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242133 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unite%20%28English%20coin%29 | Unite (English coin) | The unite was the second English gold coin first produced during the reign of King James I. It was named after the legends on the coin indicating the king's intention of uniting his two kingdoms of England and Scotland. The unite was valued at twenty shillings until 1612 when the increase in the value of gold throughout Europe caused it to be raised to twenty-two shillings. The coin was produced during James I's second coinage (1604–1619), and it was replaced in the third coinage by the Laurel worth twenty shillings. All the coins were produced at the Tower Mint in London.
Several busts of the king were used for this denomination, who is shown looking to the right of the coin and is holding the orb and sceptre; the style of the king's beard varies during the issue. The legend on the obverse reads IACOBUS D G MA BRI FRA ET HI REX (Iacobus Dei Gratia Magnae Britanniae Franciae et Hiberniae Rex) – James by the grace of God King of Great Britain France and Ireland. The reverse shows a crowned shield which shows the arms of the four countries separating the letters IR – Iacobus Rex, King James, and the legend FACIAM EOS IN GENTEM UNAM ("I will make them one nation", from Ezekiel 37:22).
Numerous issues of gold unites valued at twenty shillings were produced at the Tower Mint throughout the reign of King Charles I (1625–1649), both when the mint was under the king's control and under Parliament's control. They depict the crowned bust of the king on the obverse, looking left, with the value "XX" appearing behind the king's head, and the legend CAROLUS D G MAG BR FR ET HI REX – Charles by the grace of God King of Great Britain France and Ireland. The reverse shows a crown over a shield bearing the royal arms and the legend FLORENT CONCORDIA REGNA – Through concord kingdoms flourish. During the Civil War, provincial mints produced very rare unites to pay the troops, at Chester, Oxford, Bristol, Exeter, Worcester and Shrewsbury – some of these unites are today unique coins.
Gold unites were issued during the Commonwealth, this time bearing a legend exclusively in English: THE COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND on the obverse and GOD WITH US on the reverse. This was due to an association of Latin with Catholicism.
They were also issued during a period when hammered coins were issued under King Charles II (i.e. 1660–62), showing a left-facing bust of the king wearing a laurel and the legend CAROLUS II D G MAG BRIT FRAN ET HIB REX – there were two issues, the second indicating the value "XX" behind the king's head. The reverse shows a crown over the shield with the royal arms dividing the letters "CR" and the legend FLORENT CONCORDIA REGNA. The gold unite was replaced by the milled gold Guinea in 1663, and a twenty shilling coin did not reappear until the Sovereign of 1817.
See also
Triple unite
British coinage
References
Coins of England
English gold coins
Economy of Stuart England
1604 in England | [
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242134 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Reed | John Reed | John Reed may refer to:
Arts, letters, and entertainment
John Reed (actor) (1916–2010), English actor and singer with the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company
John Reed (animator) (1908–1992), American animator and painter
John Reed (art patron) (1901–1981), Australian critic and art patron
John Reed (journalist) (1887–1920), American journalist and Communist activist
John Reed (novelist) (born 1969), American novelist and author
John O. Reed (1929–2012), British anthologist and translator of African literature
John Shelton Reed (born 1942), American sociologist and essayist
Business and finance
John Reed, American miner, founder of the Reed Gold Mine in North Carolina
John S. Reed (born 1939), American financier
John Shedd Reed (1917–2008), American chairman of Santa Fe Industries, president of Shedd Aquarium
John T. Reed, American real estate investor and author
Politics
Sir John Blake-Reed (1882–1966), British judge
Jack Reed (Rhode Island politician) (born 1949), United States Senator from Rhode Island
John Reed (1633–1730), American politician, member of the Connecticut House of Representatives from Norwalk
John Reed (judge) (1864–1955), New Zealand judge
John Reed Jr. (1781–1860), American politician from Massachusetts, son of John Reed Sr. (below), entered Congress in 1813
John Reed Sr. (1751–1831), American politician from Massachusetts, left Congress in 1801
John A. Reed Jr. (1931–2015), American lawyer and judge
John H. Reed (1921–2012), American politician, 66th governor of Maine
Sports
Jack Reed (baseball) (born 1933), American outfielder for the New York Yankees, 1961–1963
John M. Reed (c. 1881 – 1934), American college sports coach
John Reed (footballer) (born 1972), English footballer who played primarily for Sheffield United
Johnny Reed, American baseball player
Others
John Reed (early Californian) (1805–1843), American early California settler and noted landowner in Marin County
John Reed (fur trader) (died 1814), American fur trader
John Reed (priest) (born 1951), English Archdeacon of Taunton
John Read (psychologist), English psychologist and mental health researcher
John C. Reed (born 1958), American medical researcher
John Oren Reed (1856–1916), American physicist and university dean
John W. Reed (1918–2018), American law professor and dean
See also
John Reed Swanton (1873–1958), American anthropologist, folklorist, and linguist
Jack Reed (disambiguation)
John Reid (disambiguation)
John Read (disambiguation)
John Rede (disambiguation)
John Reade (disambiguation) | [
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242135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projective%20space | Projective space | In mathematics, the concept of a projective space originated from the visual effect of perspective, where parallel lines seem to meet at infinity. A projective space may thus be viewed as the extension of a Euclidean space, or, more generally, an affine space with points at infinity, in such a way that there is one point at infinity of each direction of parallel lines.
This definition of a projective space has the disadvantage of not being isotropic, having two different sorts of points, which must be considered separately in proofs. Therefore, other definitions are generally preferred. There are two classes of definitions. In synthetic geometry, point and line are primitive entities that are related by the incidence relation "a point is on a line" or "a line passes through a point", which is subject to the axioms of projective geometry. For some such set of axioms, the projective spaces that are defined have been shown to be equivalent to those resulting from the following definition, which is more often encountered in modern textbooks.
Using linear algebra, a projective space of dimension is defined as the set of the vector lines (that is, vector subspaces of dimension one) in a vector space of dimension . Equivalently, it is the quotient set of by the equivalence relation "being on the same vector line". As a vector line intersects the unit sphere of in two antipodal points, projective spaces can be equivalently defined as spheres in which antipodal points are identified. A projective space of dimension 1 is a projective line, and a projective space of dimension 2 is a projective plane.
Projective spaces are widely used in geometry, as allowing simpler statements and simpler proofs. For example, in affine geometry, two distinct lines in a plane intersect in at most one point, while, in projective geometry, they intersect in exactly one point. Also, there is only one class of conic sections, which can be distinguished only by their intersections with the line at infinity: two intersection points for hyperbolas; one for the parabola, which is tangent to the line at infinity; and no real intersection point of ellipses.
In topology, and more specifically in manifold theory, projective spaces play a fundamental role, being typical examples of non-orientable manifolds.
Motivation
As outlined above, projective spaces were introduced for formalizing statements like "two coplanar lines intersect in exactly one point, and this point is at infinity if the lines are parallel." Such statements are suggested by the study of perspective, which may be considered as a central projection of the three dimensional space onto a plane (see Pinhole camera model). More precisely, the entrance pupil of a camera or of the eye of an observer is the center of projection, and the image is formed on the projection plane.
Mathematically, the center of projection is a point of the space (the intersection of the axes in the figure); the projection plane (, in blue on the figure) is a plane not passing through , which is often chosen to be the plane of equation , when Cartesian coordinates are considered. Then, the central projection maps a point to the intersection of the line with the projection plane. Such an intersection exists if and only if the point does not belong to the plane (, in green on the figure) that passes through and is parallel to .
It follows that the lines passing through split in two disjoint subsets: the lines that are not contained in , which are in one to one correspondence with the points of , and those contained in , which are in one to one correspondence with the directions of parallel lines in . This suggests to define the points (called here projective points for clarity) of the projective plane as the lines passing through . A projective line in this plane consists of all projective points (which are lines) contained in a plane passing through . As the intersection of two planes passing through is a line passing through , the intersection of two distinct projective lines consists of a single projective point. The plane
defines a projective line which is called the line at infinity of . By identifying each point of with the corresponding projective point, one can thus say that the projective plane is the disjoint union of and the (projective) line at infinity.
As an affine space with a distinguished point may be identified with its associated vector space (see ), the preceding construction is generally done by starting from a vector space and is called projectivization. Also, the construction can be done by starting with a vector space of any positive dimension.
So, a projective space of dimension can be defined as the set of vector lines (vector subspaces of dimension one) in a vector space of dimension . A projective space can also be defined as the elements of any set that is in natural correspondence with this set of vector lines.
This set can be the set of equivalence classes under the equivalence relation between vectors defined by "one vector is the product of the other by a nonzero scalar". In other words, this amounts to defining a projective space as the set of vector lines in which the zero vector has been removed.
A third equivalent definition is to define a projective space of dimension as the set of pairs of antipodal points in a sphere of dimension (in a space of dimension ).
Definition
Given a vector space over a field , the projective space is the set of equivalence classes of under the equivalence relation defined by if there is a nonzero element of such that . If is a topological vector space, the quotient space is a topological space, endowed with the quotient topology. This is the case when is the field of the real numbers or the field of the complex numbers. If is finite dimensional, the dimension of is the dimension of minus one.
In the common case where , the projective space is denoted (as well as or , although this notation may be confused with exponentiation). The space is often called the projective space of dimension over , or the projective -space, since all projective spaces of dimension are isomorphic to it (because every vector space of dimension is isomorphic to ).
The elements of a projective space are commonly called points. If a basis of has been chosen, and, in particular if , the projective coordinates of a point P are the coordinates on the basis of any element of the corresponding equivalence class. These coordinates are commonly denoted , the colons and the brackets being used for distinguishing from usual coordinates, and emphasizing that this is an equivalence class, which is defined up to the multiplication by a non zero constant. That is, if are projective coordinates of a point, then are also projective coordinates of the same point, for any nonzero in . Also, the above definition implies that are projective coordinates of a point if and only if at least one of the coordinates is nonzero.
If is the field of real or complex numbers, a projective space is called a real projective space or a complex projective space, respectively. If is one or two, a projective space of dimension is called a projective line or a projective plane, respectively. The complex projective line is also called the Riemann sphere.
All these definitions extend naturally to the case where is a division ring; see, for example, Quaternionic projective space. The notation is sometimes used for . If is a finite field with elements, is often denoted (see PG(3,2)).
Related concepts
Subspace
Let be a projective space, where is a vector space over a field , and
be the canonical map that maps a nonzero vector to its equivalence class, which is the vector line containing with the zero vector removed.
Every linear subspace of is a union of lines. It follows that is a projective space, which can be identified with .
A projective subspace is thus a projective space that is obtained by restricting to a linear subspace the equivalence relation that defines .
If and are two different points of , the vectors and are linearly independent. It follows that:
There is exactly one projective line that passes through two different points of
and
A subset of is a projective subspace if and only if, given any two different points, it contains the whole projective line passing through these points.
In synthetic geometry, where projective lines are primitive objects, the first property is an axiom, and the second one is the definition of a projective subspace.
Span
Every intersection of projective subspaces is a projective subspace. It follows that for every subset of a projective space, there is a smallest projective subspace containing , the intersection of all projective subspaces containing . This projective subspace is called the projective span of , and is a spanning set for it.
A set of points is projectively independent if its span is not the span of any proper subset of . If is a spanning set of a projective space , then there is a subset of that spans and is projectively independent (this results from the similar theorem for vector spaces). If the dimension of is , such an independent spanning set has elements.
Contrarily to the cases of vector spaces and affine spaces, an independent spanning set does not suffice for defining coordinates. One needs one more point, see next section.
Frame
A projective frame is an ordered set of points in a projective space that allows defining coordinates. More precisely, in a -dimensional projective space, a projective frame is a tuple of points such that any of them are independent—that is are not contained in a hyperplane.
If is a -dimensional vector space, and is the canonical projection from to , then is a projective frame if and only if is a basis of , and the coefficients of on this basis are all nonzero. By rescaling the first vectors, any frame can be rewritten as such that this representation is unique up to the multiplication of all with a common nonzero factor.
The projective coordinates or homogeneous coordinates of a point on a frame with are the coordinates of on the basis They are again only defined up to scaling with a common nonzero factor.
The canonical frame of the projective space consists of images by of the elements of the canonical basis of (the tuples with only one nonzero entry, equal to 1), and the image by of their sum.
Projective transformation
Topology
A projective space is a topological space, as endowed with the quotient topology of the topology of a finite dimensional real vector space.
Let be the unit sphere in a normed vector space , and consider the function
that maps a point of to the vector line passing through it. This function is continuous and surjective. The inverse image of every point of consist of two antipodal points. As spheres are compact spaces, it follows that:
A (finite dimensional) projective space is compact.
For every point of , the restriction of to a neighborhood of is a homeomorphism onto its image, provided that the neighborhood is small enough for not containing any pair of antipodal points. This shows that a projective space is a manifold. A simple atlas can be provided, as follows.
As soon as a basis has been chosen for , any vector can be identified with its coordinates on the basis, and any point of may be identified with its homogeneous coordinates. For , the set
is an open subset of , and
since every point of has at least one nonzero coordinate.
To each is associated a chart, which is the homeomorphisms
such that
where hats means that the corresponding term is missing.
These charts form an atlas, and, as the transition maps are analytic functions, it results that projective spaces are analytic manifolds.
For example, in the case of , that is of a projective line, there are only two , which can each be identified to a copy of the real line. In both lines, the intersection of the two charts is the set of nonzero real numbers, and the transition map is
in both directions. The image represents the projective line as a circle where antipodal points are identified, and shows the two homeomorphisms of a real line to the projective line; as antipodal points are identified, the image of each line is represented as an open half circle, which can be identified with the projective line with a single point removed.
CW complex structure
Real projective spaces have a simple CW complex structure, as can be obtained from by attaching an -cell with the quotient projection as the attaching map.
Algebraic geometry
Originally, algebraic geometry was the study of common zeros of sets of multivariate polynomials. These common zeros, called algebraic varieties belong to an affine space. It appeared soon, that in the case of real coefficients, one must consider all the complex zeros for having accurate results. For example, the fundamental theorem of algebra asserts that a univariate square-free polynomial of degree has exactly complex roots. In the multivariate case, the consideration of complex zeros is also needed, but not sufficient: one must also consider zeros at infinity. For example, Bézout's theorem asserts that the intersection of two plane algebraic curves of respective degrees and consists of exactly points if one consider complex points in the projective plane, and if one counts the points with their multiplicity. Another example is the genus–degree formula that allows computing the genus of a plane algebraic curve from its singularities in the complex projective plane.
So a projective variety is the set of points in a projective space, whose homogeneous coordinates are common zeros of a set of homogeneous polynomials.
Any affine variety can be completed, in a unique way, into a projective variety by adding its points at infinity, which consists of homogenizing the defining polynomials, and removing the components that are contained in the hyperplane at infinity, by saturating with respect to the homogenizing variable.
An important property of projective spaces and projective varieties is that the image of a projective variety under a morphism of algebraic varieties is closed for Zariski topology (that is, it is an algebraic set). This is a generalization to every ground field of the compactness of the real and complex projective space.
A projective space is itself a projective variety, being the set of zeros of the zero polynomial.
Scheme theory
Scheme theory, introduced by Alexander Grothendieck during the second half of 20th century, allows defining a generalization of algebraic varieties, called schemes, by gluing together smaller pieces called affine schemes, similarly as manifolds can be built by gluing together open sets of The Proj construction is the construction of the scheme of a projective space, and, more generally of any projective variety, by gluing together affine schemes. In the case of projective spaces, one can take for these affine schemes the affine schemes associated to the charts (affine spaces) of the above description of a projective space as a manifold.
Synthetic geometry
In synthetic geometry, a projective space S can be defined axiomatically as a set P (the set of points), together with a set L of subsets of P (the set of lines), satisfying these axioms:
Each two distinct points p and q are in exactly one line.
Veblen's axiom: If a, b, c, d are distinct points and the lines through ab and cd meet, then so do the lines through ac and bd.
Any line has at least 3 points on it.
The last axiom eliminates reducible cases that can be written as a disjoint union of projective spaces together with 2-point lines joining any two points in distinct projective spaces. More abstractly, it can be defined as an incidence structure consisting of a set P of points, a set L of lines, and an incidence relation I that states which points lie on which lines.
The structures defined by these axioms are more general than those obtained from the vector space construction given above. If the (projective) dimension is at least three then, by the Veblen–Young theorem, there is no difference. However, for dimension two, there are examples that satisfy these axioms that can not be constructed from vector spaces (or even modules over division rings). These examples do not satisfy the Theorem of Desargues and are known as Non-Desarguesian planes. In dimension one, any set with at least three elements satisfies the axioms, so it is usual to assume additional structure for projective lines defined axiomatically.
It is possible to avoid the troublesome cases in low dimensions by adding or modifying axioms that define a projective space. gives such an extension due to Bachmann. To ensure that the dimension is at least two, replace the three point per line axiom above by;
There exist four points, no three of which are collinear.
To avoid the non-Desarguesian planes, include Pappus's theorem as an axiom;
If the six vertices of a hexagon lie alternately on two lines, the three points of intersection of pairs of opposite sides are collinear.
And, to ensure that the vector space is defined over a field that does not have even characteristic include Fano's axiom;
The three diagonal points of a complete quadrangle are never collinear.
A subspace of the projective space is a subset X, such that any line containing two points of X is a subset of X (that is, completely contained in X). The full space and the empty space are always subspaces.
The geometric dimension of the space is said to be n if that is the largest number for which there is a strictly ascending chain of subspaces of this form:
A subspace in such a chain is said to have (geometric) dimension . Subspaces of dimension 0 are called points, those of dimension 1 are called lines and so on. If the full space has dimension then any subspace of dimension is called a hyperplane.
Classification
Dimension 0 (no lines): The space is a single point.
Dimension 1 (exactly one line): All points lie on the unique line.
Dimension 2: There are at least 2 lines, and any two lines meet. A projective space for is equivalent to a projective plane. These are much harder to classify, as not all of them are isomorphic with a . The Desarguesian planes (those that are isomorphic with a satisfy Desargues's theorem and are projective planes over division rings, but there are many non-Desarguesian planes.
Dimension at least 3: Two non-intersecting lines exist. proved the Veblen–Young theorem that every projective space of dimension is isomorphic with a , the n-dimensional projective space over some division ring K.
Finite projective spaces and planes
A finite projective space is a projective space where P is a finite set of points. In any finite projective space, each line contains the same number of points and the order of the space is defined as one less than this common number. For finite projective spaces of dimension at least three, Wedderburn's theorem implies that the division ring over which the projective space is defined must be a finite field, GF(q), whose order (that is, number of elements) is q (a prime power). A finite projective space defined over such a finite field has points on a line, so the two concepts of order coincide. Notationally, is usually written as .
All finite fields of the same order are isomorphic, so, up to isomorphism, there is only one finite projective space for each dimension greater than or equal to three, over a given finite field. However, in dimension two there are non-Desarguesian planes. Up to isomorphism there are
1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 4, 0, …
finite projective planes of orders 2, 3, 4, ..., 10, respectively. The numbers beyond this are very difficult to calculate and are not determined except for some zero values due to the Bruck–Ryser theorem.
The smallest projective plane is the Fano plane, with 7 points and 7 lines. The smallest 3-dimensional projective spaces is PG(3,2), with 15 points, 35 lines and 15 planes.
Morphisms
Injective linear maps between two vector spaces V and W over the same field k induce mappings of the corresponding projective spaces via:
[v] → [T(v)],
where v is a non-zero element of V and [...] denotes the equivalence classes of a vector under the defining identification of the respective projective spaces. Since members of the equivalence class differ by a scalar factor, and linear maps preserve scalar factors, this induced map is well-defined. (If T is not injective, it has a null space larger than {0}; in this case the meaning of the class of T(v) is problematic if v is non-zero and in the null space. In this case one obtains a so-called rational map, see also birational geometry).
Two linear maps S and T in induce the same map between P(V) and P(W) if and only if they differ by a scalar multiple, that is if for some . Thus if one identifies the scalar multiples of the identity map with the underlying field K, the set of K-linear morphisms from P(V) to P(W) is simply .
The automorphisms can be described more concretely. (We deal only with automorphisms preserving the base field K). Using the notion of sheaves generated by global sections, it can be shown that any algebraic (not necessarily linear) automorphism must be linear, i.e., coming from a (linear) automorphism of the vector space V. The latter form the group GL(V). By identifying maps that differ by a scalar, one concludes that
Aut(P(V)) = Aut(V)/K× = GL(V)/K× =: PGL(V),
the quotient group of GL(V) modulo the matrices that are scalar multiples of the identity. (These matrices form the center of Aut(V).) The groups PGL are called projective linear groups. The automorphisms of the complex projective line P1(C) are called Möbius transformations.
Dual projective space
When the construction above is applied to the dual space V∗ rather than V, one obtains the dual projective space, which can be canonically identified with the space of hyperplanes through the origin of V. That is, if V is n dimensional, then P(V∗) is the Grassmannian of planes in V.
In algebraic geometry, this construction allows for greater flexibility in the construction of projective bundles. One would like to be able to associate a projective space to every quasi-coherent sheaf E over a scheme Y, not just the locally free ones. See EGAII, Chap. II, par. 4 for more details.
Generalizations
dimension The projective space, being the "space" of all one-dimensional linear subspaces of a given vector space V is generalized to Grassmannian manifold, which is parametrizing higher-dimensional subspaces (of some fixed dimension) of V.
sequence of subspaces More generally flag manifold is the space of flags, i.e., chains of linear subspaces of V.
other subvarieties Even more generally, moduli spaces parametrize objects such as elliptic curves of a given kind.
other rings Generalizing to associative rings (rather than only fields) yields, for example, the projective line over a ring.
patching Patching projective spaces together yields projective space bundles.
Severi–Brauer varieties are algebraic varieties over a field k, which become isomorphic to projective spaces after an extension of the base field k.
Another generalization of projective spaces are weighted projective spaces; these are themselves special cases of toric varieties.
See also
Generalizations
Grassmannian manifold
Projective line over a ring
Space (mathematics)
Projective geometry
projective transformation
projective representation
Related
Geometric algebra
Notes
References
Greenberg, M.J.; Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries, 2nd ed. Freeman (1980).
, esp. chapters I.2, I.7, II.5, and II.7
Hilbert, D. and Cohn-Vossen, S.; Geometry and the imagination, 2nd ed. Chelsea (1999).
(Reprint of 1910 edition)
External links
Projective Planes of Small Order
Projective geometry | [
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242137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachiocephalic%20vein | Brachiocephalic vein | The left and right brachiocephalic veins (or innominate veins) are major veins in the upper chest, formed by the union of each corresponding internal jugular vein and subclavian vein. This is at the level of the sternoclavicular joint. The left brachiocephalic vein is nearly always longer than the right.
These veins merge to form the superior vena cava, a great vessel, posterior to the junction of the first costal cartilage with the manubrium of the sternum.
The brachiocephalic veins are the major veins returning blood to the superior vena cava.
Tributaries
The brachiocephalic vein is formed by the confluence of the subclavian and internal jugular veins. In addition it receives drainage from:
Left and right internal thoracic vein (Also called internal mammary veins): drain into the inferior border of their corresponding vein
Left and right inferior thyroid veins: drain into the superior aspect of their corresponding veins near the confluence
Left and right vertebral vein
Left superior intercostal vein: drains into the left brachiocephalic vein
Embryological origin
The left brachiocephalic vein forms from the anastomosis formed between the left and right anterior cardinal veins when the caudal portion of the left anterior cardinal vein degenerates.
Additional images
References
Veins of the torso | [
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242140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior%20vena%20cava | Superior vena cava | The superior vena cava (SVC) is the superior of the two venae cavae, the great venous trunks that return deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulation to the right atrium of the heart. It is a large-diameter (24 mm) short length vein that receives venous return from the upper half of the body, above the diaphragm. Venous return from the lower half, below the diaphragm, flows through the inferior vena cava. The SVC is located in the anterior right superior mediastinum. It is the typical site of central venous access via a central venous catheter or a peripherally inserted central catheter. Mentions of "the cava" without further specification usually refer to the SVC.
Structure
The superior vena cava is formed by the left and right brachiocephalic or innominate veins, which receive blood from the upper limbs, eyes and neck, behind the lower border of the first right costal cartilage. It passes vertically downwards behind first intercostal space and receives azygos vein just before it pierces the fibrous pericardium opposite right second costal cartilage and its lower part is intrapericardial. And then, it ends in the upper and posterior part of the sinus venarum of the right atrium, at the upper right front portion of the heart. It is also known as the cranial vena cava in other animals. No valve divides the superior vena cava from the right atrium.
The superior vena cava is made up of three layers, starting with the innermost endothelial tunica intima. The middle layer is the tunica media, composed of smooth muscle tissue, and the outermost and thickest layer is the tunica adventitia, composed of collagen and elastic connective tissue that allow for flexibility. The tunica adventitia contains three zones, with the middle zone consisting of few smooth muscle fibers; this differs from the longitudinal bundles of smooth muscle found in the same zone of the inferior vena cava.
Anatomical variation
The most common anatomical variation is a persistent left superior vena cava. In persons with a persistent left superior vena cava, the right superior vena cava may be normal, small or absent, with or without an anterior communicating vein. This variation is present in less than 0.5% of the general population, but in up to 10% in patients with congenital heart disease.
Clinical significance
Superior vena cava obstruction refers to a partial or complete obstruction of the superior vena cava, typically in the context of cancer such as a cancer of the lung, metastatic cancer, or lymphoma. Obstruction can lead to enlarged veins in the head and neck, and may also cause breathlessness, cough, chest pain, and difficulty swallowing. Pemberton's sign may be positive. Tumours causing obstruction may be treated with chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy to reduce their effects, and corticosteroids may also be given.
In tricuspid valve regurgitation, these pulsations are very strong.
No valve divides the superior vena cava from the right atrium. As a result, the (right) atrial and (right) ventricular contractions are conducted up into the internal jugular vein and, through the sternocleidomastoid muscle, can be seen as the jugular venous pressure.
Additional images
See also
Persistent left superior vena cava
Superior vena cava syndrome
Inferior vena cava
References
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242146 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior%20vena%20cava | Inferior vena cava | The inferior vena cava is a large vein that carries the deoxygenated blood from the lower and middle body into the right atrium of the heart. It is formed by the joining of the right and the left common iliac veins, usually at the level of the fifth lumbar vertebra.
The inferior vena cava is the lower ("inferior") of the two venae cavae, the two large veins that carry deoxygenated blood from the body to the right atrium of the heart: the inferior vena cava carries blood from the lower half of the body whilst the superior vena cava carries blood from the upper half of the body. Together, the venae cavae (in addition to the coronary sinus, which carries blood from the muscle of the heart itself) form the venous counterparts of the aorta.
It is a large retroperitoneal vein that lies posterior to the abdominal cavity and runs along the right side of the vertebral column. It enters the right auricle at the lower right, back side of the heart. The name derives from .
Structure
The IVC is formed by the joining of the left and right common iliac veins and brings collected blood into the right atrium of the heart. It also joins with the azygos vein (which runs on the right side of the vertebral column) and venous plexuses next to the spinal cord.
The inferior vena cava begins as the left and right common iliac veins behind the abdomen unite, at about the level of L5. It passes through the thoracic diaphragm at the caval opening at the level of T8 - T9. It passes to the right of the descending aorta.
Tributaries
The specific levels of the tributaries are as follows:
Because the inferior vena cava is located to the right of the midline, drainage of the tributaries is not always symmetrical. On the right, the gonadal veins and suprarenal veins drain into the inferior vena cava directly. On the left, they drain into the renal vein which in turn drains into the inferior vena cava. By contrast, all the lumbar veins and hepatic veins usually drain directly into the inferior vena cava.
Development
In the embryo, the inferior vena cava and right auricle are separated by the valve of the inferior vena cava, also known as the Eustachian valve. In the adult, this valve typically has totally regressed or remains as a small fold of endocardium.
Variation
Rarely, the inferior vena cava may vary in its size and position. In transposition of the great arteries the inferior vena cava may lie on the left.
In between 0.2% to 0.3% of people, the inferior vena cava may be duplicated beneath the level of the renal veins.
Function
The inferior vena cava is a vein. It carries deoxygenated blood from the lower half of the body to the right atrium of the heart.
The corresponding vein that carries deoxygenated blood from the upper half of the body is the superior vena cava.
Clinical significance
Health problems attributed to the IVC are most often associated with it being compressed (ruptures are rare because it has a low intraluminal pressure). Typical sources of external pressure are an enlarged aorta (abdominal aortic aneurysm), the gravid uterus (aortocaval compression syndrome) and abdominal malignancies, such as colorectal cancer, renal cell carcinoma and ovarian cancer. Since the inferior vena cava is primarily a right-sided structure, unconscious pregnant women should be turned on to their left side (the recovery position), to relieve pressure on it and facilitate venous return. In rare cases, straining associated with defecation can lead to restricted blood flow through the IVC and result in syncope (fainting).
Blockage of the inferior vena cava is rare and is treated urgently as a life-threatening condition. It is associated with deep vein thrombosis, IVC filters, liver transplantation and surgical procedures such as the insertion of a catheter in the femoral vein in the groin.
Trauma to the vena cava is usually fatal as unstoppable excessive blood loss occurs.
Additional images
See also
Atriocaval shunt
Inferior vena cava syndrome
Recovery position
References
External links
- "Posterior Abdominal Wall: Tributaries to the Inferior Vena Cava"
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242147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubon%20Ratchathani%20province | Ubon Ratchathani province | Ubon Ratchathani (, ), often shortened to Ubon (), is one of Thailand's seventy-six provinces lies in lower northeastern Thailand also called Isan. Ubon is about from Bangkok. Neighboring provinces are (from west clockwise) Sisaket, Yasothon, and Amnat Charoen. To the north and east it borders Salavan and Champasak of Laos, to the south Preah Vihear of Cambodia.
Geography
At Khong Chiam the Mun River, the biggest river of the Khorat Plateau, joins the Mekong, which forms the northeastern boundary of Thailand with Laos. It is called "Maenam Song Si" or the "Mun River alluvium" because the brown water from Mekong River mixes with the blue water of the Mun. It is about from Ubon Ratchathani city centre.
The area in the Dângrêk Mountains where the borders of the three countries, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia meet is promoted as the "Emerald Triangle", in contrast to the "Golden Triangle" in the north of Thailand. "Emerald" refers to the largely intact monsoon forests there. The total forest area is or 18 percent of provincial area.
History
Ayutthaya and Thonburi periods
On the bank of the Mun River around 1767, Chao Phra Wo and Chao Phra Ta of Vientiane, had a conflict with Chao Siri Bun San, the ruler of Vientiane. And persuaded troops to evacuate across the Mekong and fled to settle in Nong Bua Lam Phu and named the city "Khuen Kan Kab Kaew Bua Ban". Chao Siri Bun San accused Chao Phra Wo and Chao Phra Ta think of rebellion and sent an army to subdue, but lost to the people of the Chao Phra Wo and Chao Phra Ta every time. The battle for up to 3 years, Chao Phra Wo and Chao Phra Ta saw that their army was not enough, therefore went to ask the Burma Army to help, but Burma returned to help Chao Siri Bun San and attacked the city of Khuen Kan Kab Kaew Bua Ban, causing Chao Phra Ta die, Chao Phra Wo and the rest of the people, they fled down to depend on Chao Nakhon Champasak. Later, migrated and moved back to the Don Mod Daeng on the banks of the Mun River, when Chao Siri Bun San found out about him, he attacked Don Mod Daeng, then surrounded Chao Phra Wo and Chao Phra Wo was executed.
Thao Kam son of Chao Phra Wo, Kham Pong and Thao Thidprom the son of Chao Phra Ta escaped. And informed to Nakhon Ratchasima to King Taksin to ask for help. King Taksin has raised the army to hit Champasak and Vientiane in 1778, Nakhon Champasak is therefore a royal country directly to Krung Thonburi since then. Later, when Somdej Phraya Maha Kasatsuek ascended the throne, Phra Pratum therefore asked the King to move his family to hometown at Ban Huai Chae Ramae. Later, King Rama I raised the status of Ban Huai Chae Ramae to be the city of "Ubon Ratchathani" in 1792.
Rattanakosin period
After the founding of Ubon Ratchathani, there was an important city in the county of Ubon Ratchathani province, many more cities such as in 1814, set up Ban Khok Phaniang to be a city of Khemarat Thani.
In 1823, raised a village to create a city of Mekong Chiang (Khong Chiam), depending on the city of Champasak.
In 1845 in the reign of King Rama III, has raised Ban Chong Nang to be a city of Senangkhanikhom and raised a Ban Nam Dome Yai into Det Udom.
In 1847, set up a Dong Krua or Ban Rai became city of Bua Kan. Later, changed to Bua Buntharik city or the current Buntharik District.
In 1863 in the reign of King Rama IV, set up a Ban Kwang Lam Chado to became the city of Phibun Mangsahan and set up Ban Sapue to became the city of Trakan Phuet Phon.
In 1879 in the reign of King Rama V, set up Ban Tha Yak Ku as a city of Chanuman and set up Ban Phra Lao as a city of Phana Nikhom.
In 1880, set up Warin Chamrap.
In 1881, set up Muang Dome Pradit.
In 1882, set up Ban Kasem Sima, which later changed to Muang Sam Sip District.
In 1933, the entire county was abolished, Ubon Ratchathani then becomes the Ubon Ratchathani province until the present.
Ubon Ratchathani was the largest province of Thailand by area until 1972.
Yasothon was split off from Ubon Ratchathani in 1972, followed by Amnat Charoen in 1993.
Symbols
The provincial seal shows a lotus flower in a pond. This alludes to the meaning of the name of the province, which translates to 'royal city of the lotus flower'. The provincial flower is the lotus (Nymphaea lotus). The provincial tree is the Yang-na (Dipterocarpus alatus).
Economy
Ubon Ratchathani is the nation's leading rice-producing province. It earns more than 10 billion baht a year from rice sales.
National parks
Ubon Ratchathani boasts the following national parks:
Phu Chong–Na Yoi National Park is in the mountainous southern region of the province.
Kaeng Tana National Park is in Khong Chiam District.
Pha Taem National Park covers an area of . Plateaus and hills dominate the park landscape. The sheer cliffs here are a result of earthquakes. The interesting places in the national park are Pha Taem and Pha Kham. On the cliffs surfaces are numerous prehistoric cave paintings from 3,000 to 4,000 years ago. These paintings depict scenes of fishing, rice farming, figures of people, animals, hands and geometric designs that depict life during the pre-historic time and reflect the ancient lifestyle of the people who lived there.
Health
The main hospital of Ubon Ratchathani province is Sunpasitthiprasong Hospital.
Transportation
Air
Ubon Ratchathani is served by Ubon Ratchathani Airport.
Rail
Ubon Ratchathani Railway Station is the main railway station in Ubon Ratchathani.
Education
Ubon Ratchathani province is the home of Ubon Ratchathani University.
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
The province is divided into 25 districts (amphoe). The districts are further divided into 219 subdistricts (tambons) and 2,469 villages (mubans).
Municipalities
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Ubon Ratchathani Provincial Administration Organisation () and 60 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Ubon Ratchathani has city (thesaban nakhon) status. Chaeramae, Det Udom, Phibun Mangsahan and Warin Chamrap have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 54 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 179 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
Gallery
Sister cities
Bujumbura, Burundi
Kigali, Rwanda
Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Paris, France
References
External links
Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT): Ubon Ratchathani
Website of province (Thai only)
Provinces of Thailand | [
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242149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon%20Lord | Jon Lord | John Douglas Lord (9 June 194116 July 2012) was an English orchestral and rock composer, pianist, and Hammond organ player known for his pioneering work in fusing rock with classical or baroque forms, especially with the British rock band Deep Purple. He also spent time in the bands Whitesnake, Paice Ashton Lord, The Artwoods, The Flower Pot Men and Santa Barbara Machine Head. In 1968, Lord co-founded Deep Purple, a hard rock band of which he was regarded as the leader until 1970. Together with the other members, he collaborated on most of his band's most popular songs. Lord's distinctive organ playing during Deep Purple's hard rock period was essential to the band's signature heavy sound and contributed to the early development of heavy metal. He and drummer Ian Paice were the only continuous presence in the band between 1968 and 1976, and also from when it was re-established, in 1984, until Lord's retirement in 2002. On 11 November 2010, he was inducted as an Honorary Fellow of Stevenson College in Edinburgh, Scotland. On 15 July 2011, he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Music degree at De Montfort Hall by the University of Leicester. Lord was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on 8 April 2016 as a member of Deep Purple.
Early life
Growing up in Leicester
Lord was born in Leicester on 9 June 1941 to Miriam (1909–1995; née Hudson) and Reginald Lord, growing up at 120 Averil Road and retaining a strong bond with the city throughout his life. His father was an amateur saxophonist and encouraged Lord from an early age. He studied classical piano from the age of five, with a local teacher, Frederick Allt, and this focus on a classical grounding to his material was a recurring trademark in his work, both in composition, arranging and his instrumental solos on piano, organ and electronic keyboards. In particular his influences ranged from Johann Sebastian Bach (a constant reference in his music and in his keyboard improvisation) to Medieval popular music and the English tradition of Edward Elgar. He attended Wyggeston Grammar School for Boys between 1952 and 1958 where he gained O Level passes in French, music and mathematics, participated in amateur dramatics and the school choir alongside his organ and piano studies and then worked as a clerk in a solicitor's office for two years.
Lord absorbed the blues sounds that played a key part in his rock career, principally the raw sounds of the great American jazz and blues organists, such as Wild Bill Davis, Jimmy Smith, Jimmy McGriff and "Brother" Jack McDuff ("Rock Candy"), as well as the stage showmanship of Jerry Lee Lewis and performers like Buddy Holly, whom he saw perform at the De Montfort Hall in Leicester in March 1958. The jazz-blues organ style of black R&B organ players in the 1950s and 1960s, using the trademark blues-organ sound of the Hammond organ (B3 and C3 models) and combining it with the Leslie speaker system (the well-known Hammond-Leslie speaker combination), were seminal influences on Lord. Lord also stated that he was heavily influenced by the organ-based progressive rock played by Vanilla Fudge after seeing that band perform in Great Britain in 1967, and earlier by the personal direction he received from British organ pioneer Graham Bond.
Move to London
Lord moved to London in 1959–60, intent on an acting career and enrolling at the Central School of Speech and Drama, in London's Swiss Cottage. Following a celebrated student rebellion he became a founder of Drama Centre London, from where he graduated in 1964. Small acting parts followed, including in the British TV series, Emergency - Ward 10 and Lord continued playing the piano and the organ in nightclubs and as a session musician to earn a living. He started his band career in London in 1960 with the jazz ensemble The Bill Ashton Combo. Ashton became a key figure in jazz education in Britain, creating what later became the National Youth Jazz Orchestra. Between 1960 and 1963, Lord and Ashton both moved on to Red Bludd's Bluesicians (also known as The Don Wilson Quartet), the latter of which featured the singer Arthur "Art" Wood, brother of guitarist Ronnie Wood. Wood had previously sung with Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated and was a junior figure in the British blues movement. In this period, Lord altered the spelling of his name from his birth name "John" to "Jon" and his session credits included playing the keyboards in "You Really Got Me", The Kinks number one hit of 1964 however in a Guitar World interview Ray Davies of The Kinks stated it was actually Arthur Greenslade playing piano on that particular track.
Following the break-up of Redd Bludd's Bluesicians in late 1963, Wood, Lord, and the drummer Red Dunnage put together a new band, The Art Wood Combo. This also included Derek Griffiths (guitar) and Malcolm Pool (bass guitar). Dunnage left in December 1964 to be replaced by Keef Hartley, who had previously replaced Ringo Starr in Rory Storm and the Hurricanes. This band, later known as "The Artwoods", focused on the organ as the bluesy, rhythmic core of their sound, in common with the contemporary bands The Spencer Davis Group (Steve Winwood on organ) and The Animals (with Alan Price). They made appearances on the BBC's Saturday Club radio show and on such TV programs as Ready Steady Go!. It also performed abroad, and it appeared on the first Ready Steady Goes Live, promoting its first single the Lead Belly song "Sweet Mary" — but significant commercial success eluded it. Its only charting single was "I Take What I Want", which reached number 28 on 8 May 1966.
This band regrouped in 1967 as the "St. Valentine's Day Massacre". This was an attempt to cash in on the 1930s gangster craze set off by the American film Bonnie and Clyde. Hartley left the band in 1967 to join John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers. Lord next founded the blues-influenced Santa Barbara Machine Head, featuring Art's brother, Ronnie Wood, writing and recording three powerful keyboard-driven instrumental tracks, giving a preview of the future style of Deep Purple. Soon thereafter, Lord went on to cover for the keyboard player Billy Day in The Flower Pot Men, where he met the bass guitarist Nick Simper along with drummer Carlo Little and guitarist Ged Peck. Lord and Simper then toured with this band in 1967 to promote its hit single "Let's Go to San Francisco", but the two men never recorded with this band.
Formation of Deep Purple
In early 1967, through his roommate Chris Curtis of the Searchers, Lord met businessman Tony Edwards who was looking to invest in the music business alongside partners Ron Hire and John Coletta (HEC Enterprises). Session guitarist Ritchie Blackmore was called in and he met Lord for the first time, but Chris Curtis's erratic behaviour led the trio nowhere. Edwards was impressed enough by Jon Lord to ask him to form a band after Curtis faded out. Said Edwards, "I couldn't really cope with [Curtis] but I had a great rapport with Jon Lord; here was somebody sensible, somebody I could communicate with on my level." Simper was contacted, and Blackmore was recalled from Hamburg. Although top British player Bobbie Clarke was the first choice as drummer, during the auditions for a singer, Rod Evans of "The Maze" came in with his own drummer, Ian Paice. Blackmore, who had been impressed by Paice's drumming when he met him in 1967, set up an audition for Paice as well. The band was called the "Roundabout" at first and began rehearsals at Deeves Hall in Hertfordshire. By March 1968, this became the "Mark 1" line-up of "Deep Purple": Lord, Simper, Blackmore, Paice, and Evans.
Lord also did session work in the late 1960s with the band "Boz", along with Blackmore (guitar) and Paice (drums), given that Boz was being produced by Derek Lawrence who produced Deep Purple's first three albums. Boz was led by Boz Burrell (vocals/guitar, later bassist for King Crimson and Bad Company) and also included Chas Hodges (bass guitar).
Deep Purple
1968–1970
It was in these three years that Lord's trademark keyboard sound emerged. Ignoring the emergence of the Moog synthesizer, as pioneered in rock by such players as Keith Emerson, Lord began experimenting with a keyboard sound produced by driving the Hammond organ through Marshall amplifiers in an effort to match the attack and volume of Blackmore's guitar. Lord's version was heavier than a blues sound, and it often featured distortion and a far harder, industrial type sound that became the trademark Jon Lord organ sound. Both Emerson and Rick Wakeman publicly expressed admiration for Lord's mould-breaking work on the organ. This delivered a rhythmic foundation to complement Blackmore's speed and virtuosity on lead guitar. Lord also loved the sound of an RMI 368 Electra-Piano and Harpsichord, which he used on such songs as "Demon's Eye" and "Space Truckin'".
In 1973 Lord's original Hammond C3 gave out and he bought another from Christine McVie of Fleetwood Mac. Also around this time, Lord and his keyboard technician, Mike Phillips, combined his Hammond C3 Organ with the RMI. Lord kept this particular Hammond C3 until his retirement from the band in 2002, when he passed it to successor Don Airey. That instrument was retired from stage use a few years later, as it had become "pretty knackered" according to Airey.
By pushing the Hammond-Leslie sound through Marshall amplification, Lord created a growling, heavy, mechanical sound which allowed him to compete with Blackmore as a soloist, with an organ that sounded as prominent as the lead guitar. Said one reviewer, "many have tried to imitate [Lord's] style, and all failed." Said Lord himself, "There's a way of playing a Hammond [that's] different. A lot of people make the mistake of thinking that you can play a Hammond with a piano technique. Well, you can, but it sounds like you are playing a Hammond with a piano technique. Really, you have to learn how to play an organ. It's a legato technique; it's a technique to achieve legato on a non-legato instrument."
In early Deep Purple recordings, Lord had appeared to be the leader of the band. Despite the cover songs "Hush" and "Kentucky Woman" becoming hits in North America, Deep Purple never made chart success in the UK until the Concerto for Group and Orchestra album dented the UK charts in early 1970. Lord's willingness later to play many of the key rhythm parts gave Blackmore the freedom to let loose both live and on record.
On Deep Purple's second and third albums, Lord began indulging his ambition to fuse rock with classical music. An early example of this is the song "Anthem" from the album The Book of Taliesyn (1968), but a more prominent example is the song "April" from the band's self-titled third album (1969). The song is recorded in three parts: (1) Lord and Blackmore only, on keyboards and acoustic guitar, respectively; (2) an orchestral arrangement complete with strings; and (3) the full rock band with vocals. Lord's ambition enhanced his reputation among fellow musicians, but caused tension within the group. Simper later said, "The reason the music lacked direction was Jon Lord fucked everything up with his classical ideas." Blackmore agreed to go along with Lord's experimentation, provided he was given his head on the next band album.
The resulting Concerto For Group and Orchestra was one of rock's earliest attempts to fuse two distinct musical idioms. Performed live at the Royal Albert Hall on 24 September 1969 (with new band members Ian Gillan and Roger Glover, Evans and Simper having been fired), it was recorded by the BBC and later released as an album in December 1969. The Concerto gave Deep Purple its first highly publicised taste of mainstream fame and gave Lord the confidence to believe that his experiment and his compositional skill had a future, as well as giving Lord the opportunity to work with established classical figures, such as conductor Sir Malcolm Arnold, who brought his skills to bear by helping Lord realise the work and to protect him from the inevitable disdain of the older members of the orchestra.
1970–1976
Purple began work on Deep Purple in Rock, released by their new label Harvest in 1970 and now recognised as one of hard rock's key early works. Lord and Blackmore competed to out-dazzle each other, often in classical-style, midsection 'call and answer' improvisation (on tracks like "Speed King"), something they employed to great effect live. Ian Gillan said that Lord provided the idea on the main organ riff for "Child in Time" although the riff was also based on It's a Beautiful Day's 1969 psychedelic hit song "Bombay Calling". Lord's experimental solo on "Hard Lovin' Man" (complete with police-siren interpolation) from this album was his personal favourite among his Deep Purple studio performances.
Deep Purple released another six studio albums between 1971 (Fireball) and 1975 (Come Taste the Band). Gillan and Glover left in 1973 and Blackmore in 1975, and the band disintegrated in 1976. The highlights of Lord's Purple work in the period include the 1972 album Machine Head (featuring his rhythmic underpinnings on "Smoke on the Water" and "Space Truckin'", plus the organ solos on "Highway Star", "Pictures of Home" and "Lazy"), the sonic bombast of the Made in Japan live album (1972), an extended, effect-laden solo on "Rat Bat Blue" from the Who Do We Think We Are album (1973), and his overall playing on the Burn album from 1974.
Roger Glover would later describe Lord as a true "Zen-archer soloist", someone whose best keyboard improvisation often came at the first attempt. Lord's strict reliance on the Hammond C3 organ sound, as opposed to the synthesizer experimentation of his contemporaries, places him firmly in the jazz-blues category as a band musician and far from the progressive-rock sound of Keith Emerson and Rick Wakeman. Lord rarely ventured into the synthesizer territory on Purple albums, often limiting his experimentation to the use of the ring modulator with the Hammond, to give live performances on tracks like Space Truckin' a distinctive 'spacey' sound. Instances of his Deep Purple synthesizer use (he became an endorser of the ARP Odyssey) include "'A' 200", the final track from Burn, and "Love Child" on the Come Taste the Band album.
In early 1973 Lord stated: "We're as valid as anything by Beethoven."
As a composer
Lord continued to focus on his classical aspirations alongside his Deep Purple career. The BBC, buoyed by the success of the Concerto, commissioned him to write another piece and the resulting "Gemini Suite" was performed by Deep Purple and the Light Music Society under Malcolm Arnold at the Royal Festival Hall in September 1970, and then in Munich with the Kammerorchester conducted by Eberhard Schoener in January 1972. It then became the basis for Lord's first solo album, Gemini Suite, released in November 1972, with vocals by Yvonne Elliman and Tony Ashton and with the London Symphony Orchestra backing a band that included Albert Lee on guitar.
Lord's collaboration with the highly experimental and supportive Schoener resulted in a second live performance of the Suite in late 1973 and a new Lord album with Schoener, entitled Windows, in 1974. It proved to be Lord's most experimental work and was released to mixed reactions. However, the dalliances with Bach on Windows and the pleasure of collaborating with Schoener resulted in perhaps Lord's most confident solo work and perhaps his strongest orchestral album, Sarabande, recorded in Germany in September 1975 with the Philharmonia Hungarica conducted by Schoener. Composed of eight pieces (from the opening sweep of Fantasia to the Finale), at least five pieces form the typical construction of a baroque dance suite. The key pieces (Sarabande, Gigue, Bouree, Pavane and Caprice) feature rich orchestration complemented sometimes by the interpolation of rock themes, played by a session band comprising Pete York, Mark Nauseef and Andy Summers, with organ and synthesizers played by Lord.
In March 1974, Lord and Paice had collaborated with friend Tony Ashton on First of the Big Bands, credited to 'Tony Ashton & Jon Lord' and featuring a rich array of session talent, including Carmine Appice, Ian Paice, Peter Frampton and Pink Floyd saxophonist/sessioner, Dick Parry. They performed much of the set live at the London Palladium in September 1974.
This formed the basis of Lord's first post-Deep Purple project Paice Ashton Lord, which lasted only a year and spawned a single album, Malice in Wonderland in 1977, recorded at Musicland Studios at the Arabella Hotel in Munich. A second album was begun but subsequently abandoned. He created an informal group of friends and collaborators including Ashton, Paice, Bernie Marsden, Boz Burrell and later, Bad Company's Mick Ralphs, Simon Kirke and others. Over the same period, Lord guested on albums by Maggie Bell, Nazareth and even folk artist Richard Digance. He also guested as one of several keyboard players on the live performance of David Bedford’s The Odyssey at the Royal Albert Hall in 1977. Eager to pay off a huge tax bill upon his return the UK in the late-1970s (Purple's excesses included their own tour jet and a home Lord rented in Malibu from actress Ann-Margret and where he wrote the Sarabande album), Lord joined former Deep Purple band member David Coverdale's new band, Whitesnake in August 1978 (Ian Paice joined them in 1980 and stayed till 1982).
Whitesnake, 1978–1984
Lord's job in Whitesnake was largely limited to adding colour (or, in his own words, a 'halo') to round out a blues-rock sound that already accommodated two lead guitarists, Bernie Marsden and Micky Moody. He added a Yamaha CP-70 electric piano to his set-up and finally a huge bank of synthesizers onstage courtesy of Moog (Minimoog, Opus, Polymoog) so he could play the 12-bar blues the band often required and recreate string section and other effects. Such varied work is evident on tracks like "Here I Go Again", "Wine, Women and Song", "She's a Woman" and "Till the Day I Die". A number of singles entered the UK chart, taking the now 30-something Lord onto Top of the Pops with regularity between 1980 and 1983. He later expressed frustration that he was a poorly paid hired-hand, but fans saw little of this discord and Whitesnake's commercial success kept him at the forefront of readers' polls as heavy rock's foremost keyboard maestro. His dissatisfaction (and Coverdale's eagerness to revamp the band's line-up and lower the average age to help crack the US market) smoothed the way for the reformation of Deep Purple Mk II in 1984.
Jon Lord's last Whitesnake concert took place in the Swedish TV programme Måndagsbörsen on 16 April 1984.
During his tenure in Whitesnake, Lord had the opportunity to record two distinctly different solo albums. 1982s Before I Forget featured a largely conventional eight-song line-up, no orchestra and with the bulk of the songs being either mainstream rock tracks ("Hollywood Rock And Roll", "Chance on a Feeling"), or – specifically on side two – a series of very English classical piano ballads sung by the mother and daughter duo Vicki Brown and Sam Brown (wife and daughter of entertainer Joe Brown) and vocalist Elmer Gantry as well as piano and synthesiser instrumentals such as Burntwood, named after Lord's stately Oxfordshire home at the time. The album also boasted the cream of British rock talent, including the session drummer (and National Youth Jazz Orchestra alumnus) Simon Phillips, Cozy Powell, Neil Murray, Simon Kirke, Boz Burrell and Mick Ralphs.
Additionally, Lord was commissioned by producer Patrick Gamble for Central Television to write the soundtrack for their 1984 TV series, Country Diary of an Edwardian Lady, based on the book by Edith Holden, with an orchestra conducted by Alfred Ralston and with a distinctly gentle, pastoral series of themes composed by Lord. Lord became firmly established as a member of UK rock's "Oxfordshire mansion aristocracy" – with a home, Burntwood Hall, set in at Goring-on-Thames, complete with its own cricket pitch and a hand-painted Challen baby grand piano, previously owned by Shirley Bassey. He was asked to guest on albums by friends George Harrison (Gone Troppo from 1982) and Pink Floyd's David Gilmour (1984's About Face), Cozy Powell (Octopuss in 1983) and to play on an adaptation of Kenneth Grahame's classic, Wind in the Willows. He composed and produced the score for White Fire (1984), which consisted largely of two songs performed by Limelight. In 1985 he made a brief appearance as a member of The Singing Rebel's band (which also featured Eric Clapton, George Harrison and Ringo Starr) in the Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais-scripted film Water (1985) (Handmade Films).
In the 1980s he was also a member of an all-star band called Olympic Rock & Blues Circus fronted by Pete York and featuring a rotating line-up of the likes of Miller Anderson, Tony Ashton, Brian Auger, Zoot Money, Colin Hodgkinson, Chris Farlowe and many others. Olympic Rock & Blues Circus toured primarily in Germany between 1981 and 1989. Some musicians, including Lord, took part in York's TV musical extravaganza Superdrumming between 1987 and 1989.
Later work, 1984–2006
Lord's re-emergence with Deep Purple in 1984 resulted in huge audiences for the reformed Mk II line-up, including 1985’s second largest grossing tour in the US and an appearance in front of 80,000 rain-soaked fans headlining Knebworth on 22 June 1985, all to support the Perfect Strangers album. Playing with a rejuvenated Mk. II Purple line-up (including spells at a health farm to get the band including Lord into shape) and being onstage and in the studio with Blackmore, gave Lord the chance to push himself once again. His 'rubato' classical opening sequence to the album's opener, "Knocking at Your Back Door" (complete with F-Minor to G polychordal harmony sequence), gave Lord the chance to do his most powerful work for years, including the song "Perfect Strangers". Further Deep Purple albums followed, often of varying quality, and by the late-1990s, Lord was clearly keen to explore new avenues for his musical career.
In 1997, he created perhaps his most personal work to date, Pictured Within, released in 1998 with a European tour to support it. Lord's mother Miriam had died in August 1995 and the album is inflected at all stages by Lord's sense of grief. Recorded largely in Lord's home-away-from-home, the city of Cologne, the album's themes are Elgarian and alpine in equal measure. Lord signed to Virgin Classics to release it, and perhaps saw it as the first stage in his eventual departure from Purple to embark on a low-key and altogether more gentle solo career. One song from Pictured Within, entitled "Wait A While" was later covered by Norwegian singer Sissel Kyrkjebø on her 2003/2004 album My Heart. Lord finally retired from Deep Purple amicably in 2002, preceded by a knee injury that eventually resolved itself without surgery and which brought keyboardist Don Airey into the band, initially as his temporary replacement. He said subsequently, "Leaving Deep Purple was just as traumatic as I had always suspected it would be and more so – if you see what I mean". He even dedicated a song to it on 2004's solo effort, Beyond the Notes, called "De Profundis". The album was recorded in Bonn with producer between June and July 2004.
Pictured Within and Beyond the Notes provide the most personal work by Lord. He collaborated with former ABBA superstar and family friend Frida (Anni-Frid Lyngstad) on the 2004 track, "The Sun Will Shine Again" (with lyrics by Sam Brown), and performed with her across Europe. He subsequently also performed European concerts to première the 2007-scheduled orchestral piece Boom of the Tingling Strings.
In 2003 he also returned to his beloved R&B and blues heritage to record an album of standards in Sydney, with Australia's Jimmy Barnes, entitled Live in the Basement, by Jon Lord and the Hoochie Coochie Men. Lord was also happy to support the Sam Buxton Sunflower Jam Healing Trust and in September 2006, performed at a star-studded event to support the charity led by Ian Paice's wife, Jacky (twin sister of Lord's wife Vicky). Featured artists on stage with Lord included Paul Weller, Robert Plant, Phil Manzanera, Ian Paice and Bernie Marsden.
Final work, after 2006
Two Lord compositions, Boom of the Tingling Strings and "Disguises (Suite for String Orchestra)", were recorded in Denmark in 2006 and released in April 2008 on EMI Classics. Both featured the Odense Symfoniorkester, conducted by Paul Mann. Additionally, a second Hoochie Coochie Men album was recorded in July 2006 in London. This album, Danger – White Men Dancing, was released in October 2007. His Durham Concerto, commissioned by Durham University for its 175th anniversary celebrations, received its world premiere on 20 October 2007 in Durham Cathedral by the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra, and featured soloists Lord on Hammond Organ, Kathryn Tickell on Northumbrian pipes, Matthew Barley on cello and Ruth Palmer on violin. It became a hit in Classic FM's "Hall of Fame", alongside his piano concerto Boom of the Tingling Strings.
Lord played piano on George Harrison's posthumously released Brainwashed album (2002) and became an important member of Harrison's social circle in Oxfordshire (Lord by now living at Hill House, in Fawley, Henley-On-Thames), the two having first met at Abbey Road studios in the late 1960s. He was also a close friend of Sir John Mortimer, the English barrister, dramatist, screenwriter, author and creator of British television series Rumpole of the Bailey, whom he had accompanied on many occasions during Mortimer's performances of "Mortimer Miscellany." In 2007, Lord joined Derek Griffiths, Colin Martin and Malcolm Pool at an Artwoods reunion at the ART Tribute night, at York House in Twickenham. Ali Mackenzie took over Art Wood's role on vocals, and Chris Hunt played drums. They were joined on stage by guitarist Ronnie Wood and vocalist Geno Washington. Lord released his solo album To Notice Such Things on 29 March 2010. Titled after the main work—a six movement suite for solo flute, piano and string orchestra—the album was inspired by, and was dedicated to the memory of Jon's dear friend John Mortimer, who died in January 2009. On its first day of release, the album entered Amazon's Movers And Shakers index, nestling at No. 12 at the end of the day. Six days later it entered the UK's official classical chart at No. 4. Lord had been commissioned to compose a concerto for Hammond organ and orchestra with special parts for tympani. The piece was to be premiered with the Oslo Philharmonic Orchestra with Tom Vissgren on tympani in Oslo, Norway in the Spring of 2012. With Vladimir Ashkenazy and Josef Suk, Lord was one of three artistic sponsors of Toccata Classics.
In July 2011, Lord performed his final live concert appearance, the Sunflower Jam at the Royal Albert Hall, where he premiered his joint composition with Rick Wakeman. At that point, they had begun informal discussion on recording an album together. Up until 2011, Lord had also been working on material with recently formed rock supergroup WhoCares, also featuring singer Ian Gillan from Deep Purple, guitarist Tony Iommi from Black Sabbath, second guitarist Mikko Lindström from HIM, bassist Jason Newsted formerly from Metallica and drummer Nicko McBrain from Iron Maiden, specifically the composition "Out of My Mind," in addition to new compositions with Steve Balsamo and a Hammond Organ Concerto. Lord subsequently cancelled a performance of his Durham Concerto in Hagen, Germany, for what his website said was a continuation of his medical treatment (the concert, scheduled for 6 July 2012, would have been his return to live performance after treatment).
Lord's Concerto for Group and Orchestra was effectively recommissioned by him, recorded in Liverpool and at Abbey Road Studios across 2011 and under post-production in 2012 with the Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra performing, conducted by long-time collaborator, conductor Paul Mann. The recording was at completion at the time of Lord's death, with Lord having been able to review the final master recordings. The album and DVD were subsequently released in 2012.
Personal life
Lord has a younger brother, Steven. Lord's first marriage, from 1969 to 1975, was to Judith Feldman, with whom he had one daughter, Sara. Lord's second wife, Vickie Gibbs, was a former girlfriend of Purple bandmate Glenn Hughes and twin sister of Ian Paice's wife, Jacky Paice (founder of the charity Sunflower Jam). The sisters' father was Frank Gibbs, owner of the Oakley House Country Club in Brewood, South Staffordshire. Jon and Vickie also had one daughter, Amy.
Illness and death
In July 2011, Lord was found to be suffering from pancreatic cancer. After treatment in both England and in Israel, he died on 16 July 2012 at the London Clinic after suffering from a pulmonary embolism. His interment was at the new churchyard of Saint Mary the Virgin Church in Hambleden.
Influence and legacy
Lars Ulrich, founding member and drummer in Metallica commented, "Ever since my father took me to see them in 1973 in Copenhagen, at the impressionable age of 9, Deep Purple has been the most constant, continuous and inspiring musical presence in my life. They have meant more to me than any other band in existence, and have had an enormous part in shaping who I am. We can all be guilty of lightly throwing adjectives like 'unique,' 'one-of-a-kind' and 'pioneering' around when we want to describe our heroes and the people who've moved us, but there are no more fitting words than those right now and there simply was no musician like Jon Lord in the history of hard rock. Nobody. Period. There was nobody that played like him. There was nobody that sounded like him. There was nobody that wrote like him. There was nobody that looked like him. There was nobody more articulate, gentlemanly, warm, or fucking cooler that ever played keyboards or got anywhere near a keyboard. What he did was all his own."
Interviewed in 2012 for Blabbermouth.net, Motörhead frontman Lemmy said: "It's just a shame, because Jon Lord was, to a large extent, responsible for me being in rock and roll. He was in a band called the Artwoods years ago, with Ronnie Wood’s brother Arthur. They were sort of a jazz-blues band, I guess. They played at the place in Wales where I was living, this dingy little boozer, and I was talking to Jon and, like an idiot, he gave me his address in London. So, of course, I went down there and he wasn't there, but he was living at Art’s mother's house where Ronnie Wood who was in a band called The Birds was living and they let me crash on the couch.... I saw him late last year in a hotel in Germany in Cologne. He was over there doing some orchestral stuff, and we talked in the bar for awhile... I'm glad I saw him, since he's since departed."
Also in 2012, music critic Terence Towles Canote wrote shortly after Lord's death: "While many of his contemporaries would turn to the Moog synthesiser, Jon Lord continued to rely primarily on the Hammond organ. Of course, it must be pointed out that Jon Lord could make a Hammond organ do things that other keyboardists could only dream about. Jon Lord's playing not only stood out from the pack, it also held up over time. As a youth in the Eighties I could listen to old Deep Purple songs and they would not sound dated at all. It is an incredible achievement for any artist to create works that are essentially timeless, and that is precisely what Jon Lord did."
Former keyboard player of the rock band Yes, Rick Wakeman, who was a friend of Lord's, said he was "a great fan" and added "We were going to write and record an album before he became ill. His contribution to music and to classic rock was immeasurable and I will miss him terribly." In mid-2013, Wakeman presented a BBC One East Midlands-produced TV programme about Lord and his connection to the town of his birth.
Singer Anni-Frid Lyngstad (ABBA), who described Jon Lord as her "dearest friend", paid him tribute at the 2013 edition of Zermatt Unplugged, the annual music festival which both he and she served as patrons. "He was graceful, intelligent, polite, with a strong integrity," she said. "(He) had a strong empathy and a great deal of humour for his own and other people's weaknesses."
Keyboardist Keith Emerson said of Lord's death, "Jon left us now but his music and inspiration will live forever. I am deeply saddened by his departure." In a later interview in November 2013, he added, "In the early years I remember being quite jealous of Jon Lord – may he rest in peace. In September 1969 I heard he was debuting his "Concerto For Group & Orchestra" at the Royal Albert Hall, with none other than Malcolm Arnold conducting. Wow! I had to go along and see that. Jon and I ribbed each other, we were pretty much pals, but I walked away and thought: 'Shit, in a couple of weeks' time I'm going to be recording The Nice's Five Bridges Suite ... not at the Albert Hall but at the Fairfield Halls, Croydon!' A much more prosaic venue. Later, Jon wanted me to play on his solo album, Gemini Suite, but that was around the time ELP were breaking big and we were touring. He was a lovely guy, a real gentleman."
A concert tribute to Lord took place on 4 April 2014 at the Royal Albert Hall. Performers and presenters included Deep Purple, Paul Weller, Bruce Dickinson, Alfie Boe, Jeremy Irons, Rick Wakeman, Joe Brown, Glenn Hughes, Kasia Laska, Miller Anderson and Steve Balsamo, the event featuring an orchestra conducted by Paul Mann.
In December 2012 the Mayor of Leicester, Sir Peter Soulsby, joined the campaign to honour Lord with a blue plaque at his childhood home at 120 Averill Road, where he lived until he was twenty, saying it would be "an important reminder of the city's contribution to the world of contemporary music."
Lord was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Deep Purple in April 2016.
In May 2019 Lord was posthumously awarded an Ivor Novello Award for International Achievement along with the surviving members of the Deep Purple MK II line up, at a ceremony at the Grosvenor House Hotel in London.
Discography
Sessions
1964 Kinks (The Kinks, "You Really Got Me", piano, claimed by Lord himself).
1967 Sound & Movement (The Leading Figures)
1968 I Shall Be Released/Down in the Flood (Boz Burrell, SP)
1968 Sun Dragon (Sun Dragon)
1968 Madena/Standing Still (Anan, SP)
Santa Barbara Machine Head
1968 Blues Anytime Vol. 3 ("Porcupine Juice", "Albert", "Rubber Monkey")
Solo and orchestral works with Deep Purple
1969 Concerto for Group and Orchestra (with Deep Purple)
1971 The Last Rebel (with Ashton, Gardner & Dyke) – motion picture soundtrack
1972 Gemini Suite
1974 First of the Big Bands (with Tony Ashton)
1974 Windows (with Eberhard Schoener, recorded live)
1976 Sarabande
1982 Before I Forget
1984 Country Diary of an Edwardian Lady (with Alfred Ralston) – TV series soundtrack
1993 Gemini Suite Live (with Deep Purple, recorded live in 1970)
1993 First of the Big Bands - BBC Live in Concert 1974 (with Tony Ashton, recorded live)
1998 Pictured Within
2000 In Concert with The London Symphony Orchestra (with Deep Purple, recorded live)
2003 Jon Lord With Pictures (DVD documentary)
2004 Beyond The Notes
2004 Beyond The Notes Live (DVD, recorded live)
2007 Durham Concerto
2008 Boom of the Tingling Strings
2010 To Notice Such Things
2011 Jon Lord Blues Project Live (recorded live in 2010)
2011 Jon Lord Live (recorded live in 2009)
2012 Concerto for Group and Orchestra (new studio version)
with The Hoochie Coochie Men
2003 Live at the Basement (recorded live)
2007 Danger. White Men Dancing
Film and TV appearances
1985 Water, (as himself, member of "The Singing Rebels' Band")
1991 Deep Purple – Heavy Metal Pioneers (Warner, interviewee)
1995 Rock Family Trees, ep. Deep Purple (BBC, interviewee)
2002 Classic Albums, ep. Deep Purple – Machine Head''' (ITV, interviewee)
2004 The South Bank Show, ep. Malcolm Arnold – Toward the Unknown Region (ITV, interviewee)
2007 Ian Gillan: Highway Star – A Journey in Rock (feature documentary, interviewee)
2009 John Mortimer – A Life in Words (BBC, interviewee)
2009 Soul To Song, ep. Smoke On The Water (Japanese TV, interviewee)
2010 Heavy Metal Britannia (BBC, interviewee)
2010 I'm in a Rock n' Roll Band, ep. The Other One (BBC, interviewee)
2011 Metal Evolution (SkyArts, interviewee)
2011 How the Brits Rocked America, ep. Stairway to Heaven (BBC, interviewee)
2013 Deep Purple Remastered, ep. Deep Purple (VH1, interviewee)
2013 Jon Lord: It's All Music (BBC, interviewee)
Other credits
1972 What a Bloody Long Day It's Been (Ashton, Gardner & Dyke, "The Falling Song" – strings arr.)
1974 Rampant (Nazareth, "Glad When You're Gone", "Shanghai'd in Shanghai")
1975 American Blues Legends 1975 ("Biscuit Bakin' Mama", "Bury Me Back in the USA" – recorded live in 1975)
1975 Get Off II (NAPRA, with Ian Paice)
1976 Wizard's Convention (Eddie Hardin)
1978 More Than Meets the Eye (Joe Breen)
1979 Commercial Road (Richard Digance)
1979 And About Time Too (Bernie Marsden)
1980 Look at Me Now (Bernie Marsden)
1981 Line-Up (Graham Bonnet, "Don't Stand in the Open")
1982 Gone Troppo (George Harrison, "Circles")
1983 Octopuss (Cozy Powell)
1984 About Face (David Gilmour)
1985 Wind in the Willows (Eddie Hardin)
1986 Detroit Diesel (Alvin Lee, "Ordinary Man", "Let's Go")
1989 Super Drumming Folge 1 & 2 (Pete York)
1990 Rock Aid Armenia – The Earthquake Album ("Smoke on the Water '90")
1990 About Love and Life (Vicki Brown, "We Are One")
1990 April Moon (Sam Brown, "Contradictions")
1990 Pete York Presents Super Drumming Volume 3 ("I Got Rhythm", "Heavy Ravel", "Gemini – Voice", "Windows")
1992 Cherkazoo & Other Stories (Ian Gillan, archival recordings 1972–74)
1992 Wind in the Willows – A Rock Concert (Eddie Hardin, recorded live in 1991, DVD ed. 2003)
1992 The Drums Are Back (Cozy Powell, "The Rocket", "The Legend of the Glass Mountain")
1992 Zoom (Alvin Lee, "Real Life Blues", "Wake Up Moma")
1994 Carnival of Light (Ride, "Moonlight Medicine")
1994 How Does It Feel to Feel (Ride, EP, "Journey to the End of Universe")
1995 Still a Few Pages Left (Hardin & York, "Stuck on You")
2002 Brainwashed (George Harrison, "Brainwashed")
2003 Bluesheart (Miller Anderson, "Help Me", "Runnin' Blues")
2005 Legends of Rock – 50 Jahre Rock (CD/DVD, recorded live in 2004)
2005 Min Jul (Maria Arredondo, arrangements)
2006 Gillan's Inn (Ian Gillan, "When A Blind Man Cries", "Demon's Eye", "Smoke on the Water")
2008 Army of One (Espen Lind, "Sweet Love", "The Music Takes You There")
2009 Endangered Species – Live at Abbey Road 2000 (Tony Ashton & Friends, CD/DVD)
2009 Childline Rocks 2009 ("Pictured Within", "Child in Time", "You Keep on Moving")
2010 Stay Tuned (Bernhard Welz, "Child in Time")
2011 Dance (The Smith Quartet, writer of "Zarabanda Solitaria")
2011 Out of My Mind (WhoCares, charity CD single)
2011 The Odyssey, Live (David Bedford, recorded live in 1977)
2013 The Sunflower Jam 2012 (incl. JL's performance from 2011)
2013 BudaBest (Mandoki Soulmates)
2014 Celebrating Jon Lord (VA)
2016 Music For My Love - Celebrating the Life of a Special Woman'' (100+ New Works for String Orchestra, Vol. 1, writer of "Zarabanda Solitaria" - string vsn)
References
Further reading
Deep Purple: Charlesworth, Chris (Omnibus Press, 1983)
Deep Purple, Heavy Metal Photo Book: Welch, Chris with Hasebe, Koh (Omnibus Press, 1984)
Deep Purple: Tomasz Szmajter, Roland Bury (In Rock, 1998, 2003, 2009, 2013)
Deep Purple: Sailor, Michael (Hannibal Verlag, 2005)
Smoke on the Water, The Deep Purple Story: Thompson, Dave (ECW Press, 2004)
The Complete Deep Purple: Heatley, Michael (Reynolds & Hearn, 2005)
The Gemini Man: an Introduction to the Orchestral Works of Jon Lord, Vincent Budd (Gnosis Press, 2003)
External links
Jon Lord's Official Website
Jon Lord interview in the Leicester Mercury
Jon Lord at Find A Grave
http://jonlord.org/2014/12/04/jon-lord-monument-revealed/
1941 births
2012 deaths
Alumni of the Royal Central School of Speech and Drama
Deaths from cancer in England
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
Deep Purple members
English composers
English organists
British male organists
English rock keyboardists
English heavy metal keyboardists
Musicians from Leicestershire
People educated at Wyggeston Grammar School for Boys
People from Leicester
People from Sonning
Whitesnake members
Extensive Music artists
Paice Ashton Lord members
The Flower Pot Men members
The Artwoods members
The Hoochie Coochie Men members
The Company of Snakes members
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242151 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mervyn%20King%2C%20Baron%20King%20of%20Lothbury | Mervyn King, Baron King of Lothbury | Mervyn Allister King, Baron King of Lothbury, (born 30 March 1948), is a British economist and public servant who served as the Governor of the Bank of England from 2003 to 2013. He is a School Professor of Economics at the London School of Economics. He is also the Chairman of the Philharmonia.
Born in Chesham Bois, Buckinghamshire, King attended Wolverhampton Grammar School and studied economics at King's College, Cambridge, St John's College, Cambridge, and Harvard University. He then worked as a researcher on the Cambridge Growth Project, taught at the University of Birmingham, Harvard and MIT, and became a professor of economics at the London School of Economics. He joined the Bank of England in 1990 as a non-executive director, and became the chief economist in 1991. In 1998, he became a deputy governor of the bank and a member of the Group of Thirty.
King was appointed as governor of the Bank of England in 2003, succeeding Edward George. Most notably, he oversaw the bank during the financial crisis of 2007–2008 and the Great Recession. King retired from his office as governor in June 2013, and was succeeded by Mark Carney. He was appointed a life peer and entered the House of Lords as a crossbencher in July 2013. Since September 2014 he has served as a professor of economics and law with a joint appointment at New York University's Stern School of Business and School of Law.
Early life and pre-bank career
Mervyn King is a son of Eric King, a railway porter who retrained as a geography teacher after the war, and Kathleen (née Passingham). He was born in Chesham Bois, Buckinghamshire, and studied at Warstones Junior School Wolverhampton and then on to Wolverhampton Grammar School, King's College, Cambridge (gaining a first-class degree in economics in 1969; MA), St John's College, Cambridge, and Harvard (as a Kennedy Scholar). Whilst at Cambridge, King was treasurer of the Cambridge University Liberal Club in 1968.
After graduation, he worked as a researcher on the Cambridge Growth Project with future Nobel Laureate Richard Stone and Terry Barker at the University of Cambridge. He then taught at the University of Birmingham and was a visiting professor at Harvard and MIT where he shared an office with then Assistant Professor Ben Bernanke. From October 1984 he was Professor of Economics at the London School of Economics where he founded the Financial Markets Group. In 1981, he was one of the 364 economists who signed a letter to The Times condemning Geoffrey Howe's 1981 Budget.
Bank of England
King joined the bank in March 1991 as chief economist and executive director, after being a non-executive director from 1990 to 1991. He was appointed Deputy Governor in 1997, taking up his post on 1 June 1998. In the same year, King became a member of the Group of Thirty. An ex-officio member of the bank's interest-rate setting Monetary Policy Committee since its inception in 1997, King took part in its monthly meetings. He succeeded Sir Edward George as governor on 1 July 2003, and was also the first incumbent governor of the Bank of England to be received in audience with Queen Elizabeth II.
Late 2000s financial crisis
After becoming Bank governor, King explained that Bank of England policy was "similar to that of the Federal Reserve" under Alan Greenspan. Greenspan described his approach as "mitigat[ing] the fallout [from the bursting of a bubble] when it occurs". King agreed with Alan Greenspan that, "It is hard to identify asset price 'bubbles'."
Other warnings about the UK housing market followed, including from the National Institute of Economic and Social Research in 2004 and the OECD in 2005. King noted the "unusually large" difference between the RPIX and CPI at the beginning of 2004 (the latter does not include house prices as part of its inflation measure, whilst the former does), and, six months later, that UK house prices had risen "to levels which are well above what most people would regard as sustainable in the longer term", having increased by more than 20% over the preceding year and more than 100% over the preceding five.
In 2005, The Economist described the run-up in UK house prices as forming part of "the biggest bubble in history", and, by October 2007—when the UK housing bubble was at its peak — the IMF was reporting that the UK housing market was "overpriced by up to 40 per cent". As noted by the OECD, house-price volatility "can raise systemic risks as the banking and mortgage sectors are vulnerable to fluctuations in house prices due to their exposure to the housing market."
Dean Baker in The American Prospect said the failure by Greenspan and King to tackle the bubbles in their respective countries' housing markets resulted in catastrophic "fallout" when the bubbles burst, resulting in the worst recessions in both countries since the Great Depression. UK–US inaction may be compared to action taken by China and Australia.
Another result of the financial crisis was King's rejection of the bank's devout focus on price stability, or inflation targeting, a policy that was instituted after Black Wednesday in 1992 and that was continued by King after becoming governor in 2003. One of the two early lessons King drew from crisis were that "price stability does not guarantee stability of the economy as a whole" and that "the instruments used to pursue financial stability are in need of sharpening and refining."
The 2012 Financial Services Bill, in transferring the majority of macroprudential regulatory powers from the FSA to the bank, will grant the Financial Policy Committee (chaired by King) the power to curb lending in booms, including placing limits on the public's access to mortgages. A former, senior BoE official summed up the bank's pre-crisis performance: "How can you look back with the benefit of hindsight and see it as a success? We were responsible for financial stability and we utterly failed to take any avoiding action against the greatest financial crisis in our lifetimes". David Blanchflower said that, even as late as the summer of 2008, King did not even see the financial crisis coming.
In its review of Bank of England accountability, one of the major complaints of the Treasury Select Committee was the bank's refusal to undertake an internal review of its performance during the financial crisis. Such a review would pose difficulties since evidence on how its most senior policymakers arrived at their decisions was destroyed as a matter of course. By contrast, the United States publishes the Federal Reserve's deliberations with a five-year lag, which have provided "the most detailed picture yet of how top officials at the central bank didn't anticipate the storm about to hit the U.S. economy and the global financial system." As in the UK, the US central bank's failure led to a new regulatory framework, the 2010 Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act.
Response to crisis
King argued that when the financial crisis and bank meltdown hit in autumn 2008, he and other Western central bankers "prevented a Great Depression", in part by cutting interest rates to virtually zero. The Economist agreed, saying that he "has a point". A 2012 review of actions taken by Western central banks in the face of the crisis also supported King's claim. The bank has faced criticism, however, for the pace of the rate cuts, which took five months from the beginning of October 2008 to get down from 5.0% to 0.5%, where they remained for several years.
After becoming only the second Bank of England governor to speak to the TUC in its 142-year history, King conceded that people were "entitled to be angry" about unemployment and the bank bailout.
King has been scathing about the banking sector since it crashed, especially its "breathtaking" £1 trillion bailout and its continuation of bonus awards in 2009, calling for a serious review of banking's structure and regulation.
In a The Daily Telegraph interview in March 2011, King said banks had "put profits before people", that failure to reform the sector could result in another financial crisis, and that traditional manufacturing industries have a more "moral" way of operating. In an interview with The Times in March 2012, he said that the banks are still in denial about the "very real and wholly understandable" anger that is felt at their behaviour, Bankers have not been happy with his excoriating views and insistence on avoiding moral hazard, but King insists that "[m]arket discipline can't apply to everyone except banks", pinpointing the banks' sense of grievance on their finding it "very, very difficult to face up to the failure of their banking model".
With King's term as governor ending in 2013, top UK banks have warned that unless a less "hostile" figure is found as a successor, they may feel it necessary to move abroad. On 26 November 2012, Mark Carney was named as King's successor.
Banks bailout
King had faced accusations of refusing funding to the Northern Rock Bank, precipitating a run on that bank, a situation not seen in the UK since 1914. King later said that it had been the chancellor, Alistair Darling, not he, who had the final word on refusing the necessary help to Northern Rock. In his review of King's tenure as governor, Times journalist David Wighton wrote:
In his memoirs, Alistair Darling was critical of King for emphasising moral hazard—the doctrine of not saving the banks from the consequences of their own mistakes—instead of rescuing the banks by pumping money into them as the banking-system meltdown occurred in autumn 2008. Despite his refusal to give funding to the retail banks, he retained his job, and submitted in defence to a Treasury Select Committee (New York Times/Financial Times, 20 September 2007) that his actions were on the basis that the Bank of England was the "lender of last resort" but subsequently supported moves to provide funding to those banks which had been nationalised or partly nationalised.
Political interventions
It has been alleged that King's Mansion House speech for 2009 helped to bolster the Conservatives during the approach to the general election by issuing high-profile criticisms. King called for the break-up of the country's biggest banks, as well as arguing that, unless the bank was given more active, interventionist powers to ensure financial stability, it would be like a church: able to "do no more than issue sermons or organise burials." King later advised a rebalancing of the economy, increased saving, and an "elimination of the structural deficit". In November 2009, he told MPs that the then Labour government's intention of halving the deficit over the next five years was insufficient. In May 2010, just days after the Coalition government was formed, King said he had spoken to Chancellor George Osborne and supported his plans to cut spending by a further £6 billion within the 2010–11 fiscal year. The Liberal Democrats did not need to be talked around to agreeing to the severity of the cuts.
In November 2010, it was revealed that some senior staff at the Bank of England (one of them was David Blanchflower) were uncomfortable with King's endorsement of the government's public spending cuts, accusing him of overstepping the boundary between monetary and fiscal policy. King's support for the government's cuts was in spite of concerns within the bank that cutting spending so rapidly could derail the UK's nascent economic-recovery. These revelations led to accusations of King being a "coalition courtier" and of making "excessively political" interventions with regard to UK economic policy.
The accusations were given greater weight after the December 2010 WikiLeaks Cablegate. As a result of the WikiLeaks disclosures and David Laws' account of the Tory-Lib-Dem coalition-talks, King was asked by the Political and Constitutional Reform Select Committee to explain why he was seemingly cited in the talks as backing Tory plans to introduce spending cuts this year. King insisted to the committee that "at no stage did I offer any advice on the composition of any measures designed to reduce the government deficit"; the committee implicitly accepted King's explanation of events as he is not even mentioned, let alone criticised, in their final report.
According to George Osborne, Gus O'Donnell made an offer to have King brief the Tories and Lib Dems during the Coalition's formative talks; however, the parties suspected they "knew what he was going to say and . . . also thought it was more appropriate for our Treasury spokesmen to talk to him".
King was criticised again in May 2012 on BBC Radio 4's Today programme, on the day before an election, after he expressed approval of Coalition austerity measures.
In a speech to the European Parliament in Brussels in May 2011, King commented that the Bank of England was more concerned with the broader stability of the economy and banking sector than with inflation figures: "The economic consequences of high-level indebtedness now would become more severe if rates were to rise. It is the main reason why interest rates are so low." With regard to Project Merlin, King was critical of Chancellor Osborne's misleading figures, and correctly predicted in a "light plausibility check" that Merlin would be a failure. In March 2009, King said any plan for a second fiscal stimulus by the UK Government had to be done with caution.
In his Mansion House speech in June 2009, King criticised Chancellor Alistair Darling for resisting significant changes to the allocation of regulatory responsibilities between the FSA, the Treasury and the bank, which would have given the bank greater power to fulfil its role of ensuring economic stability.
In January 2012, King received a letter from the government's former chief scientific adviser Sir David King, Zac Goldsmith, former environment minister John Gummer (and 17 others) warning of the possibility of a carbon bubble. King agreed to an evaluation of the matter.
The BoE's Financial Policy Committee, established to identify emerging bubbles in the financial system, agreed in March 2012 to ask Parliament for new policy tools to be used to prevent another financial crisis. King said that the FPC narrowed its choice of instruments to three—the power to ensure banks have countercyclical capital buffers, the ability to force banks to hold more capital against exposure to specific sectors judged risky, and the power to set leverage ratios—because it will be important to explain to parliament and the wider public why it is or is not using them.
Late March 2019, he argued that the UK should leave without a deal in the wake of the UK's decision to leave the European Union, arguing that the economic consequences would be limited, and that the UK was well-prepared after six months of preparations.
Personal life
King's wife, Barbara Melander, is a Finnish interior designer and comes from the Swedish-speaking minority in Finland. They married in a private ceremony in a church in Helsinki in 2007.
King is a fan of Aston Villa F.C.. He once arranged a game between Bank of England employees and ex-Villa players. He served on Villa's board of directors from February until April 2016, and then he, along with fellow board member former Football Association chairman David Bernstein, resigned in protest against owner Randy Lerner's stewardship of the club.
King briefly found himself commentating on an Ashes Test Match for BBC Radio's "Five Live" in 2005, while being interviewed by Simon Mayo. He is the president of the cricket foundation Chance to Shine programme, which fosters competitive cricket in state schools. He is a member of the AELTC and MCC. In 2015, he became president of Worcestershire County Cricket Club
Cambridge University honoured him as an honorary Doctor of Laws (Hon LLD) in 2006. He also received honorary degree from Abertay University in July 2013. King is also a Visiting Fellow of Nuffield College, Oxford.
In 2015, King was listed as the 11th most influential person in the Financial Centres International top 500.
Honours and arms
Honours
King was appointed Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (GBE) in the 2011 Birthday Honours, and his banner is to be displayed with those of other Knights Grand Cross in St Paul's Cathedral. He was appointed to the Order of the Garter on 23 April 2014.
On 19 July 2013, King was appointed a life peer by Queen Elizabeth II for 'contributions to public service'. King entered the House of Lords on 22 July 2013 as a crossbencher, taking the title Baron King of Lothbury, of Lothbury in the City of London.
On 6 January 2016, King was appointed to be a Deputy Lieutenant of Kent by the Lord Lieutenant of the same county, The Viscount De L'Isle.
Coat of arms
Books
King's books include:
The British Tax System, (1979, and four subsequent editions), with John Kay.
The End of Alchemy: Money, Banking and the Future of the Global Economy, (2016).
Radical Uncertainty: Decision-making for an unknowable future, (2020), with John Kay.
References
External links
Bank Of England – Biography
BBC News – Biography
Debrett's People of Today
1948 births
Academics of the London School of Economics
Academics of the University of Birmingham
Academics of the University of Cambridge
Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Crossbench life peers
Deputy Governors of the Bank of England
Deputy Lieutenants of Kent
English bankers
English economists
Fellows of the British Academy
Fellows of the Econometric Society
Governors of the Bank of England
Group of Thirty
Harvard University alumni
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
Knights of the Garter
Living people
Monetary economists
People educated at Wolverhampton Grammar School
People from Wolverhampton
Honorary Fellows of the London School of Economics
National Bureau of Economic Research
Aston Villa F.C. directors and chairmen
Life peers created by Elizabeth II | [
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242155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluntaryism | Voluntaryism | Voluntaryism (, ; sometimes voluntarism ) is used to describe the philosophy of Auberon Herbert, and later that of the authors and supporters of The Voluntaryist magazine, which, similarly to anarcho-capitalism, rejects the state and supports the system of private property.
As a term, voluntaryism was coined in this usage by Auberon Herbert in the 19th century and gained renewed use since the late 20th century, especially within libertarianism in the United States.
Voluntaryist principal beliefs stem from the principles of self-ownership and non-aggression.
History
Movements identifying as voluntaryist
17th century
Precursors to the voluntaryist movement had a long tradition in the English-speaking world, at least as far back as the Leveller movement of mid-seventeenth century England. The Leveller spokesmen John Lilburne and Richard Overton who "clashed with the Presbyterian puritans, who wanted to preserve a state-church with coercive powers and to deny liberty of worship to the puritan sects".
The Levellers were nonconformist in religion and advocated for the separation of church and state. The church to their way of thinking was a voluntary associating of equals, and furnished a theoretical and practical model for the civil state. If it was proper for their church congregations to be based on consent, then it was proper to apply the same principle of consent to its secular counterpart. For example, the Leveller 'large' Petition of 1647 contained a proposal "that tythes and all other inforced maintenances, may be for ever abolished, and nothing in place thereof imposed, but that all Ministers may be payd only by those who voluntarily choose them, and contract with them for their labours." The Levellers also held to the idea of self-proprietorship.
19th century
The educational voluntaryists wanted free trade in education, just as they supported free trade in corn or cotton. Their concern for "liberty can scarcely be exaggerated". They believed that "government would employ education for its own ends" (teaching habits of obedience and indoctrination), and that government-controlled schools would ultimately teach children to rely on the State for all things. Baines, for example, noted that "[w]e cannot violate the principles of liberty in regard to education without furnishing at once a precedent and inducement to violate them in regard to other matters". Baines conceded that the then current system of education (both private and charitable) had deficiencies, but he argued that freedom should not be abridged on that account. In asking whether freedom of the press should be compromised because we have bad newspapers, Baines replied that "I maintain that Liberty is the chief cause of excellence; but it would cease to be Liberty if you proscribed everything inferior". The Congregational Board of Education and the Baptist Voluntary Education Society are usually given pride of place among the Voluntaryists.
In southern Africa, voluntaryism in religious matters was an important part of the liberal "Responsible Government" movement of the mid-19th century, along with support for multi-racial democracy and an opposition to British imperial control. The movement was driven by powerful local leaders such as Saul Solomon and John Molteno. When it briefly gained power, it disestablished the state-supported churches in 1875.
In the United States
There were at least two well-known Americans who espoused voluntaryist causes during the mid-19th century. Henry David Thoreau's first brush with the law in his home state of Massachusetts came in 1838, when he turned twenty-one. The state demanded that he pay the one dollar ministerial tax in support of a clergyman, "whose preaching my father attended but never I myself". When Thoreau refused to pay the tax, it was probably paid by one of his aunts. In order to avoid the ministerial tax in the future, Thoreau had to sign an affidavit attesting he was not a member of the church.
Thoreau's overnight imprisonment for his failure to pay another municipal tax, the poll tax, to the town of Concord was recorded in his essay "Resistance to Civil Government", first published in 1849. It is often referred to as "On the Duty of Civil Disobedience" because in it he concluded that government was dependent on the cooperation of its citizens. While he was not a thoroughly consistent voluntaryist, he did write that he wished never to "rely on the protection of the state" and that he refused to tender it his allegiance so long as it supported slavery. He distinguished himself from "those who call[ed] themselves no-government men", writing that "I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government". This has been interpreted as a gradualist, rather than minarchist, stance, given that he also opened his essay by stating his belief that "government is best which governs not at all", a point that all voluntaryists heartily embrace.
Another one was Charles Lane. He was friendly with Amos Bronson Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Thoreau. Between January and June 1843, a series of nine letters he penned were published in such abolitionist's papers as The Liberator and The Herald of Freedom. The title under which they were published was "A Voluntary Political Government" in which Lane described the state in terms of institutionalized violence and referred to its "club law, its mere brigand right of a strong arm, [supported] by guns and bayonets". He saw the coercive state on par with "forced" Christianity, arguing: "Everyone can see that the church is wrong when it comes to men with the [B]ible in one hand, and the sword in the other. Is it not equally diabolical for the state to do so?" Lane believed that governmental rule was only tolerated by public opinion because the fact was not yet recognized that all the true purposes of the state could be carried out on the voluntary principle, just as churches could be sustained voluntarily. Reliance on the voluntary principle could only come about through "kind, orderly, and moral means" that were consistent with the totally voluntary society he was advocating, adding: "Let us have a voluntary State as well as a voluntary Church, and we may possibly then have some claim to the appeallation of free men".
Modern-era voluntaryists
Although use of the label voluntaryist waned after the death of Auberon Herbert in 1906, its use was renewed in 1982, when George H. Smith, Wendy McElroy and Carl Watner began publishing The Voluntaryist magazine. Smith suggested use of the term to identify those libertarians who believed that political action and political parties (especially the Libertarian Party) were antithetical to their ideas. In their "Statement of Purpose" in Neither Bullets nor Ballots: Essays on Voluntaryism (1983), Watner, Smith and McElroy explained that voluntaryists were advocates of non-political strategies to achieve a free society. They rejected electoral politics "in theory and practice as incompatible with libertarian goals" and argued that political methods invariably strengthen the legitimacy of coercive governments. In concluding their "Statement of Purpose", they wrote: "Voluntaryists seek instead to delegitimize the State through education, and we advocate the withdrawal of the cooperation and tacit consent on which state power ultimately depends".
See also
Agorism
Anarcho-capitalism
Anarcho-pacifism
Campaigns against corporal punishment
Categorical imperative
Consent theory
Contractarianism
Counter-economics
Deontological libertarianism
Freedom of contract
Individualist anarchism
Issues in anarchism
Legal pluralism
Non-aggression principle
Panarchism
Personal jurisdiction
Pluralism (political philosophy)
Polycentric law
Privatism
Propertarianism
Refusal of work
Right-libertarianism
Self-ownership
Sharing economy
Unschooling
Voluntary association
Voluntary Socialism
References
Further reading
External links
Voluntaryist.com
Five Steps To Anarchy – What is Voluntaryism?
Center for a Stateless Society
The Voluntaryist articles
Libertarian theory
Libertarianism by form | [
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242157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline%20of%20organic%20gardening%20and%20farming | Outline of organic gardening and farming | The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to organic gardening and farming:
Organic farming – alternative agricultural system that relies on fertilizers of organic origin such as compost, manure, green manure, and bone meal and places emphasis on techniques such as crop rotation and companion planting. Biological pest control, mixed cropping and the fostering of insect predators are encouraged. In general, organic standards are designed to allow the use of naturally occurring substances while prohibiting or strictly limiting synthetic substances.
Organic farming and gardening systems and approaches
Biodynamic farming
Biodynamic gardening
Climate-friendly gardening
Forest gardening
History of organic farming
Organic farming
Organic gardening (Organic horticulture)
Organic lawn management
Permaculture
Square foot gardening
Synergistic gardening
System of Rice Intensification
Vegan organic gardening
Wildlife gardening
Principles of organic gardening and farming
Principles of Organic Agriculture
The Principle of Health – "Organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal and human as one and indivisible."
The Principle of Ecology – "Organic agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustain them."
The Principle of Fairness – "Organic agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities."
The Principle of Care – "Organic agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect the health and well being of current and future generations and the environment."
The ornamental organic garden
List of flowers
Organic lawn management
Organic gardening and farming techniques
Aquaponics
Companion planting
List of companion plants
Compost
Biofertilizer
Intercropping
Managed intensive rotational grazing
Multiple cropping
No dig gardening
Pollination management
Sheet mulching
Square foot gardening
Succession planting
Sustainable agriculture
Weed control techniques (see also 'weeds' below)
Stale seed bed
Xeriscaping (water wise gardening)
Greywater irrigation
Neglected crops
Underutilized crops
History of organic gardening and farming
History of organic farming
Pests and diseases
Integrated pest management
Biological pest control
Disease resistance in fruit and vegetables
Physiological plant disorders (i.e., plant disorders caused by environmental factors, such as weather conditions, nutrient deficiencies, etc.)
Nutrient deficiencies
Boron deficiency
Calcium deficiency
Iron deficiency
Magnesium deficiency
Manganese deficiency
Nitrogen deficiency
Phosphorus deficiency
Potassium deficiency
Plant pathology (i.e., plant diseases caused by fungi, viruses, bacteria, etc.)
Honey fungus
Rust (fungus)
Specific replant disease
Weeds
Indicator plants
Dynamic accumulator
Organic publications
Organic organizations
Organic Crop Improvement Association
Good Gardeners Association (UK)
Garden Organic, formerly the Henry Doubleday Research Association (main organisation promoting organic gardening in the UK)
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)
Permaculture Association (Britain)
Rodale Institute
Soil Association (UK)
Certified Naturally Grown
Vegan Organic Network
World-Wide Opportunities on Organic Farms (WWOOF)
Carolina Farm Stewardship Association For North and South Carolina, of the US, the leading organic farming advocacy and certification institution.
Biodynamic Farming & Gardening Association
Irish Organic Farmers and Growers Association (IOFGA) Organic certification and promotion body in Ireland.
Maine Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association (MOFGA)
Some important figures in organic farming and gardening
Lady Eve Balfour
Louis Bromfield
Peter Caddy
Alan Chadwick
Prince Charles
Jim Cochran
Eliot Coleman
Dr Shewell Cooper
Bob Flowerdew
Masanobu Fukuoka
Howard Garrett
Geoff Hamilton
Robert Hart
Emilia Hazelip
Lawrence D Hills
David Holmgren
Sir Albert Howard
Dan Jason
Bill Mollison
Helen and Scott Nearing
Michelle Obama
Airi Ōtsu, Japanese organic farmer
Prince Philip
J.I. Rodale
Viktor Schauberger
Ruth Stout
See also
Aquaponics
Botany
Community-supported agriculture
Farmers' markets
List of countries with organic agriculture regulation
List of organic food topics
Local food
Organic certification
Organic cotton
Organic food
Organic horticulture
Organic movement
Orthodox seed
Recalcitrant seed
Terra preta
Wildcrafting
Related lists
List of environment topics
List of ethics topics
List of sustainable agriculture topics
Urban economics
References
External links
organic gardening and farming
organic gardening and farming
Organic gardening and farming
Organic
Organic gardening
Organic gardening
Organic gardening | [
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242163 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taja%20Kramberger | Taja Kramberger | Taja Kramberger (born 11 September 1970) is a Slovenian poet, translator, essayist and historical anthropologist from Slovenia. She lives in France.
Kramberger was born in Ljubljana, Slovenia. She completed undergraduate studies in history at the University of Ljubljana, where she also studied archaeology, abandoning this latter when she became engaged in the literary field (1995). She enrolled postgraduate history studies in 1997 and was from then on until 2010 (when a university purge of critical intellectuals was executed at the University of Primorska) a steady and active member of the university research, editorial and pedagogical circles in Slovenia. She obtained her PhD in 2009 in history/historical anthropology at the University of Primorska with a thesis entitled Memory and Remembrance. Historical Anthropology of the Canonized Reception.
She was an initiator and for ten years editor-in-chief of Monitor ISH-Review of Humanities and Social Sciences (2001–2003), in 2004 renamed to Monitor ZSA-Review for Historical, Social and Other Anthropologies (2004–2010). Between 2004 and 2007 she was president of the TROPOS-Association for Historical, Social and Other Anthropologies and for Cultural Activities (Ljubljana, Slovenia).
She publishes monographs in the areas of epistemology of social sciences and historiography, history and historical anthropology of various subjects for the period from the 18th to mid-20th centuries. She is also an internationally acclaimed writer. Kramberger writes literary books, literary studies and essays. She translates texts from all these fields from English, French, Italian, and Spanish into Slovenian.
Kramberger earned scientific and literary fellowships abroad at the École des hautes études en sciences sociales and in Paris, at in Budapest, from in Ottensheim, Austria, from in Canada. She also publishes scientific and literary articles, essays and translations. She participates in international scientific and literary conferences, research projects, and is a member of professional associations and organizations. Kramberger has helped to organize international conferences, for example Territorial and Imaginary Frontiers and Identities from Antiquity until Today, accent on Balkans (2002 in Ljubljana) and the international scientific conference of the Francophonie (AUF) titled /History of Oblivion (2008 in Koper).
Her research fields are: epistemology of historiography and social sciences, historical anthropology, contemporary history from the Enlightenment to the mid-20th century, transmission and politics of memory/oblivion, intellectual history and cultural transfers in Europe, anti-intellectualism, dimensions and representations of the Dreyfus Affair in Slovenian social space and in Trieste, mechanisms of social exclusion, extermination, genocide and Shoah/Holocaust studies, anthropology of sex and gender, constitution of (national and transnational) literary fields in Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries, studies of province and provincialism as a specific socio-historical phenomenon.
Since October 2012 she has lived in France together with her husband Drago Braco Rotar, professor of sociology, historical anthropology, translator and a renowned public intellectual in Slovenia and Yugoslavia – who during the 1980s and early 1900s established many key institutions in Slovenia and led them for years, including the now classical green translation edition Studia humanitatis, the first private postgraduate school ISH-Institutum Studiorum Humanitatis, Faculty of Graduate Studies in Human Sciences, where he designed and launched the program of historical anthropology).
Biography
Born in Ljubljana, Kramberger spent her childhood (between the ages of four and eleven) at the seaside – in the bilingual old-Venetian town of Koper-Capodistria near Trieste. She finished four years of primary school there (Pinko Tomažič), and then moved with family to Ljubljana. There she completed primary and secondary school at Gimnazija Bežigrad. She obtained her BA in history at the University of Ljubljana (1997), and took a position as a postgraduate young researcher at the Institutum Studiorum Humanitatis (ISH) in Ljubljana. There she founded the anthropological journal Monitor ISH which was later in 2004 appropriated by others at the ISH, though the journal and its founding editorial board continued to publish the journal under the name Monitor ZSA outside the institution. After the transition changes, when lucrative and socially applicable science was placed in the first plan at the ISH, she has – among a dozen others – left the institution (2004), and moved with Rotar to Koper-Capodistria, where a new University of Primorska has begun. There Kramberger, together with Rotar, established the historical anthropology program from undergraduate to postgraduate level in the Department of Anthropology. The program was accredited by the state and worked really well, as both teachers were liked by the students, and their classrooms always full, until the university purge in 2010.
Beside in literature and historical anthropology Kramberger continues to be engaged in civil actions and confrontations against clientelism and corruption in the scientific domain in Slovenia. In May 2000, together with Sabina Mihelj, she co-directed a large public manifestation with cultural program in Ljubljana against the corrupted politics of the Ministry of Science and Technology. In 2004 she fought against the illegal takeover of the institution ISH and insisted on publishing all crucial documents, personal testimonies of the takeover as well as reflections of the events from the perspective of the people who finally left the ISH from indignation with their ex-colleagues. In 2010 she again was an active militant against the total neoliberalization, venalization and degradation of the university as an autonomous institution and against the decomposition of its fundamental scientific disciplines at the Faculty of Human Sciences Koper, University of Primorska.
The same regressive social changes occurred simultaneously also in the literary field in Slovenia. In 2004 writer and translator Iztok Osojnik, as a director of the Vilenica International Literary Festival, was ousted from the position of Vilenica's director of the Slovene Writers' Association (SWA). She was among the tiny minority who supported him against mostly state-implemented and state-maintained elite and all-regime-supported writers and authors. Meanwhile the majority of writers remained quiet – also around two then ardently debated subjects of growing nationalism and humiliation of women writers and translators in the frames of the SWA. After that Kramberger distanced herself from the SWA network. She writes and translates literature by her own vocation and ethical standards.
Since living in France (from 2012) she also stepped out of the SWA with an open letter in December 2014 (denied by all Slovene mass-media and suppressed by the president of the SWA) representing only herself and her apatrid chair in Paris. As she writes in one of her poems: Nothing remains./ But life is still here,/ and it speaks the guerrilla alphabet. (...) I am without home,/ I belong to / the invisible community of the banished./ Remove the ethnic adjective / from my name.
History, historical anthropology
Conceptualization of the collective memory and its distinctions from remembrance and history
Kramberger introduced studies of collective memory, based on Halbwachsian instrumentarium and numerous later improvements of this conceptualization into the Slovenian university sphere, mostly composed of linear descriptive social sciences and humanities and hostile towards any changes. In 2000–2001 she held a course entitled Conceptualization of the collective memory on conceptual differences of Maurice Halbwachs, Frances Amelia Yates, Pierre Nora and Aleida Assmann at the Institutum Studiorum Humanitatis in Ljubljana. In 2000–2001 she wrote an extensive introduction to Maurice Halbwachs' Slovenian translation of . Not many scholars in Slovenia followed – for any critical thinking – the highly important distinction between memory () and remembrance (), as the editorial board of the Slovene Halbwachs translation unilaterally and against all protests of the translator (Rotar) and of the introductory writer (Kramberger) decided to translate all words of and into just one notion of , that is of remembrance ( in French). With this the theoretical aspect of the Halbwachs' differentiated concept (one of his most important intellectual achievements in life) was ruined for the Slovene readers. Still some rare researchers seem to understand the distinction (among them Marija Jurič Pahor and Samuel Friškič), so they were able to grasp the further categorical substantial differences between the notions of memory and history. However, Kramberger's works expose her incontestably broad knowledge, highly pertinent argumentation and subtle discursive skills, which are not easy to contest.
