id
stringlengths 6
8
| url
stringlengths 31
167
| title
stringlengths 1
98
| text
stringlengths 26
185k
| embedding
sequence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
241322 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan | Bryan | Bryan may refer to:
Places
United States
Bryan, Arkansas
Bryan, Kentucky
Bryan, Ohio
Bryan, Texas
Bryan, Wyoming, a ghost town in Sweetwater County in the U.S. state of Wyoming
Bryan Township (disambiguation)
Facilities and structures
Bryan House (disambiguation)
Bryan Boulevard, Greensboro, North Carolina, USA; a limited access highway
Bryan Museum, Galveston, Texas, USA; a museum
Bryan Tower, Dallas, Texas, USA; an office tower skyscraper
People
Bryan (given name), list of people with this name
Bryan (surname), list of people with this name
Justice Bryan (disambiguation), judges named Bryan
Baron Bryan, a baronial title of Plantagenet England
Other uses
Bryan University, Tempe, Arizona, USA; a for-profit private university
See also
"Bryan, Bryan, Bryan, Bryan", a 1919 poem by Vachel Lindsay
Bryan Inc. (2015 TV series) construction and renovation TV series starring Bryan Baeumler
Bryan, Brown & Company, a footwear company
Bryan Foods, a subsidiary of Sara Lee
Bryan Cave, a law firm
O'Bryan (born 1961), American singer-songwriter
Bryant (disambiguation)
Brian (disambiguation)
Brianna (disambiguation)
Brianna (given name)
Bryanne | [
-0.266070693731308,
0.03565777838230133,
-0.03426257520914078,
0.17620186507701874,
0.2589520812034607,
0.07737309485673904,
0.1176612451672554,
0.8012077808380127,
-0.09007484465837479,
-0.2784925103187561,
-0.47205618023872375,
-0.5779372453689575,
-0.2595575749874115,
1.1578317880630493,
-0.8276422619819641,
0.8556731939315796,
-0.3955132067203522,
0.47456681728363037,
0.22575926780700684,
-0.20451846718788147,
-0.16085579991340637,
0.0039101107977330685,
0.05899231880903244,
0.12293928861618042,
0.29613515734672546,
-0.029700959101319313,
0.3269682824611664,
-0.42412257194519043,
-0.21490295231342316,
0.6087119579315186,
-0.326170951128006,
0.018362805247306824,
-0.09208639711141586,
0.27439016103744507,
-0.7291198968887329,
-0.40334683656692505,
-0.18766392767429352,
-0.22652055323123932,
0.46004441380500793,
-0.2955296039581299,
-0.35293108224868774,
0.11815830320119858,
0.7572924494743347,
0.20409496128559113,
0.5684818029403687,
-0.2250654399394989,
-1.3286246061325073,
0.7231280207633972,
-0.3710053265094757,
-0.16017360985279083,
-1.0142097473144531,
-0.08854794502258301,
-0.1849111020565033,
0.42179638147354126,
-0.28883424401283264,
0.02673289179801941,
0.14788277447223663,
-0.09628748148679733,
0.4590050280094147,
0.4887717068195343,
0.12892617285251617,
0.5627615451812744,
0.28167471289634705,
0.6301391124725342,
-0.0124113904312253,
0.11088202148675919,
-0.003779806662350893,
0.8801658749580383,
0.1591465175151825,
0.05660935863852501,
0.17800173163414001,
0.191909059882164,
-0.3224797546863556,
0.4817643165588379,
0.27226921916007996,
-0.026811892166733742,
-0.47400903701782227,
0.11620818078517914,
-0.18168048560619354,
0.16717380285263062,
0.07517128437757492,
-0.08169300854206085,
0.3038061559200287,
-0.3413974642753601,
0.5211697220802307,
0.42285823822021484,
-0.9639871716499329,
0.24109584093093872,
-0.062097370624542236,
0.6941820383071899,
-0.3384416103363037,
-0.037257544696331024,
-0.07881629467010498,
0.016541995108127594,
-0.4236378073692322,
-1.0899052619934082,
0.11454645544290543,
0.3889480233192444,
-0.25753429532051086,
0.33717021346092224,
-0.7170270681381226,
0.1853410303592682,
0.582663357257843,
-0.24406485259532928,
-0.25131845474243164,
-0.09769826382398605,
-0.42005226016044617,
0.0019212221959605813,
0.31569942831993103,
0.36164966225624084,
-0.6481003761291504,
0.40401649475097656,
0.41108617186546326,
-0.16367974877357483,
-0.4863488972187042,
-0.043837759643793106,
0.326055109500885,
-0.5606815814971924,
-0.1146043986082077,
-0.5241312384605408,
-0.39093640446662903,
0.7313115000724792,
-0.23140700161457062,
0.16694341599941254,
0.0501638799905777,
0.2963367700576782,
0.43180015683174133,
0.23934055864810944,
-0.29037564992904663,
0.5805466175079346,
0.3375675678253174,
0.07537224888801575,
-0.03179725259542465,
0.31407448649406433,
0.27941960096359253,
-0.27881357073783875,
-0.12235371023416519,
-0.17175225913524628,
0.12362474948167801,
-0.25524649024009705,
-0.8821788430213928,
0.11365871131420135,
-0.15279419720172882,
0.2819676995277405,
0.10723374038934708,
-0.05407843738794327,
-0.44656193256378174,
0.02745302952826023,
-0.36944127082824707,
-0.05758558586239815,
-0.17021001875400543,
0.23929837346076965,
-0.19597473740577698,
0.73628169298172,
-0.5522164106369019,
0.0756445899605751,
0.21684110164642334,
-0.18444529175758362,
0.5382130742073059,
0.4551908075809479,
-0.1665269285440445,
0.7720239162445068,
0.4265730381011963,
-0.4532753527164459,
0.3475320637226105,
0.04173007979989052,
0.20412792265415192,
-0.09600106626749039,
-0.3132549524307251,
-0.20400558412075043,
-0.1705521047115326,
0.2626695930957794,
0.10078871995210648,
-0.339398592710495,
0.042793065309524536,
-0.32162243127822876,
0.2558959424495697,
0.20053160190582275,
0.24614427983760834,
0.019817642867565155,
-0.47493502497673035,
0.34157928824424744,
-0.3932437300682068,
0.2615651488304138,
-0.6297731995582581,
0.14198262989521027,
0.09245216846466064,
-0.326725035905838,
-0.8060387969017029,
-0.5480173826217651,
-0.5829685926437378,
-0.869957447052002,
-0.3101654648780823,
-0.11957163363695145,
0.587649405002594,
-0.1787824183702469,
-0.3258357346057892,
0.8987469673156738,
0.06549861282110214,
0.34699755907058716,
-0.07114698737859726,
-0.30547091364860535,
0.3573013246059418,
-0.2224191129207611,
-0.19864262640476227,
0.4496217668056488,
0.5053055286407471,
0.1516350358724594,
0.6799646615982056,
0.4561973810195923,
-0.03486571088433266,
-0.41180408000946045,
-0.0708773136138916,
0.5740252733230591,
-0.1911219358444214,
-0.0652395561337471,
-0.31696516275405884,
-0.4057503938674927,
0.429256409406662,
-0.2708820104598999,
0.847444474697113,
0.004824868403375149,
0.1929875910282135,
-0.10555681586265564,
0.020834483206272125,
0.7819511294364929,
0.47062548995018005,
0.14144891500473022,
-0.48753419518470764,
0.4208352565765381,
-0.01432607602328062,
-0.08166264742612839,
0.18378785252571106,
-1.1238420009613037,
0.3945828974246979,
-0.46771514415740967,
-0.060157086700201035,
-0.4385632872581482,
0.2877487540245056,
-0.03423110023140907,
-0.06869018077850342,
-0.05452083423733711,
0.13724863529205322,
-0.022680915892124176,
0.20730167627334595,
-0.03383007273077965,
-0.16286806762218475,
-0.27777719497680664,
0.20752297341823578,
-0.5251396298408508,
-0.01921214535832405,
0.38914021849632263,
0.5511379837989807,
0.003589891130104661,
0.2643873989582062,
0.26535990834236145,
-0.1097543016076088,
0.04469675198197365,
-0.28688010573387146,
0.015184678137302399,
-0.1789514720439911,
0.10657651722431183,
-0.5184945464134216,
-0.3545249402523041,
0.14517509937286377,
-0.49142104387283325,
-1.038430094718933,
-0.4085780680179596,
0.04953059181571007,
0.8849021196365356,
0.3119443655014038,
0.10128497332334518,
-0.10345499217510223,
-0.14623713493347168,
0.03710922226309776,
0.5532082915306091,
-0.2878264784812927,
-0.12266995012760162,
-0.697064220905304,
-0.10501919686794281,
-0.012681851163506508,
0.26649537682533264,
-0.1304103136062622,
-0.7414911985397339,
-0.11962922662496567,
-0.8722038865089417,
0.7990708351135254,
-0.29103466868400574,
-0.4832371771335602,
-0.09337278455495834,
0.2038600891828537,
-0.14070965349674225,
0.011847799643874168,
0.3713434338569641,
0.36366432905197144,
-0.18676763772964478,
0.14557497203350067,
-0.038378361612558365,
0.04569309577345848,
-0.9107720851898193,
-0.8956716656684875,
0.2001679688692093,
-0.055524665862321854,
-0.7311678528785706,
0.8144145011901855,
-0.12488444894552231,
-0.2237514704465866,
-0.14561250805854797,
-5.721622943878174,
0.15530399978160858,
-0.5337107181549072,
-0.399129718542099,
0.48007991909980774,
-0.2648540437221527,
0.5275783538818359,
-0.858525276184082,
0.06355264037847519,
0.3122149407863617,
0.5229566693305969,
0.22147318720817566,
-0.25661247968673706,
0.1600811928510666,
0.21971100568771362,
0.20502398908138275,
0.8237801790237427,
-0.060702141374349594,
0.49993637204170227,
0.34387707710266113,
-0.5163673758506775,
0.07959956675767899,
0.3465365767478943,
0.32641011476516724,
-0.054602138698101044,
0.9376100301742554,
0.13667768239974976,
-0.2385711371898651,
-0.198165625333786,
0.05224062129855156,
0.13539938628673553,
0.3625451624393463,
0.07640241831541061,
0.262910932302475,
0.13907378911972046,
-0.26149630546569824,
-0.3461011052131653,
-0.24543552100658417,
0.15250800549983978,
0.228455051779747,
0.0868082344532013,
0.4785509705543518,
-0.3701575696468353,
-0.16643568873405457,
0.3115076422691345,
-0.5033631324768066,
-0.1089291200041771,
0.3478166460990906,
-0.5345979928970337,
0.5811044573783875,
0.3955502510070801,
-0.2129773497581482,
0.955484926700592,
-0.0461733378469944,
0.5266664624214172,
-0.5254715085029602,
0.9822301864624023,
-0.06019465625286102,
-0.32433661818504333,
0.4703485667705536,
0.20808511972427368,
-0.17160780727863312,
-0.0757339596748352,
-0.3722284138202667,
-0.14257434010505676,
-0.3023286759853363,
-0.018763700500130653,
0.020169652998447418,
0.195688858628273,
0.20419831573963165,
-0.2860754728317261,
0.00960556324571371,
-0.112490214407444,
-0.9190154671669006,
0.2050797939300537,
-0.008982889354228973,
-0.9372327923774719,
0.12015797942876816,
-0.35201048851013184,
0.4658586084842682,
-0.09830982238054276,
0.3112015426158905,
0.14298713207244873,
0.3595406115055084,
-0.08992810547351837,
-0.5491059422492981,
-0.15451280772686005,
0.3905406892299652,
0.27531197667121887,
-1.0692179203033447,
0.24571935832500458,
-0.4348040521144867,
0.8041772842407227,
-0.2915394902229309,
-0.27277863025665283,
0.6342044472694397,
0.16050463914871216,
-0.10113787651062012,
-0.0654023066163063,
-0.24771374464035034,
0.18694746494293213,
-0.22815395891666412,
-0.27879369258880615,
-0.18393868207931519,
-0.18127210438251495,
0.009015263058245182,
-0.1593473255634308,
0.02460586279630661,
0.28972291946411133,
-0.6384241580963135,
-0.2158205658197403,
-0.213158518075943,
-0.9159590005874634,
-0.363104909658432,
0.34405216574668884,
-0.5230779647827148,
0.09661529213190079,
-0.09251115471124649,
-0.07375159114599228,
0.3875363767147064,
0.128556489944458,
0.340008407831192,
-0.579611599445343,
0.7309035658836365,
-0.22707705199718475,
-0.29217174649238586,
0.06223621219396591,
0.037357985973358154,
0.3063141703605652,
0.6199453473091125,
0.37802913784980774,
0.46323221921920776,
0.24279026687145233,
0.2718575596809387,
-0.6471960544586182,
0.15530158579349518,
0.32033655047416687,
-0.8797491192817688,
-0.168488010764122,
-0.4372135400772095,
0.24765586853027344,
-0.22897325456142426,
-0.2354387789964676,
0.3811660408973694,
0.1472965031862259,
0.11746445298194885,
0.16321514546871185,
0.14611728489398956,
-0.8069037795066833,
0.2967458665370941,
-0.315971702337265,
-0.6780803799629211,
-0.06166239455342293,
0.24497735500335693,
-0.040568701922893524,
-0.19153708219528198,
0.048434652388095856,
0.5117613673210144,
-0.16510428488254547,
-0.20115837454795837,
-0.17454580962657928,
-0.4457150399684906,
-0.46713656187057495,
0.47830092906951904,
0.23052878677845,
-0.5312061905860901,
-0.17076002061367035,
0.3406135141849518,
-0.10625473409891129,
0.12317659705877304,
0.40202754735946655,
-0.871369481086731,
-0.16546262800693512,
-0.11534875631332397,
0.28512662649154663,
-0.15514560043811798,
0.12558181583881378,
-0.004716675262898207,
-0.4398151934146881,
-0.39069342613220215,
0.025722559541463852,
-0.43689200282096863,
-0.44795069098472595,
0.19051237404346466,
-0.17047834396362305,
-0.6266555190086365,
-0.4720330536365509,
-0.29626595973968506,
0.23538663983345032,
0.20423075556755066,
0.5016084313392639,
-0.5241138935089111,
0.26992306113243103,
0.2492334097623825,
0.041422318667173386,
-0.6883118152618408,
0.522384762763977,
-0.6781380772590637,
-0.33831357955932617,
-0.36769652366638184,
-0.2864605486392975,
-0.012319260276854038,
-0.16297520697116852,
0.44788551330566406,
0.2658829092979431,
-0.5372343063354492,
0.7121840119361877,
0.44422948360443115,
-0.9971317648887634,
-0.2260258048772812,
0.266255259513855,
-0.7303407788276672,
0.28366878628730774,
0.4568335711956024,
-0.1535698026418686,
0.3830356001853943,
0.4743214547634125,
0.2170502096414566,
-0.2581822872161865,
-0.16453145444393158,
-0.03192731365561485,
-0.2611129879951477,
0.4541782736778259,
-0.4518442749977112,
-0.06564835458993912,
1.0071353912353516,
0.033247869461774826,
-0.6113834381103516,
0.9145416617393494,
-0.3035779893398285,
-0.11442239582538605,
-0.18544626235961914,
0.04186701029539108,
0.16644802689552307,
0.0800374373793602,
-0.10194844007492065,
-0.5984715223312378,
-0.4371615946292877,
-0.34224358201026917,
-0.2753148674964905,
0.4351775646209717,
0.5286189913749695,
0.29900386929512024,
0.09853070229291916,
-0.41876065731048584,
-0.2940974533557892,
0.5167372226715088,
0.06747335940599442,
-0.35475271940231323,
0.7838845252990723,
0.09326820820569992,
-0.5652777552604675,
-0.8140056133270264,
-0.12324526160955429,
0.6116975545883179,
0.47440823912620544,
-0.2365928590297699,
0.47952693700790405,
-0.10122248530387878,
0.44244658946990967,
-0.20164750516414642,
-0.002457663184031844,
0.01824927143752575,
0.3565414249897003,
-0.1411924511194229,
-0.0369819812476635,
0.27095866203308105,
-0.18007978796958923,
0.24734018743038177,
-0.6347554326057434,
-0.10781627893447876,
0.23888137936592102,
0.452410489320755,
0.33831366896629333,
-0.1253098100423813,
0.18138232827186584,
-0.4396982789039612,
-0.44759756326675415,
-0.518695592880249,
0.3044246733188629,
-0.5607094168663025,
-0.6504201292991638,
-0.04195854812860489,
-0.22154858708381653,
0.6604520678520203,
-0.10414710640907288,
0.1037752777338028,
-0.3166307508945465,
-0.6286594271659851,
-0.04047597199678421,
0.05415794625878334,
-0.41516590118408203,
0.48681923747062683,
-0.30543166399002075,
-0.4244043529033661,
-0.07802446186542511,
0.15223078429698944,
0.6509101986885071,
-0.5804654955863953,
0.5361982583999634,
-1.0729848146438599,
0.828133761882782,
-0.3526165783405304,
-0.0670403242111206,
0.24494165182113647,
-0.09568637609481812,
-0.3632427752017975,
-0.47646117210388184,
0.5133476257324219,
-0.10707101970911026,
0.3454134166240692,
0.15185783803462982,
0.2551550567150116,
0.9307674765586853,
-0.5744984149932861,
0.6117373704910278,
0.4431202709674835,
-0.3799777328968048,
-0.4760439395904541,
-0.02676071785390377,
-0.2088385969400406,
-0.3356039226055145,
0.6816539764404297,
0.4812163710594177,
0.19478318095207214,
0.6897341012954712,
0.4973582923412323,
0.08639691770076752,
0.12898223102092743,
0.4109552204608917,
0.5683186054229736,
-0.1763583868741989,
-0.061738669872283936,
0.07987207919359207,
-0.5314934849739075,
-0.10638675838708878,
-0.06378533691167831,
-0.2573249936103821,
-0.5281580090522766,
0.5717898011207581,
-0.41738441586494446,
0.4739026725292206,
0.234954372048378,
0.10465528070926666,
0.08268728107213974,
-0.37794050574302673,
0.2994684875011444,
0.1025044247508049,
0.4392046332359314,
-0.5326858162879944,
-0.25430920720100403,
-0.3741091787815094,
-0.03408815339207649,
-0.21989192068576813,
-0.28441694378852844,
0.11993664503097534,
0.21449299156665802,
-0.06842789798974991,
-0.839627742767334,
-0.005475043784826994,
0.002295485232025385,
0.05862731859087944,
1.0817257165908813,
0.06166613847017288,
-0.35597386956214905,
-0.32815662026405334,
0.2536062002182007,
-0.4993782937526703,
-0.2826443314552307,
0.44106996059417725,
0.3272564709186554,
0.3344404697418213,
0.13619932532310486,
0.06394953280687332,
0.47640296816825867,
0.6678327322006226,
0.2864476442337036,
0.6904970407485962,
-0.09351953119039536,
0.2904982268810272,
-0.0003913423861376941,
-0.5709627270698547,
-0.0940888300538063,
-0.4711307883262634,
0.42152488231658936,
0.14725635945796967,
-0.16000951826572418,
0.2604234218597412,
-0.1818300485610962,
-0.4877018630504608,
0.5617116093635559,
-0.21676523983478546,
0.23018723726272583,
0.42030030488967896,
0.009101953357458115,
-0.24783888459205627,
0.08461350202560425,
-0.0578753836452961,
0.877376914024353,
0.4076704978942871,
0.23862244188785553,
-0.18997928500175476,
0.06770921498537064,
0.04673159867525101,
-0.44305843114852905,
0.8364537954330444,
-0.14748269319534302,
0.32715415954589844,
-0.8155803680419922,
0.6301903128623962,
-0.25252100825309753,
0.1614377349615097,
-0.24159304797649384,
0.36339953541755676,
0.026899371296167374,
-0.354780375957489,
0.7626936435699463,
-0.09581415355205536,
-0.16183727979660034,
-0.3154427707195282,
0.35133326053619385,
-0.6920236349105835,
0.26718080043792725,
0.2639971971511841,
0.09186327457427979,
-0.41150373220443726,
-0.04043112322688103,
0.14043565094470978,
-0.2296282947063446,
0.3896365761756897,
0.703154444694519,
-0.4311153292655945,
0.06775492429733276,
0.0951705127954483,
-0.3777308762073517,
-0.1723366677761078,
-0.3068336546421051,
1.0128862857818604,
0.061689674854278564,
-0.4001360833644867,
0.013192674145102501,
-0.22574464976787567,
-0.5728045701980591,
-0.2754484713077545,
0.4909772574901581,
0.10963672399520874,
-0.5745040774345398,
-0.6830673813819885,
-0.9092512130737305,
0.6350528001785278,
-0.2517147660255432,
-0.05954625457525253,
0.17140957713127136,
0.4671446979045868,
0.3692777454853058,
-0.0687003880739212,
-0.14844287931919098,
-0.30550530552864075,
0.750984251499176,
0.2548064589500427
] |
241323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Australian%20Bight | Great Australian Bight | The Great Australian Bight is a large oceanic bight, or open bay, off the central and western portions of the southern coastline of mainland Australia.
Extent
Two definitions of the extent are in use – one used by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) and the other used by the Australian Hydrographic Service (AHS).
The IHO defines the Great Australian Bight as having the following limits:
On the North. The south coast of the Australian mainland.
On the South. A line joining West Cape Howe () Australia to South West Cape, Tasmania.
On the East. A line from Cape Otway, Victoria to King Island and thence to Cape Grim, the northwest extreme of Tasmania.
The AHS defines the bight with a smaller area, from Cape Pasley, Western Australia, to Cape Carnot, South Australia - a distance of .
Much of the bight lies due south of the expansive Nullarbor Plain, which straddles South Australia and Western Australia. The Eyre Highway passes close to the cliffs of the bight between the Head of the Bight and Eucla.
Outside of Australia, the Great Australian Bight is generally considered part of the Indian Ocean. The AHS considers it to be part of the Southern Ocean, using the expanded Australian definition used for this ocean. The IHO in its Limits of Oceans and Seas (both the currently in-force 1953 edition and the 2002 never-approved draft) includes the bight with the Indian Ocean, while Bass Strait and the Tasman Sea are included by IHO with the South Pacific Ocean in the 2002 draft. In the 1953 edition, IHO includes Bass Strait as part of the Indian Ocean.
History and exploration
The Great Australian Bight was first encountered by European explorers in 1627 when Dutch navigator François Thijssen sailed along its western margins. The coast was later first accurately charted by the English navigator Matthew Flinders in 1802, during his circumnavigation of the Australian continent. A later land-based survey was accomplished by the English explorer Edward John Eyre.
Natural history
The bight came into existence when Gondwana broke apart and separated Antarctica from Australia around 50 million years ago.
The coastline of the Great Australian Bight is characterised by cliff faces (up to high), surfing beaches and rock platforms, ideal for whale-watching. This is a popular activity during the southern hemisphere winter, when increasing numbers of southern right whales migrate to the region from their summer feeding grounds in the Antarctic. The whales come to the Bight region, especially to the Head of Bight, to calve and breed, and do not feed until they return to the Antarctic. Their numbers were severely depleted by whaling, particularly during the 19th century, but have since recovered to some extent.
The Nullarbor Plain, which borders much of the length of the Bight's coastline, is a former seabed, uplifted during the Miocene. Consisting of limestone, it is very flat, and has an arid or semi-arid climate with very little rainfall, and high summer temperatures and high evaporation rates. It has no surface drainage, but has a karst drainage system through cave formation in the underlying limestone. North of the Nullarbor lies the Great Victoria Desert, which has an internal drainage system terminating in numerous small salt lakes.
The lack of surface runoff and terrestrial nutrients results in the relatively shallow waters of the Great Australian Bight being generally low in nutrients, and therefore oligotrophic, compared with many other continental shelves which support major fisheries. Seasonal upwelling of deep ocean water along the coast of the Eyre Peninsula in the eastern part of the Bight brings nutrients to the surface waters, with the resulting fertility creating an important marine hotspot.
The waters of the Great Australian Bight are highly biodiverse, particularly in zooplankton, due to a particular series of ocean currents. A literature review undertaken by SARDI (South Australian Research and Development Institute) on the Benthic Protection Zone of the Great Australian Bight Marine Park in 2003 states: "Upwelling events during summer and autumn produce cool patches of surface water along the coast of the southern Eyre Peninsula. These patches contain elevated nutrient concentrations and support enhanced levels of primary productivity. High densities of zooplankton to the northwest of the patches indicate that the prevailing southeasterly winds transport the products of this enhanced biological production into the central GAB. These plankton communities support the highest densities of small planktivorous fishes, including sardine and anchovy, in Australian waters. Juvenile southern bluefin tuna (SBT) migrate into the GAB annually to feed on these rich pelagic resources."
As the nutrients are swept up from the deep water ocean floor and pushed in towards the coast, the food chain is injected with a massive influx of the bottom rung.
There is not enough known about the full scope of species that dwell in or migrate to the Great Australian Bight, so more studies are required. "The Interim Marine and Coastal Regionalisation of Australia (IMCRA) classification suggests that high biodiversity in the GAB may be explained by the presence of temperate species with eastern and western affinities, as well as “tropical stragglers” from northern regions. However, patterns of diversity vary between taxa. Mangroves are poorly represented due to the lack of estuaries. Seagrasses are confined mainly to sheltered bays and the lees of reefs and islands due to the frequent disturbance of inshore habitats by large swells. In contrast, the macroalgal assemblage of the GAB is one of the world's most diverse and includes >1200 species. Over 90% of species in most invertebrate groups are endemic to southern Australia, but the proportion that is confined to the GAB is unknown."
There is still much research needed to fully understand the complex ecosystems of the Great Australian Bight and how any resource extraction or other human activity may affect them. The Literature review also states: "Approximately 370 of the 600 fish species that occur in southern Australia have been recorded in SA. Several species, including the coastal stingaree (Urolophus orarius) and 10 crested threefin (Norfolkia cristata), are restricted to South Australia and occur in the GAB. The patterns of distribution and abundance of fishes in the GAB are poorly understood."
There are some clear findings from the review, "The GAB provides critical habitat for two species of marine mammals that are recognised internationally as being priorities for conservation. The southern right whale (Eubalaena australis), which is listed as ‘endangered’ under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, breeds at the Head of Bight during winter. The Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea), which is endemic to Australia and is currently listed as “near threatened”, breeds in small colonies along the cliffs of the GAB." These marine mammals require this habitat to remain in existence, which has been recognised by Australian law.
One location on the bight that is specifically oriented towards the understanding of the natural history on its coastline is the Eyre Bird Observatory.
Current conditions
Economically, the Bight has been exploited over many years as part of the fishing, whaling and shellfish industries. Southern bluefin tuna have been a favoured target of fishing in the Bight.
Exploration for oil and gas has been undertaken in the Great Australian Bight region since the late 1960s. There have been recent plans to further explore the Bight by a number of companies, including BP, Statoil/Equinor and Chevron. These proposals were to drill exploration wells in the southern part of the area from 2017 onwards. On 11 October 2016, BP withdrew their plans to explore the area stating that it was not competitive and did not align to their strategic goals. The proposal to explore in the bight has been the focus of community opposition and modelling commissioned by The Wilderness Society showed that a worst-case scenario leak of oil could have a catastrophic effect on the southern coastline of Australia. The Australian Senate commenced an inquiry into oil or gas production in the Great Australian Bight on 22 February 2016. The committee was reestablished on 13 September 2016 following the Australian Federal Election. National Offshore Petroleum Safety and Environmental Management Authority approved exploration plans in late 2019.
The settlements existing along the coastline of the bight, such as Ceduna and Eucla have facilities to access the bight. Some other locations on the Eyre Highway or located on the Nullarbor do not have facilities or easy access.
See also
Great Australian Bight Marine National Park
Great Australian Bight Marine Park
Great Australian Bight Marine Park (2017)
Great Australian Bight Marine Park (Commonwealth waters)
Great Australian Bight Marine Park Whale Sanctuary
Great South Australian Coastal Upwelling System
Great Southern Reef
Western Australia - South Australia Border
References
Further reading
Edminds, Jack (1976) Panorama of Western Australia : the Great Australian Bight Perth,W.A. Periodicals Division, West Australian Newspapers. (ANB/PRECIS SIN 0140147)
External links
Great Australian Bight Marine Park - Eyre Peninsula- the South Australian portion of the park
Great Australian Bight Trawl Fishery
Wild Down Under Great Australian Bight- BBC Nature Documentary webpage for the fauna of the region
aerial video of the Great Australian Bight
Bays of Australia
Bodies of water of the Indian Ocean
Bodies of water of the Southern Ocean
Coastline of Western Australia
Coastline of South Australia
Bights (geography) | [
-0.09118557721376419,
-0.15133808553218842,
-0.3635695278644562,
-0.5783898830413818,
-0.08374914526939392,
0.13891370594501495,
0.6964014768600464,
0.4867812395095825,
-0.5666629672050476,
-0.2213689386844635,
-0.7968673706054688,
0.45795297622680664,
-0.0392722487449646,
0.4570567309856415,
0.1334235966205597,
1.1088329553604126,
0.22307254374027252,
0.006866050884127617,
0.13739167153835297,
-0.033866725862026215,
-0.7040038704872131,
-0.517079770565033,
0.6162325143814087,
-0.1568545699119568,
0.7296910881996155,
-0.49409133195877075,
0.36363524198532104,
0.8793361186981201,
-0.045977409929037094,
0.005371896084398031,
0.10544022172689438,
0.4462929964065552,
-0.22861424088478088,
0.07465631514787674,
0.23791567981243134,
-0.4120633006095886,
0.13845378160476685,
-0.23878039419651031,
-0.9466235041618347,
-0.08703398704528809,
-0.04028788581490517,
-0.07233018428087234,
0.38249555230140686,
0.1556067019701004,
-0.09925346821546555,
0.01224136259406805,
-0.9109639525413513,
-0.23709505796432495,
-0.4884280860424042,
0.19317853450775146,
0.06391384452581406,
0.7278762459754944,
0.13067668676376343,
0.005470303352922201,
0.01714376173913479,
0.47675085067749023,
-0.48955488204956055,
0.025091730058193207,
0.024070266634225845,
-0.24505920708179474,
0.031572215259075165,
0.7849311232566833,
-0.3953382670879364,
0.42180490493774414,
0.5970873236656189,
0.2396026998758316,
0.19558236002922058,
0.4199112355709076,
-0.44289058446884155,
0.0935349315404892,
-0.2016114741563797,
0.029244137927889824,
-0.2114199846982956,
-0.047435685992240906,
-0.8478915691375732,
0.24955222010612488,
-0.4815438687801361,
0.16362570226192474,
0.6293501853942871,
-0.028837911784648895,
0.20915883779525757,
0.26359498500823975,
0.12916436791419983,
-0.1408088058233261,
0.3361959755420685,
-0.16796767711639404,
-0.11921971291303635,
0.18478579819202423,
-1.3834576606750488,
0.6392605304718018,
0.29496484994888306,
0.039830196648836136,
-0.06751684099435806,
-0.03851677477359772,
0.03030414879322052,
-0.31730136275291443,
-0.1394127458333969,
0.1940663754940033,
-0.13259433209896088,
0.504458487033844,
-0.7687081098556519,
-0.28121423721313477,
0.6709812879562378,
0.6691160798072815,
-0.29391002655029297,
-0.05985228717327118,
0.1993546336889267,
-0.29498887062072754,
-0.2308715283870697,
0.35139715671539307,
-0.20469997823238373,
-0.19207531213760376,
-0.09665696322917938,
0.021311478689312935,
-0.48150667548179626,
0.07531681656837463,
0.20780867338180542,
-0.6119534969329834,
0.1417447179555893,
-0.797233521938324,
1.0465819835662842,
0.23378689587116241,
-0.35300853848457336,
0.01566113531589508,
-0.667003870010376,
-0.5330376625061035,
0.35455551743507385,
0.17597752809524536,
-0.3609512150287628,
0.2269488126039505,
-0.17806030809879303,
0.9001210331916809,
0.15120653808116913,
0.01030935999006033,
-0.20358934998512268,
0.2171122431755066,
-0.16412188112735748,
0.142434224486351,
0.4172557294368744,
0.09134937822818756,
-0.528084933757782,
-0.16534458100795746,
-0.484706312417984,
-0.32135069370269775,
0.19176039099693298,
0.09348262846469879,
-0.03585818409919739,
-0.5863900184631348,
-0.6248551607131958,
-0.06364191323518753,
-0.20574580132961273,
0.2138199806213379,
-0.49137386679649353,
0.16193845868110657,
0.02750311605632305,
-0.37563249468803406,
0.2525627911090851,
-0.3980710208415985,
0.25276580452919006,
0.28115931153297424,
-0.2327994853258133,
0.24964550137519836,
0.5722423791885376,
-0.25430378317832947,
0.28110527992248535,
-0.3692154288291931,
0.37553465366363525,
0.17663754522800446,
-0.3364129066467285,
0.3303285241127014,
-0.39317938685417175,
0.1949462890625,
1.0203359127044678,
-0.08413438498973846,
-0.5043367147445679,
-0.5796917676925659,
0.6098809838294983,
-0.013611404225230217,
0.21866358816623688,
-0.5327051281929016,
-0.6113647222518921,
0.6277917623519897,
0.16013072431087494,
-0.15292541682720184,
0.7455923557281494,
0.337542325258255,
-0.08768610656261444,
0.39911985397338867,
-0.052649617195129395,
-0.39508286118507385,
0.3789730370044708,
-0.9127030372619629,
-0.005813491530716419,
-0.47489112615585327,
0.2796606123447418,
-0.14386658370494843,
0.22172050178050995,
1.1548349857330322,
0.4819048345088959,
0.5248044729232788,
-0.33822596073150635,
0.013465280644595623,
-0.13034512102603912,
-0.26793426275253296,
-0.9308851361274719,
0.24222898483276367,
0.4701131284236908,
-0.084987573325634,
0.18128608167171478,
0.03705333545804024,
-0.45225584506988525,
-0.8371832966804504,
0.23718948662281036,
-0.5517559051513672,
-0.07269373536109924,
-0.37101608514785767,
0.6108622550964355,
-0.06631456315517426,
-0.40575096011161804,
-0.15644504129886627,
0.81704181432724,
0.2080443799495697,
-0.105287566781044,
0.06867878884077072,
0.16142019629478455,
0.522045373916626,
0.4039326310157776,
0.3154820203781128,
0.08191905915737152,
-0.7467978596687317,
0.4973514974117279,
-0.5981098413467407,
0.29638829827308655,
-0.6384410858154297,
-0.0021794973872601986,
-0.0589851438999176,
0.3142392933368683,
-0.247039794921875,
0.17646317183971405,
0.3171010911464691,
0.04580313712358475,
-0.06649035960435867,
-0.6106910705566406,
0.8900243639945984,
0.08685723692178726,
0.08741206675767899,
0.26321154832839966,
0.128517284989357,
-0.5799092054367065,
0.09085652977228165,
0.2417905330657959,
-0.03798823058605194,
0.40535101294517517,
0.17700719833374023,
-0.03363935276865959,
-0.18214024603366852,
-0.513765811920166,
-0.42618435621261597,
0.5757717490196228,
-0.5328875184059143,
-0.6775196194648743,
0.05464585870504379,
-0.44593486189842224,
0.030408328399062157,
0.15604227781295776,
-0.26816755533218384,
0.2590797245502472,
-0.37056371569633484,
0.2694206237792969,
0.13745659589767456,
0.6479402184486389,
0.3983699083328247,
-0.5440215468406677,
-0.35296377539634705,
0.0056287082843482494,
-0.39913463592529297,
0.12241601943969727,
-0.1126876175403595,
0.05073921009898186,
0.045019954442977905,
0.5314053893089294,
0.6076201796531677,
-0.577288031578064,
-1.2087231874465942,
-0.3578537702560425,
0.13723957538604736,
0.20164722204208374,
-0.04856053739786148,
-0.36156705021858215,
0.30108335614204407,
-0.44077420234680176,
-0.9549136161804199,
-0.4224105179309845,
0.19593307375907898,
-0.3465282917022705,
0.39531609416007996,
-0.04272174835205078,
-0.2638339698314667,
0.06228185445070267,
-0.7566478252410889,
-0.44627246260643005,
0.2860521376132965,
-0.5716626048088074,
-0.037340324372053146,
0.13969755172729492,
0.07333248853683472,
-0.5524754524230957,
0.18157362937927246,
-5.535807132720947,
0.28974905610084534,
-0.6949026584625244,
-0.20588074624538422,
0.13875851035118103,
0.05805576592683792,
0.5878366231918335,
0.4199784994125366,
0.013421513140201569,
-0.24515460431575775,
-0.10922457277774811,
0.40529942512512207,
0.05891105905175209,
0.34423449635505676,
0.876287043094635,
0.4425537884235382,
-0.027040040120482445,
0.39151081442832947,
0.00800186675041914,
-0.1776125431060791,
0.15078698098659515,
0.03838968276977539,
-0.23173081874847412,
0.06476800888776779,
0.8367530703544617,
0.21477831900119781,
-0.4436550438404083,
-0.18911798298358917,
-0.6752833724021912,
-0.2052515149116516,
-0.2546856999397278,
-0.4648490846157074,
-0.25915828347206116,
-0.1689218431711197,
0.3981580138206482,
-0.07557129114866257,
0.14624296128749847,
0.3251010775566101,
0.8191406726837158,
-0.31848224997520447,
-0.3052980601787567,
0.3267609775066376,
-0.21958623826503754,
-0.004185824654996395,
-0.07654394209384918,
-0.4630526304244995,
0.01856560818850994,
-0.31155523657798767,
-0.04309336096048355,
0.4654638171195984,
-0.07292970269918442,
0.5093581676483154,
0.0020036199130117893,
-0.018162019550800323,
0.5993052124977112,
-0.41033735871315,
0.1310030221939087,
-0.5811091661453247,
-0.4216480851173401,
-0.27514272928237915,
0.8428610563278198,
-0.7534615397453308,
-0.04431571811437607,
-0.2231779396533966,
0.1550314724445343,
-0.3030133545398712,
-0.322099894285202,
-0.19858546555042267,
0.42732319235801697,
0.24482150375843048,
-0.14564098417758942,
0.16949981451034546,
-0.24785517156124115,
-0.6181646585464478,
0.031055154278874397,
-0.5078116059303284,
-0.0903022363781929,
0.22563312947750092,
0.2604375183582306,
-0.34691476821899414,
-0.4616585075855255,
0.03259323909878731,
-0.31122058629989624,
0.6739867329597473,
0.33386701345443726,
-1.0170270204544067,
-0.3333738148212433,
-0.0798255205154419,
-0.04727349802851677,
-0.6855279803276062,
-0.1162794977426529,
-0.670995831489563,
0.8500281572341919,
-0.036961156874895096,
0.01468692533671856,
0.5815913081169128,
-0.19042229652404785,
-0.016365278512239456,
1.1742279529571533,
-0.35907089710235596,
0.9353115558624268,
-0.2712653875350952,
-0.12445197254419327,
-0.12230351567268372,
-0.023477457463741302,
-0.28903764486312866,
0.4597332775592804,
0.650296688079834,
0.611569344997406,
-0.2506788372993469,
0.05299723520874977,
-0.1292864829301834,
-0.21753272414207458,
0.001288948580622673,
0.028391269966959953,
0.21370583772659302,
-0.6586916446685791,
0.2548693120479584,
1.0937103033065796,
0.4009019434452057,
0.531218409538269,
0.2141323983669281,
-0.349227637052536,
0.6215839385986328,
0.09504663944244385,
-0.07191720604896545,
0.5138596892356873,
0.3623543977737427,
-0.5761789679527283,
0.18976566195487976,
0.8112428188323975,
-0.5072105526924133,
0.47889605164527893,
-0.4749748706817627,
0.17047466337680817,
-0.36602604389190674,
-0.08643841743469238,
-0.6478806734085083,
-0.1541288048028946,
-0.23299916088581085,
-0.09839236736297607,
-0.002035678829997778,
0.019817093387246132,
0.3504446744918823,
0.027476338669657707,
-0.09598106145858765,
-0.16472265124320984,
0.0010965026449412107,
-0.13048198819160461,
0.2491530328989029,
-0.4164183735847473,
-0.22847844660282135,
-0.3809366226196289,
-0.6993672847747803,
0.08607497066259384,
-0.06592870503664017,
0.48672160506248474,
0.10470984131097794,
-0.17118093371391296,
-0.5336027145385742,
0.33101987838745117,
-0.15416108071804047,
-0.8585806488990784,
-0.16011486947536469,
0.42463356256484985,
-0.41380220651626587,
-0.7098414301872253,
0.011378931812942028,
0.09273890405893326,
0.36427396535873413,
0.2849108576774597,
-0.663345217704773,
-0.24562722444534302,
-0.18736068904399872,
0.30926716327667236,
0.07394947856664658,
-0.28932321071624756,
0.4215937852859497,
-0.08961877226829529,
-0.09822641313076019,
0.1554647982120514,
-0.0007797450525686145,
-0.6051304340362549,
0.6776391863822937,
0.4482234716415405,
0.2666243314743042,
-0.41914138197898865,
0.5363612174987793,
-0.3565266728401184,
0.40969958901405334,
0.23711872100830078,
0.12449362874031067,
0.49587202072143555,
0.3307378590106964,
-0.1621825248003006,
0.007129186298698187,
0.2907387614250183,
0.5346483588218689,
-0.09874191135168076,
-0.1334047019481659,
0.08563704788684845,
0.4485056698322296,
-0.7738229036331177,
-0.09791438281536102,
0.6077796220779419,
-0.5659140348434448,
0.8852102756500244,
-0.06358534842729568,
-0.5499619245529175,
0.447224885225296,
-0.19313231110572815,
-0.50123131275177,
-0.12027782201766968,
1.0793533325195312,
-0.4137970507144928,
0.251686692237854,
0.3702738285064697,
-0.3189810514450073,
0.04726630821824074,
-0.43712085485458374,
-0.04986169934272766,
-0.5372787714004517,
-0.16101989150047302,
-0.23282583057880402,
-0.7876484990119934,
0.677740752696991,
0.11412495374679565,
-0.373087078332901,
0.31613895297050476,
-0.22857128083705902,
0.18450026214122772,
-0.3151504397392273,
0.023798475041985512,
0.3289110064506531,
0.18598143756389618,
0.05789121612906456,
0.18240107595920563,
-0.13700631260871887,
-0.12400548905134201,
0.24326331913471222,
0.9376359581947327,
1.3714077472686768,
0.6439182162284851,
-0.4529404938220978,
-0.15190167725086212,
0.10612030327320099,
0.14256039261817932,
-0.3443859815597534,
-0.7850427627563477,
-0.0640745684504509,
0.1590348780155182,
-0.3244469463825226,
-0.7491846084594727,
-0.3350066840648651,
0.7225039601325989,
0.07789767533540726,
-0.04101107642054558,
0.09667487442493439,
-0.3215014934539795,
0.1455029845237732,
0.8745655417442322,
-0.3721334934234619,
-0.37427854537963867,
0.5601709485054016,
0.7773635387420654,
-0.9314811825752258,
-1.2115216255187988,
-0.2828999161720276,
0.3203829228878021,
-0.26131346821784973,
0.11368408799171448,
-0.2176084816455841,
0.34166356921195984,
-0.04998715594410896,
0.06936365365982056,
-0.031289562582969666,
0.36509889364242554,
-0.7790940403938293,
0.31064778566360474,
0.18656909465789795,
-0.20779578387737274,
-0.057215962558984756,
0.5086862444877625,
-0.9168479442596436,
-0.1991792619228363,
-0.23617802560329437,
-0.7048175930976868,
-0.013010943308472633,
-0.409246027469635,
-0.4719734787940979,
0.5553403496742249,
-0.9600381851196289,
-0.6682422161102295,
-0.17674295604228973,
0.14337196946144104,
0.13453949987888336,
0.25103121995925903,
0.14756183326244354,
0.517109751701355,
-0.12468107789754868,
-0.6975007057189941,
0.9220097661018372,
-0.44286537170410156,
-0.8525624871253967,
0.5901190042495728,
-0.1355845332145691,
-0.1391906440258026,
0.13939405977725983,
0.4826371669769287,
0.06863030791282654,
0.4213642477989197,
0.3290291428565979,
0.18741968274116516,
1.1967973709106445,
-0.11212927848100662,
0.04404602199792862,
0.6657617688179016,
-0.4822830557823181,
1.0526163578033447,
0.6804293990135193,
-0.1814386546611786,
-0.25956040620803833,
0.07377263158559799,
0.27965208888053894,
-0.198495551943779,
0.762628436088562,
-0.6121691465377808,
-0.12280568480491638,
0.5709866285324097,
0.8878636956214905,
0.046839453279972076,
0.1154392883181572,
-0.29881301522254944,
-0.17783480882644653,
-0.7408133149147034,
-0.20634113252162933,
0.10248588025569916,
-0.16778434813022614,
-0.277581125497818,
0.25178253650665283,
0.8369090557098389,
-0.1509140282869339,
-0.07215763628482819,
0.18391954898834229,
-0.44403254985809326,
0.09200896322727203,
0.023840706795454025,
0.12912915647029877,
-0.05526250600814819,
-0.24140992760658264,
0.3676729202270508,
0.051918089389801025,
0.35916486382484436,
-0.2098294347524643,
0.4388238489627838,
-0.038227859884500504,
-0.02297126315534115,
-0.4027625620365143,
-0.49890968203544617,
-0.11124583333730698,
0.06885253638029099,
0.7669779658317566,
0.20230256021022797,
-0.022871216759085655,
-0.3219970464706421,
-0.1821373552083969,
0.8366841077804565,
-0.481521874666214,
0.31416061520576477,
-0.29277071356773376,
0.3386506736278534,
0.11522999405860901,
-0.22441044449806213,
0.17305931448936462,
-0.037771254777908325,
0.5422617197036743,
-0.09752297401428223,
0.22562776505947113,
0.1694401353597641,
-0.10154437273740768,
-0.005608180537819862,
0.42425617575645447,
-0.32714661955833435,
-0.5118671655654907,
0.04522562399506569,
-0.16442428529262543,
-0.07916402071714401,
0.06254641711711884,
-0.48291829228401184,
0.3102356791496277,
0.041935715824365616,
-0.60322105884552,
-0.1478872001171112,
0.015905559062957764,
-1.1225006580352783,
-0.76120924949646,
-0.3737252354621887,
1.1687312126159668,
0.24759654700756073,
-0.15961819887161255,
-0.10109651833772659,
0.24099451303482056,
0.30303463339805603,
0.23634324967861176,
-0.3843390643596649,
0.5012330412864685,
0.2580818831920624,
-0.12076244503259659,
0.05058697983622551,
0.5047106742858887,
0.684663712978363,
0.059733666479587555,
-0.46027567982673645,
0.3131505250930786,
0.022623637691140175,
0.3887498378753662,
0.42459002137184143,
-0.20556098222732544,
0.5450200438499451,
0.1363891214132309,
0.10154359042644501,
-0.2585182785987854,
-0.12008210271596909,
0.04475153610110283,
0.06515002250671387,
0.013214985840022564,
0.24990451335906982,
-0.05447955057024956,
-0.9507446885108948,
0.323758989572525,
-0.04326071962714195,
-0.16759607195854187,
-1.1056946516036987,
0.5225897431373596,
-0.30700400471687317,
-0.592183530330658,
0.1577971875667572,
0.5203695297241211,
0.3044087886810303,
0.30657315254211426,
0.2414596527814865,
-0.22282318770885468,
0.009558229707181454,
-0.004769055172801018,
0.4887428879737854,
-0.18642985820770264,
-0.49601659178733826,
-0.6123794913291931,
-0.970630407333374,
0.5863610506057739,
0.4436979591846466,
-0.08811748027801514,
-0.2911822199821472,
0.2645079791545868,
-0.29624491930007935,
-0.560129702091217,
0.7234714031219482,
-0.5058972239494324,
0.061723705381155014,
-0.11942487210035324
] |
241324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewardship | Stewardship | Stewardship is an ethic that embodies the responsible planning and management of resources. The concepts of stewardship can be applied to the environment and nature, economics, health, property, information, theology, cultural resources etc.
History of the term
Stewardship was originally made up of the tasks of a domestic steward, from stiġ (house, hall) and weard, (ward, guard, guardian, keeper). Stewardship in the beginning referred to the household servant’s duties for bringing food and drink to the castle’s dining hall. Stewardship responsibilities were eventually expanded to include the domestic, service and management needs of the entire household.
Commercial stewardship tends to the domestic and service requirements of passengers on ships, trains, airplanes or guests in restaurants. This concept of stewardship continues to be referenced within these specific categories.
Stewardship is now generally recognized as the acceptance or assignment of responsibility to shepherd and safeguard the valuables of others.
Notable organizations
Forest Stewardship Council, since 1993
Marine Stewardship Council, since 1996
Aquaculture Stewardship Council, since 2010
Alliance for Water Stewardship, since 2017
[[Stewardhip Italia]], since 2012
[[ETICAE-Stewardship in Action]], since 2014
See also
Antimicrobial stewardship
Data steward
Environmental ethics
Environmental stewardship
Nuclear stockpile stewardship
Product stewardship
Safer Detergents Stewardship Initiative
Stewardship (theology)
Stewardship theory
References
12. ^ Annalisa Casino. 2014. Stewardship. Politiche e pratiche per una gestione etica delle risorse.Aracne Editrice.
13. ^ Annalisa Casino. 2018. Stewardship: la nuova sostenibilità?Aracne Editrice.
External links
NOAA Planet Stewards Educational Project
The NOAA Planet Stewards Education Project (PSEP) is an example of an environmental stewardship program in the United States to advance scientific literacy especially in areas that conserve, restore, and protect human communities and natural resources in the areas of climate, ocean, and atmosphere. It includes professional teachers of students of all ages and abilities, and informal educators who work with the public in nature and science centers, aquaria, and zoos. The project began in 2008 as the NOAA Climate Stewards Project. Its name was changed to NOAA Planet Stewards Educational Project in 2016.
Resources
Natural resource management
Applied ethics | [
0.29505449533462524,
0.2218257188796997,
-0.3941883444786072,
0.1545179784297943,
-0.018497781828045845,
-0.15944048762321472,
0.14699982106685638,
0.08026377856731415,
-0.22180584073066711,
-0.6216605305671692,
-0.3954225182533264,
0.8538637161254883,
-0.07866957038640976,
0.2018672376871109,
-0.40965932607650757,
0.6529087424278259,
0.2675095200538635,
0.7165753841400146,
0.1635896861553192,
-0.4022849202156067,
-0.6015296578407288,
-0.41918566823005676,
-0.09853888303041458,
-0.008512906730175018,
0.5665804743766785,
0.1400013118982315,
0.06541339308023453,
0.4601156711578369,
-0.05221506580710411,
0.16231374442577362,
0.5042291879653931,
0.5786207318305969,
0.13717006146907806,
-0.29550543427467346,
0.2822549343109131,
-0.42142874002456665,
0.20969298481941223,
-0.14171703159809113,
-0.7225861549377441,
-0.4401603043079376,
0.06314288079738617,
0.2100633978843689,
0.319125771522522,
0.2651517689228058,
-0.2276778668165207,
-0.19329598546028137,
-1.3431047201156616,
0.24295227229595184,
-0.16088436543941498,
0.024132655933499336,
-0.7576797604560852,
0.03062303364276886,
-0.10924331843852997,
0.16162236034870148,
-0.08453744649887085,
0.9743639230728149,
-0.3150651156902313,
-0.020893143489956856,
-0.23489831387996674,
-0.6289704442024231,
0.043693907558918,
0.07290680706501007,
-0.037887588143348694,
0.4894724488258362,
0.447628378868103,
-0.14462539553642273,
-0.0908060222864151,
-0.08717646449804306,
-0.1536676287651062,
-0.3139898180961609,
-0.3168562650680542,
-0.2979884445667267,
-0.1136544793844223,
0.14094480872154236,
-0.9086264967918396,
-0.16510915756225586,
-0.25232723355293274,
-0.1021590605378151,
-0.19490084052085876,
0.24810339510440826,
-0.16402122378349304,
0.6727073192596436,
-0.10472031682729721,
0.12447670102119446,
0.5329615473747253,
0.24314631521701813,
0.3966083526611328,
0.5427113175392151,
-0.48154786229133606,
1.0331469774246216,
0.8759846687316895,
-0.7511491775512695,
0.9027993679046631,
-0.24712583422660828,
0.37759238481521606,
0.07826594263315201,
0.6636393666267395,
-0.0001817657466745004,
-0.19237232208251953,
0.20176324248313904,
-0.17018844187259674,
0.09192975610494614,
0.23924769461154938,
-0.11388394236564636,
-0.2447681576013565,
-0.26253482699394226,
-0.1092289388179779,
-0.8668407201766968,
-0.053264230489730835,
-0.3946813642978668,
0.36530911922454834,
0.1505270153284073,
-0.720382809638977,
0.4240427017211914,
0.2839433550834656,
0.47309327125549316,
-0.022083571180701256,
0.02716832049190998,
-0.1670791655778885,
0.23585836589336395,
0.464631587266922,
0.34532487392425537,
-0.48294931650161743,
-0.031704433262348175,
-0.6727893352508545,
-0.17220564186573029,
0.40907493233680725,
0.2555880844593048,
-0.7589905858039856,
-0.6780767440795898,
0.4207681715488434,
0.4073159694671631,
-0.9509277939796448,
-0.1914301961660385,
-0.45941656827926636,
0.3302929997444153,
0.7875028848648071,
0.09067987650632858,
0.5604017972946167,
0.16213560104370117,
-0.6605603098869324,
-1.031229019165039,
-0.33740848302841187,
-0.35425320267677307,
0.9451218843460083,
0.08984331786632538,
0.4621480405330658,
-0.6844843626022339,
-0.18982449173927307,
0.17158865928649902,
0.23041771352291107,
0.1219102069735527,
-0.15546217560768127,
0.3467795252799988,
-0.475673109292984,
0.19362501800060272,
0.6333221793174744,
-0.1874443143606186,
-0.05504881590604782,
0.14785654842853546,
0.01773831620812416,
-0.03656724467873573,
-0.058064673095941544,
-0.18858179450035095,
0.15827703475952148,
-0.35648632049560547,
-0.040614254772663116,
0.9052785634994507,
0.28865405917167664,
-0.40849652886390686,
-0.4390564262866974,
0.037512872368097305,
0.05022909492254257,
-0.4359281063079834,
0.6425157785415649,
0.11038712412118912,
0.05238640680909157,
0.27047452330589294,
0.5479584336280823,
0.2608644366264343,
-0.7151533961296082,
0.23998130857944489,
0.23037534952163696,
-0.3814392387866974,
0.5542541146278381,
-0.37201231718063354,
0.1538025587797165,
-0.04734878987073898,
0.05643586814403534,
0.12588191032409668,
-0.6316547989845276,
-0.5064052939414978,
0.27313244342803955,
-1.033379316329956,
0.6120291352272034,
-0.13643896579742432,
0.05039376765489578,
0.7173095345497131,
-0.07194449007511139,
0.13952518999576569,
-0.5156377553939819,
0.013229173608124256,
-0.43163132667541504,
-0.44437989592552185,
-0.8281113505363464,
0.7659357786178589,
0.5205891728401184,
0.171556755900383,
-0.2516682744026184,
0.10596802830696106,
-0.34556087851524353,
0.04434829205274582,
0.2897500693798065,
-0.4266866147518158,
0.16964976489543915,
-0.2052362859249115,
-0.4946189224720001,
0.6608613133430481,
-0.10899927467107773,
-0.3309267461299896,
0.7628884315490723,
0.08120842278003693,
-0.007249194197356701,
0.8872631788253784,
0.07058496028184891,
0.14091652631759644,
0.5654165744781494,
0.23337073624134064,
0.4331963360309601,
-0.4165836274623871,
0.3568011224269867,
-0.2472815066576004,
-0.32859599590301514,
-0.5029575824737549,
-0.208645299077034,
0.5452436804771423,
-0.05869944766163826,
0.07171806693077087,
0.2729894518852234,
-0.19743677973747253,
-0.42641696333885193,
-0.23534072935581207,
-0.6463937759399414,
0.6897703409194946,
0.20772618055343628,
0.20489948987960815,
-0.5595012903213501,
0.4757407009601593,
-0.613253653049469,
0.2252233922481537,
0.09483682364225388,
0.3766564428806305,
0.7706502079963684,
-0.6132139563560486,
-0.2483728975057602,
-0.6363996863365173,
-0.612946629524231,
0.057263076305389404,
0.18445946276187897,
-0.29063376784324646,
0.09005773812532425,
-0.0857553705573082,
0.09790830314159393,
-0.09340017288923264,
0.01884770207107067,
-0.5322538018226624,
-0.6122662425041199,
-0.3621111214160919,
0.31511160731315613,
0.21696849167346954,
0.2841145098209381,
-0.1858001947402954,
-0.2564958333969116,
-0.05785996839404106,
-0.08969280123710632,
-0.4439763128757477,
0.4842487573623657,
0.0816396027803421,
-0.11601699888706207,
-0.17819149792194366,
0.007039852440357208,
0.4912968873977661,
0.1831887811422348,
-0.9894018173217773,
-0.06799444556236267,
-0.009491173550486565,
0.32655033469200134,
-0.017022347077727318,
0.07253486663103104,
-0.04159535467624664,
-0.26846662163734436,
-0.2998064160346985,
0.17638355493545532,
-0.007135637570172548,
0.7693864107131958,
0.5398153066635132,
-0.2576003670692444,
0.28485825657844543,
0.07065873593091965,
-0.07949630171060562,
-0.0432923324406147,
-0.7213014364242554,
-0.1992456465959549,
-0.20771896839141846,
0.11474651098251343,
0.010538674890995026,
0.03478914499282837,
-0.7544839382171631,
-5.5754876136779785,
-0.40732336044311523,
-0.08254464715719223,
0.09995138645172119,
-0.09756829589605331,
0.1234988197684288,
1.015777826309204,
-0.13924939930438995,
-0.2536560595035553,
0.7256174683570862,
-0.2513492703437805,
-0.368847519159317,
0.6772419810295105,
0.5766134262084961,
0.7473922371864319,
0.5195879340171814,
1.0015429258346558,
-0.1990700513124466,
0.244208425283432,
0.18274889886379242,
-0.10913675278425217,
-0.0209068413823843,
-0.327065110206604,
0.6651721596717834,
0.28786489367485046,
-0.5549938678741455,
-0.18076176941394806,
-0.04718885198235512,
-0.7320476174354553,
0.2458631992340088,
0.09171352535486221,
0.22699758410453796,
-0.004343122709542513,
-0.5102646350860596,
0.3493209779262543,
-0.26854100823402405,
0.30238065123558044,
0.3997667729854584,
-0.13882100582122803,
-0.3266526460647583,
-0.14372681081295013,
0.24652503430843353,
-0.14485014975070953,
-0.09538545459508896,
-0.023250816389918327,
0.24779269099235535,
-0.23241493105888367,
-0.2582533657550812,
0.0013112041633576155,
0.4264761209487915,
0.06715778261423111,
0.23744958639144897,
1.1578112840652466,
-0.2751578092575073,
0.4360783100128174,
-0.003754921955987811,
1.2515232563018799,
-0.4643091559410095,
-0.1881050020456314,
0.11189920455217361,
0.7678434252738953,
-0.6600124835968018,
0.17223083972930908,
-0.17478345334529877,
-0.14721068739891052,
0.18516895174980164,
-0.32364824414253235,
-0.9324509501457214,
-0.20652581751346588,
-0.13786055147647858,
-0.5873399972915649,
0.519199550151825,
0.10952448844909668,
-0.8920093774795532,
-0.035144511610269547,
-1.1745117902755737,
0.22126945853233337,
0.25535768270492554,
0.6829571723937988,
-0.3723284602165222,
-0.11335565149784088,
-0.298321932554245,
-0.6911982893943787,
0.210342675447464,
0.285581111907959,
-0.2229316681623459,
0.1321057230234146,
0.38072437047958374,
-0.7254862189292908,
0.05606485530734062,
0.3845842182636261,
0.31786370277404785,
-0.16608192026615143,
0.5817240476608276,
0.3805822432041168,
0.586821973323822,
0.06840888410806656,
-0.383750319480896,
0.3081114888191223,
-0.3692689836025238,
0.3026895821094513,
0.23876574635505676,
-0.20240914821624756,
0.4087752401828766,
0.08640573173761368,
-0.06351684778928757,
-0.18108141422271729,
-0.1531667858362198,
0.8262946605682373,
-0.08007583022117615,
0.22967451810836792,
0.7231181859970093,
-0.4279899597167969,
0.14930692315101624,
-0.12460272759199142,
0.2728647291660309,
-0.49818411469459534,
0.40801477432250977,
0.4245181977748871,
0.024919815361499786,
0.5185102224349976,
0.07502385973930359,
-0.27448269724845886,
0.06794369965791702,
-0.48886555433273315,
-0.8003680109977722,
0.26058298349380493,
0.29890406131744385,
-0.6775408387184143,
-0.05232790485024452,
0.8434730768203735,
0.09946418553590775,
0.08224017173051834,
-0.29847025871276855,
0.07124704122543335,
-0.10139268636703491,
0.19634604454040527,
0.14137369394302368,
-0.4100176692008972,
-0.27625080943107605,
-0.004993427079170942,
0.25054535269737244,
-0.013323847204446793,
-0.15621234476566315,
0.6685336828231812,
0.30439814925193787,
-0.1837007999420166,
0.1057961955666542,
0.09153153747320175,
0.6396102905273438,
-0.30818912386894226,
0.03846052289009094,
0.14577238261699677,
-0.3893245756626129,
0.7079740166664124,
-0.795863926410675,
-0.20625217258930206,
-0.24854834377765656,
0.24500565230846405,
-0.5525084733963013,
-0.23195995390415192,
-0.17374509572982788,
-1.3873308897018433,
-0.42090094089508057,
-0.2665700316429138,
0.11286984384059906,
-0.7852514386177063,
-0.46305087208747864,
-0.5464877486228943,
0.49721118807792664,
0.1522364318370819,
-0.33945679664611816,
-0.8177318572998047,
-0.7342453598976135,
0.08934901654720306,
-0.21217899024486542,
0.2849605679512024,
0.22655977308750153,
-0.11772149056196213,
-0.5286272168159485,
-0.13707557320594788,
0.1527794748544693,
0.04817896708846092,
-0.08233385533094406,
0.11124924570322037,
-0.6033071279525757,
0.032361943274736404,
0.14306791126728058,
-0.49993613362312317,
0.10461921244859695,
0.2042856514453888,
0.4825950264930725,
0.80979984998703,
0.18122036755084991,
-0.009093884378671646,
-0.20022155344486237,
0.1355191171169281,
0.17958028614521027,
-0.47385942935943604,
-0.5571507215499878,
0.24982257187366486,
0.5253801941871643,
-0.7355254888534546,
0.3463302552700043,
-0.22402459383010864,
-0.40877968072891235,
0.1271858960390091,
0.24034905433654785,
-0.808047890663147,
0.3754861056804657,
-0.7042607069015503,
-0.1788221299648285,
-0.3401043117046356,
0.10673534125089645,
-0.49316516518592834,
-0.17282654345035553,
0.2536979913711548,
-0.1661769449710846,
-0.3641475737094879,
-0.5355948805809021,
0.8154465556144714,
0.024235714226961136,
-0.23152479529380798,
-0.3738049268722534,
-0.1735677272081375,
-0.3159741163253784,
0.4189004898071289,
0.12952882051467896,
0.24686294794082642,
-0.207309290766716,
-0.7140068411827087,
-0.05694796144962311,
0.06746216863393784,
-0.016897443681955338,
-0.37551119923591614,
-0.020796015858650208,
-0.41593557596206665,
0.46195194125175476,
0.16058938205242157,
-0.1795402467250824,
-0.09628359228372574,
1.2120537757873535,
0.2180895358324051,
-0.8314739465713501,
-0.20412558317184448,
0.3873128890991211,
-0.0946982204914093,
-0.36448317766189575,
-0.25670143961906433,
-0.6515844464302063,
0.4128028154373169,
-0.4862682819366455,
-0.407549649477005,
0.054931122809648514,
0.2836146652698517,
-0.44660770893096924,
-0.15042850375175476,
-0.010900076478719711,
0.201214998960495,
0.09284881502389908,
0.38881900906562805,
-0.05474626272916794,
-0.9352816343307495,
0.24585139751434326,
0.8162527084350586,
0.2155831903219223,
-0.5286123752593994,
-0.20007643103599548,
-0.14105279743671417,
-0.9882031083106995,
0.7176536321640015,
-0.14485296607017517,
0.09939081966876984,
0.41084209084510803,
0.9301472306251526,
-0.14685866236686707,
0.3245002031326294,
-0.6464105248451233,
-0.02320088818669319,
-0.5917229652404785,
0.35086992383003235,
0.094607874751091,
0.01582557149231434,
-0.2763650119304657,
0.06921396404504776,
-0.8692843317985535,
-0.3365188241004944,
-0.3487805724143982,
-0.563988983631134,
-0.2476816624403,
-0.4123838245868683,
-0.10866651684045792,
-0.2327931821346283,
0.6495994329452515,
-0.04894482344388962,
0.15358151495456696,
-0.009518793784081936,
-0.30620867013931274,
-0.38545721769332886,
0.40223175287246704,
-0.42351624369621277,
0.2790548801422119,
-0.3928159773349762,
-0.5943727493286133,
0.6276559233665466,
-0.006113366223871708,
0.05172552913427353,
-0.42118361592292786,
0.07064409554004669,
0.1610533446073532,
0.24003304541110992,
-0.11381064355373383,
-0.04388781264424324,
0.4058660566806793,
-0.45046374201774597,
-0.10624419897794724,
0.18047930300235748,
-0.5795106887817383,
1.0909779071807861,
0.7358691692352295,
0.24902570247650146,
-0.5530261397361755,
0.4084647595882416,
-0.04407314956188202,
0.25969040393829346,
0.14697976410388947,
-0.24055957794189453,
0.2260880172252655,
0.36702868342399597,
0.3321969509124756,
0.3280051350593567,
0.6822403073310852,
-0.3341057300567627,
0.12421300262212753,
-0.3884720206260681,
0.11822988092899323,
0.09762314707040787,
-0.47234436869621277,
-0.6295325756072998,
0.4858211874961853,
0.763623058795929,
-0.04753345996141434,
0.6855321526527405,
0.1596517562866211,
-0.16154827177524567,
-0.05692996829748154,
0.07663118839263916,
0.49594083428382874,
-0.40914100408554077,
0.34112411737442017,
0.16805605590343475,
-0.39245638251304626,
0.6640427708625793,
-0.5002633929252625,
0.010560039430856705,
-0.15724220871925354,
0.41112658381462097,
0.15195514261722565,
-0.10627499222755432,
-0.3268332779407501,
-0.16636517643928528,
0.2851497530937195,
-0.050939805805683136,
-0.4389147162437439,
0.352321982383728,
-0.32921674847602844,
0.5359620451927185,
-0.5260564684867859,
0.593630850315094,
0.7503962516784668,
0.03260787948966026,
0.68973708152771,
-0.0647474154829979,
0.3682223856449127,
0.530491054058075,
-0.20940326154232025,
0.6428396701812744,
0.05373493954539299,
0.03224276751279831,
-0.0004936264595016837,
0.2524820566177368,
0.42739155888557434,
-0.07618604600429535,
-0.3421348035335541,
-0.05440838634967804,
0.423122376203537,
-0.27327096462249756,
0.39000818133354187,
0.03982383385300636,
-0.15539638698101044,
0.34252747893333435,
0.13862568140029907,
-0.09060295671224594,
0.3193259537220001,
-0.5664255023002625,
-0.0002958515251521021,
0.15938898921012878,
0.7160413265228271,
0.38892802596092224,
-0.5839566588401794,
-0.4198307991027832,
0.42026302218437195,
-0.0187489353120327,
0.18278461694717407,
0.11845476925373077,
-0.13117051124572754,
-0.7189378142356873,
-0.1343919187784195,
0.061022836714982986,
0.3316587209701538,
0.7230508327484131,
-0.29324236512184143,
-0.10644426196813583,
0.4666883647441864,
0.23725278675556183,
0.3369934558868408,
0.7672113180160522,
-0.27428650856018066,
0.37777024507522583,
-0.44242528080940247,
0.12482962757349014,
0.2626207768917084,
0.3141038715839386,
0.10907784849405289,
-0.32248228788375854,
0.12360404431819916,
-0.34741997718811035,
0.1337609887123108,
0.031773053109645844,
0.7421917915344238,
-0.4889201521873474,
0.14750531315803528,
-0.8215645551681519,
0.2785629630088806,
-0.13913454115390778,
-0.017033109441399574,
-0.2653566300868988,
0.6433241367340088,
0.8070603013038635,
-0.17493529617786407,
0.045031242072582245,
-0.13003498315811157,
0.7377334833145142,
-0.38480237126350403,
-1.6585094928741455,
0.008586701937019825,
0.04524420574307442,
-0.12849192321300507,
-0.32763558626174927,
0.4633297324180603,
0.5807223320007324,
-0.4972025752067566,
-0.2079203724861145,
0.11637819558382034,
-0.4518111050128937,
-0.11993282288312912,
-0.19452087581157684,
-0.7119402289390564,
-0.2848398685455322,
0.07833968847990036
] |
241325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buena%20Vista | Buena Vista | Buena Vista, meaning "good view" in Spanish, may refer to:
Places
Canada
Bonavista, Newfoundland and Labrador, with the name being originally derived from “Buena Vista”
Buena Vista, Saskatchewan
Buena Vista, Saskatoon, a neighborhood in the city of Saskatoon
Buena Vista Road, Edmonton
United States
(by state)
Buena Vista, Alabama
Buena Vista, California (disambiguation)
Buena Vista, Amador County, California
Buena Vista, former name of Buttonwillow, California, in Kern County
Buena Vista, Mariposa County, California, a place in California
Buena Vista, Nevada County, California
Buena Vista, San Jose, Santa Clara County
Buena Vista, Sonoma County, California, a place in California
Buena Vista, Tehama County, California, a place in California
Buena Vista, former name of Visalia, California, in Tulare County
Buena Vista, Colorado
Buena Vista (St. Georges, Delaware), listed on the NRHP in Delaware
Buena Vista (Miami), a neighborhood in Miami, Florida
Buena Vista, Georgia
Buena Vista, Illinois
Buena Vista Township, Schuyler County, Illinois
Buena Vista, Franklin County, Indiana
Buena Vista, Gibson County, Indiana
Buena Vista, Harrison County, Indiana
Buena Vista, Randolph County, Indiana
Buena Vista County, Iowa
North Buena Vista, Iowa
Buena Vista, Kentucky
Buena Vista (Stonewall, Louisiana), listed on the NRHP in Louisiana
Buena Vista (Leonardtown, Maryland), listed on the NRHP in Maryland
Buena Vista, Michigan
Buena Vista, Kent County, Michigan
Buena Vista Charter Township, Michigan
Buena Vista, Mississippi
Buena Vista, Ohio (disambiguation), several places in this state with this name
Buena Vista, Fayette County, Ohio
Buena Vista, Hocking County, Ohio
Buena Vista, Scioto County, Ohio
Buena Vista, Oregon
Buena Vista, Pennsylvania
Buena Vista, Tennessee
Buena Vista, Virginia
Buena Vista (Roanoke, Virginia), listed on the NRHP in Virginia
Buena Vista (Washington, D.C.), a neighborhood of Washington, D.C.
Buena Vista, Wisconsin (disambiguation)
Buena Vista, Grant County, Wisconsin
Buena Vista, Portage County, Wisconsin
Buena Vista, Richland County, Wisconsin
Buena Vista, Waukesha County, Wisconsin
Buena Vista Historic District (Kentucky), Newport, Kentucky, listed on the NRHP in Campbell County, Kentucky
Buena Vista Historic District (Tennessee), Nashville, Tennessee, listed on the NRHP in Davidson County, Tennessee
Buena Vista Lake, now drained, in Kern County, California
Buena Vista Lake Bed, a watershed within the Great Basin in Buena Vista Valley
Buena Vista Oil Field, in Kern County, California
Buena Vista Park, a park in the Haight-Ashbury and Buena Vista Heights neighborhoods of San Francisco, California
Buena Vista Township (disambiguation)
Buena Vista Valley, Pershing County, Nevada
Buena Vista Wildlife Area, Wisconsin
Lake Buena Vista, Florida
Montgomery-Janes-Whittaker House, commonly known as Buena Vista, listed on the NRHP in Autauga County, Alabama
Puerto Rico
Buena Vista, Bayamón, Puerto Rico, a barrio
Buena Vista, Hatillo, Puerto Rico, a barrio
Buena Vista, Humacao, Puerto Rico, a barrio
Buena Vista, Las Marías, Puerto Rico, a barrio
Buena Vista, Carolina, Puerto Rico, a barrio
Other places
Buena Vista, Catamarca, Argentina
Buena Vista, Corozal, Corozal District, Belize
Buena Vista, Ichilo, Bolivia
Bay of Buena Vista, Cuba
Buena Vista, Dominican Republic, in Jarabacoa, La Vega Province
Buena Vista Barracks and Battery, Gibraltar
Buena Vista, Coahuila, Mexico; site of the 1847 Battle of Buena Vista
Buena Vista, Colón, Colón Province, Panama
Buena Vista, Paraguay
Buena Vista, Peru, an archaeological site
Buena Vista or Vatilau, an island in the Nggela Islands, Central Province, Solomon Islands
Other uses
Battle of Buena Vista, a battle in the Mexican–American War fought in 1847 in Buena Vista, Coahuila, Mexico
"Buena Vista" (song), a song by Gomez from their 2000 compilation album Abandoned Shopping Trolley Hotline
Buena Vista (horse) (born 2006), Japanese Thoroughbred racehorse
Buena Vista Cafe, a café in San Francisco, California, credited with introducing Irish coffee to the United States
Buena Vista Winery, a winery in Sonoma, California, United States
Buena Vista (brand), a Walt Disney brand, discontinued as a trade name in 2009
Buena Vista University, Storm Lake, Iowa
See also
Buena Vista Social Club (disambiguation)
Buena Vista Park (disambiguation)
Buenavista (disambiguation)
Bonavista (disambiguation)
Boa Vista (disambiguation)
Buona Vista (disambiguation) | [
0.30264005064964294,
0.32579949498176575,
0.515326201915741,
-0.10954689234495163,
0.49443158507347107,
0.275253564119339,
0.31539639830589294,
0.6906662583351135,
-0.035866279155015945,
-0.4407791197299957,
-0.33058297634124756,
0.1398354470729828,
-0.02532433159649372,
0.31215181946754456,
-0.7499309778213501,
0.9143394231796265,
0.35460910201072693,
1.3290939331054688,
0.42251449823379517,
-0.3480680286884308,
-0.296125203371048,
-0.21572335064411163,
0.3233538866043091,
0.32465651631355286,
0.21717248857021332,
0.23262110352516174,
1.0106699466705322,
0.5000429749488831,
-0.01717710681259632,
0.6321506500244141,
-0.5393504500389099,
0.42932549118995667,
0.5350400805473328,
-0.2507852017879486,
-0.16728755831718445,
-0.0070956554263830185,
-0.011550592258572578,
-0.13057675957679749,
-0.3000505566596985,
-0.7068502902984619,
0.10350022464990616,
-0.46667617559432983,
0.8904186487197876,
-0.023613959550857544,
0.43052050471305847,
-0.1291089951992035,
-1.9027554988861084,
0.7897152900695801,
-0.40437403321266174,
-0.09200596809387207,
-0.37654414772987366,
0.7208927273750305,
-0.030154597014188766,
-0.23379237949848175,
0.22927598655223846,
0.5025708675384521,
-0.6496855616569519,
-0.2598026692867279,
0.6956363320350647,
-0.4022342264652252,
0.08581450581550598,
0.4865843951702118,
0.16913260519504547,
0.35303354263305664,
-0.18605108559131622,
-0.036775391548871994,
-0.13913962244987488,
-0.1138257160782814,
-0.30443498492240906,
-0.4657408893108368,
0.061140671372413635,
-0.14475618302822113,
-0.21040470898151398,
-0.4050338864326477,
-0.10751939564943314,
0.37039974331855774,
-0.5990747809410095,
-0.1199144646525383,
0.1110771894454956,
0.27459603548049927,
0.12874823808670044,
-0.6929588317871094,
0.2633618414402008,
-0.18407490849494934,
0.12863358855247498,
0.3443719148635864,
-0.3927270770072937,
-0.3865697383880615,
-0.2953782379627228,
0.8434687852859497,
-0.690216064453125,
0.024645304307341576,
0.2146320343017578,
-0.030079221352934837,
0.02757270261645317,
-0.5280332565307617,
0.019998082891106606,
0.4701573848724365,
-0.4827301502227783,
0.23091815412044525,
-0.5448755621910095,
-0.1365034133195877,
0.5058609247207642,
-0.15062926709651947,
-0.8412753343582153,
0.08484064042568207,
-0.5251568555831909,
0.1576833724975586,
-0.14869503676891327,
-0.17603272199630737,
-0.02171878144145012,
0.36689212918281555,
0.32955828309059143,
0.27781355381011963,
0.009167307987809181,
-0.2120477259159088,
-0.08097291737794876,
-0.1855987161397934,
-0.2695971429347992,
-0.3813610374927521,
0.22154080867767334,
0.4739663898944855,
-0.26321467757225037,
-0.6945859789848328,
0.3390440046787262,
-0.0994417741894722,
0.2102997899055481,
-0.3441721498966217,
-0.525181233882904,
0.12265326082706451,
0.021621135994791985,
0.5131688117980957,
-0.09759541600942612,
0.29875072836875916,
-0.03063446655869484,
-0.5324686765670776,
-0.08883187174797058,
-0.48189228773117065,
0.15213127434253693,
-0.24295979738235474,
-0.7341810464859009,
0.19901707768440247,
-0.4780499041080475,
0.01563178189098835,
0.6595308184623718,
-0.2535460591316223,
0.05331995338201523,
-0.24087919294834137,
-0.7523085474967957,
-0.3905503749847412,
0.2823033034801483,
0.25671038031578064,
-0.27139055728912354,
-0.3551451861858368,
-0.028896842151880264,
0.2638600766658783,
0.20382098853588104,
-0.04415232688188553,
-0.016278985887765884,
0.0556706003844738,
0.0659601017832756,
0.700831949710846,
0.8891082406044006,
-0.017024321481585503,
0.5759533047676086,
-0.0380985252559185,
-0.1258784383535385,
0.0058730789460241795,
0.11027379333972931,
0.5760759711265564,
-0.06404832750558853,
0.03657685965299606,
0.5949518084526062,
-0.5532948970794678,
-0.465121328830719,
-0.17146240174770355,
0.783500075340271,
0.2779521346092224,
0.0031502468045800924,
-0.021445218473672867,
-0.28414106369018555,
0.4144901633262634,
-0.13780051469802856,
-0.15317197144031525,
-0.1130996122956276,
0.13659071922302246,
0.3945259749889374,
0.47903934121131897,
-0.2764844000339508,
-0.17369087040424347,
-0.27532854676246643,
-0.764344334602356,
0.13951809704303741,
-0.4556114971637726,
0.3365393877029419,
0.11921589821577072,
-0.6353053450584412,
0.741526186466217,
-0.12293213605880737,
0.21443139016628265,
-0.5920962691307068,
-0.0008812985033728182,
0.877471387386322,
-0.18514595925807953,
-0.3713850975036621,
0.5453934073448181,
0.3031197488307953,
0.23119963705539703,
0.251456618309021,
0.6193175315856934,
0.15828707814216614,
-0.5824770927429199,
0.2112705260515213,
0.35497885942459106,
-0.06349543482065201,
-0.6076782941818237,
-0.27641764283180237,
-0.19628693163394928,
0.11064746230840683,
-0.4827072024345398,
-0.0014167112531140447,
0.19156190752983093,
-0.06192496046423912,
-0.20348353683948517,
0.3824082016944885,
0.39112919569015503,
0.038294654339551926,
0.06573624908924103,
0.5527543425559998,
-0.29682910442352295,
0.4354606866836548,
0.23191341757774353,
0.6803995966911316,
-0.5087477564811707,
0.22550900280475616,
0.05322922393679619,
0.5627255439758301,
0.14041921496391296,
0.30570778250694275,
0.2094373255968094,
-0.5544865131378174,
0.10777303576469421,
-0.22701787948608398,
-0.2777978181838989,
0.01184106431901455,
-0.0911690816283226,
0.2750096023082733,
0.42204827070236206,
-0.12633870542049408,
-0.1450541913509369,
0.2769986093044281,
0.44269275665283203,
0.20044401288032532,
0.6137436628341675,
0.48148682713508606,
0.552629292011261,
-0.338301420211792,
-0.24075932800769806,
0.18384170532226562,
-0.1353546679019928,
-0.5341803431510925,
0.12293348461389542,
-0.2039434015750885,
0.5169113874435425,
0.505562961101532,
0.07745498418807983,
-0.5137419700622559,
-0.5648043751716614,
0.09515050798654556,
0.9503955245018005,
-0.2722669839859009,
0.04085589945316315,
-0.6057950258255005,
0.22586002945899963,
0.38009241223335266,
0.3350600004196167,
0.13271094858646393,
0.00937032699584961,
-0.4218706488609314,
-0.29870447516441345,
-0.08929692953824997,
0.6102924942970276,
-0.028219878673553467,
-0.8221940398216248,
-0.028101284056901932,
-1.0678895711898804,
0.6681532859802246,
0.10715904086828232,
-0.5625218152999878,
-0.03675586357712746,
-0.23285405337810516,
-0.13635756075382233,
0.16188664734363556,
0.1682775765657425,
-0.024298200383782387,
0.028090741485357285,
0.4415346384048462,
-0.11544601619243622,
0.4191130995750427,
-0.4920387268066406,
-0.3003363013267517,
-0.11109969764947891,
-0.11232589185237885,
-0.2526600956916809,
0.48590144515037537,
0.2593591809272766,
-0.06033434718847275,
-0.06726330518722534,
-5.555679798126221,
0.5625630617141724,
-0.6554057598114014,
-0.5746936202049255,
-0.352780282497406,
-0.9037891626358032,
0.13576553761959076,
-0.16431577503681183,
-0.05423321574926376,
-0.15401923656463623,
0.36155030131340027,
-0.23081299662590027,
0.1644221693277359,
0.4805069863796234,
0.6485311985015869,
0.1537095308303833,
0.6223874688148499,
-0.14475548267364502,
0.5216169953346252,
0.004465187434107065,
0.29778042435646057,
-0.13577960431575775,
0.04170961678028107,
0.15019096434116364,
0.458900511264801,
0.8754659295082092,
-0.2913636565208435,
-0.15470921993255615,
-0.6828697323799133,
-0.35403603315353394,
0.17799809575080872,
0.22540925443172455,
-0.13499890267848969,
0.28032156825065613,
0.338034451007843,
0.08796443790197372,
-0.03356113284826279,
-0.15492674708366394,
0.7873733639717102,
-0.33751094341278076,
0.5981379747390747,
0.8794182538986206,
-0.199815034866333,
0.1659860461950302,
-0.422596275806427,
-0.4266601502895355,
-0.3612576127052307,
0.45052722096443176,
-0.07908384501934052,
0.6447636485099792,
0.6057647466659546,
-0.1908154934644699,
0.5429445505142212,
0.27839431166648865,
0.2315911501646042,
-0.26657921075820923,
0.7860599756240845,
-0.517507016658783,
-0.6130773425102234,
0.45424768328666687,
0.24210162460803986,
-0.3136982023715973,
0.09280869364738464,
-0.7043224573135376,
0.25918376445770264,
-0.34208717942237854,
-0.4400102496147156,
-0.07509869337081909,
0.46343275904655457,
0.09985008090734482,
0.00923399068415165,
-0.6057787537574768,
-0.6095484495162964,
-0.988502562046051,
-0.5212557911872864,
-0.3337532579898834,
-0.8508668541908264,
0.22529703378677368,
-0.4268414080142975,
0.26571568846702576,
0.17764298617839813,
0.4032927453517914,
0.16414578258991241,
0.30275958776474,
-0.12551485002040863,
-0.6035837531089783,
0.13322705030441284,
0.35799023509025574,
-0.3222367763519287,
-0.5124393105506897,
-0.0520806685090065,
-0.43228042125701904,
0.6178189516067505,
-0.3179378807544708,
-0.31897175312042236,
0.3972850739955902,
0.2377484291791916,
-0.05614728480577469,
-0.16122391819953918,
-0.8686245679855347,
0.6612011194229126,
0.03947079926729202,
0.7634944915771484,
-0.35037723183631897,
-0.4285905957221985,
-0.0735626369714737,
-0.18408121168613434,
0.1154259517788887,
0.2100352644920349,
-0.5555185675621033,
0.026943231001496315,
0.029552660882472992,
-0.6679348945617676,
-0.32950231432914734,
0.4967168867588043,
-0.01046596746891737,
-0.4411686658859253,
0.03397892415523529,
0.39731159806251526,
-0.09732810407876968,
0.22437608242034912,
0.03305807337164879,
-0.5231752991676331,
0.9410202503204346,
-0.5313605070114136,
-0.13730232417583466,
0.0969974622130394,
0.35825422406196594,
-0.36524075269699097,
0.509005606174469,
0.29113975167274475,
0.08646844327449799,
0.11350660771131516,
-0.08167663216590881,
0.15263202786445618,
0.11777166277170181,
-0.4165443778038025,
-0.8917528986930847,
0.2845975458621979,
-0.621795654296875,
-0.02407418005168438,
0.11639729142189026,
-0.06326954066753387,
0.5240503549575806,
-0.011945445090532303,
0.3342724144458771,
-0.10063871741294861,
-0.3239532709121704,
-0.41047403216362,
0.35323044657707214,
0.03240462392568588,
0.28527122735977173,
-0.3872705399990082,
-0.2710491418838501,
-0.2610926926136017,
-0.4675983786582947,
-0.3234213590621948,
0.2735496461391449,
0.4239899218082428,
-0.25749364495277405,
0.5176741480827332,
-0.3017738163471222,
-0.9944818615913391,
0.7039735913276672,
0.007076058071106672,
-0.5714478492736816,
-0.12112922221422195,
-0.061712030321359634,
-0.03332085162401199,
0.550149142742157,
0.40951240062713623,
-0.8435720205307007,
-0.4034581184387207,
-0.4220884442329407,
0.30565372109413147,
-0.2380373626947403,
-0.1379205882549286,
-0.09218865633010864,
0.20892907679080963,
-0.12299466133117676,
0.34134402871131897,
-0.6507911086082458,
0.10845622420310974,
0.3974844217300415,
0.09553124755620956,
-0.0497310496866703,
-0.6312963962554932,
0.0499366894364357,
0.3256717622280121,
-0.0920146256685257,
-0.02204599790275097,
-0.30649957060813904,
0.4053501784801483,
0.28714415431022644,
-0.21988937258720398,
-0.2886643707752228,
0.2116735875606537,
0.255188912153244,
-0.4665888249874115,
0.40602779388427734,
-0.40926361083984375,
0.08156491816043854,
-0.8512294292449951,
0.5632477402687073,
0.24123865365982056,
-0.258709579706192,
0.6097592711448669,
0.042057961225509644,
-1.2618333101272583,
0.1710418313741684,
-0.19455210864543915,
-0.3688468933105469,
0.6177415251731873,
0.5139197707176208,
0.21351870894432068,
0.1765252649784088,
0.3975370228290558,
0.45613548159599304,
-0.662192165851593,
-0.47941842675209045,
-0.04845215007662773,
-0.16022509336471558,
0.31930965185165405,
-0.3340393900871277,
-0.46609312295913696,
0.6512555480003357,
0.07772453874349594,
-0.49915993213653564,
0.6379074454307556,
-0.018802594393491745,
-0.3209194242954254,
-0.3692612051963806,
0.4154908061027527,
-0.19341912865638733,
0.2429754137992859,
0.11326875537633896,
-0.2153620421886444,
-0.5448804497718811,
-0.1490483433008194,
0.23199260234832764,
0.258878231048584,
0.4590235650539398,
0.18004803359508514,
-0.655099093914032,
-0.2547863721847534,
-0.024048924446105957,
0.47218164801597595,
-0.17459672689437866,
-0.7858963012695312,
0.5998890399932861,
0.18981428444385529,
-0.5633950233459473,
-0.3463532626628876,
0.237964928150177,
1.1623940467834473,
-0.27941855788230896,
-0.029391450807452202,
0.46621841192245483,
0.02238687500357628,
0.9037437438964844,
0.4420817196369171,
-0.030021842569112778,
0.007507518399506807,
0.7275937795639038,
0.3764166235923767,
-0.31154781579971313,
0.14564841985702515,
-0.4817282557487488,
0.027281353250145912,
-0.035642899572849274,
0.7627381682395935,
0.3448028266429901,
0.513225257396698,
0.7546942234039307,
-0.5575286746025085,
0.21468520164489746,
0.0016755809774622321,
-0.6703899502754211,
0.09494449943304062,
-0.47535204887390137,
-0.6806595921516418,
-0.5229721069335938,
-0.1937766820192337,
-0.6079316139221191,
0.18135850131511688,
-0.8084033131599426,
-0.10913305729627609,
0.2033241242170334,
-0.6085221767425537,
-0.06251353025436401,
-0.3779198229312897,
-0.23284009099006653,
-0.16299787163734436,
-0.7800168395042419,
-0.5797829031944275,
0.19991301000118256,
0.0036051974166184664,
0.4356341063976288,
-0.3224462568759918,
-0.3692854940891266,
-0.8814984560012817,
0.8110064268112183,
-0.27575555443763733,
-0.2979699671268463,
0.3776077926158905,
-0.15657773613929749,
-0.11013159155845642,
-0.4480246305465698,
-0.17103669047355652,
-0.5540364384651184,
0.6905144453048706,
0.04910816252231598,
0.4223814904689789,
0.7589185833930969,
-0.19268660247325897,
0.6848205924034119,
-0.07690354436635971,
-0.07690805196762085,
-0.29797711968421936,
0.5812343955039978,
-0.0815340057015419,
0.054326821118593216,
0.5462942123413086,
0.20472633838653564,
0.6191022396087646,
0.7402455806732178,
-0.012211228720843792,
-0.3488301634788513,
0.1939515620470047,
0.8070979118347168,
0.1654406189918518,
-0.597341001033783,
-0.4020683169364929,
0.4176289737224579,
-0.9109617471694946,
-0.041629210114479065,
-0.19399629533290863,
-0.8366715312004089,
-0.7214512228965759,
-0.01583985611796379,
0.1582806259393692,
0.4362439215183258,
-0.048161182552576065,
0.008736633695662022,
-0.013615112751722336,
0.013405118137598038,
0.22930166125297546,
0.07022414356470108,
0.13390547037124634,
-0.3319767415523529,
0.0363481380045414,
-0.8754944205284119,
0.15365810692310333,
0.2101394683122635,
-0.5028033256530762,
0.35105884075164795,
0.5756646394729614,
-0.3478805720806122,
-0.7768548130989075,
0.13362936675548553,
-0.45268696546554565,
-0.12477978318929672,
0.6928505897521973,
-0.525131344795227,
-0.4351862370967865,
-0.6412957906723022,
0.3722904622554779,
-0.21103216707706451,
-0.1591266691684723,
0.759933590888977,
0.27485397458076477,
0.8380089998245239,
-0.14989909529685974,
0.4481164216995239,
-0.13037756085395813,
0.5278395414352417,
-0.12279040366411209,
0.8200008273124695,
-0.03598804399371147,
0.15803727507591248,
-0.3060174882411957,
0.3544327914714813,
-0.005821167025715113,
-0.21061724424362183,
0.11722902953624725,
-0.3186492919921875,
0.23979921638965607,
-0.133747398853302,
-0.5568068623542786,
-0.4064936935901642,
0.11142880469560623,
-0.662774920463562,
-0.4266990125179291,
0.3103022575378418,
0.12525340914726257,
-0.15790662169456482,
-0.4802532196044922,
0.46538352966308594,
0.9241812229156494,
0.33957579731941223,
0.32559436559677124,
0.0009527042275294662,
0.43812960386276245,
-0.00048476530355401337,
-0.4939212203025818,
0.5080379843711853,
0.010314595885574818,
0.1548970639705658,
-0.42280858755111694,
0.33821797370910645,
0.005158740095794201,
0.024655498564243317,
-0.3858148157596588,
0.23787853121757507,
-0.2796425521373749,
0.2634711265563965,
0.5841088891029358,
0.15477147698402405,
0.18245233595371246,
-0.7457010746002197,
0.4392010271549225,
-0.46504637598991394,
0.34124183654785156,
0.08889583498239517,
0.18026398122310638,
-0.5025899410247803,
-0.3774367868900299,
0.41899141669273376,
-0.8747484087944031,
0.18280373513698578,
0.812155544757843,
-0.793839693069458,
-0.12634636461734772,
1.1745574474334717,
-0.934954822063446,
-0.3692886531352997,
0.270596444606781,
0.2305418848991394,
0.09908980131149292,
-0.25964614748954773,
-0.25007370114326477,
-0.436146080493927,
0.11658666282892227,
-0.3457335829734802,
-0.4369419515132904,
-0.029105449095368385,
-0.17529699206352234,
-0.33825361728668213,
-0.8675869107246399,
0.3105984330177307,
-0.07073677331209183,
0.016513889655470848,
-0.25468549132347107,
0.4868152439594269,
0.1877058893442154,
-0.40067946910858154,
-0.2558938264846802,
-0.31569045782089233,
0.12006226927042007,
0.20870965719223022
] |
241330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corn%20snake | Corn snake | The corn snake (Pantherophis guttatus) is a North American species of rat snake that subdues its small prey by constriction. It is found throughout the southeastern and central United States. Though superficially resembling the venomous copperhead and often killed as a result of this mistaken identity, corn snakes lack functional venom and are harmless. Corn snakes are beneficial to humans by helping to control populations of wild rodent pests that damage crops and spread disease.
