufacture and distribute Jockey brand men's underwear in Australia. The company finished off the 1950s by exporting to the United States and exploring potential opportunities in South America, Europe, New Zealand and Japan.
The end of the 1950s also saw the beginning of a long-lasting business partnership which continues to this day. In 1958, Speedo began the manufacture of American Warnaco's White Stag ski-wear line. In exchange, in 1961, White Stag became the exclusive US distributor of Speedo swimwear. Through White Stag, Speedo's product line expanded to include men's and women's sportswear. By the middle of the 1960s, Speedo had acquired 30% of Nottingham, UK textile manufacturer Robert Shaw and Company Ltd. and had established a European subsidiary. Licences were also granted to Japanese and South American corporations. The 1968 Mexico City Summer Olympics saw 27 of the 29 gold medalists—22 of which set world records—wearing Speedo brand swimsuits.
Speedo began the next decade by completing its acquisition of Robert Shaw and Company in 1971. The 1970s also saw the company pioneer the use of elastane (spandex) and the brand's use in Olympic record breaking continued at the 1972 Munich and 1976 Montreal games, the latter of which Speedo was an official swimwear licensee.
On Australia Day, 26 January 1981 the Australian Institute of Sport opened in Canberra, with Speedo as its first official sponsor. Also early in the decade, Speedo provided equipment and training to China to aid the communist country's return to the Olympics for first time since 1958. Throughout the decade, the brand expanded its reach in Europe by licensing production in Italy, Spain, Sweden and other nations, bringing its total distribution to 112 countries.
Modern technology
In 1990, British sportswear firm Pentland Group, which had just sold its shares of sneaker company Reebok, acquired a significant stake in Warnaco offshoot Authentic Fitness, which was the exclusive North American licensee of Speedo. Pentland followed this move with the purchase of 80% of Speedo (Europe) Ltd. Early the next year, Pentland completed its aggressive entrance into the global swimwear market by wholly acquiring Speedo Australia and Speedo International. Under Pentland's ownership, Speedo expanded its line of swimwear to include more fashion-oriented beachwear as well as triathlon accessories.
The 1990s saw the creation of the low-drag S2000 suit, the chlorine resistant Endurance line as well as the Aquablade series which was worn by more than three-fourths of medal winners at the 1996 Atlanta Summer Games.
Speedo began the 21st century with the introduction of its Fastskin swimsuit and, again, broke world records when the Summer Games returned to the swimwear leader's home town. The company website boasts that 13 out of the 15 swimming records broken in the 2000 Sydney Olympics were by athletes wearing Speedo. Three years later, Speedo celebrated its 75th anniversary with special limited edition lines endorsed by Jerry Hall, Naomi Campbell and others. In 2004, Michael Phelps wore the Fastskin II, the latest evolution of the Fastskin series, in Athens to become the first swimmer to earn eight medals. Phelps followed up this performance four years later, earning eight golds at Beijing, while wearing Speedo's LZR Racer suit In 2010, the company launched Speedo Sculpture ShapeLine, a new line of body-shaping swimsuits for women.
Products
Although the brand name Speedo is often genericised to refer to any style of men's swim briefs, these account for less than 2% of the company's sales. The Speedo name can be found on a wide range of swimsuit styles for men, women, and children focusing on performance and style. Speedo also offers a range of sportswear, footwear, and accessories ranging from swim goggles to electronics. Additionally, Speedo International offers a line of men's underwear and Speedo Australia features a line of underwear called Speedo Underbody for men and women, sold only in select David Jones retail stores.
Accessories
Speedo offers a broad range of swim accessories including more than seventy models of goggles, several models of watches, sunglasses, and towels. In addition, Speedo offers several lines of aquatic fitness aids and swim aids for children and adults as well as scuba masks, snorkels and swimfins. Speedo International offers a line of beach games equipment not offered on the SpeedoUSA website.
Footwear
The Speedo brand can be found on a wide variety of footwear including sandals, flip-flops, and water shoes. Speedo USA offers waterproof sneakers for aqua fitness training.
Speedo Digital
The Speedo Digital line of accessories includes the waterproof Aquabeat and LZR Racer Aquabeat digital music players and related accessories, which are manufactured by South Korean consumer electronics company Iriver. Speedo's electronics offerings also include the Auquashot waterproof digital camera.
Swimwear
Speedo USA's men's collections are categorised as: Competition, Racing, Boardshorts and Swim Trunks, Fashion, and Lifeguard. Speedo International's men's offerings also include wetsuits. Both Speedo USA and Speedo International also offer a wide range of children's styles including performance, racing, fashion and beginner lines.
Controversial technology
Swim records were broken in Speedo brand silk suits in the 1930s, and the company was the first to introduce the use of nylon in the 1950s and later nylon/elastane in the 1970s. Speedo's most recent technological advances are found in the Fastskin, Fastskin FS II series and the LZR Racer suit. Throughout the company's history, though, it seemed each design innovation was met with great controversy. Clare Dennis was nearly disqualified from her record-breaking Olympic meet because her suit showed too much skin; early Speedo bikinis were banned from some Australian beaches; more recently, the NASA technology in the LZR Racer suit Michael Phelps wore at the Beijing Olympics was the subject of great media scrutiny.
Fastskin
In 2000, British designer and former competitive swimmer Fiona Fairhurst was named as a finalist for European Inventor of the Year. Fairhurst helped Speedo's Aqualab design team invent the first-of-its-kind Fastskin swimsuit. Inspired by the varying skin texture of a shark, Fairhurst told the BBC that she was "looking to develop a fabric that mimics nature". Both the Fastskin and Fastkskin FS II are textured with bumps and ridges in key places, similar to those on a shark's skin. These ridges are claimed to channel the water over the swimmer's body in a more efficient manner than traditional material suits. However, research in 2012 has suggested that the artificial sharkskin patterning does not benefit human swimmers, whose body movement is different from sharks.
In addition, the suits are custom designed for the type of stroke the swimmer will use as well as being engineered differently for women and for men. These high-tech suits make use of elastic compression materials to limit muscle oscillation and to compress the swimmer's body, while in other areas a more flexible fabric is used to allow greater range of motion. Leaving no detail overlooked, the design team also uses low-profile seams. According to author Frank Vizard, the Fastskin suits reduce drag by up to four percent. Speedo adapted this new fabric technology for the 2006 Winter Olympics. The full-bodied Fastskin FSII Ice suits were debuted by the silver medal winning American women's bobsled team.
By the time the bobsledders were given the opportunity to don their Fastskin suits, the line had already gone through several evolutions including the Fastskin FS-II and Fastskin FS-Pro. From the very beginning, these drag reducing suits were met with great resistance. At issue was Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) rule 10.7, which stated "No swimmer shall use any device that may aid his speed, buoyancy, or endurance during a competition (such as webbed gloves, flippers, fins etc). Goggles may be worn". Early in 2000, Speedo hand-delivered their new Fastskin suits to 150 Olympic hopefuls and promised 6,000 more would be made available for Olympic trials. Fearing the possibility of Speedo-clad race winners being stripped of medals due to challenges, the Australian Olympic Committee (AOC) asked the Court of Arbitration for Sport to examine the legality of the FINA-sanctioned suits. In May that year, a CAS-appointed arbitrator backed the FINA ruling allowing use of the suits for Olympic tryouts. Australian Olympic Committee president John Coates, however, said in a press conference that their swimmers would be allowed to wear the futuristic neck to ankle covering suits, but would do so "at their own risk". Coates later stated that the ruling he sought was whether the suits should be classified as costumes or devices.
Professor Emeritus of Exercise and Nutritional sciences at San Diego State University, Brent S. Rushall claimed in a report sent to CAS that the suits were – by FINA's definition and based on manufacturer's claims – in fact devices, rather than costumes and are therefore in violation of the FINA rule, which disallows equipment such as fins or flippers. In the report, Rushall equally criticises Adidas (who had a similarly designed bodysuit) and Speedo for giving FINA members presents and declares that these members should recuse themselves from ruling on the legality of these suits.
Ultimately, the suits were approved for use in the Sydney Olympics and in December 2000 the super-suit earned a place on Popular Science's "100 Best of What's New", alongside the US Navy's F-16 replacement and Kodak's Smart Digital Picture Frame with built-in modem.
Four years later, the FSII debuted in the Athens summer games. While this next stage in swimwear evolution was quickly approved by FINA, it was not without controversy. Speedo competitor TYR developed a similar full body suit with detached sleeves, which the company calls Aqua Bands. Both TYR's detached Aqua bands and Speedo FSII's attached sleeves are designed to essentially "grip" the water on the inner forearm. TYR maintained that essentially the only difference between their suit and Speedo's was whether the sleeves were attached. Despite this, FINA did not approve TYR's armbands. In 2004, 47 medals were won by swimmers wearing Fastskin II.
In late 2011, in time for the holiday season, Speedo introduced a new Fastskin3 suit. This suit comes in two styles, Elite and Super Elite. Speedo developed the Fastskin3 as a racing "system", consisting of a newly introduced cap, goggles, and competition suit. Michael Phelps is the principal advertiser for the Fastskin3 line of suits, as Ryan Lochte has been reported to prefer the older Fastskin LZR Elite suits. In succession to the LZR Pro and Elite, Speedo switched the branding for their technical suits from "Fastskin LZR Racer" to "Fastskin", continuing the trend they left off in 2008 when they debuted the LZR Racer. The male suit is available as a normal-cut suit and a high-waisted suit that utilises the space in between the belly button and waist of the male swimmer. The core of Speedo's advertising campaign for the new line touted the benefits of "becoming one" with the suit. Speedo advertises up to 16.6% drag reduction and 11% improved oxygen economy. The system was sold featuring "fit point markers", allowing the swimmer to line up the suit, cap, and goggles to achieve an ideal fit and appearance. FINA approved this suit shortly after it was launched, and the suit was anticipated to be used at the London 2012 Olympics by a majority of athletes, along with the Arena PowerSkin Carbon Pro suit, which debuted in early 2012. However, a series of high-profile seam failures and high costs for poor performance gain meant that the suit was a commercial failure. Most swimmers, including Phelps, ended up using a revamped version of the LZR Elite. The cap and a cut-down version of the "Super Elite" goggles are still sold today.
As of the Rio 2016 Olympics, Speedo's lineup of suits consisted of its flagship "LZR Racer X", known for an "x" pattern of silver kinetic taping; a second generation Elite dubbed the "LZR Elite 2"; and an entry-level "LZR Pro". The LZR X performed slightly better than the FS3 in terms of swimmer preference, but Speedo failed to capture much attention at the Games as Mizuno, a Japanese manufacturer, had introduced a new suit (the "GX-Sonic III") designed to circumvent the FINA regulations and aid the swimmer in new ways. Specifically, the Mizuno suit comes in two variants: a sprinter ("ST") variant with stiff taping on the inside of the suit along the hamstrings, designed to help the upbeat of a kick at the end of a race as a swimmer's energy fades, while the multi-racer ("MR") uses two layers of the FINA-approved textile to decrease air permeability drastically, thereby trapping considerable excess air and making a swimmer more buoyant just like with the original LZR Racer (see below). Not much marketing material has appeared in the West, as the GX-Sonic has only been primarily aimed at the small Japanese market and required special importing internationally, so there are no numerical performance claims available, but many unsigned standout swimmers like Joseph Schooling (since signed by Speedo), Caeleb Dressel (since signed by Speedo), and Anthony Ervin (signed by Finis but allowed to choose his own suit) chose to wear the Mizuno suit over any of Speedo's offerings and won many golds in that suit. Additionally, the de facto trademark appearance of some collegiate teams like the Texas Longhorns at the NCAA National Championships is in Mizuno now, as opposed to Speedo.
To combat the rapid uprise of choosing Mizuno among high-performing swimmers, Speedo released a new lineup of suits in 2019, in advance of the Tokyo 2020 Olympics. Dubbed the "LZR PURE" collection, the lineup consists of two suits: a new high-end LZR Pure Intent, designed to replace the LZR Racer X, borrowing many technologies like hamstring taping from Mizuno's suits, and intended to compete with Mizuno's ST variant of their GX-Sonic series; and a flexible LZR Pure Valor, designed to replace the LZR Elite 2 and compete with the dual-layered MR variant of the GX-Sonic series. Speedo has also released new goggles and a rebranded FS3 cap to go along with the launch.
LZR Racer
Speedo's most controversial move came with 2008's unveiling of the LZR (pronounced "laser") Racer. The super smooth suit, which was optimised with the help of NASA wind tunnels, uses welded seams and multiple woven fabrics to reduce drag by up to six percent. In addition, the LZR, like the Fastskin, utilises a core stabiliser, which acts almost as a girdle, to reduce muscle movement. This was designed to help the swimmer maintain the proper angle in the water for longer periods of time. Popular Science magazine named the suit one of their "100 Best of What's New '08" list, calling it "The fastest swimsuit in the world". Subsequent research revealed another reason for the suit's success: tiny air bubbles tended to be trapped between the swimmer's body and the suit, lifting the swimmer slightly so that they benefited from lower friction against air as compared to water.
Speedo's website boasts that the LZR Racer was "so fast, it was banned from competition". Indeed, the LZR Racer was banned from international competition by FINA in 2009, along with all full-body polyurethane suits. Men's suits were also banned from extending above the waist or below the knee. Women's suits could not extend past the shoulders or go below the knee.
However, by that time, swimmers wearing the suit had already broken at least 46 world records.
FINA's ban on the LZR Racer and all "hi-tech" suits came shortly before Michael Phelps's 200 meter freestyle loss to Germany's Paul Biedermann at the 2009 FINA World Aquatics Championships in Rome, Italy. Wearing Arena's polyurethane X-Glide suit, Biedermann broke two world records that day and beat Phelps by more than one second. Even though FINA had already approved the ban, it had not been scheduled to go into effect until the following spring. The delay in FINA's hi-tech prohibition and Phelps's unexpected second-place finish (his first loss since 2005) led Phelps's coach Bob Bowman to threaten a boycott of international swim competitions. In the first three days of the eight-day competition, 15 world records were set.
The vague decision by swimming's governing body stated that suit materials would need to be textile, rather than polymer-based, but offered no specific deadline for this changeover to occur.
The reason for the delay, FINA executive director Cornel Marculescu told the AP, is to give manufacturers enough time "to pass from polyurethane to textiles". The ambiguity continued when FINA was unable to define textile. The most specific aspect of the ruling returned men to bare chests and ladies to bare shoulders. The current rule (GR 5.4), as posted on FINA's website, states "Before any swimwear of new design, construction or material is used in competition, the manufacturer of such swimwear must submit the swimwear to FINA and obtain approval of FINA".
Speedo's latest version of the LZR Racer series, the LZR Racer Elite, carries the FINA stamp of approval. The Elite series, like its predecessor utilises welded seams and compression material to sculpt the swimmer's body. The SpeedoUSA website specifically denies the new generation of LZR Racers is a "quick fix". The most recent list of FINA approved swimsuits, which was published in January 2011 lists 78 specific Speedo brand swimsuits among 45 worldwide brands and nearly 720 models. Among them, 71 are Fastskin models and 13 are LZR series suits. Several Speedo designs have been removed from the FINA list including the original LZR Racer, and multiple Fastskin models.
FINA's ban on LZR Racers left Speedo with a significant surplus stock. The obsolete competition suits have found new life, though. London's Chelsea College of Art and Design received a donation of 600 suits, 200 of which were turned into the Chelsea Xpo Pavilion as part of the 2010 London Festival of Architecture project. The pavilion can be seen on the college's campus at the Rootstein Hopkins Parade Ground.
Another collaboration between Speedo and academia netted a line of designer fashions. Teams of students from the London College of Fashion, University College Falmouth and the University of Huddersfield have reused the material to create a complete fashion line including casual slacks, jackets, and even different forms of swimwear.
This was not the company's first foray into recycled high fashion, though. In September 2010, sustainable fashion label, From Somewhere announced a new line of dresses made from Speedo's surplus.
Online resources
YouTube channel
Speedo started its YouTube channel dedicated to Speedo and its products specifically in the context of "life in and around the water" on 2 March 2007. One of the initial videos was aimed at journalists and providing them with a literal and virtual feel for what the athletes wearing the LZR Racer at the 2008 Summer Olympics felt by letting members of the media try the suits on in person in Beijing and sharing that experience virtually via YouTube. For swimmers, videos posted cover a wide range of topics including swimming technique overviews and breaking down the process of designing and making swimwear. Speedo's channel also features high profile athletes at different points of their journey as a professional swimmer such as at the end of a World Championships.
Sponsorships
Olympic Committees
National teams
Speedo is the sponsor of several national swim teams.
Speedo also offers sponsorships to some High School and College (NCAA, NAIA, Junior college) Leagues as well as non-profit recreation leagues such as YMCA and Boys and Girls Clubs.
Sponsored athletes
In addition to team and league sponsorships, these are the several celebrity athletes that are currently being sponsored by Speedo.
See also
High-technology swimwear fabric
List of generic and genericised trademarks
List of swimwear brands
Tyr Sport, Inc. – Speedo's chief American competitor in the performance swimwear market.
Warnaco Group – Speedo's exclusive North American licensee
References
External links
Australian companies established in 1914
Clothing brands of Australia
Clothing brands of the United Kingdom
Clothing companies established in 1914
Manufacturing companies based in Nottingham
PVH (company) clothing brands
Sporting goods brands
Sporting goods manufacturers of Australia
Sporting goods manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Sportswear brands
Swimwear manufacturers
Water polo equipment manufacturers
|
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241854
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weedon%20Grossmith
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Weedon Grossmith
|
Walter Weedon Grossmith (9 June 1854 – 14 June 1919), better known as Weedon Grossmith, was an English writer, painter, actor, and playwright best known as co-author of The Diary of a Nobody (1892) with his brother, music hall comedian and Gilbert and Sullivan star George Grossmith. Weedon Grossmith also illustrated The Diary of a Nobody to much acclaim.
Grossmith trained as a painter, but was unable to make a living in that capacity and went on the stage largely for financial reasons. He was successful as an actor and as an impresario, and wrote several plays. As an actor, he specialised in comedy roles, and his typical characters, harassed and scheming, became so identified with him that the "Weedon Grossmith part" became a regular feature of the theatre of his day.
Life and career
Early years
Grossmith was born in London and grew up in St. Pancras and Hampstead, London. His father, George Grossmith (1820–80), was the chief court reporter for The Times and other newspapers at the Bow Street police court and a lecturer and entertainer. His mother was Louisa Emmeline Grossmith née Weedon (d. 1882). His brother, George, became famous as the principal comedian of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas with the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company and was the most famous comedy-sketch pianist of the Victorian era.
Grossmith was educated at Massingham House on Haverstock Hill in Hampstead, and then at the North London Collegiate in Camden Town and Simpson's School, a local private establishment. Interested in art, he trained as a painter at the West London School of Art, the Slade and the Royal Academy. His goal was to become a fashionable portrait painter. He had portraits and other pictures hung at the Academy (beginning with a full-length portrait of his father) and at the Grosvenor Gallery and elsewhere. However, his career as an artist was not as successful as he had hoped. Richard D'Oyly Carte, having seen him in amateur performances, encouraged him to take to the stage professionally. Having, as he later recalled, liabilities of £700 and cash assets of £6, he consulted his fellow-artists Frank Holl and Luke Fildes about abandoning art in favour of the theatre:
He [Fildes] thought it madness when I had conquered all the great difficulties of painting. I quite agreed with him, but when I told him of my dreadful run of bad luck, and the little I had, he said he was bound to admit that if I had another string to play on, it was worth considering. But he still thought it an awful pity, and so have I thought ever since.
Acting career
Grossmith turned to acting in 1885, which he pursued until 1917. Joining Rosina Vokes's theatrical company in 1885, he went on tour in the provinces and in America. He first appeared in London at the Gaiety Theatre in 1887 as Woodcock in Woodcock's Little Game. Neither he nor the play was a success. Grossmith contemplated giving up the stage and returning to painting. He was shunned by managers who had promised him work, but on the strength of his American successes he was engaged by Henry Irving in 1888 to play Jacques Strop at the Lyceum Theatre in Charles Selby's Robert Macaire. He was nearly dismissed for interpreting Irving's direction, "You must imitate me", as an instruction to give an impersonation of the star's well-known mannerisms. His earliest notable success was made in A Pantomime Rehearsal, a short play (parodying incompetent amateur theatricals) with which he was associated for many years. In 1888 Grossmith joined the company of Richard Mansfield in Wealth, playing the role of Percy Palfreyman. In the following year he began a long association with the Court Theatre; he appeared there in Aunt Jack, The Cabinet Minister and The Volcano. He also played in The School for Scandal at the Globe Theatre (1889) and portrayed Joseph Lebanon in Arthur Wing Pinero's Cabinet Minister (1890).
In 1891, in partnership with Brandon Thomas, Grossmith presented and appeared in a triple bill, which included A Pantomime Rehearsal. After a shaky start, the production became a huge success; Grossmith appeared in it for more than 700 performances, in four different West End theatres, and he later calculated that Sebastian Smith as the leading man must have played the part about 1,000 times in London and on tour.
Grossmith went on to appear in plays by playwrights such as Henry Arthur Jones and Jerome K. Jerome, opposite actors such as Herbert Beerbohm Tree at the Haymarket Theatre and with Mrs. John Wood at the Court Theatre. In 1892, he played in W. S. Gilbert's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, a parody of Hamlet, at the Royal Court Theatre. He became known for playing comedy character roles, noting, "I am almost invariably cast for cowards, cads and snobs", and he was particularly good at portraying harassed, misunderstood little men as, like his brother George, he was small in stature. The Times wrote that the "Weedon Grossmith" part had become a recognised feature of current drama.
He portrayed Archibald Rennick in Arthur Law's The New Boy (1894), Hamilton Preedy in Mr. Preedy and the Countess (1905), Jimmy Jinks in Baby Mine (1911), the Earl of Tweenwayes in The Amazons, Boney in The Misleading Lady, and the Judge in Stopping the Breach, his last new role (1917). The critic B. W. Findon wrote, "Among the survivors of the old brigade – of the artists who thoroughly understand the requirements of farcical comedy, who know how to treat its humour with breadth, and grapple successfully with its ludicrous situations – is Mr. Weedon Grossmith. He is one of the best – I think I may say the best actor of farce on the stage of to-day."
Grossmith's last stage appearance was in 1918, in his old role of Lord Arthur Pomeroy in A Pantomime Rehearsal, with an all-star cast including Charles Hawtrey, Fay Compton, Irene Castle and Rutland Barrington, at a charity matinée attended by King George V, Queen Mary and Queen Alexandra.
Grossmith was also the lessee of London's Vaudeville Theatre from 1894 to 1896 and Terry's Theatre until 1917.
Author and playwright
In 1892, Grossmith collaborated with his brother George to expand a series of amusing columns they had written in 1888–89 for Punch. The Diary of a Nobody was published as a novel and has never been out of print since. The book is a sharp analysis of social insecurity, and Charles Pooter of The Laurels, Brickfield Terrace, Holloway, was immediately recognized as one of the great English comic characters. Grossmith created 33 black and white line drawings for the novel. According to biographer Tony Joseph, "In their precise and careful detail these illustrations ... reinforce the text to perfection." The work has itself been the object of dramatization and adaptation, including three times for television: 1964, 1979 and 2007.
Grossmith published another novel, A Woman with a History, in 1896. He also wrote a number of plays, the most successful of which was The Night of the Party (1901), for which he also directed, acted the lead role, designed the scenery and painted the advertising poster. One of his plays, The Duffer, was about students at the Royal Academy, which was successful and enjoyed a Royal Command Performance. In 1913 he published his autobiography, From Studio to Stage.
Personal life
Grossmith was a member of the Beefsteak, Garrick and Savage clubs. In 1895, he married the actress May Lever Palfrey (1867–1929). They had one child, a daughter, Nancy (1896–1921). He died in London at the age of 65. A memorial service, attended by leading members of the theatrical profession, was held in St Martin-in-the-Fields.
Notes
References
Grossmith, George and Grossmith, Weedon, Diary of a Nobody. London: Arrowsmith, 1892.
Grossmith, Weedon. A Woman with a History. London: F V White, 1896.