Critical reflexivity of the Slovenian historiography
Kramberger has also started with the extensive categorical critical reflexivity in the field of history in Slovenia, and has released many angry reactions in the history field, but mostly she left the historians – unable to confront their own shadows from the past – silenced. Although polemic, which would definitely clarify the discipline's past erratic wanderings and amnesias and an almost total theoretic oblivion in the field of history in Slovenia, is not a usual tool of scientific communication in these regions, it is nevertheless clear that Kramberger has opened (among some other researchers, such as Drago Braco Rotar, Rastko Močnik, Maja Breznik, Lev Centrih, Primož Krašovec, in a small, theoretically much less pertinent part also Marta Verginella and Oto Luthar) an important segment of future debates, which are needed to elucidate some of the neglected and spontaneously transmitted chapters of the Slovenian (distinctly ethnocentric and Sonderweg) history.
Representations and aspects of the Dreyfus Affair in the Slovenophone World
Kramberger was also the first Slovenian historian to write about various dimensions and echoes of the Dreyfus Affair in the Slovenian social space during the affair and later. She has opened up a complex theme of anti-Semitism neglected and only partially elucidated in the Slovene history. She connected this exclusive phenomenon to the categories and imaginary and specific discursive practices. Introducing a research seminar at the undergraduate level, she exposed how anti-Semitic discursive formations can mobilize people and public opinion in countries with few Jewish people. She demonstrated how, even in social spaces with a scarce population of Jews, strong mechanisms of social exclusion nonetheless operate smoothly – often even more aggressively and viscerally than in bigger countries. In the framework of this theme she directed – together with her students in 2007–2008 and 2008–2009 – an ample exhibition on the Dreyfus Affair (1894–1906), showing its entangled and differentiated European , its highly important civic extensions, and its specific reception in the continental Centro-European spaces of Slovenia and Trieste. The latter two were mostly based on spontaneous, normalized and career-promising anti-Semitism, though not at all innocuous. The exhibitions were set up and shown to the public in Koper (2008), Trieste (2009), Maribor (2010) and Murska Sobota (2011).
Kramberger has implemented many fresh intellectual ideas, pedagogical and theoretical innovations (rather bothersome for the Slovenian socio-political and 'intellectual' common sense). In addition, she has written numerous critical articles on various aspects of Slovenian history and cultural life, but also on broader European history and culture, e.g. the Spanish Civil War, different models of the Enlightenment in Europe and the recurrent Enlightenment features in the works of Anton Tomaž Linhart, epistemic divergence between the Enlightenment's and Historismus's paradigms of historiography, anthropology of translation, the history of university and the formation of university habitus Habitus, literary and cultural fields Pierre Bourdieu ( in the 1930s in Slovenia (by then partially covered by the administrative unit of Dravska Banovina) and on the role of women in the constitution of these fields, etc. For years lecturing a course on social and anthropological aspects of women's history and gender constructions, she translated Michelle Perrot's classic work Women or the Silences of History into Slovenian.
Bourdieuian studies in the frames of Slovenia
Her intellectual trajectory is partly connected to the Bourdieuian perspective and apparatus in social sciences. She has written about Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc Wacquant, translated some of their texts (as a guest editor of the journal Družboslovne razprave, no. 43, 2003), and in 2006 edited a monograph titled Principles of Reflexive Social Science and for a Critical Investigation of Symbolic Dominations () (in Slovenian, together with Drago Braco Rotar). She held lectures – among other subjects – on Bourdieuian approach, instrumentarium and methodology at the University of Primorska in Koper.
Literature
Poetry
She has published eight books of poetry. Her poems have been translated in more than twenty-five languages and published in different literary journals, anthologies in Slovenia and abroad. Book selections of her poetry came out in Hungarian (, , Pécs, , 2008, ) and Croatian (, Naklada Lara, Zagreb, 2008, tr. Ksenija Premur, ). She has been an invited guest of around 100 international literary meetings and festivals in Europe (Belgium, England, Lithuania, Portugal, Croatia, Latvia, France, Hungary, Italy, Austria, Germany, Croatia, North Macedonia, France, Lithuania, Finland, Ireland, etc.) and Canada (Quebec and Ontario).
Kramberger, as the committee of the Veronika Award (2007) for the best poetry collection of 2006 wrote, is one of the strongest and most accomplished poetic voices in contemporary Slovenian poetry; a voice which introduces many innovations "so in the poetic proceedings as in the audacity of the chosen subjects, but also in the courage to tell things in an intelligent and a deeply moving way, which does not follow the predominant poetry models, but supplies itself outside of them, in a everyday situations ...". Simple words, entangled with highly elaborated intellectual comprehensions – another benefit of Kramberger's poetic language, in Kramberger's poems change themselves into "multilayered compositions" and subtle messages. These are "able to reach out to the world, and are surely not here for the intimacy of the poet" and neither for sentimental grounds of the reader. And still this poetry is deeply moving, at the same moment emotionally charged and brightly intelligible, light-coloured in spite of breathtaking "gestuary of crime" denuded by Kramberger's verses, as Osojnik observed in her later poetry book in which the poet is narrating the Dreyfuss Affair through the cycle of poems (, 2009). These features, together with the poet's precious "poetically analytical mind", which is able to convert a "stale literary canon and criticism into an inspiration for the highest level of poetry", are innovations, so says the Veronika Award committee, which "give her poetry a seal of world importance and actuality" (Explanation for the Veronika Award 2007).
Jad Hatem, a French poet himself and a professor of philosophy and literature Jad Hatem, in an original way also noticed that a privileged topos in Krambeger's poetry is her outstanding ability of a simultaneous theoretic reflection, inscribed along with the poetic thought of her poems (, 2010). From a very different angle, Slovenian poet Iztok Osojnik sees this rare privilege, that is the poet's critical ability to transform ideologically contaminated and narrow representations of reality in a poetic way into more bearable representations of reality, which bring us much closer to the core of events, as a tool of the political poetry in its best and noble sense (Apokalipsa, no. 134/135).
Translations, organizations of cultural events
Next to numerous translated poems and some prose texts of other writers published in journals, she translated into Slovene a poetry book by Italian poet Michele Obit (, ZTT EST, Trieste, 2001, ), a selection of poetry by Argentinian poet Roberto Juarroz for the book (Vertical Poetry – with her introduction, ŠZ, Ljubljana, 2006, ), a book by Gao Xingjian (/Buying a Fishing Rod for My Grandfather, 1986–1990, from French together with Drago Braco Rotar) (Didakta, Radovljica, 2001, ), a book of poetry written by Lithuanian poet Neringa Abrutyte (, CSK, Aleph, Ljubljana, 2004, ) and a book of fairy tales for kids by Lucy Coats (/Atticus the Storyteller, 2004; MK, Ljubljana, 2004, reprinted in 2009, ).
At the ISH – Graduate School of Humanities in Ljubljana, Kramberger arranged an exhibition place for fine arts and between 2000 and 2003 organized five exhibitions of Slovenian and of foreign figurative artists (painters, photographic artists, designers, installation artists).
In 2002, Kramberger directed and coordinated an international project of poets and translators (22 from 10 countries), / Different Languages / / , in the seaside town of Ankaran near Koper in Slovenia. The project established a series of translation workshops between 1999 and 2004 in Central Europe (Bulgaria, Hungary, Slovenia, Italy and Austria). In 2004 the publication / / Different Languages / in 10 languages came out of the project. It was published by the Edition Libris Koper and edited by Kramberger and Gašper Malej. Anne Talvaz, a French writer and translator, and Bulgarian translator Stefka Hrusanova have broadened the scope of the workshop and organized presentations in Spain (Barcelona) and Italy (Milan) in 2008 and 2010.
Another large international project Kramberger conducted in 2006 was a Slovenian segment of the international project Sealines / / , which through one-month literary residences in six European bilingual ports (Cardiff, Galway, Helsinki, Koper, Riga, and Valletta) connected writers from six European states. The project was supported by the program Culture 2000 of the European Union, and was led by the LAF – Literature Across Frontiers office in UK, Manchester. In Slovenia it was executed by the Association Tropos and its then-president Kramberger.
From 2007 to 2009, Kramberger was a president of the Collegium artium (CA) – an association of teachers and students at the Faculty of Human Sciences Koper, University of Primorska, aimed at organizing different cultural and social events at the faculty (literary readings, music concerts, theater and film performances, round tables, conferences, commemorations, exhibitions of figurative arts, other specialized exhibitions etc.). In the frames of the institution CA more than 150 cultural events took place in less than two years.
Essays, studies and criticism
Her essays and introductory studies to the other poets (Roberto Juarroz, Michele Obit, Gašper Malej) mark quite a different approach from other Slovenian literary critics. They are attentive analyses of poetic language and imaginary constellation behind it. With the essay titled (. On the Kercopian Literary Criticism in the Slovenian Literary Field), written with a rare combination of fine irony and piercing analytical style, on drastically unreflexive criticism in Slovenian literature she has shown how important it is for a critic to be disposable and open to the artistic work and at the same time able to produce analytical distances in relation to the work read and evaluated, and in the next step to compound both experiences into a certain perspective, which can come out as his/her own distinctive approach and a singular way of seeing things and works of art. Without that (minimal) cognitive engagement, to Kramberger there can be no artistic criticism, but only an unconscious and ritualized activity – she calls it a Kercopian literary criticism – that is a (grinning) mimesis of common sense and stereotypes about literature and authors.
In her interviews she talks about cognitive dimensions of literature and their transformational potential in a society. Transformational discourses and discursive practices, which are open to changes and interventions, as the opposite of the transfirmational discourses with closed semantic structure and clear signs of mental immobility are original analytical categories of her conceptualization and apparatus. In scholarly texts (cf. her article Doxa et fama, 2003, her dissertation, or her interview for the journal Literatura in 2006) Kramberger further identifies transfirmational discourses as the systemic feature of the provincial mental structure, unable to subdue itself to changes and open to the external/outer world. Kramberger is among those few Slovenian writers (Iztok Osojnik, Miklavž Komelj, in a way also Barbara Korun) who are studiously oriented, and do not recognize (pure) inspiration as a sufficient cause for creative artistic work. In their artistic work there is a strong component of social sensitivity and a constant ethical reference to attain the equilibrium of social justice.
Nominations, awards, fellowships
Literary
September 1997: final circle nomination for the Book Fair Award for the First Literary Book
November 1998: final circle nomination for the Jenko Award
Spring 2001: Literary Fellowship of the Bibliophilic Edition Thanhäuser in Ottensheim & KulturKontakt Austria
2005: State Fellowship (Ministry of Culture, Republic of Slovenia) for the topmost artistic achievements in Slovenia
2007: Veronika Award, Celje (for the poetry book Everyday Conversations, 2006)
Scholarly
1998: Paris (École d’Automne: L’État et le Politique. Histoire et nouveaux modèles)
1999: Paris (fellowship of the , EHESS
2001: Budapest (in April: 4th International Winter School at Multiple Antiquities–Multiple Modernities)
2001–2002: Paris (MSH)
2003: Budapest (five months junior fellow at the Collegium Budapest Institute for Advanced Study)
2005–2006: Paris (MSH EHESS)
Works
Poetry
(Marzipan), 1997 (in Slovene)
(The Sea Says), 1999 (in Slovene)
/ (Contra-Courant), 2001 (in German, Edition Thanhäuser, Ottensheim)
(Velure Indigo), 2004 (in Slovene)
//Mobilisations/ in 2004–2005 (in Slovene, French, English, and Italian)
(Everyday Conversations) in 2006 (in Slovene)
in 2009 (poetic echos to the Deyfus Affair, in Slovene)
♣ ♣♣ ♣♣♣♣♣ni♣♣ in 2010 (blackout poetry from a Constitution of RS and some other legal texts, in Slovene).
Literary studies, essays and criticism
"" ("Aberrations in Slovenian Poetry: Woman and Knowledge. Some theses on reactionary revolution to which we bear witness"), Literatura, July/August 2003, vol. 15, no. 145/146, 1–9.
"" ("Poems, that you share with rain"), an introductory study to the poetry book of Gašper Malej, in: Gašper Malej, Otok, slutnje, poljub, (Zbirka Lambda, 39). Ljubljana, Škuc, 2004, 110–133.
"" ("Where there's no cognitive reality, there can be neither history [of women] nor selfconscious society"), Apokalipsa, 2005, no. 90/91/92, 103–119.
"", ("Where the writing infects the landscape") an introductory study to the Slovenian translation of the selected poems of the Argentinian poet Roberto Juarroz, in: Robeto Juarroz, Vertikalna poezija, (Knjižna zbirka Beletrina). Ljubljana, Študentska založba, 2006, 181–222.
"Strangoliert!", Apokalipsa, September–November 2007, no. 113/115, 1-23.
". " ("Similis simili gaudet. On the Kercopian Literary Criticism in the Slovenian Literary Field"), Poetikon, no. 19/20, 2008, 150–193.
Literary editorship
2004: Co-editor with Gašper Malej of the collection / Linguaggi di-versi, publication of the Poets' and Translators' Workshop / , held in Ankaran, Slovenia, in 2002. The project continued with some pauses from 1998 to 2009), Knjigarna Libris, Koper, 221 p.
2004: Editor of public documentation and texts in connection to the literary polemics in summer 2004, concerning many issues, including an Open letter to the Minister of Culture Mrs. Andreja Rihter written by the literary creators on 6 July 2004: Dosjeji I, Apokalipsa, 2004, no. 84/85, 139–182.
2006: Editor and translator of selected poems by the Argentinian poet Roberto Juarroz, Vertikalna poezija, (Knjižna zbirka Beletrina). Ljubljana, Študentska založba, 2006. 224 p. .
2008: Literary editor of the portraits and presentations of poet Joël Pourbaix, short-story writer Hiromi Goto and novelist Dionne Brand, Monitor ZSA, 2008, vol. 10, no. 3/4, 141–151, 153–159, 160–166.
Scholarly research
Principal publications
Taja Kramberger and Drago Braco Rotar (dir. and co-tr.), [Principles for a Reflexive Social Science and for a Critical Investigation of Symbolic Dominations], (translations of Pierre Bourdieu's and Loïc Wacquant's selected texts), Library Annales Majora, Koper, University of Primorska, Publishing House Annales, 2006, 262 p., .
Taja Kramberger, (Historiographical Divergence: the Enlightenment and Historismus Paradigm: On an Opened and a Closed Epistemic Structure and Their Elaborations), Library Annales Majora, Koper, University of Primorska, Publishing House Annales, 2007, 384 p.,
Taja Kramberger, (Historico-anthropological Formation of the University Habiti/), Pedagoški institut, Ljubljana, 2009, 131 p.
Taja Kramberger and Drago Braco Rotar, (University: Collegium or Training? On the University Autonomy and its Contraries), Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, 2010. In preparation for print.
Taja Kramberger and Drago Braco Rotar, (Think the Society, which does not think (by) itself), Založba Sophia, Ljubljana, 2010. In preparation for print.
Selection of articles
Taja Kramberger and Drago Rotar, "" (Rights vs Tolerance. Incongruity of Mentalities: Historico-anthropological Marginalia on Slovenian Translation of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen from 26 August 1789), / School Field, vol. XXI, no. 3–4, 2010, 36 p.
Taja Kramberger and Drago Rotar, "" (Europe Goes to Shanghai. Invasion of neoliberalism and churches in the academic world), , vol. XVI, no. 4, 2010, 31 p.
Taja Kramberger and Drago Rotar, "" (Insanity of Measurement. On the Deteriorated Use of Scientific Tools), /School Field, vol. XXI, no. 1–2, 2010, 42 p.
Taja Kramberger, "" ( / ). 12. februarja 2010, Koper: Zveza borcev Koper-Capodistria, 2010, 100–140.
Taja Kramberger, "", in: VAUDAY, Patrick (ur.), MOČNIK, Rastko (ur.), ZUPANC EĆIMOVIĆ, Paula (ur.), ROTAR, Drago B. (ur.). , (Knjižnica Annales Majora). Koper: Université de Primorska, Centre de recherches scientifiques, Maison d'édition Annales: Société d'historie de Primorska Sud, 2009, 189–213. [COBISS.SI-ID 1752275]
Taja Kramberger, "" (From the History of Intellectuals : the Dreyfus Affair and French Historians), Monitor ZSA, 2008, vol. 10, no. 1/2, pp. 25–81, ilustr. [COBISS.SI-ID 1592275]
Taja Kramberger, "" (The Dreyfus Affair and Printed Media), Media Watch, 2008.
Taja Kramberger and Drago Rotar, "" (). In: KRAMBERGER, Taja & ROTAR, Drago B. (dir.), BOURDIEU, Pierre, WACQUANT, Loïc, , (Knjižnica Annales Majora). Koper: Univerza na Primorskem, Znanstveno-raziskovalno središče, Založba Annales: Zgodovinsko društvo za južno Primorsko, 2006, 9–34. [COBISS.SI-ID 1213651]
Taja Kramberger, Sabina Mihelj and Drago Rotar, "Representations of the Nation and of the Other in the Slovenian Periodical Press before and after 1991: Engagements and Implications", In: SPASSOV, Orlin (ur.), Quality press in Southeast Europe, (The media in Southeast Europe), 1st ed. Sofia: , 2004, 276–305. [COBISS.SI-ID 216577280]
Taja Kramberger, "" (), , August 2003, vol. 19, no. 43, 49–55. [COBISS.SI-ID 595667]
Taja Kramberger, " Joining the Club "/"From Joining the Club to the Grotesque Slovenian Adaptation to Neoliberalisme"/"", , vol. 19, no. 43, August 2003, 77–95. [COBISS.SI-ID 595923]
Taja Kramberger, ""/, Monitor ISH, vol. IV, no. 1–4, 2002, 53–70. [COBISS.SI-ID 21359202]
Taja Kramberger, "Doxa et fama. "/"Doxa et fama. On production of "Public opinion" and Strategies of Oblivion"/"Doxa et fama. ", , vol. XVIII, no. 41, December 2002, 63–100. [COBISS.SI-ID 20786018]
Taja Kramberger, "" (Maurice Halbwachs and the social frames of collective memory/); . In: HALBWACHS, Maurice. [ , ]. Ljubljana: Studia humanitatis, 2001, 211–258. [COBISS.SI-ID 694925]
Scholarly editorship
2001–2010: Editor-in-chief of Monitor ISH (2001–2003), in 2004 renamed to Monitor ZSA – Revue of Historical, Social and Other Anthropologies (34 numbers)
2003: Guest-editor for the theme "Deconstruction of neoliberalism"/"", [Dissertations in Social Sciences], vol. XIX, no. 43, 2003, pp. 47–95.
2006: Co-editor (with Drago braco Rotar) and co-translator in the Slovenian collection of articles by Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc Wacquant, [Principles for a Reflexive Social Science and for a Critical Investigation of Symbolic Dominations], (translations of Pierre Bourdieu's and Loïc Wacquant's texts), Library Annales Majora, Koper, University of Primorska, Publishing House Annales, 2006, 262 p., .
2009: Member of the Scientific Committee in publication: Patrick Vauday, Rastko Močnik, Paula Zupanc Ećimović, Drago Rotar (dir.), , Library Annales Majora, Koper, University of Primorska, Publishing House Annales, 2009, 456 p.
Literary references
Jean Boase-Beier, Alexandra Büchler, Fiona Sampson, A Line: New Poetry from Eastern and Central Europe (anthology with a preface by Václav Havel), Arc Publications, UK, 2004, . URL: https://web.archive.org/web/20110727062630/http://www.arcpublications.co.uk/biography.htm?writer_id=228
Vid Sagadin, "Iskanje nezasičenih prostorov", Literatura, vol. 17, no. 169–170, July/August 2005, 224–229.
Peter Semolič, "Sensibility and sharp intellect", Introductory essay of the Poetry International Web, 2005.URL: http://slovenia.poetryinternationalweb.org/piw_cms/cms/cms_module/index.php?obj_id=5026
Irena Novak Popov, Antologija slovenskih pesnic 3, 1981 – 2000 [Anthology of Slovenian Women Poets 3, 1981 – 2000], Založba Tuma, Ljubljana, 2007, 318–329.
Jad Hatem, " La pierre de l'invisibilité ", La Poésie slovène contemporaine : l'écriture de la pierre (Portraites littéraires), Éditions du Cygne, Paris, 2010, 11–24.
Iztok Osojnik, "Pet dni na ladji norcev" [Five days at the Ship of Fools], Apokalipsa, no. 134/135, 2009, 285–295.
Colleen Mc Carthy, "Storm in Words: Contemporary Slovenian Poetry in Translation", Talisman. A Journal of Contemporary Poetry and Poetics, no. 38/39/40, Summer-Autumn 2010, 350–355.
See also
Slovenian literature
List of Slovenian historians
Slovene Writers' Association
References
External links
Personal web-site in the form of blog
CV of Taja Kramberger at the Faculty of Human Sciences University of Primorska (Littoral)
Poetry International Web: http://slovenia.poetryinternationalweb.org/piw_cms/cms/cms_module/index.php?obj_id=5044
Interview for the web Journal Transcript
Interview for the web Journal Transcript
Interview: Brezmejna neumnost province (Infinite stupidity of province), Večer, 19 June 2004, 42
1970 births
Living people
Writers from Ljubljana
Slovenian women poets
Slovenian translators
Italian–Slovene translators
Spanish–Slovene translators
Slovenian historians
University of Ljubljana alumni
Veronika Award laureates
University of Primorska alumni
Women historians | [
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3099896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonality%20of%20an%20algebraic%20curve | Gonality of an algebraic curve | In mathematics, the gonality of an algebraic curve C is defined as the lowest degree of a nonconstant rational map from C to the projective line. In more algebraic terms, if C is defined over the field K and K(C) denotes the function field of C, then the gonality is the minimum value taken by the degrees of field extensions
K(C)/K(f)
of the function field over its subfields generated by single functions f.
If K is algebraically closed, then the gonality is 1 precisely for curves of genus 0. The gonality is 2 for curves of genus 1 (elliptic curves) and for hyperelliptic curves (this includes all curves of genus 2). For genus g ≥ 3 it is no longer the case that the genus determines the gonality. The gonality of the generic curve of genus g is the floor function of
(g + 3)/2.
Trigonal curves are those with gonality 3, and this case gave rise to the name in general. Trigonal curves include the Picard curves, of genus three and given by an equation
y3 = Q(x)
where Q is of degree 4.
The gonality conjecture, of M. Green and R. Lazarsfeld, predicts that the gonality of the algebraic curve C can be calculated by homological algebra means, from a minimal resolution of an invertible sheaf of high degree. In many cases the gonality is two more than the Clifford index. The Green–Lazarsfeld conjecture is an exact formula in terms of the graded Betti numbers for a degree d embedding in r dimensions, for d large with respect to the genus. Writing b(C), with respect to a given such embedding of C and the minimal free resolution for its homogeneous coordinate ring, for the minimum index i for which βi, i + 1 is zero, then the conjectured formula for the gonality is
r + 1 − b(C).
According to the 1900 ICM talk of Federico Amodeo, the notion (but not the terminology) originated in Section V of Riemann's Theory of Abelian Functions. Amodeo used the term "gonalità" as early as 1893.
References
Algebraic curves
Homological algebra | [
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242165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Hart | Tony Hart | Norman Antony Hart (15 October 1925 – 18 January 2009), known professionally as Tony Hart, was an English artist best known for his work in educating children in art through his role as a children's television presenter.
Hart initially worked as an officer in a Gurkha regiment until the start of Indian independence. After this he became involved in children's television from the 1950s, working on the BBC's Blue Peter for a few years before fronting a series of children's art programmes, including Vision On, Take Hart and Hartbeat.
Hart's contributions to children's television include the design of the ship logo used by Blue Peter and the show's badges, and the animated character of Morph, who appeared beside him on his programmes following his introduction in the 1970s.
Early life
Tony Hart was interested in drawing from an early age. He attended All Saints, Margaret Street Resident Choir School and then Clayesmore School in Iwerne Minster, Dorset, where art was his best subject.
Military service
Hart left school in 1943 and wanted to join the Royal Air Force, but as he would have been unable to fly owing to slightly deficient eyesight, he followed in his father’s footsteps and joined the British Indian Army instead where he gained an officers' commission in the 1st Gurkha Rifles. However, when he was told that lower-ranked British officers would be replaced by Indian officers following Indian independence, he decided to return to civilian life. The outbreak of the Korean War (25 June 1950) saw him being re-commissioned in the Territorial Army, attached to the Royal Artillery, from 23 November 1948 to 1 July 1950.
Career
After being demobilised, Hart decided to become a professional artist and studied at Maidstone College of Art, which later became Kent Institute of Art & Design (and is now the Maidstone campus of the University for the Creative Arts). He graduated in 1950 and, after working as a display artist in a London store, became a freelance artist.
Hart's break into broadcast television came in 1952, after his brother persuaded him to attend a party where he met a BBC children's television producer. After an interview in which Hart drew a fish on a napkin while the producer was looking for paper, Hart became resident artist on the Saturday Special programme. Subsequent television shows included Playbox (1954–59), Tich and Quackers (1963-), Vision On (1964–76), Take Hart (1977–83), Hartbeat (1984–93), Artbox Bunch (1995–96) and Smart Hart (1999–2000). From the 1970s, he often appeared alongside the animated Plasticine stop-motion character Morph, created by Peter Lord of Aardman Animations.
Hart was a regular face on the BBC children's programme Blue Peter in the 1950s and presented a number of programmes in 1959. Richard Marson's book Blue Peter: Inside the Archives lists Hart as a presenter in November 1959 but he is not officially listed as a host. As well as demonstrating small-scale projects (the type that viewers might be able to do) Hart also created large-scale artworks on the television studio floor, and even used beaches and other open spaces as 'canvases'.
A regular feature of Hart's programmes was The Gallery, which displayed artworks (paintings, drawings and collages) sent in by young viewers. One of the pieces of easy-listening vibraphone music accompanying this feature—"Left Bank Two", composed by Wayne Hill and performed by The Noveltones—has passed into British TV theme lore. This was first introduced in the show Vision On.
Hart also created the original design for the Blue Peter badge, also used as the programme's logo. He originally asked for his fee to be paid as a royalty of 1d (one pre-decimalisation penny) for each badge made, but was offered a flat fee of £100 (equivalent to around £3,449.22 at January 2020 rates). The badges are famous throughout the United Kingdom and have been coveted by successive generations of Blue Peter viewers.
Hart received two BAFTA awards. His first, for Best Children's Educational Programme, came in 1984 for Take Hart, and he was given a Lifetime Achievement Award in 1998. He retired from regular TV work in 2001.
Personal life
Hart met his wife, Jean Skingle, while working in television; they married in 1953. They were married for fifty years until she died in 2003. They had a daughter, Carolyn, and two grandchildren.
Death
On 28 December 2006, it was announced during the reunion programme It Started with Swap Shop that Hart was in poor health, though this was not elaborated upon until an interview with The Times published on 30 September 2008, revealing that two strokes had robbed him of the use of his hands and left him unable to draw. He described this as "the greatest cross I have to bear". Hart died peacefully on 18 January 2009 at the age of 83.
Hart's funeral took place in the village of Shamley Green, where he had lived for more than forty years and he was buried in the churchyard of Christ Church.
Tributes
On 1 March 2009 a flash mob, organised through Facebook, paid tribute to Hart with around two hundred Morph figures displayed outside the Tate Modern art gallery. Hart's daughter, Carolyn Ross, attended and judged the "Best Morph in Show".
A memorial plaque is displayed in Hart's birthplace, the town of Maidstone, where he studied art at the town's art college. The plaque was unveiled by his daughter in May 2009 at the Hazlitt Arts Centre.
In September 2010 Tony Hart: A Portrait of My Dad, an affectionate biography of Hart by his daughter Carolyn, was published by John Blake Publishing.
In February 2015 a wave of tributes (followed by corrections) appeared on social media sites over a period of two days, when an individual mistakenly read a 2009 report of Hart's death and, missing the dateline, published it as news on Facebook, from which it was later transferred to Twitter. Many social media posters hyperlinked to an article in The Guardian. The newspaper published a graph of the number of readers referred to its article for the period. Aardman Animations used its Twitter account, in the name of Morph, to point to a tribute to Hart (a portrait of him being hung on a wall) that was included in the last episode of its forthcoming new set of episodes for the Morph television series.
Legacy
In January 2021, 12 years after his death, it was announced that Hart's drawings of a galleon for the 1952 Humpty Dumpty story, that paved the way for the famous Blue Peter logo, together with copies of original 1950s designs for the emblem were to be auctioned. Consigned from the collection of Hart's close friend and agent Roc Renals (1922-2014), the sale was expected to raise close to £20,000. The 65-lot auction took place on 29 January.
References
External links
Official site
Obituary, The Times, 18 January 2009
Obituary, The Daily Telegraph, 18 January 2009
Obituary, The Guardian, 19 January 2009
Interviews: Tony Hart at B3TA
"A fond farewell to Morph" at The Guardian
1925 births
2009 deaths
20th-century English painters
English male painters
21st-century English painters
21st-century male artists
Alumni of the University for the Creative Arts
BAFTA winners (people)
Royal Gurkha Rifles officers
English television presenters
Blue Peter presenters
People from Maidstone
People from Surrey
People educated at Clayesmore School
Indian Army personnel of World War II
20th-century British Army personnel
Royal Artillery officers | [
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242170 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Kessel | Joseph Kessel | Joseph Kessel (10 February 1898 – 23 July 1979), also known as "Jef", was a French journalist and novelist. He was a member of the Académie française and Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour.
Biography
Kessel was born to a Jewish family in Villa Clara, Entre Ríos, Argentina, because of the constant journeys of his father, a Litvak physician. From 1905 to 1908, Joseph Kessel lived the first years of his childhood in Orenburg, Russia, before the family moved to France in 1908. He studied in lycée Masséna, Nice and lycée Louis-le-Grand, Paris and took part in the First World War as an aviator. He was also an aviator during the Second World War, in the Free French (342 Squadron RAF) with RAF Bomber Command, with Romain Gary, who was also a talented French novelist.
Kessel wrote several novels and books that were later represented in the cinema, notably Belle de Jour (by Luis Buñuel in 1967). In 1943 he and his nephew Maurice Druon translated Anna Marly's song Chant des Partisans into French from its original Russian. The song became one of the anthems of Free French Forces during the Second World War.
Kessel was elected to the Académie française in 1962 and died on 23 July 1979 in Avernes, Val-d'Oise of a ruptured aneurysm. He is buried in the Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris. On his deathbed he was quoted as saying that his greatest accomplishment was the birth of his son, Joseph Kessel, who was born just a few months prior on 24 February of the same year. The Joseph-Kessel Prize (Prix Joseph Kessel) is a prestigious prize in French language literature, given to "a book of a high literary value written in French". The jury counts or has counted among its members Tahar Ben Jelloun, Jean-Marie Drot, Michèle Kahn, Pierre Haski, Gilles Lapouge, Michel Le Bris, Érik Orsenna, Patrick Rambaud, Jean-Christophe Rufin, André Velter and Olivier Weber.
Bibliography
La steppe rouge (1922)
L'Équipage (1923)
Au camp des vaincus ou la critique du 11 mai (1924)
Mary de Cork (1925)
Les captifs (1926; Grand Prix du roman de l'Académie française)
Nuits de princes (1927)
Belle de Jour (1928; it inspired Luis Buñuel's 1967 movie of the same name)
Vent de sable (1929)
Fortune carrée (1932)
(1931; made into the movie Sirocco in 1951 with Humphrey Bogart)
Wagon-lit (1932)
La Passante du Sans-Souci (1936; turned into a movie by Jacques Rouffio in 1982)
Hollywood, Ville mirage (Gallimard, NRF, 1936)
Mermoz (1938)
L'Armée des ombres (1943; adapted for a movie by Jean-Pierre Melville in 1969); Army of Shadows (Contra Mundum Press: 2017), featuring an intro by Stuart Kendall
Le Bataillon du ciel (Sky Battalion), (1946; turned into a movie by Alexander Esway in 1947): Free French SAS paratroopers in Brittany in Summer 1944
Le tour du malheur (1950)
Les Amants du Tage (1954)
La Vallée des Rubis (1955)
Le lion (English translation: The Lion; 1958)
Les mains du miracle (Gallimard, 1960). (English translation: )
Les cavaliers (1967) (English translation: The Horsemen. Translated by Patrick O'Brian. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1968) (filmed as The Horsemen in 1971.)
Partout un ami (1972)
Des hommes (1972)
Les temps sauvages (1975)
The escape
Filmography
The Crew, directed by Maurice Tourneur (France, 1928, based on the novel L'Équipage)
, directed by Marcel L'Herbier (France, 1930, based on the novel Nuits de princes)
L'Équipage, directed by Anatole Litvak (France, 1935, based on the novel L'Équipage)
The Woman I Love, directed by Anatole Litvak (1937, based on the novel L'Équipage)
, directed by Vladimir Strizhevsky (France, 1938, based on the novel Nuits de princes)
Le Bataillon du ciel, directed by Alexander Esway (France, 1947, based on the novel Le Bataillon du ciel)
Sirocco, directed by Curtis Bernhardt (1951, based on the novel Le coup de grâce)
The Lovers of Lisbon, directed by Henri Verneuil (France, 1955, based on the novel Les Amants du Tage)
, directed by Bernard Borderie (France, 1955, based on the novel Fortune carrée)
The Lion, directed by Jack Cardiff (1962, based on the novel The Lion)
Belle de Jour, directed by Luis Buñuel (France, 1967, based on the novel Belle de Jour)
Army of Shadows, directed by Jean-Pierre Melville (France, 1969, based on the novel L'Armée des ombres)
The Horsemen, directed by John Frankenheimer (1971, based on the novel Les Cavaliers)
The Passerby, directed by Jacques Rouffio (France, 1982, based on the novel La Passante du Sans-Souci)
Screenwriter
Cessez le feu (dir. Jacques de Baroncelli, France, 1934)
Mayerling (dir. Anatole Litvak, France, 1936)
Les Bateliers de la Volga (dir. Vladimir Strizhevsky, France, 1936)
La Peur (dir. Victor Tourjansky, France, 1936)
The Secrets of the Red Sea (dir. Richard Pottier, France, 1937)
The Man from Niger (dir. Jacques de Baroncelli, France, 1940)
At the Grand Balcony (dir. Henri Decoin, France, 1949)
Le Grand Cirque (dir. Georges Péclet, France, 1950)
Act of Love (dir. Anatole Litvak, 1953)
Oasis (dir. Yves Allégret, France, 1955)
(dir. Pierre Schoendoerffer and Jacques Dupont, France, 1958)
The Night of the Generals (dir. Anatole Litvak, 1967)
External links
Biography at the Académie française
Plaisir Litteraire: an interesting contribution about the youth of Joseph Kessel's father
http://www.rts.ch/archives/tv/culture/preface/3467832-joseph-kessel.html
1898 births
1979 deaths
People from Entre Ríos Province
Argentine Jews
Argentine people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
French people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
Democratic Union of Labour politicians
20th-century French novelists
French male novelists
French travel writers
French war correspondents
Jewish novelists
French military personnel of World War I
French military personnel of World War II
Members of the Académie Française
Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni
Grand Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Grand Prix du roman de l'Académie française winners
Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery
20th-century French male writers
French male non-fiction writers | [
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242172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown%20%28British%20coin%29 | Crown (British coin) | The British crown, the successor to the English crown and the Scottish dollar, came into being with the union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland in 1707. As with the English coin, its value was five shillings.
Always a heavy silver coin weighing around one ounce, during the 19th and 20th centuries the crown declined from being a real means of exchange to being a coin rarely spent, and minted for commemorative purposes only.
Crowns were minted a few times after decimalisation of the British currency in 1971, initially with a nominal value of 25 pence. However, commemorative crowns issued since 1990 have a face value of five pounds.
History
The coin's origins lay in the English silver crown, one of many silver coins that appeared in various countries from the 16th century onwards (most famously the Spanish piece of eight), all of similar size and weight (approx 38mm diameter, 25g fine silver) and thus interchangeable in international trade. The kingdom of England also minted gold Crowns in the 16th and 17th centuries.
The dies for all gold and silver coins of Queen Anne and King George I were engraved by John Croker, a migrant originally from Dresden in the Duchy of Saxony.
The British crown was always a large coin, and from the 19th century it did not circulate well. However, crowns were usually struck in a new monarch's coronation year, from George IV through Elizabeth II in 1953, with the single exception of George V.
The Queen Victoria "Gothic" crown of 1847 (with a mintage of just 8,000 and produced to celebrate the Gothic revival) is considered by many to be the most beautiful British coin ever minted.
The King George V "wreath" crowns struck from 1927 through 1936 (excluding 1935 when the more common "rocking horse" crown was minted to commemorate the King's Silver Jubilee) depict a wreath on the reverse of the coin and were struck in very low numbers. Generally struck late in the year and intended to be purchased as Christmas gifts, they were generally kept rather than circulated, with the rarest of all dates, 1934 (mintage just 932), now fetching several thousand pounds each. The 1927 "wreath" crowns were struck as proofs only (15,030 minted).
With their large size, many of the later coins were primarily commemoratives. The 1951 issue was for the Festival of Britain, and was only struck in proof condition. The 1953 crown was issued to celebrate the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, while the 1960 issue (which carried the same reverse design as the previous crown in 1953) commemorated the British Exhibition in New York. The 1965 issue carried the image of Winston Churchill on the reverse, the first time a non-monarch or commoner was ever placed on a British coin, and marked his death. According to the Standard Catalogue of coins, 19,640,000 of this coin were minted, a very high number at the time, making them of little value today except as a mark of respect for the national war leader. Production of the Churchill Crown began on 11 October 1965, and stopped in the summer of 1966.
The crown was worth five shillings (a shilling being 12 pre-decimal pence) or one quarter of a pound, until decimalisation in February 1971. The last five shilling piece was minted in 1965.
The crown coin was nicknamed the dollar, but is not to be confused with the British trade dollar that circulated in the Orient.
In 2014, a new world record price was achieved for a milled silver crown. The coin was unique, issued as a pattern by engraver Thomas Simon in 1663 and nicknamed the "Reddite Crown". It was presented to Charles II as the new crown piece, but ultimately rejected in favour of the Roettiers Brothers' design. Auctioneers Spink & Son of London sold the coin on 27 March 2014 for £396,000 including commission.
All pre-decimal crowns from 1818 on remain legal tender with a face value of 25p.
Decimal crowns
After decimalisation on 15 February 1971, the 25-pence coin was introduced as a replacement for the crown as a commemorative coin. These were legal tender and were made with large mintages.
Further issues still continue to be minted, initially with a value of twenty-five pence (with no face value shown). From 1990, the face value of new crown coins was raised to five pounds, probably in view of its relatively large size compared with its face value, production costs, and the Royal Mint's profits on sales of commemorative coins. While this change was understandable, it has brought with it a slight confusion and a popular misbelief that pre-1990 crowns also have a five-pound face value.
Changing values
The legal tender value of the crown remained as five shillings from 1544 to 1965. However, for most of this period there was no denominational designation or "face value" mark of value displayed on the coin. From 1927 to 1939, the word "CROWN" appears, and from 1951 to 1960 this was changed to "FIVE SHILLINGS". Coins minted since 1818 remain legal tender with a face value of 25 pence.
Although all "normal" issues since 1951 have been composed of cupro-nickel, special proof versions have been produced for sale to collectors, and as gift items, in silver, gold, and occasionally platinum.
The fact that gold £5 crowns are now produced means that there are two different strains of five pound gold coins, namely crowns and what are now termed "quintuple sovereigns" for want of a more concise term.
Numismatically, the term "crown-sized" is used generically to describe large silver or cupro-nickel coins of about 40 mm in diameter. Most Commonwealth countries still issue crown-sized coins for sale to collectors.
New Zealand's original fifty-cent pieces, and Australia's previously round but now dodecagonal fifty-cent piece, although valued at five shillings in predecimal accounting, are all smaller than the standard silver crown pieces issued by those countries (and the UK). They were in fact similarly sized to the predecimal half crown (worth two shillings and sixpence).
Composition
For silver crowns, the grade of silver adhered to the long-standing standard (established in the 12th century by Henry II) – the Sterling Silver standard of 92.5% silver and 7.5% copper. This was a harder-wearing alloy, yet it was still a rather high grade of silver. It went some way towards discouraging the practice of "clipping", though this practice was further discouraged and largely eliminated with the introduction of the milled edge seen on coins today.
In a debasement process which took effect in 1920, the silver content of all British coins was reduced from 92.5% to 50%, with a portion of the remainder consisting of manganese, which caused the coins to tarnish to a very dark colour after they had been in circulation for a significant period. Silver was eliminated altogether in 1947, with the move to a composition of cupro-nickel – except for proof issues, which returned to the pre-1920 92.5% silver composition.
Since the Great Recoinage of 1816, a crown has, as a general rule, had a diameter of , and weighed 28.276 grams (defined as troy ounce).
Modern mintages
The specifications for composition refer to the standard circulation versions. Proof versions continue to be minted in Sterling silver
Gallery
Quarter sovereign
In 1853, the Royal Mint had produced two patterns for a gold 5-shilling coin for circulation use, one denominated as five shillings and the other as a quarter sovereign, but this coin never went into production, in part due to concerns about the small size of the coin and likely wear in circulation. The quarter sovereign was introduced in 2009 as a bullion coin.
References
External links
History of Five Shilling Coins on Coins of the UK
Royal Mint Museum's history of Crown Coin
Crown, Coin Type from United Kingdom - Online Coin Club
Coins of Great Britain
Coins of the United Kingdom
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] |
242174 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poussin%20%28disambiguation%29 | Poussin (disambiguation) | Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665) was a French painter.
Poussin may also refer to:
Poussin (chicken)
People with the surname
Gérald Poussin (born 1946), Swiss artist
Gaspard Poussin (1615-1675), name sometimes given to the painter Gaspard Dughet, pupil and brother-in-law of Nicolas Poussin
See also
Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin (1866-1962), Belgian mathematician
Charles-Louis-Joseph-Xavier de la Vallée-Poussin (1827–1903), Belgian geologist and mineralogist, father of Charles Jean
Théodore Poussin, a comic book series
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242177 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum%20Island | Museum Island | The Museum Island () is a museum complex on the northern part of the Spree Island in the historic heart of Berlin. It is one of the most visited sights of Germany's capital and one of the most important museum sites in Europe. Built from 1830 to 1930 by order of the Prussian Kings according to plans by five architects, the Museum Island was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999. It consists of the Altes Museum, the Neues Museum, the Alte Nationalgalerie, the Bode-Museum and the Pergamonmuseum. As Museum Island includes all of Spree Island north of the Unter den Linden, the Berliner Dom is also located here, near the Lustgarten. To the south, the reconstructed Berlin Palace houses the Humboldt Forum museum and opened in 2020. Since the German reunification, the Museum Island has been rebuilt and extended according to a master plan. In 2019, a new visitor center and art gallery, the James Simon Gallery, was opened.
Overview
The Museum Island is so-called for the complex of internationally significant museums, all part of the Berlin State Museums, that occupy the island's northern part:
The Altes Museum (Old Museum) named as the Königliches Museum when it was built on August 3, 1830, until it was renamed in 1841. The museum was completed on the orders of Karl Friedrich Schinkel.
The Neues Museum (New Museum) finished in 1859 according to plans by Friedrich August Stüler, a student of Schinkel. Destroyed in World War II, it was rebuilt under the direction of David Chipperfield for the Egyptian Museum of Berlin and re-opened in 2009.
The Alte Nationalgalerie (Old National Gallery) completed in 1876, also according to designs by Friedrich August Stüler, to host a collection of 19th-century art donated by banker Joachim H. W. Wagener
The Bode Museum on the island's northern tip, opened in 1904 and then called Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum. It exhibits the sculpture collections and late Antique and Byzantine art.
The Pergamon Museum, constructed in 1930. It contains multiple reconstructed immense and historically significant buildings such as the Pergamon Altar and the Ishtar Gate of Babylon.
The Humboldt Forum opened in late 2020 in the Berlin Palace opposite the Lustgarten park, and incorporated the Ethnological Museum of Berlin and the Museum of Asian Art; both are successor institutions of the Ancient Prussian Art Chamber, which was also located in the Berlin Palace and which was established in the mid 16th century.
In 1999, the museum complex was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites.
History
A first exhibition hall was erected in 1797 at the suggestion of the archaeologist Aloys Hirt. In 1822, Schinkel designed the plans for the Altes Museum to house the royal Antikensammlung, the arrangement of the collection was overseen by Wilhelm von Humboldt. The island, originally a residential area, was dedicated to "art and science" by King Frederick William IV of Prussia in 1841. Further extended under succeeding Prussian kings, the museum's collections of art and archeology were turned into a public foundation after 1918. They are today maintained by the Berlin State Museums branch of the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation.
Museum Island further comprises the Lustgarten park and the Berlin Cathedral. Between the Bode and Pergamon Museums it is crossed by the Stadtbahn railway viaduct. The adjacent territory to the south is the site of the former royal and imperial Berlin Palace and the Palace of the Republic.
The Prussian collections became separated during the Cold War during the division of the city, but were reunited after German reunification, with the exception of some art and artifacts removed after World War II by Allied troops. These include the Priam's Treasure, also called the gold of Troy, excavated by Heinrich Schliemann in 1873, then smuggled out of Turkey to Berlin and smuggled out of Germany to Moscow. Today it is kept at the Pushkin Museum in Moscow.
As for the city's major museums, it took much of the 1990s for a consensus to emerge that Museum Island's buildings should be restored and modernized, with General Director Wolf-Dieter Dube's cautious plan for their use finally approved in January 1999. Then, six months later, Peter-Klaus Schuster took over and set in motion a far more ambitious program intended to turn Museum Island into a Louvre on the Spree. The federal government pledged $20 million a year through 2010 for projects to enhance Berlin's prestige and Unesco declaring the island a World Heritage Site.
The contents of the museums were decided on as follows: The Pergamon, with the Greek altar that gives it its name, retained much of its collection and was defined as a museum of ancient architecture. The Neues Museum presented archaeological objects as well as Egyptian and Etruscan sculptures, including the renowned bust of Queen Nefertiti. The Altes Museum, the oldest on the island, displayed Greek and Roman art objects on its first floor and hold exhibitions on its second floor. The Bode Museum's paintings went from Late Byzantine to 1800. And, as now, the Alte Nationalgalerie will cover the 19th century. Once this process is completed, perhaps by 2020, the Gemäldegalerie’s painting collection will be transferred to the Bode, and a new annex, and Museum Island will present all art from the ancient civilizations to 1900. The James Simon Gallery, a $94 million visitors’ center designed by the British architect David Chipperfield, is being built beside the Neues Museum. It will in turn be linked to the Neues, Altes, Pergamon and Bode Museums by an underground passageway decorated with archaeological objects.
Once the Museum Island Master Plan is completed, the so-called Archaeological Promenade will connect four of the five museums in the Museum Island. The Promenade will begin at the Old Museum in the south, lead through the New Museum and the Pergamon Museum and end at the Bode Museum, located at the northern tip of the Island. Before World War II, these museums were connected by bridge passages above ground; they were destroyed due to the effects of the war. There have never been plans to rebuild them; instead, the central courts of individual museums will be lowered, which has already been done in the Bode Museum and in the New Museum. They will be connected by subterranean galleries. In a way, this archaeological promenade can be regarded as the sixth museum in the Island, because it is devised not only as a connecting corridor but also as a strung-out exhibition room for interdisciplinary presentations. The Archaeological Promenade may be characterized as a cross-total of the collections that are shown separately (in accordance with cultural regions, epochs, and art genres) in the individual museums of the Island. The Archaeological Promenade will address multi-focus topics that have occupied the human mind irrespective of time and cultural region, be it a question of life after death or issues of beauty and other topics.
Museum Island is referenced in the song "On the Museum Island" by folk artist Emmy the Great.
The southern section of the island, south of Gertraudenstraße, is commonly referred to as Fischerinsel (Fisher Island) and is the site of a high-rise apartment development built when Mitte was part of East Berlin.
Photogallery
See also
Berlin State Museums
List of museums in Berlin
References
External links
Museumsinsel (Museum Island), Berlin UNESCO official website
Official Museum Island website
Masterplan The future of the Museum Island
Museum Island— Interactive 360° panorama during the Festival of Lights
A Remarkable Success Story – the Museum Island in Berlin, article on the website of the Goethe-Institut, February 2010
Museums in Berlin
Zones of Berlin
Mitte
World Heritage Sites in Germany
Landmarks in Germany
Museum districts
Art gallery districts
Prussian cultural sites
River islands of Germany
Berlin State Museums
Islands of Berlin
National museums of Germany | [
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242178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf%20von%20Harnack | Adolf von Harnack | Carl Gustav Adolf von Harnack (born Harnack; 7 May 1851 – 10 June 1930) was a Baltic German Lutheran theologian and prominent Church historian. He produced many religious publications from 1873 to 1912 (in which he is sometimes credited as Adolf Harnack). He was ennobled (with the addition of von to his name) in 1914.
Harnack traced the influence of Hellenistic philosophy on early Christian writings and called on Christians to question the authenticity of doctrines that arose in the early Christian church. He rejected the historicity of the Gospel of John in favor of the Synoptic Gospels, criticized the Apostles' Creed, and promoted the Social Gospel.
In the 19th century, higher criticism flourished in Germany, establishing the historical-critical method as an academic standard for interpreting the Bible and understanding the historical Jesus . Harnack's work is part of a reaction to Tübingen, and represents a reappraisal of tradition.
Besides his theological activities, Harnack was a distinguished organizer of sciences. He played an important role in the foundation of the Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft and became its first president.
Biography
He was born at Dorpat (today Tartu) in Livonia (then a province of Russia, now in Estonia) where his father, Theodosius Harnack, held a professorship of pastoral theology.
He married Amalie Thiersch on 27 December 1879. Their daughter Agnes von Zahn-Harnack became an activist in the Women's movement.
Harnack studied at the local Imperial University of Dorpat (1869–72) and at the University of Leipzig, where he took his degree; soon afterwards, in 1874, he began lecturing as a Privatdozent. These lectures, which dealt with such special subjects as Gnosticism and the Apocalypse, attracted considerable attention, and in 1876 he was appointed professor extraordinarius. In the same year he began the publication, in conjunction with Oscar Leopold von Gebhardt and Theodor Zahn, of an edition of the works of the Apostolic Fathers, Patrum apostolicorum opera, a smaller edition of which appeared in 1877.
In 1879 he was called to the University of Giessen as professor ordinarius of church history. There he collaborated with Gebhardt in Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur (1882 sqq.), an irregular periodical, containing only essays in New Testament and patristic fields. In 1881 he published a work on monasticism, Das Mönchtum – seine Ideale und seine Geschichte (5th ed., 1900; English translation, 1901), and became joint editor with Emil Schürer of the Theologische Literaturzeitung.
In 1885 he published the first volume of his Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (3rd ed. in three volumes, 1894–1898; English translation in seven volumes, 1894–1899). In this work Harnack traced the rise of dogma, which he understood as the authoritative doctrinal system of the church and its development from the 4th century down to the Protestant Reformation. He considered that from its earliest origins, Christian faith and Greek philosophy were so closely intermingled that the resultant system included many beliefs and practices that were not authentically Christian. Therefore, Protestants are not only free, but bound, to criticize it; Protestantism could be understood as a rejection of this dogma and a return to the pure faith that characterized the original church. An abridgment of this appeared in 1889 with the title Grundriss der Dogmengeschichte (3rd ed., 1898).
In 1886 Harnack was called to the University of Marburg and in 1888, in spite of violent opposition from the conservative church authorities, to Berlin. In 1890 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences. In Berlin, somewhat against his will, he was drawn into a controversy on the Apostles' Creed, in which the partisan antagonisms within the Prussian Church had found expression. Harnack's view was that the creed contains both too much and too little to be a satisfactory test for candidates for ordination; he preferred a briefer declaration of faith which could be rigorously applied to all (cf. his Das Apostolische Glaubensbekenntnis. Ein geschichtlicher Bericht nebst einer Einleitung und einem Nachwort, 1892).
In Berlin, Harnack continued writing. In 1893 he published a history of early Christian literature down to Eusebius of Caesarea, Geschichte der altkirchlichen Literatur bis Eusebius (part 2 of vol. 5., 1897); and in his popular lectures, Das Wesen des Christentums appeared in 1900 (5th ed., 1901; English translation, What is Christianity? 1901). One of his later historical works, Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten (1902; English translation, The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries, in two volumes, 1904–1905), was followed by some important New Testament studies (Beitrage zur Einleitung in das neue Testament, 1906 sqq.; Engl. trans.: Luke the Physician, 1907; The Sayings of Jesus, 1908).
Harnack was one of the most prolific and stimulating of modern critical scholars, and brought up in his "Seminar" a whole generation of teachers who carried his ideas and methods throughout the whole of Germany and beyond.
From 1905 to 1921, Harnack was the General Director of the Royal Library at Berlin (from 1918 called the Prussian State Library).
Like many liberal professors in Germany, Harnack welcomed World War I in 1914, and signed a public statement endorsing Germany's war-aims (the Manifesto of the Ninety-Three). It was this statement, with his teacher Harnack's signature on it, that Karl Barth cited as a major impetus for his rejection of liberal theology.
Harnack was one of the moving spirits in the foundation, in 1911, of the Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft (KWG), and became its first President. The Society's activities were much constrained by the First World War, but in the Weimar Republic period Harnack guided it to be a major vehicle for overcoming the isolation of German academics felt as a result of the war and its aftermath. The society's flagship conference centre in Berlin, the Harnack House, which opened in 1929, was named in his honour. After a long period in U.S. Army hands after World War II it has now resumed the role Harnack envisaged, as a centre for international intellectual life in the German capital, under the management of the KWG's successor organisation, the Max Planck Gesellschaft.
Theology
Among the distinctive characteristics of Harnack's work were his insistence on absolute freedom in the study of church history and the New Testament (i.e. there were no taboo areas of research that could not be critically examined); his distrust of speculative theology, whether orthodox or liberal; and his interest in practical Christianity as a religious life and not a system of theology. Some of his addresses on social matters were published under the heading "Essays on the Social Gospel" (1907).
Though the four gospels have been regarded as canonical since Irenaeus in the 2nd century, Harnack—like earlier German scholars—rejected the Gospel of John as without historical value regarding Jesus' life:
Harnack denied the possibility of miracles but argued that Jesus may well have performed acts of healing that seemed miraculous: "That the earth in its course stood still; that a she-ass spoke; that a storm was quieted by a word, we do not believe, and we shall never again believe; but that the lame walked, the blind saw, and the deaf heard will not be so summarily dismissed as an illusion."
Bibliography
Kurt Nowak et al., (eds.), Adolf von Harnack. Christentum, Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2003, is the best recent assessment of Harnack and his impact from a variety of perspectives.
Selected works
See also
Harnack medal
Notes
References
Further reading
Glick, G. Wayne. "Nineteenth Century Theological and Cultural Influences on Adolph Harnack. Church History (1959) 28#2 157-182
Pauck, Wilhelm. Harnack and Troeltsch: Two historical theologians (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2015)
External links
Harnack-Forum (German Website)
.
1851 births
1930 deaths
People from Tartu
People from Kreis Dorpat
Baltic-German people
19th-century German Protestant theologians
20th-century German Protestant theologians
German historians of religion
German Christian socialists
Twin people from Germany
Twin people from Estonia
20th-century historians
German male non-fiction writers
Lutheran socialists
Christian socialist theologians
19th-century male writers
20th-century male writers
University of Tartu alumni
Leipzig University alumni
University of Marburg faculty
University of Giessen faculty
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) | [
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242180 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamon%20Museum | Pergamon Museum | The Pergamon Museum (; ) is a listed building on the Museum Island in the historic centre of Berlin and part of the UNESCO World Heritage. It was built from 1910 to 1930 by order of German Emperor Wilhelm II according to plans by Alfred Messel and Ludwig Hoffmann in Stripped Classicism style. Currently, the Pergamon Museum is home to the including the famous Pergamon Altar, the and the . Parts of the building are closed for renovation until 2025.
Origin
By the time the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum on Museum Island (today the Bodemuseum) had opened in 1904, it was clear that the edifice was not large enough to host all of the art and archaeological treasures being excavated under German supervision. Excavations were underway in the areas of ancient Babylon, Uruk, Assur, Miletus, Priene and ancient Egypt, and objects from these sites could not be properly displayed within the existing German museum system. Wilhelm von Bode, director of the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum, initiated plans to build a new museum nearby to accommodate ancient architecture, German post-antiquity art, and Middle Eastern and Islamic art.
Alfred Messel began a design for the large three-wing building in 1906. After his death in 1909 his friend Ludwig Hoffman took charge of the project and construction began in 1910, continuing during the First World War (1918) and the great inflation of the 1920s. The completed building was opened In 1930.
The Pergamon Museum was severely damaged during the air attacks on Berlin at the end of the Second World War. Many of the display objects had been stored in safe places, and some of the large exhibits were walled in for protection. In 1945, the Red Army collected all of the loose museum items, either as war booty or to rescue them from looting and fires then raging in Berlin. Not until 1958 were most of the objects returned to East Germany. Significant parts of the collection remain in Russia. Some are currently stored in the Pushkin Museum in Moscow and the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg. The return of these items has been arranged in a treaty between Germany and Russia but, as of June 2003, is blocked by Russian restitution laws.
Exhibition
Among the pieces the museum displays are:
The Pergamon Altar
Market Gate of Miletus
The Ishtar Gate and the Processional Way, Babylon
The Mshatta Facade
The Meissner fragment from the Epic of Gilgamesh.
Antiquity Collection (Antikensammlung)
The collection goes back to the prince-electors, or Kurfürsten, of Brandenburg, who collected objects from antiquity; the collection began with an acquisition to the collection by a Roman archaeologist in 1698. It first became accessible (in part) to the public in 1830, when the Altes Museum was opened. The collection expanded greatly with the excavations in Olympia, Samos, Pergamon, Miletus, Priene, Magnesia, Cyprus and Didyma.
This collection is divided between the Pergamon Museum and the Altes Museum.
The collection contains sculpture from the archaic to Hellenistic ages as well as artwork from Greek and Roman antiquity: architecture, sculptures, inscriptions, mosaics, bronzes, jewelry and pottery.
The main exhibits are the Pergamon Altar from the 2nd century BC, with a 113 meters (371 ft) long sculptural frieze depicting the struggle of the gods and the giants, and the Gate of Miletus from Roman antiquity.
As Germany was divided following the Second World War, so was the collection. The Pergamon Museum was reopened in 1959 in East Berlin, while what remained in West Berlin was displayed in Schloss Charlottenburg.
Islamic Art Museum (Museum für Islamische Kunst)
The Islamic Department was part of the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum which opened in 1904. In the newly built Pergamon Museum, the museum moved into the upper floor of the south wing and was opened there in 1932.
The Middle East Museum (Vorderasiatisches Museum)
The Middle East Museum exhibition displays objects found by German archeologists and others from the areas of Assyrian, Sumerian and Babylonian culture. Additionally there are historical buildings, reliefs and lesser cultural objects and jewelry.
The main display is the Ishtar Gate and the Processional Way of Babylon together with the throne room facade of Nebuchadnezzar II.
The Vorderasiatisches Museum also displays the Meissner fragment from the Epic of Gilgamesh.
Plans
The comprehensive plan for Museum Island includes an expansion of the Pergamon Museum, with connections to the Neues Museum, Bodemuseum, Alte Nationalgalerie and a new visitor centre, the James Simon Gallery.
An architectural competition in 2000 was won by Oswald Mathias Ungers from Cologne. The Pergamon Museum will be redeveloped according to his plan, which controversially proposes large alterations to buildings unchanged since 1930. The current entrance building in the Court of Honor will be replaced with a fourth wing, and an underground walk (Archäologische Promenade, archeologic walk) will connect four of the five museums.
Since the end of September 2014 the museum is partially closed for renovation. The hall containing Pergamon Altar will remain closed to the general public. Initially the reopening was scheduled for 2019. In November 2016, it was revealed that the estimated project costs would almost double to 477 million euros. Two pump houses built in the ground during the initial construction between 1910 and 1930 had been discovered causing rising costs and delays. At least 60 million euros of the increased costs are directly due to the fact that construction costs had risen since the original estimate 10 years ago. Also it was announced that a temporary exhibition space will be built opposite Museum Island, a short distance from Pergamon Museum. It will house a panorama of the ancient city by the Berlin-based artist Yadegar Asisi, a 3D reconstruction of the famous Pergamon altar by the Fraunhofer Institute for Computer Graphics Research and parts of the altar including the Telephos Frieze. The temporary building is scheduled to open in the spring of 2018. The Pergamon altar hall is not expected to reopen until at least 2025.
See also
List of art museums
List of museums in Germany
Notes
References
External links
Virtual tour
Art museums and galleries in Berlin
Museum Island
Architecture museums in Germany
Archaeological museums in Germany
Berlin State Museums
Museums of ancient Greece in Germany
Museums of ancient Rome in Germany
Museums of Ancient Near East
Heritage sites in Berlin
Berlin
Museums in Berlin
Art museums established in 1930
1930 establishments in Germany
Neoclassical architecture in Berlin | [
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242181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source | Source | Source may refer to:
Research
Historical document
Historical source
Source (intelligence) or sub source, typically a confidential provider of non open-source intelligence
Source (journalism), a person, publication, publishing institute or other record or document that gives information
Source document, a document in which data collected for a clinical trial is first recorded
Source text, in research (especially in the humanities), a source of information referred to by citation
Primary source, a first-hand written evidence of history made at the time of the event by someone who was present
Secondary source, a written account of history based upon the evidence from primary sources
Tertiary source, a compilation based upon primary and secondary sources
Sources (website), a directory of expert contacts and media spokespersons
Open source, a philosophy of dissemination of intellectual products
Law
Sources of international law, the materials and processes out of which the rules and principles regulating the international community are developed
Sources of law, the materials and processes out of which law is developed
Mathematics and physics
Source, a point where the divergence of a vector field is positive
Source of a representation, in finite group theory
Source, a terminal in a field-effect transistor
Current source, an electrical or electronic device that delivers or absorbs electric current
Energy sources, substances or processes with high concentrations of energy
Ion source, a device that creates atomic and molecular ions
Light source, an object emitting light
Point source, a single identifiable localised source of something
Radioactive source, a known quantity of a radionuclide which emits ionizing radiation
Sound source, an object emitting sound
Voltage source, any device or system that produces an electromotive force between its terminals
Computing and technology
Source (command), a UNIX command to execute commands from a file
Communication source, objects which encode message data and transmit the information
Source code, a file containing code for software written in a programming language
Source theory, any process that generates successive messages in information theory
Source (programming language), a family of sublanguages of JavaScript to support Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, JavaScript Adaptation
Earth and life sciences
Inflow (hydrology), the source of the water in a lake
Source (hydrology), the original point from which a river or stream flows
Source rocks, rocks that have generated, or are capable of generating hydrocarbons
Source tissue, plant tissue serving as a source of nutrients; for example see Somatic embryogenesis
Art and entertainment
Fictional entities
Source (comics), a sentient entity who provides advice to the New Gods in the DC Multiverse
The Source (Charmed), a fictional character on the WB television series Charmed
The Source, a character in the 1978 US television sitcom Quark
Films
The Source (1918 film), 1918 American drama directed by George Melford
The Source (1999 film), a 1999 documentary film about the Beat generation
The Source (2002 film), a 2002 science fiction film, also known as The Secret Craft in the UK and The Surge for its American DVD release
The Source (2011 film), a 2011 French film
Highlander: The Source, the fifth film in the Highlander franchise
Games
Source (game engine), a game engine developed by Valve
Source 2, the successor to Source
Counter-Strike: Source, a 2004 complete remake of Counter-Strike using the Source game engine
Day of Defeat: Source, a 2005 complete remake of Day of Defeat using the Source game engine
Literature
The Source (novel), a 1965 novel by James A. Michener
Music
The Source (musician), the production identity of UK electronic music record producer John Truelove
The Source (band), a Norwegian jazz band
Subsource (band), a British electronic music group
The Source (Ali Farka Touré album), 1993 album by Ali Farka Touré
The Source (Ayreon album), 2017 album by Arjen Anthony Lucassen's project Ayreon
The Source (Dizzy Gillespie album), 1973 live album by Dizzy Gillespie
The Source (Grandmaster Flash album), 1986 album by Grandmaster Flash
The Source (Jackie McLean album), 1973 album by American saxophonist Jackie McLean
The Source (Kendrick Scott album), 2007 album by jazz drummer Kendrick Scott
The Source (Tony Allen album), 2017 album by drummer Tony Allen
The Source, 1969 jazz album by Jimmy Scott
The Source (oratorio), a 2014 oratorio by Ted Hearne
"The Source", a song by Built to Spill from their 1994 album There's Nothing Wrong with Love
Source (album), a 2020 album by Nubya Garcia, or the title song
"Source", a song by Tycho from his 2016 album Epoch
Periodicals
Source (magazine), a bi-monthly magazine published by the John Lewis Partnership
Source (photography magazine), a quarterly photography magazine
The Source, a magazine of hip-hop music and culture
The St. Thomas Source, a newspaper published in the United States Virgin Islands
The Source (newspaper)
Radio
The Source (network), a radio network operated in the 1970s and 1980s by NBC
WVUR-FM or "The Source", Valparaiso University's student-run radio station
Visual arts
Source (1/3), public artwork by U.S. artist Tony Smith
The Source (Etrog), public artwork by artist Sorel Etrog
The Source (Ingres), an 1856 painting by Ingres
The Source (sculpture), an electronic moving sculpture at the London Stock Exchange
The Source (Courbet), an 1862 painting by French artist Gustav Courbet
Organizations
Source (International Information Support Centre), an international information support centre and digital library
Source (UNSW), a community service provider that used to operate at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia
Source Family (1922–1975), a commune outside of 1970's Hollywood
Source Vagabond Systems, an Israeli manufacturer using the brand "SOURCE"
The Source (online service), an online service provider founded in 1979
The Source (retailer), a Canadian electronics store
Places
natural spring
headwaters
Les Sources (), Estrie, Quebec, Canada; a regional county municipality
Des Sources station (), Montreal, Quebec, Canada; a light rail station
Boulevard Des Sources (), Montreal, Quebec, Canada; a large street
Other uses
Operation Source, a series of attacks on German warships in 1943
Absolute (philosophy), or the source, as the absolute principle of being
See also
Begin (disambiguation)
La Source (disambiguation)
Source language (disambiguation)
Sourceror (disambiguation)
Sourcing (disambiguation)
Start (disambiguation)
Wikisource, an online library of free content textual sources | [
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242183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto%2C%20New%20South%20Wales | Toronto, New South Wales | Toronto () is a lakeside suburb within the city of Lake Macquarie, Greater Newcastle in New South Wales, Australia, approximately from Newcastle's central business district and is a commercial hub for the sprawling suburbs on the western shore of the lake. It is one of the major centres in the City of Lake Macquarie LGA.
History
The Aboriginal people, in this area, the Awabakal, were the first people of this land.
The area was originally the site of an Aboriginal mission called Ebenezer, established in 1829 by Reverend Threlkeld. Threlkeld is reported to have begun construction of his chimney with a local black stone which he later realised was coal. Coal Point, just to the south, is named after this discovery. The development of several coal mines in the region, proximity to the nearby city of Newcastle, and its position by the lake led to gradual development and population increases. The mission closed in 1841.
In 1885, the Excelsior Land, Investment and Building Co. and Bank Ltd acquired a portion of Threlkelds' original 1,280 acre grant from McMahon and Whiting plus the 100 ft waterfront reserve from the Crown for £13,722 and subdivided it in 1887.
Ebenezer was then renamed after Toronto, Ontario, Canada, in honor of Edward Hanlan, a Canadian world-champion sculler who visited Australia in 1884. The area's subdividers, the Excelsior Company, named the land in honor of Hanlan's visit, which coincided with the opening of the subdivision. The Canadian city's name is said to have come from the Mohawk language tkaronto, meaning “where there are trees standing in the water".
This subdivision also coincided with the opening of the Great Northern Railway and became the basis of the future town of Toronto. The Prince of Wales, later Edward VIII, visited Toronto by train on the Toronto railway line on 24 June 1920.
Population
According to the 2016 census, there were 5,602 people in Toronto.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 7.1% of the population.
82.7% of people were born in Australia. The next most common country of birth was England at 3.2%.
89.5% of people spoke only English at home.
The most common responses for religion were No Religion 28.6%, Anglican 23.2% and Catholic 17.6%.
Services
Toronto has three public schools: Toronto High School, Toronto Primary School, and Biraban Public School. It also has three private schools, Charlton Christian College, St. Joseph's Primary School and Toronto Adventist Primary School.
Toronto has three major supermarkets: Coles, Aldi, and Woolworths; as well as The Reject Shop discount store and the multi award-winning Michel's Patisserie Toronto (2016 NRA Supreme Retailer of the Year). It also has numerous clothing stores including Rushta Surf Shop, Best n Less, Rockmans, and multiple boutique stores.
Toronto has a polyclinic and a private hospital. There is now a new healthcare centre called the Alec Rice Centre on the Boulevarde.
Toronto has an ambulance station, police station, Fire Brigade and a Court House that serve the Western Lake Macquarie area.
The Boulevarde
Toronto has a high street called The Boulevarde. This road starts at the foreshore, forming a junction with Victory Parade. This road stretches westwards for 1.2 kilometres, and is the commercial hub for Toronto and its surrounding areas.
The section of the road between the foreshore and Cary Street is the main retail area for Toronto. There are many boutique shops on this strip.
Over the years, the streetscape has degraded and in 2013, Lake Macquarie City Council decided to start renewing the streetscape. This process began by cutting down the famous figs that line the street, and then replacing the walkways and planting more controllable trees. Work will continue into 2018.
Victory Parade
The War Memorial - Unveiled by Lt. Col. BURNAGE, 30 September 1922
Soon after its unveiling in Victory Parade, the Monument was found to be a traffic hazard, so it was moved closer to the footpath (at the entrance to the pedestrian bridge over the railway line). In 1959 it was moved to Edward Gain Park, near Wharf Street. Then in the 1964, when there was a proposal to take some of this park for a road, the Monument was moved to Goffet Park. However, no matter where it has been located, the Monument has always been the focal point for the Anzac Day and Remembrance Day services in Toronto.
Victory Theatre
NMH 2.2.1921:7 - Toronto is to have a Picture Theatre 90 ft by 40 ft wide – Mr J Chapman has contract. Located in Victory Parade, Toronto opposite the Railway Station.
Commenced screening on Wednesday 19 July 1922 by Mr George W Goffett. After having several owners, it was bought by Mr & Mrs P Crethary around 1951. CinemaScope was installed about the mid 1950s, it was the first theatre outside Newcastle to have it.
The theatre closed on Saturday 12 August 1961. The last films screened were "The Angry Silence" and "The Gunslinger".
The building was used by a variety of businesses including Inskip Motorcycles until 1984.
The building no longer exists, as it was destroyed by fire in the early 1990s.
Hotel Toronto
Built in 1887 from locally-made bricks, the Toronto Hotel has been the best-known landmark throughout the entire history of the township.
The Excelsior Company enthusiastically promoted it as "a pleasant and commodious brick building, containing about thirty bedrooms, besides parlors, bar, dining and billiard rooms, &c. Standing on one of the prettiest spots upon the shores of the Lake, in its own grounds of some twenty acres, the hotel commands a fine view of a splendid reach of water extending to the little village of Belmont. The extensive pleasure grounds are laid out with croquet lawns, lawn tennis court, bowling greens, &c. A spacious dancing pavilion has been erected for devotees of Terpsichore, while the lovers of the green cloth are provided with an excellent billiard table."
Now on the Register of the National Estate, the hotel has undergone numerous alterations and renovations throughout its lifetime. It no longer dominates the skyline as it did in years gone by. Healthy and vigorous trees growing in Regatta Walk render the Hotel barely visible from Toronto's public baths and private jetties.
Religion
There are multiple churches in Toronto. These are:
The Foursquare Church of Australia 'New Day Christian Church' on Day Street
Christ the King Anglican Church on Brighton Avenue
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints on Bandalong Street
Jehovah's Witnesses Church on Excelsior Parade
Goodlife Church Toronto held at Charlton Christian College
Pentecostal 'Living Word Lakeside' Church held at Toronto Primary School on Bay Street
St. Joseph's Catholic Church on Wangi Road
Toronto Seventh-Day Adventist Church on Parkside Parade
Toronto Uniting Church on The Boulevarde
Toronto Baptist Church on the corner of The Boulevarde and Jindalee Street
Westlakes Independent Baptist Church on Ridge Road, Kilaben Bay.
Transport
Toronto is considered to be the hub for public transport on the western side of Lake Macquarie. The area is served by a privately operated bus service; 'Hunter Valley Buses', which services the areas to the west, south and north of the town.
Toronto was served by train services on the Toronto railway line until March 1990, when the NSW Government closed the line because of low passenger levels. The train service was replaced by a bus service which connects Toronto with Fassifern railway station. Train services operating from Fassifern include services to Sydney and Newcastle as well as the XPT service to Brisbane. Toronto is well served by road links to Newcastle and Sydney and is approximately 8 minutes from the Sydney-Newcastle Freeway (M1).
The Toronto centre serves the local communities of Kilaben Bay, Coal Point, Carey Bay, Rathmines and Wangi Wangi to the south and Teralba, Booragul, Woodrising, Fennell Bay, Bolton Point, Fassifern and Blackalls Park to the north.
Sports
Many Toronto residents are involved in water sports. The shore near the town has the Royal Motor Yacht Club and the Toronto Amateur Sailing Club. Yachts and cruisers are moored on the lake and smaller craft are pulled up onto private land at the waters edge.
Toronto is represented by three sports teams in Newcastle competitions. The Toronto Awaba Stags FC in the Northern NSW Football competition; the Macquarie Scorpions in the Newcastle Rugby League and also the Toronto Workers Kookaburras in the Newcastle cricket competition.
Toronto Netball Club plays at Westlakes Netball Association.
Nathan Outteridge, Olympic gold medal winner for sailing, sailed at the Toronto Amateur Sailing club in his youth.
Nathan Green, winner of the 2009 RBC Canadian Open, was born when his family lived at Toronto.
Toronto is also represented in Swimming by Macquarie Shores Swimming club, many Macquarie Shores swimmers compete at Regional and State level.
Notes
Area calculation is based on NSW GNB maps.
References
External links
Toronto Website
Toronto Chamber of Commerce and Industry
Lake Macquarie City Council website
Royal Motor Yacht Club Toronto
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242184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josh%20Taylor%20%28actor%29 | Josh Taylor (actor) | Josh Taylor (born September 25, 1943) is an American actor. He is best known for playing the roles of Chris Kositchek (he originated in 1977) and Roman Brady on the American dramatic serial Days of Our Lives, Jack McKay on the teen drama Beverly Hills, 90210 and as Michael Hogan, the father on the situation comedy The Hogan Family.
Early life and education
Born in Princeton, Illinois as Tommy Tim Taylor and known as "Timmy", Taylor moved with his family to Chillicothe, Illinois when he was two years old. His dad became athletic director of Chillicothe Township High School (now Illinois Valley Central High School) as well as a respected football coach, and both Josh and older brother Ron played quarterback under him. Heavily recruited for his football skills, Josh chose Dartmouth College, where he was a member of two Ivy Championship teams and the Phi Delta Alpha fraternity, graduating with an A.B. degree in sociology in 1965. He then received a full scholarship to the University of Denver law school, where he earned his Juris Doctor degree in 1969. After earning his law degree, he moved to the West Coast.
Career
After earning his Juris Doctor, he decided to take a year off and work on the Alaska Pipeline. On the way to Alaska he stopped in Los Angeles to visit friends and was offered a job as manager of the Westwood Village Bratskeller. He spent a year and a half at the restaurant which catered to celebrities and, surrounded by actors and producers, decided to give up a future in law to pursue acting. After the Bratskeller closed, he worked as a bartender at the Riverside Lounge in Santa Monica until he snagged his first acting role playing a contemporary cowboy on an episode of Barnaby Jones in 1976. This was quickly followed with roles on The Six Million Dollar Man and The Hardy Boys.
In 1977, he took the role of bartender Chris Kositchek on the soap opera Days of Our Lives. His notoriety heightened as he became an integral part of the fictional landscape of Salem, the setting of the soap, and this eventually led to primetime starring tryouts. In 1981, Taylor went to CBS and had his own short-lived detective series, Riker. His role on Days continued uninterrupted.
In 1985, producers Tom Miller and Bob Boyett were casting the husband role for Valerie Harper on her new NBC series Close to Home, which was retitled Valerie before its premiere. Harper's on-screen husband, Michael Hogan, was an airline pilot who was seldom around. Taylor was called in for the part, among many other actors who were willing to settle for part-time status on the show, and earned the role. Valerie premiered in March 1986 to moderate ratings but critical success, and as the series was picked up for a second season, Taylor successfully balanced his work on the sitcom with his long-running role on Days.
In 1987, behind-the-scenes events on Valerie would cause Taylor to leave Days of our Lives. Valerie Harper was fired by Lorimar-Telepictures, the series' parent studio, during that year's filming hiatus (between seasons two and three) following a contract dispute. Both her dismissal and her character's being written off as having died were controversial at the time, since the show was named after its star and lead character. Sandy Duncan was named as Harper's replacement, and Taylor felt that to ensure the continued success of the show, that he would leave Days in order expand his sitcom role. Seeing this as a foothold to a lasting role in primetime, Taylor only thought it appropriate that the Michael Hogan character would be home more often for his family, both in the wake of his wife's death and in order to help his sister (Duncan) settle into the household. The series was retitled Valerie's Family: The Hogans in September 1987, later becoming The Hogan Family (which all seasons of the show became known as syndication) in June 1988.
Meanwhile, Taylor was preparing to make his last appearance as Chris Kositchek on Days. In the fall of 1987, after a ten-year run, the character had passed the bar exam and become a lawyer, serving the residents of Salem, if only for a brief period.
In 1988, Taylor starred opposite Barbara Eden in the made-for-television movie, The Secret Life of Kathy McCormick, and guest starred on series including Diagnosis: Murder, Walker: Texas Ranger, Murder, She Wrote, Matlock, and L.A. Law. The Hogan Family moved to CBS for its sixth season in 1990, but was canceled by the end of 1990-91 season. Taylor followed this with the pilot of the television version of North Dallas Forty. He played Jack McKay, Dylan's father, on Beverly Hills, 90210 on and off between 1991 and 1993, with occasional appearances in later seasons.
In 1997, he returned to Days, this time playing the character of Roman Brady. In 2004, Roman was murdered by the Salem Stalker (who turned out to be his ex-wife, Marlena) during his and Kate's wedding reception. A few months later, it was revealed that Roman didn't die but was alive on a tropical island called Melaswen (New Salem backwards). He is still appearing on the show.
Personal
Taylor is the son of George Gail Taylor (July 25, 1910 – July 26, 1994) and Ragnhild "Rena" (Christensen) Taylor (May 29, 1902 – September 25, 1943). His mother was the daughter of Danish immigrants and died from childbirth complications. His father, now a widower with two young sons, married Dorothy Gubbins (November 28, 1913 – October 1, 2009) on November 23, 1946 in Bradford, Illinois. Their daughter Vicki was born around 1948. Taylor's older brother Ron died in 2014.
References
External links
1943 births
Living people
People from Princeton, Illinois
People from Chillicothe, Illinois
Dartmouth Big Green football players
Dartmouth College alumni
Sturm College of Law alumni
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male soap opera actors
American male television actors | [
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242188 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo%20Junkers | Hugo Junkers | Hugo Junkers (3 February 1859 – 3 February 1935) was a German aircraft engineer and aircraft designer who pioneered the design of all-metal airplanes and flying wings. His company, Junkers Flugzeug- und Motorenwerke AG (Junkers Aircraft and Motor Works), was one of the mainstays of the German aircraft industry in the years between World War I and World War II. His multi-engined, all-metal passenger- and freight planes helped establish airlines in Germany and around the world.
In addition to aircraft, Junkers also built both diesel and petrol engines and held various thermodynamic and metallurgical patents. He was also one of the main sponsors of the Bauhaus movement and facilitated the move of the Bauhaus from Weimar to Dessau (where his factory was situated) in 1925.
Amongst the highlights of his career were the Junkers J 1 of 1915, the world's first practical all-metal aircraft, incorporating a cantilever wing design with virtually no external bracing, the Junkers F 13 of 1919 (the world's first all-metal passenger aircraft), the Junkers W 33 (which made the first successful heavier-than-air east-to-west crossing of the Atlantic Ocean), the Junkers G.38 "flying wing", and the Junkers Ju 52, affectionately nicknamed "Tante Ju", one of the most famous airliners of the 1930s.
When the Nazis came into power in 1933 they requested Junkers and his businesses aid in the German re-armament. When Junkers declined, the Nazis responded by demanding ownership of all patents and market shares from his remaining companies, under threat of imprisonment on the grounds of High Treason. In 1934 Junkers was placed under house arrest, and died at home in 1935 during negotiations to give up the remaining stock and interests in Junkers. Under Nazi control, his company produced some of the most successful German warplanes of the Second World War.
Biography
Junkers was born in Rheydt in the Prussian Rhine Province, the son of a wealthy industrialist. After taking his Abitur exams in 1878, he attended the Royal Polytechnic University in Charlottenburg and the Royal Technical University in Aachen, where he completed his engineering studies in 1883.
At first, he returned to Rheydt to work in his father's company, but soon attended further lectures on electromagnetism and thermodynamics held by Adolf Slaby in Charlottenburg. Slaby placed him with the Continental-Gasgesellschaft in Dessau, where he worked on the development of the first opposed-piston engine. To measure heating value, Junkers patented a calorimeter and founded a manufacturing company in 1892. Junkers personally introduced the calorimeter at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, where it was awarded a gold medal. The next year, he patented a gas-fired bath boiler, which he refined as a tankless heater. In 1895, he founded Junkers & Co. to utilize his inventions.
From 1897, he was offered a professorship of mechanical engineering at Aachen, where he lectured until 1912. Working as an engineer at the same time, Junkers taking substantial gains of Junkers & Co. devised, patented, and exploited calorimeters, domestic appliances (gas stoves), pressure regulators, gas oil engines, fan heaters, and other inventions.
Aeronautical work
Junkers' aeronautical work began in earnest at age 50 when he worked with engineer Hans Reissner in Aachen. Reissner had developed an all-metal aircraft, on which work first started in 1909 at the Brand Heath, equipped with corrugated iron wings built by Junkers & Co. in Dessau. The iron wings were patented one year later. Junkers had a wind tunnel built and invented a hydraulic brake.
He had far-sighted ideas of metal aeroplanes and flying wings, but the necessities of the war held him back. During World War I, the government forced him to focus on aircraft production. In 1915, he developed the world's first practical all-metal aircraft design, the Junkers J 1 "Blechesel" (Sheetmetal Donkey), which survived on display in Deutsches Museum in Munich until WWII. His firm's first military production design in 1916–17 was the armored-fuselage, two-seat, all-metal sesquiplane known by its IdFlieg designation, the Junkers J.I, considered the best German ground attack aircraft of the war. During this time, the German government's IdFlieg military aviation inspectorate forced him to merge his firm with Anthony Fokker's to form the Junkers-Fokker Aktiengesellschaft on 20 October 1917. The J.I's pattern of an armored fuselage that protected the nose-mounted engine, pilot, and observer in a unitized metal "bathtub" was the possible inspiration for Sergei Ilyushin's later Il-2 Shturmovik (conceivably appropriate as Junkers did have a manufacturing plant in Fili, a suburb of Moscow, in the Soviet Union in the 1920s) with a similar armored fuselage design. As this design philosophy for such combat aircraft had proven to be a good idea, it was once again broadly reused for the 1970s-premiered American Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II "Warthog" twin-turbofan powered attack aircraft, also having its pilot enveloped in an armoured titanium bathtub. By 1918, Junkers' firm, with its previously demonstrated preference for monoplane-pattern airframe designs, had created the world's first production low-winged, single-seat monoplane all-metal fighter aircraft, the Junkers D.I, which pioneered the use of Alfred Wilm's 1906 invention of duralumin throughout a production airframe. The D.I did not enter production until 1918. He also produced a two-seat monoplane fighter, the Junkers CL.I. Both postwar Soviet aviation pioneer Andrei Tupolev and American aviation designer William Bushnell Stout owed much to Hugo Junkers in the designs of their earlier aircraft, which benefited from Junkers' corrugated, light-metal construction technique.
The Junkers F.13 of 1919 was the first of several successful civil aircraft designs produced by Junkers Flugzeugwerke: later designs include the Junkers Ju 52/3m from 1932. Through a variety of business initiatives, Junkers was active in founding and developing airlines around the globe, initially intending to sell them aircraft. Airlines where Junkers played a pivotal role in early phases of their development include Deutsche Luft Hansa and Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano. Several business ventures failed from wider economic or political problems that hampered sound engineering plans. Junkers always had more ideas: the massive four-engined G.38, nicknamed "Der Grosse Dessauer", delivered to Luft Hansa, made no commercial trips for many months as he repeatedly recalled it to the factory for improvements.
Legacy
Hugo Junkers is mainly known in connection with aircraft bearing his name. These include some he reluctantly developed for the German Empire during World War I, later in minor association with Anthony Fokker, as well as civil aircraft designs during the "interwar period" produced by Junkers Flugzeugwerke (Junkers Aircraft Works). Junkers died in 1935, on his 76th birthday.
The earliest all-metal post-World War I aircraft designs of both Andrei Tupolev — with his Tupolev ANT-2 two-passenger small aircraft of 1924 — and William Bushnell Stout's initial all-metal design, the Stout ST twin-engine torpedo bomber of 1922, were both based directly on the pioneering work of Junkers, with each engineer (one Soviet, one American) separately developing examples of aircraft like Tupolev's enormous, 63 meter wingspan, eight-engined Maksim Gorki — the largest aircraft built anywhere in the world in the early 1930s — and Stout's popular Ford Trimotor airliner.
In 1976, Junkers was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame.
Junkers was featured in the 2013 semi-fictional movie ''The Wind Rises'' by Japanese director Hayao Miyazaki
Timeline
1888–1893 work with Dessauer Continental-Gasgesellschaft
1892 Patents calorie meter
1895 Founds Junkers & Co in Dessau to build gas engines & heaters
1897–1912 Professor at the RWTH Aachen University in Aachen
1908 Hans Reissner with Junkers' help starts work on all-metal aircraft
1910 Patents the carriage of passengers within the wing
1913/14 uses wind tunnel
1915 Junkers J 1 all-metal monoplane aircraft flies (world's first practical all-metal aircraft to fly)
1916 Junkers J 2 pioneering all metal monoplane fighter aircraft for the Luftstreitkräfte, six built
20 October 1917 – 1919 Partnership Junkers-Fokkerwerke AG; mass production of 227 J4 aircraft
1919 Junkers and Fokker part ways, company renamed Junkers Flugzeugwerke AG
1919 First civilian all-metal aircraft Junkers F.13 flies
1919 Starts work on "Giant" JG1, to seat passengers within thick wings
1921 Allied Aeronautical Commission of Control orders JG1 destroyed (exceeds post-war size limit)
1921 Founds "Abteilung Luftverkehr der Junkerswerke" (later merged into Deutsche Luft Hansa)
1922 Starts military aircraft production near Moscow, financed by German government loans
1922 Proposes 100-passenger J-1000 aircraft – never built
1925 Russian project fails, German government demands repayments
1926 Legal battles end with Junkers losing several companies
1927 Awarded the Wilhelm Exner Medal
1928 First east-west transatlantic flight by a heavier-than-air aircraft; crewed by Köhl, Hünefeld and Fitzmaurice in a Junkers W33
1930 Receives Siemens-Ring for his scientific contributions to combustion engines and metallic airplanes
1931 Junkers G38 34-passenger airliner delivered – largest in world until Tupolev's Maksim Gorky in 1934 – only two built
1932 After great crash, saves Junkers Flugzeugbau and Motorenbau from bankruptcy, by selling virtually all his other assets .
1935 Dies during negotiations to cede remaining stock and interests in Junkers.
1935 Therese Junkers gives full control of interests to Third Reich.
See also
Junkers company
Burt Rutan – who inaugurated the second major change in aviation materials technology
German inventors and discoverers
References
Sources
Detlef Siegfried. Der Fliegerblick: Intellektuelle Radikalismus und Flugzeugproduktion bei Junkers 1914 bis 1934. (Historisches Forschungszentrum der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, Reihe Politik- und Gesellschaftsgeschichte, nr. 58) Bonn: J.H.W. Dietz, 2001. .
External links
Biographical Essay by T.E. Heppenheimer.
The Hugo Junkers Homepage Horst Zoeller's comprehensive Junkers encyclopedia (www.junkers.de.vu has expired!)
Junkers biography on WWI aviation site
Major historical/factual European airlines overview site – many specific Junkers articles.
"Hugo Junkers - A Life for Technology" German language biographical homepage
1859 births
1935 deaths
Aircraft designers
Aviation inventors
Aviation pioneers
German aerospace engineers
Engineers from North Rhine-Westphalia
20th-century German inventors
German company founders
20th-century German businesspeople
Junkers people
Engineers from Saxony-Anhalt
People from Mönchengladbach
People from the Rhine Province
RWTH Aachen University alumni
RWTH Aachen University faculty
Technical University of Berlin alumni
Werner von Siemens Ring laureates
Lufthansa people | [
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242189 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pervasive%20developmental%20disorder | Pervasive developmental disorder | The diagnostic category pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), as opposed to specific developmental disorders (SDD), is a group of disorders characterized by delays in the development of multiple basic functions including socialization and communication. The pervasive developmental disorders include autism, Asperger syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS, i.e., all autism spectrum disorders [ASD]), childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD), overactive disorder associated with mental retardation and stereotyped movements, and Rett syndrome. The first four of these disorders are commonly called the autism spectrum disorders; the last disorder is much rarer, and is sometimes placed in the autism spectrum and sometimes not.
The terminology PDD and ASD is often used interchangeably and varies depending on location. The two have overlapping definitions but are defined differently by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5), and the International Classification of Diseases, 10th edition (ICD-10). DSM-5, removed PDD as a diagnosis and replaced it with ASD and the relative severity of the condition. ICD-10 on the other hand labels ASD as a pervasive developmental disorder with the subtypes previously mentioned.
The onset of pervasive developmental disorders occurs during infancy, but the condition is usually not identified until the child is around three years old. Parents may begin to question the health of their child when developmental milestones are not met, including age appropriate motor movement and speech production.
There is a division among doctors on the use of the term PDD. Many use the term PDD as a short way of saying PDD-NOS (pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified). Others use the general category label of PDD because they are hesitant to diagnose very young children with a specific type of PDD, such as autism. Both approaches contribute to confusion about the term, because the term PDD actually refers to a category of disorders and is not a diagnostic label.
Signs and symptoms
Symptoms of PDD may include behavioral and communication problems such as:
Difficulty using and understanding language
Difficulty relating to people, objects, and events; for example, lack of eye contact, pointing behavior, and lack of facial responses
Unusual play with toys and other objects.
Paranoia, a characteristic form of social anxiety, derealization, transient psychosis, and unconventional beliefs if environment or routine are changed without notice
Repetitive body movements or behavior patterns, such as hand flapping, hair twirling, foot tapping, or more complex movements
Difficulty regulating behaviors and emotions, which may result in temper tantrums, anxiety, and aggression
Emotional breakdowns
Delusional or unconventional perception of the world
Maladaptive daydreaming
Mirrored-Self Misidentification – the delusion that the individual in the mirror that you are a child, even though you are an older teen or an adult
Degrees
Children with PDD vary widely in abilities, intelligence, and behaviors. Some children do not speak at all, others speak in limited phrases or conversations, and some have relatively normal language development. Repetitive play skills and limited social skills are generally evident. Unusual responses to sensory information – loud noises, lights – are common.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is usually made during early childhood. With the release of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders–Fifth Edition (DSM-5) in May 2013, the diagnosis for PDD was removed and replaced with autism spectrum disorders. Distinction between the past disorders is implicated by a series of severity levels. Individuals who received diagnoses based on the DSM-IV maintain their diagnosis under the autism spectrum disorders. However, an editorial published in the October 2012 issue of American Journal of Psychiatry notes that, while some doctors argue that there is insufficient evidence to support the diagnostic distinction between ASD and PDD, multiple literature reviews found that studies showing significant differences between the two disorders significantly outnumbered those that found no difference.
Unlike the DSM-5, the World Health Organization’s International Classification of Diseases, 10th edition (ICD-10) categorizes PDD into four distinct subtypes, each with their own diagnostic criteria. The four disorders (childhood autism, atypical autism, Rett syndrome, and other childhood disintegrative disorder) are characterized by abnormalities in social interactions and communication.
The disorders are primarily diagnosed based on behavioral features, although the presence of any medical conditions are important, they are not taken into account when making a diagnosis.
Before the release of the DSM-5, some clinicians used PDD-NOS as a "temporary" diagnosis for children under the age of five when, for whatever reason, they are reluctant to diagnose autism. There are several justifications for this. Very young children have limited social interaction and communication skills to begin with, so it can be tricky to diagnose milder cases of autism in toddlers. The unspoken assumption is that by the age of five, unusual behaviors will either resolve or develop into diagnosable autism. However, some parents view the PDD label as no more than a euphemism for autism spectrum disorders, problematic because this label makes it more difficult to receive aid for early childhood intervention.
Classification
The pervasive developmental disorders were:
Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), which includes atypical autism, and is the most common (47% of autism diagnoses);
Typical autism, the best-known;
Asperger syndrome (9% of autism diagnoses);
Rett syndrome; and
Childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD).
The first three of these disorders are commonly called the autism spectrum disorders; the last two disorders are much rarer, and are sometimes placed in the autism spectrum and sometimes not.
In May 2013, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual–Fifth Edition (DSM-5) was released, updating the classification for pervasive developmental disorders. The grouping of disorders, including PDD-NOS, Autism, Asperger Syndrome, Rett Syndrome, and CDD, has been removed and replaced with the general term of Autism Spectrum Disorders. The American Psychiatric Association has concluded that using the general diagnosis of ASD supports more accurate diagnoses. The combination of these disorders was also fueled by the standpoint that Autism is characterized by common symptoms and should therefore bear a single diagnostic term. In order to distinguish between the different disorders, the DSM-5 employs severity levels. The severity levels take into account required support, restricted interests and repetitive behaviors, and deficits in social communication.
PDD and PDD-NOS
There is a division among doctors on the use of the term PDD. Many use the term PDD as a short way of saying PDD-NOS. Others use the general category because the term PDD actually refers to a category of disorders and is not a diagnostic label.
PDD is not itself a diagnosis, while PDD-NOS is a diagnosis. To further complicate the issue, PDD-NOS can also be referred to as "atypical personality development", "atypical PDD", or "atypical Autism".
Behavior
An association between HFA and criminal behavior is not completely characterized. Several studies have shown that the features associated with HFA may increase the probability of engaging in criminal behavior. While there is still a great deal of research that needs to be done in this area, recent studies on the correlation between HFA and criminal actions suggest that there is a need to understand the attributes of HFA that may lead to violent behavior. There have been several case studies that link the lack of empathy and social naïveté associated with HFA to criminal actions.
There is still needs more research on the link between HFA and crimes, because most other studies point out that most people with ASD are ten times more likely to be victims and five times less likely to commit crimes than the general population. But there are also small-subgroups of people with Low-functioning Autism that commit crimes, because lack of understanding of the laws.
Treatment
Medications are used to address certain behavioral problems; therapy for children with PDD should be specialized according to the child's specific needs.
Some children with PDD benefit from specialized classrooms in which the class size is small and instruction is given on a one-to-one basis. Others function well in standard special education classes or regular classes with support. Early intervention, including appropriate and specialized educational programs and support services, play a critical role in improving the outcome of individuals with PDD.
See also
Infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy
Multiple complex developmental disorder
Multisystem developmental disorder
Overactive disorder associated with mental retardation and stereotyped movements
References
External links
CDC's "Learn the Signs. Act Early." campaign - Information for parents on early childhood development and developmental disabilities
NINFS Pervasive Developmental Disorders Information Page
Special education
Neurological disorders in children
Learning disabilities
Autism spectrum disorders
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242190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature%20extraction | Feature extraction | In machine learning, pattern recognition, and image processing, feature extraction starts from an initial set of measured data and builds derived values (features) intended to be informative and non-redundant, facilitating the subsequent learning and generalization steps, and in some cases leading to better human interpretations. Feature extraction is related to dimensionality reduction.
When the input data to an algorithm is too large to be processed and it is suspected to be redundant (e.g. the same measurement in both feet and meters, or the repetitiveness of images presented as pixels), then it can be transformed into a reduced set of features (also named a feature vector). Determining a subset of the initial features is called feature selection. The selected features are expected to contain the relevant information from the input data, so that the desired task can be performed by using this reduced representation instead of the complete initial data.
General
Feature extraction involves reducing the number of resources required to describe a large set of data. When performing analysis of complex data one of the major problems stems from the number of variables involved. Analysis with a large number of variables generally requires a large amount of memory and computation power, also it may cause a classification algorithm to overfit to training samples and generalize poorly to new samples. Feature extraction is a general term for methods of constructing combinations of the variables to get around these problems while still describing the data with sufficient accuracy. Many machine learning practitioners believe that properly optimized feature extraction is the key to effective model construction.
Results can be improved using constructed sets of application-dependent features, typically built by an expert. One such process is called feature engineering. Alternatively, general dimensionality reduction techniques are used such as:
Independent component analysis
Isomap
Kernel PCA
Latent semantic analysis
Partial least squares
Principal component analysis
Multifactor dimensionality reduction
Nonlinear dimensionality reduction
Multilinear Principal Component Analysis
Multilinear subspace learning
Semidefinite embedding
Autoencoder
Image processing
One very important area of application is image processing, in which algorithms are used to detect and isolate various desired portions or shapes (features) of a digitized image or video stream. It is particularly important in the area of optical character recognition.
Implementations
Many data analysis software packages provide for feature extraction and dimension reduction. Common numerical programming environments such as MATLAB, SciLab, NumPy, Sklearn and the R language provide some of the simpler feature extraction techniques (e.g. principal component analysis) via built-in commands. More specific algorithms are often available as publicly available scripts or third-party add-ons. There are also software packages targeting specific software machine learning applications that specialize in feature extraction.
See also
Cluster analysis
Dimensionality reduction
Feature detection
Feature selection
Data mining
Connected-component labeling
Segmentation (image processing)
Space mapping
Dynamic texture
Radiomics
References
Feature detection (computer vision)
Dimension reduction
Rustum, Rabee, Adebayo Adeloye, and Aurore Simala. "Kohonen self-organising map (KSOM) extracted features for enhancing MLP-ANN prediction models of BOD5." In International Symposium: Quantification and Reduction of Predictive Uncertainty for Sustainable Water Resources Management-24th General Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG), pp. 181-187. 2007. | [
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] |
242191 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Romney | George Romney | George Romney may refer to:
George Romney (painter) (1734–1802), English portrait painter
George S. Romney (1874–1935), president of the college now known as Brigham Young University-Idaho
G. Ott Romney (1892–1973), American football player, coach and college athletics administrator
George W. Romney (1907–1995), businessman, Governor of Michigan, U.S. presidential candidate, Secretary of Housing & Urban Development, Mitt Romney's father
G. Scott Romney (born 1941), Michigan lawyer and politician, son of George W. Romney and brother of Mitt Romney
See also
Romney family
Romney (disambiguation) | [
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242192 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwigsburg%20%28district%29 | Ludwigsburg (district) | Landkreis Ludwigsburg is a Landkreis (district) in the middle of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from north clockwise) Heilbronn, Rems-Murr-Kreis, the district-free city Stuttgart, and the districts Böblingen and Enz-Kreis.
History
The district dates back to the Oberamt Ludwigsburg, which was created by the dukedom Württemberg in the beginning of the 19th century. After several small changes during the century, it was converted into a district in 1938. Several municipalities of the dissolved Oberämter Besigheim, Marbach and Waiblingen were added to the newly formed district.
As a result of the communal reform of 1973, the district gained about half of the dissolved district Vaihingen, and some few municipalities from the districts Backnang and Leonberg.
Geography
The main river in the districts is the Neckar, which divides the district into a big western part and a smaller eastern part.
Partnerships
Starting in 1990 the district has a partnership with the district Chemnitzer Land in the Free State of Saxony. Even older is the partnership with the region Upper Galilee in Israel.
Since 1992 the district has a partnership with the Hungarian Komitat Pest, however the official signing of the partnership contract did take place in 2002. A friendship exists with the city Yichang in the province Hubei, China.
Coat of arms
The imperial eagle in the coat of arms is taken from the arms of the city Markgröningen, which was an imperial city. It was later adopted by the city Ludwigsburg as well. The deer antler above the eagle is the symbol of Württemberg.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website
Stuttgart (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg | [
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242198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standards%20of%20Care%20for%20the%20Health%20of%20Transsexual%2C%20Transgender%2C%20and%20Gender%20Nonconforming%20People | Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender Nonconforming People | The Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender Nonconforming People are international clinical protocols outlining the recommended assessment and treatment for gender non-conforming individuals across the lifespan or transgender or transsexual people who wish to undergo social, hormonal or surgical transition to the other sex. Clinicians' decisions regarding patients' treatment are often influenced by this standard of care (SOC). They are most widespread SOC used by professionals working with transsexual, transgender, or gender variant people. However, other sets of SOCs, protocols and guidelines do exist, especially outside the United States.
History
Prior to the advent of the first SOC, there was no semblance of consensus on psychiatric, psychological, medical, and surgical requirements or procedures. Before the 1960s, few countries offered safe, legal medical options and many criminalized cross-gender behaviors or mandated unproven psychiatric treatments. In response to this problem, the Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association (now known as the World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH)) authored one of the earliest sets of clinical guidelines for the express purpose of ensuring "lasting personal comfort with the gendered self in order to maximize overall psychological well-being and self-fulfillment."
The WPATH-SOC are periodically updated and revised. The latest revision was released September 25, 2011. This is the seventh version of the WPATH-SOC since the original 1979 document was drafted. Previous revisions were released in 1980, 1981, 1990, 1998, and 2001.
Sixth Version
The sixth revision recommends that mental health professionals document a patient's relevant history in a letter, which should be required by medical professionals prior to physical intervention. One letter is required for hormone replacement therapy or either augmentation mammoplasty or male chest reconstruction. Two additional letters are needed for genital surgeries.
The Eligibility Criteria and Readiness Criteria in version 6 give certain very specific minimum requirements as prerequisites to HRT or sex reassignment surgery (SRS). Section Nine covers "The Real-life Experience," during which individuals seeking hormonal and other treatments are expected to begin transitioning publicly to their preferred gender role. Section Twelve, titled "Genital Surgery," deals directly with all concerns about sex reassignment surgery. It includes six "Eligibility Criteria" and two "Readiness Criteria", which are intended to be used by professionals for both diagnosis and guidance before providing patients "letters of recommendation." For this and other reasons, the WPATH-SOC is a controversial and often maligned document among patients seeking medical intervention (hormones, and/or surgery), who state that their legally protected right to proper medical care and treatment is unjustly and unduly withheld or even denied based on the SOC.
The assessment and treatment of children and adolescents was covered in section V of version 6.
Version 7
Included in the guidelines are sections on purpose and use of the WPATH-SOC, the global applicability of the WPATH-SOC, the difference between gender nonconformity and gender dysphoria, epidemiology, treatment of children, adolescents and adults, mental health, hormone replacement therapy (masculinizing or feminizing; HRT), reproductive health, voice and communication therapy, sex reassignment surgery, lifelong preventive and primary care, applicability of the WPATH-SOC to people living in institutional environments, and applicability of the WPATH-SOC to people with disorders of sex development.
The seventh edition also includes acknowledgements of the ever-evolving language used to describe and treat transsexual, transgender, and gender non-conforming individuals. There is an emphasis placed on the idea that identifying with these labels does not inherently qualify someone as disordered, and that treatment should be focused on the alleviation of any suffering caused by gender dysphoria. They make a stance against the "deprivation of civil and human rights” on the grounds of someone's gender identity. This version, much like its predecessor requires referrals for surgical procedures based on set criteria, but notes the importance of informed consent and listening to the wishes of the patient.
Treatment for Children and Adolescents
The seventh edition includes a section distinguishing between cases of gender dysphoria and non-conformity for children and adolescents, as well as recommended treatment paths for each.