The corn snake is named for the species' regular presence near grain stores, where it preys on mice and rats that eat harvested corn (maize). The Oxford English Dictionary cites this usage as far back as 1675, whilst other sources maintain that the corn snake is so-named because the distinctive, nearly-checkered pattern of the snake's belly scales resembles the kernels of variegated corn.
Description
Adult corn snakes have a body length of . In the wild, they usually live around six to eight years, but in captivity can live to an age of 23 years or more. The record for the oldest corn snake in captivity was 32 years and 3 months. They can be distinguished from copperheads by their brighter colors, slender build, round pupils, and lack of heat-sensing pits.
Taxonomy
Until 2002, the corn snake was considered to have two subspecies: the nominate subspecies (P. g. guttatus) described here and the Great Plains rat snake (P. g. emoryi). The latter has since been split off as its own species (P. emoryi), but is still occasionally treated as a subspecies of the corn snake by hobbyists.
P. guttatus has been suggested to be split into three species: the corn snake (P. guttatus), the Great Plains rat snake (P. emoryi, corresponding with the subspecies P. g. emoryi) and Slowinski's corn snake (P. slowinskii, occurring in western Louisiana and adjacent Texas).
P. guttatus was previously placed in the genus Elaphe, but Elaphe was found to be paraphyletic by Utiger et al., leading to placement of this species in the genus Pantherophis. The placement of P. guttatus and several related species in Pantherophis rather than Elaphe has been confirmed by further phylogenetic studies. Many reference materials still use the synonym Elaphe guttata. Molecular data have shown that corn snakes are actually more closely related to kingsnakes (genus Lampropeltis) than they are to the Old World rat snakes with which they were formerly classified. Corn snakes have even been bred in captivity with California kingsnakes to produce fertile hybrids known as "jungle corn snakes".
Range
Natural habitat
Wild corn snakes prefer habitats such as overgrown fields, forest openings, trees, palmetto flatwoods, and abandoned or seldom-used buildings and farms, from sea level to as high as 6,000 feet. Typically, these snakes remain on the ground until the age of four months but can ascend trees, cliffs, and other elevated surfaces. They can be found in the Southeastern United States ranging from New Jersey to the Florida Keys.
In colder regions, snakes brumate during winter. However, in the more temperate climate along the coast, they shelter in rock crevices and logs during cold weather; they also can find shelter in small, closed spaces, such as under a house, and come out on warm days to soak up the heat of the sun. During cold weather, snakes are less active, so they hunt less.
Introduced range
Often called the "American corn snake", P. guttatus is a proscribed pest in much of Australia. There are active extermination campaigns and advice for the public in Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland.
Reproduction
It has been found that corn snakes (along with other colubrids) reach sexual maturity by means of size, as opposed to age.
Corn snakes are relatively easy to breed. Although not necessary, they are usually put through a cooling (also known as brumation) period that takes 60–90 days to get them ready for breeding. Corn snakes brumate around in a place where they cannot be disturbed and with little sunlight.
Corn snakes usually breed shortly after the winter cooling. The male courts the female primarily with tactile and chemical cues, then everts one of his hemipenes, inserts it into the female, and ejaculates his sperm. If the female is ovulating, the eggs will be fertilized and she will begin sequestering nutrients into the eggs, then secreting a shell.
Egg-laying occurs slightly more than a month after mating, with 12–24 eggs deposited into a warm, moist, hidden location. Once laid, the adult snake abandons the eggs and does not return to them. The eggs are oblong with leathery, flexible shells. About 10 weeks after laying, the young snakes use a specialized scale called an egg tooth to slice slits in the egg shell, from which they emerge at about 5 in long.
Reproduction in captivity has to be done correctly so the clutch's mortality rate decreases. This includes accurate sexing, establishing proper pre-breeding conditioning, and timely pairing of adults. Corn snakes are temperate zone colubrids, and share a reproductive pattern where females increase their feeding during summer and fall. This only applies to corn snakes that are sexually mature, which typically indicates the snake is around 75 cm (30 inches) in length or weight 250 g.
Diet
Like all snakes, corn snakes are carnivorous and, in the wild, they eat every few days. While most corn snakes eat small rodents, such as the white-footed mouse, they may also eat other reptiles, or amphibians, or climb trees to find unguarded bird eggs.
Seasons play a large role in the thermal regulation patterns of corn snakes, which is the main mechanism of digestion for snakes. During the fall season corn snakes maintain a body temperatures that was 3.0 degrees Celsius higher than the surrounding environment after consuming a meal. While corn snakes in the winter were seen to not thermoregulate after digestion. Captive snakes do this by using heat mats as an underneath heat source replicates their natural conditions. Corns snakes demonstrate nocturnal patterns, and use the warm ground at night to thermoregulate, therefore heat mats replicate this source.
American "rat snakes", such as P. guttatus, had venomous ancestors, which lost their venom after they evolved constriction as a means of prey capture.
Intelligence and behavior
Like many species of the Colubridae, corn snakes exhibit defensive tail vibration behavior.
Behavioral / chemosensory studies with corn snakes suggest that odor cues are of primary importance for prey detection, whereas visual cues are of secondary importance.
However; a study conducted by Dr. David Holzman of the University of Rochester in 1999 found that snakes' cognitive abilities (in specific regards to spatial learning) actually rival that of birds and rodents. Holzman challenged the typical testing method that was being used by biologists to examine snakes' navigational abilities, claiming the structure of the arena itself was biologically in favor of rodents. He hypothesized that if the typical arena being used to test the animals was modified to cater to snake's innate biologically driven goals, thus providing them with problem sets that they would likely encounter in their natural environment, this would give a more accurate view of their intelligence.
The study involved testing 24 captive-bred corn snakes, placing them in a wide-open tub with walls too high for them to climb out. Eight holes were cut out underneath, with one hole leading to a shelter. An intense light was positioned to shine directly on the arena, exploiting the snake's natural aversion to bright open spaces. This provided a biologically meaningful objective for the snakes: to seek out cozy dark shelter.
Not only did they find that, when given proper incentive, the snakes exhibited an acute ability to learn and navigate their surroundings. They also found snakes rely on their sense of vision much more than many herpetologists had previously assumed. They did, however, find that younger snakes were able to more quickly locate the holes than older snakes, as the younger snakes were more resourceful in their application of senses – where the older snakes more heavily relied on their sense of sight.
In captivity
Corn snakes are one of the most popular types of snakes to keep in captivity or as pets, second only to the ball python. However, they are the most popular pet snake in Brazil. Their size, calm temperament, and ease of care contribute to this popularity. Captive corn snakes tolerate being handled by their owners, even for extended periods.
Variations
After many generations of selective breeding, captive bred corn snakes are found in a wide variety of different colors and patterns. These result from recombining the dominant and recessive genes that code for proteins involved in chromatophore development, maintenance, or function. New variations, or morphs, become available every year as breeders gain a better understanding of the genetics involved.
Color morphs
Normal / Carolina / Wildtype – Orange with black lines around red-colored saddle markings going down their back and with black-and-white checkered bellies. Regional diversity is found in wild-caught corn snakes, the most popular being the Miami and Okeetee Phases. These are the most commonly seen corn snakes.
Miami Phase (originates in the Florida Wildtype) – Usually smaller corn snakes with some specimens having highly contrasting light silver to gray ground color with red or orange saddle markings surrounded in black. Selective breeding has lightened the ground color and darkened the saddle marks. The "Miami" name is now considered an appearance trait.
Okeetee Phase – Characterized by deep red dorsal saddle marks, surrounded by very black borders on a bright orange ground color. As with the Miami Phase, selective breeding has changed the term "Okeetee" to an appearance rather than a locality. Some on the market originate solely from selectively breeding corn snakes from the Okeetee Hunt Club.
Candy-cane (selectively bred amelanistic) – Amelanistic corn snakes, bred toward the ideal of red or orange saddle marks on a white background. Some were produced using light Creamsicle (an amel hybrid from Great Plains rat snake x corn snake crosses) bred with Miami Phase corn snakes. Some Candy-canes will develop orange coloration around the neck region as they mature and many labeled as Candy-canes later develop significant amounts of yellow or orange in the ground color. The contrast they have as hatchlings often fades with maturity.
Reverse Okeetee (selectively bred amelanistic) – An amelanistic Okeetee Phase corn snake, which has the normal black rings around the saddle marks replaced with wide white rings. Ideal specimens are high contrast snakes with light orange to yellow background and dark orange/red saddles. Note: An Albino Okeetee is not a locale-specific Okeetee—it is a selectively bred amelanistic.
Fluorescent Orange (selectively bred amelanistic) – A designer amelanistic corn snake that develops white borders around bright red saddle marks as adults on an orange background.
Sunglow (selectively bred amelanistic) – Another designer amelanistic corn snake that lacks the usual white speckling that often appears in most albinos and selected for exceptionally bright ground color. The orange background surrounds dark orange saddle marks.
Blood Red (selectively bred "diffused") – Carry a recessive trait (known as diffused) that eliminates the ventral checkered patterns. These originated from a somewhat unicolor Jacksonville, Florida and Gainesville, Florida strain of corn snake. Through selective breeding, an almost solid ground color has been produced. Hatchlings have a visible pattern that can fade as they mature into a solid orange-red to ash-red colored snake. The earlier Blood Red corn snakes tended to have large clutches of smaller than average eggs that produce hard-to-feed offspring, though this is no longer the case.
Crimson (Hypomelanistic + Miami) – Very light high contrast corn snakes, with a light background and dark red/orange saddle marks.
Anerythristic (anerythristic type A, sometimes called "Black Albino") – The complement to amelanism. The inherited recessive mutation of lacking erythrin (red, yellow and orange) pigments produces a corn snake that is mostly black, gray and brown. When mature, many anerythristic type A corn snakes develop yellow on their neck regions, which is a result of the carotenoids in their diet.
Charcoal (sometimes known as anerythristic type B) – Can lack the yellow color pigment usually found in all corn snakes. They are a more muted contrast compared to Anerythristics.
Caramel – Another Rich Zuchowski-engineered corn snake. The background is varying shades of yellow to yellow-brown. Dorsal saddle marks vary from caramel yellow to brown and chocolate brown.
Lavender – Have a light pink background with darker purple-gray markings. They also have ruby- to burgundy-colored eyes.
Cinder – Originated with Upper Keys corn snakes and, as such, are often built slimmer than most other morphs. They may resemble anerythristics, but they have wavy borders around their saddles.
Kastanie – Hatch out looking nearly anerythristic, but gain some color as they mature, to eventually take on a chestnut coloration. This gene was first discovered in Germany.
Hypomelanistic (or Hypo for short) – Carry a recessive trait that reduces the dark pigments, causing the reds, whites and oranges to become more vivid. Their eyes remain dark. They range in appearance between amelanistic corn snakes to normal corn snakes with greatly reduced melanin.
Ultra – A hypomelanistic-like gene that is an allele to the amelanistic gene. Ultra corn snakes have light gray lines in place of black. The Ultra gene is derived from the gray rat snake (Pantherophis spiloides). All Ultra and Ultramel corn snakes have some amount of gray rat snake in them.
Ultramel – An intermediate appearance between Ultra and amel, which is the result of being heterozygous for Ultra and amel at the albino locus.
Dilute – Another melanin-reducing gene in which the corn snake looks as if it is getting ready to shed.
Sunkissed – A hypo-like gene which was first found in Kathy Love's corn snake colony.
Lava – An extreme hypo-like gene which was discovered by Joe Pierce and named by Jeff Mohr. What would normally be black pigment in these corn snakes is, instead, a grayish-purple.
Pattern morphs
Motley – Has a clear belly and an "inverted" spotting pattern. May also appear as stripes or dashes.
Striped – This morph also has a clear belly and a striping pattern. Unlike the Motley corn snake, the striped corn snake's colors will not connect, but may sometimes break up and take on a "cubed" appearance. Cubes and spots on a striped corn snake are the same as the saddle color on a similar-looking normal corn snake, unlike Motley corn snakes. Striped is both allelic and recessive to Motley, so breeding a striped corn snake and a (homozygous) Motley corn snake will result in all-Motley corn snakes and then breeding the (heterozygous) Motley corn snake offspring will result in ¾ Motley corn snakes and ¼ striped corn snakes.
Diffused – Diffuses the patterning on the sides and eliminates the belly pattern. It is one component of the Blood Red morph.
Sunkissed – While considered a hypo-like gene, sunkissed corn snakes also have other effects, such as rounded saddles and unusual head patterns.
Aztec, Zigzag and Banded – Selectively bred multigenetic morphs that are not dependent on a single gene.
Compound morphs
There are tens of thousands of possible compound morphs. Some of the most popular ones are listed here.
Snow (amelanistic + Anerythristic) – As hatchlings, this color variation is composed of white and pink blotches. These corn snakes are predominantly white and tend to have yellow neck and throat regions when mature (due to carotenoid retention in their diet). Light blotches and background colors have subtle shades of beige, ivory, pink, green or yellow.
Blizzard (amelanistic + Charcoal) – Totally white with red eyes, with very little to no visible pattern.
Ghost (Hypomelanistic + Anerythristic type A) – Exhibit varying shades of grays and browns on a lighter background. These often create pastel colors in lavenders, pinks, oranges and tans.
Phantom – A combination of Charcoal and Hypomelanistic.
Pewter (Charcoal + Diffused) – Silvery-lavender, with very little pattern as adults.
Butter (amelanistic + Caramel) – A two-tone yellow corn snake.
Amber (Hypomelanistic + Caramel) – Have amber-colored markings on a light brown background.
Plasma (Diffused + Lavender) – Hatch out in varying shades of grayish-purple.
Opal (amelanistic + Lavender) – Look like Blizzard corn snakes once mature, with pink to purple highlights.
Granite (Diffused + Anerythristic) – Tend to be varying shades of gray as adults, with males often having pink highlights.
Fire (amelanistic + Diffused) – An albino version of the Diffused morph. These corn snakes are typically very bright red snakes, with very little pattern as adults.
Scale mutations
Scaleless corn snakes are homozygous for a recessive mutation of the gene responsible for scale development. While not completely scaleless above, some do have fewer scales than others. However, all of them possess ventral (belly) scales. They can also be produced with any of the aforementioned color morphs. The first Scaleless corn snakes originated from the cross of another North American rat snake species to a corn snake and they are therefore, technically, hybrids. Scaleless mutants of many other snake species have also been documented in the wild.
Hybrids
Hybrids between corn snakes and any other snake is very common in captivity, but rarely occurs in the wild. Hybrids within the genera Pantherophis, Lampropeltis, or Pituophis so far have been proven to be completely fertile.
Many different corn snake hybrids are bred in captivity. A few common examples include:
Jungle corn snakes are hybrids between a corn snake and a California kingsnake (Lampropeltis californiae). These show extreme pattern variations, taking markings from both parents. Although they are hybrids of different genera, they are not sterile.
Tri-color Jungle corn snakes are hybrids between a Querétaro kingsnake and a corn snake. The color is similar to that of an amelanistic corn snake.
Creamsicle corn snakes are hybrids between an albino corn snake and a Great Plains rat snake (P. emoryi). The first-generation hybrids are known as "Rootbeers". Breeding these back to each other can produce Creamsicles.
Turbo corn snakes are hybrids between a corn snake and any Pituophis species.
Corn snakes hybridized with milk snakes are called a variety of names, depending on the subspecies of milk snake used. For example, a Honduran milk snake × corn snake is called a Cornduran, a Sinaloan milk snake × corn snake is called a Sinacorn and a Pueblan milk snake × corn snake is called a Pueblacorn.
Brook Korn corn snakes are hybrids between a Brook's kingsnake and a corn snake. Like the jungle corn snake, these hybrids also show extreme pattern variations.
When hybrids of corn snakes are found in the wild, they have usually hybridized with other Pantherophis species whose ranges overlap with corn snakes.
References
External links
Feeding Corn Snake Video
Ians Vivarium Guide to Cornsnake Morphs
Thecornsnake.co.uk
herpFocus – video female laying egg.
Comprehensive Corn Snake care information
American Cornsnake Registry
The Cornsnake Morph Guide(R) – identification and genetic guide for collectors and breeders
Corn snake care sheet
Ians Vivarium :: Guide to Cornsnake Morphs
Corn snake genetics calculator – Genetics predication and calculations
Scientific and Standard English Names of Amphibians and Reptiles of North America North of Mexico, With Comments Regarding Confidence In Our Understanding. Edition 6.1
Corn snake
Reptiles of Mexico
Reptiles of the United States
Fauna of the Eastern United States
Reptiles described in 1766
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
-0.11351997405290604,
0.4126661717891693,
-0.7485404014587402,
0.16587387025356293,
0.19948503375053406,
0.307654470205307,
1.0308709144592285,
0.46455010771751404,
-0.33979594707489014,
-0.09757420420646667,
0.46466976404190063,
0.3717081844806671,
-0.7705429792404175,
0.38717153668403625,
-0.33164969086647034,
0.025639569386839867,
0.18372637033462524,
0.05731692165136337,
-0.00211946084164083,
0.13127246499061584,
-0.06138531118631363,
-0.4576619267463684,
0.2227402627468109,
-0.24876943230628967,
-0.0041315495036542416,
0.2007293403148651,
-0.10506691783666611,
0.3403240442276001,
-0.05992117524147034,
-0.1886211633682251,
0.06256289035081863,
0.26220929622650146,
0.5425254106521606,
-0.10764570534229279,
0.215510293841362,
-0.2400101274251938,
-0.5497872829437256,
-0.1915307343006134,
0.1927310675382614,
-0.34215325117111206,
-0.21600398421287537,
0.24627943336963654,
-0.2313339114189148,
0.21545590460300446,
0.17029693722724915,
-0.15625417232513428,
-0.9645968079566956,
0.3509959876537323,
-0.47704607248306274,
-0.16150963306427002,
-0.45321565866470337,
0.19314037263393402,
0.014876320958137512,
0.5907020568847656,
0.051811572164297104,
0.24301892518997192,
-0.7873535752296448,
0.19914670288562775,
0.0746525377035141,
-0.3873762786388397,
-0.256473183631897,
0.21327227354049683,
-0.05059049278497696,
0.5988986492156982,
-0.31354933977127075,
1.056919813156128,
0.3697701692581177,
0.5227536559104919,
-0.18185493350028992,
0.1946881264448166,
-0.31641021370887756,
-0.6483787298202515,
-0.3694044351577759,
0.5898889899253845,
-0.2659968137741089,
-1.018420696258545,
0.07475321739912033,
-0.5229822993278503,
0.12986521422863007,
0.24461869895458221,
-0.274394154548645,
0.31546515226364136,
0.8188623785972595,
-0.24017265439033508,
-0.0174871739000082,
0.08831917494535446,
-0.2171282321214676,
0.19246189296245575,
-0.2480095773935318,
-0.047171611338853836,
-0.61392742395401,
0.35793817043304443,
0.13047119975090027,
0.45799675583839417,
-0.7281774282455444,
-0.25244027376174927,
0.11277542263269424,
0.18387070298194885,
0.7726909518241882,
0.29198527336120605,
-0.40808695554733276,
-0.22111937403678894,
0.6065371632575989,
0.42848634719848633,
-0.2826739549636841,
0.2702650725841522,
-0.3569391369819641,
-0.2937438488006592,
-0.3107312023639679,
-0.019945330917835236,
-0.4063303470611572,
0.3474089503288269,
0.2924365997314453,
-0.07365512102842331,
-0.3755199611186981,
0.4418730139732361,
0.3557589650154114,
0.040502630174160004,
-0.08569958806037903,
-0.5779957175254822,
-0.23222167789936066,
0.5239223837852478,
0.1511109471321106,
0.4983804225921631,
-0.021166594699025154,
0.6960257291793823,
0.48913636803627014,
0.314547061920166,
-0.07287854701280594,
0.07227399200201035,
0.6370444297790527,
0.9073522686958313,
0.10113222897052765,
-0.16565373539924622,
-0.38897496461868286,
-0.207079216837883,
-0.20933447778224945,
0.3380296230316162,
0.17603273689746857,
0.16061122715473175,
-0.8868438601493835,
-0.08866062760353088,
-0.38103368878364563,
0.21231213212013245,
-0.10809730738401413,
-0.07292459905147552,
-0.28155919909477234,
-0.2886328101158142,
-0.05223323777318001,
0.09480182081460953,
0.2800813615322113,
0.303548127412796,
-0.20467990636825562,
0.3063202202320099,
-0.18407310545444489,
-0.07997730374336243,
-0.10686451941728592,
-0.2179957777261734,
0.31190139055252075,
0.10256936401128769,
-0.2011215090751648,
0.2963813543319702,
-0.33008334040641785,
-0.36769312620162964,
-0.01897437497973442,
-0.10834001004695892,
0.5071256160736084,
-0.32230666279792786,
-0.25777101516723633,
0.5078268647193909,
-0.0783890038728714,
0.12630459666252136,
0.5615968108177185,
-0.3763187527656555,
0.10150405764579773,
-0.39009782671928406,
-0.37481117248535156,
0.25433534383773804,
0.3701702058315277,
0.11441106349229813,
-0.6324209570884705,
0.2956964075565338,
0.03719013184309006,
-0.45124882459640503,
-0.3358393609523773,
-0.44905734062194824,
0.08547180891036987,
-0.1561013013124466,
0.25057387351989746,
-0.5421759486198425,
-0.7367692589759827,
0.0641174390912056,
-0.05202203989028931,
0.03085886687040329,
1.2080795764923096,
-0.23075546324253082,
-0.3807317316532135,
0.45563411712646484,
0.08480050414800644,
-0.18815860152244568,
-0.1369936168193817,
-0.2717181146144867,
0.3770298361778259,
-0.3376607298851013,
-1.0898973941802979,
0.39315730333328247,
-0.04473578929901123,
0.1916171759366989,
1.0174893140792847,
0.4917859435081482,
0.2584744393825531,
-0.1622011959552765,
-0.6694580912590027,
-0.7532269358634949,
0.4121643602848053,
0.3026036322116852,
0.07506857067346573,
0.4801384508609772,
0.7710325121879578,
-0.01977701671421528,
1.151209831237793,
-0.700636625289917,
-0.09706168621778488,
0.7788463234901428,
-0.18580393493175507,
0.8062209486961365,
0.6325719356536865,
0.21474820375442505,
0.5706517696380615,
-0.28235405683517456,
0.3170701563358307,
0.16376350820064545,
0.5065457224845886,
-0.40868431329727173,
-0.46129587292671204,
-0.2676309645175934,
-0.19856955111026764,
-0.37189820408821106,
0.13578589260578156,
-0.26697590947151184,
0.5097472071647644,
0.4933828115463257,
-0.2565215528011322,
0.1860010027885437,
-0.006780278868973255,
-0.5023165941238403,
-0.2384447157382965,
0.286333829164505,
-0.27150681614875793,
0.02671419270336628,
0.062026336789131165,
0.9250974059104919,
0.7747364044189453,
-0.47538861632347107,
0.12728841602802277,
0.3975769579410553,
-0.21257276833057404,
-0.15772752463817596,
0.528708279132843,
-0.30921751260757446,
-0.2835720479488373,
0.37526634335517883,
-0.24362815916538239,
0.6382278203964233,
0.11471287161111832,
0.0911858081817627,
-0.10028775036334991,
0.08878422528505325,
0.0019073470029979944,
0.6797882318496704,
0.7991964221000671,
-0.011177199892699718,
-0.3428525924682617,
-0.39059436321258545,
0.20480771362781525,
-0.7250222563743591,
0.5651467442512512,
0.31732580065727234,
-0.24997441470623016,
-0.9249918460845947,
-0.14126195013523102,
0.45360231399536133,
0.39130493998527527,
-0.41470053791999817,
-0.0437745675444603,
-0.5643258094787598,
0.2806759476661682,
-0.07650325447320938,
-0.13949990272521973,
-0.12774261832237244,
-0.7740194797515869,
0.30186983942985535,
-0.5933094024658203,
0.3207617700099945,
-0.5518966317176819,
0.0822317823767662,
-0.4230148196220398,
0.4034106135368347,
1.222914218902588,
-0.7033265829086304,
-0.16119849681854248,
-0.14253857731819153,
-0.06088631972670555,
0.342605859041214,
0.16463370621204376,
-0.40394333004951477,
0.21058601140975952,
0.43632781505584717,
-5.612209796905518,
0.3545982837677002,
-0.37399137020111084,
-0.596235990524292,
0.4069601893424988,
0.05437842756509781,
0.1258634626865387,
-0.20609156787395477,
-0.15858452022075653,
0.06737903505563736,
0.6172282695770264,
0.6620668768882751,
-0.18206821382045746,
-0.43306493759155273,
0.016434820368885994,
-0.4475802183151245,
-0.5693152546882629,
-0.4907416105270386,
0.19308172166347504,
-0.19604533910751343,
0.25181108713150024,
0.5200741291046143,
-0.08077915757894516,
0.4322928190231323,
-0.5296058058738708,
0.28247180581092834,
-0.6282753348350525,
-0.0921327993273735,
-0.5339536666870117,
-0.08495558798313141,
-0.10934281349182129,
-0.11770125478506088,
-0.48792707920074463,
-0.27900782227516174,
-0.42433270812034607,
-0.2780507802963257,
-0.12805600464344025,
0.20938743650913239,
-0.48971956968307495,
0.15924790501594543,
-0.1637042909860611,
0.04736170172691345,
0.23450013995170593,
0.3859226107597351,
1.2052901983261108,
-0.12213393300771713,
0.02708405815064907,
-0.6852161288261414,
-0.33787617087364197,
0.35385578870773315,
-0.20798440277576447,
-0.15051649510860443,
0.1626972258090973,
1.100817322731018,
0.2923920452594757,
-0.1917175054550171,
-0.030705340206623077,
-0.07996071875095367,
-0.057809531688690186,
0.39501598477363586,
0.2051970660686493,
-0.4731352627277374,
0.023117296397686005,
-0.13341963291168213,
0.4125668406486511,
-0.14576679468154907,
-0.12170151621103287,
-0.1953936368227005,
0.7043662667274475,
-0.13672351837158203,
-0.22386549413204193,
0.2548386752605438,
-0.030102282762527466,
-0.9054221510887146,
1.1523054838180542,
-0.067860908806324,
-0.6270470023155212,
-0.04525576904416084,
-0.3190385699272156,
-0.1511034369468689,
0.26228001713752747,
-0.34257400035858154,
0.12501774728298187,
-0.231671541929245,
-0.07069571316242218,
-0.45045778155326843,
-0.37099674344062805,
-0.20271141827106476,
-0.5022137761116028,
-0.5454673767089844,
0.9824331998825073,
-0.44305750727653503,
0.15979066491127014,
-0.14330056309700012,
0.38449472188949585,
0.5341443419456482,
0.059313464909791946,
0.45492175221443176,
0.0329415425658226,
-0.31834420561790466,
1.0208927392959595,
-0.3488423526287079,
-0.7256385684013367,
-0.7948542237281799,
-0.011365538462996483,
-0.6020939350128174,
0.03736657649278641,
0.8145601749420166,
0.5947861671447754,
-0.41620004177093506,
0.2705298960208893,
-0.15163224935531616,
-0.11718929558992386,
-0.15168282389640808,
0.2461424171924591,
-0.08846025168895721,
0.18350113928318024,
0.12096390128135681,
0.6908084750175476,
-0.01387124415487051,
-0.3331585228443146,
0.6412161588668823,
0.25716862082481384,
-0.08550022542476654,
0.49458545446395874,
-1.1974310874938965,
0.510369598865509,
0.034685295075178146,
-0.14692512154579163,
-0.4661169946193695,
-0.2181028127670288,
-0.16597430408000946,
0.019654644653201103,
-0.15703731775283813,
0.03391420841217041,
-0.14849315583705902,
-0.3421795964241028,
0.5455083250999451,
0.09831146150827408,
-0.2798105478286743,
-0.9447640180587769,
0.10825540125370026,
-0.29323604702949524,
0.07331019639968872,
0.19548490643501282,
0.07870769500732422,
-0.3074224591255188,
-0.23371362686157227,
-0.8301053643226624,
0.662677526473999,
-0.10923624038696289,
0.045599184930324554,
0.3282395303249359,
-0.26424548029899597,
-0.17273494601249695,
0.12483471632003784,
0.6777549982070923,
1.0173091888427734,
0.06154346466064453,
0.11116927862167358,
-0.19186784327030182,
-0.22484269738197327,
-1.4162909984588623,
0.1438109278678894,
-0.08108248561620712,
-0.11107680946588516,
-0.4281700849533081,
-0.624608039855957,
0.1752646267414093,
0.7014200091362,
0.1644216924905777,
-0.21768797934055328,
-0.41628164052963257,
-0.10902880132198334,
0.35308191180229187,
-0.2292945384979248,
-0.5564743876457214,
0.34680500626564026,
-0.1504739224910736,
-0.12033412605524063,
-0.08184466511011124,
0.027142556384205818,
-0.10601954907178879,
-0.05090184137225151,
0.35403090715408325,
-0.6032882332801819,
0.10582833737134933,
-0.34642699360847473,
0.0044794464483857155,
0.009537038393318653,
0.4441886246204376,
-0.10433132946491241,
0.5626928806304932,
0.09502516686916351,
-0.1471211016178131,
0.09174204617738724,
-0.32017165422439575,
0.6161900758743286,
-0.11797251552343369,
-0.597058117389679,
0.05837467685341835,
0.3449106812477112,
0.023638833314180374,
0.5580403208732605,
0.20513083040714264,
-0.44915246963500977,
0.7023051977157593,
-0.44186097383499146,
-0.18231524527072906,
-0.0754183828830719,
0.16951578855514526,
-0.02332346700131893,
0.00362579058855772,
0.8438988924026489,
0.011533776298165321,
0.0801202729344368,
0.24875155091285706,
0.19993856549263,
-0.531080961227417,
-0.08634267002344131,
-0.1189526841044426,
-0.4985339343547821,
-0.269539475440979,
-0.1551162749528885,
-0.37715768814086914,
0.5327313542366028,
0.05006609484553337,
-0.4078565239906311,
0.9855124354362488,
0.11195748299360275,
0.22237925231456757,
-0.18762753903865814,
-0.09206785261631012,
-0.06721732020378113,
-0.6170565485954285,
0.037605609744787216,
-0.27338907122612,
0.16725747287273407,
-0.07431969046592712,
0.3191777169704437,
0.5087208151817322,
1.1766512393951416,
0.2870815396308899,
0.19246616959571838,
0.29048725962638855,
0.33301058411598206,
0.09799879044294357,
-0.15212927758693695,
-0.6004577875137329,
-0.12149922549724579,
0.9983246326446533,
0.07298010587692261,
-0.22028352320194244,
-0.06329406797885895,
0.6868467926979065,
0.09494336694478989,
-0.12495087087154388,
0.27082061767578125,
-0.03409728407859802,
0.07754937559366226,
0.26352620124816895,
0.07308581471443176,
-0.6613965034484863,
0.5708509087562561,
-0.5775361657142639,
-0.7396838665008545,
-0.3374558091163635,
-0.2748641073703766,
0.19454681873321533,
-0.735836923122406,
-0.08002512902021408,
-0.06640587747097015,
0.6676193475723267,
0.5769140124320984,
-0.12706351280212402,
0.4000469744205475,
-0.29003164172172546,
-0.719519853591919,
-0.2539248764514923,
0.1698645055294037,
-0.08978112787008286,
0.08570125699043274,
0.05763057991862297,
-0.13185946643352509,
0.377307653427124,
0.051774900406599045,
0.04403417184948921,
-0.7307559847831726,
-0.06992275267839432,
-0.5188196301460266,
-0.7073289752006531,
0.13381913304328918,
0.1944398283958435,
0.15073077380657196,
0.04745561629533768,
0.46114644408226013,
0.2429288774728775,
0.5246313810348511,
0.1351863443851471,
0.40950360894203186,
-0.7592064738273621,
0.46238651871681213,
0.5831729173660278,
-0.20287707448005676,
-0.06267399340867996,
-0.4162357747554779,
-0.14964023232460022,
0.30025041103363037,
-0.62590092420578,
-0.18851657211780548,
-0.17029035091400146,
-0.2547030448913574,
-0.12757925689220428,
0.2510735094547272,
-0.01690937578678131,
0.4774070978164673,
-0.050458893179893494,
-0.3455688953399658,
0.21182800829410553,
0.26417413353919983,
0.5609286427497864,
0.09486017376184464,
0.4187227189540863,
-0.2105826437473297,
0.376678466796875,
0.41008251905441284,
-0.9909864068031311,
-0.0020466281566768885,
0.5225797891616821,
-0.04521557688713074,
0.570401668548584,
-0.7052298784255981,
-0.47562161087989807,
-0.14188340306282043,
0.1201695129275322,
0.6067907810211182,
0.22013095021247864,
-0.49426141381263733,
-0.36367475986480713,
0.24135823547840118,
0.5698667764663696,
0.0390813983976841,
-0.19756640493869781,
-0.05882357060909271,
-0.14269906282424927,
0.006594856269657612,
0.18432801961898804,
-0.0403900183737278,
-0.12146760523319244,
0.011352521367371082,
0.405735582113266,
-0.6817973256111145,
-0.14300604164600372,
-0.8534421324729919,
0.6065638661384583,
0.3333268165588379,
0.21986165642738342,
0.1918535828590393,
-0.31686869263648987,
-0.11773456633090973,
0.266427606344223,
0.14132501184940338,
0.07130017131567001,
0.08043406903743744,
-0.3143731355667114,
0.3987673819065094,
-0.6449011564254761,
-0.7273812890052795,
-0.5700372457504272,
0.12102917581796646,
-0.2109527587890625,
-0.08026308566331863,
-0.1137155070900917,
0.010509058833122253,
0.4488293528556824,
0.37291219830513,
-0.18115471303462982,
0.6415526270866394,
0.01356357242912054,
0.11641531437635422,
-0.579566478729248,
-0.2847115099430084,
0.11038079857826233,
-0.248533695936203,
0.09028556942939758,
-0.11918683350086212,
-0.5376403331756592,
0.06230614706873894,
-0.7163748145103455,
-0.8121840357780457,
0.07336500287055969,
-0.4847412407398224,
0.5494384169578552,
-0.26773616671562195,
0.37573620676994324,
0.047223757952451706,
0.1436140090227127,
0.9487950801849365,
-0.21227610111236572,
0.25499218702316284,
0.04793427512049675,
-0.02800363302230835,
-0.13040637969970703,
0.7743505239486694,
0.09780269116163254,
0.09128717333078384,
-0.6999938488006592,
0.15459173917770386,
-0.7750853300094604,
0.32705211639404297,
0.32366299629211426,
-0.14484785497188568,
-0.2671332061290741,
0.04146171733736992,
0.006616555619984865,
0.21046219766139984,
0.5696235299110413,
-0.8681237101554871,
-0.5790233612060547,
-0.695417046546936,
0.255094975233078,
-1.036248803138733,
0.11871295422315598,
0.4441658556461334,
-0.01877162791788578,
-0.6337929368019104,
0.9622554183006287,
-0.11726083606481552,
-0.7139644026756287,
0.5873346328735352,
0.11850755661725998,
0.07633113116025925,
-0.569052517414093,
-0.06727328151464462,
-0.22679659724235535,
-1.0880194902420044,
0.43728840351104736,
1.1765666007995605,
0.13808012008666992,
0.17875340580940247,
0.2368178814649582,
0.0822053998708725,
0.1713755577802658,
-0.45205554366111755,
-0.28301602602005005,
0.2885630428791046,
-0.32065242528915405,
-0.7232258319854736,
-0.3637911379337311,
0.3996787369251251,
0.15432237088680267,
-0.5526238679885864,
-0.19935016334056854,
-0.0632413998246193,
0.05550752952694893,
0.6563723683357239,
-0.017762981355190277,
-0.6046908497810364,
-0.030576514080166817,
0.24388836324214935
] |
241331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20Hallstein | Walter Hallstein | Walter Hallstein (17 November 1901 – 29 March 1982) was a German academic, diplomat and statesman who was the first President of the Commission of the European Economic Community and one of the founding fathers of the European Union.
Hallstein began his academic career in the 1920s Weimar Republic and became Germany's youngest law professor in 1930, at the age of 29. During World War II he served as a First Lieutenant in the German Army in France. Captured by American troops in 1944, he spent the rest of the war in a prisoner-of-war camp in the United States, where he organised a "camp university" for his fellow soldiers. After the war he returned to Germany and continued his academic career; he became rector of the University of Frankfurt in 1946 and spent a year as a visiting professor at Georgetown University from 1948. In 1950 he was recruited to a diplomatic career, becoming the leading civil servant at the German Foreign Office, where he gave his name to the Hallstein Doctrine, West Germany's policy of isolating East Germany diplomatically.
A keen advocate of a federal Europe, Hallstein played a key role in West German foreign policy and then in European integration. He was one of the architects of the European Coal and Steel Community and the first President of the Commission of the European Economic Community, which would later become the European Union. He held the office from 1958 to 1967 and was the only German to be selected as president of the European Commission or its predecessors until the selection of Ursula von der Leyen in 2019. Hallstein famously described his role as "a kind of European prime minister" and dismissed national sovereignty as a "doctrine of yesteryear."
Hallstein left office following a clash with the President of France, Charles de Gaulle; he turned to German politics as a member of the Bundestag, also serving as President of the European Movement from 1968 to 1974. He is the author of books and numerous articles and speeches on European integration and on the European Communities.
Early life and pre-war academic career
Walter Hallstein was born on 17 November 1901 in Mainz, Germany. After primary school in Darmstadt he attended a classical school in Mainz from 1913 until his matriculation (Abitur) in 1920.
From 1920 Hallstein studied law in Bonn, later moving to Munich and then to Berlin. He specialized in international private law and wrote his doctoral dissertation on commercial aspects of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles.{{efn| The topic of Hallstein's doctoral dissertation was life insurance policies in the Treaty of Versailles ("").}} He obtained his doctorate from the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin in 1925 – at the age of 23. From 1923 to 1926 he was a legal clerk at the , and in 1927, having passed his qualifying examination, he was employed for a very brief spell as a judge. He then worked as an academic at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Foreign Private and International Private Law in Berlin, where he specialized in comparative commercial and company law, working under Professor Martin Wolff, a leading scholar of private law. He would remain there until 1930. In 1929 he obtained his Habilitation from the University of Berlin, based on a thesis on company law. In 1930, at the age of 29, he was appointed professor of private law and company law at the University of Rostock, making him Germany's youngest professor of law. He was made Deputy Dean () of the Faculty of Law in 1935 and then Dean in 1936. He remained in Rostock until 1941. From 1941 to 1944 Hallstein lectured at Frankfurt University, where he was Director of the Institute for Comparative Law and Economic Law.
In 1935, Hallstein attempted to start a military career alongside his academic duties. In 1936, he managed to integrate a voluntary military service in an artillery unit. In the years between 1936 and 1939, he attended several military courses and was made a reserve officer.
Hallstein was a member of several nominally Nazi professional organizations, but he was not a member of the Nazi Party or of the SA. He is reputed to have rejected Nazi ideology and to have kept his distance from the Nazis. There was opposition from Nazi officials to his proposed appointment, in 1941, as professor of law at the University of Frankfurt, but the academics pushed through his candidacy, and he soon advanced to become dean of the faculty.
Soldier and prisoner of war (1942–1945)
In 1942 Hallstein was called up; he served in an artillery regiment in Northern France with the rank of first lieutenant ().
In early 1944, Hallstein's name was submitted by the University of Frankfurt as a potential to the National Socialist Lecturers League.
On 26 June 1944, during the Battle of Cherbourg, he was captured by the Americans and sent to Camp Como, a prisoner-of-war camp in Mississippi.
As a German prisoner of war (POW) in the United States, Hallstein started a "camp university", where he held law courses for the prisoners. As part of the Sunflower Project, a project to re-educate German POWs, he attended an "administrative school" at Fort Getty, where teaching included the principles of the Constitution of the United States. Hallstein remained a prisoner of war from June 1944 to mid-1945.
Post-war academic career (1945–1950)
In November 1945 Hallstein returned to Germany, where he campaigned for Frankfurt University to be re-opened. Turning down an offer from Ludwig Erhard to be deputy minister at the Bavarian Ministry of Economics, he became a professor at Frankfurt University on 1 February 1946, and in April he was elected its rector, a position he retained until 1948. He was president of the South German Rectors' Conference, which he founded. From 1948 to 1949, he spent a year as visiting professor at Georgetown University in Washington D.C.
Hallstein was co-founder of the German national UNESCO committee and was its president from 1949 to 1950.
Diplomatic career (1950–1957)
Foreign affairs at the Chancellery (1950–1951)
Against the background of the Second World War, a conflict that had caused massive destruction and left the continent split in two by the Iron Curtain, there were calls for increased co-operation in Europe. The French foreign minister, Robert Schuman, put forward a plan, originating from Jean Monnet, for a European Coal and Steel Community that would unify control of German and French coal and steel production, and talks were started with this aim.
Germany had still not regained its sovereignty following defeat in World War II, and was represented internationally by the Allied High Commission. There was no German foreign office and, for a time, foreign affairs were dealt with by the Chancellery.
Konrad Adenauer, the German Chancellor, called Hallstein to Bonn, at the suggestion of Wilhelm Röpke, and in June 1950 he appointed him to head the German delegation at the Schuman Plan negotiations in Paris, which were to lead to the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community.
Jean Monnet, the leader of the French delegation, and Hallstein drew up the Schuman Plan, which was the basis for the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), established by the Treaty of Paris in 1951. The ECSC was to develop into the European Economic Community, and later the European Union.
In August 1950, to general surprise, Hallstein was made head of the Office of Foreign Affairs () at the Federal Chancellery (). At this time, little was known about Hallstein, except that he had not been a member of the Nazi Party and that he was on good terms with US officials.
State Secretary at the Foreign Office (1951–1958)
Following a change in the Occupation Statute, the German Foreign Office was re-created in March 1951, but the post of Foreign Minister was filled by Adenauer himself. On 2 April 1951, Hallstein was made the leading civil servant at the newly created Foreign Office.
Foreign policy continued to be managed by Adenauer himself with his group of intimates, including Hallstein, Blankenhorn and others. In many respects Hallstein was the West German Foreign Minister in all but name, but there was a growing awareness that a separate officeholder was needed. Adenauer is said to have considered Hallstein for the position, even though he was not a member of a political party.
Hallstein also played an important part in promoting West Germany's goals of regaining sovereignty and creating a European Defence Community (EDC), of which West Germany would be a member. Negotiations at first resulted in two international agreements:
On 26 May 1952, the Treaty of Bonn was signed by the United States, United Kingdom, France, and West Germany; on ratification, it would largely restore sovereignty to the Federal Republic of Germany (de facto West Germany, but not including West Berlin, which retained a special status).
On 27 May 1952, the Treaty of Paris was signed by the United States, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, and West Germany; on ratification, it would have established the European Defence Community (EDC).
However, the Treaty of Paris failed to obtain the necessary approval of the French Parliament.
Instead, a solution involving the Western European Union (WEU) was agreed, and West Germany was to become a member of NATO.
The efforts to resolve the issues culminated, in 1954, in a series of conferences in London and Paris. The German side was represented by Adenauer, the German chancellor, together with the top civil servants at the German Foreign Office: Hallstein, his colleague Blankenhorn, and his deputy, Grewe.
Hallstein helped negotiate various treaties at the London Nine-Power Conference from 23 September to 3 October 1954; they were finalized at the Paris conference from 20 to 23 October 1954. The conferences in Paris included a meeting of the parties to the Nine-Power Conference in London (20 October), a meeting of the seven WEU members (20 October), a meeting of the Four Powers to end the occupation of Germany (21–22 October), and a meeting of all fourteen NATO members to approve Germany's membership.
After the ratification of the Paris Accords on 5 May 1955, the General Treaty (Deutschlandvertrag), which largely restored (West) German sovereignty, took full effect; the Federal Republic of Germany became a member of NATO.
Once the major foreign policy objectives were in hand, Hallstein set about restoring Germany's diplomatic service and re-organizing the Foreign Office, based on the findings of the Maltzan Report, a report commissioned by Hallstein on 26 June 1952 and produced a month later by Vollrath Freiherr von Maltzan, a former diplomat, at that time on loan from the Ministry of Economics.
There was criticism of a lack of information and consultation and an atmosphere of secrecy, possible resulting from Adenauer's distrust of the old hands at the Foreign Office, the Wilhelmstraße veterans, as well as the desire to fill top jobs with outsiders not tainted by having served as diplomats under the Nazis.
There were suggestions of a disconnect between the leadership (consisting of Adenauer and a small group of close advisers, including Hallstein and Blankenhorn) on the one hand and the division leaders at the Foreign Office and the diplomatic missions on the other. In particular, Hallstein was also criticised in the press after the European Defence Community was rejected by the French National Assembly, as had been predicted by the German diplomatic mission in Paris.
On 6 June 1955, Adenauer, who had until then been Foreign Minister as well as Chancellor, appointed Heinrich von Brentano foreign minister and there was a reshuffling of responsibilities, but Hallstein retained the trust of Adenauer and continued to attend cabinet meetings. Herbert Blankenhorn, who until then been the head of the Political Department of the Foreign Office, became the German Permanent Representative to NATO in Paris; Wilhelm Grewe took over the Political Department under Hallstein and was made Hallstein's deputy.
Hallstein was involved in discussions with the French concerning the return of the coal-rich Saar to Germany. In October 1955 there was a referendum held to decide whether the Saar would remain separate from Germany or be re-integrated into Germany, following which it was agreed with France that there would be political integration into the Federal Republic of Germany by 1 January 1957 and economic integration by 1 January 1960. In September 1956, Hallstein announced that France had agreed to hand over control of the Saar to Germany; on 27 October 1956, the Saar Treaty was signed.
Hallstein Doctrine
In 1955, Germany had in large measure regained its sovereignty and become integrated into western defence-organizations, the WEU and NATO; European integration had progressed, with the establishment of the ECSC; the Saar question was to be resolved by the referendum in October 1955. In all of these matters, Hallstein had played a major role.
Some of the main issues of German foreign policy were now German re-unification and the relations of West Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany) with its eastern neighbours, including East Germany (the German Democratic Republic). Being more involved in Western European integration, Hallstein delegated much of this work to his deputy, Wilhelm Grewe. But in this area particularly, German foreign policy became associated with the name Hallstein.
In 1955, Hallstein and Grewe accompanied Adenauer as members of a delegation to Moscow, where the establishment of diplomatic relations between Bonn and Moscow was agreed. It was on the flight back from Moscow that the policy that was later to become known as the Hallstein Doctrine was fleshed out, though the Foreign Office had already devised and practised elements of the policy. The idea behind the Hallstein Doctrine came from Hallstein's deputy, Wilhelm Grewe.
The doctrine would become one of the major elements of West German foreign policy from September 1955 – until official recognition of the German Democratic Republic in October 1969.
Based on the Basic Law, its de facto constitution, the Federal Republic of Germany – then commonly known in the English-speaking world as West Germany – claimed an exclusive mandate to represent the whole of Germany, including the Communist East Germany, which was aligned with the Soviet Union. One of the early objectives of West German foreign policy was the diplomatic isolation of East Germany. In 1958, journalists named this policy the Hallstein–Grewe Doctrine, which later became shortened to the Hallstein Doctrine. Grewe himself writes that he did devise the broad outlines of the policy, but mainly as one of a number of options, the decisions being made by the foreign minister, Brentano, and the chancellor, Adenauer; in any case, the name Hallstein doctrine may have been something of a misnomer.
No official text of the so-called "doctrine" was made public, but it was explained publicly in a radio interview by its main architect, Wilhelm Grewe. Adenauer also explained the outlines of the policy in a statement to the German parliament on 22 September 1955.
It meant that the Federal German government would regard it as an "unfriendly act" if third countries were to recognize or maintain diplomatic relations with the "German Democratic Republic" (East Germany). The exception was the Soviet Union, as one of the Four Powers responsible for Germany. The threatened response to such an unfriendly act was often understood to mean breaking off diplomatic relations; this was not stated as an automatic response under the policy, but remained the ultima ratio.
European integration and the Rome treaties
Members of the German government had different positions on European integration. Hallstein and his team at the Foreign Office advocated a federal solution with a form of "constitutional integration" broadly based on the European Coal and Steel Community, with the scope gradually increasing to include additional sectors, and with true parliamentary representation of the European populace.
Hallstein contended that institutional integration was in the interests of a successful German export industry.
Ludwig Erhard and the Ministry of Economics argued for a looser "functional integration" and advocated intergovernmental economic co-operation.
Erhard opposed supranational structures and characterized the Foreign Office proponents of a federal Europe as out of touch with economic realities.
In the dispute, Adenauer finally supported Hallstein, settling the acrimonious, and public, conflict between Hallstein and Erhard.
In 1955 the foreign ministers of the European Coal and Steel Community met at the Messina Conference, among other things to nominate a member of the High Authority of the European Coal and Steel Community and to appoint its new president and vice-presidents for the period ending 10 February 1957. The conference, which was held from 1 to 3 June 1955 in the Italian city of Messina, Sicily, would lead to the signing of the Treaty of Rome in 1957.
Shortly before the conference, Adenauer had given up his double post as Foreign Minister and, since Brentano had not yet been sworn in, Hallstein led the German delegation.
The agenda included discussion of an action programme to relaunch European integration following the collapse, in August 1954, of the plans to create a European Political Community and a European Defence Community, when France failed to ratify the treaty.
On 6 September 1955, shortly before Adenauer's trip to Moscow, Hallstein, standing in for Brentano, attended the Noordwijk Conference of foreign ministers convened to evaluate progress made by the Spaak Committee.
On 9 November 1955, Hallstein reported the results to the West German Cabinet, where the Ministry of Economics and the Ministry of Agriculture opposed the plans for a common market rather than a free trade area. The Ministry of Economics feared that a customs union meant protectionism; the Ministry of Agriculture was concerned that the interests of German farmers would be betrayed; Franz Josef Strauss opposed the perceived discrimination against German industry regarding access to uranium. Finally, the chancellor, Adenauer, again settled the dispute between the ministries by a decision in favour of Hallstein and the Foreign Office.
When the Spaak Report (the Brussels Report on the General Common Market) was finally presented in April 1956, it recommended a customs union. In the Cabinet meeting of 9 May 1956 there was renewed opposition to the position of the Foreign Office from other ministers, but Adenauer lent his support to Hallstein, and the Cabinet authorized intergovernmental negotiations, to be held at the conference of foreign ministers in Venice at the end of May, the German delegation again to be led by Hallstein.
In July 1956, Britain had made proposals for the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) to examine the possibility of a free trade area for industrial goods.
The French, mainly interested in Euratom, attempted to separate the debate on the two topics and proposed a compromise treaty under which only the general principles of a common market would be agreed, leaving details to be decided later, but Germany made negotiations on Euratom dependent on negotiations on a common market. At the Venice Conference, the French foreign minister, Christian Pineau agreed to intergovernmental negotiations, with three provisos: the economic community was to be established in stages; customs tariffs should be reduced by only 30%; and national governments should not be overly constrained with regard to economic policy. Hallstein warned against accepting the French terms, which in his view meant that the French would push for a quick decision in favour of Euratom and delay the negotiations on the common market.
Hallstein was supported by the foreign ministers of the Netherlands and Luxembourg, against France, in demanding a fixed deadline and timetable for the establishment of a common market.
The French National Assembly approved the commencement of intergovernmental negotiations in July 1956, after the prime minister, Guy Mollet, gave an assurance that Euratom would not impose restrictions on the French nuclear weapons programme.
Another cause of disagreement was the inclusion of French overseas territories in any common market. Erhard strongly opposed this, partly because of the perceived danger of France involving the other member states in its colonial responsibilities. The Foreign Office shared these concerns to some extent but Hallstein and Carstens were willing to accept the French position, believing it would help gain support from the French National Assembly; Hallstein also accepted the argument of his French counterpart, Faure, that it would benefit Germany. Hallstein helped to strike a deal by which the imports and exports of overseas territories would be treated like products of the mother country and private investment and company branches of other member states would be permitted, thus opening up the overseas territories for German exports. Hallstein helped deal with these problems at two conferences of foreign ministers, one from 26 to 27 January 1957 and another on 4 February.
On 25 March 1957, the six countries Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxemburg, and Netherlands signed the Treaties of Rome. Adenauer and Hallstein signed for Germany. The foreign minister, Brentano had largely left the negotiations to Hallstein, so the signing of the treaty represented a major success for Hallstein. It was also Hallstein who explained the treaties to the German parliament on 21 March 1957, before they were signed on 25 March 1957.
Choosing the President of the Commission
There had been previous suggestions of Hallstein becoming president of the European Court, but now he was put forward as the German candidate for the president of the commission, though the Belgian Minister of Economics, Rey and the Netherlands Agriculture Minister, Mansholt were regarded as the strongest contenders for the position. The conference of foreign ministers on 20 December 1957 could not reach a decision, so when the Treaties of Rome took effect on 1 January 1958, the position had not been filled. At the conference of foreign ministers on 6 and 7 January 1958, however, Hallstein was finally chosen as the first president of the EEC Commission. Hallstein's selection for this position at the head of a major European organization, a decade after the end of World War II, was a major achievement for Germany.
President of the Commission of the European Economic Community (1958–1967)
Laying the foundations of the EEC
Barely a decade after the end of World War II, the German Walter Hallstein was unanimously elected the first president of the Commission of the European Economic Community (now the European Commission) in Brussels. He was elected on 7 January 1958, and he was to remain in the position until 1967.
Hallstein's commission, which held its first meeting on 16 January 1958, comprised nine members (two each from France, Italy and Germany, one each from Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands). The tasks it faced included the implementation of a customs union and the Four Freedoms, as well as common policies on competition, trade, transport and agriculture.
Hallstein famously described his role as "a kind of European prime minister" and regarded national sovereignty as a "doctrine of yesteryear." Though Hallstein's personal vision of a federal Europe was clear, the EEC treaty left many questions open. Opinions were divided, for instance, on whether a common market could succeed without a common economic policy, on enlargement of the European Union – in particular whether Britain should join – and whether the final goal should be a political union in the sense of a "United States of Europe".
Differing interests and traditions in the member states and differences of opinion among the politicians meant that consensus was difficult. The disagreements that had preceded the creation of the EEC continued after it was established, and these were reflected within the commission.
For instance, the protectionist Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), the responsibility of Sicco Mansholt, the Commissioner for Agriculture, was at odds with the liberal foreign trade policy of the Commissioner for External relations, Jean Rey.
Britain had at first been against the formation of the EEC, preferring a looser free trade area, and later proposed a larger free trade area that would include the EEC and other European countries. The German government, German industry, and – especially – the Economics Minister, Ludwig Erhard, wanted Britain to be part of an integrated Europe.
Hallstein opposed the idea of a wider free trade area at this time, advocating first achieving a greater degree of integration among a smaller number of countries.
Discussions on the possibility of a wider trade area, avoiding the tariff wall between the EEC and the EFTA countries, continued, but in the middle of preparations for the negotiations the French government, on instructions from de Gaulle, withdrew. This unilateral action by the French in November 1958 displeased the other EEC members and effectively ended the negotiations. German politicians like Erhard felt that Hallstein and his commission had not done enough to promote the wider free trade area.
The six countries of the EEC had decided on a customs union: they agreed to remove tariffs between one another within a period of twelve years, and to erect a common tariff barrier between themselves and other countries.
Seven of the excluded European countries (United Kingdom, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Switzerland, Austria, and Portugal) responded with an alternative free trade area, EFTA, which also removed tariff barriers between each other, but did not insist on a tariff barrier with other countries.
The EFTA convention was signed in January 1960 and was to come into force in May 1960.
On 3 March 1960, Hallstein announced a plan for accelerating the implementation of the common market, which commentators regarded as sabotaging hopes of a joint free trade area that included the EEC and EFTA.
This invoked the displeasure, not only of the EFTA countries, but also of the Economics Ministry under Erhard. Commentators talked of Hallstein's "religious zeal".
In 1961 Harold Macmillan, the British Prime Minister, finally gave up the idea of the larger free trade area, and the United Kingdom applied to join the EEC.
Edward Heath, as Lord Privy Seal in the Macmillan government, led the negotiations in Britain's first attempt to join the EEC. Hallstein, as president of the EEC Commission, was cautious, considering the British application premature. Of British politicians, only Heath was able to establish a rapport with Hallstein. The Financial Times (of 2 August 1961) wrote that Hallstein was one of the least enthusiastic about British membership of the EEC. In British government circles he was at first seen as siding with the French and de Gaulle, against Britain and the other five members of the EEC, who were more welcoming to Britain, and as favouring the French protectionist position. Elements of the British Press, notably the Daily Express, were critical of Hallstein – or what he represented.
It was in 1961 that de Gaulle proposed the Fouchet Plan, a plan for an intergovernmental "union of states", as an alternative to the European Communities. There was little support from the other European countries, and negotiations were abandoned on 17 April 1962.
While Hallstein had a decidedly federal vision for Europe, and regarded the commission as a quasi-federal organ, de Gaulle's vision was of a confederation.
From the beginning, Hallstein did not believe that de Gaulle's approach of cooperation between sovereign nation states would be able to realize his vision of a powerful Europe that could play its proper part on the world stage.
De Gaulle also envisaged a pooling of sovereignty in certain areas, such as external defence, harmonization of industrial production and foreign trade, currency, exploitation of resources in overseas territories, and cultural and scientific development, but at the same time he was developing the French nuclear deterrent capability, the , which he envisaged as part of a European defence capability independent of the United States.
This independence from the United States was one of de Gaulle's main objectives; he was against the increased integration of Europe under the umbrella of transatlantic integration as provided for in the Rome treaties.
The Hallstein Commission drew up plans and a timetable for an economic and currency union, and Hallstein presented these to the Council of Ministers and the European Parliament in October 1962.
A second attempt by de Gaulle to establish a closer political union in Europe that would be independent of the United States was the Franco-German bilateral treaty on political cooperation. This treaty between France and Germany, which was signed on 22 January 1963, was criticized by other countries as being incompatible with the EEC and NATO treaties. Hallstein and other members of the commission also criticized the treaty, and this angered de Gaulle.
When the treaty was ratified by West Germany, the German Bundestag unilaterally added a preamble that re-affirmed the commitment to close transatlantic ties, the enlargement of the existing European Communities and attempts to secure Britain's accession. Since Britain had firmly expressed its unwillingness to support an autonomous European defence independent of America, de Gaulle regarded the treaty as a failure.
Further attempts by de Gaulle at military cooperation with Germany to the exclusion of America were rebuffed by Erhard (now Federal Chancellor) and his foreign minister Gerhard Schröder.
Britain's application for membership of the EEC was vetoed by de Gaulle in 1963, which also further antagonized the other participants.
Confrontation with de Gaulle
De Gaulle took a confrontational course on the Common Agricultural Policy, and on 21 October 1964, the French Minister of Information, Alain Peyrefitte announced that France would leave the EEC if the European Agricultural market were not implemented in the agreed form by 15 December 1964. On 1 December 1964, Erhard, now head of government in Germany, announced that Germany would accede to French demands for a common wheat price, and on 15 December the Council of Ministers laid down common grain prices from 1 July 1967 and instructed the commission to submit proposals for financing the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) by 1 July 1965.
Differences between France and the Commission – and especially between de Gaulle and Hallstein – were exacerbated when France held the rotating six-month Presidency of the council, from January to June 1965.
The Council of Ministers instructed the commission to submit plans by 1 April 1965 on how to finance the Common Agricultural Policy as from July 1965, including its financing from direct levies rather than national contributions; this would entail a transfer of revenues to the Community.
The ministers representing other countries, in particular the Netherlands, indicated that their national parliaments would not approve transfer of revenues to the Community unless the rights of the European Parliament were strengthened.
On 20 January 1965, the European Parliament passed a resolution appealing to the governments to take this step toward strengthening a democratic and federal Europe.
Hallstein supported this.
Hallstein had received indications that other countries shared his point of view and decided to risk the confrontation with de Gaulle, interpreting the instructions from the Council broadly, with the support of Dutch Commissioner for Agriculture, Sicco Mansholt.
The majority of the commission backed Hallstein.
On 24 March 1965, Hallstein presented the commission's proposals for financing the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) to the European Parliament. It was proposed that customs duties collected at EEC borders would go to the community budget and that the Common Agricultural Market would be implemented as scheduled on 1 July 1967 – but the customs union for industrial products would also be implemented at the same time, two and a half years earlier than provided for in the Rome Treaty.
The proposals would have allowed the Community to develop its own financial resources independently of the member states and given more budgetary powers to the European Parliament.
From 1 January 1966, voting in the Council was to be by simple majority, removing the implicit veto power of individual countries. The French government stated it could not agree to this.
Since the legislation would increase not only the commission's powers, but also the Parliament's, Hallstein had the support of the Parliament, which had long been campaigning for more powers.
Before the proposals were presented to the Council, they became public, and Hallstein then presented them to the European Parliament on 24 March, a week before presenting them to the council. When Hallstein put forward his proposals, the council was already concerned.
France rejected the idea of the increased powers for the European Parliament and of the Community having its own independent revenues, insisting that what had been agreed by the Council regarding the financing of the common agricultural policy be implemented by 30 June 1965.
He accused Hallstein of acting as if he were a head of state.
France was particularly concerned about protecting the CAP because – under a majority system – it could be challenged by the other members.
After discussions between France and Germany, a compromise was at first reached, postponing implementation of the agricultural levies until 1970, but at the Council meeting of 28 June the Netherlands foreign minister, Joseph Luns, and his Italian counterpart, Amintore Fanfani, insisted that all of the commission's proposals should be discussed as a package. German diplomats supported this position, and the German Bundestag passed a resolution stating that the commission's proposals did not go far enough; Germany did not want to agree to the plans for agricultural financing without being assured that France would not hinder a general reduction in tariffs in the Kennedy Round.
The Committee of Permanent Representatives of the foreign ministers produced a report recommending a compromise by making both the agricultural levies and the customs duties available to be used for Community purposes but not centralizing the process; however, Hallstein refused to broker this deal, and suggested employing the common practice of "stopping the clock" until the issue could be resolved.
Under pressure from Couve de Murville, who was the rotating President of the Council at the time, Hallstein agreed, on 30 June 1965, to work out a compromise. The same day, however, after consulting with de Gaulle, Couve de Murville announced that no agreement had been reached by the agreed deadline and that the negotiations had failed.
France's presidency of the council, which rotated every six months, terminated on 30 June 1965.
Empty Chair Crisis
A few days later, on de Gaulle's instructions, France ceased participation in all meetings of the Council of Ministers and the Council of Permanent Representatives that dealt with any new decisions. Participation in many working groups ceased, and the French Permanent Representative to the EU, Jean-Marc Boegner was recalled, together with 18 high-ranking civil servants and diplomats.
In an attempt to resolve the situation, Hallstein, together with Marjolin, the (French) vice-president of the commission, drew up a new plan, continuing the provisional arrangement for agricultural finances until 1 January 1970. This proposal was presented to the council on 22 June 1965.
De Gaulle, however, remained confrontational toward Hallstein and the Brussels "technocrats". In September 1965, he publicly declared his opposition to majority voting and the political role of the commission.
Since a treaty change required unanimity, there was stalemate, and there was no provision in the treaties to cover such a boycott of the normal running of the Community.
At least in Hallstein's eyes, it was a breach of treaty obligations, and he was unprepared for such a scenario.
On 20 October 1965 Couve de Murville, in the National Assembly, pushed for a revision of the treaties; this was opposed by the other five member states. At the Council meeting of 25 to 26 October they passed a resolution stating that a solution "must be found within the provisions of the existing treaties". As a compromise, however, they offered the possibility of an extraordinary meeting of the council to discuss "the general situation of the Community" – without the Commission being invited.
Following the French presidential elections on 5 November and 19 December 1965, de Gaulle accepted this offer. In the negotiations on 17/18 January 1966, the French foreign minister, Couve de Murville, dropped the more extreme of France's demands.
In January 1966, the six foreign ministers agreed to suggest to the Commission that the Permanent Representatives of the ministers should be consulted before making any major proposals and not to publish such proposals before they had been dealt with by the Council of Ministers. The other five took note of – but did not formally accept – the opinion of the French delegation that for matters of very important national interest, the discussion should continue until a unanimous agreement was reached.
This became known as the Luxembourg Compromise.
It was not specified what could be invoked as a national interest and how to resolve disputes, so majority decisions were avoided and – until it was abolished by the Single European Act – it became a de facto veto, requiring unanimity for Council decisions.
Some concessions were also made to French sensibilities; for instance, diplomats no longer presented their credentials to Hallstein alone but jointly to the presidents of the Commission and the council.
When the "Empty Chair Crisis" was finally resolved, it had lasted from 30 June 1965 to 29 January 1966.
When the French foreign minister Couve de Murville returned to the negotiating table after Hallstein's official term of office in January 1966, he insisted on Hallstein's departure and the nomination of someone else to be the head of the new commission, which would in future be the commission shared by all three communities when the EEC, the ECSC, and Euratom were merged.
Since there was no agreement on a replacement for Hallstein when his term ended on 8 January 1966, he remained in office as a caretaker (based on Article 159 of the EEC Treaty). This also meant that the planned merger of the three communities, which was to have taken place on 1 January 1966, was postponed.
In view of the confrontation with de Gaulle, there was a proposal that Hallstein should be nominated for a further term but that he should serve for only six months. The German Chancellor, Georg Kiesinger agreed to this compromise, but Hallstein considered this was a breach of the Treaty and on 5 May 1967 he asked not to be re-nominated at all.
In this way, the national governments had refused to accept the commission becoming a European executive, blocking Hallstein's vision of a United States of Europe.
Issues behind confrontation with de Gaulle
De Gaulle recognized Hallstein's service to European integration, but attributed it to German patriotism, serving the interests of Germany, enabling Germany to re-attain a respect and status in Europe that it had lost because of Hitler. De Gaulle resented the status that Hallstein, for him a mere technocrat, was accorded by foreign states.
Hallstein, for his part, was watchful that, as representative of the commission, he was accorded the status normally accorded to a head of state.
De Gaulle complained of the Commission usurping a political role reserved for governments and of Hallstein usurping a role reserved for heads of government or heads of state; he attacked Hallstein personally saying that Hallstein was trying to turn the EEC into a superstate, with Brussels as its capital; he talked of defending French democracy against an unaccountable and stateless technocracy, "a technocratic Areopagus, stateless and unaccountable" [De Gaulle at a press conference at the Elysée Palace on 9 September 1965.]
In his memoirs, De Gaulle wrote of Hallstein
According to , De Gaulle's complaints included
Hallstein's being frequently received by US presidents, although the commission had no foreign relations mandate;
Hallstein's claim to be a sort of European prime minister;
the rank of ambassador held by the representatives of the 65 states accredited with the European Commission;
foreign ambassadors' presentation of their credentials to Hallstein (ambassadors normally present their credentials, signed by the countries head of state to the head of state of the host country);
the participation of Commission staff in the Kennedy Round negotiations in Geneva, in negotiations with EFTA, and in negotiations with non-European states, in particular South American states.
On the political role of the commission, Hallstein stated in an interview with
The issue that triggered the Empty Chair Crisis was the financing of the common agricultural policy, which was of critical interest to France: from 1962 to 1964, France had received 46 million US dollars from the agricultural fund, eighty-five per cent of all revenue.
The clash between Hallstein and de Gaulle demonstrated a clash between two opposing visions of Europe.
The differences included:
the debate on inclusion of the United Kingdom
the financing of the Common Agricultural Policy
the rights of the European Parliament, especially with respect to the budget
majority voting in the Council of Ministers.
On most of these issues, de Gaulle regarded Hallstein as an opponent. Hallstein's response to de Gaulle's attacks was also somewhat confrontational, comparing de Gaulle's actions with those of Hitler.
Later life (1967–1982)
Hallstein left the Commission at the end of 1967, aged 68.
On 20 January 1968, Hallstein was elected president of the European Movement, a private organization founded in 1948 as the umbrella organization of various organizations in favour of European integration, where he continued to promote his vision of a "United States of Europe".
Hallstein retained this office until 1974, when he did not stand for re-election, being followed by Jean Rey, who had also succeeded him as President of the commission.
In the run-up to the federal elections in 1969, Helmut Kohl, then minister-president and head of the CDU in the state of Rhineland Palatinate offered Hallstein the opportunity of standing as a direct candidate in the Neuwied constituency in the Westerwald area and heading up the CDU party list in the state of Rhineland Palatinate. At the time, the CDU under Kurt Georg Kiesinger was the governing party. At the CDU "Euroforum 68" congress in Saarbrücken in January 1968, Hallstein was celebrated as the future foreign minister, should the CDU win the 1969 federal election. He proposed to confront de Gaulle and counter his attempts to "devalue" and "weaken" the European Community. However, the party lost the election, leaving Hallstein as a member of the Bundestag, but with no government office.
As reported by , Hallstein was later approached by Kohl as a possible candidate to replace Heinrich Lübke as Federal President, but this did not come to fruition.
From 1969 to 1972, he was a member of the German Federal Parliament for the Christian Democratic Union, where he was on the Foreign Affairs Committee and was one of the party's spokesmen for European affairs, along with Erik Blumenfeld and Carl-Ludwig Wagner. In the party, he supported the Junge Union, the CDU youth organization. Hallstein had little personal contact with his constituency, the work being done mainly by his assistant Christian Franck. At the next elections in 1972, he was not re-nominated.
In his speeches in the Bundestag, he continued to express his vision of European union. He also spoke out in favour of direct election of the European Parliament in Germany. At that time, the members of the European Parliament were delegated by the Bundestag, and direct election was not introduced until 1979.
Having left the Bundestag in 1972 and the presidency of the European Movement in 1974, Hallstein retired from active political life but continued to write and give talks. He moved from his country house in the Westerwald to Stuttgart, and continued his work as an author.
Hallstein fell ill in early 1980 and died in Stuttgart on 29 March 1982, at the age of 80. He was buried, following a state funeral, on 2 April 1982 at the Waldfriedhof Cemetery in Stuttgart.
Hallstein remained a bachelor all his life.
Vision of Europe
Central to Hallstein's ideas on Europe was his vision of a federal Europe. He called European integration a "revolutionary endeavour" that would take a long time. According to Hallstein's analysis of the situation, European integration was favoured by the external threat from the Soviet bloc and the internal threat of conflict between the states of central and western Europe and the political and economic fragility of some European democracies.
Hallstein and his staff at the Foreign Office aimed for a constitutional framework in the federalist sense – a supranational concept that was opposed by the school centred around Ludwig Erhard and the Ministry of Economics, who advocated intergovernmental, economic cooperation, founded on free trade.
Hallstein spoke early in favour of the proposed European Defence Community, which never came to fruition, and of West German's integration in the West, which he saw as necessary for the solution of other problems, including German reunification.
In a speech in 1953, in London, Hallstein talked of three "dimensions" of European integration:
Intensity expressed the degree to which member states give up individual sovereignty to create a supranational community.
Extensity expressed the size of the community, that is the number of member states.
Time expressed the order and speed of steps toward complete integration.
He spoke of a trade-off between the different dimensions, for instance: the larger the number of members, the less integration would be possible in a given time. His model included the coexistence of different European organizations of differing size and with differing degrees of integration. Such considerations were particularly relevant to the United Kingdom, which had been more in favour of intergovernmental organizations such as the Council of Europe and had shown less interest in supranational organizations like the European Coal and Steel Community and the proposed European Defence Community.
Though Hallstein first pursued the goal of economic integration, he stated that this was not an end in itself but was a means of achieving a political union that "pool[ed] all the appropriate functions of the member-states. For Hallstein the Schuman Plan was a way for Europe to become an equal partner of the United States – and as a way for Germany to "rejoin the organized community of free peoples".
He envisaged a planned, gradual evolution involving a number of projects, coming together to produce a coherent whole. At first he talked of the "dynamic aspect of the constituent plans" (), but later of what he – or rather his unenviable translator – called "material logic" (, an "anonymous force [that] only works through human will ... [an] inner logic, which is stronger than the capricious dictates of politics").
This meant setting up a situation in such a way that the desired goal would be achieved because people faced with future problems and choices would naturally choose the desired path – not automatically, but because the inherent logic of the situation would favour the desired choice. For instance, installing common tariffs would naturally lead to the need for a common trade policy; prescribing free movement for people, services, and capital would tend to lead to a common infrastructure, including a common tax policy, a common budgetary policy, and a common currency.
The Schuman Plan was the first step, applied to the field of economics; the next step was to be defence; these would then necessarily lead to integration in the related fields of industrial relations and social policy, energy policy and foreign policy.
Hallstein strove for a Europe based on the rule of law ("law in place of force"). His concept of European union was that of a "community" based on democracy and the rule of law — not a federation (because it was not yet a state), nor a confederation ("because it was endowed with the power of exercising authority directly over every citizen in each of its member states").
A lawyer and an expert in international law, Hallstein saw a strong legal foundation as essential. His model of a federal Europe borrowed from the federal structures of Germany, the United States and Switzerland.
Hallstein later wrote that the experience of Nazi Germany led him to distrust not only the idea of absolute and inalienable national sovereignty, but also the British idea of a European balance of power. Partly as a result of the Americans' re-education programme, Hallstein developed an interest in the United States Constitution and American history between independence in 1776 and the ratification of the Constitution in 1788, when the United States was a confederation of states. The problems that the United States experienced were, in his view, due partly to the states defending their sovereignty. He rejected the concept of the unitary nation state favoured by the French, in favour of a federal solution, and concluded that Europe should follow the American path towards a federal solution. However, he wished to retain Europe's diversity and opposed the idea of Europe becoming a "melting pot".
Reception and legacy
People who knew Hallstein described him as someone with keen intellect, an excellent command of language, and high reliability.
But he was also perceived by those who knew him as cold, unapproachable, and excessively intellectual, respected rather than liked. British Prime Minister Edward Heath allegedly said of him "He is just a brain."
He was also characterized as having a keen sense of duty: Franz Josef Strauss called him one of the last Prussians.
During his lifetime, Walter Hallstein received honorary doctorates from nine European universities, including Padua, Sussex, Liège, Nancy, Leuven, Oviedo, and Tübingen, and nine American universities, including Georgetown, Harvard, and Johns Hopkins University.
He was also awarded numerous other honours and prizes from European governments.
In 1997, the Walter Hallstein Institute for European Constitutional Law at the Humboldt University in Berlin was named in his honour.
Works
The documented total number of publications by Hallstein exceeds 365.
Hallstein's major popular work was Der unvollendete Bundesstaat [The Unfinished Federation], which was first published in 1969:
This book can be seen as Hallstein's political testament. The second German edition was titled simply Die Europäische Gemeinschaft [The European Community]:
A later version was published in English with the title Europe in the Making:
He also wrote a number of academic books and numerous articles, and he gave innumerable speeches. Some of his speeches were published as a book:
Notes
References
Bibliography
Schönwald, Matthias: Walter Hallstein. Aspekte seiner politischen Biographie. In: Christoph E. Palmer (Ed.): Die politischen Kräfte in unserem Werk drängen weiter. Gedenkveranstaltung für Walter Hallstein am 17. November 2001 in Stuttgart. Staatsministerium Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart 2002, p. 13–30.
Schönwald, Matthias: Walter Hallstein et les institutions des Communautés Européennes. In: Marie-Thérèse Bitsch (Ed.): Le couple France-Allemagne et les institutions européennes. Une postérité pour le plan Schuman? Bruylant, Bruxelles 2001, p. 151–168.
Schönwald, Matthias: Walter Hallstein and the "Empty chair" Crisis 1965/66. In: Wilfried Loth (Ed.): Crises and compromises. Nomos, Baden-Baden 2001, , p. 157–172.
Schönwald, Matthias: "The same – should I say – antenna". Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede im europapolitischen Denken von Jean Monnet und Walter Hallstein (1958–1963). In: Andreas Wilkens (Ed.): Interessen verbinden. Jean Monnet und die europäische Integration der Bundesrepublik Deutschland'' Bouvier, Bonn 1999, p. 269–298.