Grossmith, Weedon. From Studio to Stage: Reminiscences of Weedon Grossmith Written by Himself. London: John Lane, 1913
External links
Grossmith in the 1907 edition of Who's Who
Biographical chronology
Photos and drawings of Grossmith
Review of Grossmith in Baby Mine
1854 births
1919 deaths
English male stage actors
English dramatists and playwrights
People associated with Gilbert and Sullivan
19th-century English painters
English male painters
20th-century English painters
English male dramatists and playwrights
English male novelists
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantastic%20Beasts%20and%20Where%20to%20Find%20Them
|
Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them
|
Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (often referred to as simply Fantastic Beasts) is a 2001 guide book written by British author J. K. Rowling (under the pen name of the fictitious author Newt Scamander) about the magical creatures in the Harry Potter universe. The original version, illustrated by the author herself, purports to be Harry Potter's copy of the textbook of the same name mentioned in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (or Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in the US), the first novel of the Harry Potter series. It includes several notes inside it supposedly handwritten by Harry, Ron Weasley, and Hermione Granger, detailing their own experiences with some of the beasts described, and including inside-jokes relating to the original series.
In a 2001 interview with publisher Scholastic, Rowling stated that she chose the subject of magical creatures because it was a fun topic for which she had already developed much information in earlier books. Rowling's name did not appear on the cover of the first edition, the work being credited under the pen name "Newt Scamander", who, in the books, wrote this textbook as seen on Harry's supply list for his first year.
The book benefits the BBC affiliated charity Comic Relief. Over 80% of the cover price of each book sold goes directly to poor children in various places around the world. According to Comic Relief, sales from this book and its companion Quidditch Through the Ages had raised over £17 million by July 2009.
On 12 September 2013, Warner Bros. and Rowling announced they would be producing a film inspired by the book, being the first in a series of five such films. Rowling herself was the screenwriter. She came up with a plan for a movie after Warner Bros. suggested the idea. The story features Newt Scamander as a main character and is set in New York City, 70 years before Harry's story started. The film was released on 18 November 2016.
On 14 March 2017 a new edition of the book, with cover illustrations by Jonny Duddle and interior illustrations by Tomislav Tomic, was published with six new creatures and a foreword by Newt Scamander. It is assumed to be a new copy as it does not feature any handwritten notes. Proceeds from this edition are donated to Lumos as well as Comic Relief.
On 7 November 2017 a new edition was published with illustrations by Olivia Lomenech Gill, featuring the aforementioned 2017 text. On 1 February 2018 a Kindle in Motion edition, featuring these illustrations with movement, was released for compatible devices.
Synopsis
Original "for Muggles" version
Fantastic Beasts purports to be a reproduction of a textbook owned by Harry Potter and written by magizoologist Newt Scamander, a character in the fictional Harry Potter series. In the series, magizoology is the study of magical creatures.
Albus Dumbledore, headmaster of Hogwarts, provides the foreword and explains the purpose of the special edition of this book (the Comic Relief charity). At the end, he assures muggle readers, "The amusing creatures described hereafter are fictional and cannot hurt you." He repeats the Hogwarts motto: "Draco dormiens nunquam titillandus", Latin for "Never tickle a sleeping dragon".
Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them contains the history of magizoology and describes 85 magical species found around the world. Scamander says that he collected most of the information found in the book through observations made over years of travel across five continents. He notes that the first edition was commissioned in 1918 by Augustus Worme of Obscurus Books. However, it was not published until 1927. It is now in its fifty-second edition.
In the Harry Potter universe, the book is a required textbook for first-year Hogwarts students, having been an approved textbook since its first publication. In his foreword to the book, Albus Dumbledore notes that it serves as an excellent reference for wizarding households in addition to its use at Hogwarts.
The book features doodles and comments added by Ron Weasley. The comments would appear to have been written around the time of the fourth book, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. These doodles add some extra information for fans of the series (for example the "Acromantula" entry has a comment confirming that Hogwarts is located in Scotland) along with comic relief (such as Ron stating "you're not kidding" when talking about the Hungarian Horntail being the most fearsome dragon of all, a reference to Harry's encounter with one in the fourth book).
The cover design of the first edition of the book features apparent claw marks from an unidentified animal.
2017 "for Wizards" version
This edition features six new creatures: the hidebehind, the hodag, the horned serpent, the snallygaster, the thunderbird, and the wampus cat, in addition to the original 75, and the illustrations are replaced. Newt Scamander, in the foreword, explains the reason the six new creatures were not previously included is because MACUSA president Seraphina Picquery requested the more important American creatures not be mentioned to deter wizarding sightseers at a time when the US wizarding community were subject to greater persecution than their European counterparts, and after Scamander had contributed to a serious breach of the International Statute of Secrecy in New York.
Role in the Harry Potter series
The book's fictional author, Newt Scamander, does not appear in the main Harry Potter book series.
However, his name is seen on the Marauder's Map in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban film. He is the central character of the Fantastic Beasts film series, in which he is played by Eddie Redmayne.
Featured beasts
The following mythological beasts are listed in the book:
Acromantula
Ashwinder
Augurey
Basilisk
Billywig
Bowtruckle
Bundimun
Centaur
Chimaera
Chizpurfle
Clabbert
Crup
Demiguise
Diricawl
Doxy
Dragon
Antipodean Opaleye
Chinese Fireball
Common Welsh Green
Hebridean Black
Hungarian Horntail
Norwegian Ridgeback
Peruvian Vipertooth
Romanian Longhorn
Swedish Short-Snout
Ukrainian Ironbelly
Dugbog
Erkling
Erumpent
Fairy
Fire Crab
Flobberworm
Fwooper
Ghoul
Glumbumble
Gnome
Graphorn
Griffin
Grindylow
Hidebehind
Hippocampus
Hippogriff
Hodag
Horklump
Horned serpent
Imp
Jarvey
Jobberknoll
Kappa
Kelpie
Knarl
Kneazle
Leprechaun
Lethifold
Lobalug
Mackled Malaclaw
Manticore
Merpeople
Moke
Mooncalf
Murtlap
Niffler
Nogtail
Nundu
Occamy
Phoenix
Pixie
Plimpy
Pogrebin
Porlock
Puffskein
Quintaped
Ramora
Red Cap
Re'em
Runespoor
Salamander
Sea serpent
Shrake
Snallygaster
Snidget
Sphinx
Streeler
Tebo
Thunderbird
Troll
Unicorn
Wampus cat
Werewolf
Winged horse
Yeti
Editions
Scholastic editions
Paperback:
Hardcover Box Set: (Includes Fantastic Beasts... and Quidditch Through the Ages)
Paperback Box Set:
Bloomsbury edition
2001 paperback:
2009 paperback:
2017 hardcover:
Sagebrush Rebound edition
School & Library Edition:
Pottermore E-book edition
Original version:
2017 edition:
2017 Olivia Lomenech Gill illustrated edition:
Reception
Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly graded the book with an "A" and wrote "With its richly detailed history lessons and witty debate parsing the differences between being and beast, plus a compendium of 85 magical creatures that's chockablock with Rowling's trademark wordplay (Glumbumble is a standout), Beasts adds a vital new dimension to the Potter mythology."
Adaptations
Audiobook
The 2017 version of the book was recorded as an unabridged audiobook in 2017. The audiobook is read by Eddie Redmayne in the character of Newt Scamander.
In 2018, the American Library Association named it one of the Top Ten Amazing Audiobooks for Young Adults.
Film adaptations
Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them is a British-American fantasy film inspired by the book of the same name by J. K. Rowling. An extension of the wizarding world from the Harry Potter film series and directed by David Yates, the film stars Eddie Redmayne, Katherine Waterston, Alison Sudol, Dan Fogler, Samantha Morton, Ezra Miller, Colin Farrell, Carmen Ejogo, Faith Wood-Blagrove, Jenn Murray, Jon Voight and Ron Perlman. The first movie is set to be followed by four more. Principal photography commenced on 17 August 2015, at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden. Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them was released in the United Kingdom and the United States on 18 November 2016.
A sequel was released on 16 November 2018. The third movie is scheduled to be released on 15 April 2022.
Cultural adaptations
Fantastic Beasts - The Wonder of Nature was an exhibition at the Natural History Museum, London. The exhibition, which ran between 2020 and 2021, is a collaboration between the museum, Warner Bros. and The BBC Studios Natural History Unit The exhibition is a 'hybrid show' which uses digital interactive installations as well as specimens from the Natural History Museum collection.
The show was also featured on Google Arts and Culture as an online exhibition.
The exhibition was forced to close its doors a day after opening after London was put on tighter Covid-19 restriction. The museum promoted the online exhibit via it's social media and website.
References
Further reading
Newt Scamander. Fantastic Beasts & Where to Find Them. New York, NY: Arthur A. Levine Books, 2001. Print.
External links
Interview with J. K. Rowling about her book Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them
2001 children's books
Children's books adapted into films
Comic Relief
Encyclopedias of fictional worlds
Books by J. K. Rowling
Works published under a pseudonym
Wizarding World books
Bestiaries
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1963%20%28comics%29
|
1963 (comics)
|
1963 is an American six-issue comic book limited series written by Alan Moore in 1993, with art by his frequent collaborators Steve Bissette, John Totleben, and Rick Veitch. Dave Gibbons, Don Simpson, and Jim Valentino also contributed art. Image Comics published the series.
The six issues are an homage to the Silver Age of American comics (in particular, the early Marvel Comics), and feature spoof advertisements on the rear covers—in a manner to be repeated with a twist by Moore and Kevin O'Neill in The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen.
Marvel parody
Moore's homage to Marvel clichés included fictionalizing himself and the artists as the "Sixty-Three Sweatshop", describing his collaborators in the same hyperbolic and alliterative mode Stan Lee used for his "Marvel Bullpen"; each was given a Lee-style nickname ("Affable Al," "Sturdy Steve," "Jaunty John," etc.—Veitch has since continued to refer to himself as "Roarin' Rick"). The parody is not entirely affectionate, as the text pieces and fictional letter columns contain pointed inside jokes about the business practices of 1960s comics publishers, with "Affable Al" portrayed as a tyrant who claims credit for his employees' creations. Moore also makes reference to Lee's book Origins of Marvel Comics (and its sequels) when Affable Al recommends that readers hurry out and buy his new book How I Created Everything All By Myself and Why I Am Great.
Incomplete status
The series has never been finished. When first announced, the limited series was supposed to be followed by an 80-page annual, illustrated by Jim Lee, in which the 1963 characters were sent thirty years into "the future", where they met then-contemporary 1993 characters published by Image Comics. Moore intended comment on how the air of "realism" brought to Marvel Comics in the early 1960s had paved the way for the "mature" and "grim and gritty" American comics of the 1990s. Moore has said that his own work, Watchmen, is at least partially responsible for this trend.
Moore was less than halfway through writing the script for the annual when Jim Lee announced that he was taking a year-long sabbatical from comic book art. Moore put the script aside, and after that year had passed, many things had changed. Rob Liefeld had left Image, which meant that some of his characters could not be used. Jim Lee was swamped with work and unlikely to be able to complete the work. The tide had changed, and superhero comics had begun to become less gritty, and Moore stated that his interest in writing superheroes had waned.
In 2007, Erik Larsen was asked about the status of the project and explained, "Alan had a falling out with one of the creators on the 1963 project and he did not want to re-open those wounds. That ship may have sailed, sorry to say." Moore has publicly expressed frustration with Jim Lee for selling Wildstorm comics (which owns Moore's America's Best Comics line) to DC (whom Moore had sworn to never work for again), but it is unconfirmed whether this is what Larsen was referring to. It's more likely that Larsen was referring to Moore cutting ties with Steve Bissette due to personal issues. Bissette has outlined how things happened from his perspective, with the problem being an interview he gave to The Comics Journal:
In a later interview, Bissette explained problems might have started earlier when the 1963 creators became entangled in the internal politics at Image Comics. He explained, "My perception of events, then and now, is that we did the 1963 series under the invite and umbrella of Image founding co-partner Jim Valentino," however, "Rick Veitch and I found ourselves caught in the crossfire between the Image partners' pissing contests." These partners "quickly took the initiation of the 1963 project as an open door to working with Alan on their respective projects. Again, we didn't realize at the time this also was tied up with their competitive natures: that is, it was Jim Valentino's coup that he got Alan on board via 1963, and the other Image partners wanted a piece of that action, which would also trump Jim Valentino's initial coup."
The final issue also contained an advertisements for 1963½, which was to be a separate comics project created by Alex Cox and Paul Mavrides, published by Kitchen Sink Press. It was not directly associated with Image's 1963 and was also advertised in unrelated publications, e.g. Science Fiction Eye.
The Tomorrow Syndicate are among the characters to be featured outside of the original limited series, having made an appearance alongside Big Bang Comics' Round Table of America, in an issue of Jim Valentino's A Touch of Silver. The Fury appeared in Noble Causes: Family Secrets issue three. The Fury also appeared alongside the Syndicate in issue 14 of Valentino's Shadowhawk, in which the title character traveled back to the past in search of a cure for the AIDS virus.
Bissette has revealed that he and Veitch had been working throughout 2009 to produce a "bare-bones hardcover reprint" of 1963 at Dynamite Entertainment, but the plan fell through in January 2010. However, he did reveal that there was a "1998 legal agreement signed by Alan Moore, Rick Veitch and myself dividing up our creative properties" that left Bisette with "N-Man, the Fury, the Hypernaut and Commander Solo & Her Screamin' Skydogs" who, he thought, "fit nicely with a bevy of my own characters and concepts I've never had homes for: Curtis Slarch, Lo!, 'The Big Dig,' and much, much more you’ve never heard of or seen because I could never interest a publisher in those projects." Together they formed "my own invented comics universe — the Naut Comics universe" which became the core of his revival of the 1963 characters he owned, to be published in late 2010 in Tales of the Uncanny – N-Man & Friends: A Naut Comics History, Volume 1.
Characters and titles
Issue one introduced Mystery Incorporated, a Fantastic Four surrogate featuring Crystal Man (based on Mr Fantastic), Neon Queen (based on Invisible Woman), Kid Dynamo (based on Human Torch) and The Planet (based on The Thing).
Issue two, No-one Escapes the Fury, featured The Fury, based on Spider-Man with elements taken from Daredevil, as well as Sky Solo, Lady of L.A.S.E.R., a female version of Nick Fury, agent of S.H.I.E.L.D., and mentions a character called "King Zero", who appears to be a Namor parody.
Issue three, an anthology comic called Tales of the Uncanny, featured USA, Ultimate Special Agent based on Captain America, and Hypernaut, who was based on Iron Man, with elements taken from Silver Surfer, Green Lantern, Arnim Zola (in appearance), and Swamp Thing. (The name Hypernaut is possibly a twist on "Supernaut", a song by Black Sabbath, whose hits include the song "Iron Man.")
Issue four, another anthology comic called Tales From Beyond, introduces readers to the Unbelievable N-Man, based on The Incredible Hulk, and Johnny Beyond, a beatnik version of Doctor Strange.
Issue five was devoted to Horus, Lord of Light, which appropriates Ancient Egyptian mythology as background for a modern era superhero in the same way that The Mighty Thor appropriated Norse Mythology.
Issue six told the story of the Tomorrow Syndicate, based on the Avengers. This comic brought back
Horus, Lord of Light, Hypernaut, N-Man, and USA, and also introduced Infra-Man, based on Henry Pym, and Infra-Girl, based on Janet Van Dyne.
Notes
References
External links
1963 Annotations
Interviews with 1963 creators (in their fictional roles)
Review, Teenage Wasteland Podcast
Comics by Alan Moore
1993 comics debuts
|
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241857
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Byrom
|
John Byrom
|
John Byrom or John Byrom of Kersal or John Byrom of Manchester FRS (29 February 1692 – 26 September 1763) was an English poet, the inventor of a revolutionary system of shorthand and later a significant landowner. He is most remembered as the writer of the lyrics of Anglican hymn "Christians, awake, salute the happy morn", which was supposedly a Christmas gift for his daughter.
Early life
Byrom was descended from an old genteel Lancashire family. Ralph Byrom came to Manchester from Lowton in 1485 and became a prosperous wool merchant. His son Adam acquired property in Salford, Darcy Lever, Bolton and Ardwick (though his wealth did not prevent his mentally ill daughter from being accused of witchcraft). Edward Byrom helped to foil a Royalist plot to seize Manchester in 1642.
Byrom was born at what is now The Old Wellington Inn (part of the Old Shambles), Manchester, in 1692. (The property was then used as an office for market tolls, with accommodation on the upper floors.) The Wellington Inn, now a tourist attraction, has a plaque in the bar area which commemorates his birth. However, some sources claim that he was born at Kersal Cell in Lower Kersal in the township of Broughton, near Salford, just outside Manchester.
According to Bailey he was one of the tallest men in the kingdom.
His privileged background enabled him to obtain an excellent education, including The King's School, Chester, and Merchant Taylors' School, London. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a fellow there in 1714. He subsequently travelled abroad and studied medicine at Montpellier in France.
Byrom and shorthand
Byrom invented a system of shorthand and, having perfected this, returned to England in 1716. Some of the inhabitants of Manchester tried to persuade him to set up a medical practice in the town, but he decided that his abilities were insufficient to pursue a medical career and resolved to teach his shorthand system instead. Shortly after coming into his family inheritance in 1740, he patented his New Universal Shorthand. This system of shorthand, officially taught at both Oxford and Cambridge Universities, was used by the clerk of the House of Lords.
On 16 June 1742, His Majesty George II secured to John Byrom, M.A., the sole right of publishing for a certain term of years (21) the art and method of shorthand invented by him.
His system of shorthand was posthumously published as The Universal English Shorthand which, although superseded in the nineteenth century, marked a significant development in the history of shorthand. It was used by John (1703–1791) and Charles Wesley (1707–1788), founders of Methodism, who recorded their self-examinations in coded diaries.
Family life
The ancestral home of the Byrom family is Byrom Hall at Slag Lane in Lowton (the lane facing the hall is called Byrom Lane).
He lived here from time to time, but seems to have largely resided in a town house in Manchester and at Kersal Cell.
Byrom had several children, but his favourite was his daughter Dorothy, known as Dolly. In December 1745, after a romp with Dolly, he promised to write her something for Christmas; it was to be written especially for her and no one else. The delighted Dolly reminded her father of his promise each day as Christmas grew nearer. On Christmas morning, when she ran down to breakfast, she found several presents awaiting her. Among them was an envelope addressed to her in her father's handwriting. It was the first thing she opened and, to her great delight, it proved to be a Christmas carol entitled "Christians awake! Salute the happy morn". The original manuscript, headed with "Christmas Day for Dolly", was first published in Harrop's Manchester Mercury in 1746.
Literary remains
Although Byrom is probably best remembered for this Christmas carol, he was regarded by his contemporaries as a poet and a literary man. Most of his poems, the best-known of which is My spirit longeth for Thee, were religious in tone. Byrom greatly admired William Law and he often versified parts of Law's prose. The printer and novelist Samuel Richardson printed poems for Byrom, some of which were found upon Richardson's death among his manuscripts. Byrom is also remembered for his epigrams and, above all, his coinage of the phrase Tweedledum and Tweedledee (in connection with a dispute about the merits of the two composers, George Frideric Handel and Giovanni Bononcini).
Ralph Tomlinson authored a parody of John Byrom's poem called A Slang Pastoral. It begins "My Time, O ye Muses, was happily spent," and it was originally published in The Spectator.
A man of mystery
Byrom did not lead an ordinary provincial life. He was a member of the Royal Society while Sir Isaac Newton was president, moving in some very influential social and intellectual circles in London and elsewhere. Modern research has revealed him to be something of a man of mystery. In the first place there is the question of his political views. It was once thought that he was a closet Jacobite, but it is now suggested that he may have acted as a double agent, the "Queen's Chameleon". His views might be summed up in the verse that he composed, in the form of a toast:
God bless the King! (I mean our faith's defender!)
God bless! (No harm in blessing) the Pretender.
But who Pretender is, and who is King,
God bless us all! That's quite another thing!
Byrom died in 1763 and is buried in his family's private chapel, which is now known as Jesus Chapel in Manchester Cathedral, Manchester, England. His papers, though preserved for some time after his death, were mysteriously destroyed in the nineteenth century. A freemason, few surviving items have suggested that he may have belonged to an early quasi-masonic society, known as the "Cabala Club", similar to the Gentleman's Club of Spalding, and pursued occult interests.
His library of books and manuscripts was donated to Chetham's Library by his descendant Eleanora Atherton in 1870.
References
Sources
The Queen's Chameleon; Life of John Byrom: A Study in Conflicting Loyalties, by Joy Hancox (Jonathan Cape)
Manchester Streets and Manchester Men, by T. Swindells (1910)
External links
John Byrom at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)
The John Byrom Collection, Chetham's Library
Profile at The Cyber Hymnal
Internet Archive: Miscellaneous Poems by John Byrom
1692 births
1763 deaths
Creators of writing systems
Writers from Manchester
People educated at Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood
Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge
English Anglicans
Fellows of the Royal Society
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
People educated at The King's School, Chester
English male poets
Freemasons of the Premier Grand Lodge of England
|
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] |
241862
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanus
|
Albanus
|
Albanus may refer to:
Alba Longa, an ancient city near Rome in Italy
St. Alban, soldier who became a Christian martyr
Alban Hills, southeast of Rome were known as Albanus Mons to the Romans, and Lago Albano in the Alban Hills was called Albanus Lacus
Albanus Glacier, located in Antarctica near the Tapley Mountains
Galeas Albanus, a ship from Äpplö in Åland that sailed in the Baltic Sea during the early 20th century or the replica built 1986-1988
See also
Albinus (disambiguation)
Albania (disambiguation)
Albanian (disambiguation)
Albanians (disambiguation)
|
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] |
241863
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difference%20quotient
|
Difference quotient
|
In single-variable calculus, the difference quotient is usually the name for the expression
which when taken to the limit as h approaches 0 gives the derivative of the function f. The name of the expression stems from the fact that it is the quotient of the difference of values of the function by the difference of the corresponding values of its argument (the latter is (x + h) - x = h in this case). The difference quotient is a measure of the average rate of change of the function over an interval (in this case, an interval of length h). The limit of the difference quotient (i.e., the derivative) is thus the instantaneous rate of change.
By a slight change in notation (and viewpoint), for an interval [a, b], the difference quotient
is called the mean (or average) value of the derivative of f over the interval [a, b]. This name is justified by the mean value theorem, which states that for a differentiable function f, its derivative f′ reaches its mean value at some point in the interval. Geometrically, this difference quotient measures the slope of the secant line passing through the points with coordinates (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)).
Difference quotients are used as approximations in numerical differentiation, but they have also been subject of criticism in this application.
Difference quotients may also find relevance in applications involving Time discretization, where the width of the time step is used for the value of h.
The difference quotient is sometimes also called the Newton quotient (after Isaac Newton) or Fermat's difference quotient (after Pierre de Fermat).
Overview
The typical notion of the difference quotient discussed above is a particular case of a more general concept. The primary vehicle of calculus and other higher mathematics is the function. Its "input value" is its argument, usually a point ("P") expressible on a graph. The difference between two points, themselves, is known as their Delta (ΔP), as is the difference in their function result, the particular notation being determined by the direction of formation:
Forward difference: ΔF(P) = F(P + ΔP) − F(P);
Central difference: δF(P) = F(P + ½ΔP) − F(P − ½ΔP);
Backward difference: ∇F(P) = F(P) − F(P − ΔP).
The general preference is the forward orientation, as F(P) is the base, to which differences (i.e., "ΔP"s) are added to it. Furthermore,
If |ΔP| is finite (meaning measurable), then ΔF(P) is known as a finite difference, with specific denotations of DP and DF(P);
If |ΔP| is infinitesimal (an infinitely small amount——usually expressed in standard analysis as a limit: ), then ΔF(P) is known as an infinitesimal difference, with specific denotations of dP and dF(P) (in calculus graphing, the point is almost exclusively identified as "x" and F(x) as "y").