For children, it is noted that the likelihood of persistence into adulthood is around 6-23% for biological males and 12-27% for biological females, and that the rate of occurrence ranges from 3-6 times more likely for biologically male children than biologically female children. It is also “relatively common” for these children to have coexisting disorders such as anxiety and depression. For children, the recommended treatment is primarily counseling services without a pushed bias towards conforming towards one presentation or another. Medical opinion on supporting the child in transition to a different gender role has not yet reached consensus.
For adolescents, the rate of persistence of dysphoria into adulthood seems to be much higher, although no formal studies have been conducted to analyze prevalence. Adolescents have not been reported to have a significant connection between gender dysphoria and coexisting disorders, and the rate of gender dysphoria between biologically male and female adolescents is 1:1. For adolescents whose dysphoria persists beyond counseling, it is recommended that a three stage approach be taken for treatment. This first is fully reversible interventions such as hormone blockers, which prevent the onset of puberty. The second is partially reversible interventions such as hormonal therapy designed to masculinize or feminize the body. Finally, the third stage is in the form of irreversible intervention in the form of surgical procedures. It is recommended that adequate time be given between stages to accommodate for the assimilation of effects for the adolescent and their parents, and that progression from one stage to another only occur if gender dysphoria persists.
Criticism of the WPATH-SOC
Numerous criticisms have been made against the WPATH-SOC over the course of its history, some of which are reflected in later versions of the guidelines. Most of these criticisms are related to the strictness of the requirements, noting that the rate of post-surgical regret among transsexual people is very low — lower than many medically necessary and cosmetic procedures with less stringent requirements. Provisions related to the necessity of real-life experience (noting that requiring real-life experience in an incongruous anatomical/social role can be both mentally harmful as well as physically dangerous to the individual) have been particularly under fire. For many, it is safe only to express gender outwardly in limited settings (8/7, 12/7 or 18/7) rather than all day, every day (24/7). This is now taken into consideration in version 7.
The WPATH SOC version 6 and 7 allow for referral for puberty blocking medication to be prescribed to youth experiencing puberty, starting at Tanner stage 2 or above. Referral after that age could lead to bodily changes reversible only with surgery (facial shape, secondary sex characteristics); surgically risky (voice pitch); or, irreversible changes (skeletal structure or height). The WPATH SOC version 7 has also removed the set length of time for psychotherapy, in order to facilitate support and referral to transition services in a timely way, should they be required. These changes have led some critics to claim that the criteria are too loose, however, an individualized approach that provides prospective, supportive follow-up and education to families about how to affirm expression, and create an environment for safe exploration has always been recommended.
Other SOCs, protocols and guidelines for treatment of Gender Dysphoria
In some countries or areas, local standards of care exist, such as in the Netherlands, Germany or Italy. Also, some health care providers have their own set of SOCs which have to be followed to have access to health care.
The criticism about the WPATH-SOCs applies to these as well; some of these SOCs are based on much older versions of the WPATH-SOCs, or are entirely independent of them. A more lenient version that has been increasing in acceptance is the Health Law Standards Of Care, developed by the Health Law Project (also known as the ICTLEP guidelines), which is based on a harm-reduction model.
Treatment according to older SOCs is often reserved for those who want to medically transition, as opposed to those who might not want to undergo the complete set of treatments, or who see themselves outside a binary gender system. Such older SOCs are often used to withhold medical interventions from transgender people altogether.
In other regions, notably Latin America, surgeons follow no particular set standards and use their own criteria for eligibility for surgery.
In Western countries the emphasis is on psychiatry or psychology; typically, in Latin America, the emphasis is on the ability to "pass", and in Thailand the emphasis is on cross-living experience.
See also
Transgender health care
List of transgender-related topics
References
External links
WPATH Standards of Care
Health Law Standards of Care for Transsexualism
Gender transitioning and medicine
Medical ethics
Transgender studies | [
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242203 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma%2C%20Lady%20Hamilton | Emma, Lady Hamilton | Dame Emma Hamilton (born Amy Lyon; 26 April 176515 January 1815), generally known as Lady Hamilton, was an English maid, model, dancer and actress. She began her career in London's demi-monde, becoming the mistress of a series of wealthy men, culminating in the naval hero Lord Nelson, and was the favourite model of the portrait artist George Romney.
In 1791, at the age of 26, she married Sir William Hamilton, British ambassador to the Kingdom of Naples, where she was a success at court, befriending the queen, the sister of Marie Antoinette, and meeting Nelson.
Early life
She was born Amy Lyon in Swan Cottage, Ness near Neston, Cheshire, England, the daughter of Henry Lyon, a blacksmith who died when she was two months old. She was baptised on 12 May 1765. She was raised by her mother, the former Mary Kidd (later Cadogan), and grandmother, Sarah Kidd, at Hawarden, and received no formal education. She later went by the name of Emma Hart.
With her grandmother struggling to make ends meet at the age of 60, and after Mary went to London in 1777, Emma began work, aged 12, as a maid at the Hawarden home of Doctor Honoratus Leigh Thomas, a surgeon working in Chester.
Only a few months later she was unemployed again and moved to London in the autumn of 1777. She started to work for the Budd family in Chatham Place, Blackfriars, London, and began acting at the Drury Lane theatre in Covent Garden. She also worked as a maid for actresses, among them Mary Robinson. Emma next worked as a model and dancer at the "Goddess of Health" for James Graham, a Scottish "quack" doctor.
At 15, Emma met Sir Harry Fetherstonhaugh, who hired her for several months as hostess and entertainer at a lengthy stag party at Fetherstonhaugh's Uppark country estate in the South Downs. She is said to have danced nude on his dining room table. Fetherstonhaugh took Emma there as a mistress, but frequently ignored her in favour of drinking and hunting with his friends. Emma soon befriended the dull but sincere Honourable Charles Francis Greville (1749–1809). It was about this time (late June-early July 1781) that she conceived a child by Fetherstonhaugh.
Greville took her in as his mistress, on condition that the child was fostered out. Once the child (Emma Carew) was born, she was removed to be raised by her great-grandmother at Hawarden for her first three years, and subsequently (after a short spell in London with her mother) deposited with Mr John Blackburn, schoolmaster, and his wife in Manchester. As a young woman, Emma's daughter saw her mother frequently, but later when Emma fell into debt, her daughter worked abroad as a companion or governess.
Greville kept Emma in a small house at Edgware Row, Paddington Green, at this time a village on the rural outskirts of London. At Greville's request, she changed her name to "Mrs Emma Hart", dressed in modest outfits in subdued colours and eschewed a social life. He arranged for Emma's mother to live with her as housekeeper and chaperone. Greville also taught Emma to enunciate more elegantly, and after a while, started to invite some of his friends to meet her.
Seeing an opportunity to make some money by taking a cut of sales, Greville sent her to sit for his friend, the painter George Romney, who was looking for a new model and muse. It was then that Emma became the subject of many of Romney's most famous portraits, and soon became London's biggest celebrity. So began Romney's lifelong obsession with her, sketching her nude and clothed in many poses that he later used to create paintings in her absence. Through the popularity of Romney's work and particularly of his striking-looking young model, Emma became well known in society circles, under the name of "Emma Hart". She was witty, intelligent, a quick learner, elegant and, as paintings of her attest, extremely beautiful. Romney was fascinated by her looks and ability to adapt to the ideals of the age. Romney and other artists painted her in many guises, foreshadowing her later "attitudes".
In 1783, Greville needed to find a rich wife to replenish his finances, and found a fit in the form of eighteen-year-old heiress Henrietta Middleton. Emma would be a problem, as he disliked being known as her lover (this having become apparent to all through her fame in Romney's artworks), and his prospective wife would not accept him as a suitor if he lived openly with Emma Hart.
To be rid of Emma, Greville persuaded his uncle, younger brother of his mother, Sir William Hamilton, British Envoy to Naples, to take her off his hands. Greville's marriage would be useful to Sir William, as it relieved him of having Greville as a poor relation. To promote his plan, Greville suggested to Sir William that Emma would make a very pleasing mistress, assuring him that, once married to Henrietta Middleton, he would come and fetch Emma back. Sir William, then 55 and newly widowed, had arrived back in London for the first time in over five years. Emma's famous beauty was by then well known to Sir William, so much so that he even agreed to pay the expenses for her journey to ensure her speedy arrival. A great collector of antiquities and beautiful objects, he took interest in her as another acquisition. He had long been happily married until the death of his wife in 1782, and he liked female companionship. His home in Naples was well known all over the world for hospitality and refinement. He needed a hostess for his salon, and from what he knew about Emma, he thought she would be the perfect choice.
Greville did not inform Emma of his plan, but instead in 1785 suggested the trip as a prolonged holiday in Naples while he (Greville) was away in Scotland on business, not long after Emma's mother had suffered a stroke. Emma was thus sent to Naples, supposedly for six to eight months, little realising that she was going as the mistress of her host. Emma set off for Naples with her mother and Gavin Hamilton on 13 March 1786 overland in an old coach, and arrived in Naples on her 21st birthday on 26 April.
Marriage to Sir William Hamilton
After about six months of living in apartments in the Palazzo Sessa with her mother (separately from Sir William) and begging Greville to come and fetch her, Emma came to understand that he had cast her off. She was furious when she realised what Greville had planned for her, but eventually started to enjoy life in Naples and responded to Sir William's intense courtship just before Christmas in 1786. They fell in love, Sir William forgot about his plan to take her on as a temporary mistress, and Emma moved into his apartments, leaving her mother downstairs in the ground floor rooms. Emma was unable to attend Court yet, but Sir William took her to every other party, assembly and outing.
They were married on 6 September 1791 at St Marylebone Parish Church, then a plain small building, having returned to England for the purpose and Sir William having gained the King's consent. She was twenty-six and he was sixty. Although she was obliged to use her legal name of Amy Lyon on the marriage register, the wedding gave her the title Lady Hamilton which she would use for the rest of her life. Hamilton's public career was now at its height and during their visit he was inducted into the Privy Council. Shortly after the ceremony, Romney painted his last portrait of Emma from life, The Ambassadress, after which he plunged into a deep depression and drew a series of frenzied sketches of Emma.
The newly married couple returned to Naples after two days. After the marriage, Greville transferred the cost of Emma Carew's upkeep to Sir William, and suggested that he might move her to an establishment befitting the stepdaughter of an envoy. However, Sir William preferred to forget about her for a while.
Life in Naples and the "Attitudes"
Lady Hamilton became a close friend of Queen Maria Carolina, sister of Marie Antoinette and wife of Ferdinand I of Naples, and soon acquired fluency in both French and Italian. She was also a talented amateur singer. She sang one of the solo parts of Joseph Haydn's Nelson Mass and entertained guests at her home. At one point, the Royal Opera in Madrid tried to engage her for a season, in competition with their star, Angelica Catalani, but that offer was turned down.
Sharing Sir William Hamilton's enthusiasm for classical antiquities and art, she developed what she called her "Attitudes"—tableaux vivants in which she portrayed sculptures and paintings before British visitors. Emma developed the attitudes, also known as mimoplastic art, by using Romney's idea of combining classical poses with modern allure as the basis for her act. Emma had her dressmaker make dresses modelled on those worn by peasant islanders in the Bay of Naples, and the loose-fitting garments she often wore when modelling for Romney. She would pair these tunics with a few large shawls or veils, draping herself in folds of cloth and posing in such a way as to evoke popular images from Greco-Roman mythology. This cross between postures, dance and acting was first revealed to guests in the spring of 1787 by Sir William at his home in Naples. It formed a sort of charade, with the audience guessing the names of the classical characters and scenes Emma portrayed.
With the aid of her shawls, Emma posed as various classical figures from Medea to Queen Cleopatra, and her performances charmed aristocrats, artists such as Élisabeth-Louise Vigée-Le Brun, writers—including the great Johann Wolfgang von Goethe—and kings and queens alike, setting off new dance trends across Europe and starting a fashion for a draped Grecian style of dress.
"Attitudes" were taken up by several other (female) artists, among them Ida Brun from Denmark, who became Emma's successor in the new art form. The famed sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen admired her art.
Meeting with Nelson
As wife of the British Envoy, Emma welcomed Nelson (who had been married to Fanny Nisbet for about 6 years at that point) after his arrival in Naples on 10 September 1793, when he came to gather reinforcements against the French. She is described in 1797 in the diary of 18-year-old Elizabeth Wynne as "a charming woman, beautiful and exceedingly good humoured and amiable." When he set sail for Sardinia on 15 September after only 5 days in Naples, it was clear that he had already fallen a little in love.
After four years of marriage, Emma had despaired of having children with Sir William, although she wrote of him as "the best husband and friend". It seems likely that he was sterile. She once again tried to persuade him to allow her daughter to come and live with them in the Palazzo Sessa as her mother Mrs Cadogan's niece, but he refused this as well as her request to make enquiries in England about suitors for the young Emma.
Nelson returned to Naples five years later, on 22 September 1798 a living legend, after his victory at the Battle of the Nile in Aboukir, with his step-son Josiah Nisbet, then 18 years old. By this time, Nelson's adventures had prematurely aged him; he had lost an arm and most of his teeth, and was afflicted by coughing spells. Before his arrival, Emma had written a letter passionately expressing her admiration for him. Nelson even wrote effusively of Emma to his increasingly estranged wife. Emma and Sir William escorted Nelson to their home, the Palazzo Sessa.
Emma nursed Nelson under her husband's roof and arranged a party with 1,800 guests to celebrate his 40th birthday on 29 September. After the party, Emma became Nelson's secretary, translator and political facilitator. They soon fell in love and began an affair. Hamilton showed admiration and respect for Nelson, and vice versa; the affair was tolerated. By November, gossip from Naples about their affair reached the English newspapers. Emma Hamilton and Horatio Nelson were famous.
Emma had by then become not only a close personal friend of Queen Maria Carolina, but had developed into an important political influence. She advised the Queen on how to react to the threats from the French Revolution. Maria Carolina's sister Marie Antoinette had fallen a victim to the Revolution.
In 1799, Naples was the scene of a strange revolution led by members of the aristocracy; the common people did not agree with the revolution. The French troops were not welcome, but the royal family fled to Sicily. From here Nelson tried to help the royal family put down the revolutionaries. He had no support from the British government. He even allowed one of the leaders of the revolution, Admiral Francesco Caracciolo, to be executed for treason. Emma played an important role in helping to put an end to the revolution when she arrived off Naples with Nelson's fleet on 24 June 1799. She acted as a go-between, conveying messages from the queen to Nelson and from Nelson to the queen.
Life in London and at Merton
Nelson's recall to Britain shortly afterwards coincided with the government finally granting Hamilton's request for relief from his post in Naples. Emma must have become pregnant around April 1800. Nelson, Emma, her mother and William travelled together—taking the longest possible route back to Britain via Central Europe (hearing the Missa in Angustiis by Joseph Haydn, now known as the "Nelson Mass", in Vienna in 1800), and eventually arriving in Yarmouth to a hero's welcome on 6 November 1800.
Upon arrival in London on 8 November, the three of them took suites at Nerot's Hotel after a missed communication from Nelson to his wife about receiving the party at their home, Roundwood. Lady Nelson and Nelson's father arrived and they all dined at the hotel, with Fanny deeply unhappy to see Emma pregnant. The affair soon became public knowledge, and to the delight of the newspapers, Fanny did not accept the affair as placidly as Sir William. Emma was winning the media war at that point, and every fine lady was experimenting with her look. Nelson contributed to Fanny's misery by being cruel to her when not in Emma's company. Sir William was mercilessly lampooned in the press, but his sister observed that he doted on Emma and she was very attached to him.
The Hamiltons moved into William Beckford's mansion at 22 Grosvenor Square, and Nelson and Fanny took an expensive furnished house at 17 Dover Street, a comfortable walking distance away, until December, when Sir William rented a home at 23 Piccadilly, opposite Green Park. On 1 January, Nelson's promotion to vice admiral was confirmed and he prepared to go to sea on the same night. Infuriated by Fanny's handing him an ultimatum to choose between her and his mistress, Nelson chose Emma and decided to take steps to formalise separation from his wife. He never saw her again, after being hustled out of town by an agent. While he was at sea, Nelson and Emma exchanged many letters, using a secret code to discuss Emma's condition. Emma kept her first daughter Emma Carew's existence a secret from Nelson, while Sir William continued to provide for her.
Birth of Horatia
Emma gave birth to Nelson's daughter Horatia, on 29 January 1801 at 23 Piccadilly, who was taken soon afterwards to a Mrs Gibson for care and hire of a wet nurse. On 1 February, Emma made a spectacular appearance at a concert at the house of the Duke of Norfolk in St James' Square, and Emma worked hard to keep the press onside.
Soon after this, the Prince of Wales (later King George IV) became infatuated with Emma, leading Nelson to be consumed by jealousy, and inspiring a remarkable letter by Sir William to Nelson, assuring him that she was being faithful. In late February, Nelson returned to London and met his daughter at Mrs Gibson's. Nelson's family were aware of the pregnancy, and his clergyman brother Rev. William Nelson wrote to Emma praising her virtue and goodness. Nelson and Emma continued to write letters to each other when he was away at sea, and she kept every one. While he was away too, she arranged for her mother to visit the Kidds in Hawarden and her daughter in Manchester.
By the autumn of the same year, upon Emma's advice, Nelson bought Merton Place, a small ramshackle house at Merton, near Wimbledon, for £9,000, borrowing money from his friend Davison. He gave her free rein with spending to improve the property, and her vision was to transform the house into a celebration of his genius. There they lived together openly, with Sir William and Emma's mother, in a ménage à trois that fascinated the public. Emma turned herself to winning over Nelson's family, nursing his 80-year-old father Edmund for 10 days at Merton, who loved her and thought of moving in with them, but could not bear to leave his beloved Norfolk. Emma also made herself useful to Nelson's sisters Kitty (Catherine), married to George Matcham, and Susanna, married to Thomas Bolton, by helping to raise their children and to make ends meet. Nelson's sister-in-law Sarah (married to William), also pressed him for assistance and favours, including the payment of their son Horatio's school fees at Eton. Also around this time, Emma finally told Nelson about her daughter Emma Carew, now known as Emma Hartley, and found that she had had nothing to worry about; he invited her to stay at Merton and soon grew fond of "Emma's relative". An unpublished letter shows that Nelson assumed responsibility for upkeep of young Emma at this time.
After the Treaty of Amiens on 25 March 1802, Nelson was released from active service, but wanted to keep his new-found position in society by maintaining an aura of wealth, and Emma worked hard to live up to this dream. Nelson's father became seriously ill in April, but Nelson did not visit him in Norfolk, staying home to celebrate Emma's 37th birthday on the very day Edmund died; the son did not attend his father's funeral.
Death of Sir William
The newspapers reported on their every move, including trips to Wales to inspect Sir William's estates and a holiday to Ramsgate intended to give him some peace and quiet, looking to Emma to set fashions in dress, home decoration and even dinner party menus. By the autumn of 1803, Sir William's health was declining, at the same time that the peace with France was disintegrating. A "Children's Ball" was thrown after New Year, in honour of Horatia, and a concert for 100 guests staged in February.
Soon afterwards, Sir William collapsed at 23 Piccadilly and on 6 April died in Emma's arms. Charles Greville was the executor of the estate and he instructed her to leave 23 Piccadilly, but for the sake of respectability, she had to keep an address separate from Nelson's and so moved into 11 Clarges Street, not far away, a couple of months later.
Nelson had been offered the position of Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet, and they rushed to have Horatia christened at Marylebone Parish Church before he left. On her baptism record, her name was recorded as Horatia Nelson Thompson, and her date of birth falsely recorded as 29 October 1800 in order to continue the pretence that she had been born in Naples and was godchild of Emma and Nelson, according to Kate Williams and based on an unpublished letter; however the only publicly available transcription of the record shows 29 October 1801. Nelson later wrote a letter explaining that the child was an orphan "left to his care and protection" in Naples.
Emma planned, paid for and hosted the wedding of Nelson's niece Kitty Bolton (daughter of Susanna) and her cousin Captain Sir William Bolton (Nelson's sister Susanna's husband's brother's son) at 23 Piccadilly on 18 May 1803, the same day as Nelson's early morning departure to fight in the Napoleonic Wars, leaving Emma pregnant with their second child (although neither knew it at this time). The marriage was witnessed by Charlotte Mary Nelson (Nelson's brother William's daughter) and "Emma Hartley" (Emma's daughter Emma Carew).
Nelson at sea again
She was desperately lonely, preoccupied with attempting to turn Merton Place into the grand home Nelson desired, suffering from several ailments and frantic for his return. The child, a girl (reportedly named Emma), died about 6 weeks after her birth in early 1804, and Horatia also fell ill at her home with Mrs Gibson on Titchfield Street. Emma kept the infant's death a secret from the press (her burial is unrecorded), kept her deep grief from Nelson's family and found it increasingly difficult to cope alone. She reportedly distracted herself by gambling, and succumbed to binges of heavy drinking and eating and spending lavishly.
Emma received several marriage proposals during 1804, all wealthy men, but she was still in love with Nelson and believed that he would become wealthy with prize money and leave her rich in his will, and she refused them all. She continued to entertain and help Nelson's relatives, especially William and Sarah's "obstreperous son Horace" and their daughter Charlotte, who was referred to as Emma's "foster daughter" in a letter. Nelson urged her to keep Horatia at Merton, and when his return seemed imminent in 1804, Emma ran up bills on furnishing and decorating Merton. Five-year-old Horatia came to live at Merton in May 1805. There were also reports that she holidayed with Emma Carew.
After a brief visit to England in August 1805, Nelson once again had to return to service. Emma received letters from him on 1, 7 and 13 October. On the ship, he wrote a note intended as a codicil to his will requesting that, in return for his legacy to King and Country that they should give Emma "ample provision to maintain her rank in life", and that his "adopted daughter, Horatia Nelson Thompson...use in future the name of Nelson only".
Nelson's death
On 21 October 1805, Nelson's fleet defeated a joint Franco-Spanish naval force at the Battle of Trafalgar. Nelson was seriously wounded during the battle and died three hours later. When the news of his death arrived in London, a messenger was sent to Merton Place to bring the news to Lady Hamilton. She later recalled, They brought me word, Mr Whitby from the Admiralty. 'Show him in directly,' I said. He came in, and with a pale countenance and faint voice, said, 'We have gained a great Victory.' – 'Never mind your Victory,' I said. 'My letters – give me my letters' – Captain Whitby was unable to speak – tears in his eyes and a deathly paleness over his face made me comprehend him. I believe I gave a scream and fell back, and for ten hours I could neither speak nor shed a tear.
Emma lay in bed prostrate with grief for many weeks, often receiving visitors in tears. It was some weeks before she heard that Nelson's last words were of her and that he had begged the nation to take care of her and Horatia. After William and Sarah distanced themselves from her (William being elated upon hearing that Nelson had not changed his will), she relied on Nelson's sisters (Kitty Matcham and Susanna Bolton) for moral support and company. Like her, the Boltons and Matchams had spent lavishly in expectation of Nelson's victorious return, and Emma gave them and other of his friends and relations money.
Final years
Nelson's will was read in November; William inherited his entire estate (including Bronte) except for Merton, as well as his bank accounts and possessions. The government had made William an Earl and his son Horatio (aka Horace) a Viscount - the titles Nelson had aspired to - and now he was also Duke of Bronte. Emma received £2000, Merton, and £500 per annum from the Bronte estate - much less than she had when Nelson was alive, and not enough to maintain Merton. In spite of Nelson's status as a national hero, the instructions he left to the government to provide for Emma and Horatia were ignored; they also ignored his wishes that she should sing at his funeral.
The funeral was lavish, costing the state £14,000, but Emma was excluded. Only the men of the Bolton and Matcham family were invited, and Emma spent the day with her family and the women. She gave both families dinner and breakfast and accommodated the Boltons.
After the funeral, the begging letters began. William would not help, so everybody turned to Emma. Lord Grenville sent the codicil to Nelson's will to his solicitor with a note saying that nothing could be done; instead, the Boltons and Matchams received £10,000 each (but still left their adolescent daughters with Emma to educate), while William was awarded £100,000 to buy an estate called Trafalgar, as well as £5000 for life.
Relations between William and Emma became strained and he refused to give her the £500 pension due to her. Emma was especially hurt by Lady Charlotte's rebuff, partly because she had spent about £2000 paying for her education, clothes, presents and holidays but also because she had grown fond of her.
She spent 1806 to 1808 keeping up the act, continuing to spend on parties and alterations to Merton to make it a monument to Nelson. Goods that Nelson had ordered arrived and had to be paid for. The annual annuity of £800 from Sir William's estate was not enough to pay off the debts and keep up the lifestyle, and Emma fell deeply into debt.
She moved from Clarges Street to a cheaper home at 136 Bond Street, but could not bring herself to relinquish Merton. Her brother, William, blackmailed her into giving him money, and Mrs Cadogan's sister's family, the Connors, were also expecting handouts. Emma Carew came for a short summer visit in late June 1806, at which point Sir Harry Fetherstonhaugh sent £500 for the benefit of mother and daughter. Emma hosted and employed James Harrison for 6 months to write a two-volume Life of Nelson, which made it clear that Horatia was his child. She continued to entertain at Merton, including the Prince of Wales and the Dukes of Sussex and Clarence, but no favours were returned by the royals.
Within three years, Emma was more than £15,000 in debt. In June 1808, Merton failed to sell at auction. She was not completely without friends; her neighbours had rallied, and Sir John Perring hosted a group of influential financiers to help organise her finances and sell Merton. It was eventually sold in April 1809. However, her lavish spending continued, and a combination of this and the steady depletion of funds due to people fleecing her meant that she remained in debt, although unbeknownst to most people. Her mother, Mrs Cadogan, died in January 1810. For most of 1811 and 1812 she was in a virtual debtors' prison, and in December 1812 either chose to commit herself (her name does not appear in the record books) or was sentenced to a prison sentence at the King's Bench Prison in Southwark, although she was not kept in a cell but allowed to live in rooms nearby with Horatia, as per the system whereby genteel prisoners could buy the rights to live "within the Rules", a three-square-mile area around the prison.
In early 1813 she petitioned the Prince of Wales, the government and friends, but all of her requests failed and she was obliged to auction off many of her possessions, including many Nelson relics, at low prices. However she continued to borrow money to keep up appearances. Public opinion turned against her after the Letters of Lord Nelson to Lady Hamilton were published in April 1814.
Emma was anxious to leave the country, but owing to the risk of arrest if she travelled on a normal ferry, she and Horatia hid from her creditors for a week before boarding a private vessel bound for Calais on 1 July 1814, with £50 in her purse. Initially taking apartments at the expensive Dessein's Hotel, she initially kept up a social life and fine dining by relying on creditors. Her old housekeeper, Dame Francis, came to run the household and hired other servants. But soon she was deeply in debt and suffering from longstanding health problems, including stomach pains, nausea and diarrhoea. She turned to the Roman Catholic church and joined the St Pierre congregation.
Death
In November they moved into a cheap flat at 27 Rue Française; Emma started drinking heavily and taking laudanum. She died on 15 January 1815, aged 49. Emma was buried in Calais on 21 January in public ground outside the town, with her friend Joshua Smith paying for the modest funeral at the Catholic church. Her grave was subsequently lost due to wartime destruction, but in 1994 a dedicated group unveiled the memorial which stands today in the Parc Richelieu in her honour.
Henry Cadogan cared for the 14-year-old Horatia in the aftermath of Emma's death and paid for her travel to Dover. The Matchams took her in to care for their younger children until she was sent off to live with the Boltons two years later, Susanna having died in 1813. Horatia subsequently married the Rev. Philip Ward, had ten children (the first of whom was named Horatio Nelson) and lived until 1881. Horatia never publicly acknowledged that she was the daughter of Emma Hamilton.
Jason M. Kelly sums her up as follows: "In a world of aristocratic privilege and powerful men, her common birth and gender ultimately circumscribed her options".
Honours and heraldry
Emma Hamilton is generally known by the courtesy title of "Lady Hamilton", to which she was entitled from 1791 as the wife and then widow of Sir William Hamilton. In 1800, she became "Dame Emma Hamilton", a title she held in her own right as a female member of the Order of Malta. This was an unusual honour, awarded to Lady Hamilton by the then Grand Master of the Order, Tsar Paul, in recognition of her role in the defence of the island of Malta against the French.
Subsequently, she used her new title in formal circumstances, and was also acknowledged as "Dame Emma Hamilton" in official British contexts; most notably, this was the title under which she was formally granted her own coat of arms by the English College of Arms in 1806, Per pale Or and Argent, three Lions rampant Gules, on a chief Sable, a Cross of eight points of the second. The lions evidently refer to her maiden surname of Lyons, while the addition of the Maltese Cross, which has puzzled heraldic scholars unaware of her connection to the Order, is recognisable as an honourable augmentation referring to her damehood.
In popular culture
In cover artwork for many books, including Lady Hamilton as Circe on the cover of the Bantam Classics publication of Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë.
The 1926 operetta, Lady Hamilton, by the German composer Eduard Künneke. The operetta was revived in Cologne in 2004.
The 1921 silent German film Lady Hamilton directed by Richard Oswald with Liane Haid as Hamilton and Conrad Veidt as Nelson.
Mentioned in the play La Tosca by Victorien Sardou.
The 1929 Vitaphone part-silent film, The Divine Lady. Corinne Griffith played Lady Hamilton and Victor Varconi played Admiral Nelson.
The 1934 film Boots! Boots!, George Formby mentions Lady Hamilton and her relationship with Nelson in his song Why Don't Women Like Me
The 1941 film That Hamilton Woman starring Vivien Leigh as Emma and Laurence Olivier as Horatio. Leigh took publicity photos for the film arranged in poses very similar to paintings of Emma. The film is said to have been a favourite of Winston Churchill.
The 1951 opera Nelson_(opera) by Lennox Berkeley.
The 1953 Soviet film Attack from the Sea. Emma Hamilton was portrayed by Yelena Kuzmina.
The 1968 film Emma Hamilton. Emma Hamilton was portrayed by Michèle Mercier.
The 1973 film Bequest to the Nation (released in the United States as The Nelson Affair). Emma Hamilton was portrayed by Glenda Jackson, and Peter Finch plays Nelson.
The 1979 song "Bang Bang", performed by B. A. Robertson, mentions both Lord Nelson ("Lord Nel") and Lady Hamilton.
The 1980s sitcom Blackadder the Third, the show's antihero, Edmund Blackadder (Rowan Atkinson), repeatedly mocks both Lord Nelson and Lady Hamilton.
Susan Sontag's 1992 novel The Volcano Lover: A Romance is a fictionalised portrait of Lady Emma and the times in which she lived.
The 1999 song "I'd Like That" on English pop band XTC's 13th studio album Apple Venus Vol. 1 references the famous lovers in the line "I'd be your Nelson if you'd be my Hamilton."
Lady Hamilton features in Jasper Fforde's novel Lost in a Good Book where, in a parallel to the main character Thursday Next whose husband has been erased from history, Emma remembers a timeline where Nelson divorced his wife and the two were happily married, until time-travelling “revisionists” arranged for Nelson's death at Trafalgar.
Bibliography
Popular biographies
Emma Hamilton Seduction and Celebrity
Research studies
Schachenmayr, Volker (1997). "Emma Lyon, the Attitude, and Goethean Performance Theory," in: New Theatre Quarterly vol. 13, pp. 3–17.
Contogouris, Ersy (2018). Emma Hamilton and Late Eighteenth-Century European Art: Agency, Performance, and Representation. London and New York: Routledge. .
Further reading
The Volcano Lover, a novel by Susan Sontag, features Emma prominently as a partially fictionalized character.
Celebrating Waddesdon's women blog article
References
External links
Lady Hamilton as a Bacchante in the Lady Lever Art Gallery
"Finding the Lost Daughter of Lady Hamilton". Article about Emma Carew by Jacqui Livesey. (Global Maritime History, 24 March 2014)
"Dispelling the myths around Lady Emma Hamilton and Admiral Lord Nelson", article by the curator of the 2017 Emma Hamilton exhibition at the National Maritime Museum, Quintin Colville. (Cheshire Life, 3 November 2016)
Paintings of Emma Hart in the Waddesdon Manor collection
People from Neston
English artists' models
English women singers
1765 births
1815 deaths
Horatio Nelson
English courtesans
English socialites
Mistresses
British mimes
Muses
Wives of knights
Waddesdon Manor | [
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242205 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijani | Azerbaijani | Azerbaijani may refer to:
Something of, or related to Azerbaijan
Azerbaijanis
Azerbaijani language
See also
Azerbaijan (disambiguation)
Azeri (disambiguation)
Azerbaijani cuisine
Culture of Azerbaijan
Language and nationality disambiguation pages | [
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242212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speer | Speer | Speer is a surname.
Ashkenazim (): a spelling variation of Speyer, a name indicative of origin from the German city of Speyer
Middle High German and Middle Dutch (): sper, meaning "spear"
Scottish and northern Irish : a spelling variation of Speir, from the Old French espier meaning "to watch"
Notable people with the surname include:
Albert Friedrich Speer, (1863-1947), German architect, father of Albert Speer
Albert Speer, (1905-1981), German architect, Minister of Armaments and War Production of Nazi Germany from 1942 to 1945
Albert Speer, Jr., (1934–2017), a German architect and city planner, son of Albert Speer
Bill Speer, a retired professional ice hockey player
Christian P. Speer, (born 1952) German pediatrician and Professor of Pediatrics
Christopher Speer, Sergeant First Class (SFC), a U.S. special forces soldier killed in Afghanistan
Dieter Speer, a former German biathlete
Dick Speer, founder of CCI, brother of Vernon Speer
Emory Speer, a U.S. politician, soldier, and lawyer who served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1878 to 1882
Floyd Speer, also known as Floyd Vernie Speer, a U.S. professional baseball pitcher
Daniel Speer, also known as Georg Daniel Speer, a German composer, and writer of the Baroque
Hilde Schramm (born 1936), née Speer, a German politician, and daughter of Albert Speer
Hugo Speer, an English actor, born in 1968
Jack Speer, also known as John “Jack” Bristol Speer, a judge, Washington state representative, and a science fiction fan
Jillian Speer, a U.S. singer-songwriter and musician
Margret Nissen (born 1938), née Speer, a German photographer, and daughter of Albert Speer
Mark Speer, American musician and guitarist
Noah Wyle, also known as Noah Strausser Speer Wyle, a U.S. TV, and film actor
Peter Moore Speer, a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
Robert Elliott Speer, a U.S. religious leader (1867–1947) and authority on missions
Robert M. Speer, acting United States Secretary of the Army (2017- )
Robert Milton Speer, a Democratic member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
Robert W. Speer, also known as Robert Walter Speer, mayor of Denver, Colorado from 1904–1912
Roy Speer, the financial backing behind the Home Shopping Network
Scott Speer, an American music video director
The Speer Family, a Southern Gospel family group founded in 1921
Stewie Speer, an Australian drummer best known as a member of the 1960s–70s group Max Merritt & The Meteors
Susan Speer, a British psychologist
Thomas J. Speer, also known as Thomas Jefferson Speer, a U.S. Representative from Georgia
Tom Speer, a U.S. professional mixed martial artist
Vernon Speer, founder of Speer Bullets, brother of Dick Speer
W.G. Speer, the second head football coach for the Fort Hays State University Tigers in Hays, Kansas
William Speer, a pioneer American Presbyterian missionary and pastor to the Chinese
See also
Spear (surname)
Speir
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242215 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bormann | Bormann | Bormann is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Albert Bormann (1902–1989), German Nazi Party official, adjutant to Adolf Hitler
Cheryl Bormann (fl. 2008), American attorney
Edwin Bormann (1851–1912), German writer
Elisabeth Bormann (1895–1986), Austrian physicist
Emma Bormann (1887–1974), Austrian artist
Ernest Bormann (1925–2008), American academic in speech-communication
Ernst Bormann (1897–1960), German World War I flying ace and World War II Luftwaffe general
Eugen Bormann (1842–1917), German-Austrian historian
F. Herbert Bormann (1922–2012), American plant ecologist
John Bormann (born 1993), American baseball player
Juana Bormann (1893–1945), or Johana Bormann, German SS Nazi concentration camp prison guard executed for war crimes
Karin Bormann (born 1954), German Olympic swimmer
Martin Bormann (1900–1945), German Nazi Party official, Adolf Hitler's private secretary
Martin Adolf Bormann (1930–2013), German theologian and Roman Catholic priest, son of Martin Bormann
Michael Bormann (born 1966), German rock vocalist
See also
Borman
Boorman
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242216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius%20Quinctilius%20Varus | Publius Quinctilius Varus | Publius Quinctilius Varus (46 BC – AD 9) was a Roman general and politician under the first Roman emperor Augustus. Varus is generally remembered for having lost three Roman legions when ambushed by Germanic tribes led by Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, whereupon he took his own life.
Background and early career
Although he was a patrician by birth, his family, the Quinctilii Vari, had long been impoverished and was unimportant; Ronald Syme notes, "The sole and last consul of that family", Sextus Quinctilius, "had been two years antecedent to the Decemvirs" (i.e. 453 BC). His father, Sextus Quinctilius Varus, was a senator who had served as a quaestor in 49 BC. This Sextus aligned with the Senatorial Party in the civil war against Julius Caesar. Although Sextus survived the defeat, it is unknown whether he was involved in the assassination of Gaius Julius Caesar. Sextus committed suicide after the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC. The mother of Varus is unknown; Syme notes that "no relatives on either side of the family can be discovered or surmised."
Varus had three sisters, all named Quinctilia. They were probably all younger based on when they started having children, so it seems likely he was born at least four years before his father's suicide. The fact that they had advantageous marriages indicates someone was involved in their upbringing. One sister married Publius Cornelius Dolabella, consul of 35 BC; another married Sextus Appuleius, consul of 29 BC; and the third married Lucius Nonius Asprenas, son of the consul of 36 BC.
Despite Varus’ father's political allegiances, he became a supporter of Julius Caesar's heir, Octavian. When Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa died in early 12 BC, Varus delivered his funeral eulogy alongside the future emperor, Tiberius. His political career was boosted and he achieved the consulate in 13 BC, when he was elected as the colleague of Tiberius, the stepson and eventual successor of Augustus.
Marriages and children
Varus married Vipsania, daughter of Agrippa, at an unknown date before 13 BC. Varus became a personal friend to Marcus Agrippa and Tiberius. The historian Josephus says (in a section of his Antiquities whose manuscript tradition Walther John believed to be corrupt) that the son of Varus, also named "Publius Quinctilius Varus", served under him during his command in Syria. If true, that son would have to be a son by a prior marriage and not the son by his last wife, Claudia Pulchra. It is possible that this son might have instead been an older son, Sextus Nonius Quinctilianus, who might have ended up adopted by his sister's husband after Varus and Vipsania died. That would explain why a son of Lucius Nonius Asprenas was named Quinctilianus, which implied adoption.
Vipsania disappears from history. It is unknown whether she died or was divorced. Varus then married Claudia Pulchra. She was a daughter of Claudia Marcella Minor and the Roman consul of 12 BC, Marcus Valerius Messalla Appianus. Her maternal grandmother was Octavia the Younger, sister of Augustus. Hence she was a grand-niece of Augustus. His marriage to Pulchra shows that Varus still enjoyed political favor. Pulchra bore Varus a son, also called Publius Quinctilius Varus. Through their son, they may have had further descendants.
Political career
In 8–7 BC, Varus governed the province of Africa. Later he went to govern Syria from 7/6 BC until 4 BC with four legions under his command, where he was known for his harsh rule and high taxes. The Jewish historian Josephus mentions the swift action of Varus against a messianic revolt in Judaea after the death of the Roman client king, Herod the Great, in 4 BC. After occupying Jerusalem, he crucified 2000 Jewish rebels and may have thus been one of the prime objects of popular anti-Roman sentiment in Judaea (Josephus, who made every effort to reconcile the Jewish people to Roman rule, felt it necessary to point out how lenient this judicial massacre had been). Indeed, at precisely this moment the Jews, nearly en masse, began a full-scale boycott of Roman pottery (Red Slip Ware). Thus, the archaeological record seems to verify mass popular protest against Rome because of Varus' cruelty.
Following the massacre in Judaea, Varus returned to Antioch. Between 10 BC and 6 AD Tiberius, his brother Drusus, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, and Germanicus conducted long campaigns in Germania, the area north of the Upper Danube and east of the Rhine, in an attempt at achieving a further major expansion of the Roman Empire together with a shortening of its frontier line. They subdued several Germanic tribes, such as the Cherusci. In 6 AD, Tiberius declared Germany pacified, and Varus was appointed to govern Germania. Tiberius, who would later rule as Emperor, left the region to suppress the Great Illyrian Revolt.
Augustus made Publius Quinctilius Varus the first "officially appointed" governor of the newly created Roman province of Germania in 7 AD.
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest and death
In September 9 AD Varus was preparing to leave his summer headquarters in Vetera (today Xanten) and march three legions – the Seventeenth, the Eighteenth and the Nineteenth – with him to Moguntiacum (modern-day Mainz), when news arrived from the Germanic prince Arminius (a Roman citizen and leader of an auxiliary cavalry unit) of a growing revolt in the Rhine area to the West. Ignoring a warning from Segestes not to trust Arminius, Varus marched his forces behind the latter's lead.
Not only was Varus' trust in Arminius a terrible misjudgement, but Varus compounded it by placing his legions in a position where their fighting strengths would be minimized and those of the Germanic tribesmen maximized – because he expected no ambush and very little trouble in intimidating the rebels. Arminius and the Cherusci tribe along with other allies, had skillfully laid an ambush, and in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in September at Kalkriese (East of modern Osnabrück), the Romans marched right into it.
The heavily forested, swampy terrain made the infantry manoeuvres of the legions impossible to execute and allowed the Germans to defeat the legions in detail. On the third day of fighting, the Germans overwhelmed the Romans at Kalkriese Hill, north of Osnabrück. Accounts of the defeat are scarce, due to the totality of the defeat, but Velleius Paterculus testifies that some Roman cavalrymen abandoned the infantry and fled towards the Rhine, but they were intercepted by the German tribesmen and killed. Varus himself, upon seeing all hope was lost, committed suicide by falling on his sword. Arminius cut off his head and sent it to Bohemia as a present to King Marbod of the Marcomanni, the other most important Germanic leader, whom Arminius wanted to coax into an alliance, but Marbod declined the offer and sent the head on to Rome for burial.
Some captured Romans were caged and burned alive; others were enslaved or ransomed. Tacitus and Florus report that the victorious Germanic tribes tortured and sacrificed captive officers to their gods on altars that could still be seen years later. The Romans did later recover the lost legions' eagles, one each in 15 AD, 16 AD and 42 AD.
Aftermath
Due to the shame and the ill luck thought to be created by the Roman defeat, the XVII, XVIII and XIX legions never again appeared in the Roman Army's order of battle. The loss at the Teutoburg Forest was keenly felt by Augustus in his remaining years. According to the biographer Suetonius, upon hearing the news, Augustus tore his clothes, refused to cut his hair for months and, for years afterwards, was heard, upon occasion, to moan, "Quinctilius Varus, give me back my Legions!" (). Roman historians referred to the battle as the clades Variana ("Varian disaster").
Gibbon describes Augustus' reaction to the defeat as one of the few times the normally stoic ruler lost his composure. Varus' political legacy in Rome was destroyed, and the government blamed him for the defeat. His son's (the younger Varus) chances for a political career were ruined. Tiberius himself fell under severe criticism for recommending Varus as the governor of Germania. Tiberius, according to Gaius Stern, was forced to sacrifice his friend and former brother-in-law to save his career. Furthermore, Varus himself had been one of the figures on the Ara Pacis, but the figure is lost today.
Stern has proposed that common citizens vandalized the Ara Pacis by damaging Varus in anger over their lost loved ones, leaving the regime, which had blamed Varus, uncertain as to whether or not to fix the damage. Approximately 40 years after Varus' death, a general under Claudius, Pomponius Secundus, raided Germany and by chance rescued a few POWs from Varus’ army. Claudius welcomed them home after so many years, and their sad stories aroused much pity.
Cultural depictions
I, Claudius (1934) by Robert Graves, a novelization of the reigns of the first four emperors. Varus does not actually appear in the novel, but his defeat by the Germans is an important event.
The Iron Hand of Mars (1994) by Lindsey Davis; fourth book of the mystery series set during the reign of Vespasian, a portion of the novel occurs in the Teutoburger Wald.
Give Me Back My Legions! (2009) by Harry Turtledove, which details the events leading up to the battle, including a great deal of background information on Varus himself.
Undying Mercenaries (2014) by B. V. Larson, a series set in 2099, in which the main character fights with the Earth Mercenary Legion Varus. Much of the legion's culture and structure sources from Roman history and general Varus's life.
Schlammschlacht (2015) by Heilung, track four on their first album Ofnir. The poem describes the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest from the Cherusci point of view.
Varus is played by Gaetano Aronica in the Netflix series Barbarians.
References
Sources
J. R. Abdale, Four days in September: The Battle of Teutoburg (Google eBook), Trafford Publishing, 2013
M. Lightman & B. Lightman, A to Z of Ancient Greek and Roman Women, Infobase Publishing, 2008
R. Seager, Tiberius (Google eBook), John Wiley & Sons, 2008
Rome's Greatest Defeat: Massacre in the Teutoburg Forest (Hardcover) by Adrian Murdoch, Hardcover: 256 pages, Publisher: Sutton Publishing (June 14, 2006), ,
B. Severy, Augustus and the Family at the Birth of the Roman Empire, Routledge, 2004
The Battle That Stopped Rome: Emperor Augustus, Arminius, and the Slaughter of the Legions in the Teutoburg Forest by Peter S. Wells, W. W. Norton & Company, October 2003, ,
A Roman Encyclopedia by Matthew Bunson, 1995 Oxford Paperback Reference
R. Syme, The Augustan Aristocracy, Oxford University Press, 1989
Compendium of Roman History (Res gestae divi Augusti) by Velleius Paterculus, Harvard University Press; 1924. Brief mention of the Varus Disaster by the author, who was serving as a staff officer with Tiberius in Pannonia at the time.
The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon, Modern Library
Annals by Tacitus (various editions). Summarizes reports of later Romans who found the battlefield.
The Twelve Caesars, Suetonius, translated by Robert Graves, 1957, Penguin Books; Also available from Project Gutenberg: The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Complete
Levick, Barbara, Tiberius the Politician (1999)
External links
Varusbattle in Netherland
Livius.org: Publius Quinctilius Varus
Discussion on the meaning of the "VAR" countermark
Arminius / Varus. The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest – Internet-Portal "Westfälische Geschichte", LWL-Institut für westfälische Regionalgeschichte, Münster
46 BC births
AD 9 deaths
1st-century BC Roman governors of Syria
1st-century Romans
Ancient Roman military personnel who committed suicide
Germania
Imperial Roman consuls
Julio-Claudian dynasty
People from Cremona
Varus, Publius
Roman governors of Africa
Roman governors of Syria
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242217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varus | Varus | Varus may refer to:
Var River or Varus, a river in France
Stura di Lanzo or Varus, a river in Italy
Varus deformity, a medical term for the inward angulation of the distal segment of a bone or joint
Coxa vara, affecting the hip
Genu varum, affecting the knee
Hallux varus, affecting the big toe
Cubitus varus, affecting the elbow
Club foot (talipes equinovarus), affecting the heel
People with the name
Publius Attius Varus (died 45 BC), Roman governor of Africa
Publius Quinctilius Varus (46 BC–AD 9), politician and general of the Roman Empire
Publius Quinctilius Varus the Younger (c. AD 1–27), son of Publius Quinctilius Varus
Marcus Plancius Varus (1st century AD), politician of the Roman Empire
Gaius Plancius Varus (1st–2nd century AD), son of Marcus Plancius Varus and politician of the Roman Empire
Titus Clodius Vibius Varus, Roman consul, 160 AD
Titus Vibius Varus, Roman consul, 134 AD
Titus Vibius Varus, Roman suffect consul, 115 AD
Alfenus Varus, 1st-century Roman jurist and possible consul
Saint Varus (died c. AD 307), early Christian martyr, soldier from Egypt | [
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242218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthem%20for%20Doomed%20Youth | Anthem for Doomed Youth | "Anthem for Doomed Youth" is a poem written in 1917 by Wilfred Owen. It incorporates the theme of the horror of war.
Style
Like a traditional Petrarchan sonnet, the poem is divided into an octave and sestet. However, its rhyme scheme is neither that of a Petrarchan nor English sonnet, but irregular: ABABCDCD:EFFEGG. Even its indentations are irregular, not following its own rhyme scheme.
Much of the second half of the poem is dedicated to funeral rituals suffered by those families deeply affected by the First World War. The poem does this by following the sorrow of common soldiers in some of the bloodiest battles, either the battle of the Somme, or the battle of Passchendaele, of the 20th century. Written between September and October 1917, when Owen was a patient at Craiglockhart War Hospital in Edinburgh recovering from shell shock, the poem is a lament for young soldiers whose lives were lost in the European War. The poem is also a comment on Owen's rejection of his religion in 1915.
Composition
While in the hospital, Owen met and became close friends with another poet, Siegfried Sassoon. Owen asked for his assistance in refining his poems' rough drafts. It was Sassoon who named the start of the poem "anthem", and who also substituted "dead", on the original article, with "doomed"; the famous epithet of "patient minds" is also a correction of his. The amended manuscript copy, in both men's handwriting, still exists and may be found at the Wilfred Owen Manuscript Archive on the world wide web. The revision process for the poem was fictionalized by Pat Barker in her novel Regeneration.
It is possible that Owen chose the expression 'passing bells' as a way of reply to the following anonymous prefatory note of the 1916 volume of "Poems of Today", which was in his possession: "This book has been compiled in order that boys and girls, already perhaps familiar with the great classics of the English speech, may also know something of the newer poetry of their own day. Most of the writers are living, and the rest are still vivid memories among us, while one of the youngest, almost as these words are written, has gone singing to lay down his life for his country's cause... There is no arbitrary isolation of one theme from another; they mingle and interpenetrate throughout, to the music of Pan's flute, and of Love's viol, and the bugle-call of Endeavour, and the passing-bells of Death."
Legacy
The poem is among those set in the War Requiem of Benjamin Britten.
During live performances of the song "Paschendale", Iron Maiden singer Bruce Dickinson often recites the first half of the poem.
The title of BBC WW1 drama The Passing Bells derives from the first line of the poem: "What passing-bells for these who die as cattle?"
The third album by British band The Libertines is named Anthems For Doomed Youth, and features a song of the same name.
American composer Stephen Whitehead included an orchestral setting of "Anthem for Doomed Youth" as a movement in his orchestral piece "Three Laments on the Great War" for soloists and orchestra. The piece is scored as a duet for mezzo-soprano and bass/baritone with orchestra.
References
Further reading
External links
Full text at the Poetry Foundation
Anthem for Doomed Youth at the British Library
An audio file of the poem can be found here
Interpretation web page by Kenneth Simcox
Poetry by Wilfred Owen
1917 poems
British poems
World War I poems
Poems published posthumously | [
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6255023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never%20Say%20Dinosaur | Never Say Dinosaur | Never Say Dinosaur is a tribute album dedicated to Christian rock band Petra. The album includes 11 revisions and re-imaginings of classic Petra songs and one original composition by Kevin Smith of DC Talk. Dinosaur contained an eclectic lineup of artists which, at the time, highlighted "some of the best new bands in Christian music."
The album title is a pun on Petra's fourth studio album, Never Say Die. It is also a pun on the title of Petra's irrelevance and age, who at the time had been performing for nearly twenty-five years, by rejecting comparisons of the band with extinct dinosaurs.
The album was released by Star Song Records in 1996. They worked with the band during most of the 1980s through part of the band's most successful tenure.
Track listing
Personnel
Executive producer - Darrell A. Harris
Co-executive producers - Lynn Nichols, Dave Perkins
Mastered by Steve Marcussen at Precision Mastering, Hollywood, California
Project coordinator - Debby Austin
References
Tribute albums
1996 compilation albums
Christian rock compilation albums | [
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242220 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic%20era | Napoleonic era | The Napoleonic era is a period in the history of France and Europe. It is generally classified as including the fourth and final stage of the French Revolution, the first being the National Assembly, the second being the Legislative Assembly, and the third being the Directory. The Napoleonic era begins roughly with Napoleon Bonaparte's coup d'état, overthrowing the Directory (9 November 1799), establishing the French Consulate, and ends during the Hundred Days and his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815). The Congress of Vienna soon set out to restore Europe to pre-French Revolution days. Napoleon brought political stability to a land torn by revolution and war. He made peace with the Roman Catholic Church and reversed the most radical religious policies of the Convention. In 1804 Napoleon promulgated the Civil Code, a revised body of civil law, which also helped stabilize French society. The Civil Code affirmed the political and legal equality of all adult men and established a merit-based society in which individuals advanced in education and employment because of talent rather than birth or social standing. The Civil Code confirmed many of the moderate revolutionary policies of the National Assembly but retracted measures passed by the more radical Convention. The code restored patriarchal authority in the family, for example, by making women and children subservient to male heads of households.
Whilst working to stabilise France, Napoleon also sought to extend his authority throughout Europe. Napoleon's armies conquered the Iberian and Italian peninsulas, occupied lands, and he forced Austria, Prussia, and Russia to ally with him and respect French hegemony in Europe. The United Kingdom refused to recognise French hegemony and continued the war throughout.
The First French Empire began to unravel in 1812, when he decided to invade Russia. Napoleon underestimated the difficulties his army would have to face whilst occupying Russia. Convinced that the Tsar was conspiring with his British enemies, Napoleon led an army of 600,000 soldiers to Moscow. He defeated the Russian army at Borodino before capturing Moscow, but the Tsar withdrew and Moscow was set ablaze, leaving Napoleon's vast army without adequate shelter or supplies. Napoleon ordered a retreat, but the bitter Russian winter and repeated Russian attacks whittled down his army, and only a battered remnant of 30,000 soldiers managed to limp back to French territory. The allies then continued a united effort against Napoleon until they had seized Paris forcing his abdication in 1814. His return to power the next year was resisted by all the allies and his army was defeated by a Prussian and Anglo-Allied force at Waterloo.
Rulers
Heads and leaders of states affected by Napoleon's regime and the Napoleonic wars:
Austria
Archduchy of Austria: Francis II (1792–1835)
Austrian Empire: Francis I (1804–1835)
Confederation of the Rhine: Protector Napoleon I (1806–1813)
Denmark-Norway: Christian VII (1766–1808), Frederick VI (Regent 1772–1808, King of Denmark 1808–1839, King of Norway 1808–1814)
Duchy of Warsaw: Frederick Augustus I of Saxony, by personal arrangement with Napoleon, partial liberation (1806-1815) of the former Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania
Egypt: Muhammad Ali (1805–1848)
Etruria: Louis (1801–03), Charles Louis (1803–1807)
France
French Republic: First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte (1799–1804)
French Empire: Napoleon I (1804–1814, 1815)
Kingdom of France: Louis XVIII (1814–15, 1815–1824)
Great Britain
Kingdom of Great Britain: King George III (1760–1801), Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger (1793–1801)
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland: King George III (1801–1820); Prince Regent George (1811–1820); Prime Ministers William Pitt the Younger (1801, 1804–06), Henry Addington (1801–04), The Lord Grenville (1806–07), The Duke of Portland (1807–09), Spencer Perceval (1809–1812), The Earl of Liverpool (1812–1827)
Haiti: Jean-Jacques Dessalines (as Governor-General 1804, as Emperor Jacques I 1804–06), Henri Christophe (as President 1806–1811, as King Henri I 1811–1820)
Holland: Louis I (1806–10), Louis II (1810)
Holy Roman Empire: Francis II (1792–1806)
Italy: Napoleon I (1805–1814)
Naples: Ferdinand IV (1799–1806, 1815–16), Joseph Bonaparte (1806–08), Joachim Murat (1808–1815)
Netherlands: William I (1815–1840)
Montenegro: Petar I Petrović-Njegoš (1782–1830)
Ottoman Empire: Selim III (1789–1807), Mustafa IV (1807–08), Mahmud II (1808–1839)
Papal States: Pius VII (1800–1823)
Portugal: Mary I (1777–1816), John VI (Regent 1799–1816, King 1816–1826)
Prussia: Frederick William III (1797–1840)
Russian Empire: Paul I (1796–1801), Alexander I (1801–1825)
Sardinia: Charles Emmanuel IV (1796–1802), Victor Emmanuel I (1802–1821)
Saxony: Frederick Augustus I (1763–1827)
Serbia
Revolutionary Serbia was in a state of rebellion against the Ottoman rule, de facto independent, led initially Karađorđe 1804-1813 who was succeeded by Miloš Obrenović from 1815 onwards.
Sicily: Ferdinand III (1759–1816)
Spain: Charles IV (1788–1808), Ferdinand VII (1808, 1813–1833), Joseph I (1808–1813)
Sweden: Gustav IV Adolf (1792–1809), Charles XIII (1809–1818)
United States: Presidents John Adams (1797–1801), Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809), James Madison (1809–1817)
Württemberg: Frederick I (1797–1816)
Wars
French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802)
Egyptian Campaign (1798–1801)
War of the Second Coalition (1799–1802)
Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815)
War of the Third Coalition (1805)
War of the Fourth Coalition (1806–1807)
Gunboat War (1807–1814)
Peninsular War (1808–1814)
War of the Fifth Coalition (1809)
French invasion of Russia (1812)
War of the Sixth Coalition (1812–1814)
Hundred Days (1815)
Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)
Anglo-Turkish War (1807–1809)
Anglo-Russian War (1807–1812)
Finnish War (1808–1809)
War of 1812 (1812–1815)
Swedish-Norwegian War (1814)
Major battles
Battle of Marengo – 14 June 1800
Battle of Abukir – 8 March 1801
Battle of Alexandria -21 March 1801
Battle of Copenhagen – 2 April 1801
Battle of Trafalgar – 21 October 1805
Battle of Austerlitz – 2 December 1805
Battle of Jena-Auerstedt – 14 October 1806
Battle of Eylau – 7–8 February 1807
Battle of Friedland – 14 June 1807
Battle of Vimeiro – 21 August 1808
Battle of Somosierra – 30 November 1808
Battle of Eckmühl – 21–22 April 1809
Battle of Aspern-Essling – 21–22 May 1809
Battle of Wagram – 5–6 July 1809
Battle of Talavera – 27–28 July 1809
Battle of Salamanca – 22 July 1812
Battle of Borodino – 7 September 1812
Battle of Lützen – 2 May 1813
Battle of Bautzen – 20–21 May 1813
Battle of Vitoria – 21 June 1813
Battle of Dresden – 26–27 August 1813
Battle of Leipzig – 16–19 October 1813
Battle of Paris – 30–31 March 1814
Battle of Waterloo – 18 June 1815
See also
First Empire: The International Magazine for the Napoleonic Enthusiast, Historian, and Gamer (magazine)
References
Napoleon
First French Empire
French Revolution
Modern history of France
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242222 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex%20show | Sex show | A sex show is a form of live performance that features one or more performers engaging in some form of sexual activity on stage for the entertainment or sexual gratification of spectators. Performers are paid either by the spectators or by the organisers of the show.
Content
A performance can include actual or simulated autoerotic acts and/or sexual activity with another performer. The performance can be in a theater style, or it can be in a peep show style. An increasingly popular form of sex show is a webcam performance in which the viewer is able to view and interact with webcam models in real time.
Sex shows are distinguished from entertainment such as striptease, pole dancing and lap dance, which do not involve sexual activity other than undressing and dancing nude or semi-nude. Sexual activity at sex shows is also distinguished from regular prostitution in that the performers usually engage in sex acts only with other performers and not with spectators or paying customers. Sex shows can overlap with other sectors of the sex industry. For example, a strip club may also offer live sex performances, and a prostitute may offer to perform sex acts with another prostitute for the gratification of a patron.
Locations
In Havana, Cuba, in the 1950s, during the second presidency of Fulgencio Batista, there were semi-legal sex shows and live pornographic theaters, such as the Shanghai Theater and the Tokyo Cabaret. The English novelist Graham Greene, writing in his autobiography Ways of Escape, described "the Shanghai Theatre where for one dollar and twenty-five cents one could see a nude cabaret of extreme obscenity with the bluest of blue films in the intervals".
During the 1960s and 1970s the Laotian capital Vientiane was famous for sex shows at ping pong show bars during the Vietnam War. Travel writer Paul Theroux described a bar in 1973 Vientiane thus: “Your eyes get accustomed to the dark and you see the waitress is naked. Without warning she jumps on the chair, pokes a cigarette into her vagina and lights it, puffing it by contracting her uterine lungs." British journalist Christopher Robbins wrote that The White Rose, a famous Vientiane bar during the war, featured floor shows in which women used their vaginas to smoke cigarettes and fling ping pong balls.
In the Reeperbahn, the red-light district of Hamburg, several sex theatres (Salambo, Regina, Colibri, Safari) were once located in the ("Great Freedom") street. They showed live sex acts on stage, but by 2007 the Safari was the only live sex theatre left in Germany, and that closed in 2013.
In the red light district of De Wallen in Amsterdam there are three main venues for sex shows: a hostess bar called the Bananen Bar, and the Moulin Rouge and Casa Rosso theatres, which feature on-stage sex acts and variations on the ping-pong show. Casa Rosso puts on 90-minute sex shows which are made up of nine different performances. The acts include a woman smoking a cigar using her vagina, a dominatrix who humiliates a volunteer from the audience, and a couple having sex on a rotating stage.
In Thailand, locations like Patpong in Bangkok, Walking Street, Pattaya, Bangla Road in Phuket and Ta Pae Gate in Chiang Mai have numerous venues hosting ping-pong shows. The expression "going to Bangkok" sometimes serves as a euphemism in the West for "going to a live sex show".
Legality
Sex shows are subject to varying laws such as licensing requirements and locations are subject to local zoning regulations. Some jurisdictions regard a sex show as prostitution. The content of a sex show may also be subject to national and local obscenity and other laws. Some areas allow striptease, but no sexual activity, others may allow only simulated sexual activity or autoerotic activity, while others allow anything that is legal in recorded pornography to be performed live. Generally, as of 2010, autoerotic activity is the most common legally-available kind of live sexual activity. In some cities and countries throughout the world, live sexual activity between multiple performers is legal. Webcam performances are largely unregulated.
See also
BDSM
Erotic dance
Mitchell Brothers O'Farrell Theatre
Sex club
Stripper
References
Performing arts
Sex industry
Pornography
Erotica
Sex tourism | [
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242223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seminyak | Seminyak | Seminyak is a mixed tourist residential area on the west coast of Bali in Indonesia, just north of Kuta and Legian.
Originally a separate township, this is now another suburb of Kuta. This area is very popular with resident expatriates; land and accommodation prices are amongst the highest in Bali. Plenty of luxury spas and hotels abound. Owing to its high density of high-end shopping, combined with the clustering of many fine eating establishments, it has rapidly become one of the most well-known tourist areas on the island.
In addition to a few commercial strips with popular and lively restaurants, bars, villas, and good crafts/furniture shops, there are a few notable establishments: Ku Dé Ta, which is a bar/restaurant with a cult following based on its beach side/semi-resort atmosphere that has earned it the title of number one party spot in various magazines, and Oberoi, which is an expensive hotel with a worldwide reputation.
Jalan Raya Seminyak (more often referred to as Jalan Legian), runs parallel with the beach, bisecting the district and acts as its main road artery.
See also
Jalan Legian
References
External links
A Bali Beach Worth a Stay - NY Times Article on Seminyak - Feb 22, 2004
Beaches of Bali
Populated places in Bali
Shopping districts and streets in Indonesia
Badung Regency | [
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242224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River%20Medway | River Medway | The River Medway is a river in South East England. It rises in the High Weald, East Sussex and flows through Tonbridge, Maidstone and the Medway conurbation in Kent, before emptying into the Thames Estuary near Sheerness, a total distance of . About of the river lies in East Sussex, with the remainder being in Kent.
It has a catchment area of , the second largest in southern England after the Thames. The map opposite shows only the major tributaries: a more detailed map shows the extensive network of smaller streams feeding into the main river. Those tributaries rise from points along the North Downs, the Weald and Ashdown Forest.
Tributaries
The major tributaries are:
River Eden
River Bourne, known in the past as the Shode or Busty
River Teise, major sub-tributary River Bewl
River Beult
Loose Stream
River Len
Minor tributaries include:
Wateringbury Stream
East Malling Stream
River Grom
Former minor tributaries include the Old Bourne River, which flowed through the Brook, Chatham (not to be confused with the main tributary River Bourne).
The river and its tributaries flow through largely rural areas, Tonbridge, Maidstone and Medway being the exceptions. The Medway itself initially flows in a west–east direction south of the North Downs; at the confluence of the River Beult, however, it turns north and breaks through the North Downs at the Medway Gap, a steep and narrow valley near Rochester, before its final section to the sea.
Until 1746 the river was not navigable above Maidstone. Below that point each village on the river had its wharf or wharves: at Halling, Snodland, New Hythe and Aylesford. Cargoes included corn, fodder, fruit, stone and timber.
In 1746, improvements to the channel meant that barges of could reach East Farleigh, Yalding and even Tonbridge. In 1828, the channel was further improved up to Leigh. There are eleven locks on the river. The lowest, opened in 1792, is at Allington, and is the tidal limit. The others are at East Farleigh, Teston, Hampstead Lane, Stoneham Old Lock (disused), Sluice Weir Lock, Oak Weir Lock, East Lock, Porter's, Eldridge's and Town Lock in Tonbridge. The locks will take craft up to by , and vessels with a draft of can navigate the river. The shallowest point is just below Sluice Weir Lock, which is prone to silting after heavy rain.
Small craft such as canoes can sometimes travel as far as Penshurst. The stretch from Leigh to Allington is known as the Medway Navigation, and is in length. The Environment Agency is the navigation authority.
Estuary
Downstream of the Medway bridges (M2, HS1) the river comprises a sequence of tidal reaches:
Wickham Reach
Tower Reach
Bridge Reach
Limehouse Reach
Chatham Reach
Upnor Reach
Short Reach
Gillingham Reach
Pinup Reach
Long Reach
Kethole Reach
Saltpan Reach
Stangate Creek
One of the channels on the southern side of the estuary, Stangate Creek, is the subject of a painting by William Turner. In a location described as "opposite the Isle of Grain, Sharpfleet Creek, and the lower-end of the Hope", a quarantine site for ships was proclaimed on 16 September 1709, during an outbreak of the plague. The area had been leased to oyster fisherman, so compensation was paid to them. Nearly 150 ships quarantined there in the first six months of 1712, and the site was again used between 1721 and 1743.
In 1918 to 1920, damages were sought for damage done to an oyster fishery in Stangate Creek.
River crossings
Until recently the lowest public crossing of the Medway was at Rochester, where there has been a bridge since Roman times. In the 14th century the Wardens and Commonalty of Rochester Bridge were instituted by Sir John de Cobham to pay for the rebuilding and upkeep of the bridge. Until 1963 the nearest crossing to Rochester Bridge was the 14th-century bridge at Aylesford, upstream. Since then the following additional crossings have come into use:
1963: A viaduct over the river was built south of Rochester to carry the first section of the M2 motorway. In 2003 this was widened to two separate spans.
Between 1963 and 1996 the M20 was built, with a bridge over the Medway south of Aylesford.
1996: The Medway Tunnel became the river's lowest public crossing, connecting Gillingham to Strood. The four-lane tunnel was constructed using the immersed tube method, and was partially paid for by Rochester Bridge Trust, the successor to the Wardens and Commonalty.
2003: A railway bridge long, with a central span of , was constructed for High Speed 1. The railway bridge lies parallel to the M2 motorway bridges.
2017: A new road bridge from the A228 between Holborough and Halling across to Hall Road, Wouldham, to facilitate the development of Peters Village.
Three other major crossings are at Tonbridge, where bridges carry the A227 road and a rail link over the river; there is also a two-span viaduct which takes the A21 over the Medway Valley near Haysden.
The lowest crossing of the Medway are two cable tunnels between the Isle of Grain and Chetney marshes. These were built between 1973 and 1976 in anticipation of the commissioning of Grain power station. The tunnels are 1700 m long, 2.54 m in diameter and between 34 and 47 m below ordnance datum; each carries a 400kV electricity circuit. There is no public access.
Flooding
The middle section of the Medway above Tonbridge, partly because of the various tributaries entering the river in this stretch – in particular the River Eden – has always been subject to extensive flooding. Tonbridge has suffered frequent flooding over the centuries, so much so that the higher part of the town to the north is called "Dryhill". Flood protection measures have therefore been taken. In 1981, a flood barrier was constructed downstream from Leigh to protect Tonbridge, which had been severely affected by the flooding of 1968. During periods of high flow, the flow is controlled by impounding the water and allowing up to of farmland upstream of the barrier to flood. However, this did not prevent significant flooding in Tonbridge in winter 2013–14. In recent years the village of Yalding, about 12 km downstream at the confluence with the River Beult, has been more prone to flooding than Tonbridge.
Footpaths
The Medway Valley Walk follows the river from Rochester to Tonbridge along the bank most of the way above Allington. It starts on the Saxon Shore Way at Rochester. The North Downs Way crosses the river using the Medway Viaduct or motorway bridge. The Greensand Way crosses the river at Yalding. At West Peckham, it is joined by the Wealdway which continues through Tonbridge, thus linking with the Eden Valley Walk. Maidstone Millennium River Park is a walk from Teston Country Park to the Museum of Kent Life at Sandling. The park, built between 1998 and 2001, has transformed of wasteland and three new footbridges have been built over the river.
History
Ancient sites abound throughout the length of the River Medway. The area around Aylesford is a notable Stone Age site where the Medway megaliths are a group of Neolithic chamber tombs including the Coldrum Stones and Kit's Coty House. Bronze Age ornaments and beakers have been found along the river; other burial sites and finds come from the pre-Roman Iron Age. The Romans left evidence of many villas in the lower Medway Valley; later Jutish burial sites have also been found.
The Domesday Book records many manors in the Medway valley. Castles became a feature of the landscape, including Rochester, Allington, Leeds (near Maidstone), and West Malling.
Two military actions are named after the river: the Battle of the Medway (43 CE, during the Roman invasion of Britain); and the Raid on the Medway, in 1667 during the Second Anglo-Dutch War.
In the 18th century Samuel Ireland published an illustrated book about a journey up the river, to the River Bewl at Bayham Abbey. The book's map shows some of the tributaries (unnamed). The illustrations include the castles at Queenborough, Upnor, Leybourne, Tonbridge and Hever; Penshurst Place; and the bridges at Teston, Maidstone, Aylesford, East Farleigh, Barming, Branbridges and Tonbridge. The hop fields in the vicinity of the latter are also described; and the easterly River Len, which then supplied Maidstone with its piped water. The book states that Within about two miles of Tunbridge the Medway branches out into several small streams, five of which unite at the town ... having each its stone bridge.
The Thames and Medway Canal, duplicatively linking the estuary at Strood to Gravesend for adverse tides and weather was completed in 1824 — not a commercial success: by 1849 the South Eastern Railway had taken over its tunnel through a hillside. The western part of the canal remained in use until 1934.
The Hartlake disaster of 1853 saw the deaths of 30 hop-pickers when a wagon carrying them crashed through the side of a rotten wooden bridge at Golden Green near Hadlow, throwing its passengers into the flood-swollen river.
In 1914 HMS Bulwark exploded while moored at Kethole Reach near Sheerness, killing 741 men with only 12 survivors. The following year exploded in Saltpan Reach with the loss of 352 lives.
In 1942 the world's first test of a submarine oil pipeline was conducted with one laid across the Medway in Operation Pluto.
Culture
The Medway's 'marriage' to the Thames is given extensive treatment by Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene in the 16th century (Book IV, Canto xi). Joseph Conrad describes the view up the Medway from the Thames Estuary in The Mirror of the Sea (1906).
For the 1999 film The Mummy the river was filmed at Chatham Dockyard, in an imitation of a "port at Cairo". The scene is brief but involves the main protagonists departing on their mission to the city of the dead.
Every year a festival is held in Maidstone to celebrate the River Medway. Maidstone River Festival, which has been running since 1980, is held on the last Saturday of July. It features events on and around the river and attracts thousands to Kent's county town. The festival was cancelled in 2012 due to the London Olympics, but returned in 2013. However, the 2013 event did not include a funfair or a fireworks display as in previous years, and lasted just one day instead of two.
Medway Flows Softly is a song by local man George Gilbert; it was written in the mid 1960s and is often played in local folk clubs and at festivals in Kent.
The River Medway is featured at Maidstone in the studio backdrop of the ITV1 regional news programme Meridian Tonight.
At 7.15 p.m. on 1 May each year, local Morris dancers Kettle Bridge Clogs dance across Barming Bridge (otherwise known as the Kettle Bridge) to mark the start of their Morris dancing season.
Recreationally the river is used by many. For example, individuals and many clubs have paddling trips along many different parts of the Medway (e.g. Bewl Canoe Club). Individuals and club members paddling on the Medway and most other rivers should be members of British Canoeing.
"Kentish Men" and "Men of Kent"
The Medway is said to divide the county of Kent into two parts: this may allude to the two dioceses into which Kent has been divided since the year 604: Canterbury and Rochester. The tradition has grown up, and is kept alive by the "Association of Men of Kent and Kentish Men", that those born in West Kent – the area north of the river, but including Maidstone, Gillingham (other than Rainham), Rochester and Chatham – are labelled Kentish Men (or Maids); while those born in East Kent are Men (or Maids) of Kent. This labelling applies equally to those born in those parts of the traditional county absorbed into London since the 1880s.
Watermills
The power of the Medway has been harnessed for a millennium or more. Waterwheels and turbines powered by the waters of the Medway and its tributaries have been used to mill corn, make paper, make cloth, smelt iron, pump water and generate electricity. There are over 200 sites on the Medway where such usage is known. Today, only one mill is working for a commercial trade.
See Medway watermills, and Medway watermills on the upper tributaries, the middle tributaries and the lower tributaries for more details.
Gallery
Medway scenes:
See also
Tributaries of the River Thames
List of rivers in England
Rivers of Kent
London Stones at Upnor
Medway Navigation
References
Further reading
External links
Map of the Medway catchment area
Detailed navigation information
Leigh Flood Barrier page from the EA
Flood protection measures
Medway Valley Countryside Partnership
Early Norman Churches In and Near the Medway Valley, Rev. Grevile M. Livett, Archaeologia Cantiana, Vol. 20, Kent Archaeological Society, 1893
Bewl Canoe Club
BCU Website
Rivers of Kent
River navigations in the United Kingdom
Medway
Rivers of West Sussex
Ramsar sites in England | [
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242228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Language%20Instinct | The Language Instinct | The Language Instinct is a 1994 book by Steven Pinker, written for a general audience. Pinker argues that humans are born with an innate capacity for language. He deals sympathetically with Noam Chomsky's claim that all human language shows evidence of a universal grammar, but dissents from Chomsky's skepticism that evolutionary theory can explain the human language instinct.
Thesis
Pinker criticizes a number of common ideas about language, for example that children must be taught to use it, that most people's grammar is poor, that the quality of language is steadily declining, that the kind of linguistic facilities that a language provides (for example, some languages have words to describe light and dark, but no words for colors) has a heavy influence on a person's possible range of thoughts (the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis), and that nonhuman animals have been taught language (see Great ape language). Pinker sees language as an ability unique to humans, produced by evolution to solve the specific problem of communication among social hunter-gatherers. He compares language to other species' specialized adaptations such as spiders' web-weaving or beavers' dam-building behavior, calling all three "instincts".
By calling language an instinct, Pinker means that it is not a human invention in the sense that metalworking and even writing are. While only some human cultures possess these technologies, all cultures possess language. As further evidence for the universality of language, Pinker—mainly relying on the work of Derek Bickerton—notes that children spontaneously invent a consistent grammatical speech (a creole) even if they grow up among a mixed-culture population speaking an informal trade pidgin with no consistent rules. Deaf babies "babble" with their hands as others normally do with voice, and spontaneously invent sign languages with true grammar rather than a crude "me Tarzan, you Jane" pointing system. Language (speech) also develops in the absence of formal instruction or active attempts by parents to correct children's grammar. These signs suggest that rather than being a human invention, language is an innate human ability. Pinker also distinguishes language from humans' general reasoning ability, emphasizing that it is not simply a mark of advanced intelligence but rather a specialized "mental module". He distinguishes the linguist's notion of grammar, such as the placement of adjectives, from formal rules such as those in the American English writing style guide. He argues that because rules like "a preposition is not a proper word to end a sentence with" must be explicitly taught, they are irrelevant to actual communication and should be ignored.
Pinker attempts to trace the outlines of the language instinct by citing his own studies of language acquisition in children, and the works of many other linguists and psychologists in multiple fields, as well as numerous examples from popular culture. He notes, for instance, that specific types of brain damage cause specific impairments of language such as Broca's aphasia or Wernicke's aphasia, that specific types of grammatical construction are especially hard to understand, and that there seems to be a critical period in childhood for language development just as there is a critical period for vision development in cats. Much of the book refers to Chomsky's concept of a universal grammar, a meta-grammar into which all human languages fit. Pinker explains that a universal grammar represents specific structures in the human brain that recognize the general rules of other humans' speech, such as whether the local language places adjectives before or after nouns, and begin a specialized and very rapid learning process not explainable as reasoning from first principles or pure logic. This learning machinery exists only during a specific critical period of childhood and is then disassembled for thrift, freeing resources in an energy-hungry brain.
Reception
Pinker's assumptions about the innateness of language have been challenged; English linguist Geoffrey Sampson argues that there is no such thing as a language instinct; however, he acknowledges that Pinker represents a widely held view of language acquisition.
Richard Webster, writes in Why Freud Was Wrong (1995), and concludes that Pinker argues cogently that the human capacity for language is part of the genetic endowment associated with the evolution through natural selection of specialised neural networks within the brain, and that its attack on the 'standard social science model' of human nature is effective. Webster accepts Pinker's argument that, for ideological motives, twentieth-century social scientists have minimized the extent to which human nature is influenced by genetics. However, Webster finds Pinker's speculation about other specialized neural networks that may have evolved within the human brain—such as "intuitive mechanics" and "intuitive biology"—to be questionable, and believes that there is a danger that they will be treated by others as science. Webster believes that such speculations strengthen supporters of extreme genetic determinism.
References
External links
Pinker's website on The Language Instinct
A review (PDF document) by Randy Harris for The Globe and Mail.
Sampson's website on The ‘Language Instinct’ Debate
1994 non-fiction books
Cognitive science literature
English-language books
Evolution of language
Linguistics books
Works by Steven Pinker | [
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242229 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not%20About%20Heroes | Not About Heroes | Not About Heroes is a drama by Stephen MacDonald about the real-life relationship between the poets Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon first performed in 1982 at the Edinburgh Festival in Edinburgh, Scotland.
The play has only two characters: Owen and Sassoon. The story of their friendship is told in a series of flashbacks, narrated by Sassoon who survived World War I (in which Owen was killed). Most of the scenes take place during their time as fellow-patients at Craiglockhart War Hospital near Edinburgh in 1917.
The title is a quotation from the preface Wilfred Owen wrote in preparation for the publication of his collected poems:
Synopsis
The action is replayed through the eyes of an older Siegfried Sassoon, as he recalls his relationship with Wilfred Owen, beginning some fourteen years earlier. Owen introduces himself hesitantly to Sassoon when the latter arrives at Craiglockhart in 1917, having been diagnosed as suffering from "war neurosis" as a result of his protest against the war. The course of their friendship is shown through extracts from the real diaries and letters of the two men, right up to their last meeting at the Chelsea Physic Garden, when Sassoon was recovering from a head wound that would end his military career while Owen waited to return to the Western Front, where he would be killed shortly afterwards.
Past productions
Not About Heroes had its première at the Edinburgh Festival in 1982 and won a Fringe First award. Directed by Eric Standidge, Sassoon was played by the author and Owen by David Learner. It toured and came to the King's Head, was adapted for Yorkshire TV and BBC Radio 4, and was published by Faber and Faber, all in 1983. A new production at the Royal National Theatre in 1986 celebrated the centenary of Sassoon's birth. A national tour took place the following year with Paul Shelley as Siegfried Sassoon and Stephen McGann as Wilfred Owen. In 1992, the author directed a revised text for the Citizen's, Glasgow – a production which afterwards was seen in Shrewsbury as part of the celebrations marking the centenary of Owen's birth.
A production by Dianne Wiest at the Williamstown Theatre Festival transferred to New York City in 1985. Edward Herrmann and Dylan Baker both won OBIE awards. The 1987 Stratford Ontario production, with Nicholas Pennell and Henry Czerny, was revived the following year. Not About Heroes was also performed in the early 1990s at The Round House Theatre in the Maryland suburbs of Washington, D.C.
Stephen McGann played Owen in a production at the Oxford Playhouse in 1987, opposite Paul Shelley as Sassoon. Jonas Armstrong played Owen in a 2000 production at the Edinburgh Fringe.
In October/November 2008, Rowan Tree Theatre Co. in the Scottish Borders, mounted a production of the play to mark the 90th anniversary of the end of the Great War and in celebration of the company's twenty-first birthday. One performance was given in Craiglockhart Hospital, the site of the actual meeting of the two poets. Sassoon was played by Oliver Bisset, and Owen by Matthew Burgess. The play was directed by John Haswell and produced by Judy Steel.
Notable productions of Not About Heroes in recent years have included a version mounted for the 2002 Hay-on-Wye literary festival, starring Roger Moss and Owen Sheers. It was directed by Cathy Gill and produced by the novelist, Louis de Bernières. The following year, Peter Dickson and Andrew Butterworth starred in a production at the Crescent Theatre, Birmingham. In 2005 MADHouse Productions staged a poignant version in the intimate surroundings of the Barons Court Theatre in west London. This production starred Dov Citron as Sassoon and Martin Scully as Owen and was directed by Ian Flintoff. In 2006, Feelgood Theatre Productions premiered a site specific production in the setting of the Imperial War Museum North starring Dan Willis and Sam Ellis. Directed by Caroline Clegg, this production went on to be the first theatre company to perform in the Cabinet War Rooms (Churchill's bunker), followed by a national tour and short sell-out season at Trafalgar Studios, Whitehall, London. Inspired by Not About Heroes at Trafalgar Feelgood created Eloquent Protest a peace event using poetry, song and textas "an artists response to war". Hosted by retired politician and peace campaigner Tony Benn this became a pivotal event for four years, with stars such as Janie Dee, Johnnie Fiori, Sam West, Robert Powell, Jason Isaacs, Roy Bailey, Julian Littman, Clive Rowe, Peter Straker, Jane Milligan and David Harsent. RGP Productions produced the play in Sydney, followed by a season at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra in 2007, starring Roger Gimblett as Sassoon and Patrick Magee as Owen, with direction by Carla Moore. To mark the centenary of the declaration of World War One RGP Productions remounted their 2007 production of the play at the Sydney Opera House in August 2014. The play was broadcast on BBC Radio 7 in November 2007 and November 2008.
References
1983 plays
British plays
Plays about World War I
Faber and Faber books | [
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242231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junkers%20Ju%2052 | Junkers Ju 52 | The Junkers Ju 52/3m (nicknamed Tante Ju ("Aunt Ju") and Iron Annie) is a transport aircraft that was designed and manufactured by German aviation company Junkers.
Development of the Ju 52 commenced during 1930, headed by German aeronautical engineer Ernst Zindel. The aircraft's design incorporated a corrugated duralumin metal skin as a strengthening measure, which was very unusual at the time. The Ju 52's maiden flight was performed on 13 October 1930. It was initially designed with a single engine, however, it was produced in quantity as a trimotor. The primary early production model, the Ju 52/3m, was principally operated as a 17-seat airliner or utility transport aircraft by various civil operators during the 1930s. Following the rise of Nazi Germany, thousands of Ju 52s were procured as a staple military transport of the nation. The Ju 52/3mg7e was the principal production model.
The Ju 52 was in production between 1931 and 1952. In a civilian role, it flew with over 12 airlines, including Swissair and Deutsche Luft Hansa, as both a passenger carrier and a freight hauler. In a military role, large numbers flew with the Luftwaffe, being deployed on virtually all fronts of the Second World War as a troop and cargo transport; it was also briefly used as a medium bomber. Additionally, the type was deployed by other nation's militaries in conflicts such as the Spanish Civil War, the Chaco War, and the Portuguese Colonial War. During the postwar era, the Ju 52 had a lengthy service life with numerous military and civilian operators; large numbers were still in use by the 1980s. Even in the 21st century, several aircraft have remained operational, typically used for purposes such as heritage aviation displays and aerial sightseeing.
Development
The Ju 52 was similar to the company's previous Junkers W 33, although larger. In 1930, German aeronautical engineer Ernst Zindel and his team designed the Ju 52 at the Junkers works at Dessau. According to aviation author J. Richard Smith, the Ju 52 directly drew upon the company's First World War-era Junkers J 1 - the world's first all-metal aeroplane.
On 13 October 1930, the first prototype, designated Ju 52ba, performed the type's maiden flight; it was initially powered by a single Junkers-built liquid-cooled V-12 engine, capable of generating up to 800 hp. During the aircraft's extensive trials, it was reengined with a 755 hp BMW IV water-cooled inline-6 powerplant. The second prototype, designated Ju 52de, featured an increased wing span and was powered by the BMW IV engine at first; it was soon reengined with the 750 hp 14-cylinder twin-row air-cooled radial Armstrong Siddeley Leopard and re-designated Ju 52di. Later on, the Ju 52di was again reengined with the 750 hp Junkers Jumo 204 air-cooled inverted inline-6, after which it was re-designated Ju 52do. The third prototype, designated Ju 52ce, had a strengthened structure, a modified leading edge, and was fitted with both a wheeled and float undercarriages.
During May 1931, one of the prototypes, designated Ju 52cai, was written off after a crash. While these initial aircraft had been powered by a single engine, Junkers decided to develop the Ju 52 into a trimotor configuration. Accordingly, the Ju 52/3m (drei motoren—"three engines") was developed, being powered by an arrangement of three radial engines. According to Smith, the earliest known Ju 52/3m was delivered to Bolivian airline Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano during 1932. During its initial production years, airlines were the type's most common customers. By the mid-1930s, the Ju 52/3mce and Ju 52/3fe, were the two primary production variants, both being powered by the BMW 132 radial engine.
During 1934, work commenced on a militarised model of the Ju 52/3m, designated Ju 52/3mg3e, on behalf of the then-secret Luftwaffe. This model could function as a medium bomber, being furnished with a pair of defensive gun turrets and operated by a crew of four. Between 1934 and 1935, a total of 450 Ju 52/3mg3e aircraft were delivered to the Luftwaffe.
Numerous improved models would be introduced prior to and during the Second World War. The dominant production model was the Ju 52/3mg7e, featuring advances such as an autopilot, enlarged doors to the cabin, and other general enhancements. It was configured as a pure transport aircraft, being capable of carrying up to 18 fully-equipped troops. Defensive armaments comprised a dorsal-mounted 13 mm MG 131 machine gun and a pair of sideways-mounted 7.9mm MG 15 machine guns. Successive models saw other improvements, such as revised glazing, newer engines, undercarriage strengthening, and increased take-off weight. The final wartime model to be developed, designated Ju 52/3mg14e, featured improved armour protection for the pilot and a bolstered defensive armament.
From mid-1943 onwards, the Luftwaffe began to make less use of the Ju 52, interest having waned in the type. German officials were interested in procuring a successor to the type; at one stage, the Reich Air Ministry showed enthusiasm for the Junkers Ju 352, a larger transport aircraft somewhat resembling the Ju 52. Actions were taken to convert Junkers' Ju 52 production lines to instead manufacture Ju 352s; however, the conflict's end in May 1945 led to the effort being abandoned in an unfinished state. As such, German production of the Ju 52 was terminated during 1944; Smith claims that a total of 3,234 aircraft of various models were constructed during the conflict.
In the postwar era, manufacture of the Ju 52 resumed, albeit in foreign countries. It was constructed in France by Avions Amiot as the Amiot AAC.1 Toucan; it was also produced in Spain by Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA (CASA) as the CASA 352. A handful of captured wartime aircraft were also rebuilt by Short Brothers of Northern Ireland for civilian service.
Design
The Ju 52 had a low cantilever wing, the midsection of which was built into the fuselage, forming its underside. It was formed around four pairs of circular cross-section duralumin spars with a corrugated surface that provided torsional stiffening. A narrow control surface, with its outer section functioning as the aileron, and the inner section functioning as a flap, ran along the whole trailing edge of each wing panel, well separated from it. The inner flap section lowered the stalling speed and the arrangement became known as the Doppelflügel, or "double wing".
The outer sections of this operated differentially as ailerons, projecting slightly beyond the wingtips with control horns. The strutted horizontal stabilizer carried horn-balanced elevators which again projected and showed a significant gap between them and the stabilizer, which was adjustable in-flight. All stabilizer surfaces were corrugated.
The Ju 52 featured an unusual corrugated duralumin metal skin, which had been pioneered by Junkers during the First World War; the corrugation served to strengthen the whole structure over a smoother approach. The fuselage was of rectangular section with a domed decking, comprising a tubular steel structure that was entirely covered by the corrugated metal skin. A port-side passenger door was placed just aft of the wings; this entrance also acted as a loading hatch for freight, the lower half functioning as a platform to ease cargo movements. The cabin had a dimensional capacity of 590 cubic feet, and was lined with numerous windows stretching forward to the pilots' cockpit. The main undercarriage was fixed and divided; some aircraft had wheel fairings, others did not. A fixed tailskid, or a later tailwheel, was used. Some aircraft were fitted with floats or skis instead of the main wheels.
In its original configuration, designated the Ju 52/1m, the Ju 52 was a single-engined aircraft, powered by either a BMW IV or Junkers liquid-cooled V-12 engine. However, the single-engined model was deemed to have been underpowered and, after seven prototypes had been completed, all subsequent Ju 52s were built with three radial engines as the Ju 52/3m (drei motoren—"three engines"). Originally powered by three Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet radial engines, later production models mainly received 574 kW (770 hp) BMW 132 engines, a licence-built refinement of the Pratt & Whitney design. Export models were also built with 447 kW (600 hp) Pratt & Whitney R-1340 Wasp and 578 kW (775 hp) Bristol Pegasus VI engines.
The two wing-mounted radial engines of the Ju 52/3m had half-chord cowlings and in planform view (from above/below) appeared to be splayed outwards, being mounted at an almost perpendicular angle to the tapered wing's sweptback leading edge (in a similar fashion to the Mitsubishi G3M bomber and Short Sunderland; the angled engines on the Ju 52 were intended to make maintaining straight flight easier should an engine fail, while the others had different reasons). The three engines had either Townend ring or NACA cowlings to reduce drag from the engine cylinders, although a mixture of the two was most common (as can be seen in many of the accompanying photographs), with deeper-chord NACA cowlings on the wing engines and a narrow Townend ring on the center engine (onto which a deeper NACA cowl was more difficult to fit, due to the widening fuselage behind the engine). Production Ju 52/3m aircraft flown by Deutsche Luft Hansa before the Second World War, as well as Luftwaffe-flown Ju 52s flown during the war, usually used an air-start system to turn over their trio of radial engines, using a common compressed air supply that also operated the main wheels' brakes.
In a military context, the Ju 52 could carry up to 18 fully-equipped soldiers, or 12 stretchers when used as an air ambulance. Transported material was loaded and unloaded through side doors by means of a ramp. Air-dropped supplies were jettisoned through two double chutes; supply containers were dropped by parachute through the bomb-bay doors, and paratroopers jumped through the side doors. Sd.Kfz. 2 Kettenkrafträder (half-track motorcycles) and supply canisters for parachute troops were secured under the fuselage at the bomb bay exits and were dropped with four parachutes. A tow coupling was built into the tail-skid for use in towing freight gliders. The Ju 52 could tow up to two DFS 230 gliders.
Operational history
Prewar civil use
In late 1931, James A. Richardson's Canadian Airways received (Werknummer 4006) CF-ARM, the sixth-built Ju 52/1m. The aircraft, first refitted with an Armstrong Siddeley Leopard radial engine and then later with a Rolls-Royce Buzzard and nicknamed the "Flying Boxcar" in Canada, could lift about 3 tons and had a maximum weight of 7 tonnes (8 tons). It was commonly used to supply mining and other operations in remote areas with equipment that was too big and heavy for other aircraft then in use. The Ju 52/1m was able to land on wheels, skis, or floats (as were all Ju 52 variants).
Prior to the Nazi government's seizure of control of the Junkers company during 1935, the Ju 52/3m was produced principally as a 17-seat airliner. By 1935, 97 Ju 52s were being operated by numerous airlines; early customers included Finland's Aero O/Y, Sweden's AB Aerotransport, and Brazil's Syndicato Condor.
During May 1932, German flag carrier Luft Hansa took delivery of its first example of the type. The Ju 52 was heavily used by Luft Hansa, it was able to fly from Berlin to Rome in eight hours; both this route and the London-Berlin service was frequently operated by the type. According to Smith, Luft Hansa's Ju 52 fleet eventually numbered 231 Ju 52s; during the pre-war era, it was flown on various routes from Germany on routes in Europe, Asia, and South America.
Military use 1932–1945
The Colombian Air Force used three Ju 52/3mde bombers equipped as floatplanes during the Colombia-Peru War in 1932–1933. After the war, the air force acquired three other Ju 52mge as transports; the type remained in service until after the end of the Second World War.
Bolivia acquired four Ju 52s in the course of the Chaco War (1932–1935), mainly for medical evacuation and air supply. During the conflict, the Ju 52s alone transported more than 4,400 tons of cargo to the front.
In 1934, Junkers received orders to produce a bomber version of the Ju 52/3m to serve as interim equipment for the bomber units of the still-secret Luftwaffe until it could be replaced by the purpose-designed Dornier Do 11. Two bomb bays were fitted, capable of holding up to of bombs, while defensive armament consisted of two 7.92 mm MG 15 machine guns, one in an open dorsal position, and one in a retractable "dustbin" ventral position, which could be manually winched down from the fuselage to protect the aircraft from attacks from below. The bomber could be easily converted to serve in the transport role. The Dornier Do 11 was a failure, however, and the Junkers ended up being acquired in much larger numbers than at first expected, with the type being the Luftwaffe's main bomber until more modern aircraft such as the Heinkel He 111, Junkers Ju 86 and Dornier Do 17 entered into service.
The Ju 52 was used in military service in the Spanish Civil War against the Spanish Republic. It was one of the first aircraft to be delivered to the Nationalist faction in July 1936, with 20 Ju 52/3m g3e bombers being delivered to the Nationalist forces by Germany within a week of the start of the war. Their first use was to help airlift Franco's Army of Africa from Morocco to the Spanish mainland, bypassing a Spanish republican naval blockade. Between 20 July and the end of August 1936, Ju 52s carried out 461 transport flights, ferrying 7,350 troops together with weapons and equipment, with 5,455 more troops carried in September and a further 1,157 troops carried by the time the airlift ended early in October. According to Smith, the Ju 52 gained a formidable reputation; the type having been reportedly used in practically every major military engagement in support of Nationalist forces. In the Spanish theatre, the Ju 52 was operated both as a bomber and as a transport. In the former role, it participated in the bombing of Guernica, although it was considered obsolete as a bomber by late 1937, by which point it was in the process of being replaced by more capable bombers such as the Dornier Do 17 and Heinkel He 111. The type's final sortie in the theatre was performed on 26 March 1939. By the end of the conflict, Ju 52s had accumulated 13,000 operational hours and had performed 5,400 offensive missions and dropped over 6,000 bombs.
Following the end of the Spanish Civil War, no further aircraft of the bomber variants were built, though the type was again used as a bomber during the bombing of Warsaw during the invasion of Poland in September 1939. The Luftwaffe instead relied on the Ju 52 for transport roles during the Second World War, including paratroop drops.
Second World War
During its service with Luft Hansa, the Ju 52 had proved to be an extremely reliable passenger airplane. This positive experience contributed to its adoption by the Luftwaffe as a standard aircraft model. In 1938, the 7th Air Division had five air transport groups with 250 Ju 52s. The Luftwaffe had 552 Ju 52s at the start of the Second World War. Though it was built in great numbers, the Ju 52 was technically obsolete. Between 1939 and 1944, 2,804 Ju 52s were delivered to the Luftwaffe (1939: 145; 1940: 388; 1941: 502; 1942: 503; 1943: 887; and 1944: 379). The production of Ju 52s continued until around the summer of 1944; when the war came to an end, 100 to 200 were still available.
Lightly armed, and with a top speed of only 265 km/h (165 mph) — half that of a contemporary Hurricane — the Ju 52 was very vulnerable to fighter attack, and an escort was always necessary when flying in a combat zone. Many Ju 52's were shot down by antiaircraft guns and fighters while transporting supplies, most notably during the desperate attempt to resupply the trapped German Sixth Army during the final stages of the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943.
From 24 November 1942 to 31 January 1943, 488 aircraft were recorded as lost (this number included 266 Ju 52, 165 He 111, 42 Ju 86, 9 Fw 200, 5 He 177 and 1 Ju 290) and about 1,000 flight personnel.
Denmark and Norway campaign
The first major operation for the aircraft after the bombing of Warsaw was in Operation Weserübung, the attack on Denmark and Norway on 9 April 1940. Fifty-two Ju 52s from 1. and 8. Staffel in Kampfgeschwader 1 transported a company of Fallschirmjäger (paratroopers) and a battalion of infantry to the northern part of Jutland, and captured the airfield at Aalborg, vital to support the operation in southern Norway. Several hundred Ju 52s were also used to transport troops to Norway in the first days of this campaign.
During the Norwegian campaign, the Luftwaffe's Ju 52s performed a total of 3,018 sorties, 1830 of which had been carrying troops while the remainder transported cargo and various supplies. According to Smith, 29,280 personnel, 2,376 tons of supplies and 259,300 imp. gallons of fuel had been airlifted by Ju 52s through the campaign. Around 150 aircraft had been recorded as lost by the end of operations.
The seaplane version, equipped with two large floats, served during the Norwegian campaign in 1940, and later in the Mediterranean theatre. Some Ju 52's, both floatplanes and landplanes, were also used as minesweepers, known as Minensuch — literally, "mine-search" aircraft in German — and fitted with a diameter current-carrying degaussing ring under the airframe to create a magnetic field that triggered submerged naval mines. These aircraft were usually given an -"MS" suffix to designate them, as had been done with the similarly equipped Bv 138 MS trimotor flying boat.
Netherlands campaign
The Ju 52 transport aircraft participated in the attack on the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. It was during this campaign that the Ju 52 performed a crucial role in carrying out the first large-scale air attack with paratroops in history during the Battle for The Hague. According to Smith, 500 Ju 52s had been made ready for the aerial assault on the Low Countries. In addition to the paratroop drops, they also directly landed in hostile territory to deploy assault troops, such as at Ypenburg Airport, on public highways around The Hague, and on the River Meuse (the latter using float-equipped aircraft).
During the opening days of the Netherlands campaign, many German aircraft were shot down by Dutch AA-fire; a total of 125 Ju 52s were lost and 47 damaged; author Hooton considered these losses to have been relatively costly for the Luftwaffe. Although transport operations with the Ju 52 were noticeably curtailed after the initial days of the invasion, the type continued to aerially supply forward ground troops.
During August 1940, Nazi German decided to base large numbers of Ju 52s at airfields in the Lyon, Lille, and Arras areas. Luftwaffe transport units were deliberately held at a state of readiness for Operation Sea Lion, the envisioned invasion of the British Isles; however, this operation was never attempted, in part due to the Luftwaffe being unable to secure aerial supremacy during the Battle of Britain.
Balkans campaign
The next major use of the Ju 52 was in the Balkans campaign. The type has been credited with enabling the rapid deployment of German ground forces throughout the theatre. However, the Ju 52 was perhaps most famously deployed during the Battle of Crete in late May 1941. 493 Ju 52/3m aircraft were used to transport much of the 22,750 troops flown onto Crete for the Luftwaffe's largest airborne invasion of the war. While victorious, 170 aircraft were lost along with 4,500 personnel; the high loss rate brought about the end of German paratroop operations.
North Africa campaign
During the North African campaign, the Ju 52 was the mainstay reinforcement and resupply transport for the Germans, starting with 20 to 50 flights a day to Tunisia from Sicily in November 1942, building to 150 landings a day in early April as the Axis situation became more desperate. The Allied air forces developed a counter-air operation over a two-month period and implemented Operation Flax on 5 April 1943, destroying 11 Ju 52s in the air near Cap Bon and many more during bombing attacks on its Sicilian airfields, leaving only 29 flyable. That began two catastrophic weeks in which more than 140 aircraft were lost in air interceptions, culminating on 18 April with the "Palm Sunday Massacre" in which 24 Ju 52s were shot down, and another 35 staggered back to Sicily and crash-landed.
Hitler's personal transport
Hitler used a Deutsche Luft Hansa Ju 52 for campaigning in the 1932 German election, preferring flying to train travel. After he became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Hans Baur became his personal pilot, and Hitler was provided with a personal Ju 52. Named Immelmann II after the First World War ace Max Immelmann, it carried the registration D-2600. As his power and importance grew, Hitler's personal air force grew to nearly 50 aircraft, based at Berlin Tempelhof Airport and made up mainly of Ju 52s, which also flew other members of his cabinet and war staff. In September 1939, at Baur's suggestion, Immelmann II was replaced by a four-engine Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor, although Immelman II remained his backup aircraft for the rest of the Second World War.
Chiang Kai-shek's personal transport
Eurasia was a major Chinese airliner company in the 1930s and operated at least seven Ju 52/3ms. A further example, sent out as a demonstrator to Eurasia, was purchased by the Chinese Nationalist Party government and became Chiang Kai-shek's personal transport.
Postwar use
Various Junkers Ju 52s continued in military and civilian use following World War II. In 1956, the Portuguese Air Force, which was already using the Ju 52s as a transport plane, employed the type as a paratroop drop aircraft for its newly organized elite parachute forces, later known as the Batalhão de Caçadores Páraquedistas. The paratroopers used the Ju 52 in several combat operations in Angola and other Portuguese African colonies before gradually phasing it out of service in the 1960s.
The Swiss Air Force also operated the Ju 52 from 1939 to 1982, when three aircraft remained in operation, probably the last and longest service in any air force. Museums hoped to obtain the aircraft, but they were not for sale. They are still in flying condition and together with a CASA 352 can be booked for sightseeing tours with Ju-Air.
During the 1950s, the Ju 52 was also used by the French Air Force during the First Indochina War as a bomber. The use of these Junkers was quite limited.
The Spanish Air Force operated the Ju 52, nicknamed Pava, until well into the 1970s. Escuadrón 721, flying the Spanish-built versions, was employed in training parachutists from Alcantarilla Air Base near Murcia.
Some military Ju 52s were converted to civilian use. For example, British European Airways operated 11 ex-Luftwaffe Ju 52/3mg8e machines, taken over by the RAF, between 1946 and retirement in 1947 on intra-U.K. routes before the Douglas DC-3 was introduced to the airline. French airlines such as Societe de Transports Aeriens (STA) and Air France flew Toucans in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
In the USSR, captured Ju 52s were allocated to the Civil Air Fleet, being found particularly suitable for transporting sulphur from the Karakum Desert. Various Soviet agencies used the Ju 52 through to 1950.
A Ju 52 and a Douglas DC-3 were the last aircraft to take off from Berlin Tempelhof Airport before all operations ceased there on 30 October 2008.
Other versions
Most Ju 52s were destroyed after the war, but 585 were built after 1945. In France, the machine had been manufactured during the war by the Junkers-controlled Avions Amiot company, and production continued afterwards as the Amiot AAC 1 Toucan. In Spain, Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA continued production as the CASA 352 and 352L. Four CASA 352s are airworthy and in regular use today.
A CASA-built Ju52/3m appears in the opening sequence and finale of the 1968 Richard Burton and Clint Eastwood film Where Eagles Dare.
Variants
Data from Junkers Aircraft & Engines 1913–1945
Civil variants
Ju 52
Prototype of the single-engined transport aircraft, of twelve laid down only six were completed as single-engined aircraft. First flight: 3 September 1930, powered by a BMW VIIaU engine.