Further reading
External links
The History of the European Union: The founding fathers of the EU
Biography of Walter Hallstein at a semi-official French web site
Biography of Walter Hallstein at the Konrad-Adenauer Foundation
Brief portrait of Walter Hallstein at the official web site for Charlemagne Prize awards
Walter Hallstein Institute
Charlemagne Prize Foundation; includes a list of recipients
Address given by Walter Hallstein: the revival of European integration (Bonn, 14 May 1956)
|-
|-
1901 births
1982 deaths
Politicians from Mainz
People from Rhenish Hesse
German military officers
German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United States
International law scholars
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
Goethe University Frankfurt faculty
University of Rostock faculty
Christian Democratic Union of Germany politicians
German diplomats
German European Commissioners
German political writers
Members of the Bundestag for Rhineland-Palatinate
Presidents of the European Commission
Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Falcon
Knights of the Order of St. Sylvester
Order of George I
Recipients of the Grand Decoration with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria
German male non-fiction writers
Heads of the German Chancellery
Knights of the Holy Sepulchre
European Commissioners 1958–1962
European Commissioners 1962–1967
Members of the Bundestag for the Christian Democratic Union of Germany | [
0.006360112223774195,
0.27542683482170105,
-0.04465015232563019,
0.0295554269105196,
-0.2508368194103241,
0.15231569111347198,
0.28147804737091064,
0.0417175255715847,
-0.03442419692873955,
0.2674683928489685,
-0.4945666790008545,
0.18799440562725067,
-0.09767543524503708,
0.5914556384086609,
0.523624837398529,
-0.25029808282852173,
0.2394598126411438,
-0.1260596066713333,
-0.756242036819458,
-0.23887987434864044,
-0.3462517559528351,
0.25520652532577515,
0.6302351355552673,
0.36467304825782776,
0.18244655430316925,
-0.2535134553909302,
0.5156367421150208,
-0.3913280665874481,
0.18261611461639404,
0.07020706683397293,
0.2881941795349121,
0.22293412685394287,
-0.16985687613487244,
0.0873323455452919,
-0.12637798488140106,
0.09416986256837845,
-0.07970152050256729,
-0.20247404277324677,
-0.4392862319946289,
0.1670013666152954,
0.11160267889499664,
0.5402962565422058,
0.19943033158779144,
0.2985265552997589,
-0.034265488386154175,
-0.6655316948890686,
-1.7645800113677979,
0.5371624231338501,
-0.6851387023925781,
-0.4574083983898163,
-0.4365408718585968,
0.3010912239551544,
0.394480437040329,
0.7784456610679626,
-0.04949996620416641,
-0.275223970413208,
-0.862596869468689,
-0.6173706650733948,
0.0067166597582399845,
-0.5832096934318542,
0.2964996099472046,
-0.07239984720945358,
0.46715471148490906,
-0.13815370202064514,
0.7529366612434387,
-0.020379694178700447,
0.10594160109758377,
0.09483245015144348,
0.13347244262695312,
-0.37513643503189087,
-0.6119788885116577,
-0.19270725548267365,
-0.04010524973273277,
-0.23955270648002625,
0.45828956365585327,
-0.7677350044250488,
0.40507960319519043,
0.2448609620332718,
0.0284100454300642,
0.06454338133335114,
0.2966400980949402,
-0.43050840497016907,
0.5199974179267883,
0.3795676529407501,
0.3679521977901459,
-0.26450905203819275,
-0.144309863448143,
-0.07755657285451889,
-0.6892930269241333,
0.2015141397714615,
-0.21797026693820953,
-0.4145510196685791,
0.3404771685600281,
-0.2328697293996811,
0.1555289924144745,
-0.013735918328166008,
0.2617025077342987,
0.4878736436367035,
-0.04545392841100693,
0.08891714364290237,
0.01508517935872078,
0.09319686889648438,
0.08780266344547272,
-0.24316151440143585,
0.15043886005878448,
-0.022743672132492065,
0.07776127010583878,
-0.7027546763420105,
-0.28614911437034607,
0.10208107531070709,
-0.43329107761383057,
-0.050585970282554626,
0.43785130977630615,
0.009826580062508583,
0.4031020998954773,
0.5775988698005676,
-0.019372476264834404,
-0.9096350073814392,
-0.596861720085144,
0.3788384795188904,
-0.2266562581062317,
0.5889303684234619,
-0.5613796710968018,
-0.0950348898768425,
-0.24785491824150085,
-0.22289958596229553,
0.003327388782054186,
0.6827787160873413,
-0.782845139503479,
-0.08429629355669022,
0.7165707349777222,
0.6634397506713867,
-0.24387234449386597,
0.4031029939651489,
-0.48924940824508667,
-0.2774063050746918,
0.7831279635429382,
-0.16826972365379333,
-0.16755874454975128,
0.43673327565193176,
-0.15660499036312103,
-0.3904612362384796,
-0.13370352983474731,
-0.03670797124505043,
0.40524938702583313,
-0.0064347125589847565,
0.20501381158828735,
0.00636151060461998,
0.13931453227996826,
0.2353343665599823,
-0.004205003846436739,
-0.1477237343788147,
-0.09590918570756912,
-0.31659048795700073,
-0.08508428931236267,
0.8153383731842041,
0.40232187509536743,
0.07013842463493347,
0.07118966430425644,
0.23729965090751648,
0.8064066767692566,
-0.3877565860748291,
-0.16574470698833466,
0.044381387531757355,
0.39765962958335876,
-0.4568600654602051,
0.0475013293325901,
-0.025885341688990593,
-0.45967406034469604,
0.2289830595254898,
-0.19923102855682373,
0.010991925373673439,
0.20910225808620453,
-0.5270577073097229,
-0.1335480511188507,
0.4101822078227997,
0.20413824915885925,
0.04051952064037323,
0.3830794095993042,
-0.29170987010002136,
-0.6024332046508789,
-0.3831326961517334,
-0.20516104996204376,
0.1459105908870697,
0.28673550486564636,
0.1663544774055481,
0.2280520349740982,
-0.013113186694681644,
0.1233702227473259,
-0.34905576705932617,
-0.046308185905218124,
-0.8713160753250122,
0.023478269577026367,
-0.3273043930530548,
0.8339222073554993,
0.0494399331510067,
-0.3616349697113037,
0.3660622537136078,
-0.2515549957752228,
0.5095686912536621,
-0.4856347441673279,
-0.5795437097549438,
-0.026946255937218666,
0.07832511514425278,
0.3121832609176636,
0.5690056681632996,
0.27298590540885925,
-0.18985489010810852,
-0.14328613877296448,
0.7204843163490295,
0.2886892259120941,
-0.38581016659736633,
0.16321589052677155,
-0.15277786552906036,
-0.3807428777217865,
-0.3587179481983185,
-0.26516199111938477,
0.44330352544784546,
0.23878200352191925,
0.23935317993164062,
0.8839576840400696,
0.5401164889335632,
-0.17593546211719513,
1.02102792263031,
0.3734680116176605,
-0.030087271705269814,
0.17194914817810059,
-0.023067694157361984,
0.07615139335393906,
-0.32600635290145874,
0.4531369209289551,
0.16687676310539246,
0.19432474672794342,
-0.7003443837165833,
0.21561668813228607,
-0.2475018948316574,
-0.5036061406135559,
0.13591106235980988,
-0.02313539758324623,
-0.1281033754348755,
0.39555612206459045,
0.20419563353061676,
-0.3600486218929291,
0.43433624505996704,
-0.18486173450946808,
0.3353467583656311,
-0.0709659531712532,
-0.011106334626674652,
-0.3541307747364044,
0.3900758624076843,
0.021024176850914955,
0.15732817351818085,
0.13462106883525848,
-0.5949679613113403,
-0.1857033371925354,
0.026642315089702606,
0.47487562894821167,
0.12883120775222778,
0.686063826084137,
0.10791179537773132,
0.3707016110420227,
-0.2899366319179535,
-0.16516782343387604,
0.10932549089193344,
-0.1813967227935791,
-0.022775866091251373,
0.3028995096683502,
-0.5586290955543518,
-0.06801626086235046,
-0.10565146803855896,
0.5641288757324219,
-0.4533703029155731,
-0.03836657479405403,
0.49618107080459595,
-0.23768606781959534,
-0.8339114785194397,
-0.2551904022693634,
0.3283340036869049,
-0.6281481981277466,
-0.3364238142967224,
0.5532724261283875,
0.5197445750236511,
-0.7124840617179871,
-0.11698821932077408,
-0.10271664708852768,
-0.1832924783229828,
-0.5525402426719666,
-0.1946338266134262,
0.49652358889579773,
0.08131252974271774,
0.02468259260058403,
0.7217416763305664,
-0.3436475992202759,
-0.41704580187797546,
-0.22322978079319,
0.6083759069442749,
-0.4018905758857727,
-0.13835923373699188,
0.35388728976249695,
0.3051131069660187,
-0.3965032696723938,
0.5767872333526611,
-0.3910510241985321,
0.5604920387268066,
0.5294490456581116,
0.3376940190792084,
-0.38665831089019775,
-0.0028199206572026014,
-5.699439525604248,
0.12063178420066833,
-0.34501591324806213,
-0.05889660492539406,
-0.2443816214799881,
0.5317620635032654,
0.6507861614227295,
-0.14528366923332214,
-0.17496995627880096,
-0.17295363545417786,
0.41834136843681335,
-0.19213056564331055,
-0.2226182073354721,
1.2959270477294922,
0.33459967374801636,
0.8328615427017212,
0.36667412519454956,
-0.20572087168693542,
0.21182045340538025,
0.05162589251995087,
0.20181307196617126,
-0.6651834845542908,
-0.3991975784301758,
0.4675806164741516,
0.26853224635124207,
-0.4756678342819214,
-0.4434215724468231,
0.5555188655853271,
-0.8461278676986694,
-0.588460385799408,
0.0076673878356814384,
-0.3054400384426117,
-0.12064319849014282,
-0.1345924586057663,
0.43099480867385864,
0.17655187845230103,
0.3837374746799469,
0.495596319437027,
-0.35138455033302307,
0.21252430975437164,
0.09291883558034897,
0.5037583708763123,
-0.15920822322368622,
0.353148877620697,
0.10362885147333145,
-0.09054595232009888,
-0.3884370028972626,
0.4616627097129822,
-0.824806272983551,
0.4649595320224762,
0.15651294589042664,
0.2115325927734375,
0.15115322172641754,
-0.05792715400457382,
-0.18319171667099,
0.4281984567642212,
0.047592099756002426,
-0.057366032153367996,
-0.8573328852653503,
0.467451810836792,
0.32210609316825867,
-0.07129058986902237,
-0.08887133747339249,
-0.3422579765319824,
-0.5662786364555359,
-0.18909510970115662,
-0.2102547585964203,
0.05730331316590309,
-0.08926337957382202,
-0.3334181308746338,
0.03327217325568199,
0.7179474830627441,
-0.1476607322692871,
-1.1490477323532104,
-0.057126786559820175,
-0.5341781377792358,
0.10381904989480972,
-0.22345861792564392,
0.007896022871136665,
-0.0005636277492158115,
0.1837238222360611,
-0.008464619517326355,
-0.2448999136686325,
0.5161919593811035,
0.48247936367988586,
0.3143497705459595,
0.3695138394832611,
0.05962767452001572,
-0.4576757550239563,
-0.24249444901943207,
-0.33290401101112366,
-0.7068623900413513,
-0.023139171302318573,
0.40659263730049133,
-0.5290095806121826,
0.38799622654914856,
-0.9650712609291077,
0.03363986685872078,
0.5099788308143616,
0.28674599528312683,
0.08587504178285599,
0.2226775884628296,
-0.5004391074180603,
-0.17320872843265533,
0.4048751890659332,
0.1964796781539917,
-0.09311708807945251,
0.0668838620185852,
0.29937806725502014,
0.4686368405818939,
-0.05385768041014671,
0.5453812479972839,
-0.18538136780261993,
-0.3983677923679352,
0.03649989143013954,
-0.2634383738040924,
-0.6707711219787598,
0.30027151107788086,
0.15083082020282745,
-0.06645047664642334,
-0.15167127549648285,
0.15495029091835022,
0.2973381578922272,
0.15743529796600342,
0.2949620187282562,
-0.19749809801578522,
-0.2019028216600418,
0.0017959109973162413,
-0.5897411108016968,
0.15706920623779297,
-0.11777008324861526,
0.6147065758705139,
0.06953658908605576,
-0.15082234144210815,
0.8873690962791443,
-0.20331642031669617,
-0.5001336336135864,
-0.31743478775024414,
-0.04585946723818779,
0.03549894317984581,
-0.07312173396348953,
-0.025982797145843506,
0.3340260684490204,
0.23376603424549103,
-0.09348534047603607,
-0.31998538970947266,
0.22617751359939575,
-0.015034276060760021,
-0.28727269172668457,
0.5545346736907959,
0.22016100585460663,
0.13778987526893616,
0.43739670515060425,
0.06338748335838318,
-0.31791582703590393,
-0.41493815183639526,
0.3405788838863373,
0.4108373820781708,
0.16755108535289764,
-0.18703298270702362,
0.3630391061306,
-0.28494760394096375,
-1.097136378288269,
0.049827758222818375,
0.4776003658771515,
0.3464398980140686,
-0.6560834050178528,
-0.3674604594707489,
-0.29959413409233093,
0.5736300349235535,
0.20654018223285675,
-0.23495911061763763,
-0.769173264503479,
-0.13189667463302612,
-0.37488946318626404,
-0.20244741439819336,
-0.09589093178510666,
-0.053945548832416534,
-0.07348865270614624,
-0.11960623413324356,
0.45140641927719116,
0.2611810266971588,
-0.7637273073196411,
0.2953666150569916,
0.2782386243343353,
-0.2731146812438965,
-0.5085446238517761,
0.1522451937198639,
-0.17770196497440338,
-0.5680239200592041,
0.17693805694580078,
-0.07123347371816635,
0.3036968410015106,
0.9102378487586975,
-0.18023666739463806,
-0.7210477590560913,
-0.11273455619812012,
-0.41341012716293335,
-0.7440575957298279,
-0.3758183419704437,
0.33208397030830383,
0.18954285979270935,
0.11445866525173187,
-0.14904123544692993,
0.0657525435090065,
-0.5243100523948669,
-0.3307652473449707,
-0.17816664278507233,
0.5862331390380859,
1.1577699184417725,
-1.2785536050796509,
-0.5461624264717102,
-0.031644683331251144,
0.5728175640106201,
-0.9262815117835999,
0.22384557127952576,
0.9823431372642517,
-0.3052975535392761,
-0.8051048517227173,
0.22116339206695557,
-0.09336958080530167,
0.1491425484418869,
-0.5931397676467896,
-0.3981458246707916,
-0.6357147097587585,
0.16201014816761017,
0.7088760137557983,
0.5192961692810059,
0.6316831707954407,
-0.04060366377234459,
-0.32554036378860474,
-0.3701465427875519,
-0.19953976571559906,
0.11993200331926346,
0.3975432217121124,
-0.12760324776172638,
0.10245805978775024,
0.5377711057662964,
-0.6575338244438171,
0.2595283091068268,
0.09027478843927383,
0.4291260540485382,
0.7906464338302612,
-0.4482463300228119,
-0.24678896367549896,
-0.006701115984469652,
0.4612616002559662,
0.010477707721292973,
-0.013764540664851665,
-0.004357660189270973,
-0.4238477647304535,
0.4548985958099365,
-0.4013684093952179,
-0.41261667013168335,
0.6105763912200928,
-0.6383878588676453,
-0.02511555328965187,
0.2579686939716339,
0.15782251954078674,
-0.4899123013019562,
-0.28093111515045166,
0.13415402173995972,
-0.158020481467247,
0.2090802788734436,
0.1908806562423706,
0.10716596990823746,
-0.2182258814573288,
-0.030160702764987946,
-0.00945146195590496,
-0.6308550238609314,
0.0059552607126533985,
-0.35265061259269714,
-0.48920440673828125,
0.20302650332450867,
-0.18946672976016998,
0.2344307154417038,
-0.044795893132686615,
-0.5179824829101562,
0.2662797272205353,
-0.5464917421340942,
-1.0424422025680542,
-0.09427958726882935,
0.5027241110801697,
-0.4634174406528473,
-0.3954588770866394,
-0.9114358425140381,
-0.8915121555328369,
-0.24719871580600739,
-0.5793384313583374,
0.08847537636756897,
-0.5493212342262268,
-0.0497925728559494,
-0.6041401028633118,
0.18883031606674194,
-0.8825011849403381,
0.42518579959869385,
-0.10707908868789673,
0.5979390144348145,
-0.009776911698281765,
-0.3406393826007843,
-0.2768777310848236,
0.18853111565113068,
0.6012630462646484,
-0.26929429173469543,
0.31934523582458496,
0.546932578086853,
-0.23174557089805603,
-0.0069242543540894985,
0.1011677086353302,
0.16801637411117554,
0.42340540885925293,
-0.5868464112281799,
-0.1852113902568817,
0.4888250529766083,
-0.6555930376052856,
0.04746561497449875,
0.6367219090461731,
-0.329217791557312,
0.05679696798324585,
-0.24210232496261597,
0.10953143984079361,
0.3132590055465698,
0.32708317041397095,
-0.4775049686431885,
0.43073534965515137,
0.6558500528335571,
0.6435498595237732,
0.4394999146461487,
-0.5478405952453613,
-0.09409142285585403,
-0.05951434373855591,
0.45262590050697327,
-0.19646435976028442,
0.3016173243522644,
-0.2410823553800583,
0.21903756260871887,
-0.19936446845531464,
-0.9422686696052551,
0.20381766557693481,
0.36861860752105713,
0.13792777061462402,
0.8416834473609924,
-0.4763064980506897,
-0.018695207312703133,
0.0538700670003891,
0.5004330277442932,
-0.4732580780982971,
0.3561851680278778,
0.14552190899848938,
0.5963096618652344,
0.7092180252075195,
-0.06375285983085632,
0.3100148141384125,
-0.6418401002883911,
-0.5416020750999451,
0.01563095860183239,
0.4893362522125244,
0.23057782649993896,
-0.3988501727581024,
0.14470618963241577,
0.36720752716064453,
-0.4859217405319214,
0.6554659008979797,
0.059956375509500504,
0.15796567499637604,
0.17668050527572632,
-0.20296433568000793,
-0.8355528116226196,
0.31413111090660095,
0.08995196223258972,
0.39545783400535583,
-0.2901330292224884,
-0.17979377508163452,
0.4959109127521515,
0.4895767271518707,
-0.14350515604019165,
0.7379098534584045,
-0.24888364970684052,
0.581155002117157,
0.4290112257003784,
-0.6541851758956909,
0.0381828211247921,
-0.08759613335132599,
-0.03746624290943146,
-0.5985671281814575,
-0.016185317188501358,
0.09148982912302017,
-0.07226058840751648,
0.03914539888501167,
-0.3915750980377197,
-0.24034588038921356,
-0.5323421359062195,
-0.10006511956453323,
0.24328342080116272,
-0.4709559679031372,
-0.32874181866645813,
-0.05832996591925621,
0.3766542673110962,
0.06923816353082657,
-0.6018850207328796,
-0.1368141770362854,
0.42468395829200745,
-0.12551626563072205,
0.10428144037723541,
0.40418675541877747,
0.2999570369720459,
-0.5131586194038391,
-0.14475123584270477,
-0.003128527430817485,
0.6060739755630493,
0.6065222024917603,
-0.32475149631500244,
-0.20829540491104126,
0.9576102495193481,
0.19601428508758545,
0.05708518996834755,
0.27055877447128296,
0.0035323575139045715,
-0.2905161678791046,
0.17002780735492706,
0.1786530315876007,
-0.2851807475090027,
-0.28707507252693176,
-0.3411547839641571,
-0.17451892793178558,
0.1843133121728897,
0.9463247060775757,
0.25705039501190186,
-0.17169888317584991,
0.8612472414970398,
-0.35308659076690674,
-0.1520393341779709,
-0.46884554624557495,
-0.004906351212412119,
-0.36393946409225464,
-0.10659734159708023,
0.23884837329387665,
0.2600949704647064,
0.7378940582275391,
-0.4039399027824402,
-0.27736300230026245,
0.11185050755739212,
0.4464513063430786,
-0.20327477157115936,
-0.11215633153915405,
0.3054591119289398,
0.0894073098897934,
-0.5722782611846924,
-0.0641423836350441,
0.4074259102344513,
0.1477966010570526,
-0.24409502744674683,
0.3259250819683075,
-0.5764039754867554,
0.5416710376739502,
0.21664875745773315,
-0.20492005348205566,
-0.7152493596076965,
0.49878326058387756,
-0.503319263458252
] |
241332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20de%20Kalb | Johann de Kalb | Johann von Robais, Baron de Kalb (June 19, 1721 – August 19, 1780), born Johann Kalb, was a Franconian-born French military officer who served as a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He was mortally wounded while fighting the British Army during the Battle of Camden.
Early life and education
Kalb was born in Hüttendorf, a German village near Erlangen, Principality of Bayreuth, the son of Johann Leonhard Kalb and Margarethe Seitz. He learned French, English, and the social skills to earn a substantial military commission in the Loewendal German Regiment of the French Army in 1743.
Career
Kalb served with distinction in the War of the Austrian Succession in Flanders. During the Seven Years' War, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and made assistant quartermaster general in the Army of the Upper Rhine, a division created by the disbanding of the Loewendal Regiment. He was awarded the Order of Military Merit in 1763 and elevated to the nobility with the title of baron.
In 1764, Kalb resigned from the army and married Anna Elizabeth Emilie van Robais, the French heiress to a fortune from cloth manufacturing. He bought the Milon-la-Chapelle chateau near Versailles, where he took up a quiet life of farming. He had three children: Élie, Frederic, and Caroline; Eli later married Elise Signard d'Ouffieres and have a daughter, Nicette de Kalb, who married Raymond de Vandiere de Vitrac D'Abzac, and continued to live in Milon la Chapelle; Frederic would die during the French Revolution without children.
In 1768, Kalb traveled to North America on a covert mission from the Duc de Choiseul, the Foreign Minister of France, to determine the level of discontent among colonists towards Great Britain, a major French adversary. During his four-month trip, Kalb gained respect for the colonists and their "spirit of independence", producing detailed reports for the French government; upon his return to Europe, he expressed a strong desire to go back to colonial America and join their nascent fight against the British.
American Revolutionary War
In July 1777, Kalb returned to North America with his protégé, the Marquis de Lafayette, and joined the Continental Army. He was disappointed and angry to learn that he would not be made a major general, but with Lafayette's influence was appointed to the rank on September 5, 1777, which he learned of as he was on the road to return to France.
Kalb was at Valley Forge for most of the winter between 1777 and 1778, commanding a division of Patterson's and Learned's Brigades. During this time, he wrote letters of introduction for John Adams to the French court, expressing a poor opinion of French forces:
On the whole, I have annoyances to bear, of which you can hardly form a conception. One of them is the mutual jealousy of almost all the French officers, particularly against those of higher rank than the rest. These people think of nothing but their incessant intrigues and backbitings. They hate each other like the bitterest enemies, and endeavor to injure each other wherever an opportunity offers. I have given up their society, and very seldom see them. La Fayette is the sole exception; I always meet him with the same cordiality and the same pleasure. He is an excellent young man, and we are good friends ... La Fayette is much liked, he is on the best of terms with Washington.
Kalb was assigned to command a division of Maryland and Delaware troops, and he was ordered south to the Carolinas in command of these reinforcements. During the British southern campaign, he was disappointed to learn that Horatio Gates had been appointed to command instead of him. Gates led the army to a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Camden on August 16, 1780. De Kalb's horse was shot from under him, causing him to tumble to the ground. Before he could get up, he was shot three times and bayonetted repeatedly by British soldiers. His friend and aide, the Chevalier du Buysson, was seriously wounded blocking additional blows with his own body.
Upon seeing Kalb, Cornwallis told him, "I am sorry, sir, to see you, not sorry that you are vanquished, but sorry to see you so badly wounded." It is reported that Cornwallis supervised the dressing of Kalb's wounds by his own surgeons in Camden, South Carolina. As he lay dying, Kalb was reported to have said to a British officer, "I thank you sir for your generous sympathy, but I die the death I always prayed for: the death of a soldier fighting for the rights of man." He died three days later and was buried in Camden.
Upon visiting de Kalb's grave several years after his death, George Washington is reported to have said:
Legacy
De Kalb was greatly revered by his contemporaries and is still regarded as a hero of the American Revolution. Numerous towns and counties in the U.S. bear his name, including in Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Mississippi, Missouri, New York, Tennessee and Texas. Streets include the DeKalb Avenue in Brooklyn, New York City, Merrick, New York, DeKalb Pike (U.S. Route 202) between King of Prussia and Montgomeryville, Pennsylvania, and others.
In Brooklyn, New York, the Knights of Columbus, a Catholic fraternal order, established the Baron DeKalb Council #1073 in 1906. His portrait was painted posthumously by Charles Willson Peale, who was best known for his paintings of leading figures of the American Revolution. In 1886, a monument to Kalb was erected on the grounds of the Maryland state house to honor his contributions to the American Revolution.
Two warships of the U.S. Navy were named after him: the Civil War river ironclad USS Baron DeKalb and the World War I troop transport USS DeKalb.
An American elementary school run by the U.S. Department of Defense in Nuremberg, Germany was named for him; it closed in the 1990s. Since 2006, the Major General Baron DeKalb Army Reserve Center hosts the headquarters of the 200th Military Police Command at Fort Meade, Maryland.
Fiction
In Assassin's Creed III, a mission for Connor's apprentices shows that Baron de Kalb was a member of the Templar Order within the Continental Army, making him an asset for supposed Templar domination in the colonies. Here, Connor's apprentices killed de Kalb in order to reduce Templar influence in the army.
Footnotes
References
External links
1721 births
1780 deaths
People from Erlangen
United States military personnel killed in the American Revolutionary War
Continental Army generals
Continental Army officers from Germany
German emigrants to France
German emigrants to the United States
German military personnel of the Seven Years' War
Deaths by bayonet | [
-0.8466867804527283,
0.6547644138336182,
-0.4155358672142029,
0.04880845546722412,
0.09345250576734543,
0.5387536883354187,
1.1983113288879395,
-0.2498752474784851,
-0.0696394219994545,
-0.33145421743392944,
-0.47751325368881226,
-0.14635556936264038,
-0.13840247690677643,
0.4543975591659546,
-0.39715471863746643,
0.1267595887184143,
0.5402562022209167,
-0.5767332911491394,
-0.3603513836860657,
-0.33754754066467285,
-0.03514212742447853,
0.1967867761850357,
0.060904037207365036,
0.7076777219772339,
0.5415697693824768,
0.37287941575050354,
0.10445880144834518,
-0.15695051848888397,
0.10671605914831161,
-0.2256331592798233,
-0.2737923562526703,
0.4699508547782898,
0.3485719561576843,
-0.2956951856613159,
-0.5496513247489929,
0.054092369973659515,
-0.5916964411735535,
-0.10978512465953827,
0.3448214828968048,
0.054240837693214417,
-0.35204461216926575,
0.3589532673358917,
0.23109179735183716,
0.17574405670166016,
-0.250802218914032,
-0.38934651017189026,
-1.8159284591674805,
-0.19596433639526367,
-0.47783705592155457,
-1.1901180744171143,
0.34272676706314087,
-0.4325117766857147,
0.434013694524765,
0.4689179062843323,
-0.4445721209049225,
-0.08694381266832352,
-0.7857167720794678,
-0.6334465742111206,
0.25989294052124023,
-0.243794247508049,
0.5950273275375366,
0.0184989795088768,
0.33595946431159973,
-0.13129939138889313,
0.10726116597652435,
-0.15671035647392273,
-0.09250529110431671,
0.5979480147361755,
0.1735754758119583,
-0.35857653617858887,
0.22697944939136505,
0.40469613671302795,
0.32548776268959045,
0.04185287281870842,
0.3731175661087036,
-0.276690810918808,
-0.2590906023979187,
0.31754952669143677,
-0.030057372525334358,
-0.15434351563453674,
-0.38261839747428894,
-0.5037687420845032,
1.028962254524231,
-0.20168374478816986,
-0.12588383257389069,
0.43409305810928345,
-0.11082887649536133,
0.09702877700328827,
-0.3792169988155365,
0.08503466099500656,
-0.4763140082359314,
-0.37578442692756653,
0.16115418076515198,
0.3277551233768463,
-0.03901021182537079,
-0.1061602458357811,
0.33851394057273865,
-0.13164114952087402,
-0.020503303036093712,
0.007943261414766312,
0.024470128118991852,
-0.14797386527061462,
0.4919726550579071,
0.39329174160957336,
-0.3327503800392151,
0.44195789098739624,
0.005421332083642483,
-0.12625016272068024,
-0.6909382343292236,
0.2321024090051651,
-0.38701263070106506,
0.10763631016016006,
-0.27690213918685913,
-0.18460626900196075,
-0.06966190785169601,
0.19086222350597382,
0.1368006318807602,
-1.0630284547805786,
-0.007481312844902277,
-0.0197441428899765,
0.05201595649123192,
1.1056561470031738,
-0.18301917612552643,
0.16918304562568665,
-0.2069309949874878,
-0.12869393825531006,
0.249929279088974,
0.016547106206417084,
-0.18615394830703735,
0.5286573171615601,
0.426702618598938,
0.9241553544998169,
-0.40874606370925903,
-0.10394230484962463,
-0.44593000411987305,
0.003069426864385605,
0.1316380798816681,
0.1820361465215683,
-0.8531072735786438,
0.21048696339130402,
-0.7681921124458313,
-0.3457128405570984,
-0.028425050899386406,
0.16104689240455627,
0.0031156751792877913,
-0.07129507511854172,
0.07129687070846558,
0.023213647305965424,
-0.13263073563575745,
-0.15526138246059418,
-0.41564372181892395,
-0.020712528377771378,
0.05899713188409805,
-0.21253667771816254,
-0.2870352566242218,
0.4756926894187927,
0.12908224761486053,
0.0018777967197820544,
0.47245150804519653,
0.2861873507499695,
-0.1164877861738205,
0.07942827045917511,
-0.30793920159339905,
-0.0994444191455841,
0.2857661545276642,
0.10989300161600113,
0.16087642312049866,
-0.18742136657238007,
-0.6905839443206787,
-0.27796223759651184,
-0.16384194791316986,
-0.22381538152694702,
-0.16846878826618195,
0.052948787808418274,
-0.14996162056922913,
0.7210949063301086,
0.36390000581741333,
-0.1965600550174713,
0.21707777678966522,
-0.34643951058387756,
-0.4829322099685669,
0.11248936504125595,
0.444067120552063,
-0.21550658345222473,
0.5636515617370605,
0.5677345395088196,
0.0025513204745948315,
-0.6182712912559509,
0.6073657870292664,
-0.48842304944992065,
-0.25025713443756104,
-0.9140103459358215,
0.1446225345134735,
-0.09976944327354431,
1.1399917602539062,
-0.16303379833698273,
-0.3649931848049164,
0.5417855978012085,
0.19550366699695587,
0.19843889772891998,
-0.18408197164535522,
-0.34008821845054626,
0.5653328895568848,
0.2667793929576874,
0.4273936450481415,
0.28808051347732544,
0.021259645000100136,
0.2645311653614044,
0.5615547895431519,
0.833175778388977,
0.500512957572937,
-0.24287161231040955,
-0.1772317737340927,
0.5552963018417358,
0.4631440341472626,
-0.22824296355247498,
-0.3008567988872528,
-0.5525758266448975,
0.1668415665626526,
0.032261013984680176,
0.36210599541664124,
-0.2711513936519623,
-0.14962252974510193,
0.8764037489891052,
0.20929527282714844,
0.6881849765777588,
-0.027838192880153656,
0.16199134290218353,
-0.25585833191871643,
-0.5724115371704102,
0.08030100166797638,
-0.2988305687904358,
0.1302892565727234,
-0.4556824862957001,
0.49514254927635193,
0.10002109408378601,
-0.4707978665828705,
-0.2696167230606079,
-0.11436547338962555,
-0.3391397297382355,
-0.031429387629032135,
0.13370296359062195,
-0.35840028524398804,
0.24192732572555542,
0.4475265443325043,
0.20302356779575348,
-0.1401156336069107,
0.0032186557073146105,
0.0717482939362526,
-0.5358624458312988,
-0.1225845143198967,
0.5409578680992126,
-0.01568617857992649,
0.005869771353900433,
0.2050461322069168,
-0.5734291076660156,
0.19886037707328796,
0.35087206959724426,
0.011240538209676743,
0.39235106110572815,
0.5753428936004639,
-0.054296933114528656,
0.11086761206388474,
0.27888357639312744,
0.014317267574369907,
-0.18376539647579193,
-0.106948122382164,
0.10631496459245682,
0.04864496365189552,
0.18089383840560913,
0.27316170930862427,
-0.29654884338378906,
0.1864827424287796,
0.0915563702583313,
0.3491368889808655,
-0.6203727722167969,
-0.4141116440296173,
0.7423957586288452,
-0.10494735091924667,
-0.36271971464157104,
-0.1303880214691162,
0.34957560896873474,
-0.3114458918571472,
-0.08939334005117416,
0.1762508898973465,
-0.379056841135025,
0.22442781925201416,
0.11458060145378113,
0.3287714719772339,
0.5850333571434021,
0.056498896330595016,
0.3769655227661133,
-0.6579733490943909,
0.01674632914364338,
0.11027289181947708,
0.485405832529068,
-0.6328511238098145,
-0.40606215596199036,
-0.06291890144348145,
0.3070008456707001,
-1.0470809936523438,
0.42885449528694153,
0.27497708797454834,
0.08561021834611893,
0.3648529350757599,
-0.5031840801239014,
0.030494235455989838,
0.13070330023765564,
-5.793632984161377,
0.24225902557373047,
0.1140277311205864,
-0.3068936765193939,
-0.12924805283546448,
0.29001447558403015,
0.4732399880886078,
-0.08308761566877365,
0.08644074946641922,
0.255094051361084,
0.5970229506492615,
-0.02518302947282791,
-0.09516699612140656,
0.3299610912799835,
0.5989500880241394,
0.10776019096374512,
0.3727690279483795,
0.2393130511045456,
-0.3387732207775116,
0.28266441822052,
0.06206022948026657,
0.11164234578609467,
0.06861753016710281,
0.22933802008628845,
0.08777881413698196,
-0.045150917023420334,
-0.021555062383413315,
-0.026844311505556107,
-0.4382205605506897,
-0.3139149248600006,
0.13236810266971588,
0.5748394131660461,
-0.06965699046850204,
0.14702779054641724,
-0.22106146812438965,
-0.4356653392314911,
0.12210695445537567,
0.5802233815193176,
0.09113814681768417,
-0.07960769534111023,
0.5033966898918152,
0.4089244306087494,
-0.6284931898117065,
0.059626176953315735,
0.4883093535900116,
-0.2896198034286499,
-0.6862193942070007,
0.7640827298164368,
-0.43618839979171753,
0.21605117619037628,
0.5570244193077087,
0.037547823041677475,
0.0008748060208745301,
0.17654730379581451,
0.21127256751060486,
0.045741766691207886,
-0.12859009206295013,
0.578992486000061,
-0.278077632188797,
0.46920719742774963,
-0.08903008699417114,
-0.2184622883796692,
0.07141821086406708,
-0.1115652471780777,
0.24050301313400269,
-0.4100169837474823,
-0.12761157751083374,
-0.39660078287124634,
0.41171994805336,
-0.18449845910072327,
0.013146554119884968,
0.7193416357040405,
0.5863053798675537,
-0.9650542736053467,
0.29297271370887756,
-0.39692819118499756,
-0.5257167220115662,
-0.039626430720090866,
-0.44858643412590027,
0.17011317610740662,
0.4456233084201813,
-0.07940908521413803,
0.37703028321266174,
0.5339072346687317,
0.5700884461402893,
0.006328213959932327,
-0.7345665693283081,
0.24614141881465912,
-0.23882217705249786,
-0.15333613753318787,
-0.052476659417152405,
-0.03100430965423584,
0.08513788878917694,
0.10757893323898315,
-0.2488798052072525,
0.26120519638061523,
-0.5237942934036255,
0.22627359628677368,
0.23268164694309235,
0.3481515347957611,
0.1914076954126358,
0.0049707042053341866,
0.021262846887111664,
-0.5557578802108765,
0.4477042853832245,
0.4040541350841522,
-0.1268896758556366,
0.10907228291034698,
0.9328376054763794,
0.5398858785629272,
-0.0444815419614315,
0.13184340298175812,
0.1316869705915451,
-0.952743411064148,
0.19397416710853577,
-0.6833650469779968,
0.017500750720500946,
0.08287639170885086,
0.6611867547035217,
0.3483564853668213,
0.036072928458452225,
0.36829471588134766,
-0.2534099519252777,
-0.7464743852615356,
0.08390124887228012,
-0.11867645382881165,
-0.11819219589233398,
-0.25152987241744995,
-0.09339592605829239,
0.11960975080728531,
0.09679386019706726,
0.4788406193256378,
-0.32642918825149536,
0.21661673486232758,
0.16755017638206482,
-0.5545194745063782,
-0.20972956717014313,
-0.6322317123413086,
0.08883219212293625,
-0.023046039044857025,
-0.0239644106477499,
-0.2679058015346527,
-0.21539254486560822,
0.23945987224578857,
0.012038798071444035,
-0.05411132425069809,
0.6107565760612488,
0.08301283419132233,
-0.28580325841903687,
0.6723139882087708,
-0.1395784467458725,
-0.3198827803134918,
0.7299490571022034,
0.28519174456596375,
-0.31341254711151123,
-0.0017029871232807636,
-0.09749976545572281,
0.26743942499160767,
-0.035711098462343216,
-0.1283903270959854,
0.3226686418056488,
0.5488548874855042,
-0.9597746133804321,
-0.1102822944521904,
0.05612940713763237,
0.24240848422050476,
-0.2580707371234894,
0.027509277686476707,
-0.4035800099372864,
0.5335841178894043,
0.4445060193538666,
-0.9666417241096497,
-0.45961707830429077,
-0.0025094340089708567,
0.11020020395517349,
0.077836774289608,
-0.13649334013462067,
0.27241960167884827,
-0.04945450648665428,
-0.27775418758392334,
0.07418601214885712,
0.21530993282794952,
-0.2853683829307556,
-0.14796702563762665,
0.3295131027698517,
-0.22440128028392792,
-0.1684596836566925,
-0.524998128414154,
-0.003042058553546667,
-0.2372412383556366,
-0.191399946808815,
-0.5645893812179565,
0.07304838299751282,
0.5959866642951965,
0.23684559762477875,
-0.18659736216068268,
0.06642106175422668,
-0.13090576231479645,
0.14833509922027588,
-0.40548810362815857,
0.06945011019706726,
0.10094820708036423,
-0.5449007153511047,
0.17458313703536987,
0.21649497747421265,
-0.7762083411216736,
0.19190798699855804,
-0.12154509127140045,
0.07086409628391266,
0.7013495564460754,
-0.447783499956131,
-0.6088797450065613,
0.1707320660352707,
0.3940483331680298,
-0.3761569857597351,
-0.031953856348991394,
0.2407408356666565,
-0.023671168833971024,
-0.3606643080711365,
-0.3701397180557251,
-0.8682864904403687,
-0.2127099335193634,
-0.46664193272590637,
-0.3250260651111603,
-0.6736525297164917,
0.21314221620559692,
0.02167973294854164,
0.41066253185272217,
0.8440738320350647,
-0.08192230761051178,
-0.6887692213058472,
-0.15352484583854675,
0.162247896194458,
-0.1768801212310791,
-0.15383565425872803,
-0.18107043206691742,
0.8434102535247803,
0.2345406860113144,
-0.00035089688026346266,
0.007268426474183798,
0.34712129831314087,
0.9476072192192078,
0.5014837980270386,
-0.5203636288642883,
0.3216290771961212,
-0.01628047786653042,
0.30162498354911804,
-0.24664126336574554,
0.005280032753944397,
0.368100106716156,
0.12111301720142365,
-0.42846807837486267,
-0.6537182331085205,
-0.11858653277158737,
1.4393692016601562,
0.06448163092136383,
-0.0733034759759903,
0.39078348875045776,
0.10443785786628723,
0.04057454690337181,
-0.3331495523452759,
0.10441730916500092,
0.0441901758313179,
-0.30164456367492676,
-0.16194899380207062,
-0.41506320238113403,
-0.8132812976837158,
-0.1918521523475647,
-0.4472638666629791,
-0.289350301027298,
-0.0497717447578907,
-0.7306734919548035,
-0.22116275131702423,
0.5608246922492981,
0.12297842651605606,
0.5903350710868835,
-0.008242757059633732,
-0.5657188892364502,
0.21702457964420319,
-0.3133103549480438,
-1.1286258697509766,
-0.4326815605163574,
-0.3204817473888397,
-0.2888208031654358,
0.4164804518222809,
-0.5542293787002563,
-0.34774723649024963,
-0.16661189496517181,
0.0630120038986206,
0.26292651891708374,
-0.6875902414321899,
0.2609404921531677,
-0.3688366711139679,
0.2569485902786255,
-0.3606324791908264,
0.24241523444652557,
-0.15630625188350677,
1.0571283102035522,
-0.034598033875226974,
0.2649218440055847,
-0.4569082260131836,
0.6959426403045654,
0.4376935660839081,
-0.04654182493686676,
-0.08388543128967285,
0.4748683273792267,
-0.12187663465738297,
-0.12034574151039124,
-0.05832246318459511,
-0.16486051678657532,
-0.2525661587715149,
-0.20514445006847382,
-0.08970731496810913,
-0.1470341980457306,
-0.6051603555679321,
-0.1670546978712082,
0.4907507598400116,
-0.5206891298294067,
-0.0978941097855568,
-0.2228560745716095,
0.6012559533119202,
-0.24531890451908112,
0.4791857898235321,
0.005774764809757471,
0.12472201138734818,
0.8936202526092529,
-0.057640790939331055,
-0.1956280767917633,
-0.010766294784843922,
0.0980004146695137,
0.13405190408229828,
-0.019592851400375366,
-0.6100175380706787,
0.25836825370788574,
-0.29300156235694885,
0.6792812347412109,
-0.22019322216510773,
-0.0515497587621212,
-0.2231452316045761,
0.25815048813819885,
-0.1198694258928299,
1.068628191947937,
-0.5022727251052856,
-0.5365539789199829,
-0.22634299099445343,
0.12404046207666397,
0.08105939626693726,
0.3522770404815674,
0.09114871174097061,
-0.17105543613433838,
0.18717707693576813,
0.04046591743826866,
0.17338374257087708,
-0.6806188225746155,
0.07881440222263336,
0.37905314564704895,
0.6163915991783142,
-0.15480811893939972,
-0.5021238327026367,
0.02651684544980526,
0.07084563374519348,
-1.0551562309265137,
1.0221418142318726,
-0.01821061037480831,
-0.02159232459962368,
-0.01819624938070774,
-0.5993451476097107,
-0.4516502618789673,
0.29119497537612915,
0.07926683872938156,
-0.2914661169052124,
-0.4628835618495941,
0.1394462287425995,
0.3688332140445709,
0.41862496733665466,
0.34583765268325806,
0.3661069869995117,
0.032980505377054214,
0.15049324929714203,
-0.04628681018948555,
-0.5268185138702393,
-0.2979273796081543,
-0.1644546091556549,
-0.3667782247066498,
0.025630738586187363,
0.1388331949710846,
-0.09032846242189407,
0.12428522109985352,
-0.41182008385658264,
-0.5593848824501038,
0.7528746724128723,
-0.4580526053905487,
-0.04304197430610657,
0.20548632740974426,
-0.19480383396148682,
0.3121536076068878,
0.3025476336479187,
0.8969224095344543,
0.21902959048748016,
-0.12864796817302704,
-0.635051965713501,
-0.14122550189495087,
-0.1233363002538681,
-0.09675805270671844,
-0.19570833444595337,
0.4280647337436676,
-0.4037463068962097,
0.023378213867545128,
-0.588434636592865,
0.4814577102661133,
-0.18870039284229279,
-0.3740367293357849,
-0.666166365146637,
0.30633506178855896,
-0.1883074790239334,
-0.007466130889952183,
0.7908494472503662,
-0.3199642300605774,
-0.23209495842456818,
-0.45621103048324585,
0.06143214926123619,
-0.6349248290061951,
0.035220321267843246,
-0.18311940133571625,
0.10075493901968002,
-0.3650919198989868,
0.005097280256450176,
-0.2774488925933838,
-0.1704077422618866,
0.4949015974998474,
0.5660883188247681,
-0.8029453754425049,
-0.37568408250808716,
0.07985550165176392,
-0.33602628111839294,
-0.8289600610733032,
0.9999135136604309,
0.5620711445808411,
0.35625573992729187,
-0.41896504163742065,
0.31034860014915466,
-0.5844935178756714,
0.25043395161628723,
-0.06529813259840012,
0.34970295429229736,
0.4692133665084839,
0.23450495302677155,
-0.5008989572525024,
0.15270301699638367,
0.566989004611969,
-0.0840916857123375,
-0.11671680957078934,
0.5739852786064148,
-0.5106494426727295,
0.33364272117614746,
0.5986312031745911,
-0.6198250651359558,
-0.5435812473297119,
0.2699219882488251,
-0.2848062515258789
] |
241334 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rising%20Force | Rising Force | Rising Force is the first studio album by guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen, released in late 1984 through Polydor Records. This was originally planned as an instrumental side-project of his then-current band Alcatrazz, but due to singer Jeff Scott Soto's appearance on the album, Malmsteen opted to release it as a solo album. It reached No. 14 on the Swedish albums chart, No. 60 on the US Billboard 200, and received a nomination for Best Rock Instrumental Performance at the 1986 Grammy Awards. The album is regarded as a landmark release in the shred and neoclassical metal genres.
Critical reception
Steve Huey at AllMusic gave Rising Force four stars out of five, calling it "a revelation upon its release" and "The true inauguration of the age of the guitar shredder." He praised Malmsteen's technique and "blinding virtuosity", as well as highlighting his "obsessions with Bach, Beethoven, and Paganini".
In a 2009 article by Guitar World magazine, Rising Force was ranked first in the all-time top ten list of shred albums. The staff wrote: "Yngwie J. Malmsteen was, is, and always will be the greatest shredder of all time. Hell, he invented the genre with his 1985 debut."
"Black Star" and "Far Beyond the Sun" have endured as two of Malmsteen's most popular songs, as well as being staples of his live setlist. In a 2008 Guitar World interview, Malmsteen said of the two songs: "I'll probably play 'Far Beyond the Sun' and 'Black Star' until the day I die."
Track listing
Personnel
Yngwie Malmsteen – guitar, Moog Taurus, bass, arrangement, production
Jens Johansson – keyboards, harpsichord arrangement (track 7)
Barriemore Barlow – drums
Jeff Scott Soto – vocals
Lester Claypool – engineering
Peter Vargo – engineering
Chart performance
Awards
References
External links
Rising Force at yngwiemalmsteen.com
In Review: Yngwie J. Malmsteen "Rising Force" at Guitar Nine Records
Yngwie Malmsteen albums
1984 debut albums
Polydor Records albums
Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance | [
-0.33798491954803467,
-0.21976275742053986,
0.2754330337047577,
0.05086198449134827,
-0.352084219455719,
0.5295101404190063,
0.38928917050361633,
-0.464974582195282,
-0.1049807146191597,
-0.21237802505493164,
0.10127197206020355,
0.6697705984115601,
-0.4012078046798706,
0.19810087978839874,
-0.061298929154872894,
0.1099541187286377,
0.20750902593135834,
-0.05591892451047897,
-0.35544553399086,
-0.2681654095649719,
0.12181837111711502,
-0.13492275774478912,
0.7934127449989319,
0.20348547399044037,
0.21665336191654205,
-0.16621869802474976,
-0.19541023671627045,
0.09777376800775528,
0.4877437651157379,
0.3832407295703888,
0.23387770354747772,
0.028547324240207672,
0.3423238694667816,
-0.6065804958343506,
-0.20649978518486023,
0.5550249218940735,
-0.22135499119758606,
0.3158412575721741,
-0.0009023863822221756,
-0.23079437017440796,
0.1607414186000824,
-0.426501601934433,
0.2138604074716568,
0.4084789752960205,
-0.05328413099050522,
-0.24512074887752533,
-1.4699857234954834,
0.05441872030496597,
-0.5709608793258667,
-0.07366979867219925,
0.007390602026134729,
0.3633960783481598,
0.4754543900489807,
-0.3377472758293152,
0.4361845850944519,
-0.4120975732803345,
-0.4126385450363159,
0.46238571405410767,
-0.3925435245037079,
-0.6422693729400635,
0.05773644894361496,
0.045211948454380035,
0.35731565952301025,
-0.6280053853988647,
-0.01135081797838211,
-0.34786462783813477,
0.22550736367702484,
0.17585532367229462,
0.27597782015800476,
-0.9423682689666748,
0.10413597524166107,
0.7375683784484863,
-0.08266469836235046,
-0.46764469146728516,
-0.056393735110759735,
-0.14013120532035828,
0.4814320504665375,
-0.017173409461975098,
0.09458035230636597,
0.6096357703208923,
0.15418899059295654,
-0.04342527687549591,
1.2350611686706543,
-0.11060752719640732,
-0.24629062414169312,
-0.19609548151493073,
0.1019313633441925,
0.584206223487854,
-0.30715692043304443,
-0.2107866257429123,
-0.4770204722881317,
-0.8441479206085205,
0.6373900771141052,
0.3803444504737854,
0.15806007385253906,
0.13246312737464905,
0.32139357924461365,
0.3761899471282959,
0.15259277820587158,
0.26656028628349304,
0.5970722436904907,
-0.11045854538679123,
-0.2695532739162445,
-0.24943773448467255,
-0.2744891047477722,
-0.18920685350894928,
0.10162268579006195,
-0.4643871486186981,
-0.18788215517997742,
-0.48257753252983093,
-0.21362079679965973,
-0.010181017220020294,
-0.037881020456552505,
-0.6730329990386963,
0.1515251249074936,
0.4997257590293884,
-0.15081687271595,
-0.2804328501224518,
-0.17169710993766785,
0.01811046712100506,
0.43092837929725647,
0.48108547925949097,
-0.25270408391952515,
0.5978063344955444,
-0.40849095582962036,
0.14283744990825653,
0.2574618458747864,
0.7415561079978943,
-0.7118359804153442,
0.02999716065824032,
-0.40305858850479126,
0.33026811480522156,
-0.13878574967384338,
0.39949893951416016,
0.06330722570419312,
-0.2329951375722885,
0.5205760598182678,
0.20772536098957062,
-0.23434153199195862,
0.28653648495674133,
-0.555332601070404,
-0.06154501810669899,
-0.2274179756641388,
-0.9050502181053162,
-0.03530677407979965,
-0.13397301733493805,
-0.16167153418064117,
-0.15769055485725403,
-0.18971049785614014,
-0.37836307287216187,
0.4321478307247162,
0.021992338821291924,
-0.4716109335422516,
0.16802823543548584,
-0.45624610781669617,
0.2073623538017273,
0.4617195427417755,
-0.020282350480556488,
0.12568362057209015,
-0.18960051238536835,
-0.052318915724754333,
0.6963846683502197,
0.14631253480911255,
0.15412738919258118,
0.2150992453098297,
-0.07959884405136108,
0.24021656811237335,
-0.061528418213129044,
0.051994115114212036,
0.061756689101457596,
0.19664014875888824,
0.4427333474159241,
-0.17053213715553284,
0.6925619840621948,
0.040787287056446075,
0.07345972210168839,
0.32205864787101746,
0.6959981322288513,
0.0979740247130394,
-0.11416421085596085,
-0.176778644323349,
-0.174587219953537,
0.4948824942111969,
-0.4320046901702881,
0.36954495310783386,
0.43488574028015137,
-0.014180337078869343,
0.3233611583709717,
0.6230961680412292,
-0.15037322044372559,
-0.46538084745407104,
-0.2825522720813751,
0.5695117115974426,
-0.10405518114566803,
0.7231491804122925,
0.11874265968799591,
-0.2572699189186096,
0.5613248944282532,
-0.06599529087543488,
0.5930265784263611,
0.6348176598548889,
-0.638009786605835,
0.9306713342666626,
-0.18797364830970764,
0.08917604386806488,
-0.03249751776456833,
-0.034953951835632324,
-0.4478131830692291,
-0.23358529806137085,
0.25636887550354004,
-0.4015774130821228,
-0.28181371092796326,
0.3861333727836609,
0.1305205374956131,
-0.18089234828948975,
-0.08586138486862183,
-0.32523730397224426,
0.1754765808582306,
0.3376884162425995,
-0.16570214927196503,
0.7446388602256775,
0.49173203110694885,
-0.45687341690063477,
0.47421687841415405,
-0.3269563615322113,
0.3474099040031433,
-0.04598324000835419,
-0.43731606006622314,
-0.020719323307275772,
0.07678333669900894,
-0.13573378324508667,
0.5764300227165222,
-0.14293383061885834,
-0.04160868376493454,
0.42166075110435486,
0.3609170913696289,
0.2737910747528076,
0.5593635439872742,
0.16673022508621216,
-0.47740527987480164,
1.0508674383163452,
-0.048440299928188324,
-0.9643556475639343,
0.6235752701759338,
0.49061447381973267,
0.2609476149082184,
0.3614705801010132,
-0.15830805897712708,
-0.061992332339286804,
-0.07663887739181519,
-0.21257257461547852,
0.5033873915672302,
0.27484801411628723,
0.4481624364852905,
-0.3619402348995209,
0.052489716559648514,
0.2334974855184555,
-0.31850963830947876,
0.35767117142677307,
0.43273481726646423,
0.21718968451023102,
-0.26053786277770996,
0.17884887754917145,
-0.10611260682344437,
0.5742657780647278,
-0.9322473406791687,
-0.1416415125131607,
-0.36215072870254517,
0.9081515669822693,
-0.5663338303565979,
-0.6669270992279053,
0.2380991280078888,
-0.2915307283401489,
0.3530066907405853,
-0.6567661762237549,
-0.19851641356945038,
-0.11582712829113007,
-0.3639684319496155,
-0.008556398563086987,
-0.7975205183029175,
0.6526735424995422,
0.6162406206130981,
0.5971901416778564,
-0.31838852167129517,
-0.27765265107154846,
0.08938393741846085,
0.3419243395328522,
-0.15129059553146362,
0.4543018639087677,
-0.058155663311481476,
-0.3972495496273041,
-0.013388475403189659,
-0.06131678819656372,
-0.18962176144123077,
-0.024423379451036453,
0.26554635167121887,
0.22491465508937836,
0.055099617689847946,
0.0926290899515152,
0.6134034395217896,
-0.04282094165682793,
-0.2794553339481354,
0.012226887047290802,
-0.25531163811683655,
0.18436983227729797,
-0.5497576594352722,
0.08263901621103287,
-0.2558130621910095,
-5.955391883850098,
-0.03464247286319733,
-0.001020462135784328,
-0.20089419186115265,
-0.3573145568370819,
0.2860300838947296,
-0.009909156709909439,
-0.4076520502567291,
0.052099697291851044,
-0.45310020446777344,
-0.36824965476989746,
0.24455606937408447,
-0.11471885442733765,
0.13896672427654266,
0.016865720972418785,
0.33399698138237,
0.11715049296617508,
-0.029011240229010582,
0.3960989713668823,
0.5052886605262756,
0.15614983439445496,
-0.33556708693504333,
-0.21366584300994873,
0.47074946761131287,
0.04586276412010193,
0.4688192307949066,
-0.2607754170894623,
0.08466728031635284,
-0.787041425704956,
0.012933247722685337,
0.17527367174625397,
-0.1373310685157776,
-0.06194283068180084,
-0.34694963693618774,
-0.08732081949710846,
0.3350292146205902,
-0.1331011801958084,
-0.4650120735168457,
0.25184133648872375,
-0.2184947282075882,
-0.05903347581624985,
-0.3559030294418335,
0.3605239987373352,
-0.45303574204444885,
0.3646852672100067,
0.03847706690430641,
-0.28940537571907043,
-0.24079935252666473,
-0.254716157913208,
1.074068307876587,
-0.06934887915849686,
-0.35298195481300354,
-0.023799872025847435,
-0.6814289093017578,
-0.19761572778224945,
0.64494788646698,
0.025318801403045654,
0.3070236146450043,
0.5150768756866455,
1.0233954191207886,
0.3036523461341858,
-0.42313575744628906,
-0.23801189661026,
-0.47578147053718567,
-0.20820137858390808,
-0.42659997940063477,
-0.03559764847159386,
0.2192053198814392,
0.45977216958999634,
0.22002416849136353,
0.9351317882537842,
0.41700902581214905,
0.409274697303772,
-1.3201647996902466,
-0.5598997473716736,
-0.9852187633514404,
-0.3654521703720093,
0.009206515736877918,
-0.29755330085754395,
0.5936064124107361,
0.15812352299690247,
0.28893226385116577,
-0.3552367389202118,
-0.3112860918045044,
-0.3305240869522095,
0.2234293818473816,
-0.16713637113571167,
0.12299109250307083,
-0.18159492313861847,
-0.07780998200178146,
-0.08011602610349655,
-0.9705306887626648,
-0.21832285821437836,
-0.3193121552467346,
0.3398186266422272,
0.22370947897434235,
0.11800029873847961,
0.5808032155036926,
0.5721091628074646,
-0.2667537331581116,
0.04643109440803528,
-0.08347612619400024,
0.47718891501426697,
-0.7044702768325806,
-0.061957813799381256,
-0.30764040350914,
-0.18802638351917267,
-0.0473020076751709,
0.6182257533073425,
-0.0259964969009161,
0.4354574680328369,
-0.3527744710445404,
-0.25119730830192566,
-0.6293280720710754,
0.2830152213573456,
-0.10781721025705338,
-0.08635031431913376,
0.634019672870636,
0.3213273584842682,
-0.2908186912536621,
-0.31924524903297424,
0.10733037441968918,
0.18144537508487701,
-0.33805587887763977,
0.1777355819940567,
0.27187421917915344,
-0.24577218294143677,
0.4331416189670563,
-0.23634599149227142,
0.45277684926986694,
0.36662691831588745,
-0.02215598151087761,
-0.26949504017829895,
0.11153087019920349,
0.14219292998313904,
-0.9066550135612488,
0.08062449097633362,
0.1707262098789215,
-0.05978378280997276,
0.16880038380622864,
-0.32856035232543945,
-0.28381311893463135,
-0.12845760583877563,
0.18007786571979523,
0.34442299604415894,
0.13898710906505585,
0.046570539474487305,
-0.46598702669143677,
-0.21284940838813782,
0.2525554895401001,
0.532220184803009,
0.4426228702068329,
1.002197265625,
-0.5641000866889954,
-0.33454886078834534,
0.28985118865966797,
-0.1427789032459259,
-0.2897672653198242,
-0.7639814615249634,
-0.3867858946323395,
0.26482412219047546,
-0.48079895973205566,
-0.854609489440918,
-0.4768112301826477,
0.13000048696994781,
0.2893238365650177,
-0.4005770683288574,
-0.786884605884552,
-0.4250923991203308,
0.12517115473747253,
-0.13811524212360382,
-0.7991958260536194,
-0.26014649868011475,
-0.520209014415741,
0.34879550337791443,
0.05469614267349243,
-0.3081527054309845,
-0.06423710286617279,
0.43618857860565186,
-0.22886380553245544,
-0.31488996744155884,
0.1335151046514511,
-0.7023746967315674,
0.006733657792210579,
0.4951880872249603,
-0.2313043773174286,
-0.8789331912994385,
-0.5854637622833252,
0.2761237621307373,
0.10559864342212677,
-0.08810711652040482,
-0.18497981131076813,
0.1498226821422577,
-0.09834632277488708,
-0.09423653781414032,
-0.5790516138076782,
-0.21926788985729218,
0.10113772749900818,
-0.1683768928050995,
-0.13157373666763306,
0.013550259172916412,
0.10836613923311234,
0.15631984174251556,
0.16229814291000366,
0.4525100886821747,
-0.4988759160041809,
0.5723236203193665,
-0.09649331122636795,
-0.5897938013076782,
0.16855308413505554,
-0.23620885610580444,
-0.2946958839893341,
-0.0013798748841509223,
0.48451125621795654,
-0.19294777512550354,
0.3876407742500305,
-0.13589748740196228,
-0.43182921409606934,
-0.8316733837127686,
-0.19935770332813263,
-0.53489089012146,
0.05612780898809433,
-0.4439537525177002,
-0.02547527849674225,
-0.5188533663749695,
-0.45705538988113403,
0.002197490306571126,
0.28141385316848755,
0.36225417256355286,
0.11446057260036469,
-0.0904897153377533,
0.3367459774017334,
0.27410855889320374,
0.12662868201732635,
-0.43150487542152405,
0.47555020451545715,
-0.3328651785850525,
-0.21802501380443573,
-0.0697096660733223,
0.674166202545166,
0.4851853549480438,
0.33626601099967957,
-0.017571356147527695,
-0.5004671216011047,
-0.039542306214571,
-0.0937289372086525,
0.2716425657272339,
-0.4612288177013397,
-0.22687900066375732,
-0.013865692541003227,
-0.034754443913698196,
-0.1281002163887024,
-0.3448266386985779,
-0.3871132433414459,
0.6133800745010376,
-0.7481659650802612,
0.35955891013145447,
-0.44248339533805847,
-0.18748967349529266,
-0.23677797615528107,
0.3769998252391815,
0.31023916602134705,
-0.6048423647880554,
0.19056561589241028,
0.09171275794506073,
0.14643655717372894,
-0.4588202238082886,
-0.38829636573791504,
0.06571020931005478,
-0.28837019205093384,
-0.02377285808324814,
0.061732057482004166,
0.23518072068691254,
0.6175279021263123,
0.17549964785575867,
0.5054922699928284,
-0.23398742079734802,
-0.16230148077011108,
-0.5044049620628357,
0.23709841072559357,
-0.25299036502838135,
0.37670713663101196,
-0.07883868366479874,
-0.2814198434352875,
0.02060833014547825,
-0.37983131408691406,
-0.5120696425437927,
-0.6056323051452637,
0.40876632928848267,
-0.27814552187919617,
-0.32416605949401855,
0.2908698618412018,
0.19005393981933594,
0.0810968205332756,
-0.16783297061920166,
0.3703804314136505,
-0.05773762986063957,
0.09765175729990005,
-0.3837158977985382,
-0.1534266620874405,
0.07260093837976456,
0.43292436003685,
-0.19048462808132172,
-0.333356648683548,
-0.08076203614473343,
-0.3104619085788727,
0.1204490065574646,
0.003997354302555323,
-0.2454712986946106,
0.0408945232629776,
-0.016571711748838425,
-0.046284593641757965,
-0.24556097388267517,
0.3730757534503937,
-0.6927450895309448,
0.3162163496017456,
0.9242426753044128,
0.12314032018184662,
0.2888653576374054,
0.19390688836574554,
0.2641032338142395,
0.6699838042259216,
0.04898299649357796,
0.39258840680122375,
0.2626887559890747,
0.14602579176425934,
-0.19157257676124573,
0.08255909383296967,
0.023413952440023422,
0.305233359336853,
0.3056976795196533,
-0.010308189317584038,
-0.19884994626045227,
0.45805472135543823,
-0.07019748538732529,
-0.31454500555992126,
0.557239830493927,
0.17597512900829315,
-0.5856952667236328,
0.6109317541122437,
0.10428403317928314,
0.13726292550563812,
0.34939101338386536,
-0.17414291203022003,
-0.028869327157735825,
-0.20504137873649597,
0.03700678423047066,
0.5432927012443542,
0.38591691851615906,
0.19136567413806915,
0.04305997118353844,
-0.046522628515958786,
-0.004676782060414553,
-0.8650777339935303,
0.13495558500289917,
-0.17487531900405884,
0.03378592059016228,
-0.42895326018333435,
-0.0386912077665329,
-0.11912699788808823,
-0.3876136541366577,
-0.11010108143091202,
0.6529199481010437,
0.10166963189840317,
-0.08183785527944565,
0.33610039949417114,
0.0667547807097435,
-0.128522589802742,
-0.12314403802156448,
0.0505378358066082,
0.3412267863750458,
0.20200763642787933,
0.22891677916049957,
0.2535081207752228,
0.255789190530777,
0.31226733326911926,
0.19618302583694458,
0.39263948798179626,
-0.20695531368255615,
0.10047069191932678,
-0.474275678396225,
0.1884770691394806,
-0.15462245047092438,
-0.5204349756240845,
0.201356902718544,
-0.1565612107515335,
0.1200590580701828,
-0.1561664342880249,
-0.5921128988265991,
-0.22920526564121246,
0.5838223695755005,
-0.8976308703422546,
-0.11195123195648193,
0.14508673548698425,
-0.2478475123643875,
-0.2010955810546875,
0.5449708700180054,
0.5698854327201843,
-0.27889329195022583,
0.347272664308548,
0.09998190402984619,
-0.26895007491111755,
0.3401956558227539,
0.3230184316635132,
0.16764138638973236,
0.20951077342033386,
-0.9665532112121582,
-0.38842904567718506,
-0.19274477660655975,
0.48805999755859375,
-0.1417364925146103,
0.2848528027534485,
-0.23428361117839813,
0.6911817789077759,
-0.40955302119255066,
-0.3312034606933594,
0.8458899855613708,
0.23337332904338837,
-0.13821646571159363,
-0.3779294788837433,
-0.2665000557899475,
0.6385300159454346,
0.3109518885612488,
0.5028967261314392,
-0.14249342679977417,
0.10582810640335083,
0.0411701425909996,
0.25426819920539856,
-0.2125246375799179,
0.5177044868469238,
0.20877614617347717,
-0.30762022733688354,
0.21336857974529266,
-0.07441200315952301,
-0.298954576253891,
-0.16104665398597717,
0.6169131398200989,
-0.17399945855140686,
0.09526310116052628,
-0.3080100119113922,
0.5126973390579224,
-0.24147279560565948,
0.17306146025657654,
-0.12607835233211517,
-0.15153510868549347,
-0.20012226700782776,
0.22591839730739594,
-0.6273694634437561,
-0.8599494695663452,
0.3701165020465851,
0.12286593019962311,
-0.6089500784873962,
0.2555113434791565,
-0.4932992458343506,
-0.07588864117860794,
0.3347572386264801,
0.18152865767478943,
0.11476568132638931,
-0.7045659422874451,
-0.644749104976654
] |
241335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or | Either/Or | Either/Or (Danish: Enten – Eller) is the first published work of the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard. Appearing in two volumes in 1843 under the pseudonymous editorship of Victor Eremita (Latin for "victorious hermit"), it outlines a theory of human existence, marked by the distinction between an essentially hedonistic, aesthetic mode of life and the ethical life, which is predicated upon commitment.
Either/Or portrays two life views. Each life view is written and represented by a fictional pseudonymous author, with the prose of the work reflecting and depending on the life view being discussed. For example, the aesthetic life view is written in short essay form, with poetic imagery and allusions, discussing aesthetic topics such as music, seduction, drama, and beauty. The ethical life view is written as two long letters, with a more argumentative and restrained prose, discussing moral responsibility, critical reflection, and marriage. The views of the book are not neatly summarized, but are expressed as lived experiences embodied by the pseudonymous authors. The book's central concern is the primal question asked by Aristotle, "How should we live?" His motto comes from Plutarch, "The deceived is wiser than one not deceived."
The aesthetic is the personal, subjective realm of existence, where an individual lives and extracts pleasure from life only for their own sake. In this realm, one has the possibility of the highest as well as the lowest. The ethical, on the other hand, is the civic realm of existence, where one's value and identity are judged and at times superseded by the objective world. In simple terms, one can choose either to remain oblivious to all that goes on in the world, or to become involved. More specifically, the ethic realm starts with a conscious effort to choose one's life, with a choice to choose. Either way, however, an individual can go too far in these realms and lose sight of his or her true self. Only faith can rescue the individual from these two opposing realms. Either/Or concludes with a brief sermon hinting at the nature of the religious sphere of existence, which Kierkegaard spent most of his publishing career expounding upon. Ultimately, Kierkegaard's challenge is for the reader to "discover a second face hidden behind the one you see" in him/herself first, and then in others.
Historical context
After writing and defending his dissertation On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates (1841), Kierkegaard left Copenhagen in October 1841 to spend the winter in Berlin. The main purpose of this visit was to attend the lectures by the German philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, who was an eminent figure at the time. The lectures turned out to be a disappointment for many in Schelling's audience, including Mikhail Bakunin and Friedrich Engels, and Kierkegaard described it as "unbearable nonsense". During his stay, Kierkegaard worked on the manuscript for Either/Or, took daily lessons to perfect his German and attended operas and plays, particularly by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. He returned to Copenhagen in March 1842 with a draft of the manuscript, which was completed near the end of 1842 and published in February 1843.
According to a journal entry from 1846, Either/Or was written "lock, stock, and barrel in eleven months" ("Rub og Stub, i 11 Maaneder"), although a page from the "Diapsalmata" section in the 'A' volume was written before that time.
The title Either/Or is an affirmation of Aristotelian logic, particularly as modified by Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Immanuel Kant. Is the question, "Who am I?" a scientific question or one for the single individual to answer for him or herself?
Kierkegaard argues that Hegel's philosophy dehumanized life by denying personal freedom and choice through the neutralization of the 'either/or'. The dialectic structure of becoming renders existence far too easy, in Hegel's theory, because conflicts are eventually mediated and disappear automatically through a natural process that requires no individual choice other than a submission to the will of the Idea or Geist. Kierkegaard saw this as a denial of true selfhood and instead advocated the importance of personal responsibility and choice-making.
Structure
The book is the first of Kierkegaard's works written pseudonymously, a practice he employed during the first half of his career. In this case, four pseudonyms are used:
"Victor Eremita" - the fictional compiler and editor of the texts, which he claims to have found in an antique escritoire.
"A" - the moniker given to the fictional author of the first text ("Either") by Victor Eremita, whose real name he claims not to have known.
B "Judge Vilhelm" (or "Wilhelm" - "William") - the fictional author of the second text ("Or").
"Johannes" - the fictional author of a section of 'Either' titled "The Diary of a Seducer" and Cordelia his lover.
Kierkegaard published the second edition of Either/Or on May 14, 1849, the very same day he published The Lily of the Field and the Bird of the Air: Three Devotional Discourses. He published three books on the same day October 16, 1843.
Either
The first volume, the "Either", describes the "aesthetic" phase of existence. It contains a collection of papers, found by 'Victor Eremita' and written by 'A', the "aesthete."
The aesthete, according to Kierkegaard's model, will eventually find himself in "despair", a psychological state (explored further in Kierkegaard's The Concept of Anxiety and The Sickness Unto Death) that results from a recognition of the limits of the aesthetic approach to life. Kierkegaard's "despair" is a somewhat analogous precursor of existential angst. The natural reaction is to make an eventual "leap" to the second phase, the "ethical," which is characterized as a phase in which rational choice and commitment replace the capricious and inconsistent longings of the aesthetic mode. Ultimately, for Kierkegaard, the aesthetic and the ethical are both superseded by a final phase which he terms the "religious" mode. This is introduced later in Fear and Trembling.
Diapsalmata
The first section of Either is a collection of many tangential aphorisms, epigrams, anecdotes and musings on the aesthetic mode of life. The word 'diapsalmata' is related to 'psalms', and means "refrains". It contains some of Kierkegaard's most famous and poetic lines, such as "What is a poet?", "Freedom of Speech" vs. "Freedom of Thought", the "Unmovable chess piece", the tragic clown, and the laughter of the gods.
If one were to read these as written they would show a constant movement from the outer poetic experience to the inner experience of humor. The movement from the outer to the inner is a theme in Kierkegaard's works.
The Immediate Stages of the Erotic, or Musical Erotic
An essay discussing the idea that music expresses the spirit of sensuality. 'A' evaluates Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute and Don Giovanni, as well as Goethe's Faust. 'A' has taken upon himself the task of proving, through the works of Mozart, that "music is a higher, or more spiritual art, than language". During this process he develops the three stages of the musical-erotic.
Here he makes the distinction between a seducer like Don Juan, who falls under aesthetic categories, and Faust, who falls under ethical categories. "The musical Don Juan enjoys the satisfaction of desire; the reflective Don Juan enjoys the deception, enjoys the cunning." Don Juan is split between the esthetic and the ethical. He's lost in the multiplicity of the "1,003 women he has to seduce" (as in the famous aria "Madamina, il catalogo è questo"), Faust seduces just one woman. This section deals with theological questions. He asks if God seduces 1,003 people at one time or if he seduces one single individual at a time in order to make a believer. He writes: Achim v. Arnim tells somewhere of a seducer of a very different style, a seducer who falls under ethical categories. About him he uses an expression which in truth, boldness, and conciseness is almost equal to Mozart’s stroke of the bow. He says he could so talk with a woman that, if the devil caught him, he could wheedle himself out of it if he had a chance to talk with the devil’s grandmother. This is the real seducer; the aesthetic interest here is also different, namely: how, the method. There is evidently something very profound here, which has perhaps escaped the attention of most people, in that Faust, who reproduces Don Juan, seduces only one girl, while Don Juan seduced hundreds; but this one girl is also, in an intensive sense, seduced and crushed quite differently from all those Don Juan has deceived, simply because Faust, as reproduction, falls under the category of the intellectual. The power of such a seducer is speech, i.e., the lie.
Essays read before the Symparanekromenoi
The next three sections are essay lectures from 'A' to the 'Symparanekromenoi', a club or fellowship of the dead who practice the art of writing posthumous papers.
The first essay, which discusses ancient and modern tragedy, is called the "Ancient Tragical Motif as Reflected in the Modern". Once again he is writing about the inner and the outer aspects of tragedy. Can remorse be shown on a stage? What about sorrow and pain? Which is easier to portray? He also discusses guilt, sin, fear, compassion, and responsibility in what can be considered a foreshadowing of Fear and Trembling and Repetition. He then writes a modern interpretation of Antigone which presages his The Concept of Anxiety.
The second essay, called "Shadowgraphs: A Psychological Pastime", discusses modern heroines, including Mozart's Elvira and Goethe's Gretchen (Margaret). He studies how desire can come to grief in the single individual. He asks if love can be deceived.
Historically he is asking if one person can bring the inner life of a historical figure into view. Psychologically he is asking if psychologists can really give an accurate picture of the inner world. Religiously he's asking if one person can accurately perceive the inner world of the spirituality of another person. He conducts several thought experiments to see if he can do it.
The third essay, called "The Unhappiest One", discusses the hypothetical question: "who deserves the distinction of being unhappier than everyone else?" Kierkegaard has progressed from a search for the highest to the search for the lowest. Now he wants to find the unhappy person by looking once again to the past. Is it Niobe, or Job, or the father of the prodigal son, or is it Periander, Abraham, or Christ?
The First Love
In this volume Kierkegaard examines the concept of 'First Love' as a pinnacle for the aestheticist, using his idiosyncratic concepts of 'closedness' (indesluttethed in Danish) and the 'demonic' (demoniske) with reference to Eugène Scribe. Scribe wanted to create a template for all playwrights to follow. He insisted that people go to plays to escape from reality and not for instruction. Kierkegaard is against any template in the field of literature or of Christianity. He was against systematizing anything in literature because the system brings the artist to a stop and he or she just settles down in the system.
He wrote about the muse as the occasion for inspiration. How much of the calling of the muse depends on the muse, how much on the single individual, and how much on will or volition? Can we ever know how inspiration happens? Later in Concluding Unscientific Poscript he wrote; "inspiration is indeed an object of faith, is qualitatively dialectical, not attainable by means of quantification."
Kierkegaard has been writing against reading about love instead of discovering love. Scribe's play is 16 pages long and Kierkegaard writes a 50-page review of the book. He wrote against the practice of reading reviews instead of the actual books themselves.
In his review he goes to the play himself and sees his lover at a play called First Love; for him this is a sign, like a four leaf clover, that she must be the one. But confusion sets in for the poor girl because of mistaken identity. She is unable to make up her mind about love and says, "The first love is the true love, and one loves only once." But Kierkegaard says this is sophistry "because the category first, is at the same time a qualitative and a numerical category." Her first impression of love, when she was eight, has become decisive for her whole life. Now she can love only to a certain degree because she's comparing each new experience with the past experience.
Crop Rotation: An Attempt at a Theory of Social Prudence
To Kierkegaard's aesthete, boredom is the root of all evil, and so one must go to the ends of the Earth to avoid it. In this section, 'A' explains that, just as a farmer rotates the crops to keep the soil fertile, so must a man forever change himself in order to remain interesting. 'A' speaks out against anything that may prevent this rotation and lock one into boredom, including friends, family, and most importantly for the second half of the book, marriage.
Diary of a Seducer
Written by 'Johannes the Seducer', this volume illustrates how the aesthete holds the "interesting" as his highest value and how, to satisfy his voyeuristic reflections, he manipulates the girl he calls Cordelia from being boring into being interesting - he grooms her to fall in love with him, but then schemes to have her questioning the idea of engagement. Finally, Johannes succeeds in having Cordelia break the engagement herself. He will use irony, artifice, caprice, imagination and arbitrariness to engineer poetically satisfying possibilities; he is not so much interested in the act of seduction as in willfully creating its interesting possibility.
The Seducer is very reminiscent of Goethe's Faust Part 1, Scene VII (A Street). Faust says to Mephistopheles, "Listen, you must get that girl for me!" Mephistopheles says she's an "innocent" girl, but Faust says she's "older than 14". Mephistopheles says he's "speaking like some Don Juan". Faust then calls the devil a Master Moraliser.
But Goethe was probably responding to Christopher Marlowe's The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus (1616)
Goethe and Marlowe have devils and angels as third person or persons between him and his love, but Kierkegaard has a different third person involved in the discussions between Johannes the Seducer and Cordelia. He has this strange power called chance. The Seducer knows the value of chance and wants to use chance to be "a possibility which seems an impossibility."
Kierkegaard has this seducer speak again in Stages on Life's Way where he explores some of the possibilities and then once more where he tries to explain that misunderstanding can be the root of the unity of the tragic and the comic. "Anyone who, when he is twenty years old, does not understand that there is a categorical imperative — Enjoy — is a fool, and anyone who does not start doing it is a Christiansfelder. .... Our young friend will always remain on the outside. Victor is a fanatic; Constantin has paid too much for his intellect; the Fashion Designer is a madman. All four of you after the same girl will turn out to be a fizzle! Have enough fanaticism to idealize, enough appetite to join in the jolly conviviality of desire, enough understanding to break off in exactly the same way death breaks off, enough rage to want to enjoy it all over again — then one is the favorite of the gods and of the girls."
Kierkegaard has the category of choice and the esthetic as well as the ethical. Both can choose to love each other but the "how" of love is what Kierkegaard is getting at.
Or
The second volume represents the ethical stage. Victor Eremita found a group of letters from a retired Judge Vilhelm or William (in Danish: "Assessor Wilhelm"), another pseudonymous author, to 'A', trying to convince 'A' of the value of the ethical stage of life by arguing that the ethical person can still enjoy aesthetic values. The difference is that the pursuit of pleasure is tempered with ethical values and responsibilities.
"The Aesthetic Validity of Marriage": The first letter is about the aesthetic value of marriage and defends marriage as a way of life.
"Equilibrium between the Aesthetic and the Ethical in the Development of Personality": The second letter concerns the more explicit ethical subject of choosing the good, or one's self, and of the value of making binding life-choices.
"Ultimatum": The volume ends in a discourse on the Upbuilding in the Thought that: against God we are always in the wrong. His spiritual advice for "A" and "B" is that they make peace with each other. Here Kierkegaard quotes from the Gospel of Luke Chapter 19 verses 42 to the end for this discourse.
It's human nature to look to external forces when faced with our own inadequacies but the ethicist is against this. Comparison is an esthetic exercise and has nothing to do with ethics and religion. He says, "Let each one learn what he can; both of us can learn that a person’s unhappiness never lies in his lack of control over external conditions, since this would only make him completely unhappy." He also asks if a person "absolutely in love can know if he is more or less in love than others." He completes this thought later in his Concluding Unscientific Postscript and expands on looking inward in Practice in Christianity.The ethical and the ethical-religious have nothing to do with the comparative. … All comparison delays, and that is why mediocrity likes it so much and, if possible, traps everyone in it by its despicable friendship among mediocrities. A person who blames others, that they have corrupted him, is talking nonsense and only informs against himself. Concluding Unscientific Postscript p. 549-550Comparison is the most disastrous association that love can enter into; comparison is the most dangerous acquaintance love can make; comparison is the worst of all seductions. Søren Kierkegaard, Works of Love (1847), Hong, p. 186 Lord Jesus Christ, our foolish minds are weak; they are more than willing to be drawn-and there is so much that wants to draw us to itself. There is pleasure with its seductive power, the multiplicity with its bewildering distractions, the moment with its infatuating importance and the conceited laboriousness of busyness and the careless time-wasting of light-mindedness and the gloomy brooding of heavy-mindedness-all this will draw us away from ourselves to itself in order to deceive us. But you, who are the truth, only you, Savior and Redeemer, can truly draw a person to yourself, which you have promised to do-that you will draw all to yourself. Then may God grant that by repenting we may come to ourselves, so that you, according to your Word, can draw us to yourself-from on high, but through lowliness and abasement. Søren Kierkegaard, Practice in Christianity, 1850 p.157 Hong
Introducing the ethical stage it is moreover unclear if Kierkegaard acknowledges an ethical stage without religion. Freedom seems to denote freedom to choose the will to do the right and to denounce the wrong in a secular, almost Kantian style. However, remorse (angeren) seems to be a religious category specifically related to the Christian concept of deliverance. Moreover, Kierkegaard is constant in his point of view that each single individual can become conscious of a higher self than the externally visible human self and embrace the spiritual self in "an eternal understanding".
Discourses and sequel
Along with this work, Kierkegaard published, under his own name, Two Upbuilding Discourses on May 16, 1843 intended to complement Either/Or, "The Expectancy of Faith" and "Every Good and Every Perfect Gift is from Above".
Kierkegaard also published another discourse during the printing of the second edition of Either/Or in 1849. Kierkegaard's discourse has to do with the difference between wishing and willing in the development of a particular expectancy. "As thought becomes more absorbed in the future, it loses its way in its restless attempt to force or entice an explanation from the riddle." Expectancy always looks to the future and can hope, but regret, which is what Goethe did in his book The Sorrows of Young Werther, closes the door of hope and love becomes unhappy. Kierkegaard points to "faith as the highest" expectancy because faith is something that everyone has, or can have. He says: "The person who wishes it for another person wishes it for himself; the person who wishes it for himself wishes it for every other human being, because that by which another person has faith is not that by which he is different from him but is that by which he is like him; that by which he possesses it is not that by which he is different from others but that by which he is altogether like all."
The characters in Either/Or believe everyone is alike in that everyone has talent or everyone has the conditions that would allow them to live an ethical life. Goethe wanted to love and complained that he couldn't be loved, but everyone else could be loved. But he wished, he didn't have an expectancy to work his will to love. Kierkegaard responds to him in this way:
The "Ultimatum" at the end of the second volume of Either/Or hinted at a future discussion of the religious stage in The Two Upbuilding Discourses, "Ask yourself and keep on asking until you find the answer, for one may have known something many times, acknowledged it; one may have willed something many times, attempted it-and yet, only the deep inner motion, only the heart’s indescribable emotion, only that will convince you that what you have acknowledged belongs to you, that no power can take it from you-for only the truth that builds up is truth for you." This discussion is included in Stages on Life's Way (1845). The first two sections revisit and refine the aesthetic and ethical stages elucidated in Either/Or, while the third section, Guilty/Not Guilty is about the religious stage and refers specifically to Goethe's other book, The Autobiography of Goethe: Truth and Poetry, from My Own Life vol 1, 2
In addition to the discourses, one week after Either/Or was published, Kierkegaard published a newspaper article in Fædrelandet, titled "Who Is the Author Of Either/Or?", attempting to create authorial distance from the work, emphasizing the content of the work and the embodiment of a particular way of life in each of the pseudonyms. Kierkegaard, using the pseudonym 'A.F.', writes, "most people, including the author of this article, think it is not worth the trouble to be concerned about who the author is. They are happy not to know his identity, for then they have only the book to deal with, without being bothered or distracted by his personality."
Themes
The various essays in Either/Or help elucidate the various forms of aestheticism and ethical existence. Both A and Judge Vilhelm attempt to focus primarily upon the best that their mode of existence has to offer.
A fundamental characteristic of the aesthete is immediacy. In Either/Or, there are several levels of immediacy explored, ranging from unrefined to refined. Unrefined immediacy is characterized by immediate cravings for desire and satisfaction through enjoyments that do not require effort or personal cultivation (e.g. alcohol, drugs, casual sex, sloth, etc.) Refined immediacy is characterized by planning how best to enjoy life aesthetically. The "theory" of social prudence given in Crop Rotation is an example of refined immediacy. Instead of mindless hedonistic tendencies, enjoyments are contemplated and "cultivated" for maximum pleasure. However, both the refined and unrefined aesthetes still accept the fundamental given conditions of their life, and do not accept the responsibility to change it. If things go wrong, the aesthete simply blames existence, rather than one's self, assuming some unavoidable tragic consequence of human existence and thus claims life is meaningless. Kierkegaard spoke of immediacy this way in his sequel to Either/Or, Stages on Life's Way.
Commitment is an important characteristic of the ethicist. Commitments are made by being an active participant in society, rather than a detached observer or outsider. The ethicist has a strong sense of responsibility, duty, honor and respect for his friendships, family, and career. Judge Vilhelm uses the example of marriage as an example of an ethical institution requiring strong commitment and responsibility. Whereas the aesthete would be bored by the repetitive nature of marriage (e.g. married to one person only), the ethicist believes in the necessity of self-denial (e.g. self-denying unmitigated pleasure) in order to uphold one's obligations.
Kierkegaard stresses the "eternal" nature of marriage and says "something new comes into existence" through the wedding ceremony. The aesthete doesn't see it that way. The aesthete makes a "half hour’s resolution" but the ethical person, and especially the religious person, makes the "good resolution". Someone devoted to pleasure finds it impossible to make this kind of resolution. The ethical and "Christian religious" person make the resolution because they have the will to have a true conception of life and of oneself." A resolution involves change but for the single individual this involves only change in oneself. It never means changing the whole world or even changing the other person.
Interpretation
The extremely nested pseudonymity of this work adds a problem of interpretation. A and B are the authors of the work, Eremita is the editor. Kierkegaard's role in all this appears to be that he deliberately sought to disconnect himself from the points of view expressed in his works, although the absurdity of his pseudonyms' bizarre Latin names proves that he did not hope to thoroughly conceal his identity from the reader. Kierkegaard's Papers first edition VIII(2), B 81 - 89 explain this method in writing. He discussed Either/Or in first and second edition in his 1848, 1859 book The Point of View of My Work as an Author. In my career as an author, a point has now been reached where it is permissible to do what I feel a strong impulse to do and so regard as my duty — namely, to explain once for all, as directly and frankly as possible, what is what: what I as an author declare myself to be. The moment (however unpropitious it may be in another sense) is now appropriate; partly because (as I have said) this point has been reached, and partly because I am about to encounter for the second time in the literary field my first production.
Either/Or, in its second edition, which I was not willing to have published earlier. Point of View, Lowrie translation 1962 p. 5
Furthermore, Kierkegaard was a close reader of the aesthetic works of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and the ethical works of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Each presented a way of living one's life in a different manner. Kierkegaard's writings in this book are close to what Goethe wrote in his Autobiography.
Existential interpretation
A common interpretation of Either/Or presents the reader with a choice between two approaches to life. There are no standards or guidelines which indicate how to choose. The reasons for choosing an ethical way of life over the aesthetic only make sense if one is already committed to an ethical way of life. Suggesting the aesthetic approach as evil implies one has already accepted the idea that there is a good/evil distinction to be made. Likewise, choosing an aesthetic way of life only appeals to the aesthete, ruling Judge Vilhelm's ethics as inconsequential and preferring the pleasures of seduction. Thus, existentialists see Victor Eremita as presenting a radical choice in which no pre-ordained value can be discerned. One must choose, and through one's choices, one creates what one is.
However, the aesthetic and the ethical ways of life are not the only ways of living. Kierkegaard continues to flesh out other stages in further works, and the Stages on Life's Way is considered a direct sequel to Either/Or. It is not the same as Either/Or as he points out in Concluding Postscript in 1846.
Christian interpretation
The whole book can be viewed as the struggle individuals go through as they attempt to find meaning in their lives. Victor Eremita bought a secretary (desk), which was something external, and said, "a new period of your life must begin with the acquisition of the secretary".
"A" desires the absolute highest. He can find no meaning in his life until he begins to study. He writes letters for the dead like the historians do. He's trying to find God by studying the past as Hegel did. Don Juan seduces him away from God and Faust robs him of his innocent faith through the power of language. For him, tautology is the highest realm of thought. He's someone who is in complete "conflict with his environment" because he is relating himself to externals.
"B" argues with "A". He says ethics are the highest. "A" wants to remain a mystery to himself but "B" says it's the meaning of life to become open to yourself. It's more important to know yourself than historical persons. The more you know about yourself the more you can find your eternal validity. God will bless the most ethical person. Each one knows what's best for the other but neither knows what's best for himself.
Kierkegaard, speaking in the voice of the upbuilding discourse at the end, says they are both wrong. They're both trying to find God in a childish way. Whatever they relate to in an external way will never make them happy or give them meaning. Art, science, dogma and ethics constantly change. We all want to be in the right and never in the wrong. Once we find what we desire we find that it wasn't what we imagined it to be. So Kierkegaard says to leave it all to God.
A recent way to interpret Either/Or is to read it as an applied Kantian text. Scholars for this interpretation include Alasdair MacIntyre and Ronald M. Green. In After Virtue, MacIntyre claims Kierkegaard is continuing the Enlightenment project set forward by Hume and Kant. Green notes several points of contact with Kant in Either/Or:
However, other scholars think Kierkegaard adopts Kantian themes in order to criticize them, while yet others think that although Kierkegaard adopts some Kantian themes, their final ethical positions are substantially different. George Stack argues for this latter interpretation, writing, "Despite the occasional echoes of Kantian sentiments in Kierkegaard's writings (especially in Either/Or), the bifurcation between his ethics of self-becoming and Kant's formalistic, meta-empirical ethics is, mutatis mutandis, complete ... Since radical individuation, specificity, inwardness, and the development of subjectivity are central to Kierkegaard's existential ethics, it is clear, essentially, that the spirit and intention of his practical ethics is divorced from the formalism of Kant."
Biographical interpretation
From a purely literary and historical point of view, Either/Or can be seen as a thinly veiled autobiography of the events between Kierkegaard and his ex-fianceé Regine Olsen. Johannes the Seducer in The Diary of a Seducer treats the object of his affection, Cordelia, much as Kierkegaard treats Regine: befriending her family, asking her to marry him, and breaking off the engagement. Either/Or, then, could be the poetic and literary expression of Kierkegaard's decision between a life of sensual pleasure, as he had experienced in his youth, or a possibility of marriage and what social responsibilities marriage might or ought to entail. Ultimately however, Either/Or stands philosophically independent of its relation to Kierkegaard's life.
Yet, Kierkegaard was concerned about Regine because she tended to assume the life-view of characters she saw in the plays of Shakespeare at the theater. One day she would be "Beatrice in Much Ado about Nothing" and another Juliet.
Reception
Early reception
Either/Or established Kierkegaard's reputation as a respected author. Henriette Wulff, in a letter to Hans Christian Andersen, wrote, "Recently a book was published here with the title Either/Or! It is supposed to be quite strange, the first part full of Don Juanism, skepticism, et cetera, and the second part toned down and conciliating, ending with a sermon that is said to be quite excellent. The whole book attracted much attention. It has not yet been discussed publicly by anyone, but it surely will be. It is actually supposed to be by a Kierkegaard who has adopted a pseudonym...."
Johan Ludvig Heiberg, a prominent Hegelian, at first criticized the aesthetic section, Either (Part I), then he had much better things to say about Or, Part II. Julia Watkin said "Kierkegaard replied to Heiberg in The Fatherland as Victor Eremita, blaming Heiberg for not reading the preface to Either/Or which would have given him the key to the work." Kierkegaard later used his book Prefaces to publicly respond to Heiberg and Hegelianism. Kierkegaard also published a short article, Who is the Author of Either/Or?, a week after the publication of Either/Or itself.
In 1886, Georg Brandes compared Either/Or with Frederik Paludan-Müller's Kalanus in Eminent Authors of the Nineteenth Century, which was translated into English at that time. Later, in 1906, he compared Kierkegaard's Diary of the Seducer with Rousseau's Julie, or the New Heloise and with Goethe's Sorrows of Young Werther. He also compared Either/Or to Henrik Ibsen's Brand but Edmund Gosse disagreed with him.
Kierkegaard later referred to his concept of choosing yourself as the single individual in The Concept of Anxiety, June 17, 1844, and then in his Four Upbuilding Discourses, August 31, 1844, and once again in Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits, 1847. William James echoed Kierkegaard in his lecture on The Sick Soul where he wrote, "the man must die to an unreal life before he can be born into the real life."
August Strindberg was familiar with Either/Or and this book made him "forever a champion of the ethical as juxtaposed to the aesthetic life conception and he always remained faithful to the idea that art and knowledge must be subservient to life, and that life itself must be lived as we know best, chiefly because we are part of it and cannot escape from its promptings." Strindberg was obviously attracted to Either/Or Part II where Kierkegaard developed his categorical imperative. He wrote the following in Growth of a Soul published posthumously in 1913 about Kierkegaard's Either—Or: "it was valid only for the priests who called themselves Christians and the seducer and Don Juan were the author himself, who satisfied his desires in imagination". Part II was his "Discourse on Life as a Duty, and when he reached the end of the work he found the moral philosopher in despair, and that all this teaching about duty had only produced a Philistine." He then states that Kierkegaard's discourses might have led him closer to Christianity but he didn't know if he could come back to something "which had been torn out, and joyfully thrown into the fire". However, after reading the book he "felt sinful".
Kierkegaard put an end to his own double-mindedness about devoting himself completely to aesthetics or developing a balance between the aesthetic and the ethical and going on to an ethical/Christian religious existence in the first part of his authorship (1843-1846) and then described what he had learned about himself and about being a Christian beginning with Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits (1847). He learned to choose his own Either/Or.
Later reception
Although Either/Or was Kierkegaard's first major book, it was one of his last books to be translated into English, as late as 1944. Frederick DeW. Bolman Jr. insisted that reviewers consider the book in this way: "In general, we have a right to discover, if we can, the meaning of a work as comprehensive as Either/Or, considering it upon its own merits and not reducing the meaning so as to fit into the author's later perspective. It occurred to me that this was a service to understanding Kierkegaard, whose esthetic and ethical insights have been much slighted by those enamored of his religion of renunciation and transcendence. ... Kierkegaard's brilliance seems to me to be showing that while goodness, truth, and beauty can not speculatively be derived one from another, yet these three are integrally related in the dynamics of a healthy character structure".
David F. Swenson, a professor at the University of Minnesota, introduced three lectures about Kierkegaard in 1918 in which he "presented Soren Kierkegaard’s delineation of three fundamental modes of life: First, the Life of Enjoyment – Folly and Cleverness in the Pursuit of Pleasure; second, the Life of Duty – Realizing the Self through Victorious Accomplishments; third, the Life of Faith – The Religious Transformation of the Self through Suffering.
Miguel de Unamuno published his 1914 novel Mist in response to his reading of Kierkegaard's Diary of a Seducer.