The function difference divided by the point difference is known as "difference quotient":
If ΔP is infinitesimal, then the difference quotient is a derivative, otherwise it is a divided difference:
Defining the point range
Regardless if ΔP is infinitesimal or finite, there is (at least—in the case of the derivative—theoretically) a point range, where the boundaries are P ± (0.5) ΔP (depending on the orientation—ΔF(P), δF(P) or ∇F(P)):
LB = Lower Boundary; UB = Upper Boundary;
Derivatives can be regarded as functions themselves, harboring their own derivatives. Thus each function is home to sequential degrees ("higher orders") of derivation, or differentiation. This property can be generalized to all difference quotients.
As this sequencing requires a corresponding boundary splintering, it is practical to break up the point range into smaller, equi-sized sections, with each section being marked by an intermediary point (Pi), where LB = P0 and UB = Pń, the nth point, equaling the degree/order:
LB = P0 = P0 + 0Δ1P = Pń − (Ń-0)Δ1P;
P1 = P0 + 1Δ1P = Pń − (Ń-1)Δ1P;
P2 = P0 + 2Δ1P = Pń − (Ń-2)Δ1P;
P3 = P0 + 3Δ1P = Pń − (Ń-3)Δ1P;
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Pń-3 = P0 + (Ń-3)Δ1P = Pń − 3Δ1P;
Pń-2 = P0 + (Ń-2)Δ1P = Pń − 2Δ1P;
Pń-1 = P0 + (Ń-1)Δ1P = Pń − 1Δ1P;
UB = Pń-0 = P0 + (Ń-0)Δ1P = Pń − 0Δ1P = Pń;
ΔP = Δ1P = P1 − P0 = P2 − P1 = P3 − P2 = ... = Pń − Pń-1;
ΔB = UB − LB = Pń − P0 = ΔńP = ŃΔ1P.
The primary difference quotient (Ń = 1)
As a derivative
The difference quotient as a derivative needs no explanation, other than to point out that, since P0 essentially equals P1 = P2 = ... = Pń (as the differences are infinitesimal), the Leibniz notation and derivative expressions do not distinguish P to P0 or Pń:
There are other derivative notations, but these are the most recognized, standard designations.
As a divided difference
A divided difference, however, does require further elucidation, as it equals the average derivative between and including LB and UB:
In this interpretation, Pã represents a function extracted, average value of P (midrange, but usually not exactly midpoint), the particular valuation depending on the function averaging it is extracted from. More formally, Pã is found in the mean value theorem of calculus, which says:
For any function that is continuous on [LB,UB] and differentiable on (LB,UB) there exists some Pã in the interval (LB,UB) such that the secant joining the endpoints of the interval [LB,UB] is parallel to the tangent at Pã.
Essentially, Pã denotes some value of P between LB and UB—hence,
which links the mean value result with the divided difference:
As there is, by its very definition, a tangible difference between LB/P0 and UB/Pń, the Leibniz and derivative expressions do require divarication of the function argument.
Higher-order difference quotients
Second order
Third order
Nth order
Applying the divided difference
The quintessential application of the divided difference is in the presentation of the definite integral, which is nothing more than a finite difference:
Given that the mean value, derivative expression form provides all of the same information as the classical integral notation, the mean value form may be the preferable expression, such as in writing venues that only support/accept standard ASCII text, or in cases that only require the average derivative (such as when finding the average radius in an elliptic integral).
This is especially true for definite integrals that technically have (e.g.) 0 and either or as boundaries, with the same divided difference found as that with boundaries of 0 and (thus requiring less averaging effort):
This also becomes particularly useful when dealing with iterated and multiple integrals (ΔA = AU − AL, ΔB = BU − BL, ΔC = CU − CL):
Hence,
and
See also
Divided differences
Fermat theory
Newton polynomial
Rectangle method
Quotient rule
Symmetric difference quotient
References
External links
Saint Vincent College: Br. David Carlson, O.S.B.—MA109 The Difference Quotient
University of Birmingham: Dirk Hermans—Divided Differences
Mathworld:
Divided Difference
Mean-Value Theorem
University of Wisconsin: Thomas W. Reps and Louis B. Rall—Computational Divided Differencing and Divided-Difference Arithmetics
Interactive simulator on difference quotient to explain the derivative
Differential calculus
Numerical analysis
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wesleyan%20University
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Wesleyan University
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Wesleyan University ( ) is a private liberal arts university in Middletown, Connecticut. Founded in 1831 as a men's college under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church and with the support of prominent residents of Middletown, the college was the first institution of higher education to be named after John Wesley, the founder of Methodism. It is now a secular institution.
The college accepted female applicants from 1872 to 1909, but did not become fully co-educational until 1970. Before full co-education, Wesleyan alumni and other supporters of women's education established Connecticut College for women in 1912. Wesleyan, along with Amherst and Williams colleges, is part of "The Little Three", also traditionally referred to as the Little Ivies. Its teams compete athletically as a member of the NESCAC.
Wesleyan University has distinguished alumni in the arts and sciences, literature, politics and government, business, journalism, and academia. Its alumni include 13 Pulitzer Prize winners, 14 Rhodes scholars, three Truman scholars, three Guggenheim fellows, 156 Fulbright scholars, and seven MacArthur fellows. Additionally, four Nobel laureates have been associated with the university as faculty members.
Among its prominent alumni are politicians and political appointees: 34 members of the United States Congress, 16 presidential cabinet members, 11 governors, six directors and heads of U.S. federal agencies, two attorneys general of the United States, and one Associate Supreme Court Justice. Its alumni have also been successful in business, including several CEOs and founders of Fortune 500 companies.
History
Three histories of Wesleyan have been published, Wesleyan's First Century (1932) by Carl F. Price; Wesleyan University, 1831–1910: Collegiate Enterprise in New England (1999); and Wesleyan University, 1910-1970, Academic Ambition and Middle-Class America (2015), both of the latter written by David B. Potts. Before Wesleyan was founded, a military academy founded by Captain Alden Partridge existed on the land, consisting of the campus's North and South Colleges. As this academy failed, New England Methodists bought it and transformed it into a scholarly institution. Wesleyan was founded in 1831 as an all-male Methodist college by the Methodist conference. It was led by Willbur Fisk, its first president. Despite its name, Wesleyan was never totally a denominational seminary, but it did feature heavy Methodist influence in its curriculum and campus religious life. Early in Wesleyan's development, the administration had to balance their own scholarly and academic interests with those of the staff and students which transitioned from the previous Alden Partridge military academy. Despite this, it remained a leader in educational progress throughout its early history. In the 1870s and 1880s, Wesleyan began gaining a regional reputation for its creative extracurricular pursuits- particularly in music and writing. It built Judd Hall in 1909, which was named after alumnus Orange Judd, and was one of the earliest comprehensive science buildings devoted exclusively to undergraduate science instruction on any American college or university campus.
It has maintained a larger library collection than institutions comparable in size. The Wesleyan student body numbered about 300 in 1910 and had grown to 800 in 1960. Time described the latter figure as "small" for a university.
Although Wesleyan developed as a peer of Amherst and Williams colleges, until the 1970s it continued to be the smallest of the Little Three institutions. At that time it began to expand its programs, qualifying as a university with graduate programs and becoming larger than the other two.
In 1872, the university became one of the first U.S. colleges to attempt coeducation by admitting a small number of female students, a venture then known as the "Wesleyan Experiment". "In 1909, the board of trustees voted to stop admitting women as undergraduates, fearing that the school was losing its masculine image and that women would not be able to contribute to the college financially after graduation the way men could." Given that concern, Wesleyan ceased to admit women. From 1912 to 1970, Wesleyan operated again as an all-male college.
Wesleyan became independent of the Methodist church in 1937. In 2000, the university was designated as a historic Methodist site.
Beginning in the late 1950s, president Victor Lloyd Butterfield began an ambitious program to reorganize the university according to Butterfield's "College Plan." This resembled Harvard's house system and Yale's colleges. Undergraduate study would be divided into seven smaller residential colleges, with their own faculty and centralized graduate studies. Doctoral programs and a Center for Advanced Studies (later renamed the Center for the Humanities) were included in this reorganization.
The building program begun under this system created three residential colleges on Foss Hill (the Foss Hill dormitories), followed by three more residential colleges (the Lawn Avenue dormitories, now called the Butterfield Colleges). Although the structures were built, only four of the proposed academic programs were begun. Two of those continue today: the College of Letters and the College of Social Studies. Butterfield proved effective at fund raising: by 1960 Wesleyan had the largest endowment, per student, of any college or university in America, and a student-faculty ratio of 7:1.
Butterfield's successors, Edwin Deacon Etherington (class of 1948) and Colin Goetze Campbell, completed many of the innovations begun during Butterfield's administration, including the return of women in numbers equal to men; a quadrupling in the total area of building space devoted to laboratory, studio, and performing arts instruction; and a dramatic rise in the racial, ethnic, and religious diversity and size of the student body.
The university and several of its admissions deans were featured in Jacques Steinberg's 2002 book The Gatekeepers: Inside The Admissions Process of a Premier College. In the fall 2007 semester, Michael S. Roth, a 1978 graduate of Wesleyan and former president of the California College of the Arts, was inaugurated as the university's 16th president.
Campus
Wesleyan occupies a campus, with over 340 buildings, including the five-building College Row; Olin Memorial Library (see below); Andrus Public Affairs Center; the Exley Science Center; Shanklin and Hall-Atwater Laboratories; the Van Vleck Observatory; Fayerweather with Beckham Hall; Russell House, a National Historic Landmark; the Allbritton Center; the Butterfield dormitories; the Fauver Field dormitories; and the 11-building Center for the Arts complex.
When Wesleyan University was founded in 1831, it took over a campus on which two buildings, North College and South College, had already been built in 1825. They were originally constructed by the City of Middletown for use by Captain Partridge's American Literary, Scientific, and Military Academy. In 1829, after the Connecticut legislature declined it a charter to grant college degrees, Capt. Alden Partridge moved his academy to Northfield, Vermont. The academy later became Norwich University and the Middletown buildings were acquired by Wesleyan. The book, Norwich University, 1819-1911, Vol. I (1911), provides the following description of South College (originally called the Lyceum) and North College (called the Barracks).
These buildings were constructed of brown sandstone from quarries in Portland, Connecticut. The "Barracks" was four stories high, 150 feet long and 52 feet wide, with a large attic and basement. Halls extended the full length of the building. The "Lyceum" was located 20 feet south of the Barracks, was three stories high, with a basement partly above the ground. At the front of the building was a tower 14×16 feet and 73 feet high. The basement floor was used for an arsenal and laboratory and the first and second floors for classrooms; the third floor called the "Hall of the Lyceum" was used as a chapel and drill room, and for public services.
The original North College was destroyed in a fire in 1906, but South College survived, being converted into offices that same year. The cupola and the belfry, which contains the Wesleyan Carillon, was designed by Henry Bacon and was added in 1916.
The original core buildings of the campus were North College and South College. North College, Nassau Hall-type building seen in most early American college campuses, was replaced after a fire in 1909 with the current North College. South College is the sole building from the beginning of the college. These two buildings were the first two in a line of six later called College Row. The other buildings of row include the recently renovated Memorial Chapel, the original college library (now a theater), and Judd Hall. Adjacent to College Row, Olin Library, Harriman Hall, Shanklin Hall, and the former Hall Chemistry Building were designed by the architectural firm of McKim, Mead, and White as a set (with Clark Hall and a never-built sixth building) to form a quadrangle.
The northern end of High Street contains several large buildings that were former private residences, a few of which were exceptional architectural examples. These include Russell House, a National Historic Landmark, two Alsop family houses, (one is currently the African-American Studies center with student housing; the other is the Davison Art Center), the Davison infirmary, a second Russell family house that contains the University Development Office, and Downey House. High Street, which is the old center of campus, was once described by Charles Dickens as "the most beautiful street in America".
Recent building initiatives include the Freeman Athletic Center (which includes a 50-m swimming pool, the Spurrier-Snyder Rink for hockey, the 1,200-seat Silloway Gymnasium, the Andersen Fitness Center, and the Rosenbaum Squash Center with eight courts); the Center for Film Studies; and a multibuilding renovation project creating a Humanities District on the east side of High Street between Fisk Hall and Russell House, which includes facilities for the departments of English, Romance Languages, the College of Letters, Classical Studies, Philosophy, and Art and Art History. The Allbritton Center (previously the Davenport Student Center, and before that Scott Lab) opened in the fall of 2009 and houses the Allbritton Center for the Study of Public Life, the Shapiro Creative Writing Center, the Quantitative Analysis Center, and the Feminist, Gender, and Sexuality Studies Program.
The Usdan University Center, which opened in September 2007, has dining facilities for students and faculty. It also houses seminar and meeting spaces, the Wesleyan Student Assembly, Student Activities and Leadership Development Office, University Events and Scheduling Office, the post office, and the computer store. In 2012, 41 Wyllys Ave. opened in the former squash building as the new home for the College of Letters, Art History Program, and the Wesleyan Career Center.
Undergraduate academics
Wesleyan's 46 undergraduate academic departments offer over 900 courses each semester and more than 900 individual tutorials. Wesleyan also offers 13 interdisciplinary programs and nine Academic Centers. Undergraduates receive the Bachelor of Arts in one (or more) of 45 major concentrations. As many as a third of these majors are interdisciplinary in structure. Wesleyan began offering minors in February 2012 and at present offers eleven minors; more minors are under consideration. Certificates are offered in eleven fields. According to the university, "Certificate programs at Wesleyan supplement (but do not replace) a major. A certificate requires an interdisciplinary set of courses that prepares a student for postgraduate work in a specified interdisciplinary field." In addition, double majors are popular and up to 40% of Wesleyan's graduates are double majors. Students may triple major as well. Undergraduates can also pursue a custom-designed major, known as a University Major. According to the Columbia Encyclopedia, "Wesleyan is noted for its undergraduate programs of tutorial instruction and independent study." Approximately 52% of students undertake independent study.
Wesleyan offers 3–2 programs in engineering with the California Institute of Technology and Columbia University's School of Engineering. These programs allow undergraduates to receive degrees in five years from both Wesleyan (B.A.) and Caltech or Columbia (B.Sc., Engineering). Additionally, Wesleyan offers a BA/MA Program in the sciences leading to a bachelor's degree in the fourth year and a master's degree in the fifth year. Tuition for the fifth year of the master's degree is waived. Undergraduates can pursue studies in pre-medicine, pre-law, and pre-business through any major. Most classes at Wesleyan are small; the predominant class size for undergraduates is 10–19 students, and the student to faculty ratio is 8 to 1.
The university has described a set of general principles that define its approach to undergraduate education summed up in ten essential capabilities that the faculty believe every undergraduate should possess when he or she graduates from Wesleyan. Students may acquire these capabilities through numerous courses throughout the curriculum designated by the faculty as satisfying specific capabilities and through extra- or co-curricular activities. Writing is emphasized across the disciplines and 99% of undergraduates participate in Wesleyan's Writing Across the Curriculum program.
Wesleyan does not require undergraduates to take prescribed courses. Freshmen are offered First Year Initiative seminars, which are designed to prepare them for upper-level courses by emphasizing writing, analysis, discussion, and critical thinking. Undergraduates are encouraged in the first two years of study to take a minimum of two courses from two different departments in each of three areas: natural sciences and mathematics, humanities and the arts, and social and behavioral sciences. In the second two years, undergraduates are expected to take one course in each of these three areas. Fulfillment of the General Education Expectations in conjunction with co-curricular activities provides simultaneous acquisition of the ten essential capabilities. "A student who does not meet these [general education] expectations by the time of graduation will not be eligible for University honors, Phi Beta Kappa, honors in general scholarship [honors or high honors], and for honors in certain departments."
College of East Asian Studies
The College of East Asian Studies (CEAS) is the home of East Asian studies at Wesleyan University. The college was established in July 2014 through the merger of three academic units: the Asian Languages and Literatures Department, the East Asian Studies Program, and the Mansfield Freeman Center for East Asian Studies.
The CEAS Major is a three-year long major that is designed to give students deep knowledge about a particular East Asian culture (China, Japan, Korea) that are grounded in a particular discipline. Majors are also required to gain some knowledge of the other East Asian countries that might not be the focus of their study.
College of the Environment
The College of the Environment (COE), created in 2009, integrates the following components: 1) a curricular component, including the newly established environmental studies major, the environmental studies certificate, and a senior capstone project; 2) a Think Tank of Wesleyan faculty, scholars of prominence, and undergraduates whose aim is to produce scholarly work that will influence national and international thinking and action on critical environmental issues; and 3) the Collaborative Research Initiative (CRI), which is designed to encourage COE majors with the most potential to undertake environmental research. The threefold goal of the CRI combines: a) preparing students for senior research work; b) recruiting students of exceptional skill for participation in the COE Think Tank; and c) preparing students for research careers in environmental studies, as well as facilitating internships (non-credit) to provide students with research opportunities and "real world" experience (e.g., internships with governmental organizations, NGO's, and businesses, etc.).
College of Film and the Moving Image
The university's Film Studies program, consistently ranked in the top ten among the best programs in the world, is led by film historian Jeanine Basinger. In 2008, Vanity Fair said: "This tiny Connecticut University, with a total enrollment of 2,700, has turned out a shockingly disproportionate number of Hollywood movers and shakers." Similarly, in 2008, Variety magazine noted Basinger's contribution to the film industry through her work in the Wesleyan Film Studies program, and the large number of alumni of the program now working in Hollywood. University students, biographers, media experts, and scholars from around the world may have full access to The Wesleyan Cinema Archives, which document the film industry during the 20th century and contain the personal papers and film related materials of Ingrid Bergman, Frank Capra, Clint Eastwood, Federico Fellini, Elia Kazan, Frank Perry, Roberto Rossellini, Robert Saudek, Martin Scorsese, Gene Tierney, Raoul Walsh, and John Waters, amongst others.
In February 2013, Wesleyan announced the creation of a new College of Film and the Moving Image, incorporating the Film Studies Department, the Center for Film Studies, the Cinema Archives and the Wesleyan Film Series.
College of Integrative Sciences
The College of Integrative Sciences (CIS) is the most recent interdisciplinary college at Wesleyan, founded in 2014. The CIS provides students with an interdisciplinary education in the sciences, and combines it with hands-on problem solving skills in research. To build interdisciplinary expertise, students must complete both a traditional major in science or mathematics, as well as a "linked" major that combines components from other disciplines to form a coherent plan of study.
College of Letters
The College of Letters (COL) combines the study of history, literature, philosophy, and a foreign language of the student's choice. The program has a primary focus on the Western canon. Undertaking a chronological study that progresses from antiquities to modernity, COL students take one colloquium together each semester and study abroad for the second semester of their sophomore year; they are expected to be at an intermediate level of study in their language of choice at the time they enter the program as sophomores. During their junior year, students prepare for intensive comprehensive examinations on the three colloquia taken up to this point. During their senior year, students must write a thesis (full-year paper) or an essay (half-year paper).
College of Social Studies
The College of Social Studies (CSS) was founded in 1959, combining the fields of history, economics, government, and philosophy. It emphasizes intellectual independence and collaborative and social ties between faculty and students. Students take 5.5 of the program's 10.5 (thesis-writing students take 11.5) required credits during their sophomore year. Sophomore year focuses on the development of modern Western society from historical, economic, social and political perspectives, and culminates with comprehensive final exams. Junior year has a more global focus, while Seniors are required to write an Honors thesis (full year) or a Senior Essay.
Science and mathematics
According to National Science Foundation (NSF) research and data, the university ranks first nationally among liberal arts colleges in federal funding for research in the sciences and mathematics. Wesleyan is the sole undergraduate liberal arts college to be designated a Molecular Biophysics Predoctoral Research Training Center by the National Institutes of Health (NIH); other centers are located at research universities such as Stanford, University of California at Berkeley, Johns Hopkins, Harvard University Medical School, Duke, Cornell, and the University of Pennsylvania. Medical school acceptances of Wesleyan graduates have historically averaged above 90%, and in some years Wesleyan has recorded an acceptance rate of 100%.
Wesleyan was one of the first colleges to establish a separate Molecular Biology & Biochemistry department, and has extensive laboratory facilities. All of the science departments, mathematics & computer science, and psychology support original post-graduate research programs. An additional laboratory building is in the planning stages.
Astronomy program
The Astronomy department graduates more astronomy and astrophysics majors than any other liberal arts college in the country. The program is based at Van Vleck Observatory, built in 1914, which is on Foss Hill near the center of the Wesleyan campus.
Science in Society
Wesleyan's Science in Society Program (SISP) is an interdisciplinary major that encourages integrated study of the sciences and medicine as practices, institutions, and intellectual achievements, among other areas of study. The program has three components: science courses, SISP courses, and an area of concentration (which may include a major in one of the sciences). The program encourages students to integrate technical scientific understanding with a grasp of the multiple contexts in which scientific knowledge is applied, and the issues at stake in its application.
Music
Wesleyan's program in World Music, described as "one of the top schools in the country for the study of ethnomusicology" and music, employs leading teaching musicians and ethnomusicologists, representing a variety of musical traditions. European (including Medieval, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic, Impressionistic, Expressionistic, Neoclassical, Neoromantic, Gebrauchsmusik, 20th century, Contemporary, and Opera), South Indian Classical, Indonesian (including Javanese Gamelan), East Asian, classical Chinese music, Korean music, Japanese music, including Taiko drums; West African, Caribbean, African-American, as well as Experimental music have been components of the music department since the 1960s. The Experimental music work at Wesleyan dates to the residency of John Cage at the university. He was followed by composers Alvin Lucier, Ron Kuivila, and Jon Barlow. Composer Beatrice Witkin’s papers are archived at Wesleyan.
Among universities, Wesleyan "has one of the largest and most diverse collections of world musical instruments," many of which are depicted in the university's "Virtual Instrument Museum."
Theater
Wesleyan's highly regarded theater program has two theater facilities: the Theatre in the Center for the Arts, a 400-seat space; and the '92 Theater, home to Second Stage, which solely student-run volunteer theater organization. Second Stage produces at least one performance per weekend during the school year, either in the fully equipped black-box Patricelli '92 Theater, or alternative spaces around campus. Second Stage produces dance as well as theater performances. The Patricelli '92 Theater (then simply '92 Theater) became available for student-run productions when the Center for the Arts opened in 1974, providing the Theater Department with a state-of-the-art facility.
International study
Wesleyan sponsors, among others, international programs in France, Italy, and Spain, and has special relationships with programs in Japan. Nearly 45 percent of [Wesleyan] students study abroad through 150 programs located in 50 countries worldwide."
Twelve College Exchange
Many students participate in the Twelve College Exchange program, which allows for study for a semester or a year at another of the twelve college campuses: Amherst, Bowdoin, Connecticut College, Dartmouth, Mount Holyoke, Smith, Trinity, Vassar, Wellesley, Wheaton, and the Williams/Mystic Seaport Program in Maritime Studies.
Post-graduate academics
Departmental programs
Wesleyan has 11 graduate departmental programs in the sciences, mathematics, computer science, psychology, and music. Graduates receive the Master of Arts or Doctor of Philosophy degrees. Like in many traditional liberal arts colleges in the United States, all of Wesleyan's master's and bachelor's degrees are designated "of Arts" by historical precedent, regardless of the field of study.
Graduate Liberal Studies Program
In 1953, Wesleyan was the first university to begin a program leading to a Master of Arts in Liberal Studies degree, called the Graduate Liberal Studies Program. To date, hundreds of educational institutions have followed suit with similar programs. The program provides for interdisciplinary graduate study independent of the undergraduate academic departments.
A large proportion of G.L.S.P. students are public and private school teachers from the region, and the others are in different professions or are otherwise augmenting their graduate studies. The Graduate Liberal Studies Program offers both the Master of Arts in Liberal Studies (MALS) and the Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) degree. The former requires 36 credit hours of study and may culminate in a capstone project or thesis. The latter requires 30 credit hours of academic study and a thesis.
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)
Beginning in 2012, Wesleyan became the first small liberal arts college to partner with a private consortium to design and offer free public access online courses. Wesleyan teaches online courses in Math, Computer Science, Law, Psychology, and Literature, as well as other subjects. In January 2015, total worldwide student enrollment in online courses taught by Wesleyan faculty exceeded 1,000,000.