Ju 52/1mba
The prototype Ju 52, (c/n 4001, regn D-1974), redesignated after being re-engined with a single Junkers L88 engine
Ju 52/1mbe
Aircraft powered by BMW VIIaU
Ju 52/1mbi
The second prototype, (c/n 4002, regn D-2133), fitted with an Armstrong Siddeley Leopard engine
Ju 52/1mca
D-1974 fitted with drag flaps and refitted with a BMW VIIaU
Ju 52/1mcai
D-2356, (c/n 4005), crashed in May 1933
Ju 52/1mce
D-USON (c/n 4003) used as a target tug. D-2317, (c/n 4004), converted to a torpedo bomber in Sweden as the K 45
Ju 52/1mci
The second prototype fitted with long stepped floats, flying from the River Elbe on 17 July 1931
Ju 52/1mdi
The second prototype after having the floats removed and undercarriage reinstated, registered as D-USUS from 1934
Ju 52/1mdo
D-1974 fitted with a Junkers Jumo 4 engine as a testbed, reregistered as D-UZYP from 1937
Ju 52/3m
Three-engined prototype, powered by three Pratt & Whitney R-1340 Wasp engines, first flight: 7 March 1932
Ju 52/3mba
VIP version for the president of the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, Romanian prince Gheorghe Bibescu, powered by a Hispano-Suiza 12Mb engine in the nose and two Hispano-Suiza 12Nb engines (one on each wing)
Ju 52/3mce
Three-engined civil transport aircraft, powered by three Pratt & Whitney Hornet or BMW 132 engines
Ju 52/3mci
Planned version for Sweden, powered by Pratt & Whitney Wasp engines, not built
Ju 52/3mde
Seaplane version for Bolivia and Colombia, converted from Ju 52/1m
Ju 52/3mfe
Improved version, with chassis reinforcements and NACA cowlings on the outer engines, powered by three BMW 132A-3 engines
Ju 52/3mf1e
Trainer version for DVS
Ju 52/3mge
Airliner version, powered by BMW Hornet 132A engines
Ju 52/3mho
Two aircraft powered by Junkers Jumo 205C diesel engines, used only for testing
Ju 52/3mkao
Version powered by two BMW 132A and one BMW 132F or BMW 132N as a testbed
Ju 52/3ml
Powered by three Pratt & Whitney R-1690-S1EG engines
Ju 52/3mlu
Airliner version for Italy, powered by Piaggio Stella X engines, later re-engined with Alfa Romeo 126RC/34 engines
Ju 52/3mmao
Similar to kao except with NACA cowling
Ju 52/3mnai
Airliner version for Sweden and Great Britain, powered by Pratt & Whitney Wasp engines
Ju 52/3mreo
Airliner version for South America, powered by BMW 132Da/Dc engines
Ju 52/3msai
Airliner version for Sweden and South America, powered by Pratt & Whitney Wasp engines
Ju 52/3mte
Airliner version, powered by three BMW 132K engines
Ju 52/3mZ5
Export version for Finland, powered by BMW 132Z-3 engines
Military variants
Ju 52/3mg3e
Improved military version, powered by three BMW 132A-3 (improved version of the Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet) radial engines, equipped with an improved radio and bomb-release mechanism. Later versions had a tailwheel that replaced the tailskid.
Ju 52/3mg4e
Military transport version, the tailskid was replaced by a tailwheel.
Ju 52/3mg5e
Similar to g4e, but powered by three BMW 132T-2 engines, it could be fitted with interchangeable floats, skis, and wheeled landing gear.
Ju 52/3mg6e
Transport version equipped with extra radio gear and autopilot, could also be fitted with a degaussing ring
Ju 52/3mg7e
Transport version, capable of carrying 18 troops or 12 stretchers, featured autopilot and larger cargo doors
Ju 52/3mg8e
Similar to g6e, but with improved radio and direction finding gear, a few were fitted with floats.
Ju 52/3mg9e
Tropical version of g4e for service in North Africa, fitted with glider towing gear and strengthened undercarriage
Ju 52/3mg10e
Similar to g9e, but could be fitted with floats or wheels, lacked deicing equipment
Ju 52/3mg11e
Similar to g10e, but fitted with deicing equipment
Ju 52/3mg12e
Land transport version, powered by three BMW 132L engines
Ju 52/3m12e
Civilian version of Ju 52/3mg12e for Luft Hansa
Ju 52/3mg13e
No details are known.
Ju 52/3mg14e
Similar to g8e, but with improved armor, last German production version
A.A.C. 1 Toucan
Postwar French version of g11e, 415 built
CASA 352
Postwar Spanish version, 106 built
CASA 352L
Spanish version with Spanish ENMA Beta B-4 (license-built BMW 132) engines, 64 built
C-79
Designation assigned to a single example operated by the United States Army Air Forces
D52
Designation used by the Czechoslovak Air Force
T2B
Designation used by the Spanish Air Force
Tp 5
Designation used by the Swedish Air Force
K 45c A single Ju 52/1mce (c/n 4004) was delivered to the Junkers factory at Limhamn in Sweden, where it was converted to a torpedo bomber as the K 45c.
Operators
Accidents and incidents
Surviving aircraft
Airworthy
France
T.2B-212 – Ju 52/3m airworthy with Amicale J.B. Salis in Cerny, Essonne.
South Africa
T.2B-273 – CASA 352L airworthy at the South African Airways Museum Society in Germiston, Gauteng. Bought from England in 1981 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of South African Airways.
United States
T.2B-176 – CASA 352L airworthy at the Military Aviation Museum in Virginia Beach, Virginia. Formerly owned by Commemorative Air Force, operated by MAM since August 2010. Converted to Pratt & Whitney R-1340 geared engines, fitted with 3-blade propellers.
On display
Argentina
T-158 – Ju 52/3mge in storage at the Museo Nacional de Aeronáutica de Argentina in Morón, Buenos Aires.
Belgium
6309 – Ju 52/3mg7e on static display at the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History in Brussels.
Canada
T.2B-148 – CASA 352L on static display at the Royal Aviation Museum of Western Canada in Winnipeg, Manitoba. It has been converted to resemble a Ju 52/1m.
Colombia
FAC-625 – Ju 52/3mg4e on static display at the Colombian Aerospace Museum in Tocancipá, Cundinamarca.
France
6311 – Ju 52/3mg7e in storage with the Association des Mécaniciens Pilotes d'Aéronefs Anciens in Brétigny-sur-Orge, Essonne. It was acquired by the organization in 2011 from the Museu do Ar, where it had been in storage.
Germany
363 – AAC.1 on static display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich, Bavaria.
6320 – AAC.1 on display at Verein fur Historische Luftfahrzeuge in Monchengladbach, North Rhine-Westphalia. On loan from .
6134 – Ju 52/3mg4e on static display at the in Dessau, Saxony-Anhalt.
6693 – Ju 52/3mg4e on static display at the in Wunstorf, Lower Saxony.
6821 – Ju 52/3mg4e on static display at the Technik Museum Speyer in Speyer, Rhineland-Palatinate.
130714 – Ju 52/3mg8e on display with Quax on behalf of Deutsche Lufthansa Berlin-Stiftung in Büren, North Rhine-Westphalia. It was previously owned by aviation author Martin Caidin and has been refitted with Pratt & Whitney R-1340 engines.
T.2B-108 – Ju 52/3mte on static display at the Deutsches Technikmuseum in Berlin.
T.2B-127 – CASA 352L on static display at Flugausstellung Peter Junior in Hermeskeil, Rhineland-Palatinate.
T.2B-140 – CASA 352L on static display at the Technik Museum Sinsheim in Sinsheim, Baden-Württemberg.
T.2B-144 – CASA 352L on static display at the Visitors Park at Munich Airport in Munich, Bavaria.
T.2B-209 – CASA 352L on static display at the Technik Museum Speyer in Speyer.
T.2B-257 – CASA 352L on static display at the Technik Museum Sinsheim in Sinsheim.
Norway
6306 – Ju 52/3mg3e on static display at the Norwegian Aviation Museum in Bodø, Nordland.
6657 – Ju 52/3mg4e on static display at the Norwegian Armed Forces Aircraft Collection in Gardermoen, Viken.
Poland
48 – AAC.1 on static display at the Polish Aviation Museum in Kraków.
Portugal
6304 – Ju 52/3mg3e on static display at the Museu do Ar in Sintra, Lisbon.
Serbia
7208 – AAC.1 on static display at the Aeronautical Museum Belgrade in Surčin, Belgrade.
Spain
T.2B-211 – CASA 352L on static display at the Museo del Aire in Cuatro Vientos, Madrid.
T.2B-246 – CASA 352L on static display at Torrejon Air Base in Torrejón de Ardoz, Madrid.
T.2B-254 – CASA 352L on static display at the Museo del Aire in Cuatro Vientos, Madrid.
Sweden
T.2B-142 – CASA 352L on static display at the in Ugglarp, Halland.
United Kingdom
T.2B-272 – CASA 352L on static display at the Royal Air Force Museum Cosford in Cosford, Shropshire.
United States
T.2B-244 – CASA 352L in storage at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. The aircraft was donated to the museum by the Spanish government in 1971.
T.2B-255 – CASA 352L on static display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the National Air and Space Museum in Chantilly, Virginia.
T.2B-262 – CASA 352L in storage at the Fantasy of Flight in Polk City, Florida.
Under restoration
Switzerland
A-701 – Ju 52/3mg4e under restoration to airworthy with in Dübendorf, Zürich.
A-703 – Ju 52/3mg4e under restoration to airworthy with Ju-Air in Dübendorf, Zürich.
T.2B-165 – CASA 352L under restoration to airworthy with Ju-Air in Dübendorf, Zürich. It was previously on public display at Düsseldorf Airport as D-CIAK.
Specifications (Junkers Ju 52/3m g3e)
See also
Other
2018 Ju-Air Junkers Ju 52 crash
References
Citations
Bibliography
Afonso, Aniceto and Carlos de Matos Gomes. Guerra Colonial (in Portuguese). Lisbon: Editorial Notícias, 2000. .
Andersson, Lennart. "Chinese 'Junks': Junkers Aircraft Exports to China 1925-1940". Air Enthusiast, No. 55, Autumn 1994, pp. 2–7.
Blewett, R. Survivors (Aviation Classics). Coulsdon, UK: Gatwick Aviation Society, 2007. .
Craven, Wesley Frank, and Cate, James Lea, editors (1949). The Army Air Forces in World War II, Volume Two - Europe: Torch to Pointblank: August 1942-December 1943 Air Force Historical Studies Office, .
Gerdessen, Frederik. "Estonian Air Power 1918 – 1945". Air Enthusiast, No. 18, April – July 1982. pp. 61–76. .
Green, William. Warplanes of the Third Reich. New York: Doubleday, 1972. .
Grey, Charles Gibson and Leonard Bridgman. Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1938. London: Newton Abott, David & Charles, 1972. .
Hoffmann, Peter. Hitler's Personal Security: Protecting The Fuhrer 1921-1945. New York: Da Capo Press, 2000. .
Jackson, A. J.British Civil Aircraft 1919-59, Vol. 2. London: Putnam, 1960.
Jane, Fred T. "The Junkers Ju 52/3m." Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II. London: Studio, 1946. .
Morzik, Generalmajor Fritz "German Air Force Air Lift Operations", USAF Historical Division, 1961.
Smith, J. R. "Aircraft Profile No. 177: The Junkers Ju 52 Series". Profile Publications Ltd, 1966.
Smith, J. R. and Antony L. Kay. German Aircraft of the Second World War. London: Putnam, 1972. .
Weal, John. Jagdgeschwader 27 'Afrika'. Oxford, UK: Osprey, 2003. .
Further reading
External links
Deutsche Lufthansa Berlin Stiftung
Junkers Ju 52/3m at the Norwegian Aviation Museum
1930s German airliners
1930s German military transport aircraft
World War II transport aircraft of Germany
Ju 052
Trimotors
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1930
World War II aircraft of Finland | [
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242236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarm | Yarm | Yarm, also referred to as Yarm-on-Tees, is a market town and civil parish in the Borough of Stockton-on-Tees, North Yorkshire, England. It was previously a port town before the industry moved down the River Tees to more accessible settlements nearer to the sea.
It lies on the Southern bank of the River Tees, on a small peninsula hosting the town's high street and other oldest parts. Newer area of the town are in former fields south of the peninsula. To the east it extends to the River Leven, to the south it extends into the Kirklevington parish ( is in said parish). Low Worsall is to the newer area's west.
Yarm bridge marked the river's furthest tidal-flow reaching until a barrage opened to regulate the tide in 1995. It was previously the last bridge before the sea, having been superseded multiple times since. It was first superseded by a toll bridge in 1771, crossing into Stockton-on-Tees
The town's historic county is Yorkshire, the North Riding sub-division. The three sub-divisions had gained separate county status in 1889 before these were abolished in 1974. It is in the borough of Stockton-on-Tees; first when the borough was a county of Cleveland district (1974-1996) and second (from 1996) in its present unitary authority structure. The borough is a constituent member of the Tees Valley combined authority.
History
The name Yarm is thought to be derived from the Old English gearum, dative plural of gear, 'pool for catching fish' (source of the modern dialect word yair with the same meaning), hence 'at the place of the fish pools'. Yarm was first mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086, and was originally a chapelry in the Kirklevington parish in the North Riding of Yorkshire; it later became a parish in its own right.
The Yarm helmet is a Viking age helmet that was found in Yarm. It is the first relatively complete Anglo-Scandinavian helmet found in Britain and only the second Viking helmet discovered in north-west Europe. It is displayed nearby in Preston Park Museum, Preston-on-Tees.
Dominican Friars settled in Yarm about 1286, and maintained a friary and a hospital in the town, until 1583. Their memory is preserved in the names of Friarage and Spital Bank. The Friarage was built on top of the cellars of a Dominican friary in 1770, for the Meynell family. It is now at the centre of Yarm School.
Bishop Skirlaw of Durham built a stone bridge, which still stands, across the Tees in 1400. An iron replacement was built in 1805, but it fell down in 1806. For many years, Yarm was at the tidal limit and head of navigation on the River Tees.
On 1 February 1643, during the First English Civil War, a small Roundhead force attempted to halt the progress of a large waggon-train of arms, landed at Tynemouth and destined to bolster the Royalist war effort in Yorkshire and beyond. Heavily outnumbered and outflanked by Royalist ford crossings, the Parliamentarians were quickly routed and the Royalists gained the bridge, crossing into Yorkshire.
On 12 February 1821, at the George & Dragon Inn, the meeting was held that pressed for the third and successful attempt for a Bill to give permission to build the Stockton & Darlington Railway, the world's first public railway.
In 1890, Bulmer & Co listed twelve inns in Yarm: Black Bull, Cross Keys, Crown Inn, Fleece, George and Dragon, Green Tree, Ketton Ox, Lord Nelson, Red Lion, Three Tuns, Tom Brown, and Union. Also listed was Cross Keys beside the Leven Bridge.
In the 13th century, Yarm was classed as a borough, but this status did not persist. It formed part of the Stokesley Rural District under the Local Government Act 1894, and remained so until 1 April 1974 when, under the Local Government Act 1972, it became part of the district of Stockton-on-Tees in the new non-metropolitan county of Cleveland. Cleveland was abolished in 1996 under the Banham Review, with Stockton-on-Tees becoming a unitary authority.
Geography
Yarm is bordered by two rivers, the River Tees to the north, and the River Leven to the east. The Leven is a tributary of the Tees. Yarm was once the highest port on the Tees.
Two road bridges cross the river, Yarm Bridge crossing from the High Street to Eaglescliffe, which is Grade II* listed, and Leven Bridge crossing the Leven between Yarm and Low Leven, which is Grade II listed. On 26 February 2010, Leven Bridge was closed after cracks appeared in it. Repairs took less time than expected, and the bridge re-opened on 18 June 2010.
Yarm Town Hall in the High Street was built in 1710 by Thomas Belasyse, 3rd Viscount Fauconberg who was Lord of the Manor. In a poll taken for the BBC's Breakfast programme on 19 January 2007, Yarm's High Street was voted the 'Best High Street': the street and its cobbled parking areas is fronted by many Georgian-style old buildings, with their red pantile roofs.
The A67, which runs through High Street was previously classified as the A19 until a dual carriageway was built in the 1970s, about three miles south of the town near the village of Crathorne. When the A19 ran through High Street, it was heavily congested. The road was used by heavy goods traffic as a shortcut to Teesside International Airport. The classification of the road as an 'A'-road meant that it was difficult to place a ban on heavy goods vehicles; however the town council made efforts to come up with voluntary agreements with many haulage firms until 2012, when all HGV traffic was banned from the route through Yarm and Egglescliffe.
The Rookery is a public area by the River Tees situated at the bottom of Goose Pasture. The ash, sycamore and lime woodland is about 200 years old and owned by Yarm Town Council. In 2002, a walkway was constructed around the wood to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II. Within the woodland, close to the river, BMX riders have created numerous dirt ramps which are regularly used during summer months.
Governance
House of Commons
Yarm is part of the Stockton South Parliamentary Constituency which is represented in the House of Commons of the UK Parliament since 14 December 2019 by Matt Vickers, a Conservative MP.
It was represented from 8 May 2017 by Dr Paul Williams (Labour), "a local GP" who lost his seat at the 2019 General Election.
From 2010 to 2017 the constituency was represented by James Wharton (Conservative); He was elected on 6 May 2010 for Stockton South. James Wharton was re-elected with an increased majority on 7 May 2015. In August 2016 he was appointed Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Department for International Development.
From 1997 to 2010, the constituency was represented by Dari Taylor (Labour).
House of Lords
On the morning of 2 September 2020, the former MP, James Wharton, was created Baron Wharton of Yarm, after being nominated in Prime Minister Boris Johnson's 2020 Dissolution Honours List. He was introduced on 10 September, becoming the youngest member of the House of Lords at 36, and the first member of the House of Lords to retrieve their title from the area.
Borough Council
The Yarm ward of Stockton, which includes Kirklevington, has three local councillors sitting on Stockton-on-Tees Borough Council.
From 5 May 2011, Conservatives Mark Chatburn, Ben Houchen, and Andrew Sherris became the councillors on the Stockton on Tees Borough Council for the Yarm Ward. Mark Chatburn subsequently defected to UKIP on 22 March 2013.
Town council
Yarm has a town council which is responsible for certain aspects of the town's administration, including allotments and the cemetery. It meets once a month in the town hall.
The council has eleven seats with a chairman who, for ceremonial purposes, is 'Mayor'. The Standing Orders of the Council restrict the chairman's period of office to two years in any four-year period. The 2015 chairman was Clr Jason Hadlow. Elections for the council are held every four years.
December 2008 by-election
A by-election was held for two vacant seats on the council after the resignation of one, and disqualification of another Conservative councillor. The Conservative Party fielded two candidates against two Independent candidates who stood under the banner 'Former Councillor'. The Labour Party and Liberal Democrats chose not to field any candidates, the former instead backing the Independents. Turnout for the election was low, with the Conservative candidates elected by a small margin.
October 2009 by-election
After the departure of a Conservative councillor, a by-election was held on 15 October 2009 for one seat on the town council. Peter Monck, a former town councillor and Liberal Democrat candidate for Stockton South in the 1997 general election stood as an independent candidate against Paul Smith, a Conservative party candidate.
Transport
Rail
The current un-manned , opened in 1996, is located on Green Lane near Conyers' School, about a mile south of Yarm High Street. Yarm is serviced by its own station and Eaglescliffe's.
Viaduct
The railway viaduct was built between 1849 and 1851 for the Leeds Northern Railway Company. Its designers were Thomas Grainger and John Bourne. It comprises seven million bricks, and has 43 arches, with the two that span the River Tees being skewed and made of stone.
Air
Teesside International Airport (MME) between Yarm and Darlington, operates internal and external flights near Middleton St George.
Road
North
The high street of Yarm is currently numbered as the (formerly A19). North of Yarm High Street leads to a fork just outside the high street with heading north-east, to Stockton-on-Tees, and A67/Durham Road going north-west, the goes to the airport and Darlington. Durham Road goes to the , this name separation is through a roundabout in Eaglescliffe.
South
The south of the high street links to the current . It also forks west as leading to the and Northallerton. The roundabout and heads east to the Blue Bell roundabout in Middlesbrough and west towards Richmond.
Bus
Religion
Yarm Parish Church is the Anglican parish church, dedicated to St Mary Magdalene. It is situated on West Street, where there has been a church on the site since at least the 9th century. It was last rebuilt from the remains of the second, Norman, church in 1730. It is a Grade II* listed building.
The Roman Catholic (RC) church of Ss Mary and Romuald, built in 1860, is at the south end of High Street. It is a Grade II listed building.
Yarm Methodist Church, an octagonal church built in 1763, is on Chapel Yard, on the east side of the town by the river, and is the oldest octagonal church in current use in Methodism. It is a Grade II listed building.
Sport
Yarm Rugby Club is based at Wass Way, Eaglescliffe. The club has grown significantly since forming in February 1998. They run teams and training sessions for most ages from youth to seniors. Currently playing in Durham/Northumberland 3. Yarm Wolves is a team of the North East Rugby League.
Yarm Cricket Club is situated on Leven Road, and has been in existence since 1814. It runs three senior teams in the North Yorkshire and South Durham Cricket League, and four junior sides – under 11s, under 13s, under 15s and under 17s – who all play competitive cricket throughout the season. In recent years, Yarm's third team, who play on a Sunday, have been the most successful team in the club, winning the NYSD Sunday Division 1 on several occasions, along with the League and Cup double in 2008.
Yarm and Eaglescliffe FC play in the North Riding Football League, it was established in 2017. Other sports facilities within Yarm include 4G football pitch, located at Conyers' School. This facility is operated by the Go-Sport group and has been the home ground for local adult and youth football clubs, including Yarm FC and Yarm Town Juniors. In 2016, the Go-Sport group hosted an FA-accredited 11-a-side Midweek Football League, contested by various local clubs, including TIBS F.C. from Thornaby and Ingleby Barwick. The winners of this inaugural trophy were L&H F.C., who had a 3–1 victory in the final.
Community and culture
A charter to hold a weekly market was granted by King John in 1207. It is held on the second Sunday of each month. The market charter gave Yarm its historic status as a town.
Many events are held in the town each year such as a Gala, Fair and a 5 km Fun Run. After lying dormant for almost 100 years the Yarm Gala restarted in 2008.
Fair
A fair is held in High Street in the third week in October. It starts on the Tuesday evening, and is officially opened on the Thursday. It lasts until Saturday night. It was once a commercial fair that traded in cheese and livestock, but is now primarily a funfair. Travellers still attend the fair and ride horses up and down the street on the Saturday. The travellers have to wait outside the town until 6:00 pm on the Tuesday, at which point they are allowed to cross the bridge over the River Tees into the town.
Venues
The Princess Alexandra Auditorium is a 750-seat venue opened in 2012 as a part of Yarm School’s redevelopment. A smaller Friarage Theatre is also on the site, with a 140-seat capacity.
Education
There are three primary schools in the town:
Levendale (single form entry)
Yarm Primary School (two form entry)
Layfield Primary School (single form entry)
Conyers' School, with about 1,400 pupils, is a mixed comprehensive school; it has also a sixth-form. It was founded in 1594 as 'the Free Grammar School' by Thomas Conyers. Following the change to comprehensive education, it was renamed to reflect its founder. Conyers' School is a specialist school for maths and computing.
The town is home to the independent Yarm School with about 1,200 pupils; the senior school being situated at the Friarage, and the preparatory school and nursery at the old Yarm Grammar School. The school was founded in 1978, some time after the re-designation of the original grammar school. The school had plans to move within the next decade to a site near to their playing fields on Green Lane, south of the town. However, planning permission was not granted by the local council, and Yarm School is no longer planning to move, instead choosing to renovate and improve the current site.
Notable people
People associated with the town include John Wesley, founder of Methodism, and Tom Brown, hero of the Battle of Dettingen, who consequently became the last man to be knighted on the battlefield. His old house is still located on the High Street and dates from around 1480, pre-dating the Elizabethan period and is the oldest standing dwelling in the former County of Cleveland.
Yarm has also been home to professional footballers including Middlesbrough and Dutch international George Boateng who now works outside the UK, and former Valencia and Spain International Gaizka Mendieta. Former England boss Steve McClaren also regularly visits the town, as his family home is situated in the neighbouring village of Aislaby. Iron Maiden guitarist Janick Gers, and West End playwright and international screenwriter Graham Farrow also live in Yarm. The cricketer William Halton was born at Yarm.
Twinned towns
Yarm is twinned with two other European towns:
Schwalbach am Taunus, Germany
Vernouillet, France (since 1985)
There is also an agreement with Olkusz, in Poland.
On 2 July 2005, two trees were planted to the north of the town hall to mark the 20th anniversary of the twinning between Yarm and the two towns. The trees were marked with plaques.
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Market towns in North Yorkshire
Towns in North Yorkshire
Civil parishes in North Yorkshire
Places in the Tees Valley
Borough of Stockton-on-Tees | [
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242237 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whip%20%28politics%29 | Whip (politics) | A whip is an official of a political party whose task is to ensure party discipline in a legislature. This means ensuring that members of the party vote according to the party platform, rather than according to their own individual ideology or the will of their donors or constituents. Whips are the party's "enforcers". They try to ensure that their fellow political party legislators attend voting sessions and vote according to their party's official policy. Members who vote against party policy may "lose the whip", being effectively expelled from the party.
The term is taken from the "whipper-in" during a hunt, who tries to prevent hounds from wandering away from a hunting pack.
Additionally, the term "whip" may mean the voting instructions issued to legislators, or the status of a certain legislator in their party's parliamentary grouping.
Etymology
The expression whip in its parliamentary context, derived from its origins in hunting terminology. The Oxford English Dictionary defines the term whipper-in as, "a huntsman's assistant who keeps the hounds from straying by driving them back with the whip into the main body of the pack". According to that dictionary, the first recorded use of the term whipper-in in the parliamentary sense occurs in 1772. However, P.D.G. Thomas in House of Commons in the Eighteenth Century cites two examples of the use of the term that pre-date 1772.
In countries using the Westminster system
Australia
In the Parliament of Australia, as well as in the parliaments of the six states and two self-governing territories, major political parties have whips to ensure party discipline and carry out a variety of other functions on behalf of the party leadership. The most important function of the whip's office is to ensure that all members and senators are present to take part in votes in the chamber (maintaining quorum and preventing censure motions). Unlike in the United Kingdom, Australian whips do not hold official office, but they are recognised for parliamentary purposes. In practice, Australian whips play a lesser role than their counterparts in the United Kingdom, as party discipline in Australia tends to be tighter.
Their roles in the chamber include taking divisions, and maintaining a "pairs book" which controls the ability of members and senators to leave the parliament building during sittings, as well as the entitlement to be absent during divisions.
Liberal Party whips are appointed by the leader of the party, while Australian Labor Party whips are elected by the Caucus. For Labor and the Liberals, the chief whip is assisted by two deputy whips.
Canada
In Canada the Party Whip is the member of a political party in the Canadian House of Commons, the Canadian Senate or a provincial legislature charged with ensuring party discipline among members of the caucus. In the House of Commons, the whip's office prepares and distributes vote sheets identifying the party position on each bill or motion. The whip is also responsible for assigning offices and scheduling speakers from his or her party for various bills, motions and other proceedings in the House.
India
In India, the concept of the whip was inherited from colonial British rule. Every major political party appoints a whip who is responsible for the party's discipline and behaviours on the floor of the house. Usually, they direct the party members to stick to the party's stand on certain issues and directs them to vote as per the direction of senior party members. However, there are some cases such as Indian Presidential elections where whips cannot direct a Member of Parliament (MP) or Member of Legislative Assembly (MLA) on whom to vote. Should a whip's order be violated by a member of the same party, then the whip can recommend immediate dismissal of that member from the house due to indiscipline and the Speaker of the respective house can decide on the matter (without time limit). Should the whip choose not follow up on the violation his/her official whip order by own party member due to any reason, then any member of house can do so to the Speaker.
Ireland
Whips exist for all parliamentary parties in Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann. The government chief whip is normally a Minister of State at the Department of the Taoiseach, and attends cabinet meetings. The whips of each house meet weekly to set the agenda for the next week's business. The Technical Group in the Dáil and the analogous Independent groups in the Seanad nominate whips to attend these meetings even though there is no party line for their whips to enforce. Whips also coordinate pairing.
The timing of most votes are difficult to predict and TDs are expected to stay within earshot of the division bell at all times. All TDs are expected to vote with their party and to receive permission if they intend to be absent for a vote. Free votes are not a common feature of the Irish parliamentary tradition but they do happen on occasion, and there are calls for them to happen more often. For instance, Fianna Fáil usually allowed a free vote on abortion bills, as in the Protection of Human Life In Pregnancy Act.
From 1998, whips and assistant whips may be entitled to an allowance on top of their base legislator's salary. In 2011, these allowances varied proportional to the size of the group, with Fianna Fáil's Dáil whip's allowance the highest at €19,000.
Malaysia
Party whips in Malaysia serve a similar role as in other Westminster system-based parliamentary democracies. However, party discipline tends to be tighter in Malaysia and therefore the role of the whip is generally less important, though its importance is heightened when the government majority is less in the lower house.
New Zealand
In New Zealand, the concept of the whip was inherited from British rule. All political parties that have four or more members in Parliament have at least one party whip, although Green Party whips are called musterers. Parties with 25 to 44 members are allowed two whips (one senior and one junior), and parties with 45 or more members are entitled to three whips (one senior and two junior).
Whips act in an administrative role, making sure members of their party are in the debating chamber when required and organising members of their party to speak during debates. Since the introduction of proportional representation in 1996, divisions that require all members in the chamber to vote by taking sides (termed a personal vote) are rarely used, except for conscience votes. Instead, one of the party's whips votes on behalf of all the members of their party, by declaring how many members are in favour and/or how many members are opposed. They also cast proxy votes for single-member parties whose member is not in the chamber at the time of the vote, and also cast proxy votes during personal votes for absent members of their parties and for absent members of associated single-member parties.
United Kingdom
In British politics, the chief whip of the governing party in the House of Commons is customarily appointed as Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury so that the incumbent, who represents the whips in general, has a seat and a voice in the Cabinet. By virtue of holding the office of Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury, the government chief whip has an official residence at 12 Downing Street, although the chief whip's office is currently located at 9 Downing Street. Government whips report to the prime minister on any possible backbench revolts and the general opinion of MPs within the party, and upon the exercise of the patronage, which is used to motivate and reward loyalty.
In the sense of 'voting instructions', there are three categories of whip in British politics that are issued on particular business. An expressed instruction on how to vote could constitute a breach of parliamentary privilege, so the party's wishes are indicated unequivocally but indirectly. These whips are issued to MPs in the form of a letter outlining the parliamentary schedule, with a sentence such as "Your attendance is absolutely essential" next to each debate in which there will be a vote, underlined one, two or three times according to the severity of the whip:
A single-line whip is a guide to what the party's policy would indicate, and notification of when the vote is expected to take place; this is non-binding for attendance or voting.
A two-line whip, sometimes known as a double-line whip, is an instruction to attend and vote; partially binding for voting according to the party's position, attendance required unless prior permission given by the whip.
A three-line whip is a strict instruction to attend and vote according to the party's position, breach of which would normally have serious consequences. Permission to not attend may be given by the whip, but a serious reason is needed. Breach of a three-line whip can lead to expulsion from the parliamentary political group in extreme circumstances, and even to expulsion from the party. Consequently, three-line whips are generally only issued on key issues, such as votes of confidence and supply. The nature of three-line whips and the potential punishments for revolt vary among parties and legislatures.
The role of whips is largely to ensure that MPs vote as required by the party leadership, i.e. to secure the government's business, and to protect the prime minister. Whips use a combination of threats and promises to secure compliance. A former chief whip said that there was a dividing line between legitimate and illegitimate persuasion: "Yes to threats on preferment (for government positions) and honours. No to abusing public money (such as threatening to withhold money from projects in the MP's constituency) and private lives." Former chief whips disclosed that whips have a notebook documenting MPs' indiscretions, and that they help MPs in any sort of trouble ("it might be debt, it might be ... a scandal involving small boys ...") in any way they can to "store up brownie points ... that sounds a pretty, pretty nasty reason, but it's one of the reasons because if we could get a chap out of trouble then he will do as we ask forever more."
In other countries
Spain
In both houses of the Cortes Generales, the Spanish legislature, political parties appoint a member to the role of (deputy spokesperson), which is the third authority of the parliamentary group after the leader and the spokesperson. The deputy spokesperson enforces party discipline in every vote, being thus the equivalent of a party whip in English-speaking countries.
South Africa
Although South Africa uses a proportional representation system, the concept of a political party whip, which was inherited from colonial British rule, has been maintained.
In 2017, African National Congress secretary general Gwede Mantashe said "Voting according to conscience doesn't work in a political party system. We all get into the list of things and go to Parliament as parliamentarians of the ANC [...] There will be no voting against the ANC."
Taiwan
Party whips exist in most of the major parties of the Legislative Yuan. For example, in the Democratic Progressive Party the party whip is the Caucus leader. In the Kuomintang the party whip is the executive director of the Policy Committee or the caucus leader.
When voting for critical bills, whips may issue a top-mobilization order asking members to attend the assembly. Party members failing to obey the order will be suspended or expelled from the party.
United States
In the United States there are legislatures at the local (city councils, town councils, county boards, etc.), state, and federal levels. The federal legislature (Congress), the legislatures in all states except for Nebraska, and many county and city legislative bodies are divided along party lines and have whips, as well as majority and minority leaders. The whip is also the assistant majority or assistant minority leader.
Both houses of Congress, the House of Representatives and Senate, have majority and minority whips. They in turn have subordinate "regional" whips. While members of Congress often vote along party lines, the influence of the whip is weaker than in the UK system. American politicians generally have considerably more freedom to diverge from the party line and vote according to their own or their constituency's conscience. One reason is that a considerable amount of money is raised by individual candidates. Furthermore, neither members of Congress, nor any other person, can be expelled from a political party, which are formed simply by open registration. In addition, because preselection of candidates for office is generally done through a primary election that is open to a wide number of voters, candidates who support their constituents' political positions, rather than those of their party leaders, cannot easily be rejected by their party due to a democratic mandate.
Because members of Congress cannot serve simultaneously in Executive Branch positions, a whip in the United States cannot bargain for votes by using potential promotion or demotion in a sitting administration as an inducement. There is, however, a highly structured committee system in both houses of Congress, and a whip may be able to offer promotion or threaten demotion within that system instead. In the House of Representatives, the influence of a single member individually is relatively small and therefore depends a great deal on the representative's seniority (i.e., in most cases, on the length of time they have held office).
In the Senate, the majority whip is the third-highest ranking individual in the majority party (the party with the most seats). The majority whip is outranked by the majority leader and, unofficially, the president pro tempore. As the office of president pro tempore is largely honorific and usually given to the longest-serving senator of the majority, the majority whip is in reality the second-ranking senator in the majority conference. Similarly, in the House, the majority whip is outranked by both the majority leader and the speaker. Unlike the Senate's presiding officer, the Speaker is the leader of his or her party's caucus in the House.
In both the House and the Senate, the minority whip is the second highest-ranking individual in the minority party (the party with the lesser number of legislators in a legislative body), outranked only by the minority leader.
The whip position was created in the House of Representatives in 1897 by Republican Speaker Thomas Reed, who appointed James A. Tawney as the first whip. The first Democratic whip, Oscar Wilder Underwood, was appointed around 1900. In the Senate, the position was created in 1913 by John W. Kern, chair of the Democratic caucus, when he appointed J. Hamilton Lewis as the first whip, while Republicans later chose James Wadsworth as the party's first in 1915.
In popular culture
Michael Dobbs, formerly Chief of Staff for British Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, wrote a trilogy of books, centred around a fictional party whip named Francis Urquhart, which was dramatised and broadcast by the BBC between 1990 and 1995. The first book in the trilogy, titled House of Cards, was adapted into a television series of the same name, and the title was also used for subsequent series based on other countries' political systems. In House of Cards, Francis Urquhart is the chief whip for the UK Conservative Party and the trilogy charts his ambitious rise through his party's ranks until he becomes Prime Minister.
In the American remake of House of Cards, Frank Underwood is the House Majority Whip for the US Democratic Party. The series charts Underwood's ambitious rise through his party's ranks until he becomes president. The name Frank Underwood was chosen to have the same initials as the original trilogy's protagonist Francis Urquhart, and to reference Oscar Underwood, the first party whip for the US Democratic Party.
References
External links
Political terminology
Parliamentary titles
Government occupations
Legal professions | [
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242239 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thompson | Thompson | Thompson may refer to:
People
Thompson (surname)
Thompson M. Scoon (1888–1953), New York politician
Places
Australia
Thompson Beach, South Australia, a locality
Bulgaria
Thompson, Bulgaria, a village in Sofia Province
Canada
Thompson, Manitoba
Thompson (electoral district), an electoral district in the above location
Thompson River, a river in British Columbia
Thompson Country, a region within the basin of the Thompson River
Thompson Plateau, a landform in the Interior of British Columbia named for the Thompson River
Thompson-Nicola Regional District, a regional district in British Columbia
Thompson Sound (British Columbia), a sound in the area of the Broughton Archipelago
Thompson Sound, British Columbia, an unincorporated locality at Thompson Sound
Thompson Station, Nova Scotia
England
Thompson, Norfolk
New Zealand
Thompson Sound (New Zealand), one of the indentations in the coast of the South island's Fiordland National Park
United States
Thompson, Alabama
Thompson, California
Thompson, Connecticut
Thompson, Florida
Thompson, Idaho
Thompson, Missouri
Thompson, Nebraska
Thompson, New York
Thompson, North Dakota
Thompson, Ohio
Thompson, Pennsylvania
Thompson, Wisconsin
Thompson Island (Massachusetts), an island in Boston Harbor
Thompson Springs, Utah, which for a time was also officially known as simply "Thompson"
Thompson (Amtrak station), the former train station in Thompson Springs
Other uses
Thompson Island (South Atlantic)
Thomson-CSF, a French defense contractor
Nlaka'pamux, a Canadian First Nation also known as "the Thompson"
Thompson language, spoken by the Nlaka'pamux
USS Thompson, two U.S. Navy destroyers
Thompson submachine gun
Thomson and Thompson (Dupont et Dupond), two clumsy detectives from the Tintin series
Thompson (band), a Croatian rock band
Thompson Media Group
Thompson (TV series), 1988 British variety television series
Thompson/Center Contender, a single-shot pistol
See also
Thompson Hall (disambiguation)
Thompson Creek (disambiguation)
Thompson River (disambiguation)
Thompson Lake (disambiguation)
Thompson Township (disambiguation)
Thomson (disambiguation)
Thomsen
Justice Thompson (disambiguation) | [
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242243 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Wieman | Carl Wieman | Carl Edwin Wieman (born March 26, 1951) is an American physicist and educationist at Stanford University, and currently the A.D White Professor at Large at Cornell University. In 1995, while at the University of Colorado Boulder, he and Eric Allin Cornell produced the first true Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) and, in 2001, they and Wolfgang Ketterle (for further BEC studies) were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Wieman currently holds a joint appointment as Professor of Physics and Professor in the Stanford Graduate School of Education, as well as the DRC Professor in the Stanford University School of Engineering. In 2020, Wieman was awarded the Yidan Prize in Education Research for "his contribution in developing new techniques and tools in STEM education." citation.
Biography
Wieman was born in Corvallis, Oregon to N. Orr Wieman and Alison Marjorie Fry in the United States and graduated from Corvallis High School. His paternal grandfather Henry Nelson Wieman was a religious philosopher of German descent and his mother had white Anglo-Saxon Protestant family background. Wieman earned his B.S. in 1973 from MIT and his Ph.D. from Stanford University in 1977; he was also awarded a Doctor of Science, honoris causa from the University of Chicago in 1997. He was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 1998. In 2001, he won the Nobel Prize in Physics, along with Eric Allin Cornell and Wolfgang Ketterle, for fundamental studies of the Bose-Einstein condensate. In 2004, he was named United States Professor of the Year among all doctoral and research universities.
In a 2020 interview given to Federal University of Pará in Brazil, Wieman recalls his youth and his journey as a physicist; the influence of other people, like teachers and his parents, on his trajectory; his path through science education and the foundation of the open educational resource PhET Interactive Simulations.
Wieman joined the University of British Columbia on 1 January 2007 and headed a well-endowed science education initiative there; he retained a twenty percent appointment at the University of Colorado Boulder to head the science education project he founded in Colorado. On 1 September 2013, Wieman joined Stanford University with a joint appointment in the physics department and the Graduate School of Education.
In the past several years, Wieman has been particularly involved with efforts at improving science education and has conducted educational research on science instruction. Wieman served as Chair of the Board on Science Education of the National Academy of Sciences from 2005 to 2009. He has used and promotes Eric Mazur's peer instruction, a pedagogical system where teachers repeatedly ask multiple-choice concept questions during class, and students reply on the spot with little wireless "clicker" devices. If a large proportion of the class chooses a wrong answer, students discuss among themselves and reply again. In 2007, Wieman was awarded the Oersted Medal, which recognizes notable contributions to the teaching of physics, by the American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT).
Wieman is the founder and chairman of PhET, a web-based directive of University of Colorado Boulder which provides an extensive suite of simulations to improve the way that physics, chemistry, biology, earth science and math are taught and learned. Link
Wieman is a member of the USA Science and Engineering Festival's Advisory Board. Wieman was nominated to be The White House's Office of Science and Technology Policy Associate Director of Science on March 24, 2010. His hearing in front of the Commerce committee occurred on May 20, 2010 and he was passed by unanimous consent. On September 16, 2010 Dr. Wieman was confirmed by unanimous consent. He left that post in June 2012 to battle multiple myeloma.
Selected publications
Wieman, Carl, (2014). "Stop Lecturing Me", Scientific American, July 15, 2014, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/stop-lecturing-me/
See also
Timeline of low-temperature technology
References
External links
Carl Wieman's blog at ScientificBlogging.com
including the Nobel Lecture December 8, 2001 Bose-Einstein Condensation in a Dilute Gas; The First 70 Years and Some Recent Experiments
Globe and Mail Article
Carl E. Wieman patents at Patent Genius
Group photograph taken at Lasers '95 including (right to left) Marlan Scully, Theodor W. Hänsch, Carl E. Wieman, and F. J. Duarte.
1951 births
Living people
People with multiple myeloma
21st-century American physicists
Optical physicists
American Nobel laureates
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
Nobel laureates in Physics
Lorentz Medal winners
People from Corvallis, Oregon
American people of German descent
Stanford University alumni
University of British Columbia faculty
University of Colorado Boulder faculty
Fellows of the Optical Society
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Corvallis High School (Oregon) alumni
University of Michigan faculty
Sloan Research Fellows
MIT Department of Physics alumni | [
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242246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyvern | Wyvern | A wyvern ( , sometimes spelled wivern) is a legendary dragon that has two legs instead of four, and is usually depicted as bipedal.
The wyvern in its various forms is important in heraldry, frequently appearing as a mascot of schools and athletic teams (chiefly in the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada). It is a popular creature in European literature, mythology and folklore. Today they are often used in fantasy literature and video games. The wyvern in heraldry and folklore is rarely fire-breathing, unlike four-legged dragons.
Etymology
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word is a development of Middle English wyver (attested fourteenth century), from Anglo-French wivre (cf. French guivre and vouivre), which originate from Latin vīpera, meaning "viper", "adder", or "asp". The concluding "–n" had been added by the beginning of the 17th century, when John Guillim in 1610 describes the "wiverne" as a creature that "partake[s] of a Fowle in the Wings and Legs ... and doth resemble a Serpent in the Taile". John Gibbon in 1682 emphasises that it "hath but two Legs".
Conversely, medievalist William Sayers proposes a more complex origin for the term. He notes that the Anglo-French guivre and its Middle English derivative ceased to retain the original sense of "venomous snake" after the Latin term was re-introduced into medieval Latin, freeing them up to take an alternate meaning. Adducing another meaning of wiver (this time Old English) and guivre, "light javelin", and noting partial resemblances between the size and shape of javelins and snakes, plus the later medieval era's increasing use of heavy armor and decreasing use of light javelins, he proposes that the concepts of "venomous snake" and "light javelin" were melded to produce a new term for a previously unimagined concept of flying snake, a kind of dragon.
History
The concept of winged snakes, mythical creatures similar to wyverns, is common in cultures around the Mediterranean, with a notable example being the Egyptian goddess Wadjet. The oldest creatures outright referred to as "winged dragons" are Helios's chariot steeds, which aid Medea.
Distinction from dragons
Since the sixteenth century, in English, Scottish, and Irish heraldry, the key difference has been that a wyvern has two legs, whereas a dragon has four. This distinction is not commonly observed in the heraldry of other European countries, where two-legged dragon-like creatures are called dragons.
In modern fiction
The wyvern frequently features in modern fantasy fiction, though its first literary appearances may have been in medieval bestiaries.
In heraldry
The wyvern is a frequent charge in English heraldry and vexillology, also occasionally appearing as a supporter or crest.
A wyvern is typically depicted resting upon its legs and tail, but may be depicted with its claws in the air and only supported by its tail. On occasion, a wyvern may be depicted as wingless and with its tail nowed.
A white (Argent) wyvern formed the crest of the Borough of Leicester as recorded at the heraldic visitation of Leicestershire in 1619: "A wyvern sans legs argent strewed with wounds gules, wings expanded ermine." The term "sans legs" may not imply that the wyvern was "without legs", rather than its legs are not depicted, being hidden or folded under. This was adopted by the Midland Railway in 1845 when it became the crest of its unofficial coat of arms. The company asserted that the "wyvern was the standard of the Kingdom of Mercia", and that it was "a quartering in the town arms of Leicester". However, in 1897 the Railway Magazine noted that there appeared "to be no foundation that the wyvern was associated with the Kingdom of Mercia". It has been associated with Leicester since the time of Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster and Leicester (c. 1278–1322), the most powerful lord in the Midlands, who used it as his personal crest.
A green Wyvern stands in the emblem of the ancient and historical Umbrian city of Terni, the dragon is called by the citizens with the name of Thyrus. A sable wyvern on a white background with endorsed wings forms the coat of arms of the Tilley family.
The arms of the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries depict a wyvern, symbolising disease, being overcome by Apollo, symbolising medicine.
As a logo or mascot
The wyvern is also a fairly popular commercial logo or mascot, especially in Wales and what was once the West Country Kingdom of Wessex, but also in Herefordshire and Worcestershire, as the rivers Wye and Severn run through Hereford and Worcester respectively. A local radio station was formerly called Wyvern FM. Vauxhall Motors had a model in its range in the 1950s called the Wyvern. The Westland Wyvern was a British single-seat carrier-based multi-role strike aircraft built by Westland Aircraft that served in the 1950s, seeing active service in the 1956 Suez Crisis.
The wyvern is a frequent mascot of athletic teams, colleges and universities, particularly in the United Kingdom and the United States, and is the mascot of the Korea Baseball Organization team SK Wyverns, established in 2000, King's College, within the University of Queensland, and the Japanese basketball team, the Passlab Yamagata Wyverns of the Japanese B.League.
The wyvern is also the mascot of the 51st Operations Support Squadron at Osan Air Base, with the motto: "breathin' fire!"
A wyvern is depicted on the unit crest of the USAF 31st Fighter Wing.
A wyvern is featured on the club crests of both Leyton Orient F.C. and Carlisle United F.C.
A wyvern is featured as the team mascot for Woodbridge College in Woodbridge, Ontario, Canada.
A wyvern is the mascot of Quinsigamond Community College in Worcester, Massachusetts.
A wyvern is the logo of LLVM the compiler infrastructure project.
A wyvern is the logo of the Swiss chocolate manufacturer Lindt.
A wyvern is the emblem of East London Rugby Football Club.
Wyvern is the a nickname of a fictional aircraft in the Ace Combat series: the X-02 Wyvern.
Examples
See also
Basilisk
Cockatrice
European dragon
Lindworm
White dragon
References
External links
European dragons
Medieval European legendary creatures
Mythological hybrids | [
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242247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxaceae | Taxaceae | Taxaceae (), commonly called the yew family, is a coniferous family which includes six extant and two extinct genera, and about 30 species of plants, or in older interpretations three genera and 7 to 12 species.
They are many-branched, small trees and shrubs. The leaves are evergreen, spirally arranged, often twisted at the base to appear 2-ranked. They are linear to lanceolate, and have pale green or white stomatal bands on the undersides. The plants are dioecious, rarely monoecious. The male cones are long, and shed pollen in the early spring. The female 'cones' are highly reduced to a single seed. As the seed matures, a fleshy aril partly encloses it. The developmental origin of the aril is unclear, but it may represent a fused pair of swollen leaves. The mature aril is brightly coloured, soft, juicy and sweet, and is eaten by birds which then disperse the hard seed undamaged in their droppings. However, the seeds are highly poisonous to humans, containing the poisons taxine and taxol.
Classification
Taxaceae is now generally included with all other conifers in the order Pinales, as DNA analysis has shown that the yews are phylogenetically nested in the Pinales, a conclusion supported by micromorphology studies. Formerly they were often treated as distinct from other conifers by placing them in a separate order Taxales. Ernest Henry Wilson referred to Taxaceae as "taxads" in his 1916 book. Taxaceae is thought to be the sister group to Cupressaceae, from which it diverged during the early-mid Triassic. The clade comprising both is sister to Sciadopityaceae, which diverged from them during the early-mid Permian.
The broadly defined Taxaceae (including Cephalotaxus) comprises six extant genera and about 30 species overall. Cephalotaxus is now included in Taxaceae, rather than being recognized as the core of its own family, Cephalotaxaceae. Phylogenetic evidence strongly supports a very close relationship between Cephalotaxus and other members of Taxaceae, and morphological differences between them are not substantial. Previous recognition of two distinct families, Taxaceae and Cephalotaxaceae (e.g.,), was based on relatively minor morphological details: Taxaceae (excluding Cephalotaxus) has smaller mature seeds growing to in 6–8 months, that are not fully enclosed by the aril; in contrast, Cephalotaxus seeds have a longer maturation period (from 18–20 months), and larger mature seeds () fully enclosed by the aril. However, there are also very clear morphological connections between Cephalotaxus and other members of Taxaceae, and considered in tandem with the phylogenetic evidence, there is no compelling need to recognize Cephalotaxus (or other genera in Taxaceae) as a distinct family,.
Extant genera
Footnotes
Pinales families
Extant Eocene first appearances | [
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242250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asakusa | Asakusa | is a district in Taitō, Tokyo, Japan, famous for the Sensō-ji, a Buddhist temple dedicated to the bodhisattva Kannon. There are several other temples in Asakusa, as well as various festivals, such as the .
History
The development of Asakusa as an entertainment district during the Edo period came about in part because of the neighboring district, Kuramae. Kuramae was a district of storehouses for rice, which was then used as payment for servants of the feudal government. The keepers () of these storage houses initially stored the rice for a small fee, but over the years began exchanging the rice for money or selling it to local shopkeepers at a margin. Through such trading, many came to have a considerable amount of disposable income and as result theaters and geisha houses began to spring up in nearby Asakusa.
For most of the 20th century, Asakusa remained a major entertainment district in Tokyo. The or "Sixth District" was in particular famous as a theater district, featuring famous cinemas such as the Denkikan. The golden years of Asakusa are vividly portrayed in Yasunari Kawabata's novel The Scarlet Gang of Asakusa (1930; English translation, 2005). The area was heavily damaged by US bombing raids during World War II, particularly the 10 March 1945 firebombing of Tokyo. The area was rebuilt after the war, but has now been surpassed by Shinjuku and other colorful areas in the city, in its role as a pleasure district.
Asakusa was a ward of Tokyo City. In 1947, when the city was transformed into a metropolis, it was merged with Shitaya to form the modern Taito ward. The former ward encompassed 19 neighborhoods in the eastern half of Taito.
Geography
Asakusa is on the north-east fringe of central Tokyo, at the eastern end of the Tokyo Metro Ginza Line subway, approximately one mile east of the major railway/subway interchange. It is central to the area colloquially referred to as Shitamachi, which literally means "low city," referring to the low elevation of this old part of Tokyo, on the banks of the Sumida River. As the name suggests, the area has a more traditionally Japanese atmosphere than some other neighborhoods in Tokyo do.
Sightseeing and historic sites
With so many religious establishments, there are frequent (Shinto festivals) in Asakusa, as each temple or shrine hosts at least one a year, if not every season. The largest and most popular is the in May, when roads are closed from dawn until late in the evening. Poet Matsuo Bashō referred to Asakusa's temple in a haiku.
Food and drink
Asakusa has many restaurants and places to try traditional Japanese foods. One of the most popular treats is , sweet potatoes. Another special treat is , grilled fish cakes. The Suzuhiro store serves local craft beer with traditional . Asakusa is also known for spices such as and .
In a city where there are very few buildings older than 50 years because of the wartime bombing, Asakusa has a greater concentration of buildings from the 1950s and 1960s than most other areas in Tokyo do. There are traditional (guest-houses) and small-scale apartment buildings throughout the district.
In keeping with a peculiarly Tokyo tradition, Asakusa hosts a major cluster of domestic kitchenware stores on , which is visited by many Tokyoites for essential supplies. Next to the Sensō-ji temple grounds is a small amusement park called Hanayashiki, which claims to be the oldest amusement park in Japan. The neighborhood theaters specialize in showing classic Japanese films, as many of the tourists are elderly Japanese.
Cruises down the Sumida River depart from a wharf a five-minute walk from the temple.
Asakusa is Tokyo's oldest geisha district, and still has 45 actively working geisha.
Because of its colourful location, downtown credentials, and relaxed atmosphere by Tokyo standards, Asakusa is a popular accommodation choice for budget travelers.
Carnival
The neighborhood is famous for its annual Brazilian style carnival. There is a significant Brazilian presence in the local community and the Association of Samba Schools of Asakusa is based there.
Although there are many festivals throughout the year in Asakusa, the most famous of them is the , also known as Sanja Festival, which takes place in May. In this festival, (portable shrines) and floats are pulled through the streets while loud shouts accompany them, and during the festival's 3 days, 1.5 million people come out to celebrate.
Transportation
The district has two railway stations with the same name:
Asakusa Station
Asakusa Station
In art and literature
Kawabata Yasunari, The Scarlet Gang of Asakusa (1930)
Kankichi Ryotsu, protagonist of the popular anime and manga series KochiKame, is born in Asakusa.
"Corn Dog," Season 1, Episode 2 of Midnight Diner, Tokyo Stories, a Netflix Original Series (2016), is about an old comedian who works in Asakusa and his successful young protégé.
The anime Sarazanmai is set in Asakusa.
In the popular anime & manga series, Demon Slayer, Chapters 14-17 & Episodes 7-10, the primary location is the Taisho Era Asakusa.
See also
Asakusa Shrine
Hanayashiki, oldest amusement park in Japan.
Kiuchi Kyō
Luna Park, Tokyo
Toei Asakusa Line, a subway line named after the neighborhood
References
External links
Asakusa
Districts of Taitō | [
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242255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Weedon | George Weedon | George Weedon (1734–1793) was an American soldier during the Revolutionary War from Fredericksburg, Colony of Virginia. He served as a brigadier general in the Continental Army and later in the Virginia militia. After the Revolutionary War ended he became an original member of the Society of the Cincinnati(Va.).
Weedon served as a lieutenant under George Washington in the French and Indian War, mainly assigned to garrison duty in western Virginia.
After the war, he moved to Fredericksburg and opened a tavern. It was within Weedon's tavern that Thomas Jefferson in January 1777 wrote the Statute of Religious Freedom; the very first document of its kind to acknowledge government recognition of religious tolerance.
In 1775, he was made a lieutenant colonel and second in command to Hugh Mercer. They were tasked with creating the 3rd Virginia Regiment, Virginia Line, Continental Army. He was promoted to colonel in 1776 and succeeded Mercer in command of his regiment. On Mercer's death at Princeton, Weedon was promoted to brigadier general in 1777 and again succeeded him. He fought in the Battles of Trenton, Brandywine, and Germantown.
At Valley Forge, Weedon commanded a brigade in Nathanael Greene's division. His brigade included Stewart's 13th Pennsylvania Regiment along with the 2nd, 6th, 10th, and 14th Virginia regiments.
In 1778, he resigned after a dispute with the Congress over seniority. He went home to Virginia to lead a brigade of the state's militia at the request of Governor Thomas Jefferson. He led his militia unit in the Yorktown campaign, where his brigade successfully repelled the feared and infamous unit of Colonel Banastre Tarleton, thus closing the one means of British escape at Gloucester Point.
References
Yorktown Battlefield: Brigadier General George Weedon at National Park Service, retrieved September 7, 2014
George Weedon at George Washington's Mount Vernon, retrieved September 7, 2014
This Day in History: George Weedon is Promoted to Brigadier General at History.com, retrieved September 7, 2014
External link
1734 births
1793 deaths
Adjutants general of the United States Army
Continental Army generals
Continental Army officers from Virginia
People of Virginia in the French and Indian War
Military personnel from Fredericksburg, Virginia
Virginia militiamen in the American Revolution | [
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242256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morisset%2C%20New%20South%20Wales | Morisset, New South Wales | Morisset is a commercial centre and suburb of the City of Lake Macquarie, Central Coast in New South Wales, Australia, and is located west of Lake Macquarie just off the Sydney-Newcastle Freeway. It is also located approximately halfway between Gosford and Newcastle. The count at the 2016 Census was 3,213 for the gazetted suburb of Morisset. The estimated urban population of the Morisset area, including Cooranbong, was 25,662 as at June 2019. The area has experienced moderate growth over the five years to 2019 with an average year-on-year rate of 1.79 percent.
History
The town is named for Major James Thomas Morisset, who camped there in 1823 while making the overland journey from Sydney to Newcastle. Morisset went on to become Commandant at Norfolk Island prison between 1829–1833, where his brutal regime led to a rebellion. Historically there has been considerable confusion over the spelling of the suburb: Morissett, Morriset, Morrissett and Morrisset have been used.
The earliest settlement in the area was at Cooranbong in 1826, about west of the current town and near the foot of the Watagan Mountains. Initially, various kinds of agriculture were conducted, and before long forestry became an important industry. Most of the transport to the area at the time was by river boat on Dora Creek meaning that Cooranbong was the most accessible part of town. The town of Morisset itself was essentially non-existent until 1887, when the Sydney-Newcastle railway was built. Morisset sprang up as a sawmill town clustered around the train station, and the township was proclaimed on 3 December.
In 1908, a psychiatric hospital opened on a large estate along the lake shore. At its height in the 1960s, Morisset Mental Hospital had 1,600 patients. The Hospital continues to dominate Morisset's reputation, although it is now only a 130-bed hospital.
The first bus service was started by the Ward family.
In more recent times, the Morisset Peninsula to the east of the town has become the main residential area. It has experienced a high rate of growth since the construction of Eraring Power Station in 1986. Most of Bonnells Bay is now what long-time residents quaintly refer to as "high-density housing", although by city standards it is decidedly low-density. Several retirement villages have been built, most of them only in the last decade. Subdivision of larger blocks has come close to saturation in many suburbs, with only a few hobby-farms still remaining, although the majority of the Morisset district and peninsula remain bushland and National Park and Aboriginal reserves.
Heritage listings
Morisset has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
Morisset Park Road: Morisset Hospital
Education
Morisset contains a state primary school, a state high school and a Catholic school. Morisset Public School opened in 1891 and started accommodating high school classes in 1951. These classes transferred to a new high school campus, Morisset High School, at the start of the 1965 school year, with the public school returning to purely primary education.
A Catholic primary school, St John Vianney School, opened on 17 January 1962, and was initially administered by the Sisters of St Joseph until becoming part of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Maitland-Newcastle in 1966.
Transport
Morisset railway station, located on Dora Street, is linked to Sydney and Newcastle by NSW TrainLink services on the Central Coast & Newcastle Line, and to Maitland and towns further north by long-distance services.
The train station serves as a terminus for bus services 278 and 279 covering the Morisset Peninsula towns and 280 to Cooranbong. These services are operated by Hunter Valley Buses, which acquired the previous provider Toronto Bus. In July 2009, Rover Coaches commenced a new weekday service, Route 163, to Cessnock and Kurri Kurri.
Media
Christian radio may be heard on 87.8 FM around the town broadcasting 3ABN Australia Radio Network.
3ABN Australia Production Centre is also located in Morisset.
Further reading
Iron Horse and Iron Bark: A history of Morisset and district, Beryl Mullard,
A Private World on a Nameless Bay - a history of Morisset Hospital, Morisset Hospital Historical Society,
References
External links
History of Morisset (Lake Macquarie City Library)
Morisset Hospital Historical Society
3ABN Australia, Inc.
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242257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginza | Ginza | Ginza ( ; ) is a district of Chūō, Tokyo, located south of Yaesu and Kyōbashi, west of Tsukiji, east of Yūrakuchō and Uchisaiwaichō, and north of Shinbashi. It is a popular upscale shopping area of Tokyo, with numerous internationally renowned department stores, boutiques, restaurants and coffeehouses located in its vicinity. It is considered to be one of the most expensive, elegant, and luxurious city districts in the world.
Ginza was a part of the old Kyobashi ward of Tokyo City, which, together with Nihonbashi and Kanda, formed the core of Shitamachi, the original downtown center of Edo (Tokyo).
History
Ginza was built upon a former swamp that was filled in during the 16th century. The name Ginza comes after the establishment of a silver-coin mint established there in 1612, during the Edo period.
After a devastating fire in 1872 burned down most of the area, the Meiji government designated the Ginza area as a "model of modernization." The government planned the construction of fireproof brick buildings and larger, better streets connecting Shimbashi Station all the way to the foreign concession in Tsukiji.
Soon after the fire, redevelopment schemes were prepared by Colin Alexander McVean a chief surveyor of the Public Works under direction of Yamao Yozo, but execution designs were provided by the Irish-born engineer Thomas Waters; the Bureau of Construction of the Ministry of Finance was in charge of construction. In the following year, a Western-style shopping promenade on the street from the Shinbashi bridge to the Kyōbashi bridge in the southwestern part of Chūō with two- and three-story Georgian brick buildings was completed.
These "bricktown" buildings were initially offered for sale and later were leased, but the high rent prevented many of them from being permanently occupied. Moreover, the construction was not adapted to the climate, and the bold design contrasted the traditional Japanese notion of home construction. The new Ginza was not popular with visiting foreigners, who were looking for a more Edo-styled city. Isabella Bird visited in 1878 and in 1880 implied that Ginza was less like an Oriental city than like the outskirts of Chicago or Melbourne. Philip Terry, the English writer of tour guides, likened it to Broadway, not in a positive sense.
Nevertheless, the area flourished as a symbol of "civilization and enlightenment" thanks to the presence of newspapers and magazine companies, which helped spread the latest trends of the day. The area was also known for its window displays, an example of modern marketing techniques. Everyone visited so the custom of "killing time in Ginza" developed strongly between the two world wars.
Most of these European-style buildings disappeared, but some older buildings still remain, most famously the Wakō building with the now-iconic Hattori Clock Tower. The building and the clock tower were originally built by Kintarō Hattori, the founder of Seiko.
Its recent history has seen it as a prominent outpost of Western luxury shops. Ginza is a popular destination on weekends, when the main north-south artery is closed to traffic since the 1960s, under governor Ryokichi Minobe.
Economy
Many leading fashion houses' flagship stores are located here, in the area with the highest concentration of Western shops in Tokyo. It is one of two locations in Tokyo considered by Chevalier and Mazzalovo to be the best locations for a luxury goods store. Prominent high-end retailers include the American company Carolina Herrera New York, French companies Chanel, Dior, Louis Vuitton and Saint Laurent, Italian company Gucci and Austrian brands Swarovski and Riedel.
Flagship electronic retail stores like the Sony showroom (which closed in 2017 and new building would open in 2022) and the first Apple Store outside the United States are also here (Ginza 2 chome). The electronics company, Ricoh is headquartered in the Ricoh Building in Ginza. The neighborhood is a major shopping district. It is home to Wako department store, which is located in a building dating from 1894. The building has a clock tower. There are many department stores in the area, including Hankyu, Seibu, and Matsuya, in which there are many shops: grocery stores, restaurants, women and men clothes, sports wear, and jewellers etc. There are also art galleries.
Kabuki-za is the theater for kabuki, one of Japanese traditional playing, and locates on between Ginza and Tsukiji. The building was opened in 1889 and has been reconstructed several times because of war and fire. The present building was built in 2013.
Pedestrianization
Each Saturday and Sunday, from 12:00 p.m. until 5:00 p.m., the main street through Ginza is closed off to road traffic, allowing people to walk freely. This is called or Hokoten for short, literally meaning "pedestrian heaven". There are some people who do street performance such as magic and playing instruments. As a famous photo spot, some cats sleep on signs, where people can put their own cats onto these signs. The location where cats are is different depending on the date.
Subway stations
Ginza Station (銀座駅) (Tokyo Metro Hibiya Line, Tokyo Metro Ginza Line, Tokyo Metro Marunouchi Line)
Ginza-itchōme Station (銀座一丁目駅) (Tokyo Metro Yūrakuchō Line)
Higashi-Ginza Station (東銀座駅) (Tokyo Metro Hibiya Line, Toei Asakusa Line)
Other stations near Ginza:
Yurakucho Station (有楽町駅) Tokyo Metro Yurakucho line, JR Yamanote line, JR Keihin tohoku line
Hibiya Station (日比谷駅) Tokyo Metro Hibiya line, Tokyo Metro Chiyoda line, Toei Mita line
Shinbashi Station (新橋駅) Tokyo Metro Ginza line, Toei Asakusa line, JR Yamanote line, JR Keihin tohoku line
Ginza Station, Yurakucho Station, Hibiya Station are connected underground.
See also
Asakusa
Omotesando
List of upscale shopping districts
Tourism in Japan
References
External links
Tokyo Essentials: Ginza
Ginza Concierge
Ginza Architecture and Map
Districts of Chūō, Tokyo
Shopping districts and streets in Japan | [
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242258 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative | Negative | Negative may refer to:
Science and mathematics
Negative number
Negative mass
Negative energy
Negative charge, one of the two types of electric charge
Negative (electrical polarity), in electric circuits
Negative result (disambiguation)
Negative lenses, uses to describe diverging optics
Photography
Negative (photography), an image with inverted luminance or a strip of film with such an image
Original camera negative, the film in a motion picture camera which captures the original image
Paper negative, a negative image printed on paper used to create the final print of a photograph
Linguistics
A negative answer, commonly expressed with the word no
A type of grammatical construction; see affirmative and negative
A double negative is a construction occurring when two forms of grammatical negation are used in the same sentence.
Music
Negative (Finnish band), a Finnish band established in 1997
Negative (Serbian band), a Serbian band established in 1999
The Negatives, a band fronted by Lloyd Cole
Negative (Yōsui Inoue album), 1987
Negative (Negative album), 1999
Negatives (album), a 2004 album by Phantom Planet
The Negatives, a 2014 album by Cruel Hand
Negative (song), a 1998 song by Mansun
Negative (album) by Act Of Denial
Film
Negatives (film), a 1968 film
Other uses
Photo negative casting, a casting technique in acting by reversing the skin colours of actor and character.
Negative sign, the passive or feminine signs of the zodiac in astrology
Negative space, in art, the space around or between elements of the subject
Negative (policy debate) (NEG), the team which negates the resolution in policy debate
Negative feedback, a feedback loop that responds in the opposite direction to a perturbation
Negative repetition, the performance of the eccentric phase of weight lifting
Negative liberty is freedom from interference by other people
Negative, several distinct concepts within the game of contract bridge, including:
Double negative, see Glossary of contract bridge terms#doublenegative
Herbert negative, see Glossary of contract bridge terms#herbertnegative
Negative double
Negative free bid
Negative inference, see Glossary of contract bridge terms#negativeinference
Negative response, see Glossary of contract bridge terms#negativeresponse
See also
Mu (negative)
Negation (disambiguation)
Negativity (disambiguation)
Positive (disambiguation)
Double Negative (disambiguation) | [
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242260 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive | Positive | Positive is a property of positivity and may refer to:
Mathematics and science
Positive formula, a logical formula not containing negation
Positive number, a number that is greater than 0
Plus sign, the sign "+" used to indicate a positive number
Positive operator, a type of linear operator in mathematics
Positive result, a result that has been found significant in statistical hypothesis testing
Positive test, a diagnostic test result that indicates some parameter being evaluated was present
Positive charge, one of the two types of electrical charge
Positive (electrical polarity), in electrical circuits
Positive lens, in optics
Positive (photography), a positive image, in which the color and luminance correlates directly with that in the depicted scene
Positive sense, said of an RNA sequence that codes for a protein
Philosophy and humanities
Affirmative (policy debate), the team which affirms the resolution
Negative and positive rights, concerning the moral obligation of a person to do something for/to someone
Positive economics, in economics, about predictions of behavior of economic actors, as opposed to the normative aspect
Positive law, man-made law (statutes) in contrast with natural law (derived from deities or morality)
Positive liberty, the opportunity and ability to act to fulfill one's own potential
Affirmative (linguistics), a property of a non-negated expression (the opposite of negative)
Positive (linguistics), the form of an adjective or adverb on which comparative and superlative are formed with suffixes or the use of more or less
Positive affectivity, the psychological capability to respond positively
Positive psychology, a branch of psychology
Positive statement, in economics and philosophy, a (possibly incorrect) factual statement about what is, as opposed to what should be (a normative statement)
Popular culture
Positive (1990 film), a documentary film about AIDS and activism
Positive (2007 film), a short film in Hindi on HIV and AIDS
Positive (2008 film), a 2008 Malayalam language film directed by V. K. Prakash
Positive (TV series), a Filipino drama series
"Positive", a song by Baboon from Face Down in Turpentine
"(Gotta Be) Positive", a song by Eddy Grant from Reparation
Positive hardcore, a subgenre of hardcore punk
Positive (EP), sixth EP by South Korean band Pentagon
Positive organ
Other uses
Positive sign, in western astrology, the supposedly extroverted personalities of the fire and air signs
See also
HIV-positive people
Negative (disambiguation)
Negative (photography), as opposed to positive images used in such applications as slide projection or photo emulsion stencil-making
Normative
Optimism
Positif (disambiguation)
Positive action (disambiguation)
Positivism (disambiguation) | [
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242261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petting%2C%20Bavaria | Petting, Bavaria | Petting is a municipality in the district Traunstein, Bavaria, Germany. It is located on the shore of the Waginger See, a diluvial lake.
The first mention of the municipality was in 1048 with the name Pettinga; however, it is possible that the settlement already existed at the time of the Roman Empire. In 1180 it came into the ownership of the monastery St. Zeno.
History
Petting, built on a wash-up from the last Ice age, is said to have once been an island when large areas were still under water. The island was considered safe and secure and was already inhabited at that time.
The place is said to have had a church as early as 800, but it was destroyed by the Hungarians around 900. On the square of the church stood allegedly the castle of the nobles of Pettingen. This noble family dates back to the 6th century. It is assumed that the following lords took the name of the village as their own. It is also assumed that Petting already existed in Roman times and had the same name at that time.
The village was first mentioned in 1048 as "Pettinga". In 1335, the parish of Petting was incorporated into the monastery of St. Zeno in Reichenhall. Petting was the seat of a chair of the Archbishopric of Salzburg and fell to Archduke Ferdinand of Tuscany during secularization in 1803, to Austria in 1805, which Petting had to cede to the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1810. Petting then became an independent political municipality through the municipal edict of 1818.
References
External links
Official website of the municipality (German)
Traunstein (district) | [
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] |
242264 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxales | Taxales | The plant order Taxales was until recently treated as a distinct order in the division Pinophyta, class Pinopsida, and included only those species in the family Taxaceae, known commonly as yews. Under this interpretation, all other conifers were classified separately in the order Pinales. Recent genetic and micromorphological studies, however, have shown the Taxaceae are closely related to the other conifers, particularly so to the family Cephalotaxaceae. The order Taxales is therefore no longer recognised as distinct, and the family Taxaceae is now included in the order Cupressales. See Pinophyta for more details.
References
Cupressales
Pinales
Conifers
Pinidae
Historically recognized plant orders | [
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242271 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buriram%20province | Buriram province | Buriram province (, , ; Northern Khmer: , ), is one of Thailand's seventy-six Provinces (changwat) lies in lower northeastern Thailand also called Isan. Neighboring provinces are (from south clockwise) Sa Kaeo, Nakhon Ratchasima, Khon Kaen, Maha Sarakham, and Surin. To the southeast it borders Oddar Meanchey province of Cambodia. The name "Buriram" means 'city of happiness'.
Geography
Buriram is at the south end of the Khorat Plateau, with several extinct volcanoes around the province. The southern limit of the province is a mountainous area at the limit between the Sankamphaeng Range and the Dângrêk Mountains. The total forest area is or 8.8 percent of provincial area.
History
The study of archaeologists has found evidence of human habitation since prehistoric times in Dvaravati period in Buriram including cultural evidence from the ancient Khmer Empire, which has both a brick castle and more than 60 stone castles, and have found important archaeological sites, including kilns, pottery and pottery, earthenware called Khmer wares, which determines the age around the 15th-18th. After the period of ancient Khmer or Khmer culture, the historical evidence of Buriram began to appear again at the end of the Ayutthaya period. Which appears to be an old city and later appeared in the Thonburi period to the Rattanakosin period that Buriram was a city.
Later, about 1897-1898, Buriram city was up to Monthon Nakhon Ratchasima called "Nang Rong Area" consists of Buriram, Nang Rong, Rattanaburi, Prakhon Chai and Phutthaisong. The Ministry of Interior announced changed the name of the city to "Buriram" in August 3, 1901. In 1907, the Ministry of Interior renovates the districts in the Northeast. Monthon Nakhon Ratchasima consists of 3 cities, 17 districts, namely Muang Nakhon Ratchasima 10 districts, Muang Chaiyaphum 3 districts and Muang Buriram 4 districts including Nang Rong, Phutthaisong, Prakhon Chai (Talung) and Rattanaburi (currently dependent on Surin).
In 1933, Monthon Nakhon Ratchasima was dissolved and Buriram has a status as Buriram province since then.
Culture
Festivals
Aside from important religious days, Songkran Day and New Year's Day, Buriram also has other local festivals such as the festival of the 5th lunar month when the locals make merit, bathe Buddha images and the aged, play traditional sports such as Saba and tug of war. In some areas like Phutthaisong District, there is the Bang Fai traditional rocket dance, Khao Phansa, at the beginning of Buddhist Lent and Loi Krathong.
Demographics
Buriram is one of the northeastern provinces with a sizable Northern Khmer population. The Isan language is spoken by most, but according to the most recent census 27.6% of the population also speak Northern Khmer in everyday life.
Symbols
The provincial seal depicts Phanom Rung temple, a Khmer-style Hindu shrine dedicated to Shiva. It was in use from the 9th through the 12th centuries, when the Khmer Empire's control of the region was ended by the Thais of Ayutthaya Kingdom. The ruins are now preserved in a historical park.
The provincial flower is the yellow cotton tree (Cochlospermum regium). The provincial tree is the pink shower (Cassia grandis).
The province's motto is "the city of sandstone sanctuaries, land of volcanoes, beautiful silk, rich culture and the best city of sport".
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
The province is divided into 23 districts (amphoes). The districts are further divided into 189 subdistricts (tambons) and 2,212 villages (mubans).
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Buriram Provincial Administration Organisation () and 62 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Buriram, Chum Het and Nang Rong have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 59 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 146 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Transport
Airports
Buriram Airport is the only airport in Buriram province. Two airlines, Nok Air and Thai AirAsia, serve Buriram from Don Mueang International Airport (DMK).
Highways
Highway 218: Buriram - Nang Rong
Highway 219: Ban Kruat - Prakhon Chai - Buriram - Ban Dan - Satuek - Phayakkhaphum Phisai - Yang Sisurat - Na Chueak - Borabue
Highway 226: Nakhon Ratchasima - Chaloem Phra Kiat - Chakkarat - Huai Thalaeng - Lam Plai Mat - Buriram - Krasang - Surin - Sikhoraphum - Samrong Thap - Huai Thap Than - Uthumphon Phisai - Sisaket - Kanthararom - Warin Chamrap - Ubon Ratchathani
Highway 2074: Buriram - Khu Mueang - Phutthaisong
Intercity transit
State Railway of Thailand (SRT), the national passenger rail system, provides service to Buriram at the Buriram Railway Station. SRT provides many services such as limited express trains to Bangkok and Ubon Ratchathani, commuter trains to Nakhon Ratchasima and beyond.
The Transport Co., Ltd. operates a bus depot at Buriram Bus Station, and Nakhonchai Air has its bus station adjacent.
Public transit
The Buriram Songthaew System (BSS) provides public transportation for the city. BSS was established many years ago. There are two lines: Line 1 (Buriram Municipality Market-Khao Kradong Forest Park Line), and Line 2 (Ban Bua Line). Both lines are colored pink.
Health
Buriram's main hospital is Buriram Hospital operated by the Ministry of Public Health.
Sports
Buriram promotes itself as a city of sport. Buriram United is the most successful football team in Thailand after sweeping all before them by winning the league, the FA Cup, the League Cup, and AFC Champions League quarter-finalist. Buriram United play home games at Chang Arena, the largest club-owned football stadium in Thailand.
A FIA Grade 1 and FIM Grade A racing circuit, Chang International Circuit, is near Chang Arena.
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
Notable people
Born in Buriram
Lalisa Manoban (); born Pranpriya Manoban () (born 1997), a member of the South Korean girl group BLACKPINK
Chatchu-on Moksri (Thai:ชัชชุอร โมกศรี) (born 1999), volleyball player
Newin Chidchob (Thai:เนวิน ชิดชอบ) (born 1958), politician, chairman of Buriram United
References
External links
Tourism Authority of Thailand: About Buriram
Buriram Times
Provincial website (Thai)
Buriram provincial map, coat of arms and postal stamp
Isan
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242277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.%20Waldo%20Dunnington | G. Waldo Dunnington | Guy Waldo Dunnington (January 15, 1906, Bowling Green, Missouri – April 10, 1974, Natchitoches, Louisiana) was a writer, historian and professor of German known for his writings on the famous German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. Dunnington wrote several articles about Gauss and later a biography entitled Gauss: Titan of Science (). He became interested in Gauss through one of his elementary school teachers, Minna Waldeck Gauss Reeves, who was a great-granddaughter of Gauss.
Dunnington was also a translator at the Nuremberg trials. He ended his teaching career at Northwestern State University, which houses his collection of Gauss-related material, believed to be the largest collection of its kind in the world. He became Dean of international students there near the end of his life.
References
Bibliography
External links
Collection of letters Dunnington exchanged with descendants of Gauss
1906 births
1974 deaths
American male biographers
American historians of mathematics
20th-century American biographers
People from Bowling Green, Missouri
20th-century American male writers | [
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242279 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon%20bandgap%20temperature%20sensor | Silicon bandgap temperature sensor | The silicon bandgap temperature sensor is an extremely common form of temperature sensor (thermometer) used in electronic equipment. Its main advantage is that it can be included in a silicon integrated circuit at very low cost. The principle of the sensor is that the forward voltage of a silicon diode, which may be the base-emitter junction of a bipolar junction transistor (BJT), is temperature-dependent, according to the following equation:
where
T = temperature in kelvins,
T0 = reference temperature,
VG0 = bandgap voltage at absolute zero,
VBE0 = junction voltage at temperature T0 and current IC0,
k = Boltzmann constant,
q = charge on an electron,
n = a device-dependent constant.
By comparing the voltages of two junctions at the same temperature, but at two different currents, IC1 and IC2, many of the variables in the above equation can be eliminated, resulting in the relationship:
Note that the junction voltage is a function of current density, i.e. current/junction area, and a similar output voltage can be obtained by operating the two junctions at the same current, if one is of a different area to the other.
A circuit that forces IC1 and IC2 to have a fixed N:1 ratio,
gives the relationship:
An electronic circuit, such as the Brokaw bandgap reference, that measures ΔVBE can therefore be used to calculate the temperature of the diode. The result remains valid up to about 200 °C to 250 °C, when leakage currents become large enough to corrupt the measurement. Above these temperatures, materials such as silicon carbide can be used instead of silicon.
The voltage difference between two p-n junctions (e.g. diodes), operated at different current densities, is proportional to absolute temperature (PTAT).
PTAT circuits using either BJT or CMOS transistors are widely used in temperature sensors (where we want the output to vary with temperature), and also in bandgap voltage references and other temperature-compensating circuits (where we want the same output at every temperature).
If high precision is not required it is enough to bias a diode with any constant low current and use its −2 mV/˚C thermal coefficient for temperature calculation, however this requires calibration for each diode type. This method is common in monolithic temperature sensors.
References
External links
Temperature Sensing Theory and Practical Techniques, Analog Devices
Precision Monolithic Temperature Sensors, TI (formerly National Semiconductor)
Thermometers | [
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242280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic%20Republic | Galactic Republic | The Galactic Republic, often referred to as simply the Republic, is an interstellar state depicted in the fictional Star Wars universe, where it existed prior to the establishment of the Galactic Empire. The Republic is most prominently portrayed in the prequel trilogy of films in the Star Wars franchise. In the original trilogy, set later in time, it is referred to as the Old Republic.
The Republic is portrayed as a democratic republic that sustained itself peacefully for over twenty-five thousand years, but was tied up in layers of bureaucracy. It was mainly overseen by the Senate, a body in the Legislative Branch of the Republic government. It was protected by the Jedi Order, the guardians of peace and justice throughout the Star Wars galaxy. After the end of the Galactic Empire, the New Republic was founded. It was enforced by the original Rebellion, eventually known as the New Republic Military. The consolidation of the New Republic is depicted in The Mandalorian as it sought to wipe out remnants of the Imperial forces, and was eventually destroyed by the First Order, under Supreme Leader Snoke's direction, in Star Wars: The Force Awakens.
Fictional history (canon)
Fictional timeline (canon)
All Star Wars chronology takes the destruction of the first Death Star during the Battle of Yavin, portrayed in the first film Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope (1977), as the basis of counting standard years. The conventional calendar era notation is "BBY" ("Before the Battle of Yavin") and "ABY" ("After the Battle of Yavin"). Alternatively, newer literature may use the notation "BSW4" ("Before Star Wars Episode 4") and "ASW4" ("After Star Wars Episode 4").
Background
Little is said to be known of the earliest history of the Star Wars galaxy before the Republic, but several species that evolved in the Core Worlds, including humans, later came to dominate the galaxy. It is hypothesised that humans originally came from Coruscant, later settled other Core Worlds such as Alderaan, and went on to colonise other planets from there. Smith (1996) claimed that '[i]t is unknown whether hyperdrive was invented by the humans of the Core Worlds or introduced by alien traders from far off in the Unknown Regions', but there is agreement that the introduction of hyperspace travel predated the Republic, and allowed the formation of a 'galactic civilization' and central governments over multiple planetary systems, and thus the rise of the Republic.
Old Republic
According to the large body of films and other fiction that belong to the Star Wars franchise, the Old Republic was formed 25,000 years before the events of Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope (1977) when the first "Galactic Constitution" was signed on Coruscant, after hyperdrive connected many worlds in the Core and enabled the establishment of an interstellar central government. Coruscant became the capital planet of the Old Republic, the Galactic Empire, and the New Republic, and the entire surface evolved into one big city, with skyscrapers reaching more than 5,000 levels. The Republic was made up of several hundred thousands of worlds, and each planet or system had representation in the Republic Senate, which comprised most of the Republic Legislative Branch and the government itself. It started off merely as an economic and protective alliance, mainly among the Core worlds. It eventually expanded to the Colonies and other outlying worlds and regions, becoming a superpower rather than an alliance, and it became the central government for the galaxy. The Core Worlds such as Coruscant and Alderaan were notable for their prosperity, which was later matched by the Colonies, while the Inner Rim and Expansion Region were a bit less secure and wealthy; the Mid Rim was an unsafe region that saw much of the fighting Galactic Civil War on planets such as Naboo and Kashyyyk, as it was far from the Republic's military concentrated in the Core. The Outer Rim was the most unsafe place in the galaxy, where neither the Republic nor the Empire ever gained much de facto hold, leading to lawlessness, widespread violence and crime syndicates; many key battles of the Clone Wars took place here. A large part of the Outer Rim including Tatooine was traditionally ruled by the Hutts and therefore called the Hutt Space.
As the Republic expanded, it came into contact with the slave empire of Zygerria. Because slavery was disallowed in the Republic, it disliked the Zygerria Empire, as slavery was central to the Empire's political and economic system; conversely, the Empire refused to become part of the Republic. The Republic and Jedi declared war on the Empire and won. The Empire was reduced to a small harmless alliance on Zygerria.
Sith Empire and reforms
The Sith (which formed in the Republic's early years) return to their original strength and invaded Malachor. The first Sith War began, which led to the demise of the first Republic. The power of the new Sith Empire increased as the Republic's decreased. The Republic and Jedi forces failed to keep the Empire's Forces out of Republic Space. Soon, the Sith became a second superpower. Around this time, an ancestor of Pre Vizsla stole the Darksaber from the Jedi Temple. Around 1000 years prior to Star Wars, the Dark Age began and the Old Republic was brought to the brink of collapse, but with the Liberation of Coruscant, the Sith Empire collapsed first. After the Sith Empire was defeated in c. 1032 BBY, the Republic (now known as the Galactic Republic) reformed and became a democracy. It demilitarized at the Ruusan Reformation, shortly after the Seventh Battle of Ruusan.
High Republic
The multimedia project Star Wars: The High Republic depicts the galaxy 200 years before The Phantom Menace.
The Republic began to diplomatically influence its neighboring worlds rather than conquering them by force. This meant the Republic expanded slowly. The Republic finally took control of the Mid Rim.
Power blocs formed out of the Republic, but the Jedi kept order. The Republic became peaceful but corrupt, and a Core-Rim distrust formed. After Supreme Chancellor Finis Valorum came to power, a standoff between the Trade Federation and the Republic led to the Invasion of Naboo (32 BBY), depicted in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.
Separatist Crisis
Several trade organizations represented in the Senate, such as the Trade Federation and Commerce Guild, kept armies of droids to protect their profits and occasionally took advantage of this, such as when the Trade Federation invaded and occupied Naboo. Individual sectors also maintained their own security forces, such as Naboo Security Force or the CorSec from Corellia, and these were sometimes used to combat small threats. However, there was no centralized and official military of the Republic. The Trade Federation and other cartels within the Republic desired that the Republic government lack significant central military power so that it could not enforce any legal regulations on their business.
Dissatisfied with several problems in the Republic, such as ineffectual government, heavy taxes, and perceived favoritism of the Core Worlds over the Outer Rim planets, the Confederacy of Independent Systems (CIS) was formed in 24 BBY: several systems seceded from the Republic and formed a new state, thus triggering the Separatist Crisis. The CIS was ostensibly headed by former Jedi Master Count Dooku (although Palpatine was actually in command of both sides), who gained much popularity amongst critics of the Republic after his scathing Raxus Address outlining the problems of the Republic, leading many systems to side with him and form the Confederacy. The Separatists became a huge threat to the Republic after some of the galaxy's megacorporations allied with the CIS, as they possessed vast resources and private armies of battle droids. A Military Creation Act was proposed in the Republic Senate, strongly opposed by many of the Republic's pacifist leaders, such as Padmé Amidala, the Queen of Naboo, who feared the possibility of war. But most of the Senate advocated a permanent, official, and central military to oppose the Separatist threat. Supporters of the Act include Orn Free Taa of Ryloth and Ask Aak of Malastare.
However, a Clone Army had already been created in secret on the planet Kamino on the edge of the galaxy ten years earlier, commissioned without authorization by Master Sifo-Dyas, a former Jedi perceiving chaos in the galaxy. When it became clear the Confederacy had no intention of negotiating, the Republic quickly accepted the Army made for them, and it was dubbed the Grand Army of the Republic.
Clone Wars
Despite the high quality of its armaments and cloned troops, the Republic's war effort was initially hindered because most of the major industrial companies in the Galaxy had, under the aegis of the Techno Union, sided with the Confederacy. Eventually, though, the Republic became a humongous superpower not only economically but also militarily. The rapid militarization of the Republic during the Clone Wars, overseen by Supreme Chancellor Palpatine, had far-reaching effects. The Confederacy won most battles in the first year of the Clone Wars. During the second and middle year of the Clone Wars however, the Republic defended itself from Confederate attacks and retaliated with its own assaults, many of which were successful. During the third and final year of the Clone Wars, the Republic won many offensive battles in the Mid Rim and pushed the Confederate forces back to the Outer Rim with its "Outer Rim Sieges" campaign.
Fall of the Republic
During the Clone Wars, the Senate increasingly grants enormous amounts of power to Palpatine, who is the Commander-in-Chief. Such actions are justified in the name of security and are considered a perfectly reasonable way to increase the wartime government's efficiency. Eventually, Palpatine gains enough political power that he and his office are equal to the Senate.
Tension between Palpatine and the Jedi grow as the war progresses. Many members of the Jedi Council remain skeptical of Palpatine's growing power. In time, the Jedi believe that Palpatine will not surrender his emergency powers and his long overdue position by the end of the war. This suspicion is also shared by some senators, including Padmé Amidala of Naboo, Bail Organa of Alderaan, and Mon Mothma of Chandrila.
After the death of Separatist leaders Count Dooku, who was the Head of State, and General Grievous, who was the Commander of the Separatist Army, and the discovery that Palpatine is actually Darth Sidious, the Sith Lord behind the war, the Jedi activate their contingency plans.
Order 66
The Sith are the ancient enemy of the Jedi and were thought to have been destroyed many years ago. A small group of experienced Jedi led by Mace Windu fail to arrest Palpatine for treason when Anakin Skywalker pledges himself to the dark side. Shortly afterwards, Palpatine secretly orders the clones to exterminate the Jedi Order. Because of control chips implanted inside the clones' heads, the clones are forced to slaughter the Jedi leaders in what would later become known as the Jedi Purge. The Jedi padawans remaining on Coruscant are eliminated by Darth Vader, formerly known as Anakin Skywalker, and his personal legion. The clones, at the same time, start a war against the Confederacy and the droids.
Galactic Empire versus Rebel Alliance
Before the conclusion of the Clone Wars, Palpatine addressed the Senate. He related the story of an unsuccessful "assassination attempt" on his life by the Jedi. Claiming that it was a "rebellion" and that their next move would be to kill all the Senators, he declared the Jedi Order to be enemies of the Republic. Palpatine announced that the Galactic Republic should be reorganized into the Galactic Empire, and he would be the emperor for life. Deluded by Palpatine's charisma and skill (and perhaps also by his considerable dark side power), the majority of the Senate cheered him on loudly in approval. The official continuation of the Galactic Republic was the Galactic Empire, which was fueled by cruelty and fear.
As the Clone Wars entered their final year, Palpatine's once near-unanimous support had begun to falter. As depicted in the Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith novelization and deleted scenes from the film itself, a bloc of senators began to emerge, even before the Clone Wars end, who opposed Palpatine's authoritarian rule and resented his treatment of the Jedi and other opponents. This bloc, originally led by influential politicians such as Bail Organa, Mon Mothma, and later by Bail's adopted daughter Princess Leia Organa, eventually became the political voice of the emerging Rebel Alliance.
New Republic
The New Republic was a restoration of the Galactic Republic after Palpatine's Galactic Empire was crushed following Palpatine's death and the destruction of the second Death Star in the Battle of Endor in 4 ABY. In 28 ABY, part of the New Republic, concerned about corruption emerging in the Senate and its unwillingness to see the First Order as a major threat, created the Resistance to fight the First Order. This New Republic is first portrayed onscreen in Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015), where it is depicted as the ruling government of the galaxy and primary target of the First Order, a military power that sought to restore the Galactic Empire. 30 years after the events portrayed in Return of the Jedi (1983), the New Republic effectively collapsed when the First Order's Starkiller Base destroyed Hosnian Prime and the New Republic fleet and Senate with its superlaser.
Legends
The successor government to the Empire was explored as early as Marvel Comics' self-titled Star Wars series, which ran until 1986. The New Republic per se debuted in the 1991 Star Wars Legends novel, Heir to the Empire, by author Timothy Zahn.
Institutions
Senate, Chancellor and Jedi Order
The Republic begins as a mutual protection and economic alliance among a number of planets in the Core. Each member world or system chooses a Senator to represent them in the Galactic Senate, the main body of the legislative branch of the government. Senators are ambassadors of their homeworlds or systems. Member worlds and systems maintain their governments and societies as long as it does not defy any central and core Republican laws. There are a wide variety of different local governments along the political spectrum: from monarchies to republics to hive-like communes.
When the Republic's power and influence expand, many new areas of the galaxy are incorporated into the Republic. The Core and Colonies are the base of the Galactic Republic. A reorganization of senatorial representation occurs 1,000 years prior to Star Wars during the Ruusan Reformation. The most common organization for these new territories is to group regions into Sectors of about 50 inhabited worlds. Each sector is represented by a Senatorial Delegation. When the number of sectors becomes too large, sectors are organized into roughly a thousand regions, each represented by one delegation to the Senate.
The Senate serves as the unicameral main body of the legislative branch, but has immense power over the entire Galactic Republic. The capital of the Republic, which contains the most political power and wealth, is Coruscant.
Inside the Senate Building, there is an area in which the Senate debates, casts votes, and makes or passes bills. It contains 1,024 floating platforms, each of which contain a senator and his or her aides. Each platform in the senate represents a "sector" of the galaxy. A few platforms represent individual worlds of high importance, or worlds bringing special pleas to the Senate. Some represent special interest groups such as the Trade Federation, and other companies, corporations, and industries. Each senatorial delegation has one vote.
The members of the Senate elect a Supreme Chancellor from among their ranks who serves as the Senate's presiding officer and as the Republic's de facto leader. The Chancellor is assisted by the Vice Chair, who is presumably elected in the same manner as the Chancellor; the same Vice Chair is present throughout the entire prequel trilogy. The Senate follows pseudo-parliamentary rules. Supreme Chancellor Finis Valorum was forced out of office by the Senate in a motion of no confidence, introduced by Queen Padmé Amidala of Naboo, for example.
Senators receive one vote in all matters, procedural and substantive. The Chancellor is elected from within the Senate for a set term. The Senate gives the Chancellor emergency powers in times of crisis and removes him from office when necessary. The assembly is in turn divided into individual committees, each specializing in specific fields of government administration, and which were responsible for creating legislation to be reviewed by the full assembly. The Senate has some form of judicial power as well, although the Republic has a judicial branch, in which the Supreme Court was the main body.
The main functions of the Senate are to mediate disputes between members, provide for the common defense, create and pass laws into effect that would benefit most of the Republic, and regulate inter-system trade. The Jedi Order, although technically not officially part of the Republic, are considered the defenders of the general Republic. The Republic often orders the Jedi to specific areas that require assistance. In this way, they are eventually the unofficial police force of the Republic. They become representatives of the Senate as well, to some extent.
Despite the seemingly organized structure of the Republic, the waning years of the Republic are a time of corruption and great social injustice. The Senate becomes divided between those who genuinely wish to uphold the values and ideals of the Republic and those who wish to further their own goals. Following a series of weak and ineffectual Chancellors, there is a crisis involving the invasion of Naboo by the Trade Federation over a tariff passed by the Senate.
After Senator Palpatine of Naboo becomes Chancellor, he increases the power of the office, from acting as commander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Republic, or the Republic Military, to the institution of his personal bodyguard organization, the Red Guard. The Office of the Supreme Chancellor is given power equaling that of the Senate. The Galactic Senate also meets less often, as the Chancellor is voted more emergency powers to act on his own during the time of crisis.
Eventually, many Outer Rim planets and companies leave the Republic due to the amount of corruption and unfair treatment to Outer Rim worlds. Together, they form a rebellion known as the Confederacy of Independent Systems, almost exclusively referred to in the films as the Separatists. Some large industrial companies, including the Trade Federation, side with the Separatists, providing them with their military and its resources.
Galactic politicians
Politicians include Senators, the Supreme Chancellor, the Vice Chair of the Senate, the Administrative Aide, various Representatives from systems, and to an unofficial extent, the members of the Jedi Council. Jedi Council members hold special status as they appear to have the ability to watch Senate meetings and advise such Senators on various matters. The Jedi order protects these people.
Military
While the Republic had an Army and Navy for thousands of years, after the Rusaan Reformations, the Republic does not maintain a military except for a small force known as the Judicial Forces.
Palpatine and the Jedi
The Jedi with the most authority served on the Jedi High Council, among whom Yoda and Mace Windu act as leaders at the height of the Republic. Although the Senate holds some degree of political authority over the Jedi, very little pressure was ever put on the Council before Palpatine took office and demanded that Anakin Skywalker become a member of the Council in Star Wars: Episode III - Revenge of the Sith, despite the misgivings of the Jedi. While the Council allowed Anakin to sit among them, they did not grant him the status of Jedi Master.
Reception and analysis
The story of the Galactic Republic's rise, fall and resurrection have been compared to those of the real-world Roman Republic and Weimar Germany. From the storytelling perspective, the story of its "fall and redemption" has also been compared to that of Anakin Skywalker.
Brake and Chase (2016) compared the hypothesised colonisation of the Core Worlds by Coruscanti humans to the state of the space colonisation by humans from the Earth, which had taken its first step with NASA's Apollo program of 1961–1972, just before George Lucas invented Star Wars. They argued that Lucas offered a solution to the Fermi paradox: indeed, most of the Star Wars galaxy was conquered/colonised and submitted to the central government of the Republic rather quickly by the expansionist humans from the Core Worlds soon after they acquired the necessary rocket technology for interstellar travel, but there are still large unchartered Unknown Regions which are simply too far from the fashionable Core Worlds to have been fully explored (as exploration of the Unknown Regions is lethally dangerous), let alone colonised. Thus, it's possible that the Solar System is also situated "in the Milky Way's version of the Unknown Regions", and that even if there are other species in the Milky Way, which may even have established a Star Wars-like Galactic Republic or Empire, the Earth and its human civilisation have so far been in unchartered and dangerous hyperspace-travel territory (from that galactic civilisation's point of view), and humans themselves are still too technologically limited to make contact with it.
Appearances in the chronological order
Star Wars: The Phantom Menace (1999) (First appearance)
Star Wars: Attack of the Clones (2002)
Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008 animated film)
Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008−2020)
Star Wars: Revenge of the Sith (2005)
Star Wars: The Bad Batch (2021-present) (Briefly)
Star Wars: Rebels (2014-2018) (Symbol and mentioned only)
Star Wars (1977) (First mentioned)
The Empire Strikes Back (1980) (Mentioned only)
The Mandalorian (2019–present) (Mentioned only)
New Republic appearances in the chronological order
Star Wars: Rebels (2014-2018) (Indirect mention earlier)
Star Wars: Squadrons (2020)
Star Wars: Battlefront II (2017)
The Mandalorian (2019–present)
Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015) (First appearance)
References
Literature
External links
Star Wars governments
Fictional elements introduced in 1977 | [
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242281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliterative%20verse | Alliterative verse | In prosody, alliterative verse is a form of verse that uses alliteration as the principal ornamental device to help indicate the underlying metrical structure, as opposed to other devices such as rhyme. The most commonly studied traditions of alliterative verse are those found in the oldest literature of the Germanic languages, where scholars use the term 'alliterative poetry' rather broadly to indicate a tradition which not only shares alliteration as its primary ornament but also certain metrical characteristics. The Old English epic Beowulf, as well as most other Old English poetry, the Old High German Muspilli, the Old Saxon Heliand, the Old Norse Poetic Edda, and many Middle English poems such as Piers Plowman, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, and the Alliterative Morte Arthur all use alliterative verse.
Alliterative verse can be found in many other languages as well. The Finnish Kalevala and the Estonian Kalevipoeg both use alliterative forms derived from folk tradition.
Common Germanic origins and features
The poetic forms found in the various Germanic languages are not identical, but there is sufficient similarity to make it clear that they are closely related traditions, stemming from a common Germanic source. Knowledge about that common tradition, however, is based almost entirely on inference from later poetry.
One statement we have about the nature of alliterative verse from a practicing alliterative poet is that of Snorri Sturluson in the Prose Edda. He describes metrical patterns and poetic devices used by skaldic poets around the year 1200. Snorri's description has served as the starting point for scholars to reconstruct alliterative meters beyond those of Old Norse. There have been many different metrical theories proposed, all of them attended with controversy. Looked at broadly, however, certain basic features are common from the earliest to the latest poetry.
Alliterative verse has been found in some of the earliest monuments of Germanic literature. The Golden horns of Gallehus, discovered in Denmark and likely dating to the 4th century, bear this Runic inscription in Proto-Norse:
x / x x x / x x / x / x x
ek hlewagastiʀ holtijaʀ || horna tawidō
(I, Hlewagastiʀ [son?] of Holt, made the horn.)
This inscription contains four strongly stressed syllables, the first three of which alliterate on /x/ and the last of which does not alliterate, essentially the same pattern found in much later verse.
Originally all alliterative poetry was composed and transmitted orally, and much went unrecorded. The degree to which writing may have altered this oral art form remains much in dispute. Nevertheless, there is a broad consensus among scholars that the written verse retains many (and some would argue almost all) of the features of the spoken language.
Metrical form
The core metrical features of traditional Germanic alliterative verse are as follows; they can be seen in the Gallehus inscription above:
A long line is divided into two half-lines. Half-lines are also known as 'verses', 'hemistichs', or 'distichs'; the first is called the 'a-verse' (or 'on-verse'), the second the 'b-verse' (or 'off-verse'). The rhythm of the b-verse is generally more regular than that of the a-verse, helping listeners to perceive where the end of the line falls.
A heavy pause, or 'cæsura', separates the verses.
Each verse usually has two heavily stressed syllables, referred to as 'lifts' or 'beats' (other, less heavily stressed syllables, are called 'dips').
The first (and, if there is one, sometimes the second) lift in the a-verse alliterates with the first lift in the b-verse.
The second lift in the b-verse does not alliterate with the first lifts.
Some of these fundamental rules varied in certain traditions over time. Unlike in post-medieval English accentual verse, in which a syllable is either stressed or unstressed, Germanic poets were sensitive to degrees of stress. These can be thought of at three levels:
most stressed ('stress-words'): root syllables of nouns, adjectives, participles, infinitives
less stressed ('particles'): root syllables of most finite verbs (i.e. verbs which are not infinitives) and adverbs
even less stressed ('proclitics'): most pronouns, weakly stressed adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, parts of the verb to be, word-endings
If a half-line contains one or more stress-words, their root syllables will be the lifts. (This is the case in the Gallehus Horn inscription above, where all the lifts are nouns.) If it contains no stress-words, the root syllables of any particles will be the lift. Rarely, even a proclitic can be the lift, either because there are no more heavily stressed syllables or because it is given extra stress for some particular reason.
If a lift was occupied by word with a short root vowel followed by only one consonant followed by an unstressed vowel (i.e. '(-)CVCV(-)) these two syllables were in most circumstances counted as only one syllable. This is called resolution.
The patterns of unstressed syllables vary significantly in the alliterative traditions of different Germanic languages. The rules for these patterns remain imperfectly understood and subject to debate.
Rules for alliteration
Alliteration fits naturally with the prosodic patterns of early Germanic languages. Alliteration essentially involves matching the left edges of stressed syllables. Early Germanic languages share a left-prominent prosodic pattern. In other words, stress falls on the root syllable of a word, which is normally the initial syllable (except where the root is preceded by an unstressed prefix, as in past participles, for example). This means that the first sound of a word was particularly salient to listeners. Traditional Germanic verse had two particular rules about alliteration:
All vowels alliterate with each other.
The consonant clusters st-, sp- and sc- are treated as separate sounds (so st- only alliterates with st-, not with s- or sp-).
The precise reasons for this are debated. The most common, but not uniformly accepted, theory for vowel-alliteration is that words beginning with vowels all actually began with a glottal stop (as is still the case in some modern Germanic languages).
Diction
The need to find an appropriate alliterating word gave certain other distinctive features to alliterative verse as well. Alliterative poets drew on a specialized vocabulary of poetic synonyms rarely used in prose texts and used standard images and metaphors called kennings.
Old Saxon and medieval English attest to the word fitt with the sense of 'a section in a longer poem', and this term is sometimes used today by scholars to refer to sections of alliterative poems.
English alliterative verse
Old English poetic forms
Old English classical poetry, epitomised by Beowulf, follows the rules of traditional Germanic poetry outlined above, and is indeed a major source for reconstructing them. J.R.R. Tolkien's essay "On Translating Beowulf" analyses the rules as used in the poem. Some patterns of classical Old English verse begin to break down at the end of the Old English period. Moreover, Thomas Bredehoft has argued that an alternative system of non-classical Old English poetry with looser constraints existed alongside this classical verse. In Bredehoft's reading, this poetry is epitomized by the homilies of Ælfric of Eynsham traditionally described as being in 'rhythmical prose'. This section of the article, however, focuses on the classical form.