Thomas Henry Croxall was impressed by 'A's thoughts on music in the essay, "The Immediate Stages of the Erotic, or Musical Erotic". Croxall argues that "the essay should be taken seriously by a musician, because it makes one think, and think hard enough to straighten many of one's ideas; ideas, I mean, not only on art, but on life" and goes on to discuss the psychological, existential, and musical value of the work.
Reinhold Niebuhr questioned Kierkegaard's emphasis in his pastoral epistle at the end of Or. He wrote the following in 1949.
Johannes Edouard Hohlenberg wrote a biography about Søren Kierkegaard in 1954 and in that book he speculated that the Diary of the Seducer was meant to depict the life of P.L. Moller who later (1845) wrote the articles in The Corsair detrimental to the character of Kierkegaard. The Diary of a Seducer by itself, is a provocative novella, and has been reproduced separately from Either/Or several times. John Updike said of the Diary, "In the vast literature of love, The Seducer's Diary is an intricate curiosity – a feverishly intellectual attempt to reconstruct an erotic failure as a pedagogic success, a wound masked as a boast".
Many authors were interested in separating the esthetic, the ethical and the religious but it may have been, as far as Kierkegaard was concerned, of more importance for the single individual to have a way to decide when one was becoming dominant over the other two. Henrik Stangerup, (1937-1998) a Danish writer, wrote three books as a way to illustrate Kierkegaard's three stages of existence, 1981, The Road to Lagoa Santa, which was about Kierkegaard's brother-in-law Peter Wilhelm Lund (the ethicist), 1985 The Seducer: It Is Hard to Die in Dieppe, Peder Ludvig Moller was the esthetic in that novel, and in 1991 Brother Jacob which describes Søren Kierkegaard as a Franciscan friar.
In contemporary times, Either/Or received new life as a grand philosophical work with the publication of Alasdair MacIntyre's After Virtue (1981), where MacIntyre situates Either/Or as an attempt to capture the Enlightenment spirit set forth by David Hume and Immanuel Kant. After Virtue renewed Either/Or as an important ethical text in the Kantian vein, as mentioned previously. Although MacIntyre accuses Victor Eremita of failing to provide a criterion for one to adopt an ethical way of life, many scholars have since replied to MacIntyre's accusation in Kierkegaard After MacIntyre.
References
Primary references
Either/Or: A Fragment of Life. Translated by Alastair Hannay, Abridged Version. Penguin, 1992, (Hannay)
Either/Or. Translated by David F. Swenson and Lillian Marvin Swenson. Volume I. Princeton, 1959, (Swenson)
Kierkegaard's Writings III, Part I: Either/Or. Part I. Translated by Howard and Edna Hong. Princeton, 1988, (Hong)
Kierkegaard's Writings IV, Part II: Either/Or. Part II. Translated by Howard and Edna Hong. Princeton, 1988, (Hong)
Secondary references and notes
External links
Either/Or Spark notes
Kierkegaard's Existentialism: an overview YouTube Lecture by Anders Kraal on Either/Or
The Treatment of Love in Soren Kierkegaard's Either/Or
Kierkegaard "Either/Or" YouTube introduction to the book
D. Anthony Storm's commentary on Either/Or
Professor J Aaron Simmons Kierkegaard's 3 Stages of Life: Aesthetic, Ethical, & Religious YouTube
Troy Wellington Smith's Literary Encyclopedia article on Either/Or
1843 books
Books by Søren Kierkegaard
Ethics books
Philosophical novels
Psychology books
Danish Culture Canon
Literature about spirituality
Works published under a pseudonym | [
0.21064911782741547,
0.2462666928768158,
-0.3537323474884033,
-0.3006986081600189,
-0.08444489538669586,
1.0384143590927124,
0.10173439979553223,
-0.00250874157063663,
-0.018371669575572014,
-0.24495837092399597,
-0.21119093894958496,
0.44054657220840454,
0.24410110712051392,
0.03314029425382614,
0.30498427152633667,
0.08524485677480698,
0.8293516635894775,
-0.19757981598377228,
-0.19970452785491943,
-0.2534816265106201,
-0.10972793400287628,
0.09293269366025925,
-0.2112598568201065,
-0.4361216425895691,
0.31553536653518677,
-0.276144802570343,
0.3070475459098816,
-0.9292895793914795,
-0.3360470235347748,
0.08721864223480225,
0.1934237778186798,
0.7305802702903748,
-0.1418694257736206,
-0.05547264590859413,
-0.2607508599758148,
0.24604539573192596,
-0.6269662976264954,
-0.5312298536300659,
-0.3826625347137451,
-0.05449722707271576,
-0.2168908268213272,
0.06111275777220726,
0.8396719098091125,
0.3572377860546112,
-0.2614251971244812,
-0.2870646119117737,
-1.4795827865600586,
0.003294935915619135,
-1.2293914556503296,
0.4151718020439148,
-0.4343782067298889,
-0.2795689105987549,
0.13192549347877502,
0.8136951327323914,
-0.15075388550758362,
0.4056953191757202,
-0.36008182168006897,
-0.5377569794654846,
0.489976167678833,
-0.18669621646404266,
0.5910377502441406,
0.1830166131258011,
0.2346341907978058,
0.20857542753219604,
0.4139142334461212,
0.5823428630828857,
-0.9093340039253235,
0.5225401520729065,
-0.6543112993240356,
-0.4619840085506439,
-0.5605548024177551,
0.13219018280506134,
-0.31361255049705505,
0.523404598236084,
0.07554259896278381,
0.1433975100517273,
0.4330059885978699,
0.10244020819664001,
-0.0931299701333046,
-0.23049989342689514,
-0.11656312644481659,
0.10854057967662811,
0.5632692575454712,
-0.14445188641548157,
0.33004891872406006,
0.2546982765197754,
-0.018848516047000885,
0.2153739631175995,
-0.22426274418830872,
-0.16631200909614563,
0.2595774829387665,
-0.3166700303554535,
0.37123116850852966,
-0.24825109541416168,
0.1299750953912735,
0.6249356269836426,
0.6071916222572327,
0.2544126808643341,
-0.3487810790538788,
-0.03213651478290558,
-0.08576005697250366,
0.46660736203193665,
0.02963678166270256,
0.04044909402728081,
-0.42976945638656616,
-0.3382589519023895,
0.2313595563173294,
-0.40357279777526855,
0.7241502404212952,
-0.10799392312765121,
-0.22966204583644867,
0.6173170208930969,
0.16813018918037415,
-0.127119779586792,
-0.24992606043815613,
0.5231730341911316,
0.22267557680606842,
0.04873192682862282,
-0.423518568277359,
0.05805392935872078,
0.1788347214460373,
0.22393277287483215,
0.09985241293907166,
0.1138250082731247,
0.27907535433769226,
-0.4531551003456116,
-0.4172250032424927,
0.9424735307693481,
-0.23170660436153412,
0.2741698622703552,
-0.21698664128780365,
0.4806884825229645,
0.16177551448345184,
0.008635037578642368,
-0.09719052910804749,
0.12636975944042206,
0.38470908999443054,
-0.16464342176914215,
0.3913631737232208,
0.38999006152153015,
-1.1082513332366943,
0.30715152621269226,
-0.6343082785606384,
-0.23719331622123718,
0.44789353013038635,
-0.08816318958997726,
0.2720591127872467,
-0.007158747408539057,
0.10612203925848007,
-0.012993794865906239,
-0.20621062815189362,
-0.5679773092269897,
0.172266885638237,
-0.060700658708810806,
0.09724033623933792,
0.7810990214347839,
-0.0648220032453537,
0.6032537817955017,
0.0768747478723526,
0.12562653422355652,
0.23994097113609314,
0.009046418592333794,
0.36143040657043457,
-0.22359232604503632,
0.2885950803756714,
-0.6009162068367004,
0.3425244092941284,
0.17713187634944916,
0.09289517253637314,
0.02677573263645172,
0.10668286681175232,
-0.41101694107055664,
0.44767042994499207,
0.3258371949195862,
-0.1082049310207367,
-0.12744580209255219,
0.3302910327911377,
0.07700999826192856,
0.47573086619377136,
-0.10518638044595718,
-0.5615432858467102,
0.6525101661682129,
0.3354770839214325,
-0.33987540006637573,
-0.20307546854019165,
-0.15635360777378082,
0.35646477341651917,
0.23014149069786072,
0.13821209967136383,
0.17448382079601288,
-0.2126491814851761,
-0.6104387044906616,
0.26812249422073364,
-0.09480942785739899,
0.8602107167243958,
-0.14590340852737427,
-0.7600817084312439,
0.4429745078086853,
-0.16145305335521698,
0.913547694683075,
0.24415083229541779,
-0.6951938271522522,
0.07076992094516754,
0.3049979507923126,
0.4324341118335724,
0.8151150941848755,
-0.09250833094120026,
-0.16009517014026642,
0.03184286877512932,
0.11999080330133438,
0.44445568323135376,
0.15886816382408142,
0.7940725684165955,
-0.03635965287685394,
-0.3722211420536041,
-0.07464476674795151,
-0.07227124273777008,
0.22728116810321808,
-0.1747051179409027,
-0.3723141551017761,
0.5430249571800232,
-0.3275958001613617,
-0.08511132001876831,
0.41820988059043884,
-0.02958926372230053,
0.41849684715270996,
0.060155708342790604,
-0.14488868415355682,
-0.3532716631889343,
-0.349925696849823,
-0.4563576281070709,
-0.2077992856502533,
0.40330371260643005,
0.0084918811917305,
0.36264997720718384,
-0.08046776056289673,
-0.1775466650724411,
0.07583533972501755,
0.5809192657470703,
-0.19777584075927734,
0.2686567008495331,
-0.12592633068561554,
-0.26758402585983276,
0.4341198205947876,
0.19064508378505707,
0.14085449278354645,
-0.289103627204895,
-0.04392595589160919,
-0.5520249605178833,
0.05101267620921135,
-0.5259810090065002,
0.1282004714012146,
0.18671900033950806,
-0.039024367928504944,
-0.14934252202510834,
-0.34253010153770447,
-0.04268564656376839,
0.5014960765838623,
0.9788241982460022,
0.08880565315485,
-0.09042254835367203,
-0.08659747987985611,
0.3899509608745575,
-0.33289191126823425,
-0.11710403114557266,
-0.7019737958908081,
-0.33930104970932007,
-0.1435357630252838,
-0.08506951481103897,
0.3660484850406647,
0.42567959427833557,
-0.021827610209584236,
-0.8141555786132812,
-0.08802521228790283,
-0.6243155002593994,
-0.22800475358963013,
0.3903653919696808,
-0.04681222513318062,
-1.0305622816085815,
0.034244902431964874,
-0.09753313660621643,
0.3022799491882324,
0.3468290865421295,
0.07139864563941956,
0.18309466540813446,
-0.6310106515884399,
-0.10767467319965363,
-0.4329092502593994,
0.04644462466239929,
-0.14824999868869781,
0.287313312292099,
0.4027310311794281,
0.029334353283047676,
-0.6831660270690918,
0.3861454427242279,
0.22494815289974213,
-0.23096679151058197,
-0.09914249181747437,
0.13544481992721558,
0.0818268358707428,
-0.4888383150100708,
-0.02255530096590519,
0.13367173075675964,
0.2142808735370636,
0.15711326897144318,
-0.11475440859794617,
-0.42388033866882324,
0.42044538259506226,
-5.847545623779297,
0.04007672891020775,
-0.23564191162586212,
-0.19553887844085693,
-0.2047358751296997,
0.20138318836688995,
0.25915539264678955,
-0.18132266402244568,
0.005548254121094942,
0.09710191190242767,
-0.5384804010391235,
-0.3990885019302368,
-0.4022374451160431,
1.0919798612594604,
0.13188841938972473,
-0.22585780918598175,
-0.07327041774988174,
0.3960823118686676,
-0.1426185518503189,
0.7217928767204285,
-0.14689183235168457,
-0.10514518618583679,
-0.04750557988882065,
0.7247594594955444,
0.2417372614145279,
0.9430946707725525,
-0.7921658754348755,
0.14715182781219482,
0.21172557771205902,
-0.2794809937477112,
0.15465812385082245,
-0.43224310874938965,
0.12040399014949799,
-0.24361081421375275,
0.253606915473938,
0.5951634645462036,
0.30909085273742676,
0.5060892701148987,
0.2948441803455353,
0.08936330676078796,
-0.18227550387382507,
0.4690066874027252,
0.1595781445503235,
-0.09782368689775467,
0.49670276045799255,
-0.1981232762336731,
-0.20690375566482544,
0.0701948031783104,
-0.6168277859687805,
0.476111501455307,
-0.1519293487071991,
-0.15528914332389832,
0.06099914759397507,
-0.2690054774284363,
0.252733439207077,
0.2166779637336731,
0.5240268707275391,
-0.45786166191101074,
-0.4472132623195648,
0.25321534276008606,
0.6460700035095215,
-0.49375224113464355,
0.10053285956382751,
-0.5719612836837769,
0.028604857623577118,
-0.5101571083068848,
0.014396597631275654,
0.13306796550750732,
0.6429851055145264,
0.2645912766456604,
-0.21887324750423431,
0.9329095482826233,
0.6138125061988831,
-0.9869042038917542,
-0.2583145499229431,
-0.17476598918437958,
-0.4971345365047455,
-0.39946600794792175,
0.22594121098518372,
-0.0774717628955841,
-0.06220400333404541,
-0.26932111382484436,
-0.4236880838871002,
0.9848271012306213,
0.4262760281562805,
0.18528200685977936,
-0.270516037940979,
0.36108043789863586,
-0.7984814643859863,
0.09027457982301712,
0.2031068056821823,
0.15505990386009216,
-0.15771256387233734,
0.3572814166545868,
-0.08747205138206482,
0.952505886554718,
0.22129884362220764,
-0.30092114210128784,
0.43138712644577026,
-0.3228137493133545,
0.3263566195964813,
-0.053256772458553314,
0.08505194634199142,
-0.019703779369592667,
-0.12001759558916092,
0.05542062595486641,
-0.73505699634552,
0.08298119157552719,
0.8339024186134338,
-0.5414162278175354,
0.03579084202647209,
0.4902196526527405,
-0.27062350511550903,
-0.44779250025749207,
0.06368859112262726,
0.30193212628364563,
-0.6234817504882812,
0.7009328603744507,
0.6407436728477478,
0.16336004436016083,
-0.09023840725421906,
-0.10165847837924957,
-0.5283058881759644,
-0.9272975921630859,
-0.8138485550880432,
0.3546803593635559,
-0.025957506150007248,
-0.34621185064315796,
-0.6990467309951782,
0.7199432253837585,
-0.24549496173858643,
0.10756964236497879,
-0.10605378448963165,
-0.31064558029174805,
-0.08166537433862686,
-0.20232804119586945,
0.03577267378568649,
0.3257369101047516,
-0.3087349534034729,
-0.2144920527935028,
0.29156023263931274,
-0.25099435448646545,
0.5227474570274353,
0.0471067875623703,
0.3574012517929077,
-0.2345103621482849,
-0.2431541532278061,
-0.2927393913269043,
-0.7598085999488831,
0.38662663102149963,
0.5242096185684204,
-0.21705153584480286,
0.9969860911369324,
-0.6518614888191223,
0.07265312224626541,
-0.026905786246061325,
-0.4816792607307434,
-0.13451974093914032,
-0.23660090565681458,
-0.020228901877999306,
0.11135831475257874,
-0.08610334247350693,
-0.5858992338180542,
-0.46680793166160583,
0.13428795337677002,
-0.5298150181770325,
-0.9377454519271851,
-0.2074924260377884,
-0.25987011194229126,
0.41270285844802856,
-0.12237363308668137,
-0.7197079062461853,
-0.4609867334365845,
-0.0477667897939682,
0.6169430017471313,
0.23189781606197357,
0.19251896440982819,
0.0917404443025589,
-0.08141551911830902,
-0.4741898477077484,
0.32737839221954346,
-0.28543251752853394,
-0.5867472290992737,
0.3061447739601135,
1.0156688690185547,
-0.8897807002067566,
0.20488817989826202,
0.0959959402680397,
-0.7317636013031006,
0.34863460063934326,
-0.08619388192892075,
0.1457705795764923,
0.20144300162792206,
0.34284764528274536,
-0.3307773470878601,
-0.20605413615703583,
-0.05090659111738205,
0.05111321434378624,
-0.15222032368183136,
-0.2813258171081543,
0.3857038617134094,
0.008274243213236332,
-0.05580156669020653,
-0.4636876881122589,
0.3933369219303131,
-0.883882462978363,
0.12470421940088272,
-0.358600378036499,
-0.6956384181976318,
1.0535273551940918,
-0.48484665155410767,
-0.8053112626075745,
-0.25464117527008057,
0.037945184856653214,
-0.18756191432476044,
0.5485966205596924,
0.22229966521263123,
-0.47373825311660767,
-0.7621411681175232,
-0.04068460687994957,
0.6230772137641907,
-0.43891140818595886,
-0.34471866488456726,
-0.021339062601327896,
-0.013921963982284069,
-0.5147659182548523,
0.08020930737257004,
0.12328293174505234,
0.8549167513847351,
-0.09151416271924973,
-0.4271705150604248,
-0.13032744824886322,
-0.3631663918495178,
0.2917465567588806,
-0.0675177127122879,
-0.3366701602935791,
-0.03454515337944031,
-0.01958899013698101,
-0.5587852597236633,
-0.04215378314256668,
0.639060914516449,
0.08334879577159882,
-0.30670809745788574,
-0.6051106452941895,
-0.4438387155532837,
0.5743217468261719,
0.6037254333496094,
-0.5621275305747986,
-0.17250870168209076,
0.25264883041381836,
-0.11949809640645981,
-0.19896627962589264,
-0.6768162250518799,
-0.6946030855178833,
0.8024250268936157,
-0.005787247326225042,
-0.057673316448926926,
0.1442277580499649,
-0.35619574785232544,
0.0008568685734644532,
0.3562055230140686,
-0.0909818634390831,
-0.0642315074801445,
0.4169521927833557,
-0.41148602962493896,
0.26587966084480286,
0.07675362378358841,
0.5985260009765625,
0.0018969973316416144,
-0.18747752904891968,
0.2260887324810028,
-0.7975804209709167,
0.494788259267807,
0.29302799701690674,
0.20080335438251495,
-0.14539194107055664,
-0.33203545212745667,
-0.019941367208957672,
0.10157801955938339,
-0.13213424384593964,
-0.27169910073280334,
0.1823291778564453,
0.15616531670093536,
-0.3705209195613861,
-0.6375386714935303,
-0.18239644169807434,
0.2555159330368042,
-0.39271458983421326,
-0.19515585899353027,
-0.0014151694485917687,
-0.41731294989585876,
-0.012788641266524792,
0.3694680631160736,
-0.3716135323047638,
-0.05113542079925537,
0.5670738220214844,
-0.3531988859176636,
0.342607319355011,
-0.14126048982143402,
-0.6241363883018494,
-1.1643935441970825,
-0.27884843945503235,
0.17613960802555084,
0.28350552916526794,
0.3554498255252838,
0.30701571702957153,
0.2165611833333969,
-0.07423654943704605,
-0.2928439974784851,
0.324624240398407,
0.15379178524017334,
0.6356348395347595,
-0.12658633291721344,
1.0113787651062012,
0.002058433135971427,
-0.3013210594654083,
0.6535177826881409,
-0.3978109359741211,
0.05030757561326027,
0.5280172824859619,
0.12565138936042786,
-0.27142220735549927,
0.4507816731929779,
-0.3819359540939331,
-0.44033363461494446,
-0.012822586111724377,
0.22704583406448364,
-0.09734240174293518,
-0.2915332615375519,
0.0572563111782074,
0.26310083270072937,
0.24196350574493408,
0.11426202952861786,
0.3772367238998413,
-0.20855264365673065,
-0.3748722970485687,
-0.021315503865480423,
-0.5480480790138245,
-0.11398293077945709,
0.7563159465789795,
0.5108118057250977,
0.5144042372703552,
-0.20921961963176727,
-0.13463301956653595,
-0.17122219502925873,
-0.06267007440328598,
-0.04563448950648308,
-0.05953275412321091,
-0.09270458668470383,
0.28195828199386597,
0.5566838979721069,
0.05656125396490097,
0.2343134731054306,
-0.8582692742347717,
-0.19271698594093323,
-0.10546580702066422,
-0.38411784172058105,
-0.25593021512031555,
-0.38136354088783264,
-0.2692679762840271,
-0.03669000789523125,
0.46630021929740906,
0.05857623368501663,
-0.4107801616191864,
0.13206127285957336,
-0.24523428082466125,
0.6625062823295593,
-0.62575364112854,
0.1986294537782669,
0.34109967947006226,
0.5994521975517273,
0.05550886318087578,
0.033122122287750244,
-0.19317726790905,
0.06254402548074722,
0.08857465535402298,
0.7552139759063721,
0.37771353125572205,
-0.05167001858353615,
0.08084860444068909,
-0.6340547800064087,
-0.26758715510368347,
-0.1362428367137909,
0.2986234128475189,
0.4346654713153839,
-0.2775269150733948,
-0.014473353512585163,
0.1075497418642044,
-0.2729337513446808,
0.5150974988937378,
0.2059629112482071,
-0.42802679538726807,
0.20428737998008728,
0.3513794243335724,
-0.8181416392326355,
0.0007286131731234491,
-0.3169211745262146,
0.8873914480209351,
0.09754151105880737,
-0.16294197738170624,
-0.08085626363754272,
0.04464012011885643,
0.02614767849445343,
-0.20450137555599213,
-0.27369314432144165,
0.15633231401443481,
-0.4814799427986145,
0.4389209747314453,
-0.6006345152854919,
0.22559410333633423,
0.26677218079566956,
-0.1579708307981491,
-0.3888053596019745,
0.7784361243247986,
-0.005672468803822994,
0.15493059158325195,
0.39904969930648804,
0.3144122362136841,
0.2704892158508301,
0.03642343357205391,
-0.3078795075416565,
0.02826700545847416,
-0.4194457530975342,
-0.5758826732635498,
-0.32417234778404236,
0.4389374256134033,
0.20353445410728455,
0.05411620810627937,
0.14414973556995392,
0.11772283166646957,
-0.37354516983032227,
0.1480271965265274,
-0.3633808493614197,
-0.0260678231716156,
0.16840028762817383,
-0.46567294001579285,
0.3929692208766937,
0.22669336199760437,
-0.1693233698606491,
-0.004550131969153881,
0.1666080355644226,
0.34110090136528015,
-0.09912944585084915,
0.35803335905075073,
-0.7317811846733093,
0.2752576768398285,
-0.31891122460365295,
-0.16439737379550934,
0.05383339524269104,
-0.32717910408973694,
0.16354484856128693,
-0.46498191356658936,
0.5284613370895386,
-0.3872605562210083,
-0.03790408372879028,
-0.44184353947639465,
0.08182751387357712,
-0.6445152163505554,
0.6746399402618408,
0.17804808914661407
] |
241342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24-hour%20clock | 24-hour clock | The 24-hour clock, popularly referred to in the United States and some other countries as military time, is the convention of timekeeping in which the day runs from midnight to midnight and is divided into 24 hours. This is indicated by the hours (and minutes) passed since midnight, from 0(:01) to 23(:59). This system, as opposed to the 12-hour clock, is the most commonly used time notation in the world today, and is used by the international standard ISO 8601.
A number of countries, particularly English-speaking, use the 12-hour clock, or a mixture of the 24- and 12-hour time systems. In countries where the 12-hour clock is dominant, some professions prefer to use the 24-hour clock. For example, in the practice of medicine, the 24-hour clock is generally used in documentation of care as it prevents any ambiguity as to when events occurred in a patient's medical history.
Description
A time of day is written in the 24-hour notation in the form hh:mm (for example 01:23) or hh:mm:ss (for example, 01:23:45), where hh (00 to 23) is the number of full hours that have passed since midnight, mm (00 to 59) is the number of full minutes that have passed since the last full hour, and ss (00 to 59) is the number of seconds since the last full minute. In the case of a leap second, the value of ss may extend to 60. A leading zero is added for numbers under 10, but it is optional for the hours. The leading zero is very commonly used in computer applications, and always used when a specification requires it (for example, ISO 8601).
Where subsecond resolution is required, the seconds can be a decimal fraction; that is, the fractional part follows a decimal dot or comma, as in 01:23:45.678. The most commonly used separator symbol between hours, minutes and seconds is the colon, which is also the symbol used in ISO 8601. In the past, some European countries used the dot on the line as a separator, but most national standards on time notation have since then been changed to the international standard colon. In some contexts (including some computer protocols), no separator is used and times are written as, for example, "2359".
Midnight 00:00 and 24:00
In the 24-hour time notation, the day begins at midnight, 00:00, and the last minute of the day begins at 23:59. Where convenient, the notation 24:00 may also be used to refer to midnight at the end of a given date — that is, 24:00 of one day is the same time as 00:00 of the following day.
The notation 24:00 mainly serves to refer to the exact end of a day in a time interval. A typical usage is giving opening hours ending at midnight (e.g. "00:00–24:00", "07:00–24:00"). Similarly, some bus and train timetables show 00:00 as departure time and 24:00 as arrival time. Legal contracts often run from the start date at 00:00 until the end date at 24:00.
While the 24-hour notation unambiguously distinguishes between midnight at the start (00:00) and end (24:00) of any given date, there is no commonly accepted distinction among users of the 12-hour notation. Style guides and military communication regulations in some English-speaking countries discourage the use of 24:00 even in the 24-hour notation, and recommend reporting times near midnight as 23:59 or 00:01 instead. Sometimes the use of 00:00 is also avoided. In variance with this, as of 2010, the correspondence manual for the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps formerly specified 0001 to 2400. The manual was updated in June 2015 to use 0000 to 2359.
Times after 24:00
Time-of-day notations beyond 24:00 (such as 24:01 or 25:00 instead of 00:01 or 01:00) are not commonly used and not covered by the relevant standards. However, they have been used occasionally in some special contexts in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, and China where business hours extend beyond midnight, such as broadcast television production and scheduling.
Computer support
In most countries, computers by default show the time in 24-hour notation. For example, Microsoft Windows and macOS activate the 12-hour notation by default only if a computer is in a handful of specific language and region settings. The 24-hour system is commonly used in text-based interfaces. POSIX programs such as ls default to displaying timestamps in 24-hour format.
Military time
In American English, the term military time is a synonym for the 24-hour clock. In the US, the time of day is customarily given almost exclusively using the 12-hour clock notation, which counts the hours of the day as 12, 1, ..., 11 with suffixes a.m. and p.m. distinguishing the two diurnal repetitions of this sequence. The 24-hour clock is commonly used there only in some specialist areas (military, aviation, navigation, tourism, meteorology, astronomy, computing, logistics, emergency services, hospitals), where the ambiguities of the 12-hour notation are deemed too inconvenient, cumbersome, or dangerous.
Military usage, as agreed between the United States and allied English-speaking military forces, differs in some respects from other twenty-four-hour time systems:
No hours/minutes separator is used when writing the time, and a letter designating the time zone is appended (for example "0340Z").
Leading zeros are always written out and are required to be spoken, so 5:43 a.m. is spoken "zero five forty-three" (casually) or "zero five four three" (military radio), as opposed to "five forty-three" or "five four three".
Military time zones are lettered and given word designations from the NATO phonetic alphabet. For example, in US Eastern Standard Time (UTC−5), which is designated time zone R, 2:00 a.m. is written "0200R" and spoken "zero two hundred Romeo".
Local time is designated as zone J or "Juliett". "1200J" ("twelve hundred Juliett") is noon local time.
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) or Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is designated time zone Z, and thus called "Zulu time". (When used as a modern time zone, in practice, GMT and UTC coincide. For other purposes there may be a difference of about a second.)
Hours are always "hundred", never "thousand"; 1000 is "ten hundred" not "one thousand"; 2000 is "twenty hundred" not "two thousand".
History
The 24-hour time system has its origins in the Egyptian astronomical system of decans, and has been used for centuries by scientists, astronomers, navigators, and horologists. In East Asia, time notation was 24-hour before westernization in modern times. Western-made clocks were changed into 12 dual-hours style when they were shipped to China in the Qing dynasty. There are many surviving examples of clocks built using the 24-hour system, including the famous Orloj in Prague, and the Shepherd Gate Clock at Greenwich.
The first mechanical public clocks introduced in Italy were mechanical 24-hour clocks which counted the 24 hours of the day from one-half hour after sundown to the evening of the following day. The 24th hour was the last hour of day time. However, striking clocks had to produce 300 strokes each day, which required a lot of rope, and wore out the mechanism quickly, so some localities switched to ringing sequences of 1 to 12 twice (156 strokes), or even 1 to 6 repeated four times (84 strokes).
After missing a train while travelling in Ireland in 1876 because a printed schedule listed p.m. instead of a.m., Sir Sandford Fleming proposed a single 24-hour clock for the entire world, located at the centre of the Earth, not linked to any surface meridian — a predecessor to Coordinated Universal Time. He was an early proponent of using the 24-hour clock as part of a programme to reform timekeeping, which also included establishing time zones and a standard prime meridian. The Canadian Pacific Railway was among the first organizations to adopt the 24-hour clock, at midsummer 1886.
At the International Meridian Conference in 1884, American lawyer and astronomer Lewis M. Rutherfurd proposed:
That this universal day is to be a mean solar day; is to begin for all the world at the moment of midnight of the initial meridian coinciding with the beginning of the civil day and date of that meridian, and is to be counted from zero up to twenty-four hours.
This resolution was adopted by the conference.
A report by a government committee in the United Kingdom noted Italy as the first country among those mentioned to adopt 24-hour time nationally, in 1893. Other European countries followed: France adopted it in 1912 (the French army in 1909), followed by Denmark (1916), and Greece (1917). By 1920, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, and Switzerland had switched, followed by Turkey (1925), and Germany (1927). By the early 1920s, many countries in Latin America had also adopted the 24-hour clock. Some of the railways in India had switched before the outbreak of the war.
During World War I, the British Royal Navy adopted the 24-hour clock in 1915, and the Allied armed forces followed soon after, with the British Army switching officially in 1918. The Canadian armed forces first started to use the 24-hour clock in late 1917. In 1920, the United States Navy was the first United States organization to adopt the system; the United States Army, however, did not officially adopt the 24-hour clock until World War II, on July 1, 1942.
The use of the 24-hour clock in the United Kingdom has grown steadily since the beginning of the 20th century, although attempts to make the system official failed more than once. In 1934, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) switched to the 24-hour clock for broadcast announcements and programme listings. The experiment was halted after five months following a lack of enthusiasm from the public, and the BBC continued using the 12-hour clock. In the same year, Pan American World Airways Corporation and Western Airlines in the United States both adopted the 24-hour clock. In modern times, the BBC uses a mixture of both the 12-hour and the 24-hour clock. British Rail and London Transport switched to the 24-hour clock for timetables in 1964. A mixture of the 12- and 24-hour clocks similarly prevails in other English-speaking Commonwealth countries: French speakers have adopted the 24-hour clock in Canada much more broadly than English speakers, and Australia also uses both systems.
See also
12-hour clock
24-hour analog dial
Clock
Date and time representation by country
Decimal time
Hindu units of time
Italian six-hour clock
List of military time zones
Metric time
Thai six-hour clock
Time
Traditional Chinese timekeeping
Notes
References
External links
Counting Time: a brief history of the 24-hour clock (free e-book)
Date and time representation
Time measurement systems | [
0.8678527474403381,
0.5819239616394043,
0.3538173735141754,
-0.2199651002883911,
0.37100639939308167,
0.012188222259283066,
0.6088883876800537,
0.08656352013349533,
-0.5049537420272827,
-0.5304041504859924,
-0.3874781131744385,
0.41260379552841187,
-0.13818879425525665,
0.32004299759864807,
-0.3616119623184204,
0.3129396438598633,
0.6800369024276733,
0.2869151532649994,
-0.19519810378551483,
-0.05342934653162956,
-0.18331922590732574,
0.06799560785293579,
0.5473921895027161,
-0.3462235927581787,
-0.375672847032547,
0.05767658352851868,
-0.22511455416679382,
0.026666268706321716,
-0.2152499556541443,
-0.02471666969358921,
-0.10577165335416794,
0.1855228841304779,
0.028833892196416855,
0.13657115399837494,
0.41802579164505005,
-0.13806389272212982,
0.07080615311861038,
-0.016376471146941185,
0.06875630468130112,
-0.3668535053730011,
0.176401287317276,
-0.3796739876270294,
0.3324032127857208,
-0.20371632277965546,
-0.6643245220184326,
-0.34517723321914673,
-0.9079535603523254,
-0.13144053518772125,
-0.19635681807994843,
-0.3227611482143402,
-0.306494802236557,
0.24265988171100616,
0.6386509537696838,
0.2854054570198059,
-0.10416512191295624,
0.5642634034156799,
-0.3157266676425934,
0.15788182616233826,
-0.22888801991939545,
-0.26892969012260437,
0.5256896615028381,
-0.30304330587387085,
-0.07015769928693771,
0.31476473808288574,
0.10308930277824402,
-0.26206713914871216,
0.1525944471359253,
0.04710103198885918,
0.5648512840270996,
-0.04336070269346237,
-0.39463093876838684,
-0.012972405180335045,
-0.2911132574081421,
0.0739293247461319,
-0.562515914440155,
-0.35980623960494995,
0.23282290995121002,
-0.37217921018600464,
-0.05044649541378021,
-0.09124377369880676,
-0.2529599070549011,
0.31727102398872375,
0.3948976993560791,
-0.15232253074645996,
0.06373529881238937,
0.08404384553432465,
-0.4736698269844055,
-0.24367596209049225,
0.1257774978876114,
0.7740503549575806,
0.002014596713706851,
0.06369933485984802,
0.5685244798660278,
0.007329458836466074,
-0.7208130359649658,
-0.17596499621868134,
-0.4163704216480255,
0.008428904227912426,
0.21436026692390442,
-0.004404105711728334,
0.20624303817749023,
-0.008284805342555046,
1.0856831073760986,
0.09465981274843216,
0.24171856045722961,
-0.40259960293769836,
0.19062596559524536,
-0.5189163088798523,
0.5178739428520203,
0.059174537658691406,
0.0638008862733841,
-0.2394905537366867,
0.22668132185935974,
0.5634276270866394,
-0.30858322978019714,
-0.42212459444999695,
0.01946248672902584,
-0.28297507762908936,
0.00253016734495759,
-0.0760679617524147,
-0.17375898361206055,
0.5382629632949829,
0.1277405023574829,
-0.19178089499473572,
-0.087630994617939,
0.5024468898773193,
0.3116053640842438,
-0.12081191688776016,
-0.18127575516700745,
-0.5936050415039062,
0.0818851888179779,
0.7670897841453552,
-0.006924588233232498,
-0.44800224900245667,
-0.18535591661930084,
0.048502810299396515,
0.2661362290382385,
0.0019240286201238632,
0.06723486632108688,
0.7846387028694153,
-0.1659252643585205,
-0.7890938520431519,
-0.029777003452181816,
-0.3761870563030243,
-0.01721169240772724,
-0.23312069475650787,
-0.14765723049640656,
-0.4567773640155792,
-0.10214370489120483,
0.39107611775398254,
-0.12439581751823425,
0.05768546462059021,
-0.2807859778404236,
-0.13457916676998138,
-0.3036853075027466,
-0.9468885064125061,
-0.09539889544248581,
0.019251063466072083,
0.049002621322870255,
-0.11854790896177292,
0.12151876837015152,
0.28987550735473633,
-0.24541758000850677,
-0.07179682701826096,
-0.36438116431236267,
-0.13050776720046997,
0.5572923421859741,
0.5005873441696167,
0.009451750665903091,
-0.20127756893634796,
-0.3563058376312256,
0.14965517818927765,
0.10842002183198929,
0.11223655939102173,
-1.0750529766082764,
0.394747793674469,
0.4700799882411957,
0.4631044864654541,
0.44749975204467773,
-0.25999021530151367,
-0.27146223187446594,
-0.0235045924782753,
0.4458714723587036,
0.03334548696875572,
0.47733286023139954,
-0.17618721723556519,
0.16448086500167847,
-0.1308445781469345,
-0.5721727013587952,
-0.1653738021850586,
-0.1571570336818695,
-0.03156153857707977,
0.16288696229457855,
-0.5369631052017212,
0.5260095000267029,
-0.46414828300476074,
-0.5136755108833313,
0.7744534015655518,
-0.3378821313381195,
0.3835960328578949,
-0.12313342839479446,
0.04899437353014946,
0.013947919942438602,
0.037699971348047256,
-0.4302103817462921,
0.12364493310451508,
0.02612612396478653,
0.3052295446395874,
0.06850659102201462,
0.07379478216171265,
0.11340014636516571,
-0.7338805198669434,
0.27232664823532104,
0.09887415170669556,
-0.0676436498761177,
0.24787284433841705,
-0.3645919859409332,
-0.14310817420482635,
-0.021525396034121513,
-0.17871320247650146,
0.6414890885353088,
-0.10094929486513138,
-0.17485341429710388,
0.5482314825057983,
-0.09966104477643967,
0.09298601746559143,
0.35016417503356934,
0.28206345438957214,
0.17280060052871704,
-0.5959693789482117,
0.3421631455421448,
-0.7247743010520935,
-0.15814208984375,
0.17109347879886627,
-0.2215428650379181,
0.16006061434745789,
-0.03627854585647583,
-0.4871320128440857,
-0.26530566811561584,
-0.43875351548194885,
0.5614518523216248,
0.05657515302300453,
0.11604820936918259,
0.29307490587234497,
0.25408458709716797,
0.17533688247203827,
-0.11690501123666763,
0.3353252112865448,
-0.2528173625469208,
-0.006326402071863413,
0.04312228411436081,
0.11277598887681961,
0.459778755903244,
-0.1379975527524948,
-0.4855954945087433,
-0.40510863065719604,
0.1308000385761261,
-0.059265073388814926,
0.13674572110176086,
0.4798876643180847,
0.08333028852939606,
-0.2551676332950592,
0.47924524545669556,
-0.2020467221736908,
-0.22754856944084167,
-0.8470474481582642,
-0.9855620861053467,
-0.7215933799743652,
-0.11980536580085754,
0.39482417702674866,
0.2794869840145111,
0.24767062067985535,
-0.2942829430103302,
0.11445219814777374,
0.34031838178634644,
-0.6072084903717041,
0.5508294701576233,
0.16922178864479065,
-0.4517909586429596,
-0.0567956417798996,
0.40271279215812683,
0.03144492581486702,
0.6415885090827942,
-0.28247252106666565,
-0.41251882910728455,
-0.7490683794021606,
0.4365476667881012,
-0.33677181601524353,
-0.3100925087928772,
0.2201564460992813,
-0.5543273687362671,
0.2931232452392578,
0.06626160442829132,
-0.024090034887194633,
0.27744653820991516,
0.42738717794418335,
0.007661781273782253,
-0.22683821618556976,
0.1562361717224121,
-0.3016745150089264,
0.1075662299990654,
-0.058637164533138275,
-0.0671146959066391,
-0.184756800532341,
0.15186642110347748,
-0.8184083700180054,
0.004023196175694466,
0.1809379905462265,
-6.118409156799316,
0.022580184042453766,
-0.368579238653183,
-0.7594122886657715,
-0.37340545654296875,
0.18570497632026672,
0.8954614400863647,
-0.006311833392828703,
-0.03313879296183586,
-0.07444257289171219,
0.38207295536994934,
-0.21411240100860596,
0.12169729173183441,
0.3590776324272156,
0.46555858850479126,
-0.048022087663412094,
0.48707643151283264,
0.016193300485610962,
0.10620014369487762,
0.24800270795822144,
0.4358861446380615,
-0.10078197717666626,
0.49312910437583923,
0.5211881995201111,
0.3479188084602356,
-0.1550072282552719,
0.21958611905574799,
0.0014497523661702871,
-0.1032794937491417,
0.28564709424972534,
0.15772302448749542,
-0.2802787125110626,
0.11162260919809341,
-0.35953545570373535,
0.6243196129798889,
-0.3073197305202484,
0.054203614592552185,
0.2098493129014969,
0.2501038610935211,
-0.3751876950263977,
0.1888837069272995,
0.49602043628692627,
0.24850472807884216,
-0.0012669699499383569,
0.3081803619861603,
0.19665254652500153,
-0.27032411098480225,
-0.21930049359798431,
-0.4960528314113617,
0.24139367043972015,
-0.06502755731344223,
0.2936500608921051,
0.22049890458583832,
-0.7057849764823914,
-0.5994271636009216,
-0.1452275663614273,
-0.05079446732997894,
-0.0706280842423439,
0.05665592476725578,
-0.16240964829921722,
0.0078300591558218,
-0.14409248530864716,
0.12240679562091827,
-0.3211773633956909,
-0.1314874291419983,
-0.4293610751628876,
-0.7654950022697449,
-0.47434040904045105,
0.30826282501220703,
0.8852022290229797,
-0.48251771926879883,
-0.30574169754981995,
0.1124274730682373,
-0.85676109790802,
-0.11775887757539749,
-0.11350663006305695,
0.1263507455587387,
0.09911447018384933,
0.3055092692375183,
-0.15830932557582855,
-0.2558538615703583,
-0.26424381136894226,
-0.2738368511199951,
0.5418302416801453,
0.5504387617111206,
-0.4438728988170624,
-0.4253568947315216,
0.27397486567497253,
0.044899530708789825,
0.007080222014337778,
0.8981525897979736,
-0.03690190985798836,
0.5531350374221802,
-0.20399685204029083,
0.2545527219772339,
0.2543327212333679,
-0.24962683022022247,
0.13850989937782288,
0.6483104825019836,
-0.46503114700317383,
0.78973388671875,
-0.006776484660804272,
0.5545164942741394,
-1.0638294219970703,
-0.1436583250761032,
-0.17328545451164246,
-0.2255619615316391,
0.29812943935394287,
0.29115670919418335,
0.31081727147102356,
-0.758522629737854,
-0.12962660193443298,
-0.04241064563393593,
-0.4886767566204071,
-0.4036356508731842,
-0.4401090741157532,
-0.2218012809753418,
0.29565998911857605,
0.22418509423732758,
0.126084104180336,
-0.3403564691543579,
0.20213156938552856,
-0.22553835809230804,
-0.36520880460739136,
-0.3050857186317444,
-0.3339073657989502,
-0.4188774824142456,
-0.2244720160961151,
0.7594476342201233,
0.05817300081253052,
0.19193753600120544,
0.8472350239753723,
0.16275382041931152,
0.4884186089038849,
-0.13923513889312744,
0.12152936309576035,
0.20930923521518707,
0.18164455890655518,
-0.28230181336402893,
-0.047143515199422836,
0.27492231130599976,
0.09244449436664581,
-0.2082831859588623,
0.2862802743911743,
0.051708631217479706,
0.706808865070343,
0.19638971984386444,
-0.5206259489059448,
-0.247002974152565,
0.7405493259429932,
0.29349759221076965,
-0.514892578125,
0.2651516795158386,
-0.07293868064880371,
-0.211717426776886,
0.13946084678173065,
0.47359347343444824,
0.49219566583633423,
-0.09467707574367523,
-0.23280367255210876,
-0.17659662663936615,
-0.4799662232398987,
-0.6892198920249939,
-0.2071121335029602,
0.3128184676170349,
0.045345887541770935,
-0.5085234045982361,
-0.18081462383270264,
0.2022785097360611,
0.6228836178779602,
-0.10510751605033875,
-0.18461233377456665,
-0.17176076769828796,
0.0905485525727272,
0.12817884981632233,
0.2867886424064636,
-0.007535060867667198,
-0.13584767282009125,
-0.2913958430290222,
-0.33665531873703003,
0.21927297115325928,
-0.08173014223575592,
-0.5610536336898804,
0.3675588071346283,
-0.28731438517570496,
-0.36136284470558167,
0.3590766191482544,
-0.10584063082933426,
0.19917592406272888,
0.16760806739330292,
0.6455990672111511,
-0.03138288855552673,
0.035557977855205536,
-0.2645328640937805,
0.12490130960941315,
-0.17565861344337463,
0.21849068999290466,
1.2809109687805176,
0.00939642172306776,
-0.12021507322788239,
0.19033566117286682,
0.5754931569099426,
-1.060202956199646,
0.15630540251731873,
0.3088706433773041,
-0.4339345097541809,
0.10545531660318375,
0.2959142029285431,
0.07788950204849243,
0.14296601712703705,
-0.8691064119338989,
0.028176335617899895,
0.11839146167039871,
0.22711703181266785,
-0.3354189991950989,
0.13870790600776672,
0.11205609887838364,
-0.30607330799102783,
0.4851095378398895,
-0.5824756622314453,
0.04836332052946091,
0.5720236301422119,
-0.4578275978565216,
0.08650870621204376,
0.1566300392150879,
0.09523697197437286,
0.35716965794563293,
-0.11347301304340363,
0.11383624374866486,
-0.0785280242562294,
-0.03599901869893074,
-0.023685945197939873,
0.4298838675022125,
0.06622135639190674,
-0.1721988171339035,
-0.2767598032951355,
-0.35433143377304077,
-0.10331198573112488,
0.20066507160663605,
0.5470157861709595,
-0.16894660890102386,
0.5144543051719666,
0.05100995674729347,
-0.05063152313232422,
-0.3461783230304718,
0.49460509419441223,
0.8327063322067261,
-0.5128412246704102,
-0.3134118914604187,
0.45487624406814575,
0.212659552693367,
-0.4175252616405487,
-0.3166915476322174,
-0.21007505059242249,
0.022153006866574287,
-0.35290026664733887,
0.40189388394355774,
0.4761682152748108,
0.14038319885730743,
-0.026726072654128075,
0.061502501368522644,
-0.3271828591823578,
-0.3539107143878937,
-0.24731023609638214,
0.25734350085258484,
0.761451244354248,
-0.5060555934906006,
-0.12708429992198944,
0.2700307071208954,
-0.11059560626745224,
0.6564479470252991,
-0.26727935671806335,
0.23248617351055145,
0.18067990243434906,
0.9972326755523682,
0.3407022953033447,
0.05603102967143059,
0.15857790410518646,
0.020702078938484192,
0.1962413787841797,
0.08980290591716766,
0.14959055185317993,
-0.055418748408555984,
-0.4459482431411743,
0.40738895535469055,
-0.6562322974205017,
0.0857522040605545,
-0.07138790190219879,
-0.12352980673313141,
-0.11402944475412369,
-0.3268619775772095,
-0.16448688507080078,
0.11957088112831116,
0.008323194459080696,
-0.6345404982566833,
0.5816602110862732,
0.11415088921785355,
0.7113476991653442,
-0.4110284447669983,
-0.2509738802909851,
-0.15249738097190857,
0.2565988302230835,
0.25518468022346497,
-0.3621530830860138,
-0.033606741577386856,
-0.11658493429422379,
0.3435201644897461,
-0.1900997757911682,
-0.5455842018127441,
-0.007748099975287914,
-0.047024209052324295,
-0.15331998467445374,
0.49640411138534546,
0.535778820514679,
-0.315068781375885,
-0.31431928277015686,
0.29554784297943115,
-0.07309404760599136,
-0.062378354370594025,
0.5142471194267273,
0.04025109484791756,
-0.4138387441635132,
0.3626023828983307,
-0.2565796375274658,
0.10405424982309341,
0.4253133237361908,
0.08957242965698242,
-0.11480824649333954,
-0.05890651047229767,
0.00786043331027031,
0.31050264835357666,
0.052982766181230545,
-0.5277115106582642,
0.4079928696155548,
-0.4669762849807739,
-0.10218406468629837,
0.07076378911733627,
-0.6436650156974792,
-0.7608323097229004,
0.3120708763599396,
0.9888479113578796,
0.4183330535888672,
0.06437757611274719,
-0.0772363543510437,
0.23412074148654938,
-0.07030351459980011,
-0.02845577336847782,
0.31245195865631104,
-0.11504030227661133,
-0.1296531707048416,
0.22537249326705933,
-0.12222719192504883,
0.3883451819419861,
-0.000374581606592983,
0.726081132888794,
-0.5415918827056885,
0.3157559335231781,
-0.18366596102714539,
0.501188337802887,
-0.5076469779014587,
-0.48376622796058655,
0.13192452490329742,
0.5717465281486511,
-0.42120611667633057,
-0.00016504593077115715,
-0.11549012362957001,
0.3746618628501892,
-0.4046727120876312,
-0.2022169977426529,
0.24934138357639313,
0.1817772090435028,
0.3137111961841583,
-0.08573181927204132,
-0.11000938713550568,
0.006104030646383762,
-0.16863659024238586,
0.2896534204483032,
0.549350917339325,
0.17513087391853333,
-0.6394495368003845,
-0.04056950658559799,
-0.23641490936279297,
-0.2982652485370636,
-1.072445273399353,
-0.5319337844848633,
0.2803691625595093,
-0.32558557391166687,
0.00705080246552825,
-0.2977577745914459,
0.05476437881588936,
0.44956526160240173,
-0.19009889662265778,
-0.5236045718193054,
-1.054068684577942,
0.0455646812915802,
-0.21959705650806427,
-0.07026712596416473,
0.711814820766449,
0.4026860296726227,
0.1844606250524521,
0.23200517892837524,
-0.24381737411022186,
0.08555682003498077,
-0.41194117069244385,
-0.24523384869098663,
-0.051734767854213715,
0.0651315376162529,
0.08026038110256195,
-0.4639328122138977,
0.23087932169437408,
0.48221665620803833,
-0.5991613864898682,
0.06651642918586731,
0.007580661214888096,
-0.28342434763908386,
-0.016394121572375298,
0.8982142210006714,
-0.9881054162979126,
0.04758963733911514,
-0.8153706192970276,
-0.05075317248702049,
0.2551455497741699,
0.2206360548734665,
0.15043695271015167,
-0.07276327908039093,
-0.22822941839694977,
0.5701696872711182,
-0.16164429485797882,
-0.27321478724479675,
0.46664804220199585,
-0.5455991625785828,
-0.3773933947086334,
-0.4603770673274994,
-0.0379505380988121,
-0.6221333742141724,
-0.7516396641731262,
0.41849038004875183,
0.6358606815338135,
0.5402826070785522,
-0.5384455919265747,
0.5027981996536255,
0.10709605365991592,
-0.23707669973373413,
0.14164882898330688,
0.1629023253917694,
-0.41970035433769226,
-0.26872289180755615,
-0.20407453179359436,
-0.36618882417678833,
0.45885804295539856,
-0.1373225748538971,
-0.21084925532341003,
0.05692463368177414,
0.1421474665403366,
0.0016602149698883295,
0.17731523513793945,
0.2770954966545105,
-0.2795742154121399,
0.3005329370498657,
0.4577087163925171
] |
241348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laughing%20gas%20%28disambiguation%29 | Laughing gas (disambiguation) | Laughing gas, or nitrous oxide, is a colorless, non-flammable gas.
Laughing gas may also refer to:
Laughing Gas (novel), a 1936 novel by P.G. Wodehouse
Laughing Gas (1914 film), a film starring Charlie Chaplin
Laughing Gas (film), several movie shorts
"Laughing Gas" (instrumental), a song by Quiet Riot
Reggie Attache (1894–1955), Native American professional football player nicknamed Laughing Gas | [
0.2574502229690552,
0.5174915790557861,
-0.37871986627578735,
-0.06467917561531067,
-0.2433958202600479,
-0.34083911776542664,
0.2712973356246948,
0.4813680350780487,
-0.0010385147761553526,
-0.039782118052244186,
-0.7565174102783203,
0.2827257513999939,
-0.35300856828689575,
0.6944270133972168,
0.24073128402233124,
0.24018852412700653,
0.3374914824962616,
0.8983654379844666,
0.17461182177066803,
0.3035023808479309,
-0.26256072521209717,
-0.01768280752003193,
-0.42050787806510925,
-0.8042343854904175,
0.14417220652103424,
-0.2740062177181244,
-0.014939329586923122,
0.19254475831985474,
-0.08109567314386368,
0.00842446181923151,
-0.47322630882263184,
1.073815107345581,
0.1263504922389984,
0.15256020426750183,
0.18698002398014069,
0.2954678535461426,
-0.4780443012714386,
-0.4540134072303772,
0.10851915925741196,
-0.08153863996267319,
0.0727030485868454,
-0.10225988924503326,
0.3774546980857849,
-0.30928149819374084,
-0.31402450799942017,
-0.2587364614009857,
-1.35166335105896,
0.2489439845085144,
0.0881262868642807,
-0.20881697535514832,
-0.08287285268306732,
0.22935904562473297,
-0.47688236832618713,
0.7267651557922363,
-0.16737312078475952,
0.15784618258476257,
-0.5220773816108704,
-0.004895743448287249,
0.3467923104763031,
-0.04911179095506668,
0.0393848679959774,
-0.39332315325737,
-0.3434355556964874,
0.16035829484462738,
0.16798903048038483,
0.7591027021408081,
-0.10681285709142685,
0.473947674036026,
-0.3606579899787903,
0.301719605922699,
-0.16370947659015656,
-0.17290042340755463,
-0.34295853972435,
-0.3350343704223633,
-0.3289235532283783,
0.11148101836442947,
0.4075932800769806,
-0.5089794993400574,
-0.29339227080345154,
0.49568071961402893,
-0.23418107628822327,
0.235575333237648,
0.3545372486114502,
-0.12859761714935303,
0.05928456038236618,
0.24616865813732147,
-0.5352276563644409,
1.0461229085922241,
-0.33017390966415405,
0.4050489366054535,
-0.09772154688835144,
0.4514613449573517,
0.49456289410591125,
-0.31828853487968445,
-0.5867881774902344,
0.37120959162712097,
0.6159714460372925,
0.08834195137023926,
0.42000290751457214,
-0.11369072645902634,
0.16844435036182404,
-0.25395461916923523,
0.15273155272006989,
0.017209812998771667,
-0.28874146938323975,
-0.1022883951663971,
0.09649436175823212,
-0.4874345064163208,
0.6206160187721252,
0.3444632291793823,
-0.17588451504707336,
0.05095618590712547,
0.059075355529785156,
-0.006916631478816271,
-0.7632618546485901,
0.19982969760894775,
-0.15344072878360748,
0.6500285863876343,
0.05140255391597748,
0.1138567253947258,
-0.19734540581703186,
0.09853385388851166,
-0.07867197692394257,
0.09869661927223206,
-0.008114046417176723,
0.6534501314163208,
-0.0017645219340920448,
0.6805424690246582,
-0.007900208234786987,
0.35032087564468384,
-0.10454806685447693,
0.612021267414093,
0.08199514448642731,
-0.2743547558784485,
0.10865925252437592,
-0.043694522231817245,
0.11490553617477417,
0.21058335900306702,
0.41792187094688416,
-0.14466862380504608,
-0.5100874900817871,
0.10290789604187012,
-1.0766469240188599,
0.23513516783714294,
0.1642845720052719,
-0.017505355179309845,
-0.4265638589859009,
-0.07603558152914047,
0.04286009445786476,
0.14581312239170074,
-0.4621989130973816,
-0.10962306708097458,
0.058423012495040894,
-0.002126700710505247,
-0.41905930638313293,
-0.053984515368938446,
-0.2807290256023407,
-0.19413334131240845,
-0.11063267290592194,
-0.1528911143541336,
0.08364471793174744,
0.06888558715581894,
-0.2506006956100464,
-0.1492614448070526,
0.13915245234966278,
-0.36894622445106506,
-0.18713609874248505,
0.23527108132839203,
-0.591539204120636,
0.1461617797613144,
-0.06494582444429398,
-0.35559871792793274,
0.4937613606452942,
-0.11620339006185532,
0.16267871856689453,
0.27504703402519226,
0.21395939588546753,
0.32478010654449463,
0.7594630122184753,
-0.17563901841640472,
-0.8711790442466736,
-0.10726496577262878,
0.5793091058731079,
-0.0072293695993721485,
0.20602115988731384,
-0.12120761722326279,
-0.09294243901968002,
-0.21614569425582886,
0.4717867076396942,
-0.08755135536193848,
-0.7040653824806213,
0.030350398272275925,
0.5748668313026428,
-0.9345291256904602,
1.1623172760009766,
-0.07256950438022614,
-0.3016345202922821,
-0.03347267583012581,
0.17665345966815948,
-0.041120462119579315,
0.024571549147367477,
0.2759508788585663,
0.14738787710666656,
-0.08106153458356857,
-0.3805905878543854,
1.0242348909378052,
0.083515465259552,
-0.04844367876648903,
0.17359526455402374,
0.2602164149284363,
0.8836506009101868,
-0.44188812375068665,
0.568491518497467,
-0.9025381803512573,
-0.14224962890148163,
-0.03235814347863197,
-0.2869851291179657,
0.24815227091312408,
0.12566833198070526,
0.03083864599466324,
0.11229308694601059,
-0.11535675078630447,
-0.5225503444671631,
-0.04799220338463783,
0.36448636651039124,
0.9420541524887085,
0.7044798135757446,
0.01785433106124401,
0.5643715858459473,
-0.841714084148407,
0.3651573657989502,
-0.13402187824249268,
0.2012133151292801,
-0.3537680506706238,
-0.051521170884370804,
-0.10351581871509552,
0.5085111260414124,
-0.3036855161190033,
0.3916679918766022,
-0.061149679124355316,
0.0388122983276844,
0.06574274599552155,
-0.3509575426578522,
0.074539914727211,
-0.17621199786663055,
0.015039755962789059,
0.19348295032978058,
0.12470509856939316,
-0.6395421028137207,
0.03489575907588005,
0.09944518655538559,
0.5372434854507446,
-0.05388989672064781,
-0.32393878698349,
0.3426143229007721,
0.050729453563690186,
-0.11665022373199463,
-0.06135549768805504,
0.07354237884283066,
-0.1144251674413681,
-0.30581411719322205,
0.27071455121040344,
0.2069569230079651,
0.21793758869171143,
-0.3207869529724121,
-0.07043307274580002,
-0.26210954785346985,
0.3348768651485443,
-0.25649264454841614,
0.15128760039806366,
0.7853603363037109,
0.16867676377296448,
-0.051248908042907715,
-0.04707041010260582,
-0.12407714873552322,
-0.12116693705320358,
0.20645003020763397,
0.5353010296821594,
-0.8197471499443054,
0.029391273856163025,
0.3230368196964264,
0.3975714147090912,
0.23797090351581573,
-0.1057504191994667,
-0.26327502727508545,
-0.14553940296173096,
-0.25647711753845215,
0.09878720343112946,
0.011847808957099915,
-0.21617336571216583,
-0.7042827606201172,
0.39867067337036133,
0.10663856565952301,
-0.09488648176193237,
0.09376465529203415,
0.0899338573217392,
-0.10634205490350723,
0.3151829242706299,
0.20742572844028473,
0.1320965588092804,
-0.5741122961044312,
0.24326850473880768,
-0.8756839036941528,
-0.30123603343963623,
-0.12343208491802216,
0.1451430320739746,
-0.24733880162239075,
0.3009963035583496,
-5.804074287414551,
0.5183961987495422,
-0.4109615981578827,
-0.013423423282802105,
-0.02566734328866005,
0.06762675195932388,
0.6848206520080566,
-0.07237225770950317,
-0.6976738572120667,
0.35472458600997925,
0.0630384162068367,
-0.009119482710957527,
0.024071261286735535,
0.5015807747840881,
0.26473361253738403,
-0.3705129623413086,
0.6454843282699585,
-0.4969763457775116,
0.19695372879505157,
0.15221482515335083,
-0.21800732612609863,
0.6468648910522461,
-0.12668804824352264,
0.7497189044952393,
-0.49859610199928284,
0.21697668731212616,
0.2937181293964386,
0.44796958565711975,
-1.0525776147842407,
0.01651591993868351,
0.08953741192817688,
-0.5007910132408142,
-0.4323602318763733,
-0.097066231071949,
-0.009078828617930412,
-0.08356301486492157,
0.016715101897716522,
-0.6130519509315491,
-0.1409216672182083,
-0.03309819474816322,
-0.5062087178230286,
0.41847920417785645,
-0.2963612377643585,
0.22495171427726746,
0.4506658911705017,
-0.08152381330728531,
-0.0794081762433052,
-0.38063278794288635,
-0.029319755733013153,
0.408907413482666,
-0.05157410353422165,
-0.17131520807743073,
-0.1393217146396637,
-0.1577952653169632,
0.33826467394828796,
0.36007124185562134,
0.4279269576072693,
0.11078095436096191,
-0.2078113853931427,
-0.09335478395223618,
0.5559145212173462,
0.07155044376850128,
-0.12505480647087097,
-0.1976742148399353,
-0.2700262665748596,
-0.0332409031689167,
-0.4540015161037445,
-0.5874183773994446,
1.0196703672409058,
0.05447818338871002,
-0.3183733820915222,
0.29667243361473083,
0.26980215311050415,
-0.6879593133926392,
0.04082610085606575,
0.2540448307991028,
0.07370896637439728,
-0.08733148127794266,
0.30926987528800964,
0.03922197222709656,
-0.542026162147522,
0.10417207330465317,
-0.0005795711185783148,
0.042192474007606506,
0.10453330725431442,
-0.0033015792723745108,
0.00019862514454871416,
0.31748583912849426,
0.6882866621017456,
-0.3615090847015381,
1.344545602798462,
0.046969104558229446,
-0.02161523327231407,
0.3971976935863495,
-0.292275995016098,
0.9246228337287903,
0.10682185739278793,
0.5295518636703491,
0.18055212497711182,
-0.16837218403816223,
0.08550996333360672,
-0.8059219717979431,
-0.042189713567495346,
-0.7054675817489624,
-0.24347077310085297,
0.003503414336591959,
-0.3836229145526886,
0.07723774015903473,
0.6569777131080627,
-0.7392341494560242,
0.10613744705915451,
0.5710548162460327,
-0.0541081503033638,
-0.40226733684539795,
0.7329586148262024,
-0.04850633442401886,
0.06449294090270996,
0.4986215829849243,
0.5141019225120544,
0.07025736570358276,
0.7896639704704285,
0.7135157585144043,
0.03479587286710739,
-0.5763943791389465,
-0.23654761910438538,
-0.06939269602298737,
0.06153147295117378,
0.019410137087106705,
0.11562923341989517,
-0.326852023601532,
0.23236213624477386,
0.6386459469795227,
0.22666384279727936,
0.42860716581344604,
0.6470991373062134,
-0.8451349139213562,
-0.4903203547000885,
-0.10633417963981628,
-0.04537690430879593,
-0.31691670417785645,
0.6371418833732605,
-0.0946822240948677,
-0.5315666794776917,
0.21562062203884125,
0.6926209926605225,
0.15828868746757507,
-0.2800705134868622,
-0.5983365178108215,
-0.24272264540195465,
0.7101922035217285,
0.45431289076805115,
-0.3718397915363312,
0.17672760784626007,
-0.28277453780174255,
-0.7266144752502441,
0.48244965076446533,
0.06623588502407074,
0.3469337224960327,
0.12222560495138168,
-0.13611671328544617,
0.24220019578933716,
0.14127743244171143,
-1.0407838821411133,
-0.2825784981250763,
0.13418127596378326,
-0.37581393122673035,
-0.19494527578353882,
-0.03924834728240967,
-0.03185645118355751,
0.6304028630256653,
-0.7243832349777222,
-0.23025979101657867,
-0.599333643913269,
-0.1665191799402237,
0.3919565975666046,
0.24593091011047363,
0.13616608083248138,
0.6183089017868042,
-0.08264394104480743,
-0.6781956553459167,
0.2535921335220337,
-0.5928928256034851,
-0.9397627115249634,
0.0007568621076643467,
0.15819746255874634,
-0.17733541131019592,
-0.007844856008887291,
0.3122616410255432,
0.06601233035326004,
-0.38750597834587097,
-0.0777670368552208,
-0.21024589240550995,
0.27256470918655396,
0.04255792126059532,
-0.32611075043678284,
-0.5148106217384338,
-0.28561002016067505,
0.23506776988506317,
-0.17045526206493378,
-0.15452392399311066,
0.21314506232738495,
0.025888584554195404,
-1.0535093545913696,
-0.27550727128982544,
0.30576613545417786,
-1.0083006620407104,
-0.022837210446596146,
0.22575348615646362,
-0.11624892801046371,
0.33828046917915344,
-0.03474043682217598,
-1.0724915266036987,
-0.7458816170692444,
0.017734738066792488,
0.13987897336483002,
-0.027671512216329575,
0.27762287855148315,
-0.2804861068725586,
0.0865209773182869,
-0.24772906303405762,
-0.2033815234899521,
-0.2865178883075714,
-0.36952894926071167,
0.27953284978866577,
0.07158146798610687,
-0.10757265985012054,
0.29855993390083313,
0.1283036321401596,
0.7412586808204651,
-0.09791509062051773,
-0.5984188318252563,
0.20874440670013428,
0.2970938980579376,
0.4543728232383728,
-0.4056335687637329,
-0.06590326130390167,
0.09598740190267563,
0.12774333357810974,
-0.2162577360868454,
0.2543153464794159,
0.28270602226257324,
0.47263219952583313,
0.19216366112232208,
-0.2773338854312897,
-0.24410498142242432,
-0.6334101557731628,
0.4647638499736786,
-0.7114078998565674,
-0.5650786757469177,
0.02143503539264202,
0.45595160126686096,
-0.36319500207901,
-0.6920858025550842,
-0.43981167674064636,
0.5745140314102173,
-0.3661428689956665,
0.14197999238967896,
-0.14421069622039795,
0.23481707274913788,
0.08233264088630676,
-0.20649904012680054,
0.023978380486369133,
-0.3441331684589386,
-0.0425046868622303,
-0.03403459116816521,
-0.058340154588222504,
-0.6535799503326416,
0.0503387488424778,
0.35983383655548096,
-0.9026041030883789,
0.38795721530914307,
0.0017082662088796496,
0.6491459608078003,
0.7874109148979187,
0.32440102100372314,
0.7510506510734558,
-0.15861324965953827,
-0.8403148651123047,
-0.48857581615448,
-0.32355207204818726,
-0.1928969919681549,
-0.048989079892635345,
0.27813971042633057,
-0.17691045999526978,
0.32094478607177734,
-0.32290253043174744,
0.16491687297821045,
-0.8154821395874023,
-0.9250621199607849,
-0.036173343658447266,
-0.8027307391166687,
0.6095431447029114,
-0.32368746399879456,
-0.2347908765077591,
-0.08534843474626541,
-0.25696519017219543,
0.3150172233581543,
0.6040216088294983,
-0.23430998623371124,
-0.18694287538528442,
-0.19873349368572235,
0.5509204268455505,
0.22399023175239563,
-0.7559782862663269,
0.5338767170906067,
-0.12301605939865112,
-0.3047930896282196,
-0.7636377215385437,
0.3482223153114319,
-0.5049034953117371,
0.43294739723205566,
0.08422157913446426,
-0.3066753149032593,
0.7155286073684692,
0.08954107016324997,
-0.10670680552721024,
0.5585361123085022,
-0.4310218095779419,
0.3454022705554962,
0.1500197798013687,
0.2496429830789566,
-0.2009352743625641,
0.43938469886779785,
-0.29123640060424805,
-0.6674913167953491,
0.5376650094985962,
0.016241569072008133,
0.3949846029281616,
0.6411243677139282,
0.12134210765361786,
0.9470669031143188,
-0.17078201472759247,
0.03592099994421005,
-0.26679596304893494,
0.11414825916290283,
-0.15932054817676544,
0.7251572012901306,
-0.6560221314430237,
-0.9610616564750671,
0.18997521698474884,
0.5010836720466614,
0.03398102894425392,
0.06352684646844864,
0.03891850635409355,
0.22958329319953918,
0.7434346079826355,
-0.025284558534622192,
0.1995687186717987,
-0.23293058574199677,
0.1308315396308899,
0.20359091460704803,
0.048498351126909256,
0.33188119530677795,
-0.7840854525566101,
0.14196906983852386,
0.00041241361759603024,
-0.04029254615306854,
-0.4668598473072052,
-0.5267632007598877,
0.38061508536338806,
-0.08404485881328583,
0.3400731384754181,
0.723881185054779,
0.09516031295061111,
-0.0020062231924384832,
-0.2685088515281677,
0.11637458205223083,
-0.3640717566013336,
-0.12946636974811554,
0.044320110231637955,
-0.04798772931098938,
-0.19937607645988464,
-0.27702683210372925,
0.35292917490005493,
0.09317249804735184,
-0.07622659206390381,
0.16269075870513916,
0.6528102159500122,
-0.11188706755638123,
0.40183454751968384,
-0.6000624895095825,
0.6517804265022278,
-0.658348023891449,
-0.10115022212266922,
0.2696869671344757,
0.1848953515291214,
-0.5453414916992188,
0.12458913028240204,
-0.32755595445632935,
0.1072566956281662,
0.05568753182888031,
-0.1152852401137352,
-0.12761709094047546,
-0.13103312253952026,
0.010398687794804573,
-0.17881597578525543,
-0.09076045453548431,
0.2558235824108124,
-0.2947378158569336,
-0.1479700207710266,
0.18954108655452728,
0.48179906606674194,
0.2425781488418579,
0.32757094502449036,
-0.6151337623596191,
0.6323153376579285,
-0.510129451751709,
0.37517476081848145,
-0.8307088613510132,
0.5192762613296509,
0.06301098316907883,
-0.0003823133301921189,
-0.028789332136511803,
0.14933548867702484,
-0.2346208095550537,
-0.23531730473041534,
0.6146625876426697,
-0.2879102826118469,
-0.019048500806093216,
-1.0103574991226196,
0.22360339760780334,
-0.5435914397239685,
0.06769733875989914,
-0.49164825677871704,
-0.16195105016231537,
0.04231870546936989,
0.6110254526138306,
-0.17876213788986206,
0.07038132101297379,
0.029914207756519318,
-0.6150469183921814,
0.34698590636253357,
-0.6135215759277344,
0.11394239962100983,
-0.8699930906295776,
-0.43075937032699585,
0.5382668972015381,
0.9196420907974243,
-0.20295806229114532,
-0.02836628071963787,
0.48601964116096497,
-0.0982711985707283,
-0.17915987968444824,
-0.05958862975239754,
-0.5199447274208069,
-0.19179268181324005,
-0.10228409618139267,
-0.22453707456588745,
-0.2148728370666504,
0.4353935718536377,
-0.08489738404750824,
-0.4593914747238159,
-0.27067798376083374,
-0.1885339915752411,
0.14589275419712067,
-0.09954628348350525,
0.2658824026584625,
-0.29901066422462463,
0.11026403307914734,
0.5151098966598511
] |
241365 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sohn%20Kee-chung | Sohn Kee-chung | Sohn Kee-chung (, ; ; August 29, 1912 – November 15, 2002) was an Olympic athlete and long-distance runner. He became the first ethnic Korean to win a medal at the Olympic Games, winning gold in the marathon at the 1936 Berlin Olympics. He was a Korean national, but he had to compete as a member of the Japanese delegation because Korea was under Japanese colonization at the time. Sohn set an Olympic record of 2 hours 29 minutes 19.2 seconds.
Sohn competed under the Japanese name , as Korea was under the colonial rule of the Japanese Empire during his career.
Early life
Sohn Kee-chung was born in what is now Sinuiju, North P'yŏngan Province, North Korea, which was occupied by Japan at the time. He studied at Yangjeong High School (양정고등학교) in Seoul and Meiji University in Tokyo, where he graduated in 1940.
Athletics career
Sohn first competed in the 1,500 and 5,000 m, but turned to longer distances after winning an eight-mile race in October 1933. Between 1933 and 1936, he ran 12 marathons; he finished in the top three on all occasions and won nine. On November 3, 1935 in Tokyo, Japan, Sohn set a world record in the marathon with a time of 2:26:42, which broke the world record 2:26:44 set by Yasuo Ikenaka of Japan at the Berlin Olympic trials on April 3, 1935, in Tokyo, Japan. According to the International Association of Athletics Federations, the record remained unbroken until Sohn's own trainee, Suh Yun-Bok, won the 1947 Boston Marathon. Unofficially, he even ran a marathon with a time under 2:24 on April 27, 1935 in Seoul, South Korea.
1936 Berlin Olympics
Sohn, competing for the Empire of Japan, won the gold medal at the 1936 Summer Olympics in the marathon. He ran the course in 2:29:19.2, breaking the Olympic record. His Korean teammate Nam Sung-yong took the bronze medal. As Korea was under Japanese occupation at the time, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) officially credited Japan with Sohn's gold and Nam's bronze in the 1936 Summer Olympics medal count.
On December 9, 2011, the IOC recognized Sohn's Korean nationality in his official profile. It cited his efforts to sign his Korean name and his stress on Korea's status as a separate nation during interviews. The move was part of the Korean Olympic Committee's repeated requests to acknowledge Sohn's background. However, the IOC ruled out changing the nationality and registered name per official records to prevent historical distortions.
Political significance
Under orders from Tokyo, Sohn Kee-chung had to compete using the Latin alphabet name of . It is the romanization of the Japanese pronunciation of his Korean name in hanja.
Sohn refused to acknowledge the Japanese anthem while it was played at his award ceremony and later told reporters that he was ashamed to run for Japan. When the Dong-a Ilbo published a photograph of Sohn at the medal ceremony, it altered the image to remove the Japanese flag from his running tunic. The act enraged the Japanese Governor-General of Korea Minami Jiro in Seoul. The Kempetai military police imprisoned eight people connected with the newspaper and suspended its publication for nine months.
Hellenic prize
For winning the marathon, Sohn was to have received an ancient Corinthian helmet from the 8th century BC, which was discovered at Olympia, Greece, and later purchased by a newspaper in Athens to give as an Olympic award. However, the IOC believed that presenting such a valuable gift to a runner would violate its amateur rules. The helmet was placed in a Berlin museum and remained there for 50 years. It was finally presented to Sohn in 1986. Sohn donated the helmet to the National Museum of Korea, which designated it as the 904th and only Western National Treasure. There was initially a plan to award replicas of this helmet to the winners of the 2006 Sohn Kee-chung marathon, but they eventually got only a chance to wear a replica.
Later life
Sohn spent the remainder of his career in South Korea coaching other notable runners such as Suh Yun-Bok, the winner of the Boston Marathon in 1947; Ham Kee-Yong, winner of the Boston Marathon in 1950; and Hwang Young-Cho, who was the gold medalist of the 1992 Summer Olympics marathon, and whom Sohn Kee-chung especially went to Barcelona to see. Sohn also became the Chairman of the Korean Sporting Association. At the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, he was given the honor of carrying the Olympic torch in the stadium during the opening ceremony.
Sohn authored an autobiography entitled My Motherland and Marathon ().
He was honoured with the Moran Class of the Korean Order of Civil Merit (Hangul:).
Death and legacy
Sohn died at midnight on November 15, 2002, at age 90 from pneumonia. He was buried at the Daejeon National Cemetery. The Sohn Kee-chung Memorial Park in Seoul was established in his honor. He was also posthumously made a Grand Cordon (Blue Dragon) of the Order of Sport Merit.
In popular culture
The historical Korean drama Bridal Mask () referred to Sohn Kee-chung's Olympic win and to the arrest of the Korean journalists in its 21st episode. In a parade scene, spectators wave Japanese flags to a Korean boxer parading through on a jeep. Despite the joyous occasion, the boxer's face remains staid and never smiles, and the Japanese flag is on his shirt. The boxer just won an international sports title, a first for a Korean. However, the Japanese occupation makes the boxer represent Japan, rather than Korea, and claims that victory.
As the parade continues, spectators suddenly unveil their Korean flags, which they got the night before, wave them, and shout for Korea. In solidarity with the crowd, the boxer then rips the Japanese flag from his shirt. With tearful eyes and a determined face, he raises his fists and repeatedly cheers with the crowd, "", a pro-Korean independence slogan.
The reporter Song takes a picture of the emotional scene. The picture appears in the newspaper's front page the next day, and government officials learn about the incident. The picture also angers Kimura, a high-ranking police officer. At the police station, he orders officers to arrest the boxer and to punish him harshly for disrespecting Japan. The police therefore arrest him and the journalists, and the government close the newspaper.
Sohn also appears in Zainichi author Yu Miri's semi-autobiographical novel The End of August (） about her grandfather, Yang Im-deuk, who was a rival of Sohn's when they were young.
Actors who played Sohn Kee-chung
Portrayed by Yoon Hee-won in the 2011 film My Way.
See also
List of people of Korean descent
References
External links
Profile on www.olympic.org
1912 births
2002 deaths
People from Sinuiju
Korean male long-distance runners
Korean male marathon runners
Japanese male marathon runners
Japanese male long-distance runners
South Korean male long-distance runners
South Korean male marathon runners
Olympic male marathon runners
Olympic athletes of Japan
Olympic gold medalists for Japan
Olympic gold medalists in athletics (track and field)
Athletes (track and field) at the 1936 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1936 Summer Olympics
World record setters in athletics (track and field)
Japan Championships in Athletics winners
Korea University alumni
Recipients of the Order of Civil Merit (Korea)
Deaths from pneumonia in South Korea | [
-0.4252433776855469,
0.06673699617385864,
-0.7849350571632385,
-0.17726688086986542,
-0.5150718092918396,
0.6187395453453064,
0.3572157025337219,
0.3495333194732666,
-0.5499416589736938,
0.3548907935619354,
0.15348052978515625,
-0.0854613408446312,
0.0637955293059349,
0.01009042002260685,
-0.046815067529678345,
-0.2854100167751312,
0.3145866394042969,
-0.0729772076010704,
-0.3541407287120819,
0.09906744956970215,
-0.3960365056991577,
-0.8397142887115479,
0.25516971945762634,
0.05862223729491234,
-0.3833184242248535,
0.43764597177505493,
-0.637353777885437,
0.2560059726238251,
0.04942839592695236,
-0.4151104688644409,
0.004044098313897848,
0.1807684451341629,
0.2777427136898041,
-0.05215495452284813,
-0.940218985080719,
0.27589377760887146,
-0.33531177043914795,
-0.14020313322544098,
-0.2410724014043808,
0.3317323327064514,
-0.07468550652265549,
0.2704591155052185,
0.19009265303611755,
0.36991098523139954,
0.004947813227772713,
-0.7259320020675659,
-1.3424686193466187,
-0.010509461164474487,
-1.400098443031311,
-0.12736567854881287,
-0.6487695574760437,
0.873777449131012,
0.3914240002632141,
0.32390913367271423,
0.0834127739071846,
0.8120508790016174,
-0.5462764501571655,
0.02455289475619793,
-0.45887643098831177,
-0.70144122838974,
0.20611652731895447,
-0.17481130361557007,
0.8489514589309692,
-0.20618736743927002,
-0.15703164041042328,
0.420431524515152,
0.15731722116470337,
0.2835518717765808,
-0.04826958850026131,
-0.3417404294013977,
0.5661453604698181,
0.9257603287696838,
0.43055883049964905,
0.7396321892738342,
0.26450029015541077,
-0.8493795394897461,
0.04869453236460686,
-0.4002079963684082,
-0.03998711332678795,
0.005648456979542971,
-0.014016764238476753,
-0.5353115797042847,
0.562751054763794,
0.7714378237724304,
-0.09593166410923004,
-0.010558715090155602,
-0.34574154019355774,
0.7356428503990173,
-0.7149562239646912,
0.7027943730354309,
-0.629990816116333,
-0.295513778924942,
0.3456650972366333,
-0.01159212738275528,
-0.9750861525535583,
0.14165803790092468,
0.19757428765296936,
0.6443197131156921,
0.3346364498138428,
-0.904109001159668,
-0.0960589125752449,
-0.8034740090370178,
0.2730201482772827,
-0.1834418624639511,
-0.7030621767044067,
-0.41579699516296387,
-0.17092382907867432,
-0.07628808170557022,
0.2056761533021927,
-0.3279281258583069,
-0.8796982765197754,
-0.17410622537136078,
0.2923983633518219,
0.21922332048416138,
0.05280749872326851,
0.5006496906280518,
0.014672458171844482,
-0.4337393343448639,
-0.6178163886070251,
-0.5006612539291382,
-0.33502185344696045,
0.032550446689128876,
-0.2686726152896881,
-0.31366124749183655,
-0.01824931986629963,
0.19739551842212677,
-0.08744993060827255,
0.5117766857147217,
-0.36421796679496765,
0.5137372016906738,
0.48672404885292053,
0.5794428586959839,
-0.7319202423095703,
-0.2765601873397827,
-0.10826345533132553,
-0.5124685764312744,
0.5044387578964233,
0.27979958057403564,
-0.19682607054710388,
-0.1200026273727417,
-0.5710541605949402,
-0.23502588272094727,
-0.532023549079895,
0.10372307896614075,
0.38060739636421204,
0.29119783639907837,
-0.5763322114944458,
-0.29783955216407776,
-0.044633690267801285,
-0.03042151965200901,
-0.23714937269687653,
0.19786611199378967,
0.13672314584255219,
-0.2671652138233185,
-0.8112401962280273,
1.4357608556747437,
0.37982305884361267,
0.5107746124267578,
0.176294207572937,
0.3953309655189514,
0.0035605672746896744,
0.10736764967441559,
-0.7724882364273071,
-0.29460927844047546,
0.4716208875179291,
-0.1528465449810028,
-0.14873965084552765,
0.16136039793491364,
-0.6293260455131531,
-0.13995501399040222,
0.2861775755882263,
-0.08377403020858765,
-0.17053978145122528,
0.07703768461942673,
-0.09469419717788696,
0.5246671438217163,
-0.032288361340761185,
0.08441732823848724,
-0.33480843901634216,
-0.01922203041613102,
-0.8964760899543762,
0.07934273034334183,
0.18542242050170898,
0.15581128001213074,
0.6417755484580994,
0.26711905002593994,
0.8359748721122742,
0.461723655462265,
0.15264776349067688,
0.19342808425426483,
-0.9220672249794006,
-0.41462233662605286,
0.20728319883346558,
0.24924349784851074,
0.4509693384170532,
0.4932403862476349,
0.46391353011131287,
0.4190942943096161,
-0.009660376235842705,
0.6306229829788208,
-0.18925301730632782,
-0.2012968212366104,
-0.08901200443506241,
-0.343959778547287,
-0.5279452204704285,
0.8488905429840088,
1.081694483757019,
0.6877453327178955,
0.5095503330230713,
0.0422828383743763,
-0.06409136950969696,
-0.8341143131256104,
-0.138705775141716,
0.5438637733459473,
-0.7196304798126221,
-0.8081613779067993,
-0.36093518137931824,
-0.2200273722410202,
-0.16686967015266418,
-0.5343642234802246,
0.6544342637062073,
0.3164999485015869,
-0.31534770131111145,
0.7527145147323608,
0.36995795369148254,
1.2009809017181396,
-0.3045088052749634,
0.03834421560168266,
-0.04328224062919617,
-0.14593780040740967,
0.06557172536849976,
-0.036249611526727676,
0.1576237976551056,
-0.5367808938026428,
0.32947057485580444,
-0.04904414713382721,
0.5322640538215637,
-0.681511640548706,
0.8755741119384766,
-1.2247464656829834,
0.44299548864364624,
0.34376946091651917,
-0.13642504811286926,
0.3395318388938904,
0.06042279675602913,
0.23714618384838104,
-0.31511932611465454,
-0.12939298152923584,
-0.17431990802288055,
-0.14106759428977966,
-0.09641050547361374,
0.6995572447776794,
0.613297164440155,
-0.02046249434351921,
0.08978220820426941,
-0.2715892493724823,
-0.22448384761810303,
0.006126137915998697,
0.14306166768074036,
-0.10220357030630112,
0.8201419115066528,
-0.2623712420463562,
0.5661706924438477,
-0.2809896171092987,
-0.24506795406341553,
-0.49315372109413147,
0.32559436559677124,
-1.098504900932312,
0.3027762770652771,
-0.23821401596069336,
0.1078958660364151,
-0.13069841265678406,
-0.1928778737783432,
-0.12258005142211914,
-0.5531537532806396,
-0.37851566076278687,
-0.7759238481521606,
0.10363771766424179,
-1.2939929962158203,
-0.7172693014144897,
0.8931774497032166,
0.99054354429245,
-0.2164871245622635,
-0.3922349512577057,
0.33777686953544617,
0.36124739050865173,
-0.4508187174797058,
0.2695722281932831,
-0.34910112619400024,
0.19573712348937988,
-0.30337443947792053,
0.7118533849716187,
0.019449373707175255,
-0.05671418085694313,
-0.3003758192062378,
-0.10545600950717926,
-0.39249029755592346,
-0.37356290221214294,
0.28373438119888306,
-0.24185076355934143,
-0.28295373916625977,
-0.19683898985385895,
-0.20523160696029663,
-0.07470372319221497,
0.4569672644138336,
-0.07653137296438217,
0.16693729162216187,
0.11201141774654388,
-5.114134311676025,
0.14214974641799927,
0.43431881070137024,
-0.017466600984334946,
-0.09961637109518051,
0.5384530425071716,
0.4569827616214752,
0.205768883228302,
0.12864291667938232,
-0.2315228283405304,
0.35081711411476135,
-0.6297284364700317,
0.5421473383903503,
-0.16893376410007477,
0.24226656556129456,
0.4564673602581024,
0.038985054939985275,
-0.23914356529712677,
0.4316933751106262,
0.15249283611774445,
-0.04865260794758797,
-0.45507532358169556,
-0.70868980884552,
0.16939888894557953,
-0.5335331559181213,
0.4264429807662964,
-0.46567562222480774,
0.5158597230911255,
-1.2111082077026367,
-0.6393214464187622,
-0.16123411059379578,
0.18144270777702332,
-0.43533429503440857,
0.43428924679756165,
-0.5411889553070068,
-0.5033372044563293,
0.3474067151546478,
0.23072564601898193,
-0.05488821491599083,
-0.14756180346012115,
-0.19399690628051758,
-0.848109781742096,
-0.6486461758613586,
0.021555950865149498,
0.574012279510498,
-0.03623402491211891,
-0.5788368582725525,
-0.4665488600730896,
-0.0833040326833725,
0.37282633781433105,
-0.054719872772693634,
0.44767671823501587,
0.7663185000419617,
-0.38748598098754883,
-0.011562887579202652,
0.2743340730667114,
-0.4031364619731903,
0.11940842866897583,
-0.9720931649208069,
0.0069122700951993465,
0.4565776288509369,
-0.3244214951992035,
-0.29695796966552734,
-0.1860797256231308,
-0.1665336936712265,
-0.17677271366119385,
0.46900057792663574,
-0.17220470309257507,
-0.5228388905525208,
-0.035326290875673294,
-0.4495087265968323,
1.2769776582717896,
0.16486956179141998,
-1.082395076751709,
-0.18805062770843506,
-0.39084339141845703,
-0.12215981632471085,
-0.025486137717962265,
-0.3553832471370697,
0.1147744357585907,
-0.11916075646877289,
-0.42476126551628113,
0.2813302278518677,
1.2712769508361816,
0.5639798045158386,
-0.15147358179092407,
0.14025487005710602,
0.46439889073371887,
0.46492937207221985,
0.7195169925689697,
0.3053382635116577,
-0.5507660508155823,
0.12196832150220871,
0.6690305471420288,
0.32150891423225403,
-0.10155943036079407,
-0.4675719141960144,
0.36280423402786255,
0.8615401983261108,
-0.5418696403503418,
-0.14805868268013,
-0.5571057200431824,
-0.16415876150131226,
0.024943802505731583,
0.1505674123764038,
-0.5238006711006165,
0.40021342039108276,
0.20132976770401,
0.624800980091095,
0.6808395385742188,
0.20411960780620575,
0.08630847930908203,
0.00881950743496418,
-0.018556756898760796,
0.6586697101593018,
-0.4853129982948303,
-0.037421535700559616,
0.08983583748340607,
0.20498353242874146,
0.5360074043273926,
-0.18308059871196747,
0.6402642130851746,
0.5261234045028687,
-0.45482969284057617,
0.9892740249633789,
-0.4947371780872345,
-0.21643227338790894,
-0.020010868087410927,
-0.6902012228965759,
-0.03489767760038376,
0.3305131494998932,
0.6231406331062317,
0.36923274397850037,
-0.0439874529838562,
-0.4571509063243866,
-0.0194708202034235,
-0.887321412563324,
-0.6539582014083862,
-0.1300768405199051,
0.528444766998291,
0.13519799709320068,
0.08709360659122467,
-0.2911733388900757,
0.45478105545043945,
-0.005204546265304089,
0.3676253855228424,
-0.09129954874515533,
-0.22911840677261353,
0.006231534760445356,
0.9776328802108765,
0.14683029055595398,
-0.8535474538803101,
0.5866269469261169,
-0.27025091648101807,
-0.8264787197113037,
-0.07473070174455643,
-0.03212842345237732,
-0.03801111876964569,
-0.021658649668097496,
0.06639877706766129,
0.11932823061943054,
-0.28223493695259094,
-0.9237911105155945,
0.3786778151988983,
-0.4612780213356018,
-0.1546013206243515,
0.07878212630748749,
-0.20843574404716492,
-0.7565433382987976,
0.2094803899526596,
0.3393930494785309,
-1.0047935247421265,
-0.2655760943889618,
0.048797525465488434,
-0.3677019774913788,
-0.4084877073764801,
-0.40116608142852783,
0.09747754037380219,
-0.1570063829421997,
-0.2236487865447998,
-0.25177350640296936,
-0.05112622305750847,
-0.7500025033950806,
-0.3106530010700226,
0.8826481699943542,
0.227161705493927,
-0.11284732073545456,
-0.7228104472160339,
-0.38763099908828735,
0.9087452292442322,
0.8985410332679749,
-0.131681889295578,
-0.2121383249759674,
0.8790242075920105,
0.2618842124938965,
-0.2491467148065567,
-0.05360889434814453,
0.27917712926864624,
-0.2434537410736084,
0.5086798667907715,
-0.20072616636753082,
0.09648016095161438,
-0.21806472539901733,
-0.24431079626083374,
0.30750444531440735,
-0.8676931858062744,
-0.4287806749343872,
0.6711039543151855,
0.18714632093906403,
0.017513878643512726,
-0.5200271606445312,
-0.7073938250541687,
0.31635206937789917,
0.03901996091008186,
0.05961459502577782,
0.2743432819843292,
0.07844853401184082,
-0.41506922245025635,
0.2800062298774719,
-1.0947003364562988,
-0.4093792140483856,
0.1864302158355713,
-0.6038564443588257,
-0.37226933240890503,
-0.36046698689460754,
0.2282206118106842,
-0.2328375279903412,
0.35397833585739136,
0.13613007962703705,
-0.6390866637229919,
-0.9112821221351624,
-0.22652539610862732,
0.6509971618652344,
0.5025750994682312,
0.21629434823989868,
-0.36619335412979126,
0.4695911109447479,
0.2045343816280365,
0.047129083424806595,
-0.3096270263195038,
0.39737606048583984,
0.7053595185279846,
0.6396977305412292,
0.05486360937356949,
0.16169141232967377,
0.20006057620048523,
0.6238676905632019,
-0.2997084856033325,
-0.10275010019540787,
-0.025578970089554787,
0.6019932627677917,
-0.37832462787628174,
-1.2548408508300781,
-0.6768822073936462,
0.05254417657852173,
-0.3920656442642212,
0.0202923770993948,
0.1506168395280838,
0.5132623314857483,
-0.5816320776939392,
-0.5317667126655579,
-0.07487628608942032,
0.4146566390991211,
-0.36078256368637085,
-0.09662310779094696,
1.1314843893051147,
-0.5620879530906677,
0.1909663826227188,
0.05113654583692551,
-0.4972827732563019,
0.33726048469543457,
-0.9176669120788574,
-0.5137099027633667,
0.175452321767807,
-0.7293034195899963,
0.29173895716667175,
-0.18566034734249115,
0.20351295173168182,
-0.14839617908000946,
-0.4540225565433502,
-0.6207018494606018,
-0.19850653409957886,
0.04244890809059143,
-0.025250853970646858,
-0.29095661640167236,
-0.33243152499198914,
0.5080723166465759,
-0.32157403230667114,
0.005255779251456261,
0.5220727920532227,
-0.9407960772514343,
0.1642976701259613,
-0.2802771329879761,
0.3261418342590332,
0.0077638402581214905,
0.3562462627887726,
0.0191088505089283,
0.8870816230773926,
-0.7914580702781677,
-0.39966726303100586,
-0.31485268473625183,
0.1767147034406662,
0.5986952781677246,
-0.02320851758122444,
0.22647921741008759,
-0.4953640103340149,
0.5735945105552673,
-0.5283932089805603,
0.41945987939834595,
0.7476667761802673,
0.6208496689796448,
0.3730846345424652,
-0.05995593219995499,
0.606644332408905,
-0.7189775705337524,
-0.30136680603027344,
0.26650676131248474,
-0.4827621877193451,
-0.37409916520118713,
0.2636253237724304,
0.03517429158091545,
0.05863533169031143,
0.9627395272254944,
0.11296959966421127,
0.10399238020181656,
0.7029827833175659,
0.2501693367958069,
-0.20025834441184998,
-0.1654597371816635,
0.8025471568107605,
-0.3179112672805786,
-0.28717485070228577,
0.10823975503444672,
-0.05290745943784714,
0.40415892004966736,
-0.4929261803627014,
0.10747845470905304,
-0.606890082359314,
0.23677055537700653,
0.21451924741268158,
-0.18040747940540314,
0.5993224382400513,
0.04882381856441498,
-0.16360318660736084,
0.19531390070915222,
-0.1987382471561432,
-0.2667075991630554,
0.6781458854675293,
0.4785693287849426,
-0.4844461679458618,
0.261622816324234,
0.7467777729034424,
-0.15307997167110443,
-0.5307947993278503,
0.5796831250190735,
0.40481746196746826,
-0.2973287105560303,
-0.060431115329265594,
0.0393996387720108,
0.33586734533309937,
-0.07005660235881805,
-0.3160727620124817,
1.0274388790130615,
0.09641715884208679,
0.42037659883499146,
-0.6891912817955017,
0.01877950318157673,
-0.6349274516105652,
0.018833477050065994,
0.6131402850151062,
0.2782164514064789,
0.16909128427505493,
-0.055845439434051514,
0.4806230068206787,
-0.05797834321856499,
0.14524546265602112,
0.8408816456794739,
-0.23314523696899414,
-0.4172949194908142,
-0.3487396836280823,
-0.5687990784645081,
0.08396803587675095,
0.13334256410598755,
-0.3790249824523926,
0.3325099050998688,
0.2959418296813965,
-0.07007622718811035,
0.4524717628955841,
0.37120291590690613,
0.39929911494255066,
0.9706231951713562,
-0.13759566843509674,
-0.2168882191181183,
0.5594643950462341,
-0.052209652960300446,
0.15918846428394318,
-0.6401113271713257,
0.33204391598701477,
0.6967383027076721,
-0.3300575315952301,
-0.25321903824806213,
0.3567292094230652,
-0.09930266439914703,
0.14555463194847107,
0.07263217121362686,
0.4415612518787384,
-0.5364740490913391,
0.5530004501342773,
-1.1029126644134521,
0.3972042202949524,
0.021830374374985695,
0.6224066019058228,
-0.0004774982517119497,
0.12332627177238464,
-0.25456473231315613,
0.5499144196510315,
0.4125717878341675,
-0.2810220718383789,
-0.3188644349575043,
0.022000301629304886,
-0.15793617069721222,
0.34106993675231934,
-0.02880142442882061,
-0.07503604143857956,
0.21444134414196014,
0.44878479838371277,
0.03526119515299797,
-0.3229300379753113,
-0.2391837239265442,
0.8713705539703369,
-0.3756829798221588,
0.400686115026474,
-0.28156962990760803,
-0.8823338747024536,
0.18436358869075775,
-0.13116799294948578,
0.5580779910087585,
0.7422824501991272,
0.4524538218975067,
-0.5471182465553284,
0.7789818048477173,
0.06283010542392731,
-0.11041446775197983,
0.12577708065509796,
0.3059532344341278,
0.07898078858852386,
-0.16620148718357086,
-0.3859439790248871,
-0.08819714188575745,
-0.05673396959900856,
0.2131521850824356,
0.04292331635951996,
0.5391720533370972,
-0.9939371943473816,
0.20158502459526062,
0.17977017164230347,
0.05619686469435692,
0.424559086561203,
0.3322094976902008,
0.07471780478954315
] |
241367 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalynn%20Carter | Rosalynn Carter | Eleanor Rosalynn Carter (; née Smith; born August 18, 1927) is an American writer and activist who served as first lady of the United States from 1977 to 1981 as the wife of President Jimmy Carter. For decades, she has been a leading advocate for numerous causes, including mental health. Carter was politically active during her White House years, sitting in on Cabinet meetings. She was her husband's closest adviser. She also served as an envoy abroad, particularly in Latin America. Like her husband, Rosalynn Carter is considered a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity charity.