Academic profile
Admissions
For the Class of 2023 (enrolling Fall 2019), Wesleyan received 13,264 applications and accepted 2,186 (16.5%), with 771 enrolling. The middle 50% range of SAT scores for enrolling freshmen was 670–770 for math, and 650–740 for evidence-based reading and writing. The middle 50% ACT score range was 28–33 for math, 32–35 for English, and 31–34 for the composite. Since 2014, Wesleyan has been test optional.
Admission standards at Wesleyan are considered "most selective" by U.S. News & World Report. The Princeton Review gives the university an admissions selectivity rating of 96 out of 99.
Rankings
In the 2022 U.S. News & World Report rankings, Wesleyan University is tied for 17th overall among national liberal arts colleges, 1st in "Best Colleges for Veterans", 14th in "Best Value Schools", and tied for 122nd in "Top Performers on Social Mobility". Wesleyan University is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.
In 2019 Kiplinger ranked Wesleyan 16th of the 149 best value liberal arts colleges in the United States.
In the 2019 Forbes ranking of 650 American colleges, which combines national research universities, liberal arts colleges and military academies in a single survey, Wesleyan University is ranked 40th overall and 12th among liberal arts colleges alone. In another recent Forbes ranking, Wesleyan was placed 9th nationally and 3rd among Liberal Arts Colleges. According to a study entitled "Revealed Preference Ranking" published by the National Bureau of Economic Research, Wesleyan ranks No. 22 among all colleges and universities, and No. 5 among liberal arts colleges only. The stated purpose of the NBER study was to produce a ranking system that "would be difficult for a college to manipulate" by basing it on the actual demonstrated preferences of highly meritorious students. Wesleyan was listed on the Foundation for Individual Rights in Education's 2016 "10 Worst Colleges for Free Speech".
Washington Monthly ranked Wesleyan 2nd in 2021 of 218 liberal arts colleges in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.
The university is notable for the success with African American students, in which Wesleyan is one of nine universities with a black graduation rate above 90 percent.
After graduation
Wesleyan has been noted as one of the most productive baccalaureate colleges in the United States in the undergraduate origins of PhDs in all fields of study, with exceptional productivity in undergraduates pursuing doctorates in the physical sciences, geosciences, life sciences, psychology, social sciences, and humanities. According to studies undertaken by the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health and other federal agencies, for the years 1999–2008, 1999–2003, and 1994–2003, Wesleyan undergraduates were second in receiving PhDs among all liberal arts colleges in the nation. For example, the university produces more history doctorates per undergraduate history major than any other liberal arts college or national research university in the United States (with the exception of the University of Chicago which tied for first place with Wesleyan in a study (by the American Historical Association) of history PhDs earned between 1989 and 2002).
According to a 2003 summary, women constituted 55.3% of Wesleyan's undergraduates who received doctorates. Similarly, "[a]ccording to the 2000 to 2004 Survey of Earned Doctorates, women accounted for nearly 63% of the doctorates received by Wesleyan alumni/ae in the sciences (calculated either including psychology or including both psychology and the social sciences) and earned 53% of the doctorates in the sciences when psychology and the social sciences were excluded."
Eighty percent of Wesleyan alumni attend graduate or professional school within five years of graduation. In 2011, Newsweek ranked Wesleyan eighteenth in their list of the nation's best colleges and universities for paying back graduates in future earnings and quality experience.
Wesleyan graduates are awarded external fellowships, including Fulbright, Goldwater, Marshall, Rhodes, Truman, and Watson. For the years 2004 through 2012, for example, Wesleyan was named a "Top Producer of Fulbright Awards for American Students" by the Institute for International Education. For the years 2007 through 2011, a total of 42 Wesleyan students and alumni received scholarships under the Fulbright program.
The university has had at least 87 Watson Fellows since the inception of the program in 1968.
Libraries
Wesleyan University has an extensive library collection, most of which is housed in Olin Memorial Library, which has more than 1.8 million volumes and approximately 10,000 serial subscriptions. Wesleyan's first library was Rich Hall (now '92 Theater), which was built just after the Civil War.
Olin Library was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead, and White, built in 1925–27 and dedicated in 1928. Olin originally was much smaller and also contained classroom space. It has since been enlarged twice, the last time in 1992.
The second largest library on campus is the Science Library, which houses over two hundred fifty thousand volumes of science abstracts, books, journals, monographs, papers, periodicals, and surveys. The Science Library also has a large collection called the Cutter Collection, which is an older private collection of mostly 19th century English language books of European literature, art, and culture.
The Art Library is housed on the second floor of Olin Library. Davison Art Center holds the Print Reference Library. There is also a Music Library (which includes scores and recordings and the World Music Archives) and several department libraries.
Davison Art Center
Wesleyan University's Davison Art Center is in Alsop House, which is designated a U.S. National Historic Landmark. The Art Center has a large collection consisting primarily of works on paper, including 18,000 prints, 6,000 photographs, several hundred drawings, a small number of paintings, and three-dimensional objects (including artists' books, sculptures, and other objects). The print collection is considered to be one of the most important at an American university, with works by Dürer, Goya, Rembrandt, Manet, and others. Parts of the collection are regularly exhibited to the public. Some objects have been made available for loan to selected museums in the United States and abroad. Students at Wesleyan in many departments make use of the DAC collection for class assignments, viewings, and individual research projects under the guidance of faculty.
The Art Center's publications program produces catalogs concerning DAC collections and gallery exhibitions. In general, one catalog is published annually. This program affords students the opportunity to take part in carefully mentored student authorship. Additionally, it is a critical component of the museum's educational program, which also includes student museum internships and solely student-curated exhibitions.
Wesleyan University Press
The Wesleyan University Press is well regarded for its books of poetry and books on music, dance and performance, American studies, and film. The press also connects the campus to the larger intellectual and cultural world through the presence of its authors on campus, whether they are faculty, visiting scholars, guest lecturers, or participants in Wesleyan's Distinguished Writers Series or Writers Conference.
Student life
Cannon Scrap
In the late 1860s, a yearly contest, the "Cannon Scrap," began between the freshmen, whose mission it was to fire the Douglas Cannon on February 22, and the sophomores, who were charged with foiling the effort. In 1957, the tradition of stealing the cannon began in earnest.
Religious life
Until June 2020, the university employed a Jewish rabbi, a Catholic priest, a Protestant chaplain, and a Muslim chaplain. At the end of the Academic year 2020, the positions of Protestant and Muslim chaplains were vacated and the university elected not to fill them, citing budget cuts necessitated by the COVID-19 pandemic. The university proposal is that current chaplain positions "will all be gradually phased out until one chaplain remains to oversee all aspects of University religious life. Paid student intern positions will be created to assist this chaplain in managing student religious groups and redirecting students to religious services in Middletown."
There is also program housing for Buddhists, Muslims, Christians, and Jews. Within the Memorial Chapel there are meditation rooms. There is a Wesleyan program in Israel.
Athletics
Wesleyan is a member of the Division III New England Small College Athletic Conference (NESCAC), fields intercollegiate varsity teams in 29 sports, and competes against traditional Little Three rivals Amherst and Williams. Approximately 600 students participate in intercollegiate varsity sports each year. Wesleyan is one of the 39 founding members of the NCAA. Wesleyan's football and baseball field, Andrus Field, is the oldest continuously used American football field in the world and the oldest continuously used baseball field in the world. With alumnus including Bill Belichick, Eric Mangini and Field Yates, the school has been described by ESPN as a "hotbed for great football minds." Led by coach John Raba the winningest lacrosse coach in NESCAC history the Wesleyan's Men's Lacrosse team won the Division III NCAA championship title in 2018. It was the first National Championship in school history.
Student groups and organizations
In February 2011, U.S. News & World Report described the university as one of "20 Colleges Where It's Easiest to Get Involved" with a "Students per Club" ratio of "11.66". At that time there were around 270 student groups available to the 3148 enrolled students.
Wesleyan Student Assembly
The Wesleyan Student Assembly (WSA) is a body of 38 students elected annually to represent Wesleyan University's undergraduate student body. The members of the assembly serve as student advocates in all areas of the university, including matters related to student life, academics, university finances, and campus facilities.
Debate
The Debate Society was founded in 1903 and later named in honor of Woodrow Wilson, who had been a professor at Wesleyan between 1888 and 1890 and who "became deeply involved in extracurricular student activities such as the [Wesleyan] debate society." He "stimulated students to organize opportunity for debate through a House of Commons similar to the one he had started at Johns Hopkins in 1884." It captured first place in past years at the annual Brown, Columbia, Georgetown, Harvard, Princeton, Tufts and Williams tournaments, among others, and has reached the semi-finals of all other major tournaments. The Debate Society also has competed internationally, and in 1990 the society won a national championship and ninth place in the World Student Debating Championships.
Environmental
Another student group is the Environmental Organizers' Network (EON), which campaigns on environmental issues. Wesleyan also owns a tract of land that is used as Long Lane Farm, a organic vegetable farm run by students.
Publications
Some of the oldest and most visible student groups are campus publications, including a bi-weekly newspaper, The Wesleyan Argus and a periodical, Hermes, the university's oldest student-run progressive publication. Until 2008, the student body published the Olla Podrida which was originally a quarterly newspaper in the late 1850s, but became the college yearbook since the Civil War and the permanent establishment of the Argus as the campus newspaper. Wesleying is a student-run weblog that documents undergraduate life at Wesleyan, often receiving up to 10,000 page views a day. The Ankh, founded in 1985, is a twice-yearly publication composed entirely by Wesleyan students of color. Overall, at least "fifteen student publications are sent to press ... once a semester, ranging from the school newspaper, The Argus, to magazines of fiction, humor, women’s issues, activism, and poetry."
Singing groups
Wesleyan was long known as the "Singing College of New England." The university's "tradition as a 'singing college' had its roots in the vitality of Methodist hymnody." Glee clubs were formed "for special occasions from the mid-1840s through the 1860s". In 1862, however, a university glee club made the first tour of Wesleyan singers. The Wesleyan glee club organized by students frequently traveled and performed from the mid-19th century through the mid-20th century and was considered among the best collegiate glee clubs in the late 19th century. It traveled widely giving concerts, including being received twice at the White House (in 1901 by President McKinley and again in 1928 by President Coolidge) and being recorded onto a phonograph record by Thomas Edison. University alumni published the first edition of The Wesleyan Song Book in 1901. Subsequently, the Glee Club twice won the National Intercollegiate Glee Club Competition at Carnegie Hall. Since the Glee Club's disbanding, the tradition of choral singing has been carried on by the Wesleyan Singers, later renamed the Wesleyan Concert Choir, and then renamed again The Wesleyan Ensemble Singers (2010). This tradition also continues today in several student-run a cappella groups on campus, including the Wesleyan Spirits, the university's oldest group. There are at least 7 groups that perform on campus regularly, with others occasionally created and disbanded.
Greek organizations and secretive societies
Wesleyan has chapters of Alpha Delta Phi, Alpha Psi Alpha, Chi Psi, Psi Upsilon, and Delta Kappa Epsilon.
In 2011, Rho Epsilon Pi sorority was founded at Wesleyan University in order to provide a social space for women on campus.
In September 2014, Wesleyan ordered all fraternities with on-campus housing to become co-educational within the next three years.
In 2015, Wesleyan University ordered the closure of the DKE fraternity house on High Street. In 2017, DKE won the claim against Wesleyan University in a court trial. The jury awarded damages of $386,000 to the Kent Literary Club, DKE's Wesleyan alumni chapter.
Secretive societies on campus include the Skull & Serpent, Theta Nu Epsilon,
Cloak, The Cannon Society, Pigs of Patio, and two Mystical Sevens.
Literary, media, and cultural references
More than 30 books have been published concerning the university, including: The Wesleyan Song Book, by Karl P. Harrington and Carl F. Price (1901);
The Goose-Step: A Study of American Education, by Upton Sinclair (1923); Wesleyan's First Century With an Account of the Centennial Celebration, by Carl F. Price (1932); Wesleyan University, 1831–1910: Collegiate Enterprise in New England, by David B. Potts (1999); The Gatekeepers: Inside The Admissions Process of a Premier College, by Jacques Steinberg (2002); One Hundred Semesters: My Adventures as Student, Professor, and University President, and What I Learned along the Way, by William M. Chace (14th president of Wesleyan) (2006); A History of the Eclectic Society of Phi Nu Theta, 1837–1970, by William B.B. Moody (2007); Hidden Ivies: Thirty Colleges of Excellence, by Howard Greene and Matthew Greene (2000); Hidden Ivies: 50 Top Colleges that Rival the Ivy League, by Howard Greene and Matthew Greene (2009); Music at Wesleyan: From Glee Club to Gamelan by Mark Slobin (2010).
The main character, Girl, in the 2004 novel Citizen Girl (), by the authors of The Nanny Diaries, is a graduate of Wesleyan. John Maher's 1995 work Thinker, Sailer, Brother, Spy: A Novel () features a fictional look at the life of a professor (a principal character) in the "hothouse atmosphere of Wesleyan University...." Two of Robert Ludlum's novels are set partially at Wesleyan, The Matlock Paper much of the action takes place in and around the campus of a thinly disguised Wesleyan, and also The Chancellor Manuscript where Ludlum refers to Wesleyan as 'a wealthy but minor university'.
The 1963 comedic novel, Night and Silence Who is Here?, by novelist Pamela Hansford Johnson, is thought by many literary critics to be patterned humorously after Wesleyan's Institute for Advanced Studies (now the Center for the Humanities); the main characters comprise and parallel the cast of Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream. The Eclectic Society, a play that premiered on 27 January 2010 at the Walnut Street Theatre is based upon the Eclectic Society at the university during the early 1960s. In the 2012 novel Dream School, by novelist Blake Nelson, the protagonist attends an eastern liberal arts college, Wellington College, modeled on Wesleyan.
Characters in several television series have been portrayed as Wesleyan students or graduates. They include 30 Rock, As the World Turns, How I Met Your Mother (characters Ted Mosby, Marshall Eriksen, Lily Aldrin), Buffy the Vampire Slayer, The West Wing, BoJack Horseman, and M*A*S*H.
The 1994 cult comedy film PCU was based on (and filmed in part at) Wesleyan, the alma mater of the screenplay's two writers, Adam Leff and Zak Penn, and represents "an exaggerated view of contemporary college life...." centering on a fictionalized version of the Eclectic Society, known in the film as "The Pit."
In the autumn of 2010, the Pulitzer prize-winning comic strip Doonesbury by Garry Trudeau featured the university in a series of daily strips.
In 2015, Rolling Stone published a long form feature on Wesleyan's drug culture titled "Inside the Wesleyan Molly Bust", where dozens of students overdosed on tainted ecstasy, leading to the expulsion of five students.
Notable alumni and faculty
Former Wesleyan faculty and affiliates V. S. Naipaul, Woodrow Wilson, and T. S. Eliot have been awarded Nobel Prizes. Gary Yohe, current professor of economics, won a 2007 Nobel Peace Prize. Satoshi Omura, Max Tishler Professor of Chemistry, was awarded the 2015 Nobel Prize for Medicine. Former faculty and affiliates Richard Wilbur, Mark Strand, and Donald Hall were United States Poets Laureate. Composers John Cage and Steve Lehman were both affiliated with the university. Film notables include Joss Whedon, a producer, director, screenwriter, comic book writer, and composer; Lin-Manuel Miranda, the creator of Hamilton, won a Pulitzer Prize, three Grammy Awards, an Emmy Award, a MacArthur Fellowship, and three Tony Awards; and Michael Bay, film producer and director.
References
External links
Wesleying, an independent, student-produced blog about real students and real student life at Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut
Liberal arts colleges in Connecticut
Buildings and structures in Middletown, Connecticut
Educational institutions established in 1831
Universities and colleges in Middlesex County, Connecticut
Universities and colleges affiliated with the Methodist Episcopal Church
Private universities and colleges in Connecticut
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre%20Party%20%28Finland%29
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Centre Party (Finland)
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The Centre Party ( , Kesk; ), officially the Centre Party of Finland, is an agrarian political party in Finland.
Ideologically, the Centre Party is positioned in the centre on the political spectrum. It has been described as liberal, social liberal, liberal-conservative, and conservative-liberal. Its leader is Annika Saarikko, who was elected in September 2020 to follow Katri Kulmuni, the former finance minister of Finland. As of December 2019, the party has been a coalition partner in the Marin Cabinet, led by Prime Minister Sanna Marin of the Social Democratic Party (SDP).
Founded in 1906 as the Agrarian League (; ), the party represented rural communities and supported decentralisation of political power from Helsinki. In the 1920s, the party emerged as the main rival to the SDP and Kyösti Kallio, the party's first prime minister, held the office four times between 1922 and 1937. After World War II, the party settled as one of the four major political parties in Finland, alongside the SPD, the National Coalition Party and the Finnish People's Democratic League until the 1980s. Urho Kekkonen served as President of Finland from 1956 to 1982, by far the longest period of any president. The name Centre Party was adopted in 1965 and Centre of Finland in 1988. The Centre Party was the largest party in Parliament from 2003 to 2011, during which time Matti Vanhanen was Prime Minister for seven years. By 2011, the party was reduced in parliamentary representation from the largest party to the fourth largest, but it reclaimed its status as the largest party in 2015. In 2019, it suffered a considerable defeat, losing 18 of 49 seats.
As a Nordic agrarian party, the Centre Party's political influence is greatest in small and rural municipalities, where it often holds a majority of the seats in the municipal councils. Decentralisation is the policy that is most characteristic of the Centre Party which has been the ruling party in Finland a number of times since Finnish independence. Twelve of the Prime Ministers of Finland, three of the Presidents and a former European Commissioner for Economic and Financial Affairs have been from the party. The Centre Party is the mother organisation of the Finnish Centre Students, the Finnish Centre Youth and the .
History
Founding
The party was founded in 1906 as a movement of citizens in the Finnish countryside. Before Finnish independence, political power in Finland was centralised in the capital and to the estates of the realm. The centralisation gave space for a new political movement. In 1906, two agrarian movements were founded. They merged in 1908 to become one political party known as the Agrarian League or Maalaisliitto. An older, related movement was the temperance movement which had overlapping membership and gave future to Agrarian League activists experience in working in an organisation.
Santeri Alkio's ideology
Soon the ideas of humanity, education, the spirit of the land, peasant-like freedom, decentralisation, "the issue of poor people", progressivism and later the "green wave" became the main political phrases used to describe the ideology of the party. Santeri Alkio was the most important ideological father of the party.
Defending the republic
At the dawn of Finnish independence, conservative social forces made an attempt to establish the Kingdom of Finland. The Agrarian League opposed monarchism fiercely, even though monarchists claimed that a new king from the German Empire and Hohenzollern would have safeguarded Finnish foreign relations. At this time, anti-anarchist peasants threatened the existence of the party.
Because around forty Social Democratic members of the Parliament had escaped to Russia after the Finnish Civil War and about fifty others had been arrested, the Agrarian League members of the Parliament became the only republicans in Parliament in 1918. Nevertheless, the news about the problems of the German Empire from German liberals encouraged the fight of Agrarian League in the Parliament.
The Agrarian League managed to maintain the republican voices in the Parliament until the fall of the German Empire which ruined the dreams of the monarchists. The relentless opposition to the monarchy was rewarded in the 1919 Finnish parliamentary election and the party became the biggest non-socialist party in Finland with 19.7% of the votes.
Post-war period
After the 1919 Finnish parliamentary election, the centrist and progressive forces, including the Agrarian League, were constant members in Finnish governments. Their moderate attitude in restless post-war Finland secured a steady growth in following elections. The party formed many centrist minority governments with National Progressive Party and got its first Prime Ministers (Kyösti Kallio in 1922 and Juho Sunila in 1927).
Conciliation between the left and the right
For the Agrarian League, the centrist governments were just a transitional period towards an era which would integrate the red and white sides of the Civil War into one nation. Nevertheless, not everyone was happy with the conciliatory politics of centrist governments. The extreme right Lapua Movement grew bigger and bigger in the Agrarian League strongholds in the countryside. Many party members joined the new radical movement. The Lapua Movement organised assaults and kidnappings in Finland between 1929 and 1932. In 1930, after the kidnapping of progressive president Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg, the Agrarian League broke off all its ties to the movement and got a new political enemy in the countryside, the Patriotic People's Movement (IKL) which was founded after the Lapua Movement was outlawed.
In the 1933 Finnish parliamentary election, the main campaign issues were the differing attitudes towards democracy and the rule of law between the Patriotic Electoral Alliance (the National Coalition Party and the Patriotic People's Movement) and the Legality Front (the Social Democrats, the Agrarian League, the Swedish People's Party and the Progressives). The Patriotic Electoral Alliance favoured continuing the search for suspected communists, the Communist Party and its affiliated organisations in the spirit of the Lapua Movement. The Legality Front did not want to spend any significant time on searching suspected communists but rather wanted to concentrate on keeping the far-right in check. The Legality Front won the elections, but the Agrarian League lost a part of its support.
Cooperation with the Social Democrats
Because of fierce opposition of the president Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, the Social Democrats remained outside the government and the Agrarian League was part of the centre-right governments until 1937. In the 1937 Finnish presidential election, the Agrarian League candidate Kyösti Kallio was elected president with the votes of centrist (Agrarian and Progressive) and social-democratic coalition which wanted to ensure that President Svinhufvud would not be re-elected. The new president allowed the first centre-left government to be formed in Finland and a new era had begun.
World War II
With the outbreak of the Winter War, a government of national unity was formed. President Kallio died shortly after the war.
Kekkonen, the centrist statesman
In 1956, Urho Kekkonen, the candidate of the Agrarian League, was elected President of Finland after serving as Prime Minister several times and remained President until 1982. Kekkonen continued the active neutrality policy of his predecessor Juho Kusti Paasikivi, a doctrine which came to be known as the Paasikivi–Kekkonen line. Under it, Finland retained its independence while being able to trade with NATO members and those of the Warsaw Pact.
Pressure of populism
Veikko Vennamo, a vocal Agrarian politician, ran into serious disagreement particularly with the then-Party Secretary of the Agrarian Party Arvo Korsimo, who was excluded from the parliamentary group. As a result, Vennamo immediately started building his own organisation in 1959 and founded a new party, the Finnish Rural Party (Suomen maaseudun puolue, SMP). Vennamo was a populist and became a critic of Kekkonen and political corruption within the old parties, particularly the Agrarian League. Although this party had some success, it was essentially tied to Veikko Vennamo's person. His son Pekka Vennamo was able to raise the party to new success and into government in 1983, but after this the Rural Party's support declined steadily and eventually the party went bankrupt in 1995. Immediately after this, the right-wing populist Finns Party (Perussuomalaiset) was founded by former members of SMP.
Transformation to the Centre Party
In 1965, the party changed its name to the Centre Party (Keskustapuolue) and in 1988 took its current Centre Party of Finland name (Suomen Keskusta). Despite urbanisation of Finland and a temporary nadir in support, the party managed to continue to attract voters.
The Liberal People's Party (LKP) became a member party of the Centre Party in 1982. The two separated again after the success of the Liberal People's Party in the 1985 Swedish general election.
Division over EU membership
The Centre Party was a key player in making the decision to apply for Finnish EU membership in 1992. As the leading governing party, its support for the application was crucial. The party itself, both leadership and supporters, was far from united on the issue. In the Parliament, 22 out of 55 Centre MPs voted against the application. In June 1994, the party congress decided to support EU membership (by 1607 votes to 834), but only after the Prime Minister and Party Chairman Esko Aho threatened to resign if the party were to oppose the membership.
The centrist tradition of defending equal political and economic rights for peripheral areas was reflected in the internal resistance that opposed chairman Aho's ambitions to lead Finland to the EU. The Centre Party was in opposition from 1995 to 2003 and opposed adopting the euro as Finland's currency. However, the party accepted the euro after regaining power in 2003.
2012 and beyond
The party congress in June 2012 elected the newcomer Juha Sipilä to replace Mari Kiviniemi as the party's chair. Sipilä defeated young deputy chairman Tuomo Puumala and a well known veteran politician Paavo Väyrynen in the voting.
The previous chairman Mari Kiviniemi succeeded Matti Vanhanen as Prime Minister in 2010, serving in the office for one year. At the time, she was the third Centre Party Prime Minister of Finland in succession. Anneli Jäätteenmäki preceded Vanhanen and she was the first woman as a Prime Minister of Finland. She did not seek another term as party chair.