Metrical form
As described above for the Germanic tradition as a whole, each line of poetry in Old English consists of two half-lines or verses with a pause or caesura in the middle of the line. Each half-line usually has two accented syllables, although the first may only have one. The following example from the poem The Battle of Maldon, spoken by the warrior Beorhtwold, shows the usual pattern:
Clear indications of Modern English meanings can be heard in the original, using phonetic approximations of the Old English sound-letter system:
[Hige] shall the harder, || heart the keener,
mood shall the more, || as our main [might] littleth
In addition to the rules outlined above, Old English poetry had constraints limiting the lengths of verses and the number and distribution of lifts and dips. However, there is still no consensus on what precisely the constraints were, and they must have varied slightly from one poem to another. The most widely used system for classifying Old English prosodic patterns is based on that developed by Eduard Sievers and extended by Alan Joseph Bliss. Sievers' system is a method of categorization rather than a full theory of meter. It does not, in other words, purport to describe the system the scops actually used to compose their verse, nor does it explain why certain patterns are favored or avoided. Sievers divided verses into five basic types, labeled A–E. The system is founded upon accent, alliteration, quantity of vowels, and patterns of syllabic accentuation. Another popular system is that of Geoffrey Russom, which is predicated on a theory of meter involving two metrical feet per verse. Another is that of Thomas Cable, based on the idea that each verse contains four syllables, with specific rules for the addition of extra unstressed syllables.
Rules for alliteration
Alliteration is the principal ornamental feature of Old English poetry. Two stressed syllables alliterate when they begin with the same sound. In addition to the general rules for alliteration in Germanic poetry listed above, there are some further complications due to sound-changes in Old English:
Unpalatized c (pronounced ) alliterated with palatized c (pronounced in late Old English), apparently because the sounds were once just one sound ().
Unpalatized g (pronounced ) likewise alliterated with palatized g (pronounced like y in yet, , in late Old English) and with the g inherited from Common Germanic . There is not yet a consensus on why these alliterated, but the reason must be partly because the first two gs were once just one sound.
The first stressed syllable of the off-verse, or second half-line, usually alliterates with one or both of the stressed syllables of the on-verse, or first half-line. The second stressed syllable of the off-verse does not usually alliterate with the others.
The Middle English 'alliterative revival'
Just as rhyme was seen in some Anglo-Saxon poems (e.g. The Rhyming Poem, and, to some degree, The Proverbs of Alfred), the use of alliterative verse continued into Middle English. Layamon's Brut, written in about 1215, uses a loose alliterative scheme. Starting in the mid-14th century, alliterative verse became popular in the English North, the West Midlands, and a little later in Scotland. The Pearl Poet uses a complex scheme of alliteration, rhyme, and iambic metre in his Pearl; a more conventional alliterative metre in Cleanness and Patience, and alliterative verse alternating with rhymed quatrains in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. William Langland's Piers Plowman is an important English alliterative poem; it was written between c. 1370 and 1390. The form of alliterative verse changed gradually over time. From Piers Plowman:
A feir feld full of folk || fond I þer bitwene,
Of alle maner of men, || þe mene and þe riche,
Worchinge and wandringe || as þe world askeþ.
In modern spelling:
A fair field full of folk || found I there between,
Of all manner of men || the mean and the rich,
Working and wandering || as the world asketh.
In modern translation:
Among them I found a fair field full of people
All manner of men, the poor and the rich
Working and wandering as the world requires.
Alliteration was sometimes used together with rhyme in Middle English work, as in Pearl and in the densely structured poem The Three Dead Kings. Middle English alliterative poets invented some innovative structures; the Pearl Poet, for instance, often adds a third alliterating word to the first half-line (e.g. Sir Gawain l.2, "the borgh brittened and brent || to brondez and askez"), and the medial pause is not always strictly maintained.
After the fifteenth century, alliterative verse became fairly uncommon; possibly the last major poem in the tradition is William Dunbar's Tretis of the Tua Marriit Wemen and the Wedo (c. 1500). By the middle of the sixteenth century, the four-beat alliterative line had completely vanished, at least from the written tradition: the last poem using the form that has survived, Scotish Feilde, was written in or soon after 1515 for the circle of Thomas Stanley, 2nd Earl of Derby in commemoration of the Battle of Flodden.
Modern revival
J. R. R. Tolkien
J. R. R. Tolkien (1892–1973), a scholar of Old and Middle English, used alliterative verse extensively in both translations and original poetry. Most of his alliterative verse is in modern English, in a variety of styles, but he also composed Old English alliterative verses. Tolkien also wrote alliterative verse based on other traditions, such as the Völsungasaga and Atlakviða, in The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun (2009), and The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son describing the aftermath of the Battle of Maldon (1953). His Gothic Bagme Bloma ("Flower of the Trees") uses a trochaic metre, with irregular end-rhymes and irregular alliteration in each line; it was published in Songs for the Philologists (1936). He wrote a variety of pieces of alliterative verse in Old English, including parts of The Seafarer A version of these appears in The Notion Club Papers. He also made translations including about 600 lines of Beowulf in verse.
The 2276-line The Lay of the Children of Húrin (c. 1918–1925), published in The Lays of Beleriand (1985) is written in Modern English (albeit with some archaic words) and set to the Beowulf meter. Lines 610-614 are given here:
'Let the bow of Beleg to your band be joined;
and swearing death to the sons of darkness
let us suage our sorrow and the smart of fate!
Our valour is not vanquished, nor vain the glory
that once we did win in the woods of old.'
C. S. Lewis
Alliterative verse is occasionally written by other modern authors. C. S. Lewis (1898–1963) wrote a narrative poem of 742 lines called The Nameless Isle, published posthumously in Narrative Poems (1972). Lines 562–67 read:
The marble maid, under mask of stone
shook and shuddered. As a shadow streams
Over the wheat waving, over the woman's face
Life came lingering. Nor was it long after
Down its blue pathways, blood returning
Moved, and mounted to her maiden cheek.
W. H. Auden
W. H. Auden (1907–1973) wrote a number of poems, including The Age of Anxiety (published 1947), in a type of alliterative verse modified for modern English. The noun-laden style, resembling newspaper headlines, makes alliterative verse particularly apt for Auden's poem:
Now the news. Night raids on
Five cities. Fires started.
Pressure applied by pincer movement
In threatening thrust. Third Division
Enlarges beachhead. Lucky charm
Saves sniper. Sabotage hinted
In steel-mill stoppage.
…
Richard Wilbur
Richard Wilbur's Junk opens with the lines:
An axe angles from my neighbor's ashcan;
It is hell's handiwork, the wood not hickory.
The flow of the grain not faithfully followed.
The shivered shaft rises from a shellheap
Of plastic playthings, paper plates.
Other poets who have experimented with modern alliterative English verse include Ezra Pound in his version of "The Seafarer". Many translations of Beowulf use alliterative techniques. Among recent ones that of Seamus Heaney loosely follows the rules of modern alliterative verse while the translations of Alan Sullivan and Timothy Murphy follow those rules more closely.
Old Norse poetic forms
The inherited form of alliterative verse was modified somewhat in Old Norse poetry. In Old Norse, as a result of phonetic changes from the original common Germanic language, many unstressed syllables were lost. This lent Old Norse verse a characteristic terseness; the lifts tended to be crowded together at the expense of the weak syllables. In some lines, the weak syllables have been entirely suppressed. From the Hávamál:
The various names of the Old Norse verse forms are given in the Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson. The Háttatal, or "list of verse forms", contains the names and characteristics of each of the fixed forms of Norse poetry.
Fornyrðislag
A verse form close to that of Beowulf was used on runestones and in the Old Norse Poetic Edda; in Norse, it was called fornyrðislag, which means "past-words-law" or "way of ancient words". The Norse poets tended to break up their verses into stanzas of from two to eight lines (or more), rather than writing continuous verse after the Old English model. The loss of unstressed syllables made these verses seem denser and more emphatic. The Norse poets, unlike the Old English poets, tended to make each line a complete syntactic unit, avoiding enjambment where a thought begun on one line continues through the following lines; only seldom do they begin a new sentence in the second half-line. This example is from the Waking of Angantyr:
Fornyrðislag has two lifts per half line, with two or three (sometimes one) unstressed syllables. At least two lifts, usually three, alliterate, always including the main stave (the first lift of the second half-line). It had a variant form called málaháttr ("speech meter"), which adds an unstressed syllable to each half-line, making six to eight (sometimes up to ten) unstressed syllables per line. Conversely, another variant, kviðuháttr, has only three syllables in its odd half-lines (but four in the even ones).
Ljóðaháttr
Change in form came with the development of ljóðaháttr, which means "song" or "ballad metre", a stanzaic verse form that created four line stanzas. The odd numbered lines were almost standard lines of alliterative verse with four lifts and two or three alliterations, with cæsura; the even numbered lines had three lifts and two alliterations, and no cæsura. This example is from Freyr's lament in Skírnismál:
A number of variants occurred in ljóðaháttr, including galdralag ("incantation meter"), which adds a fifth short (three-lift) line to the end of the stanza; in this form, usually the fifth line echoes the fourth one.
Dróttkvætt
These verse forms were elaborated even more into the skaldic poetic form called dróttkvætt, meaning "courtly metre", which added internal rhymes and other forms of assonance that go well beyond the requirements of Germanic alliterative verse and greatly resemble the Celtic forms (Irish and Welsh). The dróttkvætt stanza had eight lines, each having usually three lifts and almost invariably six syllables. Although other stress patterns appear, the verse is predominantly trochaic. The last two syllables in each line had to form a trochee (there are a few specific forms which utilize a stressed word at line-end, such as in some docked forms). In addition, specific requirements obtained for odd-numbered and even-numbered lines.
In the odd-numbered lines (equivalent to the a-verse of the traditional alliterative line):
Two of the stressed syllables alliterate with one another.
Two of the stressed syllables share partial rhyme of consonants (which was called skothending) with dissimilar vowels (e.g. hat and bet), not necessarily at the end of the word (e.g. touching and orchard).
In the even lines (equivalent to the b-verse of the traditional alliterative line):
The first stressed syllable must alliterate with the alliterative stressed syllables of the previous line.
Two of the stressed syllables rhyme (aðalhending, e.g. hat and cat), not necessarily at the end of the word (e.g. torching and orchard).
The requirements of this verse form were so demanding that occasionally the text of the poems had to run parallel, with one thread of syntax running through the on-side of the half-lines, and another running through the off-side. According to the Fagrskinna collection of sagas, King Harald III of Norway uttered these lines of dróttkvætt at the Battle of Stamford Bridge; the internal assonances and the alliteration are emboldened:
Krjúpum vér fyr vápna,
(valteigs), brǫkun eigi,
(svá bauð Hildr), at hjaldri,
(haldorð), í bug skjaldar.
(Hátt bað mik), þar's mœttusk,
(menskorð bera forðum),
hlakkar íss ok hausar,
(hjalmstall í gný malma).
In battle, we do not creep behind a shield before the din of weapons [so said the goddess of hawk-land {a valkyrja} true of words.] She who wore the necklace bade me to bear my head high in battle, when the battle-ice [a gleaming sword] seeks to shatter skulls.
The bracketed words in the poem ("so said the goddess of hawk-land, true of words") are syntactically separate, but interspersed within the text of the rest of the verse. The elaborate kennings manifested here are also practically necessary in this complex and demanding form, as much to solve metrical difficulties as for the sake of vivid imagery. Intriguingly, the saga claims that Harald improvised these lines after he gave a lesser performance (in fornyrðislag); Harald judged that verse bad, and then offered this one in the more demanding form. While the exchange may be fictionalized, the scene illustrates the regard in which the form was held.
Most dróttkvætt poems that survive appear in one or another of the Norse Sagas; several of the sagas are biographies of skaldic poets.
Hrynhenda
Hrynhenda is a later development of dróttkvætt with eight syllables per line instead of six, with the similar rules of rhyme and alliteration, although each hrynhent-variant shows particular subtleties. It is first attested around 985 in the so-called Hafgerðingadrápa of which four lines survive (alliterants and rhymes bolded):
Mínar biðk at munka reyni
meinalausan farar beina;
heiðis haldi hárar foldar
hallar dróttinn of mér stalli.
I ask the tester of monks (God) for a safe journey; the lord of the palace of the high ground (God — here we have a kenning in four parts) keep the seat of the falcon (hand) over me.
The author was said to be a Christian from the Hebrides, who composed the poem asking God to keep him safe at sea. (Note: The third line is, in fact, over-alliterated. There should be exactly two alliterants in the odd-numbered lines.) The metre gained some popularity in courtly poetry, as the rhythm may sound more majestic than dróttkvætt.
We learn much about these in the Hattatal: Snorri gives for certain at least three different variant-forms of hryniandi. These long-syllabled lines are explained by Snorri as being extra-metrical in most cases: the "main" form never has alliteration or rhyme in the first 2 syllables of the odd-lines (i.e., rimes always coming at the fourth-syllable), and the even-lines never have rhyme on the fifth/sixth syllables (i.e.: they cannot harbor rime in these places because they extra-metrical), the following couplet shows the paradigm:
Tiggi snýr á ógnar áru
(Undgagl veit þat) sóknar hagli.
[Note the juxtaposition of alliteration and rhyme of the even-line]
Then, the variant-forms show unsurprising dróttkvætt patterns overall; the main difference being that the first trochee of the odd-lines are technically not reckoned as extrametrical since they harbor alliteration, but the even-lines' extra-metrical feature is more or less as the same. The 2nd form is the "troll-hryniandi": in the odd-lines the alliteration is moved to the first metrical position (no longer "extra-metrical") while the rhyme remains the same (Snorri seems to imply that frumhending, which is placing a rhyme on the first syllable of any line, is preferably avoided in all these forms: the rhymes are always preferred as oddhending, "middle-of-the-line rhymes") — in the even-lines the rhyme and alliteration are not juxtaposed, and this is a key feature of its distinction (the significant features only are marked in bold below):
Stála kendi steykvilundum
Styriar valdi raudu falda....
The next form, which Snorri calls "ordinary/standard hrynhenda", is almost like a "combination" of the previous — alliteration always on the first metrical-position, and the rimes in the odd-lines juxtaposed (all features in bold in this example):
Vafdi lítt er virdum mætti
Vígrækiandi fram at sækia.'There is one more form which is a bit different though seemed to be counted among the previous group by Snorri, called draughent. The syllable-count changes to seven (and, whether relevant to us or not, the second-syllable seems to be counted as the extra-metrical):
Vápna hríd velta nádi
Vægdarlaus feigum hausi.
Hilmir lét höggum mæta
Herda klett bana verdant.
As one can see, there is very often clashing stress in the middle of the line (Vápna hríd velta....//..Vægdarlaus feigum...., etc.), and oddhending seems preferred (as well as keeping alliterative and rhyming syllables separated, which likely has to do with the syllabic-makeup of the line).
Post-medieval Scandinavian alliterative verse
Alliterative poetry is still practiced in Iceland in an unbroken tradition since the settlement, most commonly in the form of rímur. The most common alliterative ríma form is ferskeytt.
High German and Saxon forms
The Old High German and Old Saxon corpus of Stabreim or alliterative verse is small. Fewer than 200 Old High German lines survive, in four works: the Hildebrandslied, Muspilli, the Merseburg Charms and the Wessobrunn Prayer. All four are preserved in forms that are clearly to some extent corrupt, suggesting that the scribes may themselves not have been entirely familiar with the poetic tradition.
Two Old Saxon alliterative poems survive. One is the reworking of the four gospels into the epic Heliand (nearly 6000 lines), where Jesus and his disciples are portrayed in a Saxon warrior culture. The other is the fragmentary Genesis (337 lines in 3 unconnected fragments), created as a reworking of Biblical content based on Latin sources.
However, both German traditions show one common feature which is much less common elsewhere: a proliferation of unaccented syllables. Generally these are parts of speech which would naturally be unstressed — pronouns, prepositions, articles, modal auxiliaries — but in the Old Saxon works there are also adjectives and lexical verbs. The unaccented syllables typically occur before the first stress in the half-line, and most often in the b-verse.
The Hildebrandslied, lines 4–5:
The Heliand, line 3062:Sâlig bist thu Sîmon, quað he, sunu Ionases; || ni mahtes thu that s'elbo gehuggean
Blessed are you Simon, he said, son of Jonah; || for you did not see that yourself (Matthew 16, 17)
This leads to a less dense style, no doubt closer to everyday language, which has been interpreted both as a sign of decadent technique from ill-tutored poets and as an artistic innovation giving scope for additional poetic effects. Either way, it signifies a break with the strict Sievers typology.
In more recent times, Richard Wagner sought to evoke old German models and what he considered a more natural and less over-civilised style by writing his Ring poems in Stabreim.
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Carmina Scaldica a selection of Norse and Icelandic skaldic poetry, ed. Finnur Jónsson, 1929
Jörmungrund An extensive resource for Old Norse poetry
Jónas Hallgrímsson: Selected Poetry and Prose, ed. and trans. by Dick Ringler (1998), ch. 3 Probably the most accessible discussion in English of alliterant placement in modern Icelandic (also mostly applicable to Old Norse).
Forgotten ground regained A site dedicated to alliterative and accentual poetry.
An interactive guide to Old and Middle English alliterative verse by Alaric Hall.
Poetic devices
Medieval poetry
Old Norse poetry
Icelandic literature
Early Germanic literature | [
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] |
242282 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleocosmochronology | Nucleocosmochronology | Nucleocosmochronology or nuclear cosmochronology is a technique used to determine timescales for astrophysical objects and events. It compares the observed ratios of abundances of heavy radioactive and stable nuclides to the primordial ratios predicted by nucleosynthesis theory in order to calculate the age of formation of astronomical objects.
Nucleocosmochronology has been employed to determine the age of the Sun ( billion years) and of the Galactic thin disk ( billion years), among others. It has also been used to estimate the age of the Milky Way itself, as exemplified by a recent study of Cayrel's Star in the Galactic halo, which due to its low metallicity, is believed to have formed early in the history of the Galaxy. Limiting factors in its precision are the quality of observations of faint stars and the uncertainty of the primordial abundances of r-process elements.
See also
Astrochemistry
Geochronology
Gyrochronology
References
Dating methods
Astrophysics
Nuclear physics | [
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242284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetralogy%20of%20Fallot | Tetralogy of Fallot | Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF), formerly known as Steno-Fallot tetralogy, is a congenital heart defect characterized by four specific cardiac defects. Classically, the four defects are:
pulmonary stenosis, which is narrowing of the exit from the right ventricle;
a ventricular septal defect, which is a hole allowing blood to flow between the two ventricles;
right ventricular hypertrophy, which is thickening of the right ventricular muscle; and
an overriding aorta, which is where the aorta expands to allow blood from both ventricles to enter.
At birth, children may be asymptomatic or present with many severe symptoms. Later in infancy, there are typically episodes of bluish color to the skin due to a lack of sufficient oxygenation, known as cyanosis. When affected babies cry or have a bowel movement, they may undergo a "tet spell" where they turn cyanotic, have difficulty breathing, become limp, and occasionally lose consciousness. Other symptoms may include a heart murmur, finger clubbing, and easy tiring upon breastfeeding.
The cause of Tetralogy of Fallot is typically not known. Risk factors include a mother who uses alcohol, has diabetes, is over the age of 40, or gets rubella during pregnancy. It may also be associated with Down syndrome and other chromosomal defects that cause congenital heart defects.
TOF is typically treated by open heart surgery in the first year of life. The timing of surgery depends on the baby's symptoms and size. The procedure involves increasing the size of the pulmonary valve and pulmonary arteries and repairing the ventricular septal defect. In babies who are too small, a temporary surgery may be done with plans for a second surgery when the baby is bigger. With proper care, most people who are affected live to be adults. Long-term problems may include an irregular heart rate and pulmonary regurgitation.
The prevalence of TOF is estimated to be anywhere from 0.02-0.04%. Though males and females were initially thought to be affected equally, more recent studies have found males to be affected more than females. It is the most common complex congenital heart defect, accounting for about 10 percent of cases. It was initially described in 1671 by Niels Stensen. A further description was published in 1888 by the French physician Étienne-Louis Arthur Fallot, after whom it is named. The first total surgical repair was carried out in 1954.
Signs and symptoms
Tetralogy of Fallot results in low oxygenation of blood. This is due to a mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the left ventricle via the ventricular septal defect (VSD) and preferential flow of the mixed blood from both ventricles through the aorta because of the obstruction to flow through the pulmonary valve. The latter is known as a right-to-left shunt.
Infants with TOF - a cyanotic heart disease - have low blood oxygen saturation. Blood oxygenation varies greatly from one patient to another depending on the severity of the anatomic defects. Typical ranges vary from 60% to around 90%. Depending on the degree of obstruction, symptoms vary from no cyanosis or mild cyanosis to profound cyanosis at birth. If the baby is not cyanotic, then it is sometimes referred to as a "pink tet". Other symptoms include a heart murmur which may range from almost imperceptible to very loud, difficulty in feeding, failure to gain weight, retarded growth and physical development, labored breathing (dyspnea) on exertion, clubbing of the fingers and toes, and polycythemia. The baby may turn blue with breastfeeding or crying.
Those born with tetralogy of Fallot are more likely to experience psychiatric disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in later life, potentially due to underlying genetic changes that predispose to both conditions.
Tet spells
Infants and children with unrepaired tetralogy of Fallot may develop "tet spells". These are acute hypoxia spells, characterized by shortness of breath, cyanosis, agitation, and loss of consciousness. This may be initiated by any event - such as anxiety, pain, dehydration, or fever - leading to decreased oxygen saturation or that causes decreased systemic vascular resistance, which in turn leads to increased shunting through the ventricular septal defect. Typically, these spells decrease in frequency after the first 4 years of life.
Clinically, tet spells are characterized by a sudden, marked increase in cyanosis followed by syncope.
Older children will often squat instinctively during a tet spell. This increases systemic vascular resistance and allows for a temporary reversal of the shunt. It increases pressure on the left side of the heart, decreasing the right to left shunt, thus decreasing the amount of deoxygenated blood entering the systemic circulation.
Cause
While the specific causes of TOF have not been fully identified, there are various environmental or genetic factors that have been associated with TOF. So far, around 20% of overall CHD cases have been due to known causes such as genetic defects and teratogens which are various factors causing embryo development abnormalities or birth defects. However, the other 80% of cases have little known about their cause.
Genetic factors linked to TOF include various gene mutations or deletions. Gene deletions associated with TOF include chromosome 22 deletion as well as DiGeorge syndrome.
Specific genes associations with TOF include:
JAG1 codes for ligands within the Notch family of proteins and is highly expressed in the developing heart. Mutations of the JAG1 gene can lead to abnormal heart development associated with TOF.
NKX2-5 codes for cardiac morphogenesis regulators to allow for proper heart development. Defects in this gene typically causes septal defects and has been associated with around 4% of all TOF cases.
ZFPM2 is another cardiac regulator involved in regulation of GATA4. Mutations of the ZFPM2 gene lead to reduced GATA production and have been seen in some TOF cases.
VEGF a well-known endothelial growth factor involved in the vascularization of the heart. Decreased VEGF expression has been shown to be a modifier of TOF.
NOTCH1 is involved in the vascularization of tissues and is the most common site of genetic variations involved with TOF, accounting for 7% of all TOF cases.
TBX1 expresses progenitors involved with the development of the right ventricle. Chromosome 22q11 deletions also deleting TBX1 gene have been seen in 17% TOF cases.
FLT4 gene expression leads to Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 (VEGFR-3) which helps vascularization. Mutations of this gene have been associated with TOF, accounting for 2.4% of all cases.
FOXC2 is another gene involved in embryonic development of the cardiac system. Mutations of this gene have been shown to result in dysfunctional lymphatic syndrome and TOF.
GATA4 aids in cardiac development by helping increase the production of cardiomyocytes. Mutations of this gene have been seen in various familial TOF cases often lasting 2-3 generations.
FLNA is a protein coded by the gene of the same name that crosslinks actin filaments into networks in cytoplasm and helps anchor membrane proteins for the actin cytoskeleton. Mutations of this gene were seen to cause TOF in some patients.
The Environmental Factors that have been studied to potentially be associated TOF include:
Maternal Alcohol consumption: During embryonic development, many of the body’s processing and filtration systems are not fully developed. Fetal body is unable to process alcohol as well as adults which can lead to improper development, including cardiogenesis. While no conclusive evidence has been found between effects of alcohol consumption and TOF, maternal alcohol consumption has been seen in various patients with TOF.
Maternal smoking: Maternal smoking has been associated with various fetal complications such as premature delivery and low birth weight which can lead to TOF. In the famous Baltimore-Washington Study, it was reported that smoking more than one pack per day while pregnant was associated with two specific cardiac deflects, both part of TOF: pulmonary stenosis and transposition with VSD.
Maternal diabetes: Maternal diabetes, diabetes Mellitus, and gestational diabetes are well-known risk factors of fetal CHD, including TOF. Maternal diabetes has been shown to increase the risk of cardiovascular deformations, namely the transposition of great arteries, one of the four deformations in TOF. Studies have also looked at whether diabetes increases the risk of malformation or poor sugar regulation and have found that sugar regulation does not significantly affect cardiac malformations. Retrospective studies have shown that diabetic mothers with good glucose control still retained the elevated CHD risk.
Rubella: Rubella is characterized as mild, contagious viral disease with often unnoticed consequences. Infection with rubella during the first trimester has been seen to cause various fetal malformations, including TOF.
Maternal Age: Older maternal age, especially after 35 can have various pregnancy risks due to existing co-morbidities such as hypertension, diabetes, hypothyroidism, and consanguinity. These risk factors can effect fetal development and lead to various fetal conditions such as CHD (including TOF), Down Syndrome and Autism.
Embryology studies show that anterior malalignment of the aorticopulmonary septum results in the clinical combination of a ventricular septal defect (VSD), pulmonary stenosis, and an overriding aorta. Right ventricular hypertrophy develops progressively from resistance to blood flow through the right ventricular outflow tract.
Pathophysiology
In healthy individuals, the human heart develops around the 20th day of gestation, when the outer endocardial tubes merge into a single cardiac tube. Thereafter, the cardiac tube begins to fold, developing into the atrium and ventricle. The right ventricle is dominant prior to birth, receiving 65% of the venous return to the heart, and is the main contributor of blood flow to the lower part of the body, the placenta, and the lungs. Though the exact cause of TOF is unknown, an association that has been observed is an anterior deviation of the infundibular septum that results in a misaligned VSD, with an overriding aorta causing a subsequent right ventricular obstruction.
Different factors such as pulmonary stenosis can also contribute with the right ventricular outflow obstruction. During tet spells, a decrease in systemic vascular resistance or an increase in pulmonary resistance would be physiologically observed.
The main anatomic defect in TOF is the anterior deviation of the pulmonary outflow septum. This defect results in narrowing of the right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT), override of the aorta, and a VSD.
Four malformations
"Tetralogy" denotes four parts, here implying the syndrome's four anatomic defects. This is not to be confused with the similarly named teratology, a field of medicine concerned with abnormal development and congenital malformations (including tetralogy of Fallot). Below are the four heart malformations that present together in tetralogy of Fallot:
There is anatomic variation between the hearts of individuals with tetralogy of Fallot. Primarily, the degree of right ventricular outflow tract obstruction varies between patients and generally determines clinical symptoms and disease progression.
Presumably, this arises from an unequal growth of the aorticopulmonary septum (aka pulmonary outflow septum). The aorta is too large, thus "overriding," and this "steals" from the pulmonary artery, which is therefore stenosed. This then prevents ventricular wall closure, therefore VSD, and this increases the pressures on the right side, and so the R ventricle becomes bigger to handle the work.
Additional anomalies
In addition, tetralogy of Fallot may present with other anatomical anomalies, including:
stenosis of the left pulmonary artery, in 40%
a bicuspid pulmonary valve, in 60%
right-sided aortic arch, in 25%
coronary artery anomalies, in 10%
a patent foramen ovale or atrial septal defect, in which case the syndrome is sometimes called a pentalogy of Fallot
an atrioventricular septal defect
partially or totally anomalous pulmonary venous return
Tetralogy of Fallot with pulmonary atresia (pseudotruncus arteriosus) is a severe variant in which there is complete obstruction (atresia) of the right ventricular outflow tract, causing an absence of the pulmonary trunk during embryonic development. In these individuals, blood shunts completely from the right ventricle to the left where it is pumped only through the aorta. The lungs are perfused via extensive collaterals from the systemic arteries, and sometimes also via the ductus arteriosus.
Diagnosis
There are three different useful diagnostic tests used for the diagnosis of Tetralogy of Fallot. These include a chest radiograph, electrocardiogram, and echocardiogram. The echocardiography determines the final diagnosis and typically offers enough information for surgical treatment planning. About half of all patients are now diagnosed before they are born. Differential diagnosis is when physicians diagnose between two or more conditions for a person's symptoms and this can include primary pulmonary causes of cyanosis, cyanotic heart lesions, pulmonary stenosis and transposed arterial trunks.
Chest radiograph
Before more sophisticated techniques became available, chest x-ray was the definitive method of diagnosis. The abnormal "coeur-en-sabot" (boot-like) appearance of a heart with tetralogy of Fallot is classically visible via chest x-ray, although most infants with tetralogy may not show this finding. The boot like shape is due to the right ventricular hypertrophy present in TOF. Lung fields are often dark (absence of interstitial lung markings) due to decreased pulmonary blood flow.
Electrocardiogram
An electrocardiogram (ECG) is one of the most basic procedures for assessing the heart. Tiny electrodes are applied to specific areas on the body, near the chest, arm, and neck. Lead cables connect the electrodes to an ECG machine. The heart's electrical activity is then measured. Natural electrical impulses help maintain blood flowing properly by coordinating contractions in different areas of the heart. These impulses are recorded by an ECG, which shows how fast, the rhythm, intensity and timing of the electrical impulses as they travel through the heart.
Electrocardiography shows right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH), along with right axis deviation. RVH is noted on EKG as tall R-waves in lead V1 and deep S-waves in lead V5-V6.
Echocardiogram
Congenital heart defects are now diagnosed with echocardiography, which is quick, involves no radiation, is very specific, and can be done prenatally.
Echocardiography establishes the presence of TOF by demonstrating a VSD, RVH, and aortic override. Many patients are diagnosed prenatally. Color Doppler (type of echocardiography) measures the degree of pulmonary stenosis. Additionally, close monitoring of the ductus arteriosus is done in the neonatal period to ensure that there is adequate blood flow through the pulmonary valve.
In certain cases, coronary artery anatomy cannot be clearly viewed using echocardiogram. In this case, cardiac catheterization can be done.
Genetics
From a genetics perspective, it is important to screen for DiGeorge in all babies with TOF.
Treatment
Tet spells
Tet spells are defined as cyanotic spells occurring due to the obstruction right ventricular outflow. Tet spells can be triggered by various factors such as crying, progressive tachypnea, and deep breathing, with symptoms including but not limited to blue skin, nails and lips, profound crying and difficulty breathing.
Tet spells may be treated with beta-blockers such as propranolol, but acute episodes require rapid intervention with morphine or intranasal fentanyl to reduce ventilatory drive, a vasopressor such as phenylephrine, or norepinephrine to increase systemic vascular resistance, and IV fluids for volume expansion.
Oxygen (100%) may be effective in treating spells because it is a potent pulmonary vasodilator and systemic vasoconstrictor. This allows more blood flow to the lungs by decreasing shunting of deoxygenated blood from the right to left ventricle through the VSD. There are also simple procedures such as squatting and the knee chest position which increase systemic vascular resistance and decrease right-to-left shunting of deoxygenated blood into the systemic circulation.
If the spells are refractory to the above treatments, people are usually intubated and sedated. The treatment of last resort for tet spells is extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) along with consideration of Blalock Taussig shunt (BT shunt).
Total surgical repair
Total surgical repair of TOF is a curative surgery. Different techniques can be used in performing TOF repair. However, a transatrial, transpulmonary artery approach is used for most cases. The repair consists of two main steps: closure of the VSD with a patch and reconstruction of the right ventricular outflow tract.
This open-heart surgery is designed to relieve the right ventricular outflow tract stenosis by careful resection of muscle and to repair the VSD. Additional reparative or reconstructive surgery may be done on patients as required by their particular cardiac anatomy.
Timing of surgery in asymptomatic patients is usually between the ages of 2 months to one year. However, in symptomatic patients showing worsening blood oxygen levels, severe tet-spells (cyanotic spells), or dependence on prostaglandins from early neonatal period (to keep the ductus arteriosus open) need to be planned fairly urgently
Potential surgical repair complications include residual ventricular septal defect, residual outflow tract obstruction, complete atrioventricular block, arrhythmias, aneurysm of right ventricular outflow patch, and pulmonary valve insufficiency. Long-term complications most commonly include pulmonary valve regurgitation, and arrhythmias.
Total repair of tetralogy of Fallot initially carried a high mortality risk, but this risk has gone down steadily over the years. Surgery is now often carried out in infants one year of age or younger with less than 5% perioperative mortality. Post surgery, most patients enjoy an active life free of symptoms. Currently, long-term survival is close to 90%. Today the adult TOF population continues to grow and is one of the most common congenital heart defects seen in adult outpatient clinics.
Palliative surgery
Initially surgery involved forming a side to end anastomosis between the subclavian artery and the pulmonary artery -i.e a systemic to pulmonary arterial shunt. This redirected a large portion of the partially oxygenated blood leaving the heart for the body into the lungs, increasing flow through the pulmonary circuit, and relieving symptoms. The first Blalock-Thomas-Taussig shunt surgery was performed on 15-month-old Eileen Saxon on November 29, 1944 with dramatic results.
The Potts shunt and the Waterston-Cooley shunt are other shunt procedures which were developed for the same purpose. These are no longer used.
Currently, palliative surgery is not normally performed on infants with TOF except for extreme cases. For example, in symptomatic infants, a two-stage repair (initial systemic to arterial shunt placement followed by total surgical repair) may be done. Potential complications include inadequate pulmonary blood flow, pulmonary artery distortion, inadequate growth of the pulmonary arteries, and acquired pulmonary atresia.
Approaches to surgical repair
After years of tetralogy of Fallot surgical repair expertise, the attention shifted to the emerging evidence that long-term pulmonary insufficiency is detrimental to right ventricular function and clinical prognosis. As a result, the hunt for surgical procedures to relieve right ventricular outflow tract obstruction while minimizing pulmonary regurgitation has intensified.
A constrained right ventricular outflow tract reconstruction with a Dacron patch matched to a nominal pulmonary annulus expansion or an annulus-sparing approach yielded primary complete repair outcomes in 94 TOF infants. The pulmonary annulus size was larger in babies treated with the latter technique, as predicted. After an average follow-up of around 8 years, the first group had a higher than moderate PR, yet there was no significant difference in independence from severe PR after 10 years.
Furthermore, there was no significant difference in right ventricular dilation between the two techniques. Finally, they found that reconstructing the pulmonary annulus in TOF with only a tiny transannular incision and a stiff Dacron patch to inhibit pulmonary annulus extension throughout the normal growing phase produces the same long-term benefits as preserving the full pulmonary annulus integrity.
Complications
Short-term
Residual ventricular septal defects and persistent right ventricular outflow blockage are common problems in the immediate postoperative period. Arrhythmias such as ventricular tachycardia, atrial fibrillation/flutter, and intra-atrial re-entrant tachycardia can occur after tetralogy repair. With broad complex tachycardia, the ECG will likely show a right bundle branch block or left bundle branch block patterns. Patients who have had their hearts repaired may experience sudden cardiac death. Risk factors for abnormal heart rhythms include:
Age (at repair)
Male gender
Transient complete heart block beyond post operative day three
QRS duration greater than 180 milliseconds
Long-term
Adult patients with congenital cardiac disease are on the rise at a rate of about 5% per year, outpacing the pediatric population. Right ventricular volume overload form pulmonary insufficiency, right ventricular aneurysm from outflow patch or ventriculotomy, distal pulmonary artery obstruction, ventricular hypertrophy, chamber enlargement, biventricular dysfunction, and aortic root dilation and insufficient are all long-term complications seen in these patients. Arrhythmia, heart failure, and complications from reoperations are the three primary causes of death in individuals with corrected tetralogy of Fallot. QRS duration greater than 180 milliseconds, older age at repair (greater than 3 years), significant pulmonary valve or tricuspid valve regurgitation, history of syncope, multifocal premature ventricular contractions, and ventricular tachycardia are some of the factors associated with sudden death after 30 years of procedure. Pulmonary insufficiency is the most common reason for reoperation, and pulmonary valve replacement criteria have traditionally been based on the severity of the regurgitant fraction on a magnetic resonance or CT scan. Right and left ventricular end-systolic and end-diastolic volume indices, ejection fractions, and the existence of aneurysm generating obstructive outflow are all parameters seen in this research. Exercise intolerance, heart failure signs and symptoms, syncope, and prolonged ventricular tachycardia are all possible symptoms. A transcatheter pulmonary valve method can also be used to replace a pulmonary valve.
Pregnancy
In comparison to the general obstetric population, women who had their tetralogy of Fallot repaired completely have similar outcomes. The degree of pulmonary regurgitation with right or left ventricular dysfunction, as well as the level of pulmonary hypertension, are linked to an increased risk of pregnancy complications. Fetal death is more likely in women who have moderate right ventricular hypertension or who have undergone a palliative shunt. In comparison to 0.8 percent of the general population, offspring of women with tetralogy have a 3 percent to 5 percent chance of developing congenital cardiac disease. If the 22q11 deletion is present, there is a 50% chance of transferring the damaged chromosome, with a high risk of a congenital cardiac abnormality.
Prognosis
Untreated, tetralogy of Fallot rapidly results in progressive right ventricular hypertrophy due to the increased resistance caused by narrowing of the pulmonary trunk. This progresses to heart failure which begins in the right ventricle and often leads to left heart failure and dilated cardiomyopathy. Mortality rate depends on the severity of the tetralogy of Fallot. If left untreated, TOF carries a 35% mortality rate in the first year of life, and a 50% mortality rate in the first three years of life. Patients with untreated TOF rarely progress to adulthood.
Patients who have undergone total surgical repair of tetralogy of Fallot have improved hemodynamics and often have good to excellent cardiac function after the operation with some to no exercise intolerance (New York Heart Association Class I-II). Long-term outcome is usually excellent for most patients, however residual post-surgical defects such as pulmonary regurgitation, pulmonary artery stenosis, residual VSD, right ventricular dysfunction, right ventricular outflow tract obstruction may affect life expectancy and increase the need for reoperation.
Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular complications in patients with repaired CHD such as TOF occur earlier in life compared to healthy subjects. Chronic pulmonary regurgitation and right ventricular dilation and dysfunction is also common.
Within 30 years after correction, 50% of patients will require reoperation. The most common cause of reoperation is a leaky pulmonary valve (pulmonary valve insufficiency). This is usually corrected with a procedure called pulmonary valve replacement.
One common prognostic factor with TOF is the development of ischemia reperfusion injury. Insufficient myocardial protection is considered one of the main causes of death in the correction of TOF.
Comorbidities
There are many comorbid conditions that can occur with TOF that may exacerbate the condition. Often, TOF can present with low birth weight and prematurity. In both of these cases, mortality and morbidity were both seen to increase. Differences in right atrial and ventricular mechanics and liver stiffness was also observed in adults with repaired TOF, as well as pulmonary atresia and persistent pulmonary stenosis. In patients with pulmonary atresia, there is complete failure of forward flow from the right ventricle to the pulmonary arterial vasculature. As such, pulmonary blood flow is entirely dependent on shunting from the systemic circulation, typically through a patent ductus arteriosus. The pathophysiology of TOF together with pulmonary arteriosus is uniquely attributable to defects of the pulmonary arteries. Even after operative care, these patients remain at higher risk for pulmonary arterial stenoses and pulmonary hypertension.
Danon disease, which is a rare genetic disorder, was also observed to complicate TOF. In particular, elongation of the QRS complex and a shortened PR interval. Genetic abnormalities found in TOF may lead to the earlier diagnosis of Danon disease, helping to improve prognostic outcomes.
Epidemiology
The prevalence of Tetralogy of Fallot is estimated to be between 0.02 and 0.04%, which corresponds to approximately 200 to 400 cases per million live births. It accounts for 7-10% of all congenital heart abnormalities, making it the most common cyanotic heart defect. Although males and females were initially believed to be affected equally, more recent studies have shown the Tetralogy of Fallot affects males more than females. About 1 in 100 newborns is diagnosed with a congential heart defect, of which 10% are diagnosed with Tetralogy of Fallot. Genetically, it is most commonly associated with Down syndrome and DiGeorge syndrome. Down syndrome and other chromosomal disorders are known to occur alongside congential heart defects such as Tetralogy of Fallot.
History
Tetralogy of Fallot was initially described in 1671 by the Danish researcher Dane Niels Stensen. Also referenced as Nicolaus Steno in Latin, Stensen was a pioneer in anatomy and geology. His work made significant contributions to the field of cardiac anatomy and pathology, which led to the condition initially being titled Steno-Fallot tetralogy. A further description was published in 1888 by the French physician Étienne-Louis Arthur Fallot, after whom it was ultimately named. In 1924, Maude Elizabeth Seymour Abbott, a pediatric cardiologist from Montreal, Canada, named it tetralogy of Fallot.
The short paper “Dissection of a Monstrous Foetus in Paris” in 1671 first described the conditions that would later together be known as Tetralogy of Fallot. In particular, it highlighted the unusual formation of arteries, the stenosing of the pulmonary artery, the absence of the ductus arteriosis, an overriding aorta, and fetal cardiac circulation where blood was redirected to the aorta from the pulmonary artery. Over a hundred years later in 1777, Dutch physician Eduard Sandifort reported what he referred to as "the blue boy" patient. This patient, who was a 16 months old, was initially thought to have asthma, though an autopsy postmortem revealed a cardiac malformation with no ductus arteriosus or ligamentum arteriosum, indicating that the child may have died from TOF. Another 13-year-old patient was reported by Scottish physician William Hunter in 1782. Hunter described the patient, along with three others, as suffering from cyanosis after a posthumous examination in 1774.
Other cases, such as those presented by Pulteney (1785), Abernethy (1793), Bell (1797), Dorsey (1812), and Farre (1814) also contributed to modern understandings of TOF. The first reported case of TOF was in America at the University of Pennsylvania in 1816, with more cases being reported by Peacock (1858 and 1869), Widman (1881), and finally Fallot (1888) after whom the condition is named. Fallot was the first to elegantly describe the four key features that differentiate it from other cyanotic cardiac conditions, and was prominent in the disqualification of a patent foramen ovale as a fifth feature. Fallot initially referred to it as “La maladie bleue”, which is French for "the blue disease" or “cyanose cardiaque”, translating to "cardiac cyanosis".
The first surgical repair was carried out in 1944 at Johns Hopkins. The procedure was conducted by surgeon Alfred Blalock and cardiologist Helen B. Taussig, with Vivien Thomas also providing substantial contributions and listed as an assistant. This first surgery was depicted in the film Something the Lord Made. It was actually Helen Taussig who convinced Alfred Blalock that the shunt was going to work. 15-month-old Eileen Saxon was the first person to receive a Blalock-Thomas-Taussig shunt. Furthermore, the Blalock-Thomas-Taussig procedure, initially the only surgical treatment available for tetralogy of Fallot, was palliative but not curative. The first total repair of tetralogy of Fallot was done by a team led by C. Walton Lillehei at the University of Minnesota in 1954 on an 11-year-old boy. Total repair on infants has had success from 1981, with research indicating that it has a comparatively low mortality rate. Today the adult TOF population continues to grow and is one of the most common congenital heart defect seen in adult outpatient clinics.
Related disorders
The following illnesses have symptoms that are comparable to tetralogy of Fallot. For a differential diagnosis, comparisons between these disorders provides valuable knowledge.
Atrial septal defects
Atrial septal defects (ASDs) are a kind of congenital heart abnormality in which a tiny opening exists between the two atria of the heart. The burden on the right side of the heart is increased as a result of these abnormalities, as is the blood flow to the lungs. This leads to excessive blood flow to the lungs and an increased workload on the right side of the heart. Another common finding associated with ASDs is right ventricular hypertrophy, also known as enlargement of the right ventricle.
Ventricular septal defects
Ventricular septal defects (VSDs) are a kind of congenital heart abnormality in which one of the ventricles is missing. Two atria and one big ventricle are common in infants with congenital abnormalities. Symptoms of these diseases include an unusually high rate of breathing (tachypnea), a blue hue to the skin (cyanosis), wheezing, a rapid heartbeat (tachycardia), and/or an abnormally enlarged liver, which are similar to those of other congenital heart problems (hepatomegaly). VSDs can also lead to a build-up of fluid around the heart, which can lead to congestive heart failure.
Atrioventricular septal defect
Atrioventricular septal defect (AVSD) is an uncommon congenital heart condition characterized by faulty development of the heart's septa and valves. Congestive heart failure is common in infants with the entire version of the condition. Fluid builds up in other parts of the body, particularly the lungs. Breathing difficulties may result from pulmonary congestion (dyspnea).
Mitral valve stenosis
Mitral valve stenosis is an uncommon cardiac abnormality that can occur at birth (congenital) or develop later in life (acquired). The aberrant narrowing of the mitral valve's opening characterizes this condition. There are two versions of this condition known as congenital and acquired characterized by different symptoms. Congenital Mitral valve stenosis symptoms include a wide array such as respiratory infections, breathing difficulties, heart palpitations and coughing. Acquired mitral valve stenosis symptoms also include a wide array such as consciousness losses, angina, general weakness and abdominal discomfort.
Notable cases
Shaun White, American professional snowboarder and skateboarder
Beau Casson, Australian cricketer
Dennis McEldowney, New Zealand author and publisher
Max Page, Volkswagen's "Little Darth Vader" from the 2011 Super Bowl commercial
Billy Kimmel, the son of talk show host Jimmy Kimmel; Billy's diagnosis led Kimmel to discuss access to health care on his show Jimmy Kimmel Live!
See also
Trilogy of Fallot
Congenital rubella syndrome
References
External links
What Is Tetralogy of Fallot? at the National Institutes of Health
Understanding your child's heart: Tetralogy of Fallot by the British Heart Foundation
Congenital heart defects
Medical pentads
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
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242286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary%20citizenship%20of%20the%20United%20States | Honorary citizenship of the United States | A person of exceptional merit, a non-United States citizen, may be declared an honorary citizen of the United States by an Act of Congress or by a proclamation issued by the president of the United States, pursuant to authorization granted by Congress.
Eight people have been so honored, six posthumously, and two, Sir Winston Churchill and Mother Teresa, during their lifetimes.
Recipients
For Lafayette and Mother Teresa, the honor was proclaimed directly by an Act of Congress. In the other cases, an Act of Congress was passed authorizing the President to grant honorary citizenship by proclamation.
Legal issues
What rights and privileges honorary citizenship bestows, if any, is unclear. According to State Department documents, it does not grant eligibility for United States passports.
Despite widespread belief that Lafayette received honorary citizenship of the United States before Churchill, he did not receive honorary citizenship until 2002. Lafayette did become a natural-born citizen during his lifetime. On December 28, 1784, the Maryland General Assembly passed a resolution stating that Lafayette and his male heirs "forever shall be...natural born Citizens" of the state. This made him a natural-born citizen of the United States under the Articles of Confederation and as defined in Section 1 of Article Two of the United States Constitution.
Lafayette boasted in 1792 that he had become an American citizen before the French Revolution created the concept of French citizenship. In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson wrote him he would have offered to make him Governor of Louisiana, had he been "on the spot". In 1932, descendant René de Chambrun established his American citizenship based on the Maryland resolution, although he was probably ineligible as the inherited citizenship was likely only intended for direct descendants who were heir to Lafayette's estate and title. The Board of Immigration Appeals ruled in 1955 that "it is possible to argue" that Lafayette and living male heirs became American citizens when the Constitution became effective on March 4, 1789, but that heirs born later were not U.S. citizens.
Honorary citizenship should not be confused with citizenship or permanent residency bestowed by a private bill. Private bills are, on rare occasions, used to provide relief to individuals, often in immigration cases, and are also passed by Congress and signed into law by the president. One such statute, granting Elián González U.S. citizenship, was suggested in 1999, but was never enacted.
See also
Citizenship
Citizenship of the United States
Honorary Canadian citizenship
References
External links
Public Laws granting Honorary Citizenship
United States
+
United States nationality law
1963 establishments in the United States | [
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242291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony%20No.%203%20%28Beethoven%29 | Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven) | The Symphony No. 3 in E major, Op. 55, (also Italian Sinfonia Eroica, Heroic Symphony; , ) is a symphony in four movements by Ludwig van Beethoven.
One of the composer's most celebrated works, the Eroica symphony is a large-scale composition that marked the beginning of Beethoven's innovative middle period.
Composed mainly in 1803–1804, the work broke boundaries in symphonic form, length, harmony, emotional and cultural content. It is widely considered a landmark in the transition between the Classical and the Romantic era. It is also often considered to be the first Romantic symphony.
Instrumentation
Symphony No. 3 is scored for two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets in B, two bassoons, three horns (the 1st in E, C, and F; the 2nd in E and C; and the 3rd in E), two trumpets in E and C, timpani in E and B (in the 1st, 3rd, and 4th movements) and in C and G (in the 2nd movement), and strings.
Form
The work is in four movements:
Depending upon the conductor's style and observation of the exposition repeat in the first movement, the performance time is between 41 and 56 minutes.
I. Allegro con brio
The first movement, in time, is in sonata form, with typical performances between 12 and 18 minutes long depending on interpretation and whether the exposition repeat is played. Unlike the longer introductions in Beethoven's first two symphonies, the movement opens with two large E major chords, played by the whole orchestra, that establish the tonality of the movement.
The conductor Kenneth Woods has noted that the opening movement of Eroica has been inspired by and modeled on Mozart's Symphony No. 39, and shares many attributes of that earlier symphony which precedes this one by a decade and a half.
Exposition
The exposition begins with the cellos introducing the first theme. By the fifth bar of the melody (m. 7), a chromatic note (C) is introduced, thus introducing the harmonic tension of the work. The melody is finished by the first violins, with a syncopated series of Gs (which forms a tritone with C of the cellos). The first theme is then played again by the various instruments.
The modulation to the dominant key of B appears early (mm. 42–44). In the traditional analysis, this is followed by three (or in some views, two) transitional subjects that significantly expand the scale of the exposition – a lyrical downward motif (mm. 45–56), an upward scale motif (mm. 57–64), and a section beginning with rapid downward patterns in the violins (mm. 65–82). This eventually leads to a lyrical second theme (m. 83) that arrives "unusually late". After this, the second half of the theme eventually builds to a loud melody (m. 109) that draws upon the earlier downward motif (m. 113). The climactic moment of the exposition arrives when the music is interrupted by six consecutive sforzando chords (mm. 128–131). Later, and following the concluding chords of the exposition (mm. 144–148), the main theme returns in a brief codetta (m. 148) that transitions into the repeat / development.
An alternative analysis holds that the second theme begins earlier at m. 45 with the downward motif. In this view, the traditional harmonic progression of the exposition ends at m. 82, with the new lyrical theme at m. 83 beginning an extension. This pattern would be consistent with that found later in the development, in which the climactic moment leads to a new lyrical theme that launches an extended section. Moreover, the downward motif theme (m. 45) is developed significantly in the next section while the lyrical theme (m. 83) does not appear. Commenters have also observed that the sonata form and orchestration transitions would be fully preserved by cutting the second half of the exposition (m. 83–143). However, others have observed that form and orchestration would also be fully preserved if the second and third transitional passages were cut instead (mm. 57–82), consistent with the traditional analysis.
Development
The development section (m. 154), like the rest of the movement, is characterized by harmonic and rhythmic tension from dissonant chords and long passages of syncopated rhythm. Following various thematic explorations and counterpoint, the music eventually breaks into a 32-bar passage (mm. 248–279) of sforzando chords including both 2-beat and 3-beat downward patterns, culminating in crashing dissonant forte chords (mm. 276–279). Commenters have stated that this "outburst of rage ... forms the kernel of the whole movement", and Beethoven reportedly got out in his beat when conducting the orchestra in Christmas 1804, forcing the confused players to stop and go back.
Rather than leading to the recapitulation at this point, a new theme in E minor is then introduced instead (mm. 284). This eventually leads to a near-doubling of the development's length, in like proportion to the exposition.
At the end of the development, one horn famously appears to come in early with the main theme in E (mm. 394–395), while the strings continue playing the dominant chord. In the 19th century, this was thought to be a mistake; some conductors assumed the horn notes were written in the tenor clef (B–D–B–F) while others altered the second violin harmony to G (chord of the tonic), an error that eventually appeared in an early printed version. However, Beethoven's secretary, Ferdinand Ries, shared this anecdote about that horn entrance:
The first rehearsal of the symphony was terrible, but the hornist did, in fact, come in on cue. I was standing next to Beethoven and, believing that he had made a wrong entrance, I said, "That damned hornist! Can't he count? It sounds frightfully wrong." I believe I was in danger of getting my ears boxed. Beethoven did not forgive me for a long time.
Recapitulation and coda
The recapitulation starts in the tonic E♭ major as expected, but then features a sudden excursion to F major early on before eventually returning to a more typical form. The movement concludes in a long coda that reintroduces the new theme first presented in the development section.
II. Marcia funebre. Adagio assai
The second movement is a funeral march in the ternary form (A–B–A) that is typical of 18th-century funeral marches, albeit one that is "large and amply developed" and in which the principal theme has the functions of a refrain as in rondo form. Musically, the thematic solemnity of the second movement has lent itself for use as a funeral march, proper. The movement is between 14 and 18 minutes long.
The opening A-section in C minor begins with the march theme in the strings, then in the winds. A second theme (m. 17) in the relative major (E) quickly returns to minor tonality, and these materials are developed throughout the rest of the section. This eventually gives way to a brief B-section in C major (m. 69) "for what may be called the Trio of the March", which Beethoven unusually calls attention to by marking "Maggiore" (major) in the score.
At this point, the traditional "bounds of ceremonial propriety" would normally indicate a da capo return to the A theme. However, the first theme in C minor (m. 105) begins modulating in the sixth bar (m. 110), leading to a fugue in F minor (m. 114) based on an inversion of the original second theme. The first theme reappears briefly in G minor in the strings (m. 154), followed by a stormy development passage ("a shocking fortissimo plunge"). A full re-statement of the first theme in the original key then begins in the oboe (m. 173).
The coda (m. 209) begins with a marching motif in the strings that was earlier heard in the major section (at mm. 78, 100) and eventually ends with a final soft statement of the main theme (m. 238) that "crumbles into short phrases interspersed with silences".
III. Scherzo. Allegro vivace – Trio
The third movement is a lively scherzo with trio in rapid time. It is between 5 and 6 minutes long.
The A theme of the outer scherzo section appears pianissimo in the dominant key of B (mm. 7, 21), then piano in the secondary dominant key of F which is when the B part of the outer scherzo is heard (m. 41). This is followed by a pianissimo restart in B (m. 73), which is when the A theme is heard again, leading to a full fortissimo statement in the tonic key of E (m. 93). Later, a downward arpeggio motif with sforzandos on the second beat is played twice in unison, first by the strings (mm. 115–119) and then by the full orchestra (mm. 123–127). This is followed by a syncopated motif characterized by descending fourths (m. 143), leading to the repeat.
The trio section features three horns, the first time this had appeared in the symphonic tradition. The scherzo is then repeated in shortened form, except that very notably the second occurrence of the downward unison motif is changed to duple time (mm. 381–384). The movement ends with a coda (m. 423) – with Beethoven marking the word in the score which was unusual for him – that quickly builds from pianissimo to fortissimo, encapsulating the pattern of the whole movement.
IV. Finale. Allegro molto – Poco andante – Presto
The fourth movement is a set of ten variations on a theme. It lasts between 10 and 14 minutes. The theme was previously used by Beethoven in earlier compositions and arguably forms the basis for the first three movements of the symphony as well (see Thematic Origins below).
After a short introduction on the tutti that begins with the mediant chord that transitions to the dominant seventh, the quiet theme, in E-flat major, first appears and then is subjected to a series of ten variations:
Variation 1: The first variation repeats the theme in "arco" while a new accompaniment is introduced. (E-flat major)
Variation 2: The next variation, containing a new triplet accompaniment, leads to: (E-flat major)
Variation 3: Where a new melody is introduced while the theme is still played on the bass. A brief transitional passage leads to: (E-flat major)
Variation 4: In C minor, a fugue that starts quietly and suspensefully on the strings as it builds up to a dramatic and urgent climax. (See Beethoven and C minor.)
Variation 5: The playful fifth variation is in D major, involving a statement of the theme where the bass instruments play the first clause of the first half in a minor mode, before correcting themselves and moving to the major for the second clause. The variation also includes two virtuosic solo passages for the flute which accompany the melodic line. This directly leads to:
Variation 6: A stormy and raging variation in G minor, reminiscent of a Romani style dance.
Variation 7: An incomplete variation, which begins with a simple restatement of the first half of the theme in C major, before an almost immediate switch back to the minor mode in order to bring the piece into:
Variation 8: Another fugue, now it is bright and energized, as this time it is in the tonic (E-flat major) instead of the submediant. It builds up to a climax again; the orchestra pauses on the dominant of the home key, and the theme is further developed in:
Variation 9: At this point, the tempo slows down to Poco Andante, and the piece becomes more serene and tranquil. The theme, first stated by an oboe and then by the strings, here is contemplative and wistful, bringing a greater sense of depth to what has been heard before. During the second half, another triplet accompaniment is introduced in the higher strings, while the melodies, played by the woodwinds, are made of syncopated 16th and 8th notes. (E-flat major)
Variation 10: The final variation, which is when the "full image" of The Eroica is heard. Triumphant and heroic plunges are constantly heard on the tutti, with the triplet accompaniment from the previous variation still present, as the melody from the third variation, now victorious and energized, is heard on the brass. (E-flat major)
The symphony ends with a coda, which takes image on all previous sections and variations of the movement. At the end of the coda, there is a "surprise", which is when the dynamic changes from on the flute, bassoon, and strings only to all of a sudden by a huge crash on the whole orchestra, as the tempo abruptly changes to Presto. A flurry of sforzandos appear, and the finale ends triumphantly with three large E-flat major chords on the tutti.
History
Beethoven began composing the third symphony soon after Symphony No. 2 in D major, Opus 36 and completed the composition in early 1804. The first public performance of Symphony No. 3 was on 7 April 1805 in Vienna.
Thematic origins
There is significant evidence that the Eroica, perhaps unlike Beethoven's other symphonies, was constructed back-to-front. The theme used in the fourth movement, including its bass line, originate from the seventh of Beethoven's 12 Contredanses for Orchestra, WoO 14, and also from the Finale to his ballet The Creatures of Prometheus, Op. 43, both of which were composed in the winter of 1800–1801. The next year, Beethoven used the same theme as the basis for his Variations and Fugue for Piano in E♭ Major, Op. 35, now commonly known as the Eroica Variations due to the theme's re-use in the symphony. It is the only theme that Beethoven used for so many separate works in his lifetime, and each use is in the same key of E major.
The "Wielhorsky Sketchbook", Beethoven's principal sketchbook for 1802, contains a two-page movement plan in E major that directly follows the sketches for the Opus 35 Variations, which has been identified as being intended for the Third Symphony. While the movement plan gives no explicit indication regarding the finale, Lewis Lockwood argues that "there cannot be any doubt that Beethoven intended from the start" to use the same theme (and bass of the theme) that he had just fleshed out in the Opus 35 Variations. Thus, it is argued that Beethoven's initial conception for a complete symphony in E – including its first three movements – emerged directly from the Op. 35 Variations.
The first movement's main theme (mm. 2–6) has thus been traced back to the bass line theme of the Opus 35 variations (E, B↓, B↑, E) by way of intermediate versions found in one of Beethoven's sketchbooks. In the second movement, the combined tonality (melody and bass) of the Opus 35 theme's first four bars – E, B↓, B7(A)↑, E – appears in slightly altered form as the funeral's march's second theme (E, B↓, A↑, E) (mvt. II, mm. 17–20), followed by two sudden forte Bs that echo later elements of the theme. That same tonality then appears unaltered as the scherzo's main theme (mvt. III, mm. 93–100).
Thus, the first three movements can be viewed as symphonic-length "variations" on the Opus 35 theme, ultimately anticipating the theme's appearance in the fourth movement. Moreover, Beethoven's choice to begin the symphony with a theme adapted from the bass line is also paralleled in the fourth movement, in which the bass theme is heard as the first variation before the main theme ultimately appears. This again parallels the structure of the Opus 35 variations themselves. Finally, the loud E chord that begins the Opus 35 variations themselves is moved here to the beginning of the first movement, in the form of the two chords that introduce the first movement.
Alternatively, the first movement's resemblance to the overture to the comic opera Bastien und Bastienne (1768), composed by twelve-year-old W. A. Mozart, has been noted. It was unlikely that Beethoven knew of that unpublished composition. A possible explanation is that Mozart and Beethoven each coincidentally heard and learned the theme from elsewhere.
Dedication
Beethoven originally dedicated the third symphony to Napoleon Bonaparte, who he believed embodied the democratic and anti-monarchical ideals of the French Revolution. In the autumn of 1804, Beethoven withdrew his dedication of the third symphony to Napoleon, lest it cost him the composer's fee paid him by a noble patron; so, Beethoven re-dedicated his third symphony to Prince Joseph Franz Maximilian Lobkowitz – nonetheless, despite such a bread-and-butter consideration, the politically idealistic Beethoven titled the work "Bonaparte". Later, about the composer's response to Napoleon having proclaimed himself Emperor of the French (14 May 1804), Beethoven's secretary, Ferdinand Ries said that:
In writing this symphony, Beethoven had been thinking of Bonaparte, but Bonaparte while he was First Consul. At that time Beethoven had the highest esteem for him, and compared him to the greatest consuls of Ancient Rome. Not only I, but many of Beethoven's closer friends, saw this symphony on his table, beautifully copied in manuscript, with the word "Bonaparte" inscribed at the very top of the title-page and "Ludwig van Beethoven" at the very bottom ...
I was the first to tell him the news that Bonaparte had declared himself Emperor, whereupon he broke into a rage and exclaimed, "So he is no more than a common mortal! Now, too, he will tread under foot all the rights of Man, indulge only his ambition; now he will think himself superior to all men, become a tyrant!" Beethoven went to the table, seized the top of the title-page, tore it in half and threw it on the floor. The page had to be recopied, and it was only now that the symphony received the title Sinfonia eroica.
An extant copy of the score bears two scratched-out, hand-written subtitles; initially, the Italian phrase Intitolata Bonaparte ("Titled Bonaparte"), secondly, the German phrase Geschriben auf Bonaparte ("Written for Bonaparte"), four lines below the Italian subtitle. Three months after retracting his initial Napoleonic dedication of the symphony, Beethoven informed his music publisher that "The title of the symphony is really Bonaparte". In 1806, the score was published under the Italian title Sinfonia Eroica ... composta per festeggiare il sovvenire di un grande Uomo ("Heroic Symphony, Composed to celebrate the memory of a great man").
Early performances and reviews
Composed from the autumn of 1803 until the spring of 1804, the earliest rehearsals and performances of the third symphony were private, and took place in the Vienna palace of Beethoven's noble patron, Prince Lobkowitz. An account record dated 9 June 1804, submitted by the prince's Kapellmeister Anton Wranitzky, shows that the prince hired twenty-two extra musicians (including the third horn required for the Eroica) for two rehearsals of the work. The fee paid to Beethoven by Prince Lobkowitz would also have secured further private performances of the symphony that summer on his Bohemian estates, Eisenberg (Jezeří) and Raudnitz (Roudnice). The first public performance was on 7 April 1805, at the Theater an der Wien, Vienna; for which concert the announced (theoretical) key for the symphony was Dis (D major, 9 sharps).
Reviews of the work's public premiere (on 7 April 1805) were decidedly mixed. The concert also included the premiere of a Symphony in E flat major by Anton Eberl (1765–1807) that received better reviews than Beethoven's symphony. One correspondent describes the first reactions to the Eroica:
Musical connoisseurs and amateurs were divided into several parties. One group, Beethoven's very special friends, maintains that precisely this symphony is a masterpiece.... The other group utterly denies this work any artistic value ... [t]hrough strange modulations and violent transitions ... with abundant scratchings in the bass, with three horns and so forth, a true if not desirable originality can indeed be gained without much effort. ...The third, very small group stands in the middle; they admit that the symphony contains many beautiful qualities, but admit that the context often seems completely disjointed, and that the endless duration ... exhausts even connoisseurs, becoming unbearable to the mere amateur. To the public the symphony was too difficult, too long ... Beethoven, on the other hand, did not find the applause to be sufficiently outstanding.
One reviewer at the premiere wrote that "this new work of B. has great and daring ideas, and ... great power in the way it is worked out; but the symphony would improve immeasurably if B. could bring himself to shorten it, and to bring more light, clarity, and unity to the whole." Another said that the symphony was "for the most part so shrill and complicated that only those who worship the failings and merits of this composer with equal fire, which at times borders on the ridiculous, could find pleasure in it". But a reviewer just two years later described the Eroica simply as "the greatest, most original, most artistic and, at the same time, most interesting of all symphonies".
The finale in particular came in for criticism that it did not live up to the promise of the earlier movements. An early reviewer found that "[t]he finale has much value, which I am far from denying it; however, it cannot very well escape from the charge of great bizarrerie." Another agreed that "[t]he finale pleased less, and that "the artist often wanted only to play games with the audience without taking its enjoyment into account simply in order to unloose a strange mood and, at the same time, to let his originality sparkle thereby". An exhaustive review of the work in a leading music journal made an observation that may still be familiar to first-time listeners: "this finale is long, very long; contrived, very contrived; indeed, several of [its] merits lie somewhat hidden. They presuppose a great deal if they are to be discovered and enjoyed, as they must be, in the very moment of their appearance, and not for the first time on paper afterwards." A review of an 1827 performance in London wrote that this particular performance "most properly ended with the funeral march, omitting the other parts, which are entirely inconsistent with the avowed design of the composition".
The symphony premiered in London on 26 March 1807 at the Covent Garden Theatre and in Boston on 17 April 1810 by the newly founded Boston Philharmonic Society, both performances receiving fairly mixed reviews.
Manuscripts and editions
The original autograph manuscript does not survive. A copy of the score with Beethoven's handwritten notes and remarks, including the famous scratch-out of the dedication to Napoleon on the cover page, is housed in the library of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna. A first published edition (1806) of Beethoven's Eroica is on display at the Lobkowicz Palace in Prague.
Several modern scholarly editions have appeared in recent decades, including those edited by Jonathan Del Mar (published by Bärenreiter), Peter Hauschild (Breitkopf & Härtel), and Bathia Churgin (Henle).
Assessment
Significance
The work is a milestone work in classical music; it is twice as long as the symphonies of Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart – the first movement is almost as long as a Classical symphony (with repetition of the exposition). Thematically, it covers more emotional ground than Beethoven's earlier symphonies, and thus marks a key milestone in the transition between Classicism and Romanticism that would define Western art music in the early decades of the nineteenth century.
The second movement especially displays a great emotional range, from the misery of the funeral march theme, to the relative solace of happier, major-key episodes. The finale displays a similar emotional range, and is given a thematic importance then unheard of. In earlier symphonies, the finale was a quick and breezy conclusion; here, the finale is a lengthy set of variations and a fugue.
Critical opinions and phrases
Hector Berlioz discussed Beethoven's use of the horn and the oboe, in the Treatise on Instrumentation and Orchestration (1844, 1855).
J. W. N. Sullivan said that the first movement expresses Beethoven's courage in confronting deafness; the second movement, slow and dirge-like, communicates his despair; the third movement, the scherzo, is an "indomitable uprising of creative energy"; and the fourth movement is an exuberant outpouring of energy.
Richard Strauss presents themes similar to the funeral march, in Metamorphosen, Study for 23 Solo Strings (1945). Some academics say the 'In Memoriam' sub-title refers to Beethoven.
Leonard Bernstein said the first two movements are "perhaps the greatest two movements in all symphonic music", in the recording Eroica (1953) and book The Infinite Variety of Music (1966).
Gareth Jenkins said Beethoven was "doing for music what Napoleon was doing for society – turning tradition upside down" and embodied the "sense of human potential and freedom" of the French Revolution, in Beethoven's Cry of Freedom (2003).
BBC Music Magazine called it the greatest symphony, based on a survey of 151 conductors in 2016.
Use as funeral music
The symphony's second movement has been played as a funeral march at state funerals, memorial services, and commemorations including:
the funeral of German composer Felix Mendelssohn, in 1847.
the funeral of German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, in 1944.
to mourn the death of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, in 1945.
to mourn U.S. President John F. Kennedy, in 1963.
the funeral of the 11 Israeli athletes killed at the 1972 Summer Olympics.
Bruno Walter performed the entire symphony as the memorial concert for conductor Arturo Toscanini, in 1957.
Cinema
Eroica, a film based in part on Ferdinand Ries' recollection of the symphony's 1804 premiere, was released in 2003.
See also
Beethoven Symphony No. 3 discography
Notes
References
Further reading
Burnham, Scott (1992). "On the Programmatic Reception of Beethoven's Eroica Symphony." Beethoven Forum, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1–24.
Downs, Philip G. (October 1970). "Beethoven's 'New Way' and the 'Eroica'." The Musical Quarterly, vol. 56, no. 4, pp. 585–604.
Earp, Lawrence (1993). "Tovey's 'Cloud' in the First Movement of the Eroica: An Analysis Based on Sketches for the Development and Coda." Beethoven Forum, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 55–84.
Eiseman, David (1982). "A structural model for the 'Eroica' finale?" College Music Symposium, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 138–147.
Lockwood, Lewis (October 1981). "Beethoven's Earliest Sketches for the 'Eroica' Symphony." The Musical Quarterly, vol. 67, no. 4, pp. 457–478.
Schleuning, Peter (1987). "Beethoven in alter Deutung der 'neue Weg' mit der 'Sinfonia eroica.'" Archiv für Musikwissenschaft, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 165–194.
Schleuning, Peter (1991). "Das Uraufführungsdatum von Beethovens 'Sinfonia eroica.'" Die Musikforschung, vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 356–359.
Sheer, Miriam (Autumn 1992). "Patterns of Dynamic Organization in Beethoven's Eroica Symphony." The Journal of Musicology, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 483–504.
Steblin, Rita (Spring 2006). "Who Died? The Funeral March in Beethoven's 'Eroica' Symphony." The Musical Quarterly, vol. 89, no. 1, pp. 62–79.
Wade, Rachel (October–December 1977). "Beethoven's Eroica Sketchbook." Fontes Artis Musicae, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 254–289.
Wen, Eric (February 2005). "Beethoven's meditation on death: the funeral march of the 'Eroica' symphony." Dutch Journal of Music Theory, vol. 10, pp. 9–25.
External links
Reviews and further information:
A site about the Eroica
Program notes for the Philadelphia Orchestra
, article about the debate between the two men on fugal theory and practice during the symphony's gestation
Sheet music:
Full score
Media:
Eroica website from SF Symphony's 'Keeping Score' with Analysis, Background and Commentary by Michael Tilson Thomas (needs Flash).
Discovering Music, BBC Radio 3. Videos of an analysis and complete performance of the symphony. The analysis is by Stephen Johnson and the symphony is performed by the BBC National Orchestra of Wales, under Christophe Mangou. Listening notes for the symphony are also available here.
1803 compositions
1804 compositions
Compositions in E-flat major
Music with dedications
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242292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyle | Boyle | Boyle is an Irish and Scottish surname of Gaelic or Norman origin. In the northwest of Ireland it is one of the most common family names. Notable people with the surname include:
Disambiguation
Adam Boyle (disambiguation), multiple people
Charles Boyle (disambiguation), multiple people
David Boyle (disambiguation), multiple people
Edward Boyle (disambiguation), several people
Henry Boyle (disambiguation), multiple people
James Boyle (disambiguation) (also Jimmy Boyle), multiple people
John Boyle (disambiguation), multiple people
Kevin Boyle (disambiguation), several people
Mark Boyle (disambiguation), multiple people
Mary Boyle (disambiguation), several people
Peter Boyle (disambiguation), multiple people
Richard Boyle (disambiguation), multiple people
Robert Boyle (disambiguation), multiple people
Stephen Boyle (disambiguation), multiple people
Tommy Boyle (disambiguation), several people
Arts and media
Alicia Boyle (1908–1997), Irish artist
Bob Boyle, American animator
Charles P. Boyle (1892–1968), American cinematographer
Chris Cornell (born 1964), musician, born Christopher Boyle
Danny Boyle (born 1956), British film director, cousin of John Wayne
Derek Paul Jack Boyle (born 1985), American visual artist
Edward G. Boyle, (1899–1977), Canadian set decorator
Frankie Boyle (born 1972), Scottish comedian
George Frederick Boyle (1886–1948), Australian-American composer
Ina Boyle (1889–1967), Irish composer
James Boyle (broadcasting), BBC broadcaster
Jimmy Boyle (artist) (born 1944), Scottish sculptor and novelist, former gangster
Johnny Boyle, drummer for the Irish band, The Frames
Katie Boyle (1926–2018), television presenter
Lara Flynn Boyle (born 1970), U.S. actress
Louise Boyle (1910–2005), U.S. photographer
Mark Boyle (1934–2005), Scottish artist
Peter Boyle (1935–2006), U.S. actor
Ray Boyle (born 1925), American actor
Robert F. Boyle (1909–2010), director and production designer
Ruth-Ann Boyle (born 1970), singer of the British group Olive
Shary Boyle (born 1972), Canadian artist
Susan Boyle (born 1961), Scottish singer and a contestant on the 3rd series of Britain's Got Talent
Troy Boyle (born 1966), U.S. comic book artist and writer
Zoe Boyle (born 1989), English actress
Military
Courtenay Boyle (1770–1844), British naval officer and MP
Dermot Boyle (1904-1993), Marshal of the Royal Air Force
Edward Courtney Boyle (1883–1967), English Royal Navy officer, First World War recipient of the Victoria Cross
Jeremiah Boyle (1818–1871), Union Brigadier General during the American Civil War
Thomas Boyle (1775–1825), U.S. Navy officer
Politics, government, and law
Brendan Boyle (born 1977), politician
Cavendish Boyle (1849–1916), British colonial administrator
Charles Boyle, 2nd Viscount Blesington (died 1732), Irish politician
Charles A. Boyle (1907–1959), U.S. Representative from Illinois
Charles Edmund Boyle (1836–1888), U.S. Representative from Pennsylvania
David Boyle, 7th Earl of Glasgow (1833–1915), governor of New Zealand 1892–1897
David Boyle, Lord Boyle (1772–1853), Scottish judge and privy counsellor of the United Kingdom
Sir Edward Boyle, 1st Baronet (1848–1909), MP for Taunton 1906–1909, grandfather of Baron Boyle
Edward Boyle, Baron Boyle of Handsworth (1923–1981), British Conservative Party politician, MP 1950–1970
Edward C. Boyle, (died 1981), Allegheny County District Attorney for Pittsburgh from 1956 to 1964
Edward James Boyle Sr. (1913–2002), U.S. federal judge
Emmet D. Boyle (1879–1926), former Governor of Nevada
Francis Boyle (born 1950), professor of international law
George Boyle, 6th Earl of Glasgow (1825–1890), Scottish politician
Harris Boyle (c. 1953–1975), Northern Irish loyalist and Ulster Volunteer Force member
Hugh Boyle Ewing (1826–1905), American diplomat, author and lawyer
James Boyle (academic) (born 1959), professor of law
James Boyle (Irish Parliamentary Party politician) (1863–1936), Irish politician, Member of Parliament for West Donegal 1900–1902
James Boyle (Fianna Fáil politician) (fl.1930s), Fianna Fáil Member of the 1934–1936 Seanad Éireann
James Boyle Uniacke (1799–1858), Canadian politician
Jane J. Boyle (born 1954), District judge for the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas
John Boyle (congressman) (1774–1835), member of the U.S. House of Representatives
John Boyle (Northern Ireland politician) (c. 1870–1950), Unionist politician from Northern Ireland
John Robert Boyle (1870–1936), Albertan politician
Joshua Boyle (politician), Member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons
Kenneth Boyle (1937-2000), American politician and lawyer
Kevin Boyle (lawyer) (1943–2010), Northern Ireland-born human rights activist, barrister and educator
Kevin J. Boyle (born 1980), member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives
Larry Monroe Boyle (1943–2017), Associate Justice of the Idaho Supreme Court
Mike Boyle (born 1944), mayor of Omaha, Nebraska
Murrough Boyle, 1st Viscount Blesington (1709–1769), governor of Limerick
Patricia Boyle (1937–2014), American judge
Sarah Patton Boyle (1906-1994), Virginian civil rights activist
Terrence Boyle (born 1945), U.S. judge
W. A. Boyle (1904–1985), president of the United Mine Workers of America union, 1963–1972
William M. Boyle (1903–1961), American Democratic political activist from Kansas
Religion
Greg Boyle (born 1954), Jesuit priest in East Los Angeles
Hugh Charles Boyle (1873–1950), American Roman Catholic bishop
John Boyle (bishop) (1563–1620), Bishop
Richard Boyle (archbishop of Tuam) (c.1574–1644), Archbishop of Tuam
Sciences, math, and medicine
Brian J. Boyle, astrophysicist
David Boyle (archaeologist) (1842–1911), Canadian educator and archaeologist
Elette Boyle, American and Israeli computer scientist and cryptographer
Helen Boyle (1869-1957), Irish-British physician and psychologist
Henry Edmund Gaskin Boyle (1875–1941), anesthesiologist
Phelim Boyle (born 1941), quantitative finance academic
Robert Boyle (1627–1691), Anglo-Irish natural philosopher
Robert William Boyle (1883–1955), Canadian physicist, co-inventor of sonar
Willard Boyle (1924–2011), Canadian physicist
Sports
Brian Boyle (born 1984), professional hockey player
Buzz Boyle (1908–1978), Major League Baseball player
Dan Boyle (ice hockey) (born 1976), professional ice hockey player
Daryl Boyle (born 1987), Canadian professional ice hockey player
David Boyle (rugby league, born 1959), Australian rugby league footballer
Eddie Boyle (1874–1941), Major League Baseball player
Hugh Boyle (golfer) (born 1936), Irish golfer
Jack Boyle (1866–1913), Major League Baseball player
Jim Boyle (born 1962), American football player
Jimmy Boyle (baseball) (1904–1958), American baseball player
Jimmy Boyle (footballer) (born 1972), former Scottish footballer
John Boyle (footballer, born 1946), Scottish footballer
John Boyle (footballer, born 1986), Scottish footballer
Lauren Boyle (born 1987), New Zealand swimmer
Millie Boyle (born 1998), Australian rugby union player
Morrie Boyle, Australian rugby league footballer
Patrick Boyle (footballer) (born 1987), Scottish footballer
Rachael Boyle (born 1991), Scottish footballer
Raelene Boyle (born 1951), Australian athlete
Richard Boyle (canoeist) (born 1961), New Zealand sprint canoeist
Richard Boyle (rowing) (1888–1953), British rowing coxswain and medallist at the 1908 Summer Olympics
Ryan Boyle (born 1981), U.S. lacrosse player
Ryan Boyle (rugby league) (born 1987), rugby league player
Stephen Boyle (born 1953), Australian footballer
Steve Boyle (boxer) (born 1962), Scottish boxer
Steve Boyle (rugby union) (born 1953), English rugby union player
Terry Boyle (born 1958), Former footballer from Wales
Tim Boyle (American football) (born 1994), American football player
Tommy Boyle (footballer, born 1886) (1886–1940), football player who played for Barnsley, Burnley, and Wrexham
Tommy Boyle (footballer, born 1901) (1901–1972), football player who played for Sheffield United, Manchester United, and Northampton Town
Tony Boyle (born 1957), New Zealand cricketer
Wesley Boyle (born 1979), Football midfielder
Writers
Andrew Boyle (1919–1991), journalist and biographer
Charles Boyle (poet) (born 1951), UK poet
David Boyle (author) (born 1958), economics author and journalist
John Boyle O'Reilly (1844–1890), Irish poet and novelist
Kay Boyle (1902–1992), U.S. writer and political activist
Kevin Boyle (historian) (born 1960), author and professor of history at Ohio State University
Nicholas Boyle (born 1946), British literature historian
Patrick Boyle (writer) (1905–1982), Irish writer
T. Coraghessan Boyle (born 1948), U.S. novelist and short story writer
Other
Gert Boyle (1924–2019), German-born American businesswoman
Jarrod Boyle, American winemaker
Joseph W. Boyle (1867–1923), Canadian adventurer
Lisa Boyle (born 1964), American model
Mark Boyle (snooker player) (born 1981), Scottish snooker player
Paul Boyle (born 1964), British geographer and academic administrator
Sarah Boyle (1609–1633), wife of Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork
Timothy Boyle (born 1949), American businessman
Members of Boyle family headed by the Earl of Cork
Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork (1566–1643), Lord Treasurer of Ireland
Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Burlington (1612–1698), Lord High Treasurer of Ireland
Charles Boyle, 3rd Viscount Dungarvan (1639–1694), Irish politician
Charles Boyle, 2nd Earl of Burlington (died 1704), Anglo-Irish politician
Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington (1694–1753), architect
John Boyle, 5th Earl of Cork (1707–1762), writer and friend of Jonathan Swift
Hamilton Boyle, 6th Earl of Cork (1729–1764), British and Irish politician
Edmund Boyle, 7th Earl of Cork (1742–1798), Irish peer
Edmund Boyle, 8th Earl of Cork (1767–1856), Irish soldier and peer
Richard Boyle, 9th Earl of Cork (1829–1904), British politician
Charles Boyle, 10th Earl of Cork (1861–1925), Irish soldier and peer
William Boyle, 12th Earl of Cork and Orrery (1873–1967), Admiral of the Fleet
John Boyle, 14th Earl of Cork (1916–2003), Irish peer
Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery (1621–1679), Irish soldier, statesman and dramatist
Charles Boyle, 4th Earl of Orrery (1674–1731), author, soldier and statesman
Henry Boyle, 1st Baron Carleton (1669–1725), Lord Treasurer of Ireland
Francis Boyle, 1st Viscount Shannon (1623–1699), Privy Councillor and governor of County Cork
Richard Boyle, 2nd Viscount Shannon (1675–1740), field marshal
Henry Boyle, 1st Earl of Shannon (1682–1764), Irish politician
Richard Boyle, 2nd Earl of Shannon (1727–1807), 2nd Earl of Shannon, Irish politician
Henry Boyle, 3rd Earl of Shannon (1771–1842), Irish politician
Richard Boyle, 4th Earl of Shannon (1809–1868), 4th Earl of Shannon, British politician
Henry Boyle, 5th Earl of Shannon (1833–1890), British politician
William George Boyle (1830–1908), British soldier and politician
Mary Boyle, Countess of Cork and Orrery (1746–1840), 18th-century British literary hostess
Members of Clan Boyle headed by the Earl of Glasgow
David Boyle, 1st Earl of Glasgow (1666–1733), Scottish politician
John Boyle, 2nd Earl of Glasgow (1688–1740), Scottish politician
John Boyle, 3rd Earl of Glasgow (1714–1775), Scottish politician
George Boyle, 4th Earl of Glasgow (1766–1843), British peer
James Carr-Boyle, 5th Earl of Glasgow (1792–1869), British politician and naval commander
Patrick Boyle, 10th Earl of Glasgow (born 1939), British politician and chief of Clan Boyle
See also
Boyle, County Roscommon, Irish town
Clan Boyle
O'Boyle
Governor Boyle (disambiguation)
Justice Boyle (disambiguation)
Surnames of Irish origin
Scottish surnames
Surnames of Norman origin | [
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242294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20traffic%20controller | Air traffic controller | Air traffic control specialists, abbreviated ATCS, are personnel responsible for the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic in the global air traffic control system. Usually stationed in air traffic control centers and control towers on the ground, they monitor the position, speed, and altitude of aircraft in their assigned airspace visually and by radar, and give directions to the pilots by radio. The position of air traffic controller is one that requires highly specialized knowledge, skills, and abilities. Controllers apply separation rules to keep aircraft at a safe distance from each other in their area of responsibility and move all aircraft safely and efficiently through their assigned sector of airspace, as well as on the ground. Because controllers have an incredibly large responsibility while on duty (often in aviation, "on position") and make countless real-time decisions on a daily basis, the ATC profession is consistently regarded around the world as one of the most mentally challenging careers, and can be notoriously stressful depending on many variables (equipment, configurations, weather, traffic volume, traffic type, special activities, governmental actions, human factors). Many controllers, however, cite high salaries, and a large, unique, and privileged degree of autonomy as major advantages of their jobs.
Although the media in the United States frequently refers to them as air controllers, or flight controllers, most air traffic professionals use the term air traffic controllers, ATCOs, or controllers. For a more detailed article on the job itself, see air traffic control.
Features of the job
Core skills of a controller
Air traffic controllers are generally individuals who are well organized, are quick with numeric computations and mathematics, have assertive and firm decision-making skills, are able to maintain their composure under pressure, and possess an excellent short-term memory. Through numerous studies throughout the decades, it has been demonstrated that traffic controllers usually have a superior visual memory, and in addition, studies have shown that air traffic controllers generally have a degree of situational awareness that is significantly better than the population average. In 'games' involving short-term memory, peer-induced stresses, and real-time risk analysis, air traffic control specialists scored better than the control group in every experiment . Excellent hearing and speaking skills are a requirement, and trainees undergo rigorous physical and psychological testing.
Moreover, the position of the air traffic controller requires some of the strictest medical and mental requirements for any profession in the world; conditions such as diabetes, epilepsy, heart disease, and many mental disorders (e.g., clinical depression, ADHD, bipolar disorder, a history of drug abuse) almost always disqualify people from obtaining medical certification from the overseeing aviation authority. Almost universally, controllers are subjected to rigid medical and mental exams to ensure safety in the air traffic system. In the United States, for example, all air traffic controllers are required to take and pass a Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory before being hired by the Federal Aviation Administration. Conditions such as hypertension, while not disqualifying, are taken seriously and must be monitored with medical examinations by certified doctors. Controllers must take precautions to remain healthy and avoid certain medications that are banned for them. Many drugs approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) such as SSRI antidepressants and benzodiazepines, are banned. Almost universally, trainee controllers begin work in their twenties and retire in their fifties. This is due to an FAA requirement that trainees begin their training at the Academy no later than their 31st birthday, and face mandatory retirement at age 56. However, retired military air traffic controllers may qualify for appointment after reaching 31 years of age.
Communication is a vital part of the job: controllers are trained to focus on the exact words that pilots and other controllers speak, because a single misunderstanding about altitude levels or runway numbers can have tragic consequences. Controllers communicate with the pilots of aircraft using a push-to-talk radiotelephony system which has many attendant issues, such as the fact that only one transmission can be made on a frequency at a time and can either merge or block each other and become unintelligible.
Although local languages are used in ATC communications, the default language of aviation worldwide is Aviation English. Controllers who do not speak English as a first language are generally expected to show a certain minimum level of competency.
Area or en route
Area controllers are responsible for the safety of aircraft at higher altitudes, in the en-route phase of their flight surrounding busier airports and airspace. Area controllers may also handle aircraft at lower altitudes as well as air traffic around small airports that do not have their own towers or approach controllers. In most nations, they are known as "area," "en route," or, colloquially in the US, "center" controllers. Area controllers are responsible for specific sectors of 3D blocks of airspace with defined dimensions. Each sector is managed by at least one area controller, known as an "R-side" controller that handles radio communications. During busier times of traffic there may also be a second area controller, known as a "D-side", assigned to the same area in order to assist the R-side Area controller. This can be done with or without the use of radar: radar allows a sector to handle much more traffic; however, procedural control is used in many areas where traffic levels do not justify radar or the installation of radar is not feasible, such as over oceans.
In the United States, en-route controllers work at air route traffic control centers or ARTCCs. In other countries, area controllers work in area control centers, controlling high-level en-route aircraft, or terminal control centers, which control aircraft climbing from or descending to major groups of airports.
Aerodrome or tower
Aerodrome or Tower controllers control aircraft within the immediate vicinity of the airport and use visual observation from the airport tower. The tower's airspace is often a radius around the airport, but can vary greatly in size and shape depending on traffic configuration and volume.
The tower positions are typically split into many different positions such as Flight Data/Clearance Delivery, Ground Control, and Local Control (known as Tower by the pilots); at busier facilities, a limited radar approach control position may be needed.
The roles of the positions are;
Flight Data/Clearance Delivery: Issues IFR flight plan clearances, obtains squawk codes for VFR aircraft, helps with coordination for GC/LC, and cuts the ATIS (weather). FD/CD is commonly known in the profession as the secretary of the tower.
Ground: Issues taxi instructions and authorizes aircraft/vehicle movements on the airport except the active runway(s); controllers are not responsible for aircraft movement on ramps or other designated non-movement areas.
Local (Tower): Issues takeoff and landing instructions/clearances and authorizes aircraft/vehicle movements on or across runways.
Approach: Issues instructions to aircraft who are intending to land at the airport. This involves vectoring aircraft in a safe, orderly, and expeditious manner and, if needed, stacking the aircraft at different holding altitudes.
Civilian/military – public/private
Most countries' armed forces employ air traffic controllers, often in most if not all branches of the forces. Although actual terms vary from country to country, controllers are usually enlisted.
In some countries, all air traffic control is performed by the military. In other countries, military controllers are responsible solely for military airspace and airbases; civilian controllers maintain airspace for civilian traffic and civilian airports. Historically, in most countries, this was part of the government and controllers were civil servants. However, many countries have partly or wholly privatized their air traffic control systems; others are looking to do the same.
Education
Civilian Air Traffic Controllers' licensing is standardized by international agreement through ICAO. Many countries have Air Traffic Control schools, academies or colleges, often operated by the incumbent provider of air traffic services in that country, but sometimes privately. These institutions are structured to provide training to individuals without any prior air traffic control experience. At the completion of academic training, the graduating student will be granted an Air Traffic Control license, which will include one or more Ratings. These are sub-qualifications denoting the air traffic control discipline or disciplines in which the person has been trained. ICAO defines five such ratings: Area (procedural), Area Radar, Approach (procedural), Approach Radar and Aerodrome. In the United States, controllers may train in several similar specialties: Tower, Ground-Controlled Approach (GCA), Terminal Radar Control, or En route Control (both radar and non-radar). This phase of training takes between six months and several years.
Whenever an air traffic controller is posted to a new unit or starts work on a new sector within a particular unit, they must undergo a period of training regarding the procedures peculiar to that particular unit and/or sector. The majority of this training is done in a live position controlling real aircraft and is termed On the Job Training (OJT), with a fully qualified and trained mentor or On the Job Training Instructor (OJTI) also 'plugged into' the position to give guidance and ready to immediately take over should it become necessary. The length of this phase of training varies from a matter of months to years, depending on the complexity of the sector.
Only once a person has passed all these training stages they will be allowed to control a position alone.
Work patterns
Typically, controllers work "on position" for 90 to 120 minutes followed by a 30-minute break. Except at quieter airports, air traffic control is a 24-hour, 365-day-a-year job where controllers usually work rotating shifts, including nights, weekends, and public holidays. These are usually set 28 days in advance. In many countries, the structure of controllers' shift patterns is regulated to allow for adequate time off. In the UK the most common pattern is two mornings, two late afternoons and two evenings/nights followed by a four-day break.
Stress
Many countries regulate work hours to ensure that controllers are able to remain focused and effective. Research has shown that when controllers remain "on position" for more than two hours without a break, performance can deteriorate rapidly, even at low traffic levels. Many national regulations therefore require breaks at least every two hours. Sylvia Noble Tesh documented the stresses and challenges faced by air traffic controllers in her 1984 study "The politics of stress: the case of air traffic control." published in the International journal of health services. In a study which compared stress in the general population and in this kind of systems markedly showed more stress level for controllers. This variation can be explained, at least in part, by the characteristics of the job.
Computerization and the future
Despite years of effort and billions of dollars spent on computer software designed to assist air traffic control, success has been largely limited to improving the tools at the disposal of the controllers, such as computer-enhanced radar. It is likely that in the next few decades, future technology will make the controller more of a systems manager overseeing decisions made by automated systems and manually intervening to resolve situations not handled well by the computers, rather than being automated out of existence altogether.
However, there are problems envisaged with technology that normally takes the controller out of the decision loop but requires the controller to step back in to control exceptional situations: air traffic control is a skill that has to be kept current by regular practice. This in itself may prove to be the largest stumbling block to the introduction of highly automated air traffic control systems.
User acceptance or willingness to use such technology is another important consideration air service providers need to consider prior to implementing any new technology. In a recent study with over 500 air traffic controllers from around the world, Bekier and colleagues found that once the focus of decision-making shifts from the air traffic controller, support for the technology dramatically decreases. Unsurprisingly, they also found that air traffic controllers enjoy the core tasks of their role: namely, conflict detection and resolution.
2014 changes in the United States
In 2014, it was reported that in the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration had stopped giving preferential treatment to air-traffic controller applicants who had passed classes from the 36 FAA-approved college aviation programs across the United States, with some speculating it was due to too many white males being hired over minorities. The FAA says it "is blind on the issue of diversity". At the same time, the FAA also stopped giving preference to applicants who were military veterans with aviation experience.
See also
Air traffic controllers' strike of 1981 (United States)
Aviation safety
Flight planning
The Guild of Air Traffic Control Officers
National Air Traffic Controllers Association
References
External links
Air Traffic Control Association
Unique Aviation Career as an Air Traffic Controller, by James Wynbrandt, Flying (magazine)
ATSA Test
Air Traffic Control management
Controller
Combat support occupations
Occupations in aviation
Aviation licenses and certifications | [
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242298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levator%20labii%20superioris%20alaeque%20nasi%20muscle | Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle | The levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle is, translated from Latin, the "lifter of both the upper lip and of the wing of the nose". It has the longest name of any muscle in an animal. The muscle is attached to the upper frontal process of the maxilla and inserts into the skin of the lateral part of the nostril and upper lip.
Overview
Historically known as Otto's muscle, it dilates the nostril and elevates the upper lip, enabling one to snarl. Elvis Presley is famous for his use of this expression, earning the muscle's nickname "The Elvis muscle". A mnemonic to remember its name is, "Little Ladies Snore All Night." Snore- because it is the labial elevator closest to the nose.
The levator labii superioris alaeque nasi is sometimes referred to as the "angular head" of the levator labii superioris muscle.
See also
Levator labii superioris
frontalis muscle
Saint Timothy
References
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242299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxilla | Maxilla | The maxilla (plural: maxillae ) in vertebrates is the upper fixed (not fixed in Neopterygii) bone of the jaw formed from the fusion of two maxillary bones. In humans, the upper jaw includes the hard palate in the front of the mouth.<ref>Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.</ref> The two maxillary bones are fused at the intermaxillary suture, forming the anterior nasal spine. This is similar to the mandible (lower jaw), which is also a fusion of two mandibular bones at the mandibular symphysis. The mandible is the movable part of the jaw.
Structure
In humans, the maxilla consists of:
the body of the maxilla
four processes
the zygomatic process
the frontal process of maxilla
the alveolar process
the palatine process
three surfaces – anterior, posterior, medial
the Infraorbital foramen
the maxillary sinus
the incisive foramen
Articulations
Each maxilla articulates with nine bones:
two of the cranium: the frontal and ethmoid
seven of the face: the nasal, zygomatic, lacrimal, inferior nasal concha, palatine, vomer, and the adjacent fused maxilla.
Sometimes it articulates with the orbital surface, and sometimes with the lateral pterygoid plate of the sphenoid.
Development
The maxilla is ossified in membrane. Mall and Fawcett maintain that it is ossified from two centers only, one for the maxilla proper and one for the premaxilla.
These centers appear during the sixth week of prenatal development and unite in the beginning of the third month, but the suture between the two portions persists on the palate until nearly middle life. Mall states that the frontal process is developed from both centers.
The maxillary sinus appears as a shallow groove on the nasal surface of the bone about the fourth month of development, but does not reach its full size until after the second dentition.
The maxilla was formerly described as ossifying from six centers, viz.:
One, the orbitonasal, forms that portion of the body of the bone which lies medial to the infraorbital canal, including the medial part of the floor of the orbit and the lateral wall of the nasal cavity.
A second, the zygomatic, gives origin to the portion which lies lateral to the infraorbital canal, including the zygomatic process.
From a third, the palatine, is developed the palatine process posterior to the incisive canal together with the adjoining part of the nasal wall.
A fourth, the premaxillary, forms the incisive bone which carries the incisor teeth and corresponds to the premaxilla of the lower vertebrates.
A fifth, the nasal, gives rise to the frontal process and the portion above the canine tooth.
And a sixth, the infravomerine,'' lies between the palatine and premaxillary centers and beneath the vomer; this center, together with the corresponding center of the opposite bone, separates the incisive canals from each other.
Changes by age
At birth the transverse and antero-posterior diameters of the bone are each greater than the vertical.
The frontal process is well-marked and the body of the bone consists of little more than the alveolar process, the teeth sockets reaching almost to the floor of the orbit.
The maxillary sinus presents the appearance of a furrow on the lateral wall of the nose. In the adult the vertical diameter is the greatest, owing to the development of the alveolar process and the increase in size of the sinus.
Function
The alveolar process of the maxillae holds the upper teeth, and is referred to as the maxillary arch. Each maxilla attaches laterally to the zygomatic bones (cheek bones).
Each maxilla assists in forming the boundaries of three cavities:
the roof of the mouth
the floor and lateral wall of the nasal cavity
the wall of the orbit
Each maxilla also enters into the formation of two fossae: the infratemporal and pterygopalatine, and two fissures, the inferior orbital and pterygomaxillary.
-When the tender bones of the upper jaw and lower nostril are severely or repetitively damaged, at any age the surrounding cartilage can begin to deteriorate just as it does after death.
Clinical significance
A maxilla fracture is a form of facial fracture. A maxilla fracture is often the result of facial trauma such as violence, falls or automobile accidents. Maxilla fractures are classified according to the Le Fort classification.
In other animals
Sometimes (e.g. in bony fish), the maxilla is called "upper maxilla", with the mandible being the "lower maxilla". Conversely, in birds the upper jaw is often called "upper mandible".
In most vertebrates, the foremost part of the upper jaw, to which the incisors are attached in mammals consists of a separate pair of bones, the premaxillae. These fuse with the maxilla proper to form the bone found in humans, and some other mammals. In bony fish, amphibians, and reptiles, both maxilla and premaxilla are relatively plate-like bones, forming only the sides of the upper jaw, and part of the face, with the premaxilla also forming the lower boundary of the nostrils. However, in mammals, the bones have curved inward, creating the palatine process and thereby also forming part of the roof of the mouth.
Birds do not have a maxilla in the strict sense; the corresponding part of their beaks (mainly consisting of the premaxilla) is called "upper mandible".
Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, also lack a true maxilla. Their upper jaw is instead formed from a cartilaginous bar that is not homologous with the bone found in other vertebrates.
Additional images
See also
Maxillofacial surgery
Maxillary crest
References
Further reading
External links
Bones of the head and neck
Dental anatomy
Irregular bones
Human mouth anatomy | [
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242301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadly%20Weapons | Deadly Weapons | Deadly Weapons is a 1974 American exploitation film directed and produced by Doris Wishman. It stars burlesque performer Chesty Morgan and porn star Harry Reems.
Plot
Crystal is an advertising executive who tracks down the mobsters who killed her boyfriend. One by one, she seduces each man, drugs them, then smothers them with her huge breasts. At the end, she finds out that her own father was implicated in her lover's death.
In popular culture
A clip from the film is featured in John Waters's Serial Mom. In 1986, Waters told David Letterman about visiting the White House at the invitation of the Deputy Advisor of Political Affairs and was delighted to find they shared an appreciation of the film.
Sequel
Double Agent 73, also directed by Wishman, is an ostensible sequel to Deadly Weapons.
Cast
Zsa Zsa as Crystal
Harry Reemes as Tony
Greg Reynolds as Larry
Saul Meth as Nick / Talent agent
Phillip Stahl as Crystal's father
Mitchell Fredericks as Captain Hook
Denise Purcell as Eve
John McMohon
Sources
See also
List of American films of 1974
References
External links
1974 films
1974 drama films
American drama films
American films
1970s English-language films
Films directed by Doris Wishman
American sexploitation films | [
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242303 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watto | Watto | Watto is a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise, featured in the films The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones. He is computer-generated and is voiced by voice actor Andy Secombe. He is a mean-tempered, greedy Toydarian, and owner of a second-hand goods store in Mos Espa on the planet Tatooine. Among Watto's belongings are the slaves Shmi Skywalker and her son, Anakin. He acquires them after winning a podracing bet with Gardulla the Hutt, and he puts them both to work in his store. Anakin demonstrates an incredible aptitude for equipment repair, and Watto decides to profit from it by having the boy fix various broken equipment in the store. He eventually loses Anakin in a podracing bet with Qui-Gon Jinn when he bets on a competitor, Sebulba, who is defeated by Anakin.
Concept and creation
Design director Doug Chiang described Watto's design as "this conglomeration of odd things that really didn't fit, but that in the end gave him a very unique and powerful personality". While seeking the approval of George Lucas, Chiang put up an amalgam of different concepts, including Terryl Whitlatch's pudgy parrot, Iain Craig's four armed beast with a cigar, and the head in an early Neimoidian picture by Chiang himself, featuring a hooked trunk and crooked teeth. Chiang added hummingbird wings to the Toydarian design, along with having Watto wear a vest and a tool belt, and Lucas approved, only asking for webbed feet and pants. Modeling supervisor Geoff Campell was skeptical of having a chubby alien with wings, so it was imagined that the Toydarians are filled with gas, making the wings only propel him instead of supporting his weight. Animation supervisor Rob Coleman realized that the alien's dental work would need some modification when the time came to create Watto on screen, as Watto's craggy teeth made lip-syncing difficult. To solve the problem, Coleman broke off one of Watto's incisors, giving him a "corner-of-the-mouth" vernacular. His expressions were based on video footage of voice actor Andy Secombe, photographs of Coleman imitating the character, and modeler Steve Alpin saying Watto's lines to a mirror. Alec Guinness performing as Fagin in Oliver Twist was used as an influence in the character's development. The sound of his wings flapping is a looped recording of sound designer Ben Burtt opening and closing an umbrella.
Appearances
Watto first appears in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace, the first title chronologically in the Star Wars series. He has both an ability for haggling and a resistance to the "Jedi mind trick", a technique used to persuade people. He is both a junk dealer and slave owner on the planet Tatooine, possessing both Shmi Skywalker and her son Anakin. When challenged to a bet for Anakin's freedom by Qui-Gon Jinn, Watto agrees. After Anakin beats Sebulba (whom Watto bets on), a competing racer that he challenged throughout the race he participated in, he was let go. However, Watto (who believes Qui-Gon cheated on him) considers calling off the bet, but gives in when Qui-Gon threatens to have him talk things over with the Hutt Clan. Watto makes a final appearance in the sequel Episode II – Attack of the Clones, which takes place 10 years after the original film, the now-adult Anakin returns to Tatooine to find his mother. Searching Mos Espa, he finds Watto sitting outside the shop at a small stall. They reunite on somewhat amicable terms and Watto tells Anakin that he sold Shmi some years ago to a moisture farmer named Cliegg Lars, who freed and married her. Watto then takes Anakin and Padmé to look through his records to find her.
Watto makes multiple further appearances in the Star Wars Expanded Universe; one such appearance details his time on his home planet before he came to Tatooine during a war. It also tells how he sustained his broken tusk and disabled leg. He later learns his business savvy from the Jawas, native to the planet Tatooine. In the non-canonical Star Wars comic book Star Wars: Visionaries, Watto is shown to have been killed by Darth Maul (whose appearance here predates the canonical revelation of his survival of the events of The Phantom Menace) during Maul's process of tracking down his nemesis Obi-Wan Kenobi, to gain vengeance for his defeat during the Battle of Naboo.
His son Blatto makes an appearance in the non-canonical television special Phineas and Ferb: Star Wars.
Watto has also been produced as a Lego figure and featured in the Lego Star Wars video games, in addition to numerous other appearances in the form of collectibles and other merchandising.
Reception
Editors for IGN ranked Watto 78th in their list of Top 100 Star Wars characters. They wrote that he was "one of the most confusing scientific anomalies" due to "the idea that a creature so potbellied is able to stay afloat for so long". They added that he was "no prince" for his unscrupulous deals.