Early life
Eleanor Rosalynn Smith was born on August 18, 1927, in Plains, Georgia. She was the eldest of four children of Wilburn Edgar Smith, an auto mechanic, bus driver and farmer, and Frances Allethea "Allie" Murray Smith, a teacher, dressmaker and postal worker. Her brothers were William Jerrold "Jerry" Smith (1929–2003), an engineer, and Murray Lee Smith (1932–2003), a teacher and minister. Her sister, Lillian Allethea (Smith) Wall (born 1936), named for Lillian Gordy Carter (Smith and Carter families being friends), is a real estate broker. Rosalynn was named after Rosa Wise Murray, her maternal grandmother.
Smith's great-uncle W.S. Wise was one of the American Brazilians known as Confederados who emigrated from the United States to Brazil after the Civil War.
Smith's family lived in poverty, although she later claimed that she and her siblings were unaware, since even though their family "didn't have money," neither did "anyone else, so as far as we knew, we were well off." Churches and schools were at the center of her family's community, and the people of Plains were familiar with each other. Smith played with the boys during her early childhood since no girls on her street were her age. She drew buildings and was interested in airplanes, which led her to believe that she would someday become an architect.
Rosalynn's father died of leukemia when she was 13 in 1940. She called the loss of her father the conclusion of her childhood. Thereafter, she helped her mother raise her younger siblings, as well as assisting in the dressmaking business in order to meet the family's financial obligations. Rosalynn would credit her mother with inspiring her own independence and said that she learned from her mother that "you can do what you have to do". At Plains High School, Rosalynn worked hard to achieve her father's dream of seeing her go to college. Rosalynn graduated as salutatorian of Plains High School. Soon after, she attended Georgia Southwestern College, but later dropped out. She had aspirations to go beyond Plains, but she was forced to leave the college due to lack of money and also because of obligations to her mother and siblings.
Politics
First Lady of Georgia
After helping her husband win the governorship of Georgia in 1970, Rosalynn decided to focus her attention in the field of mental health when she was that state's First Lady. It was her main focus. She was appointed to the Governor's Commission to Improve Services for the Mentally and Emotionally Handicapped. Many of the Commission's recommendations were approved and became law. In August 1971, Carter engaged in a statewide tour of mental health facilities across Georgia. She has described her efforts for mentally disabled children her proudest achievement as First Lady of Georgia.
Carter also served as a volunteer at the Georgia Regional Hospital in Atlanta, Georgia, and for four years was honorary chairperson for the Georgia Special Olympics.
Among wives of Georgia legislators, she was considered a model and was revered for her traits and appearance. Her activities included entertaining as many as 75 people a week at the Governor's Mansion. Governor Carter once claimed that he had supported the Equal Rights Amendment while his wife was opposed to the measure, the First Lady confronting him upon hearing the news story with two feminist allies.
1976 presidential campaign
When her husband's gubernatorial term ended in January 1975, Rosalynn, Jimmy and Amy Carter returned to Plains. Jimmy had already announced his plans to run for President of the United States. Rosalynn returned to the campaign trail, this time on a national quest to gather support for her husband. She campaigned alone on his behalf in 41 states. Because of her husband's obscurity at the time, she often had to answer the question, "Jimmy who?" She promoted the establishment of additional daycare facilities and adjustments to "Social Security and so many other things to help the elderly."
During the months when she was campaigning across the country, she was elected to the board of directors of the National Association of Mental Health, honored by the National Organization for Women with an Award of Merit for her vigorous support for the Equal Rights Amendment, and received the Volunteer of the Year Award from the Southwestern Association of Volunteer Services.
Rosalynn sat in the balcony at Madison Square Garden with friends and family the night of the nomination while her husband was with his mother and daughter. She had "butterflies in her stomach," until the Ohio delegation announced its votes were for her husband. Rosalynn wished she could have been with him at that time. The Carters met with all the potential running mates, and instantly gained affinity for Walter Mondale after meeting with him and his wife Joan. Following the election, the Carters traveled to the White House and met with President Ford and First Lady Betty Ford, the latter becoming a role model for Rosalynn.
First Lady of the United States
Major initiatives
When her husband assumed the presidency in January 1977, Rosalynn and Jimmy Carter walked hand-in-hand down Pennsylvania Avenue during his presidential inauguration parade. The gown that she wore to the inaugural balls was the same one that she had worn six years earlier at the Atlanta balls when Jimmy became governor.
Rosalynn declared that she had no intention of being a traditional First Lady of the United States. During her husband's administration, Rosalynn supported her husband's public policies as well as his social and personal life. In order to remain fully informed, she sat in on Cabinet meetings at the invitation of the President. The first meeting she attended was on February 28, 1977, where she felt comfortable since she was among other officials that were not members of the unit. The idea for her to be in attendance came from her husband's suggestion after she started to question him about a news story.
She wrote notes, but never spoke. As she put it, "I was there to be informed so that when I traveled across the country, which I did a great deal, and was questioned by the press and other individuals about all areas of government, I'd know what was going on." When the cultural exchange program Friendship Force International launched at the White House on March 1, 1977, she became honorary chairperson, a position she held until 2002. She joined Lady Bird Johnson and Betty Ford in supporting the unsuccessful campaign for the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) at the Houston conference celebrating the International Women's Year in 1977.
For Christmas 1977, she decorated the White House's Christmas tree with ornaments from pine cones, peanuts and egg shells. On July 27, 1978, Carter was the host of "First Lady's Employment Seminar". 200-300 delegates came and shared information to learn how other communities responded to unemployment. Rosalynn remembered 1979 and 1980 as years of never-ending crises, the years having "Big ones and small ones, potential disasters and mere annoyances."
During 1978, Carter became involved with an effort to reform D.C. General Hospital after criticizing the appearance of it, traveling to the hospital for reviews of changing conditions as more work was done in remodeling.
Despite finding time to entertain, the Carters never were able to match their immediate predecessors and Rosalynn never considered it a major part of her job as First Lady.
Criticism came towards her role as First Lady by a U.S. diplomat in Brazil, who insisted that women were meant to be kept "at home and that's all." The cultural factor had also caused many to oppose her trip. Critics called her too programmed and disciplined while others said she lacked admirable qualities of Lady Bird Johnson and Betty Ford. Despite this, Rosalynn was pleased by her viewed role as a demanding First Lady and remembered the times of presidents' wives being "confined" to "official hostess" and other demeaning roles. In efforts to advance the appearance of the White House, she accumulated American paintings.
After the Carter administration began losing popularity, Rosalynn advised Gerald Rafshoon be brought on as White House Director of Communications and have key media figures at the White House during "informal, off‐the‐record, deep discussions about issues." Rafshoon was selected and confirmed for the position.
Mental health campaign
In March 1977, Carter gave her first interview since becoming First Lady. She outlined her goals in focusing on mental health: "For every person who needs mental health care to be able to receive it close to his home, and to remove the stigma from mental health care so people will be free to talk about it and seek help. It's been taboo for so long to admit you had a mental health problem."
Rosalynn Carter served as an active honorary chair of the President's Commission on Mental Health. On behalf of the Mental Health System Bill, enacted in 1980, she testified before a Senate committee, the second First Lady to appear before the Congress (the first being Eleanor Roosevelt). Of her priorities, mental health was the highest. Working to change the nature of government assistance to the mentally ill, Carter wanted to allow people to be comfortable admitting their disabilities without fear of being called crazy.
Influence
After she had been in the office of First Lady for two years, Time magazine called her the "second most powerful person in the United States." Many times, Carter was cited by her husband as an equal partner; he even called her a "perfect extension of myself." During a 1977 interview, Carter admitted that she quarrelled with her husband over his policies but his own decision was what he acted on, and she denied influencing his major decisions. In an interview the following year, Carter stated that she did not publicly disagree with her husband's policies out of a belief that she "would lose all my effectiveness with him" as well as her opinion that the gesture would not assist in changing his perspective to her own. She outlined that a First Lady could influence officials or the public by discussing an issue or giving attention to it.
Biographer MaryAnne Borrelli wrote that Carter considered her attempts to portray herself as a traditional wife and influencing factor in her husband's administration would be "viewed by some as dependent upon her husband, by others as lacking accountability, and by still others as doing too little–or too much." Years after leaving the White House, Carter would remain bothered by claims that she exuded too much influence on her husband, insisting they had an equal partnership. Jimmy Carter would later write that the two engaged in discussions on a variety of issues and she was aware of everything within the administration apart from "a few highly secret and sensitive security matters".
Travels
Rosalynn represented President Carter in meetings with domestic and foreign leaders, most notably as an envoy to Latin America in 1977. She purposely scheduled so as not to have meetings with any of the heads of state. President Carter said that while his wife had initially been met with hesitance as an American representative, "at the conclusion of those meetings, they now rely on her substantially to be sure that I understand the sensitivities of the people." Following the Latin America meetings, David Vidal observed, "Mrs. Carter has achieved a personal and diplomatic success that goes far beyond the modest expectations of both her foreign policy tutors at the State Department and her hosts."
In a June 7, 1977 news conference, Carter stated that her meetings with Brazilian leaders included discussions on human rights and her wishes for Brazil to include itself among other countries seeking out a reduction in nuclear weapons via an international study. On December 30, 1977, Carter and National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski met with Stefan Wyszyński at the Cardinal's Warsaw residence. President Carter said the meeting was intended to display American "appreciation for the degree of freedom of worship in the country."
Carter led the American delegation to the May 1978 inauguration of Rodrigo Carazo Odio as President of Costa Rica.
In August 1978, Rosalynn led the American delegation to the funeral of Pope Paul VI in Rome.
Rosalynn also led a delegation to Thailand in 1979 to address the problems of Cambodian and Laotian refugees. She examined camps where Cambodian refugees had fled to avoid the combat between the Vietnamese troops and the government of Pol Pot. Helping the refugees, particularly the children, became a special cause for her. She returned to the United States and played a prominent role in speeding up a large appeal for assistance after being affected by the suffering she witnessed during her visit. By the time she had returned, however, her husband met with families of the hostages in Iran. They were more concerned for what they needed to do to get them out over being worried about whether or not they would ever get out. Carter stated that she wanted to return to the US as quickly as possible to mobilize their forces to assist in calming the refugees' plight.
Life in the White House
She was the first First Lady to keep her own office in the East Wing. She also oversaw her family at the White House. Her daughter, Amy, attracted much public attention. The two youngest sons, Chip and Jeff, and their families also lived in the White House. Other members of the family, including son Jack and his wife and children, were frequent visitors. Rosalynn Carter's Secret Service codename was "Dancer". In 1977, Carter reported that her family was divided in their reaction to public perception of them, saying her sons were worried about how they would be perceived living there while she personally thought nothing of it as the public was not financing their residence and she favored the family being together.
On August 16, 1979, Carter released a statement announcing Edith J. Dobelle had accepted "the newly created position of staff director for the East Wing".
After leaving the White House, Carter reflected of Washington, "I love this city. I loved living here and being so close to the seat of power, being a part of the political system. When you watched television you knew the people involved, you were familiar with both sides of the issues."
Equal Rights Amendment
During the 1976 campaign, Carter spoke to feminists about her equal partnership with her husband. In January 1977, prior to the inauguration of her husband, Carter substituted for him in speaking with Senator Birch Bayh over the phone as the latter wanted President-elect Carter to lobby for support of the Equal Rights Amendment being ratified in Indiana. She persuaded Wayne Townsend to switch his vote and the Equal Rights Amendment was approved in an Indiana Senate vote of 26 to 24.
In reference to Carter's role in supporting the Equal Rights Amendment, associate professor of religion Elizabeth Flowers said, "[Rosalynn Carter] wanted to temper down some of the more radical elements of feminism, as she saw it, and challenge what she felt were caricatures of the movement. She wanted to be sure that the struggle for ERA really appealed to mainstream America."
Public image
During the 1976 election cycle, journalists dubbed Carter the "steel magnolia" for having a fragile and feminine appearance that concealed a "tough as nails" interior. Carter was known for a lack of attention paid to fashion, and her choice to reuse the gown from her husband's swearing in as Governor to his presidential inauguration reinforced this view of her. Carter's public interest in national policy prompted Kandy Stroud of The New York Times to speculate she might become the most activist First Lady since Eleanor Roosevelt. Amid the sinking approval ratings of President Carter, Rosalynn maintained high favorable viewpoints in the eyes of the public, and was tied with Mother Teresa for most admired woman in the world. In April 1979, during her speech as guest speaker at the 1979 Matrix Awards Luncheon of New York Women in Communications Inc., Carter said the issues she was championing were being met with opposition due to their lack of sexiness in being topics a First Lady discusses.
1980 presidential campaign
President Carter was challenged by Ted Kennedy for his re-election bid in the Democratic presidential primary. Carter would later write that the ongoing Iran hostage crisis impacted the latter's choice to rely on Rosalynn among others in his administration to advocate for his policies on the campaign trail. Vice President Mondale would come to view himself and Rosalynn as President Carter's proxies through much of the spring portion of the election cycle. Rosalynn would reflect that the Iowa victory of the Carter re-election campaign, which saw President Carter defeat Kennedy 59.16% to 31.23%, made attacks by Kennedy easier for her to not be bothered by. Although President Carter was able to secure the nomination, Rosalynn would come to believe that Kennedy had damaged the Democratic Party through his campaign and not adequately assisted in the general election: "He was a poor loser. I thought that once he saw that he could not win he would try to help the Democratic Party because I thought it was so important to keep Ronald Reagan out of the White House and I thought he should have helped. Instead, he tore the Democratic Party to pieces."
In the last few months of her husband's presidency, Rosalynn was confident that she and her husband would be able to defeat Reagan in the general election. On her birthday, she saw polls that showed they were gaining on Reagan, whose previous lead of 25 percent had decreased to 7. In the November 4 election, Carter lost to Reagan in a landslide. Rosalynn would later cite Christian conservatives, the Iran hostage crisis, inflation, and desire to wage a protest vote against the current administration with having contributed to Carter's defeat. Her husband's loss came shortly after the passing of the Mental Health System Act, which sought to do much of what she had wished for during her tenure. However, after Ronald Reagan was elected, she reflected "funding of our legislation was killed, by the philosophy of a new President. It was a bitter loss."
In the days following the election, Rosalynn experienced depression, which led her husband to express the benefits of his impending post-presidency. She telephoned supporters of the re-election campaign to thank them for their involvement. Rosalynn met with Reagan's wife, Nancy, during the transitional period and provided her with a tour of the White House. Rosalynn and Nancy developed a friendship as a result of their shared support for the Equal Rights Amendment. She was also satisfied that the Iran hostages were released on the day of Reagan's inauguration.
Personal life
Marriage and family
Their families were already acquainted when Rosalynn first dated Jimmy Carter in 1945 while he was attending the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis. She became attracted to him after seeing a picture of him in his Annapolis uniform. The two were riding in the back seat of the car of Ruth Carter's boyfriend when Jimmy surprised Rosalynn by kissing her. This was the first time that Rosalynn had ever allowed a boy to do so on the first date. Rosalynn agreed to marry Jimmy in February 1946 when she went to Annapolis with his parents. The two scheduled their marriage to take place in July and kept the arrangement secret. Rosalynn resisted telling her mother she had chosen to marry instead of continuing her education. On July 7, 1946, they married in Plains. The marriage canceled Rosalynn's plans to attend Georgia State College for Women, where she had planned to study interior design.
The couple had four children: John William "Jack" (b. 1947), James Earl "Chip" III (b. 1950), Donnel Jeffrey "Jeff" (b. 1952), and Amy Lynn (b. 1967). Due to Jimmy's military duties, the first three were born in different parts of the country and away from Georgia. During those duties, Rosalynn watched over and enjoyed the independence she had gained from raising the children on her own. However, their relationship faced its first major crisis when she opposed Jimmy's resigning to return to Plains in 1953 after he learned his father was dying. Jimmy reflected that she "avoided talking to me as much as possible" as a result of his decision and would interact with him through their children. They were fans of the New York Yankees until the Braves moved to Atlanta. They said they never went to bed arguing with each other.
In 1953, after her husband left the Navy, Rosalynn helped run the family peanut farm and warehouse business, handling accounting responsibilities. Around this time, yearning for another child, the Carters discovered Rosalynn had physical ailments preventing pregnancy. She underwent surgery to remove a large tumor from her uterus 12 years later. Her obstetrician confirmed she could have another child, and their daughter Amy was born thereafter. Since 1962, the year her husband Jimmy was elected to the Georgia State Senate, she has been active in the political arena.
Rosalynn had different relationships with each member of Jimmy's family. Becoming friends with his sister Ruth Carter Stapleton, who was two years younger than she, she gave her dresses she had outgrown. However, she and Jimmy's mother, Lillian Gordy Carter, had difficulty living together.
In later years, the couple rode two and a half miles a day on three-wheel electric scooters, and they read the Bible aloud to each other in Spanish before they retired to bed each night.
On November 22, 1963, Rosalynn was at a beauty parlor when she was contacted by her husband and informed of the assassination of John F. Kennedy. She would later write that though the pair were both saddened at the event, a teacher and classmates of their son Chip exclaimed happiness. Carter backed Kennedy's successor Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1964 Presidential election, which she stated put her and her family at odds with other Georgians and caused them to develop a closeness with each other over shared values that others opposed.
Jimmy thoroughly consulted with Rosalynn before he mounted a bid for Governor of Georgia in 1966. She traveled to multiple towns throughout the state with promotional materials, visited multiple establishments such as radio stations and newspaper offices, and attending civic organizations meetings. In one encounter, she tried endorsing her husband to a man in Washington, Georgia, the latter declaring his support for Republican candidate Bo Callaway before spitting on her. Rosalynn would later describe the encounter as the "worst political experience of my life." Summarizing the race, Carter wrote, "This was a brief and rushed campaign, but we all learned many things that were helpful to us later." The 1966 gubernatorial campaign began a new interaction between the Carters, with Rosalynn determining that she would know her husband's positions on issues and be informed.
The month after the election, Jimmy Carter began campaigning for the 1970 Georgia gubernatorial election. In this campaign, Rosalynn made speeches, which she had not done in prior campaigns. The Carters were separated for most of their travels, and she also began writing speeches for the first time in her political involvement. When she met a Carter campaign worker who confided in Rosalynn that her daughter had a mental illness, the sight of the exhausted woman haunted Carter and became a factor in her eventual focus on mental health. Jimmy would later disclose that the couple's Georgia years were when they became "keenly aware of the unmet needs of people in our state who suffered from mental and emotional disabilities."
Mary Prince (an African American woman wrongly convicted of murder, and later pardoned) was Amy's nanny for most of the period from 1971 until Jimmy Carter's presidency ended, partly thanks to Rosalynn's belief in Prince's innocence.
Health
In April 1977, Carter underwent surgery to remove a nonmalignant breast tumor.
In August 1977, Carter had a gynecological procedure at Bethesda Naval Hospital, her press secretary Mary Hoyt describing it as a routine private matter.
Activism
The Carter Center
After the Carters left the White House in 1981, Rosalynn and Jimmy continued to lead a very active life. In 1982, she co-founded The Carter Center, a private, not-for-profit institution based in Atlanta, Georgia. The Carters returned to the home they had built in 1961 in Plains, Georgia. She is a member of the Center's Board of Trustees and participates in many of the Center's programs, but gives special attention to the Mental Health Program. Carter and her husband fell into serious debt immediately after leaving the White House, but were able to alleviate this by writing projects and were able to open the Carter Center from their revenue. She, like Betty Ford before her, would say the American people made a mistake in not reelecting her husband and was bitter over the election. At this time she expressed resentment of Ronald Reagan, and even told interviewer Mike Wallace that he was ruining the country. Rumors at this time spread that she was running for Governor of Georgia, which she denied and outright stated she had no political ambition. When asked nearly two decades later why she had not run for Georgia Senate after Hillary Clinton was pondering to run, she responded "What would I have done in Washington, with Jimmy in Georgia?"
Rosalynn and her husband's first major project with the Carter Center was to help in peace between Israel and its neighbors. The two visited the Middle East in March 1983 and worked with Kenneth W. Stein and other associates of the Carter administration, and invited top leaders from a wide range of cities and countries to participate. This included the Palestinian community, Jordan, Syria and Egypt.
In the early summer of 1986, she and her husband aided the poor by helping to build homes on the North and West sides of Chicago. The two were accompanied by members of the Habitat for Humanity as they wielded hammers and saws while working for a week to construct homes in a vacant lot. The Carters removed themselves and the Carter Center in 1991, from direct involvement in the Middle East at the time that President George H. W. Bush and Secretary of State James Baker became more active. However, they did monitor the Oslo peace agreement of 1993, which sprung from the President and Secretary of State's bringing Palestinians and other parties involved in the matter at a conference in Madrid.
Mental health advocacy
Rosalynn Carter created and serves as the chair of The Carter Center Mental Health Task Force, an advisory board of experts, consumers, and advocates promoting positive change in the mental health field. She hosts the annual Rosalynn Carter Symposium on Mental Health Policy, bringing together nationwide leaders in the mental health field.
In April 1984, she became an Honorary Fellow of the American Psychiatric Association and serves as a board member emeritus of the National Mental Health Association. In 1985, she started the Rosalynn Carter Symposium on Mental Health Policy. The launch and its proceeds allowed representatives of mental health organizations to come together and collaborate on prominent issues. Success of the Symposium led the creation of the Mental Health Program in 1991. Carter established the Mental Health Task Force that same year to guide the Symposia as well as other Mental Health programs. Rosalynn became chair of the International Women Leaders for Mental Health in 1992. Three years later, she was honored with the naming of the Rosalynn Carter Mental Georgia Health Forum.
The Rosalynn Carter Fellowships for Mental Health Journalism provide stipends to journalists to report on topics related to mental health or mental illnesses. The one-year fellowship seeks to promote public awareness of mental health issues, as well as to erase the stigma associated with them. In September 2004, Carter met with the recipients of the eighth annual Rosalynn Carter Fellowships for Mental Health Journalism at the Carter Center.
In 2007, Rosalynn Carter joined with David Wellstone, son of one-time U.S. Senator Paul Wellstone, in pushing Congress to pass legislation regarding mental health insurance. She and Wellstone worked to pass the Paul Wellstone and Pete Domenici Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act of 2008 which requires equal coverage of mental and physical illnesses when policies include both types of coverage. And both testified before a House subcommittee regarding the bill in July 2007.
Legislation requiring parity in health insurance coverage for treatment of mental illnesses was ultimately passed and signed into law in October 2008.
Rosalynn Carter Institute for Caregiving
Rosalynn Carter is president of the board of directors for the Rosalynn Carter Institute for Caregiving (RCI) at Georgia Southwestern State University, her alma mater in Americus, Georgia. The RCI, which was established in 1987, aims to address issues related to caregiving in America and internationally. The institute focuses its work on both family and professional caregivers for individuals living with chronic illness and disabilities, limitations related to aging, and other health concerns across the lifespan. It plays a major role in moving science into practice for caregivers by supporting the implementation of evidence-based programs and interventions for caregivers in community settings. The inaugural Rosalynn Carter Institute Gala Celebration of Caregivers took place in June 2004 in Symphony Hall and featured Carter presenting bronze medallions to award winners.
Advocacy for women and children
In 1977, Rosalynn Carter was a speaker at the 1977 National Women's Conference among other speakers including Betty Ford, Bella Abzug, Lady Bird Johnson, Barbara Jordan, Audrey Colom, Claire Randall, Gerridee Wheeler, Cecilia Burciaga, Gloria Steinem, Lenore Hershey and Jean O'Leary.
In 1988, Rosalynn Carter convened with three other former first ladies—Betty Ford, Lady Bird Johnson, and Pat Nixon—at the "Women and the Constitution" conference at The Carter Center to assess that document's impact on women. The conference featured over 150 speakers and 1,500 attendees from all 50 states and 10 foreign countries. The conference was meant to promote awareness on sexual inequality in other countries, and fight against it in America.
She served on the Policy Advisory Board of The Atlanta Project (TAP) of The Carter Center, addressing social ills associated with poverty and quality of life citywide.
In 1991, she launched Every Child By Two, a nationwide campaign that sought to increase early childhood immunizations along with Betty Bumpers, wife of former U.S. Senator Dale Bumpers of Arkansas. Rosalynn Carter serves as President of the organization and Bumpers as Vice President. The campaign's launch was in response to the deaths of nearly 150 people after a resurgence of measles.
She also serves on the board of advisors for Habitat for Humanity and as an honorary chair of Project Interconnections, both of which aim to provide housing for those in need. Additionally, she is a deacon at her and her husband's Plains Baptist church.
Other activities
Shortly after leaving office, Carter signed with Houghton Mifflin for the writing of her autobiography. Carter's memoir, First Lady from Plains, was released in 1984. Mark Updegrove wrote that her memoir, and that of her husband, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President, succeeded in "boosting the bank account and spirits of their authors." Carter's work of the autobiography was noted by her husband during a March 1981 interview, who said that she would be "starting on a book shortly" without disclosing what the contents were.
Early into the Carters' time out of the White House, Rosalynn retained sour feelings toward the loss and questioned her faith as to how her husband could not be re-elected despite what she believed were good choices he had undertaken during his presidency.
In a 1984 interview, Carter was asked about her opinions on the 1984 Presidential election, saying she was unsure if it was the right time for a female vice presidential candidate on the Democratic ticket and that the most important thing for the Democrats should be winning against Reagan, who she charged with committing a tragedy with his policies. Carter also voiced her wishes for her husband to run for a second non-consecutive term. She knew in her heart that her husband would not seek a non-consecutive term and went into depression in the early weeks of the retirement, Jimmy's attempts at portraying an artificial happiness straining the relationship due to him seeming to not understand her reasons for being disappointed in their current state of affairs.
Throughout the 1980s, Carter developed a pattern of giving speeches to audiences on the subject of caring for caregivers, Carter reflecting that members of the audience "came up to me crying, saying that this was the first time someone understood what they were going through."
After the October 1981 assassination of Anwar Sadat, the Carters contacted his wife Jehan Sadat and traveled with former presidents Nixon and Ford to represent the United States at his funeral. The Carters visited Jehan, who Rosalynn pledged to stay with during the funeral. Later that month, the Carters attended the National Mental Health Association's gala dinner dance, their first visit to D.C. since leaving the White House. Rosalynn presented former Governor of New York W. Averell Harriman with an award during the event. In December, Carter released a statement on the death of her personal secretary Rita Regina Merthan.
In October 1982, Carter attended the funeral of Bess Truman in Independence, Missouri.
In March 1983, the Carters traveled through the Middle East. In late 1983, Carter visited her ailing mother-in-law Lillian Carter at Americus-Sumter County Hospital, and was by her bedside when she died, attending her funeral days later.
In October 1985, the Carters traveled to Nepal for a thirteen-day vacation in the Himalayan kingdom.
In July 1986, Rosalynn traveled with her husband to Chicago, Illinois for a weekend assisting with construction projects for Habitat for Humanity. In October, the Carters gave President Reagan and his wife Nancy a tour of the Jimmy Carter Library and Museum.
On January 19, 1988 Rosalynn was given the honor of christening the cruise ship Sovereign of the Seas in a gala ceremony in Miami. It was the largest cruise ship in the world at the time. A special oversized liter bottle of Taittinger's champagne was used.
In March 1988, Carter attended a hearing on mental health by the House Select Committee on Aging. She criticized that ten years after a presidential commission found that 10% of Americans needed some form of mental health care, "most who were underserved at that time are still underserved in 1988." Later that month, the Carters traveled to Nigeria for discussions with officials on disease control and rural development projects.
Carter attended the November 4, 1991 dedication of the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum.
In September 1993, the Carters returned to the White House for a ceremony promoting the North American Free Trade Agreement the following day.
In August 1994, the Carters organized a Habitat for Humanity crew for the rebuilding of the house of family friend Annie Mae after it had been destroyed in a flood the previous month.
2000s
On December 4, 2001, Carter delivered a speech to the National Press Club.
In January 2003, Carter attended the benefit for the 20th anniversary celebration of the Betty Ford Center in Indian Wells, California.
During the June 5, 2004 christening of the USS Jimmy Carter in Groton, Connecticut, Carter served as the ship sponsor and christened the ship with a bottle of champagne. On October 11, 2004, Carter delivered the keynote address at the AAP National Conference & Exhibition, stating that she would favor medical school curricula requiring doctors to have the ability to recognize mental health symptoms and stressing the importance of recognizing symptoms in early childhood.
In December 2006, Carter was ordained a deacon at the Maranatha Baptist Church.
In January 2007, Rosalynn and her husband joined other First Ladies and Presidents in attending the funeral of Gerald Ford and six months later, attended Lady Bird Johnson's as well. In a 2007 interview shortly before her 80th birthday, Carter said she would continue a full schedule despite wanting to curtail her schedule with the advancing of age and it had become a regularity for her to plan lowering her workload but failed to do so since she still did not "want to miss anything."
In March 2009, Rosalynn and her husband met with National Security Advisor James L. Jones for a "general briefing". Carter was present for the April 21, 2009 signing by President Barack Obama of the Edward M. Kennedy Serve America Act.
2010s
In 2010, she criticized television crime dramas that portrayed mentally ill people as violent, when in fact they were more prone to being victims of crime. On May 7, 2010, she attended the Michelle Obama-hosted Mother's Day Tea at the White House, and was joined by her granddaughter Sarah and infant great-granddaughter. In June, the Carters cut the ribbon at the grand opening of the Best Western Plus Windsor Hotel in Americus, Georgia. On October 26, Carter appeared at a discussion panel at the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Museum.
After the death of Betty Ford on July 8, 2011, Carter delivered a eulogy during a memorial service. Carter called her one who had the courage to speak the truth and fight stigmas surrounding illness and addiction, even calling her "a tireless advocate for those struggling."
Carter attended a speech given by Georgia National Guard's Colonel Brent Bracewell in the morning hours of October 25, 2012. Carter gave out the Georgia Paraprofessional Caregiver of the Year, Volunteer Caregiver of the Year, Family Caregiver of the Year, and an award with her namesake, the Rosalynn Carter Leadership in Caregiving Award later that day and expressed happiness in the amount of progress that had been made "since we started."
On April 25, 2013, Carter attended the dedication of the George W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum with her husband and other former First Ladies and Presidents. In October 2013, Carter spoke about her confidence in the American people and her lack of confidence in the government on the issue of the income gap in the United States. Carter had "one of the greatest disappointments" corrected when learning from Health and Human Services Secretary Kathleen Sebelius that the Obama administration had passed a mental health insurance rule. She was "shaking" after learning about the government rules that required equal treatment for mental health upon hearing the announcement in November 2013. She and her husband were saddened by the death of Nelson Mandela.
In August 2015, Jimmy announced his cancer diagnosis, stating that it had spread throughout his body. At the time of the announcement, Betty Pope, cousin of the former president, attested to Rosalynn's strength and voiced her belief that the former First Lady would remain committed to her husband. Carter made her first public comments about the illness a month later in September, saying, "In spite of what's going on, it's been kind of wonderful just to know we have that kind of support, and also Jimmy's attitude is helping". In November 2015, she and her husband traveled to Memphis, Tennessee where they assisted in construction for the town's Habitat for Humanity affiliate.
In January 2016, Jimmy Carter confirmed that he was having regular treatments and said of Rosalynn at the time, "Her support has helped me through the last 69 years since we've been married in everything I've ever tried. Of course, when I was ill and thought I might die at any time, she was there for me." Carter attended the March 11, 2016 funeral of Nancy Reagan at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. In July 2016, Carter endorsed Proposition 62, which would abolish the death penalty in California, releasing a joint statement with her husband in support of the measure. She voted for Bernie Sanders in the Democratic presidential primary of that year. Carter differed from her husband in believing Russia had interfered with determining the results of the general election. Upon the death of Barbara Bush on April 17, 2018, Carter became the oldest living former First Lady. On October 17, 2019, she became the longest-married former First Lady.
2020s
In July 2021, the Carters celebrated their 75th wedding anniversary.
Books
Rosalynn Carter has written five books:
First Lady from Plains (autobiography), 1984,
Everything to Gain: Making the Most of the Rest of Your Life (with Jimmy Carter), 1987,
Helping Yourself Help Others: A Book for Caregivers (with Susan K. Golant), 1994,
Helping Someone with Mental Illness: A Compassionate Guide for Family, Friends, and Caregivers (with Susan K. Golant), 1998,
Within Our Reach: Ending the Mental Health Crisis (with Susan K. Golant and Kathryn E. Cade), 2010,
Awards and honors
On October 5, 2002, Rosalynn Carter was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in Seneca Falls, New York. She became only the third First Lady ever inducted into the Hall of Fame, joining Abigail Adams and Eleanor Roosevelt. (Hillary Clinton was inducted in 2005.)
In 1999, Rosalynn and Jimmy Carter received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor.
Among Rosalynn's many other awards for service are:
Dorothea Dix Award, Mental Illness Foundation, 1988
Georgia Woman of the Year Award, 1996
Jefferson Award for Greatest Public Service Benefiting the Disadvantaged, 1996
United Nations Children's Fund International Child Survival Award, 1999
Rhoda and Bernard Sarnat International Prize in Mental Health, Institute of Medicine, 2000
United States Surgeon General's Medallion, 2000
American Peace Award along with Jimmy Carter, 2009
Rosalynn Carter has received honorary degrees from the following institutions:
H.H.D., Tift College, 1979
L.H.D., Morehouse College, 1980
D.P.S., Wesleyan College, 1986
LL.D., University of Notre Dame, 1987
D.Litt., Emory University, 1991
L.H.D., Georgia Southwestern State University, 2001
LL.D., Regis College, 2002
Queen's University, 2012
Rosalynn served as distinguished centennial lecturer at Agnes Scott College in Decatur, Georgia, from 1988 to 1992. She has been a Distinguished Fellow at the Emory University Department of Women's Studies in Atlanta since 1990.
See also
References
Citations
Portions of this article are based on public domain text from:
Sources
External links
The Carter Center
National First Ladies Library
New Georgia Encyclopedia
Rosalynn Carter Institute for Caregiving
Rosalynn Carter at C-SPAN's First Ladies: Influence & Image
|-
1927 births
Living people
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century Baptists
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century Baptists
21st-century American women writers
American autobiographers
American feminists
Baptists from Georgia (U.S. state)
Carter family
Daughters of the American Revolution people
First Ladies and Gentlemen of Georgia (U.S. state)
First Ladies of the United States
Georgia (U.S. state) Democrats
Georgia Southwestern State University alumni
Habitat for Humanity people
Mental health activists
People from Plains, Georgia
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Writers from Georgia (U.S. state)
American women non-fiction writers
Women autobiographers | [
-0.3885383903980255,
0.02742927148938179,
-0.3259024918079376,
-0.033084459602832794,
0.23677270114421844,
0.5280982255935669,
0.29079219698905945,
0.23897874355316162,
-0.8507843613624573,
0.28687921166419983,
-0.1830555498600006,
0.5090189576148987,
-0.2728478014469147,
0.6266101002693176,
-0.6907216310501099,
-0.013843919150531292,
-0.09852027893066406,
0.5296576619148254,
-0.7019721269607544,
-0.553803563117981,
-0.23483382165431976,
0.11570649594068527,
0.025149740278720856,
-0.6189795136451721,
-0.08927003294229507,
-0.06737732142210007,
-0.02969931997358799,
-0.8655108213424683,
0.580906093120575,
0.6293197870254517,
-0.013227040879428387,
-0.44743573665618896,
0.5646595358848572,
0.19545964896678925,
-0.343047171831131,
0.2704055607318878,
0.11894842982292175,
0.35477641224861145,
-0.35077354311943054,
0.2228599339723587,
-0.903960108757019,
-0.11340289562940598,
0.4496557414531708,
-0.13005022704601288,
-0.1616482436656952,
-0.5255939364433289,
-1.3037135601043701,
0.14972326159477234,
-0.007290424779057503,
-0.48860353231430054,
-0.3674685060977936,
0.5821899771690369,
0.8465696573257446,
0.5207310914993286,
0.12047205120325089,
0.06949789077043533,
-0.9076980948448181,
0.2392837405204773,
-0.7011063694953918,
-0.5979883670806885,
0.24183036386966705,
0.1692291647195816,
0.4449717104434967,
-0.22141137719154358,
0.10944977402687073,
-0.08851898461580276,
0.08702348172664642,
0.09626269340515137,
0.021089686080813408,
-0.3329280614852905,
-0.03002958744764328,
-0.2554906904697418,
0.6528787612915039,
0.028430121019482613,
-0.3804320991039276,
-0.3755359947681427,
0.4524248540401459,
0.07061972469091415,
0.13049839437007904,
-0.09983252733945847,
-0.14379571378231049,
-0.1353553980588913,
0.31086790561676025,
0.4672899842262268,
-0.20389439165592194,
0.24141617119312286,
-0.18174542486667633,
0.3470214307308197,
-0.11779537051916122,
0.527301013469696,
-0.9045395255088806,
0.5731246471405029,
0.2723526954650879,
-0.38754352927207947,
-0.42419034242630005,
-1.1098664999008179,
0.8422510623931885,
-0.48390695452690125,
-0.07212769985198975,
-0.38762983679771423,
-0.5961436033248901,
-0.2211020141839981,
0.2998478412628174,
-0.5031932592391968,
-0.4616495966911316,
-0.11433447152376175,
-0.19270169734954834,
-0.5588597655296326,
-0.00118458759970963,
0.3195400536060333,
0.3033922612667084,
0.17736226320266724,
-0.07327798008918762,
0.021481657400727272,
-0.7201071381568909,
0.5516985058784485,
0.11364773660898209,
-0.17197489738464355,
-0.01055473554879427,
-0.17584508657455444,
0.4595835506916046,
-0.31515780091285706,
0.2567661702632904,
-0.6926184296607971,
0.07611045986413956,
0.3692413866519928,
-0.11584018915891647,
-0.14657001197338104,
-0.18603122234344482,
0.07509026676416397,
0.1394701451063156,
0.04044736176729202,
-0.46311360597610474,
0.04105091840028763,
0.32272249460220337,
-0.48109135031700134,
0.2794332504272461,
-0.41986939311027527,
0.7594500184059143,
0.5034515261650085,
0.011441140435636044,
0.6058090925216675,
-0.37117329239845276,
-0.441934734582901,
0.8236145377159119,
-0.058078426867723465,
0.051260631531476974,
0.19291026890277863,
-0.5478375554084778,
-0.10409548133611679,
-0.4658198356628418,
-0.26371535658836365,
0.6069543957710266,
-0.15203729271888733,
-0.5692809820175171,
0.24150972068309784,
0.65774005651474,
-0.008181927725672722,
-0.15079335868358612,
0.5040503144264221,
0.6428937911987305,
0.24405868351459503,
0.1257537305355072,
0.1225527748465538,
0.024288281798362732,
0.22537469863891602,
0.18633919954299927,
0.5335184931755066,
-0.2565489709377289,
-0.1830291599035263,
-0.4160778522491455,
0.34620341658592224,
0.16109474003314972,
-0.11642713099718094,
-0.4293133020401001,
1.333484172821045,
0.07605952769517899,
-0.24134518206119537,
-0.29580235481262207,
0.16222183406352997,
-0.5739648342132568,
0.05969854071736336,
-0.23235028982162476,
0.1516115814447403,
0.5804282426834106,
-0.4283040463924408,
0.22001910209655762,
-0.12119081616401672,
0.3674841523170471,
-0.18583138287067413,
-0.9479532837867737,
-0.5806781053543091,
-0.43504664301872253,
0.32853734493255615,
0.1499602347612381,
0.5200848579406738,
-0.42979273200035095,
0.7521969676017761,
-0.05367841199040413,
0.610500693321228,
0.15340645611286163,
-0.49653249979019165,
0.019116198644042015,
-0.8523383140563965,
-0.013565297238528728,
0.3522910475730896,
0.30028289556503296,
0.10205898433923721,
0.4665988087654114,
0.742819607257843,
-0.08919627964496613,
0.01016969047486782,
-0.019851230084896088,
0.6376246809959412,
0.08930324018001556,
0.058901749551296234,
-0.5112611651420593,
-0.17295922338962555,
0.35509058833122253,
-0.26686057448387146,
0.5210004448890686,
0.9862299561500549,
-0.4927765130996704,
0.07248715311288834,
-0.4778291583061218,
0.30170395970344543,
-1.1169264316558838,
0.04603220149874687,
-0.27594247460365295,
0.11129168421030045,
-0.06621427834033966,
0.010699969716370106,
0.33220353722572327,
-0.5280569195747375,
0.5038884282112122,
0.0958198681473732,
-0.21475908160209656,
0.005709698889404535,
0.06536683440208435,
-0.7007414102554321,
0.44355130195617676,
0.20416702330112457,
-0.27563709020614624,
0.7391238808631897,
-0.5600042343139648,
-0.013436947949230671,
-0.14550362527370453,
-0.19289137423038483,
0.08897403627634048,
-0.4671946167945862,
-0.026605810970067978,
0.42865797877311707,
0.7802094221115112,
0.3950272500514984,
-0.1879199594259262,
-0.14794567227363586,
-0.5141955614089966,
0.6929607391357422,
0.7754490375518799,
0.6212664246559143,
0.12322120368480682,
0.3828089237213135,
0.06484745442867279,
0.6029863357543945,
0.10866887122392654,
-0.49165698885917664,
0.014409827999770641,
-0.3407610356807709,
-0.1469646841287613,
0.07370318472385406,
0.2562914490699768,
-0.5259565711021423,
-0.2654445767402649,
0.2267705351114273,
0.47505587339401245,
-0.2643653452396393,
-0.20968538522720337,
0.4269784986972809,
-0.9433740973472595,
-1.2153980731964111,
0.912802517414093,
1.0096266269683838,
0.09570429474115372,
-0.30594518780708313,
-0.8456513285636902,
-0.51845782995224,
-0.18600815534591675,
-0.709816575050354,
-0.5034977793693542,
0.6132239699363708,
-0.29836905002593994,
0.39163973927497864,
-0.3364489674568176,
-0.3013184368610382,
0.13646289706230164,
0.7956270575523376,
0.22494350373744965,
0.20407763123512268,
0.04337576776742935,
0.2144709676504135,
-0.48259660601615906,
0.12722720205783844,
0.01192178949713707,
-0.02431441657245159,
0.9281178116798401,
0.20732370018959045,
0.423799604177475,
-0.4266572594642639,
-5.569023609161377,
0.14007757604122162,
0.056635692715644836,
-0.8936582207679749,
0.6691704988479614,
0.1363542079925537,
0.427222341299057,
-0.17682453989982605,
-0.0012101808097213507,
0.10271310061216354,
0.5992094278335571,
0.036639872938394547,
-0.3379163444042206,
0.2655656635761261,
0.10822152346372604,
0.46198514103889465,
0.14384675025939941,
-0.6673170328140259,
-0.030915217474102974,
1.0350167751312256,
0.3917703628540039,
-0.5515480041503906,
0.19869858026504517,
0.698773980140686,
0.2104400098323822,
-0.18083074688911438,
-0.12947015464305878,
-0.6599936485290527,
-0.7029439806938171,
0.08598979562520981,
0.5402495861053467,
0.19462618231773376,
0.010240876115858555,
0.034981872886419296,
0.11247499287128448,
-0.18021629750728607,
0.501590371131897,
-0.29124027490615845,
0.15343494713306427,
-0.4667332172393799,
-0.2780417799949646,
-0.09031803160905838,
-0.4320090115070343,
-0.344267874956131,
-0.10835226625204086,
-0.16001994907855988,
-0.09974480420351028,
-0.5715975761413574,
-0.11684700101613998,
0.25449055433273315,
-0.002507531549781561,
0.20428204536437988,
0.08986535668373108,
-0.5805063247680664,
0.3234417140483856,
0.4611178934574127,
-0.28311294317245483,
0.3506561815738678,
-0.6489838361740112,
-0.44587641954421997,
0.2924805283546448,
-0.3353852331638336,
0.5065752267837524,
-0.04135718569159508,
-0.5115047693252563,
-0.6547718644142151,
-0.25989994406700134,
0.4919082522392273,
0.17933493852615356,
0.19722981750965118,
0.5745612382888794,
0.254468709230423,
0.16924667358398438,
-1.1730189323425293,
-0.14706499874591827,
-0.9609477519989014,
-0.18802616000175476,
-0.14449042081832886,
-0.4759137034416199,
-0.37556004524230957,
0.49955469369888306,
0.44468072056770325,
0.26958173513412476,
0.32241421937942505,
0.143889918923378,
-0.11636881530284882,
0.12407069653272629,
0.22806622087955475,
-0.3942049741744995,
-0.045120690017938614,
-0.3994848132133484,
-0.46107345819473267,
0.07926904410123825,
0.2814536392688751,
0.053815845400094986,
0.3520766496658325,
-0.056437116116285324,
0.4685174822807312,
0.1600181758403778,
-0.053429100662469864,
-0.4518904685974121,
-0.22295305132865906,
0.40936535596847534,
-0.5701528191566467,
0.21090129017829895,
-0.1840318888425827,
0.04079791158437729,
-0.2154800444841385,
0.902725875377655,
-0.49458014965057373,
-0.15486657619476318,
0.5022634267807007,
0.2261618822813034,
-0.5605623722076416,
0.2195993959903717,
0.08961552381515503,
0.13943268358707428,
0.1970994472503662,
0.5780615210533142,
-0.0646200180053711,
-0.30828049778938293,
0.1211903989315033,
-0.6937546730041504,
0.1812889128923416,
0.159976527094841,
0.032066065818071365,
0.5268701910972595,
-0.2521461844444275,
-0.12529981136322021,
0.009805809706449509,
0.043349362909793854,
-0.10891428589820862,
0.18977518379688263,
-0.1307653784751892,
0.8735889792442322,
-0.2827542722225189,
0.3464604318141937,
-0.5212554931640625,
-0.36223602294921875,
-0.38310495018959045,
-0.3709883391857147,
0.03131600096821785,
-0.7431902885437012,
0.004296427592635155,
-0.007547053974121809,
-0.27046114206314087,
-0.29778751730918884,
-0.19047774374485016,
-0.14792664349079132,
0.46666890382766724,
-0.12648828327655792,
0.36080092191696167,
0.09726180881261826,
-0.5191794037818909,
-0.4653530418872833,
-0.16128495335578918,
0.5527096390724182,
-0.05856708437204361,
-0.5530967712402344,
-0.3498951196670532,
-0.5211440920829773,
-0.4278561770915985,
-0.8813231587409973,
-0.20048393309116364,
-0.14385898411273956,
0.5710998177528381,
0.017887497320771217,
-0.41779541969299316,
-0.4874303936958313,
0.7160010933876038,
0.6167170405387878,
-0.38922250270843506,
0.21037931740283966,
-0.29039621353149414,
0.32047149538993835,
0.16779674589633942,
-0.04875435680150986,
0.35777172446250916,
-0.08532751351594925,
0.14731764793395996,
-0.2844296097755432,
-0.3982730209827423,
-0.4064103662967682,
-0.3078182637691498,
-0.28929951786994934,
-0.2309272736310959,
-0.44914913177490234,
-0.3172883689403534,
-0.6683621406555176,
0.17535614967346191,
0.24662302434444427,
-0.18371888995170593,
-0.14615872502326965,
0.5546581745147705,
-0.6267070770263672,
0.24260011315345764,
-0.21818792819976807,
0.3411213159561157,
-0.011763520538806915,
0.10520531982183456,
-0.462201327085495,
0.21421165764331818,
-0.47381770610809326,
-0.22037236392498016,
0.18751822412014008,
-0.6610653400421143,
-0.4057101309299469,
0.24159705638885498,
0.26834216713905334,
1.0052435398101807,
0.02981727011501789,
0.38337448239326477,
0.330893874168396,
0.1996684968471527,
0.270577609539032,
0.3642064929008484,
-0.1149367243051529,
-0.33754822611808777,
-0.1572628766298294,
-0.4743848443031311,
-0.5604762434959412,
-0.6824259757995605,
-0.19830183684825897,
0.19409941136837006,
0.02358993887901306,
0.41151162981987,
-0.10034596174955368,
-0.5144320726394653,
0.9853686094284058,
-0.3633761703968048,
-0.48804083466529846,
0.3092948794364929,
0.011495673097670078,
0.6284164786338806,
-0.1360192447900772,
-0.5263631939888,
0.7215153574943542,
0.39421239495277405,
0.1163329929113388,
-0.06359278410673141,
0.3210196793079376,
0.23996303975582123,
0.05999841168522835,
-0.007112773600965738,
-0.3174110949039459,
0.06894338130950928,
-0.04821349307894707,
-0.3135892450809479,
0.3178301155567169,
0.7660948038101196,
-0.07212693244218826,
0.1683730185031891,
-0.3664659857749939,
-0.06780268996953964,
-0.38808339834213257,
-0.9559459686279297,
0.11514215171337128,
0.1805955171585083,
-0.12620195746421814,
-0.4795551300048828,
0.16595666110515594,
0.12195467203855515,
-0.718341588973999,
0.2986311912536621,
0.09460877627134323,
0.20346754789352417,
0.3679662346839905,
0.31297290325164795,
0.013470533303916454,
-0.36973831057548523,
-0.00042304277303628623,
0.23021014034748077,
-0.6620343923568726,
0.3383060097694397,
-0.10227102786302567,
0.5393046140670776,
0.4857480823993683,
0.057057272642850876,
0.006674930918961763,
0.0789613351225853,
-0.4909960627555847,
-0.1689307689666748,
-0.6733158826828003,
-0.1213468462228775,
0.08212675154209137,
-1.3544150590896606,
0.23325027525424957,
-0.6210120916366577,
-0.5070285201072693,
-0.1162533313035965,
-0.4311634302139282,
0.49552688002586365,
0.07837506383657455,
-0.45394691824913025,
-0.5676782727241516,
0.7567489147186279,
0.19614288210868835,
0.40301844477653503,
-0.581421434879303,
-0.2810669243335724,
-0.3580453395843506,
-0.024422436952590942,
0.15747736394405365,
0.5819294452667236,
-0.21442481875419617,
-0.6618860960006714,
-0.04728478565812111,
-0.3789302706718445,
-0.14769981801509857,
0.2073742151260376,
-0.24935607612133026,
-0.06677859276533127,
0.7831172943115234,
0.27197757363319397,
-0.6064901351928711,
-0.00131974124815315,
0.06661827117204666,
0.20665599405765533,
-0.3952854871749878,
0.05684717372059822,
-0.48948344588279724,
0.046135324984788895,
-0.1594599485397339,
-0.13202603161334991,
0.36154985427856445,
0.7166415452957153,
-0.14283005893230438,
0.45478320121765137,
-0.4039323627948761,
-0.3702261745929718,
0.18344436585903168,
0.3403787910938263,
-0.030116640031337738,
0.8346654772758484,
0.011557100340723991,
-0.5964279770851135,
0.24841389060020447,
-0.8310524225234985,
0.3071981370449066,
0.6350301504135132,
0.06753408908843994,
0.8579623699188232,
0.31278151273727417,
0.3928207755088806,
0.3055722713470459,
0.24107004702091217,
-0.15008866786956787,
1.0897467136383057,
0.05704687163233757,
-0.7421531677246094,
0.6339988708496094,
0.0849771797657013,
-0.31704962253570557,
-0.28679707646369934,
0.9007754325866699,
0.026910953223705292,
0.6235941648483276,
-0.17364144325256348,
-0.6482944488525391,
-0.11745013296604156,
-0.19507403671741486,
-0.31530484557151794,
0.9273783564567566,
0.4440220296382904,
0.26724016666412354,
-0.039862725883722305,
0.1120229959487915,
0.16775575280189514,
0.39310193061828613,
0.23783047497272491,
0.6230031847953796,
0.05803057551383972,
-0.55354905128479,
0.18192362785339355,
0.44226402044296265,
0.1633608490228653,
0.28555500507354736,
0.07110545784235,
0.0954984650015831,
-0.2407185137271881,
-0.21096941828727722,
-0.1256507784128189,
0.2721729874610901,
-0.7297084331512451,
-0.38151249289512634,
0.3983810245990753,
0.41749751567840576,
-0.11879535019397736,
0.4231300950050354,
0.06224355474114418,
0.8974465727806091,
-0.3519679009914398,
-0.20037983357906342,
0.06481979787349701,
0.5004907846450806,
0.20776385068893433,
0.19229406118392944,
0.6749317049980164,
0.6947868466377258,
0.15496055781841278,
0.0245340708643198,
0.8584383130073547,
-0.18485228717327118,
0.24055913090705872,
-0.10272296518087387,
0.10814575850963593,
0.1973985880613327,
-0.11768648773431778,
-0.4604380130767822,
0.16935847699642181,
-0.291962593793869,
-0.4110124707221985,
-0.024712249636650085,
0.11672744154930115,
0.0010012728162109852,
0.2255261242389679,
1.0548518896102905,
-0.015908725559711456,
0.24608546495437622,
-0.4918830692768097,
-0.10608234256505966,
0.14221499860286713,
0.2116105556488037,
0.7855044007301331,
-0.24129754304885864,
-0.016079310327768326,
-0.1558787226676941,
-0.06507622450590134,
0.05128462240099907,
0.19855254888534546,
-0.2817181944847107,
-0.17251873016357422,
-0.05952949449419975,
-0.20254884660243988,
-0.0079422015696764,
-0.3883054852485657,
-0.08867127448320389,
0.7199841141700745,
-0.01031650323420763,
-0.3055131137371063,
-0.20216554403305054,
0.51559978723526,
0.05284556373953819,
-0.12660019099712372,
0.14415208995342255,
0.005954443942755461,
0.358246386051178,
-0.517281711101532,
0.07529935985803604,
0.13529996573925018,
-0.44371891021728516,
-0.33244749903678894,
-0.41026297211647034,
-0.4633481800556183,
0.5535655617713928,
-0.6042940020561218,
-0.06403560191392899,
-0.3038528859615326,
0.7448365092277527,
0.17438282072544098
] |
241375 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LaSalle%2C%20Ontario | LaSalle, Ontario | LaSalle is a town in Essex County, Ontario, Canada. It is a bedroom community of the City of Windsor and part of the Windsor Census Metropolitan Area, and is located south of that city. LaSalle, along with Windsor, is the oldest French settlement area in Southwestern Ontario, and the oldest continually inhabited European settlement in Canada west of the Quebec border. The town was named for explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle.
The current Town of Lasalle was originally incorporated as the Township of Sandwich West in 1861. A portion of the township incorporated as the Town of Lasalle in 1924, but was dissolved in 1959 and rejoined Sandwich West. In 1991, the Township changed its status to that of a Town and was renamed Lasalle. It is the second most populous municipality within Essex County after the Municipality of Lakeshore. The town's land area includes Fighting Island in the Detroit River at its western side. Fighting Island is privately owned by BASF, the world's largest chemical company.
Town Features
One of LaSalle's biggest events is the annual Strawberry Festival which takes place on the first weekend in June. The annual LaSalle Craft Beer Festival, put on by the Corporation of the Town of LaSalle, is another popular annual event that features a number of different types of beer, from popular brands to smaller microbreweries.
In LaSalle, there are two secondary schools for students: Sandwich Secondary School and St. Thomas of Villanova Catholic Secondary School. The elementary schools include Sacred Heart Elementary School, Prince Andrew Public School, LaSalle Public School, Sandwich West Public School, School Monseigneur Augustin Caron, Legacy Grove Public School and Holy Cross Catholic Elementary School.
LaSalle also has its own small but growing bicycle trail network, the "LaSalle Trail", which links up to neighbouring Windsor's "Windsor Trail" network, allowing people to ride from Sandwich Secondary School all the way to Windsor's Riverfront Trail. The town has expressed interest and intentions to connect LaSalle (and indirectly, Windsor) to the Chrysler Canada Greenway by constructing a link to the Trans Canada Trail near Oldcastle.
The town also features the Vollmer Culture and Recreation Complex, home to the Lasalle Vipers, of the GOJHL and the Lasalle Sabres, of the OMHA. It is also home to the Lasalle Stompers, of the Ontario Soccer Association. The complex has multiple rooms for hosting of events, 2 arenas, an Olympic-sized pool and slide, outdoor skate park, soccer fields, and baseball diamonds.
Communities
Besides the urban area proper of LaSalle itself, the town of LaSalle comprises a number of villages and hamlets, including Delisle's Corners, Heritage Estates, Lukerville, Oliver and River Canard.
Demographics
Population trend:
Notable people
Jeff Burrows - member of rock band The Tea Party; grew up in LaSalle
Stuart Chatwood - member of rock band The Tea Party; grew up in LaSalle
Pete Craig - former MLB player
Andy Delmore - former NHL player
David Finch - comic book artist
Zack Kassian - NHL player
Paul Lucier - Senator
Jeff Martin - member of rock band The Tea Party; grew up in LaSalle
Kylie Masse - competitive swimmer; a world champion and a world record holder in the 100 m backstroke; grew up in LaSalle
Dalton Prout - NHL player
Amanda Reason - former world record holder and Olympic swimmer
Derek Wilkinson - former NHL player
Luke Willson - NFL Super Bowl Champion tight end
See also
List of townships in Ontario
References
External links
Towns in Ontario
Lower-tier municipalities in Ontario
Municipalities in Essex County, Ontario
Ontario populated places on the Detroit River | [
-0.522101879119873,
0.4547235369682312,
-0.1551356464624405,
-0.16914042830467224,
0.1041773185133934,
0.4954459071159363,
0.36463555693626404,
1.0344918966293335,
-0.07946264743804932,
-0.7496969103813171,
-0.50068598985672,
-0.1483113020658493,
0.4408727288246155,
0.21923485398292542,
-0.3171500563621521,
0.5661012530326843,
-0.8720836639404297,
0.9643820524215698,
0.22828777134418488,
-0.8003978133201599,
0.14647461473941803,
-0.13982173800468445,
0.1463014781475067,
1.072267770767212,
-0.03900882229208946,
0.5386357307434082,
0.8818380832672119,
0.024847976863384247,
-0.29911482334136963,
0.2514823079109192,
-0.19098544120788574,
0.8434015512466431,
0.15129175782203674,
-0.5258898735046387,
0.843706488609314,
-0.5226841568946838,
0.15257981419563293,
-0.7736068367958069,
-0.2981291711330414,
-0.31150081753730774,
-0.545016884803772,
0.13278506696224213,
0.3503044545650482,
0.3306858241558075,
0.7806841731071472,
-0.1250278502702713,
-1.7420419454574585,
-0.22637031972408295,
-0.7262566089630127,
-0.12316714227199554,
-0.86580890417099,
-0.20793655514717102,
0.4558357000350952,
0.34207290410995483,
0.1782277375459671,
0.5649740099906921,
-1.0920014381408691,
0.8969119787216187,
0.7807803750038147,
0.14846059679985046,
0.27736803889274597,
0.8769891858100891,
0.18489061295986176,
-0.08303499966859818,
0.2668531537055969,
0.06255265325307846,
0.3732917606830597,
0.46771949529647827,
-0.32736021280288696,
-0.15432287752628326,
-0.3159269690513611,
-0.15198583900928497,
0.2022673487663269,
1.0803717374801636,
0.07119032740592957,
0.03211405500769615,
0.29471829533576965,
-0.0270740557461977,
-0.09766610711812973,
0.2535267770290375,
0.01864130236208439,
-0.04509709030389786,
0.6985066533088684,
0.23453089594841003,
0.669055700302124,
1.054222822189331,
-1.2643542289733887,
0.1413395255804062,
0.5459702610969543,
0.22683098912239075,
-1.2294236421585083,
0.02772526629269123,
0.06665150821208954,
0.05338723212480545,
-0.3212756812572479,
-0.19913269579410553,
0.40949746966362,
0.22716012597084045,
0.08580568432807922,
0.46384498476982117,
-0.5875250101089478,
0.08637135475873947,
1.2643617391586304,
-0.1273883730173111,
-1.1745225191116333,
-0.5995566248893738,
-0.6236233711242676,
-0.10669887810945511,
0.7986286878585815,
-0.8134157061576843,
0.13216571509838104,
-0.03909558802843094,
-0.428257018327713,
-0.4112797975540161,
-0.2472243756055832,
0.2192198485136032,
-0.017793847247958183,
-0.291084885597229,
-0.45008018612861633,
-0.0010011455742642283,
0.16915683448314667,
0.6251027584075928,
-0.031201904639601707,
-0.11114709824323654,
-0.37457525730133057,
-0.04977899789810181,
0.26639631390571594,
-0.9414058327674866,
0.13005374372005463,
-0.07844218611717224,
0.10654349625110626,
0.7857674360275269,
-0.560524046421051,
-0.13471229374408722,
-0.20342889428138733,
-0.003265210660174489,
0.07336604595184326,
0.5927481651306152,
0.6576313972473145,
0.0652172639966011,
-0.904029905796051,
-0.4429961144924164,
-0.9316843152046204,
-0.4025099277496338,
0.15992070734500885,
-0.464277446269989,
-0.042854126542806625,
-0.37898144125938416,
0.12856727838516235,
-0.43761032819747925,
0.52815181016922,
0.2615501582622528,
-0.26193496584892273,
-0.2753404676914215,
-0.5620261430740356,
0.29438716173171997,
0.4508013129234314,
0.3404359817504883,
0.18657533824443817,
0.5292258858680725,
0.3193957507610321,
0.21746473014354706,
1.009678602218628,
0.00018319689843337983,
0.2219763994216919,
-0.018227236345410347,
0.228256955742836,
-0.6121343970298767,
0.9248512983322144,
0.49957382678985596,
-0.22898399829864502,
-0.11310279369354248,
0.7620661854743958,
-0.8805669546127319,
0.42169517278671265,
-0.08126083761453629,
0.7478728294372559,
0.21907077729701996,
0.3705434799194336,
-0.8324979543685913,
-0.6463448405265808,
0.011248426511883736,
0.7590723633766174,
-0.07819261401891708,
-0.10728279501199722,
-0.06036381050944328,
0.050916656851768494,
-0.15893954038619995,
-0.41359812021255493,
0.5766773223876953,
0.08341667056083679,
-0.8775347471237183,
1.1882328987121582,
-0.6645063757896423,
1.0682051181793213,
0.35075804591178894,
-0.2280808538198471,
0.10069754719734192,
-0.6885169148445129,
-0.27679234743118286,
-0.5974342823028564,
0.02553093060851097,
0.7300711274147034,
0.2039913386106491,
-0.9279243350028992,
0.5040877461433411,
-0.04164266213774681,
-0.21708546578884125,
0.12622061371803284,
0.8211082220077515,
-0.1954939216375351,
-0.7622886896133423,
0.22158727049827576,
0.90728759765625,
-0.4091046452522278,
-0.6389203667640686,
-0.3619983196258545,
-0.14129510521888733,
0.21456292271614075,
-0.5218095183372498,
0.5112566351890564,
0.44066816568374634,
-0.044135548174381256,
-0.3693746328353882,
0.03414700925350189,
0.48989632725715637,
0.8059687614440918,
0.8205971717834473,
0.05716591700911522,
-0.16819119453430176,
0.7786362171173096,
0.5855478048324585,
0.2044130265712738,
-0.8337545990943909,
-0.4142211079597473,
-0.923953652381897,
0.1596398949623108,
-0.07336966693401337,
0.4116300344467163,
-0.10887959599494934,
-0.1239486038684845,
-0.017888370901346207,
-0.867234468460083,
-0.5708514451980591,
0.8678414821624756,
0.10390257835388184,
0.06450678408145905,
0.30127036571502686,
0.7493029236793518,
-0.6894635558128357,
0.2413572072982788,
0.019151095300912857,
0.5524590015411377,
-0.34386447072029114,
0.6213226318359375,
0.1650404930114746,
0.059541553258895874,
0.22240012884140015,
0.1664411425590515,
0.030800964683294296,
0.01780557632446289,
-0.3677063286304474,
-0.9094176292419434,
-0.12151192873716354,
0.2497624158859253,
-0.9472452998161316,
-0.22579985857009888,
-0.22566385567188263,
-0.3309147357940674,
0.4941072463989258,
0.6186114549636841,
-0.4156772196292877,
-0.39791056513786316,
-1.1567275524139404,
0.6828680634498596,
0.7696422934532166,
-0.3309420049190521,
0.36777886748313904,
-0.274884968996048,
-0.1989845186471939,
0.25427356362342834,
1.4890549182891846,
-0.2762583792209625,
-0.3880501389503479,
0.07948394119739532,
0.7043675780296326,
1.2534959316253662,
-0.20958200097084045,
-0.08922992646694183,
0.20614475011825562,
-0.21863873302936554,
-0.1978459507226944,
-0.6418585181236267,
0.7909178733825684,
0.41417285799980164,
-0.1807747781276703,
-0.24291333556175232,
-0.30289778113365173,
0.40259936451911926,
-0.38627761602401733,
-0.21521057188510895,
0.04865691438317299,
-0.4884341359138489,
0.17522522807121277,
0.09897926449775696,
-0.19274838268756866,
-0.17029352486133575,
-0.4480702877044678,
-4.510300636291504,
0.40571263432502747,
-0.5727320313453674,
-0.35990333557128906,
0.25397756695747375,
-0.46788763999938965,
-0.09828110039234161,
-0.30816683173179626,
-0.4174501597881317,
0.47162550687789917,
-0.05028822273015976,
-0.6159579753875732,
-0.2701631188392639,
0.676499605178833,
0.7049609422683716,
0.439378559589386,
0.5740146040916443,
-0.47895365953445435,
0.4958692193031311,
0.2989654242992401,
-0.09282940626144409,
-0.07989055663347244,
-0.364319384098053,
0.13835081458091736,
1.0094244480133057,
0.7185304760932922,
0.13357749581336975,
-0.5325872302055359,
-0.9482131600379944,
-0.5714226365089417,
0.21884267032146454,
0.13228490948677063,
0.23032666742801666,
-0.6988416910171509,
-0.07525059580802917,
-0.6186094880104065,
-0.1054542288184166,
-0.04495110735297203,
0.27876532077789307,
-0.6403815746307373,
-0.13706406950950623,
0.39413735270500183,
-0.31817030906677246,
-0.5335818529129028,
0.8311459422111511,
-0.4964519441127777,
-0.8776929974555969,
0.3808070421218872,
-0.03006906807422638,
0.40495261549949646,
0.3991393446922302,
-0.034950386732816696,
0.6391575336456299,
0.37422364950180054,
-0.015773070976138115,
-0.4625847339630127,
0.3230677843093872,
-0.6826156377792358,
-0.06947334855794907,
0.3859381675720215,
0.05604322627186775,
-0.540447473526001,
-0.157822847366333,
-0.034425266087055206,
-0.22452309727668762,
-0.17625831067562103,
0.40591737627983093,
-0.4588316082954407,
0.2663247287273407,
0.28861203789711,
-0.43460601568222046,
0.08366947621107101,
-0.28732699155807495,
-0.6209996342658997,
-0.5207212567329407,
-0.24343831837177277,
-1.0575716495513916,
0.9029141664505005,
-0.13093134760856628,
-0.07608482986688614,
0.036564309149980545,
-0.04687534645199776,
-0.0476449690759182,
0.6884868741035461,
0.08839620649814606,
-0.41376081109046936,
-0.6330342888832092,
0.35819360613822937,
-0.4200034439563751,
-0.27981382608413696,
0.4878023564815521,
0.08445531129837036,
0.04555753245949745,
0.04460485652089119,
0.02953949198126793,
-0.5265289545059204,
0.5323864817619324,
-0.1378801167011261,
-0.4828295111656189,
-0.9384790062904358,
0.11737373471260071,
0.026361318305134773,
0.5277054309844971,
-0.015311473980545998,
-0.6386012434959412,
-0.5157766342163086,
-0.24849118292331696,
-0.2665046751499176,
0.37603560090065,
-0.16086335480213165,
-0.22056323289871216,
-0.599189043045044,
-0.6876652240753174,
-0.2401781976222992,
0.8402378559112549,
-0.23265951871871948,
-0.059672873467206955,
0.702572226524353,
0.9191065430641174,
0.42142847180366516,
0.15657304227352142,
0.11603310704231262,
-0.3659026026725769,
0.41451433300971985,
0.2632378041744232,
-0.20296750962734222,
0.9610814452171326,
0.19855953752994537,
-0.4217934012413025,
0.5347478985786438,
-0.1225028857588768,
-0.09991603344678879,
-0.5604483485221863,
-0.6644905209541321,
-0.41041627526283264,
-0.5272701978683472,
-0.582448422908783,
-0.44308120012283325,
-0.00048592229722999036,
0.4483802914619446,
0.3514096140861511,
0.7151370048522949,
-0.11868066340684891,
0.21216793358325958,
-0.09101389348506927,
0.1622825264930725,
0.6613461375236511,
-0.07030760496854782,
-0.32314708828926086,
0.6345163583755493,
-0.5233354568481445,
-0.3281547725200653,
0.42947763204574585,
-1.0295253992080688,
-0.01989934593439102,
-0.4995499551296234,
0.13172319531440735,
-0.04742620140314102,
0.04660804942250252,
-0.30781349539756775,
0.8612310886383057,
0.21047769486904144,
-0.09735497087240219,
0.6111092567443848,
-0.28357994556427,
-0.01823202520608902,
-0.5995431542396545,
-0.4098035395145416,
-0.8577286005020142,
0.3706308603286743,
-0.21242010593414307,
-0.38619187474250793,
-0.3307623863220215,
0.12469599395990372,
0.4919814467430115,
-0.5505080223083496,
0.29997074604034424,
0.2888421416282654,
0.03322232514619827,
-0.28388741612434387,
-0.10101563483476639,
0.017544101923704147,
-0.5685549378395081,
0.36335501074790955,
0.6046268939971924,
-0.4041937589645386,
-0.32358622550964355,
-0.3417920470237732,
0.1956537365913391,
0.07044488191604614,
-0.030974004417657852,
-0.23183654248714447,
0.07343655824661255,
0.02113708108663559,
-0.14241687953472137,
-0.5755603313446045,
0.6571536660194397,
-0.43725892901420593,
-0.6798732876777649,
-0.4209998846054077,
0.521679162979126,
0.7467184066772461,
-0.5686413645744324,
0.7173353433609009,
0.10061925649642944,
-1.0246602296829224,
0.265046089887619,
0.49681293964385986,
-0.7719184756278992,
0.828141987323761,
-0.27404695749282837,
-0.2790779173374176,
1.2437957525253296,
0.3122112452983856,
-0.42756956815719604,
0.09891587495803833,
0.02455979958176613,
0.04939297214150429,
-0.2894638776779175,
-0.0951816514134407,
-0.9047739505767822,
0.31597521901130676,
-0.36266666650772095,
-0.36072731018066406,
-0.6596279144287109,
0.9625213742256165,
0.835246205329895,
-0.3228970170021057,
0.9863147735595703,
-0.9253314137458801,
-0.02993801422417164,
0.3417636752128601,
0.25880536437034607,
0.011418120004236698,
1.1174561977386475,
0.009570945985615253,
-0.06577914953231812,
0.0755360946059227,
0.5545986890792847,
0.6221168041229248,
0.5703979730606079,
0.5065342783927917,
0.5764327049255371,
-1.0290645360946655,
0.15535809099674225,
0.1776495724916458,
1.0263314247131348,
-0.16580887138843536,
-1.1375049352645874,
0.4099803566932678,
0.2238723784685135,
-0.8916005492210388,
-1.1007429361343384,
-0.4591900110244751,
1.6572866439819336,
-0.48775359988212585,
-0.02517017349600792,
0.8703190088272095,
-0.4380643665790558,
0.5132100582122803,
0.022631146013736725,
0.2418014109134674,
0.4118568003177643,
0.6601898670196533,
0.7910730242729187,
0.020572951063513756,
-0.3636644184589386,
-0.07332014292478561,
0.16736292839050293,
-0.26038920879364014,
-0.08498117327690125,
-0.3007138669490814,
0.15545722842216492,
0.3284502923488617,
-0.5386360287666321,
-0.3772314786911011,
-0.12120263278484344,
-0.9935206770896912,
0.4895137548446655,
-0.8861082196235657,
0.2597701847553253,
0.021734783425927162,
0.30180123448371887,
-0.3156907260417938,
1.180599570274353,
-0.8184580206871033,
-0.41826131939888,
0.2696884870529175,
-0.3634401559829712,
0.9693168997764587,
-0.34315359592437744,
-0.153589129447937,
0.2381690889596939,
-0.2181471884250641,
-0.1159142479300499,
0.5302082896232605,
0.10547076910734177,
-0.151661679148674,
0.16085363924503326,
-0.1900663673877716,
-1.2403526306152344,
1.1480369567871094,
-0.6696571111679077,
-0.20527972280979156,
0.20022942125797272,
0.5532567501068115,
-0.3964836299419403,
-0.39818432927131653,
-0.20231588184833527,
0.2370522916316986,
0.6663400530815125,
-0.3300688564777374,
0.3382478952407837,
0.8778563737869263,
-0.6865017414093018,
0.346231073141098,
-0.13119621574878693,
-0.8774716258049011,
-0.4885740280151367,
0.20492297410964966,
-0.869366466999054,
0.34798625111579895,
0.6617497205734253,
0.6518213152885437,
0.3355697989463806,
0.9508291482925415,
-0.04309074580669403,
-0.0064764199778437614,
-0.11068904399871826,
0.14533013105392456,
-0.027598252519965172,
0.12490704655647278,
-1.1277258396148682,
0.8520280122756958,
-0.9208449125289917,
-0.3638434112071991,
0.04135631024837494,
-0.3537234663963318,
-0.338198184967041,
0.48153263330459595,
0.04667256399989128,
0.3055616021156311,
-0.180973082780838,
-0.2072942703962326,
-0.0128453578799963,
0.00889173150062561,
0.21858708560466766,
0.38448065519332886,
-0.003040686249732971,
0.03203103318810463,
-0.3890121877193451,
0.004250614438205957,
-0.158392995595932,
-0.28179800510406494,
-0.7224855422973633,
0.11472301930189133,
0.1690291464328766,
-0.4267660975456238,
-0.2014526128768921,
-0.6688897609710693,
-0.05492141842842102,
-0.6278823614120483,
0.6529938578605652,
0.17178161442279816,
-0.17490169405937195,
-0.362103134393692,
0.5225490927696228,
-0.17358897626399994,
-0.4214237630367279,
0.21528637409210205,
-0.2822214365005493,
0.1262923628091812,
0.06407275050878525,
-0.4009280800819397,
0.03768027946352959,
0.44230490922927856,
-0.4454663097858429,
0.22051095962524414,
0.004764089826494455,
0.4723581075668335,
-0.3100397288799286,
0.44794541597366333,
-0.34175410866737366,
-0.09184131026268005,
0.21322162449359894,
-0.6920788288116455,
-0.35783159732818604,
0.3856964707374573,
0.14752033352851868,
-0.32490798830986023,
0.01916510984301567,
-0.09563267976045609,
-0.10445492714643478,
0.2775827944278717,
-0.21530957520008087,
-0.6995156407356262,
-0.38722121715545654,
0.10666736215353012,
0.5614632368087769,
0.15111437439918518,
0.4934488832950592,
0.4381110370159149,
-0.5789753198623657,
-0.02368824928998947,
0.06083597242832184,
0.40339958667755127,
-0.5461180806159973,
0.36911383271217346,
-1.1271495819091797,
0.12430858612060547,
-0.5423917770385742,
0.37616029381752014,
-0.5048806667327881,
0.1988976150751114,
0.16684535145759583,
0.35513535141944885,
0.40613648295402527,
-0.3751681447029114,
-0.6406509280204773,
0.01796215958893299,
0.3715369403362274,
-0.16136935353279114,
0.927181601524353,
0.26034417748451233,
-0.2653074264526367,
-0.2612924873828888,
-0.5912296772003174,
-0.04245864972472191,
-0.22272077202796936,
0.07951866090297699,
0.19792532920837402,
-0.15305742621421814,
-0.7023869752883911,
0.5107358694076538,
0.1457776576280594,
-0.12288772314786911,
0.024318842217326164,
0.36106181144714355,
0.7474695444107056,
-0.5397875308990479,
-0.09995988011360168,
-0.2088213562965393,
-0.23538775742053986,
-0.025186512619256973,
-1.216140866279602,
0.3750712275505066,
-0.5859565138816833,
-0.5131543278694153,
0.1386691778898239,
0.6168264150619507,
0.37893444299697876,
0.1040012538433075,
0.23693285882472992,
-0.11133795231580734,
-0.20310305058956146,
-0.29879656434059143,
0.600963294506073,
-0.8501848578453064,
0.5034629702568054,
-0.2584674656391144
] |
241376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural%20fencing | Agricultural fencing | In agriculture, fences are used to keep animals in or out of an area. They can be made from a wide variety of materials, depending on terrain, location and animals to be confined. Most agricultural fencing averages about high, and in some places, the height and construction of fences designed to hold livestock is mandated by law.
A is the strip of land by a fence that is left uncultivated. It may be a hedgerow or a shelterbelt (windbreak) or a refugee for native plants. If not too narrow, it acts as a habitat corridor.
History
Historically throughout most of the world, domesticated livestock would roam freely and were fenced out of areas, such as gardens or fields of crops, where they were unwanted. Over time, especially where crop agriculture became dominant and population density of both humans and animals was significant, livestock owners were made to fence their animals in.
The earliest fences were made of available materials, usually stone or wood, and these materials are still used for some fences today. In areas where field stones are plentiful, fences have been built up over the years as the stones are removed from fields during tillage and planting of crops. The stones were placed on the field edge to get them out of the way. In time, the piles of stones grew high and wide.
In other areas, fences were constructed of timber. Log fences or split-rail fences were simple fences constructed in newly cleared areas by stacking log rails. Earth could also be used as a fence; an example was what is now called the sunken fence, or "ha-ha," a type of wall built by digging a ditch with one steep side (which animals cannot scale) and one sloped side (where the animals roam).
Fence laws
The tradition of fencing out unwanted livestock prevails even today in some sparsely populated areas. For example, until the mid-20th century, most states in the American West were called "open range" ("fence out") states, in contrast to Eastern and Midwestern states which long had "fence in" laws where livestock must be confined by their owners. Though the open range was part of the western tradition, over time, open range was limited long before it was eliminated completely; first came an obligation to keep cattle from roaming onto state and federal highways, where collisions with fast-moving cars and trucks created a public safety hazard. In addition, voters could voluntarily choose to make certain heavily farmed areas a "herd district," where livestock needed to be fenced in, a process that also became popular in areas where development of hobby farms created conflicts between large and small landowners. Over time, court cases steadily limited the application of open range law until the present day, where it is the exception rather than the rule in many parts of the American West.
In the United Kingdom, the law is different for private land and common land. On private land it is the owner's responsibility to fence livestock in, but it is the responsibility of landowners bordering a common to fence the common's livestock out.
Fence styles
Wire fences
The principle of wire fences is that they are supported mainly by tension, being stretched between heavy strutted or guy-wired posts at ends, corners, and ideally at intervals in longer stretches (every 50 to 300 metres, 150 to 1000 feet). Between these braced posts are additional smaller wooden or metal posts which keep the wires spaced and upright, usually 3 to 6 metre (10 to 20 feet) apart, depending on the style of fencing used.
Traditionally, wire fencing material is made of galvanized mild steel, but galvanized high-tensile steel is now also used in many places. To prevent sagging of the fence, which raises the risk of entanglement or escape, the wire is tensioned as much as the material will safely allow during construction by various means, including a hand-operated "wire stretcher" or "fence stretcher" (called a "monkey strainer" in some areas) or other leverage devices, a winch, or even by carefully pulling with a tractor or other vehicle.
Wire fences are typically run on wooden posts, either from trees commercially grown in plantations or (particularly in the American West) cut from public lands. When less expensive or more readily available than wood, steel T-posts or star posts are used, usually alternating every 2 to 5 steel posts with a more stable wood post. Non-electrified wire is attached to wooden posts using fencing staples (for intermediate posts, these are fitted loosely, not gripping the wire). Non-electrified wire is held on T-posts by means of wire "clips" made of smooth galvanized wire that wrap around the back of the post and hook onto the wire on either side of the post.
Other than in a truly desert climate, use of rot-resistant wooden posts or steel posts is advised. In the United States, wood with natural rot resistance, such as oak and juniper, was often used until it became in short supply in the 1950s. Then, chemically treated pine and spruce posts became prevalent, and these are also widely used in Britain, together with chestnut. Creosote, pentachlorophenol, and chromated copper arsenate are all widely used in the US and elsewhere for treatment (although some of these chemicals are subject to legal controls).