Olli Rehn, a member of the party, served in the European Commission for ten years between 2004 and 2014 and was the European Commissioner for Economic and Financial Affairs from 2010 to 2014.
The Centre Party was the biggest loser of the 2011 Finnish parliamentary election, losing 16 seats and going from largest party to fourth place. The party's support was lower than in any parliamentary election since 1917. However, the party won the 2015 Finnish parliamentary election and formed a coalition with the Finns Party and the National Coalition Party.
In March 2016, the Centre Party announced that its candidate for the 2018 Finnish presidential election would be the former Prime Minister Matti Vanhanen, the first declared presidential candidate in the race.
The Centre Party was again the biggest loser in the 2019 Finnish parliamentary election, losing 18 seats and going from largest party to fourth place. The party's support was even lower than in 2011. Due to the devastating defeat, Sipilä consequently announced that he would continue as the chairman only until the Centre Party's next convention in September 2019. The party congress in September 2019 elected the Minister of Economic Affairs Katri Kulmuni to replace Sipilä as the party's chair.
On 5 September 2020, during a party congress, Annika Saarikko was elected as the leader of the Centre Party to replace Katri Kulmuni.
Ideology
The ideology of the party is unusual in the European context. Unlike many other large parties in Europe, its ideology is not primarily based on economic systems. Rather, the ideas of humanity, education, the spirit of the land, peasant-like freedom, decentralisation, "the issue of poor people", environmentalism and progressivism play a key role in Centre Party politician speeches and writings. From the very beginning of its presence, the party has supported the idea of decentralisation.
Despite belonging to the Liberal International, the Centre Party does not play quite the same role in Finnish politics as do liberal parties in other countries because the party evolved from agrarian roots.
The party has a more conservative wing, and prominent conservatives within the party such as Paavo Väyrynen have criticised overt economic and cultural liberalism. In addition, the 2010 party congress voted to oppose same-sex marriage. When the Finnish Parliament voted on same-sex marriage in 2014, 30 of the 36 Centre MPs voted against it.
The party is also divided on the issue of deepening European integration and contains a notable Eurosceptic faction based on its more rural interests. The party expressly rejects a federal Europe. The Centre Party was originally opposed to Finland's membership in the euro currency, but the party later stated that it would not seek to withdraw from the Economic and Monetary Union once Finland had entered.
In Finland, there is no large party that supports liberalism per se. Instead, liberalism is found in most major parties including the Centre Party which supports decentralisation, free will, free and fair trade and small enterprise. The Centre Party characteristically supports decentralisation, particularly decreasing the central power, increasing the power of municipalities and populating the country evenly. During the party's premierships between 2003 and 2011, these policies were also manifested as transferrals of certain government agencies from the capital to smaller cities in the regions.
Throughout the period of Finland's independence, the Centre Party has been the party most often represented in the government. The country's longest-serving President, Urho Kekkonen, was a member of the party as were two other Presidents.
Today, only a small portion of the votes given to the party come from farmers and the Centre Party draws support from a wide range of professions. However, even today rural Finland and small towns form the strongest base of support for the party, although it has strived for a breakthrough in the major southern cities as well. In the 2011 Finnish parliamentary election, the party received only 4.5 per cent of votes cast in the capital Helsinki, compared to the 33.4 per cent in the largely rural electoral district of Oulu.
Organisation
Party structure
In the organisation of the Centre Party, local associations dominate the election of party leaders, the selection of local candidates and drafting of policy. The headquarters in Apollonkatu, Helsinki leads financing and organisation of elections.
The party has 2.500 local associations which have 160.000 individual members. The local associations elect their representatives to the party congress which elects the party leadership and decide on policy. The local associations form also 21 regional organisations which have also their representatives in the party congress.
The party congress is the highest decision-making body of the party. It elects the chairman, three deputy chairmen, the secretary-general and the party council.
The party council with 135 members is the main decision-making body between the party congresses. The party council elects the party government (excluding the leaders elected by the party congress) and the working committee. The party council, the party government and the Working Committee must have at least 40% representation of both sexes.
The Finnish Centre Students, the and the Finnish Centre Yout have their own local and regional organisations which also name their representatives to the party congress.
People
Chairman
Annika Saarikko (born 1983)
Deputy chairmen
Petri Honkonen (born 1987), Member of the Parliament
Markus Lohi (born 1972), Member of the Parliament
Riikka Manner (born 1981)
Party secretary
Riikka Pirkkalainen (born 1979)
Chairman of the parliamentary group
Antti Kurvinen (born 1986)
Deputy chairmen of the parliamentary group
Eeva Kalli (born 1981)
Hanna-Leena Mattila (born 1968)
Other famous Centre Party politicians today
International Representation
The party is a member of the Liberal International and the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party and subscribes to the liberal manifestos of these organisations. The Centre Party has been a full member of the Liberal International since 1988, having first joined as an observer member in 1983.
In the European Parliament, the Center Party sits in the Renew Europe group with 2 MEPs.
In the European Committee of the Regions, the Center Party sits in the Renew Europe CoR group with one full and two alternate members for the 2020-2025 mandate. Mirja Vehkapera is Deputy Coordinator in the COTER Commission.
Prominent party leaders
List of party presidents
Election results
Parliament of Finland
Municipal
European Parliament
Presidential elections
Indirect elections
Direct elections
See also
Liberalism and centrism in Finland
Nordic agrarian parties
Notes
Sources
References
External links
Centre Party: Swedish-speaking section
Website in English
Youth organisations official website
1906 establishments in Finland
Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party member parties
Centrist parties in Finland
Liberal International
Liberal parties in Finland
Nordic agrarian parties
Parties represented in the European Parliament
Political parties established in 1906
Registered political parties in Finland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Jose%20Earthquakes
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San Jose Earthquakes
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The San Jose Earthquakes are an American professional soccer team based in San Jose, California. The Earthquakes compete as a member club of the Western Conference of Major League Soccer (MLS). Originally as the San Jose Clash, the franchise began play in 1996 as one of the charter members of the league. The Earthquakes took part in the first game in MLS history, defeating D.C. United 1–0. The Earthquakes have won two MLS Cup titles, in 2001 and 2003, and two Supporters' Shields in 2005 and 2012. In 2002, the team played in its first CONCACAF Champions Cup (now called the CONCACAF Champions League), making it to the quarterfinals.
The team holds a fierce rivalry with the LA Galaxy known as the California Clásico.
In 2005, the then owner of the Earthquakes, Anschutz Entertainment Group, announced plans of the team relocating to Houston due to failing efforts to secure a soccer-specific stadium in San Jose. The organization in Houston would be considered an expansion team by the league, eventually becoming the Houston Dynamo, which began play in 2006. The Earthquakes returned after a two-year hiatus, resuming play in 2008. Argentinian Matías Almeyda is the Quakes' current head coach. Since 2015, the Earthquakes have played their home games at PayPal Park (named Avaya Stadium from 2015 to 2019 and Earthquakes Stadium in 2020). The team previously played its home games at Buck Shaw Stadium on the Santa Clara University campus in Santa Clara, California from 2008 to 2014.
In 2018, the club added a league-leading fourth MLS Wooden Spoon to its trophy case for ending up bottom of the MLS league table, finishing the season with 21 points in 34 games.
History
Founding and early years (1994–1999)
In 1994, Daniel Van Voorhis, former owner of the American Professional Soccer League's San Jose Hawks, successfully led a San Jose bidding group that was awarded one of Major League Soccer's inaugural teams. At that time, he handed over all existing Hawks player contracts, front-office resources and the rights to play in San Jose State University's Spartan Stadium to MLS in exchange for Type C stock in the league. He also became the franchise's investor-operator until outside concerns forced him to divest himself of these positions prior to the league's launch and accept a buyout from the league, leaving the franchise league-owned for several years. Meanwhile, a direct connection to the earlier Earthquakes came in the person of Peter Bridgwater, named as general manager of the MLS team. Although Bridgwater still owned the rights to the Earthquakes name and logo, the team became known as the Clash at the urging of Nike, a major investor in MLS.
On December 7, 1995, Bridgwater hired Laurie Calloway as the team's first coach, providing a second direct connection with the NASL Earthquakes, as well as a connection with the Hawks. On January 23, 1996, the Clash acquired US national team star Eric Wynalda, despite the fact that Wynalda and Calloway did not get along during their time together with the Hawks. The Clash's connections to the Blackhawks continued when the club made the first trade in MLS history, sending Rhett Harty to the MetroStars for Troy Dayak.
San Jose was an integral part of the launching of MLS, hosting the league's inaugural game at Spartan Stadium before a crowd of 31,683 on April 6, 1996. The crowd did not go away disappointed as San Jose won its first game on the first goal in MLS history from Eric Wynalda, defeating D.C. United 1–0. One month later, the club made history again, as they hosted the Los Angeles Galaxy in a match that drew 31,728 fans to Spartan Stadium, setting the record for attendance at a sporting event in the city of San Jose. But Wynalda and Calloway were soon at each other's throats again, eventually leading to a locker room brawl between Wynalda and John Doyle. The skirmish reached memorable proportions when Wynalda hired an airplane to tow a banner demanding Calloway's firing.
Although the Clash made the postseason in the inaugural MLS season in 1996, and Doyle earned recognition as the best MLS defender, the team floundered in 1997. By mid-season the team was sinking fast and Bridgwater fired Calloway and replaced him with Brian Quinn. The Clash finished 1997 at the bottom of the Western Conference standings with a 12–20 record. Things were no better in 1998, when the team finished 13–19 and well out of playoff contention. During the 1999 pre-season, the saga of player-coach antagonism continued when Richard Gough left the team after an argument with Quinn. By the end of 1999, Quinn was done and the team released him to hire Lothar Osiander.
Return of the Earthquakes (1999–2005)
The franchise's official name changed from Clash to Earthquakes on October 27, 1999. After missing four consecutive post-seasons with three different coaches, the Earthquakes hired head coach Frank Yallop days before the 2001 MLS SuperDraft. Yallop's personnel changes and deft coaching with the help of assistant coach Dominic Kinnear and goalkeeper coach Tim Hanley, along with the allocation of star forward Landon Donovan on loan from Bayer Leverkusen, quickly turned around the Earthquakes' on-field fortunes, spurring the biggest regular season turnaround in league history (from 29 points in 2000 to 45 points in 2001) and leading the team to a 2–1 MLS Cup 2001 overtime victory over the archrival Los Angeles Galaxy.
The Quakes followed with two consecutive runners-up finishes for the MLS Supporters' Shield and a 4–2 MLS Cup 2003 win over the Chicago Fire. Prior to reaching the 2003 final, the Earthquakes had rallied from four goals down to beat the Galaxy, 5–4 on aggregate, in a first-round playoff that many MLS watchers described as the greatest in league history. Following the season, Yallop returned to his native Canada to coach the Canadian men's national soccer team being named to the post on December 16. Assistant coach Kinnear was then promoted to head coach, and former San Jose player John Doyle was named as his assistant.
Having won two MLS Cup titles in three years, the Earthquakes were poised for greater success both on and off the field. However, in January 2004, general manager Johnny Moore, whose roots with the club dated back to his days as a player for the NASL Earthquakes, resigned after AEG and MLS considered allowing the team to be rebranded as San Jose America (with ownership to transfer to the owners of Mexico's Club América). Earthquake fans were similarly outraged at the proposed rebranding, coming just months after the MLS Cup. Former Los Angeles Galaxy defender Alexi Lalas was named as Moore's replacement. Under Lalas' management, the club planned a move to Houston. Meanwhile, when the Quakes' star player, Landon Donovan, played briefly in Germany, Lalas traded away his rights, enabling Lalas' former team, the Galaxy, to acquire him.
On the field, Kinnear led the team to two more playoff appearances, including an MLS Supporters' Shield win in 2005.
Hiatus and return (2006–2008)
Following the conclusion of the 2005 season, on December 15, the then owner of the San Jose Earthquakes, Anschutz Entertainment Group, announced that the team was moving to Houston for the 2006 season because of the failure of efforts to secure a soccer-specific stadium for the team in San Jose. However, MLS Commissioner Don Garber said that the Earthquakes' name, colors, logo, wordmark, history and competitive records would not be transferred, similar to the Cleveland Browns deal in the National Football League. The San Jose franchise was officially put on hiatus while the players, head coach Dominic Kinnear and some of his coaching staff were moved to Houston, where they became, first, Houston 1836, then Houston Dynamo. The Houston Dynamo is technically considered an expansion team by MLS just as the Baltimore Ravens is by the NFL.
On May 24, 2006, an agreement was reached between Major League Soccer and the principal owners of the Oakland Athletics baseball team, Lewis Wolff and John Fisher, granting them a three-year exclusive option to develop a soccer-specific stadium and bring an expansion franchise to the San Francisco Bay Area.
In September 2006, after nearly nine months of inactivity (displaying only Commissioner Garber's December 2005 letter of condolence to Earthquakes fans over the team's relocation), the team's website was revived to display updates on the progress of starting up the expansion San Jose Earthquakes franchise and to allow fans to sign up for the Earthquakes Soccer, LLC e-newsletter.
On July 18, 2007, Commissioner Don Garber announced that the San Jose Earthquakes would resume play starting in the 2008 season after Lew Wolff exercised his option to purchase the new expansion team. While functionally being the 14th franchise to join MLS, the team retained all records, logos, colors and titles of the 1996–2005 franchise and is a continuation of that franchise. Michael Crowley, also Oakland A's president at the time, led the relaunched franchise and served as president until 2010.
In October 2007 the Earthquakes announced they would be moving their offices from the Fairmont Hotel in downtown San Jose to an office park across the street from their temporary home, Buck Shaw Stadium, and across the Caltrain tracks from the location of the former FMC site.
On November 6, 2007, the team announced that former Earthquakes coach Frank Yallop was returning to the team as head coach. According to ESPN.com, the Earthquakes compensated Yallop's previous employer, the Los Angeles Galaxy, with a third-round pick in the 2008 MLS SuperDraft.
Return to MLS
In 2008, England's Darren Huckerby, the MLS Newcomer of the Year and Ireland's Ronnie O'Brien, who made 28 appearances for the Earthquakes, helped anchor the offense, combining for 10 goals and 10 assists. Both played a key part of the team's nine-game unbeaten streak that saw San Jose push towards a playoff berth. They also failed to qualify for the U..S Open Cup, losing to Real Salt Lake 4–0 in the first round of qualifying.
On January 27, 2009, Amway Global signed a three-year deal with the Earthquakes to become the team's official jersey sponsor. The club made an historic trade on June 9, 2009, when they acquired Chris Wondolowski from Houston.
The Quakes missed out on the playoffs for a second consecutive season in 2009 but looked to build on a solid second half of the year, which saw them go 4–4–4 since the All-Star Break. The Earthquakes finished in 14th place and failing to qualify for the playoffs. The Earthquakes also failed to qualify for the U.S. Open Cup, losing to New York Red Bulls on April 29, 2–1.
In 2010, the San Jose Earthquakes qualified for the playoffs as the West's No. 6 seed with 46 points. In the 2010 MLS playoffs, they were matched up with the No. 1 seeded New York Red Bulls. After losing the first game by a score of 1–0, the Earthquakes defeated the Red Bulls in the second game by a score of 3–1 to win the aggregate, 3–2, and upset New York. In the single-elimination semi-final match against the Colorado Rapids, at Colorado, the Quakes suffered a 1–0 defeat.
In 2011, the San Jose Earthquakes missed the playoffs after they finished seventh in the west and fourteenth in all of MLS.
The Goonies (2012–2014)
In 2012, the San Jose Earthquakes had the best start in franchise history. The team established a habit of scoring late goals to tie or win games. The first was a match against Real Salt Lake on April 21, 2012, scoring 2 goals in stoppage time to win 3–1. The next week, a stoppage time goal produced a win against the Philadelphia Union. Two more games resulted in ties with late goals, both scored by Alan Gordon. On May 23, 2012, against the L.A. Galaxy, the Quakes scored 3 times in 18 minutes to win 3–2. After this game striker Steven Lenhart declared "Goonies never say die!" (a reference to the movie The Goonies), and this was made into the rally cry of the team.
The Quakes ended the 2012 regular season with 66 points and 72 goals, both team records, with 17 of those points created by goals scored in the 84th minute or later. The team clinched the Supporter's Shield, its first major trophy since their return to San Jose, and qualified for their first CONCACAF Champion's League tournament as a franchise in 2013. They returned to the playoffs for the first time since their 2010 season and faced two games against L.A. Galaxy. In their first playoff game, the Quakes scored a stoppage time goal to take the away leg 1–0, but were knocked out of the playoffs following a 3–1 loss at home (3–2 on aggregate), their only loss at Buck Shaw Stadium for the season.
In 2013, the Quakes began the year facing adversity with numerous players recovering from injury. With added depth in preparation for the upcoming CONCACAF Champions' League, they began the task of duplicating the success of 2012. While the style of scoring late goals were still present in games against New York, Portland and Montreal, the team struggled to find success and quickly found themselves at the bottom of the Western Conference. The slow start of the team led to the departure of coach Frank Yallop and Mark Watson was named interim coach.
On June 29, 2013, the Quakes played the L.A. Galaxy in the California Classico. Despite being down 2–0 and having Victor Bernardez ejected, the Quakes staged another comeback, scoring twice in stoppage time to win 3–2, becoming the first MLS team to do so.
On August 7, 2013, the Earthquakes debuted in the 2013–14 CONCACAF Champions League for the first time since their return to MLS. They lost the away game to the Montreal Impact 1–0. On October 23, 2013, the Earthquakes won group five on goal differential with a win at home against Heredia, and they moved on to the knockout stage of the tournament.
Despite a league best record in games played after June, the Quakes failed to qualify for the 2013 playoffs, losing the final spot to Colorado on a goal differential tiebreaker. The final home game of the season, a 2–0 win against FC Dallas, saw the final minutes of professional soccer for Ramiro Corrales, who had announced his retirement. Corrales was the last remaining active player who played in the inaugural season of MLS.
The Quakes in their 2014 campaign began, playing in the quarterfinals against Toluca in a two-game series in the 2013–14 CONCACAF Champions League. Scoring a goal in stoppage time in the first game, the Quakes went to Mexico 1–1 on aggregate. In the second game, the game tied in regulation. The Quakes faced Toluca in Overtime where neither team could score against the other and the game went on to penalties. The Earthquakes lost 5–4 against Toluca in penalties and were eliminated.
San Jose ended the 2014 MLS Season with the club's worst ever record, winning only 6 matches, and suffering a 15-match winless streak. That streak surpassed the Quakes' previous record of 13 in 2011, and matched the second worst in league history.
Return of Dominic Kinnear (2015–2017)
The Earthquakes welcomed back Dominic Kinnear to the club as coach after a nine-year tenure in Houston. The franchise's long-awaited stadium, Avaya Stadium, was the first professional soccer-specific stadium in the Bay Area when it opened on March 22.
The 2015 season was a marked improvement over the previous season, but the Earthquakes still failed to reach the playoffs despite a late surge. Chris Wondolowski became only the ninth player in MLS history to score 100 goals with a penalty in a 1–1 draw against Orlando.
On August 29, 2016, the Earthquakes parted ways with longtime general manager John Doyle. Earthquakes President Dave Kaval stated that he felt the Earthquakes "needed a fresh approach". Technical director Chris Leitch was appointed as interim GM.
The Fioranelli era (2017–2021)
Following the firing of John Doyle, it was announced on January 5, 2017, that Jesse Fioranelli had been hired as general manager. He joined San Jose from A.S. Roma and had previously also worked at Roma's cross-city rival S.S. Lazio.
Fioranelli made clear early on that he would be prioritizing youth development, international scouting, and generally creating a new identity for San Jose that was younger, more dynamic, and more attacking, intentions which were reflected by his off-season acquisitions of Jahmir Hyka, Florian Jungwirth, Marco Ureña, Harold Cummings, and Danny Hoesen using Targeted Allocation Money. He also expressed the necessity of the team reaching the playoffs in 2017, as it had not done so since 2012. Illustrating the seriousness of his commitment to improving San Jose, within one week in April Fioranelli made two key additions to the technical staff with the hiring of Alex Covelo as Director of Methodology and Bruno Costa as Head of Scouting. Dave Kaval stepped down from his role as president on June 1, to be replaced by former Aston Villa F.C. chief executive and Arsenal F.C. chief commercial officer Tom Fox. On June 22, 2017, San Jose announced Fioranelli's first Designated Player signing, Georgian attacking midfielder Vako, who would join San Jose from SBV Vitesse.
Fioranelli took his ambitions for San Jose a step further just several days later, when he announced on June 25, 2017, that Dominic Kinnear had been fired, and would be replaced immediately and permanently by Chris Leitch, the club's technical director and former interim general manager. Assistant coach John Spencer was also let go, and was replaced by Covelo. The timing of the firing came as somewhat of a surprise, as it was announced hours after San Jose defeated Real Salt Lake 2–1 at home. Fioranelli said of the firing that, coming off of a win, it was not reactionary, and rather he had "in the last two to three months...matured a gut feeling as to where [the club stands]", and that his respect for Kinnear "would not have allowed [him] to want to go for another three months knowing [they] would have parted ways at the end of the season". In his first interview as head coach, Leitch reiterated Fioranelli's previously stated goals, saying that "the goal of the team...is [to] make the playoffs". His first outing as head coach on June 28, 2017, was successful, seeing the Earthquakes achieve their first-ever victory over an MLS side in the U.S. Open Cup with a 2–1 victory against Seattle Sounders FC that would advance them to the USOC quarter finals for the first time since 2012.
Leitch's first MLS match as head coach was a 2–1 win over the LA Galaxy at Stanford Stadium on July 1, in which Chris Wondolowski scored the equalizing goal off of an assist from goalkeeper David Bingham and substitute Shea Salinas scored the winner in the 93rd minute. The team experienced its first loss under Leitch three days later on July 4 at Bobby Dodd Stadium, in a 4–2 loss to Atlanta United FC following red cards to both Kofi Sarkodie and Victor Bernardez; however, this match also saw Tommy Thompson score his first league goal and Chris Wondolowski break Ramiro Corrales' record for career starts at San Jose with his 229th start, as well as tie the league record for most goals scored away at 63.
On July 7, 2017, a multi-year collaboration between the Earthquakes and the German Football Association was announced, "focused on knowledge exchange, game development and machine learning".
On July 10, 2017, the Earthquakes defeated the Galaxy 3–2 at home, following a brace from Chris Wondolowski and Danny Hoesen's second goal of the tournament, to advance to the semifinals of the U.S. Open Cup for the first time since 2004 and for only the second time in club history. Wondolowski wore the number 38 in this match in honor of teammate Matheus Silva, who nearly drowned the previous week. New signing Vako was introduced at the club for the first time during halftime. Vako made his club debut four days later as a 63rd minute substitution in San Jose's 4–1 friendly defeat of Eintracht Frankfurt, and shortly afterwards scored in his MLS debut as a halftime substitute against the New York Red Bulls at Red Bull Arena on July 19.
The Earthquakes announced a second new partnership aimed at pursuing the implementation of artificial intelligence and machine learning on July 21 with Los Angeles-based company Second Spectrum, Inc., the first of its kind in the league and inspired by the company's partnerships with the NBA and specifically the Golden State Warriors. Per this agreement, a new system was installed at Avaya Stadium to track players during matches and gather data on tactics and performance, to be delivered to players' mobile devices directly after games. The signing of Swiss defender François Affolter from FC Luzern was announced later the same day.
San Jose lost in the Open Cup semifinals to Sporting Kansas City, for the second time in franchise history, in sudden death penalties on August 9.
On August 19, Wondolowski became the first player in MLS history to score ten or more goals in eight consecutive seasons, following his successful penalty kick in the dying moments of a 2–2 home draw against the Philadelphia Union, when Shea Salinas was tripped in the box by Joshua Yaro.
San Jose qualified for the 2017 MLS Cup Playoffs, the club's first playoff appearance since 2012, following a 3–2 win at home on October 22 over Minnesota United FC in which Danny Hoesen and Chris Wondolowski each recorded a goal and an assist, and substitute Marco Ureña scored the stoppage time winner. This sent the team on to play a knockout round match on the road against Vancouver Whitecaps FC on October 25. However, the team was defeated 5–0.