In the book The Holy Family and Its Legacy, author Albrecht Koschorke discusses the presence of "The Holy Family" in The Phantom Menace, stating that while there was no "solicitous guardian watching over the mother and the holy child," Watto acts in a similar position as a "man who possesses patriarchal powers without being the father."
Allegations of antisemitism
It has been suggested that the character is offensive because of his perceived similarities to a stereotypical Jew, having a large hooked nose, beady eyes, unkempt facial hair, speaking in a gravelly voice, and being portrayed as greedy and covetous. J. Hoberman of The Village Voice called him "the most blatant ethnic stereotype" due to his hooked nose. Bruce Gottlieb of Slate magazine criticized him as well, comparing his character to the antisemitic notion that the Jewish race is "behind the slave trade". Patricia J. Williams of The Nation stated that Watto was also described as a stereotype of Arabs, but that he was "more comprehensively anti-Semitic—both anti-Arab and anti-Jew." She added that Watto reminded her of an "anti-Semitic caricature published in Vienna at the turn of the 20th century." Jane Prettyman of the American Review noted that after leaving the theater, she heard two young boys describe him as "that weird little Jew guy with wings". Prettyman described his depiction as "not at all subtle", and said that "it can be counted on to flush out already-formed Jew-haters among young audiences and give them permission to continue their hatred out loud." Looking back on the character on the twentieth anniversary of the film, essayist Aaron Freedman both acknowledges the stereotypical aspects of the character while admitting that as a boy he empathized with Watto as "the only representation we Jews get in the Star Wars franchise," suggesting that the portrayal of Watto as struggling to survive in a society shaped by forces beyond his control echoed that of both Jews throughout history and the Shakespearean character Shylock.
Crazy Watto fan film
Crazy Watto is a two-minute-long fan film that made its debut on the Internet in 2000. The film is a spoof of used car deal ads shown on television, featuring Watto. He offers up for sale familiar objects such as an X-wing.
The film played at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival, and is a popular fan film at many science fiction conventions. The film was originally hosted by TheForce.Net, but is now part of The Official Star Wars Fan Film Awards on AtomFilms.
References
External links
Characters created by George Lucas
Fictional businesspeople
Fictional gamblers
Fictional junk dealers
Fictional shopkeepers
Film characters introduced in 1999
Male characters in film
Race-related controversies in film
Star Wars CGI characters
Star Wars Skywalker Saga characters | [
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242308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manzoor%20Wattoo | Manzoor Wattoo | Mian Manzoor Ahmad Wattoo (; born 14 August 1939) is a Pakistani politician. Wattoo was first elected, in 1985, the Speaker of Provincial Assembly of the Punjab, which, by population, is the largest province of Pakistan. Thrice elected for the same office, he secured the office of the Chief Minister of Punjab, Pakistan in 1993 on the ticket of Pakistan Muslim League (J), after a series of tug of war between the federal and provincial government Wattoo twice had to leave office between his term only to leave office permanently on 16 November 1996. Wattoo formed the Pakistan Muslim League (Jinnah) in 1995 when he parted away from his prior party (then PML), but the party-PML (Jinnah), was unable to hold significant influence in national politics.
In May 2008, Wattoo along with his associates left Pakistan Muslim League (Quaid-e-Azam) and joined Pakistan Peoples Party and served as the Ministry of States and Frontier Regions, he also led Pakistan Peoples Party's provisional chapter of Punjab only to witness a complete failure in Punjab 2013 elections where cricketer-turned-politician - Imran Khan's centre-left party - the PTI had, challenged Pakistan Muslim League Nawaz, and had developed a following. He tendered his resignation soon after the elections, but he was asked to continue by PPP's Co-Chairman Asif Ali Zardari upon recommendation of PPP's Punjab Executive Committee.
Political career
Mian Manzoor Ahmed Wattoo was first elected as Chairman District Council Okara in 1983 during the non-party elections of the Zia era. Then in 1985, he secured the office of the Speaker of the Provincial Assembly of Punjab, the largest province of Pakistan on Pakistan Muslim League ticket. Thrice elected for the same office, he secured the office.
After a tug-of-war between Wattoo and Nawaz Sharif, the then restored (by Supreme Court) Prime Minister of Pakistan and head of the Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML (N)), all assemblies were dissolved and only after a fresh election, Wattoo was elected the Chief Minister of Punjab again on PML (Junejo) ticket, ruling a coalition consisting chiefly of Pakistan People's Party (PPP), PML (Junejo), minorities, and some independents.
It was in 1995 that Wattoo formed his own PML (Jinnah), when he parted ways with Hamid Nasir Chattha who wanted to be the president of PML (Junejo), which Wattoo was previously a part of. The differences cropped up in the same year when Wattoo was removed as the Punjab Chief Minister in the power struggle between the province (headed by PML (Junejo) and the center (headed by rival PPP), leading Arif Nakai another PML (Junejo) candidate to be the new Chief Minister.
In Summer of 1995, Wattoo's father Mian Jahangir Ahmed Khan Wattoo died. Wattoo did not attend his father's funeral owing to the difference in religious ideology between a father and a son. Mian Jahangir Ahmed Khan Wattoo converted to the Ahmedi sect under the influence and training of the school headmaster of their native village, Muazzam, in Fazilka, India. Wattoo, on the other hand, took his mother's and forefather's (except father's) religion and is a Muslim.
Painted corrupt by the PPP, PML-N, he was removed from the office of Chief Minister only to be restored to office a year later in 1996 by the High Court. Corruption allegations and court proceedings were started against Wattoo by arch rival and then Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif of the PML-N, Mian Manzoor Wattoo was sentenced by an accountability court to more than 10 years in prison besides being fined 10 million rupees only later to be set aside in the appeals.
His daughter Rubina Shaheen Wattoo served as a member of the [National Assembly of Pakistan]for the PML(Q). He actively began taking part in politics and soon became a close ally of Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf. Having merged his political party, Pakistan Muslim League (Jinnah), into the ruling PML (Q) on presidential advice, he was made the Senior Vice President of the ruling party. His relations with the party's leadership remained sour from the beginning, who tried at marginalizing Wattoo and anyone associated with him.
Wattoo remained part of the part despite differences with the party leaders Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain and the Punjab Chief Minister[Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi] who had previously suffered heavily under Wattoo's reign in Punjab (1993–95).
Wattoo announced to join forces with the Pakistan People's Party on 29 May 2008 along with party members in Islamabad soon after winning a decisive victory in February 2008 elections in which he won from two constituencies NA-146 and NA-147 as an independent and his daughter Rubina Shaheen Wattoo won PP-188.
Wattoo served as Federal Minister for Industries and Production in the PPP government of Prime Minister Syed Yusuf Raza Gilani his portfolio was changed and he became Federal Minister for Kashmir Affairs and Northern Areas.
His son, Khurram Jahangir Wattoo, who won NA-147 after his father left his home constituency was made the Parliamentary Secretary for Establishment and Cabinet Divisions by the PPP leadership.
See also
Dipalpur
References
|-
|-
Chief Ministers of Punjab, Pakistan
Pakistan Muslim League (Q) politicians
Pakistan Peoples Party politicians
Punjabi people
People from Fazilka district
Living people
Government of Shaukat Aziz
Speakers of the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab
Manzoor
Government Islamia College alumni
1939 births | [
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242309 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogarkoite | Kogarkoite | Kogarkoite is a sodium sulfate fluoride mineral with formula Na3(SO4)F. It has a pale blue color, a specific gravity of about 2.67 and a hardness of 3.5. The crystal is monoclinic and is a type of naturally occurring antiperovskite. Kogarkoite is named after the Russian petrologist Lia Nikolaevna Kogarko (born 1936) who discovered the mineral.
Discovery and occurrence
Kogarkoite was first described in 1973 for an occurrence on Alluaiv Mountain, Lovozero Massif, Kola Peninsula, Russia. On Alluaiv it occurs in pegmatitic veins in nepheline syenite. It occurs with sodalite in syenite xenoliths in an alkali intrusive complex at Mont Saint-Hilaire, Canada. In Hortense Hot Spring, Chaffee County, Colorado, it occurs as a sublimate. It occurs at Lake Natron near Ol Doinyo Lengai, Tanzania and Suswa Volcano, Lake Magadi, Kenya.
See also
List of minerals
List of minerals named after people
References
Sodium minerals
Sulfate minerals
Fluorine minerals
Monoclinic minerals
Minerals in space group 11 | [
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242313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Fell%20%28bishop%29 | John Fell (bishop) | John Fell (23 June 1625 – 10 July 1686) was an English churchman and influential academic. He served as Dean of Christ Church, Oxford, and later concomitantly as Bishop of Oxford.
Education
Fell was born at Longworth, Berkshire (now Oxfordshire), the eldest son of Samuel Fell and his wife, Margaret née Wylde. Samuel Fell was also Dean of Christ Church, from 1638 until 1648. John Fell received his early education at Lord Williams's School at Thame in Oxfordshire. In 1637 at age 11 he became a student at Christ Church, and in 1640 because of his "known desert", he was specially allowed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, to proceed to his degree of BA when lacking one term's residence. He obtained his MA in 1643 and took Holy Orders (deacon 1647, priest 1649).
English Civil War
During the Civil War he bore arms for King Charles I of England and held a commission as ensign. In 1648 he was deprived of his studentship by the parliamentary visitors, and during the next few years he resided chiefly at Oxford with his brother-in-law, Thomas Willis, at whose house opposite Merton College he and his friends Richard Allestree and John Dolben kept up the service of the Church of England throughout the Commonwealth.
Career
After the Restoration, Fell was made prebendary of Chichester, canon of Christ Church (27 July 1660), dean (30 November), master of St Oswald's hospital, Worcester, chaplain to the king, and D.D. (see Doctor of Divinity). He filled the office of Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford from 1666 to 1669, and was consecrated bishop of Oxford, in 1676, retaining his deanery in commendam. Some years later, he declined the Primacy of Ireland.
Fell showed himself a capable administrator. He restored good order in the university by the archbishop, which during the Commonwealth had given place to a general disregard of authority. He ejected the intruders from his college or else "fixed them in loyal principles." "He was the most zealous man of his time for the Church of England," says Anthony Wood, "and none that I yet know of did go beyond him in the performance of the rules belonging thereunto." He attended chapel four times a day, restored to the services, not without some opposition, the organ and surplice, and insisted on the proper academic dress which had fallen into disuse. He was active in recovering church property, and by his directions a children's catechism was drawn up by Thomas Marshall for use in his diocese. "As he was among the first of our clergy," says Thomas Burnet, "that apprehended the design of bringing in popery, so he was one of the most zealous against it."
He made many converts from the Roman Catholics and Nonconformists. On the other hand, he successfully opposed the incorporation of Titus Oates as D.D. in the university in October 1679; and according to the testimony of William Nichols, his secretary, he disapproved of the Exclusion Bill. He excluded the undergraduates, whose presence had been irregularly permitted, from convocation. He obliged students to attend lectures, instituted reforms in the performances of the public exercises in the schools, kept the examiners up to their duties, was present in person at examinations. He encouraged the students to act plays. He entirely suppressed "coursing," i.e. disputations in which the rival parties "ran down opponents in arguments," and which commonly ended in blows and disturbances.
Discipline
He was a disciplinarian, and possessed a talent for the education of young men, many of whom he received into his own family. Tom Brown, author of The Dialogues of the Dead, about to be expelled from Oxford for some offence, was pardoned by Fell on the condition of his translating ex tempore the 32nd epigram of Martial:
To which he immediately replied with the well-known lines:
I do not like thee, Doctor Fell,
The reason why I cannot tell;
But this I know, and know full well,
I do not like thee, Dr Fell.
Delinquents were not always treated thus mildly by Fell, and Acton Cremer, for the crime of courting a wife while only a bachelor of arts, was punished by having to translate into English the whole of Scheffer's history of Lapland. As Vice-Chancellor, Fell personally visited the drinking taverns and ordered out the students. In the university elections he showed great energy in suppressing corruption.
Building operations
Fell's building operations were ambitious. In his own college he completed in 1665 the north side of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey's great quadrangle, already begun by his father but abandoned during the Commonwealth; in 1672, he rebuilt the east side of the Chaplain's quadrangle "with a straight passage under it leading from the cloister into the field," occupied now by the new Meadow Buildings; the lodgings of the canon of the third stall in the passage uniting the Tom Quad and Peckwater Quadrangle (c.1674); a long building joining the Chaplain's quadrangle on the east side in 1677–1678; and lastly the great Tom Tower gate, begun in June 1681 on the foundation laid by Wolsey and finished in November 1682, to which the bell "great Tom," after being recast, was transferred from the cathedral in 1683. In 1670 he planted and laid out the Broad Walk.
He spent large sums of his own on these works, gave £500 for the restoration of Banbury church, erected a church at St Oswald's, Worcester, and the parsonage house at Woodstock at his own expense, and rebuilt Cuddesdon Palace. Fell disapproved of the use of the University Church of St Mary the Virgin for secular purposes, and promoted the building of the Sheldonian Theatre by Archbishop Gilbert Sheldon. He was treasurer during its construction, presided at the formal opening on 9 July 1669, and was nominated curator, along with Christopher Wren, in July 1670.
Oxford University Press
In the theatre was placed the Oxford University Press, the establishment of which had been a favourite project of Laud and now engaged a large share of Fell's energy and attention, and which as curator he practically controlled. "Were it not you ken Mr Dean extraordinarily well," wrote Sir Leoline Jenkins to John Williamson in 1672, "it were impossible to imagine how assiduous and drudging he is about his press." He sent for type and printers from Holland, declaring that "the foundation of all success must be laid in doing things well, which l am sure will not be done with English letters."
Writings
Many works, including a Bible, editions of the classics and of the early fathers, were produced under Fell's direction and editing. He published annually one work, generally a classical author annotated by himself, which he distributed to all the students of his college on New Year's Day. On one occasion he surprised the Press in surreptitiously printing Pietro Aretino's Postures, and he seized and destroyed the plates and impressions. Ever "an eager defender and maintainer of the university and its privileges," he was hostile to the Royal Society, which he regarded as a possible rival, and in 1686 he gave an absolute refusal to Obadiah Walker, afterwards the Roman Catholic master of University College, though licensed by James II, to print books, declaring he would as soon "part with his bed from under him" as his press. He conducted it on strict business principles, and to the criticism that more great works were not produced replied that they would not sell. He was, however, not free from fads, and his new spelling (of which one feature was the substitution of i for y in such words as cies, daies, maiest) met with great disapproval.
Fell also wrote lives of his friends Henry Hammond (1661), Richard Allestree, prefixed to his edition of the latter's sermons (1684), and Thomas Willis, in Latin. His seasonable advice to Protestants showing the necessity of maintaining the Established Religion in opposition to Popery was published in 1688. Some of his sermons, which John Evelyn found dull, were printed, including Character of the Last Daies, preached before the king, 1675, and a sermon preached before the House of Peers on 22 December 1680. The Interest of England stated (1659), advocating the restoration of the king, and The Vanity of Scoffing (1674), are also attributed to him. Fell probably had some share in the composition of The Whole Duty of Man, and in the subsequent works published under the name of the author of The Whole Duty, which included Reasons of the Decay of Christian Piety, The Ladies' Calling, The Gentleman's Calling, The Government of the Tongue, The Art of Contentment, and The Lively Oracles given us, all of which were published in one volume with notes and a preface by Fell in 1684.
Linguist and translator
He had a high reputation as a Grecian, a Latinist and a philologist, and he brought out with the collaboration of others his edition of St Cyprian in 1682, an English translation of The Unity of the Church in 1681, editions of Nemesius of Emesa (1671), of Aratus and of Eratosthenes (1672), Theocritus (1676), Alcinous on Plato (1677), St Clement's Epistles to the Corinthians (1677), Athenagoras (1682), Clemens Alexandrinus (1683), Theophilus of Antioch (1684), Grammatica rationis sive institutiones logicae (1673 and 1685), and a critical edition of the New Testament in 1675. The first volumes of Rerum Anglicarum scriptores and of Historiae Britannicae, etc. were compiled under his patronage in 1684. Manuscripts of Saint Augustine were placed in the Bodleian at his behest; while other libraries at Oxford generously collated a catalogue for the use of the Benedictines at Paris, who were then preparing a new edition of the father.
Mission to India
Occasionally imprudent in his schemes, he was the originator of a mission to India which was taken up by the British East India Company. He undertook to train as missionaries four scholars at Oxford, procured a set of Arabic types, and issued from these the Gospels and Acts in the Malay language in 1677. This was unsuccessful, and the mission collapsed.
Controversy
Having undertaken at his own charge to publish a Latin version of Wood's History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford, with the object of presenting the history of the university in a manner worthy of the great subject to European readers, and of extending its fame abroad, he arrogated to himself the right of editing the work. "He would correct, alter, dash out what he pleased... He was a great man and carried all things at his pleasure." In particular he struck out all the passages which Wood had inserted in praise of Thomas Hobbes, and substituted some disparaging epithets. He called Leviathan "monstrosissimus" and "publico damno notissimus." To the printed remonstrance of Hobbes, Fell inserted an insulting reply in the History to "irritabile illud et vanissimum Malmesburiense animal," and to the complaint of Wood at this usage answered only that Hobbes "was an old man, had one foot in the grave; that he should mind his latter end, and not trouble the world any more with his papers." In small things as in great he loved to rule and direct. "Let not Fell," writes R. South to Ralph Bathurst, "have the fingering and altering of them, for I think that, barring the want of siquidems and quinetiams, they are as good as his Worship can make." Wood styled him "a valde vult person."
Not content with ruling his own college, he desired to govern the whole university. He prevented Gilbert Ironside, who "was not pliable to his humour," from holding the office of Vice-Chancellor. He "endeavoured to carry all things by a high hand; scorn'd in the least to court the Masters when he had to have anything pass'd the convocation. Severe to other colleges, blind as to his own, very partiall and with good words, and flatterers and tell-tales could get anything out of him." According to Bishop Gilbert Burnet, who praises his character and administration, Fell was "a little too much heated in the matter of our disputes with the dissenters...He had much zeal for reforming abuses, and managed it perhaps with too much heat and in too peremptory a way...But we have so little of that among us that no wonder if such men are censured by those who love not such patterns nor such severe task-masters." And Anthony Wood, after declaring that Fell "was exceeding partial in his government even to corruption; went thro' thick and thin; grasped at all yet did nothing perfect or effectually; cared not what people said of him, was in many things very rude and in most pedantic and pedagogical," concluded that he "yet still aimed at the public good." Roger North, who paid Fell a visit at Oxford, wrote of him in terms of enthusiasm: "The great Dr Fell, who was truly great in all his circumstances, capacities, undertakings and learning, and above all for his superabundant public spirit and goodwill ... O the felicity of that age and place when his authority swayed!"
In November 1684, at the command of King Charles II, Fell deprived John Locke, who had incurred the royal displeasure by his friendship with Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, and was suspected as the author of certain seditious pamphlets, of his studentship at Christ Church, summarily and without hearing his defence. Fell had in former years cultivated Locke's friendship, had kept up a correspondence with him, and in 1663 had written a testimonial in his favour; and the ready compliance of one who could on occasion offer a stout resistance to any invasion of the privileges of the university has been severely criticised. It must, however, be remembered in extenuation that the legal status of a person on the foundation of a collegiate body had not then been decided in the law-courts. He afterwards expressed his regret.
Death
Fell, who had never married, died "worn out", according to Wood, at the age of 61. He was buried in the divinity chapel in the cathedral, below the seat which he had so often occupied when living, where a monument and an epitaph, now moved elsewhere, were placed to his memory. "His death," writes John Evelyn, "was an extraordinary losse to the poore church at this time". With all his faults Fell was a great man, "the greatest governor," estimated Speaker Onslow, "that has ever been since his time in either of the universities," and of his own college, to which he left several exhibitions for the maintenance of poor scholars, he was a second founder.
A sum of money was left by John Cross to perpetuate Fell's memory by an annual speech in his praise, but the Felii laudes were discontinued in 1866. There are two interesting pictures of Fell at Christ Church, one where he is represented with his two friends Allestree and Dolben, and another by Anthony van Dyck. The statue placed on the northeast angle of the Great Quadrangle bears no likeness to the bishop, who is described by Hearne as a "thin grave man."
See also
Thomas Hearne
References
Sources
Anthony Wood, Athenae Oxonienses and Fasti (ed. Bliss)
Antony a Wood, Life and Times, ed. by A. Clark
Gilbert Burnet, History of His Own Time, ed. 1833
J. Welch, Alumni Westmonasterienses
External links
A brief history of John Fell, Peter De Walpergen and the Fell Types
Encyclopædia Britannica
1625 births
1686 deaths
Doctors of Divinity
People from Vale of White Horse (district)
People educated at Lord Williams's School
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Bishops of Oxford
17th-century Church of England bishops
Oxford University Press people
Deans of Christ Church, Oxford
Vice-Chancellors of the University of Oxford
Burials at Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford | [
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242315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama%20Lewis | Panama Lewis | Carlos "Panama" Lewis (November 4, 1945 – September 19, 2020) was an American boxing trainer. He was convicted of tampering with the gloves of Luis Resto for his fight against Billy Collins Jr. in 1983, which subsequently led to the end of Collins' boxing career. Collins suffered from depression and possibly committed suicide following the assault.
Early career
Lewis was a disciple of trainer Chickie Ferrara. He was Roberto Durán's cornerman when Duran lost a unanimous decision against Wilfred Benítez in 1982.
During the early 1980s, he was considered one of the best trainers of his time, compared with Emanuel Steward and Lou Duva. The most noted boxer in his stable was light-welterweight champion Aaron Pryor. In 1982, Pryor fought Alexis Argüello. Before the fourteenth round, a cornerman held up a plastic water bottle, but Showtime cameras caught Lewis yelling, "Not that bottle, the one I mixed." Pryor knocked out Arguello, but Lewis' comments fueled rumors that the bottle contained stimulants. Lewis said it only contained Perrier and tap water, in line with rules allowing boxers to consume only water in the ring. Although Lewis was never formally sanctioned, the incident sullied his reputation, which was confirmed by his cheating discovered in subsequent fights.
It was later alleged in an interview with former Lewis-trained boxer Luis Resto in the Showtime documentary film Assault in the Ring, that Lewis would break apart pills used to treat asthma and pour the medicine into the water, giving Resto greater lung capacity in the later rounds of a fight.
Resto–Collins controversy
The most notorious incident in Lewis's career took place on June 16, 1983. A fighter he was training, Luis Resto, was fighting undefeated prospect Billy Collins, Jr. in a bout televised by ABC's Wide World of Sports. The fight was the undercard for a fight between Roberto Durán and Davey Moore.
Resto won in a 10-round unanimous decision over a bloody Collins. After the fight, Resto came to Collins' corner to shake hands with Collins' father and trainer, Billy Sr. When Billy Sr. grabbed Resto's hand, he discovered Resto's gloves were thinner than normal. Screaming that he thought the gloves had no padding, Collins Sr. demanded that the New York State Boxing Commission impound the gloves. An investigation found that each glove was missing an ounce of padding. There was also a 0.75-inch hole in the palm of each glove. Collins suffered a torn iris and permanently blurred vision, ending his boxing career.
After an investigation, the New York State Boxing Commission determined Lewis had tampered with the gloves. On July 1, 1983, it permanently revoked Lewis' state boxing license. Since most state boxing commissions honor sanctions imposed by other states, this action had the effect of banning Lewis from ever having another official role in an American bout. Resto's win was subsequently changed to a no contest.
In October 1986, Lewis and Resto were both put on trial and found guilty of assault, criminal possession of a weapon (Resto's hands) and conspiracy. Lewis was also found guilty of tampering with a sports contest. Prosecutors charged that since Lewis had deliberately removed the padding from Resto's gloves, the bout with Collins amounted to an illegal assault. Lewis was sentenced to six years in prison, Resto to three years. Lewis was released from prison in 1990.
Collins died on March 6, 1984, when he crashed his car into a culvert near his home in Antioch, Tennessee. Many think he may have committed suicide because he was unable to continue boxing as a result of the actions of Lewis and Resto.
Years later, during the filming of the 2009 documentary Assault in the Ring, Resto admitted that he knew Lewis had not only tampered with the gloves, but Lewis had also wrapped Resto's hands with modern medical plaster. Lewis wet the plaster material and used it as a layer in Resto's hand wraps, illegally increasing his punching power. He also said that Lewis had taken the padding out of his gloves on at least two other occasions. Resto also alleged that the plot centered around a large amount of money bet on himself, the underdog, by a third party who had met with Lewis prior to the fight.
Lewis maintained his innocence till his death and many of his defenders allege that someone instead removed the padding from Resto's gloves after the bout. For instance, an official with the New York State Boxing Commission left the gloves in his car after receiving them from the state boxing commission. However, this is belied by pictures of Collins' face after the bout; it was badly swollen, and many felt it was improbable a light puncher like Resto could have inflicted such damage on his own.
When confronted by Resto and Assault in the Ring director and producer Eric Drath, Lewis again denied any wrongdoing and said that it was cornerman Artie Curley who had wrapped Resto's hands. An agitated Lewis said that if Curley were alive today, "none of this would have happened to him."
References
External links
Assault in the Ring - Official Site
1945 births
2020 deaths
American boxing trainers
American people convicted of assault
Sports controversies | [
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242317 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Klestil | Thomas Klestil | Thomas Klestil (; 4 November 1932 – 6 July 2004) was an Austrian diplomat and politician who served as President of Austria from 1992 to his death in 2004. He was elected in 1992 and re-elected into office in 1998.
Biography until 1992
Born in Vienna to a working class family — his father was a tramway employee — Klestil went to school in Landstraße where he made friends with Joe Zawinul. He studied at the Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration and received his doctorate in 1957. After entering the civil service he worked in Austria as well as abroad, e.g. for OECD. In 1969, he established the Austrian consulate-general in Los Angeles, where he befriended Arnold Schwarzenegger. Fluent in English, Klestil was the Austrian ambassador to the United Nations (1978–1982) and Ambassador to the United States (1982–1987) prior to his election as president.
Presidency
After being nominated by the conservative Austrian People's Party to run for Federal President, he succeeded Kurt Waldheim on 8 July 1992. However, in the course of his two terms of office, Klestil's alienation from his own party became increasingly obvious, so much so that there was open antagonism between Federal Chancellor Wolfgang Schüssel and Klestil when, in 2000, the latter had to swear in the newly formed coalition government with Jörg Haider's Austrian Freedom Party. Klestil, who during his election campaign had vowed to be an "active" president, repeatedly criticized the Austrian government and, in an interview with a Swiss daily given in 2003, stated that, theoretically speaking, it was in his power to dismiss the government any time he found it necessary to do so. As a matter of fact, the Austrian constitution gives far-reaching powers to the federal president, but these had never been exercised by any of Klestil's predecessors.
Support of Kiryat Mattersdorf
Klestil gave his support to the development of Kiryat Mattersdorf, a Haredi Jewish neighborhood in northern Jerusalem founded by the Mattersdorfer Rav, Rabbi Shmuel Ehrenfeld, in 1959 in memory of the Siebengemeinden (Seven Communities) of Burgenland that were destroyed in the Holocaust, Mattersdorf being one of them. Ehrenfeld's son, Rabbi Akiva Ehrenfeld, who served as president of the neighborhood, established close ties with the Austrian government to obtain funding for several institutions, including a kindergarten and the Neveh Simcha nursing home. Following Klestil's official state visit to Israel in 1994, which included a side tour of Kiryat Mattersdorf, Klestil hosted Ehrenfeld at an official reception at the Hofburg Palace in Vienna on 24 January 1995.
Personal
Klestil met his future wife Edith Wielander (1932–2011) at the age of 17 in 1949. The marriage took place in 1957 and until the election as Austrian president in 1992, the couple had three children together. The couple separated in 1994, when Klestil made public that he had a love affair with diplomat Margot Löffler. The couple divorced in September 1998, and Klestil married Löffler three months later. When Klestil died in 2004, Edith attended the funeral service.
Klestil suffered from health issues related to his lungs, including a serious illness in 1996.
Death and burial
On 5 July 2004, three days before he was to leave office, he suffered a heart attack or heart failure, probably caused by his long-term lung problems, and was left in critical condition. He died on 6 July at 23:33 local time at the AKH (Allgemeines Krankenhaus – General Hospital) in Vienna from multiple organ failure.
On 10 July 2004, the funeral service was held in St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna, and he was interred in the presidential crypt at Vienna's Central Cemetery (Zentralfriedhof). Among the notable dignitaries who attended his funeral were Russian president Vladimir Putin, former Austrian president and UN secretary-general Kurt Waldheim, and Austrian-born Governor of California Arnold Schwarzenegger. Klestil was the fifth president of Austria to die in office since 1950.
Honours and awards
: Great Star of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (20 December 1992)
: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (27 January 1993)
: Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (22 February 1994)
: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Michael and St. George
: Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav (8 April 1996)
: Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (5 February 1997)
: Knight of the Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (8 July 1997)
: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (21 August 1998)
: Order of the White Eagle (23 September 1998)
: Grand Cross (or 1st Class) of the Order of the White Double Cross (1 November 1998)
: Collar of the Order of the Star of Romania (22 January 1999)
: Knight Grand Cross of the Grand Order of King Tomislav ("For outstanding contribution to the promotion of friendship and development co-operation between the Republic of Croatia and the Republic of Austria." – 2 March 2001)
Grand Gold Medal with Star for services to the city of Vienna (3 October 2002)
: Order of the Athir (13 March 2003)
References
External links
Official homepage of the Austrian president
Biography, time table & speeches in German
1932 births
2004 deaths
20th-century Austrian people
Presidents of Austria
Austrian diplomats
Ambassadors of Austria to the United States
Vienna University of Economics and Business alumni
Burials at the Vienna Central Cemetery
Permanent Representatives of Austria to the United Nations
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
Knights Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Recipients of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
First Class of the Order of the Star of Romania
Austrian people of Slavic descent
People from Landstraße
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 1st class | [
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242319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca%20Romijn | Rebecca Romijn | Rebecca Alie O'Connell (née Romijn ( ; ); born November 6, 1972) is an American actress and former model. She is known for her role as Mystique in the trilogy of the X-Men film series, as Joan from The Punisher (2004) (both of which are based on Marvel Comics), and the dual roles of Laure Ash and Lily Watts in Femme Fatale (2002). She has also had recurring roles as Alexis Meade on the television series Ugly Betty and as Number One on Star Trek: Discovery and Star Trek: Strange New Worlds. Her other major roles include Eve Baird on the TNT series The Librarians, voicing Lois Lane in the DC Animated Movie Universe (from The Death of Superman until Justice League Dark: Apokolips War), and as the host of the reality competition show Skin Wars.
Early life
Romijn was born on November 6, 1972, in Berkeley, California. Her mother, Elizabeth Romijn (née Kuizenga), is a community college instructor of English as a Second Language (ESL) and textbook author. Rebecca's father, Jaap Romijn, is a custom furniture maker. Her father is a native of Barneveld, the Netherlands, while her mother is an American of Dutch and English ancestry. Her mother met Rebecca's father as a teenager while living in the Netherlands on a student exchange program. Romijn's maternal grandfather, Henry Bernard Kuizenga, was a Presbyterian minister and seminary professor.
On The Ellen DeGeneres Show, when questioned about always being glamorous and beautiful, Romijn revealed that in her early teens, she was in fact an insecure "drama geek" and that, as a result of her growth spurt, she suffered from scoliosis and was constantly in pain. Many sources say that she was once nicknamed the "Jolly Blonde Giant" because of her height, but she has admitted to making that up "for a laugh". While studying music (Voice) at the University of California, Santa Cruz, she became involved with fashion modeling and eventually moved to Paris, where she lived for more than three years.
Career
Among other jobs, Romijn started her modeling career in 1991. She has appeared on the covers of American, French, Spanish, Russian and Swedish editions of Elle, Marie Claire, American, Italian, Spanish, German, Portuguese, Russian, Greek, and Mexican editions of Cosmopolitan, Allure, Glamour, GQ, Esquire, and Sports Illustrated.
She has appeared in advertising campaigns for Escada, Christian Dior, La Perla, Tommy Hilfiger, Furla, Liz Claiborne, J. Crew, Victoria's Secret, bebe, La Senza, Dillard's, Pantene, Got Milk?, Miller Lite, and Maybelline. She has walked for Giorgio Armani, Sonia Rykiel, and Anna Molinari along with the likes of Claudia Schiffer, Stephanie Seymour, Karen Mulder, Kate Moss, Naomi Campbell, Linda Evangelista, Cindy Crawford, Helena Christensen and Christy Turlington. She was also the host of MTV's House of Style from 1998 to 2000. Romijn has been featured numerous times in annual lists of the world's most beautiful women by publications such as Maxim (2003–2007), AskMen.com (2001–2003, 2005–2006), and FHM (2000–2005). She appeared as a guest in the animated talk show Space Ghost Coast to Coast episode "Chinatown".
In 2000's X-Men, Romijn had her first major movie role as Mystique; she returned to the role in 2003's sequel X2 and for X-Men: The Last Stand (2006). In these films, her costume consisted of blue makeup and some strategically placed prosthetics on her otherwise nude body. In X2 she shows up in a bar in one scene in her "normal" look and in X-Men: The Last Stand, as a dark-haired "de-powered" Mystique. The role has since been recast with Jennifer Lawrence playing the younger version of the character. She had her first leading role in Brian De Palma's Femme Fatale (2002). She also has starred in movies such as Rollerball, The Punisher playing a woman named Joan (Joan and Mystique are both characters from Marvel Comics) and Godsend. She played the leading role in Pepper Dennis, a short-lived TV series on The WB Television Network.
In January 2007, Romijn made her first appearance on the ABC series Ugly Betty as a full-time regular cast member. She played Alexis Meade, a transgender woman and the sister of lead character Daniel Meade. In April 2008, it was reported that Romijn would only be appearing as a recurring character in Season 3 due to a change in direction by the writing staff (aligning with Romijn's pregnancy, which would have been inconsistent with her character's storyline). In November 2007, Romijn made a guest appearance on the ABC series Carpoolers, where she played the ex-wife of the character Laird, played by her real-life husband Jerry O'Connell.
Romijn starred in the ABC series Eastwick, reuniting her with her former Pepper Dennis co-star, Lindsay Price, before ABC canceled the show on November 9, 2009. She appears in an uncredited cameo in the 2011 feature film X-Men: First Class, appearing as an older version of the character played by Jennifer Lawrence. Romijn appeared as lab worker Jessie on the Adult Swim live-action show NTSF:SD:SUV:: for two seasons.
Between June and September 2013, she starred in TNT's series King & Maxwell as Michelle Maxwell, a former Secret Service agent who works as a private investigator.
In addition to her film ventures, Romijn has also recorded music, performing a cover of Prince's "Darling Nikki" for the 2005 album Electro Goth Tribute to Prince. She was also featured on the song "Color Me Love" for RuPaul's eighth studio album Realness in 2015.
She starred as Eve Baird, the guardian of the eponymous group in The Librarians, a direct spin-off of The Librarian film series. She also hosted GSN's original series and reality show Skin Wars and voiced Lois Lane in the latest movie in the DC Universe Animated Original Movies, an adaptation of The Death of Superman. In 2019, she was a recurring character in the second season of Star Trek: Discovery, playing the role of Number One, first officer of the USS Enterprise. She is set to reprise the role in the spin-off series Star Trek: Strange New Worlds, which is currently filming and slated for release in 2022.
Personal life
Romijn began dating actor John Stamos in 1994, after they met at a Victoria's Secret fashion show in which she was modeling. Romijn and Stamos became engaged on Christmas Eve 1997, and they married on September 19, 1998, at the Beverly Hills Hotel. During the marriage, she used the name Rebecca Romijn-Stamos in both her personal and professional life. The couple announced their separation in April 2004. Stamos filed for divorce in August 2004, and it became final on March 1, 2005.
Romijn subsequently resumed using only her maiden name, but revealed in an August 2013 interview on Conan that she had never legally changed her name back from Romijn-Stamos after a Conan staff member noticed "Romijn-Stamos" on her driver's license.
In 2004, Romijn started dating actor Jerry O'Connell. They became engaged in September 2005, and married at their home in Calabasas, California, on July 14, 2007. Romijn and O'Connell have twin daughters born in 2008.
Filmography
Film
Television
Other work
Awards and nominations
References
External links
Rebecca Romijn at the Music Television
1972 births
American female models
American film actresses
American people of Dutch descent
American people of English descent
American television actresses
American voice actresses
Berkeley High School (Berkeley, California) alumni
Living people
Actresses from Berkeley, California
University of California, Santa Cruz alumni
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses | [
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242324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Dolben | John Dolben | John Dolben (1625–1686) was an English priest and Church of England bishop and archbishop.
Life
Early life
He was the son of William Dolben (died 1631), prebendary of Lincoln and bishop-designate of Gloucester, and Elizabeth Williams, niece of John Williams, Archbishop of York. The leading judge Sir William Dolben was his brother.
He was educated at Westminster School under Richard Busby and at Christ Church, Oxford. He fought on the Royalist side at the Battle of Marston Moor, in 1644, and in the defence of York, and was wounded twice. By 1646, like most of the Royalists, he had abandoned all hope of victory and resumed his studies.
Subsequently, he took orders and maintained in private the proscribed Anglican service; during these years he lived at St Aldates, Oxford, home of his wife's father Ralph Sheldon, brother of the future Archbishop Sheldon.
Bishop
At the Restoration, he became canon of Christ Church (1660) and prebendary of St Paul's, London (1661), no doubt partly due to the influence of Sheldon, now Bishop of London. As Dean of Westminster (1662–1683), he opposed an attempt to bring the abbey under diocesan rule. His charm, eloquence, generosity and frankness gained him enormous popularity. in 1664 he was appointed Clerk of the Closet (until 1668) and in 1666 was made Bishop of Rochester. The fall of his friend Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon the next year is said to have caused him to be in temporary disgrace, but he was quickly restored to favour. In 1675 he was appointed Lord High Almoner and in 1683 he was made Archbishop of York; he distinguished himself by reforming the discipline of the cathedrals in these dioceses. He was the first president of the Corporation of the Sons of the Clergy when it received its Royal Charter in 1678.
Death and family
At Easter 1686, returning to York from London, he came into contact with a smallpox victim, caught the infection and died a few days later. His last months are said to have been greatly troubled by King James II's attempts to re-establish the Roman Catholic faith.
He married Catherine Sheldon, a niece of Gilbert Sheldon, Archbishop of Canterbury; her father was Ralph Sheldon of Stanton, Staffordshire. He had two sons, Gilbert, judge of the Court of Common Pleas (Ireland) and first of the Dolben baronets, and John Dolben, a well-known politician. A daughter named Catherine died in infancy. From a letter Gilbert wrote in 1691 it seems that the Archbishop was much troubled in his last years by John's profligate behaviour: he was a confirmed gambler who went through all his money, and then lost the fortune he had gained by marriage to the heiress Elizabeth Mulso. His uncle the judge disinherited him, and by 1691 his wife and children were living on the charity of friends. According to Gilbert, his father's enemies happily seized on this family tragedy as evidence that the Archbishop was a bad or neglectful parent.
All descriptions of him agree that he was a man of commanding appearance, tall, handsome and dark, but inclined to fat.
The Archbishop Dolben cup presented at the York International 9s rugby league festival is named after John Dolben.
In literature
John Dryden, in Absalom and Achitophel, gave a portrait of Dolben:
"Him of the Western dome, whose weighty sense
Flows in fit words and heavenly eloquence".
References
1625 births
1686 deaths
People educated at Westminster School, London
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Cavaliers
Bishops of Rochester
Deans of Westminster
Doctors of Divinity
17th-century Anglican archbishops
Archbishops of York
Fellows of the Royal Society
Clerks of the Closet
17th-century Church of England bishops | [
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242325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Ebert | Friedrich Ebert | Friedrich Ebert (; 4 February 187128 February 1925) was a German politician of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and the first president of Germany from 1919 until his death in office in 1925.
Ebert was elected leader of the SPD on the death in 1913 of August Bebel. In 1914, shortly after he assumed leadership, the party became deeply divided over Ebert's support of war loans to finance the German war effort in World War I. A moderate social democrat, Ebert was in favour of the Burgfrieden, a political policy that sought to suppress squabbles over domestic issues among political parties during wartime in order to concentrate all forces in society on the successful conclusion of the war effort. He tried to isolate those in the party opposed to the war, but could not prevent a split.
Ebert was a pivotal figure in the German Revolution of 1918–19. When Germany became a republic at the end of World War I, he became its first chancellor. His policies at that time were primarily aimed at restoring peace and order in Germany and suppressing the left. To accomplish these goals, he allied himself with conservative and nationalistic political forces, in particular the leadership of the military under General Wilhelm Groener and the right-wing Freikorps. With their help, Ebert's government crushed a number of socialist and communist uprisings as well as those from the right, including the Kapp Putsch, a legacy that has made him a controversial historical figure.
Early life
Ebert was born in Heidelberg in the German Empire, on 4 February 1871, the seventh of nine children of the tailor Karl Ebert (1834–1892) and his wife Katharina (née Hinkel; 1834–1897). Three of his siblings died at a young age. Although he wanted to attend university, this proved impossible due to his family's lack of funds. Instead, he trained as a saddle-maker from 1885 to 1888. After he became a journeyman in 1889 he travelled, according to the German custom, from place to place in Germany, seeing the country and learning fresh details of his trade. In Mannheim, he was introduced by an uncle to the Social Democratic Party, joining it in 1889. Although Ebert studied the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, he was less interested in ideology than in practical and organisational issues that would improve the lot of the workers then and there. Ebert was placed on a police "black list" due to his political activities, so he kept changing his place of residence. Between 1889 and 1891, he lived in Kassel, Braunschweig, Elberfeld-Barmen, Remscheid, Quakenbrück and Bremen, where he founded and chaired local chapters of the Sattlerverband (Association of Saddlers).
After settling in Bremen in 1891, Ebert made a living doing odd jobs. In 1893, he obtained an editorial post on the socialist Bremer Bürgerzeitung. In May 1894, he married Louise Rump (1873–1955), daughter of a manual labourer, who had been employed as a housemaid and in labelling boxes and who was active in union work. He then became a pub owner that became a centre of socialist and union activity and was elected party chairman of the Bremen SPD. In 1900, Ebert was appointed a trade-union secretary (Arbeitersekretär) and elected a member of the Bremer Bürgerschaft (comitia of citizens) as the representative of the Social Democratic Party. In 1904, Ebert presided over the national convention of the party in Bremen and became better known to a wider public. He became a leader of the "moderate" wing of the Social Democratic Party and in 1905 Secretary-General of the SPD, at which point he moved to Berlin. At the time, he was the youngest member of the Parteivorstand (party executive).
Meanwhile, Ebert had run for a seat in the Reichstag (parliament of Germany) several times in constituencies where the SPD had no chance of winning: 1898 Vechta (Oldenburg), 1903 and 1906 Stade (Province of Hanover). However, in 1912, he was elected to the Reichstag for the constituency of Elberfeld-Barmen (today part of Wuppertal). This was the election that also made the SPD the strongest party in the Reichstag with 110 out of a total of 397 members, surpassing the Centre Party. On the death of August Bebel on 13 August 1913, Ebert was elected as joint party chairman at the convention in Jena on 20 September with 433 out of 473 votes. His co-chairman was Hugo Haase.
World War I
When the July Crisis of 1914 erupted, Ebert was on vacation. After war was declared in early August, Ebert travelled to Zürich with party treasurer Otto Braun and the SPD's money to be in a position to build up a foreign organisation if the SPD should be outlawed in the German Empire. He returned on 6 August and led the SPD Reichstag members to vote almost unanimously in favour of war loans, accepting that the war was a necessary patriotic, defensive measure, especially against the autocratic regime of the Tsar in Russia. In January 1916, Haase resigned. Under the leadership of Ebert and other "moderates" such as Philipp Scheidemann, the SPD party participated in the Burgfrieden, an agreement among the political parties in the Reichstag to suppress domestic policy differences for the duration of the war in order to concentrate the energies of the country solely on bringing the conflict to a successful conclusion for Germany. This positioned the party in favour of the war with the aim of a compromise peace, a stance that eventually led to a split in the SPD, with those radically opposed to the war leaving the SPD in early 1917 to form the USPD. Similar policy disputes caused Ebert to end his parliamentary alliance with several left-wing members of the Reichstag and start to work closely with the Centre Party and the Progress Party in 1916. Later those kicked out by Ebert called themselves "Spartacists". Beginning in 1916, Ebert shared the leadership of his Reichstag delegates with Scheidemann. Although he opposed a policy of territorial gains secured through military conquest on the western front (aside from Luxembourg which was German speaking and could be easily incorporated), Ebert supported the war effort overall as a defensive struggle. Ebert experienced the traumatic loss of having two of his four sons killed in the war: Heinrich died in February 1917 in Macedonia, whereas Georg was killed in action in May 1917 in France. In June 1917, a delegation of social democrats led by Ebert travelled to Stockholm for talks with socialists from other countries about a conference that would have sought to end the war without any annexations of territory on the western front except for Luxembourg and giving back most of Alsace and Loraine with blessings from the German government. The initiative failed, however.
In January 1918, when the workers in munition factories in Berlin went on strike, Ebert joined the strike leadership, but worked hard to get the strikers back to work. He was pilloried by a few politicians from the extremist left as a "traitor to the working class", and from the right as a "traitor to the fatherland". Kaiser Wilhelm II and most politicians from both sides considered him an upstanding person and hero for getting them back to work non violently.
Revolution of 1918–19
Parliamentisation
As the war continued, the military Supreme Command (OHL), nominally headed by Paul von Hindenburg, but effectively controlled by his subordinate Erich Ludendorff, became the de facto ruler of Germany. When it became clear that the war was lost in late summer and fall of 1918, Ludendorff started to favour the "parliamentisation" of the German Empire, i.e. a transfer of power to those parties that held the majority in the Reichstag (SPD, Centre Party and Progress Party). The goal was to shift the blame for the military defeat from the OHL to the politicians of the majority parties.
On 29 September 1918, Ludendorff suddenly informed Paul von Hintze, the German Foreign Minister, that the Western Front could collapse at any moment and that a ceasefire had to be negotiated without delay. However, he suggested that the request for the ceasefire should come from a new government sanctioned by the Reichstag majority. In his view, a "revolution from above" was needed. Chancellor Georg von Hertling and Kaiser Wilhelm II agreed, although the former resigned. Scheidemann and a majority of SPD deputies were opposed to joining "a bankrupt enterprise", but Ebert convinced his party, arguing that "we must throw ourselves into the breach" and "it is our damned duty to do it". In early October, the Kaiser appointed a liberal, Prince Maximilian of Baden, as chancellor to lead peace negotiations with the Allies. The new government for the first time included ministers from the SPD: Phillip Scheidemann and Gustav Bauer. The request for a ceasefire went out on 4 October. On 5 October, the government informed the German public about these events. However, there was then a delay, as the American President Wilson initially refused to agree to the ceasefire. His diplomatic notes seemed to indicate that the changes to the German government were insufficient and the fact that Wilhelm II remained head of state was a particular obstacle. Ebert did not favour exchanging the monarchy for a republic, but like many others, he was worried about the danger of a socialist revolution, which seemed more likely with every day that passed. On 28 October, the constitution was changed to transfer power to the Reichstag. At this point, the majority parties of the Reichstag, including Ebert's SPD, were quite satisfied with the state of affairs; what they now needed was a period of calm to deal with the issue of negotiating an armistice and a peace treaty.
"November revolution"
The plans of the new German government were thrown into disarray when a confrontation between officers and crews on board the German fleet at Wilhelmshaven on 30 October set in motion a train of events that would result in a revolution that spread over a substantial part of the country over the next week. Against the backdrop of a country falling into anarchy, the SPD led by Ebert on 7 November demanded a more powerful voice in the cabinet, an extension of parliamentarism to the state of Prussia and the renunciation of the throne by both the Emperor and his oldest son, Crown Prince Wilhelm. Ebert had favoured retaining the monarchy under a different ruler, but at this time told Prince Maximilian von Baden, "If the Kaiser does not abdicate, the social revolution is inevitable. But I do not want it, I even hate it like sin." On the left, the Spartacists (numbering around 100 in Berlin) and a group of around 80 to 100 popular labour leaders from Berlin known as Revolutionary Stewards (Revolutionäre Obleute) prepared for a revolution in the capital.
On 9 November, the revolution reached Berlin as the larger companies were hit by a general strike called by the Spartacists and the Revolutionary Stewards, but also supported by the SPD and the mainstream unions. Workers' and soldiers' councils were created and important buildings occupied. As the striking masses marched on the centre of Berlin, the SPD, afraid of losing its influence on the revolution, announced that it was resigning from the government of Prince Maximilian.
Meanwhile, Prince Maximilian had failed to convince Emperor Wilhelm II, who was at the army headquarters at Spa, Belgium, of the need to abdicate. Wilhelm had resigned himself to the loss of the imperial crown, but still thought he could remain king of Prussia. When Maximilian failed to convince him of the unreality of this belief, he unilaterally and untruthfully announced that Wilhelm had in fact abdicated and that the Crown Prince had agreed to relinquish his right of succession. Shortly thereafter, the SPD leadership arrived at the chancellery and Ebert asked Prince Maximilian to hand over the government to him. After a short meeting of the cabinet, the chancellor resigned and, in an unconstitutional move, handed his office over to Ebert, who thus became Chancellor of Germany and Minister President of Prussia: the first socialist, the second politician and the second commoner to hold either office. Ebert left the government of Prince Maximilian mostly unchanged, but appointed SPD operatives for the Prussian Minister of War and for the military commander of the Berlin area.
Ebert's first action as chancellor was to issue a series of proclamations asking the people to remain calm, stay out of the streets and to restore peace and order. It failed to work. Ebert then had lunch with Scheidemann at the Reichstag and, when asked to do so, refused to speak to the masses gathered outside. Scheidemann however seized upon the opportunity, and in hopes of forestalling whatever the Communist leader Karl Liebknecht was telling his followers at the now-former royal palace, proclaimed Germany a republic. A furious Ebert promptly reproached him: "You have no right to proclaim the Republic!" By this he meant that the decision was to be left to an elected national assembly, even if that decision might be the restoration of the monarchy. Later that day, Ebert even asked Prince Maximilian to stay on as regent, but was refused.
Since Wilhelm II had not actually abdicated on 9 November, Germany legally remained a monarchy until the Emperor signed his formal abdication on 28 November. But when Wilhelm handed over supreme command of the army to Paul von Hindenburg and left for the Netherlands on the morning of 10 November, the country was effectively without a head of state.
An entirely Socialist provisional government based on workers' councils was about to take power under Ebert's leadership. It was called the Council of the People's Deputies (Rat der Volksbeauftragten). Ebert found himself in a quandary. He had succeeded in bringing the SPD to power, and he was now in a position to put into law social reforms and improve the lot of the working class. Yet as a result of the revolution, he and his party were forced to share power with those on the left whom he despised: the Spartacists and the Independents. In the afternoon of 9 November, he grudgingly asked the USPD to nominate three ministers for the future government. Yet that evening a group of several hundred followers of the Revolutionary Stewards occupied the Reichstag building and were holding an impromptu debate. They called for the election of soldiers' and workers' councils the next day with an eye to name a provisional government: the Council of the People's Deputies. In order to keep control of events and against his own anti-revolutionary convictions, Ebert decided that he needed to co-opt the workers' councils and thus become the leader of the revolution while at the same time serving as the formal head of the German government.
On 10 November, the SPD, led by Ebert, managed to ensure that a majority of the newly elected workers' and soldiers' councils came from among their own supporters. Meanwhile, the USPD agreed to work with him and share power in the Council of the People's Deputies, the new revolutionary government. Ebert announced the pact between the two socialist parties to the assembled councils who were eager for a unified socialist front and approved the parity of three members each coming from SPD and USPD. Ebert and Haase for the USPD were to be the joint chairmen. That same day, Ebert received a telephone call from OHL chief of staff Wilhelm Groener, who offered to cooperate with him. According to Groener, he promised Ebert the loyalty of the military in exchange for some demands: a fight against Bolshevism, an end to the system of soldiers' and workers' councils, a national assembly and a return to a state of law and order. This initiated a regular communication between the two that involved daily telephone conversations over a secret line, according to Groener. The agreements between the two became known as the Ebert–Groener pact.
Council of the People's Deputies
In domestic policy, a number of social reforms were quickly introduced by the Council of the People's Deputies under Ebert's leadership, including unemployment benefits, the eight-hour workday, universal suffrage for everyone over the age of 20, the right of farmhands to organise, and increases in workers' old-age, sick and unemployment benefits.
A decree of 12 November 1918 established the Reich Office for Economic Demobilization, with the purpose of carrying the German economy over "to peace conditions". On 22 November 1918, a regulation was issued by the Reich Food Office for election to "peasants' and workers' councils" which were subscribed to "by all agricultural associations". On 23 November 1918, the Reich Office for Economic Demobilization issued twelve regulations which set forth rules governing duration of the working day, sick leaves, paid vacations, "and other aspects of labour relations within the German economy". A decree of the Office for Economic Demobilization made on 9 December 1918 provided that the state governments "should require the communes and communal unions to establish departments for general vocational guidance and for placement of apprentices".
On 23 November 1918, an Order was introduced prohibiting work in bakeries between the hours of 10 p.m. and 6 am. In December 1918, the income limit for entitlement to health insurance coverage was raised from 2,500 to 5,000 marks. The right of free assembly and association, which was extended even to government workers and officials, was made universal, and all censorship was abolished. The Gesindeordnung (servant's ordinance promulgated in Prussia in 1810) was revoked, and all discriminatory laws against agricultural workers were removed. A Provisional Order on 24 January 1919 provided various rights for agricultural workers. In addition, provisions for labour protection (suspended during the war) were restored, and a number of decrees were issued establishing freedom of the press, religious freedom, and freedom of speech, and amnesty of political prisoners. Protections for homeworkers were also improved, and housing provision was increased.
A decree of 23 December 1918 regulated wage agreements, laying down that a wage agreement that had been concluded in any branch of employment between the competent trade union authority and the competent employers' authority had absolute validity, meaning that no employer could enter into any other agreement of his own initiative. In addition, an organisation of arbitral courts was set up to decide all disputes. A decree of 4 January 1919 compelled employers to reinstate their former labourers on demobilisation, while measures were devised to safeguard workers from arbitrary dismissal. Workers who felt that they had been treated unfairly could appeal to an arbitration court, and in case of necessity the demobilisation authorities "had the power to determine who should be dismissed and who should be retained in employment". On 29 November 1918, the denial of voting rights to welfare recipients was repealed.
A government proclamation of December 1918 ordered farmers to re-employ returning soldiers "at their former working place and to provide work for the unemployed", while an important decree was issued that same month in support of Jugendpflege (youth welfare). In December 1918, the government granted provisionally the continuation of a maternity allowance introduced during the Great War, while a decree issued in January 1919 mandated the employment of disabled veterans. A Settlement Decree was issued by the government on 29 January 1919 "concerning the acquisition of land for the settlement of workers on the land" that foresaw "the possibility of expropriating estates over 100 hectares to facilitate settlement". However, only just over 500,000 hectares were freed by 1928, benefiting 2.4% of the farming population.
In addition, Ebert's government got food supplies moving again and issued various decrees related to the promotion of civil aviation and restrictions on firearm possession.
Civil war
In the weeks following the creation of the Council of the People's Deputies, Ebert and the leadership of the SPD sided with the conservative and nationalistic elements in German society (the civil servants, the armed forces, the police, the judiciary) against the forces of the revolution. The latter wanted to eliminate the challenge to the existing order posed by the workers' councils as soon as possible. Yet the majority of those in the workers' and soldiers' councils viewed themselves as supporters of the government. It was only the Spartacists who wanted a dictatorship of the workers. Ebert and Groener worked out a "program" to restore order in Berlin by having army units returning from the Western Front move in and disarm all paramilitary forces from 10 to 15 December. However, after the ten divisions had arrived, rather than remaining as a cohesive force, they dispersed. On 16 December, the Reichsrätekongress (congress of councils) met in Berlin and set the date for elections to the National Assembly for 19 January 1919. However, it also passed a resolution that was aimed at ensuring that the military would be under the strict control of the civilian government, i.e. the Council of the People's Deputies. It also called for a powerful position of the soldiers' councils vis-à-vis the professional officer corps. This was unacceptable to the leaders of the military and the OHL began to establish volunteer regiments in the Berlin area.
Fighting erupted on 24 December on the Schlossplatz in Berlin (the Skirmish of the Berlin Schloss). On 23 December, dissatisfied members of the Navy occupied the chancellery and put the Peoples' Deputies under house arrest. Ebert asked the OHL for help over the phone and troops assembled on the outskirts of the capital. During the night, Ebert then ordered these troops to attack, which they did in the morning of 24 December. When the fighting stopped in the afternoon, the Navy forces held the field, but they returned to their barracks, ending the crisis. As a result of this event, which Karl Liebknecht called "Ebert's Bloody Christmas", the USPD members left the Council of the Peoples' Deputies on 29 December. The next day, SPD members Gustav Noske and Rudolf Wissell took their place and from that point on, government communiques were signed Reichsregierung (i.e. federal government) instead of "Council of the Peoples' Deputies". That same day, the Spartacists severed their remaining links with the USPD and set themselves up as the Communist Party of Germany (KPD).
The week of 5–12 January 1919 became known as "Spartacus week", but historians view this as a misnomer. The "Spartacist uprising" was more an attempt by the Berlin workers to regain what they thought had been won in the November revolution and what they now seemed to be in the process of losing. The trigger was a trivial event: the head of the Berlin police, a member of the USPD, refused to accept his dismissal. The USPD called for a demonstration of solidarity, but was itself surprised by the reaction as hundreds of thousands, many of them armed, gathered in the city centre on 5 January. They seized the newspapers and railway stations. Representatives from the USPD and KPD decided to topple the Ebert government. However, the next day, the gathered masses did not seize government buildings, as the expected support from the military did not materialize. Ebert started to negotiate with the leaders of the uprising, but simultaneously prepared for military action. Noske was made commander of the Freikorps (a right-wing paramilitary organization) and Ebert worked to mobilise the regular armed forces of the Berlin area on the government's side. From 9 to 12 January on Ebert's orders, regular forces and Freikorps successfully and bloodily suppressed the uprising.
President of Germany
In the first German presidential election, held on 11 February 1919, five days after the Nationalversammlung (constituent assembly) convened in Weimar, Ebert was elected as provisional president of the German Republic. He remained in that position after the new constitution came into force and was sworn in as Reichspräsident on 21 August 1919. He was Germany's first-ever democratically elected head of state, and was also the first commoner, the first social democrat, the first civilian, and the first person from a proletarian background to hold that position. In the whole time of the unified German Reich's existence from 1871 to 1945, he was also the only head of state who was unequivocally committed to democracy.
One of Ebert's first tasks as president was to deal with the Treaty of Versailles. When the treaty's terms became public on 7 May 1919, it was cursed by Germans of all political shades as an onerous "Diktat", particularly because Germany had essentially been handed the treaty and told to sign without any negotiations. Ebert himself denounced the treaty as "unrealizable and unbearable". However, Ebert was well aware of the possibility that Germany would not be in a position to reject the treaty. He believed that the Allies would invade Germany from the west if Germany refused to sign. To appease public opinion, he asked Hindenburg if the army was capable of holding out if the Allies renewed hostilities. He promised to urge rejection of the treaty if there was even the remote possibility that the army could make a stand. Hindenburg, with some prodding from Groener, concluded that the army was not capable of resuming the war even on a limited scale. Rather than tell Ebert himself, he dispatched Groener to deliver the Army's conclusion to the president. Ebert thus advised the National Assembly to approve the treaty, which it did by a large majority on 9 July.
The government's fight against Communist forces, as well as recalcitrant socialists, went on after Ebert became president. From January to May 1919, in some areas through the summer, civil war in Germany continued. Since 19 January elections had returned a solid majority for the democratic parties (SPD, Zentrum, and DDP), Ebert felt that the revolutionary forces had no legitimacy left. He and Noske now used the same forces they had earlier employed in Berlin on a national scale to dissolve the workers' councils and to restore law and order.
In March 1920, during the right-wing Kapp Putsch by some Freikorps elements, the government, including Ebert, had to flee from Berlin. However, a refusal by civil servants to accept the self-declared government and a general strike called by the legitimate cabinet led to the collapse of the putsch. After it ended, striking workers in the Ruhr region refused to return to work. Led by members of the USPD and the KPD, they presented an armed challenge to the authority of the government. The government then sent Reichswehr and Freikorps troops to quell the Ruhr Uprising by force.
To avoid an election campaign at a critical time, the Reichstag extended his term of office on 24 October 1922 until 25 June 1925, with a qualified majority vote that changed the constitution.
As president, Ebert appointed centre-right figures like Wilhelm Cuno and Hans Luther as Chancellor and made rigorous use of his wide-ranging powers under Article 48 of the Weimar constitution. For instance, he used Article 48 powers to deal with the Kapp Putsch and the Beer Hall Putsch. Through 1924, he used the presidency's emergency powers a total of 134 times.
After the civil war, he changed his politics to a "policy of balance" between the left and the right, between the workers and the owners of business enterprises. In that endeavor, he followed a policy of brittle coalitions. This resulted in some problems, such as the acceptance, during the crisis of 1923, by the SPD of longer working hours without extra compensation while the conservative parties ultimately rejected the other element of the compromise, the introduction of special taxes for the rich.
Death
Ebert suffered from gallstones and frequent bouts of cholecystitis. Vicious attacks by Ebert's right-wing adversaries, including slander and ridicule, were often condoned or even supported by the judiciary when Ebert sought redress through the court system. The constant necessity to defend himself against those attacks also undermined his health. In December 1924, a court in Magdeburg fined a journalist who had called Ebert a "traitor to his country" for his role in the January 1918 strike, but the court also said that, in terms of strict legalism, Ebert had in fact committed treason. These proceedings prevented him from seeking medical help for a while, as he wanted to be available to give evidence.
Ebert became acutely ill in mid-February 1925 from what was believed to be influenza. His condition deteriorated over the following two weeks, and at that time he was thought to be suffering from another episode of gallbladder disease. He became acutely septic on the night of 23 February and underwent an emergency appendectomy (which was performed by August Bier) in the early hours of the following day for what turned out to be appendicitis. Four days later, he died of septic shock, aged 54.
The Reichspräsident was buried in Heidelberg. Several high-ranking politicians and a trade union leader made speeches at his funeral, as did a Protestant minister: Hermann Maas, pastor at the Church of the Holy Spirit in Heidelberg (which until the 1930s was used by both Lutheran and Catholic congregations). By thus taking part in the obsequies, Maas caused something of a scandal in his church and among political conservatives, because Ebert had been an outspoken atheist (though Ebert was baptised a Catholic, he had officially abandoned Christian observance many years before his last illness).
Friedrich Ebert Foundation
Ebert's policy of balancing the political factions during the Weimar Republic is seen as an important archetype in the SPD. Today, the SPD-associated Friedrich Ebert Foundation, Germany's largest and oldest party-affiliated foundation, which, among other things, promotes students of outstanding intellectual ability and personality, is named after Ebert.
Controversy about the Freikorps collaboration
Ebert remains a controversial figure to this day. While the SPD recognizes him as one of the founders and keepers of German democracy whose death in office was a great loss, others argue that he paved the way for national socialism by supporting the Freikorps and their suppression of worker uprisings.
Ebert effectively allied himself with forces that considered the republic tainted beyond redemption for being associated with the national humiliation of November 1918 and the Treaty of Versailles. They also failed to thank him for working with them in suppressing the more radical leftist groups. As a social democrat, Ebert was considered to be a political enemy by conservative and nationalistic groups. They subsequently claimed that the German working class, supported by the SPD, was responsible for Germany's defeat in World War I. The alleged proof of this Dolchstoßlegende was found in a number of strikes during 1917 and 1918 which had partly disrupted production in the Imperial German armaments industry. The aim of the striking workers and their socialist allies was said to have been to turn the German Empire into a Soviet Socialist Republic. In addition, it had been the majority parties of the Reichstag that formally asked for the ceasefire in October 1918 and it had been the civilian government rather than the military which represented Germany in the ceasefire negotiations of November 1918. Most historians, however, agree that military defeat was inevitable after the U.S. had joined the war against Germany.
Some historians have defended Ebert's actions as unfortunate but inevitable if the creation of a socialist state on the model that had been promoted by Rosa Luxemburg, Karl Liebknecht and the communist Spartacists was to be prevented. Leftist historians like as well as mainstream ones like Sebastian Haffner on the other hand, have argued that organized communism was not yet politically relevant in Germany at the time. However, the actions of Ebert and his Minister of Defense, Gustav Noske, against the insurgents contributed to the radicalization of the workers and to increasing support for communistic ideas.
Although the Weimar constitution (which Ebert signed into law in August 1919) provided for the establishment of workers' councils on different levels of society, they did not play a major part in the political life of the Weimar Republic. Ebert always regarded the institutions of parliamentary democracy as a more legitimate expression of the will of the people; workers' councils, as a product of the revolution, were only justified in exercising power for a transitive period. "All power to all the people!" was the slogan of his party, in contrast to the slogan of the far left, "All power to the (workers') councils!".
In Ebert's opinion only reforms, not a revolution, could advance the causes of democracy and socialism. He therefore has been called a traitor by leftists, who claim he paved the way for the ascendancy of the far-right and even of Adolf Hitler, whereas those who think his policies were justified claim that he saved Germany from Bolshevik excesses.
Literature
Wolfgang Abendroth: "Friedrich Ebert". In: Wilhelm von Sternburg: Die deutschen Kanzler. Von Bismarck bis Kohl. Aufbau-Taschenbuch-Verlag, Berlin 1998, , pp. 145–159.
Friedrich Ebert. Sein Leben, sein Werk, seine Zeit. Begleitband zur ständigen Ausstellung in der Reichspräsident-Friedrich-Ebert-Gedenkstätte, edited by Walter Mühlhausen. Kehrer Verlag, Heidelberg 1999, .
Köhler, Henning: Deutschland auf dem Weg zu sich selbst. Eine Jahrhundertgeschichte. Hohenheim Verlag, Stuttgart/Leipzig 2002, .
Eberhard Kolb (ed.): Friedrich Ebert als Reichspräsident – Amtsführung und Amtsverständnis. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, München 1997, . Containing:
Richter, Ludwig: Der Reichspräsident bestimmt die Politik und der Reichskanzler deckt sie: Friedrich Ebert und die Bildung der Weimarer Koalition.
Mühlhausen, Walter: Das Büro des Reichspräsidenten in der politischen Auseinandersetzung.
Kolb, Eberhard: Vom "vorläufigen" zum definitiven Reichspräsidenten. Die Auseinandersetzung um die „Volkswahl" des Reichspräsidenten 1919–1922.
Braun, Bernd: Integration kraft Repräsentation – Der Reichspräsident in den Ländern.
Hürten, Heinz: Reichspräsident und Wehrpolitik. Zur Praxis der Personalauslese.
Richter, Ludwig: Das präsidiale Notverordnungsrecht in den ersten Jahren der Weimarer Republik. Friedrich Ebert und die Anwendung des Artikels 48 der Weimarer Reichsverfassung.
Mühlhausen, Walter: Reichspräsident und Sozialdemokratie: Friedrich Ebert und seine Partei 1919–1925.
Mühlhausen, Walter:Friedrich Ebert 1871–1925. Reichspräsident der Weimarer Republik. Dietz, Bonn 2006, . (Rezension von Michael Epkenhans In: Die Zeit. 1 February 2007)
Mühlhausen, Walter: Die Republik in Trauer. Der Tod des ersten Reichspräsidenten Friedrich Ebert. Stiftung Reichspräsident-Friedrich-Ebert-Gedenkstätte, Heidelberg 2005, .
See also
Ebert–Groener pact
President Friedrich Ebert Memorial
References
External links
President Friedrich Ebert Memorial in Heidelberg
Friedrich Ebert on the First Post-Imperial German Government, Statement of 10 November 1918
President Friedrich Ebert's Address to the German Assembly, 7 February 1919
President Friedrich Ebert's Address to the German Assembly, 11 February 1919
1871 births
1925 deaths
20th-century presidents of Germany
20th-century Chancellors of Germany
German people of World War I
Politicians from Heidelberg
People from the Grand Duchy of Baden
Social Democratic Party of Germany politicians
Presidents of Germany
Chancellors of Germany
Members of the Council of the People's Deputies
Members of the 13th Reichstag of the German Empire
Members of the Weimar National Assembly
Prussian politicians
German anti-communists
German atheists | [
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242328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Hammond | Henry Hammond | Henry Hammond (18 August 1605 – 25 April 1660) was an English churchman, who supported the Royalist cause during the English Civil War.
Early life
He was born at Chertsey in Surrey on 18 August 1605, the youngest son of John Hammond (c. 1555–1617), physician to the royal household under King James I, who purchased the site of Chertsey Abbey in Surrey in 1602. His brother was Judge Thomas Hammond, a regicide of King Charles I. He was educated at Eton College, and from age 13 at Magdalen College, Oxford, becoming demy or scholar in 1619. On 11 December 1622 he graduated B.A. (M.A. 30 June 1625, B.D. 28 January 1634, and D.D. in March 1639), and in 1625 was elected a fellow of the college. He took Holy Orders in 1629, and in 1633 in preaching before the court, standing in for Accepted Frewen, he won the approval of Robert Sidney, 2nd Earl of Leicester, and was presented with the living of Penshurst in Kent. His mother kept house for him, and aided him in parochial work. He undertook the education of William Temple, and supported the education of the antiquary William Fulman.
Royalist cleric
In 1640 he became a member of convocation, and was present at the passing of Laud's new canons. Soon after the meeting of the Long parliament, the committee for depriving scandalous ministers summoned Hammond, but he declined to leave Penshurst. He was nominated one of the Westminster Assembly, by Philip Wharton, 4th Baron Wharton. In 1643 he was made Archdeacon of Chichester, recommended by Brian Duppa. Instead of sitting in the Assembly, he took part in the unsuccessful rising at Tonbridge in favour of King Charles I: Hammond helped to raise a troop of horse in his neighbourhood for the King's service, and was obliged to flee in disguise for Oxford, then the royal headquarters. He left Penshurst by night in July for the house of a friend, Thomas Buckner, who had been his tutor at Magdalen. Here he was joined by an old friend, John Oliver. When they had to move on, the two set off for Winchester, then held by the Royalists. On their journey a messenger announced to Oliver that he had been chosen President of Magdalen, and Hammond accompanied him to Oxford. Hammond procured rooms in his own college, and devoted himself to study and writing. In 1644 he published anonymously his popular Practical Catechism. One of Charles I's last acts at Carisbrooke Castle was to entrust to Sir Thomas Herbert a copy of the book, to give to his son Henry, Duke of Gloucester.
Hammond was chaplain to the royal commissioners at the Treaty of Uxbridge (30 January 1645), where he disputed with Richard Vines, one of the parliamentary envoys. He returned to Oxford, and about 17 March 1645 Charles I bestowed upon him a canonry at Christ Church; the university chose him to be public orator at the same time, and he was made one of the royal chaplains. On 26 April 1646 the King fled from Oxford, and Oxford surrendered (24 June 1646). Charles I, on 31 January 1647, the day after his arrival at Holmby House, requested Parliament to allow Hammond and another chaplain to attend him. This was refused on the ground that neither of them had taken the Solemn League and Covenant. When Charles I was removed by the army to Childersley (5 June 1647), Thomas Fairfax and his officers agreed that Charles I's request for his chaplains should be complied with. About a fortnight later Hammond and Gilbert Sheldon, another royal chaplain, in company with James Stewart, 1st Duke of Richmond, joined the king. Parliament sent an order for their removal, but the army, now independent in its power, paid no attention. The chaplains were summoned to the bar of the house, but disregarded the summons. Fairfax wrote deprecating the notion that they would prejudice the peace of the state. At Woburn, Caversham, and Hampton Court, Hammond was constantly with the king.
At Hampton Court Hammond introduced to him his nephew, Colonel Robert Hammond, soon to be governor of the Isle of Wight. Charles I, thinking he might trust his chaplain's nephew, escaped towards the Isle of Wight (12 November 1647), and was placed by the governor in Carisbrooke Castle, where Sheldon and Hammond again joined him. At Christmas 1647 they were removed from their attendance. Hammond returned to Oxford, where parliamentary visitors had been at work. Samuel Fell, dean of Christ Church, was in prison. Hammond, appointed sub-dean of Christ Church, took on the management of the college. He was soon summoned before the visitors at Merton College, and refused to submit to their authority, and was deprived and imprisoned, together with Sheldon, by an order of Parliament. Edward Corbet, a member of the Westminster Assembly, who succeeded to Hammond's canonry at Christ Church in January 1648, resigned it in August, after persuading himself (it is said) that Hammond had acted on principle. Colonel Evelyn, the puritan governor of Wallingford Castle, to whom Parliament sent an order for the custody of Sheldon and Hammond, declined to act as their gaoler, and said that he would only receive them as friends.
At Westwood Hammond settled for the remainder of his life. In August 1651 he attended Pakington to the royal camp at Worcester, and had an interview with King Charles II. Pakington was taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester, 3 September but soon returned home uninjured. In 1655 an ordinance was issued forbidding the ejected clergy to act as schoolmasters or private chaplains, or perform any clerical functions, thus depriving them of all means of subsistence. Hammond and others were much involved in supporting clergy in this position. In the last six years of his life his health began to fail.
Death and reputation
Hammond died of an attack of stone on 25 April 1660, the day that Parliament voted that the king should be brought back; had he lived he would have been made bishop of Worcester.
He was buried in the family vault of the Pakingtons, in the chancel of Hampton Lovett Church. There is a Latin inscription on his monument by Humphrey Henchman, bishop of Salisbury, and afterwards of London. Hammond left his books to his friend Richard Allestree.
Hammond was held in high esteem even by his opponents. He was an excellent preacher; Charles I pronounced him the most natural orator he had ever heard.
Works
His writings, published in four folio volumes (1674–1684), consist mostly of controversial sermons and tracts; he produced more than 50 separate works.
The Anglo-Catholic Library contains four volumes of his Miscellaneous Theological Works (1847–1850). The best of them are his Practical Catechism, first published in 1644; his Paraphrase and Annotations on the New Testament (1653); and an incomplete work of a similar nature on the Old Testament. His Life by John Fell, prefixed to the collected Works, was reprinted in vol. iv. of Wordsworth's Ecclesiastical Biography.
Hammond was a pioneer Anglican theologian, much influenced by Richard Hooker and Lancelot Andrewes, but also by Arminianism in the form it took in Hugo Grotius, whom he defended in his writings. He was the first English scholar to compare manuscripts of the New Testament. He relied heavily on his readings in patristics, and with James Ussher and Isaak Voss argued in favour of the authenticity of the Ignatian Epistles, which could be read as supporting episcopacy. He was attacked by Salmasius and David Blondel, and defended himself. His defence and celebration of episcopacy as traditional was then followed by many English high church theologians: Miles Barne, Henry Dodwell, Fell, Peter Heylyn, Benjamin Lany, Thomas Long, Simon Lowth, John Pearson, Herbert Thorndike, and Francis Turner.
He read widely, and was a diligent scholar. He translated Blaise Pascal's Provincial Letters in 1657, under the title of Les Provinciales, or the Mystery of Jesuitisme, discovered in certain letters written upon occasion of the present differences at Sorbonne between the jansenists and the molinists, London, Royston, 1657).
Footnotes
References
Attribution:
External links
The Life of The most Learned, Reverend and Pious Dr H. Hammond (2nd edition, 1662), by John Fell
1605 births
1660 deaths
English theologians
Westminster Divines
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
People from Chertsey
People educated at Eton College
Fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford
Archdeacons of Chichester
English male non-fiction writers
Cavaliers
Arminian ministers
Arminian theologians | [
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] |
242330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic%20CD%20interface | Panasonic CD interface | The Panasonic CD interface, also known as the MKE CD interface (for Matsushita Kotobuki Electronics), SLCD or simply Panasonic, is a proprietary computer interface for connecting a CD-ROM drive to an IBM PC compatible computer. It was used briefly in the early 1990s, and is no longer in production.
The interface is similar in physical format to an IDE, and an IDE cable may be used; however, the CD-ROM drive cannot be connected to the IDE bus and must have an interface card. Some SoundBlaster cards were manufactured with a port to connect to the CD-ROM drive with this interface.
FreeBSD supports this interface with "matcd" driver. Linux supports these drives via the sbcd, sbpcd or pcd drivers.
External links
Page written by Theo Markettos, explaining the interface
Panasonic | [
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] |
242333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glory%20%28Buffy%20the%20Vampire%20Slayer%29 | Glory (Buffy the Vampire Slayer) | Glory is a fictional character in the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer portrayed by Clare Kramer. Glory is a God from a hell dimension and was the main antagonist of the fifth season.
Character biography
History
Glorificus (also known as "Glory") is a God from a hell dimension in which she ruled alongside two other deities. Her power and dominion were vast and continued to grow stronger, as did her lust for misery and destruction. She quickly became the most powerful of the three hell Gods. Fearful that Glorificus would seize total control of the dimension for herself, the two Gods aligned and went to war against her. The hell Gods barely defeated her, but, despite their victory, she was too powerful to destroy. They banished her into the earthly dimension, where her essence would be imprisoned in a human child named Ben. Created solely to "contain" her, upon his death as a mortal, Glory would be permanently sealed away.
However, Glory was too powerful to be completely contained within the human vessel. When Ben reached his 20s, Glory began to gain control over Ben for short periods of time, taking the form of a vain, self-centered human female. This female possessed superhuman strength, speed, and invulnerability. Glory's strength was greater than that of any Slayer, vampire, or demon on Earth. But her powers were weak when compared with those she had in her true form. Dark magicks prevent humans from learning that Glory and Ben are the same; even if she transforms right in front of someone, they will have no memory of the incident. The spell does not affect supernatural creatures like vampires and demons. This becomes a recurring joke in the penultimate episode of Season Five, where Spike finds himself repeatedly having to explain that Ben and Glory are the same person, only for people to either misunderstand him or to forget instantly. As Ben and Glory's personalities begin to merge more (see below), the magic weakens until, in the finale, the whole gang can see through it. This human form is Glory's only weakness; if the human vessel containing her is killed, then Glory perishes with him.
Glory's goal is to find the Key, a "mystical energy nexus," which is the only way for her to return to her original dimension. Unfortunately, using the Key will break down the barriers between all dimensions, causing all worlds to bleed into each other and allowing "Hell to reign on Earth." The Key was safeguarded by an ancient group of monks known as The Order of Dagon. When they discovered "The Beast" (Glory) searched for the Key, they chose to hide it. Using ancient magic, they transformed the Key into a human girl. They placed her under the protection of the Slayer Buffy, altering the memories of the Slayer and anyone connected to her into believing the girl was Buffy's younger sister Dawn. Glory eventually destroyed the Order of Dagon. The last monk of the order was taken prisoner and interrogated by Glory and later rescued by Buffy. Before the monk died from his wounds, he revealed to Glory (under torture) that the Key had been transformed, but not what the Key had become. After being rescued by Buffy, the monk revealed to Buffy that Dawn was the Key, something she already suspected.
Glory was also opposed by a military order known as the "Knights of Byzantium," composed of knights and clerics. They swore to prevent Glory from using the Key, and they attempted to kill Dawn before Glory could find her. In the episode "Spiral," a large group of knights besieges Buffy and Dawn, but Glory arrives and slaughters nearly all of them, taking the Key with her.
The Key
The Key is an ancient power, an ancient green mystical energy that, according to Glory, "is almost as old as she is." The Key needs to draw on powers from the dimension it's in before being used, which is why it can only be used at a certain time and a certain place. Who or what created the Key or how is unknown; even its true purpose is never fully revealed. The Key seems to work by destroying the barriers that separate one dimension from another. The longer the key is in use, the more the walls of reality begin to break down. When the key is activated, a small portal opens and begins to grow, in which demons, creatures, and entire dimensions begin immediately bleeding through.
Buffy's first confrontation with Glory came shortly after discovering there was something not right about Dawn. Buffy tried to go up against Glory and failed miserably. Glory beat Buffy severely, destroying an entire building in the process. The only thing Buffy did manage to do was escape during a temper tantrum by Glory, which caused the building to collapse, escaping with the last surviving monk who quickly revealed to her the truth about Dawn being the Key and Buffy as her protector.
Sunnydale
Although Glory enters early on in Season 5, the Scooby Gang knows very little about her, only discovering her name from one of Glory's minions. Glory's god-like status, extreme power level, origins, key's true nature, and history are not known until later episodes. Glory comes to Sunnydale looking for "The Key," which will allow her to return to her own dimension. The Key would cause damage to all dimensions, including the dimension Buffy and her friends inhabit, though Glory seems to be unaware or unconcerned of this fact. Glory is not aware of what form the Key has taken, though she knows that Buffy, the Slayer, protects it. For her part, Buffy is not initially aware of the Key's nature either. It is eventually revealed that Buffy's "new sister," Dawn, is the Key, in human form.
She begins the quest to locate the Key, aided by a race of pale, black-eyed demons who are loyal to her almost to a fault, though she does not care for them and viciously abuses them, both verbally and physically, for even the slightest failures. Glory quickly establishes herself as one of Buffy's most dangerous and determined enemies. At one point, she confronts Buffy in her own home, openly threatening to kill Buffy's friends and family and force Buffy herself to watch her do so.
Glory is a god in a human body; the human mind can not control such power, which gradually turns Glory insane. To maintain her sanity and power, Glory feeds off humans' mental energies by a process that Buffy and her friends refer to as "brain-sucking." She inserts her fingers into the victim's head, absorbing the energies that bind the victim's mind. The humans that she "devours" in this way become incoherent and mentally unstable; those affected can also see Dawn in her true form. An inexplicable increase follows Glory's arrival in Sunnydale in the number of people with a mental health condition. One of her unfortunate victims is Willow's girlfriend, Tara, who later inadvertently betrays Dawn to Glory. The Scoobies try to run, but Glory still manages to kidnap Dawn shortly afterward.
The Key can only be used at a certain time, and as that time draws near, the power that separates Glory from Ben dissolves. They still inhabit Ben's body separately, but their memories and personalities begin to blur together.
After recovering from a mental breakdown caused by Glory's kidnapping of Dawn, Buffy decides to attack Glory with everything she has: Willow's magic spell to restore Tara's sanity stolen by Glory, at the same time weakening Glory's mind; the Dagon Sphere (a weapon created by the monks that cause physical pain to Glory); Buffy's robot double (the "Buffybot") originally Spike's sex toy; Olaf, The Troll God's Hammer (with which Buffy can beat Glory in battle and severely weaken her albeit temporarily, due to the hammer being a weapon of the gods); and eventually a wrecking ball, commandeered by Xander. Glory is left defeated and significantly weakened, losing her hold on this reality and returning to the form and mind Ben. Buffy then tells Ben to tell Glory to leave Sunnydale and never return. As Buffy walks off, Giles knows that Glory will eventually regain her power and return to get her revenge on Buffy unless Ben is killed, so he smothers Ben to death with his bare hands, ensuring that Glory can never return. Meanwhile, Spike, Giles, and Anya attack her minions. The final spell that opens the rift between dimensions had already been started by one of Glory's disciples - Doc - by cutting Dawn with a knife and making her bleed (the act of which opens a portal to the other dimensions). After killing Doc, Buffy realizes that because the monks created Dawn from her essence, they share the same blood, which means not only Dawn's blood but her own can close the portal, but it would also require her to die (her blood must stop flowing for the gateway to close). After saying goodbye to her sister, Buffy jumps into the opening portal, instantly dying and closing the gateway.
Glory is also referred to as "Glorificus" by her minions and in most textual references, and occasionally as "The Beast" by the monks who created Dawn (although she has nothing to do with The Beast who appeared in Angel, the spin-off series of Buffy the Vampire Slayer).
After Glory's defeat, her final appearance in the series is at the end of the episode "Lessons," as an avatar of the First Evil along with most of the other major villains from the series.
Name
"That Which Cannot Be Named" came into existence before written word, and therefore (as its title implies) has no name. When the hell-god came to this dimension, she was dubbed "Glorificus" or sometimes "Glorifius," names which she shortened to "Glory." She was also known as "the Glorious One" (among many other amusing, groveling titles such as "Her Splendiferousness," "Her Sparkling Luminescence" and "Oh Sweaty-Naughty-Feelings-Causing One") by her demon minions, and as "the Beast" or "the Abomination" by the human priesthood and the Knights of Byzantium. The Scooby Gang and Ben often refer to her by the insulting name of "Hell-Bitch."
According to Jane Espenson, Glory was originally named Cherry.
Powers and abilities
In Season 5, Episode 13, "Blood Ties," the gang begins discussing the Watcher Council's research on Glory. Buffy asks whether or not Glory, as a god, can summon elements like lightning. Giles responds, "Normally, yes, but since she is in human form, her powers are severely limited." During season five the following were demonstrated:
Near-invulnerability: Only a Troll God's hammer was able to do any lasting damage to Glory when used repeatedly. In "Tough Love," Willow's lightning bolts caused her pain, but caused no visible damage, though she comments that Willow's assault "slowed her down". By the time of the season finale, Buffy mentions that Willow was the only one ever successful in actually hurting Glory up to that point. When a building collapses on top of her (see below), she was slowed down, but was unharmed. Similarly, she was unharmed after being hit by a truck.
Superhuman strength: Glory possesses enormous physical strength far beyond that of most, if not all, vampires, demons, or Slayers; in fact, she is considered to be the most physically powerful Big Bad in the series, shown to be able to inflict massive damage on her opponents through pure brute force and physical strength alone. At one point, a building collapses on her after she repeatedly stomps her foot in a temper tantrum over a broken shoe. In "Intervention", she kicked Spike clear across her living room, through a solid wooden door, and to the other end of the room behind said door after losing her patience with him. In "Tough Love", she squeezed Tara's hand to the point where it oozed blood, right before she fed off of her brain. In "Spiral", she punches a hole through the barrier that Willow had previously generated. Even Buffy, with her slayer strength, could barely stand toe-to-toe in a fight of brawl.
Superspeed: Glory's super-speed is depicted as a fast-moving blur that is apparently invisible to the naked eye. This is seen when she pursues Buffy and Dawn immediately after Tara, in her insane state, accidentally reveals that Dawn is the Key.
Brain sucking: The ability to drain the mental energy of humans. This was primarily to maintain her own mental strength, but would also prevent Ben's form from resuming control. Not only does the drain draw out all energy leaving the victims in an insane state, they are also able to visually see the Key's true energy and ultimately become psychically linked to Glory and the Key.
Shroud of illusion: A mystical shroud cast to prevent people from learning that she and Ben were the same person, the origins of which are unclear. It only works on humans; vampires, demons, and other non-humans are immune. She loses this capability in the penultimate episode of Season Five.
Creature identification: The ability to differentiate between vampires and humans and also from any other creature from the Key, as seen in "Intervention", when her minions capture Spike under the mistaken impression that he is the Key. And also when they assume Tara is the Key and Glory quickly identifies she is not.
Omnilingualism: Able to speak and understand any human or demon language. This is known when humans and demons would talk to her in other languages and she would easily be able to interpret and understand.
Magic: In "Shadow", Glory cast an ancient spell that caused an ordinary snake to grow to a massive size and granted it the ability to see the true form of the Key, in addition to making it completely loyal to her. According to Giles, a spell such as that would need enormous levels of magic to perform, and Glory cast it easily.
The extent of Glory's true powers as a hell-god were never revealed or used, though according to Gregor in "Spiral", they were beyond what even her compatriot hell-gods could conceive. She later secures Ben's aid in recapturing Dawn by promising him immortality.
Personality
Clare Kramer says Glory's strength was her lack of self-doubt: "She was completely secure in herself, focused on what she wanted and dedicated to her cause." Her strength was also her downfall; Kramer notes that Glory was unable "to look at more than just herself."
According to Doug Petrie, "Joss very much wanted someone who was like the Joker to Batman. Someone who was just dynamic, charismatic and psychotic and we have all that. And Glory looks a lot better in a hot little red dress than the Joker ever did! We've got it all in Glory."
Servants
Dreg
Jinx
Murk
Slook
Gronx
The High Priest Minion
Doc
Art links
The picture in the living room of Glory's mansion is a copy of Tamara de Lempicka's Group of Four Nudes. The Polish art déco/futurist artist is renowned for being strongly feminist and openly bisexual/lesbian.
In Buffy & Angel: Official Yearbook 2006, Glory was voted number one by fans as "Best Buffyverse Villain", followed by Angelus and the Mayor respectively.
Appearances
Canonical appearances
Glory appeared in 13 canonical episodes:
Season 5: "No Place Like Home" (first appearance); "Family"; "Shadow"; "Checkpoint"; "Blood Ties"; "I Was Made to Love You"; "Forever"; "Intervention"; "Tough Love"; "Spiral; "The Weight of the World"; "The Gift" (killed)
Season 7: "Lessons" (as an incarnation of The First Evil)
Merchandise
The character's popularity prompted Diamond Select Toys to release two unique Glory action figures in 2006 and 2007: one figure is modeled on the character wearing her trademark red dress, and the other features the character dressed in black, as seen in "The Gift". The latter action figure was released as part of a set, with the other figure being Dawn from the same episode.
A maquette of Glory was released as part of Electric Tiki's "Tooned-Up Television" line.
See also
List of Buffyverse Villains and Supernatural Beings
Women warriors in literature and culture
List of women warriors in folklore
References
Buffy the Vampire Slayer characters
Buffyverse characters who use magic
Female characters in television
Television characters introduced in 2000
Fictional characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Fictional characters with superhuman strength
Fictional characters with accelerated healing
Fictional characters with immortality
Fictional goddesses
Fictional characters from parallel universes
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional immigrants to the United States
Female villains | [
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242337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entwicklungsring%20Nord | Entwicklungsring Nord | The Entwicklungsring Nord (Northern development circle) - abbreviated ERNO - was a 1961 joint venture of Bremen-based Weserflug and Focke-Wulf with Hamburger Flugzeugbau to develop parts for rockets and get involved in space activities.
Jet-powered aircraft VFW 614
In 1961 work began on a small, jet-powered aircraft initially styled Erno-61-4. After Weserflug and Focke Wulf formally merged into Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke (VFW) in 1964, the machine was redesignated VFW 614. The draft design was amended to a STOL 40-44 passenger jet with overwing engines, for easier operation from unprepared runways. German government subsidies enabled development to start in earnest in 1966. The first prototype started in August 1968, but then VFW and Fokker of the Netherlands formed a joint transnational holding company.
The prototype flew on 14 July 1971 but crashed next February. Two more prototypes flew in 1972. German, FAA, and French DGA certifications completed in 1974, 1975, & 1976 respectively. The collaborative production arrangements involved Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB) in Germany, Fokker VFW in the Netherlands and SABCA and Avions Fairey in Belgium. The first sale was to Cimber Air, which started commercial flights in November 1975.
The VFW-Fokker alliance affected the VFW 614 negatively, as Fokker needed to sell its competing F27 and F28. National subsidies were diverted to the Airbus program, and the end came for the VFW 614. On 19 August 1977 the nineteenth (including prototypes) and last machine was completed.
Few VFW 614 aircraft remained in use: The German Luftwaffe (Koln/Bonn Flugbereitschaft) continued flying VFW 614 until they finally ceased in 1998. The Luftwaffe machines went on to serve EADS/Airbus at Bremen (one aircraft for fly-by-wire development for the A380), and DLR in Braunschweig for development and research duties – the final flight of the last airworthy VFW 614 was on 7 December 2012.
Space activities
Helios, TD
ERNO participated in several satellite programs mostly being responsible for structure and thermal control, propulsion.
A mechanically very challenging item i.e. the antenna of the German satellite HELIOS was manufactured by ERNO.
Spacelab
The European Space Agency ESA in June 1974 named a consortium headed by ERNO-VFW Fokker (Zentralgesellschaft VFW-Fokker GmbH) to build pressurized modules called Spacelab. British Aerospace, under contract to ERNO-VFW Fokker, built five -long, unpressurized, U-shaped pallet segments.
West Germany provided 53.3% of Spacelab's cost and fulfilled 52.6% of all Spacelab work contracts. ERNO VFW Fokker, in competition with MBB, submitted the winning design, and became the prime contractor for Spacelab. MBB in 1981 took over VFW Fokker. The ERNO plant in Bremen continued as the headquarters for Spacelab design, production management, component testing, and assembly.
COLUMBUS
The Bremen team of the new MBB-ERNO prepared the first COLUMBUS proposal as Prime Contractor based on the experiences gained on Spacelab. As next step MBB-ERNO became a section of Daimler-Benz called DASA (Daimler-Benz Aerospace). Following it became a part of EADS Astrium Space Transportation, then Airbus Defence and Space.
The engineering team for manned space developments is responsible for Columbus operations and maintenance and involved in the development of the NASA Orion program.
The Bremen launcher team was split off and integrated in Airbus Safran Launchers part of ArianeGroup.
Products
Forschungsflugkörper sounding rocket
External links
VFW-Fokker VFW 614 Regional jet
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of Germany | [
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242343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Silverberg | Robert Silverberg | Robert Silverberg (born January 15, 1935) is an American author and editor, best known for writing science fiction. He is a multiple winner of both Hugo and Nebula Awards, a member of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame, and a Grand Master of SF. He has attended every Hugo Awards ceremony since the inaugural event in 1953.
Biography
Early years
Silverberg was born to Jewish parents in Brooklyn, New York. A voracious reader since childhood, he began submitting stories to science fiction magazines during his early teenage years. He received a BA in English Literature from Columbia University, in 1956. While at Columbia, he wrote the juvenile novel Revolt on Alpha C (1955), published by Thomas Y. Crowell with the cover notice: "A gripping story of outer space". He won his first Hugo in 1956 as the "best new writer".
That year Silverberg was the author or co-author of four of the six stories in the August issue of Fantastic, breaking his record set in the previous issue. For the next four years, by his own count, he wrote a million words a year, mostly for magazines and Ace Doubles. He used his own name as well as a range of pseudonyms during this era, and often worked in collaboration with Randall Garrett, who was a neighbour at the time. (The Silverberg/Garrett collaborations also used a variety of pseudonyms, the best-known being Robert Randall.) From 1956 to 1959, Silverberg routinely averaged five published stories a month, and he had over 80 stories published in 1958 alone.
In 1959, the market for science fiction collapsed, and Silverberg turned his ability to write copiously to other fields, from historical non-fiction to softcore pornography. "Bob Silverberg, a giant of science fiction... was doing two [books] a month for one publisher, another for a second publisher, and the equivalent of another book for a magazine... He was writing a quarter of a million words a month" under many different pseudonyms including about 200 erotic novels published as Don Elliott. In a 2000 interview, Silverberg explained that the erotic fiction (published under the pseudonym "Don Elliott")
"... was undertaken at a time when I was saddled with a huge debt, at the age of 26, for a splendid house that I had bought. There would have been no way to pay the house off by writing science fiction ... so I turned out a slew of quick sex novels. I never concealed the fact that I was doing them; it made no difference at all to me whether people knew or not. It was just a job. And it was, incidentally, a job that I did very well. I think they were outstanding erotic novels."
Literary growth
In the mid-1960s, science fiction was becoming more serious and sophisticated. Frederik Pohl, then editing three science fiction magazines, offered Silverberg creative freedom in writing for them. Thus inspired, Silverberg returned to the field that gave him his start, paying far more attention to depth of character development and social background than he had in the past and mixing in elements of the modernist literature he had studied at Columbia.
Silverberg continued to write rapidly—Algis Budrys reported in 1965 that he wrote and sold at least 50,000 words ("call it the equivalent of a commercial novel") weekly—but the novels he wrote in this period are considered superior to his earlier work; Budrys in 1968 wrote of his surprise that "Silverberg is now writing deeply detailed, highly educated, beautifully figured books" like Thorns and The Masks of Time. Perhaps the first book to indicate the new Silverberg was To Open the Sky, a fixup of stories published by Pohl in Galaxy Magazine, in which a new religion helps people reach the stars. That was followed by Downward to the Earth, a story containing echoes of material from Joseph Conrad's work, in which the human former administrator of an alien world returns after the planet's inhabitants have been set free. Other acclaimed works of that time include To Live Again, in which the memories and personalities of the deceased can be transferred to other people; The World Inside, a look at an overpopulated future; and Dying Inside, a tale of a telepath losing his powers.
In the August 1967 issue of Galaxy, Silverberg published a 20,000-word novelette called "Hawksbill Station". This story earned Silverberg his first Hugo and Nebula story award nominations. An expanded novel form of Hawksbill Station was published the following year. In 1969 Nightwings was awarded the Hugo for best novella. Silverberg won a Nebula award in 1970 for the short story "Passengers", two the following year for his novel A Time of Changes and the short story "Good News from the Vatican", and yet another in 1975 for his novella "Born with the Dead".
Later developments
After suffering through the stresses of a major house fire and a thyroid malfunction, Silverberg moved from his native New York City to the West Coast in 1972, and he announced his retirement from writing in 1975. In 1980 he returned, however, with Lord Valentine's Castle, a panoramic adventure set on an alien planet, which has become the basis of the Majipoor series—a cycle of stories and novels set on the vast planet Majipoor, a world much larger than Earth and inhabited by no fewer than seven different species of settlers. In a 2015 interview Silverberg said that he did not intend to write any more fiction.
Silverberg received a Nebula award in 1986 for the novella Sailing to Byzantium, which takes its name from the poem by William Butler Yeats; a Hugo in 1987 for the novella Gilgamesh in the Outback, set in the Heroes in Hell universe of Bangsian Fantasy; a Hugo in 1990 for Enter a Soldier. Later: Enter Another. The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted Silverberg in 1999, its fourth class of two deceased and two living writers, and the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America made him its 21st SFWA Grand Master in 2005.
Personal life
Silverberg has been married twice. He and Barbara Brown married in 1956, separated in 1976, and divorced a decade later. Silverberg and science fiction writer Karen Haber married in 1987. They live in the San Francisco Bay Area. Before the age of 30, Silverberg was independently wealthy through his investments and once owned the former mansion of New York City Mayor Fiorello La Guardia.
Awards
Hugo Awards
Most Promising New Author (1956)
Nightwings (Best Novella, 1969)
Gilgamesh in the Outback (Best Novella, 1987)
"Enter a Soldier. Later: Enter Another" (Best Novelette, 1990)
Locus Award
Born with the Dead (Best Novella, 1975)
Lord Valentine's Castle (Best Fantasy Novel, 1981)
The Secret Sharer (Best Novella, 1988)
Nebula Awards
"Passengers" (Best Short Story, 1969)
A Time of Changes (Best Novel, 1971)
"Good News from the Vatican" (Best Short Story, 1971)
Born with the Dead (Best Novella, 1974)
Sailing to Byzantium (Best Novella, 1985)
Damon Knight Grand Master Award (2003)
Bibliography
See also
References
Further reading
Sandra Miesel, "Dreams Within Dreams" in Darrell Schweitzer (ed.). Exploring Fantasy Worlds: Essays on Fantastic Literature. San Bernardino, CA: Borgo Press, April 1985, pp. 35–42. (On the novel Son of Man.)