Barbed wire
The Industrial Revolution brought the first barbed wire (also "barbwire" or just "barb") fences, which were widely used after their introduction in the mid-19th century. This technology made it economically feasible to fence rangeland for the first time. In the United States, introduction of barbed wire contributed to the range wars of that century, as various ranch interests attempted to use barbed wire fences to claim exclusive access to the best pasture and water resources, including those lands in the public domain. It also exacerbated tensions between cattle ranchers and crop farmers, partly when access to water was involved.
Barbed wire has been made by many manufacturers in an almost endless variety of styles. For the most part these were functionally identical. The differences reflected peculiarities of each manufacturing process rather than deliberate design of the end product. Sections of unusual barbed wire are collected by some enthusiasts.
The traditional barbed wire used since the late 19th century and into the present day was made from two mild steel wires twisted together, usually of about 12 or 14 gauge, with about 15-30 twists per metre. Steel barbs were attached every 10–20 cm. Barbs had either two or four points, with the two point design using somewhat heavier and longer barbs. The relative merits of two point vs. four point barbed wire are the subject of deeply held views among many farmers and ranchers, to the extent that both types are still made today.
Typically four strands of barbed wire, with the lowest strand no more than from the ground and the top strand at least 48 inches above the ground, make up a legal fence in the western United States. Better-quality fences have five strands, older fences often had only three strands, and just two strands is widely used in Britain if only adult cattle are being contained. Other variations exist, depending on local laws and the purpose of the fence.
Barbed wire is particularly effective for containing cattle. In pastures containing both cattle and sheep, one or two strands of barbed wire is used in conjunction with woven wire to both discourage cattle from reaching over the top of a fence and to keep sheep from crawling under. Though often used in many areas for horses, barbed wire is not advised; its use is considered poor management. There is very high risk of injury occurring when a thin-skinned, fast-moving animal with long legs runs into it or puts a leg through the strands.
Smooth wire
Smooth (or plain) wire is essentially the same product as barbed wire with no barbs – either a two-wire twist or a single strand. Its primary advantage is that it is less likely to cause lacerations and cuts if an animal becomes entangled in it or rubs against it. However, animals will readily lean on mild steel smooth wire, stretching it out of shape or loosening it from the posts, and for this reason it is often used in high-tensile form, which more easily springs back to its original length. Smooth wire fencing is often used as an inexpensive material to safely contain horses and other animals that run a high risk of entanglement, usually in conjunction with a line of electric fence. Smooth wire is also used in securing fence-post braces and other uses where barbed wire is not recommended
High tensile wire
High tensile (H-T or HT) fencing is a special hard, springy steel wire that was introduced in the 1970s and has slowly gained acceptance. The wire may be a single strand plain or barbed wire, or woven mesh, and is capable of much higher tension than mild steel. It permits the use of wider post spacings and is neither stretched easily by animals, nor by fallen trees or branches. It can be insulated and electrified. Because of the wide spacing of the posts, thin metal or wood spacers (or "droppers") may be attached to the wires between posts to maintain their spacing.
Joining HT wire is difficult because of its stiffness and its reduction in strength when bent sharply. However, it may be joined effectively with proprietary clips. HT wire is more expensive than mild steel, but because of the need for fewer posts, the overall cost of the fencing is usually comparable.
Because it does not stretch, animals are less likely to become entangled in HT wire. However, for the same reason, if an animal does become entangled or runs into a few strands at a high speed, it can be deadly, and is sometimes referred to as having a "cheese cutter" effect on the animal.
Trellising for horticultural purposes is generally constructed from HT wire as it is able to withstand a higher crop load without breaking or stretching.
Woven and mesh wire
Woven and mesh wire fencing material has smooth horizontal wires and vertical wires (called stays). Wire spacing and height of fence is dependent on which type of animal is being contained. Agricultural woven wire is identifiable by wire "knots" wrapped around each intersecting wire. Mesh wire material is spot welded at each junction. Woven wire and mesh wire fences are also called square wire, box wire, page wire, sheep fence, or hog fence in the United States, sheep netting or pig netting in Britain, and ringlock in Australia.
Barbed wire fences cannot effectively contain smaller livestock such as pigs, goats or sheep. Where these animals are to be fenced, woven wire is used instead, sometimes with one or more strands of barbed wire at the top, and sometimes at the bottom to prevent animals from pushing under. For swine, a ground-level barbed wire strand or electrified wire is used as well to prevent digging beneath the fence.
Woven wire with large openings has some potential hazards. Large hoofed animals can put a foot through wide squares while grazing along the edge of the fenceline or while reaching over it, and then become tangled in the fence. A variation, called "field fence," has narrower openings at the bottom and wider openings at the top, which helps prevent animals from putting their feet through the fence. For example, horses in particular are safer kept inside woven wire fence with smaller openings, such as "no climb" fence with openings no larger than two inches by four inches.
Hog panel
Hog panels or cattle panels consist of heavy wire approximately or more in diameter running horizontal and vertical, and welded at the intersections. The panels, which are sold in lengths of 16 ft or 8 ft rather than in rolls, are rigid and self-supporting. No corner bracing is needed with panels as they are not stretched and there is no tension on corner posts.
Chain link
Chain link fencing is occasionally used for some livestock containment. However, due to cost, it is not particularly common for fencing large areas where less-expensive forms of woven wire are equally suitable. When used in small enclosures, it is easily deformed by livestock, resulting in high ongoing maintenance costs.
Electric fence
Electric fencing became widely available in the 1950s and has been widely used both for temporary fences and as a means to improve the security of fences made of other materials. It is most commonly made using lightweight steel wire (usually 14-17 gauge) attached to posts with insulators made of porcelain or plastic. Synthetic web or rope with thin steel wires interwoven to carry the electrical charge has become popular in recent years, particularly where additional visibility is desired.
A fence charger places an electrical pulse from ground to the wire about once per second. The pulse is narrow and usually around 5-20 kV. Animals receive an uncomfortable but harmless shock when contacting the wire, and learn to stay away from it.
Synthetic fence
Synthetic fences encompass a wide range of products. Vinyl-coated wire fence is usually based on high-tensile wire with a vinyl coating. Some forms are non-electric, others embed layers of graphite to carry a current from the wire to the outside of the coated product so that it can be electrified. It can be of any color, with white particularly common in the United States so that the fencing is visible to livestock. Most forms can be installed on either wood posts or steel t-posts.
A variant, sometimes called "vinyl rail" or "strap fencing" consists of two or more vinyl-encased wires with vinyl or other synthetic between them to create a "rail" that is anywhere from wide. Some forms may be electrified by use of a special coating on the top wire of the "rail."
Vinyl fence is installed in a manner similar to plain high-tensile fence and must be stretched tight. Strong bracing of posts at corners and in the middle of long fencelines is required. Like other wire fences, keeping vinyl fencing tightened on a regular basis is key to safety and appearance.
A mesh form of vinyl fencing without internal wires is marketed as "deer fence" and used in some locations to augment other fencing to keep out wild animals. There are also some forms of vinyl fencing that look similar to vinyl-coated wire, but do not contain an internal wire, that are marketed to livestock owners. They are marketed as particularly safe, but their strength in containing animals is under debate.
Wood, pipe and other materials
Fences of wood, stranded cable, and pipe are used where cost is less of a consideration, particularly on horse farms, or in pens or corrals where livestock are likely to challenge the fence. Synthetic materials with wood-like qualities are also used, though they are the most expensive option in most situations. In some areas, these types of fencing materials can be cost-effective if plentiful. For example, scrap pipe is often easily obtained at a low price if oil fields are nearby, and wooden rails can sometimes be harvested from the owner's own land if it contains suitable standing timber.
A cattle grid is an obstacle used to prevent livestock, such as sheep, beeves, pigs, horses, or mules from passing along a road or railway which penetrates the fencing surrounding an enclosed piece of land or border.
Maintenance
All types of agricultural fencing require regular maintenance to ensure their effectiveness. Cattle and horses are strong enough to go through most types of fence by main force, and occasionally do so when frightened or motivated by hunger, thirst, or sex drive. Weather, flood, fire, and damage from vandals or motor vehicle accidents can do similar damage and may allow livestock to escape.
Wildlife issues
All types of livestock fencing can be barriers and traps for wildlife, causing injuries and fatalities. Wildlife can get their legs tangled in barbed wire or woven wire with a strand of barbed on top. Woven wire can barricade animals that cannot jump the fence but are too large to crawl through the holes, such as fawns, bears and bobcats. Some wire fences are too difficult to see for larger fast moving birds, which can get entangled in it.
Adding visibility to wire fences can help reduce wildlife collisions. Reducing the height of woven and strand wire fences to no more than 40 inches can make it easier for wildlife to jump over with less risk of entanglement. Using barbless wires on top and bottom reduces cuts on wildlife which crawl under strand fences or those that try to climb over.
Fladry lines, made of cloth, metal and/or other materials, are sometimes used on fences to discourage wolves from entering a livestock enclosure.
Deer and many goats can easily jump an ordinary agricultural fence, and so special fencing is needed for farming goats or deer, or to keep wild deer out of farmland and gardens. Deer fence is often made of lightweight woven wire netting nearly 2 metres (about six feet) high on lightweight posts, otherwise made like an ordinary woven wire fence. In areas where such a tall fence is unsuitable (for example, on mountains subject to very high winds), deer may be excluded (or contained) by a fence of ordinary height (about 1.5 metres, five feet), with a smaller one of about one metre (three feet) high, about one metre away from it, on the same side as the deer. The additional width prevents deer approaching the fence close enough to jump it.
See also
Pet fence
Temporary fencing
Dingo Fence
Rabbit-proof fence
Hampshire gate
References
External links
Fence Planning for Horses
Fences
Garden features
Livestock | [
0.694396436214447,
0.05180858448147774,
-0.6710929274559021,
0.07724062353372574,
0.19048677384853363,
-0.15913835167884827,
0.22063754498958588,
-0.6438881158828735,
-0.23417741060256958,
-0.6221763491630554,
-0.5073757767677307,
0.46191897988319397,
-0.2367919385433197,
0.3601727783679962,
-0.7179932594299316,
0.7162782549858093,
0.21491160988807678,
0.41144859790802,
0.13850857317447662,
-0.35380667448043823,
-0.5297672748565674,
-0.674593448638916,
-0.06633024662733078,
0.2525961399078369,
0.33633753657341003,
-0.22708837687969208,
0.41507434844970703,
0.3457441031932831,
-0.042049210518598557,
0.14397194981575012,
0.46377032995224,
0.24058151245117188,
0.3197999894618988,
-0.1376071572303772,
0.48471885919570923,
-0.4585276246070862,
0.4813012480735779,
-0.28459271788597107,
-0.4108230769634247,
-0.7403154969215393,
-0.2715463936328888,
0.7473013997077942,
0.13017114996910095,
0.32293567061424255,
0.1416359692811966,
-0.7454480528831482,
-0.7744155526161194,
0.5700187683105469,
-0.04681754857301712,
0.07007016986608505,
-0.5769727230072021,
-0.1341238170862198,
0.10267896950244904,
0.6026474237442017,
0.2959662079811096,
0.6556898355484009,
-0.8985878825187683,
0.04439019411802292,
0.5836458802223206,
0.21024149656295776,
0.021484553813934326,
0.24108733236789703,
-0.5715656876564026,
0.09696216136217117,
0.15791171789169312,
0.03197113797068596,
-0.09959465265274048,
0.6596342325210571,
0.1443854123353958,
-0.5576304793357849,
-0.488442063331604,
-0.4751538336277008,
-0.005383579060435295,
-0.29149046540260315,
-0.08310823887586594,
-0.42821598052978516,
-0.08864512294530869,
-0.3526095449924469,
-0.06658012419939041,
0.14977505803108215,
0.17929601669311523,
0.33653342723846436,
-0.47328707575798035,
-0.3527356684207916,
0.8950909376144409,
0.22113049030303955,
-0.7650719285011292,
0.05193323269486427,
-0.24539630115032196,
0.23510117828845978,
0.9939680695533752,
0.2533363997936249,
0.1881888061761856,
0.2338220328092575,
-0.11977775394916534,
0.2752991318702698,
0.2224133014678955,
0.17908334732055664,
0.7295146584510803,
0.2858223021030426,
-0.0021072353702038527,
-0.07550264894962311,
0.7738034129142761,
-0.22574438154697418,
-0.40854281187057495,
-0.10478952527046204,
-0.09418023377656937,
-0.3868612051010132,
-0.12824420630931854,
-1.0651417970657349,
-0.30490610003471375,
0.2687950134277344,
-0.232115238904953,
0.16570457816123962,
-0.46772652864456177,
0.6464447379112244,
0.4760013818740845,
0.48512324690818787,
-0.35662880539894104,
0.5681093335151672,
0.1389864981174469,
0.7445393204689026,
-0.31374698877334595,
0.9774581789970398,
-0.5936639904975891,
-0.18092407286167145,
0.06046317517757416,
0.9363441467285156,
-0.7436376810073853,
0.3164009153842926,
0.08335721492767334,
0.6181336641311646,
-0.46459388732910156,
0.2863965928554535,
-0.22387346625328064,
-0.10982215404510498,
0.685547411441803,
0.12644997239112854,
0.5178157091140747,
0.02054879069328308,
-1.1606342792510986,
-0.375856876373291,
-0.8480085134506226,
0.2676505148410797,
-0.2087075114250183,
-0.17495860159397125,
0.12944969534873962,
-0.5009205341339111,
0.08428201824426651,
0.24831637740135193,
0.18941760063171387,
0.5679759979248047,
0.03103644587099552,
0.48357534408569336,
-0.8229213953018188,
0.022523902356624603,
0.6799739599227905,
-0.00953664630651474,
-0.38890540599823,
-0.4498597979545593,
0.45993438363075256,
0.09778822958469391,
-0.44225290417671204,
0.33262771368026733,
0.22853206098079681,
-0.5278427004814148,
0.2459723800420761,
0.3252853453159332,
0.011830028146505356,
0.2877364754676819,
-0.2184171974658966,
-0.02282593585550785,
-0.16553880274295807,
-0.6764090657234192,
0.30517342686653137,
0.5676976442337036,
-0.5670531392097473,
-0.13199375569820404,
0.5197300314903259,
0.13185854256153107,
-0.8087506890296936,
0.5316184759140015,
0.6322808265686035,
-0.07954725623130798,
0.44030290842056274,
0.09990447014570236,
0.13632658123970032,
-0.5021182298660278,
-0.19804596900939941,
-0.45894569158554077,
-0.6483862400054932,
-0.3678477704524994,
0.24043260514736176,
-0.49708789587020874,
1.0143496990203857,
-0.030346380546689034,
0.6894760727882385,
0.365809828042984,
-0.14604409039020538,
0.18602506816387177,
-0.24503366649150848,
-0.0441751554608345,
0.14121092855930328,
0.18150044977664948,
-1.4100682735443115,
1.2590172290802002,
0.2090298980474472,
-0.2622750997543335,
0.3463203012943268,
0.12164545059204102,
0.5005751252174377,
-0.38275691866874695,
0.33428022265434265,
-0.5666961669921875,
0.3707951307296753,
0.7829543352127075,
-0.21743106842041016,
0.5426875352859497,
0.29698219895362854,
-0.6593222618103027,
0.10724618285894394,
-0.033599939197301865,
-0.4559970498085022,
0.6757575273513794,
-0.5283591747283936,
0.3708688020706177,
0.17951899766921997,
0.31458938121795654,
0.018799690529704094,
-0.7291280031204224,
-0.20916320383548737,
-0.19865402579307556,
-0.058075617998838425,
-0.7201921343803406,
-0.38543206453323364,
-0.18478110432624817,
0.2580893039703369,
-0.11602656543254852,
0.13743728399276733,
-0.2168726921081543,
-0.07660503685474396,
0.16668127477169037,
0.3226469159126282,
0.0403512641787529,
-0.050501421093940735,
0.012096032500267029,
0.46516886353492737,
0.2901291847229004,
0.21226626634597778,
-0.0864139199256897,
0.6980669498443604,
-0.0691417008638382,
0.7795694470405579,
-0.8638371229171753,
-0.04309559613466263,
-0.3565147817134857,
-0.4966656267642975,
-0.4504595398902893,
0.6314501166343689,
-0.5689436793327332,
-0.009339972399175167,
0.04895014315843582,
-0.11397209018468857,
-0.18471099436283112,
-0.08901922404766083,
-0.29136013984680176,
-0.70253986120224,
-0.27644529938697815,
0.4142129719257355,
0.2675999104976654,
0.8946778178215027,
0.006227483507245779,
-0.5909397006034851,
-1.810580849647522,
-0.6047338247299194,
-0.39455530047416687,
0.8130576014518738,
0.4893982410430908,
-0.3578711450099945,
-0.1100756973028183,
0.225658118724823,
0.27338770031929016,
0.25098004937171936,
-0.7227253317832947,
-0.1830599159002304,
-0.5777194499969482,
0.7070234417915344,
-0.5959428548812866,
-0.11753562092781067,
0.2212347835302353,
-0.08330582082271576,
1.011366605758667,
-0.5360555648803711,
0.5751969814300537,
0.12831450998783112,
0.7624443769454956,
-0.17813535034656525,
0.045038431882858276,
1.0079160928726196,
-0.6323153376579285,
0.20686064660549164,
-0.4211653470993042,
-0.28915050625801086,
-0.16719843447208405,
-0.6063478589057922,
-0.2742469310760498,
-0.19988474249839783,
-0.46525683999061584,
-5.00667667388916,
-0.02535168267786503,
-0.2364913523197174,
-0.06674761325120926,
-0.17646946012973785,
0.027571706101298332,
1.1672437191009521,
0.14545133709907532,
-0.0750737264752388,
-0.1504853367805481,
-0.33383724093437195,
-0.2889370024204254,
0.5461265444755554,
0.18510465323925018,
0.5444633960723877,
0.23032508790493011,
0.7987979650497437,
-0.8528627753257751,
0.46156004071235657,
0.4161531329154968,
-0.15017764270305634,
0.08643382042646408,
-0.13724300265312195,
0.31653496623039246,
-0.15525907278060913,
-0.04846130311489105,
-0.5933035016059875,
0.1811842918395996,
-0.39879366755485535,
0.13110031187534332,
0.012957436963915825,
-0.2928358316421509,
0.05467376485466957,
-0.3037802278995514,
-0.5378971695899963,
0.170888289809227,
0.21650470793247223,
0.12509790062904358,
-0.4402790069580078,
0.06296406686306,
0.29304587841033936,
0.6479982137680054,
0.5064093470573425,
0.8388857245445251,
0.12752340734004974,
-0.6764317750930786,
0.09113316982984543,
-1.0579489469528198,
-0.0463772676885128,
0.7934499382972717,
0.03927474468946457,
0.98667311668396,
1.260250210762024,
-0.040086500346660614,
-0.36601823568344116,
-0.055307161062955856,
0.5966615080833435,
-0.5562986135482788,
-0.651106595993042,
0.32945579290390015,
0.21908038854599,
-0.9838377833366394,
0.13190163671970367,
-0.4189748167991638,
0.3902643024921417,
-0.1076311320066452,
-0.12618765234947205,
-0.9202591776847839,
0.05007321387529373,
0.17752981185913086,
-0.3116999864578247,
0.6785277128219604,
0.21624243259429932,
-0.6349181532859802,
0.10805340856313705,
-0.41424402594566345,
0.07674995064735413,
-0.4853461980819702,
0.4467320442199707,
-0.15230616927146912,
-0.0869370549917221,
-0.5022283792495728,
-0.21004728972911835,
0.1257343590259552,
0.002393317176029086,
-0.4876350462436676,
0.1819196343421936,
-0.10052015632390976,
-0.8221979737281799,
-0.4592858552932739,
1.0956724882125854,
0.15756423771381378,
0.028447505086660385,
-0.0359976664185524,
0.3336963355541229,
0.6243253946304321,
0.26068755984306335,
-0.3878754675388336,
0.40912938117980957,
-0.1790190488100052,
0.7756317257881165,
-0.0022904800716787577,
0.11982637643814087,
-0.44355693459510803,
-0.007954523898661137,
-0.2651408314704895,
0.2621989846229553,
0.8497622013092041,
0.4864901900291443,
-0.5215372443199158,
0.07112614810466766,
0.046998970210552216,
-0.6340001821517944,
-0.3785359263420105,
0.1283036321401596,
0.01816389709711075,
-0.1002207025885582,
-0.19891457259655,
0.1761445552110672,
-0.07991684228181839,
0.3413034677505493,
0.43789830803871155,
0.09328760951757431,
0.1886867731809616,
0.21373070776462555,
-0.6609261631965637,
0.3684092164039612,
0.03090866096317768,
-0.10003878176212311,
-0.08304447680711746,
0.35149139165878296,
0.7562158107757568,
-0.2833687365055084,
-0.7497392296791077,
-0.27669012546539307,
-0.19248485565185547,
0.15625280141830444,
0.04377906769514084,
-0.3861561417579651,
-0.42551687359809875,
-0.5328252911567688,
-0.2600783705711365,
-0.05736710503697395,
0.35222113132476807,
0.7072605490684509,
0.6008275747299194,
-0.38650545477867126,
-0.34014996886253357,
-0.04844771325588226,
0.6690419912338257,
-0.3610735535621643,
-0.4017370343208313,
-0.09506331384181976,
-0.6040723919868469,
0.24144496023654938,
-0.1876617968082428,
0.5730165243148804,
-0.11151646077632904,
-0.012329096905887127,
-0.8553948998451233,
0.2781542241573334,
0.4180094003677368,
-1.231184720993042,
0.09303571283817291,
-0.2033804953098297,
-0.06698906421661377,
-0.09598251432180405,
-0.573922336101532,
-0.5719766020774841,
0.5299166440963745,
-0.11904502660036087,
-1.0173603296279907,
-0.21735712885856628,
-0.27769148349761963,
-0.19474834203720093,
0.023399539291858673,
0.0929456427693367,
0.011129978112876415,
-0.40171822905540466,
-0.5447208285331726,
0.11586545407772064,
-0.20892992615699768,
0.1469580978155136,
1.2118682861328125,
0.1075400710105896,
-0.6792867183685303,
-0.47006756067276,
0.1568164974451065,
-0.28859466314315796,
0.3660227954387665,
0.21622078120708466,
0.00523978378623724,
0.4073110520839691,
0.18119220435619354,
-0.26685070991516113,
-0.22973129153251648,
-0.20571814477443695,
-0.0678870677947998,
-0.6887685656547546,
-0.6436434388160706,
0.4153185486793518,
0.8384026885032654,
-0.49184450507164,
0.6359444260597229,
-0.15247398614883423,
-0.12825819849967957,
0.2553468942642212,
0.4684206545352936,
-0.5394120216369629,
0.035918354988098145,
-0.22925199568271637,
-0.40714243054389954,
-0.5222174525260925,
0.12586553394794464,
-0.9505045413970947,
-0.05211564525961876,
0.33161336183547974,
0.26999327540397644,
-0.7612373232841492,
-0.10615932196378708,
0.8153296113014221,
-1.0061922073364258,
-0.2200736105442047,
-0.04008540138602257,
-0.33595940470695496,
0.6184791922569275,
0.1550479531288147,
-1.36757230758667,
0.3787439465522766,
-0.12587261199951172,
-0.6445239782333374,
0.0037872197572141886,
0.39207571744918823,
0.17811910808086395,
-0.5402995347976685,
0.33486419916152954,
-0.6521718502044678,
0.2381419986486435,
0.40339863300323486,
0.4431717097759247,
0.7303324341773987,
1.1769980192184448,
-0.08041536062955856,
0.2858010530471802,
-0.2612837553024292,
0.4534034729003906,
0.23962119221687317,
-1.1041895151138306,
-0.6624646782875061,
0.07638897001743317,
-0.2044074833393097,
-0.10728906840085983,
-0.3839797377586365,
-0.15989790856838226,
0.22650668025016785,
0.04780429229140282,
-0.22871935367584229,
0.5470530390739441,
0.6582154631614685,
0.3860127031803131,
-0.12835225462913513,
-0.3101188838481903,
-0.7526002526283264,
0.23628394305706024,
0.3747534155845642,
-0.6159005761146545,
0.19793643057346344,
-0.08058159053325653,
0.1883075088262558,
-0.07984834164381027,
-0.29233989119529724,
-0.4312931001186371,
0.7388018369674683,
0.45187458395957947,
0.43328943848609924,
0.20463095605373383,
0.09121663123369217,
-0.12801764905452728,
-0.3614709675312042,
-0.5081399083137512,
0.3108343780040741,
-0.678106963634491,
0.3782840669155121,
-0.5964359045028687,
0.12119905650615692,
0.12341167032718658,
0.11586222052574158,
0.027467932552099228,
-0.29902416467666626,
-0.8127242922782898,
-0.2809772491455078,
-0.5043943524360657,
0.14032158255577087,
0.03512871265411377,
0.19857709109783173,
0.8066243529319763,
-0.053124867379665375,
0.2586982846260071,
0.10085606575012207,
-0.07404497265815735,
-0.404253214597702,
0.9846558570861816,
-0.15369732677936554,
-0.8108333349227905,
0.2793049216270447,
0.010030031204223633,
0.7965118885040283,
-0.3520444631576538,
0.39028215408325195,
0.21761515736579895,
-0.08993099629878998,
0.1310972422361374,
0.4873857796192169,
0.7607656717300415,
-0.025469116866588593,
0.3169897496700287,
0.317997545003891,
-0.4249618947505951,
0.45408910512924194,
0.18341068923473358,
-0.036340441554784775,
-0.3618587255477905,
0.4018937051296234,
0.038188740611076355,
-0.5921871662139893,
0.29845502972602844,
-0.32848671078681946,
-0.09776600450277328,
0.5112878084182739,
0.18544523417949677,
0.3982727825641632,
0.5425058603286743,
-0.19616374373435974,
0.5358471274375916,
-0.11955714970827103,
0.11511766165494919,
0.36308738589286804,
-0.975959062576294,
-0.14070406556129456,
0.8044869899749756,
0.25617095828056335,
0.2824837565422058,
0.34479832649230957,
0.12417015433311462,
-0.52730792760849,
0.16141781210899353,
0.08907310664653778,
-0.024571912363171577,
-0.584196925163269,
0.37300458550453186,
0.5378711223602295,
-0.42182657122612,
0.5739281177520752,
0.04577237740159035,
-0.06198686733841896,
-0.31410884857177734,
0.7436984777450562,
0.19633641839027405,
0.0319921113550663,
-1.1197925806045532,
0.031579479575157166,
-0.11979441344738007,
-0.2402697652578354,
0.05493610352277756,
0.1460893303155899,
0.22626329958438873,
0.41327452659606934,
-0.9101025462150574,
-0.32739707827568054,
0.4001027047634125,
0.29373428225517273,
-0.10327088087797165,
-0.16296891868114471,
0.24525636434555054,
0.5571233034133911,
0.15189704298973083,
-0.2773478627204895,
-0.12659715116024017,
0.3961312770843506,
-0.3016788065433502,
0.17965103685855865,
0.46261167526245117,
-0.33015450835227966,
-0.5188028812408447,
-0.21824239194393158,
-0.3801959455013275,
-0.5977179408073425,
0.2832184135913849,
-0.32328295707702637,
-0.5667238235473633,
0.0042840782552957535,
-0.10059209913015366,
0.21255825459957123,
-0.3464506268501282,
-0.4312395453453064,
0.4270149767398834,
-0.22937743365764618,
1.1085178852081299,
0.16842743754386902,
-0.25639697909355164,
0.13461165130138397,
0.7331194281578064,
-0.17932729423046112,
0.08932268619537354,
-0.3098265528678894,
0.2801438570022583,
0.055267054587602615,
0.3205344080924988,
-0.10155840218067169,
0.7697505354881287,
0.6023144125938416,
-0.46943235397338867,
0.3926994502544403,
0.16542598605155945,
0.20195887982845306,
0.7786634564399719,
0.14562949538230896,
-0.9765982627868652,
-0.40282124280929565,
-0.718981146812439,
0.5703933238983154,
-0.3536137640476227,
-0.03651755675673485,
0.44658994674682617,
-0.14821845293045044,
-0.23490434885025024,
0.5420675873756409,
0.23578578233718872,
0.19276683032512665,
0.8909077644348145,
-0.0635034367442131,
0.3738848865032196,
-1.0818465948104858,
-0.19987529516220093,
-0.1620691418647766,
-0.41210538148880005,
0.4143940508365631,
0.7448546290397644,
0.8305414319038391,
-0.18085166811943054,
0.4976348578929901,
-0.40895023941993713,
-0.015611986629664898,
0.05841207131743431,
-2.2464733123779297,
-0.1324101984500885,
-0.13003309071063995,
-0.08581740409135818,
-0.5763930678367615,
0.607886791229248,
0.045288875699043274,
-0.3856104016304016,
0.18115229904651642,
0.1452876478433609,
-0.24140331149101257,
0.1584233045578003,
0.13474059104919434,
-0.7642561197280884,
-0.5857125520706177,
0.245936319231987
] |
241377 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livonian%20language | Livonian language | The Livonian language ( or ; ) is a Finnic language. Although its last native speaker died in 2013, there are about 40 reported speakers and 210 having reported some knowledge of the language. The native land of the Livonian people is the Livonian Coast of the Gulf of Livonia, located in the north of the Kurzeme peninsula in Latvia. Possibly unique among the Uralic languages, Livonian has been described as a pitch-accent language (see below).
Some ethnic Livonians are learning or have learned Livonian in an attempt to revive it, but because ethnic Livonians are a small minority, opportunities to use Livonian are limited. The Estonian newspaper Eesti Päevaleht erroneously announced that Viktors Bertholds, who died on 28 February 2009, was the last native speaker who started Latvian-language school as a monolingual. Some other Livonians had argued, however, that there were some native speakers left, including Viktors Bertholds' cousin, , who died in 2013. An article published by the Foundation for Endangered Languages in 2007 stated that there were only 182 registered Livonians and a mere six native speakers. In a 2009 conference proceeding, it was mentioned that there could be "at best 10 living native" speakers of the language.
The promotion of the Livonian language as a living language has been advanced mostly by the Livonian Cultural Centre (), an organisation of mostly young Livonians. Livonian as a lesser used language in Latvia – along with Latgalian – is represented by the Latvian Bureau of Lesser Used Languages (LatBLUL), formerly a national branch of the European Bureau of Lesser Used Languages (EBLUL).
The language is taught in universities in Latvia, Estonia, Finland and Sweden, which constantly increases the pool of people with some knowledge of the language who do not permanently reside in Latvia.
History
In the 19th century, about 2,000 people still spoke Livonian; in 1852, the number of Livonians was 2,394. Various historical events have led to the near total language death of Livonian:
In the 13th century, speakers of Livonian numbered 30,000.
The German invasion: around the year 1200, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Teutonic knights conquered Livonia, leading to contention of rule of the area between these orders and the Archbishopric of Riga.
1522: The introduction of the Protestant Reformation.
1557: The Russian invasion, also known as the Russo-Swedish War.
1558–1583: Livonian War. Russians, Swedes, Danes, Lithuanians and Poles fought over the area.
1721: The Treaty of Nystad. Northern Livonia became provinces of Tsarist Russia.
1918: The founding of Latvia; the Livonian language re-blossomed.
World War II and Soviet Union: marginalisation of Livonian.
Declared extinct on 6 June 2013.
Revival of the Livonian language started after the last native speaker died.
In the 13th century, the native Livonians inhabited the Estonian counties Alempois, Jogentagana Järva, Läänemaa, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Sakala, Ugandi, and Vaiga in the north, and by the Daugava in the south . The Livonian settlement of Curonia was also begun then. In the 12th-13th centuries the Livonian lands were conquered by the Teutonic Order. The conquest led to a strong decrease in the number of speakers of the Livonian language, empty Livonian lands inhabited by the Latvians, which contributed to the replacement of the Livonian language in favor of Latvian. It is estimated that at the time of the German colonization, there were 30,000 Livonians. In the 19th century the number of speakers of the Couronian dialect is estimated as follows: 2,074 people in 1835, 2,324 people in 1852, 2,390 people in 1858, 2,929 people in 1888. According to the Soviet Census of 1989, 226 people were Livonian, and almost half of them spoke Livonian. According to estimates of the Liv Culture Center in 2010, only 40 people spoke Livonian in everyday life. In 2013, there were none who spoke Livonian in everyday life.
Early literature
The first Livonian words were recorded in the Livonian Chronicle of Henry. The first written sources about Livonian appeared in the 16th century. The collection of Livonian poems "Mariners sacred songs and prayers" () was translated to Latvian by Jānis Prints and his son Jānis Jr. and was published in 1845. The first book in Livonian was the Gospel of Matthew, published in 1863 in London in both the eastern and western Courland dialects. It was translated into eastern Couronian by Nick Pollmann and into western Couronian by Jānis Prints and Peteris. The plan with the book was to establish a standard orthography by F. Wiedemann, which consisted of 36 letters with many diacritics. The total circulation was 250 copies. The Livonians received only one copy of each dialect. The second book in Livonian was the same Gospel of Matthew, published in 1880 in St. Petersburg, with an orthography based on Latvian and German.
In the interwar period, there were several dozen books published in Livonian, mainly with the help of Finnish and Estonian organizations. In 1930, the first newspaper in Livonian, "Līvli", was published. In 1942, a translation of the New Testament was published in Helsinki. It was translated by Kōrli Stalte, with help from the Finnish linguist Lauri Kettunen. After WWII, books in Livonian were no longer published, as Latvia was occupied by the Soviet Union. The whole area of the Livonian Coast became a restricted border zone under tight Soviet supervision. Coastal fishing was gradually eliminated in the smaller villages and concentrated in the larger population centres of Kolka, Roja, and Ventspils. Limits were placed on freedom of movement for inhabitants. All of these factors contributed to the decline of the language, although some initiatives appeared starting from the early 1970s.
After Latvia regained its independence, the newsletter "Õvā" was published in Livonian in 1994, dedicated to the Livonian culture, art, and figures of the national movement, and in 1998 with the support of the "Open Society," the first collection of poetry in Livonian, "Ma akūb sīnda vizzõ, tūrska!", was published and presented in Finland and Estonia. It combines the works of famous Livonian poets. To date, the only Livonian media outlet is the trilingual (English-Latvian-Livonian) Livones.lv (livones.net) operated by the Liv Culture Center.
Two sites were included in the Atlas Linguarum Europae to study Livonian: Miķeļtornis and Mazirbe.
Speakers of Livonian in the twenty-first century
Viktors Bertholds (10 July 1921 – 28 February 2009), one of the last Livonian speakers of the generation who learned Livonian as a first language in a Livonian-speaking family and community, died on 28 February 2009. Though it was reported that he was the last native speaker of the language, Livonians themselves claimed that there were more native speakers still alive, albeit very few.
As reported in the Estonian newspaper Eesti Päevaleht, Viktors Bertholds was born in 1921 and probably belonged to the last generation of children who started their (Latvian-medium) primary school as Livonian monolinguals; only a few years later it was noted that Livonian parents had begun to speak Latvian with their children. During World War II, Bertholds, unlike most Livonian men, managed to avoid being mobilized in the armies of either occupation force by hiding in the woods. After the war, Bertholds worked in various professions and shared his knowledge of Livonian language with many field linguists; in the 1990s, he also taught Livonian in children's summer camps.
Bertholds' Livonian-speaking brother and wife died in the 1990s. In the early 2000s, many other prominent "last Livonians" also died, such as Poulin Klavin (1918–2001), keeper of many Livonian traditions and the last Livonian to reside permanently on the Courland coast, and Edgar Vaalgamaa (1912–2003), clergyman in Finland, translator of the New Testament and author of a book on the history and culture of the Livonians.
Supposedly the last native speaker of Livonian was Grizelda Kristiņa, née Bertholde (1910–2013, a cousin of Viktors Bertholds), who lived in Canada from 1949. According to Valts Ernštreits, she spoke Livonian as well "as if she had stepped out of her home farm in a Livonian coastal village just yesterday". and qualified as the last living native speaker of the Livonian language of her generation. She died on June 2, 2013.
The survival of the Livonian language now depends on young Livonians who learned Livonian in their childhood from grandparents or great-grandparents of the pre-war generations. There are not many of them, though there are a few hundred ethnic Livonians in Latvia now who are interested in their Livonian roots. Some young Livonians not only sing folk-songs in Livonian but even strive to use Livonian actively in everyday communication. One such younger generation Livonian speaker is , who performs with the Livonian-Estonian world music group Tuļļi Lum. In 2018, the Livonian Institute at the University of Latvia was established to promote research and awareness of the language.
Phonology
Livonian, like Estonian, has lost vowel harmony, but unlike Estonian, it has also lost consonant gradation.
Vowels
Livonian has 8 vowels (the two unrounded front vowels, marked with the dagger [†], were present in earlier generations but merged with other vowels in later generations; these were present dialectally as late as 1997):
All vowels can be long or short. Short vowels are written as indicated in the table; long vowels are written with an additional macron ("ˉ") over the letter, so, for example, = . The Livonian vowel system is notable for having a stød similar to Danish. As in other languages with this feature, it is thought to be a vestige of an earlier pitch accent.
Livonian has also a large number of diphthongs, as well as a number of triphthongs. These can also occur short or long.
The two opening diphthongs and vary in their stress placement depending on length: short ie, uo are realized as rising , , while long īe, ūo are realized as falling , . The same applies to the triphthongs uoi : ūoi.
Consonants
Livonian has 23 consonants:
Alphabet
The Livonian alphabet is a hybrid which mixes Latvian and Estonian orthography.
Grammar
Language contacts with Latvians and Estonians
Livonian has for centuries been thoroughly influenced by Latvian in terms of grammar, phonology and word derivation etc. The dative case in Livonian, for example, is very unusual for a Finnic language. There are about 2,000 Latvian and 200 German loanwords in Livonian and most of the German words were adopted through Latvian. Latvian, however, was influenced by Livonian as well. Its regular syllable stress, which is based on Livonian, is very unusual in a Baltic language. Especially as of the end of the nineteenth century there was a great deal of contact with Estonians, namely between (Kurzeme) Livonian fishers or mariners and the Estonians from Saaremaa or other islands. Many inhabitants of the islands of Western Estonia worked in the summer in Kurzeme Livonian villages. As a result, a knowledge of Estonian spread among those Livonians and words of Estonian origin also came into Livonian. There are about 800 Estonian loanwords in Livonian, most of which were borrowed from the Saaremaa dialect.
Common phrases
Hello! –
Enjoy your meal! –
Good morning! –
Good day! –
Good night! –
Thank you! –
Happy new year! –
die –
one –
two –
three –
four –
five –
six –
seven –
eight –
nine –
ten –
See also
– the national anthem of the Livonians
Tuļļi Lum – Livonian-Estonian world music group
References
Fanny de Sivers. 2001. Parlons live – Une langue de la Baltique. Paris: L'Harmattan. .
Lauri Kettunen. 1938. Livisches Wörterbuch : mit grammatischer Einleitung. Helsinki: Finno-Ugrian Society.
External links
Livones.lv
Virtual Livonia
Latvian–Livonian–English Phrase Book
Livonian language resources at Giellatekno
Livonian - Latvian/Estonian/Finnish dictionary (robust finite-state, open-source)
Finnic languages
Languages of Latvia
Extinct languages of Europe
Languages extinct in the 2010s | [
-0.1025337353348732,
0.030742045491933823,
-0.3922932744026184,
-0.31084510684013367,
0.055134117603302,
0.8926634788513184,
0.7774462699890137,
0.7603489756584167,
-0.9018545150756836,
-0.5078281760215759,
-0.10116055607795715,
0.26814132928848267,
-0.15883010625839233,
0.2458568662405014,
0.09735569357872009,
0.30680257081985474,
-0.08009632676839828,
0.51079261302948,
0.16884537041187286,
-0.36142879724502563,
-0.22738096117973328,
0.023779945448040962,
0.6391583681106567,
0.3634941577911377,
0.06103285029530525,
-0.33100441098213196,
0.7650972604751587,
0.28634020686149597,
0.14108987152576447,
-0.15810753405094147,
-0.5501805543899536,
1.340920090675354,
-0.30413317680358887,
-0.24974623322486877,
0.2958190143108368,
-0.35733532905578613,
-0.2930857539176941,
-0.6157809495925903,
-0.36898037791252136,
-0.01395051646977663,
-0.3661426901817322,
-0.1256653219461441,
0.07331618666648865,
0.5862461924552917,
0.2191738784313202,
-0.14909550547599792,
-1.0470079183578491,
0.5914496183395386,
-0.38506338000297546,
0.0253200214356184,
-0.6016361713409424,
0.16549576818943024,
0.2616504430770874,
0.7849619388580322,
-0.059700462967157364,
0.1671355813741684,
-1.167262077331543,
-0.07470349967479706,
0.24911737442016602,
0.27008944749832153,
0.4303399324417114,
0.34484225511550903,
-0.6398385763168335,
-0.16950348019599915,
0.5090860724449158,
0.13044220209121704,
-0.27542755007743835,
0.3997931182384491,
-0.9361056089401245,
-0.8712623119354248,
-0.22882525622844696,
0.004647871479392052,
-0.10169661790132523,
-0.059271156787872314,
0.33928030729293823,
-0.3787894546985626,
0.059427883476018906,
-0.054079193621873856,
0.11231360584497452,
-0.0780806615948677,
-0.2268052101135254,
0.7165785431861877,
0.8688527941703796,
0.23298482596874237,
0.24029596149921417,
-0.3232662081718445,
-0.5021575093269348,
-0.08710461109876633,
-0.16740782558918,
0.03279886767268181,
-0.002297793049365282,
-0.3702908158302307,
0.5587905049324036,
-0.13472844660282135,
0.0252472423017025,
0.8883190751075745,
-0.21868693828582764,
0.6250954270362854,
-0.4931621253490448,
0.5807133316993713,
-0.3411957323551178,
0.516957700252533,
0.5855294466018677,
0.2708629369735718,
-1.0180753469467163,
-0.28494107723236084,
-0.20213313400745392,
0.49571847915649414,
-0.16336192190647125,
-0.3854649066925049,
-0.3898676335811615,
-0.10807061940431595,
0.042704541236162186,
0.08720766007900238,
-0.20781268179416656,
0.2091803103685379,
0.1315523386001587,
-0.24745965003967285,
0.05131063610315323,
-0.3133555054664612,
0.16962850093841553,
0.5789986252784729,
-0.3116181194782257,
0.021275416016578674,
0.042561233043670654,
0.37126994132995605,
-0.2492455691099167,
-0.08884686231613159,
-0.47280949354171753,
-0.4658574163913727,
0.26732519268989563,
0.9257522821426392,
0.11052311211824417,
0.4159601032733917,
-0.2036954164505005,
0.06461957842111588,
0.196251779794693,
0.35993102192878723,
0.35456007719039917,
0.1492566615343094,
-1.3633627891540527,
-0.45726555585861206,
-0.7334675192832947,
0.16311274468898773,
0.19589291512966156,
0.0932709202170372,
-0.09790052473545074,
-0.12597031891345978,
-0.4037441611289978,
-0.33123132586479187,
-0.275461882352829,
-0.28413647413253784,
0.09181424975395203,
0.29597505927085876,
-0.19223731756210327,
0.11652854830026627,
0.5186492800712585,
0.11727125942707062,
1.2288141250610352,
0.382792204618454,
-0.03243750333786011,
0.16447387635707855,
0.22835396230220795,
-0.10015629976987839,
0.647101104259491,
-0.04043635353446007,
-0.2851221263408661,
0.5164607167243958,
0.09110428392887115,
0.2598046660423279,
-0.35870906710624695,
0.05222674831748009,
0.7450214624404907,
-0.31888923048973083,
-0.25723010301589966,
-0.4825841188430786,
0.08364328742027283,
0.027249353006482124,
0.27450883388519287,
-0.657974898815155,
-0.8097748160362244,
0.6656026244163513,
0.03998430818319321,
-0.09595980495214462,
-0.11454087495803833,
0.4778673052787781,
0.22360961139202118,
-0.31407251954078674,
0.02184162475168705,
0.06444314122200012,
0.01282091997563839,
-0.8515852689743042,
0.32842403650283813,
0.14538706839084625,
0.7625945806503296,
0.09174817055463791,
-0.2798612415790558,
0.48917046189308167,
0.41812413930892944,
0.754184365272522,
-0.301631897687912,
-1.4493552446365356,
0.1995759904384613,
-0.08228603005409241,
0.01176751684397459,
0.7017336487770081,
-0.3556661903858185,
0.4613427221775055,
0.5916865468025208,
0.2838876247406006,
0.6245372891426086,
-0.8425474166870117,
1.124877691268921,
0.258121520280838,
0.16413870453834534,
-0.19208142161369324,
-0.19942191243171692,
-0.021101005375385284,
-0.1257668286561966,
-0.08997554332017899,
0.7787646651268005,
-0.3741162121295929,
0.14119316637516022,
0.1399192065000534,
0.031405698508024216,
0.4395237863063812,
0.7012331485748291,
0.21381019055843353,
0.13251309096813202,
-0.43259841203689575,
0.28450673818588257,
-0.006176159251481295,
0.13553521037101746,
-0.2660844922065735,
-0.3115232586860657,
-0.9203323721885681,
-0.44330212473869324,
0.24653342366218567,
0.33807212114334106,
0.0820002630352974,
0.17172810435295105,
0.0841042548418045,
-0.712167501449585,
-0.09247767180204391,
0.8664987683296204,
-0.05181039497256279,
0.19310294091701508,
0.3093302845954895,
-0.2945301830768585,
0.14408302307128906,
0.2534666955471039,
-0.38356083631515503,
-0.03247405216097832,
-0.42008647322654724,
-0.20591330528259277,
-0.010377924889326096,
0.7359809279441833,
-0.42874884605407715,
0.8078287839889526,
-0.022850271314382553,
-0.1387445628643036,
0.3158440887928009,
-0.10067127645015717,
-0.2982803285121918,
0.1114317774772644,
-0.6161394715309143,
-0.2695571780204773,
-0.18651236593723297,
0.27135998010635376,
0.33475443720817566,
0.45878809690475464,
-0.10296320915222168,
-0.43862318992614746,
-0.6425867080688477,
-0.008320212364196777,
-0.33613157272338867,
-0.10724059492349625,
-0.30142566561698914,
-0.6596671938896179,
0.05638377368450165,
-0.33283060789108276,
0.6089328527450562,
0.14142556488513947,
-0.3232246935367584,
-0.55400550365448,
-0.36382338404655457,
0.24599306285381317,
0.036042992025613785,
0.007054954767227173,
-0.24722348153591156,
0.2248191237449646,
-0.4107944965362549,
-0.5845513939857483,
0.09146963059902191,
0.08736629784107208,
0.05688696354627609,
0.1065017580986023,
0.27556201815605164,
0.3852412700653076,
-0.44636306166648865,
-0.8921838402748108,
0.6864578723907471,
-0.07520181685686111,
-0.12051119655370712,
-0.2786620259284973,
-0.15220314264297485,
-0.3082670271396637,
0.06794673204421997,
-5.2671074867248535,
0.23426447808742523,
-0.5396246910095215,
-0.3513948917388916,
0.38194915652275085,
0.11234741657972336,
0.6826032400131226,
-0.2364901304244995,
0.2922491133213043,
0.061281718313694,
-0.21418043971061707,
0.07381775975227356,
-0.3991282880306244,
0.32928863167762756,
0.45281141996383667,
0.21682384610176086,
-0.06980665028095245,
0.19601689279079437,
0.0737057700753212,
0.05765123665332794,
-0.29026809334754944,
0.08894211798906326,
-0.13642412424087524,
0.6301434636116028,
0.7423273921012878,
0.5862833261489868,
0.10363887995481491,
-0.40311819314956665,
-0.3711378574371338,
-0.348695307970047,
-0.3891180753707886,
-0.3191668689250946,
0.7983695268630981,
-0.672420859336853,
-0.1192694678902626,
-0.07654844969511032,
0.21108822524547577,
1.3068294525146484,
0.9276300072669983,
-0.41998180747032166,
0.0006116527947597206,
0.504791259765625,
0.1639215499162674,
-0.019751057028770447,
0.33233076333999634,
-0.1978110820055008,
-0.776421070098877,
-0.03423071652650833,
-0.9492608308792114,
1.4255003929138184,
-0.3379495143890381,
-0.422086238861084,
0.09409540891647339,
0.5933972597122192,
0.666049063205719,
0.21270672976970673,
0.7428193688392639,
0.2544400691986084,
-0.06998470425605774,
0.4757082164287567,
0.1930139809846878,
-0.15686525404453278,
-0.5036600828170776,
-0.7312930822372437,
0.006588671822100878,
-0.6547011733055115,
-0.5655781626701355,
-0.1411767154932022,
0.09590794146060944,
0.03095061518251896,
-0.43449297547340393,
0.1406237632036209,
-0.5026954412460327,
-0.9546177387237549,
-0.12486489117145538,
-0.6043782234191895,
-0.7792069911956787,
0.0703793466091156,
-0.0829736515879631,
0.42667239904403687,
-0.5403404831886292,
0.08468228578567505,
-0.18396040797233582,
0.8601375222206116,
0.40960779786109924,
-0.2687084674835205,
-0.47588208317756653,
-0.09639334678649902,
-0.42626112699508667,
-0.15783295035362244,
0.34577476978302,
-0.15309421718120575,
0.24667248129844666,
0.04346727207303047,
0.023386968299746513,
0.5378687977790833,
0.44723546504974365,
-0.6210001707077026,
0.8660917282104492,
-0.8970893025398254,
0.7752819061279297,
-0.5663381218910217,
0.04167080670595169,
0.14375951886177063,
0.040882501751184464,
0.0038976711221039295,
-0.7550503611564636,
0.34562915563583374,
0.9755383133888245,
0.3175937831401825,
0.2492540031671524,
0.026171637699007988,
0.050371307879686356,
-0.3782569468021393,
0.5097706913948059,
0.2273673117160797,
-0.5470507740974426,
0.703876793384552,
0.31133517622947693,
-0.09583627432584763,
-0.0857633724808693,
-0.039121225476264954,
-0.3214026093482971,
0.37691429257392883,
-0.06744492053985596,
-0.3683306574821472,
-0.22883960604667664,
0.39785337448120117,
-1.1923494338989258,
0.29851916432380676,
-0.2743881046772003,
-0.5556973218917847,
-0.06336243450641632,
-0.1409396082162857,
0.22752298414707184,
0.2042039930820465,
-0.48214635252952576,
0.03929641842842102,
0.5427753925323486,
-0.616338312625885,
-0.11762475967407227,
-1.0499143600463867,
0.11397484689950943,
0.3825382888317108,
0.6137173771858215,
0.5341652035713196,
-0.0016946966061368585,
-0.13571733236312866,
-0.5327351689338684,
0.09587296843528748,
-0.003428837051615119,
-0.3699156641960144,
0.17139577865600586,
0.030452897772192955,
-0.05305568128824234,
-0.10706374794244766,
0.15512920916080475,
0.4585028290748596,
-0.12416708469390869,
-0.04485422000288963,
0.6079432368278503,
-0.8309031128883362,
-0.3262012004852295,
0.13870584964752197,
0.40603914856910706,
-1.0626388788223267,
-0.7072368264198303,
-0.2095932960510254,
-0.6070734262466431,
0.9856687188148499,
0.07652394473552704,
-0.21373605728149414,
-0.5018935203552246,
-0.18018096685409546,
0.5763279795646667,
-0.4184463322162628,
-0.17381073534488678,
0.6875611543655396,
-0.3554903268814087,
-0.11505354195833206,
0.21181373298168182,
0.1912464052438736,
-0.44980162382125854,
1.1205576658248901,
0.2835048735141754,
-0.2528085708618164,
0.48195818066596985,
0.35325807332992554,
-0.6476328372955322,
0.06255916506052017,
-0.03245348483324051,
0.12589244544506073,
-0.13280591368675232,
0.20125621557235718,
-0.6088712811470032,
-0.2813265025615692,
0.2656978666782379,
-0.07242026180028915,
0.08399897813796997,
-0.3313911557197571,
0.7655976414680481,
0.45784324407577515,
0.13747847080230713,
-0.17574404180049896,
0.16716410219669342,
-0.39178943634033203,
0.6154647469520569,
-0.4492059648036957,
-0.7589555978775024,
0.24221421778202057,
-0.6240921020507812,
-0.9807934165000916,
-0.7261000871658325,
0.1215173527598381,
-0.7541244626045227,
-0.2626476287841797,
1.0867836475372314,
-0.3673059940338135,
-0.5622765421867371,
-0.22291436791419983,
-0.4672175645828247,
-0.32766157388687134,
-0.2531169354915619,
-0.4943765699863434,
-0.3587953746318817,
0.799105167388916,
0.018151206895709038,
-0.12308992445468903,
0.8714845180511475,
-1.016895055770874,
0.64078289270401,
-0.5440590381622314,
0.22847741842269897,
0.1976473182439804,
0.02756827510893345,
0.28494390845298767,
0.009303510189056396,
0.14757995307445526,
0.34451213479042053,
0.8892002105712891,
1.0911191701889038,
0.9061185121536255,
0.3312165141105652,
-0.583656907081604,
-0.38525938987731934,
-0.08995392173528671,
0.3360660970211029,
-0.32142409682273865,
-0.624650239944458,
-0.1382305771112442,
0.02376204915344715,
-0.8643677234649658,
-0.7089799046516418,
-0.5632970929145813,
1.0714229345321655,
-0.19217558205127716,
0.4902808368206024,
0.48694315552711487,
-0.18997621536254883,
-0.0132205281406641,
0.04693381115794182,
-0.34922608733177185,
0.007138710934668779,
0.600024402141571,
0.020499171689152718,
-0.16922207176685333,
-0.35798177123069763,
0.19361862540245056,
0.5108377933502197,
-0.004218821879476309,
-0.20955297350883484,
-0.8825396299362183,
0.4210401177406311,
-0.32696521282196045,
-0.3243725895881653,
-0.07210789620876312,
0.1126309335231781,
-0.05291858687996864,
0.4749488830566406,
0.03836185112595558,
-0.5550058484077454,
0.15708747506141663,
0.08980736136436462,
-0.23613372445106506,
-0.04931266978383064,
-0.26060381531715393,
-0.17630954086780548,
0.20682692527770996,
0.09481387585401535,
0.2551869750022888,
-0.30254241824150085,
-0.5639249682426453,
-0.0850687250494957,
0.29489949345588684,
0.20293401181697845,
-0.1597604900598526,
-0.11929655075073242,
0.39118480682373047,
0.16743610799312592,
0.6851428151130676,
-0.5781742930412292,
0.8050729632377625,
-0.07466303557157516,
-0.7568880915641785,
0.38669535517692566,
0.4991428256034851,
-0.269824355840683,
-0.025147518143057823,
0.22924375534057617,
-0.11461784690618515,
0.17232486605644226,
0.5758967399597168,
0.4518568217754364,
1.0627175569534302,
0.27544668316841125,
0.010902520269155502,
0.5698165893554688,
-0.754051923751831,
-0.06699246168136597,
0.29046186804771423,
0.3731997609138489,
-0.7416487336158752,
0.3514622747898102,
0.4525103271007538,
-0.08824799209833145,
0.9875330328941345,
-0.22664879262447357,
-0.20877911150455475,
-0.0016485676169395447,
0.5796080827713013,
0.08828824013471603,
0.10777472704648972,
-0.6917927265167236,
0.27092450857162476,
-0.7623404860496521,
-0.42575371265411377,
-0.12451321631669998,
-0.672262966632843,
-0.6206389665603638,
0.6128390431404114,
0.7950210571289062,
0.6791485548019409,
-0.4723668396472931,
-0.3001575469970703,
0.3301840126514435,
0.15238410234451294,
-0.2015734761953354,
-0.20495598018169403,
-0.008859737776219845,
-0.0023376208264380693,
0.9470080137252808,
-0.4359581470489502,
-0.016786519438028336,
-0.4924197494983673,
-0.10276380181312561,
-0.01750132441520691,
-0.3592238426208496,
-0.7567014098167419,
-0.1452534943819046,
-0.4258072078227997,
-0.03520999848842621,
-0.1597193032503128,
0.08379383385181427,
0.11073870211839676,
0.007232231087982655,
-0.2652399241924286,
0.22711680829524994,
-0.3852313458919525,
-0.18254441022872925,
-0.3360186517238617,
0.6294416785240173,
0.048957422375679016,
0.2327042520046234,
0.13015209138393402,
0.11954811960458755,
0.35362914204597473,
0.001974035520106554,
0.0442415326833725,
-0.002941427519544959,
-0.2831612527370453,
-0.5551490187644958,
0.7204198837280273,
0.01024552807211876,
-0.3078746497631073,
0.1143590584397316,
-0.5848986506462097,
-0.0040273661725223064,
0.2830183207988739,
0.4965347945690155,
0.2155502289533615,
0.026076234877109528,
-0.7223767042160034,
0.18640071153640747,
-0.43851327896118164,
-0.86064612865448,
-0.6800500154495239,
-0.5603898167610168,
0.33030083775520325,
0.05573350191116333,
0.519520103931427,
0.5934758186340332,
-0.09261884540319443,
0.21686241030693054,
0.15712563693523407,
0.036566074937582016,
0.5650833249092102,
-0.2910049855709076,
0.21253596246242523,
-0.404052197933197,
0.5114160180091858,
0.6412255167961121,
0.03904923051595688,
0.07253587990999222,
0.40036696195602417,
0.29982906579971313,
0.627407968044281,
0.7699835300445557,
-0.4640849530696869,
-0.4218047559261322,
-0.46850860118865967,
-0.09984961897134781,
-0.5615273714065552,
0.2278493493795395,
0.09121216088533401,
0.060047000646591187,
-0.3502584993839264,
-0.11185546219348907,
0.4635578691959381,
-0.5424953103065491,
0.21983171999454498,
-0.42735376954078674,
0.14554458856582642,
-0.25159236788749695,
0.3730851113796234,
-0.33797916769981384,
0.07798602432012558,
0.15048739314079285,
0.2551053464412689,
0.05511394515633583,
-0.6811776161193848,
-0.4101935625076294,
-0.7521246075630188,
-0.012578431516885757,
0.2322317212820053,
-1.0454974174499512,
0.0885242223739624,
-0.2246931791305542,
-0.18596486747264862,
-0.7224181294441223,
-0.07000285387039185,
0.42129960656166077,
-0.49359580874443054,
0.38452816009521484,
0.4546279311180115,
0.06924447417259216,
0.6412087082862854,
0.4333927631378174,
-0.9416012167930603,
-0.13868875801563263,
0.25644806027412415
] |
241383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colubridae | Colubridae | Colubridae (, commonly known as colubrids , from , 'snake') is a family of snakes. With 249 genera, it is the largest snake family. The earliest species of the family date back to the Oligocene epoch. Colubrid snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica.
Description
While most colubrids are not venomous (or have venom that is not known to be harmful to humans) and are mostly harmless, a few groups, such as genus Boiga, can produce medically significant injuries. In addition, the boomslang, the twig snakes, and the Asian genus Rhabdophis have caused human fatalities.
Some colubrids are described as opisthoglyphous (often called "rear-fanged"), meaning they have elongated, grooved teeth located in the back of their upper jaws. It is likely that opisthoglyphous dentition evolved many times in the history of snakes and is an evolutionary precursor to the fangs of vipers and elapids, which are located in the front of the mouth.
Classification
In the past, the Colubridae were not a natural group, as many were more closely related to other groups, such as elapids, than to each other. This family was historically used as a "wastebasket taxon" for snakes that do not fit elsewhere. Until recently, colubrids were basically colubroids that were not elapids, viperids, or Atractaspis.
However, recent research in molecular phylogenetics has stabilized the classification of historically "colubrid" snakes and the family as currently defined is a monophyletic clade, although additional research will be necessary to sort out all the relationships within this group. As of May 2018, eight subfamilies are recognized.
Current subfamilies
Sibynophiinae – two genera
Natricinae – 37 genera (sometimes given as family Natricidae)
Pseudoxenodontinae – two genera
Dipsadinae – 100 genera (sometimes given as family Dipsadidae)
Grayiinae – one genus
Grayia
Calamariinae – seven genera
Ahaetuliinae – five genera
Colubrinae – 93 genera
Former subfamilies
These taxa have been at one time or another classified as part of the Colubridae, but are now either classified as parts of other families, or are no longer accepted because all the species within them have been moved to other (sub)families.
Subfamily Aparallactinae (now a subfamily of Lamprophiidae, sometimes combined with Atractaspidinae)
Subfamily Boiginae (now part of Colubrinae)
Subfamily Boodontinae (some of which now treated as subfamily Grayiinae of the new Colubridae, others moved to family Lamprophiidae as part of subfamilies Lamprophiinae, Pseudaspidinae and Pseudoxyrhophiidae, which are now sometimes treated as families)
Subfamily Dispholidinae (now part of Colubrinae)
Subfamily Homalopsinae (now family Homalopsidae)
Subfamily Lamprophiinae (now a subfamily of Lamprophiidae)
Subfamily Lycodontinae (now part of Colubrinae)
Subfamily Lycophidinae (now part of Lamprophiidae)
Subfamily Pareatinae (now family Pareidae, sometimes incorrectly spelled Pareatidae)
Subfamily Philothamninae (now part of Colubrinae)
Subfamily Psammophiinae (now a subfamily of Lamprophiidae)
Subfamily Pseudoxyrhophiinae (now a subfamily of Lamprophiidae)
Subfamily Xenoderminae (now family Xenodermidae, sometimes incorrectly spelled Xenodermatidae)
Subfamily Xenodontinae (which many authors put in Dipsadinae/Dipsadidae)
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Psammophids at Life Is Short, but Snakes Are Long
Cenozoic reptiles
Cenozoic taxonomic families
Extant Oligocene first appearances
Snake families
Taxa described in 1881
Taxa named by Nicolaus Michael Oppel | [
0.07985898107290268,
0.34996718168258667,
-0.4285178482532501,
0.05201578512787819,
-0.12369006127119064,
0.3168763220310211,
0.9876099824905396,
0.4575200378894806,
-0.4295605719089508,
-0.4082332253456116,
0.11849220097064972,
-0.2265745997428894,
-1.0092785358428955,
0.26984867453575134,
-0.005290641915053129,
0.7574908137321472,
-0.21417953073978424,
0.5307960510253906,
0.28868016600608826,
0.2210731953382492,
-0.3441653847694397,
-0.7695997953414917,
0.5483818650245667,
-0.7892359495162964,
0.24843230843544006,
0.15873754024505615,
-0.04377582296729088,
1.1462527513504028,
0.12486282736063004,
-0.6728781461715698,
0.2218957096338272,
0.5386177897453308,
-0.11171621829271317,
-0.17628395557403564,
-0.1813117116689682,
-0.005549453664571047,
-0.37685731053352356,
-0.289669007062912,
0.14609378576278687,
-0.9155607223510742,
0.37415942549705505,
-0.03068513423204422,
0.17688962817192078,
0.5919655561447144,
-0.4285159111022949,
-0.4124309718608856,
-0.8043124079704285,
0.5914967060089111,
-0.6366791725158691,
0.17598485946655273,
-0.05468745902180672,
0.21715238690376282,
0.14437894523143768,
-0.02167162299156189,
0.06636958569288254,
0.18542475998401642,
-0.8828532695770264,
-0.0027139028534293175,
-0.19073398411273956,
-0.4161375164985657,
0.2045586109161377,
0.21157881617546082,
0.1509464681148529,
0.21542958915233612,
0.1694440096616745,
0.9047017097473145,
0.15821759402751923,
0.27485111355781555,
-0.4016209840774536,
0.5373526215553284,
0.13528800010681152,
-0.058510053902864456,
-0.18279492855072021,
0.4830436110496521,
-0.4011671245098114,
-0.5556723475456238,
-0.3821679651737213,
-0.32345131039619446,
0.8299641013145447,
0.0487501434981823,
0.26428157091140747,
0.8068503141403198,
0.401248961687088,
-0.02091996744275093,
0.02362225018441677,
0.17095138132572174,
-0.49778637290000916,
-0.01561189815402031,
-0.3701164722442627,
0.04829598218202591,
-0.42360034584999084,
0.007743205409497023,
0.859672486782074,
0.27590733766555786,
-0.03298104554414749,
-0.9828404784202576,
-0.18199540674686432,
0.2274046540260315,
0.4476243257522583,
-0.014992320910096169,
-0.3144839406013489,
-0.396645724773407,
-0.43950873613357544,
-0.48177117109298706,
-0.21124045550823212,
0.14570961892604828,
-0.3533068001270294,
-0.23825110495090485,
-0.5478118062019348,
0.40168535709381104,
-0.8269606828689575,
-0.07593189924955368,
-0.3493935465812683,
0.17106550931930542,
-0.1884550303220749,
0.7487632632255554,
0.07382103055715561,
-0.6460900902748108,
-0.2626820206642151,
-0.3941040635108948,
-0.1636543869972229,
0.3589765131473541,
-0.2662440538406372,
0.6106860637664795,
0.13307201862335205,
0.2627125680446625,
-0.003981015644967556,
-0.14434954524040222,
-0.31906041502952576,
0.6268220543861389,
0.6855942010879517,
1.6024802923202515,
0.03369569033384323,
-0.08337374031543732,
0.0948772132396698,
-0.26757103204727173,
-0.41002392768859863,
0.43665340542793274,
0.3290803134441376,
0.2186073511838913,
-0.79070645570755,
-0.4985705018043518,
-0.5134047269821167,
-0.04707992821931839,
0.1734531968832016,
-0.4144037067890167,
0.20677506923675537,
-0.008025608025491238,
-0.7010309100151062,
-0.5065695643424988,
0.1281159520149231,
-0.25598669052124023,
-0.44033265113830566,
0.6517139077186584,
-0.5687633752822876,
-0.17356345057487488,
0.8971481323242188,
-0.18713262677192688,
0.6840909719467163,
0.09537041932344437,
-0.035507217049598694,
0.03829971328377724,
-0.6080277562141418,
-0.23248831927776337,
0.22622820734977722,
0.02603808604180813,
-0.17222470045089722,
0.3693162202835083,
0.07807570695877075,
0.6013579368591309,
-0.5948386788368225,
-0.37933802604675293,
0.13208892941474915,
0.011680297553539276,
0.17274194955825806,
-0.36379000544548035,
-0.625602126121521,
0.3963703513145447,
0.6829251646995544,
-0.430019736289978,
-0.4334489405155182,
0.22400817275047302,
-0.2487669438123703,
-0.37396445870399475,
-0.07354775816202164,
-0.032513994723558426,
0.4694628119468689,
-0.09552160650491714,
-0.1127229630947113,
-0.6110764741897583,
-0.7585664987564087,
-0.015559370629489422,
0.2284778505563736,
0.4475969672203064,
0.959723711013794,
-0.6289077401161194,
-0.7602241635322571,
0.6939712762832642,
-0.20655333995819092,
0.5035674571990967,
-0.44696784019470215,
-0.09675659239292145,
0.1110236868262291,
-0.47913485765457153,
-0.864969789981842,
0.29834431409835815,
0.18597477674484253,
-0.26874464750289917,
0.49691563844680786,
0.21552497148513794,
0.6006271243095398,
-0.24824392795562744,
-0.3452388644218445,
-0.4851019084453583,
0.31761443614959717,
-0.1324876993894577,
-0.49622055888175964,
0.08817440271377563,
0.08429471403360367,
-0.2568172812461853,
0.8355215191841125,
-0.44816112518310547,
0.0861802026629448,
0.5274404883384705,
-0.6728079319000244,
0.6145381331443787,
0.5798638463020325,
-0.5801037549972534,
0.6382868885993958,
-0.5018295049667358,
0.36741188168525696,
-0.11012338101863861,
0.5080647468566895,
-0.2977685332298279,
-0.5764869451522827,
-0.3308047354221344,
0.009625701233744621,
-0.9559203386306763,
0.37938734889030457,
-0.6773446798324585,
0.548115074634552,
0.5528009533882141,
-0.5298293828964233,
0.6729875206947327,
0.14160467684268951,
-0.8038866519927979,
0.3044948875904083,
0.5531823635101318,
-0.38754862546920776,
-0.10086599737405777,
-0.3350265324115753,
0.8993437886238098,
0.5069563388824463,
-0.24276895821094513,
0.3580978214740753,
0.2588402330875397,
0.1881829798221588,
0.10122997313737869,
-0.07273945212364197,
0.11253824084997177,
-0.6626778244972229,
0.4529968202114105,
0.16066625714302063,
0.23281602561473846,
-0.33717238903045654,
0.299680233001709,
0.2578716278076172,
-0.8139917254447937,
0.5988961458206177,
0.36804136633872986,
1.075773000717163,
0.17889447510242462,
-0.7681309580802917,
0.2754192650318146,
0.21050147712230682,
-0.18029995262622833,
0.00821467861533165,
0.03954223915934563,
-0.2787982225418091,
-0.3964240550994873,
-0.20495258271694183,
0.6134428977966309,
0.6489459872245789,
-0.48848938941955566,
-0.36791592836380005,
-0.8315283060073853,
0.4151078760623932,
-0.43609458208084106,
-0.16461721062660217,
-0.27899158000946045,
-0.3617243766784668,
0.1971435248851776,
-0.3599690794944763,
0.19336771965026855,
-1.5133423805236816,
-0.1996621936559677,
0.02486327849328518,
0.5694052577018738,
0.3078531324863434,
-0.46822357177734375,
-0.8447340130805969,
0.2861901521682739,
0.008305002935230732,
-0.14094078540802002,
0.04501251131296158,
-0.08481085300445557,
0.19461295008659363,
0.8637670278549194,
-5.413476467132568,
-0.44143450260162354,
-0.22182483971118927,
-0.15725435316562653,
0.3319765329360962,
0.4330607056617737,
0.5262609124183655,
-0.5461726784706116,
-0.12432030588388443,
-0.349753201007843,
0.7818966507911682,
0.4111665189266205,
0.17238205671310425,
-0.05682123079895973,
0.4073745608329773,
0.1419125646352768,
-0.11864768713712692,
0.31973695755004883,
0.0433126799762249,
0.0891641154885292,
-0.18176566064357758,
0.6327999234199524,
-0.03641751408576965,
-0.11164885759353638,
-0.1451677829027176,
0.3372092843055725,
-0.1581832766532898,
0.018690140917897224,
-0.384274423122406,
0.03701439127326012,
0.08244632929563522,
-0.31162989139556885,
-0.3565230071544647,
-0.24339863657951355,
-0.3380815386772156,
0.0124868955463171,
0.7131356596946716,
0.21138279139995575,
-0.06552549451589584,
-0.09426940977573395,
-0.6967307925224304,
-0.08660610020160675,
-0.11861038208007812,
0.1300428956747055,
0.2618108093738556,
-0.17292973399162292,
-0.2644992172718048,
-0.14961503446102142,
-0.030231667682528496,
0.9966979026794434,
-0.20719757676124573,
0.050725940614938736,
0.34251174330711365,
0.6510227918624878,
0.6767385005950928,
-0.2688678801059723,
0.23051217198371887,
0.05655258521437645,
-0.013531827367842197,
0.5428030490875244,
0.45166015625,
-0.16358326375484467,
-0.34241440892219543,
-0.25823935866355896,
0.33590254187583923,
-0.12252268940210342,
-0.17485003173351288,
-0.13140103220939636,
0.4631894826889038,
-0.5190642476081848,
-0.3773602843284607,
-0.45325517654418945,
-0.4862840473651886,
-0.9048494100570679,
0.7446858286857605,
-0.32116109132766724,
-0.056325480341911316,
-0.24246445298194885,
0.07695548981428146,
0.03002760000526905,
-0.16084948182106018,
-0.36801615357398987,
-0.7426974773406982,
0.12946486473083496,
-0.05505414679646492,
-0.7378843426704407,
-0.05432695895433426,
-0.15509039163589478,
-0.15671966969966888,
-0.2876378297805786,
0.12597261369228363,
-0.6077782511711121,
0.6316430568695068,
0.42825061082839966,
-0.026326362043619156,
0.9582390189170837,
0.01119894441217184,
0.2658129632472992,
0.20903612673282623,
-0.4945025146007538,
0.8458518385887146,
-0.18811576068401337,
-0.07627934962511063,
-0.21997086703777313,
-0.21373365819454193,
-1.2931145429611206,
0.6486535668373108,
0.4548436403274536,
0.853478729724884,
-0.6799585819244385,
-0.12879535555839539,
-0.32063013315200806,
-0.16644187271595,
-0.4991847574710846,
0.32681912183761597,
-0.09725138545036316,
-0.3761468529701233,
0.23812279105186462,
0.3468824625015259,
0.39038440585136414,
-0.2233245074748993,
0.5698606967926025,
0.2815958559513092,
0.34349432587623596,
-0.2252931296825409,
-0.3545216917991638,
0.06146648898720741,
-0.21908390522003174,
-0.2978847622871399,
-0.39324304461479187,
-0.11004702001810074,
0.33368000388145447,
0.029094723984599113,
0.33839279413223267,
-0.1116708442568779,
0.10635501146316528,
-0.07177030295133591,
-0.010962488129734993,
0.23086576163768768,
-0.7403231859207153,
-0.5885438919067383,
-0.42714038491249084,
-0.8808158040046692,
0.49898117780685425,
-0.250928670167923,
0.0905422493815422,
0.1031796932220459,
0.29771023988723755,
0.12624283134937286,
1.4034099578857422,
0.055747609585523605,
-0.0868358314037323,
0.48995503783226013,
-0.4311410188674927,
0.03762483224272728,
-0.31958356499671936,
0.7713082432746887,
0.8513689041137695,
-0.378688782453537,
-0.8565831184387207,
-0.34751346707344055,
0.2460140585899353,
-0.5085420608520508,
0.7137940526008606,
-0.04559966176748276,
-0.198289692401886,
-0.38669633865356445,
-0.6940391063690186,
-0.3062537908554077,
0.07846695184707642,
-0.26573604345321655,
0.07058940082788467,
-0.18376551568508148,
-0.44448235630989075,
-0.39880096912384033,
-0.3402276039123535,
-0.6258400678634644,
0.13029833137989044,
-0.43315139412879944,
-0.17855316400527954,
0.06836555153131485,
0.08895057439804077,
-0.0989144891500473,
-0.11150483787059784,
0.43419039249420166,
-0.14878854155540466,
0.6739851236343384,
-1.1214247941970825,
0.03483877331018448,
-0.11439167708158493,
0.7536827921867371,
0.25395888090133667,
0.47910094261169434,
-0.10446225851774216,
-0.21497048437595367,
0.39092567563056946,
-0.010299953632056713,
0.4782961905002594,
-0.2077099084854126,
-0.7220360636711121,
-0.195927694439888,
0.628760039806366,
-0.16787727177143097,
0.09224867820739746,
0.06763806939125061,
-0.17882943153381348,
0.5897603631019592,
-0.22897525131702423,
-0.12040381133556366,
0.4035053551197052,
0.21593061089515686,
-0.3311458230018616,
-0.10811848193407059,
0.7445558905601501,
-0.3663245141506195,
0.7610724568367004,
0.04292657598853111,
-0.4298338294029236,
-0.2525728940963745,
-0.153217613697052,
-0.3643183410167694,
-0.5484502911567688,
0.0939701646566391,
-0.5065142512321472,
-0.07781142741441727,
0.44794830679893494,
-0.08169841766357422,
-0.47976166009902954,
0.6891335248947144,
-0.22202876210212708,
-0.031874172389507294,
-0.32327327132225037,
0.5439860820770264,
-0.31465208530426025,
-0.1754724383354187,
0.6497926115989685,
0.15375468134880066,
-0.20474165678024292,
-0.10762953758239746,
0.011368757113814354,
0.2928338050842285,
0.9924213290214539,
0.16838862001895905,
-0.5343879461288452,
0.3704344928264618,
-0.27434271574020386,
0.3191240429878235,
-0.4661063849925995,
-0.8986937403678894,
0.0625397339463234,
0.7514057159423828,
-0.0824333056807518,
-0.1848434954881668,
0.06096965819597244,
0.9995549917221069,
-0.05480300635099411,
0.6126900911331177,
-0.12076465785503387,
-0.09210583567619324,
-0.030851909890770912,
-0.1212240532040596,
0.22149443626403809,
-0.7295952439308167,
0.24117566645145416,
-0.7160990834236145,
0.0030067525804042816,
-0.45200416445732117,
-0.5855651497840881,
0.42255300283432007,
-0.26278945803642273,
0.001021488686092198,
-0.018544809892773628,
0.5912142992019653,
0.5106659531593323,
-0.5490023493766785,
0.3450855016708374,
0.45002275705337524,
-0.48720982670783997,
-0.27812471985816956,
0.6054813265800476,
0.017470786347985268,
0.34038692712783813,
-0.07303084433078766,
-0.2929404079914093,
0.2510909140110016,
-0.21200400590896606,
-0.038812704384326935,
0.04108048230409622,
-0.046046726405620575,
-0.18393735587596893,
-0.30690300464630127,
-0.14522311091423035,
-0.11683984100818634,
0.3267601728439331,
0.5599599480628967,
0.2576131820678711,
-0.4429955780506134,
0.5158637166023254,
-0.461246520280838,
0.7160826325416565,
-0.8166120052337646,
0.5445809960365295,
0.3491455018520355,
-0.31773367524147034,
-0.015970446169376373,
0.40983450412750244,
0.13823279738426208,
0.1452966034412384,
0.542048454284668,
0.10280381143093109,
0.3935837745666504,
-0.455077201128006,
0.138152077794075,
0.5644376277923584,
-0.7219467163085938,
0.08846113085746765,
0.47143033146858215,
-0.6615650653839111,
0.27835217118263245,
0.5724179744720459,
0.10248467326164246,
0.04449046775698662,
0.258744478225708,
-0.0012505841441452503,
-0.4191150963306427,
0.515567421913147,
-0.7167397737503052,
0.6405208110809326,
-0.06522070616483688,
0.09688582271337509,
0.962579607963562,
-0.2630789279937744,
-0.49728986620903015,
-0.21420954167842865,
-0.5132748484611511,
-0.03907150775194168,
0.39576223492622375,
-0.17277811467647552,
-0.07505971193313599,
1.1588395833969116,
0.5938160419464111,
-0.15951819717884064,
-0.36628782749176025,
-0.12786541879177094,
-0.5450025796890259,
0.6983586549758911,
-0.07849834114313126,
0.10719817876815796,
-0.12291308492422104,
0.055712826550006866,
0.24198858439922333,
0.15768679976463318,
0.4530637264251709,
-0.024818040430545807,
0.736588716506958,
-0.09999315440654755,
0.328669011592865,
-0.27034980058670044,
-0.09263472259044647,
-0.0030161705799400806,
0.28854113817214966,
0.11635516583919525,
0.7222561836242676,
0.3200441896915436,
-0.7043805122375488,
-0.02112744189798832,
-0.34931930899620056,
-0.5256969332695007,
-0.346031129360199,
-0.07243254780769348,
0.07651526480913162,
-0.21630820631980896,
-0.859403133392334,
0.2441973090171814,
0.09293188899755478,
0.08950842916965485,
0.162261500954628,
0.5305389165878296,
0.26247748732566833,
-0.022691236808896065,
-0.6147315502166748,
-0.020038127899169922,
0.3264321982860565,
-0.6470926403999329,
0.5456231832504272,
0.04538394510746002,
-0.031133456155657768,
0.27984943985939026,
-0.24988827109336853,
0.13622929155826569,
0.5560938715934753,
-0.1314103752374649,
0.11966528743505478,
-0.21537739038467407,
0.04477917030453682,
-0.19871564209461212,
0.33298060297966003,
0.9003610610961914,
0.011040220968425274,
-0.15539056062698364,
0.0247336495667696,
0.4806416630744934,
-0.03115108050405979,
0.21187029778957367,
-0.10101649165153503,
0.32391244173049927,
-0.615337610244751,
0.5161572098731995,
-0.952801525592804,
-0.16098245978355408,
-0.043140582740306854,
-0.20121321082115173,
0.23842664062976837,
-0.1521945595741272,
0.18326501548290253,
-0.5482514500617981,
0.4554639160633087,
-0.8249626159667969,
-0.2977743446826935,
-0.1459437906742096,
0.045084286481142044,
-0.16097354888916016,
-0.17992962896823883,
0.5733726620674133,
-0.7609484195709229,
-0.05603177472949028,
-0.15241900086402893,
0.3138432502746582,
-0.9139830470085144,
0.445669025182724,
0.056708529591560364,
0.2525523900985718,
-0.39422908425331116,
-0.16126711666584015,
-0.3054889142513275,
-0.5900443196296692,
0.4505080282688141,
0.8301638960838318,
0.35256126523017883,
0.263791561126709,
0.3293541967868805,
0.09639789909124374,
0.36265599727630615,
0.05012195557355881,
0.033291660249233246,
0.37213027477264404,
-0.4700959622859955,
-0.9813029766082764,
-0.40131187438964844,
-0.002665700623765588,
-0.0022462429478764534,
0.01269847247749567,
0.07342850416898727,
-0.06137940287590027,
-0.27436184883117676,
0.6233692765235901,
0.2944306433200836,
-0.6114487648010254,
0.08460994809865952,
0.48015153408050537
] |
241387 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road%20surface | Road surface | A road surface (British English), or pavement (American English), is the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to sustain vehicular or foot traffic, such as a road or walkway. In the past, gravel road surfaces, cobblestone and granite setts were extensively used, but these have mostly been replaced by asphalt or concrete laid on a compacted base course. Asphalt mixtures have been used in pavement construction since the beginning of the 20th century and are of two types: metalled (hard-surfaced) and unmetalled roads. Metalled roadways are made to sustain vehicular load and so are usually made on frequently used roads. Unmetalled roads, also known as gravel roads, are rough and can sustain less weight. Road surfaces are frequently marked to guide traffic.
Today, permeable paving methods are beginning to be used for low-impact roadways and walkways. Pavements are crucial to countries such as United States and Canada, which heavily depend on road transportation. Therefore, research projects such as Long-Term Pavement Performance have been launched to optimize the life cycle of different road surfaces.
Development of road surfaces
Wheeled-transport created the need for better roads. Generally, natural materials cannot be both soft enough to form well-graded surfaces and strong enough to bear wheeled vehicles, especially when wet, and stay intact. In urban areas it began to be worthwhile to build stone-paved streets and, in fact, the first paved streets appear to have been built in Ur in 4000 BC. Corduroy roads were built in Glastonbury, England in 3300 BC and brick-paved roads were built in the Indus Valley Civilization on the Indian subcontinent from around the same time. Improvements in metallurgy meant that by 2000 BC stone-cutting tools were generally available in the Middle East and Greece allowing local streets to be paved. Notably, in about 2000 BC, the Minoans built a 50 km paved road from Knossos in North Crete through the mountains to Gortyn and Lebena, a port on the south coast of the island, which had side drains, a 200 mm thick pavement of sandstone blocks bound with clay-gypsum mortar, covered by a layer of basaltic flagstones and had separate shoulders. This road could be considered superior to any Roman road. Roman roads varied from simple corduroy roads to paved roads using deep roadbeds of tamped rubble as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from between the stones and fragments of rubble, instead of becoming mud in clay soils.
Although there were attempts to rediscover Roman methods, there was little useful innovation in road building before the 18th century. The first professional road builder to emerge during the Industrial Revolution was John Metcalf, who constructed about of turnpike road, mainly in the north of England, from 1765, when Parliament passed an act authorising the creation of turnpike trusts to build new toll funded roads in the Knaresborough area.
Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet is widely credited with establishing the first scientific approach to road building in France at the same time as Metcalf. He wrote a memorandum on his method in 1775, which became general practice in France. It involved a layer of large rocks, covered by a layer of smaller gravel.
By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, new methods of highway construction had been pioneered by the work of two British engineers: Thomas Telford and John Loudon McAdam. Telford's method of road building involved the digging of a large trench in which a foundation of heavy rock was set. He also designed his roads so that they sloped downwards from the centre, allowing drainage to take place, a major improvement on the work of Trésaguet. The surface of his roads consisted of broken stone. McAdam developed an inexpensive paving material of soil and stone aggregate (known as macadam). His road building method was simpler than Telford's, yet more effective at protecting roadways: he discovered that massive foundations of rock upon rock were unnecessary, and asserted that native soil alone would support the road and traffic upon it, as long as it was covered by a road crust that would protect the soil underneath from water and wear. Size of stones was central to McAdam's road building theory. The lower road thickness was restricted to stones no larger than .
Modern tarmac was patented by British civil engineer Edgar Purnell Hooley, who noticed that spilled tar on the roadway kept the dust down and created a smooth surface. He took out a patent in 1901 for tarmac.
Hooley's 1901 patent for Tarmac involved mechanically mixing tar and aggregate prior to lay-down, and then compacting the mixture with a steamroller. The tar was modified by adding small amounts of Portland cement, resin, and pitch.
Asphalt
Asphalt (specifically, asphalt concrete), sometimes called flexible pavement due to the nature in which it distributes loads, has been widely used since the 1920s. The viscous nature of the bitumen binder allows asphalt concrete to sustain significant plastic deformation, although fatigue from repeated loading over time is the most common failure mechanism. Most asphalt surfaces are laid on a gravel base, which is generally at least as thick as the asphalt layer, although some 'full depth' asphalt surfaces are laid directly on the native subgrade. In areas with very soft or expansive subgrades such as clay or peat, thick gravel bases or stabilization of the subgrade with Portland cement or lime may be required. Polypropylene and polyester geosynthetics have also been used for this purpose and in some northern countries, a layer of polystyrene boards have been used to delay and minimize frost penetration into the subgrade.
Depending on the temperature at which it is applied, asphalt is categorized as hot mix, warm mix, half warm mix, or cold mix. Hot mix asphalt is applied at temperatures over with a free floating screed. Warm mix asphalt is applied at temperatures of , resulting in reduced energy usage and emissions of volatile organic compounds. Cold mix asphalt is often used on lower-volume rural roads, where hot mix asphalt would cool too much on the long trip from the asphalt plant to the construction site.
An asphalt concrete surface will generally be constructed for high-volume primary highways having an average annual daily traffic load greater than 1200 vehicles per day. Advantages of asphalt roadways include relatively low noise, relatively low cost compared with other paving methods, and perceived ease of repair. Disadvantages include less durability than other paving methods, less tensile strength than concrete, the tendency to become slick and soft in hot weather and a certain amount of hydrocarbon pollution to soil and groundwater or waterways.
In the mid-1960s, rubberized asphalt was used for the first time, mixing crumb rubber from used tires with asphalt. While a potential use for tires that would otherwise fill landfills and present a fire hazard, rubberized asphalt has shown greater incidence of wear in freeze-thaw cycles in temperate zones due to non-homogeneous expansion and contraction with non-rubber components. The application of rubberized asphalt is more temperature-sensitive, and in many locations can only be applied at certain times of the year.
Study results of the long-term acoustic benefits of rubberized asphalt are inconclusive. Initial application of rubberized asphalt may provide a reduction of 3–5 decibels (dB) in tire-pavement-source noise emissions; however, this translates to only 1–3 decibels (dB) in total traffic-noise reduction (due to the other components of traffic noise). Compared to traditional passive attenuating measures (e.g., noise walls and earth berms), rubberized asphalt provides shorter-lasting and lesser acoustic benefits at typically much greater expense.
Concrete
Concrete surfaces (specifically, Portland cement concrete) are created using a concrete mix of Portland cement, coarse aggregate, sand, and water. In virtually all modern mixes there will also be various admixtures added to increase workability, reduce the required amount of water, mitigate harmful chemical reactions and for other beneficial purposes. In many cases there will also be Portland cement substitutes added, such as fly ash. This can reduce the cost of the concrete and improve its physical properties. The material is applied in a freshly mixed slurry, and worked mechanically to compact the interior and force some of the cement slurry to the surface to produce a smoother, denser surface free from honeycombing. The water allows the mix to combine molecularly in a chemical reaction called hydration.
Concrete surfaces have been classified into three common types: jointed plain (JPCP), jointed reinforced (JRCP) and continuously reinforced (CRCP). The one item that distinguishes each type is the jointing system used to control crack development.
One of the major advantages of concrete pavements is they are typically stronger and more durable than asphalt roadways. They also can be grooved to provide a durable skid-resistant surface. A previous disadvantage was that they had a higher initial cost, and could be more time-consuming to construct. This cost can typically be offset through the long life cycle of the pavement and the higher cost of bitumen. Concrete pavement can be maintained over time utilizing a series of methods known as concrete pavement restoration which include diamond grinding, dowel bar retrofits, joint and crack sealing, cross-stitching, etc. Diamond grinding is also useful in reducing noise and restoring skid resistance in older concrete pavement.