On November 24, 2017, Mikael Stahre, formerly of BK Häcken, was announced as the team's new head coach. Leitch returned to his previous role as the club's technical director. San Jose began to make roster moves not long after with contract options being declined for players, most notably for defender Víctor Bernárdez and goalkeeper David Bingham who spent six and seven years with the Earthquakes organization respectively. San Jose traded Bingham's MLS rights to their rival Los Angeles Galaxy on December 18. December also brought additions to the roster, reflecting different aspects of San Jose's leadership and management. On December 1, 2017, Joel Qwiberg was signed from IF Brommapojkarna where he had helped to lead the team to two consecutive promotions, reaching Sweden's topic league. The next signing of the off-season was homegrown goalkeeper JT Marcinkowski, who had finished his 3rd year at Georgetown. Just over a week later, San Jose announced in a joint press conference with their USL affiliate Reno 1868 that they had signed three players from the team: Luis Felipe, Chris Wehan, and Jimmy Ockford. Reno's club president elaborated on what the signings meant for both organizations, stating "Today's news delivers on that promise to compete in Reno while developing the future of San Jose." The next day San Jose continued on their developmental based signings with defender Jacob Akanyirige announced as signed straight from their academy at fifteen years old, San Jose's youngest ever player and the eighth youngest player in MLS history. On December 20, the first Designated Player and second Swedish signing under Stahre's tenure was officially brought to San Jose. Magnus Eriksson joined from Djurgårdens IF where he co-led the Allsvenskan as top scorer in the 2017 season.
Stahre was dismissed by the club before the end of his first year in charge, a season in which the team earned just four wins. On October 8, 2018, the club announced that they had hired reigning CONCACAF coach of the year Matias Almeyda, who would take charge for the 2019 season. On May 18, 2019, Wondolowski scored four goals against Chicago Fire. With his second goal, he set the league's all-time scoring record. The team had a negative record and missed the playoffs by four points.
In 2020, the Earthquakes had a draw and a loss in their first two regular season games before the season was shut down due to the COVID-19 pandemic. When the season resumed with the MLS is Back Tournament, the Earthquakes were drawn into Group B with FC Dallas (later replaced by the Chicago Fire), Seattle Sounders FC, and Vancouver Whitecaps FC. They drew with Seattle and defeated both Chicago and Vancouver, the latter with a thrilling comeback from a 3–1 deficit, to win the group and advance to the round of 16.
Crest and shirt
Since their inception, the Earthquakes have played in a color scheme featuring blue and black as dominant colors, usually with white highlights. The original San Jose Clash logo featured a stylized scorpion in black and red with a white 'clash' wordmark.
When they rebranded to the Earthquakes in 2000, the team badge featured an inverted triangular shield containing a soccer ball invoking the rising sun used in the logo for the City of San Jose, a stylized 'Earthquakes' wordmark, and a color palette of blue, black, white and silver. The three points of the triangular shield represented the three largest communities of the Bay Area (San Jose, San Francisco and Oakland).
The team rebranded again on January 30, 2014, to a new crest and uniform. While still featuring blue and black, as well as a new chevron design that invokes the geologic theme of the team's name, the new design also featured the year 1974 in red; this is an explicit reference of lineage to the previous NASL incarnation of the Earthquakes that had founded that year.
On February 17, 2017, San Jose released its new home kit at a jersey release party at San Pedro Square. The new kit is black, a callback to the black Goonies kits of the historic 2012 season, and features the blue slipstrike design from the crest on the front. Also included is a red neck tape, referring again to the team's NASL history, "SJ 74" in blue on the bottom left corner, and the words "UNITY", "DEVOTION", and "HERITAGE" written in white across the blue border on the right sleeve.
On February 11, 2018, the Earthquakes released their new away kit, the Navy SEAL Foundation Jersey, and announced that 5% of each jersey sale would be donated to the Foundation, becoming the first club in MLS history to donate part of its jersey revenue to a nonprofit organization. The jersey release party was held near the site of the USS Hornet Museum and the kit itself presented by a retired SEAL alongside squad members Tommy Thompson, Joel Qwiberg, and, offshore in a military rescue boat, Nick Lima and Jackson Yueill.
Uniform history
Home
Away
Stadium
U.S. Open Cup:
Negoesco Stadium: San Francisco, California (July 24, 2001) vs LA Galaxy
Cagan Stadium: Stanford, California (2011–2012)
Kezar Stadium: San Francisco, California (2012, 2014)
On January 13, 2007, the San Jose Mercury News reported that the city of San Jose, San Jose State University and the Earthquakes owners were in negotiations to build a soccer stadium just east of the Earthquakes' previous home, Spartan Stadium. The new facility, to have 22,000 permanent seats but be expandable to a capacity of 30,000 for single games, would be privately built by Lewis Wolff and John Fisher, the primary owners of the Earthquakes, with San Jose State providing the needed land. Additionally, the team and the university would build community soccer fields across Senter Road in Kelley Park using San Jose municipal bond money that had been approved years earlier for the purpose but never spent. The plan was for the new version of the San Jose Earthquakes to play in Spartan Stadium during the 2008 MLS season, then move into the new stadium in 2009. Plans for the stadium collapsed on April 19 of that year after the Earthquakes and SJSU could not come to an agreement on revenue sharing.
PayPal Park
On May 8, the city of San Jose and Earthquakes Soccer, LLC confirmed that their new primary focus was on a site near San Jose International Airport on the site of the former FMC plant. The new site was owned by the city, which was exploring either leasing it to Earthquakes Soccer, LLC or selling it outright. The site is adjacent to not only the airport but the planned BART extension to Santa Clara and the existing Santa Clara Caltrain station, and near both Interstate 880 and U.S. Route 101. On June 12, 2007, the San Jose City Council voted unanimously to enter into a Memorandum of Understanding to explore construction of a new stadium to bring MLS back to San Jose and adopted a resolution authorizing the city manager to enter into an Exclusive Right to Negotiate agreement with Wolff and his partners regarding the potential development of the former FMC site. The first payment on the new stadium land of $3 million was made in June 2008.
The preliminary designs were released to the public on September 19, 2009. Earthquakes Stadium was slated to be a three-sided European style stadium with 18,000 permanent seats and a grass berm at the open end.
On March 16, 2010, the San Jose city council voted 9–0 to rezone the Airport West property to allow for development of the new Earthquakes Stadium.
The San Jose Earthquakes franchise made history when 6,256 people participated in groundbreaking for the new stadium. This set a world record by Guinness World Records as the largest ever crowd to participate in a groundbreaking ceremony. The construction was completed in early 2015 and hosted its first event, a friendly, pre-season match against LA Galaxy, on February 28, 2015. The stadium's official opening took place on March 22, 2015, when the Earthquakes hosted Chicago Fire for their first home game of the 2015 MLS regular season. Fatai Alashe scored the first official, regular-season goal at Avaya in the fifth minute of the 2–1 victory.
Club culture
Rivalries
The California Clásico is a rivalry between two Major League Soccer teams, the LA Galaxy and the San Jose Earthquakes, which existed from 1996 to 2005 and was resumed in 2008. It is considered to be one of the oldest rivalries in American soccer. The rivalry originated from the historical Northern California vs. Southern California sporting and cultural rivalries, as well as from the relative proximity of the cities (about 360 miles apart) which allows rival fans to attend each other's games. While there have been several players to play for both teams beforehand, the rivalry intensified after the Anschutz Entertainment Group (owner of the Los Angeles Galaxy) took sole ownership of the San Jose Earthquakes in December 2002. The rivalry reached its peak from 2001 to 2005, during which time the Earthquakes and the Galaxy combined to win four MLS Cup titles in a five-year period. Both clubs reached MLS Cup 2001, with San Jose posting a 2–1 overtime victory on goals by Landon Donovan and Dwayne DeRosario.
The Heritage Cup with Seattle Sounders FC was begun in the 2009 MLS season by the respective supporters' groups. Any present or future MLS teams that carry on the names of their NASL predecessors are eligible for the Cup, but supporters of the other eligible MLS teams (Portland Timbers and Vancouver Whitecaps) have chosen not to participate. San Jose and Seattle have had a rivalry since the NASL. However, it did not completely resurface during the 2009 season with fans of both teams viewing other clubs as bigger rivals. That season, the first MLS meeting of the teams was not considered for the competition due to the schedule consisting of two games in Seattle and only one in San Jose. Seattle won the initial meeting at home 2–0 and the second 2–1. The Earthquakes won the inaugural cup on goals scored after a 4–0 home victory on August 2, 2009.
Support
Among the supporters' groups affiliated with the Earthquakes are the San Jose Ultras, Club Quake, Soccer Silicon Valley, The Casbah, and The Faultline.
An Earthquakes fan was arrested for assaulting a Portland Timbers fan after taunting the group in April 2013. The 1906 Ultras responded via Twitter: "arrests issue addressed" and to be "moving beyond the issue" ahead of a travel ban that was lifted by Major League Soccer just days prior.
Punk musician, Lars Frederiksen is a supporter of the Earthquakes. Along with his band, The Old Firm Casuals, he wrote the new anthem and theme song, "Never Say Die", for the club, which was performed as part of the team's rebranding ceremony on January 30, 2014. The song features backing vocals by various team members. Frederiksen said of the team that they are the most "punk rock" team in the MLS.
Mascots
José Clash (1996–1999)
Rikter the CyberDog (2000–2002)
Q (2004–2005), (2008–present)
There was no mascot in 2003.
On April 26, 2010, Q was one of three mascots featured on KNTV, along with San Jose Sharks mascot S.J. Sharkie and San Jose Giants mascot "Gigante".
Revenue and profitability
At the beginning of 2013, the Quakes had 5,000 season ticket holders, and although revenues had been increasing, the Quakes stadium did not allow them to generate sufficient revenues to be profitable. Quakes management predicted in 2013 that season ticket sales would double once they move into their new stadium, and the Quakes would become profitable at that time. Management also stated that they are "pursuing independent revenue streams that will provide the team with real and lasting financial freedom." With the completion of their new soccer-specific Avaya Stadium, in early 2015 the Earthquakes reached their cap of 12,000 season tickets sold.
Sponsorship
Broadcasting
San Jose Earthquakes games are broadcast by either NBC Sports Bay Area or NBC Sports California with Anthony Passarelli on play-by-play, Chris Dangerfield on color, and sideline reporter Danielle Slaton.
On the radio, all Earthquakes games are broadcast in English on 1050 KNBR and in Spanish on 1370 KZSF. Announcer Ted Ramey works as the primary English-language radio play-by-play announcer along with radio color analyst and former Earthquakes goalie Joe Cannon, while Carlos Cesar Rivera serves as the Spanish-language radio play-by-play announcer. The Spanish-language radio broadcast is carried via SAP on Earthquakes regional television broadcasts.
Players and staff
Roster
Team management
Honors
Team
MLS Cup
Winners: 2001, 2003
Supporters' Shield
Winners: 2005, 2012
Runners-up: 2002, 2003
Individual Club Awards
MLS Fair Play Award: 2001, 2010
Player
Record
Year-by-year
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Quakes. For the full season-by-season history, see List of San Jose Earthquakes seasons.
1. Avg. Attendance include statistics from league matches only.
2. Top Goalscorer(s) includes all goals scored in League, MLS Cup Playoffs, U.S. Open Cup, MLS is Back Tournament, CONCACAF Champions League, FIFA Club World Cup, and other competitive continental matches.
International tournaments
2002 CONCACAF Champions' Cup
First Round v. Club Deportivo Olimpia – 1:0, 3:1 (Earthquakes advanced 4:1 on aggregate)
Quarter-Finals v. C.F. Pachuca – 0:3, 1:0 (Pachuca advanced 3:1 on aggregate)
2003 La Manga Cup
Group stage v. Rosenborg BK – 0:2
Group stage v. FC Rubin Kazan – 1:1
Group stage v. Viking FK – 1:3
Seventh place match v. Lyn Oslo – 3:1
2003 CONCACAF Champions' Cup
First Round v. C.S.D. Municipal – 2:4, 2:1 (Municipal advanced 5:4 on aggregate)
2004 La Manga Cup
Group stage v. GIF Sundsvall – 3:1
Group stage v. Stabæk Fotball – 2:1
Semi-finals v. Viking FK – 1:1 (Viking Stavanger advanced 5:3 on penalties)
Third place match v. FC Dynamo Kyiv – 1:1 (Earthquakes won 6:5 on penalties)
2004 CONCACAF Champions' Cup
Quarter-Finals v. L.D. Alajuelense – 0:3, 1:0 (Alajuelense advanced 3:1 on aggregate)
2013–14 CONCACAF Champions League
Group stage v. Montreal Impact – 0:1
Group stage v. Heredia Jaguares de Peten – 0:1
Group stage v. Montreal Impact – 3:0
Group stage v. Heredia Jaguares de Peten – 1:0
Quarterfinals v. Deportivo Toluca F.C. – 1:1, 1:1 (Toluca advanced 5:4 on penalties)
Player records
Career records
Statistics below are for all-time leaders. Statistics are for regular season only. Bold indicates active players.
Single-season records
Average attendance
Notes:
Data from 2006 to 2007 not shown due to the team's hiatus.
A dash means that the team missed the playoffs that year.
The years marked with an asterisk show the seasons in which average attendance exceeded the regular home stadium's capacity. Attendance exceeded capacity because the Earthquakes played select matches at larger stadiums throughout the Bay Area.
NHG: Refers to the team not having played at home during the playoffs.
Green and red shading show the team's highest and lowest season attendances respectively.
All-time attendance: / (Regular season / Play-offs)
Leadership and players
Hall of Fame
Players
John Doyle (inducted 2005)
Ronald Cerritos (inducted 2010)
Troy Dayak (inducted 2011)
Paul Child (inducted 2012)
Momčilo Gavrić (inducted 2013)
Johnny Moore (inducted 2014)
Ramiro Corrales (inducted 2015)
Joe Cannon (inducted 2017)
Chris Dangerfield (inducted 2018)
Jon Busch (inducted 2018)
Richard Mulrooney (inducted 2019)
Builders
Milan Mandarić (inducted 2012)
Peter Bridgwater (inducted 2013)
Staff
Dave Obenour (inducted 2019)
Team captains
Head coaches
General managers
Ownership
Major League Soccer (1996–98)
Kraft Sports Group (1999–00)
Silicon Valley Sports & Entertainment (2001)
Silicon Valley Sports & Entertainment (Operations) / Anschutz Entertainment Group (Investment) (2002)
Anschutz Entertainment Group (2003–05)
Earthquakes Soccer, LLC (2007–)
See also
San Jose Earthquakes (1974–88)
2007 MLS Expansion Draft
List of San Jose Earthquakes rosters
References
External links
Association football clubs established in 1995
E
1995 establishments in California
Phoenix clubs (association football)
Major League Soccer teams
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN2%20reaction
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SN2 reaction
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{{DISPLAYTITLE:SN2 reaction}}
The SN2 reaction is a type of reaction mechanism that is common in organic chemistry. In this mechanism, one bond is broken and one bond is formed synchronously, i.e., in one step. SN2 is a kind of nucleophilic substitution reaction mechanism, the name referring to the Hughes-Ingold symbol of the mechanism. Since two reacting species are involved in the slow (rate-determining) step, this leads to the term substitution nucleophilic (bi-molecular) or SN2; the other major kind is SN1. Many other more specialized mechanisms describe substitution reactions.
The reaction type is so common that is it has other names, e.g. "bimolecular nucleophilic substitution", or, among inorganic chemists, "associative substitution" or "interchange mechanism".
Reaction mechanism
The reaction most often occurs at an aliphatic sp3 carbon center with an electronegative, stable leaving group attached to it (often denoted X), which is frequently a halide atom. The breaking of the C–X bond and the formation of the new bond (often denoted C–Y or C–Nu) occur simultaneously through a transition state in which a carbon under nucleophilic attack is pentacoordinate, and approximately sp2 hybridised. The nucleophile attacks the carbon at 180° to the leaving group, since this provides the best overlap between the nucleophile's lone pair and the C–X σ* antibonding orbital. The leaving group is then pushed off the opposite side and the product is formed with inversion of the tetrahedral geometry at the central atom.
If the substrate under nucleophilic attack is chiral, then this often leads to inversion of configuration (stereochemistry), called a Walden inversion.
In an example of the SN2 reaction, the attack of Br− (the nucleophile) on an ethyl chloride (the electrophile) results in ethyl bromide, with chloride ejected as the leaving group.
If the molecule that is undergoing SN2 reaction has a chiral centre, then it is possible that the optical activity of the product would be different from that of the reactant. In an example, 1-bromo-1-fluoroethane can undergo SN2 reaction to form 1-fluoroethan-1-ol, with the nucleophile being an OH- group. In this case, if the reactant is levorotatory, then the product would be dextrorotatory, and vice versa.
SN2 attack occurs if the backside route of attack is not sterically hindered by substituents on the substrate (ethyl chloride being the substrate above). Therefore, this mechanism usually occurs at unhindered primary and secondary carbon centres. If there is steric crowding on the substrate near the leaving group, such as at a tertiary carbon centre, the substitution will involve an SN1 rather than an SN2 mechanism, (an SN1 would also be more likely in this case because a sufficiently stable carbocation intermediary could be formed).
Factors affecting the rate of the reaction
Four factors affect the rate of the reaction:
Substrate
The substrate plays the most important part in determining the rate of the reaction. This is because the nucleophile attacks from the back of the substrate, thus breaking the carbon-leaving group bond and forming the carbon-nucleophile bond. Therefore, to maximise the rate of the SN2 reaction, the back of the substrate must be as unhindered as possible. Overall, this means that methyl and primary substrates react the fastest, followed by secondary substrates. Tertiary substrates do not participate in SN2 reactions, because of steric hindrance. Structures that can form highly stable cations by simple loss of the leaving group, for example, as a resonance-stabilized carbocation, are especially likely to react via an SN1 pathway in competition with SN2.
Nucleophile
Like the substrate, steric hindrance affects the nucleophile's strength. The methoxide anion, for example, is both a strong base and nucleophile because it is a methyl nucleophile, and is thus very much unhindered. tert-Butoxide, on the other hand, is a strong base, but a poor nucleophile, because of its three methyl groups hindering its approach to the carbon. Nucleophile strength is also affected by charge and electronegativity: nucleophilicity increases with increasing negative charge and decreasing electronegativity. For example, OH− is a better nucleophile than water, and I− is a better nucleophile than Br− (in polar protic solvents). In a polar aprotic solvent, nucleophilicity increases up a column of the periodic table as there is no hydrogen bonding between the solvent and nucleophile; in this case nucleophilicity mirrors basicity. I− would therefore be a weaker nucleophile than Br− because it is a weaker base. Verdict - A strong/anionic nucleophile always favours SN2 manner of nucleophillic substitution.
Solvent
The solvent affects the rate of reaction because solvents may or may not surround a nucleophile, thus hindering or not hindering its approach to the carbon atom. Polar aprotic solvents, like tetrahydrofuran, are better solvents for this reaction than polar protic solvents because polar protic solvents will hydrogen bond to the nucleophile, hindering it from attacking the carbon with the leaving group. A polar aprotic solvent with low dielectric constant or a hindered dipole end will favour SN2 manner of nucleophilic substitution reaction. Examples: dimethylsulfoxide, dimethylformamide, acetone, etc. In parallel, solvation also has a significant impact on the intrinsic strength of the nucleophile, in which strong interactions between solvent and the nucleophile, found for polar protic solvents, furnish a weaker nucleophile. In contrast, polar aprotic solvents can only weakly interact with the nucleophile, and thus, are to a lesser extent able to reduce the strength of the nucleophile.
Leaving group
The stability of the leaving group as an anion and the strength of its bond to the carbon atom both affect the rate of reaction. The more stable the conjugate base of the leaving group is, the more likely that it will take the two electrons of its bond to carbon during the reaction. Therefore, the weaker the leaving group is as a conjugate base, and thus the stronger its corresponding acid, the better the leaving group. Examples of good leaving groups are therefore the halides (except fluoride, due to its strong bond to the carbon atom) and tosylate, whereas HO− and H2N− are not.
Reaction kinetics
The rate of an SN2 reaction is second order, as the rate-determining step depends on the nucleophile concentration, [Nu−] as well as the concentration of substrate, [RX].
r = k[RX][Nu−]
This is a key difference between the SN1 and SN2 mechanisms. In the SN1 reaction the nucleophile attacks after the rate-limiting step is over, whereas in SN2 the nucleophile forces off the leaving group in the limiting step. In other words, the rate of SN1 reactions depend only on the concentration of the substrate while the SN2 reaction rate depends on the concentration of both the substrate and nucleophile.
It has been shown that except in uncommon (but predictable cases) primary and secondary substrates go exclusively by the SN2 mechanism while tertiary substrates go via the SN1 reaction. There are two factors which complicate determining the mechanism of nucleophilic substitution reactions at secondary carbons:
Many reactions studied are solvolysis reactions where a solvent molecule (often an alcohol) is the nucleophile. While still a second order reaction mechanistically, the reaction is kinetically first order as the concentration of the nucleophile–the solvent molecule, is effectively constant during the reaction. This type of reaction is often called a pseudo first order reaction.
In reactions where the leaving group is also a good nucleophile (bromide for instance) the leaving group can perform an SN2 reaction on a substrate molecule. If the substrate is chiral, this inverts the configuration of the substrate before solvolysis, leading to a racemized product–the product that would be expected from an SN1 mechanism. In the case of a bromide leaving group in alcoholic solvent Cowdrey et al. have shown that bromide can have an SN2 rate constant 100-250 times higher than the rate constant for ethanol. Thus, after only a few percent solvolysis of an enantiospecific substrate, it becomes racemic.
The examples in textbooks of secondary substrates going by the SN1 mechanism invariably involve the use of bromide (or other good nucleophile) as the leaving group have confused the understanding of alkyl nucleophilic substitution reactions at secondary carbons for 80 years[3]. Work with the 2-adamantyl system (SN2 not possible) by Schleyer and co-workers, the use of azide (an excellent nucleophile but very poor leaving group) by Weiner and Sneen, the development of sulfonate leaving groups (non-nucleophilic good leaving groups), and the demonstration of significant experimental problems in the initial claim of an SN1 mechanism in the solvolysis of optically active 2-bromooctane by Hughes et al.[3] have demonstrated conclusively that secondary substrates go exclusively (except in unusual but predictable cases) by the SN2 mechanism.
E2 competition
A common side reaction taking place with SN2 reactions is E2 elimination: the incoming anion can act as a base rather than as a nucleophile, abstracting a proton and leading to formation of the alkene. This pathway is favored with sterically hindered nucleophiles. Elimination reactions are usually favoured at elevated temperatures because of increased entropy. This effect can be demonstrated in the gas-phase reaction between a sulfonate and a simple alkyl bromide taking place inside a mass spectrometer:
With ethyl bromide, the reaction product is predominantly the substitution product. As steric hindrance around the electrophilic center increases, as with isobutyl bromide, substitution is disfavored and elimination is the predominant reaction. Other factors favoring elimination are the strength of the base. With the less basic benzoate substrate, isopropyl bromide reacts with 55% substitution. In general, gas phase reactions and solution phase reactions of this type follow the same trends, even though in the first, solvent effects are eliminated.
Roundabout mechanism
A development attracting attention in 2008 concerns a SN2 roundabout mechanism observed in a gas-phase reaction between chloride ions and methyl iodide with a special technique called crossed molecular beam imaging. When the chloride ions have sufficient velocity, the initial collision of it with the methyl iodide molecule causes the methyl iodide to spin around once before the actual SN2 displacement mechanism takes place.
See also
Arrow pushing
Christopher Kelk Ingold
Finkelstein reaction
Neighbouring group participation
Nucleophilic acyl substitution
Nucleophilic aromatic substitution
SN1 reaction
SNi
Substitution reaction
References
Nucleophilic substitution reactions
Reaction mechanisms
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LA%20Galaxy
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LA Galaxy
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The LA Galaxy, also known as the Los Angeles Galaxy, are an American professional soccer club based in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. The Galaxy competes in Major League Soccer (MLS), as a member of the Western Conference. The club began play in 1996 as one of the league's 10 charter members.