External links
1935 births
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American novelists
American alternate history writers
American erotica writers
American fantasy writers
American male novelists
American male short story writers
American science fiction writers
Anthologists
Asimov's Science Fiction people
Columbia College (New York) alumni
Erasmus Hall High School alumni
Hugo Award-winning writers
Jewish American novelists
Jewish American short story writers
Living people
Nebula Award winners
Novelists from New York (state)
Science fiction editors
Science fiction fans
Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees
SFWA Grand Masters
Writers from Brooklyn | [
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] |
242344 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Swedish%20actors | List of Swedish actors | This is a list of Swedish actors:
A, Å, Ä
Anders Åberg (1948–2020)
Lasse Åberg (born 1940)
Eric Abrahamsson (1890–1942)
Maud Adams (born 1945)
Ann-Mari Adamsson (1934–2011)
Georg Adelly (1919–1997)
Edvin Adolphson (1893–1979)
Kristina Adolphson (born 1937)
Knut Agnred (born 1956)
Thecla Åhlander (1855–1925)
Harry Ahlin (1900–1969)
Herman Ahlsell (1919–1994)
Börje Ahlstedt (born 1939)
Nils Ahrén (1877–1928)
Elof Ahrle (1900–1965)
Sven d'Ailly (1892–1969)
Morgan Alling (born 1968)
Malin Åkerman (born 1978)
Ulla Akselson (1924–2007)
Elsie Albiin (1921–2009)
Inga Ålenius (1938–2017)
Hans "Hasse" Alfredson (1931–2017)
Emil Almén (born 1980)
Greta Almroth (1888–1981)
Hanna Alström (born 1981)
Sara Alström (born 1975)
Gabriel Alw (1889–1946)
Lars Amble (1939–2015)
Marianne Aminoff (1916–1984)
Bertil Anderberg (1913–1991)
Torgny Anderberg (1919–2000)
Augusta Anderson (1875–1951)
Bibi Andersson (1935–2019)
Birgitta Andersson (born 1933)
Gerd Andersson (born 1932)
Harriet Andersson (born 1932)
Jörgen Andersson (born 1951)
Kent Andersson (1933–2005)
Morgan Andersson (1934–1977)
Peter Andersson (born 1953)
Tommy Andersson (1962–2013)
Wiktor Andersson (1887–1966)
Kim Anderzon (1943–2014)
Tintin Anderzon (born 1964)
Leif Andrée (born 1958)
Björn Andrésen (born 1955)
Ann-Margret (born 1941) (naturalized American citizen)
Brita Appelgren (1912–1999)
Georg Årlin (1916–1992)
Birgitta Arman (1921–2007)
Per-Axel Arosenius (1920–1981)
Ragnar Arvedson (1895–1973)
Olof Ås (1892–1949)
Birger Åsander (1909–1984)
Tobias Aspelin (born 1968)
Josefin Asplund (born 1991)
Nils Asther (1897–1981)
Anna Åström (born 1990)
Ted Åström (born 1945)
Pernilla August (born 1958)
Ewa Aulin (born 1950)
Eddie Axberg (born 1947)
Einar Axelsson (1895–1971)
B
Inday Ba (1972–2005)
Alice Babs (1924–2014)
Ingrid Backlin (1920–2013)
Johannes Bah Kuhnke (born 1972)
Ida Brander (1857–1931)
Jonas Bane (born 1987)
Carl Barcklind (1873–1945)
Anna-Lisa Baude (1897–1968)
Björn Bengtsson (born 1973)
Filip Benko (born 1986)
Benkt-Åke Benktsson (1907–1957)
Lars-Erik Berenett (1942–2017)
Matti Berenett (born 1971)
Filip Berg (born 1986)
Stina Berg (1869–1930)
Anna-Lena Bergelin (born 1959)
Simon J. Berger (born 1979)
Thommy Berggren (born 1937)
Malin Berghagen (born 1966)
Björn Berglund (1904–1968)
Erik "Bullen" Berglund (1887–1963)
Ingrid Bergman (1915–1982)
Mats Bergman (born 1948)
Patrik Bergner (born 1962)
Kjell Bergqvist (born 1953)
Helena Bergström (born 1964)
Jonas Bergström (born 1946)
Olof Bergström (1919–1984)
Torsten Bergström (1896–1948)
Gösta Bernhard (1910–1986)
Tord Bernheim (1914–1992)
Karin Bertling (born 1937)
Källa Bie (born 1974)
Carl Billquist (1933–1993)
Fritiof Billquist (1901–1972)
Malin Birgerson (born 1968)
Björn Bjelfvenstam (born 1929)
Åsa Bjerkerot (born 1959)
Anita Björk (1923–2012)
Anna Björk (born 1970)
Halvar Björk (1928–2000)
Renée Björling (1898–1975)
Hugo Björne (1886–1966)
Gunnar Björnstrand (1909–1986)
Tehilla Blad (born 1995)
Anna Blomberg (born 1972)
Bengt Blomgren (1923–2013)
Georg Blomstedt (1872–1933)
Astrid Bodin (1903–1961)
Allan Bohlin (1907–1959)
Tomas Bolme (born 1945)
Iwa Boman (born 1944)
Sven Hugo Borg (1896–1981)
Hilda Borgström (1871–1953)
Josephine Bornebusch (born 1981)
Jarl Borssén (1937–2012)
Rolf Botvid (1915–1998)
Sanna Bråding (born 1980)
Daniel Bragderyd (born 1991)
Brasse Brännström (1945–2014)
Gösta Bredefeldt (1935–2010)
Simon Brehm (1921–1967)
Naemi Briese (1908–1980)
Helena Brodin (born 1936)
Helga Brofeldt (1881–1968)
Lena Brogren (1929–2005)
Tomas von Brömssen (born 1943)
Gudrun Brost (1910–1993)
Johannes Brost (1946–2018)
Carl Browallius (1868–1944)
Bo Brundin (born 1937)
Britta Brunius (1912–2000)
John W. Brunius (1884–1937)
Anne-Marie Brunius (1916–2002)
Pauline Brunius (1881–1954)
Ulf Brunnberg (born 1947)
Vilhelm Bryde (1888–1974)
Petra Brylander (born 1970)
Reine Brynolfsson (born 1953)
Bror Bügler (1908–1975)
MyAnna Buring (born 1979)
Margaretha Byström (born 1937)
Oscar Byström (1857–1938)
C
Julia Cæsar (1885–1971)
Peter Carlberg (born 1950)
Margit Carlqvist (born 1932)
Elisabet Carlsson (born 1968)
Elsa Carlsson (1892–1978)
Ing-Marie Carlsson (born 1957)
Janne "Loffe" Carlsson (1937–2017)
Lars Göran Carlsson (born 1936)
Sickan Carlsson (1915–2011)
Thord Carlsson (1931–2005)
Carl Carlswärd (born 1949)
Jakob Cedergren (born 1973)
Gösta Cederlund (1888–1980)
Åke Claesson (1889–1967)
Krister Classon (born 1955)
Nils Olaf Chrisander (1884–1947)
Irma Christenson (1915–1993)
Malin Crépin (born 1978)
Görel Crona (born 1959)
D
Eva Dahlbeck (1920–2008)
Alexandra Dahlström (born 1984)
Gus Dahlström (1906–1989)
Peter Dalle (born 1956)
Bengt Dalqvist (born 1975)
Tage Danielsson (1928–1985)
John Degerberg (1892–1972)
Pia Degermark (born 1949)
Betty Deland (1831–1882)
Suzanna Dilber (born 1976)
Bengt Djurberg (1898–1941)
Fredrik Dolk (born 1961)
Märta Dorff (1909–1990)
Henrik Dorsin (born 1977)
Axel Düberg (1927–2001)
Jörgen Düberg (born 1956)
Julia Dufvenius (born 1975)
Karl Dyall (born 1967)
Sharon Dyall (born 1962)
E
Dagmar Ebbesen (1891–1954)
Agneta Eckemyr (1950–2018)
Rafael Edholm (born 1966)
Tove Edfeldt (born 1983)
Louise Edlind Friberg (born 1946)
Lars Edström (born 1935)
Allan Edwall (1924–1997)
Per Eggers (born 1951)
Lottie Ejebrant (born 1944)
Anders Ek (1916–1975)
Elin Ek (born 1976)
Malin Ek (born 1945)
Anita Ekberg (1931–2015)
Stina Ekblad (born 1954)
Anders Ekborg (born 1960)
Dan Ekborg (born 1955)
Lars Ekborg (1926–1969)
Karin Ekelund (1913–1976)
Bengt Ekerot (1920–1971)
Britt Ekland (born 1942)
Bengt Eklund (1925–1998)
Ernst Eklund (1882–1971)
Jakob Eklund (born 1962)
Mira Eklund (born 1981)
Nils Eklund (born 1927)
Sigge Eklund (born 1974)
Ulf Eklund (born 1951)
Gösta Ekman (1890–1938)
Gösta Ekman (1939–2017)
Hasse Ekman (1915–2004)
John Ekman (1880–1949)
Agneta Ekmanner (born 1938)
Thérèse Elfforss (1823–1905)
John Elfström (1902–1981)
Sten Elfström (born 1942)
Carl-Axel Elfving (1920–1988)
Lena Endre (born 1955)
Lina Englund (born 1975)
Peter Engman (born 1963)
Hans V. Engström (1949–2014)
Malena Engström (born 1967)
Annalisa Ericson (1913–2011)
Eric Ericson (born 1974)
Stig Ossian Ericson (1923–2012)
Sture Ericson (1912–1979)
Siv Ericks (1918–2005)
Jacob Ericksson (born 1967)
Anna Ulrica Ericsson (born 1966)
Anders Eriksson (born 1956)
Charlotta Eriksson (1794–1862)
John Axel Eriksson (born 1978)
Sussie Eriksson (born 1963)
Irma Erixson (born 1937)
Hans Ernback (1942–2013)
Malena Ernman (born 1970)
Suzanne Ernrup (born 1954)
Katarina Ewerlöf (born 1959)
F
Margareta Fahlén (1918–1978)
Åke Falck (1925–1974)
Jonas Falk (1944–2010)
Lauritz Falk (1909–1990)
Niklas Falk (born 1947)
Loa Falkman (born 1947)
Christer Fant (born 1953)
George Fant (1916–1998)
Kenne Fant (1923–2016)
Hampe Faustman (1919–1961)
Rebecca Ferguson (born 1983)
Arthur Fischer (1897–1991)
Emil Fjellström (1884–1944)
Karl Erik Flens (1913–1975)
Thorsten Flinck (born 1961)
Christer Flodin (born 1948)
Barbro Flodquist (1919–1971)
Emil Forselius (1974–2010)
Göran Forsmark (1955–2020)
Maria Franck (1769–1847)
Karin Franz Körlof (born 1986)
Gunnel Fred (born 1955)
Ulf Friberg (born 1962)
Åke Fridell (1919–1985)
Gertrud Fridh (1921–1984)
Per Fritzell (born 1955)
Cecilia Frode (born 1970)
Samuel Fröler (born 1957)
Ewa Fröling (born 1952)
Tilde Fröling (born 1980)
Basia Frydman (1946–2016)
Eva Funck (born 1956)
Georg Funkquist (1900–1986)
Sigge Fürst (1905–1984)
Gert Fylking (born 1945)
G
Claudia Galli (born 1978)
Sven-Eric Gamble (1924–1976)
Moa Gammel (born 1980)
Yngve Gamlin (1926–1995)
Greta Garbo (1905–1990)
Hilding Gavle (1901–1969)
Björn Gedda (born 1942)
Mona Geijer-Falkner (1887–1973)
Göran Gentele (1917–1972)
Ludde Gentzel (1885–1963)
Karl Gerhard (1891–1964)
Inga Gill (1925–2000)
Göran Gillinger (born 1973)
Fanny Gjörup (1961–2001)
Malin Gjörup (1964–2020)
Johan Glans (born 1974)
Anton Glanzelius (born 1974)
Anna Godenius (born 1944)
Marie Göranzon (born 1942)
Göran Graffman (1931–2014)
Matilda Grahn (born 1995)
Wallis Grahn (1945–2018)
Fredde Granberg (born 1970)
Philomène Grandin (born 1974)
Björn Granath (1946–2017)
Lena Granhagen (born 1938)
Kerstin Granlund (born 1951)
Göthe Grefbo (1921–1991)
Åke Grönberg (1914–1969)
Valborg Elisabeth Groning (1890–1970)
Per Grundén (1922–2011)
Stig Grybe (1928–2017)
Nina Gunke (born 1955)
Fredrik Gunnarsson (born 1965)
Björn Gustafson (born 1934)
Björn Gustafsson (born 1986)
Pontus Gustafsson (born 1955)
Robert Gustafsson (born 1964)
Ann-Marie Gyllenspetz (1932–1999)
H
Benny Haag (born 1961)
Martina Haag (born 1964)
Peter Haber (born 1952)
Carl-Einar Häckner (born 1969)
Douglas Håge (1898–1959)
Helge Hagerman (1910–1995)
Gerd Hagman (1919–2011)
Justus Hagman (1859–1936)
Berta Hall (1909–1999)
Cecilia Häll (born 1978)
Nils Hallberg (1921–2010)
Jan "Janne" Halldorff (1939–2010)
Leo Hallerstam (born 1986)
Staffan Hallerstam (born 1957)
Frida Hallgren (born 1974)
Annika Hallin (born 1968)
Johan Hallström (born 1976)
Gustaf Hammarsten (born 1967)
Harald Hamrell (born 1960)
Einar Hanson (1899–1927)
Lars Hanson (1886–1965)
Catherine Hansson (born 1958)
Lena T. Hansson (born 1955)
Maud Hansson (1937–2020)
Thomas Hanzon (born 1962)
Magnus Härenstam (1941–2015)
Ellen Hartman (1860–1945)
John Harryson (1926–2008)
Peter Harryson (born 1948)
Marcus Hasselborg (born 1986)
Jenny Hasselquist (1894–1978)
Ulf Hasseltorp (born 1960)
Hugo Hasslo (1911–1994)
Signe Hasso (1915–2002)
Grete Havnesköld (born 1986)
Julia Hede (born 1962)
Kåre Hedebrant (born 1995)
Johan Hedenberg (born 1954)
Thomas Hedengran (born 1965)
Roland Hedlund (1933–2019)
Gerd Hegnell (born 1935)
Carl-Axel Heiknert (1924–1981)
Agda Helin (1894–1984)
Sofia Helin (born 1972)
Erik Hell (1911–1973)
Thomas Hellberg (born 1941)
David Hellenius (born 1974)
Gunnar Hellström (1928–2001)
Rebecka Hemse (born 1975)
Eva Henning (1920–2016)
Uno Henning (1895–1970)
Anders Henrikson (1896–1965)
Krister Henriksson (born 1946)
Bertram Heribertson (born 1955)
Felix Herngren (born 1967)
Måns Herngren (born 1965)
Olle Hilding (1898–1983)
Gösta Hillberg (1877–1958)
Linnéa Hillberg (1892–1977)
Barbro Hiort af Ornäs (1921–2015)
Ingvar Hirdwall (born 1934)
Keve Hjelm (1922–2004)
Henrik Hjelt (born 1968)
Folke Hjort (1934–1977)
Lars Hjortsberg (1772–1843)
Embla Hjulström (born 1994)
Lennart Hjulström (born 1938)
Niklas Hjulström (born 1962)
Gerhard Hoberstorfer (born 1963)
Anna Hofman-Uddgren (1868–1947)
Erika Höghede (born 1963)
Bo Höglund (born 1948)
Holger Höglund (1906–1965)
Rut Holm (1900–1971)
Britta Holmberg (1921–2004)
Henric Holmberg (born 1946)
Sven Holmberg (1918–2003)
Weiron Holmberg (born 1935)
Sigrid Holmquist (1899–1970)
Karl-Arne Holmsten (1911–1995)
Heinz Hopf (1934–2001)
Jens Hultén (born 1963)
Petra Hultgren (born 1972)
Ebba Hultkvist (born 1983)
Peter Hüttner (born 1945)
Maud Hyttenberg (1920–2009)
I
Yohanna Idha (born 1978)
Tor Isedal (1924–1990)
J
Ulla Jacobsson (1929–1982)
Lennart Jähkel (born 1956)
Adolf Jahr (1893–1964)
Haddy Jallow (born 1985)
Kristina Jämtmark (born 1957)
Ingrid Janbell (born 1955)
Ernst-Hugo Järegård (1928–1998)
Anna Järphammar (born 1968)
Stig Järrel (1910–1998)
Sven Jerring (1895–1979)
Peter Jöback (born 1971)
Stig Johanson (1919–1986)
Ulf Johanson (1922–1990)
Douglas Johansson(born 1960)
Lilian Johansson (born 1948)
Maria Johansson (born 1956)
Pia Johansson (born 1960)
Tor Johnson (1903–1971)
Charlotta Jonsson (born 1973)
Gun Jönsson (born 1929)
Jan-Ove "Jojje" Jönsson (born 1955)
Nine-Christine Jönsson (1926–2011)
Ulrika Jonsson (born 1967)
Erland Josephson (1923–2012)
Inger Juel (1926–1979)
Karin Juel (1900–1976)
K
Ivar Kåge (1881–1951)
Helena Kallenbäck (born 1944)
Anna Kristina Kallin (1953–2004)
Jonas Karlsson (born 1971)
Jonas Karlström (born 1978)
Lo Kauppi (born 1970)
Karin Kavli (1906–1990)
Sam Kessel (born 1989)
Magnus Kesster (1901–1975)
Nils Kihlberg (1915–1965)
Staffan Kihlbom (born 1964)
Jullan Kindahl (1885–1979)
Joel Kinnaman (born 1979)
Melinda Kinnaman (born 1971)
Nadine Kirschon (born 1984)
Felix Kjellberg (born 1989)
Alf Kjellin (1920–1988)
Björn Kjellman (born 1963)
Ingvar Kjellson (1923–2014)
Georg af Klercker (1877–1951)
Elin Klinga (born 1969)
Hans Klinga (born 1949)
Mårten Klingberg (born 1968)
Barbro Kollberg (1917–2014)
Tommy Körberg (born 1948)
Lasse Krantz (1903–1973)
Magnus Krepper (born 1967)
Bianca Kronlöf (born 1985)
Margaretha Krook (1925–2001)
Jarl Kulle (1927–1997)
Maria Kulle (born 1960)
Andreas Kundler (born 1970)
Ann-Sofie Kylin (born 1955)
L
Marika Lagercrantz (born 1954)
Sture Lagerwall (1908–1964)
Inga Landgré (born 1927)
Eivor Landström (1919–2004)
Maria Langhammer (born 1962)
Karin Lannby (1916–2007)
Jörgen Lantz (born 1943)
Babben Larsson (born 1956)
Chatarina Larsson (born 1947)
William Larsson (1873–1926)
Rolf Lassgård (born 1955)
Zarah Leander (1907–1981)
Lina Leandersson (born 1995)
Sofia Ledarp (born 1974)
Tina Leijonberg (born 1962)
Ken Lennaárd (born 1971)
Birger Lensander (1908–1971)
Malin Levanon (born 1977)
Gustav Levin (born 1952)
Carina Lidbom (born 1957)
Anki Lidén (born 1947)
Jessica Liedberg (born 1969)
Rebecka Liljeberg (born 1981)
Marie Liljedahl (born 1950)
Jonna Liljendahl (born 1970)
Leif Liljeroth (1924–2018)
Torsten Lilliecrona (1921–1999)
Dagny Lind (1902–1992)
Anna Lindahl (1904–1952)
Augusta Lindberg (1866–1943)
Sven Lindberg (1918–2006)
Arne Lindblad (1887–1964)
Anita Lindblom (1937-2020)
Gunnel Lindblom (born 1931)
Anders Linder (born 1941)
Viveca Lindfors (1920–1995)
Hans Lindgren (1932–2012)
Lisa Lindgren (born 1968)
Peter Lindgren (1915–1981)
Sten Lindgren (1903–1959)
Irene Lindh (born 1945)
Anna Lindholm (born 1965)
Ebba Lindkvist (1882–1942)
Frej Lindqvist (born 1937)
Jan Erik Lindqvist (1920–1988)
Lasse Lindroth (1972–1999)
Carl-Gustaf Lindstedt (1921–1992)
Pierre Lindstedt (born 1943)
Åke Lindström (1928–2002)
Jörgen Lindström (born 1951)
Marika Lindström (born 1946)
Rune Lindström (1916–1973)
Martin Ljung (1917–2010)
Oscar Ljung (1909–1999)
Sten Ljunggren (born 1938)
Tom Ljungman (born 1991)
Marianne Löfgren (1910–1957)
Oskar Löfkvist (born 1980)
Oliver Loftéen (born 1979)
Bengt Logardt (1914–1994)
Yvonne Lombard (born 1929)
Anders Lönnbro (born 1945)
Ylva Lööf (born 1958)
Tanja Lorentzon (born 1971)
Lotta Losten (born 1981)
Fredrique Löwen (1760–1813)
Holger Löwenadler (1904–1977)
Curt Löwgren (1908–1967)
Oskar A. C. Lund (1885–1963)
Regina Lund (born 1967)
Richard Lund (1885–1960)
Alfred Lundberg (1852–1935)
Nils Lundell (1889–1943)
Gerda Lundequist (1871–1959)
Adam Lundgren (born 1986)
Dolph Lundgren (born 1957)
Anders Lundin (born 1958)
Åke Lundqvist (1936–2021)
Anja Lundqvist (born 1971)
Anton Lundqvist (born 1989)
Maria Lundqvist (born 1963)
Henrik Lundström (born 1983)
Ingrid Luterkort (1910–2011)
M
Lakke Magnusson (1946–2004)
Peter Magnusson (born 1974)
Tova Magnusson (born 1968)
Mona Malm (born 1935)
Claes Malmberg (born 1961)
Dag Malmberg (born 1953)
Siw Malmkvist (born 1936)
Jan Malmsjö (born 1932)
Jonas Malmsjö (born 1971)
Birger Malmsten (1920–1991)
Sune Mangs (1932–1994)
Segol Mann (1918–1992)
Claes Månsson (born 1950)
Mona Mårtenson (1902–1956)
Curt Masreliez (1919–1979)
Ellen Mattsson (born 1973)
Emma Meissner (1866–1942)
Eva Melander (born 1974)
Sven Melander (born 1947)
Börje Mellvig (1911–1998)
Livia Millhagen (born 1973)
Liv Mjönes (born 1979)
Thor Modéen (1898–1950)
Jan Molander (1920–2009)
Karin Molander (1889–1978)
Per Morberg (born 1960)
Hans Mosesson (born 1944)
Jan Mybrand (born 1959)
Per Myrberg (born 1933)
N
Arsi Nami (born 1984)
Måns Nathanaelson (born 1976)
Gull Natorp (1880–1962)
Joakim Nätterqvist (born 1974)
Josefin Neldén (born 1984)
Mimi Nelson (1922–1999)
Gunnar Nielsen (1919–2009)
Lis Nilheim (born 1944)
Carlotta Nillson (1876–1951)
Anna Q. Nilsson (1888–1974)
Bengt Nilsson (born 1967)
Cecilia Nilsson (born 1957)
Inger Nilsson (born 1959)
Kjell Nilsson (born 1949)
Maj-Britt Nilsson (1924–2006)
Ika Nord (born 1960)
Olle Nordemar (1914–1999)
Yngve Nordwall (1908–1994)
Henrik Norlén (born 1970)
Figge Norling (born 1965)
Anna Norrie (1860–1957)
John Norrman (1884–1966)
Simon Norrthon (born 1967)
Bertil Norström (1923–2012)
Tomas Norström (born 1956)
Tuva Novotny (born 1979)
Börje Nyberg (1920–2005)
Jan Nygren (1934–2019)
Lena Nyman (1944–2011)
Michael Nyqvist (1960–2017)
Anders Nyström (born 1933)
O, Ö
Brita Öberg (1900–1969)
Barbro Oborg (born 1941)
Gabriel Odenhammar (born 1983)
Åke Ohberg (1905–1975)
Fredrik Ohlsson (born 1931)
Jan Ohlsson (born 1962)
Warner Oland (1879–1938)
Elisabeth Olin (1740–1828)
Lena Olin (born 1955)
Stig Olin (1920–2008)
Pale Olofsson (born 1947)
Ann-Margret Olsson (born 1941) (aka Ann-Margret) (naturalized American citizen)
Dagmar Olsson (1908–1980)
Gunilla Olsson (born 1947)
Gunnar Olsson (1904–1983)
Ingela Olsson (born 1958)
Amanda Ooms (born 1964)
Thomas Oredsson (born 1946)
Anna Oscàr (1875–1915)
Per Oscarsson (1927–2010)
Klas Östergren (born 1955)
P
Ulf Palme (1920–1993)
Aurore Palmgren (1880–1961)
Adam Pålsson (born 1988)
Bosse Parnevik (born 1938)
Lars Passgård (1941–2003)
Viveca Paulin (born 1969)
Toivo Pawlo (1917–1979)
Mikael Persbrandt (born 1963)
Essy Persson (born 1941)
Edvard Persson (1888–1957)
Mim Persson (1902–1982)
Willy Peters (1915–1976)
Ivan Mathias Petersson (born 1971)
Torkel Petersson (born 1969)
Gio Petré (born 1937)
Ann Petrén (born 1954)
Hjördis Petterson (1908–1988)
Lasse Petterson (1935–2019)
Mimi Pollak (1903–1999)
Gunvor Pontén (born 1929)
Nils Poppe (1908–2000)
Charlotte Pousette (1832–1877)
Mauritz Pousette (1824–1883)
Gösta Prüzelius (1922–2000)
Agneta Prytz (1916–2008)
Q
Isa Quensel (1905–1982)
R
Charlotta Raa-Winterhjelm (1838–1907)
Johan Rabaeus (born 1947)
Per Ragnar (born 1941)
Arne Ragneborn (1926–1978)
Göran Ragnerstam (born 1957)
Örjan Ramberg (born 1948)
Povel Ramel (1922–2007)
Susanna Ramel (1920–2020)
Albert Ranft (1858–1938)
Peter Rangmar (1956–1997)
Noomi Rapace (born 1979)
Ola Rapace (born 1971)
Alexandra Rapaport (born 1971)
Stina Rautelin (born 1963)
Kajsa Reingardt (born 1957)
Eva Remaeus (1950–1993)
Suzanne Reuter (born 1952)
Med Reventberg (1947–2021)
Johan Rheborg (born 1963)
Fridolf Rhudin (1895–1935)
Marie Richardson (born 1959)
Jan Rippe (born 1955)
Annica Risberg (born 1941)
Marie Robertson (born 1977)
Ester Roeck-Hansen (1897–1987)
Harry Roeck-Hansen (1891–1959)
Frida Röhl (born 1971)
Ernst Rolf (1891–1932)
Shanti Roney (born 1970)
Ingeborg Rönnblad (1873–1915)
Gunilla Röör (born 1959)
Bellan Roos (1901–1990)
Magnus Roosmann (born 1963)
Eva Röse (born 1973)
Erik Rosén (1883–1967)
Birgit Rosengren (1912–2011)
Emelie Rosenqvist (born 1980)
Wanda Rothgardt (1905–1950)
Mats Rudal (born 1963)
Teodor Runsiö (born 1995)
Sif Ruud (1916–2011)
Eva Rydberg (born 1943)
Georg Rydeberg (1907–1983)
Edvin Ryding (born 2003)
S
Jesper Salén (born 1978)
Ulla Sallert (1923–2018)
Reuben Sallmander (born 1966)
Johanna Sällström (1974–2007)
Mikael Samuelson (born 1951)
Magnus Samuelsson (born 1969)
Olof Sandborg (1884–1965)
Per Sandborgh (born 1945)
Helena af Sandeberg (born 1971)
Olle Sarri (born 1972)
Stefan Sauk (born 1955)
Rebecca Scheja (born 1989)
Peter Schildt (born 1951)
Christina Schollin (born 1937)
Vera Schmiterlöw (1904–1987)
Michael Segerström (born 1944)
Mona Seilitz (1943–2008)
Concordia Selander (1861–1935)
Hjalmar Selander (1859–1928)
Karl Seldahl (born 1975)
Viveka Seldahl (1944–2001)
Viveca Serlachius (1923–1993)
Håkan Serner (1933–1984)
Victoria Silvstedt (born 1974)
André Sjöberg (born 1974)
Gunnar Sjöberg (1909–1977)
Ulla Sjöblom (1927–1989)
Helen Sjöholm (born 1970)
Vilgot Sjöman (1924–2006)
Sture Sjöstedt (1916–2008)
Arnold Sjöstrand (1903–1955)
Per Sjöstrand (1930–2008)
Victor Sjöström (1879–1960)
Mia Skäringer (born 1976)
Alexander Skarsgård (born 1976)
Bill Skarsgård (born 1990)
Gustaf Skarsgård (born 1980)
Stellan Skarsgård (born 1951)
Valter Skarsgård (born 1995)
Georg Skarstedt (1900–1976)
Björn Skifs (born 1947)
Rolf Skoglund (born 1940)
Thore Skogman (1931–2007)
Helge Skoog (born 1938)
Kristina Söderbaum (1912–2001)
Dora Söderberg (1899–1990)
Åke Söderblom (1910–1965)
Lena Söderblom (born 1935)
Lars Söderdahl (born 1964)
Rolf Sohlman (born 1954)
Sara Sommerfeld (born 1977)
Camilla Sparv (born 1943)
Tord Stål (1906–1972)
Henrik Ståhl (born 1975)
Göran Stangertz (1944–2012)
Mary Stävin (born 1957)
Gaby Stenberg (1923–2011)
Annette Stensson-Fjordefalk (born 1958)
Emy Storm (1925–2014)
Peter Stormare (born 1953)
Hans Strååt (1917–1991)
Charlott Strandberg (born 1962)
Evabritt Strandberg (born 1943)
Jan-Olof Strandberg (1926–2020)
Ingeborg Strandin (1881–1948)
Erik Strandmark (1919–1963)
Anita Strindberg (born 1937)
Anna-Lena Strindlund (born 1971)
Bernt Ström (1940–2009)
Carl Ström (1888–1957)
Ewa Strömberg (1940–2013)
Lena Strömdahl (born 1947)
Lasse Strömstedt (1935–2009)
Ulla Strömstedt (1939–1986)
Katrin Sundberg (born 1962)
Maria Sundbom (born 1975)
Folke Sundquist (1925–2009)
Frank Sundström (1912–1993)
Doris Svedlund (1926–1985)
Siri Svegler (born 1980)
Tore Svennberg (1858–1941)
Bo Svenson (born 1944)
Allan Svensson (born 1951)
Per Svensson (born 1965)
Karin Swanström (1873–1942)
Tobias Swärd (born 1986)
Max von Sydow (1929–2020)
Kari Sylwan (born 1940)
T
Aino Taube (1912–1990)
Mathias Taube (1876–1934)
Sven-Bertil Taube (born 1934)
Tora Teje (1893–1970)
Lotta Tejle (born 1960)
Birgit Tengroth (1915–1983)
Leonard Terfelt (born 1976)
Solveig Ternström (born 1937)
Lil Terselius (born 1944)
Ester Textorius (1883–1972)
Oskar Textorius (1864–1938)
Göran Thorell (born 1954)
Susanne Thorson (born 1981)
Hans-Christian Thulin (born 1977)
Ingrid Thulin (1926–2004)
Olof Thunberg (1925–2020)
Svante Thunberg (born 1969)
Inga Tidblad (1901–1975)
Kerstin Tidelius (born 1934)
Alice Timander (1915–2007)
Ove Tjernberg (1928–2001)
Märta Torén (1925–1957)
Mikael Tornving (born 1961)
Sara Torsslow (1795–1859)
Jenny Tschernichin-Larsson (1867–1937)
Mirja Turestedt (born 1972)
Betty Tuvén (1928–1999)
Jesper Tydén (born 1975)
U
Richard Ulfsäter (born 1975)
Fredrik Ultvedt (born 1961)
Johan Ulveson (born 1954)
Jenny Ulving born 1979)
Bisse Unger (born 1994)
V
Birgitta Valberg (1916–2014)
Matias Varela (born 1980)
Bert-Åke Varg (born 1932)
Meta Velander (born 1924)
Inga-Bodil Vetterlund (1914–1980)
Alicia Vikander (born 1988)
W
Anders de Wahl (1869–1956)
Anna de Wahl (1844–1889)
Gideon Wahlberg (1890–1948)
Nils Wahlbom (1886–1937)
Linus Wahlgren (born 1976)
Niclas Wahlgren (born 1965)
Pernilla Wahlgren (born 1967)
Anita Wall (born 1940)
Sigurd Wallén (1884–1947)
Cissi Wallin (born 1985)
Gunn Wållgren (1913–1983)
Martin Wallström (born 1983)
August Warberg (1842–1915)
Rakel Wärmländer (born 1980)
Bullan Weijden (1901–1969)
Ruth Weijden (1889–1956)
Margreth Weivers (1926-2021)
Öllegård Wellton (1932–1991)
Lisa Werlinder (born 1972)
Kalle Westerdahl (born 1966)
Håkan Westergren (1899–1981)
Meg Westergren (born 1932)
Catrin Westerlund (1934–1982)
Bojan Westin (1926–2013)
Johan Widerberg (born 1974)
Ragnar Widestedt (1887–1954)
Olof Widgren (1907–1999)
Naima Wifstrand (1890–1968)
Hans Wigren (born 1940)
Claire Wikholm (born 1944)
Iwar Wiklander (born 1939)
Andreas Wilson (born 1981)
Carl-Gunnar Wingård (1894–1977)
Frida Winnerstrand (1881–1943)
Olof Winnerstrand (1875–1956)
Signe Wirff (1887–1956)
Lena Wisborg (born 1965)
Rikard Wolff (1958–2017)
Beppe Wolgers (1928–1986)
Christopher Wollter (born 1972)
Sven Wollter (1934-2020)
Y
Sebastian Ylvenius (born 1977)
Z
Ann Zacharias (born 1956)
Sascha Zacharias (born 1979)
Fylgia Zadig (1921–1994)
Jessica Zandén (born 1957)
Philip Zandén (born 1954)
Tollie Zellman (1887–1964)
Hanna Zetterberg (born 1973)
Mai Zetterling (1925–1994)
Monica Zetterlund (1937–2005)
Lili Ziedner (1885–1939)
See also
List of former child actors from Sweden
List of current child actors from Sweden
List of Swedish people
Lists of actors
References
Swedish | [
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242346 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kayseri | Kayseri | Kayseri (; ) is a large industrialised city in Central Anatolia, Turkey. It is the seat of Kayseri Province. The city of Kayseri, if taken as the Kayseri Metropolitan Municipality, is composed of five urban districts: the two core districts of Kocasinan and Melikgazi, and since 2004, also Hacılar, İncesu and Talas.
As of 31 December 2019, the province had a population of 1,407,409 of whom 1,144,265 lived in this city's built-up area identified as four (out of five) urban districts, İncesu not being conurbated (not contiguous, having a largely non-protected buffer zone).
Kayseri is at the foot of the inactive volcano Mount Erciyes that reaches an altitude of , more than 1,500 metres over the city's mean altitude. The city is often cited in the first ranks among Turkey's Anatolian Tigers.
The city retains a number of historical monuments, including several from the Seljuk period. It is commonly visited en route to the international tourist attractions of once-surrounding Cappadocia, centred to the east as has Seljuk and Ottoman era monuments centrally, Mount Erciyes as a trekking and alpinism centre, Zamantı River as a rafting centre. The closest ruins and excavations, often with museums are those of Kültepe, Ağırnas, Talas and Develi as the locality was prosperous part of the Silk Road. Kayseri is served by Erkilet International Airport and is home to Erciyes University.
Etymology
Kayseri was originally called Mazaka or Mazaca (; according to Armenian tradition, it was founded by and named after Mishak) and was known as such to Strabo, during whose time it was the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, known also as Eusebia at the Argaeus (Εὐσέβεια ἡ πρὸς τῷ Ἀργαίῳ in Greek), after Ariarathes V Eusebes, King of Cappadocia (163–130 BC).
The name was changed again by Archelaus (d. 17 AD), last King of Cappadocia (36 BC–14 AD) and a Roman vassal, to "Caesarea in Cappadocia" (to distinguish it from other cities with the name Caesarea in the Roman Empire) in honour of Caesar Augustus, upon his death in 14 AD. This name was rendered as Καισάρεια (Kaisáreia) in Koine Greek, which was the dialect of the later Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, and that name remained in use by the natives (nowadays known as Cappadocian Greek, due to their spoken language, but then referred to as Rûm, due to their previous Roman citizenship) until their removal from modern Turkey in 1924. (Note that letter C in classical Latin was pronounced K.) When the first Turks arrived in the region in 1080 AD, they adapted this pronunciation, which eventually became Kayseri in Turkish, remaining as such ever since.
History
Ancient history
Kültepe, one of the oldest cities in Asia Minor, lies 20 km away.
As Mazaca (), the city served as the residence of the kings of Cappadocia. In ancient times, it was on the crossroads of the trade routes from Sinope to the Euphrates and from the Persian Royal Road that extended from Sardis to Susa during the over 200 years of Achaemenid Persian rule. In Roman times, a similar route from Ephesus to the East also crossed the city.
The city stood on a low spur on the north side of Mount Erciyes (Mount Argaeus in ancient times). Only a few traces of the ancient site survive in the old town.
For Roman and Byzantine eras see Caesarea (Mazaca).
Islamic era
The Arab general (and later the first Umayyad Caliph) Muawiyah invaded Cappadocia and took Caesarea from the Byzantines temporarily in 647. The city was called Kaisariyah () by the Arabs, and later Kayseri () by Seljuk Turks, when it was captured by Alp Arslan in 1067. The forces of the latter demolished the city and massacred its population. The shrine of Saint Basil was also sacked after the fall of the city. As a result, the city remained uninhabited for the next half century. Later, during 1074–1178 the area came under the control of the Danishmendids and rebuilt the city in 1134.<ref name=Vryonis>Speros Vryonis, [https://www.scribd.com/doc/39065646/Vryonis-Decline-of-Medieval-Hellinism-in-Asia-Minor The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century'] (University of California Press, 1971), p. 155</ref> The Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate controlled the city during the period 1178–1243 and became one of their most prominent centers, until it fell to the Mongols in 1243. Within the walls lies the greater part of Kayseri, rebuilt between the 13th and 16th centuries. Kayseri was successively ruled by Eretnids. The city finally became Ottoman in 1515. It was sanjak center initially in Rum Eyalet (1515–1521), finally in Ankara Vilayet (Founded as Bozok Eyalet) (1839–1923).
Thus, there were three golden-age periods for Kayseri. The first, dating to 2000 BC, was when the city was a trade post between the Assyrians and the Hittites. The second golden age came during the Roman rule (1st to 11th centuries). The third golden age was during the reign of Seljuks (1178–1243), when the city was the second capital of the state. The short-lived Seljuk rule left a large number of historic landmarks; historic buildings such as the Hunat Hatun Complex, Kilij Arslan Mosque, The Grand Mosque and Gevher Nesibe Hospital.
Modern era
The Grand Bazaar dates from the latter part of the 1800s, but the adjacent caravanserai (where merchant traders gathered before forming a caravan) dates from around 1500. The town's older districts (which were filled with ornate mansion-houses mostly dating from the 18th and 19th centuries) were subjected to wholesale demolitions starting in the 1970s.
The building that hosts the Kayseri lyceum was arranged to host the Turkish Grand National Assembly during the Turkish War of Independence when the Greek army had advanced very close to Ankara, the base of the Turkish National Movement. Today the city is famous for its carpet sellers.
Geography
Climate
Kayseri has a cold semi-arid climate in the Köppen climate classification (BSk), or a temperate continental climate in the Trewartha climate classification (Dc''). It experiences cold, snowy winters and hot, dry summers with cool nights. Precipitation occurs throughout the year, albeit with a marked decrease in late summer and early fall.
Political structure
The city of Kayseri consists of sixteen metropolitan districts: Akkışla, Bünyan, Develi, Felâhiye, Hacılar, İncesu, Kocasinan, Melikgâzi, Özvatan, Pınarbaşı, Sarıoğlan, Sarız, Talas, Tomarza, Yahyâlı, and Yeşilhisar.
Economy
Kayseri received notable public investments in the 1920s and 1930s. Sumer Textile and Kayseri Tayyare Fabrikasi (airplane manufacturer) were set up here during the post Republican Era with the help of German and particularly Russian experts. The latter manufactured the first aircraft "made in Turkey" in the 1940s. After the 1950s, the city suffered from a decrease in the amount of public investment. It was, however, during the same years that Kayseri businessmen and merchants became transformed into countrywide capitalists. Families such as Sabancı, Has, Dedeman, Hattat, Kurmel, Özyeğin, Karamanlargil and Özilhan who started out as small-scale merchants in the city of Kayseri became prominent actors in the Turkish economy. These families set up their headquarters in cities such as Istanbul and Adana, nevertheless often coming back to Kayseri to invest.
Thanks to the economic liberalisation policies introduced in the 1980s, a new wave of merchants and industrialists from Kayseri joined their predecessors. Most of these new industrialists choose Kayseri as base of their operations. As a consequence of better infrastructures, the city achieved a remarkable industrial growth since 2000 and is one of the key cities that characterises the class of Anatolian Tigers, with a favourable environment present especially for small and medium enterprises.
The pace of growth of the city was so fast that in 2004 the city applied to the Guinness Book of World Records for the most new manufacturing industries started in a single day: 139 factories. Kayseri also has emerged as one of the most successful furniture-making hub in Turkey earned more than a billion dollars in export revenues in 2007.
Kayseri Free Zone established in 1998, today has more than 43 companies with an investment of 140 million dollars. The Zone's main business activities including; production, trading, warehouse management, mounting and demounting, assembly-disassembly, merchandising, maintenance and repair, engineering workshops, office and workplace rental, packing-repacking, banking and insurance, leasing, labelling and exhiption facilities. Kayseri FTZ with cost of $8 per square meter is one of the lowest cost land free zones in the world.
Some social scientists trace this economic success to a modernist Islamic outlook referred to as "Islamic Calvinism" which they say is taking root in Kayseri.
Transport
The city is served by Erkilet International Airport and the International Air Transport Association symbol for the airport is ASR. The airport is a short distance from the centre of Kayseri. There are several flights per day to Istanbul, Turkey's premium air transportation hub. Since the air transportation industry in Turkey is growing quickly, new flights from Kayseri to several other localities inside and outside Turkey are soon to be expected.
Kayseri is connected to the rest of country with railway service. There are four trains per day to Ankara. To the east there are two branches: one to Kars, and another to Tatvan on the west shore of Lake Van.
As the city is located in central Turkey, car and bus transportation are highly efficient. It takes approximately three hours to reach Ankara, approximately three hours to Mediterranean shores and 45 minutes to Cappadocia. The symbol of the city, Mount Erciyes, which is a notable ski centre in winters and accessible for trekking in summertime, is at only 30 minutes' drive from the city centre.
The transportation within the city relies mainly on buses, and personal vehicles. A light rail transit (LRT) system called Kayseray was constructed and completed by the end of 2009.
Sports
The city has two professional football teams competing in the top-flight of Turkish football: Kayserispor and Kayseri Erciyesspor, both playing in the Spor Toto Super League, making Kayseri one of the only two cities having more than one team in Spor Toto Süper Lig 2013–14, the other being Istanbul. Kayserispor is the only Turkish team to have won the UEFA Intertoto Cup, in 2006.
The Erciyes Ski Resort at Mount Erciyes is one of the largest ski resorts in Turkey.
The women's football club Kayseri Gençler Birliği was promoted to the Women's First League for the 2020-21 League season.
Sports venues
Kadir Has Stadium is a new generation post-modern stadium, it is located in the outskirts of the city. The all-seater stadium has the capacity of 33,000 spectators and it is totally covered. It is shared by the two Kayserian football clubs, as before, and the Kadir Has Stadium is the new home for both teams. The stadium and surrounding sports complex are served by the light-rail system, Kayseray, making access to the complex easier for traveling locals. It was completed in early 2009. The inauguration of stadium was made with a Kayserispor – Fenerbahce league match. Kadir Has Stadium was one of the 8 host stadiums of the 2013 FIFA U-20 World Cup, The stadium hosted the opening ceremony followed by the opening match between Cuba versus the Republic of Korea.
Kadir Has Sports Arena is an indoor arena complex, which was opened in 2008. It has a seating capacity of 7,200 people. Together with Kadir Has Stadium, it is a part of the Kayseri Kadir Has Sports Complex, one of the newest sports complexes in Turkey. The arena was one of the venues of the 2010 FIBA World Championship.
Education
Kayseri High School (Kayseri Lisesi), established in 1893, is one of the oldest high schools in Turkey. Küçükçalık Anatolian High School (Nuh Mehmet Küçükçalık Anadolu Lisesi), established in 1984, which is providing education in English, is among the first ones in Turkey. Kılıçarslan is a private high school in Kayseri, In 2000, it became a sister school with Anatolia College in Thessaloniki. TED Kayseri College in Kocasinan district of the city a Private, non-profit, co-educational kindergarten, primary, junior high, and high school is the third largest school in TED, since its foundation in 1966 thousands of students have graduated from the school.
Kayseri is home to 3 state and 1 private universities.
Abdullah Gül University a newly established state university. AGU is the first state university in Turkey to have, as part of its constitution, legal provision for support by a foundation whose entire efforts are solely dedicated to the work of the university. The university started enrolling students in 2013.
Erciyes University is the largest research university in the city founded in 1978 and is a continuation of a number of schools founded in 1206 and 1956, currently serving with 13 faculties, 6 colleges and 7 vocational schools. The university employs more than 3100 academic and administrative personnel and enrolls 41,225 students. The university is highly developed and thus well organised compared to the standards of Turkey.
Nuh Naci Yazgan University is a private university founded in 2009 with 4 faculties, 2 colleges and 1 vocational school.
Kayseri University
Cuisine
Kayseri is renowned for its culinary specialities such as mantı, pastırma and sucuk. Mantı is the most popular dish in Kayseri for the local people and tourists. Another speciality is stuffed zucchini flowers made with Köfte, garlic and spices. Nevzine is a traditional dessert.
Image gallery
Notable people from Kayseri
Mimar Sinan, (c. 1488/1490–17 July 1588) World famous architect
Kadi Burhan al-Din, (1345–1398), Vizier and Atabeg of Eretnids
Gevher Nesibe, (13th Century), Princess of the Sultanate of Rum
Pavlos Karolidis, (1849–1930), Greek historian and Member of the Ottoman Parliament
Khachatur Kesaratsi, (1590–1646), Armenian archbishop of New Julfa, founder of the first printing press in Iran
Carrie Farnsworth Fowle (1854-1917), American missionary born in Kayseri
Mihran Kassabian, (1870–1910), Armenian radiologist
Dikran Kelekian, (1867–1951), Armenian art collector and dealer in Islamic art
Hagop Kevorkian, (1872–1962), Armenian archaeologist and art collector
International relations
Twin towns – sister cities
Kayseri is twinned with:
Krefeld, Germany
Nalchik, Russia
Saarbrücken, Germany
Miskolc, Hungary
Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Shusha, Azerbaijan
Homs, Syria
Sialkot, Pakistan
Yongin, South Korea
See also
Anatolian Tigers
References
External links
Official Government Web Site
Kayseri and major sights in hundreds of pictures
Archaeological sites in Central Anatolia
Cappadocia
Cities in Turkey
Roman sites in Turkey
Districts of Kayseri Province | [
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] |
242348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Swedish%20sportspeople | List of Swedish sportspeople | This is a list of Swedish sportspeople.
A
Ara Abrahamian - wrestler
Tommy Albelin - ice hockey player
Daniel Alfredsson - ice hockey player
Helen Alfredsson - golfer
Marcus Allbäck - football player
Therese Alshammar - swimmer
Agneta Andersson - canoe racer
Arne Andersson - athlete
Frank Andersson - wrestler
Håkan Andersson - ice hockey scout
H. Johan Andersson - ice hockey player
Johan Andersson - ice hockey player
Johan A. Andersson - ice hockey player
Kennet Andersson - football player
Patrik Andersson - football player
Mikael Appelgren - table tennis player
Johan Asplund - ice hockey player
P. J. Axelsson - ice hockey player
B
Johan Backlund - ice hockey player
Christian Bäckman - ice hockey player
Nicklas Bäckström - ice hockey player
Bengt Baron - swimmer
Malin Baryard-Johnsson - show jumper
Stellan Bengtsson - table tennis
Kajsa Bergqvist - high jumper
Jonas Björkman - tennis
Elias Bjuhr - hockey player
Jesper Blomqvist - football player
Jan Boklöv - ski jumper
Martin Boquist - handball player
Arne Borg - swimmer
Björn Borg (1919–2009) - swimmer
Björn Borg (born 1956) - tennis player
Kenny Bräck - race car driver
Thomas Brolin - football player
Ricky Bruch - discus thrower
C
Per Carlén - handball player
Robert Carlsson - ice hockey player
D
Ulf Dahlén - ice hockey player
Kjell Dahlin - ice hockey player
Martin Dahlin - football player
Alx Danielsson - racing driver
Sven Davidson - tennis player
E
Nancy Edberg - swimmer
Stefan Edberg (born 1966) - tennis player
Alexander Edler - ice hockey player
Per Elofsson - cross-country skier
Sten Ekberg - track and field athlete
Nils Ekman - ice hockey player
Oliver Ekman-Larsson - ice hockey player
Ludmila Engquist - hurdler
Thomas Enqvist - tennis player
Marcus Ericsson - racing driver
Anders Eriksson - ice hockey player
Kenneth Eriksson - rally driver
Loui Eriksson - ice hockey player
Sven-Göran Eriksson - football manager
Conny Evensson - ice hockey manager
F
Niclas Fasth - golfer
Magdalena Forsberg - biathlete
Peter Forsberg - ice hockey player
Johan Franzén - ice hockey player
Gert Fredriksson - canoe racer
Lars Frölander - swimmer
Ove Fundin - speedway
G
Anders Gärderud - steeplechase athlete
Peter Gentzel - handball player
Thomas Gradin - ice hockey player
Gillis Grafström - figure skater
Anders Graneheim - bodybuilder
Gunnar Gren - football player
Nicklas Grossmann - ice hockey player
Susanne Gunnarsson - Canoe racer
Anton Gustafsson - ice hockey player
Bengt-Åke Gustafsson - ice hockey player
Tomas Gustafson - speed skater
Alexander Gustafsson - Mixed Martial Artist
H
Gunder Hägg - middle distance runner
Joakim Haeggman - golfer
Linda Haglund - sprinter
Yared Hagos - ice hockey player
Peter Hagström - former ice hockey player
Per Hallin - ice hockey player
Inge Hammarström - former ice hockey player
Kurt Hamrin - football player
Johan Harmenberg - Olympic champion épée fencer
Niclas Hävelid - ice hockey player
Johan Hedberg - ice hockey player
Victor Hedman - ice hockey player
Jonathan Hedström - ice hockey player
Ronnie Hellström - football player
Stefan Holm - high jumper
Johan Holmqvist - ice hockey player
Leif "Honken" Holmqvist - ice hockey player
Michael Holmqvist - ice hockey player
Tomas Holmström - ice hockey player
Samuel Hübinette - driver in the Formula D drifting series
Kristian Huselius - ice hockey player
Fredrik Hynning - ice hockey player
I
Zlatan Ibrahimović - football player
Emma Igelström - swimmer
Klas Ingesson - football player
Andreas Isaksson - football player
J
Jonas Jacobsson - sport shooter
Anders Järryd - tennis player
Jonas Jerebko - basketball player
Sixten Jernberg - cross-country skier
Bengt Johansson - handball player/coach
Calle Johansson - ice hockey player
Ingemar Johansson - boxer
Joachim Johansson - tennis player
Jonas Johansson - ice hockey player
Kjell Johansson - table tennis player
Stefan Johansson - Formula One driver
Thomas Johansson - tennis player
Kim Johnsson - ice hockey player
Jörgen Jönsson - ice hockey player
Kenny Jönsson - ice hockey player
Lars Jonsson - ice hockey player
Tomas Jonsson - ice hockey player
K
Charlotte Kalla - cross-country skier
Kim Källström - football player
Anders Kallur - ice hockey player
Jenny Kallur - 100 metres hurdles runner
Susanna Kallur - 100 metres hurdles runner
Anna-Karin Kammerling - swimmer
Andreas Karlsson - ice hockey player
Erik Karlsson - ice hockey player
Nils 'Mora-Nisse' Karlsson - cross-country skier
Peter Karlsson - table tennis
Ola Kimrin - American football player
Ove Kindvall - football player
Carolina Klüft - heptathlete
Ulrika Knape - diver
Carin Koch - golfer
Armand Krajnc - boxer
Annichen Kringstad - orienteer
Niklas Kronwall - ice hockey player
Staffan Kronwall - ice hockey player
John Kvist - football player
L
Carl Martin "Rekkles" Erik Larsson - league of legends
Gabriel Landeskog - ice hockey player
Adam Larsson - ice hockey player
Gunnar Larsson - swimmer
Henrik Larsson - football player
Eric Lemming - track and field athlete
Nicklas Lidström - ice hockey player
Nils Liedholm - football player
Andreas Lilja - ice hockey player
Anna Lindberg - diver
Ola Lindgren - handball player
Peja Lindholm - curler
Peter Lindmark - ice hockey player
Catarina Lindqvist Ryan - tennis player
Joakim Lindström - ice hockey player
Sanny Lindström - ice hockey player
Willy Lindström - ice hockey player
Freddie Ljungberg - football player
Hanna Ljungberg - football player
Mikael Ljungberg - wrestler
Håkan Loob - ice hockey player
Peter Loob - ice hockey player
Stefan Lövgren - handball player
Henrik Lundqvist - ice hockey player
Joel Lundqvist - ice hockey player
M
Hanna Marklund - football player
Kim Martin - ice hockey player
Björn Melin - ice hockey player
Olof Mellberg - football player
Fredrik Modin - ice hockey player
Eric Moe - ice hockey player
Torgny Mogren - cross-country skier
Mustafa Mohamed - athlete
Malin Moström - football player
Doug Murray - ice hockey player
Mats Wilander - tennis player
N
Markus Näslund - ice hockey player
Mats Näslund - ice hockey player
Liselotte Neumann - golfer
Catrin Nilsmark - golfer
Marcus Nilson - ice hockey player
Joakim Nilsson (born 1966)
Joakim Nilsson (born 1985)
Joakim Nilsson - javelin
Jonny Nilsson - speed skater
Kent Nilsson - ice hockey player
Magnus Nilsson - ice hockey player
Mats Nilsson - javelin
Robert Nilsson - ice hockey player
Roland Nilsson - football player and manager
Torbjörn Nilsson - football player
Björn Nittmo - American football kicker
Joakim Noah - basketball player
Anette Norberg - curler
Gunnar Nordahl - football player
Niklas Nordgren - ice hockey player
Tina Nordlund - football player
Magnus Norman - tennis player
Mattias Norström - ice hockey player
Fredrik Nyberg - Alpine skier
Michael Nylander - ice hockey player
Peter Nylander - ice hockey player
Stefan Nystrand - swimmer
Bob Nystrom (born 1952) - Swedish-Canadian ice hockey player
O
Johnny Oduya - ice hockey player
Mattias Öhlund - ice hockey player
Fredrik Olausson - ice hockey player
Christian Olsson - triple jumper
Jon Olsson - Skier
Staffan Olsson - handball player
Linus Omark - ice hockey player
P
Magnus Pääjärvi-Svensson - ice hockey player
Samuel Påhlsson - ice hockey player
Jesper Parnevik - golfer
Anja Pärson - alpine skier
Joakim Persson - football player
Jörgen Persson - table tennis player
Ronnie Peterson - Formula One driver
Johan Petersson - handball player
Annelie Pompe – freediver
David Printz - ice hockey player
R
Thomas Ravelli - football player
Tony Rickardsson - speedway rider
Paolo Roberto - boxer
Jonny Rödlund - football player
Maria Rooth - ice hockey player
Thomas Rundqvist - ice hockey player
Johan Ryno - ice hockey player
S
Henri Saint Cyr - dressage rider
Ulrich Salchow - figure skater
Börje Salming - ice hockey player
Tommy Salo - ice hockey goalkeeper
Kjell Samuelsson - ice hockey player
Magnus Samuelsson - World's Strongest Man in 1998
Mikael Samuelsson - ice hockey player
Ulf Samuelsson - former ice hockey player
Lotta Schelin - football player
Daniel Sedin - ice hockey player
Henrik Sedin - ice hockey player
Agne Simonsson - football player
Patrik Sjöberg - high jumper
Fredrik Sjöström - ice hockey player
Sarah Sjöström - swimmer
Ragnar Skanåker - pistol shooter
Lennart "Nacka" Skoglund - football player
Christian Söderström - ice hockey player
Annika Sörenstam - golfer
Alexander Steen - ice hockey player
Anders Steen - ice hockey player
Thomas Steen - ice hockey player
Ingemar Stenmark - alpine skier
Henrik Stenson - golfer
Ulf Sterner - ice hockey player
Niklas Stråhlén - windsurfer
Anton Strålman - ice hockey player
Staffan Strand - high jumper
Stig Strand - alpine skier
Pär Styf - ice hockey player
Oscar Sundh - ice hockey player
Mats Sundin - ice hockey player
Niklas Sundström - ice hockey player
Patrik Sundström - ice hockey player
Peter Sundström - ice hockey player
Gunde Svan - cross-country skier
Johan Svedberg - ice hockey player
Lennart Svedberg - ice hockey player
Björn Svensson - ice hockey player
Tomas Svensson - handball player
Victoria Svensson - football player
T
Henrik Tallinder - ice hockey player
Dick Tärnström - ice hockey player
Jeffery Taylor - basketball player
Mikael Tellqvist - ice hockey player
Jonas Thern - football player
Daniel Tjärnqvist - ice hockey player
Mathias Tjärnqvist - ice hockey player
Sven Tumba - ice hockey player
W
Jan-Ove Waldner - table tennis player
Niclas Wallin - ice hockey player
Mats Waltin - ice hockey player
Fredrik Warg - ice hockey player
Thomas Wassberg - cross-country skier
Mattias Weinhandl - ice hockey player
Mattias Wennerberg - ice hockey player
Pernilla Wiberg - alpine skier
Mats Wilander (born 1964) - tennis player
Björn Wirdheim - Champ car driver
Magnus Wislander - handball player
Z
Erkan Zengin - football player
Henrik Zetterberg - ice hockey player
Pär Zetterberg - football player
See also
List of Swedish Olympic medalists
Swedish athletes
Swedish basketball players
Swedish canoeists
Swedish footballers
Swedish golfers
Swedish high jumpers
Swedish ice hockey players
Swedish show jumping riders
Swedish sport wrestlers
Swedish swimmers
Swedish table tennis players
Sports
Swedish
Sportspeople | [
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242350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLDonkey | MLDonkey | MLDonkey is an open-source, multi-protocol, peer-to-peer file sharing application that runs as a back-end server application on many platforms. It can be controlled through a user interface provided by one of many separate front-ends, including a Web interface, telnet interface and over a dozen native client programs.
Originally a Linux client for the eDonkey protocol, it now runs on many flavors of Unix-like, OS X, Microsoft Windows and MorphOS and supports numerous peer-to-peer protocols.
It is written in OCaml, with some C and some assembly.
History
Development of the software began in late 2001. The original developer of MLDonkey is Fabrice Le Fessant from INRIA. It was originally conceived as an effort to spread the use of OCaml in the open source community.
In January 2003, Slyck.com reported brief friction between MLDonkey developers and the official Overnet MetaMachine developers, which denounced MLDonkey as a "rogue client", allegedly for incorrect behavior on the network.
Versions before 3.0 have a known security vulnerability that allows an attacker with access to the web interface to read any file on the file system.
Features
Features of MLdonkey core:
Peer to peer (p2p) program that supports the following network protocols, either partially or completely:
FastTrack (Kazaa)
eDonkey network (with Overnet and Kad network)
BitTorrent (with Mainline DHT)
Direct Connect
HTTP/FTP
Multiple control interfaces: telnet, web interface, third party GUIs.
Written in the OCaml programming language and licensed under the GPL-2.0-or-later license, the application separates the user interface (which can be a web browser, telnet, or a third-party GUI application) and the code that interacts with the peer-to-peer networks.
MLDonkey is able to connect simultaneously to different peers using different network protocols. In addition it can download and merge parts of one file from different network protocols although this feature is currently documented as experimental. MLDonkey runs in a terminal session and does not require a GUI environment, saving memory and processing resources. Behavior is controlled by editable configuration files, or—in a more user friendly fashion—from a separate user interface.
From release 2.9.0 (2007) on, support for gnutella and G2 are no longer compiled in by default as both plugins are buggy and currently unmaintained; however, it is still possible to compile them in by making the appropriate setting in the configuration file.
See also
Comparison of eDonkey software
Comparison of BitTorrent clients
References
General references
Frontends
P2P-GUI (web interface)
Onager (Palm OS)
Sancho
MuleDroid - Interface Android
External links
New development at GitHub
Bug tracker
2001 software
BitTorrent clients for Linux
Cross-platform software
DC clients for Linux
EDonkey Clients for Linux
File sharing software
Free BitTorrent clients
Free file sharing software
Free software programmed in C
Free software programmed in OCaml | [
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242352 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20Macedonian%20War | First Macedonian War | The First Macedonian War (214–205 BC) was fought by Rome, allied (after 211 BC) with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon, against Philip V of Macedon, contemporaneously with the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) against Carthage. There were no decisive engagements, and the war ended in a stalemate.
During the war, Macedon attempted to gain control over parts of Illyria and Greece, but without success. It is commonly thought that these skirmishes in the east prevented Macedon from aiding the Carthaginian general Hannibal in the war with Rome. The Peace of Phoenice (205 BC) formally ended the war.
Demetrius urges war against Rome
Rome's preoccupation with its war against Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of Macedon to attempt to extend his power westward. According to the ancient Greek historian Polybius, an important factor in Philip's decision to take advantage of this opportunity was the influence of Demetrius of Pharos.
After the First Illyrian War (229-228 BC) the Romans had made Demetrius ruler of most of coastal Illyria. In the decade after the war he turned against the Romans attacking their allies in Illyria and raiding their trade vessels. In 219 BC, during the Second Illyrian War he was defeated by the Romans and fled to the court of king Philip.
Involved in a war with the Aetolians, Philip learned of the victory of Hannibal over the Romans, at Lake Trasimene in June 217 BC. Philip at first showed the letter only to Demetrius. Perhaps seeing a chance to recover his kingdom, Demetrius immediately advised the young king to make peace with the Aetolians and turn his attentions toward Illyria and Italy. Polybius quotes Demetrius as saying:
Philip was easily persuaded.
Philip makes peace with Aetolia
Philip at once began negotiations with the Aetolians. At a conference on the coast near Naupactus, Philip met the Aetolian leaders and a peace treaty was concluded. Polybius quotes the Aetolian Agelaus of Naupactus as having given the following speech in favor of peace:
Philip builds a fleet
Philip spent the winter of 217–216 BC building a fleet of 100 warships and training men to row them and, according to Polybius, it was a practice that "hardly any Macedonian king had ever done before". Macedon probably lacked the resources to build and maintain the kind of fleet necessary to match the Romans. Polybius says that Philip had no "hope of fighting the Romans at sea", perhaps referring to a lack of experience and training.
At any rate, Philip chose to build lembi. These were the small fast galleys used by the Illyrians. They had a single bank of oars and were able to carry 50 soldiers in addition to the rowers. With these, Philip could hope to avoid or evade the Roman fleet, preoccupied as he hoped it would be with Hannibal, and based as it was at Lilybaeum in western Sicily.
Philip had in the meantime expanded his territories west along the Apsus and Genusus river valleys, right up to the borders of Illyria. Philip's plan was, it seems, to first take the Illyrian coasts, conquer the area between the coasts and Macedon, and use the new land link to provide a rapid route for reinforcements across the narrow straits to Italy.
At the beginning of summer, Philip and his fleet left Macedon, sailed through the Euripus Strait, between the island of Euboea and Boeotia on the Greek mainland, and then rounded Cape Malea, before dropping anchor off the Islands of Cephalenia and Leucas, to await word of the location of the Roman fleet. Informed that it was still at Lilybaeum, he sailed north to Apollonia in Illyria.
However, as the Macedonian fleet neared the island of Sazan, Philip heard a report that some Roman quinqueremes had been seen headed for Apollonia. Convinced that the entire Roman fleet was sailing to apprehend him, Philip ordered an immediate return to Cephalenia. Polybius speaks of "panic" and "disorder" to describe the fleet's hasty retreat and says that, in fact, the Romans had sent only a squadron of ten ships and that because of "inconsiderate alarm", Philip had missed his best chance to achieve his aims in Illyria, returning to Macedon, "without loss indeed, but with considerable dishonour".
Philip allies with Carthage
After hearing of Rome's disastrous defeat at the hands of Hannibal at Cannae in 216 BC, Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal's camp in Italy to negotiate an alliance. There they concluded in the summer of 215 BC a treaty, the text of which is given by Polybius. In it they pledge, in general terms, mutual support and defense and to be enemies to each other's enemies (excepting current allies). Specifically, they promised support against Rome and that Hannibal shall have the right to make peace with Rome, but that any peace would include Philip and that Rome would be forced to relinquish control of Corcyra, Apollonia, Epidamnus, Pharos, Dimale, Parthini, and Atintania and "to restore to Demetrius of Pharos all those of his friends now in the dominion of Rome."
The treaty as set down by Polybius makes no mention of an invasion of Italy by Philip, the débâcle at Sazan perhaps having soured Philip on such a venture — something which in any case Hannibal may not have desired.
On their way back to Macedon, Philip's emissaries, along with emissaries from Hannibal, were captured by Publius Valerius Flaccus, commander of the Roman fleet patrolling the southern Apulian coast. A letter from Hannibal to Philip, and the terms of their agreement, were discovered.
Philip's alliance with Carthage caused immediate dismay in Rome, hard-pressed as they already were. An additional twenty-five warships were at once outfitted and sent to join Flaccus' fleet of twenty-five warships already at Tarentum, with orders to guard the Italian Adriatic coast, to try to determine Philip's intent and, if necessary, cross over to Macedonia, keeping Philip confined there.
War breaks out in Illyria
In the late summer of 214 BC, Philip again attempted an Illyrian invasion by sea, with a fleet of 120 lembi. He captured Oricum which was lightly defended, and sailing up the Aous (modern Vjosë) river he besieged Apollonia.
Meanwhile, the Romans had moved the fleet from Tarentum to Brundisium to continue the watch on the movements of Philip and a legion had been sent in support, all under the command of the Roman propraetor Marcus Valerius Laevinus. Upon receiving word from Oricum of events in Illyria, Laevinus crossed over with his fleet and army. Landing at Oricum, Laevinus was able to retake the town with little fighting.
In the account given by Livy, Laevinus, hearing that Apollonia was under siege, sent 2000 men under the command of Quintus Naevius Crista, to the mouth of the river. Avoiding Philip's army, Crista was able to enter the city by night unobserved. The following night, catching Philip's forces by surprise, he attacked and routed their camp. Escaping to his ships in the river, Philip made his way over the mountains and back to Macedonia, having burned his fleet and leaving behind many thousands of his men that had died or been taken prisoner, along with all of his armies' possessions. Meanwhile, Laevinus and his fleet wintered at Oricum.
Twice thwarted in his attempts at invasion of Illyria by sea, and now constrained by Laevinus' fleet in the Adriatic, Philip spent the next two years (213–212 BC) making advances in Illyria by land. Keeping clear of the coast, he took the inland towns of Atintania and Dimale, and subdued the Greek tribe of the Dassaretae and the Illyrian Parthini and at least the southern Ardiaei.
He was finally able to gain access to the Adriatic by capturing Lissus and its seemingly impregnable citadel, after which the surrounding territories surrendered. Perhaps the capture of Lissus rekindled in Philip hopes of an Italian invasion. However the loss of his fleet meant that Philip would now be dependent on Carthage for passage to and from Italy, making the prospect of invasion considerably less appealing.
Rome seeks allies in Greece
Desiring to prevent Philip from aiding Carthage in Italy and elsewhere, Rome sought out allies in Greece.
Laevinus had begun exploring the possibility of an alliance with the Aetolian League as early as 212 BC. The war weary Aetolians had made peace with Philip at Naupactus in 217 BC. However, five years later the war faction was on the ascend and the Aetolians were once again considering taking up arms against their traditional enemy, Macedonia.
In 211 BC an Aetolian assembly was convened for discussions with Rome. Laevinus pointed out the recent capture of Syracuse and Capua in the war against Carthage as evidence of Rome's rising fortunes and offered to ally with them against the Macedonians. A treaty was signed whereby the Aetolians would conduct operations on land, the Romans at sea and Rome would keep any slaves and other booty taken and Aetolia would receive control of any territory acquired. Another provision of the treaty allowed for the inclusion of certain allies of the League: Elis, Sparta, Messenia and Attalus I of Pergamon, as well as two Roman clients, the Illyrians Pleuratus and Scerdilaidas.
Campaign in Greece
Later that summer, Laevinus seized the main town of Zacynthus, except for its citadel, the Acarnanian town of Oeniadae and the island of Nasos, which he handed over to the Aetolians. He then withdrew his fleet to Corcyra for the winter.
Upon hearing of the Roman alliance with Aetolia, Philip's first action was to secure his northern borders. He conducted raids in Illyria at Oricum and Apollonia and seized the frontier town of Sintia in Dardania or perhaps Paionia. He then marched rapidly south through Pelagonia, Lyncestis and Bottiaea and on to Tempe which he garrisoned with 4,000 men. He turned north again into Thrace, attacking the Maedi and their chief city Iamphorynna before returning to Macedon.
No sooner had Philip arrived there when he received an urgent plea for help from his ally the Acarnanians. Scopas the Aetolian strategos (general) had mobilized the Aetolian army and was preparing to invade Acarnania. Desperate and overmatched, but determined to resist, the Acarnanians sent their women, children and old men to seek refuge in Epirus and the rest marched to the frontier, having sworn an oath to fight to the death, "invoking a terrible curse" upon any who were forsworn. Hearing of the Acarnanians' grim determination, the Aetolians hesitated then, learning of Philip's approach, finally abandoned their invasion, after which Philip retired to Pella for the winter.
In the spring of 210 BC, Laevinus again sailed from Corcyra with his fleet and, together with the Aetolians, captured Phocian Anticyra. Rome enslaved the inhabitants and Aetolia took possession of the town.
Although there was some fear of Rome and concern with her methods, the coalition arrayed against Philip continued to grow. As allowed for by the treaty, Pergamon, Elis and Messenia, followed by Sparta, all agreed to join the alliance against Macedon. The Roman fleet, together with the Pergamene fleet, controlled the sea, and Macedon and her allies were threatened on land by the rest of the coalition. The Roman strategy of encumbering Philip with a war among Greeks in Greece was succeeding, so much so that when Laevinus went to Rome to take up his consulship, he was able to report that the legion deployed against Philip could be safely withdrawn.
However, the Eleans, Messenians and Spartans remained passive throughout 210 BC and Philip continued to make advances. He invested and took Echinus, using extensive siegeworks, having beaten back an attempt to relieve the town by the Aetolian strategos Dorimachus and the Roman fleet, now commanded by the proconsul Publius Sulpicius Galba. Moving west, Philip probably also took Phalara the port city of Lamia, in the Maliac Gulf. Sulpicius and Dorimachus took Aegina, an island in the Saronic Gulf, which the Aetolians sold to Attalus, the Pergamene king, for thirty talents, and which he was to use as his base of operations against Macedon in the Aegean Sea.
In the spring of 209 BC, Philip received requests for help from his ally the Achaean League in the Peloponnesus who were being attacked by Sparta and the Aetolians. He also heard that Attalus had been elected one of the two supreme commanders of the Aetolian League, as well as rumors that he intended to crossover the Aegean from Asia Minor. Philip marched south into Greece. At Lamia he was met by an Aetolian force, supported by Roman and Pergamene auxiliaries, under the command of Attalus' colleague as strategos, the Aetolian Pyrrhias. Philip won two battles at Lamia, inflicting heavy casualties on Pyrrhias' troops. The Aetolians and their allies were forced to retreat inside the city walls, where they remained, unwilling to give battle.
Attempt at peace fails
From Lamia, Philip went to Phalara where he met representatives from the neutral states of Egypt, Rhodes, Athens and Chios who were trying to end the war. As trading states, the war was likely hurting trade; Livy says that they were concerned "not so much for the Aetolians, who were more warlike than the rest of the Greeks, as for the liberty of Greece, which would be seriously endangered if Philip and his kingdom took an active part in Greek politics." With them was Amynandor of Athamania, representing the Aetolians. A truce of thirty days and a peace conference at Achaea were arranged.
Philip marched to Chalcis in Euboea, which he garrisoned to block Attalus' landing there, then continued on to Aegium for the conference. The conference was interrupted by a report that Attalus had arrived at Aegina and the Roman fleet was at Naupactus. The Aetolian representatives, emboldened by these events, at once demanded that Philip return Pylos to the Messenians, Atintania to Rome and the Ardiaei to Scerdilaidas and Pleuratus. "Indignant", Philip quit the negotiations telling the assembly that they "might bear him witness that whilst he was seeking a basis for peace, the other side were determined to find a pretext for war".
Hostilities resume
From Naupactus, Sulpicius sailed east to Corinth and Sicyon, conducting raids there. Philip, with his cavalry, caught the Romans ashore and was able to drive them back to their ships, with the Romans returning to Naupactus.
Philip then joined Cycliadas, the Achaean general, near Dyme for a joint attack on the city of Elis, the main Aetolian base of operations against Achaea. However, Sulpicius had sailed into Cyllene and reinforced Elis with a force of 4,000 Roman troops. Leading a charge, Philip was thrown from his horse. Fighting on foot, Philip became the object of a fierce battle, finally escaping on another horse. The next day, Philip captured the stronghold of Phyricus, taking 4,000 prisoners and 20,000 animals. Hearing news of Illyrian incursions in the north, Philip abandoned Aetolia and returned to Demetrias in Thessaly.
Meanwhile, Sulpicius sailed round into the Aegean and joined Attalus on Aegina for the winter. In 208 BC the combined fleet of thirty-five Pergamene and twenty-five Roman ships failed to take Lemnos, but occupied and plundered the countryside of the island of Peparethos (Skopelos), both Macedonian possessions.
Attalus and Sulpicius then attended a meeting in Heraclea Trachinia of the Council of the Aetolians, which included representatives from Egypt and Rhodes, who were continuing to try to arrange a peace. Learning of the conference and the presence of Attalus, Philip marched rapidly south in an attempt to break up the conference and catch the enemy leaders, but arrived too late.
Surrounded by foes, Philip was forced to adopt a defensive policy. He distributed his commanders and forces and set up a system of beacon fires at various high places to communicate instantly any enemy movements.
After leaving Heraclea, Attalus and Sulpicius sacked both Oreus on the northern coast of Euboea, and Opus, the chief city of eastern Locris. The spoils from Oreus had been reserved for Sulpicius, who returned there, while Attalus stayed to collect the spoils from Opus. However, with their forces divided, Philip, alerted by signal fire, attacked and took Opus. Attalus, caught by surprise, was barely able to escape to his ships.
The war ends
Although Philip considered Attalus' escape a bitter defeat, it proved to be the turning point of the war. Attalus was forced to return to Pergamon, when he learned at Opus that, perhaps at the urging of Philip, Prusias I, king of Bithynia and related to Philip by marriage, was moving against Pergamon. Sulpicius returned to Aegina, so free from the pressure of the combined Roman and Pergamene fleets, Philip was able to resume the offensive against the Aetolians. He captured Thronium, followed by the towns of Tithronium and Drymaea north of the Cephisus, controlling all of Epicnemidian Locris, and took back control of Oreus.
The neutral trading powers were still trying to arrange a peace and, at Elateia, Philip met with the same would-be peacemakers from Egypt and Rhodes who had been at the previous meeting in Heraclea, and again in the spring of 207 BC, but to no avail. Representatives of Egypt, Rhodes, Byzantium, Chios, Mytilene and perhaps Athens also met again with the Aetolians that spring. The war was going Philip's way, but the Aetolians, although now abandoned by both Pergamon and Rome, were not yet ready to make peace on Philip's terms. However, after another season of fighting, they finally relented. In 206 BC, and without Rome's consent, the Aetolians sued for a separate peace on conditions imposed by Philip.
The following spring the Romans sent the censor Publius Sempronius Tuditanus with 35 ships and 11,000 men to Dyrrachium in Illyria, where he incited the Parthini to revolt and laid siege to Dimale. However, when Philip arrived, Sempronius broke off the siege and withdrew inside the walls of Apollonia. Sempronius tried unsuccessfully to entice the Aetolians to break their peace with Philip. With no more allies in Greece, but having achieved their objective of preventing Philip from aiding Hannibal, the Romans were ready to make peace. A treaty was drawn up at Phoenice in 205 BC, the so-called "Peace of Phoenice," which formally ended the First Macedonian War.
Notes
References
Hansen, Esther V., The Attalids of Pergamon, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press; London: Cornell University Press Ltd (1971). .
Kleu, Michael. Die Seepolitik Philipps V. von Makedonien. Bochum, Verlag Dr. Dieter Winkler, 2015.
Livy, From the Founding of the City, Rev. Canon Roberts (translator), Ernest Rhys (Ed.); (1905) London: J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd.
Polybius, Histories, Evelyn S. Shuckburgh (translator); London, New York. Macmillan (1889); Reprint Bloomington (1962).
Walbank, F. W. (1940), Philip V of Macedon.
Wilkes, John, The Illyrians, Blackwell Publishers (December 1, 1995). .
See also
Military history of Greece
210s BC conflicts
200s BC conflicts
3rd century BC in Greece
3rd century BC in Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
3rd century BC in the Roman Republic
Macedonian 1
Macedonian 1
Macedonian 1
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242353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second%20Macedonian%20War | Second Macedonian War | The Second Macedonian War (200–197 BC) was fought between Macedon, led by Philip V of Macedon, and Rome, allied with Pergamon and Rhodes. Philip was defeated and was forced to abandon all possessions in southern Greece, Thrace and Asia Minor. During their intervention, although the Romans declared the "freedom of the Greeks" against the rule from the Macedonian kingdom, the war marked a significant stage in increasing Roman intervention in the affairs of the eastern Mediterranean, which would eventually lead to Rome's conquest of the entire region.
Background
In 204 BC King Ptolemy IV Philopator of Egypt died, leaving the throne to his six-year-old son Ptolemy V. Philip V of Macedon and Antiochus the Great of the Seleucid Empire decided to exploit the weakness of the young king by taking Ptolemaic territory for themselves and they signed a secret pact defining spheres of interest, opening the Fifth Syrian War. Philip first turned his attention to the independent Greek city states in Thrace and near the Dardanelles. His success at taking cities such as Kios worried the state of Rhodes and King Attalus I of Pergamon who also had interests in the area.
In 201 BC, Philip launched a campaign into Asia Minor, besieging the Ptolemaic city of Samos and capturing Miletus. Again, this disconcerted Rhodes and Attalus and Philip responded by ravaging Attalid territory and destroying the temples outside the walls of Pergamon. Philip then invaded Caria but the Rhodians and Pergamenians successfully blockaded his fleet in Bargylia, forcing him to spend the winter with his army in a country which offered very few provisions.
At this point, although they appeared to have the upper hand, Rhodes and Pergamon still feared Philip so much that they sent an appeal to the rising power of Rome, which had just emerged victorious from the Second Punic War against Carthage. The Romans had previously fought the First Macedonian War against Philip V over Illyria, which had been resolved by the Peace of Phoenice in 205 BC. Very little in Philip's recent actions in Thrace and Asia Minor could be said to concern the Roman Republic directly. The Senate passed a supportive decree and Marcus Valerius Laevinus was sent to investigate.
Earlier in 201 BC, Athens' relations with Philip had suddenly deteriorated. A pair of Acarnanians had entered the Temple of Demeter during the Eleusinian Mysteries and the Athenians had put them to death. In response, the Acarnanian League launched a raid on Attica, aided by Macedonian troops which they had received from Philip V. Shortly after this, King Attalus I arrived in Athens with Rhodian ambassadors and convinced the Athenians, who had maintained strict neutrality since the end of the Chremonidean War, to declare war on Macedon. Attalus sailed off, bringing most of the Cycladic islands over to his side and sent embassies to the Aetolian League in the hope of bringing them into the war as well. In response to the Athenian declaration of war, Philip dispatched a force of 2,000 infantry and 200 cavalry under the command of Philokles to invade Attica and place the city of Athens under siege.
Course of the war
Rome enters the war (200 BC)
On 15 March 200 BC, new consuls, Publius Sulpicius Galba and Gaius Aurelius Cotta took office in Rome. In light of reports from Laevinus and further embassies from Pergamon, Rhodes, and Athens, the task of dealing with the troubles in Macedonia was allotted to Sulpicius. He called an assembly of the Comitia centuriata, the body with the legal power to make declarations of war. The Comitia nearly unanimously rejected his proposed war, an unprecedented act which was attributed to war weariness. At a second session, Sulpicius convinced the Comitia to vote for war. Sulpicius recruited troops and departed to Brundisium in the autumn, where he added veterans of the Second Punic War who had just returned from Africa to his forces. Then he crossed the Adriatic, landing his troops in Apollonia and stationing the navy at Corcyra.
Siege of Abydos
While these events had been taking place, Philip V himself had undertaken another campaign in the Dardanelles, taking a number of Ptolemaic cities in rapid succession before besieging the important city of Abydos. Polybius reports that during the siege of Abydos, Philip had grown impatient and sent a message to the besieged that the walls would be stormed and that if anybody wished to commit suicide or surrender they had three days to do so. The citizens promptly killed all the women and children of the city, threw their valuables into the sea and fought to the last man. During the siege of Abydos, in the autumn of 200 BC, Philip was met by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, a Roman ambassador on his way back from Egypt, who urged him not to attack any Greek state or to seize any territory belonging to Ptolemy and to go to arbitration with Rhodes and Pergamon. Philip protested that he was not in violation of any of the terms of the Peace of Phoenice, but in vain. As he returned to Macedonian after the fall of Abydos, he learnt of the landing of Sulpicius' force in Epirus.
Cento's attack on Chalcis and Philip's invasion of Attica
The Athenians, who were now besieged by Macedonian forces, sent an appeal to the Roman force in Corcyra. Gaius Claudius Centho was sent with 20 ships and 1,000 men to aid them. Philokles and his troops withdrew from Attica to their base in Corinth. In response to a request from Chalcidean exiles, Claudius led a surprise raid on the city of Chalcis in Euboea, one of the key Antigonid strongholds known as the 'fetters of Greece' and inflicting serious damage and heavy casualties.
Philip rushed to Chalcis with a force of 5,000 men and 300 cavalry. Finding that Claudius had already withdrawn, he sped on towards Athens, where he defeated the Athenian and Attalid troops in a battle outside the Dipylon Gate and encamped at Cynosarges. After setting fire to the sanctuaries and tombs outside the city walls, Philip departed to Corinth. From there, Philip went down to Argos where the Achaean League was holding an assembly, which he attempted to bring onto his side in exchange for supporting them in their ongoing conflict with Nabis of Sparta, but he was rebuffed. Joining up with a force of 2,000 men brought by his general Philokles, Philip made a series of three unsuccessful assaults on Eleusis, Piraeus, and Athens and ravaged the territory of Athens. Then he ravaged the sanctuaries throughout Attica and withdrew to Boeotia. The damage to the rural and deme sanctuaries of Attica was severe and marks the permanent end of their use.
Philip spent the rest of the winter preparing for the Roman assault. He sent his young son Perseus with a force to prevent the Romans and Dardanians from advancing over the Šar Mountains into northern Macedonia. Philip had the settlements on the Sporades islands of Peparethos and Skiathos destroyed to prevent enemies using them as naval bases. The Macedonian army was gathered at Demetrias.
Sulpicius and Villius' campaigns (200-199 BC)
Sulpicius' invasion of Upper Macedonia
During this time Sulpicius had established a firm base by the Seman river in Illyria. A force under Lucius Apustius was sent to raid the western border of Macedonia, capturing or razing a number of cities, including Antipatrea and Codrion. Following this expedition, Sulpicius received the allegiance of the Illyrians under Scerdilaidas, the Dardanians under Bato, and the Athamanes under Amynander. The diplomatic efforts of Philip, Sulpicius, and the Athenians centred on the Aetolian League, which seemed inclined to support the Romans but remained neutral at this stage.
At the end of winter in 200 BC, Sulpicius led his troops east through the territory of the Dassaretae. Philip gathered 20,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry, recalling the troops he had stationed in the north with Perseus, and marched west. He encamped on a hill near Athacus which overlooked Sulpicius' camp. After a series of indecisive skirmishes (in one of which Philip was nearly captured), news came that the Dardanians had invaded northern Macedonia, and the Macedonians withdrew secretly in the night. When he realised what had happened, Sulpicius set out in pursuit through Pelagonia, found Philip blocking the pass to Eordaea and forced it. Sulpicius ravaged Eordaea, then Elimeia to the south, and then followed the Haliacmon river valley up to Orestis, where he conquered Celetrum and Pelion and then returned to his base. Philip split his force, sending a contingent of his army north to deal with the Dardanian invasion, which it did, while he himself headed south.
Roman naval campaign and Aetolian campaign
At the same time as this land campaign set out, the Roman fleet had left Corcyra under command of Lucius Apustius, rounded Cape Malea, and rendezvoused with King Attalus near Hermione. The combined fleet then launched an assault on the Macedonian military base on the island of Andros and seized it for Pergamon. The fleet was joined by further ships from Issa and Rhodes and headed north to the Chalkidike peninsula where an assault on Cassandreia was a complete failure. They withdrew to northern Euboea, where they besieged and captured Oreus, another key Macedonian naval base. Since it was now autumn and the sailing season was drawing to a close, the contingents of the fleet dispersed back to their home ports.
As these campaigns progressed, Damocritus, the strategos of the Aetolian League, had decided that it was time to join the war on the Roman side. Together with King Amynander, he led an invasion of Magnesia and Perrhaebia, then continued to ravage Thessaly. There, Philip suddenly appeared and completely defeated their force. He spent some time besieging the Aetolian city of Thaumaci, but gave up and withdrew as winter approached. He spent the winter training his army and engaging in diplomacy, particularly with the Achaean League.
Villius' campaign
In Rome, the new consuls took office on 15 March 199 BC, Publius Villius Tappulus was allotted Macedonia as his province. He crossed the Adriatic to Corcyra, where he replaced Sulpicius in command of the army. On his arrival, Villius faced a mutiny by 2,000 troops, veterans of the Second Punic War who wished to be demobilised. He resolved this, by forwarding their concerns to the Senate, but was left with little time to prosecute a campaign. Philip marched west and encamped on both sides of the Aoös river where it passed through a narrow ravine. Villius marched to meet him, but was still considering what to do when he learnt that his successor, Titus Quinctius Flamininus had been elected and was on his way to Corcyra to assume command.
In Asia Minor, Pergamon was invaded by the Seleucid king Antiochus III. As a result, Attalus was not able to assist in the naval war in the Aegean until a Roman embassy forced Antiochus to withdraw.
Flamininus' first campaign (198 BC)
Roman invasion of Thessaly
When the new consuls took office on 15 March 198, the Senate ordered the recruitment of 8,000 new infantry and 800 cavalry for the war. Command in Macedonia was allotted to Flamininus. He was not yet thirty and was a self-proclaimed Philhellene.
Flamininus was delayed by religious matters for some time, but then he recruited the new forces, crossed the Adriatic, and dismissed Villius. The army encamped in the Aous Valley, across the river from Philip's for forty days. At a peace conference, Flamininus announced the Romans' new peace terms. Up to this point, the Romans had merely ordered Philip to stop attacking the Greek cities. Now Flamininus demanded that he should make reparations to all the Greek cities he had harmed and withdraw all his garrisons from cities outside Macedonia, including Thessaly, which had been part of the Macedonian kingdom continuously since 353 BC. Philip stormed out of the meeting in anger and Flamininus decided to attack.
In the subsequent Battle of the Aous, Flamininus was victorious despite the advantage the terrain gave to the Macedonian army, when he was shown a pass through the mountains which allowed him to send a force to attack the Macedonians from the rear. The Macedonian force collapsed and fled, suffering 2,000 casualties. Philip was able to gather up the survivors and retreat to Thessaly. There he destroyed the city of Tricca to prevent it falling into Roman hands and withdrew to Tempe.
After the Roman victory, the Aetolians led a rapid attack through Ainis and into Dolopia, while King Amynander attacked and captured Gomphi, in the south-western corner of Thessaly. Meanwhile, Flamininus entered Epirus, which now joined the Roman side. Together with Amynander, he entered Thessaly. The army did not encounter much resistance at first, but he became caught up in a prolonged siege at Atrax. Eventually he was forced to abandon this siege and march south into Phocis in order to secure his supply lines and lodgings for winter by capturing Anticyra. He then besieged and captured Elateia.
Roman naval campaign
While this campaign was taking place, the consul's brother, Lucius Quinctius Flamininus had taken control of the Roman fleet and sailed to Athens. He rendezvoused with the Attalid and Rhodian fleets near Euboea. Eretria was taken after fierce fighting and Carystus surrendered, meaning that the entire island of Euboea was now under Roman control. The fleet travelled back around Attica to Cenchreae and placed Corinth under siege.
From there, Lucius, Attalus, the Rhodians, and the Athenians sent ambassadors to the Achaian League in order to bring them into the war on the Roman side. The league held an assembly at Sicyon to decide how to respond, which was extremely contentious. On the one hand, the Achaians were still at war with Sparta and they were allied to Macedonia, but on the other hand their new chief magistrate Aristaenus was pro-Roman and the Romans promised to give the city of Corinth to the League. The representatives of Argos, Megalopolis, and Dyme, which all had particularly strong ties with Philip, left the meeting. The rest of the assembly voted to join the anti-Macedonian alliance.
The Achaian army joined the other forces besieging Corinth, but after fierce fighting the siege had to be abandoned when 1,500 Macedonian reinforcements commanded by Philokles arrived from Boiotia. From Corinth, Philokles was invited to take control of Argos by pro-Macedonians in the city, which he did without a fight.
Winter negotiations
Over the winter of 198/197 BC, Philip declared his willingness to make peace. The parties met at Nicaea in Locris in November 198 - Philip sailed from Demetrias, but he refused to disembark and meet Flamininus and his allies on the beach, so he addressed them from the prow of his ship. To prolong the proceedings, Flamininus insisted that all his allies should be present at the negotiations. He then reiterated his demands that Philip should withdraw all his garrisons from Greece, Illyria, and Asia Minor. Philip was not prepared to go this far and he was persuaded to send an embassy to the Roman Senate. When this embassy reached Rome, the Senate demanded that Philip surrender the "fetters of Greece," Demetrias, Chalcis, and Corinth, but Philip's envoys claimed they had no permission to agree to this, so the war continued.
According to Polybius and Plutarch, these negotiations were manipulated by Flamininus - Philip's overtures had come just as elections were being held in Rome. Flamininus was eager to take the credit for ending the war but he did not yet know whether his command would be prolonged and had intended to make a quick peace deal with Philip, if it was not. He therefore dragged out the negotiations until he learnt that his command had been prorogued and then had his friends in Rome scupper the meeting in the Senate.
Once this had become clear, Philip attempted to free up his forces by handing the city of Argos over to Nabis of Sparta, but Nabis then engineered a revolution in the city and organised a conference with Flamininus, Attalus and the Achaeans at Mycenae, at which he agreed to stop attacking the Achaeans and to supply troops to the Romans.
Flamininus' second campaign (197 BC)
Over the rest of the winter, Philip mobilised all the manpower of his kingdom including the aged veterans and the underage boys, which amounted to 18,000 men. To these he added 4,000 peltasts from Thrace and Illyria, and 2,500 mercenaries. All these forces were gathered at Dion. Reinforcements were sent to Flamininus from Italy, numbering 6,000 infantry, 300 cavalry, and 3,000 marines.
At the start of spring, Flamininus and Attalus went to Thebes to bring the Boeotian League into the coalition. Because Flamininus had managed to sneak 2,000 troops into the city, the assembly of the League had no choice but to join the Roman coalition. At the assembly, King Attalus suddenly suffered a stroke while giving a speech and was left paralysed on one side. He was eventually evacuated back to Pergamon, where he died later that year.
In June 197 BC, Flamininus marched north from Elateia through Thermopylae. En route, he was joined by forces from Aetolia, Gortyn in Crete, Apollonia, and Athamania. Philip marched south into Thessaly and the two armies encamped opposite each other near Pherae. Both armies relocated to the hills around Scotussa. Contingents of the opposing armies came into contact with one another in the Cynoscephalae hills, leading to a full battle. In what proved to be the decisive engagement of the war, the legions of Flamininus defeated Philip's Macedonian phalanx. Philip himself fled on horseback, collected the survivors, and withdrew to Macedonia. Philip was forced to sue for peace on Roman terms.
Achaia, Acarnania, and Caria
At the same time as this campaign was taking place in Thessaly, three other campaigns occurred in Achaea, Acarnania, and Caria - in all of which the Macedonians were defeated.
In the Peloponnese, Androsthenes set out from Corinth with a Macedonian army of 6,000 men into the lands controlled by the Achaean League and pillaged the territories of Pellene, Phlius, Cleonae, and Sicyon. The Achaean general, Nicostratus, who was able to muster 5,000 men, closed off the pass back to Corinth, and defeated the Macedonian forces in detail.
In Acarnania, there had been attempts to switch to the Roman side before the Battle of Cynoscephalae, but the League's assembly had eventually decided against this because of their hostility to the Aetolians. Lucius Flamininus therefore sailed to the Acarnanian capital of Leucas, and launched an all-out assault, which proved very difficult. Thanks to traitors inside the city, it was eventually captured. Shortly after this, news of the Battle of Cynoscephalae arrived and the rest of the Acarnanians surrendered.
In Asia Minor, the Rhodians led a force of 4,500 mercenaries (mostly Achaeans) into Caria to recapture the Rhodian Peraia. A battle took place with the Macedonian forces in the area at Abanda, in which the Rhodians were victorious. The Rhodians then recaptured their Peraia, but failed to take Stratonicea.
Aftermath
The Peace of Flamininus
An armistice was declared and peace negotiations were held in the Vale of Tempe. Philip agreed to evacuate the whole of Greece and relinquish his conquests in Thrace and Asia Minor. Philip had to rush off almost immediately after the agreement of terms to deal with an invasion of Upper Macedonia by the Dardanians.
The treaty was sent to Rome for ratification. Despite the efforts of the consul-elect Marcus Claudius Marcellus to prolong the war, the Roman Tribal Assembly voted unanimously to make peace. The Senate sent ten commissioners to advise on the final peace terms, including Publius Sulpicius Galba and Publius Villius Tappulus.
On the advice of these men, the final peace was made with Philip in spring 196 BC. Philip had to remove all his garrisons in Greek cities in Europe and Asia, which were to be free and autonomous. Philip had to pay a war indemnity of 1,000 talents - half paid immediately and the rest in ten annual instalments of 50 talents. He had to surrender his whole navy except for his flagship, while his army was limited to a maximum of 5,000 men, could not include elephants, and could not be led beyond his borders without permission of the Roman Senate.
Boeotian campaign
Over the winter of 197/196 BC, while the peace negotiations were still ongoing, conflict had broken out in Boeotia, leading to the assassination of the pro-Macedonian Boeotarch Brachylles by the pro-Roman leaders Zeuxippus and Peisistratus. There was a strong popular backlash, resulting in the murder of about 500 Roman soldiers who had been billeted in Boeotia. Roman forces invaded Boeotia, but the Athenians and Achaeans managed to negotiate a settlement.
Aetolian response to the peace
At the initial peace negotiations, a rift opened up between Flamininus and the Aetolians, since the latter wanted harsher peace terms imposed on Philip than Flamininus was willing to countenance and desired the return of a number of cities that they had previously controlled in Thessaly but Flamininus refused to back them. The Aetolians began to claim that the Romans planned to retain garrisons in the "fetters of Greece" and replace the Macedonians as overlords of Greece. The growing Aetolian hostility to the Romans was expressed openly to one of the ten Roman commissioners at a meeting of Delphian Amphictyony in 196 BC. This conflict would ultimately lead to the Aetolian War in 191 BC.
The Freedom of the Greeks
At the Isthmian Games of May 196 BC, Flamininus proclaimed the 'Freedom of the Greeks' met with general rejoicing of those who were attending the Games. The proclamation listed the free communities as follows: . Nevertheless, the Romans kept garrisons in key strategic cities which had belonged to Macedon – Corinth, Chalcis and Demetrias – and the legions were not completely evacuated until 194 BC.
The extent of this grant of freedom was not entirely clear. Although Flamininus' proclamation had included a list of the communities formerly under Philip's control to which it applied, the Romans quickly assumed (or were thrust into) the role of protector of Greek freedom more generally. The rhetoric of Greek freedom was almost immediately employed by the Romans and their allies to justify diplomatic and military action elsewhere, with the War against Nabis of Sparta, which was undertaken in 195 BC, ostensibly for the sake of the freedom of Argos.
Seleucid conquest of Asia Minor
The initial background to the whole war had been the alliance of Antiochus III and Philip V against Ptolemy V and while the war had been raging in Greece, Antiochus III had completely defeated the Ptolemaic forces in Syria at the Battle of Panium. Since Philip had surrendered his claim to the communities in Asia Minor that had formerly been under Ptolemaic control, Antiochus III now advanced into Asia Minor to take them over for himself. The conflicts arising from this would lead to the outbreak of the Roman–Seleucid War in 192 BC.
See also
Military history of ancient Greece
Agesimbrotus
References
Sources
Primary
Plutarch Life of Flamininus
Joannes Zonaras Extracts of History IX 15-17
Secondary
Will, Edouard, L'histoire politique du monde hellénistique (Editions du Seuil, 2003 ed.), Tome II, pp. 121–178.
Green, Peter, Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic Age, 1993, pp. 305–311.
Kleu, Michael, Die Seepolitik Philipps V. von Makedonien, Bochum, Verlag Dr. Dieter Winkler, 2015.
Further reading
Sherwin-White, Adrian N. 1984. Roman foreign policy in the East 168 B.C. to A.D. 1. London: Duckworth.
200s BC conflicts
190s BC conflicts
2nd century BC in Greece
2nd century BC in the Roman Republic
Macedonian 2
Macedonian 2
Macedonian 2
Macedonian 2
Macedonian 2
Roman–Greek wars | [
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242354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third%20Macedonian%20War | Third Macedonian War | The Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC) was a war fought between the Roman Republic and King Perseus of Macedon. In 179 BC, King Philip V of Macedon died and was succeeded by his ambitious son Perseus. He was anti-Roman and stirred anti-Roman feelings around Macedonia. Tensions escalated and Rome declared war on Macedon.
Most of the war was fought in Macedon as well as neighbouring Thessaly, where the Roman troops were stationed. After an inconclusive battle at Callinicus in 171 BC, and several more years of campaigning, Rome decisively defeated the Macedonian forces at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC, bringing the war to a close.
Rome's victory ended the Antigonid dynasty and brought an effective end to the independence of the Hellenistic kingdom of Macedon, although formal annexation was still some years away. The kingdom was divided into four client republics, each subservient to Rome. Roman prestige and authority in Greece was greatly increased as a result.
Background
In 179 BC, King Philip V of Macedon died and his ambitious son, Perseus, succeeded to the throne. In pursuit of an alliance, Perseus married Laodice, the daughter of Seleucus IV the king of the Seleucid Empire. Perseus' daughter was set to marry Prusias II of Bithynia (in north-western Anatolia, modern Turkey), who was an enemy of Eumenes II of Pergamon (in western Anatolia), an ally of Rome.
Amid these alliances, Abrupolis, the king of the Thracian tribe of the Sapaei and an ally of the Romans attacked Macedon, laid it waste as far as Amphipolis, and overran the gold mines of Mount Pangaeus. He was repulsed and then driven out of his territories by Perseus. This conflict contributed to the tensions which led to the Third Macedonian War, because Rome took issue with the ousting of its ally.
Perseus made an alliance with Cotys IV, the king of the Odrysian kingdom, the largest state in Thrace. He increased the size of his army. He also announced that he could carry out reforms in Greece and restore its previous strength and prosperity. Perseus sent agents to endeavour to gain support in the Greek states and in the Greek cities. He gained the support of Greeks who were treated generously, saw Perseus as their kindred, were keen on revolutionary change, or did not want to be at the mercy of Rome. Perseus' propaganda and political manoeuvres around Greece created significant political divisions within the Greek states and cities, which became caught up in bitter disputes between pro-Roman and pro-Perseus factions.
At the beginning of 173 BC, the Romans sent commissioners to Aetolia and Macedonia, but they were not given the opportunity to meet Perseus. The Romans felt that it was clear that he was making preparations for war and that it would not be long before he would take up arms. In the Aetolian cities there were increasingly violent internal conflicts and the leaders of the pro-Roman and pro-Perseus factions refused to keep this in check. A Roman envoy attended the session of the Aetolian council at Delphi. He asked both quarreling factions to abstain from war. This was agreed through an exchange of hostages, who were sent to Corinth. The envoy then went to the Peloponnese and called a meeting of the Achaean council. He praised the Achaeans for retaining an old decree forbidding the Macedonian kings to approach their territories, and clarified that Rome considered Perseus an enemy. There was also violent conflict in Thessaly and Perrhaebia (the land of the Perrhaebi, a tribe in northern Thessaly). This was exacerbated by a problem with indebtedness. Rome sent an envoy to try to defuse the situation. He managed to do so by addressing the serious problem of indebtedness "swollen by illegal interest" in both areas.
Eumenes II of Pergamon, who had been in conflict with Macedon and who disliked Perseus, made a speech in the senate in Rome with the aim of precipitating hostilities. The contents of the speech were kept secret and were leaked only after the end of the war. He claimed that Perseus had been preparing for war since the day of his accession. He was respected and feared in the east and had influence on many kings. He mentioned Prusias of Bithynia, who was an enemy of Pergamon, asking for the hand of Perseus’ daughter. He also mentioned that Antiochus IV, the new Seleucid king, betrothed his daughter to Perseus as an example of Perseus gaining influence among kings in the east, even though Antiochus had just renewed an alliance with Rome which was made by his father. The Boeotians, had never made an alliance with Macedon, but now they were in a league with Perseus. Members of the Achaean council threatened to call on Rome in their opposition to an alliance with Perseus. Had it not been for this, such an alliance might have gone through. Perseus made preparations for war, storing corn for 30,000 troops. He had money to hire 10,000 mercenaries and could draw many soldiers from Thrace. He had been stocking weapons. He seized some places and persuaded others through favour. Eumenes II claimed that if Rome ignored these developments, Perseus might attack Italy.
A few days after Eumenes' speech, the senate received envoys from Perseus. They said that Perseus had not said or done anything hostile. However, the senators did not believe this and "their ears had been captured by Eumenes". They felt affronted when the leader of the embassy said that if Perseus saw that the Romans were bent on an excuse for war, he would respond with courage and that "the chances of war were the same for both sides and the issue was uncertain." When they returned to Macedon they told Perseus that the Romans were not preparing for war, but they were so embittered with him that they might do so soon. Perseus thought that this might be possible. He was determined to begin the war by shedding the blood of Eumenes, whom he hated, and called for Euander, a leader of Cretan mercenaries, and three Macedonian killers to arrange the assassination of Eumenes.
The cities of Greece and Asia (western and central Anatolia) were concerned about the events of Eumenes's speech and the envoys of Perseus. They thought that Eumenes was steering Rome towards war. They sent embassies to Rome. One of them was from Rhodes. It said that they felt sure that Eumenes had included Rhodes among those he accused of being friends of Perseus and, therefore, Rhodes had tried to confront Eumenes in the Roman senate. As this had failed, they accused Eumenes of trying to stir the Lycians (a people in western Anatolia who were under Eumenes' rule) against Rhodes and claimed that he was more oppressive in Asia than the Seleucid king had been. The senators resented this claim. Hostility towards Eumenes by various Greek states made Rome more determined to show favour to him.
Perseus had arranged for the assassination of Eumenes to take place during the latter's visit to Delphi, but the attempt failed. Gaius Valerius Valerius, who had been sent to investigate the situation in Greece and monitor Perseus, returned to Rome and agreed with the allegations Eumenes had brought to the senate. He also bought a woman who was involved in the failed plot and a Roman who claimed that Perseus had tried to coerce him into poisoning ambassadors to Rome. This intensified old enmities and led to Perseus being declared a public enemy, the Senate electing to wage war and the dispatch of an army to Apollonia on the western coast of Greece to occupy the coastal cities. The war was, however, put off for the year. Eumenes also prepared for war.
Gentius, king of the Illyrians, had brought himself under suspicion, but had not gone so far as to decide for certain which side he should support. The Thracian Cotys IV, king of the Odrysian Kingdom, the largest state in Thrace, had already declared for Macedon.
Preparations for war and diplomatic missions
The consuls for 171 BC were Publius Licinius Crassus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Macedon was assigned to Publius Licinius and the command of the fleet was assigned to the praetor Gaius Lucretius.
Two legions were assigned for Macedon and the number of men for each was 6,000 instead of the usual 5,200, plus allied troops numbering 16,000 infantry and 800 cavalry. Envoys were sent to confer with the Greek states. They received the support of Epirus, in western Greece, and Aetolia and Thessaly, in central Greece. The main Boeotian cities, though divided between a pro-Roman and a pro-Perseus faction, decided to break the treaty with Perseus and sided with Rome. This caused the breakup of the league of Boeotian cities as some of them supported Perseus. In Rhodes a new leader persuaded the island to ally with Rome. Gentius, the king of Illyria, remained non-committal.
A commission was sent to Greece to examine the situation there. Perseus invited one of the commissioners, Marcius, for a meeting. He denounced the allegations of Eumenes and others and claimed that his international relations were not aimed at preparing for war. Marcius advised him to send an embassy to Rome and arranged an armistice to guarantee the safe passage of the envoys. He did this because it suited Rome as she was not ready for war. The army was being prepared and had not gone to Greece yet.
Many senators were pleased with the diplomatic achievements of the commissioners when they arrived to Rome. However, the older senators disapproved of the new policy of diplomacy, which they saw as not true to the honour and courage of the character of the Romans and called for military action. As a result, 50 ships were sent to Greece and 2,000 troops were sent to occupy Larissa, the capital of Thessaly, to prevent Perseus from garrisoning the city. The ambassadors of Perseus arrived in Rome to argue for peace. The senate was not persuaded by the arguments and they were ordered to leave Rome.
Gaius Lucretius, the commander of the fleet, set off with 40 ships. He received ten vessels from allies in southern Illyria at Dyrrhachium (modern Durrës, Albania) and 54 light vessels from Gentius, which he assumed had been assembled for the Romans. He reached Cephallania (Cephalonia, an island in the Ionic Sea) where he was joined by seven ships from the Roman allies. He then went to the island of Corfu. The consul crossed the sea from Italy and encamped with his force near Apollonia, on the western coast of Greece.
Perseus assembled his whole army at Citium, a Macedonian town. He had 39,000 infantry, half of which were phalanxes (heavy infantry). There were 3,000 Cretans, 3,000 men from Agrianes, Paeonia and Parstrymonia (a Thracian area around the River Strymon, in modern Bulgaria), 3,000 Thracians, 2,000 Gauls and 500 men from various Greek states. There were also 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and 1,000 Thracian cavalry.
The first year of the war (171 BC)
Perseus marched to the land of the Perrhaebi in the northernmost district of Thessaly and seized all the main towns north of the River Peneus, which crosses northern Thessaly: Cyretiae, Mylae, Elatia and Gonnus. He encamped at Sycurium, between Mount Ossa and the lower Peneus. It overlooked the plains of Thessaly and was not far from Larissa. Meanwhile, Publius Licinius had marched from Epirus on the west coast of Greece through arduous mountain passes and through Athamania, a kingdom allied with Perseus. He was lucky that they were not attacked otherwise the green troops tired from their journey would have been defeated. He reached Thessaly and encamped at Tripolis Larisaia, five kilometres north of Larissa (the capital of Thessaly) and further up the River Peneus. He was joined by 4,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry brought by Eumenes II of Pergamon and 1,500 infantry and 600 cavalry.
A contingent of the Roman fleet went through the Gulf of Corinth and conducted operations against the Boeotians. It besieged Haliartus with 10,000 mariners and 2,000 troops under one of the brothers of Eumenes II. Eventually the city fell; 2,500 fighters who had taken refuge in the citadel were sold as slaves and the place was razed.
Perseus sent a detachment twenty miles southward, to ravage the fields of Pherae, in southern Thessaly. He hoped that this would draw the Romans forward, but they did not respond. Perseus then appeared just over a mile from the Roman camp and, at 9 a.m., he sent forward a reconnaissance unit of 100 cavalry and 100 slingers. The Romans sent out a detachment of some 380 Gallic, Mysian and Cretan light cavalry. Perseus deployed only four cavalry squadrons and four infantry cohorts, and engaged the Roman detachment. Livy wrote that as the two forces were equal in numbers and "no fresh troops came up on either side, the engagement ended in a drawn battle." Perseus then returned to his camp at Sycurium. It looked as though neither side wanted a large-scale battle and that for Perseus, this was more like a test. Moreover, his men had marched for twelve miles without water. Perseus returned the next day, and had water carts with him. He lined up before the Roman camp, but the Romans did not give battle. He returned several times, to the same spot, and at the same hour. He hoped that the Roman cavalry would sally to pursue his troops, so that he could attack it with his superior cavalry while it was away from the Roman camp. As this failed, he moved his camp five miles away from the Roman camp. The next day, he lined up for battle at dawn. As this was earlier than he had usually done, it surprised the Romans. Perseus engaged the Romans by a hill called Callinicus.