The first street in the United States to be paved with concrete was Court Avenue in Bellefontaine, Ohio in 1893. The first mile of concrete pavement in the United States was on Woodward Avenue in Detroit, Michigan in 1909. Following these pioneering uses, the Lincoln Highway Association, established in October 1913 to oversee the creation of one of the United States' earliest east-west transcontinental highways for the then-new automobile, began to establish "seedling miles" of specifically concrete-paved roadbed in various places in the American Midwest, starting in 1914 west of Malta, Illinois, while using concrete with the specified concrete "ideal section" for the Lincoln Highway in Lake County, Indiana during 1922 and 1923.
Concrete roadways may produce more noise than asphalt, due to tire noise on cracks and expansion joints. A concrete pavement composed of multiple slabs of uniform size will produce a periodic sound and vibration in each vehicle as its tires pass over each expansion joint. These monotonous repeated sounds and vibrations can cause a fatiguing or hypnotic effect upon the driver over the course of a long journey.
Composite pavement
Composite pavements combine a Portland cement concrete sublayer with an asphalt overlay. They are usually used to rehabilitate existing roadways rather than in new construction.
Asphalt overlays are sometimes laid over distressed concrete to restore a smooth wearing surface. A disadvantage of this method is that movement in the joints between the underlying concrete slabs, whether from thermal expansion and contraction, or from deflection of the concrete slabs from truck axle loads, usually causes reflective cracks in the asphalt. To decrease reflective cracking, concrete pavement is broken apart through a break and seat, crack and seat, or rubblization process. Geosynthetics can be used for reflective crack control. With break and seat and crack and seat processes, a heavy weight is dropped on the concrete to induce cracking, then a heavy roller is used to seat the resultant pieces into the subbase.
The main difference between the two processes is the equipment used to break the concrete pavement and the size of the resulting pieces. The theory is that frequent small cracks will spread thermal stress over a wider area than infrequent large joints, reducing the stress on the overlying asphalt pavement. "Rubblization" is a more complete fracturing of the old, worn-out concrete, effectively converting the old pavement into an aggregate base for a new asphalt road.
The whitetopping process uses Portland cement concrete to resurface a distressed asphalt road.
Recycling
Distressed pavement can be reused when rehabilitating a roadway. The existing pavement is broken up, and may be ground on-site through a process called milling. This pavement is commonly referred to as reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP). RAP can be transported to an asphalt plant, where it will be stockpiled for use in new pavement mixes, or it may be recycled in-place using the techniques described below. For further information on asphalt mixes containing RAP and other recycled materials, see Asphalt Concrete.
In-Place Recycling Methods
Rubblizing of pavement: Existing concrete pavement is milled into gravel-sized particles. Any steel reinforcing is removed, and the ground pavement is compacted to form the base and/or sub-base layers for new asphalt pavement. Ground pavement may also be compacted for use on gravel roads.
Cold in-place recycling: Bituminous pavement is ground or milled into small particles. The asphalt millings are blended with asphalt emulsion, foamed bitumen, or soft bitumen to rejuvenate the aged asphalt binder. New aggregate may also be added. The resulting asphalt mix is paved and compacted. It may serve as the top pavement layer, or it may be overlaid with new asphalt after curing.
Hot in-place recycling: Bituminous pavement is heated to , milled, combined with a rejuvenating agent and/or virgin asphalt binder, and compacted. It may then be overlaid with new asphalt concrete. This process typically recycles the top or less, and may be used to correct surface defects, such as rutting or polishing. To preserve the condition of the asphalt binder and avoid excessive hydrocarbon emissions, heating is typically achieved gradually through the use of infrared or hot air heaters.
Full depth reclamation: The full thickness of the asphalt pavement and underlying material is pulverized to provide a uniform blend of material. A binding agent or stabilizing material may be mixed in to form a base course for the new pavement, or it may be left unbound to form a sub-base course. Common binding agents include asphalt emulsion, fly ash, hydrated lime, Portland cement, and calcium chloride. Virgin aggregate, RAP, or crushed Portland cement may also be added to improve the gradation and mechanical properties of the mix. This technique is typically used to address structural failures in the pavement, such as alligator cracking, deep rutting, and shoulder drop-off.
Bituminous surface
Bituminous surface treatment (BST) or chipseal is used mainly on low-traffic roads, but also as a sealing coat to rejuvenate an asphalt concrete pavement. It generally consists of aggregate spread over a sprayed-on asphalt emulsion or cut-back asphalt cement. The aggregate is then embedded into the asphalt by rolling it, typically with a rubber-tired roller. This type of surface is described by a wide variety of regional terms including "chip seal", "tar and chip", "oil and stone", "seal coat", "sprayed seal", "surface dressing", "microsurfacing" or as simply "bitumen."
BST is used on hundreds of miles of the Alaska Highway and other similar roadways in Alaska, the Yukon Territory, and northern British Columbia. The ease of application of BST is one reason for its popularity, but another is its flexibility, which is important when roadways are laid down over unstable terrain that thaws and softens in the spring.
Other types of BSTs include micropaving, slurry seals and Novachip. These are laid down using specialized and proprietary equipment. They are most often used in urban areas where the roughness and loose stone associated with chip seals is considered undesirable.
Thin membrane surface
A thin membrane surface (TMS) is an oil-treated aggregate which is laid down upon a gravel road bed, producing a dust-free road. A TMS road reduces mud problems and provides stone-free roads for local residents where loaded truck traffic is negligible. The TMS layer adds no significant structural strength, and so is used on secondary highways with low traffic volume and minimal weight loading. Construction involves minimal subgrade preparation, following by covering with a cold mix asphalt aggregate. The Operation Division of the Ministry of Highways and Infrastructure in Saskatchewan has the responsibility of maintaining of thin membrane surface (TMS) highways.
Otta seal
Otta seal is a low-cost road surface using a mixture of bitumen and crushed rock.
Gravel surface
Gravel is known to have been used extensively in the construction of roads by soldiers of the Roman Empire (see Roman road) but in 1998 a limestone-surfaced road, thought to date back to the Bronze Age, was found at Yarnton in Oxfordshire, Britain. Applying gravel, or "metalling", has had two distinct usages in road surfacing. The term road metal refers to the broken stone or cinders used in the construction or repair of roads or railways, and is derived from the Latin metallum, which means both "mine" and "quarry". The term originally referred to the process of creating a gravel roadway. The route of the roadway would first be dug down several feet and, depending on local conditions, French drains may or may not have been added. Next, large stones were placed and compacted, followed by successive layers of smaller stones, until the road surface was composed of small stones compacted into a hard, durable surface. "Road metal" later became the name of stone chippings mixed with tar to form the road-surfacing material tarmac. A road of such material is called a "metalled road" in Britain, a "paved road" in Canada and the US, or a "sealed road" in parts of Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
A granular surface can be used with a traffic volume where the annual average daily traffic is 1,200 vehicles per day or less. There is some structural strength if the road surface combines a sub base and base and is topped with a double-graded seal aggregate with emulsion. Besides the of granular pavements maintained in Saskatchewan, around 40% of New Zealand roads are unbound granular pavement structures.
The decision whether to pave a gravel road or not often hinges on traffic volume. It has been found that maintenance costs for gravel roads often exceed the maintenance costs for paved or surface-treated roads when traffic volumes exceed 200 vehicles per day.
Some communities are finding it makes sense to convert their low-volume paved roads to aggregate surfaces.
Other surfaces
Pavers (or paviours), generally in the form of pre-cast concrete blocks, are often used for aesthetic purposes, or sometimes at port facilities that see long-duration pavement loading. Pavers are rarely used in areas that see high-speed vehicle traffic.
Brick, cobblestone, sett, wood plank, and wood block pavements such as Nicolson pavement, were once common in urban areas throughout the world, but fell out of fashion in most countries, due to the high cost of labor required to lay and maintain them, and are typically only kept for historical or aesthetic reasons. In some countries, however, they are still common in local streets. In the Netherlands, brick paving has made something of a comeback since the adoption of a major nationwide traffic safety program in 1997. From 1998 through 2007, more than 41,000 km of city streets were converted to local access roads with a speed limit of 30 km/h, for the purpose of traffic calming. One popular measure is to use brick paving - the noise and vibration slows motorists down. At the same time, it is not uncommon for cycle paths alongside a road to have a smoother surface than the road itself.
Likewise, macadam and tarmac pavements can still sometimes be found buried underneath asphalt concrete or Portland cement concrete pavements, but are rarely constructed today.
There are also other methods and materials to create pavements that have appearance of brick pavements. The first method to create brick texture is to heat an asphalt pavement and use metal wires to imprint a brick pattern using a compactor to create stamped asphalt. A similar method is to use rubber imprinting tools to press over a thin layer of cement to create decorative concrete. Another method is to use a brick pattern stencil and apply a surfacing material over the stencil. Materials that can be applied to give the color of the brick and skid resistance can be in many forms. An example is to use colored polymer-modified concrete slurry which can be applied by screeding or spraying. Another material is aggregate-reinforced thermoplastic which can be heat applied to the top layer of the brick-pattern surface. Other coating materials over stamped asphalt are paints and two-part epoxy coating.
Acoustical implications
Roadway surfacing choices are known to affect the intensity and spectrum of sound emanating from the tire/surface interaction. Initial applications of noise studies occurred in the early 1970s. Noise phenomena are highly influenced by vehicle speed.
Roadway surface types contribute differential noise effects of up to 4 dB, with chip seal type and grooved roads being the loudest, and concrete surfaces without spacers being the quietest. Asphaltic surfaces perform intermediately relative to concrete and chip seal. Rubberized asphalt has been shown to give a marginal 3–5 dB reduction in tire-pavement noise emissions, and a marginally discernible 1–3 dB reduction in total road noise emissions when compared to conventional asphalt applications.
Surface deterioration
As pavement systems primarily fail due to fatigue (in a manner similar to metals), the damage done to pavement increases with the fourth power of the axle load of the vehicles traveling on it. According to the AASHO Road Test, heavily loaded trucks can do more than 10,000 times the damage done by a normal passenger car. Tax rates for trucks are higher than those for cars in most countries for this reason, though they are not levied in proportion to the damage done. Passenger cars are considered to have little practical effect on a pavement's service life, from a materials fatigue perspective.
Other failure modes include aging and surface abrasion. As years go by, the binder in a bituminous wearing course gets stiffer and less flexible. When it gets "old" enough, the surface will start losing aggregates, and macrotexture depth increases dramatically. If no maintenance action is done quickly on the wearing course, potholes will form. The freeze-thaw cycle in cold climates will dramatically accelerate pavement deterioration, once water can penetrate the surface. Clay and fumed silica nanoparticles may potentially be used as efficient UV-anti aging coatings in asphalt pavements.
If the road is still structurally sound, a bituminous surface treatment, such as a chipseal or surface dressing can prolong the life of the road at low cost. In areas with cold climate, studded tires may be allowed on passenger cars. In Sweden and Finland, studded passenger car tires account for a very large share of pavement rutting.
The physical properties of a stretch of pavement can be tested using a falling weight deflectometer.
Several design methods have been developed to determine the thickness and composition of road surfaces required to carry predicted traffic loads for a given period of time. Pavement design methods are continuously evolving. Among these are the Shell Pavement design method, and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 1993/98 "Guide for Design of Pavement Structures". A mechanistic-empirical design guide was developed through the NCHRP process, resulting in the Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG), which was adopted by AASHTO in 2008, although MEPDG implementation by state departments of transportation has been slow.
Further research by University College London into pavements has led to the development of an indoor, 80-sq-metre artificial pavement at a research centre called Pedestrian Accessibility and Movement Environment Laboratory (PAMELA). It is used to simulate everyday scenarios, from different pavement users to varying pavement conditions. There also exists a research facility near Auburn University, the NCAT Pavement Test Track, that is used to test experimental asphalt pavements for durability.
In addition to repair costs, the condition of a road surface has economic effects for road users. Rolling resistance increases on rough pavement, as does wear and tear of vehicle components. It has been estimated that poor road surfaces cost the average US driver $324 per year in vehicle repairs, or a total of $67 billion. Also, it has been estimated that small improvements in road surface conditions can decrease fuel consumption between 1.8 and 4.7%.
Markings
Road surface markings are used on paved roadways to provide guidance and information to drivers and pedestrians. It can be in the form of mechanical markers such as cat's eyes, botts' dots and rumble strips, or non-mechanical markers such as paints, thermoplastic, plastic and epoxy.
See also
Asphalt
Cobblestone
Diamond grinding of pavement
Ecogrid
Good Roads Movement
List of road types by features
Pavement management
Plastic armour
Portuguese pavement (mosaic-like)
Road construction
Road slipperiness
Sealcoat
Sett (paving)
References
External links
PaveShare - Concrete Paver Education
"Pavements" website of the US Department of Transportation's Federal Highway Administration
Pavements
Surface
Articles containing video clips | [
0.3682264983654022,
0.07979672402143478,
0.10537218302488327,
0.015142510645091534,
-0.054364439100027084,
0.3842661678791046,
0.09585633128881454,
0.6969132423400879,
-0.12380323559045792,
-1.3443771600723267,
-0.4745001196861267,
0.6606935262680054,
0.28021693229675293,
0.13436652719974518,
0.2735111713409424,
0.6880276203155518,
0.10565117001533508,
0.008550467900931835,
0.39589765667915344,
0.21629957854747772,
-0.40490785241127014,
0.06746230274438858,
0.40790441632270813,
-0.20874816179275513,
0.31131982803344727,
-0.25225716829299927,
0.4580821692943573,
0.6598528027534485,
-0.21072986721992493,
-0.16565720736980438,
0.19228193163871765,
0.03960471227765083,
-0.23812399804592133,
0.0754481852054596,
0.3605044186115265,
-0.3373233377933502,
0.1708492487668991,
-0.37399545311927795,
-0.6699983477592468,
-0.6786448359489441,
-0.03264262154698372,
0.4155443608760834,
0.06531813740730286,
0.23082120716571808,
-0.5976385474205017,
0.153484508395195,
-0.5960102677345276,
0.5211807489395142,
-0.8445203900337219,
0.005589356645941734,
-0.10197104513645172,
0.8436222672462463,
-0.198652446269989,
0.9227625727653503,
0.24158988893032074,
0.33977970480918884,
-0.07548718899488449,
-0.08368296176195145,
0.3485179841518402,
-0.11961871385574341,
0.3181566596031189,
0.542192280292511,
-0.5559927225112915,
0.4805825650691986,
0.09855378419160843,
0.07691696286201477,
0.006276464555412531,
-0.009732965379953384,
-0.1439448446035385,
-0.14690856635570526,
-0.3498130440711975,
-0.15870913863182068,
0.21695390343666077,
0.53416508436203,
-0.6969014406204224,
-0.25813421607017517,
0.49278342723846436,
-0.42926540970802307,
-0.4869826138019562,
0.08423933386802673,
-0.15252287685871124,
0.7182071805000305,
0.3477221727371216,
0.46592918038368225,
0.13492228090763092,
0.7612046003341675,
-0.5140705704689026,
0.6359145045280457,
-0.6229317784309387,
0.40017762780189514,
0.5718837976455688,
0.16899177432060242,
0.3472888469696045,
-0.5782066583633423,
0.36444464325904846,
-0.40446895360946655,
0.2230129987001419,
-0.14284786581993103,
0.4417062997817993,
0.08488725125789642,
0.021795785054564476,
-0.17208127677440643,
0.25199049711227417,
0.06994391977787018,
-0.22392208874225616,
-0.24408338963985443,
-0.15877047181129456,
0.09003916382789612,
0.37444889545440674,
0.037400517612695694,
0.15689562261104584,
-0.058136697858572006,
-0.4443337917327881,
0.3956822156906128,
-0.3549324870109558,
0.393922358751297,
-0.2731465995311737,
0.3315522074699402,
-0.2113940566778183,
0.03762158378958702,
-0.08877559006214142,
-0.4286084771156311,
0.38985762000083923,
-0.188164621591568,
-0.28961700201034546,
-0.1007704883813858,
0.2955263555049896,
0.5885690450668335,
-0.6433954238891602,
0.5249218940734863,
0.39396679401397705,
0.6105604767799377,
-0.5265390276908875,
0.1844254732131958,
-0.15751636028289795,
-0.2360353320837021,
0.493284672498703,
-0.018877767026424408,
0.7190974950790405,
0.06925057619810104,
-1.1385314464569092,
-0.6143787503242493,
0.0662894919514656,
-0.6690823435783386,
0.41236424446105957,
-0.39277347922325134,
0.3994475305080414,
-0.8991256356239319,
-1.0573351383209229,
-0.2986268699169159,
0.5562320947647095,
0.06439610570669174,
-0.08299040794372559,
-0.14845076203346252,
-0.38732561469078064,
0.7874775528907776,
0.15463633835315704,
0.3524848222732544,
-0.8646787405014038,
0.09160956740379333,
-0.4395405352115631,
0.686958372592926,
-0.1641138345003128,
-0.12712275981903076,
0.2832828760147095,
-0.10806772857904434,
0.21533578634262085,
0.07095655798912048,
0.8264140486717224,
0.2574194073677063,
-0.06993963569402695,
-0.3346443474292755,
0.1643211990594864,
-0.26550620794296265,
-0.35741645097732544,
0.3365180194377899,
0.6995229125022888,
-0.05751415714621544,
0.5923599004745483,
-0.026169702410697937,
-0.4658856987953186,
0.47570493817329407,
0.5937718152999878,
0.3847790062427521,
0.06211027503013611,
-0.6677461266517639,
0.7540010809898376,
-0.09576649218797684,
-0.2359316349029541,
-0.06675419211387634,
-0.5688101053237915,
-0.7779111266136169,
0.22999891638755798,
-0.8085309863090515,
1.1428972482681274,
-0.0580352246761322,
-0.5621685981750488,
0.4424508512020111,
-0.7117133736610413,
1.1888351440429688,
0.05180295184254646,
0.10591384768486023,
0.13361617922782898,
-0.9665094017982483,
-0.3868725001811981,
0.34083569049835205,
0.5910196304321289,
-0.0708083063364029,
0.06636074185371399,
-0.27459317445755005,
0.31947335600852966,
-0.7511335015296936,
0.31952643394470215,
-0.27815669775009155,
0.349252849817276,
-0.24354054033756256,
-0.2363329976797104,
0.3843907415866852,
-0.25882524251937866,
-0.5883411169052124,
0.5736943483352661,
0.05004119873046875,
-0.44432350993156433,
0.6666763424873352,
-0.5164929032325745,
0.10517586022615433,
-0.4215744137763977,
0.4486321806907654,
0.17256160080432892,
-0.6703759431838989,
-0.31802722811698914,
0.07039022445678711,
0.24650447070598602,
-0.5600646734237671,
-0.12131618708372116,
-0.11499904841184616,
0.5574241280555725,
-0.3956236243247986,
0.41238370537757874,
0.16196957230567932,
-0.643142580986023,
0.2673802077770233,
-0.20837412774562836,
-0.26259246468544006,
-0.12758593261241913,
-0.20575203001499176,
0.42898795008659363,
0.0644836574792862,
-0.16376057267189026,
0.2515786290168762,
-0.3594599962234497,
-0.03006737306714058,
0.25807806849479675,
0.2036505937576294,
-0.5691151022911072,
-0.4154314398765564,
-0.3593418300151825,
0.13523676991462708,
0.15786756575107574,
-0.38402339816093445,
-0.4327439069747925,
-0.23541587591171265,
0.12853290140628815,
-0.1244502067565918,
-0.21297989785671234,
-0.38486722111701965,
0.04281896725296974,
0.03973639756441116,
0.2189517468214035,
0.7820397615432739,
0.2825014889240265,
0.38595229387283325,
-0.283121258020401,
-0.36746931076049805,
-0.006332170683890581,
-0.1300932765007019,
1.0765897035598755,
0.24294370412826538,
-0.2142965942621231,
0.00607898598536849,
0.09216833859682083,
0.34293243288993835,
0.6874525547027588,
-0.6605779528617859,
0.10922020673751831,
0.0011187605559825897,
0.4021352529525757,
0.09422194212675095,
-0.35906386375427246,
0.1862848401069641,
-0.41253116726875305,
0.5035068988800049,
-0.35510018467903137,
0.17738325893878937,
0.8879989981651306,
0.4344061017036438,
0.07940130680799484,
-0.979011058807373,
0.6777740716934204,
-0.21141782402992249,
-0.39729657769203186,
0.020895950496196747,
-0.5763435363769531,
-0.20464782416820526,
-0.20867609977722168,
0.12695303559303284,
-0.8918209075927734,
-0.40468427538871765,
-5.5711350440979,
-0.07700831443071365,
-0.14159955084323883,
-0.31453216075897217,
0.3236568570137024,
0.21815335750579834,
0.43324407935142517,
0.15351735055446625,
-0.32524698972702026,
-0.26300719380378723,
-0.16466988623142242,
-0.15658333897590637,
0.2469123750925064,
0.3445890247821808,
0.9593654274940491,
0.2568950951099396,
1.1955426931381226,
-0.25874534249305725,
-0.31247401237487793,
0.3448677062988281,
-0.09335795789957047,
-0.7168506383895874,
0.2913040518760681,
0.1291024386882782,
-0.03244069218635559,
0.6368098855018616,
-0.5278484225273132,
0.2610945999622345,
-0.15245218575000763,
0.16770166158676147,
0.8699311017990112,
-0.2839916944503784,
0.127487450838089,
-0.33077380061149597,
0.2705255150794983,
-0.1523984670639038,
-0.11899113655090332,
0.45536789298057556,
0.036551669239997864,
-0.06283502280712128,
-0.5404624342918396,
0.7023490071296692,
0.3255806565284729,
-0.23622237145900726,
0.020286250859498978,
-0.4011365473270416,
-0.060064028948545456,
-0.10864732414484024,
0.16634783148765564,
0.5704898834228516,
-0.3068781793117523,
0.5507228970527649,
0.6889830827713013,
-0.2255239635705948,
0.15432754158973694,
0.2008645385503769,
0.7649205923080444,
-0.39869141578674316,
-0.8655236959457397,
-0.5160070061683655,
0.1049778088927269,
-0.4900292754173279,
-0.41134774684906006,
-0.12433525919914246,
0.37108752131462097,
-0.3313561975955963,
-0.5808748006820679,
-0.1721915602684021,
0.5790320634841919,
0.31199905276298523,
-0.11221820116043091,
0.18184909224510193,
0.14122755825519562,
-0.32011327147483826,
-0.24689112603664398,
-0.45332151651382446,
0.012896310538053513,
-0.7153087854385376,
0.18162357807159424,
-0.5275395512580872,
-0.08328098803758621,
-0.035687852650880814,
-0.606691837310791,
-0.14814305305480957,
0.08151853829622269,
-0.02620595321059227,
0.33358293771743774,
-0.04815298318862915,
-0.36665740609169006,
-0.5034272074699402,
0.8403108716011047,
-0.14279893040657043,
0.47607752680778503,
0.029301632195711136,
0.11755219846963882,
-0.17642350494861603,
-0.25162866711616516,
-0.4250035583972931,
0.40395990014076233,
-0.8802973031997681,
0.497518926858902,
-0.10046494752168655,
0.5832185745239258,
-0.06510480493307114,
-0.020070290192961693,
-0.3509567975997925,
-0.4987379312515259,
0.24875541031360626,
0.469546914100647,
-0.01902572251856327,
-0.19713659584522247,
0.39374735951423645,
-0.41262856125831604,
-0.30733224749565125,
0.23362718522548676,
0.4187750518321991,
-0.7001362442970276,
0.13786228001117706,
0.2888757884502411,
-0.445099413394928,
0.4381858706474304,
-0.08992384374141693,
0.19393055140972137,
0.06418856233358383,
-0.1787402629852295,
0.5193634033203125,
0.2576776444911957,
0.1830875426530838,
0.2705950140953064,
-0.18187035620212555,
0.8656070828437805,
0.44552212953567505,
-0.20959244668483734,
-0.21751193702220917,
-0.3169991672039032,
-0.1326087862253189,
-0.16848933696746826,
0.06181835010647774,
-0.13336677849292755,
-0.30542609095573425,
0.23889730870723724,
-0.6494600176811218,
0.4598744511604309,
-0.21261976659297943,
1.3876060247421265,
0.07337932288646698,
-0.6829937696456909,
-0.12119784951210022,
0.16254055500030518,
0.22575749456882477,
0.0671984851360321,
-0.1782374382019043,
-0.6614370942115784,
-0.48598620295524597,
0.20539401471614838,
-0.36509639024734497,
-0.03928530588746071,
-0.20685657858848572,
-0.17703117430210114,
-0.8704792261123657,
0.35861340165138245,
0.3396054804325104,
-0.8156406283378601,
0.4218885600566864,
-0.5347985625267029,
0.33287855982780457,
-0.24823182821273804,
-0.5750343799591064,
-0.07434766739606857,
0.44293537735939026,
0.11285959929227829,
-1.0031483173370361,
-0.4124305844306946,
-0.5669636130332947,
-0.46447572112083435,
0.21449045836925507,
-0.12812215089797974,
0.16015638411045074,
0.16141796112060547,
-0.16931375861167908,
-0.13798443973064423,
-0.041227247565984726,
0.13851843774318695,
0.35108527541160583,
0.23815633356571198,
-0.6031982898712158,
-0.29789474606513977,
0.8852499723434448,
-0.14683881402015686,
-0.23860003054141998,
0.7304539680480957,
-0.6030545830726624,
0.37684985995292664,
-0.024860654026269913,
-0.12171738594770432,
-0.4167044758796692,
0.3984636664390564,
0.45991188287734985,
-0.7565436959266663,
-0.17490418255329132,
-0.3627943694591522,
0.42461082339286804,
-0.7066059708595276,
0.5041612982749939,
0.37493759393692017,
-0.6270848512649536,
0.08355309814214706,
0.32910990715026855,
-0.5678682923316956,
0.29393619298934937,
-0.5897080898284912,
-0.35441771149635315,
-0.048675522208213806,
-0.01972384564578533,
-0.48364928364753723,
0.16054221987724304,
0.33196139335632324,
-0.45770585536956787,
-0.21345090866088867,
-0.18781085312366486,
-0.09120241552591324,
0.24963541328907013,
-0.471712201833725,
0.3266184628009796,
-0.024800490587949753,
0.3451943099498749,
0.230812668800354,
-0.6459974646568298,
0.06720100343227386,
0.03953952714800835,
-0.29176124930381775,
-0.44494327902793884,
0.4775797426700592,
0.11605896055698395,
0.17405587434768677,
-0.09885019063949585,
-0.3105912208557129,
-0.48325100541114807,
0.3328048884868622,
0.18020443618297577,
0.27218097448349,
0.7838870882987976,
-0.03037738800048828,
-0.3666027784347534,
0.33509165048599243,
0.8494351506233215,
0.12952633202075958,
-0.8427191376686096,
-0.39405983686447144,
0.287310391664505,
0.20370137691497803,
-0.36921995878219604,
-0.9888289570808411,
-0.3064771294593811,
0.0979481115937233,
0.08080633729696274,
-0.2737743854522705,
-0.16970540583133698,
0.29762938618659973,
0.4371615946292877,
-0.15654754638671875,
-0.6346663236618042,
-0.0063003478571772575,
0.09261739253997803,
-0.07474056631326675,
-0.953802764415741,
0.2163531482219696,
0.010940969921648502,
0.028993582352995872,
-0.33174800872802734,
0.21068935096263885,
0.062059465795755386,
0.6042941808700562,
-0.24546898901462555,
0.6081896424293518,
-0.6941797733306885,
0.28835198283195496,
-0.5427577495574951,
0.7500545382499695,
-0.13014809787273407,
-0.5663884282112122,
-0.2664715349674225,
0.08273271471261978,
-0.11829578131437302,
-0.13879667222499847,
0.10399952530860901,
0.6502488851547241,
0.19202838838100433,
-0.4618570804595947,
-0.32947689294815063,
-0.35432949662208557,
-0.11414892971515656,
-0.08820365369319916,
0.3775555193424225,
-0.27720266580581665,
0.0697813555598259,
-0.22803029417991638,
0.3670591413974762,
-0.22534027695655823,
0.17273814976215363,
-0.8266177177429199,
0.9953497648239136,
0.041903577744960785,
-1.088151216506958,
0.48338639736175537,
0.16378028690814972,
0.47662222385406494,
-0.30920058488845825,
0.6926871538162231,
-0.16082018613815308,
0.5399828553199768,
0.3426680266857147,
0.27628740668296814,
1.1424977779388428,
-0.026533549651503563,
-0.15899813175201416,
0.33201736211776733,
-0.5588066577911377,
0.16129839420318604,
0.36726197600364685,
-0.2010868489742279,
-0.13073891401290894,
0.25788989663124084,
0.141358882188797,
0.2553921639919281,
0.8181564211845398,
-0.34806644916534424,
-0.5908523797988892,
-0.3724507689476013,
0.6582878232002258,
0.6719300150871277,
0.2540152668952942,
-0.05072382837533951,
-0.12923380732536316,
0.075673907995224,
-0.5026376843452454,
0.11827005445957184,
-0.1903005987405777,
-0.41540268063545227,
0.5391332507133484,
0.13597233593463898,
0.02547343820333481,
-0.10372741520404816,
0.35477393865585327,
-0.12409071624279022,
0.20533967018127441,
0.37677526473999023,
0.3443444073200226,
-0.5650562047958374,
0.1814189851284027,
0.5660799145698547,
-0.022576050832867622,
0.8061496615409851,
0.7031949162483215,
0.10909280925989151,
-0.5651268362998962,
0.2682235538959503,
-0.2129199504852295,
-0.42101651430130005,
-0.06128755584359169,
-0.253581702709198,
0.8327497243881226,
0.19663792848587036,
-0.2420128434896469,
-0.25688186287879944,
-0.47032108902931213,
0.7172242999076843,
-0.6127685308456421,
0.17296013236045837,
0.3478899300098419,
0.33045637607574463,
1.0488930940628052,
-1.1205412149429321,
0.23236806690692902,
-0.35980987548828125,
-0.4697345495223999,
0.4223076105117798,
0.3557891845703125,
0.28321754932403564,
-0.37511396408081055,
-0.08486776053905487,
0.0030371923930943012,
-0.2046884149312973,
-0.7295660972595215,
-0.175472229719162,
-0.25836142897605896,
0.09789224714040756,
-0.007533177267760038,
-0.3605669438838959,
0.27500104904174805,
0.1324821561574936,
-0.28755900263786316,
-0.24807728826999664,
0.30011695623397827,
-0.8836352825164795,
0.0208240058273077,
-0.006847969722002745,
0.7941290736198425,
0.023621508851647377,
0.012798916548490524,
-0.15541239082813263,
0.8477180600166321,
-0.30032816529273987,
0.10924281179904938,
-1.1548854112625122,
0.6338960528373718,
-0.10071006417274475,
0.33866503834724426,
-0.271293044090271,
0.23263275623321533,
0.3359447717666626,
-0.31706395745277405,
0.10345271974802017,
-0.12024180591106415,
0.03916173055768013,
0.004092024639248848,
-0.07316993176937103,
-0.16994036734104156,
0.35885801911354065,
-0.280351459980011,
0.4812175929546356,
0.3395937979221344,
-0.3545074760913849,
-0.12244759500026703,
0.5596815943717957,
-0.4297928810119629,
0.09573698043823242,
-0.12334389984607697,
0.1211516335606575,
0.355224072933197,
-0.40803277492523193,
0.13338546454906464,
-0.7574173808097839,
0.11666770279407501,
-0.2070026397705078,
-0.11847943067550659,
0.06071874126791954,
0.18117210268974304,
0.22949755191802979,
-0.30624520778656006,
0.3973488211631775,
-0.10480564087629318,
-0.24531014263629913,
-0.09587937593460083,
-0.5970258712768555,
-0.5024259090423584,
-0.4183269441127777,
-0.062232375144958496,
-0.7289051413536072,
0.2312992662191391,
0.40875014662742615,
0.07576507329940796,
0.5827065110206604,
0.07332656532526016,
0.2721823453903198,
-0.5234297513961792,
-0.22054538130760193,
-0.27448439598083496,
-0.498310923576355,
0.5136622786521912
] |
241390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Adams | Don Adams | Donald James Yarmy (April 13, 1923 – September 25, 2005), known professionally as Don Adams, was an American actor, comedian, and director. In his five decades on television, he was best known as Maxwell Smart (Agent 86) in the television situation comedy Get Smart (1965–1970, 1995), which he also sometimes directed and wrote. Adams won three consecutive Emmy Awards for his performance in the series (1967–1969). Adams also provided the voices for the animated series Tennessee Tuxedo and His Tales (1963–1966) and Inspector Gadget (1983–1986) as well as several revivals and spinoffs of the latter in the 1990s.
Early life
Adams was born in Manhattan, son of William Yarmy and his wife Consuelo. Adams's father was of Hungarian Jewish descent and his mother was Irish-American. Adams and his brother Richard (who later became an actor, known as Dick Yarmy) were each raised in the religion of one parent: Don in the Catholic faith of their mother, and Dick in the Jewish faith of their father.
Dropping out of New York City's DeWitt Clinton High School (comedian Larry Storch was a classmate), Adams worked as a theater usher.
During World War II, he joined the United States Marine Corps. Adams participated in the Battle of Guadalcanal in 1942 in the Pacific Theater of Operations. His combat service was short-lived as Adams contracted blackwater fever, a serious complication of malaria, known for a 90% rate of fatality. He was evacuated and then hospitalized for more than a year at a Navy hospital in Wellington, New Zealand. After his recovery, he served as a Marine drill instructor in the United States.
He later worked as a comic, taking the stage name of Adams after marrying singer Adelaide (Dell) Efantis, who performed as Adelaide Adams. They had four daughters, and Adams also worked as a commercial artist and restaurant cashier to help support his family. When they divorced, he kept Adams as his stage name because acting auditions were often held in alphabetical order.
Career
The Bill Dana Show
Adams' work on television began in 1954 when he won on Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts with a stand-up comedy act written by boyhood friend Bill Dana. In the late 1950s, he made eleven appearances on The Steve Allen Show where Dana was part of the writing team. During the 1961–1963 television seasons, he was a regular on NBC's The Perry Como Show as part of The Kraft Music Hall Players. He had a role on the NBC sitcom The Bill Dana Show (1963–65) as a bumbling hotel detective named Byron Glick.
Get Smart
Creators Mel Brooks and Buck Henry, prompted by producers Daniel Melnick and David Susskind, wrote Get Smart as the comedic answer to the successful 1960s spy television dramas such as The Man from U.N.C.L.E., The Avengers, I Spy and others. They were asked to write a spoof that combined elements from two of the most popular film series at the time: James Bond and The Pink Panther (Inspector Clouseau).
Get Smart was written as a vehicle for Tom Poston, to be piloted on ABC; when ABC turned it down, NBC picked up the show and cast Adams in the role because he was already under contract. When Get Smart debuted in 1965, it was an immediate hit. Barbara Feldon co-starred as Max's young and attractive partner (later wife) Agent 99. They had great chemistry throughout the show's run, despite a 10-year age difference, and they became best friends during and after.
Adams gave the character a clipped speaking style borrowed from actor William Powell. Feldon said, "Part of the pop fervor for Agent 86 was because Don did such an extreme portrayal of the character that it made it easy to imitate." Adams created many popular catch-phrases (some of which were in his act before the show), including "Sorry about that, Chief", , "Ahh ... the old [noun] in the [noun] trick. That's the [number]th time this [month/week]." (sometimes the description of the trick was simply, "Ahh... the old [noun] trick."), and "Missed it by 'that much'".
Adams also produced and directed 13 episodes of the show. He was nominated for Emmys four seasons in a row, from 1966 to 1969, for Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series. He won the award three times. The show moved to CBS for its final season, with ratings declining, as spy series went out of fashion. Get Smart was canceled in 1970 after 138 episodes.
Typecasting
Following this, Adams then wanted to move on to other projects. His efforts after Get Smart were less successful, including the comedy series The Partners (1971–72), a game show called Don Adams' Screen Test (1975–76, see below), and three attempts to revive the Get Smart series in the 1980s. His movie The Nude Bomb (1980) was unsuccessful at the box-office. Adams had been typecast as Maxwell Smart and was unable to escape the image, although he had success as the voice of the title character of Inspector Gadget.
He earned most of his income from his work on stage and in nightclubs. As Adams had chosen a low salary combined with a one-third ownership stake in Get Smart during the show's production, he received a regular income for many years due to the show's popularity in reruns.
Don Adams' Screen Test
Don Adams' Screen Test is a syndicated game show which lasted 26 episodes during the 1975–76 season. The show was done in two 15-minute segments, in each of which a randomly selected audience member would 'act' to re-create a scene from a Hollywood movie as accurately as possible.
Such moments as the bar scene from The Lost Weekend, the duel scene from The Prisoner of Zenda or the beach scene from From Here to Eternity were used, with Adams directing and a celebrity guest playing the other lead in the scene. Hokey effects, bad timing, forgotten lines, prop failures and the celebrity's "ad-libs" were maximized for comic effect as the audience watched "bloopers" and "outtakes" as they happened. At the end of the program, the final, serious, fully edited version of the "screen test" of each of the two contestants would be played, with audience reaction determining the winner, who would receive a trip to Hollywood and a real screen test for a motion picture.
Later work
Adams resurrected the Maxwell Smart character for a series of television commercials for Savemart, a retail chain that sold audio and video equipment. He also did a series of audio/radio commercials in the 1980s for Chief Auto Parts, a retail automobile parts establishment later sold to AutoZone.
He also appeared in the film Jimmy the Kid (1982) and played a cameo role as a harbormaster in Back to the Beach (1987).
Adams attempted a situation-comedy comeback in Canada with Check it Out! in 1985. Set in a supermarket, the show ran for three years but was not successful in the United States. The show also starred Gordon Clapp, an unknown actor at the time, who developed a rapport with Adams.
In 1995, Adams reprised his Maxwell Smart role one last time on Get Smart for Fox; it co-starred Barbara Feldon and rising star Andy Dick as Max and 99's son. Unlike the original version, this show did not appeal to younger viewers, and it was canceled after just seven episodes. One of Adams's last public appearances was at the Get Smart Gathering on November 7, 2003, at a North Hollywood restaurant, in which fans of the show joined the cast and some of the creative talent of the series.
Adams was the voice of the title character in Tennessee Tuxedo and His Tales (1963–66), with his bombastic catch-phrase "Tennessee Tuxedo will not fail!" Later, he voiced himself in animated form for a guest shot in an episode of Hanna-Barbera's The New Scooby-Doo Movies, titled "The Exterminator". His most notable voiceover work was that of the title character in Inspector Gadget. He voiced the character in the original television series (1983–85) and a 1992 Christmas special, as well as in subsequent 1990s spinoffs Gadget Boy and Inspector Gadget's Field Trip. He retired from voicing Inspector Gadget in 1999.
His last roles, prior to his death in 2005, were the character of Principal Hickey in the late-1990s/early-2000s Disney cartoon Pepper Ann, Ranger Rudy in Fisher-Price CD-ROM game Outdoor Adventures: Ranger Trail, and the voice of Brain the Dog in the end credits for the 1999 film version of Inspector Gadget.
Personal life
Adams was married three times, to Adelaide Efantis Adams, Dorothy Bracken Adams, and Judy Luciano, and all three marriages ended in divorce. His brother Richard Paul Yarmy, also known as Dick Yarmy (February 14, 1932 – May 5, 1992), was an actor. His sister Gloria Yarmy Burton was a writer.
He had seven children: Carolyn, Christine, Cathy, Cecily, Stacey, Sean, and Beige. His daughter Cecily died of lung cancer in 2004 and his son Sean died in 2006 at age 35 of a brain tumor, a year after Don Adams's death. An avid gambler, according to his longtime friend Bill Dana, Adams "could be very devoted to his family if you reminded him about it, [but] Don's whole life was focused around gambling."
Death
Adams died on September 25, 2005, at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California. He suffered from lymphoma and a lung infection. Before his death, Adams had joked about not wanting a mournful funeral, preferring, he said, to have his friends get together "and bring me back to life."
Among his eulogists were his decades-long friends Barbara Feldon, Don Rickles, James Caan, Bill Dana, and his son-in-law, actor Jim Beaver (widower of Adams' daughter Cecily). His funeral Mass was held at the Church of the Good Shepherd in Beverly Hills. He is interred in Hollywood Forever Cemetery.
Filmography
Film
Television
References
External links
Profile, laughterlog.com
Associated Press obituary. legacy.com
1923 births
2005 deaths
American stand-up comedians
American male film actors
American game show hosts
American male television actors
American male voice actors
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
American people of Irish descent
American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
United States Marines
Military personnel from New York City
Burials at Hollywood Forever Cemetery
Deaths from cancer in California
Deaths from lymphoma
DeWitt Clinton High School alumni
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
Infectious disease deaths in California
Male actors from New York City
People from Manhattan
20th-century American male actors
Comedians from New York City
20th-century American comedians | [
-0.6676613688468933,
0.38802483677864075,
-0.5049599409103394,
-0.3287024199962616,
0.6581793427467346,
0.6005074977874756,
0.4534513056278229,
0.15400198101997375,
-0.44404783844947815,
-0.06716430932283401,
-0.1696724146604538,
0.7322180867195129,
-0.14968976378440857,
0.26431071758270264,
-0.3646920621395111,
0.3694220185279846,
-0.3743521571159363,
0.09147915244102478,
-0.370227575302124,
-0.3366367816925049,
-0.5772204995155334,
-0.3044649660587311,
0.11207921802997589,
0.20006366074085236,
-0.5457609295845032,
0.8412777781486511,
-0.3743287920951843,
-0.14922772347927094,
-0.00006241752271307632,
0.3220908045768738,
-0.10778453946113586,
-0.48518091440200806,
0.5456557273864746,
-0.3993588984012604,
-0.5244160294532776,
0.005914032459259033,
-0.7065916657447815,
0.04518895596265793,
-0.06834787875413895,
0.17307217419147491,
-0.13656161725521088,
-0.11946576833724976,
0.2772253751754761,
-0.43902823328971863,
-0.17974738776683807,
-0.22216925024986267,
-1.5420496463775635,
0.2310049682855606,
-0.8240194320678711,
-0.8965709805488586,
-0.33088815212249756,
0.4768552780151367,
0.08411259204149246,
-0.013480247929692268,
0.06199897080659866,
0.04661852493882179,
0.14868220686912537,
-0.028676234185695648,
-0.2082224041223526,
-0.21905408799648285,
-0.1167716532945633,
-0.45589593052864075,
0.2901501953601837,
-0.349178671836853,
-0.11441020667552948,
0.20328044891357422,
0.027330871671438217,
0.2680724561214447,
0.05828745290637016,
-0.43727654218673706,
0.618920624256134,
0.8523403406143188,
0.2652498483657837,
-0.3792869448661804,
0.5434359312057495,
-0.28179463744163513,
0.8077744841575623,
-0.10644708573818207,
-0.4139196276664734,
-0.12330766767263412,
0.022425981238484383,
-0.5765367150306702,
-0.06028818339109421,
1.0122263431549072,
-0.07838991284370422,
-0.23875707387924194,
-0.6899278163909912,
0.4167221784591675,
-0.5801789164543152,
0.13808608055114746,
-0.6901642084121704,
0.0958496555685997,
-0.31471675634384155,
0.23038837313652039,
0.1293094903230667,
-0.43884268403053284,
0.010050923563539982,
-0.1778058260679245,
0.48087069392204285,
-0.4119581878185272,
-0.375205397605896,
-0.4210255742073059,
0.5361869931221008,
-0.5283041000366211,
-0.1144779622554779,
0.4495755732059479,
0.46739035844802856,
-0.16012492775917053,
-0.38890722393989563,
-0.04454999789595604,
-0.5317239165306091,
0.21138928830623627,
0.41526710987091064,
-0.04369743913412094,
0.0885670855641365,
0.5115444660186768,
0.02431662566959858,
-0.40327638387680054,
-1.024362325668335,
0.09389672428369522,
0.06468300521373749,
0.34832635521888733,
-0.2499983310699463,
0.1784648299217224,
-0.6077880859375,
0.1933763176202774,
-0.05911852419376373,
0.17077358067035675,
-0.22987307608127594,
0.1803872436285019,
0.23085081577301025,
0.5849266052246094,
-0.2430163472890854,
-0.06188296154141426,
-0.4615146219730377,
-0.010293055325746536,
0.16454455256462097,
0.059523552656173706,
-0.2814755141735077,
-0.5027267336845398,
-0.0863441601395607,
0.1392481029033661,
-0.5047289729118347,
0.07848837971687317,
0.2250141203403473,
-0.676224946975708,
0.25550949573516846,
0.14717400074005127,
-0.050628215074539185,
-0.0037623748648911715,
-0.2875436544418335,
-0.17740744352340698,
0.5726915597915649,
-0.7839023470878601,
-0.4187108874320984,
0.853630781173706,
0.6197527050971985,
0.05296702682971954,
0.023072553798556328,
-0.14579930901527405,
0.49495768547058105,
-0.08487360179424286,
-0.1781894713640213,
-0.34557366371154785,
0.6169214248657227,
0.0586395300924778,
-0.09114114940166473,
-1.1735187768936157,
-0.30940181016921997,
0.32129836082458496,
-0.13541392982006073,
0.3882700800895691,
0.6397066116333008,
-0.2948828935623169,
-0.6078812479972839,
0.3736242651939392,
0.07075558602809906,
0.8889650702476501,
0.25245925784111023,
-0.3171163499355316,
-0.4597160518169403,
-0.06299810856580734,
0.01153561845421791,
0.1818692535161972,
0.22801092267036438,
0.17813770473003387,
0.27239990234375,
-0.42974597215652466,
0.369596391916275,
-0.1852578967809677,
-0.4762738347053528,
-0.5820223689079285,
-0.11462778598070145,
-0.30681219696998596,
0.39187780022621155,
-0.023763876408338547,
-0.6860737204551697,
0.27827927470207214,
0.3142910301685333,
0.7807786464691162,
-0.44208386540412903,
-0.004428279120475054,
0.43824535608291626,
-0.1518828421831131,
0.3761773407459259,
0.1934516280889511,
0.0962613970041275,
0.3102262318134308,
0.8127201199531555,
0.9122626781463623,
0.18549692630767822,
-0.8360702991485596,
0.07346588373184204,
0.9286454319953918,
0.10975005477666855,
-0.5874096155166626,
-0.9635739922523499,
-0.6288222670555115,
0.3432427942752838,
-0.01953866146504879,
0.18483926355838776,
0.48258236050605774,
-0.317143052816391,
0.5762510895729065,
-0.07657741010189056,
0.7014564275741577,
-0.34040093421936035,
0.1326092630624771,
0.5467543005943298,
-0.1499558389186859,
0.5052577257156372,
0.4480229914188385,
-0.17311504483222961,
-0.8174037337303162,
-0.2194652408361435,
-0.07392935454845428,
0.665230393409729,
-0.5361469388008118,
-0.1623968482017517,
-0.41000500321388245,
0.3106044828891754,
-0.07927657663822174,
-0.4358503222465515,
0.12429042905569077,
0.08403674513101578,
-0.24737949669361115,
-0.07980827987194061,
-0.2005680948495865,
0.10233241319656372,
-0.11291475594043732,
-0.16317299008369446,
0.07695944607257843,
0.32165539264678955,
0.12112711369991302,
0.08302540332078934,
0.30253681540489197,
0.25556549429893494,
0.05160244181752205,
0.3327289819717407,
0.1559082269668579,
0.11955007910728455,
0.30801573395729065,
0.0014456225326284766,
0.3551326394081116,
-0.5404421091079712,
-0.4155350923538208,
-0.3256089985370636,
0.09865614026784897,
-0.48324230313301086,
0.09909716248512268,
0.21629799902439117,
-0.19383011758327484,
0.04646165668964386,
-0.10584352910518646,
0.5031437277793884,
0.06933411955833435,
-0.0013712546788156033,
0.11360050737857819,
-0.49350404739379883,
-0.8207478523254395,
0.5881161093711853,
0.49778738617897034,
-0.33809947967529297,
-0.03541363403201103,
0.11336635053157806,
-0.24080690741539001,
-0.7312304377555847,
-0.19769664108753204,
-0.37916499376296997,
0.25137650966644287,
-0.04105192422866821,
0.7442057728767395,
-0.07364549487829208,
0.42680031061172485,
-0.1575210988521576,
0.0979241281747818,
-0.014002770185470581,
-0.25645187497138977,
0.18779850006103516,
-0.024962645024061203,
-0.34547367691993713,
0.516653299331665,
0.06725791841745377,
-0.13469116389751434,
0.7447472214698792,
0.4570903778076172,
-0.10395660251379013,
-0.5567044615745544,
-5.452489852905273,
0.16569508612155914,
-0.09288063645362854,
-0.2965858578681946,
0.7686315774917603,
-0.2761153280735016,
0.10478316247463226,
-0.1389051079750061,
0.16551503539085388,
-0.06664913892745972,
0.42014315724372864,
-0.3660650849342346,
-0.19941183924674988,
0.39656785130500793,
0.44428756833076477,
-0.1300468146800995,
0.783720076084137,
-0.40331342816352844,
0.06624963134527206,
0.6544225215911865,
-0.17037639021873474,
-0.6655740737915039,
-0.023706922307610512,
0.4201122522354126,
-0.4088771343231201,
0.6168261766433716,
-0.44920170307159424,
0.21397870779037476,
-0.7451555728912354,
-0.509649932384491,
-0.25551310181617737,
0.32739561796188354,
-0.8301859498023987,
0.01104832161217928,
0.11361975222826004,
-0.05061306431889534,
0.6056050062179565,
-0.6465984582901001,
-0.25719892978668213,
-0.4902912974357605,
0.48274558782577515,
-0.29828062653541565,
-0.653577983379364,
0.2412547916173935,
0.11615698784589767,
-0.31260499358177185,
-0.03439060598611832,
-0.6223440170288086,
0.09990431368350983,
0.18672671914100647,
0.4976446330547333,
0.4578336477279663,
0.3236605226993561,
0.04009968414902687,
0.6016685962677002,
-0.24077467620372772,
0.22552435100078583,
0.11006394028663635,
-0.7914271950721741,
0.3496486246585846,
0.5496954321861267,
0.20595908164978027,
-0.10669023543596268,
-0.125056654214859,
0.05465957522392273,
-0.05846868455410004,
0.4833323061466217,
0.28682008385658264,
0.401828795671463,
-0.530025064945221,
-0.25730380415916443,
0.5638490319252014,
0.08046647161245346,
-1.1891776323318481,
-0.25788626074790955,
-0.2581445872783661,
0.2892686128616333,
0.030945125967264175,
-0.7459943294525146,
-0.23776543140411377,
0.22824794054031372,
0.048627108335494995,
0.12559954822063446,
0.6139047741889954,
-0.04921567812561989,
0.17651782929897308,
-0.34232208132743835,
1.0724660158157349,
-0.03960529714822769,
-0.33562684059143066,
0.21776798367500305,
0.14372242987155914,
-0.08368706703186035,
0.4110957682132721,
0.15891438722610474,
-0.15159186720848083,
-0.005275990813970566,
0.3469761908054352,
-0.054052773863077164,
-0.14953888952732086,
-0.4518250524997711,
-0.11109066754579544,
0.5686814785003662,
-0.9533870816230774,
-0.02016136422753334,
-0.3346681594848633,
0.3500801622867584,
0.09022645652294159,
0.36162346601486206,
-0.10784321278333664,
0.02036542072892189,
0.4581240117549896,
0.1244010180234909,
-0.30493858456611633,
0.2945002317428589,
-0.10957958549261093,
0.4833180606365204,
0.24628496170043945,
0.2816956639289856,
0.31489109992980957,
-0.11443837732076645,
0.643257737159729,
0.13361625373363495,
0.04811905696988106,
-0.09183161705732346,
-0.3603656589984894,
0.010147690773010254,
-0.08812087029218674,
0.0961930975317955,
0.030544448643922806,
-0.6646172404289246,
0.6057704091072083,
0.40043744444847107,
0.8239193558692932,
0.448917955160141,
-0.44662925601005554,
-0.17262326180934906,
-0.3022676408290863,
-0.18429067730903625,
-0.03362366929650307,
0.14681187272071838,
-0.17049819231033325,
0.023835182189941406,
0.24414923787117004,
0.14178241789340973,
-0.6725226640701294,
0.05400417372584343,
0.030618058517575264,
-0.08737406879663467,
0.5069987177848816,
0.09713185578584671,
-0.16490286588668823,
0.5736327171325684,
-0.7760912775993347,
-0.25132501125335693,
0.23606567084789276,
-0.8277834057807922,
-0.39055347442626953,
0.08845651894807816,
-0.14862383902072906,
-0.005030324216932058,
-0.07057052850723267,
-0.8619025349617004,
0.06009991839528084,
-0.26852771639823914,
-0.0835389643907547,
-0.42356452345848083,
-0.418194055557251,
-0.3386934697628021,
0.8157167434692383,
-0.10658891499042511,
-0.5785719156265259,
-0.18037252128124237,
0.20739911496639252,
0.09950615465641022,
0.1863858699798584,
-0.44125327467918396,
-0.3540606200695038,
0.10609279572963715,
-0.2885188162326813,
0.10302630066871643,
-0.13038010895252228,
-0.9329695701599121,
-0.20849980413913727,
0.13065984845161438,
-0.7835491895675659,
-0.9839372634887695,
-0.5492988228797913,
-0.19667409360408783,
-0.06409984081983566,
0.3053680658340454,
-0.3929571807384491,
0.17959429323673248,
0.6861577033996582,
-0.2786796987056732,
0.14395779371261597,
0.21937662363052368,
-0.07745983451604843,
0.06982328742742538,
-0.020155109465122223,
-0.437460333108902,
0.25218451023101807,
-0.9858739972114563,
-0.12655842304229736,
0.22911880910396576,
-0.9343422651290894,
0.10953782498836517,
0.5426610112190247,
-0.2330232560634613,
0.6301789283752441,
-0.12522737681865692,
-0.6390758752822876,
-0.09868299216032028,
0.04424675926566124,
-0.22102342545986176,
1.0170505046844482,
0.5179283022880554,
-0.008523098193109035,
0.02999635599553585,
-0.41101187467575073,
-0.5988658666610718,
-0.6977881193161011,
-0.19614838063716888,
0.2201889157295227,
-0.6067957282066345,
0.20189061760902405,
0.3011484146118164,
0.283124178647995,
0.4145679771900177,
-0.15274733304977417,
-0.02170484885573387,
-0.21699033677577972,
0.3490704894065857,
0.31744861602783203,
0.09588814526796341,
-0.03154821693897247,
0.04960353672504425,
0.4195253849029541,
-0.20929747819900513,
0.05247564986348152,
0.8200576901435852,
1.4341721534729004,
0.24251529574394226,
0.3632541000843048,
0.719657838344574,
0.45655590295791626,
0.29952457547187805,
-1.0065746307373047,
0.17844733595848083,
0.32070067524909973,
0.6185356378555298,
0.06830920279026031,
-0.4658731520175934,
0.3782179355621338,
0.05826035887002945,
-0.29430586099624634,
-0.07378894090652466,
0.4127514064311981,
-0.15835890173912048,
-0.018242310732603073,
0.15706144273281097,
0.31383785605430603,
-0.1507466584444046,
-0.24310097098350525,
-0.7607927322387695,
-0.15180033445358276,
-0.23159359395503998,
0.2546098530292511,
0.40986746549606323,
-0.47799938917160034,
-0.107452891767025,
-0.13147324323654175,
0.1752658635377884,
1.0785578489303589,
-0.5615334510803223,
0.5458381772041321,
0.6092201471328735,
-0.588091254234314,
-0.1728600114583969,
-0.5724952816963196,
-0.9137411117553711,
0.5589353442192078,
-0.09619808197021484,
-0.5602962374687195,
-0.3288728594779968,
-0.7061000466346741,
-0.013573171570897102,
-0.16907481849193573,
-0.09535400569438934,
0.25645023584365845,
-0.44153353571891785,
1.097535490989685,
-0.06804152578115463,
-0.07135945558547974,
-0.4056703746318817,
-0.25339609384536743,
0.1548914611339569,
1.5832722187042236,
-0.3990114629268646,
-0.1762169599533081,
-0.1269986778497696,
0.14133383333683014,
0.6796204447746277,
0.08595637232065201,
-0.3859514892101288,
0.00894357543438673,
-0.10918048769235611,
-0.747924268245697,
-0.457807332277298,
0.2537127435207367,
0.14479263126850128,
-0.5714508891105652,
0.17234553396701813,
0.6461074948310852,
-0.13060617446899414,
-0.12455718219280243,
1.016849398612976,
-0.014529854990541935,
-0.6772741079330444,
-0.17600330710411072,
-0.13403373956680298,
-0.17103631794452667,
0.20382682979106903,
-1.0892024040222168,
0.9051330089569092,
0.9112444519996643,
0.4719749093055725,
-0.21931716799736023,
-0.1105407103896141,
0.6236770153045654,
-0.19396989047527313,
-0.45490068197250366,
0.46010857820510864,
0.6846195459365845,
-0.15466856956481934,
-0.4386007487773895,
0.2881759703159332,
-0.016044899821281433,
0.7208155393600464,
-0.14026035368442535,
-0.6349599361419678,
0.24215799570083618,
0.17574244737625122,
-0.23712356388568878,
-0.0203989427536726,
-0.2313632369041443,
0.27126824855804443,
0.390746533870697,
-0.08088614791631699,
-0.5703302621841431,
0.2502131760120392,
-0.049889810383319855,
0.16682346165180206,
-0.2777431011199951,
1.0194625854492188,
-0.07623476535081863,
0.2170635312795639,
-0.047295667231082916,
0.14368116855621338,
0.2142978459596634,
-0.29562386870384216,
-0.682794988155365,
1.4158625602722168,
0.2703549265861511,
-0.22789272665977478,
-0.05524441972374916,
0.2948090434074402,
-0.5706559419631958,
0.11320636421442032,
0.5554385781288147,
-0.3154294192790985,
0.5618031620979309,
-0.33212536573410034,
0.683640718460083,
0.6187247037887573,
0.13501887023448944,
0.7952080965042114,
-0.5029348731040955,
-0.062317367643117905,
0.3047553598880768,
-0.472581684589386,
0.006644054315984249,
-0.236273854970932,
-0.6200419664382935,
0.0684598907828331,
0.19137734174728394,
-0.14522548019886017,
0.11728708446025848,
0.15793174505233765,
-0.43762046098709106,
0.7206210494041443,
-0.8496767282485962,
-0.26477837562561035,
0.3638346493244171,
-0.00006094736818340607,
0.14263007044792175,
-0.6768355965614319,
0.5543525218963623,
0.5653131604194641,
0.13843274116516113,
0.14436683058738708,
0.5104697942733765,
0.5071355700492859,
0.1160961389541626,
-0.05597367882728577,
-0.05597112327814102,
-0.3880268931388855,
-0.18413180112838745,
-0.9357690811157227,
0.16148656606674194,
-0.11279043555259705,
-0.005901582073420286,
-0.1965603530406952,
0.12095929682254791,
-0.6017881035804749,
-0.4280138611793518,
0.6962376236915588,
-0.08840850740671158,
-0.13786716759204865,
0.02245965600013733,
0.18902361392974854,
-0.007714719511568546,
0.15809962153434753,
-0.06638570129871368,
0.08836350589990616,
0.31093916296958923,
-0.06525228917598724,
0.04763318598270416,
-0.2897239327430725,
0.6279069185256958,
0.028501952067017555,
0.2491360306739807,
-0.1250118762254715,
-0.012585354037582874,
-0.569510281085968,
-1.1048020124435425,
0.3276667594909668,
1.1699117422103882,
0.5760898590087891,
-0.7553813457489014,
0.6206117868423462,
0.17568956315517426,
0.19639289379119873,
-0.07221262156963348,
0.33494091033935547,
-0.3874088525772095,
0.12457682192325592,
-0.14869728684425354,
0.2514372169971466,
0.549168050289154,
-0.4001217484474182,
-0.7403138875961304,
0.29620322585105896,
-0.3941982686519623,
-0.018687063828110695,
0.12110969424247742,
-0.17411130666732788,
-0.28931620717048645,
0.6424220204353333,
0.18216393887996674
] |
241391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavement%20%28band%29 | Pavement (band) | Pavement is an American indie rock band that formed in Stockton, California, in 1989. For most of their career, the group consisted of Stephen Malkmus (vocals and guitar), Scott Kannberg (guitar and vocals), Mark Ibold (bass), Steve West (drums) and Bob Nastanovich (percussion and vocals). Initially conceived as a recording project, the band at first avoided press or live performances, while attracting considerable underground attention with their early releases. Gradually evolving into a more polished band, Pavement recorded five full-length albums and ten EPs over the course of their decade-long career, though they disbanded with some acrimony in 1999 as the members moved on to other projects. In 2010, they undertook a well-received reunion tour, with another reunion tour across Europe and the United States scheduled for 2022.
Though only briefly brushing the mainstream with the single "Cut Your Hair" in 1994, Pavement was a successful indie rock band. Rather than signing with a major label as many of their 1980s forebears had done, they remained signed to independent labels throughout their career and have often been described as one of the most influential bands to emerge from the American underground in the '90s. Some prominent music critics, such as Robert Christgau and Stephen Thomas Erlewine, called them the best band of the 1990s. In their career, they also achieved a significant cult following.
History
1989–1992: Formation and Slanted and Enchanted
Pavement formed in Stockton, California in 1989 as a studio project of guitarists and vocalists Stephen Malkmus & Scott Kannberg, known originally only as "S.M." and "Spiral Stairs". Their debut EPs were the lo-fi releases Slay Tracks: 1933–1969, Demolition Plot J-7, and Perfect Sound Forever. They were recorded at Louder Than You Think, the home studio of Stockton local and former hippie Gary Young who also played drums on the recordings. Upon first hearing the duo's songs, Young was quoted as saying, "this Malkmus idiot is a complete songwriting genius".
During this time the band was often compared to English rock band the Fall. Kannberg stated in a 1992 interview that he preferred Minneapolis rock band the Replacements. The Fall singer Mark E. Smith claimed that Pavement were a "rip-off" and who did not "have an original idea in their heads"; other members of the Fall have been more positive.
After the release of Slay Tracks, a new drummer, Jason Turner, was drafted to replace Young. However, after just one tour and a handful of recording sessions, when it became apparent that Turner and Malkmus did not get along, Young was reinstated. Malkmus later described Turner as "this depressed guy who might assassinate me one day... He's very competitive." Around the same time, Bob Nastanovich was incorporated into the live Pavement band as an auxiliary percussionist. Malkmus had been roommates with Nastanovich in New York City.
Around 1992, Pavement became a full-time band, with Malkmus, Kannberg, Young and Nastanovich, and bassist Mark Ibold, who had been one of the band's earliest fans. Their debut album, Slanted and Enchanted, was released commercially in 1992 after copies had been circulated on cassette tape for nearly a year. Though the percussive influence of the Fall was still pervasive, as was that of English post-punk band Swell Maps, many of the songs also exhibited a strong sense of melody. Since its release Slanted and Enchanted has appeared on many critics' best-of lists and is frequently cited as being among the most influential indie rock albums of the 1990s. It is listed on Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. Later the same year, the band released the EP Watery, Domestic.
1993–1994: Crooked Rain, Crooked Rain
During the Slanted & Enchanted tour, Gary Young's behavior became more eccentric; he would hand out cabbage and mashed potatoes to fans at the door of the venue, perform handstands, drunkenly fall off his drum stool, and run around the venue while the band was playing. The band only understood how severe Young's drinking problem was after Pavement's first few tours. Malkmus later told Tape Op, "We knew that he was like a hippie and kinda flaky, but we didn't know he had such a bad drinking problem. We found out on that tour, because he really got sick from being nervous... That's why I let Bob be in the band...'Keep the beat going if Gary passes out.'" In 1993, Malkmus unsuccessfully attempted to record some songs at Young's studio. He later said, "We kind of wanted to not record with him anymore, but we were too nice to fire people or even really talk about it... We tried to record there, but it wasn't sounding good and he didn't have his studio ready and he was also in a drinking funk."
At the conclusion of a 1993 tour of Australia, Japan, and Europe, the group held a meeting in a hotel room in Copenhagen. Malkmus, Kannberg and Ibold remained silent while Nastanovich, Young's best friend at the time, argued with Young. Young agreed to leave the band. He was replaced by Steve West, who had been a fellow museum security guard at the Whitney Museum of American Art along with Malkmus and David Berman. West's debut performance was in 1993 at a Drag City festival in Chicago. Also that year, the band contributed to the AIDS-Benefit Album No Alternative produced by the Red Hot Organization with their song "Unseen Power of the Picket Fence".
Pavement's second album Crooked Rain, Crooked Rain was released in 1994. The record was more indebted to the classic rock tradition than their debut. The single "Cut Your Hair" was the most successful song, and briefly enjoyed airplay on alternative rock radio and MTV. Pavement performed the song on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Additionally, the video aired on "Career Day", a season five episode of Beavis and Butt-head, who termed it "buttwipe music" and also wanted the band to "try harder." The song was also featured briefly in the movie A Very Brady Sequel. Like its predecessor, the album received widespread acclaim, including being listed on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time.
The lyrics from another single from the album, "Range Life", criticized alternative rock stars the Smashing Pumpkins and the Stone Temple Pilots. Malkmus has insisted over the years that the line is meant to be light-hearted and is sung from the point of view of the aging hippie character in the song. Later live versions of the track had Malkmus substituting "the Spice Girls", "Counting Crows", or others for "Stone Temple Pilots". In response, Smashing Pumpkins leader Billy Corgan threatened to drop his band from their slot headlining the 1994 Lollapalooza Festival if Pavement was allowed to play. Corgan and Malkmus traded barbs in the press for several years afterwards.
1995–1997: Wowee Zowee and Brighten the Corners
The next album, Wowee Zowee, recorded in Memphis and released April 11, 1995, covered a wide range of styles including punk, country and balladry across its 18 tracks, which often avoided conventional song structures. On the Slow Century DVD, Malkmus attributed his odd choice of singles to his marijuana smoking, stating that "I was smoking a lot of grass back then but to me they sounded like hits." Although Malkmus has said in recent interviews that the album is the last "classic Pavement record," Kannberg has voiced regrets about Wowee Zowee. "We made some mistakes on that record... we were kind of pressured into putting out a record a little faster than we were ready to. I mean, I'm totally into the record. It's just if we had another six months to think about it, it would've been much different."
During the tour for the album, Nastanovich stated on the Slow Century DVD, the band would often not work out a setlist before shows, opting for drug and alcohol fueled jams over hit singles. Some of these shows were held during the 1995 Lollapallooza festival, where the incoherent performances received a hostile reaction from many audiences. Footage from Slow Century shows the band being pelted with mud and rocks. The band then left the stage immediately and dubbed themselves "The Band That Ruined Lollapallooza."
Wowee Zowee was followed up by the EP Pacific Trim, which was recorded with only Malkmus and drummers Nastanovich and Steve West. Their studio time was originally reserved for a Silver Jews recording, but frontman David Berman walked out in frustration and the trio decided not to waste prepaid recording time.
Brighten the Corners, released in 1997 and produced by Mitch Easter, was a shorter, more conventional record than Wowee Zowee. Malkmus said on the Slow Century DVD that the album was an attempt to show audiences that Pavement had more mainstream and classic rock influences than it had previously portrayed. The album contained two of the band's best known singles in "Stereo" and "Shady Lane". It was the only Pavement album to include a lyric sheet except Slanted and Enchanted and sold better than its predecessors. Despite increased success, the band continued to fragment, with its members focusing more on other musical projects or on raising families.
1999: Terror Twilight
In 1999, the band began work on its final album, Terror Twilight. Bob Nastanovich came up with the title, and has revealed the meaning of it in several interviews: "Twilight Terror is the short span between sunset and dusk; this is considered the most dangerous time in traffic, because half of the people switch on the headlights, and the other half doesn't. It's when most accidents happen." During an interview on the Slow Century documentary DVD, he said that the band was having trouble coming up with names for the record until he put forth Terror Twilight. One of the final contenders was Farewell Horizontal (also the name of a 1989 science fiction novel by K. W. Jeter), and Nastanovich said, "There was no way I was going to be on the Farewell Horizontal tour for the next year."
The band originally planned to self-produce Terror Twilight, renting out Jackpot! Studios in Portland, Oregon. The group stalled though, with Malkmus, Ibold, Nastanovich and Jackpot! employee and future Jicks bassist Joanna Bolme usually opting to play Scrabble over getting any sort of work accomplished. Kannberg was especially frustrated over the sessions, particularly at Malkmus' refusal to include any of Kannberg's songs on the album. Fan favorite "For Sale: The Preston School of Industry" and one other song penned by Kannberg were briefly worked on during the sessions, but eventually abandoned. At the end of the initial two-week session, very little had been accomplished and it was decided that a producer should be brought in to assist them.
Nigel Godrich, best known for his work with Radiohead and Beck, was hired to produce the album. The group first attempted to record in Sonic Youth's lower Manhattan studio, which Godrich took a dislike to as it was within ear-shot of several practice spaces, and also set up more like a home studio. Godrich eventually convinced the band to move to a more "proper" 24-track studio, where he had previously worked on albums by the Beastie Boys and R.E.M. Though Godrich took an immediate shine to Malkmus, Kannberg and Nastanovich were wary of him. Nastanovich believes that though Godrich "took on a pretty substantial challenge and did a good job," that he "focused his attention on Stephen" and produced them "in a way that just sort of had more disregard for the rest of us." Nastanovich also later recalled an awkward incident when it became apparent that Godrich did not know his name. Kannberg, still disillusioned over his songs being rejected by Malkmus, said of Terror Twilight: "It was not fun to do that record from the very beginning. It was the hardest record to make."
Malkmus wrote the entirety of the record, and the recording of the music only featured minor contributions from the rest of the band. The group released one last EP, titled Major Leagues. It features three Malkmus songs, two original Spiral Stairs songs and two covers, "The Killing Moon" by Echo & the Bunnymen and "The Classical" by the Fall.
1999: Breakup
Pavement embarked on a six-month world tour in support of Terror Twilight, during which time relationships within the group frayed, especially between Malkmus and the other members of the band. Steve West later recalled times on the tour bus where Malkmus would put his coat over his head, refuse to speak to anyone, and call himself the "little bitch". Critics noted that their setlist had started to include a number of their early songs, much like a band playing their greatest hits on a farewell tour. Malkmus's attitude continued to deteriorate as the tour wore on, finally coming to a head during their slot at the 1999 Coachella Festival. During the concert, Malkmus refused (or possibly was unable, due to illness) to sing, effectively turning their set into a mostly instrumental one. Nastanovich called a band meeting after the show, and Malkmus finally told his bandmates: "I just don't want to do this anymore."
The group's final concert together was at Brixton Academy in London on November 20, 1999. During the concert, Malkmus had a pair of handcuffs attached to his microphone stand, and at one point told that audience, "These symbolize what it's like being in a band all these years." After the concert, he confirmed to people at the after-party that Pavement was now done "for the foreseeable future." About two weeks later, a spokesperson for Domino records told NME: "Pavement are retiring for the foreseeable future to: 1. Start families 2. Sail around the world 3. Get into the computer industry 4. Dance 5. Get some attention."
In the summer of 2000, Malkmus called Kannberg and told him, "You need to change the website to say we aren't a band anymore. People keep asking me if we're breaking up and you know we're not a band anymore, right?" Kannberg told Malkmus that he needed to call the other members of the band to inform them that the band was finally breaking up, but Malkmus refused and Kannberg was left with the task of informing them. Steve West later admitted that he never received any official call about the breakup from anyone in the band, and discovered that Pavement had dissolved via the internet. Nastanovich later commented that "There was too much exhaustion for heavy emotion."
2010: Reunion
On September 15, 2009, Brooklyn Vegan reported that Pavement were scheduled to perform multiple benefit show dates in New York City's Central Park from September 21, 2010. Official statements by the band, label, venue and promoter were released on September 17, 2009, confirming the reunion. The announcement included one concert in Central Park and the promise of a tour, but said that the reunion may only be a one-off event. It said, "Please be advised this tour is not a prelude to additional jaunts and/or a permanent reunion." Tickets for the first Central Park concert sold out in two minutes, leading to the announcement of three more shows at the same venue. The band since confirmed a world-wide tour which started in Auckland, New Zealand on March 1 at the Auckland Town Hall, before heading on to Australia then heading to the UK, including the All Tomorrow's Parties festival in Minehead, Somerset (May 14 – 16) and several European shows. They also performed at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in April 2010, the Sasquatch! and Primavera Sound Festivals in May, the Toronto Island Concert in June with Broken Social Scene, Band Of Horses, and others, Open'er Festival, Roskilde Festival and Les Ardentes and Pitchfork Music Festival in July.
The band released a "best-of" compilation album in March 2010, entitled Quarantine the Past: The Best of Pavement. On June 24, 2010, Pavement performed at the Bob Hope Theatre in Stockton, their first-ever hometown show. Original drummer Gary Young joined the band for an encore, playing three songs from Slanted and Enchanted. Young also joined the band during six songs the next night at The Greek Theater in Berkeley.
In September 2010, Pavement appeared on The Colbert Report and Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. After concluding their proper US tour at the Hollywood Bowl on September 30, the band played the following night in Las Vegas at the Palms Casino as a part of the Matador At 21 festival. During their set, Scott Kannberg kicked his monitor and smashed his guitar into his amp in frustration of not being able to hear himself while performing. NME noted the band had an "icy atmosphere onstage". The band honored a further two South American show commitments in November 2010.
2022: Second reunion
Scott Kannberg joined Stephen Malkmus and The Jicks onstage at the El Rey Theater in Los Angeles on March 28, 2014, for an encore performance of the Pavement song "Stereo". On October 1 and 2, 2016 Stephen Malkmus and the Jicks performed at Spiral Stairs' 50th birthday celebration at The Chapel in San Francisco. On the first night Kannberg joined Malkmus and The Jicks onstage for four songs. The following night Kannberg played three more songs with the group, joined by Gary Young on the final two. On June 1, 2019, Pavement announced that they would be reuniting to perform two 30th anniversary shows at the 2020 Primavera Sound festivals in Barcelona and Porto, and were scheduled to be the band's only performances that year. Due to logistical issues resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic, the festival was cancelled, and their performances were rescheduled and announced as part of Primavera Sound's June 2021 lineup. In March 2021, the festival was once again delayed to the summer of 2022. In September 2021, the band announced a European tour for the Fall of 2022, their first in 12 years The band announced a North American leg of the tour on November 2, 2021.
Musical style
Pavement is considered to be one of the bands to have invented the modern "indie" sound and was a large presence in "slacker culture", a subculture most prevalent during the 1990s. The band was also noted for Malkmus' humorous and often cryptic lyrical themes which was a key factor in gaining their cult following. Malkmus rarely wrote ballads or love songs and only a small portion of their discography contained personal reflections or similar lyrical themes, most satirical or laced with sarcasm.
Pavement was also noted for having no designated rhythm and lead guitar player. Malkmus and Kannberg switched roles frequently although Malkmus played lead for the majority of their career. The band was also noted for their use of a foil, or a 'hype-man' usually present in hip hop groups. Bob Nastanovich filled the role although he has detested the term himself. Nastanovich also served as a second drummer during their live performances and served as lead vocalist on select songs that required screaming to prevent strain on Malkmus' voice.
Other media
In 2002, Slow Century, a documentary by Lance Bangs coupled with all of the band's music videos, was released as a 2 DVD set. Included was extensive footage, both professionally shot and taped by fans on camcorders, from the band's earliest shows in 1989 forward. The three final songs from the band's final concert ("Stop Breathin'", "Conduit for Sale" and "Here") are presented at the end of the documentary. Also on the DVD is a hidden easter egg clip from the same show, wherein Malkmus talks about how the handcuffs attached to his microphone stand "represent what it's like being in a band all these years." A bonus disc with a complete concert in Seattle, Washington, from the early part of the Terror Twilight tour was included on the second disc, as well as several songs from their penultimate show.
2004 saw the publication of Perfect Sound Forever: The Story of Pavement, a biography on the band written by Rob Jovanovic. Reviews for the book were mixed, with some saying that it contained much of the same information as the Slow Century DVD and expanded very little on it, while others called it a "fond retrospection".
Appearances
The band appeared in a 1997 episode of Space Ghost Coast to Coast, titled "Pavement", where they were mistaken for The Beatles and played two songs done exclusively for the show. These songs were later included on the deluxe re-issue of Brighten the Corners.
Band members
Final line-up
Stephen Malkmus – lead vocals, guitar (1989–1999; 2010; 2019–2022)
Scott “Spiral Stairs” Kannberg – guitar, backing and lead vocals (1989–1999; 2010; 2019–2022), bass (1989–1991)
Mark Ibold – bass guitar (1991–1999; 2010; 2019–2022)
Bob Nastanovich – percussion, synthesizers, vocals (1991–1999; 2010; 2019–2022)
Steve West – drums (1993–1999; 2010; 2019–2022)
Former members
Gary Young – drums (1989, 1989–1993; 2010)
Jason Turner – drums (1989)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Slanted and Enchanted (1992)
Crooked Rain, Crooked Rain (1994)
Wowee Zowee (1995)
Brighten the Corners (1997)
Terror Twilight (1999)
References
Bibliography
Jovanovic, Rob (2004). Perfect Sound Forever: The Story of Pavement. (Boston) Justin, Charles & Co. .
External links
Pavement at Matador Records
Pavement at Domino Recording Company
Podcast of Pavement Live at the Great American Music Hall
Stephen Malkmus on Reissue of Pavement's 'Brighten the Corners'
Podcast: Pavement Reunion Tour Concert, Sydney, Australia
Arts & Crafts Productions artists
Art pop musicians
Domino Recording Company artists
Drag City (record label) artists
Flying Nun Records artists
Indie rock musical groups from California
Matador Records artists
Musical groups established in 1989
Musical groups disestablished in 1999
Musical groups reestablished in 2010
Musical groups disestablished in 2010
Lo-fi music groups
Pony Canyon artists | [
0.7220960259437561,
0.49245762825012207,
-0.4919240474700928,
-0.051181286573410034,
-0.07676524668931961,
0.6980372071266174,
0.10841336846351624,
0.3914032578468323,
-0.28079742193222046,
-0.42028796672821045,
0.5110108852386475,
0.6393889784812927,
-0.28635311126708984,
-0.06516066193580627,
-0.08221103996038437,
-0.13908521831035614,
0.06130285933613777,
0.26533231139183044,
0.05884084478020668,
0.18542654812335968,
-0.04977919161319733,
-0.0034529983531683683,
0.5012889504432678,
-0.05073706433176994,
-0.0801628977060318,
0.3308079242706299,
0.2642756998538971,
0.4523536264896393,
0.1803390234708786,
0.1285071223974228,
0.3108554780483246,
0.8991016149520874,
0.5607376098632812,
-0.965901255607605,
0.46767088770866394,
0.45488137006759644,
-0.10163190215826035,
0.08762633800506592,
-0.2054096758365631,
-0.3822934925556183,
0.5906326770782471,
-0.09519319981336594,
0.1493254154920578,
0.25970005989074707,
0.3348609507083893,
0.11924989521503448,
-1.4022654294967651,
0.35059091448783875,
-0.6961163282394409,
-0.17472849786281586,
-0.046276647597551346,
0.409396767616272,
0.04445881396532059,
0.3751716613769531,
0.57961505651474,
0.08234000205993652,
-0.17707228660583496,
-0.08870712667703629,
-0.1757248491048813,
-0.004911545664072037,
0.25085777044296265,
0.13589978218078613,
-0.0471213199198246,
-0.5048781633377075,
-0.3334973454475403,
0.6356720924377441,
0.554480791091919,
0.586078405380249,
0.11346705257892609,
-0.20134501159191132,
-0.24594445526599884,
-0.33002638816833496,
-0.2953580617904663,
0.2302217185497284,
-0.03221920132637024,
0.051975347101688385,
0.34190669655799866,
-0.19998696446418762,
-0.20202696323394775,
0.6041827201843262,
0.16262461245059967,
0.7322768568992615,
1.0574082136154175,
0.47346577048301697,
0.14725849032402039,
-0.6040903925895691,
-0.4357505738735199,
0.37410062551498413,
-0.5895229578018188,
0.37525010108947754,
-0.5860015749931335,
-0.6995863318443298,
0.5605748295783997,
0.38432902097702026,
0.1319403499364853,
-0.23900838196277618,
-0.440876305103302,
0.8023650050163269,
0.26593488454818726,
-0.09269353747367859,
0.11513739079236984,
0.26353442668914795,
0.05620996654033661,
0.1891854852437973,
-0.33664336800575256,
0.042916189879179,
-0.022983115166425705,
-0.11152007430791855,
-0.05580868571996689,
-0.07036479562520981,
0.2923301160335541,
0.2583306133747101,
0.050030384212732315,
-0.27132612466812134,
0.28683412075042725,
0.596851646900177,
-0.1657683551311493,
-0.3818522095680237,
-0.549537181854248,
0.0419888012111187,
-0.05135389044880867,
0.1331651359796524,
-0.0560854971408844,
0.48485201597213745,
-0.4967626631259918,
0.24802231788635254,
0.2069002389907837,
0.2131558656692505,
-0.44179582595825195,
0.38048607110977173,
-0.4821854531764984,
0.8345009684562683,
-0.09666413068771362,
-0.4235292375087738,
0.39496713876724243,
-0.3312062621116638,
0.3198849856853485,
0.046598877757787704,
0.4857151210308075,
0.19865702092647552,
-0.2518250644207001,
0.15771913528442383,
-0.3484688699245453,
-0.9372771382331848,
0.26024866104125977,
-0.4546489417552948,
0.3349211513996124,
-0.12704578042030334,
-0.40507063269615173,
-0.4008113741874695,
0.2246428281068802,
-0.2857900857925415,
-0.7263128757476807,
-0.3396297097206116,
-0.21333158016204834,
-0.030207710340619087,
0.36323779821395874,
0.07180138677358627,
0.1712377816438675,
0.25846320390701294,
-0.31788480281829834,
0.27571460604667664,
-0.12199766933917999,
0.3228997588157654,
0.11391483247280121,
-0.14072120189666748,
-0.24734961986541748,
-0.6084348559379578,
0.8418064117431641,
0.05034787207841873,
-0.4245384633541107,
-0.20241516828536987,
-0.05425658077001572,
0.31443220376968384,
0.37251827120780945,
-0.3394223153591156,
1.552658200263977,
0.3453619182109833,
-0.20681525766849518,
0.22013096511363983,
-0.3645768463611603,
0.19404801726341248,
0.3169465661048889,
0.2347777634859085,
0.02088722214102745,
-0.48998013138771057,
0.37709948420524597,
0.10588245838880539,
0.4834725558757782,
0.14632587134838104,
-0.35794880986213684,
0.0309398602694273,
0.7931547164916992,
-0.1012558564543724,
0.6953296661376953,
0.2836063802242279,
-1.0351929664611816,
0.32626214623451233,
-0.04373759403824806,
1.0585490465164185,
-0.004215233959257603,
-0.48363813757896423,
0.4902275502681732,
-0.2886468172073364,
-0.36010080575942993,
-0.3207402229309082,
0.17188090085983276,
-0.6015626192092896,
-0.10088630765676498,
0.24081656336784363,
-0.018958933651447296,
-0.7656691670417786,
0.02888808213174343,
0.46849918365478516,
-0.37660491466522217,
-0.4830055236816406,
-0.022203389555215836,
-0.021791288629174232,
-0.03181301802396774,
-0.7629022002220154,
0.6924062371253967,
0.21169240772724152,
0.3228878080844879,
0.04985480755567551,
0.27265024185180664,
1.1332452297210693,
-0.20612692832946777,
0.07248611748218536,
0.6437506079673767,
-0.1347845494747162,
0.27816733717918396,
0.8914479613304138,
-0.2814459800720215,
-0.8674591779708862,
0.3455866575241089,
0.34980663657188416,
0.35079124569892883,
-0.5344184637069702,
0.06585167348384857,
0.2325245887041092,
-0.15609271824359894,
-0.020017297938466072,
-0.843066930770874,
-0.18607492744922638,
0.30547258257865906,
-0.1643383502960205,
0.3787611722946167,
-0.07912899553775787,
-0.4008646309375763,
0.5489304661750793,
-0.07343325763940811,
0.012554814107716084,
-0.12365911155939102,
0.07585898786783218,
-0.5926721096038818,
0.5236232280731201,
0.1519559621810913,
-0.3063293397426605,
0.2703564763069153,
-0.2981032431125641,
-0.5103634595870972,
-0.07622944563627243,
0.6270703077316284,
0.22838498651981354,
-0.0996764600276947,
-0.2811487019062042,
0.011873960494995117,
-0.07901089638471603,
0.230149507522583,
0.0687575712800026,
0.2809532582759857,
0.46894925832748413,
-0.37293553352355957,
0.6711469888687134,
-0.33525171875953674,
0.09193036705255508,
-0.9049908518791199,
0.22909800708293915,
-0.10908251255750656,
-0.7935622334480286,
0.4110097885131836,
0.4461088180541992,
0.35900983214378357,
-0.5120731592178345,
-0.17730410397052765,
0.32773223519325256,
0.39042773842811584,
-0.45102399587631226,
-0.3449863791465759,
-0.2948702871799469,
-0.1569066345691681,
0.08569351583719254,
-0.5160554647445679,
0.2932838201522827,
0.396240770816803,
-0.10866961628198624,
0.420845091342926,
-0.42215225100517273,
0.26054057478904724,
0.09091346710920334,
-0.1295021027326584,
-0.13543078303337097,
-0.6166446208953857,
-0.04647931456565857,
0.16373372077941895,
-0.004893884994089603,
-0.355411171913147,
-0.9076563715934753,
-5.826512813568115,
0.3493163585662842,
-0.11672049015760422,
-0.2379203885793686,
0.3776635527610779,
-0.06380260735750198,
0.394430547952652,
-0.6740024089813232,
0.10056043416261673,
-0.2849026322364807,
-0.8173699975013733,
0.07651560008525848,
-0.1923803687095642,
0.39306333661079407,
0.20883476734161377,
-0.2937453091144562,
0.44888758659362793,
-0.40342357754707336,
0.022797074168920517,
-0.06347453594207764,
-0.2683148980140686,
-0.6136616468429565,
0.0548553429543972,
0.2927803099155426,
-0.2866251468658447,
1.1292012929916382,
-0.41302475333213806,
0.39968758821487427,
-0.3608762323856354,
0.1780261993408203,
-0.13138900697231293,
-0.2981710135936737,
-0.3071027398109436,
-0.715269923210144,
-0.12188038975000381,
0.03818477317690849,
0.4043819010257721,
-0.03668130561709404,
0.21574796736240387,
-0.3671676218509674,
-0.11368492245674133,
0.009031812660396099,
0.12136160582304001,
-0.3291671574115753,
0.16586968302726746,
0.25032058358192444,
-0.5440232157707214,
-0.45091313123703003,
-0.21309219300746918,
1.2631840705871582,
0.5070143342018127,
-0.3316509425640106,
0.45878708362579346,
0.14585943520069122,
-0.02878069132566452,
-0.16291755437850952,
0.2881329357624054,
0.04601868987083435,
0.026177356019616127,
0.647391140460968,
0.4283839762210846,
-0.46142342686653137,
-0.04506785050034523,
-0.4375380277633667,
-0.02550627291202545,
-0.40348175168037415,
-0.03708148002624512,
0.15940861403942108,
0.5994252562522888,
0.3344085216522217,
0.29898202419281006,
0.11110793799161911,
-0.4368950426578522,
-1.3398817777633667,
-0.22386422753334045,
-0.2626034915447235,
-0.0018232699949294329,
-0.2809993326663971,
-0.5157486200332642,
0.14136452972888947,
0.27546823024749756,
0.08316682279109955,
-0.07562767714262009,
0.11349592357873917,
-0.36749669909477234,
-0.11419760435819626,
-0.18196700513362885,
0.1329619586467743,
-0.6853407621383667,
0.043945878744125366,
0.48442918062210083,
-0.568061113357544,
0.06781742721796036,
0.09284708648920059,
0.4581078290939331,
0.35858336091041565,
0.5257766842842102,
0.2494993954896927,
0.19495020806789398,
-0.33996498584747314,
0.5062485933303833,
-0.23819103837013245,
-0.020273130387067795,
-0.4433414041996002,
-0.5294761061668396,
-0.5016458630561829,
-0.43474963307380676,
0.027008675038814545,
0.3031187057495117,
-0.3713086247444153,
0.2445196807384491,
-0.30794721841812134,
-0.3497225046157837,
-0.6554105281829834,
0.1792486608028412,
0.15135379135608673,
-0.24978263676166534,
0.05050181970000267,
0.17519435286521912,
-0.18910177052021027,
0.10902943462133408,
0.20756986737251282,
0.5398305654525757,
-0.047860242426395416,
-0.6013086438179016,
0.38058164715766907,
0.27763882279396057,
0.11660084128379822,
0.15931859612464905,
0.5170381665229797,
0.027890700846910477,
0.012120758183300495,
-0.5916731357574463,
0.652066707611084,
-0.36911898851394653,
-0.11859068274497986,
-0.9871624112129211,
-0.21733781695365906,
0.4506826102733612,
0.535610556602478,
0.49644142389297485,
-0.23872925341129303,
0.26080989837646484,
0.04595894366502762,
0.6479659080505371,
0.5723394155502319,
-0.15430064499378204,
-0.49700576066970825,
-0.12004131823778152,
0.7310541272163391,
0.2902366518974304,
-0.4302259385585785,
0.08517784625291824,
-0.7853637933731079,
0.052397046238183975,
0.4553543031215668,
0.08430948853492737,
-0.21257495880126953,
-0.39153265953063965,
-0.34827321767807007,
0.3861773610115051,
-0.03257863223552704,
-0.2557249069213867,
-0.021901173517107964,
-0.3181295096874237,
-0.448479562997818,
0.3861171305179596,
-0.570183277130127,
-0.6376261115074158,
0.16631439328193665,
0.011398852802813053,
-0.5052618384361267,
0.25426310300827026,
-0.025705264881253242,
0.5603912472724915,
0.28519219160079956,
-0.0004890848649665713,
-0.5251069068908691,
0.19057656824588776,
-0.2876744270324707,
-0.5612430572509766,
0.0902998223900795,
-0.18170106410980225,
0.027918359264731407,
0.620596706867218,
-0.706607460975647,
-0.8786633014678955,
-0.5406386852264404,
-0.2097494751214981,
-0.17845627665519714,
0.07706765830516815,
-0.00521805277094245,
0.4436720311641693,
-0.2084513157606125,
-0.2703015208244324,
-0.6626113653182983,
0.29412841796875,
0.4582689106464386,
-0.4294498562812805,
-0.3872023820877075,
-0.11535351723432541,
-0.010365058667957783,
-0.19108182191848755,
0.1328955739736557,
0.36941224336624146,
-0.651253342628479,
0.17128495872020721,
-0.05477389693260193,
-0.7535737156867981,
0.2834135591983795,
-0.39719685912132263,
-0.6767951250076294,
0.06357435137033463,
0.08092540502548218,
-0.21689017117023468,
-0.2769361138343811,
0.22555330395698547,
0.18690399825572968,
-0.8187568187713623,
-0.2746726870536804,
-0.46711257100105286,
0.4033150374889374,
-0.0698736384510994,
0.03640700876712799,
-0.6245353817939758,
0.6738031506538391,
0.14392927289009094,
-0.21625719964504242,
-0.1366562396287918,
-0.09441892802715302,
-0.020901257172226906,
0.29054129123687744,
0.2490404099225998,
-0.39952781796455383,
-0.01880091056227684,
0.2915727496147156,
0.03028169833123684,
0.15138815343379974,
0.21516680717468262,
0.48460766673088074,
0.24932116270065308,
0.6858008503913879,
0.28709474205970764,
-0.6344916224479675,
0.14223770797252655,
0.12090269476175308,
0.4616522789001465,
-0.011287396773695946,
-0.5873023271560669,
0.32254740595817566,
0.11722645908594131,
-0.43667876720428467,
-0.31375694274902344,
-0.24491430819034576,
0.6893362998962402,
-0.7346786260604858,
-0.256311297416687,
-0.2940513789653778,
-0.0598982609808445,
-0.17204557359218597,
0.04020550474524498,
-0.24209704995155334,
-0.3718564212322235,
-0.0010083483066409826,
-0.014896427281200886,
0.09700571745634079,
-0.24426768720149994,
-0.5786937475204468,
-0.013215107843279839,
-0.2981027066707611,
-0.13632363080978394,
0.12110961973667145,
0.268802672624588,
0.14185965061187744,
-0.27315571904182434,
-0.3001275062561035,
0.20776362717151642,
-0.5084868669509888,
0.2507748305797577,
-0.09622155874967575,
-0.36749374866485596,
0.22739945352077484,
-0.16891233623027802,
-0.5010804533958435,
0.3626883924007416,
-0.41315269470214844,
-0.07108912616968155,
-0.2291245311498642,
0.013231709599494934,
-0.05076475068926811,
-0.020896680653095245,
-0.28668302297592163,
0.2514103949069977,
0.3594847023487091,
0.03610179200768471,
0.38873180747032166,
0.29571735858917236,
0.2176138460636139,
-0.15464408695697784,
-0.1506260484457016,
-0.17007538676261902,
0.5767574906349182,
0.14564499258995056,
-0.7728309631347656,
-0.07439560443162918,
-0.13547579944133759,
0.06111428141593933,
-0.11639343947172165,
-0.22016599774360657,
0.3652805984020233,
0.2211543470621109,
-0.30118128657341003,
-0.1160908043384552,
0.9673666954040527,
-0.7595399618148804,
0.5309284925460815,
0.5679187774658203,
-0.5091778039932251,
0.22451424598693848,
0.47465354204177856,
-0.026167333126068115,
0.020471010357141495,
0.32897046208381653,
0.2789921760559082,
0.422564297914505,
0.267559677362442,
0.01747027412056923,
0.048093926161527634,
0.05278758704662323,
0.39897677302360535,
0.47772741317749023,
-0.6769986748695374,
-0.12714426219463348,
-0.3889833688735962,
0.1593232899904251,
-0.24544863402843475,
-0.14847899973392487,
-0.04190714657306671,
-0.8126904368400574,
0.43049654364585876,
-0.21674330532550812,
0.011153021827340126,
-0.21448682248592377,
-0.25496888160705566,
0.5399905443191528,
-0.11461728811264038,
0.0989711657166481,
0.08478851616382599,
0.552104115486145,
0.13115347921848297,
0.16392076015472412,
-0.2063823640346527,
0.21849264204502106,
0.18759268522262573,
0.5312668085098267,
-0.3551216721534729,
0.48093152046203613,
-0.22862614691257477,
0.02930505946278572,
0.22332337498664856,
0.08820955455303192,
-0.11367165297269821,
0.40093639492988586,
0.08272911608219147,
-0.7106470465660095,
-0.1332065761089325,
0.21182002127170563,
-0.5025206804275513,
-0.18200775980949402,
0.451978474855423,
0.2319539487361908,
0.6548013687133789,
-0.17749306559562683,
0.6692188382148743,
-0.2158062607049942,
-0.2642822265625,
0.3710341453552246,
0.5379295945167542,
-0.36558571457862854,
0.11915571987628937,
-0.3077280819416046,
0.17570097744464874,
-0.3483133018016815,
-0.1994456946849823,
0.43520525097846985,
0.1856829822063446,
-0.026462862268090248,
0.18047383427619934,
-0.19572441279888153,
-0.38268375396728516,
-0.051167458295822144,
-0.8610317707061768,
-0.766920804977417,
-0.04888252913951874,
-0.3487611413002014,
-0.12754268944263458,
0.1465730369091034,
0.7119234204292297,
0.1599857211112976,
0.5374607443809509,
0.35878029465675354,
0.01887430250644684,
0.19464558362960815,
0.21340925991535187,
-0.7567839026451111,
0.2244371473789215,
-0.8192955851554871,
-0.2300458401441574,
-0.49683108925819397,
0.6936488747596741,
0.38982635736465454,
0.5279058814048767,
0.14141540229320526,
0.4847128689289093,
-0.41297778487205505,
-0.2396327406167984,
0.7080399990081787,
0.010423284024000168,
-0.41737401485443115,
-0.10865902900695801,
0.23330822587013245,
0.15981705486774445,
-0.2537158131599426,
0.5220063328742981,
0.12238054722547531,
-0.32406407594680786,
0.11839113384485245,
-0.4868045449256897,
-0.19052906334400177,
0.5642328262329102,
-0.07462885230779648,
-0.24730312824249268,
-0.521310031414032,
0.05819831043481827,
-0.15062196552753448,
-0.566001296043396,
-0.09348715841770172,
0.416713148355484,
0.6995624303817749,
-0.14293251931667328,
0.8951489925384521,
-0.6366758942604065,
-0.3712007999420166,
-0.12474265694618225,
0.1838734894990921,
-0.16615617275238037,
-0.25811177492141724,
-0.3267070949077606,
-0.8421788811683655,
0.6915828585624695,
0.10678577423095703,
-0.24452874064445496,
-0.030749334022402763,
-0.1725439429283142,
0.33292171359062195,
-0.21123774349689484,
0.052003394812345505,
0.11745183169841766,
-0.23984584212303162,
-0.6995772123336792
] |
28358650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical%20right%20%28United%20States%29 | Radical right (United States) | In United States politics, the radical right is a political preference that leans towards extreme conservatism, nationalist White supremacism, and other right-wing ideologies in a hierarchical structure paired with conspiratorial rhetoric alongside traditionalist and reactionary aspirations. The term was first used by social scientists in the 1950s regarding small groups such as the John Birch Society in the United States and since then it has been applied to similar groups worldwide. The term "radical" was applied to the groups because they sought to make fundamental (hence "radical") changes within institutions and remove from political life persons and institutions that threatened their values or economic interests.