The Galaxy were founded in 1994 and are owned by Anschutz Entertainment Group (also owners of 50% of the Los Angeles Kings, as well as an interest in the Los Angeles Lakers). In their early years, the club played its home games at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California. Since 2003, they have played at Dignity Health Sports Park in Carson, California. The team holds a rivalry with the San Jose Earthquakes in the California Clásico and used to play the SuperClasico against city rivals Chivas USA before that team folded in 2014. Following Chivas' folding, Los Angeles FC was formed and a new derby began in 2018 under the informal moniker El Tráfico.
The franchise is one of Major League Soccer's most successful teams, with a record five MLS Cups and four additional appearances in the final, and won the Western Conference regular-season title eight times, four Supporters' Shields, two U.S. Open Cups, and one CONCACAF Champions' Cup title. In 2017, the club added the dubious MLS Wooden Spoon to its trophy case for finishing at the bottom of the MLS table.
In 2007, the club made international headlines with the signing of English player David Beckham from Real Madrid, the most high-profile transaction with Major League Soccer to that point. The club has fielded other high-profile international players including Zlatan Ibrahimović, Robbie Keane, Luis Hernández, Giovani dos Santos, Mauricio Cienfuegos, Jonathan dos Santos, Jorge Campos, Steven Gerrard, Ashley Cole, Javier Hernández, and American Landon Donovan, who is the all-time leading scorer for the club. In 2019, Forbes estimated the club is the second most valuable in the league, worth about $480 million.
History
Early years (1996–2000)
LA Galaxy is one of the 10 founding clubs in Major League Soccer. The name "Galaxy" was derived from Los Angeles being home to the "stars" of Hollywood. The team began competing in the first season of the then-new league, which took place in 1996.
In the inaugural season, the Galaxy finished first in the Western Conference and contested the first MLS Cup final, finishing as runners-up to D.C. United. In 1997, they started 1–7, but went 15–9 for the rest of the season to qualify for the playoffs. The Galaxy ended up second in their conference, losing to the Dallas Burn. In 1998, the Galaxy left off on a streak, eventually finishing 24–8. The Galaxy defeated the Dallas Burn, 9–3 on aggregate. They lost in the semi-final to the Chicago Fire, 2–1 on aggregate.
The Galaxy again finished first in the Western Conference in 1999, with a final record of 20–12, with a win in the CONCACAF Champions' Cup, but lost to D.C. United again 2–0. The 2000 season had the Galaxy in second in the Western Division, at 14–10–8. Despite this, they lost to the Kansas City Wizards after a tied aggregate and a sudden-death game. Los Angeles won the CONCACAF Champions' Cup that same year, one of two American clubs to win the tournament.
2001 was another successful year for Los Angeles, winning the Open Cup and scoring 1,000 all-time points, and with Cobi Jones scoring the 300th goal, but again they fell short by being defeated by Landon Donovan and the San Jose Earthquakes. Again the club clinched first in the Western Conference with a 16–9–3 record, their fifth time being first. Los Angeles were to take part in FIFA's Club World Cup as Concacaf champions from the previous year, but the tournament was cancelled that year.
First MLS Cup (2002)
In 2002, the Galaxy won their first MLS Cup in the club's fourth appearance by defeating the New England Revolution 1–0. In 2003, the Galaxy finished fourth playing more away games due to stadium construction, with the possible existing obstacles, the team finished 9–12–9. The Galaxy bounced back by gaining second with an 11–9–10 record. They lost to the Wizards in the final, 0–2.
In 2005, the Galaxy acquired Landon Donovan from San Jose. The franchise won the Open Cup again ending with a record of 13–13–6. Having qualified for the playoffs for the 2005 season, The Galaxy has been the only team to appear in the playoffs in all of the league's first ten seasons. They won the 2005 MLS Cup, defeating the New England Revolution in extra time, 1–0.
The 2006 season began on March 16 with the sudden death of Doug Hamilton, the team's 43-year-old general manager, who suffered a heart attack on board a plane carrying the team back from Costa Rica where they had played Saprissa in the CONCACAF Champions' Cup. The team finished fifth in the Western Conference, eliminating them from playoff contention for the first time since the league's inception. Midway through the season, Steve Sampson was sacked as head coach, replaced by Frank Yallop. The team managed to make a deep run to the U.S. Open Cup final, but lost 3–1 against the Chicago Fire.
Beckham era (2007–2012)
In March 2007, Herbalife signed a five-year deal with the Galaxy, worth between $4–5 million a year, to be the club's primary shirt sponsor. Four months later, the club signed David Beckham from Real Madrid. His debut was made at Home Depot Center before a record crowd of nearly 35,000, including many celebrities, coming on in the 78th minute in a 1–0 loss to Chelsea in a match during the World Series of Football tournament. The match brought unprecedented TV coverage from ESPN, who used 19 cameras to cover it, including one trained only on Beckham, even when he was on the bench. In that season's SuperLiga, LA reached the final but lost to Mexican side Pachuca on penalties after extra time. LA nearly made the end-of-season play-offs, but were eliminated following a 1–0 loss to the Chicago Fire. In the off-season, Cobi Jones retired and, amidst rumors that he was going to be sacked, Yallop resigned as head coach following a friendly match at Home Depot Center. The San Jose Earthquakes bought out his contract and offered a third round draft pick to the Galaxy as compensation to hire Yallop as their new head coach. Yallop was replaced at LA by Ruud Gullit, who signed a three-year contract with the club, making him the highest paid coach in MLS history. Cobi Jones returned as assistant coach. LA went on a promotional tour of Australia and New Zealand, setting attendance records in both countries. 80,295 people showed up at Stadium Australia for the match between Sydney FC and LA Galaxy, which the home side won 5–3. They also played a tour of Asia, and competed in the inaugural Pan-Pacific Championship in Honolulu, finishing third after beating Sydney 2–1 in the third-place match.
In the 2008 MLS season, LA went on a seven-game winless streak that saw them drop from first place in the Western Conference to outside playoff contention, prompting the resignation of manager Ruud Gullit and firing of general manager Alexi Lalas. Gullit was replaced by Bruce Arena, who was unable to lead LA into a play-off spot, for the third-straight season.
In the following off-season, both club captain David Beckham and vice-captain Landon Donovan were involved in loan deals with European clubs until the beginning of the new MLS season; Beckham to Milan in Italy and Donovan to German club Bayern Munich. Donovan was seeking a permanent transfer to Munich, while Beckham was expected to return to LA in March, prior to the 2009 season. Beckham went on to seek a permanent transfer to Milan in a bid to sustain his England career through the 2010 World Cup, and Milan made a bid for the player that was rejected by LA. One day before his loan deal was to expire, Milan and LA reached an agreement to allow Beckham to stay in Italy until the conclusion of the Rossoneri's season in June, before returning to LA in July. Donovan was not offered a contract by Bayern, and returned to the U.S. in time for the beginning of the 2009 MLS season. In the book The Beckham Experiment by Grant Wahl, Donovan openly criticized Beckham for his handling of the loan deals. Beckham and Donovan would later reconcile upon Beckham's return to LA in July.
LA finished the 2009 season top of the Western Conference and runners-up in the MLS Supporters' Shield, qualifying for the 2009 MLS Cup. They reached the final by beating Chivas USA 3–2 on aggregate in the quarter-final, and Houston Dynamo 2–0, after extra time, in the semi-final. In the final they drew 1–1 with Real Salt Lake at Qwest Field in Seattle, but lost 5–4 on penalties. By reaching the final, they qualified for the 2010–11 CONCACAF Champions League Preliminary Round.
After the 2009 success, both Donovan and Beckham again went out on second loan spells. Donovan went to Everton while Beckham returned to Milan, where he ruptured his Achilles tendon and therefore missed his chance at playing in the World Cup for England and subsequently missing most of the Galaxy's 2010 season.
In 2010, the Galaxy stayed at the top of the table and won the Supporters' Shield, the first time MLS played a balanced schedule. They then lost to FC Dallas in the Western Conference Final, one game away from making another appearance at MLS Cup.
In 2011, a year in which they added the Republic of Ireland's all-time leading goalscorer Robbie Keane, they won their fourth Supporters' Shield with two games remaining, becoming the third-straight team to win consecutive Shields while amassing the second-best points total in MLS history. They followed this up with their third MLS Cup, defeating the Houston Dynamo 1–0 in the final. The 2011 MLS Cup was the Galaxy's first MLS Cup Victory in regulation. The 2002 and the 2005 MLS Cup wins were won in overtime.
In January 2012, after much speculation, Beckham signed a new two-year deal with LA to secure his short-term future at the club. Despite the new contract, Beckham confirmed in November 2012 that he would be leaving the Galaxy at the end of the 2012 MLS season. On December 1, 2012, the Galaxy won their second-straight MLS Cup victory over the Houston Dynamo, 3–1. Galaxy defender Omar Gonzalez won the MLS MVP trophy, heading in the 1–1 equalizer in the 60th minute. That goal was quickly followed by a Donovan penalty kick, and Keane sealed the game with another penalty kick in stoppage time. In post-match interviews both Donovan and Beckham remained coy about their future MLS plans.
First to five league championships (2013–2016)
Galaxy finished the 2013 season third in the Western Conference. They reached the conference semi-finals, where they lost 2–1 to Real Salt Lake. They also reached the semi-finals of the 2012–13 CONCACAF Champions League, but lost 3–1 on aggregate to Mexican team Monterrey.
Following the defeat to Seattle Sounders FC in the final game of the season with the Supporters' Shield on the line, the team entered the 2014 MLS playoffs defeating Real Salt Lake, advancing to face Seattle once again in the Western Conference Finals, advancing to the MLS Cup by away goals. They played the New England Revolution in the 2014 MLS Cup and won 2–1 in overtime, thereby becoming five-time champions, a league record. At the end of the season, longtime LA Galaxy and United States national team player Landon Donovan retired.
On January 7, 2015, the LA Galaxy announced the signing of long time Liverpool player Steven Gerrard to an 18-month Designated Player contract, reportedly worth $9 million. He joined the team in July 2015 following the end of the 2014–15 Premier League season, and made his debut in an International Champions Cup against Club América on July 11.
The club again made headlines by acquiring Mexican star and Barcelona academy product Giovani dos Santos in July as a designated player. Not since the days of Jorge Campos, Carlos Hermosillo and Luis Hernández in the late 1990s and early 2000s had the Galaxy had a notable Mexican player, let alone one in the prime of his career. Dos Santos made an impactful impression on the Galaxy early on, scoring on his club debut against Central FC in the CONCACAF Champions League and then in his league debut against the Sounders. In his first five club matches, he had a goal, an assist or both to total with four goals and five assists in that span.
Wooden Spoon and rebuilding (2016–present)
Before the start of the 2016 season, it was announced that long-time servicing center-back Omar Gonzalez would leave the Galaxy after nine years to C.F. Pachuca.
On November 22, 2016, long-time general manager and head coach, Bruce Arena, left the club to begin his second stint as head coach of the United States national team, bringing most of the Galaxy's coaching staff with him, including associate head coach, Dave Sarachan. Arena was replaced as general manager by former Galaxy player Peter Vagenas, and as head coach by his LA Galaxy II counterpart, Curt Onalfo.
The front office constructed the team to rely on players from the academy and Galaxy II system. Multiple injuries exposed the naive roster construction, which included erratic performances by Jermaine Jones, and sparse production from Giovanni Dos Santos. With a 6–10–4 record, the Galaxy fired Curt Onalfo and replaced him with former head coach Sigi Schmid on July 27, 2017. Under Schmid, the club went 2–8–4 and finished the season in last place overall with a mark of 8–18–8. It was only the fourth time that the club failed to make the postseason, and the club's first wooden spoon.
In March 2018, the team signed Zlatan Ibrahimović on a two-year, $3 million contract with targeted allocation money. With the signing of Ibrahimović, the Galaxy's season would be seen promising. The Swede made his debut in the inaugural El Tráfico match against LAFC, scoring two goals to end the game with the Galaxy coming from 0–3 down to win 4–3. One of the goals Ibrahimović scored in that game later claimed MLS Goal of the Year. Los Angeles throughout the season had dealt with defensive struggles and on their last match of the regular season, against Houston Dynamo, the Galaxy were defeated and once again missed the postseason.
After the 2018 season, the Galaxy ended Ibrahimović's original deal and signed him to a new and higher salaried designated player contract. On March 1, 2019, the team announced they had exercised its one offseason Buyout of a Guaranteed Contract on Giovani dos Santos, thus releasing him from the team.
In the 2019 season, the Galaxy welcomed Guillermo Barros Schelotto to the club as head coach. The Galaxy also added a number of players, notably Uruguayan Diego Polenta, Argentine World Cup veteran Cristian Pavón, fellow Argentine Favio Álvarez and Mexican Uriel Antuna. With this, and the emergence of academy product Efraín Álvarez, the Galaxy placed fifth in the West and made the playoffs. The season was best remembered for Ibrahimović's performances against LAFC, including a hat-trick at home in July and a brace in Banc of California Stadium that August. Ibrahimović finished the season with 30 goals, the second-highest mark in the season and third-highest total in league history (with the record being broken by LAFC's Carlos Vela that year). In the playoffs, the Galaxy defeated Minnesota United 2–1 before falling to LAFC, 5–3. Ibrahimović left the club in November, and of the 2019 signings—most of them on loan—only Pavón returned for 2020.
The club arranged for a transfer from La Liga club Sevilla, signing a three-year contract with Javier "Chicharito" Hernandez on January 21, 2020, and making him the highest-paid player in the league. At the end of the season, after failing to making the postseason, head coach Guillermo Barros Schelotto was fired, and replaced with Dominic Kinnear as interim manager. On January 5, the Galaxy announced Greg Vanney as the new manager.
Colors and badge
The LA Galaxy's current team colors are navy blue, gold, and white. The team's primary uniform is white and the secondary uniform is blue. The colors were adopted to coincide with David Beckham's arrival with the team in 2007 as part of an overall re-branding exercise spearheaded by then GM Alexi Lalas. Before 2007, the Galaxy played in various color combinations, usually comprising gold, teal green and white with black accents, and often highlighting an iconic sash design from the left shoulder and across the chest. Their original jersey, used in the inaugural 1996 MLS season, reflected the colors of the city of Los Angeles and featured black-and-teal halves, black sleeves with gold and red accents, black shorts and black socks.
The Galaxy have had two logos to date. The original brand was gold, teal and black, and featured the Galaxy wordmark superimposed over a golden swirl, with a stylized black outline. The logo was changed in 2007, again to coincide with David Beckham's arrival, and now features a blue shield with a gold border, the LA Galaxy team name, and a quasar at the top of the crest.
The quasar, featured prominently on the LA Galaxy's shield, was originally featured on the 1957 Seal of Los Angeles County, as well as the modified Seal of Los Angeles County, California.
The name "Galaxy" was created by Nike at the conception of the league; the apparel company was also the original uniform supplier for the team.
Revenues and profits
The Galaxy first turned a profit in 2003, becoming the first MLS team to do so. After the team moved into the new Home Depot Center, the team saw increased attendance, a doubling of revenue from sponsors, and revenues from parking and concessions.
A Forbes 2015 report ranked the LA Galaxy second in MLS in terms of annual revenue ($44 million) and in franchise value ($240 million). The Galaxy earn more in annual club sponsorship income ($14 million) and annual local TV rights ($5 million) than any other MLS team. The Galaxy have the highest annual revenue of any MLS team, the third highest revenue of any CONCACAF team, and the seventh highest revenue of any team in the Americas.
Kit sponsors
Stadium
From 1996 to 2002, the Galaxy played their home games at the 107,000-person capacity Rose Bowl in Pasadena, but often held U.S. Open Cup games at Titan Stadium on the campus of California State University, Fullerton. The Galaxy played 10 games in total at Titan Stadium; the U.S. Open Cup Final was held there in 2001 when the Galaxy won the tournament.
From 1996 to 2002, the Galaxy played their home games at the 107,000-capacity Rose Bowl in Pasadena, but often held U.S. Open Cup games at Titan Stadium on the campus of Cal State Fullerton. The Galaxy played 10 games in total at Titan Stadium; the U.S. Open Cup Final was held there in 2001 when the Galaxy won the tournament.
In 2003, the Galaxy moved to Dignity Health Sports Park (then known as the Home Depot Center, later known as StubHub Center), on the campus of California State University, Dominguez Hills in Carson, approximately ten miles south of downtown Los Angeles. The stadium is a 27,000-seat soccer-specific stadium, the second of its kind in MLS, but has hosted other sports such as rugby and American football. From 2005 to 2014, the Galaxy shared the stadium with their now-defunct league rivals Chivas USA, with whom they competed in the SuperClasico.
Club culture
Cozmo
Cozmo is the Galaxy's mascot. He has dark blue skin with yellow eyebrows and white eyes matching the Galaxy's home uniform colors. He replaced the Galaxy's original mascot, "Twizzle", who also looked like it was from outer space but was more humanoid in form, wearing a space-man's helmet and cape.
Galaxy Star squad
The Galaxy Star Squad is the official cheerleaders of the club. They often attend events hosted by the Galaxy, such as autograph sessions, and can be often seen around the stadium during game time giving away scarves and supporting the team.
Supporters
The Angel City Brigade was created in 2007 to help establish a festive and vibrant atmosphere in Dignity Health Sports Park for the Galaxy. They were originally located in section 121 in the General Admission area of the stadium.
The LA Riot Squad formed after a loss in the 2001 MLS Cup, when then-Galaxy keeper Kevin Hartman challenged a group of Galaxy fans to form a supporter group of 100 people by opening day of 2002. The reward if they were able to do this was a keg of beer. They are located in sections 137 and 138 in the General Admission area of the stadium.
Galaxians are the first and original supporter group of the LA Galaxy, having been established in 1996 during the Galaxy's first season in MLS. They were originally located in section 124.
Galaxy Outlawz is the latest group started in 2019. They now join the Galaxians and the Angel City Brigade in the new safe standing section in the north end.
Victoria Block is the newest safe standing only section built in 2020 replacing all of the bleachers from sections 120 to 123 in the north end of the stadium. It is the new supporters only section and new home for the Galaxians, Angel City Brigade, and Galaxy Outlawz.
Ring of Honor
Rivalries
The Galaxy's chief rivalry match is played against the San Jose Earthquakes, which is known by the fans and media as the California Clásico. It is considered among the fiercest and longest-running rivalries in American soccer. The intrastate rivalry dates to the founding of MLS, and their encounters in the MLS Cup playoffs and final. Some also cite that the rivalry developed in reflection of traditional Northern California vs Southern California sports rivalries.
When Los Angeles FC joined the league in 2018, a crosstown rivalry, El Tráfico, was born.
The former LA Derby was previously contested between the Galaxy and Chivas USA in the SuperClasico. This contest, with Chivas USA, was dominated by the Galaxy, who won 22 of the 34 encounters. The rivalry was the only intra-stadium rivalry in MLS until Chivas ceased operations at the end of the 2014 season.
Broadcasting
At the end of the 2011 season, the Galaxy announced a ten-year, $55 million deal with Time Warner Cable (Now Charter Spectrum), the most lucrative local media contract in MLS history, to begin at the end of the 2012 MLS season. Previously, Galaxy matches were televised regionally in English on Fox Sports West or Prime Ticket. While awaiting the launch of those networks, all 2012 English-language matches were broadcast on local outlet KDOC, with one match showcased on Time Warner Cable SportsNet near the end of the season. In Spanish, 2012 matches were shown on independent outlet KWHY with Adrian Garcia Marquez and Francisco Pinto commentating. Television commentary is now handled by Joe Tutino and former Galaxy player Cobi Jones, and the radio stream is broadcast on the club's website.
ESPN carries most games on its ESPN+ platform for out-of-market viewers, as well as showing nationally televised broadcasts on ESPN, ESPN2, or ABC. FOX Sports also handles nationally televised broadcasts on Sports 1, Fox Sports 2, or the FOX. When Univisión broadcasts a nationally televised game on its main network, UniMás, or TUDN, the match stream is also available on Twitter.
Players and staff
For details on former players, see All-time Los Angeles Galaxy roster.
Roster
Coaching staff
General managers
Head coaches since 1996
Youth development
LA Galaxy II
The Galaxy created the LA Galaxy II reserve team in January 2014 to compete in the USL. In their inaugural season, Los Dos finished third with a record of 15–6–7, and reached the semi-final where they lost to Sacramento Republic FC.
For the 2015 USL season, the Galaxy were placed in the Western Conference.
Academy program
As part of its development program, the Galaxy operates an academy system with U-18 and U-16 teams competing in the U.S. Soccer Development Academy, and U-14 and U-12 teams competing in Southern California Developmental Soccer Leagues (SCDSL). Recent academy graduates include: Jack McBean, Oscar Sorto, Jose Villarreal, Gyasi Zardes, Raul Mendiola Bradford Jamieson IV, and Efraín Álvarez.
Alliance clubs
The LA Galaxy extended its youth development program and structure through the integration of existing youth clubs that have partnered under the LA Galaxy name. Known as the LA Galaxy Academy Alliance Clubs, they are located throughout Southern California, retain some autonomy and have access to LA Galaxy resources and outreach programs. One alliance club, LA Galaxy Orange County, has a men's category competing in the United Premier Soccer League.
Honors
Minor trophies
MLS Fair Play Award: 2013
MLS Award for Social Media Activation – #GalaxySocial / Malea Emma : 2018
Retired numbers
The LA Galaxy have not officially retired any jersey number. Former LA Galaxy player, Cobi Jones, was incorrectly believed to have had his jersey No. 13 retired until it was again issued in 2017 to Jermaine Jones.
Team results
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Galaxy. For the full season-by-season history, see List of LA Galaxy seasons.
1. Avg. Attendance include statistics from league matches only.
2. Top Goalscorer(s) includes all goals scored in League, MLS Cup Playoffs, U.S. Open Cup, MLS is Back Tournament, CONCACAF Champions League, FIFA Club World Cup, and other competitive continental matches.
International tournaments
Player awards
Statistical records
MLS regular season only, as of October 7, 2019
Games: Cobi Jones, 306
Goals: Landon Donovan, 113
Assists: Landon Donovan, 107
Clean sheets: Kevin Hartman, 64
Goals in a season: Zlatan Ibrahimović, 30 (2019)
Top goalscorers
Player of the Year
Golden Boot
The Golden Boot winner is the leading goal scorer at the end of the season (only goals in MLS count). This award did not exist from 1996 to 2004. The MLS Scoring Champion Award included both goal and assist totals those years.
Defender of the Year
References
External links
Anschutz Corporation
Association football clubs established in 1994
1994 establishments in California
Major League Soccer teams
U.S. Open Cup winners
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241882
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin%20Edson
|
Franklin Edson
|
Franklin Edson (April 5, 1832 – September 24, 1904) was an American merchant who served as the 85th Mayor of New York from 1883 to 1884.
Early life
Edson was born in Chester, Vermont on April 5, 1832, where his father had a farm. A descendant of the Puritans, he was the son of Soviah (née Wilson) Edson and Opher Edson.
He was educated at the local schools and at the Chester Academy in Vermont.
Career
Business
At age twenty, Edson moved to Albany to work in his brother Cyrus' distillery, becoming a partner three years later.
He left the distillery after his brother's death and started a produce business, which he relocated to New York City in 1866. His venture proved successful during the American Civil War, making Edson wealthy and enabling him to engage in civic, religious and charitable causes. He was an active Episcopalian and a member of Saint James Church, Fordham, in the Bronx.
In 1873, he became one of the city's most important business leaders when he was appointed President of the New York Produce Exchange.
Politics
An anti-Tammany Democrat, in 1882 he was nominated for Mayor through the efforts of Tammany Hall boss John Murphy to avoid a Democratic Party split between organization loyalists and reformers. Upon taking office in 1883, he angered reformers by appointing Tammany men to key jobs, but he soon embraced civil service reform and other honest government measures.
During his term the Brooklyn Bridge was dedicated, the Manhattan Municipal Building was constructed, and work was completed on the city's new water supply, the Croton Aqueduct. He appointed the commission responsible for the selection and location of public lands for parks in the Bronx, which came to include Van Cortlandt, Bronx, Pelham Bay, Crotona, Claremont and St. Mary's Parks, and the Mosholu, Bronx River, Pelham, and Crotona Parkways.