Battle of Callinicus
Perseus' left wing contained Thracians intermixed with cavalry and the right wing consisted of the Cretan infantry intermixed with the Macedonian cavalry. The wings were flanked by a mix of Macedonian cavalry and allied troops of various nationalities. In the centre there was the “sacred” cavalry with slingers and javelin throwers in front of them. Publius Licinius lined up the heavy infantry inside the rampart and the light infantry and the cavalry in front of it. The right wing had light infantry intermixed with the Roman cavalry and the left wing had the light infantry and cavalry of Greek allies. In the centre there were select cavalrymen with the troops of Eumenes II, 200 Gauls and 300 Cyrtians. The Thessalian cavalry of 400 was a short distance in front of them. Eumenes II, his brother Attalus, and their infantry were in the rear, just in front of the rampart. The numbers of the two armies were even.
The battle was started by the slingers and javelin throwers. Then the Thracians attacked the Roman cavalry on the right wing, throwing it into confusion. The infantry on both sides cut the lances of the horsemen and stabbed the sides of the horses. Perseus’ centre pushed back the Greeks on the left wing. The Thessalian cavalry, which had been kept in reserve, joined the men of Eumenes II at the rear and their combined ranks provided a safe retreat for the allied cavalry. As the enemy slackened in their pursuit, the Thessalians ventured forward to protect the retreating foot soldiers. The Macedonian forces, which in the course of the pursuit had become spread out, did not come close to the enemy which was advancing in compact formation. The Macedonian phalanx now came forward without having been ordered to do so by Perseus. The Roman infantry came out of the rampart. On seeing it advancing, Euander, the commander of the Cretans, advised Perseus that continuing the battle was an unnecessary risk, and the king decided to withdraw. Despite this, the battle was considered a Macedonian victory because they lost 400 infantry and 20 cavalry, while the Romans lost 2,000 infantry and 200 cavalry. On the advice of Eumenes, Publius Licinius moved his camp to the other bank of the river for protection. In the Roman camp the Aetolians were blamed for beginning the panic which spread to the Greek troops, who fled following their example. Five Aetolian officers were sent to Rome. The Thessalians were commended for their bravery.
Perseus moved his camp to Mopselus, a hill at the entrance of the Vale of Tempe which commanded the view of the plain of Larissa. Meanwhile, Misagenes (the son of Masinissa, king of Numidia) brought 1,000 Numidian cavalry, the same number of infantry and 22 elephants for the Romans. Perseus was advised to use the victory to secure an honourable peace. This would make him look moderate and if the Romans rejected it, they would look arrogant. Perseus approved. Envoys were sent to the consul. They promised to pay tribute which would be negotiated. The reply was that peace would be granted only if Perseus put himself in the hands of Rome and gave her the right to determine his future and that of Macedon. Perseus hoped to buy the peace by various offers of higher and higher sums of money, but Publius Licinius turned them down. Perseus returned to Sycurium, preparing to resume hostilities. Meanwhile, the Romans in Boeotia, having taken Haliartus moved to Thebes, which surrendered without fighting. The city was given to the pro-Roman party and the property of the pro- Macedonians was sold.
Perseus thought that the fact that the Romans were harvesting the corn and dumping straw in front of their camp was a good opportunity to torch the camp. However, his night incursion was discovered. Perseus withdrew and there were some skirmishes with pursuing Romans. The Romans moved to Crannon (modern Krannonas, to the south-east of Larissa) to reap more corn. They saw Perseus’ cavalry and infantry on the hills overlooking the camp. As the Romans did not move he returned to Sycurium.
The Romans moved to Phalanna (the capital of the Perrhaebi of northern Thessaly) for further harvesting. Perseus learnt that they were dispersed and no one was guarding the camp. He hurried with 1,000 cavalry and 2,000 Thracian and Cretan light infantry and caught the Romans by surprise. He captured nearly 1,000 carts and 600 men. Then he attacked a detachment of 800 Romans, which withdrew on a hill and formed a circle with interlocked shields as a protection against javelins. The Macedonians surrounded the hill, but could not make their way up. The Macedonians used cestrosphendons, a weapon which had just been invented. It was like a dart with feathers round the shaft shot by a sling held by two thongs. The slinger whirled it and it flew off. The Romans were getting tired and Perseus urged them to surrender. Pulbius Licinius was informed and he hurried with a force of light infantry and cavalry, including the Numidians and the elephants, followed by more troops.
Perseus called in the heavy infantry, but it was too late. The infantry arrived in a hurry and was not properly arrayed. Publius Licinius attacked and Perseus lost 300 men and 24 of the “sacred” cavalry, including its commander. The heavy infantry fled, but got tangled with the captured Romans and their carts in a narrow passage. Unable to get through, the men threw the carts down the hill. The king showed up and, to the soldiers’ dismay, he ordered them to march back. Livy noted that according to some sources the consul returned to his camp, while according to others there was a big battle in which 8,000 of the enemies were killed, including two commanders, and 2,800 were captured and, while Romans lost 4,300 men.
Perseus left a strong garrison in Gonnus (which was in the Vale of Tempe, at the entrance of Macedon) and then returned to Macedon for the winter. He sent a governor to Phila to try to win over the Magnetes (a tribe to the east of Thessaly) and went to Thessalonica with Cotys IV, the king of the Odrysian kingdom of Thrace and the commander of the Thracians. They heard that Autlebis, the chief of a Thracian tribe (possibly the Caeni) and Corrhagus, one of Eumenes' commanders, had invaded one of Cotys' territories. Perseus let Cotys go to defend it and gave his cavalry only half of the year's pay. Publius Licinius heard that Perseus had gone, and attacked Gonnus in order to deny the Macedonians a convenient descent into Thessaly. However, he gave up because its citadel was impregnable. He took a number of towns in Perrhaebia, including Malloea and Tripolis, and returned to Larissa.
The consul sent part of the army to various cities to winter, disbanded the forces of the Greek allies except for the Achaeans and sent Misagenes and his Numidians to the nearest cities in Thessaly. Eumenes and Attalus returned to Pergamon. He then went with part of his army south to Achaean Phthiotis where he razed Pteleum. Antronae surrendered. Livy wrote that then he went to Larissa, that the Macedonian garrison had fled and the inhabitants, who had taken refuge in the citadel, surrendered. However, he never previously mentioned that Larissa had been taken by the Macedonians and this sounds odd. After this Publius Licinius went to Boeotia, where Thebes was in trouble with another Boeotian city, Coronea, and asked for help.
The commander sent to Illyria by the consul attacked two towns. He seized Cerenia and initially allowed the inhabitants to keep their belongings, in order to encourage the strongly fortified city of Carnuns to go over to him. However, he did not succeed and later sacked Cerenia. The other consul, Gaius Crassus, did not achieve much in northern Italy and tried unsuccessfully to go to Illyria and then attack Macedon. The senate was astonished that he left northern Italy exposed to possible attacks and sent envoys to warn him not to attack anyone without its authorisation.
The second year of the war (170 BC)
Livy wrote that the consul Publius Licinius, frustrated with his lack of success against Perseus, had turned against the Boeotians, mercilessly plundering several cities there, where he was wintering. The people of Coronea put themselves under the protection of the Senate, which ordered Licinius to release his captives. Gaius Lucretius, the commander of the fleet, was even more ruthless and rapacious, being described by Livy as “oppressive to the allies, despicable in the sight of the enemy.” Perseus, in a surprise attack on the Roman fleet stationed at Oreum on the island of Euboea, captured five warships and twenty transports laden with corn and sunk the other ships. He then went to Thrace to help Cotys against the aforementioned invasion. Epirus, on the west coast of Greece, went over to the Macedonians.
The consuls for the year 170 BC were Aulus Hostilius Mancinus and Aulus Atilius Serranus. Macedon was assigned to Aulus Hostilius and the fleet and the coast of Greece to the praetor Gaius Hortensius.
Aulus Hostilius was on his way to Macedon via Epirus. An Epirot leader wrote to Perseus to tell him to hurry there. However, the king was delayed. If he had attacked at the river passage, the newly recruited troops would have been defeated. In any case, Aulus Hostilius was informed about this and changed his route. He left Epirus and sailed to Anticyra (on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, in Boeotia) and marched to Thessaly. He marched on the enemy straight away, but he was no more successful than his predecessor, being defeated in battle. Then he gave up his useless attempts first to force his way through Elimea in south-western Macedon and then secretly march through Thessaly. Perseus anticipated all his moves. Livy wrote that Gaius Hortensius did not conduct his naval operations “with sufficient skill or success, for none of his acts deserves better to be remembered than his cruel and perfidious plundering of the city of the Abderites when they endeavoured to avert, by entreaty, the intolerable burdens imposed on them.” Perseus made an incursion against Dardania in southern Illyria, killed 10,000 and seized a large booty.
An embassy from Chalcis (the chief town of the island of Euboea) came to Rome to complain about both the naval commander of the previous year, Gaius Lucretius, for plundering the city, a friend of Rome, and the current naval commander, Lucius Hortensius, for keeping the rowdy sailors in lodgings in the town. Lucretius was put on trial and fined by the plebeian tribunes; the senate ordered Hortensius to free the men enslaved by Lucretius and not to let the sailors lodge on the island.
It was suspected that Gentius, the king of Illyria, might side with Perseus. Therefore, the senate sent eight ships with 2,000 soldiers to Issa. Aulus Hostilius sent Appius Claudius to Illyria with 4,000 men to protect the neighbouring states. He gathered 8,000 soldiers form allies of various nationalities. He sent them to Lychnidus, in the territory of the Dassaretians, a tribe in Epirus. Messengers from the nearby Uscana in southern Illyria—a town allied with Perseus and garrisoned by Cretans—told Appius Claudius that some people in the town were willing to hand it over to him. He neither asked for hostages as a safeguard nor sent scouts. He encamped near the city and set out at night, leaving 1,000 men to guard the camp. The troops were not well organised, being stretched out in a long and irregular line, and accordingly became separated in the dark. They did not see anyone on the walls as they approached. However, the defenders made a sortie, killing many of the Romans; only 1,000 men escaped. Appius took the remains of his force to Lychnidus without taking care of the men who had straggled.
This and other reverses were reported back to Rome. The senate ordered two deputies to gather information on the situation in Greece. The deputies reported the successes of Perseus and the fear of the Greek allies about Perseus reducing many cities. They also reported that the troops of the consul (Publius Licinius) were thin because he had granted leave to many of them, in order to gain popularity.
The third year of the war (169 BC)
Opening Stages
The consuls for 169 BC were Quintus Marcius Philippus (for the second time) and Gnaeus Servilius Caepio. The Macedonian War was assigned to Quintus Marcius and the command of the fleet to the praetor Quintus Marcius Figulus. The troops allocated for Greece were 6,000 Roman infantry, 6,000 Latin infantry, 250 Roman cavalry and 300 allied cavalry. The old soldiers were discharged, so each legion would have 6,000 soldiers. The soldiers who had been granted leave by the previous consul to curry favour were recalled. The recruitment for the fleet was 1,000 Roman freedmen and 500 Italians and 500 Sicilians.
When the snow covered the mountains of Thessaly, thus protecting Macedon from Roman attacks, Perseus decided to attack the Illyrians, who had granted free passage to the Romans. The Illyrian king, Gentius, had been wavering about whom to support. Perseus moved to the land of the Penestae (in southern Illyria) and went on to Stubera with 10,000 infantry, 2,000 light infantry, and 500 cavalry. From there, he marched on Uscana. Livy had previously said that this city belonged to Perseus and the Romans failed to seize it. However, in his discussion of the war's third year, it has apparently switched allegiance to Rome without further comment. Perseus sent envoys to the officers of the mixed Roman and Illyrian garrison, but they refused to surrender and he laid in a siege. The defending commanders soon capitulated, and asked to be allowed to leave with their weapons. Perseus agreed, but then disarmed them. He moved the population of the city to Stubera and sold them as slaves. The 4,000 enemy troops were sent to various towns. He then marched on Draudacum, whose garrison surrendered, and then took eleven forts, taking 1,500 Romans. He seized Oaeneus, killed the men and put the women and children in custody. He sent envoys to Gentius, to urge him for an alliance. Gentius said he did not have enough money for war. Perseus, who had a reputation for being a miser, sent the envoys back but did not mention money, even though he had the proceeds from the sale of slaves. Perseus ravaged Ancrya, returned to Uscana, fortifying it, and then returned to Macedon.
Lucius Coelius, a commander in Illyria, remained inactive while Perseus was there. After Perseus returned to Macedon, Coelius tried to recover Uscana, but was repulsed and returned to Lychnidus. He sent a detachment to the area to receive the hostages from the cities which had remained loyal (they were sent to Apollonia) and from the Parthini (a tribe of southern Illyria), who were sent to Dyrrhachium (modern Durrës, Albania). Perseus was invited by the Epirots to attack Aetolia and marched on Stratus, the strongest Aetolian city, with 10,000 infantry and 300 cavalry. He could not pitch camp on the snow-covered Mount Citium and had to encamp elsewhere. He then was held up at the River Aracthus because of its deep water. He built a bridge, crossed, and then met Archidamus, a distinguished Aetolian, who had persuaded the nobles to betray Stratus. However, while he was away, the pro-Roman faction called in a Roman garrison. Dinarchus, the commander of the Aetolian cavalry, also arrived with 600 infantry and 100 cavalry to support Perseus, but when he saw the changed situation he switched allegiance to Rome. Due to the winter weather, Perseus abandoned Stratus, and went to Aperantia, which, through the influence of Archidamus, willingly surrendered. Archidamus was made its governor, while Perseus returned to Macedon. L
Appius Claudius was eager make up for his defeat in Illyria and attacked a stronghold in Epirus. He had force of 6,000 men, Romans and contingents of Thesprotians and from Chaon (both from Epirus). He was repulsed by a strong garrison Perseus had left there. He besieged the city, but then lifted the siege due to a report that Perseus was marching there. He was pursued up an almost impassable mountain and lost 1,000 men, in addition to 200 captured. He then encamped on the plain. The pursuers were joined by an Epirot force, which ravaged the area; 1,000 troops of the city of Antigonea were killed and 100 of them were captured in an ambush. They then encamped near Appius Claudius, who decided to go back to Illyria. He sent the soldiers to winter camps and returned to Rome.
Spring Campaign
In early spring the consul, Quintus Marcius, sailed with 5,000 men to reinforce his legions, disembarked at Ambracia and moved towards Thessaly. Figulus took his fleet into the Gulf of Corinth, left his ships at Creusis, and went to join the fleet stationed at Chalcis overland. Aulus Hostilius, who had been protecting Rome's allies, had restored discipline in his troops and was encamped in Thessaly; he handed over his troops and returned to Rome. The consul started marching towards Macedon. Perseus sent troops to the mountain passes into Macedon.
Quintus Marcius carried out a heroic march into Macedon through the tough mountains of the Olympus range. He sent 4,000 light infantry ahead to secure the road to a pass near Octolophus, but the road was so difficult and steep that they advanced only fifteen miles and seven miles the next day. They spotted an enemy camp guarding the pass. Quintus Marcius stopped on a hill, which gave a wide view and ordered one day's rest. The next day he attacked with half of his troops. The enemy had seen the Roman camp and was ready. The narrow ridge allowed only for the deployment of small numbers of light troops and so the engagement was limited to a skirmish between light troops. Perseus, who was not far, did not intervene or send more troops. Despite the presence of the enemy, Quintus Marcius had no choice but to persist. Leaving some troops to guard the summit, he marched across through trackless places, having sent forward a party to open a road, with allied troops protecting them while clearing the way through the forests. Marcius kept the cavalry and baggage before him and closed the rear with the legions. The descent from the hill was tough; the pack animals often fell. In impassable steeps the elephants threw off their riders and roared loudly, frightening the horses. A series of bridges (made with two long posts fastened to the earth to which ten-yard-long beams were attached) was made where the rocks were steep, in order to help the elephants. The Romans advanced only seven miles, and then waited for the troops at the camp to join them. On the fourth day they reached a pass and encountered similarly difficult terrain. As they got close to the plain some troops encamped between Heracleum and Libethrus, while some occupied a valley and part of the plain. The greater part was on hillsides.
Perseus panicked. He evacuated the area and all the strong posts, leaving them open to the Romans, even though the area was easily defensible. He ordered the inhabitants of Dium, where he was encamped, to move to Pydna and also moved his statues there. Quintus Marcius advanced, but he faced a difficult decision. The Romans could leave the area only through two passes: through the Vale of Tempe to Thessaly or on to Macedon by way of Dium, and both were guarded. The Romans could not withdraw to Thessaly lest they cut off their supply lines. Furthermore, the Vale of Tempe was a difficult passage, very dangerous even if it was not guarded. The precipices on both sides were very steep and there was a passage which was so narrow that there was barely room for a loaded horse. To make things worse, there were guard detachments in four places along the pass. One was at the entrance, another in a thick forest and the third on the road where the valley was narrowest (Livy did not specify the characteristics of the fourth). The only way to retreat or receive supplies was to cross the same mountains the Romans had come through, but they were also very difficult to pass. It was also hard to pass through unnoticed as the enemy was posted on the heights. The only option was the area between the bottom of Mount Olympus and the sea, but that was only a mile wide, half of which was the bog of the mouth of the River Baphirus and a large part of the remaining plain was taken up by the town. The small remaining space could be easily closed off by a short rampart with towers and the material for its construction was abundant.
The Campaign in Thessaly
Quintus Marcius ordered Spurius Lucretius, who was in Larissa (Thessaly), to capture the deserted forts around Vale of Tempe. He sent scouts to check the roads around Dium and then he marched to the city. It was so rich and well-fortified that Quintus Marcius could not believe his luck that it had been evacuated. He continued his march, forcing the surrender of Agasse. To get a good reputation he did not garrison it and did not ask for taxes. He moved on to the river Ascordus, but, as he got further away from the supplies from Thessaly, plunder became scant and provisions were scarce, so he returned to Dium. The Roman fleet arrived, but he was told that the transport ships were in Magnesia, further south. Luckily, he was informed by Lucretius that the forts he had taken had plenty of corn. Quintus Marcius moved his headquarters to Phila to distribute corn to the soldiers on the spot. Livy noted that some people alleged that he had withdrawn because of fear that if he had stayed he would have had to risk a battle, while others said that he let his gains slip. With his withdrawal Perseus marched back to Dium, rebuilt the fortifications the Romans had pulled down, and encamped on bank of the Enipeus to use this difficult-to-cross river as a defence. Meanwhile, Quintus Marcius sent 2,000 men, from Phila to seize Heracleum, halfway between Dium and the Vale of Tempe, and moved his quarters there, as if he intended to besiege Dium. Instead, he prepared for the winter and had roads built for the transport of supplies from Thessaly.
In the meantime, Figulus sailed from Heracleum to Thessalonica. He pillaged the countryside and repulsed sorties from the towns, employing naval catapults. After this, the troops were re-embarked, and he made for Aenia, fifteen miles away, and pillaged its fertile countryside. He then sailed to Antigonea and did the same, but a Macedonian detachment intercepted the troops and killed 500 men. There was another fight by the coast and, assisted by men from the ships, the Romans killed 200 enemies. The fleet sailed on to the district of Pallene (the Chalkidiki peninsula), whose territory by far the most plentiful. There, Figulus was joined by 20 ships from Eumenes II of Pergamon and five ships from Prusias I of Bithynia. This encouraged him to besiege Cassandrea, which connected the Pallene peninsula (one of the three long peninsulas which extend from the Chalkidiki peninsula) with the rest of the land. An attack was repulsed by the city garrison. The arrival of a Macedonian ship from Thessalonica with Gallic auxiliaries led to the lifting of the siege. The Romans and Eumenes considered besieging Torone, but changed their minds because it had a strong garrison. They went on to Demetrias, but they saw that the walls were fully manned. Thus, they brought the fleet into harbour at Iolcos, pillaging the countryside there first.
So as not to remain inactive, Quintus Marcius sent 5,000 men, to Meliboea by Mount Ossa, where it stretches out into Thessaly in a strategic position to command Demetrias. Works for a siege started. Perseus heard about this attack and sent one of his commanders with 2,000 men. His instructions were that if he could not dislodge the Romans at Meliboea he was to march on Demetrias before Figulus and Eumenes moved there from Iolcos. When the Romans at Meliboea saw him arriving they burnt the siege works and left. The Macedonians hurried to Demetrias. Figulus and Eumenes reached the walls of the city. It was rumoured that there were negotiations between Eumenes and Antimachus, the governor of the city and a Cretan, Cydas. Whatever the case, the Romans left. Eumenes sailed to visit the consul and then returned to Pergamon. Figulus sent part of the fleet to winter at Sciatus and went to Oreum in Euboea with the rest of the fleet because it was a better base from which to send supplies to Macedon and Thessaly. Livy noted different accounts about Eumenes. According to one he did not give assistance to Figulus, even though he had asked for it and that when he left for Pergamon he was not on good terms with the consul. Quintus Marcius could not get him to leave his Gallic cavalry behind.
Ambassadors from Bithynia and from Rhodes went to Rome to propose peace. The Bithynians said that their king had promised Perseus to mediate for peace and asked the senate to give him this role. The Rhodians said that during the interwar period they had started a friendship with Perseus which they broke unwillingly because Rome wanted to draw them into an alliance. Now the war disrupted their trade, brought losses in port duties and in provisions and caused scarcity on the island. They said that they wanted peace and that they had also sent envoys to Perseus to broker it. They would consider what measures to take against either party who insisted on carrying on the war. This message was considered arrogant. Livy noted that one source wrote that it was ignored while others wrote that the senate replied that the Rhodians and Perseus had conspired against Rome and that the words of the ambassadors confirmed this. Once Perseus had been defeated, Rome would consider how to make due retribution.
The fourth year of the war (168 BC)
The consuls for 168 BC were Lucius Aemilius Paulus (for the second time) and Gaius Licinius Crassus. Macedon was assigned to Lucius Aemilius and the command of the fleet was assigned to the praetor Gnaeus Octavius. The praetor Lucius Anicius was put in charge of Illyria.
Preparations for the campaign
Aemilius was very careful in the preparation of his campaign. He asked for a commission to find out if the troops were still on the mountains or had gone to the plain, to inspect the armies and the fleet, to report on what was required, whether the allies were still loyal, which states were hostile, the status of Perseus’ troops and the logistics for supplies. They reported that the Romans had advanced towards Macedon, but the travel on the pathless mountains had resulted in more peril than profit. Perseus was still holding his country and the two forces were very close to each other. The Romans had corn rations for only six days. The Roman position in Illyria was perilous and needed to be either reinforced or withdrawn. A strong enough army there could open a second front. Some of the fleet's crew had died of disease and some had gone home, leaving the ships undermanned; also, the men did not have proper clothing and had not received their pay. The senate decided that two new legions of 5,000 infantry each were to be taken to Macedon. The men in Macedon who were unfit for service were to be discharged, the two legions there were to have 6,000 infantry each and the rest of the men were to be sent to the various garrisons. The forces of the Italian allies were to be 10,000 infantry and 800 cavalry. For the fleet 5,000 sailors were to be levied.
Perseus misses opportunities
A year earlier Gentius, the king of the Illyrians, was invited to join Macedon in an alliance. He had told Perseus that he did not have money for a war. Perseus could not make up his mind about giving him money. When he felt pressured by the Romans, who had crossed the mountain passes towards Macedon, he decided to offer Gentius 300 silver talents if hostages were exchanged. Perseus sent an envoy to Gentius who gave him his sworn sword and the hostages. Gentius sent an envoy of his to Perseus to get his sworn sword, the hostages and the money, which was to be collected by men who accompanied him. After receiving all of these he was to travel to the island of Rhodes with Macedonian envoys to deliver a plea by the two kings for Rhodes and her powerful navy to join them against the Romans. Perseus went to meet the Illyrians, the hostages were exchanged and the treaty concluded. The men who were to receive the money were sent to the royal treasury in Pella, the capital. The Illyrian and Macedonian ambassadors were ordered to board a ship at Thessalonica, where they were joined by a Rhodian who stated that the Rhodians were ready for war; he was made head of the joint delegation. Perseus let the Illyrians in Pella seal the 300 promised talents and had 10 talents sent to Gentius. However, he got his men to carry the money and told them to proceed slowly and to wait for his instructions when they reached the border. Gentius, who had received only a small part of the money, was constantly urged to provoke the Romans into an attack. As a result, he imprisoned two Roman envoys. Perseus, believing that Gentius had now been pushed into war with Rome, told the couriers to take the money back to his treasury. Livy wrote that, through his avarice, Perseus had lost an alliance with Gentius backed by large army of Gauls (see below). When the Macedonian and Illyrian envoys reached Rhodes, the Rhodians thought that Perseus and Gentius were still allies and that the Gauls had been hired. This strengthened the leaders of the pro-Macedonian faction who declared that Rhodes had sufficient authority to put an end to the war and that the kings had to accede to peace.
Perseus also sent a common message to Eumenes II of Pergamon and Antiochus IV, the Seleucid king, which invited them to put pressure on the Romans for peace talks. The message to Antiochus was sent openly. The one to Eumenes was sent under the pretence of ransoming prisoners and some secret deals between the two of them occurred which caused suspicions in Rome and accusations that Eumenes II was a traitor. This was also related to a Cretan, Cydas, who was a close friend of Eumenes. He went to meet a countryman who served in the army of Perseus at Amphipolis, in Macedon, and then had conversations with two officers of Perseus under the walls of Demetrias. He had previously gone to Eumenes as an envoy twice. The fact that these secretive missions had taken place was notorious, but the precise nature of the dealings between the two kings was not known.
Perseus also approached Eumenes II of Pergamon directly, even though he was an enemy of Macedon. Eumenes knew that Perseus pursued peace. He also thought that as the war dragged on the Romans would be interested in bringing it to an end. He wanted to win their good graces by helping them to secure what he thought would come about of itself. He asked a price on 1,000 talents for not helping the Romans by land or sea and 15,000 talents for mediating peace. Perseus agreed to send his hostages to Crete. He said that he would pay the money only when the deal was complete and that meanwhile he would send it to Samothrace, an island which belonged to him. Eumenes agreed, but asked for part of the sum immediately. He struggled to obtain it. Livy commented that “having manoeuvred with each other to no purpose, they gained nothing but disgrace”, and that, but for a small amount of money, Perseus missed a chance for successful peace talks or, had they failed, the ignition of hostilities between Rome and Eumenes.
Through avarice Perseus also lost a chance to hire Gallic mercenaries. A body on infantry and cavalry of Gauls who lived in the Balkans offered its services to Perseus for money. Perseus went to one of his camps with a small amount of gold to give to a few of the men hoping that this would entice the others. He got an envoy to tell the Gauls to move their camp to a place near Macedon. The Gauls asked whether the gold had been brought. There was no reply and they said that they would not move unless they received the gold. Perseus gave his officers the excuse that the Gauls were savages and that he would hire only 5,000 cavalry, which were enough for war and not too many to be dangerous, in order to justify not wanting to spend money on the whole of the Gallic body. When the Gauls heard that only 5,000 cavalry and no infantry were going to be hired, the rest of their army was disgruntled. The Gallic chieftain asked whether the 5,000 men would receive the agreed pay, but received an evasive answer. The Gauls left, devastating part of Thrace as they went. Livy thought that this large force of effective fighters could have been used effectively in combined operations with the forces of Perseus, which could have put the Romans in an untenable position.
War in Illyria
Gentius assembled the whole of his forces, 15,000 men, at Lissus and sent his brother Caravantius with 1,000 infantry and 500 cavalry to subdue the Cavii while he advanced on Bassania, five miles away, which was an ally of Rome. The city chose to endure a siege. One town of the Cavii, Durnium, opened its gates. Another, Caravandis, closed them and Caravantius ravaged the fields. The peasants killed many of the scattered plunderers. Appius Claudius had strengthened his army with some units of Bulinian, Apollonian, and Dyrrhachian contingents and left his winter quarters. He was encamped near the river Genusus. The praetor Lucius Anicius had arrived in Apollonia and sent a letter to Appius, asking him to wait for him. Three days after, he arrived at the camp with 2,000 infantry and 200 Parthinian cavalry. He prepared to march into Illyria to relieve Bassania. However, he was delayed by a report that the coast was being ravaged by 80 enemy boats. Here a passage of Livy is missing, but it can be deduced that he defeated this fleet (presumably, the Roman fleet was nearby), that he moved on to Bassania and that Gentius fled to Scodra, the capital. This was the most strongly fortified city in the area and was protected by two rivers and the whole of the Illyrian army. Despite this, Lucius Anicius prepared for battle by the city walls. Instead of manning the walls, which would have given them an advantage, the Illyrians marched out and gave battle. They were pushed back and more than 200 men crowded by the gate fell. The Illyrians asked for a truce and were given three days. Gentius then surrendered. A few days later he was sent to Rome.
The campaign of Lucius Aemilius
Perseus sent 200 cavalry to guard the sea and ordered 200 targeteers in Thessalonica to encamp close to the naval arsenal. He sent 5,000 troops to garrison the mountains of Pythium and Petra, which were close to Thessaly, to guard against a Roman advance. He fortified the banks of the River Elpeus because it was dried and thus easy to pass. The women of the nearby cities were ordered to bring provisions. Aemilius was encamped near this river.
The envoys from Rhodes arrived at the Roman camp to advocate for peace, but they encountered hostility. Aemilius told them that he would give them an answer in two weeks and went on to discuss battle plans with his war council. He ruled out trying to force a crossing of the river or to get Octavius to devastate the coast near Thessalonica, as he considered the fortifications of the river insurmountable. He heard from two local traders that Perrhaebia (where the Pythian mountain range was) was poorly guarded. He thought that an attack at night could dislodge the enemy detachments there. He sent for Octavius and told him to sail to Heracelum and store ten days’ rations for 1,000 men. He sent Publius Scipio Nasica Corculum there with 5,000 soldiers. He told Nasica privately that this was a pretence: Nasica would board the fleet, as if to raid the coast, but, in fact, he would then disembark and march to the mountains—the rations were for enabling the troops to march faster, without having to forage. Aemilius scheduled the march so that Nasica would reach the Pythian mountains three days later. Livy said that Nasica had 5,000 troops. However, Plutarch noted that Nasica wrote in a letter that he had 5,000 Roman and 3,000 Italian infantry, 120 cavalry and 200 mixed Thracians and Cretans. When he reached Heracleum, Nasica told his officers the real design and moved inland to Pythium. According to Plutarch, he stopped below Pythium whereas Livy wrote that he reached the summit. Plutarch described this force as an enveloping force. Livy wrote that Aemilius sent his son, Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus, with Nasica. Plutarch specified that the son volunteered to join the expedition.
Plutarch wrote that Perseus did not realise what was going on because Aemilius remained in his position quietly, whereas Livy did not state this about Perseus and gave an account of Aemilius giving two battles to keep Perseus distracted from the covert operation. Both authors wrote that a Cretan deserter informed Perseus, who sent 2,000 Macedonians and 10,000 mercenaries to Pythium. In Plutarch's account they went to occupy the mountain passes. Livy's account implies that they were sent to the pass Nasica was to attack. He also wrote that the pass was guarded by 5,000 Macedonian troops. He added that Nasica said that the steep descent would have been so unguarded that it would have been taken without trouble had it not been for the deserter. Both authors noted that Polybius (in a lost part of book 29 of his Histories) stated that Nasica attacked when they were asleep but Nasica wrote (in the mentioned letter) that there was a tough fight, that he killed a Thracian mercenary who had engaged him and that their leader disgracefully threw away his armour and cloak and fled. The Romans pursued the enemy down to the plain.
Livy gave an account of battles fought by the River Elpius. Aemilius offered battle in the morning of the day after Nasica's departure. The ground of the river bed was over a mile wide and uneven, which hindered the heavy infantry. The Macedonians hurled javelins and rocks from their rampart and the turrets. Aemilius withdrew at noon. He engaged in battle again the next morning and withdrew later than the day before. On the third morning, he went to the lowest part of the camp, “as if intending to attempt a passage through an entrenchment which stretched down to the sea …” The rest of this passage is lost.
After the defeat at the Pythian mountains, Perseus was unsure as what had to be done. He withdrew to Pydna, pitching camp in the plain, between the rivers Aeson and Leucus, which had been made shallow by the heat of the summer, but still deep enough to trouble the Romans. The even ground was favourable for the phalanx. There were hills to which the light infantry could withdraw after harassing the enemy to attack again.
Nasica re-joined his commander and Aemilius marched on Pydna, where he lined up the men in battle formation. However, at noon he ordered them to mark the line of a camp and deposit the baggage because it was hot, the men were tired from the march and they were greatly outnumbered by the enemy. Realising that there was not to be a battle, the soldiers were relieved. Some of the officers were unhappy, but they kept quiet. Nasica advised Aemilius to fight. He replied that he had learnt when it was “proper to fight, and when to abstain from fighting.” He had lined up the men to keep the construction of the camp rampart behind them hidden from the enemy. He then withdrew them behind the rampart in stages starting from the rear. Aemilius placed the camp on uneven ground, which made the Macedonian phalanx quite useless. A veteran officer announced that there was going to be an eclipse that night, and reassured the soldiers who were ignorant about this phenomenon and would have seen it as a portent.
Aemilius performed sacrifices when the moon arose and through most of the next day. Plutarch wrote that this was because, although he was familiar with the phenomenon of the eclipse, he was very devout and he did so for divination, not for expiation. During the eclipse, he sacrificed eleven heifers to the goddess moon. During the day he sacrificed twenty oxen to Hercules without getting favourable omens. With the twenty-first the signs indicated victory if the Romans kept on the defensive. Livy wrote that the officers thought that Aemilius, who had hoisted the battle signal at dawn, was wasting time with these sacrifices. When he finished, Aemilius convened a war council and explained why he was deferring the battle.
The Battle of Pydna
The Battle of Pydna resolved the war decisively in favour of the Romans. Plutarch noted two versions of the beginning of the battle. According to some sources it began through a scheme devised by Aemilius to goad the enemy into attacking first; the Romans made a horse without a bridle run to the enemy's bank and sent some men to pursue it to provoke the enemy into an attack. Other sources said that Thracian troops came upon Roman pack animals which were bringing in forage; 700 Ligurian soldiers sallied against them and both parties sent reinforcements, starting a general fight. Aemilius went to the front line with Roman legionaries to encourage his troops. Livy also noted the horse version and added that it held that this was because the omens of Aemilius’ last sacrifices said that the Romans would win only if they did not strike the first blow. However, Livy favoured another version and thought that the battle was brought on by happenstance. Both enemies collected water from a river closer to the Macedonian camp with the protection of detachments. The Roman side was protected by Italian allies: two cohorts of Marrucini and Paeligni and two squadrons of Samnite cavalry. More troops (of Vestini and men from Firmum and Cremera) and two cavalry squadrons (of men from Placentia and Aesernia) were stationed in front of the camp. While both sides were quiet, a mule broke loose and escaped towards the enemy's bank. Three Italians went into the river to pursue the animal. Two Thracian soldiers dragged it out of the water and towards their bank. The Italians pursued them, retook the mule, killing one of Thracians, and returned to their post. Some of the 800 Thracians chased the Italians and soon, the rest engaged with the enemy guards. Then units from both sides joined in and the king and the consul mobilised their forces. Livy wrote that whether by the design of Aemilius or by accident, this is what sparked the battle.
When it seemed that he could not stop the fighting, Aemilius decided to turn an accident into an opportunity and brought his forces out of the camp. Nasica told him that Perseus was advancing. The Thracians, flanked by light infantry, formed the first line. Next to them there were mercenaries of various nationalities. The Leucaspides (phalanx with white shields) formed the middle. In the rear there were the Chalcaspides (phalanx with bronze shields), flanked on the right wing by another phalanx. These two were the main strength of the army. There were also targeteers, who were midway between the phalanx and the light infantry. They had spikes like those of the phalanx but wore light armour. They stood in front of the wings. This army had been so swift that those who were first killed fell close to the Roman camp. A unit of Paelignans from central Italy and those at their rear were routed and the rest of the soldiers in that part of the battlefield withdrew to a hill. Elsewhere the Roman forces were hesitant to confront the long spears of the Macedonian phalanx. When the Romans tried to push aside their stretched out spears, the Macedonians held them firmly and transfixed the enemy, piercing both their shields and armour. The spears formed an insurmountable barrier.
The strength of the Macedonian phalanx relied on keeping its lines compact by interlocking their shields. Aemilius noticed that the phalanx was not compact everywhere and that in some places there were gaps. These were due to the length of its lines, the unevenness of the ground (which caused those on higher ground to become separated from those on the lower ground) and differences between those who were faster and those who were slower or those who were slowed down because they were pressed by the enemy. Aemilius ordered his cohorts to attack any gaps, however narrow, and slip through like a wedge to break up the ranks of the phalanx and divide the battle into many separate fights. The wedged-in troops attacked the flank of the phalanx where it was not protected by the spears and the sides of the soldiers was not shielded by their breastplates. They also cut off the lines they attacked by falling on their rear. The efficiency of the phalanx was lost. Forced to engage in man-to-man fights or fights between small detachments, the Macedonians had to turn their spears, which were unwieldy because of their length and weight. They became tangled with each other and useless. Their small daggers could not hack the enemy shields or oppose their swords. They were not a firm body anymore and could quite easily be thrown into disarray 41 6-7
The legion of Aemilius wedged in between the phalanxes and targeteers and had the targeteers behind and the Chalcaspides in front. Lucius Albinus, a former consul, was sent against the Leucaspides of the centre of the enemy lines. The elephants and the allied cavalry were sent to the right wing, by the river, where the battle began. This was also the area where the Macedonians started to retreat. This attack was followed by an attack on the left wing by the Latin allies, who pushed it back. The second legion charged the centre, broke the lines of the enemy and dispersed it. Plutarch wrote that Marcus, the son of Cato the Elder and the son-in‑law of Aemilius, lost his sword. He rallied his companions to his aid, who put themselves under his leadership, and attacked. They filled gaps which were hidden by hips of fallen bodies. They fought 3,000 select elite Macedonians who remained in close ranks and slaughtered them. The battle ended at four o’ clock and was won in one hour. The rest of the day was spent pursuing fugitives over a stretch of three miles. Plutarch wrote that the Macedonians lost 25,000 men and noted that according to Poseidonius (see below) the Romans lost 100 men while according to Nasica they lost eighty.
Livy wrote the Macedonians suffered the greatest losses in any battle with the Romans and that if the battle had started earlier, the Romans would have had more daylight time to pursue the Macedonians and all their troops would have been destroyed. The Macedonian wings fled in full ranks. The survivors of the hemmed-in phalanx fled unarmed to the sea. Some went into the water begging the Roman ships to save them. They walked further into the sea or swam towards the boats from the ships, but they were killed. Some headed back to the shore, but they were trampled over by the elephants which were being taken to the shore by their riders. The enemy lost 20,000 men, the captives were 6,000 of the men who fled the battle scene and 5,000 of those who scattered in the countryside. The victors lost no more than 100 men, most of whom were Paelignians.
Plutarch also noted that Polybius wrote that Perseus cravenly left the battle immediately and went to the city under the pretext of offering sacrifices to Heracles, a god who did not accept sacrifices from cowards. The god, instead, listened to the prayers of the brave Aemilius who invited him to fight with him. Plutarch also noted that a man called Poseidonius, who wrote a history of Perseus and said that he participated in the battle, wrote that the king did not leave because cowardice or under the pretence of sacrifices, but because, the day before the battle, he was kicked in the leg by a horse. On the day of the battle, against advice to the contrary, he ordered a pack horse and joined the phalanx without a breastplate. A dart tore his tunic on his left side and bruised his skin. Livy, instead, wrote that Perseus was the first to flee the battle with his sacred cavalry squadron. He fled to Pella and was quickly followed by the Thracian cavalry. The Roman forces, which were busy routing the Macedonian phalanx, were “careless of pursuing the cavalry.”
The pursuit of the fugitive Perseus
Livy wrote that Perseus fled to Pella, the capital, through the Pierian wood with his cavalry, which had survived the battle almost intact, and the royal retinue. In the darkness he left the main path with a few trusted men. The abandoned cavalrymen returned to their respective homes. Plutarch, instead, wrote that he came across some infantrymen who called the horsemen cowards and traitors and tried to push them off their horses. He turned away from the road, drew his purple cloak and held it in front of him to be inconspicuous. He also carried the royal diadem in his hand. He dismounted to converse with his companions and walked with them. These found excuses to fall behind and ran away because they were afraid of his cruelty. Perseus reached Pella and in Livy he was met at the palace by the governor of Pella and the royal pages. In Plutarch he was met by his treasurers whom he killed because of bold remarks about the defeat. Perseus’ friends, who also had escaped to Pella independently, shunned him. Only Euander the Cretan, Archedamus the Aetolian, and Neon the Boeotian remained. Fearing a plot, Perseus continued his escape with an escort of about five hundred Cretans. They did so only because they were given money. He rushed to cross the river Axius before daylight, because he thought that the Romans would not pursue him beyond this river, which was difficult to cross. He reached Amphipolis three days after the battle. He sent ambassadors to the Romans. In the meantime, Hippias Milo, and Pantauchus, three of his main friends, had fled to Berœa and surrendered that city and several others. Perseus addressed the people of Amphipolis, but he was met with hostility because of fears that his presence would lead to a Roman attack. He left the city and arrived at Galespus the next day.
In the meantime, Aemilius sent three envoys to Rome to announce the victory. He moved nearer the sea, towards Pydna. Most Macedonian cities surrendered. Pydna had not yet sent any ambassadors because many military men of different nationalities had fled there and walled the city gates. Milo and Pantauchus were sent to address the situation. The soldiers were sent away and the city was given up for the Roman soldiers to plunder.
Plutarch, who was quite scathing of Perseus, wrote that at Galepsus his fear abated and he reverted to his avarice. He claimed that the Cretans had stolen some of the gold plate of Alexander and implored them to exchange it for money. He was playing Cretan against Cretan and those who gave it back to him were cheated. He paid less money than he promised and got the money from his friends. He then sailed to the island of Samothrace where he took refuge as a suppliant in the temple of the Dioscuri, which was a sanctuary.
Perseus’ ambassadors reached Aemilius who, thinking that he was in Amphipolis, sent Nasica there with a detachment to obstruct the king. Meanwhile, Gnaeus Octavius, the Roman naval commander, sacked Melibœa. At Aeginium, which was not aware that the war had ended, the inhabitant made a sortie against Gnaeus Anicius, who had been sent there, and two hundred men were lost. Aemilius left Pydna for Pella. On receiving intelligence that Perseus had gone to Samothrace, he moved on to Amphipolis and then crossed the river Strymon and went to Sirae, where he encamped. Three ambassadors gave Aemilius a letter from Perseus which contained appeals for mercy which in Livy's opinion "were anything but kingly." Aemilus did not reply and Perseus sent another letter in which "he begged most urgently" for envoys to be sent to him to confer on the state of his affairs. Aemilius sent three men, but nothing came out of the meeting; "Perseus clung desperately to his royal title, and [Aemilius] was determined that he should place himself and all that he possessed at the mercy of Rome." Meanwhile, Gnaeus Octavius, the commander of the Roman fleet anchored it off Samothrace and, out of respect to the gods and the sanctuary on the island, did not go for Perseus, but took measures to prevent him from escaping by sea and tried to pressure him to surrender.
Lucius Atilius, "a young man of distinction," was allowed to attend an assembly of the people of the island. He accused Euander, the leader of the Cretan mercenaries, of having attempted to murder king Eumenes II of Pergamon at the sanctuary of Delphi, and called for him to be put on trial. Violence was forbidden at these sacred places. The people of Samothrace, which was also a sanctuary, agreed. If found guilty this would have exposed Perseus as the instigator of the attempted murder. Euander wanted to escape, but Perseus, fearing that the Samothracians would think that he had helped him to escape, had him killed. He then realised that he would be accused of murder in a sanctuary and bribed the leader of the island to say that Euander had committed suicide. However, this alienated the inhabitants, who went over to the Romans. Therefore, Perseus planned to escape. He hired the ship of a Cretan and had all the money he could take secretly transported to the ship at sunset. At midnight he climbed a wall and reached the shore. However, the ship had sailed off as soon as the money was on board. Perseus hid in the temple of Demetrius. Gaius Octavius proclaimed that if the royal pages and all the Macedonians on the island went over to the Romans they would be granted impunity and freedom. They all left Perseus except for his eldest son, Phillip. At this point Perseus surrendered. According to Plutarch, Perseus asked for Nasica, whom he trusted, but he was not there. Thus, he gave himself to Gnaeus Octavius.
Perseus (together with Gentius) was sent to Rome as a prisoner. The motion to award Aemilius a triumph was disputed by an officer who had a personal gripe with him and sought support from the soldiers who felt they had been given less of the share of the booty from Perseus’ immense wealth they should have had. Aemilius kept part of this for the treasury. However, the motion was carried and Aemilius celebrated his triumph. Perseus was led in chains in front of the procession and was then kept in custody at Alba Fucens for the rest of his life.
Aftermath: the partition of Macedon
Aemilius sent his son, Quintus Fabius Maximus, who had returned from Rome, to sack two cities: Agassae, which revolted after it had surrendered to the consul and asked for an alliance with Rome, and Aeginium, which refused to believe the Roman victory and killed some Roman soldiers who entered the town. Lucius Postumius was sent to sack Aeniae "because of its obstinacy".
Commissioners were sent to Macedon and to Illyria. Livy wrote that the senate resolved that the Macedonians and Illyrians should be free "so that it might be clear to all the world that the arms of Rome did not carry slavery to the free, but on the contrary freedom to the enslaved; and also that amongst those nations which enjoyed liberty, the security and permanence of their liberty rested under the protection of Rome." This had to do with the self-image the Romans liked to have and with propaganda, rather than reality. The contracts for working the rich mines of Macedon and the leases of the royal domains were scrapped and were put under Roman tax collectors. The pretext was that without them “the law lost its authority or the subjects their liberty” and that the Macedonians were unable to work the mines themselves because those in charge would line their pockets and this could cause unrest. Ironically, the Roman tax collectors became notorious for lining their pockets. The Macedonian national council was abolished with the excuse that this was intended to prevent a demagogue from flattering the “mob” and turn the freedom granted by the Romans into a “dangerous and fatal licence.” Macedon was to be divided into four republics, each with its own council which would have to pay Rome a tribute which was half of what used to be paid to the king. The same regulations applied to Illyria. More definite arrangements were to be made by the commissioners.
When the commission arrived from Rome Aemilius gave notice for the representatives of all the cities to assemble at Amphipolis and bring all the documents they had and all the money due to the Royal treasury. A conference was held and there was such a display of pomp and power that Livy wrote that it “might have even appalled the allies of Rome.” It was declared that the Macedonians were to be free and retain their fields and cities and elect their officials. Then the partition, the borders of the four cantons and the tribute were announced. Aemilius designated the four capitals. Intermarriage between people of different cantons and the possession of houses or land in more than one canton were banned. The gold and silver mines were not allowed to be mined, but the iron and copper ones were. Importation of salt and cutting of wood for domestic shipbuilding or allowing others to do so were forbidden. The cantons bordering other nations were allowed to have border troops.
The Romans also used their victory to increase their control over the whole of Greece by supporting the pro-Roman factions around Greece. Their supporters had come to the conference from all over Greece. They made allegations that many of those who had supported Perseus in their cities and states had fostered hostility towards Rome, claimed that maintaining loyalty to Rome in their states required crushing them, and gave lists of names. The commissioners decided that the people on the list had to go to Rome to make their defence. Livy wrote that the pro-Romans were inflated “to an insupportable pitch of insolence.” In Macedon everyone who had been in the king's service was sent to Italy with their children over fifteen.
Aemilius sent Nasica and his son, Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus, to ravage the areas of Illyria which had helped Perseus.
The enslavement of 150,000 Epirots
After the defeat of the Illyrian king, Lucius Anicius, the commander in Illyria, placed garrisons in the Illyrian cities. Then he marched on Epirus with the rest of his army to suppress the rebellion there. All the cities, except for four (Passaron, Tecmon, Phylace and Horreum), surrendered. Passaron was the first of these cities which was attacked. Its two leaders were the men who had incited Epirus to side with Perseus and told the inhabitants that death was preferable to servitude. A young noble stood against them and encouraged the people to drive the two men out of the city, which then surrendered. At Tecmon the city leader was killed and this city surrendered as well. The other two cities fell after a siege. When Epirus was pacified and detachments were sent to various cities for wintering, Lucius Anicius returned to Scodra, the capital of Illyria, where five commissioners had arrived from Rome. Here he summoned the leaders from all around Illyria to a conference. In agreement with the commissioners, he announced that the Roman garrisons were going to be withdrawn from all the cities so that the Illyrians could be free. Some of the cities had deserted Caravantius, the brother of Gentius, and gone over to the Romans. They were, therefore, exempted from paying a tribute. Other cities which had rebelled when Gentius was still in power were also granted this exemption. The three cities which had resisted the longest were to pay half of the tribute they paid to Gentius. Lucius Anicius also declared that Illyria was to be split into three cantons.
Aemilius went to Epirus on his way back to Rome. The senate gave his army permission to plunder the cities in Epirus which had supported Perseus. Centurions were sent to tell all the cities that they had come to remove to the Roman garrisons because the Epirots were to be free. The leaders of each city were summoned and told to bring the silver and gold in their towns to a designated place and that Roman cohorts had been ordered to visit all the cities. Troops were sent to seventy cities. This was coordinated so that they would reach each city on the same day. The precious metals were collected in the morning and at 10 am and then the soldiers were ordered to sack the cities. The city walls were demolished. The booty was enormous and part of the proceeds from its sale was given to the men of the army, 400 denarii to the cavalrymen and 200 to the foot soldiers. In addition to this, 150,000 people were enslaved. The troops resented that they were not given a share of the booty from the royal palace of Perseus “as though they had not taken any part in the Macedonian war.” Aemilius then sailed back to Italy with his army. A few days later Lucius Anicius, who had been meeting the representatives of the rest of the Epirots, told them that the senate wanted to hear the case of some of their leaders and ordered these men to follow him to Italy. He then waited for return of the ships which had been used to transport the army from Macedonia and returned to Italy.
See also
Ancient Greek warfare
Military history of Greece
Agathagetus
Quotes
References
Primary sources
Livy, History of Rome from Its Foundation: Rome and the Mediterranean (Books 42-45), Penguin Classics, Reprint edition, 1976;
Plutarch, Parallel Lives, The life of Aemilius, Loeb Classical Library, Vol 6, 1989;
Secondary Sources
Grant, M., The History of Rome, Faber & Faber, 1986;
Giles, J., The History of Ancient Greece, its Colonies and Conquests, To The Division of The Macedonian Empire, Bangs, Brother & Co.; 1st Ed(AsSuch) edition, 1852; ASIN: B001CYBX0Y
Matyszak, P., The Enemies of Rome: From Hannibal to Attila the Hun, Thames & Hudson, 2004;
Further reading
Sherwin-White, Adrian N. 1984. Roman foreign policy in the East 168 B.C. to A.D. 1. London: Duckworth.
170s BC conflicts
160s BC conflicts
2nd century BC in Greece
2nd century BC in the Roman Republic
Macedonian 3
Macedonian 3
Macedonian 3
Roman–Greek wars | [
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242356 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth%20Macedonian%20War | Fourth Macedonian War | The Fourth Macedonian War (150–148 BC) was fought between Macedon, led by the pretender Andriscus, and the Roman Republic. It was the last of the Macedonian Wars, and was the last war to seriously threaten Roman control of Greece until the First Mithridatic War sixty years later.
The last Macedonian king of the Antigonid dynasty, Perseus, had been defeated and dethroned by the Romans in the Third Macedonian War in 168 BC. In the aftermath of the war, Rome took indirect control of the region through a system of client states, and imposed harsh terms to prevent Macedon from becoming a powerful state again. This system was successful in maintaining Roman hegemony for nearly two decades, but broke down when Andriscus, a Greek who bore a resemblance to Perseus, claimed to be the former king's son and re-established the Macedonian Kingdom with Thracian troops.
Andriscus was initially successful, defeating Roman clients and a Roman army sent to stop him, and conquering much of Thessaly. However, he was eventually defeated by another Roman army under Quintus Caecilius Metellus at the Second Battle of Pydna in 148 BC, severely weakening his position; he was subsequently pursued and eventually betrayed to the Romans. After settling a few subsequent minor rebellions, Rome took direct control of Macedon, making it a Roman province.
Background
Tensions between the Roman Republic and Macedon had first begun in 215 BC, when Philip V of Macedon allied himself with Rome's rival, Carthage, and declared war on Rome, sparking the First Macedonian War, an indecisive sideshow of the larger Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage. Soon after the end of the war with Carthage, a victorious Rome received multiple requests for assistance from a number of Greek polities and city-states which were afraid of Philip's ambition. Although war-weary from the recent Punic War, Rome agreed, and when Philip refused to accept their terms, they declared war on and defeated him in the Second Macedonian War of 200-197 BC, in which Philip was stripped of much territory and prestige, and forced to comply with Rome's demands. In the aftermath of this conflict, tensions developed between Rome and the Seleucid Empire, whose ambitious monarch, Antiochus III the Great, aimed to attain hegemony over Greece. Encouraged by the Aetolian League, Antiochus went to war with Rome in 192 BC, sparking the Roman-Seleucid War; it ended in a resounding Roman victory — Antiochus lost all his territory in Asia Minor and had to disband his fleet, pay a massive war indemnity and promise not to cross the Taurus mountains, effectively relegating the Seleucids to an Asiatic power and ending their influence in Greece. Macedon regained some territory and influence on account of their cooperation with the Romans in this conflict, but high-handed Roman actions and Macedonian revanchism continued to stoke resentment in Philip.
Macedonian power continued to grow for the rest of Philip's reign, and this was continued by his talented son and successor, Perseus. Although Rome formally reaffirmed "friendship" with him, tensions continued to grow on account of reviving Macedonian power, Perseus' growing popularity with the Greeks and his successful diplomacy in the Greek world, in which he revived Macedonian influence and strengthened its position as a leading power once again. A tenuous peace continued until Eumenes II of Pergamon, a staunch Roman ally and Perseus' arch-rival, went to Rome in 172 BC and persuaded them that Perseus was a threat to Rome and the Greeks, and exhorted them to break his power. Finally, as Eumenes was returning to Pergamon, an assassination attempt on him, for which Perseus was blamed, resolved Rome in favour of war. The ensuing Third Macedonian War of 171-168 BC was hard-fought, but ended in a complete Roman victory and Perseus' surrender and imprisonment, establishing Rome's position as the sole hegemonic power in the Greek world.
The Greek world was harshly treated in the aftermath of the Roman victory; allies of Perseus were brutally repressed, while those suspected to have sympathized with Perseus became pariahs in the new Roman-dominated order. Rome took unprecedented measures to ensure that a revival of Macedonian power would be impossible — the ancient Macedonian monarchy was abolished and Perseus was exiled to an Italian city. Knowing that occupying Macedon would require military presence against barbarian tribes on Macedon's northern frontier, Rome decided against making it a province; instead, Macedon was broken up into four client republics, or merides, that paid tribute to Rome, with trade regulations and restrictions on interaction between the republics, as well as being forbidden to work Macedon's rich mines freely, and limiting them to possessing only such military forces as were necessary to deal with barbarian tribes to the north. Most of the former ruling elite was deported to Rome. Macedon also suffered from impoverishment, due to the fiscal restrictions imposed on it and the looting of treasuries by victorious Roman troops at the end of the Third Macedonian War in 168 BC. This, along with the effective destruction of the old social order, created great resentment among many sections of the populace.
However, Rome withdrew all its troops in 167 BC; thereafter, it left the Macedonian republics alone in their internal administration, not intervening even when appeals were made to it to resolve serious crises like a massacre of Macedonian officials in 163 BC. It has been suggested that Rome was seeking to satisfy the Macedonians with local autonomy, so that they would forget any sort of "national" identity; however, a general longing for monarchy persisted in Macedon, as the people had not yet adapted to democratic institutions, though a significant class of pro-Roman Macedonian republicans did develop, including those who had been persecuted by the old Antigonid monarchy. Some regulations were relaxed; for instance, the Macedonians were allowed to use their mines again from 158 BC, but resentment continued, including over those restrictions that remained, as well as the division of Macedon, leaving the situation ripe for the rise of pretenders to the old Antigonid throne.
Andriscus claims the throne
Around 154/153 BC, a Greek named Andriscus, who bore a resemblance to the Antigonids, began claiming that he was Philip, a now-obscure son of Perseus, and had been reared in secrecy by a foster family. The origins of this youth are unclear; ancient sources generally agree that he was a man of low origins, and that he hailed from Adramyttium in Aeolis in northwestern Asia Minor. He entered Macedonia in force to claim "his" throne, but was repulsed, presumably by the combined forces of three of the four client republics (the third republic had been forbidden from raising troops by the settlement of 167 BC).
At some point after this failure, he travelled to Syria and enlisted as a mercenary of the Seleucid monarch, Demetrius I Soter, and now began making his claims there. News of his claims spread, and after gaining enough notability, he appealed to the Seleucid monarch, Demetrius I Soter, to help him regain his throne. Despite riotous support for him from the population of the Seleucid capital, Antioch, Demetrius refused to help him, and instead arrested him and had him shipped to Rome. The senate, however, remained complacent; although he was brought before the senate, he was simply exiled to an Italian city. He soon managed to escape from Italy and fled back to the Greek world, but the Romans remained unpreturbed; they did not take him seriously.
He travelled to Miletus, where he tried to advance his claims further, attracting significant attention. Diodorus writes that when the leaders of Miletus learned about this, they arrested him and sought advice from visiting Roman envoys on what to do with him; the envoys were contemptuous of the pretender and told the Milesians that he was safe to release. After his release, he continued to try and achieve his aim of becoming king of Macedon. He travelled to Pergamon to meet with Callippa, a former concubine of Perseus, who gave him money and royal regalia. From there he went on to Byzantium, where he was received favourably and obtaining a significant following and a number of sympathizers. Helliesen proposes that the following that Andriscus built up in this period derived from Macedonians who had fled to Attalid territory after the Third Macedonian War and had been settled in garrisons in western Lydia.
Andriscus then travelled to Thrace, where he found allies and sympathy, especially from the Odrysian king Teres III, who was related to the Antigonids by marriage. Teres held a coronation ceremony for Andriscus, crowning him with a diadem, gave him a hundred troops, and introduced him to other Thracian leaders, including one Barsabas, who agreed to accompany him on his campaign to reclaim the Macedonian throne. He was also aided by some forces of Macedonian origin that Rubinsohn refers to as "émigré rabble".
Course of the war
Andriscus' conquest of Macedon
With this force, Andriscus invaded Macedonia in the spring of 149 BC. Initially, he failed to inspire much popular support for himself among the Macedonian populace, emboldening the Roman client republics in Macedon, and making the Roman Senate complacent about the risk posed by the pretender. There are indications that his first attempts to conquer Macedon were failures; he rallied his resources and tried again, meeting the forces of one of the republics in a battle on the banks of the Strymon river, defeating them soundly and conquering all of Macedonia east of the Strymon, including the old royal capital of Pella where took up residence, around the summer of 149 BC. At this point, he assumed the regnal name Philip. The Macedonian republics to the west continued to resist him, but were defeated in another battle on the west bank of the Strymon, after which the Macedonians seem to have accepted him as king.
His victories gained him the loyalty of the Macedonians; the people longed for monarchy and were willing to accept a ruler, and were eager to get rid of the artificial divisions and factional strife of the client republics. On the other hand, the neighbouring Greeks, including the historian Polybius, were taken by surprise; Polybius writes in astonishment of how the pretender who had "dropped from the skies" and, in his view, was a tyrant, could be accepted, let alone enthusiastically, by the Macedonians. Eckstein puts this view down to the fact that Polybius and the Greeks were part of a deep-rooted republican society, and could not comprehend the Macedonian longing for a hallowed monarchical past. Andriscus now attacked Thessaly; the Thessalian League appealed to the Achaean League for aid, knowing that any Roman involvement would be slow to come. They and the remnants of the pro-Roman Macedonian forces resisted him for some time, until Rome finally decided to send a legate, Scipio Nasica Corculum, to assess the situation.
Roman involvement
Scipio was sent with the purpose of negotiating a peaceful settlement; Gruen remarks that the fact that Rome believed in the possibility of a peaceful settlement at this stage shows that they were either out of touch with the situation or were not really committed to the settlement they had drawn up in the aftermath of the Third Macedonian War. It has been suggested that there is a possibility that he was sent before news of Andriscus' campaigns became widely known, and that he was simply sent to dissuade any Greek sympathy for Carthage, which Rome was planning to attack. Whatever the case, Scipio's attempts at diplomacy failed, probably because the Romans were unwilling to accept Andriscus' demand to be recognized as king of a unified Macedon. Instead, Scipio resorted to military action, and began to rally the forces of Thessalians and Achaeans that had already been fighting. With them, he managed to temporarily halt Andriscus' advance. Still, the Roman commander informed the Senate that direct military intervention would be needed to stop the pretender, as the situation was getting dire, with Andriscus already having conquered significant parts of Thessaly.
Thalna's defeat
In response to Scipio's report, the Senate appointed a praetor, Publius Juventius Thalna, to command a legion and settle the situation with military force. Thalna was probably reinforced by Greek contingents, and spent two or three months stabilizing the situation. However he seems to have underestimated Andriscus, not understanding that Andriscus' army had swelled dramatically since his enthronement, including contingents of both Macedonians and Thracians. Thalna's attempt to invade Macedonia via Thessaly was intercepted by Andriscus at an unspecified location near the borders of Macedon in late 149 or early 148 BC; details of the engagement are scarce, but Thalna was killed and his army almost annihilated, with the survivors escaping under the cover of night. It was the worst defeat Rome had suffered so far in their campaigns against Hellenistic powers, and had massive psychological impact in both Greece and Rome.
Domestically, Andriscus' popularity was greatly increased, and he launched another invasion of Thessaly, successfully devastating and conquering most of it. Foreign interest in him increased; Carthage, which was now at war with Rome in the Third Punic War, agreed to an alliance with him and promised him money and ships. On the other hand, Attalus II Philadelphus of Pergamon remained a staunch Roman ally; he had no intention of seeing a strong and revived Macedonia as a neighbour. The battle also underlined the fact that the Macedonians were committed to their newly-revived monarchy, however weak their king's claim.
At the same time, the Macedonian victory also meant the end of any hopes of negotiated peace with Rome. The Romans could not take such a defeat lying down, and resolved to crush Macedonia as a power once and for all. Fears of Roman reprisal prompted defections in Macedon; Andriscus began to take harsh and cruel measures against any pro-Roman elements, conducting acts of terrorism and repression against them.
Metellus' campaign
Rome soon began preparing a full consular army of two legions to fight in Macedon; despite the difficulties associated with raising such a force when they already had many legions serving in other theatres of war, the Senate did not wish to take any risks in the aftermath of Thalna's crushing defeat, and strongly desired to avoid any possibility of military collaboration between Macedon and Carthage. Both Roman consuls for the year were already engaged in other theatres of war; therefore, the Senate entrusted the campaign one of the year's praetors, Quintus Caecilius Metellus, granting him proconsular powers.
Arriving in Greece in the summer of 148 BC, Metellus received the assistance of the fleet of Attalus II, and made an advance along the Thessalian coast, while the Pergamene fleet threatened the coastal districts of northern Macedonia; Amphipolis seems to have passed out of Andriscus' control by this stage. To protect himself from both offensives, and to prevent the loss of Macedon's seaboard, the king took up a defensive position at Pydna, where the Roman commander engaged him in battle.
Second Battle of Pydna
Not many details survive about the battle, or the exact numbers of troops involved. The first clash was a cavalry skirmish, in which Andriscus' forces had the upper hand, defeating units of Roman cavalry. Before or around the time of this skirmish, a Macedonian cavalry commander named Telestes defected with a significant portion of the Macedonian cavalry.
After this, Andriscus sent away some of his forces to continue his campaign in Thessaly, possibly due to supply issues or to threaten the Roman rear, or due to overconfidence. Metellus seized this opportunity to attack in full strength, possibly with the assistance of traitors in Andriscus' force; his forces soon routed both forces of Macedonians; Andriscus fled the battle.
End of the war
The battle shattered Andriscus' army and broke the Macedonian war effort. He fled to Thrace and began raising another army there, but Metellus pursued him swiftly, forcing Andriscus into a new battle before his raw levies were fully prepared. This engagement was an easy victory for the Romans; as soon as the Macedonian front ranks were broken, the rest of the army fled in panic. Andriscus himself fled to the Thracian princeling Byzes, but Metellus managed to persuade the latter to become a Roman ally and hand Andriscus over, concluding the campaign.
However, Macedon was not fully pacified yet. Another uprising, probably with Thracian support, arose under the leadership of a certain Alexander, who now declared himself to be a son of Perseus and occupied the basin of the Nestus River. However, he was quickly defeated by Metellus and forced to flee into Dardania. By the end of 147 BC, Metellus had largely pacified the country and restored order. This was not the end of Macedonian rebellions against Rome; another pretender would later cause a serious crisis in 143/142 BC, raising an army of 16,000 men before being defeated and killed by the quaestor Lucius Tremellius; apart from this, border crises with the Thracians, which had been an issue for previous Macedonian governments as well, continued.
Metellus imposed penalties on the Macedonians, as well as on the Byzantines, who had earlier been sympathetic to Andriscus. He took significant booty, including some of the spoils taken by Alexander the Great at the Battle of the Granicus, and many valuable works of art. After settling subsequent affairs in Greece and Macedon, the victorious praetor later returned to Rome in 146 BC, where he was given the agnomen Macedonicus and granted a triumph. Andriscus was paraded in this triumph, and subsequently executed.
Roman reorganization of Macedon
The Senate realized that the settlement of 168 BC could no longer sustain itself; the extent of support that Andriscus' uprising had won among the Macedonians demonstrated both the fragility of indirect control and the need for a thorough reorganization of Macedonia. It is likely that a senatorial legation was sent to Macedon, probably soon after Metellus' victory, and, together with Metellus, made administrative changes to governance in Macedon, transferring significant functions to a Roman praetor. From this point onwards, a legion and a praetor were permanently stationed in Macedon; this was the first time Roman troops were permanently based east of the Adriatic sea. Macedon was unified into a single administrative unit as the Provincia Macedonia; the new province included not only Macedon, but also parts of southern Illyria, as well as Epirus and Thessaly. This received mixed reactions; on one hand, the people welcomed the reunification of Macedon; on the other hand, they resented their loss of freedom and the harsher rule of the Romans. Many praetors would engage in corruption and extortion; besides, they were not as effective as previous administrations in protecting the region from barbarian raids.
The exact nature and chronology of the provincialization is a matter of debate. It is known that a new provincial era, the "Macedonian Era", was proclaimed in 148 BC, but it is disputed as to whether this was to signify the formation of the province or Metellus' victory. Doubts have been expressed as to whether Metellus could have had the time to organize Macedonia into a province, and it has instead been suggested that it was one of the consuls of 146 BC, Lucius Mummius, who reorganized Macedon with the help of a decemviral commission while settling the affairs of Greece. Gruen and Eckstein doubt whether Macedon ever formally became a province, pointing out that the Macedonian merides continued to exist well into the early principate. In their view, what changed after the Fourth Macedonian war was the fact that from then on, a Roman praetor and his legion were permanently stationed in Macedonia; naturally, they gradually took on more administrative and bureaucratic roles, leading to an informal provincialization. Still, the presence of Roman officials after 148 BC was a sudden and clear change, and signified the loss of Macedonian and Illyrian freedom.
Aftermath
Soon afterwards, the Achaean League in 146 BC mobilized for a new war against the Roman Republic. This is known as the Achaean War, and was noted for its short duration and its timing right after the fall of Macedonia. Until this time, Rome had only campaigned in Greece in order to fight Macedonian forces, allies or clients. The Achaean leaders almost certainly knew that this declaration of war against Rome was hopeless, as Rome had triumphed against far stronger and larger opponents, the Roman legion having proved its supremacy over the Macedonian phalanx.
Polybius blames the demagogues of the cities of the league for inspiring the population into a suicidal war. Panhellenic rhetoric and the idea of triumphing against superior odds motivated the league into this rash decision. The Achaean League was swiftly defeated, and, as an object lesson, Rome utterly destroyed the city of Corinth in 146 BC, the same year that Carthage was destroyed. After nearly a century of constant crisis management in the Greek world, which always led back to internal instability and war when Rome pulled out, the Senate decided to establish the Roman province of Macedonia, covering all of mainland Greece and establishing a permanent Roman presence in the region, though a few territories like Athens and Sparta retained self-government and partial autonomy. More than a century later, Augustus would establish Achaea as a separate province.
See also
History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Primary sources
Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, Book 32
Polybius, The Histories, Book 37
Livy, Ab Urbe Condita Libri, Book XLV and Periochae 46-50
Velleius Paterculus, Roman history, Book I
Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 21
Florus, Epitome, Book 1;
Secondary sources
Attribution
Further reading
Gabrielsen, Vincent, and John Lund, eds. 2007. The Black Sea in Antiquity: Regional and interregional economic exchanges. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press.
Sherwin-White, Adrian N. 1984. Roman foreign policy in the East 168 B.C. to A.D. 1. London: Duckworth.
150 BC
149 BC
148 BC
150s BC conflicts
140s BC conflicts
2nd century BC in Greece
2nd century BC in the Roman Republic
Rebellions against the Roman Republic
4
War
Macedonian 4
Macedonian 4
Roman–Greek wars | [
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242358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guardian%20Council | Guardian Council | The Guardian Council, also called Council of Guardians or Constitutional Council () is an appointed and constitutionally mandated 12-member council that wields considerable power and influence in the Islamic Republic of Iran.
The Iranian constitution calls for the council to be composed of six Islamic faqihs (experts in Islamic Law), "conscious of the present needs and the issues of the day" to be selected by the Supreme Leader of Iran, and six jurists, "specializing in different areas of law, to be elected by the Majlis (the Iranian Parliament) from among the Muslim jurists nominated by the Chief Justice", (who, in turn, is also appointed by the Supreme Leader).
The Constitutional Council is charged with interpreting the Constitution of Iran, supervising elections, and approving of candidates for the Assembly of Experts, the President and the Majlis, as well as "ensuring ... the compatibility of the legislation passed by the Islamic Consultative Assembly [i.e. Majlis] ... with the criteria of Islam and the Constitution".
The Council has played a central role in controlling the interpretation of Islamic values in Iranian law in the following ways:
Oversees surveillance of potential candidates and determines who can and cannot run for national office
Disqualifies reform-minded candidates—including the most well-known candidates—from running for office
Vetoes laws passed by the popularly elected Majlis.
Increased the influence that the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (an ideological fighting force separate from the Iranian army) has on the economic and cultural life of the country.
When the 2009 presidential election was announced, popular former president Mohammad Khatami would not discuss his plans to run against Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, for the Council might have disqualified Khatami as it had other reformists' candidatures, on the grounds that they were not dedicated enough to Islamic values.
There have been instances when current Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei has publicly criticized members of the Assembly of Experts, resulting in their arrest and dismissal. For example, Khamenei publicly called then-member of the Assembly of Experts Ahmad Azari Qomi a traitor, resulting in Qomi's arrest and eventual dismissal from the Assembly of Experts. There have also been instances where the Constitutional Council reversed its ban on particular people after being ordered to do so by Khamenei.
Legislative functions
The Majlis has no legal status without the Constitutional Council. Any bill passed by the Majlis must be reviewed and approved by the Constitutional Council to become law.
According to Article 96 of the constitution, the Constitutional Council holds absolute veto power over all legislation approved by the Majlis. It can nullify a law based on two accounts: being against Islamic laws, or being against the constitution. While all the members vote on the laws being compatible with the constitution, only the six clerics vote on them being compatible with Islam.
If any law is rejected, it will be passed back to the Majlis for correction. If the Majlis and the Council of Guardians cannot agree on a case, it is passed up to the Expediency Council for a decision.
The Constitutional Council is uniquely involved in the legislative process, with equal oversight with regards to economic law and social policy, including such controversial topics as abortion. Chapter 6 of the Constitution explains its interworkings with the Islamic Consultative Assembly. Articles 91-97 all fall into the legislative Chapter 6.
Judicial authority
The Council of Guardians also functions similar to a constitutional court. The authority to interpret the constitution is vested in the Council. Interpretative decisions require a three-quarters majority. The Council does not conduct a court hearing where opposing sides are argued.
Electoral authority
Since 1991, all candidates of parliamentary or presidential elections, as well as candidates for the Assembly of Experts, have to be qualified by the Constitutional Council in order to run in the election. For major elections it typically disqualifies most candidates, for example in the 2009 election, 476 men and women applied to the Constitutional Council to seek the presidency, and four were approved.
The Council is accorded "supervision of elections". The Constitutional Council interprets the term supervision in Article 99 as "approbation supervision" (, naẓārat-e istiṣwābī) which implies the right to accept or reject the legality of elections and the competency of candidates. This interpretation is in contrast with the idea of "notification supervision" (, naẓārat-e istitlā‘ī) which does not imply the mentioned approval right. The "evidentiary supervision" (, naẓārat-e istinādī), which requires evidences for acceptance or rejection of elections legality and candidates competency, is another interpretation of mentioned article.
Role in the 2009 elections
On Monday June 29, 2009, the Constitutional Council certified the results of the controversial election in which President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was elected. The Council had completed a recount of 10 percent of the overall votes in order to appease the citizens of Iran. As the "final authority on the election", the Council has declared the election closed. The certification of the results set off a wave of protests, disregarding the Iranian government's ban on street marches.
Criticism
Increases the role of the army in everyday life
The Council favors military candidates at the expense of reform candidates. This ensures that the ideological Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (separate from the Iranian army) holds a commanding influence over the political, economic, and cultural life of Iran.
Arbitrarily disqualifies candidates from elections
Hadi Khamenei, the brother of Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei and an adviser in the administration of reformist former President Mohammad Khatami, has said the Constitutional Council's vetting of candidates threatens Iranian democracy. He believes some reformist candidates are wrongly kept from running. In 1998, the Constitutional Council rejected Hadi Khamenei's candidacy for a seat in the Assembly of Experts for "insufficient theological qualifications".
After conservative candidates fared poorly in the 2000 parliamentary elections, the Council disqualified more than 3,600 reformist and independent candidates for the 2004 elections.
In the run-up to the 2006 Iranian Assembly of Experts election, all female candidates were disqualified.
The Council disqualified many candidates in the 2008 parliamentary elections. One third of them were members of the outgoing parliament it had previously approved. The Iranian Ministry of the Interior reasons for disqualification included narcotics addiction or involvement in drug-smuggling, connections to the Shah's pre-revolutionary government, lack of belief in or insufficient practice of Islam, being "against" the Islamic Republic, or having connections to foreign intelligence services.
Rule by unelected leaders
This unelected Council frequently vetoes bills passed by the popularly elected legislature. It repeatedly vetoes bills that are in favour of women’s rights, electoral reform, the prohibition of torture and ratification of international human rights treaties.
Rigging results after the election in favor of conservatives
The Guardian Council has been criticized for politically-motivated ousting pro-Reform candidates who had won the election, without providing legal justification or factual evidence. Examples of such interventions by the Guardian Council are:
Annulment of the results in Khoy and Eslamabad-e Gharb (2000)
Rahman Kargosha (2000, Arak), certain ballots voided to replace a conservative candidate as the winner
Alireza Rajaei (2000, Tehran), certain ballots voided to replace a conservative candidate as the winner
Minoo Khaleghi (2016, Isfahan), disqualified after winning the election
Khaled Zamzamnejad (2016, Bandar Lengeh), election annulled
Beytollah Abdollahi (2016, Ahar and Heris), election annulled
Composition
The Council is composed of Islamic clerics and lawyers. Membership is for phased six-year terms: half the membership changes every three years.
The Supreme Leader (Iran's Head of State) directly appoints the six clerics, and may dismiss them at will. The head of the judicial system of Iran nominates six lawyers for confirmation by the Majlis.
On March 13, 2021, the Iranian Constitutional Council officially launched its English service.The English website was inaugurated during the regular monthly press briefing of the spokesman of the Constitutional Council, Abbas-Ali Kadkhodaei, in Tehran. The website, https://www.shora-gc.ir/en, has five main sections: News, Multimedia, Members, Legislation, and the Constitution.
Membership
Current members
Legend
Historic membership
See also
History of political Islam in Iran
References
External links
The official website of the ConstitutionalCouncil
Photos of members from official website
Government of Iran
Iranian law
Constitutional courts
Iran
Sharia by country
Legislature of Iran
Politics of Iran
Revolutionary institutions of the Islamic Republic of Iran | [
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242359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Allestree | Richard Allestree | Richard Allestree or Allestry ( ; 1621/2 – 28 January 1681) was an English Royalist churchman and provost of Eton College from 1665.
Life
The son of Robert Allestree, descended from an old Derbyshire family, he was born at Uppington in Shropshire. Although John Fell gave his birth date as March 1619, this conflicts with his college records. He was educated at Coventry and later at Christ Church, Oxford, under Richard Busby. He entered as a commoner in 1636, matriculating as a student on 17 February 1637 aged fifteen, and took the degree of B.A. in 1640 and that of M.A. in 1643.
In 1642 he joined the king's army, under Sir John Byron. When the parliamentary forces arrived in Oxford, he hid the Christ Church valuables, and the soldiers found nothing in the treasury "except a single groat and a halter at the bottom of a large iron chest". Allestree escaped severe punishment only because the army hastily retreated from the town. He was present at the Battle of Edgehill in October 1642, after which, while hurrying to Oxford to prepare for the king's visit to Christ Church, he was captured by a troop of Lord Say's soldiers from Broughton House, Cambridge, and soon afterwards set free on the surrender of the place to the king's forces. In 1643 he was again on military service, performing "all duties of a common soldier" and "frequently holding his musket in one hand and his book in the other". At the close of the English Civil War, he returned to his studies, took holy orders, was made Censor and became a "noted tutor".
He remained an ardent royalist. He voted for the university decree against the Covenant, and, refusing submission to the parliamentary visitors in 1648, he was expelled. He found a retreat as chaplain in the house of Francis Newport, later Viscount Newport, in whose service he travelled to France. On his return he joined two of his friends, John Dolben and John Fell, afterwards respectively Archbishop of York and Bishop of Oxford, and later joined the household of Sir Antony Cope of Hanwell, near Banbury. He was now frequently employed in carrying despatches between the future Charles II of England and royalist sympathisers. In May 1659 he brought a command from Charles in Brussels, directing Brian Duppa, the Bishop of Salisbury, to summon all bishops to consecrate clergymen to various sees "to secure a continuation of the order in the Church of England", then in danger of becoming extinct.
While returning from one of these missions, in the winter before the Restoration, he was arrested at Dover and committed a prisoner at Lambeth Palace, then used as a jail for royalists, but was freed after a few weeks at the instance, among others, of Lord Shaftesbury. At the Restoration he became canon of Christ Church, D.D. and city lecturer at Oxford. In 1663 he was made chaplain to the king and Regius Professor of Divinity. He was an Arminian discussion partner of the Calvinist Thomas Barlow while at Oxford. In 1665 he was appointed provost of Eton College, and proved himself a capable administrator. He introduced order into the disorganised finances of the college and procured the confirmation of William Laud's decree which reserved five of the Eton fellowships for members of King's College. His additions to the college buildings were less successful: the Upper School constructed by him at his own expense, was falling into ruin almost in his lifetime, and was replaced by the present structure in 1689. Allestree was buried in the chapel at Eton College, where there is a Latin inscription to his memory.
Works
His writings are:
The Privileges of the University of Oxford in point of Visitation (1647) – a tract answered by Prynne in the University of Oxford's Plea Rejected
The Government of the Tongue (1667; 1674)
18 sermons whereof 15 preached before the king ... (1669)
A Paraphrase and Annotations upon all the Epistles of St Paul (joint author with Abraham Woodhead and Obadiah Walker, 1675, see edition of 1853 and preface by W Jacobson).
The Ladies' Calling, In Two Parts (the 2d impression), Oxford, At the Theater (1673)
40 sermons whereof 21 are now first published ... (2 vols., 1684)
Various sermons published separately, including A Sermon on Acts xiii. 2 (1660)
In the Cases of Conscience by Thomas Barlow, Bishop of Lincoln (1692), Allestree's judgment on Mr Cottington's Case of Divorce is included. A share in the composition, if not the sole authorship, of the books published under the name of the author of The Whole Duty of Man has been attributed to Allestree (Nichols's Anecdotes, ii. 603), and the tendency of modern criticism is to regard him as the author. His lectures, with which he was dissatisfied, were not published.
Allestree was a man of extensive learning, of moderate views and a fine preacher. He was generous and charitable, of "a solid and masculine kindness," and of a temper hot, but completely under control.
Authorities
Wood's Athenae Oxonienses (edited by Bliss), iii. 1269
Wood's Fasti, i. 480, 514, ii. 57, 241, 370
Richard Allestree, 40 sermons, with biographical preface by Dr John Fell (2 vols., 1684)
Sufferings of the Clergy, (1714) by John Walker
Architectural History of Eton and Cambridge, by R. Willis, i. 420
History of Eton College, by Sir H. C. Maxwell-Lyte
History of Eton College, by Lionel Cust (1899)
Egerton manuscripts, Brit. Mus. 2807 f. 197 b.
References
Further reading
Richard Allestree (1621-1681) and the Allestree Library at Christ Church, Oxford
1621 births
1681 deaths
17th-century English Anglican priests
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Arminian ministers
Arminian theologians
Cavaliers
People from Shropshire
Provosts of Eton College
Regius Professors of Divinity (University of Oxford) | [
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242360 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systole | Systole | The systole ( ) is the part of the cardiac cycle during which some chambers of the heart muscle contract after refilling with blood. The term originates, via New Latin, from Ancient Greek (sustolē), from (sustéllein 'to contract'; from sun 'together' + stéllein 'to send'), and is similar to the use of the English term to squeeze.
The mammalian heart has four chambers: the left atrium above the left ventricle (lighter pink, see graphic), which two are connected through the mitral (or bicuspid) valve; and the right atrium above the right ventricle (lighter blue), connected through the tricuspid valve. The atria are the receiving blood chambers for the circulation of blood and the ventricles are the discharging chambers.
When, in late ventricular diastole, the atrial chambers contract, they send blood down to the larger, lower ventricle chambers. When normal flow is completed, the ventricles are filled and the valves to the atria are closed. The ventricles now perform systole isovolumetrically, which is contraction while all valves are closed—ending the first stage of systole. The second stage proceeds immediately, pumping oxygenated blood from the left ventricle through the aortic valve and aorta to all body systems, and simultaneously pumping oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle through the pulmonic valve and pulmonary artery to the lungs. Thus, the pairs of chambers (upper atria and lower ventricles) contract in alternating sequence to each other. First, atrial contraction feeds blood into the ventricles, then ventricular contraction pumps blood out of the heart to the body systems, including the lungs for resupply of oxygen.
Cardiac systole is the contraction of the cardiac muscle in response to an electrochemical stimulus to the heart's cells (cardiomyocytes).
Cardiac output (CO) is the volume of blood pumped by the each ventricle in one minute. The ejection fraction (EF) is the volume of blood pumped divided by the total volume of blood in the left ventricle.
Types of systole
Atrial systole
Atrial systole occurs late in ventricular diastole and represents the contraction of myocardium of the left and right atria. The sharp decrease in ventricular pressure that occurs during ventricular diastole allows the atrioventricular valves (or mitral and tricuspid valves) to open and causes the contents of the atria to empty into the ventricles. The atrioventricular valves remain open while the aortic and pulmonary valves remain closed because the pressure gradient between the atrium and ventricle is preserved during late ventricular diastole. Atrial contraction confers a minor-fraction addition to ventricular filling, but becomes significant in left ventricular hypertrophy, or thickening of the heart wall, as the ventricle does not fully relax during its diastole. Loss of normal electrical conduction in the heart—as seen during atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, and complete heart block—may eliminate atrial systole completely.
Contraction of the atria follows depolarization, represented by the P wave of the ECG. As both atrial chambers contract—from the superior region of the atria toward the atrioventricular septum—pressure rises within the atria and blood is pumped into the ventricles through the open atrioventricular valves. At the start of atrial systole, during ventricular diastole, the ventricles are normally filled to about 70 – 80 percent of capacity by inflow from the atria. Atrial contraction also referred to as the "atrial kick," contributes the remaining 20–30 percent of ventricular filling. Atrial systole lasts approximately 100 ms and ends prior to ventricular systole, as the atrial muscle returns to diastole.
The two ventricles are isolated electrically and histologically (tissue-wise) from the two atrial chambers by electrically impermeable collagen layers of connective tissue known as the cardiac skeleton. The cardiac skeleton is made of dense connective tissue which gives structure to the heart by forming the atrioventricular septum—which separates the atria from the ventricles—and the fibrous rings which serve as bases for the four heart valves. Collagen extensions from the valve rings seal and limit electrical activity of the atria from influencing electrical pathways that cross the ventricles. These electrical pathways contain the sinoatrial node, the atrioventricular node, and the Purkinje fibers. (Exceptions such as accessory pathways may occur in this firewall between atrial and ventricular electrical influence but are rare.)
Cardiac rate control via pharmacology is common today; for example, the therapeutic use of digoxin, beta adrenoceptor antagonists, or calcium channel blockers are important historical interventions in this condition. Notably, individuals prone to hypercoagulability (abnormality of blood coagulation) are at decided risk of blood clotting, a very serious pathology requiring therapy for life with an anticoagulant if it cannot be corrected.
Right and left atrial systoles
The atrial chambers each contains one valve: the tricuspid valve in the right atrium opens into the right ventricle, and the mitral (or bicuspid) valve in the left atrium opens into the left ventricle. Both valves are pressed open during the late stages of ventricular diastole; see Wiggers diagram at the P/QRS phase (at right margin). Then the contractions of atrial systole cause the right ventricle to fill with oxygen-depleted blood through the tricuspid valve. When the right atrium is emptied—or prematurely closed—right atrial systole ends, and this stage signals the end of ventricular diastole and the beginning of ventricular systole (see Wiggers diagram). The time variable for the right systolic cycle is measured from (tricuspid) valve-open to valve-closed.
The contractions of atrial systole fill the left ventricle with oxygen-enriched blood through the mitral valve; when the left atrium is emptied or closed, left atrial systole is ended and ventricular systole is about to begin. The time variable for the left systolic cycle is measured from (mitral) valve-open to valve-closed.
Atrial fibrillation
Atrial fibrillation represents a common electrical malady in the heart that appears during the time interval of atrial systole (see figure at right margin). Theory suggests that an ectopic focus, usually situated within the pulmonary trunks, competes with the sinoatrial node for electrical control of the atrial chambers and thereby diminishes the performance of the atrial myocardium, or atrial heart muscle. The ordered, sinoatrial control of atrial electrical activity is disrupted, causing the loss of coordinated generation of pressure in the two atrial chambers. Atrial fibrillation represents an electrically-disordered but well perfused atrial mass working (in an uncoordinated fashion) with a (comparatively) electrically-healthy ventricular systole.
The compromised load caused by atrial fibrillation detracts from the overall performance of the heart, but the ventricles continue to work as an effective pump. Given this pathology, the ejection fraction may deteriorate by ten to thirty percent. Uncorrected atrial fibrillation can lead to heart rates approaching 200 beats per minute (bpm). If this rate can be slowed to a normal range, say about 80 bpm, the resultant longer fill-time within the cardiac cycle restores or improves the pumping capability of the heart. The labored breathing, for example, of individuals with uncontrolled atrial fibrillation, can often be returned to normal by (electrical or medical) cardioversion.
Ventricular systole and Wiggers diagram
A Wiggers diagram of ventricular systole graphically depicts the sequence of contractions by the myocardium of the two ventricles. Ventricular systole induces self-contraction such that pressure in both left and right ventricles rises to a level above that in the two atrial chambers, thereby closing the tricuspid and mitral valves—which are prevented from inverting by the chordae tendineae and the papillary muscles. Now ventricular pressure continues to rise in isovolumetric, or fixed-volume, contraction phase until maximal pressure (dP/dt = 0) occurs, causing the pulmonary and aortic valves to open in ejection phase. In ejection phase, blood flows from the two ventricles down its pressure gradient—that is, 'down' from higher pressure to lower pressure—into (and through) the aorta and the pulmonary trunk respectively. Notably, cardiac muscle perfusion through the heart's coronary vessels doesn't happen during ventricular systole; rather, it occurs during ventricular diastole.
Ventricular systole is the origin of the pulse.
Right and left ventricular systoles
The pulmonary (or pulmonic) valve in the right ventricle opens into the pulmonary trunk, also known as the pulmonary artery, which divides twice to connect to each of the left and right lungs. In the left ventricle, the aortic valve opens into the aorta which divides and re-divides into the several branch arteries that connect to all body organs and systems except the lungs.
By its contractions, right ventricular (RV) systole pulses oxygen-depleted blood through the pulmonary valve through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs, providing pulmonary circulation; simultaneously, left ventricular (LV) systole pumps blood through the aortic valve, the aorta, and all the arteries to provide systemic circulation of oxygenated blood to all body systems. The left ventricular systole enables blood pressure to be routinely measured in the larger arteries of the left ventricle of the heart.
LV systole is volumetrically defined as the left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Similarly, RV systole is defined as the right ventricular ejection fraction (RVEF). Higher than normal RVEF is indicative of pulmonary hypertension. The time variables of the ventricular systoles are: right ventricle, pulmonary valve-open to valve-closed; left ventricle, aortic valve-open to valve-closed.
Electrical systole
The sinoatrial node (S-A Node) is the heart's natural pacemaker, issuing electrical signaling that travels through the heart muscle, causing it to contract repeatedly in cycle. It is situated at the top of the right atrium adjacent to the junction with the superior vena cava. The S-A Node is a pale yellow structure. For humans, it is approximately 25 mm long, 3–4 mm wide and 2 mm thick. It contains two types of cells: (a) the small, round P cells which have very few organelles and myofibrils, and (b) the slender elongated transitional cells, which are intermediate in appearance between the P and the ordinary myocardial cells. Intact, the SA node provides continual electrical discharge known as sinus rhythm through the atrial mass, the signals of which then coalesce at the atrioventricular node, there to be organized to provide a rhythmic electrical pulse into and across the ventricles through sodium-, potassium- or calcium-gated ion channels.
The continual rhythmic discharge generates a wavelike movement of electrical ripples that stimulate the smooth muscles of the myocardium and cause rhythmic contractions to progress from top to bottom of the heart. As the pulse moves out of the (upper) atria into the (lower) ventricles, it is distributed throughout a muscular network to cause systolic contraction of both ventricular chambers simultaneously. The actual pace of the cycle—just how fast or slowly the heart beats—is cued by messages from the brain, reflecting the brain's responses to conditions of the body, such as pain, emotional stress, level of activity, and to ambient conditions including external temperature, time of day, etc.
Mechanical systole
Electrical systole opens voltage-gated sodium, potassium and calcium channels in cells of myocardium tissue. Subsequently, a rise in intracellular calcium triggers the interaction of actin and myosin in the presence of ATP which generates mechanical force in the cells in the form of muscular contraction, or mechanical systole. The contractions generate intra-ventricular pressure, which is increased until it exceeds the external, residual pressures in the adjacent trunks of both the pulmonary artery and the aorta; this stage, in turn, causes the pulmonary and aortic valves to open. Blood is then ejected from the two ventricles, pulsing into both the pulmonic and aortic circulation systems.
Mechanical systole causes the pulse, which itself is readily palpated (felt) or seen at several points on the body, enabling universally adopted methods—by touch or by eye—for observing systolic blood pressure.
The mechanical forces of systole cause rotation of the muscle mass around the long and short axes, a process that can be observed as a "wringing" of the ventricles.
Physiological mechanism
Systole of the heart is initiated by electrically excitable cells situated in the sinoatrial node. These cells are activated spontaneously by depolarization of the electrical potential across their cell membranes, which causes voltage-gated calcium channels on the cell membrane to open and allow calcium ions to pass through into the sarcoplasm (cytoplasm) of cardiac muscle cells. Calcium ions bind to molecular receptors on the sarcoplasmic reticulum (see graphic), which causes a flux (flow) of calcium ions into the sarcoplasm.
Calcium ions bind to troponin C, causing a conformational (i.e., structural) change in the troponin-tropomyosin protein complex, causing the myosin head (binding) sites on F-actin filamentous proteins to be exposed, which causes muscle contraction to occur.
The cardiac action potential spreads distally (or outwardly) to the small branches of the Purkinje tree via the flux of cations through gap junctions that connect the sarcoplasms of adjacent myocytes.
The electrical activity of ventricular systole is coordinated by the atrioventricular node, which is a discrete collection of cells that receives electrical stimulation from the left and right atria and can provide an intrinsic (albeit slower) heart pacemaker activity. The cardiac action potential is propagated down electrical pathways through the bundle of His to the Purkinje fibres; this electrical flux causes coordinated depolarisation and excitation-contraction coupling from the apex of the heart up to the roots of the great vessels.
Clinical notation
When blood pressure is stated for medical purposes, it is usually written with the systolic and diastolic pressures separated by a slash, for example, 120/80 mmHg. This clinical notation is not a mathematical figure for a fraction or ratio, nor a display of a numerator over a denominator. Rather, it is a medical notation showing the two clinically significant pressures involved (systole followed by diastole). It is often shown followed by a third number, the value of the heart rate (in beats per minute), which typically is measured jointly with blood pressure readings.
See also
Wiggers diagram
Systole (mathematics)
Diastole
Blood pressure
References
External links
Essential Hypertension Treatment
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242361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Jackknife%20to%20a%20Swan | A Jackknife to a Swan | A Jackknife to a Swan is the seventh studio album by The Mighty Mighty Bosstones. It was released on July 9, 2002, by SideOneDummy Records. It was recorded over a few weeks in February 2002. This album marked the band's return to an indie label, and was the last album released by the group before their four-year hiatus between 2003 and 2007.
The album title is a reference to both the elegant Olympic high dive and the death of something beautiful. Dicky Barrett has said in interviews that the title of the album upset his mother greatly, as her maiden name was Swan, as well as her mother's.
An earlier version of "The Old School Off The Bright" was originally featured on a promotional EP titled Fabled Barney and The Population given out at the band's Hometown Throwdown in 2002. The promotional version of the album features an alternate version of the song "Seven Ways to Sunday". "Sugar Free" was later featured in the 2006 movie Beerfest.
The track "I want My City Back" is a lament about the loss of The Rathskeller, commonly called The Rat, the club in Boston where the Bosstones got their start.
Release
On March 3, 2002, A Jackknife to a Swan was announced for release in July; it was revealed that the band had signed to SideOneDummy Records. On April 20, 2002, "Mr. Moran" and "Sugar Free" were posted on the label's website. In May and June, the band toured Europe as part of the Deconstruction Tour. A Jackknife to a Swan was made available for streaming the label's website on June 25, 2002, before it was released on July 9, 2002. To promote its release, the band appeared on The Late Late Show and Mohr Sports. On September 26, 2002, a music video for "You Gotta Go!" was posted online. In November and December 2002, the group went on a headlining US tour, with support from Bigwig, Slick Shoes and Simple Plan. On May 21, 2003, the band appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. The following month, they embarked on a brief east coast tour with Voodoo Glow Skulls, the Pietasters, and Catch 22. On June 6, the band appeared on 54321. In October, the band went on a short tour of Germany. In December, the band announced they were going on hiatus.
Reception
The album reached #131 on the Billboard 200, and #9 on the Top Independent Albums.
Track listing
"A Jackknife to a Swan" (Barrett, Burton, Gittleman) – 2:48
"Mr. Moran" (Barrett, Gittleman, Katz) – 3:04
"You Gotta Go!" (Barrett, Gittleman, Katz) – 2:42
"Everybody's Better" (Barrett, Gittleman, Rhodes) – 3:41
"Sugar Free" (Barrett, Gittleman) – 2:44
"I Want My City Back" (Barrett, Katz) – 3:16
"Chasing the Sun Away" (Barrett, Burton) – 3:28
"You Can't Win" (Barrett, Katz) – 3:19
"The Old School Off the Bright" (Barrett, Gittleman) – 2:26
"The Punch Line" (Barrett, Katz) – 3:15
"Go Big" (Barrett, Gittleman) – 2:52
"Shit Outta Luck" (Gittleman) – 2:57
"Seven Ways to Sunday" (Barrett, Gittleman, Katz) – 3:58
Personnel
Dicky Barrett – lead vocals, artwork
Lawrence Katz – guitar, backing vocals
Joe Gittleman – bass, backing vocals
Joe Sirois – drums
Tim "Johnny Vegas" Burton – saxophone
Roman Fleysher – saxophone
Chris Rhodes – trombone
Ben Carr – Bosstone, vocals
Mike Denneen – keyboards, backing vocals
Rolf Langsjoen – trumpet
Jim Fitting – harmonica, backing vocals
Tanya Michelle – backing vocals
John Seymour – backing vocals, producer, mixing, engineer
Matt Tahaney – assistant engineer
Jon Pebsworth – production coordination
Carl Plaster – drum technician
Andrew Lenoski – graphic design
Christian Clayton – cover art
Josh Dalsimer – photography
References
2002 albums
The Mighty Mighty Bosstones albums
SideOneDummy Records albums | [
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242365 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20of%20Parma | Duke of Parma | The Duke of Parma () was the ruler of the Duchy of Parma, a small historical state of north Italy, which existed between 1545 and 1802, and again from 1814 to 1859.
The Duke of Parma was also Duke of Piacenza, except for the first years of the rule of Ottavio Farnese (1549–1556), and the time of the Napoleonic wars, when the two were established as separate positions held by two different individuals. The Duke of Parma also usually held the title of Duke of Guastalla from 1746 (when Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor occupied the Duchy of Guastalla after the last Gonzaga duke died childless) until 1847 (when the territory was ceded to Modena), except for the Napoleonic era, when Napoleon's sister Pauline was briefly Duchess of Guastalla and of Varella. The last duke, Robert I, was driven from power in a revolution following France and Sardinia's victory over Austria. Its territory was merged into Sardinia in 1860.
The position is currently claimed by a member of the House of Bourbon-Parma. A recent pretender to the extinct Parmese throne, the late Carlos-Hugo, was also a pretender to the Spanish throne in the 1970s (see Carlism).
Reigning Dukes of Parma (1545–1802)
House of Farnese 1545–1731
House of Bourbon 1731–1735
House of Habsburg 1735–1748
House of Bourbon-Parma 1748–1802
French dukedoms of Parma (1808–1814)
These did not actually rule over any territory of Parma and Piacenza, but were of the honorary, hereditary type duché grand-fief, granted by Napoleon I in 1808.
Reigning dukes of Parma (1814–1859)
House of Habsburg-Lorraine, 1814–1847
Napoléon François Joseph Charles Bonaparte, the son of Marie Louise and Napoleon I, was at one time in the line of succession, but he was never Duke of Parma.
House of Bourbon-Parma, 1847–1859
See also
Pretenders to the throne of Parma
Timeline of Parma
References
Parma, Duke of
Parma, Duke of
Parma, Duke of
Noble titles created in 1808 | [
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242367 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Nichols%20%28printer%29 | John Nichols (printer) | John Nichols (2 February 1745 – 26 November 1826) was an English printer, author and antiquary. He is remembered as an influential editor of the Gentleman's Magazine for nearly 40 years; author of a monumental county history of Leicestershire; author of two compendia of biographical material relating to his literary contemporaries; and as one of the agents behind the first complete publication of Domesday Book in 1783.
Early life and apprenticeship
He was born in Islington, London to Edward Nichols and Anne Wilmot. On 22 June 1766 he married Anne, daughter of William Cradock. Anne bore him three children: Anne (1767), Sarah (1769), and William Bowyer (born 1775 and died a year later). His wife Anne also died in 1776. Nichols was married a second time in 1778, to Martha Green who bore him eight children. Nichols was taken for training by "the learned printer", William Bowyer the Younger in early 1757. Nichols was formally apprenticed in February 1759 by Bowyer, whom he eventually succeeded. On the death of his friend and master in 1777 he published a brief memoir, which afterwards grew into the Anecdotes of William Bowyer and his Literary Friends (1782).
Literary career
In 1788, he became editor of the Gentleman's Magazine and remained so till his death. In that periodical, and in his numerous volumes of Anecdotes and Illustrations, he made numerous contributions to literary biography. As his materials accumulated he compiled a sort of anecdotal literary history of the century, based on a large collection of letters. The Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century (1812–15, nine volumes), into which the original work was expanded, forms only a small part of Nichols's production.
Considered one of his most important works, Nichols's monumental History and Antiquities of the County of Leicester, was the most ambitious of the antiquarian county histories (extremely long, but the quality of the content is very variable), a massive compendium of historical notes, manuscripts and engraved plates printed by subscription after an exhaustive survey of the county, and published in eight parts not in chronological order to make up four volumes when complete, from 1795–1815. It was followed by the Illustrations of the Literary History of the Eighteenth Century, consisting of Authentic Memoirs and Original Letters of Eminent Persons, which was begun in 1817 and completed by his son John Bowyer Nichols (1779–1863) in 1858. The Anecdotes and the Illustrations are mines of valuable information on the authors, printers and booksellers of the time.
Nichols and the printing of Domesday Book (1767–83)
Nichols co-operated with Abraham Farley in the production of the 1783 edition of Domesday Book, which he called in his Literary Anecdotes "the most invaluable as well as most antient Record in this or any other kingdom". Between Farley's appointment as co-editor of the project in 1770 and the final publication of Domesday Book in two volumes in 1783, Nichols assisted Farley in printing and proof-reading the text, and also designed the special "record type" typeface that was to be used. This was a source of lasting pride to him; he would later say "on the correctness and the beauty of this important Work I am content to stake my typographical credit".
The types created by Nichols for the Domesday project were destroyed, alongside much else of value, in a fire at his office in February 1808.
Other works
History and Antiquities of the County of Leicester, I.i (City of Leicester, start), I.ii (City of Leicester, and Indices); II.i (Framland Hundred), II.ii (Gartre Hundred); III.i (East Goscote Hundred), III.ii (West Goscote Hundred); IV.i (Guthlaxton Hundred), IV.ii (Sparkenhoe Hundred). (University of Leicester, Special Collections)
The Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century, 9 volumes (Second edition, 1812-1816): All Volumes at Hathi Trust, open.
Illustrations of the Literary History of the Eighteenth Century, 8 volumes (1817-1858), 7 & 8 by J. Bowyer Nichols (1848, 1858): Volumes 1 to 6, and Volume 8 (New York Public Library/Hathi Trust, open). Volume 7 (Internet Archive).
A Collection of Royal and Noble Wills (1780)
A Select Collection of Poems (1780–82), with subsequent additions, in which he was helped by Joseph Warton and by Bishops Percy and Lowth
History and Antiquities of the Town of Hinckley, in the County of Leicester (1782) at Google, and Internet Archive.
Bibliotheca Topographica Britannica (1780–90), Volumes 1 to 6, and Volume 8 (University of California/Hathi Trust, open). Volume 7 at Google.
The Progresses and Public Processions of Queen Elizabeth (1788), with Richard Gough
Nichols was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, a trustee of many City of London institutions, and in 1804 he was master of the Stationers' Company.
Heirs and successors
John Bowyer Nichols continued his father's various undertakings, and wrote, with other works, A Brief Account of the Guildhall of the City of London (1819).
John Gough Nichols (1806–73), John Bowyer Nichols' eldest son, was also a printer and a distinguished antiquary. He edited the Gentleman's Magazine from 1851 to 1856 and The Herald and Genealogist from 1863 to 1874, and was one of the founders of the Camden Society.
It is understood that William Nichols Higton was given his middle name by his father, the artist John Higton, in honour of their friendship, and that Nichols was his godfather.
Bibliography
A full "Memoir of John Nichols" by Alexander Chalmers is contained in the Illustrations, and a bibliography in the Anecdotes (vol. vi.) is supplemented in the later work. See also Robert Cradock Nichols, Memoir of the late John Gough Nichols, F.S.A. (1874).
Sources
Primary sources
Secondary sources
External links
Nichols Archive Project
Leicestershire Survey
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography entry
Finding aid to Nichols family papers records at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.
1745 births
1826 deaths
English antiquarians
18th-century antiquarians
19th-century antiquarians
English printers
Obituary writers | [
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