After Edson split with Tammany the 1884 Democratic nomination for Mayor went to William Russell Grace, who had also preceded Edson as Mayor, and Edson retired from politics at the completion of his term in 1885.
After leaving the mayor's office, Edson returned to his business interests and continued his philanthropic activities.
Personal life
In 1856, Edson was married to Frances Cameron "Fannie" Wood (1835–1893), the daughter of Benjamin Howland Wood. Fannie was the granddaughter of Jethro Wood, inventor of the cast-iron moldboard plow. They owned a homestead in Morris Heights, Bronx that consisted of three acres, a stately residence, stable and barn, which he exchanged for 247 Central Park West, two doors south of the corner of 85th Street, in 1893. Together, Fannie and Franklin were the parents of:
Cyrus Edson (1857–1903), a doctor who married Virginia Churchill Paige (1853–1891). He served as the President of the Board of Health.
Franklin (1859-1926), who married Elsie Squier.
David Orr Edson (1862–1923), a doctor.
Henry Townsend Edson (1864–1903), who married Margarita Diehl. In 1903, Henry Edson murdered his friend's wife and then committed suicide.
Edith Edson (b. 1870), who married Willis Benner.
Robert S. (1873-1941), who married Fanny Ropes.
Ethel Townsend Edson (b. 1877), who married Arthur Hoffman Van Brunt (b. 1865).
He died at his home in Manhattan on September 24, 1904. He was buried in Section 15, Lot 16 at Albany Rural Cemetery, Menands, New York.
Legacy
Edson Avenue in The Bronx is named for him.
References
External links
1832 births
1904 deaths
People from Chester, Vermont
Politicians from Albany, New York
New York (state) Democrats
Mayors of New York City
Burials at Albany Rural Cemetery
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard%20Freyberg%2C%201st%20Baron%20Freyberg
|
Bernard Freyberg, 1st Baron Freyberg
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Lieutenant-General Bernard Cyril Freyberg, 1st Baron Freyberg, (21 March 1889 – 4 July 1963) was a British-born New Zealand soldier and Victoria Cross recipient, who served as the 7th Governor-General of New Zealand from 1946 to 1952.
Freyberg served as an officer in the British Army during the First World War. He took part in the beach landings during the Gallipoli Campaign and was the youngest general in the British Army during the First World War, later serving on the Western Front, where he was decorated with the Victoria Cross and three Distinguished Service Orders, making him one of the most highly decorated British Empire soldiers of the First World War. He liked to be in the thick of the action: Winston Churchill called him "the Salamander" due to his ability to pass through fire unharmed.
During the Second World War, he commanded the New Zealand Expeditionary Force in the Battle of Crete, the North African Campaign and the Italian Campaign. Freyberg was involved in the Allied defeat in the Battle of Greece, defeated again as the Allied commander in the Battle of Crete and performed successfully in the North African Campaign commanding the 2nd New Zealand Division, including during the Second Battle of El Alamein.
In Italy, he was defeated again at the Second Battle of Cassino as a corps commander but later relieved Padua and Venice and was one of the first to enter Trieste, where he confronted Josip Broz Tito's Yugoslav Partisans. By the end of the Second World War, Freyberg had spent ten and a half years fighting the Germans.
Early life
Freyberg, born in Richmond, Surrey, to James Freyberg and his second wife, Julia (née Hamilton) was of partial Austrian-German descent. He moved to New Zealand with his parents at the age of two. He attended Wellington College from 1897 to 1904. A strong swimmer, he won the New Zealand 100-yards championship in 1906 and 1910.
On 22 May 1911, Freyberg gained formal registration as a dentist. He worked as an assistant dentist in Morrinsville and later practised in Hamilton and in Levin. While in Morrinsville he was asked to take up a subalternship in the local Territorial Army unit, but he did not succeed in gaining the King's commission.
Freyberg left New Zealand in March 1914. A 1942 Life magazine article claims that Freyberg went to San Francisco and Mexico around this time, and was a captain under Pancho Villa during the Mexican Revolution. Upon hearing of the outbreak of war in Europe in August 1914, he travelled to Britain via Los Angeles (where he won a swimming competition) and New York (where he won a prizefight), to earn money to cross the United States and the Atlantic.
First World War
Immediately on the outbreak of the First World War Freyberg went to England and volunteered for service. G. S. Richardson arranged for him to join the 7th "Hood" Battalion of the Royal Naval Brigade, and he was on the Belgian front in September 1914. In late 1914 Freyberg met Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, and persuaded him to grant him a Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve commission in the 'Hood' Battalion, part of the 2nd (Royal Naval) Brigade of the newly constituted Royal Naval Division.
In April 1915 Freyberg became involved in the Dardanelles campaign. On the night of 24 April, during the initial landings by Allied troops following the failed naval attempt to force the straits by sea, Freyberg volunteered to swim ashore in the Gulf of Saros. Once ashore, he began lighting flares so as to distract the defending Turkish forces from the real landings taking place at Gallipoli. Despite coming under heavy Turkish fire, he returned safely from this outing and received the Distinguished Service Order (DSO). He received serious wounds on several occasions and left the peninsula when his division evacuated in January 1916.
Victoria Cross
In May 1916 Freyberg was transferred to the British Army as a captain in the Queen's (Royal West Surrey) Regiment. However, he remained with the 'Hood' Battalion as a seconded temporary major and went with them to France. During the final stages of the Battle of the Somme, when commanding a battalion as a temporary lieutenant-colonel, he so distinguished himself in the capture of Beaucourt village that he was awarded the Victoria Cross. On 13 November 1916 at Beaucourt-sur-Ancre, France, after Freyberg's battalion had carried the initial attack through the enemy's front system of trenches, he rallied and re-formed his own much disorganised men and some others, and led them on a successful assault of the second objective, during which he suffered two wounds, but remained in command and held his ground throughout the day and the following night. When reinforced the next morning, he attacked and captured a strongly fortified village, taking 500 prisoners. Although wounded twice more, the second time severely, Freyberg refused to leave the line until he had issued final instructions. The citation for the award, published in the London Gazette in December 1916, describes the events concluding with:
During his time on the Western Front Freyberg continued to lead by example. His bold leadership had a cost: Freyberg received nine wounds during his service in France, and men who served with him later in his career said hardly a part of his body did not have scars.
Freyberg gained promotion to the rank of temporary brigadier general (although he still had the permanent rank of only captain) and took command of the 173rd (3/1st London) Brigade, part of the 58th (2/1st London) Division, in April 1917, which reportedly made him the youngest general officer in the British Army. He was awarded a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George the same year. In September a shell exploding at his feet inflicted the worst of his many wounds. When he resumed duty in January 1918 he again commanded 88th Brigade in the 29th Division, performing with distinction during the German spring offensives of March–April 1918. He won a bar to his DSO in September that year.
Freyberg ended the war by leading a cavalry squadron detached from 7th Dragoon Guards to seize a bridge at Lessines, which was achieved one minute before the armistice came into effect, thus earning him a second bar to the DSO. By the end of the war, Freyberg had added the French Croix de Guerre to his name, as well receiving five mentions in despatches after his escapade at Saros. With his VC and three DSOs, he ranked as among the most highly decorated British Empire soldiers of the First World War.
Interbellum
Early in 1919 Freyberg was granted a Regular Army commission in the Grenadier Guards and settled into peacetime soldiering, as well as attempts to swim the English Channel. He attended the Staff College, Camberley from 1920 to 1921. From 1921 to 1925 he was a staff officer in the headquarters of the 44th (Home Counties) Division. He suffered health problems arising from his many wounds, and as part of his convalescence he visited New Zealand in 1921.
On 14 June 1922 he married Barbara McLaren (a daughter of Sir Herbert and Dame Agnes Jekyll, and the widow of the Honourable Francis McLaren) at St Martha on the Hill in Surrey. Barbara had two children from her previous marriage; she and Freyberg later had a son, Paul (1923–1993).
In the general election of 1922 he stood unsuccessfully (coming second) as a Liberal candidate for Cardiff South.
He represented New Zealand on the International Olympic Committee in 1928–30. Promoted to the permanent rank of major in 1927 (having been a substantive captain since 1916), he held a GSO2 staff appointment at Headquarters, Eastern Command until February 1929 when he was transferred to the Manchester Regiment and promoted to lieutenant-colonel and appointed to command the 1st Battalion, Manchester Regiment.
In 1931 he was promoted colonel (with seniority backdated to 1922) and was appointed Assistant Quartermaster General of Southern Command. In 1933 he wrote A Study of Unit Administration, which became a staff college textbook on quarter-masters' logistics; it went into a second edition in 1940.
In September 1933 he moved to a GSO1 posting at the War Office before being promoted major-general in July 1934. With this promotion, at age 45, he seemed headed for the highest echelons of the army. However, medical examinations prior to a posting in India revealed a heart problem. Despite strenuous efforts to surmount this, Freyberg, who was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1936, was obliged to retire on 16 October 1937.
Second World War
The British Army classified Freyberg as unfit for active service in 1937. After the outbreak of war in September 1939, he returned to its active list in December as a specially employed major-general. On being approached by the New Zealand government, Freyberg offered his services and was appointed commander of the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force and of the 2nd New Zealand Division.
In the chaos of the retreat from the Battle of Greece in 1941, Churchill gave Freyberg command of the Allied forces during the Battle of Crete. Although instructed to prevent an assault from the air, he remained obsessed with the possibility of a naval landing and based his tactics on it, neglecting adequately to defend the airfield at Maleme, ignoring ULTRA intelligence messages, which showed that the assault was coming by air. However, many sources consider that the intelligence given to Freyberg was vague and inadequate, and did indicate the possibility of a naval landing; this compromised his ability to respond correctly to the invasion.
Promoted to lieutenant-general, and knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1942 New Year Honours, Freyberg continued to command the 2nd New Zealand Division through the North African and Italian Campaigns of the Eighth Army. He had an excellent reputation as a divisional-level tactician. Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, described Freyberg as his "salamander" due to his love of fire and wanting to be always in the middle of the action. An exploding German shell wounded Freyberg at the Battle of Mersa Matruh in June 1942 but he soon returned to the battlefield. Freyberg disagreed strongly with his superior, General Claude Auchinleck, the Eighth Army commander and insisted that as a commander of a national contingent he had the right to refuse orders if those orders ran counter to the New Zealand national interest. Freyberg enjoyed a good relationship with General Bernard Montgomery, the Eighth Army commander from August 1942, who thought highly of the experienced New Zealand commander.
In the climactic Second Battle of El Alamein (October–November 1942) the 2nd New Zealand Division played a vital part in the breakthrough by the Eighth Army; for his leadership, Freyberg was immediately promoted to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath. During the pursuit of the Axis forces to Tunisia, where they surrendered in May 1943, he led the New Zealanders on a series of well-executed left hooks to outflank Axis defence lines. In April and May 1943 Freyberg briefly commanded X Corps.
Freyberg was injured in an aircraft accident in September 1944. After six weeks in hospital he returned to command the New Zealand Division in its final operations, the Spring 1945 offensive in Italy, which involved a series of river crossings and an advance of in three weeks. By the time of the German surrender, the New Zealanders had reached Trieste, having liberated both Padua and Venice, where there was a brief standoff with Yugoslav partisans. This success earned him a third bar to his DSO in July 1945 and he was made a Commander of the United States Legion of Merit.
Freyberg had excelled in planning set-piece attacks, such as at Operation Supercharge at Alamein, Operation Supercharge II at Tebaga Gap, and in the storming of the Senio line in 1945. The two occasions that Freyberg commanded at Corps level—at Crete and Monte Cassino—were less successful. Throughout the war he showed a disdain for danger. He showed notable concern for the welfare of his soldiers, taking a common-sense attitude to discipline and ensuring the establishment of social facilities for his men. He had become a very popular commander with the New Zealand soldiers by the time he left his command in 1945
Freyberg is closely associated with the controversial decision to bomb the ancient monastery at Monte Cassino in February 1944. Freyberg, commanding the troops which fought what later became known as the Second and Third Battles of Monte Cassino, became convinced the abbey, founded in 529 AD, was being used as a military stronghold. The analysis of one of Freyberg's divisional commanders, Major-General Francis Tuker of the 4th Indian Infantry Division, concluded in a memo to Freyberg that, regardless of whether the monastery was occupied by the Germans, it should be demolished to prevent its occupation. He pointed out that with -high walls made of masonry at least thick, it was impossible for engineers to break in and that bombing with "blockbuster" bombs would be the only solution since bombs would be "next to useless". General Sir Harold Alexander, commander of the 15th Army Group (later the Allied Armies in Italy), agreed to the bombing (which did not employ blockbuster bombs). After the monastery's destruction, the ruins were occupied by German forces, which held the position until 18 May. Following the war, the abbot of the monastery and other monks said that German troops had not occupied the inside of the abbey and it was not being used for military purposes.
Post-war
Freyberg relinquished command of the New Zealand division, on 22 November 1945 having accepted an invitation to become Governor-General of New Zealand – the first with a New Zealand upbringing. He left London for his new post on 3 May 1946, after being made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George. He retired from the army on 10 September 1946.
Freyberg served as Governor-General of New Zealand from 1946 until 1952. In this post he played a very active role, visiting all parts of New Zealand and its dependencies.
On Freyberg was appointed a Knight of the Order of Saint John; his wife, Barbara, was made a Dame of the order at the same time.
King George VI raised Freyberg to the peerage as Baron Freyberg of Wellington in New Zealand and of Munstead in the County of Surrey in 1951.
After his term as New Zealand Governor-General had finished, Freyberg returned to England, where he sat frequently in the House of Lords. On 1 March 1953 he became the Deputy Constable and Lieutenant-Governor of Windsor Castle; he took up residence in the Norman Gateway the following year.
Freyberg died at Windsor on 4 July 1963 following the rupture of one of his war wounds, and was buried in the churchyard of St Martha on the Hill near Guildford, Surrey. His wife is buried at his side, and their son, who had been awarded the Military Cross, at the end of their graves.
Tributes
An athlete as well as a soldier, he is memorialised in the name of the Ministry of Defence's headquarters, a stadium in Auckland and Wellington's swimming pool on the site of his early victories. A number of streets are named after him including Freyberg Place in front of the Metropolis tower in central Auckland where there is a statue of him.
Auckland's Freyberg Place (also known as Freyberg Square) was opened in 1946; Wellington's Freyberg Pool in Oriental Bay opened in 1963; and Auckland's Freyberg Field opened in 1965. The 15-story Freyberg Building in Aitken Street, Thorndon, Wellington was built in 1979. The adjacent Freyberg House built in about 2007 was demolished in 2018 after being damaged by the 2016 Kaikoura earthquake. Freyberg High School in Palmerston North opened in 1955.
The Sir Bernard Freyberg Cup is awarded to the winner in single sculls at the New Zealand Rowing Championship.
In November 2016 a blue plaque was unveiled at 8 Dynevor Road, Richmond, where he was born and a VC commemorative paving stone was unveiled to him outside Richmond Station by the Mayor of Richmond and the present Lord Freyberg.
Styles
Note: An asterisk (*) denotes a Bar to the DSO.
1889–1914: Bernard Cyril Freyberg
1914 – 3 June 1915: Commander (temp.) Bernard Cyril Freyberg, RNVR
3 June 1915 – May 1916: Commander (temp.) Bernard Cyril Freyberg, DSO, RNVR
May–June 1916: Captain Bernard Cyril Freyberg, DSO
June–July 1916: Captain (Temp. Major) Bernard Cyril Freyberg, DSO
July – 12 December 1916: Captain (Temp. Lieutenant-Colonel) Bernard Cyril Freyberg, DSO
12 December 1916 – 1917: Captain (Temp. Lieutenant-Colonel) Bernard Cyril Freyberg, VC, DSO
1917 – 1 February 1919: Captain (Temp. Brigadier-General) Bernard Cyril Freyberg, VC, DSO
1 February – 7 March 1919: Captain (Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel; Temp. Brigadier) Bernard Cyril Freyberg, VC, DSO*
7 March – June 1919: Captain (Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel) Bernard Cyril Freyberg, VC, DSO*
June 1919 – 1920: Captain (Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel) Bernard Cyril Freyberg, VC, DSO**
1920–1927: Captain (Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel) Bernard Cyril Freyberg, VC, CMG, DSO**
1927–1929: Major (Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel) Bernard Cyril Freyberg, VC, CMG, DSO**
1929–1931: Lieutenant-Colonel Bernard Cyril Freyberg, VC, CMG, DSO**
1931–1934: Colonel Bernard Cyril Freyberg, VC, CMG, DSO**
1934–1935: Major-General Bernard Cyril Freyberg, VC, CMG, DSO**
1935–1941: Major-General Bernard Cyril Freyberg, VC, CB, CMG, DSO**
1941–1942: Lieutenant-General Sir Bernard Cyril Freyberg, VC, KBE, CB, CMG, DSO**
1942–1945: Lieutenant-General Sir Bernard Cyril Freyberg, VC, KCB, KBE, CMG, DSO**
1945–1946: Lieutenant-General Sir Bernard Cyril Freyberg, VC, KCB, KBE, CMG, DSO***
1946–1951: Lieutenant-General His Excellency Sir Bernard Cyril Freyberg, VC, GCMG, KCB, KBE, DSO***
1951–1952: Lieutenant-General His Excellency The Right Honourable The Lord Freyberg, VC, GCMG, KCB, KBE, DSO***
1952–1963: Lieutenant-General The Right Honourable The Lord Freyberg, VC, GCMG, KCB, KBE, DSO***
Arms
Notes
References
External links
NZ Official Governor General biography. Accessed 20 August 2020.
First World War.com – Who's Who – Bernard Freyberg. Accessed 14 February 2006.
from the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography
. Accessed 14 February 2006.
Location of grave and VC medal (Surrey). Accessed 14 February 2006.
Photo of Generals Freyberg and Morshead conferring in a shell hole in North Africa
New Zealand Army Officers 1939–1945
Generals of World War II
|-
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1889 births
1963 deaths
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241885
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleg%20Makarov%20%28cosmonaut%29
|
Oleg Makarov (cosmonaut)
|
Oleg Grigoryevich Makarov (; 6 January 1933 28 May 2003) was a Soviet cosmonaut.
Early life and education
Makarov was born in Udomlya, Tver Oblast, USSR. He graduated from Bauman Moscow Higher Technical School in 1957 and started working at the Special Design Bureau Number One (which is now RSC Energia) as an engineer, working on the Vostok spacecraft. In 1966, he was selected for cosmonaut training.
Space program
He was originally part of the Soviet lunar program and was training with Alexei Leonov for the first human circumlunar flight. After the success of Apollo 8, however, the flight was cancelled.
His first spaceflight was Soyuz 12 in 1973, a test flight to check the changes made to the Soyuz spacecraft after the Soyuz 11 disaster. His second flight was the abortive Soyuz 18a that made an emergency landing in the Altay Mountains, 21 minutes after launch. With his third launch on Soyuz 27 he flew to space station Salyut 6 and landed five days later with the Soyuz 26 spacecraft. His last mission was Soyuz T-3, during which several repairs on Salyut 6 were done. He also served on the backup crews for Soyuz 17 and Soyuz T-2. Altogether he spent 20 days, 17 hours, and 44 minutes in space.
Later life
After his final spaceflight he continued to work for Energia, both in the Mir space station program as well as the Energia-Buran development. He died in Moscow in 2003 from a heart attack.
Awards
Twice Hero of the Soviet Union (2 October 1973 and 16 March 1978)
Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR (2 October 1973)
Four Order of Lenin (2 October 1973, 21 April 1975, 16 March 1978, 10 December 1980)
Order "Blue Nile" of Ethiopia (10 October 1981)
Honorary Citizen of Baikonur, Dzhezkazgan, Kaluga, Karaganda, Rivne, and Yakutsk.
References
Literature
External links
The official website of the city administration Baikonur - Honorary citizens of Baikonur
1933 births
2003 deaths
People from Udomelsky District
Soviet cosmonauts
Soviet engineers
Employees of RSC Energia
1973 in spaceflight
Bauman Moscow State Technical University alumni
Heroes of the Soviet Union
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
People who have flown in suborbital spaceflight
Salyut program cosmonauts
|
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241886
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secant%20line
|
Secant line
|
In geometry, a secant is a line that intersects a curve at a minimum of two distinct points.
The word secant comes from the Latin word secare, meaning to cut. In the case of a circle, a secant intersects the circle at exactly two points. A chord is the line segment determined by the two points, that is, the interval on the secant whose ends are the two points.
Circles
A straight line can intersect a circle at zero, one, or two points. A line with intersections at two points is called a secant line, at one point a tangent line and at no points an exterior line. A chord is the line segment that joins two distinct points of a circle. A chord is therefore contained in a unique secant line and each secant line determines a unique chord.
In rigorous modern treatments of plane geometry, results that seem obvious and were assumed (without statement) by Euclid in his treatment, are usually proved.
For example, Theorem (Elementary Circular Continuity): If is a circle and a line that contains a point that is inside and a point that is outside of then is a secant line for .
In some situations phrasing results in terms of secant lines instead of chords can help to unify statements. As an example of this consider the result:
If two secant lines contain chords and in a circle and intersect at a point that is not on the circle, then the line segment lengths satisfy .
If the point lies inside the circle this is Euclid III.35, but if the point is outside the circle the result is not contained in the Elements. However, Robert Simson following Christopher Clavius demonstrated this result, sometimes called the secant-secant theorem, in their commentaries on Euclid.
Curves
For curves more complicated than simple circles, the possibility that a line that intersects a curve in more than two distinct points arises. Some authors define a secant line to a curve as a line that intersects the curve in two distinct points. This definition leaves open the possibility that the line may have other points of intersection with the curve. When phrased this way the definitions of a secant line for circles and curves are identical and the possibility of additional points of intersection just does not occur for a circle.
Secants and tangents
Secants may be used to approximate the tangent line to a curve, at some point , if it exists. Define a secant to a curve by two points, and , with fixed and variable. As approaches along the curve, if the slope of the secant approaches a limit value, then that limit defines the slope of the tangent line at . The secant lines are the approximations to the tangent line. In calculus, this idea is the geometric definition of the derivative.
A tangent line to a curve at a point may be a secant line to that curve if it intersects the curve in at least one point other than . Another way to look at this is to realize that being a tangent line at a point is a local property, depending only on the curve in the immediate neighborhood of , while being a secant line is a global property since the entire domain of the function producing the curve needs to be examined.
Sets and -secants
The concept of a secant line can be applied in a more general setting than Euclidean space. Let be a finite set of points in some geometric setting. A line will be called an -secant of if it contains exactly points of . For example, if is a set of 50 points arranged on a circle in the Euclidean plane, a line joining two of them would be a 2-secant (or bisecant) and a line passing through only one of them would be a 1-secant (or unisecant). A unisecant in this example need not be a tangent line to the circle.
This terminology is often used in incidence geometry and discrete geometry. For instance, the Sylvester–Gallai theorem of incidence geometry states that if points of Euclidean geometry are not collinear then there must exist a 2-secant of them. And the original orchard-planting problem of discrete geometry asks for a bound on the number of 3-secants of a finite set of points.
Finiteness of the set of points is not essential in this definition, as long as each line can intersect the set in only a finite number of points.
See also
Elliptic curve, a curve for which every secant has a third point of intersection, from which most of a group law may be defined
Mean value theorem, that every secant of the graph of a smooth function has a parallel tangent line
Quadrisecant, a line that intersects four points of a curve (usually a space curve)
Secant plane, the three-dimensional equivalent of a secant line
Secant variety, the union of secant lines and tangent lines to a given projective variety
References
External links
Curves
|
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0.5716955065727234,
0.45323437452316284,
0.32537901401519775,
-0.7986548542976379,
-0.42208603024482727,
-0.1605391800403595,
-0.8136094808578491,
0.44399115443229675,
-0.13367675244808197,
0.1268102526664734,
-0.4710879623889923,
-0.510089099407196,
-0.9803856015205383,
0.16651710867881775,
0.48977237939834595,
0.04000494256615639,
-0.013883044943213463,
-0.5482872724533081,
-0.1552944779396057,
-0.45107513666152954,
0.08924932777881622,
-0.35460272431373596,
-0.47822993993759155,
1.1233432292938232
] |
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