Terminology
There is disagreement among academics and social scientists over how right-wing movements should be described, and no consensus exists regarding what the proper terminology should be, although the terminology developed in the 1950s, using the words "radical" or "extremist" is the most commonly used one. Other scholars simply prefer to call them "The Right" or "conservatives", which is what they call themselves. The terminology is used to describe a broad range of movements. The term "radical right" was coined by Seymour Martin Lipset and included in a book titled The New American Right, which was published in 1955. The contributors to that book identified a conservative "responsible Right" as represented by the Republican administration of Dwight D. Eisenhower and a radical right that wished to change political and social life. Further to the right of the radical right, they identified an "ultraright," adherents of which espoused drastic change, but only in extreme cases used violence against the state.
In the decades since, the ultraright, while adopting the basic ideology of the 1950s radical right, has updated it to encompass what it sees as "threats" posed by the modern world. It has leveraged fear of those threats to draw new adherents, and to encourage support of a more militant approach to countering these perceived threats. A more recent book by Klaus Wahl, The Radical Right, contrasts the radical right of the 1950s, which obtained influence during the Reagan administration, to the radical right of today, which has increasingly turned to violent acts beginning with the Oklahoma City bombing in 1995. Wahl's book documents this evolution:
"Ideologies of [today's] radical right emphasize social and economic threats in the modern and postmodern world (e.g., globalization, immigration). The radical right also promises protection against such threats by an emphatic ethnic construction of 'we', the people, as a familiar, homogeneous in-group, anti-modern, or reactionary structures of family, society, an authoritarian state, nationalism, the discrimination, or exclusion of immigrants and other minorities [...] While favoring traditional social and cultural structures (traditional family and gender roles, religion, etc.) the radical right uses modern technologies and does not ascribe to a specific economic policy; some parties tend toward a liberal, free-market policy, and others more to a welfare state policy. Finally, the radical right can be scaled by using different degrees of militancy and aggressiveness from right-wing populism to racism, terrorism, and totalitarianism."
Ultraright groups, as The Radical Right definition states, are normally called "far-right", although they may also be called "radical right". According to Clive Webb, "Radical right is commonly, but not completely, used to describe anticommunist organizations such as the Christian Crusade and the John Birch Society... [T]he term far right... is the label most broadly used by scholars... to describe militant white supremacists."
Theoretical perspectives
The study of the radical right began in the 1950s as social scientists attempted to explain McCarthyism, which was seen as a lapse from the American political tradition. A framework for description was developed primarily in Richard Hofstadter's "The pseudo-conservative revolt" and Seymour Martin Lipset's "The sources of the radical right". These essays, along with others by Daniel Bell, Talcott Parsons, Peter Viereck and Herbert Hyman, were included in The New American Right (1955). In 1963, following the rise of the John Birch Society, the authors were asked to re-examine their earlier essays and the revised essays were published in the book The Radical Right. Lipset, along with Earl Raab, traced the history of the radical right in The politics of unreason (1970).
The central arguments of The Radical Right provoked criticism. Some on the Right thought that McCarthyism could be explained as a rational reaction to communism. Others thought McCarthyism should be explained as part of the Republican Party's political strategy. Critics on the Left denied that McCarthyism could be interpreted as a mass movement and rejected the comparison with 19th-century populism. Others saw status politics, dispossession and other explanations as too vague.
Paranoid-style politics
Two different approaches were taken by these social scientists. The American historian Richard Hofstadter wrote an analysis in his influential 1964 essay The Paranoid Style in American Politics. Hofstadter sought to identify the characteristics of the groups. Hofstadter defined politically paranoid individuals as feeling persecuted, fearing conspiracy, and acting over-aggressive yet socialized. Hofstadter and other scholars in the 1950s argued that the major left-wing movement of the 1890s, the Populists, showed what Hofstadter said was "paranoid delusions of conspiracy by the Money Power".
Historians have also applied the paranoid category to other political movements, such as the conservative Constitutional Union Party of 1860. Hofstadter's approach was later applied to the rise of new right-wing groups, including the Christian right and the Patriot movement.
Trump victory
The political success of Donald Trump has prompted American historian Rick Perlstein to argue that historians have underestimated the influence and power on the modern American political right of populist, nativist, authoritarian, and conspiracy-minded right-wing movements, such as the Black Legion, Charles Coughlin, the Christian Front, and "birther" speculation, and overestimated the more libertarian influence of William F. Buckley's limited government, free trade, free market intellectual conservatism, and the neoconservative pro-immigration and optimistic outlook of Ronald Reagan.
Social structure
Sociologists Lipset and Raab were focused on who joined these movements and how they evolved. They saw the development of radical right-wing groups as occurring in three stages. In the first stage certain groups came under strain because of a loss or threatened loss of power and/or status. In the second stage they theorize about what has led to this threat. In the third stage they identify people and groups whom they consider to be responsible. A successful radical right-wing group would be able to combine the anxieties of both elites and masses. European immigration for example threatened the elites because immigrants brought socialism and radicalism, while for the masses the threat came from their Catholicism. The main elements are low democratic restraint, having more of a stake in the past than the present and laissez-faire economics. The emphasis is on preserving social rather than economic status. The main population attracted are lower-educated, lower-income and lower-occupational strata. They were seen as having a lower commitment to democracy, instead having loyalty to groups, institutions and systems.
However, some scholars reject Lipset and Raab's analysis. James Aho, for example, says that the way individuals join right-wing groups is no different from how they join other types of groups. They are influenced by recruiters and join because they believe the goals promoted by the group are of value to them and find personal value in belonging to the group. Several scholars, including Sara Diamond and Chip Berlet, reject the theory that membership in the radical right is driven by emotionality and irrationality and see them as similar to other political movements. John George and Laird Wilcox see the psychological claims in Lipset and Raab's approach as "dehumanizing" of members of the radical right. They claim that the same description of members of the radical right is also true of many people within the political mainstream.
Hofstader found a common thread in the radical right, from fear of the Illuminati in the late 18th century, to anti-Catholic and anti-Masonic movements in the 19th to McCarthyism and the John Birch Society in the 20th. They were conspiracist, Manichean, absolutist and paranoid. They saw history as a conspiracy by a demonic force that was on the verge of total control, requiring their urgent efforts to stop it. Therefore, they rejected pluralistic politics, with its compromise and consensus-building. Hofstadter thought that these characteristics were always present in a large minority of the population. Frequent waves of status displacement would continually bring it to the surface.
D. J. Mulloy however noted that the term "extremist" is often applied to groups outside the political mainstream and the term is dropped once these groups obtain respectability, using the Palestinian Liberation Organization as an example. The mainstream frequently ignores the commonality between itself and so-called extremist organizations. Also, the radical right appeals to views that are held by the mainstream: antielitism, individualism, and egalitarianism. Their views on religion, race, Americanism and guns are held by a significant proportion of other white Americans.
Conspiracism
Throughout history, conspiracism has been a major feature of the radical right and subject to numerous books and articles, the most famous of which is Richard Hofstadter's essay The Paranoid Style in American Politics (1964). Imaginary threats have variously been identified as originating from American Catholics, non-whites, women, homosexuals, secular humanists, Mormons, Jews, Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, American communists, Freemasons, bankers, and the U. S. government. Alexander Zaitchik, writing for the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), credited cable news hosts, including Glenn Beck, Lou Dobbs, the John Birch Society, and WorldNetDaily with popularizing conspiracy theories. In the Fall 2010 issue of the SPLC's Intelligence Report, he identified the following as the top 10 conspiracy theories of the radical right:
Chemtrails
Martial Law
Federal Emergency Management Agency Concentration Camps
Foreign troops on US soil
Door-to-door gun confiscations
9/11 as government plan
Population control
High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP)
Federal Reserve
North American Union
Common to most of these theories is an overarching belief in the existence of New World Order intent on instituting a one-world, communist government. Climate change being viewed as a hoax is also sometimes associated with the radical right.
Since 2017, the QAnon conspiracy theory has been widely promulgated among fringe groups on the far right.
Right-wing populism
From the 1990s onward, parties that have been described as radical right became established in the legislatures of various democracies including Canada, Australia, Norway, France, Israel, Russia, Romania, and Chile, and had entered coalition governments in Switzerland, Finland, Austria, the Netherlands, and Italy. However, there is little consensus about the reasons for this. Some of these parties had historic roots, such as the National Alliance, formed as the Italian Social Movement in 1946, the French National Front, founded in 1972, and the Freedom Party of Austria, an existing party that moved sharply right after 1986. Typically new right-wing parties, such as the French Poujadists, the U.S. Reform Party and the Dutch Pim Fortuyn List enjoyed short-lived prominence. The main support for these parties comes from both the self-employed and skilled and unskilled labor, with support coming predominantly from males.
However, scholars are divided on whether these parties are radical right, since they differ from the groups described in earlier studies of the radical right. They are more often described as populist. Studies of the radical right in the United States and right-wing populism in Europe have tended to be conducted independently, with very few comparisons made. European analyses have tended to use comparisons with fascism, while studies of the American radical right have stressed American exceptionalism. The U.S. studies have paid attention to the consequences of slavery, the profusion of religious denominations and a history of immigration, and saw fascism as uniquely European.
Although the term "radical right" was American in origin, the term has been consciously adopted by some European social scientists. Conversely the term "right-wing extremism", which is European in origin, has been adopted by some American social scientists. Since the European right-wing groups in existence immediately following the war had roots in fascism they were normally called "neo-fascist". However, as new right-wing groups emerged with no connection to historical fascism, the use of the term "right-wing extremism" came to be more widely used.
Jeffrey Kaplan and Leonard Weinberg argued that the radical right in the U.S. and right-wing populism in Europe were the same phenomenon that existed throughout the Western world. They identified the core attributes as contained in extremism, behaviour and beliefs. As extremists, they see no moral ambiguity and demonize the enemy, sometimes connecting them to conspiracy theories such as the New World Order. Given this worldview, there is a tendency to use methods outside democratic norms, although this is not always the case. The main core belief is inequality, which often takes the form of opposition to immigration or racism. They do not see this new Right as having any connection with the historic Right, which had been concerned with protecting the status quo. They also see the cooperation of the American and European forms, and their mutual influence on each other, as evidence of their existence as a single phenomenon.
Daniel Bell argues that the ideology of the radical right is "its readiness to jettison constitutional processes and to suspend liberties, to condone Communist methods in the fighting of Communism". Historian Richard Hofstader agrees that communist-style methods are often emulated: "The John Birch Society emulates Communist cells and quasi-secret operation through 'front' groups, and preaches a ruthless prosecution of the ideological war along lines very similar to those it finds in the Communist enemy". He also quotes Barry Goldwater: "I would suggest that we analyze and copy the strategy of the enemy; theirs has worked and ours has not".
History
Conspiracy fears
The American patriots who spearheaded the American Revolution in the 1770s were motivated primarily by an ideology that historians call Republicanism. It stressed the dangers of aristocracy, as represented by the British government, corruption, and the need for every citizen to display civic virtue. When public affairs took a bad turn, Republicans were inclined to identify a conspiracy of evil forces as the cause.
Against this background of fear of conspiracies against American liberties the first Radical Right-style responses came in the 1790s. Some Federalists warned of an organized conspiracy involving Thomas Jefferson and his followers, and recent arrivals from Europe, alleging that they were agents of the French revolutionary agenda of violent radicalism, social equalitarianism and anti-Christian infidelity. The Federalists in 1798 acted by passing the Alien and Sedition Acts, designed to protect the country against both foreign and domestic radicals. Fear of immigration led to a riot in New York City in 1806 between nativists and Irishmen, which led to increased calls by Federalists to nativism.
Anti-Masonic Party
In America, public outrage against privilege and aristocracy in the United States was expressed in the Northeast by anti-Masonry, a belief that Freemasonry comprised powerful evil secret elites who rejected republican values and were blocking the movement toward egalitarianism and reform. The anti-Masons, with a strong evangelical base, organized into a political party, the Anti-Masonic Party that pledged to rid Masons from public office. It was most active in 1828–1836. The Freemason movement was badly damaged and never fully recovered; the Anti-Mason movement merged into the coalition that became the new Whig Party. The anti-Masonry movement was not "radical"; it fully participated in democracy, and was animated by the belief that the Masons were the ones subverting democracy in America. While earlier accounts of the antimasons portrayed their supporters as mainly poor people, more recent scholarship has shown that they were largely middle-class.
Nativism
The arrival of large numbers of Irish Catholic immigrants in the 1830s and 1840s led to a reaction among Americans, who were alarmed by the levels of crime and welfare dependency among the new arrivals, and the use of violence to control the polls on election day. Nativists began to revere symbols of Americanism: the Puritans, Minute Men, Founding Fathers and people who they considered true Christians. The immigrants were seen as part of a conspiracy to undermine America. Nativists in New York formed the American Republican Party. It merged into the Know Nothings in the 1850s. The main support for the Know Nothings was urban and working class. The party split over slavery and the northern wing merged into the Republican Party in the late 1850s.
White paramilitary organizations in the Southern United States
Starting in the 1870s and continuing through the late 19th century, numerous white supremacist paramilitary groups operated in the South, with the goal of organizing against and intimidating supporters of the Republican Party. Examples of such groups included the Red Shirts and the White League.
American Protective Association
The American Protective Association (APA) formed in the Middle West in 1887 by Irish Protestants to fight the power of the Catholic Church in politics. It was a secret organization whose members campaigned for Protestant candidates in local elections and opposed hiring Catholics for government jobs. Claiming to have secret documents obtained from nuns and priests who had escaped from the Catholic Church, it claimed that the Pope had absolved Catholics from loyalty to the United States and asked them to kill heretics. It claimed that the Catholic Church ordered Catholics to emigrate to major U.S. cities where they could assume control and claimed that the civil service was dominated by Catholics who remitted part of their pay to Rome. The movement was rejected by mainstream Republicans and faded away in the mid-1890s.
An offshoot of the APA, the Protestant Protective Association (PPA) was set up in the Canadian province of Ontario in 1891. It drew support from Orangemen in the 1890s, before going into decline. Its leaders opposed Catholic influence and supported the Imperial Federation. A PPA was also set up in Australia.
Lily-white movement
The lily-white movement was an all-white faction of the Republican Party in the Southern United States which opposed civil rights and African-American involvement in the party, and was active in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Second Ku Klux Klan
The Second Ku Klux Klan, which was formed in 1915, combined Protestant fundamentalism and moralism with right-wing extremism. Its major support came from the urban south, the midwest and the Pacific Coast. While the Klan initially drew upper middle class support, its bigotry and violence alienated these members and it came to be dominated by less educated and poorer members. The Klan claimed that there was a secret Catholic army within the United States loyal to the Pope, that one million Knights of Columbus were arming themselves, and that Irish-American policemen would shoot Protestants as heretics. They claimed that the Catholics were planning to take Washington and put the Vatican in power, and that all presidential assassinations had been carried out by Catholics. The prominent Klan leader, D. C. Stephenson claimed that international Jewish bankers were behind the First World War and planned to destroy economic opportunities for Christians. Other Klansmen claimed that the Russian Revolution and Communism were controlled by Jews. The Klan frequently reprinted parts of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and New York City was condemned as an evil city controlled by Jews and Catholics. The objects of Klan fear however tended to vary by locale and included Catholics, Jews, African Americans, Wobblies, Orientals, labour unions and liquor. The Klan were also anti-elitist and attacked "the intellectuals", seeing themselves as egalitarian defenders of the common man.
British subjects who became naturalized Americans were encouraged to join the "Riders of the Red Robe" and the Klan was successful in establishing branches in several Canadian provinces, although they disappeared after 1930.
Great Depression
During the Great Depression there were a large number of small nativist groups, whose ideologies and bases of support were similar to those of earlier nativist groups. However, movements such as Huey Long's Share Our Wealth and Father Coughlin's National Union for Social Justice emerged, which differed from other right-wing groups by attacking big business, calling for economic reform and rejecting nativism. However, Coughlin's group later developed a racist ideology.
The Black Legion, which had a peak membership of 40,000 was formed by former Klansmen and operated in Indiana, Ohio and Michigan. Unlike the Klan, its members dressed in black and its organizational hierarchy was based on the military, not on fraternal organizations. Its members swore an oath to keep "the secrets of the order to support God, the United States Constitution, and the Black Legion in its holy war against Catholics, Jews, Communists, Negroes, and aliens". The organization went into decline after more than fifty members were convicted of various crimes in support of the organization. The typical member was from a small farm in the South, lacked a high school graduation diploma, was married with children and worked in unskilled labor.
Gerald B. Winrod, a fundamentalist Christian minister who founded the Defenders of the Christian Faith revived the Illuminati conspiracy theory that have originally been introduced into the United States in 1798. He claimed that both the French and Russian Revolutions were directed by a them and saw the Protocols of the Elders of Zion as an accurate expose of a Jewish conspiracy. He saw the Jews, the Catholics, the communists and the bankers as working together to destroy American Protestantism. Although Winrod's appeal was mainly limited to rural, poor, uneducated fundamentalist Christians, his magazine The Defender reached a peak circulation of 100,000 in the late 1930s.
William Dudley Pelley's Silver Shirts movement was overtly modelled on European fascism and introduced a populist statist plan for economic organization. The United States would be reorganized as a corporation, with individuals paid according to their contributions, although African Americans, aboriginals and aliens would be treated as wards of the state and therefore hold a lower status. The organization blamed the Jews for the depression, communism, and the spread of immorality, but it openly accepted Catholics as members. Its membership was largely uneducated, poor and elderly, with a high proportion of neurotics, and it also had a large female membership. Its main base of support was in small communities in the Midwest and on the West Coast, and it had almost no presence in the Southern States.
Father Coughlin was a Catholic priest who had begun broadcasting on religious matters in 1926. However, when his program went national in 1930, he began to comment on political issues, promoting a strongly anti-Communist stance, while being highly critical of American capitalists. He urged the government to protect workers, denounced Prohibition and held the "international bankers" responsible for the depression. By 1932 he had millions of regular listeners. The following year he set up the "National Union for Social Justice". Although an early supporter of the U. S. president, Franklin Roosevelt, he broke with him in 1935 when Roosevelt proposed that the United States join the World Court. Coughlin then denounced the New Deal, which he claimed had accomplished little but instead had strengthened the position of the bankers. His organization became increasingly supportive of European fascism.
In 1936 Coughlin began to endorse candidates for political office and supported the presidential campaign of William Lemke, who campaigned on the Union Party ticket. Lemke was also supported by Gerald L. K. Smith, head of the Share Our Wealth movement and Dr. Francis Townsend, head of the Townsend Old Age movement. At the time Coughlin claimed that his organization had 5 million members, while Smith claimed that his organization had 3 million members. In the election however Lemke received fewer than 900,000 votes.
Following this setback, Coughlin became more overtly fascist, attacking trade unionists and politicians for being pro-Communist, calling for a corporate state and setting up "Social Justice Councils", which excluded non-Christians from their membership. His magazine, Social Justice, named Benito Mussolini as man of the year in 1938 and defended Hitler's "persecution" of Jews, whom he linked with Communism. Major radio stations then refused to air his broadcasts and the Post Office banned Social Justice from the mails in 1942. Threatened by a sedition trial against Father Coughlin, the Catholic Church ordered him to cease his political activities and Coughlin retired from political life.
Huey Long, who had been elected governor of Louisiana in 1928 and was a U.S. senator from 1932 until his death in 1935, built a national organization, Share Our Wealth, which had a populist appeal. He combined both left and right-wing elements. As governor, he removed the poll tax and directed state spending to the improvement of schools and rural roads. He attacked "the corporations and urbanites, the 'better elements' and the professional politicians." At the time of his death, his organization had, according to its files, over 27,000 clubs with a total membership of almost 8 million. Long never introduced minimum wage or child labor laws, unemployment insurance or old age pensions, although other states did so at the time. He actively courted support from big business, and reduced taxes on corporations. He differed from other right-wingers by making no appeal to conspiracy theories, nativism, or morality. He worked closely with Catholics and Jews and never appealed to race issues. However, he chose Gerald L. K. Smith, who was associated with the fascist Silver Shirts to organize his Share our Wealth movement. But the movement died out following Long's death.
Dixiecrats
In 1948, the Dixiecrats, a breakaway segregationist faction of the Democratic Party, contested the 1948 presidential election with then-Governor of South Carolina Strom Thurmond as their candidate, winning 4 states.
McCarthyism
Although the United States emerged from the Second World War as the world's strongest country both economically and militarily, communism had also been strengthened. Communism had spread in Eastern Europe and southeast Asia, and there were numerous Communist insurgencies. At the same time, Communist espionage had been found in the U.S. Responding to the fears the new enemy presented, Joe McCarthy, a Republican U.S. senator from Wisconsin, claimed in 1950 that there were 205 Communist spies in the State Department. The main target of McCarthyism however was ideological nonconformism, and individuals were targeted for their beliefs. Black lists were established in many industries restricting the employment of suspected nonconformists, and libraries were pressured to remove books and periodicals that were considered suspect. McCarthy investigated Voice of America and although no communists were found, 30 employees were fired as a result. The strongest support for McCarthyism came from some of the German and Irish Catholics, who had been isolationist in both world wars, had an anti-British bias, and opposed socialism on ostensibly religious grounds. Catholic support was far from uniform, and many Catholics were actively opposed to McCarthy and his methods. Much of the hostility was directed against the Eastern elites. Following the GOP landslide in 1952, McCarthy continued his investigations into the new Republican administration until the Republican party turned against him.
John Birch Society
The John Birch Society, which was created in 1958, combined economic liberalism with anti-communism. The founder, Robert Welch, Jr., believed that the greatest enemy of man was government, and the more extensive the government, the greater the enemy. To him, government was inherently corrupt and a threat to peace. He advocated private institutions, local government and rigid individualism.
Welch wondered why U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had helped destroy Joe McCarthy, made peace with the communists in Korea, refused to support anti-communist movements abroad and had extended the welfare state. His conclusion was that Eisenhower was either a communist or a dupe of the communists and that the United States government was already 60% to 80% under communist control. Welch saw the communist conspiracy as controlled by the Illuminati, which he thought had directed the French and Russian Revolutions and was behind the current civil rights movement. They were also responsible for welfare programs, central banking, progressive income taxation and the direct election of U.S. senators. Welch identified William Morgan, William Wirt and Joe McCarthy as people who had been killed for their attempts to expose the Illuminati. Morgan's murder presumably by Masons had led to the earlier Anti-Masonic movement, Wirt had denounced the New Deal and McCarthy had claimed to have discovered a Communist conspiracy.
American Independent Party
The 1967 presidential campaign of George Wallace created a new party called the American Independent Party (AIP) which in later years came under the control of Radical Right elements. In 1969, the party had split into two groups, the anti-communist American Party under the leadership of T. Coleman Andrews and another group under the AIP founder Bill Shearer. Both groups opposed federal intervention into schools, favored police suppression of domestic disorder and victory in the Vietnam War. The two groups united under the American Party banner in order to support the 1972 presidential campaign of George Wallace, but after he withdrew they nominated U.S. Representative John G. Schmitz.
In Louisiana, Ned Touchstone, a Wallace supporter, edited a conservative newsletter, The Councilor, through which means he attacked liberals in both major parties. The Councilor was the publication of the White Citizens' Council. In 1967, Touchstone ran unsuccessfully as a Democrat against Louisiana Education Superintendent Bill Dodd, who carried the support of party moderates, liberals, and African Americans.
Constitutional militia and patriot movements
Although small militias had existed throughout the latter half of the 20th century, the groups became more popular during the early 1990s, after a series of standoffs between armed citizens and federal government agents, such as the 1992 Ruby Ridge siege and 1993 Waco Siege. These groups expressed concern for what they perceived as government tyranny within the United States and generally held libertarian and constitutionalist political views, with a strong focus on the Second Amendment gun rights and tax protest. They also embraced many of the same conspiracy theories as predecessor groups on the radical right, particularly the New World Order theory. Currently active examples of such groups are the 3 Percenters and the Oath Keepers. A minority of militia groups, such as Posse Comitatus and the Aryan Nations, were white nationalists and saw militia and patriot movements as a form of white resistance against what they perceived to be a liberal and multiculturalist government. In the 21st century, militia and patriot organizations were notably involved in the 2014 Bundy standoff, the 2016 Occupation of the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, and in the 2021 United States Capitol attack.
Paleoconservatism
Paul Gottfried first coined the term paleoconservatism in the 1980s. These conservatives stressed (post-Cold War) non-interventionist foreign policy, strict immigration law, anti-consumerism and traditional values and opposed the neoconservatives, who had more liberal views on these issues. The paleoconservatives used the surge in right-wing populism during the early 1990s to propel the presidential campaigns of Pat Buchanan in 1992, 1996 and 2000. They diminished in number after the September 11 attacks, where they found themselves at odds with the vast majority of American conservatives on how to respond to the threat of terrorism.
Counter-jihad
In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Counter-jihad movement, supported by groups such as Stop Islamization of America and individuals such as Frank Gaffney and Pamela Geller, began to gain traction among the American right. They were widely dubbed "islamophobic" for their vocal condemnation of the Islamic religion and their belief that there was a significant threat posed by Muslims living in America. They believed the United States was under threat from "Islamic supremacism", accusing the Council on American-Islamic Relations and even prominent conservatives like Suhail A. Khan and Grover Norquist of supporting Islamist groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood.
Minuteman Project
Jim Gilchrist, a conservative Republican, founded the Minuteman Project in April 2005. The Minutemen, inspired by the earlier Patriot movement and the original revolutionary Minutemen, advocated greater restrictions on illegal immigration and engaged in volunteer activities in the Southwestern United States against those perceived to be illegal immigrants. The group drew much criticism from those who held more liberal views on the immigration issues, with President George W. Bush condemning them as "vigilantes". The Minuteman Project was similar to the earlier Ranch Rescue organization, which performed much the same role.
Alt-right
The alt-right emerged during the 2016 U.S. presidential election cycle in support of the Donald Trump presidential campaign. It draws influence from paleoconservatism, paleolibertarianism, White nationalism, the manosphere, the Dark Enlightenment, identitarianism, and the neoreactionary movement, and differs from previous radical right movements due to its heavy internet presence on sites such as 4chan.
Groypers
Groypers, sometimes called the Groyper Army, are a group of White nationalist and far-right activists, who are notable for their attempts to introduce far-right politics into mainstream conservatism in the United States. The group is led by Nick Fuentes.
See also
Christian fundamentalism
Christian Identity
Christian nationalism
Christian reconstructionism
Christian right
Christian terrorism
Christian Zionism
Clerical fascism
Creationism
Domestic terrorism in the United States
Dominion theology
Discrimination in the United States
Kahanism
Kinism
Manosphere
Moral Majority
Neo-Confederate
Neo-Fascism
Neo-Nazism
Positive Christianity
Religious nationalism
Religious terrorism
Sovereign citizen movement
Straight pride
Wingnut (politics)
References
Notes
Bibliography
Akenson, Donald H. An Irish history of civilization, Volume 2. McGill-Queen's University Press, 2005
Berlet, Chip. Lyones, Matthew Nemiroff. Right-wing populism in America: too close for comfort. New York, NY: Guilford Press, 2000
Conner, Claire (John Birch Society daughter). Wrapped in the Flag: A Personal History of America's Radical Right. Beacon Press, 2013
Courser, Zachary. "The Tea 'Party' as a Conservative Social Movement". In SYMPOSIUM: THE FUTURE OF SOCIAL CONSERVATISM, Published online, Springer Science Media, LLC 2011
Davies, Peter. Lynch, Derek. The Routledge companion to fascism and the far right. London: Routledge, 2002.
Diamond, Sara. Roads to dominion: right-wing movements and political power in the United States. New York: Guilford Press, 1995
Hofstadter, Richard. The Paranoid Style in American Politics (2008 edition), reprints famous essays from 1963 to 1964
Ignazi, Piero. "The extreme right: defining the object and assessing the causes" inn Martin Schain, Aristide R. Zolberg, Patrick Hossay (Eds.), Shadows over Europe: the development and impact of the extreme right in Western Europe. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.
Kaplan, Jeffrey and Weinberg, Leonard. The emergence of a Euro-American radical right. NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998
Lipset, Seymour Martin. "The sources of the "Radical Right". In Daniel Bell (Ed.), The radical right, Volume 2000. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2002
Lipset, Seymour Martin. Raab, Earl. The politics of unreason: right wing extremism in America, 1790–1970. New York: Harper & Row, 1970 ISBN
Mulloy, D. J. American extremism: history, politics and the militia movement. London: Routledge, 2004
Norris, Pippa, "The Right in Elections" Paper in APSA Panel 36–15 at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, 2004, Chicago.
Plotke, David. "Introduction to the Transaction edition: the success and anger of the modern American Right". In Daniel Bell (Ed.), The radical right, Volume 2000. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2002
Webb, Clive. Rabble rousers: the American far right in the civil rights era. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2010
Winks, Robin W. The Blacks in Canada: a history. McGill-Queen's University Press, 1997
Zaitchick, "'Patriot' Paranoia: A Look at the Top Ten Conspiracy Theories", Intelligence Report, Fall 2010, Issue Number: 139
Ziff, Bruce H. Unforeseen legacies: Reuben Wells Leonard and the Leonard Foundation Trust. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000
Further reading
External links
The Lyle and Florence Brothers papers at the American Heritage Center
Paleoconservatism
Political movements in the United States | [
0.10957609117031097,
-0.4651564657688141,
-0.1428806036710739,
0.20311667025089264,
-0.27433401346206665,
-0.17925600707530975,
-0.2927759289741516,
0.5201018452644348,
0.09170100092887878,
-0.19083428382873535,
-0.3877737820148468,
0.4661233723163605,
-0.3621603548526764,
0.4067972004413605,
-0.28276896476745605,
0.715435802936554,
0.0067229135893285275,
-0.08118321001529694,
-0.08733610063791275,
0.10252335667610168,
-0.3766922950744629,
-0.0764932930469513,
0.4975927174091339,
-0.3841352164745331,
0.39000603556632996,
-0.3126101493835449,
0.5586491227149963,
-0.4715369641780853,
-0.38842207193374634,
0.5596275329589844,
0.2218911349773407,
0.43411585688591003,
-0.041405681520700455,
-0.0612126886844635,
0.13989859819412231,
-0.047089215368032455,
0.007795058190822601,
-0.2236855924129486,
0.08666756749153137,
-0.03814249858260155,
-0.36296746134757996,
-0.4124155640602112,
0.7627546191215515,
0.5363724827766418,
0.044866882264614105,
-0.2255842685699463,
-1.3400051593780518,
0.7700965404510498,
-0.5289359092712402,
-0.04362442344427109,
-0.11217912286520004,
0.34483665227890015,
0.04613322764635086,
0.7575756311416626,
0.011403229087591171,
-0.027888115495443344,
-0.6049667000770569,
-0.20087921619415283,
-0.09086847305297852,
-0.9434247016906738,
0.15309038758277893,
0.5210994482040405,
0.39152225852012634,
-0.09612009674310684,
0.5569161772727966,
0.14517267048358917,
-0.3697672486305237,
-0.07863390445709229,
-1.184727668762207,
-0.4855734705924988,
-0.476876825094223,
-0.47104114294052124,
-0.026958195492625237,
0.21220745146274567,
-0.12293533980846405,
0.01291731372475624,
-0.10366576910018921,
0.4085889160633087,
-0.2716326415538788,
-0.1665242463350296,
0.007837481796741486,
0.15368624031543732,
0.24672622978687286,
0.5673329830169678,
0.2684713304042816,
-0.3921213150024414,
0.053822919726371765,
-0.09550148993730545,
0.049649953842163086,
0.555514395236969,
0.1283981204032898,
0.08947953581809998,
0.9189481735229492,
0.2976378798484802,
-0.05686838924884796,
-0.17684027552604675,
1.2423220872879028,
-0.22617051005363464,
-0.5153665542602539,
0.056603021919727325,
0.2426566332578659,
0.046469464898109436,
0.9390760660171509,
-0.422919362783432,
-0.7237681746482849,
0.0677582249045372,
0.03507887199521065,
-0.24615821242332458,
0.11196179687976837,
0.03387751057744026,
-1.011328935623169,
0.9501708149909973,
0.04848196730017662,
0.07595308125019073,
-0.21152076125144958,
0.08459660410881042,
-0.2734982669353485,
-0.5493913888931274,
0.6555463671684265,
-0.0896947830915451,
-0.16744932532310486,
0.6233823895454407,
-0.5518814325332642,
0.33142518997192383,
0.15070198476314545,
-0.11277446895837784,
0.40639978647232056,
0.5374740958213806,
-0.6334764361381531,
0.02442736178636551,
0.726176917552948,
0.39235055446624756,
-0.14512507617473602,
-0.369140088558197,
-0.22900675237178802,
-0.05317126587033272,
0.8880210518836975,
0.015461842529475689,
0.9077129364013672,
0.45323511958122253,
-0.11053536832332611,
-0.9100643992424011,
-0.0019057076424360275,
-0.5774838924407959,
0.7512622475624084,
-0.6495635509490967,
0.6182563304901123,
-0.15359918773174286,
-0.6588313579559326,
-0.43964922428131104,
0.3158113956451416,
-0.016194520518183708,
-0.252162903547287,
0.1559237688779831,
0.31004735827445984,
-0.13381297886371613,
0.7281795740127563,
-0.6251868009567261,
0.486875981092453,
0.5688985586166382,
0.05482671409845352,
-0.260030597448349,
0.10150300711393356,
0.19548435509204865,
0.4555358290672302,
-0.47643691301345825,
-0.1454532891511917,
0.29707056283950806,
-0.2162792831659317,
0.43727269768714905,
-0.21463677287101746,
0.5630505681037903,
0.6938048005104065,
-0.3219040334224701,
0.6862040758132935,
0.39156657457351685,
0.13230721652507782,
-0.2317478507757187,
0.5643436908721924,
0.07571526616811752,
-0.7571468949317932,
0.46495845913887024,
0.1941196620464325,
0.19868892431259155,
-0.6581752300262451,
-0.2953777611255646,
0.02166113443672657,
-0.30439043045043945,
0.22881419956684113,
-0.01573624648153782,
-0.26098692417144775,
-0.4993864893913269,
-0.31443044543266296,
-0.6585879921913147,
1.128345251083374,
-0.36243343353271484,
-0.3601956367492676,
1.08823823928833,
-0.31220677495002747,
0.18922580778598785,
-0.09336385875940323,
-0.6642706394195557,
0.14878948032855988,
0.04572997987270355,
-0.4846433997154236,
0.042445406317710876,
0.2288220077753067,
0.2230113446712494,
0.2965083718299866,
-0.016103381291031837,
0.2451436072587967,
-0.6835941076278687,
-0.3359929323196411,
0.2852310836315155,
0.27048802375793457,
-0.45200681686401367,
-0.16857989132404327,
-0.08890846371650696,
-0.17646794021129608,
0.2844826579093933,
0.649711549282074,
-0.30216333270072937,
0.305134117603302,
0.05493425205349922,
-0.24887551367282867,
0.22682325541973114,
0.25200092792510986,
0.5532679557800293,
0.1646818220615387,
-0.07033359259366989,
0.5113100409507751,
0.43576404452323914,
-0.09943423420190811,
-0.3803962171077728,
-0.2918134927749634,
-0.2734605371952057,
0.4612530767917633,
-0.13890188932418823,
0.5107230544090271,
-0.7294121384620667,
0.15620167553424835,
-0.012864118441939354,
-0.2022087275981903,
0.4750584661960602,
-0.6718525886535645,
-0.3179164528846741,
-0.37310755252838135,
0.6397426724433899,
-0.3642214834690094,
0.48643383383750916,
0.05640415474772453,
0.640047550201416,
0.023620737716555595,
-0.6700935363769531,
0.20140746235847473,
0.38332125544548035,
-0.08986964076757431,
-0.028985364362597466,
0.37991175055503845,
-0.34854406118392944,
-0.2860189378261566,
0.31773072481155396,
-0.3104989528656006,
0.11994096636772156,
-0.22636736929416656,
-0.02339591272175312,
-0.6740319132804871,
-0.001188290654681623,
0.3233553469181061,
0.4516322612762451,
0.4206605553627014,
0.6783895492553711,
-0.4782988429069519,
0.35872533917427063,
-0.7760148644447327,
-0.8473181128501892,
-0.12836502492427826,
0.343404084444046,
-0.8469135761260986,
-0.40226924419403076,
-0.6032545566558838,
0.3779555559158325,
0.49101126194000244,
-0.7639752626419067,
-0.31036096811294556,
0.22146853804588318,
0.7502960562705994,
0.19940005242824554,
0.20196183025836945,
0.1821671575307846,
-0.33421820402145386,
-0.23520727455615997,
0.26997309923171997,
-0.19862890243530273,
0.4752086400985718,
0.482644259929657,
0.34526628255844116,
0.42773163318634033,
-0.3842002749443054,
-0.10710243135690689,
-0.10758782178163528,
0.29975858330726624,
-0.24048146605491638,
-0.3299086391925812,
0.652768075466156,
0.08690851926803589,
-0.2145542949438095,
0.1029696986079216,
-5.736583709716797,
0.3174341320991516,
-0.33588001132011414,
0.01822807639837265,
0.15502096712589264,
-0.21685285866260529,
0.11056230217218399,
-0.2124193012714386,
-0.5750832557678223,
-0.6212317943572998,
-0.33656424283981323,
0.01711953431367874,
-0.1510610580444336,
0.3023999333381653,
-0.031459685415029526,
-0.3859289288520813,
0.07053237408399582,
0.20892992615699768,
0.19111385941505432,
0.2941311299800873,
-0.25460052490234375,
0.25024235248565674,
0.25530678033828735,
0.5827683806419373,
0.5687551498413086,
0.282201886177063,
0.009031957946717739,
-0.03386594355106354,
-0.3109667897224426,
-0.5948576331138611,
0.07088945060968399,
0.10593442618846893,
0.013621550984680653,
-0.011964522302150726,
0.44231975078582764,
-0.3134555518627167,
0.3404664099216461,
-0.0015710811130702496,
0.10892204940319061,
0.237709641456604,
-0.10792519897222519,
0.6000197529792786,
-0.1937238872051239,
-0.13240481913089752,
0.6775501370429993,
0.19651086628437042,
0.1404765397310257,
-0.17964254319667816,
-0.5082685947418213,
0.13554178178310394,
-0.13607899844646454,
-0.020585687831044197,
0.70808345079422,
0.2761533260345459,
0.5959702730178833,
0.1912475973367691,
0.4128154516220093,
-0.34617486596107483,
-0.27111950516700745,
-0.21152523159980774,
0.20311594009399414,
-0.0497218519449234,
0.01225665956735611,
-0.4526152014732361,
-0.5665081143379211,
-0.7279767990112305,
-0.44255754351615906,
-0.1332414448261261,
0.8301356434822083,
0.4623270630836487,
-0.09465093165636063,
0.1769365817308426,
0.1005818098783493,
-0.8444004058837891,
0.5293542146682739,
-0.2462211400270462,
-0.24974781274795532,
-0.2400781810283661,
0.17482762038707733,
0.19308657944202423,
-0.11161809414625168,
0.05810420960187912,
-0.3527304232120514,
-0.28407809138298035,
-0.27007725834846497,
-0.5728749632835388,
0.08442714065313339,
0.5665463805198669,
-0.6095496416091919,
0.3099842369556427,
-0.09285678714513779,
-0.3127140998840332,
0.6552705764770508,
-0.5894804000854492,
0.4425039291381836,
0.42259055376052856,
0.2532889246940613,
-0.03191404417157173,
0.33260810375213623,
-0.013799399137496948,
0.42454102635383606,
-0.13875263929367065,
-0.5802766680717468,
-0.5345179438591003,
-0.45093443989753723,
0.06329408288002014,
0.11806332319974899,
0.6151484251022339,
0.8070933818817139,
-0.6215780377388,
0.19608744978904724,
0.07537644356489182,
-0.3547893464565277,
-0.44452419877052307,
0.10750409215688705,
0.04399007931351662,
-0.8148918151855469,
0.07226808369159698,
-0.08325035870075226,
0.346687912940979,
0.19448313117027283,
0.2933844029903412,
-1.0002084970474243,
-0.13954401016235352,
-0.4627040922641754,
-0.005937392823398113,
-0.1484634280204773,
0.15594753623008728,
-0.18126539885997772,
0.44290077686309814,
0.5500323176383972,
0.1799524426460266,
0.1315559595823288,
-0.25763341784477234,
0.11455675214529037,
-0.06189163774251938,
0.3325638473033905,
0.21784202754497528,
-0.488451212644577,
-0.39777520298957825,
0.1648373305797577,
-0.07104919850826263,
0.2434811294078827,
0.18418532609939575,
0.4391605854034424,
0.3949759304523468,
-0.3068538010120392,
0.27936235070228577,
-0.4852180778980255,
0.7647953629493713,
0.37381139397621155,
0.1872696578502655,
0.47532328963279724,
-0.5566285848617554,
0.17497366666793823,
-0.32079654932022095,
0.01055497583001852,
0.1450766623020172,
-0.04631154611706734,
-0.4674754738807678,
-0.08504971861839294,
-0.7071279287338257,
-0.35499250888824463,
-0.3059397339820862,
0.3958464562892914,
-0.398799866437912,
-0.36947357654571533,
-0.3908131420612335,
-0.1819542646408081,
0.09057682007551193,
0.07328768819570541,
-0.09521616250276566,
0.055744607001543045,
-0.354196697473526,
0.07489165663719177,
-0.4720851182937622,
-0.011736980639398098,
0.4284142553806305,
-0.25266116857528687,
-0.4903157949447632,
-0.08312951028347015,
-0.11049362272024155,
-0.49056321382522583,
0.3384619951248169,
0.8966068625450134,
-1.050350546836853,
-0.4635140895843506,
0.14651116728782654,
-0.2954542636871338,
-0.0006514369742944837,
0.26513129472732544,
0.2095959633588791,
0.1803513616323471,
0.06043008714914322,
-0.3600526750087738,
0.07889996469020844,
-0.14423005282878876,
0.4573577046394348,
-0.6191714406013489,
-0.7487466335296631,
0.6709562540054321,
0.3712618052959442,
-0.43405166268348694,
0.27309340238571167,
0.2288329303264618,
-0.09377853572368622,
1.2511581182479858,
-0.2560579478740692,
-0.6106472015380859,
0.4439813792705536,
-0.42863330245018005,
-0.5500342845916748,
-0.2070627212524414,
-0.26636096835136414,
-0.4733782410621643,
-0.05112496390938759,
-0.21158665418624878,
-0.4663279056549072,
-0.6280260682106018,
-0.053183700889348984,
0.4480239748954773,
-0.2696419656276703,
-0.08999917656183243,
0.3167569041252136,
-0.2478610724210739,
0.2280016541481018,
-0.27682778239250183,
-0.69282066822052,
0.5538402199745178,
-0.11876356601715088,
0.13810953497886658,
-0.2542599141597748,
-0.10418680310249329,
0.24478740990161896,
-0.3842165470123291,
-0.09884706139564514,
-0.11267231404781342,
0.2844116985797882,
-0.9013088941574097,
-0.05538494139909744,
0.308156281709671,
0.6410831809043884,
0.0458708256483078,
-0.36282020807266235,
-0.06676580011844635,
0.5300740599632263,
0.34046924114227295,
-0.2465774416923523,
-1.0031238794326782,
0.3038594424724579,
0.4996928572654724,
-0.19098521769046783,
-0.6075244545936584,
0.011175896972417831,
0.5458845496177673,
-0.34750059247016907,
-0.578610360622406,
-0.34295251965522766,
0.13050809502601624,
0.5165358185768127,
0.07113067060709,
-0.36846309900283813,
-0.474133163690567,
0.1916550248861313,
0.20128977298736572,
-0.17876023054122925,
0.152246356010437,
-0.617409884929657,
-0.4156629741191864,
-0.6511245369911194,
-0.20741182565689087,
0.2735735774040222,
0.6385196447372437,
0.35420164465904236,
0.27402979135513306,
-0.08041554689407349,
-0.23809321224689484,
-0.45140308141708374,
-0.24749863147735596,
-0.3111674189567566,
-0.551701545715332,
-0.5036671757698059,
0.05424791947007179,
-0.4861201345920563,
0.1740189790725708,
-0.6463980078697205,
0.7054917216300964,
-0.1997935026884079,
-0.6285264492034912,
-0.48072898387908936,
-0.11874570697546005,
-0.21245913207530975,
0.48019084334373474,
0.17718453705310822,
-0.4750460684299469,
0.026579774916172028,
0.490207701921463,
0.11309150606393814,
0.017404135316610336,
-0.26356756687164307,
-0.554755449295044,
0.22406865656375885,
-0.0032208152115345,
-0.03036065585911274,
0.5217283964157104,
-0.3960483968257904,
-0.17181026935577393,
-0.5242936611175537,
0.2688628137111664,
0.07451152801513672,
0.32738062739372253,
-0.03769819438457489,
0.269008070230484,
0.6316133141517639,
-0.33108383417129517,
0.6325727701187134,
0.31277573108673096,
-0.2613707184791565,
0.2652117609977722,
0.34543365240097046,
0.2000422477722168,
0.36996930837631226,
0.27044013142585754,
-0.06236705929040909,
0.6076815724372864,
0.05335339531302452,
-0.4581359922885895,
0.11983154714107513,
0.5652446746826172,
0.4563155770301819,
0.4930760860443115,
0.7238956689834595,
-0.5294855833053589,
0.8236663341522217,
-0.43769749999046326,
-0.5212036371231079,
-0.38940855860710144,
-0.4390307068824768,
-0.3157135546207428,
0.2525702714920044,
0.6258302330970764,
0.003952811472117901,
-0.13304553925991058,
0.2599240839481354,
0.1965796947479248,
0.2542145550251007,
0.2984265387058258,
0.48528459668159485,
-0.09460954368114471,
0.44628670811653137,
0.6351338624954224,
-0.5930359959602356,
-0.47347819805145264,
-0.4061651825904846,
0.46145394444465637,
-0.5814659595489502,
0.4660693407058716,
-0.29986581206321716,
-0.3044986426830292,
-0.20742987096309662,
-0.0577627494931221,
0.05722368136048317,
0.15703454613685608,
-0.341688871383667,
0.015196826308965683,
-0.0751102939248085,
0.25801029801368713,
-0.49349650740623474,
-0.1879410594701767,
0.1735503375530243,
0.26346632838249207,
-0.06296920031309128,
-0.013893747702240944,
0.11690421402454376,
0.03453093394637108,
-0.17914016544818878,
0.8200375437736511,
0.14015229046344757,
-0.31124454736709595,
0.05778907239437103,
-0.23243477940559387,
-0.09553368389606476,
-0.4422934353351593,
0.2434052675962448,
0.43443384766578674,
-0.2121153473854065,
0.04214070364832878,
0.23866024613380432,
-0.9414114356040955,
0.30214598774909973,
-0.41291260719299316,
-0.6168459057807922,
0.017313670367002487,
0.19847992062568665,
-0.15105313062667847,
0.28585898876190186,
-0.35101863741874695,
0.7030074000358582,
0.2662927508354187,
0.30118924379348755,
-0.3728320598602295,
0.5083001255989075,
0.15087327361106873,
0.43580472469329834,
-0.6831946969032288,
-0.051446687430143356,
-0.6122105717658997,
-1.0167055130004883,
-0.694564938545227,
0.7147570252418518,
0.23798240721225739,
0.03789884224534035,
0.1130015105009079,
0.9194817543029785,
0.000725149700883776,
0.43306174874305725,
0.9006698131561279,
-0.346267431974411,
0.15111450850963593,
-0.3373606204986572,
0.053726136684417725,
-0.08000790327787399,
0.16266192495822906,
0.31520724296569824,
-0.5358224511146545,
-0.21199524402618408,
0.7071399688720703,
0.29914796352386475,
-0.3998856246471405,
0.1405688226222992,
-0.5223290324211121,
-0.18820026516914368,
-0.3581002354621887,
0.5225902795791626,
-0.5297836065292358,
0.1391514241695404,
0.3373549282550812,
0.25389328598976135,
0.033951714634895325,
-0.18875084817409515,
-0.011817734688520432,
-0.08279143273830414,
-0.009248501621186733,
0.09944546222686768,
0.3624008297920227,
0.5263737440109253,
-0.08602485060691833,
-0.1857931762933731,
-0.2755894362926483,
0.31126102805137634,
-0.2689681649208069,
0.10780706256628036,
0.09630319476127625,
-0.16284207999706268,
0.003670104080811143,
-0.2217608541250229,
0.2102268934249878,
-0.35427913069725037,
-0.06071260944008827,
0.2667805254459381
] |
241393 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentric%20spheres | Concentric spheres | The cosmological model of concentric (or homocentric) spheres, developed by Eudoxus, Callippus, and Aristotle, employed celestial spheres all centered on the Earth. In this respect, it differed from the epicyclic and eccentric models with multiple centers, which were used by Ptolemy and other mathematical astronomers until the time of Copernicus.
Origins of the concept of concentric spheres
Eudoxus of Cnidus was the first astronomer to develop the concept of concentric spheres. He was originally a student at Plato's academy and is believed to have been influenced by the cosmological speculations of Plato and Pythagoras. He came up with the idea of homocentric spheres in order to explain the perceived inconsistent motions of the planets and to develop a uniform model for accurately calculating the movement of celestial objects. None of his books have survived to the modern day and everything we know about his cosmological theories comes from the works of Aristotle and Simplicius. According to these works, Eudoxus’ model had twenty-seven homocentric spheres with each sphere explaining a type of observable motion for each celestial object. Eudoxus assigns one sphere for the fixed stars which is supposed to explain their daily movement. He assigns three spheres to both the sun and the moon with the first sphere moving in the same manner as the sphere of the fixed stars. The second sphere explains the movement of the sun and the moon on the ecliptic plane. The third sphere was supposed to move on a “latitudinally inclined” circle and explain the latitudinal motion of the sun and the moon in the cosmos. Four spheres were assigned to Mercury, Mars, Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn which were the only known planets at that time. The first and second spheres of the planets moved exactly like the first two spheres of the sun and the moon. According to Simplicius, the third and fourth sphere of the planets were supposed to move in a way that created a curve known as a hippopede. The hippopede was a way to try and explain the retrograde motions of planets. Many historians of science, such as Michael J. Crowe, have argued that Eudoxus did not consider his system of concentric spheres to be a real representation of the universe but thought it was merely a mathematical model for calculating planetary motion.
Later additions to Eudoxus' model
Callippus, a contemporary of Eudoxus, attempted to improve his system by increasing the total number of homocentric spheres. He added two additional spheres for the sun and the moon as well as one additional sphere for Mars, Mercury, and Venus. These additional spheres were supposed to fix some of the calculation problems in Eudoxus’ original system. Callippus’ system was able to better predict the motions of certain celestial objects but his system still had many problems and was not able to account for many astronomical observations.
Aristotle developed his own system of concentric spheres in Metaphysics and De Caelo (On the Heavens). He thought that both Eudoxus and Callippus had too few spheres within their models and added more spheres onto Callippus’ system. He added three spheres to Jupiter and Mars as well as four spheres to Venus, Mercury, the sun, and the moon for a total of fifty-five spheres. He later doubted the accuracy of his results and stated that he believed there were either forty seven or forty nine concentric spheres. Historians are unsure about how many spheres Aristotle thought there were in the cosmos with theories ranging from 43 to 55. Unlike Eudoxus, Aristotle believed that his system represented an actual model of the cosmos.
See also
Celestial spheres
Geocentric model
Notes
Further reading
Kieffer, John S. "Callippus." Dictionary of Scientific Biography 3:21-22.
External links
Working model and complete explanation of the Eudoxus's Spheres
Eudoxos of Knidos (Eudoxus of Cnidus): astronomy and homocentric spheres Henry Mendell, Cal State U, LA
Models of Planetary Motion—Eudoxus, Craig McConnell, Ph.D., Cal State, Fullerton
Aristotle's On the Heavens
Aristotle's metaphysics
Ancient Greek astronomy
Early scientific cosmologies | [
-0.10557807236909866,
0.44098150730133057,
0.022642476484179497,
0.4111645221710205,
-0.3177185356616974,
0.5205665230751038,
-0.1011379212141037,
0.22868847846984863,
-0.44929635524749756,
-0.33786046504974365,
-0.03297046199440956,
-0.06649702787399292,
-0.8490570783615112,
0.5758006572723389,
0.19526249170303345,
0.01738133281469345,
0.3804575800895691,
0.24842728674411774,
-0.30183398723602295,
-0.08557980507612228,
0.07375713437795639,
0.11133501678705215,
0.1751336008310318,
-0.40285375714302063,
0.15405391156673431,
-0.31864362955093384,
-0.07277671247720718,
-0.02639092318713665,
0.3191772997379303,
0.27765151858329773,
-0.13821114599704742,
0.9822003245353699,
-0.30048853158950806,
-0.12390314787626266,
-0.3714890778064728,
-0.19390645623207092,
0.15827421844005585,
0.20933222770690918,
-0.3447806239128113,
-0.5450686812400818,
0.9116231203079224,
-0.031359314918518066,
0.18479934334754944,
0.16041138768196106,
-0.29974672198295593,
-0.10368651151657104,
-0.9300658106803894,
0.2788465619087219,
-0.7169169783592224,
-0.46099919080734253,
-0.3257414996623993,
-0.3419298827648163,
0.19623157382011414,
0.8779959678649902,
-0.21460160613059998,
0.6131626963615417,
-0.8253347277641296,
-0.14418669044971466,
0.09342340379953384,
-0.07652019709348679,
0.049274247139692307,
0.5981879234313965,
0.028749972581863403,
0.2895697057247162,
-0.041584692895412445,
0.3888641893863678,
0.04391448199748993,
0.16909408569335938,
0.17117007076740265,
-0.46476611495018005,
-0.19585737586021423,
0.037154071033000946,
-0.5208947062492371,
0.5258124470710754,
-0.46874257922172546,
-0.18047381937503815,
-0.06432809680700302,
-0.28752127289772034,
0.33081570267677307,
-0.028953930363059044,
-0.4539136290550232,
-0.008409865200519562,
0.45611250400543213,
-0.3853563368320465,
-0.08311017602682114,
0.29464191198349,
-0.11570776253938675,
0.10405246913433075,
-0.13560813665390015,
0.5506880879402161,
0.1821756809949875,
0.18482154607772827,
0.5810947418212891,
0.08325908333063126,
0.4663778841495514,
-0.21265649795532227,
0.4235512912273407,
0.0034933348651975393,
0.29379281401634216,
-0.38261595368385315,
-0.3299499452114105,
0.06776247918605804,
-0.366899698972702,
-0.46968308091163635,
-0.08543383330106735,
-0.7341451048851013,
0.44529053568840027,
-0.7477777600288391,
-0.05079417675733566,
0.5061503648757935,
-0.40366512537002563,
0.013679588213562965,
0.09961377829313278,
0.5062620043754578,
-0.315444678068161,
-0.26665401458740234,
0.11136773228645325,
-0.579590380191803,
0.058598533272743225,
-0.06175673380494118,
-0.19040803611278534,
0.9014548063278198,
0.3036040961742401,
-0.018218059092760086,
-0.03360142558813095,
0.29986944794654846,
0.1938079446554184,
0.6181977987289429,
-0.7435129284858704,
-0.1576949506998062,
-0.27803146839141846,
0.4147455394268036,
-0.10305390506982803,
0.06668893247842789,
0.17498718202114105,
-0.7473800182342529,
0.22057045996189117,
-0.3944135010242462,
-0.30754354596138,
0.5885761976242065,
-0.13028466701507568,
-0.36776962876319885,
-0.3384130299091339,
0.09537337720394135,
0.2618192732334137,
-0.36911171674728394,
0.5775165557861328,
-0.6716407537460327,
-0.42052650451660156,
0.02467402070760727,
-0.6065590381622314,
0.4179738759994507,
0.546356201171875,
0.06467605382204056,
0.24817045032978058,
0.18296709656715393,
0.36598658561706543,
1.0602374076843262,
-0.5385650992393494,
-0.25199994444847107,
0.09602557867765427,
0.0877620279788971,
-0.29684126377105713,
-0.38775989413261414,
0.25119632482528687,
-0.3466026484966278,
0.9066241383552551,
0.3353957533836365,
0.1668885350227356,
0.2422211915254593,
-0.2932789623737335,
-0.23088711500167847,
-0.06478247791528702,
0.3808085322380066,
-0.4238903522491455,
-0.20272886753082275,
0.7462498545646667,
0.4841971695423126,
0.460174560546875,
-0.22317539155483246,
-0.5371993780136108,
0.21899984776973724,
0.1156926229596138,
-0.4003521800041199,
0.8394560217857361,
0.029260067269206047,
0.1782623678445816,
-0.0018218144541606307,
-0.08350174129009247,
-0.18260081112384796,
-0.16998927295207977,
-0.030042922124266624,
0.06995987892150879,
-0.39970093965530396,
0.8650384545326233,
-0.06466130912303925,
-0.7282207608222961,
0.4745459258556366,
0.18985341489315033,
0.1822957992553711,
-0.6571893692016602,
0.03191566467285156,
-0.3230575621128082,
0.392783522605896,
-0.19008828699588776,
0.028420235961675644,
-0.1256178468465805,
-0.26981571316719055,
-0.0002634116099216044,
0.4504900574684143,
0.08076958358287811,
-0.4950188100337982,
0.2563011646270752,
-0.7315616011619568,
-0.5834518074989319,
-0.03696037456393242,
-0.8828421235084534,
0.6307079792022705,
-0.8645418882369995,
0.12866123020648956,
0.8418737649917603,
-0.18781737983226776,
0.3357302248477936,
0.35931408405303955,
-0.011797413229942322,
0.4516202509403229,
0.483654648065567,
0.24082966148853302,
-0.11464997380971909,
-0.39295393228530884,
-0.010385812260210514,
-0.35946574807167053,
0.5094771385192871,
-0.47900378704071045,
0.23633937537670135,
0.26021841168403625,
0.4693695604801178,
-0.9474803805351257,
0.034433040767908096,
-0.40449759364128113,
-0.1521175056695938,
-0.2899722456932068,
-0.1653251051902771,
0.4632706642150879,
-0.4328414499759674,
0.30655965209007263,
-0.003775479272007942,
-0.10126692056655884,
-0.2436162829399109,
0.2980338931083679,
-0.8731503486633301,
0.14692005515098572,
-0.09050627052783966,
0.013074314221739769,
0.16210079193115234,
-0.1621149331331253,
-0.07954631000757217,
-0.08425746858119965,
0.6431525349617004,
0.5129984021186829,
-0.11322478950023651,
-0.08809944987297058,
-0.1246238723397255,
-0.22884663939476013,
-0.3415745198726654,
-0.7365356683731079,
-0.09584086388349533,
-0.041158050298690796,
0.13865265250205994,
0.33882492780685425,
0.44717028737068176,
-0.24000726640224457,
-0.5678099989891052,
-0.00827330444008112,
0.31483888626098633,
-0.6892576217651367,
-0.2707354426383972,
0.01068775076419115,
-0.37754541635513306,
-0.5021135210990906,
-0.31998032331466675,
0.5391799807548523,
0.07901228219270706,
-0.2551104426383972,
-0.1991412341594696,
-0.1410003900527954,
-0.020533263683319092,
-0.787513792514801,
0.31065237522125244,
-0.2020450085401535,
-0.11675266176462173,
0.6701195240020752,
-0.39507657289505005,
-0.3111070692539215,
-0.03138530254364014,
1.0635679960250854,
-0.15159840881824493,
-0.6036771535873413,
0.23819388449192047,
-0.008561025373637676,
-0.7982437610626221,
-0.10791861265897751,
-0.1361616849899292,
0.15733857452869415,
0.32882800698280334,
-0.3527207672595978,
0.262172669172287,
0.43242311477661133,
-5.846084117889404,
-0.23613299429416656,
-0.2906184792518616,
0.082109235227108,
-0.5589122176170349,
0.46205994486808777,
0.7478755712509155,
0.16468536853790283,
-0.06781893223524094,
0.13205556571483612,
-0.41574162244796753,
-0.35351571440696716,
-0.8964914679527283,
0.8285230398178101,
0.7264370322227478,
0.4063034653663635,
0.49123406410217285,
0.13465876877307892,
-0.10726986080408096,
0.2835615277290344,
-0.15261851251125336,
0.09278226643800735,
0.2040397673845291,
0.1930258870124817,
-0.17262805998325348,
-0.5891865491867065,
-0.057985540479421616,
0.3214147090911865,
-0.04422827064990997,
0.19103306531906128,
-0.3858701288700104,
-0.29977890849113464,
-0.06584401428699493,
-0.5586925745010376,
0.17732971906661987,
0.5204806327819824,
0.21607519686222076,
0.16160941123962402,
0.41036680340766907,
-0.06426182389259338,
-0.3036092519760132,
0.4007880985736847,
0.10220248997211456,
0.03041888400912285,
0.6648043394088745,
-0.5393929481506348,
0.09971381723880768,
0.3690600097179413,
-0.5912611484527588,
0.5740581750869751,
0.4816773235797882,
0.004369609989225864,
0.3409883379936218,
-0.7068896889686584,
-0.25807708501815796,
0.24843961000442505,
0.5995779037475586,
-0.293886661529541,
-1.1609759330749512,
-0.2264212667942047,
0.7743445634841919,
-0.2672063708305359,
-0.2696947753429413,
-0.30195367336273193,
-0.011627009138464928,
-0.17626754939556122,
-1.2155296802520752,
0.2513776123523712,
0.33585110306739807,
0.19836562871932983,
-0.5906473398208618,
0.5765500664710999,
0.0317934975028038,
-0.5854191184043884,
-0.00975434947758913,
-0.18598492443561554,
0.24934051930904388,
-0.08900556713342667,
0.5489404201507568,
0.26456570625305176,
-0.29581594467163086,
-0.4950566291809082,
-0.007282793056219816,
0.7650570273399353,
-0.0389200896024704,
0.17057682573795319,
-0.46958112716674805,
-0.23063534498214722,
-1.0414303541183472,
-0.37575700879096985,
0.9916225075721741,
-0.08579755574464798,
0.34592077136039734,
0.580843985080719,
0.3166859745979309,
0.5959912538528442,
-0.41719260811805725,
-0.32076817750930786,
0.7166357040405273,
0.11358872056007385,
-0.05366315320134163,
-0.010862614028155804,
0.45184245705604553,
0.32597362995147705,
-0.12722449004650116,
-0.12536193430423737,
-0.37988734245300293,
0.6340874433517456,
0.23463281989097595,
-0.13592924177646637,
0.2778084874153137,
0.6303045749664307,
0.21565473079681396,
-0.19135795533657074,
0.14520271122455597,
0.31053364276885986,
0.10630244761705399,
0.3875369727611542,
0.5350980758666992,
0.3504799008369446,
0.16234497725963593,
0.36250314116477966,
-0.09817866235971451,
-0.3852959871292114,
-0.4969543218612671,
0.05952451750636101,
0.13626471161842346,
0.1478305160999298,
-0.07153753936290741,
0.34372612833976746,
0.358866810798645,
0.42476484179496765,
0.3705332577228546,
-0.29535844922065735,
0.10355059802532196,
0.16226133704185486,
-0.0013356597628444433,
-0.4933789372444153,
-0.2863137423992157,
-0.05030635744333267,
0.37099355459213257,
0.11455841362476349,
0.26690617203712463,
0.22650377452373505,
0.25510773062705994,
-0.11772524565458298,
0.05315007269382477,
0.11021509766578674,
-0.09652063995599747,
0.8550612330436707,
0.21626901626586914,
-0.6374754309654236,
0.7164300084114075,
-0.22766149044036865,
-0.08443418890237808,
0.16808269917964935,
0.22689974308013916,
0.08488691598176956,
0.1809058040380478,
-0.38567760586738586,
0.01636369898915291,
-0.13655492663383484,
-0.6399049162864685,
-0.4993545114994049,
0.09641944617033005,
0.2229182869195938,
-0.5567189455032349,
-0.37633469700813293,
0.044654883444309235,
0.0016182012623175979,
0.7751273512840271,
0.3428714871406555,
-0.4181177318096161,
-0.6353279948234558,
-0.17961867153644562,
0.5590188503265381,
0.4537210762500763,
-0.43816596269607544,
-0.12297691404819489,
-0.5728400945663452,
-0.002486197045072913,
-0.46372470259666443,
-0.3545568883419037,
-0.2408565729856491,
0.05213075876235962,
-0.2595132291316986,
-0.09993536025285721,
-0.2938065826892853,
-0.047056108713150024,
0.3868006765842438,
0.16532336175441742,
0.40615880489349365,
-0.09230844676494598,
0.24296845495700836,
0.15938900411128998,
-0.16086171567440033,
-0.05883768945932388,
0.9462019801139832,
-0.287727028131485,
-0.10385074466466904,
-0.5918430089950562,
0.2741324007511139,
-0.6600023508071899,
0.11434187740087509,
0.11198293417692184,
-0.848555326461792,
0.34365591406822205,
-0.5210228562355042,
0.029910562559962273,
0.036312285810709,
-0.6197843551635742,
0.1658683568239212,
-0.6384530067443848,
-0.28177836537361145,
-0.11101344972848892,
0.5379308462142944,
0.3591638505458832,
-0.17922309041023254,
-0.38590559363365173,
-0.17430317401885986,
0.2233891785144806,
0.18254800140857697,
-0.6350244879722595,
-0.583181619644165,
0.13641424477100372,
0.30531784892082214,
0.3295115828514099,
-0.18444950878620148,
0.14495849609375,
-0.10259334743022919,
-0.2305152267217636,
0.237018421292305,
-0.4507388472557068,
-0.14753344655036926,
0.06542116403579712,
-0.12109648436307907,
0.30578458309173584,
0.16206306219100952,
-0.4353927969932556,
-0.07882175594568253,
0.4195648431777954,
0.4759019911289215,
0.3005174696445465,
0.10367431491613388,
-0.11621229350566864,
0.04995081201195717,
0.6232057809829712,
-0.3531815707683563,
-0.2824743390083313,
-0.2912130653858185,
-0.3004454970359802,
-0.3932470977306366,
-0.5594056248664856,
-0.8257983922958374,
0.11643533408641815,
0.23216652870178223,
-0.047449953854084015,
0.09504170715808868,
0.4687386155128479,
0.052328042685985565,
0.13856199383735657,
-0.3530554175376892,
-0.7113966345787048,
-0.6843407154083252,
-0.2971688210964203,
0.37224674224853516,
-0.11686791479587555,
-0.07447042316198349,
0.36897972226142883,
-0.6545116305351257,
0.3671005666255951,
-0.20787961781024933,
0.21646682918071747,
0.1901659369468689,
0.26932111382484436,
0.3099924325942993,
-0.0066535091027617455,
0.25225746631622314,
0.5735930800437927,
-0.6272196173667908,
-0.6077119708061218,
0.45606890320777893,
-0.12121560424566269,
-0.14016012847423553,
0.3164170980453491,
-0.18100205063819885,
-0.2527428865432739,
-0.1129138171672821,
0.11317762732505798,
0.2285882830619812,
-0.5529433488845825,
0.027331756427884102,
-0.10057104378938675,
-0.33279940485954285,
0.38074740767478943,
0.43054959177970886,
0.3033658564090729,
0.3109261691570282,
-0.20100344717502594,
0.11701276153326035,
-0.622016966342926,
0.113768570125103,
0.09809590131044388,
-0.9623542428016663,
0.12747015058994293,
0.02052976004779339,
0.5679617524147034,
0.011171041056513786,
-0.04799459129571915,
0.3105093538761139,
0.2615478038787842,
-0.010140194557607174,
-0.32156607508659363,
0.07801900058984756,
-0.6207436323165894,
-0.37389108538627625,
1.0803260803222656,
-0.35426029562950134,
0.6191244125366211,
0.6264507174491882,
-0.0436905138194561,
0.1589401811361313,
-0.038068987429142,
-0.35214611887931824,
0.0005918210372328758,
-0.22647333145141602,
-0.45714548230171204,
0.4733295142650604,
-0.7573758959770203,
0.3265736997127533,
0.6797113418579102,
0.2809210419654846,
-0.7713103890419006,
0.02630513347685337,
-0.2604774832725525,
-0.15575027465820312,
-0.00573382992297411,
-0.3796929717063904,
-0.42571938037872314,
0.43450799584388733,
0.19818022847175598,
0.6258321404457092,
-0.2527414560317993,
-0.22986195981502533,
-0.3494580090045929,
0.6158961653709412,
-0.16987572610378265,
0.1007162556052208,
-0.22955839335918427,
0.41297557950019836,
0.600886344909668,
-0.14827342331409454,
0.7485082149505615,
-0.25623974204063416,
-0.2696339786052704,
-0.5600685477256775,
0.5891067385673523,
-0.02021750621497631,
-0.08160055428743362,
0.09961368143558502,
-0.1103372573852539,
0.49284008145332336,
0.10952682793140411,
-0.2187918871641159,
0.30144068598747253,
0.4390029013156891,
0.44946712255477905,
-0.4854867160320282,
0.3183846175670624,
-0.45121970772743225,
-0.007430207449942827,
0.2639513313770294,
-0.46833866834640503,
0.8231179714202881,
-0.22131352126598358,
-0.4070509970188141,
0.09440331906080246,
0.6067837476730347,
0.2147974967956543,
-0.5329745411872864,
-0.21688462793827057,
-0.5389949679374695,
-0.03175612539052963,
-0.5510987043380737,
-0.3685513138771057,
0.2155226767063141,
0.23079322278499603,
0.2954399287700653,
-0.0020173997618258,
0.26861563324928284,
0.2621156871318817,
-0.05411459505558014,
-0.09970759600400925,
-0.14270682632923126,
-0.5734385251998901,
0.2343800663948059,
-0.24471640586853027,
0.5788674354553223,
-0.22977368533611298,
-0.4712958037853241,
0.1216808632016182,
0.16751854121685028,
0.37313392758369446,
-0.02008773386478424,
-0.05484221503138542,
0.16098998486995697,
-0.23042185604572296,
-0.060091979801654816,
-0.6822260618209839,
0.3807140588760376,
0.014586523175239563,
-0.5194025039672852,
-0.11438173800706863,
0.10383687168359756,
0.12629516422748566,
-0.020553864538669586,
0.4016394317150116,
-0.08879557251930237,
0.183310866355896,
-0.21560846269130707,
-0.32005518674850464,
-0.19069337844848633,
-0.08919287472963333,
0.3561350703239441,
0.2285975217819214,
-0.39015576243400574,
0.5817666053771973,
-0.19466137886047363,
0.12375837564468384,
0.6211867928504944,
0.009999985806643963,
0.0876513123512268,
-0.9542897343635559,
0.01014647539705038,
-0.07194964587688446,
-0.7233772277832031,
0.24837857484817505,
0.47394677996635437,
0.07999864220619202,
-0.43202975392341614,
0.01796720363199711,
0.32557663321495056,
-0.400610089302063,
0.4453745484352112,
0.7287154197692871,
0.6835523843765259,
-0.2307380586862564,
0.29256150126457214,
-0.6000767946243286,
0.3369586169719696,
0.40331825613975525,
0.04368682578206062,
-0.2384067177772522,
-0.4636870324611664,
-0.11214064061641693,
-0.538755476474762,
0.07919956743717194,
-0.5192280411720276,
0.6648227572441101,
0.7246286869049072
] |
241405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State%20of%20Palestine | State of Palestine | Palestine (), officially the State of Palestine () is a de jure sovereign state in Western Asia, which is officially governed by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and claims the West Bank and Gaza Strip. However, the territory has been occupied by Israel since the Six-Day War in 1967; the West Bank is currently split into 165 Palestinian "islands" under partial Palestinian National Authority civil rule, and 230 Israeli settlements into which Israeli law is "pipelined", while Gaza is ruled by Hamas and under a long term blockade by Israel.
After World War II, in 1947, the UN adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. This partition plan was accepted by the Jews but rejected by the Arabs. Immediately after adoption of the Resolution by the General Assembly, a civil war broke out and the plan was not implemented. The day after the establishment of the State of Israel on 14 May 1948, neighboring Arab armies invaded the former British mandate and fought the Israeli forces. Later, the All-Palestine Government was established by the Arab League on 22 September 1948 to govern the Egyptian-controlled enclave in Gaza. It was soon recognized by all Arab League members except Transjordan, who had occupied and then annexed the West Bank. Though jurisdiction of the All-Palestine Government was declared to cover the whole of the former Mandatory Palestine, its effective jurisdiction was limited to the Gaza Strip. Israel later captured the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria in June 1967 during the Six-Day War.
On 15 November 1988 in Algiers, Yasser Arafat, Chairman of the PLO, proclaimed the establishment of the State of Palestine. A year after the signing of the Oslo Accords in 1993, the Palestinian National Authority was formed to govern (in varying degrees) areas A and B in the West Bank, comprising 165 "islands", and the Gaza Strip. After Hamas became the PNA parliament's leading party in the most recent elections (2006), a conflict broke out between it and the Fatah party, leading to Gaza being taken over by Hamas in 2007 (two years after the Israeli disengagement).
Palestine has a population of 5,051,953 as of February 2020, ranked 121st in the world. Although Palestine claims Jerusalem as its capital, the city is under the control of Israel; Palestine and Israel's claims to the city are not recognized by the international community. The State of Palestine has been recognized by 138 of the 193 UN members and since 2012 has had a status of a non-member observer state in the United Nations. Palestine is a member of the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the G77, the International Olympic Committee, as well as UNESCO, UNCTAD and the International Criminal Court.
Etymology
Although the concept of the Palestine region and its geographical extent has varied throughout history, it is now considered to be composed by the modern State of Israel, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. General use of the term "Palestine" or related terms to the area at the southeast corner of the Mediterranean Sea beside Syria has historically been taking place since the times of Ancient Greece, with Herodotus being the first historian writing in the 5th century BC in The Histories of a "district of Syria, called Palaistine" in which Phoenicians interacted with other maritime peoples. The term "Palestine" (in Latin, Palæstina) is thought to have been a term coined by the Ancient Greeks for the area of land occupied by the Philistines, although there are other explanations.
Terminology
This article uses the terms "Palestine", "State of Palestine", "occupied Palestinian territory" (oPt or OPT) interchangeably depending on context. Specifically, the term "occupied Palestinian territory" refers as a whole to the geographical area of the Palestinian territory occupied by Israel since 1967. In all cases, any references to land or territory refer to land claimed by the State of Palestine.
History
In 1947, the UN adopted a partition plan for a two-state solution in the remaining territory of the mandate. The plan was accepted by the Jewish leadership but rejected by the Arab leaders, and Britain refused to implement the plan. On the eve of final British withdrawal, the Jewish Agency for Israel declared the establishment of the State of Israel according to the proposed UN plan. The Arab Higher Committee did not declare a state of its own and instead, together with Transjordan, Egypt, and the other members of the Arab League of the time, commenced military action resulting in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. During the war, Israel gained additional territories that were designated to be part of the Arab state under the UN plan. Egypt occupied the Gaza Strip and Transjordan occupied and then annexed the West Bank. Egypt initially supported the creation of an All-Palestine Government but disbanded it in 1959. Transjordan never recognized it and instead decided to incorporate the West Bank with its own territory to form Jordan. The annexation was ratified in 1950 but was rejected by the international community. The Six-Day War in 1967, when Israel fought against Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, ended with Israel occupying the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, besides other territories.
In 1964, when the West Bank was controlled by Jordan, the Palestine Liberation Organization was established there with the goal to confront Israel. The Palestinian National Charter of the PLO defines the boundaries of Palestine as the whole remaining territory of the mandate, including Israel. Following the Six-Day War, the PLO moved to Jordan, but later relocated to Lebanon in 1971.
The October 1974 Arab League summit designated the PLO as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people" and reaffirmed "their right to establish an independent state of urgency." In November 1974, the PLO was recognized as competent on all matters concerning the question of Palestine by the UN General Assembly granting them observer status as a "non-state entity" at the UN. After the 1988 Declaration of Independence, the UN General Assembly officially acknowledged the proclamation and decided to use the designation "Palestine" instead of "Palestine Liberation Organization" in the UN. In spite of this decision, the PLO did not participate at the UN in its capacity of the State of Palestine's government.
In 1979, through the Camp David Accords, Egypt signaled an end to any claim of its own over the Gaza Strip. In July 1988, Jordan ceded its claims to the West Bank—with the exception of guardianship over Haram al-Sharif—to the PLO. In November 1988, the PLO legislature, while in exile, declared the establishment of the "State of Palestine". In the month following, it was quickly recognised by many states, including Egypt and Jordan. In the Palestinian Declaration of Independence, the State of Palestine is described as being established on the "Palestinian territory", without explicitly specifying further. Because of this, some of the countries that recognised the State of Palestine in their statements of recognition refer to the "1967 borders", thus recognizing as its territory only the occupied Palestinian territory, and not Israel. The UN membership application submitted by the State of Palestine also specified that it is based on the "1967 borders". During the negotiations of the Oslo Accords, the PLO recognised Israel's right to exist, and Israel recognised the PLO as representative of the Palestinian people. The 1988 Palestinian Declaration of Independence included a PNC call for multilateral negotiations on the basis of UN Security Council Resolution 242 later known as "the Historic Compromise", implying acceptance of a two-state solution and no longer questioning the legitimacy of the State of Israel.
After Israel captured and occupied of the West Bank from Jordan and Gaza Strip from Egypt, it began to establish Israeli settlements there. Administration of the Arab population of these territories was performed by the Israeli Civil Administration of the Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories and by local municipal councils present since before the Israeli takeover. In 1980, Israel decided to freeze elections for these councils and to establish instead Village Leagues, whose officials were under Israeli influence. Later this model became ineffective for both Israel and the Palestinians, and the Village Leagues began to break up, with the last being the Hebron League, dissolved in February 1988.
In 1993, in the Oslo Accords, Israel acknowledged the PLO negotiating team as "representing the Palestinian people", in return for the PLO recognizing Israel's right to exist in peace, acceptance of UN Security Council resolutions 242 and 338, and its rejection of "violence and terrorism". As a result, in 1994 the PLO established the Palestinian National Authority (PNA or PA) territorial administration, that exercises some governmental functions in parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. In 2007, the Hamas takeover of Gaza Strip politically and territorially divided the Palestinians, with Abbas's Fatah left largely ruling the West Bank and recognized internationally as the official Palestinian Authority, while Hamas secured its control over the Gaza Strip. In April 2011, the Palestinian parties signed an agreement of reconciliation, but its implementation had stalled until a unity government was formed on 2 June 2014.
As envisioned in the Oslo Accords, Israel allowed the PLO to establish interim administrative institutions in the Palestinian territories, which came in the form of the PNA. It was given civilian control in Area B and civilian and security control in Area A, and remained without involvement in Area C. In 2005, following the implementation of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan, the PNA gained full control of the Gaza Strip with the exception of its borders, airspace, and territorial waters. Following the inter-Palestinian conflict in 2006, Hamas took over control of the Gaza Strip (it already had majority in the PLC), and Fatah took control of the West Bank. From 2007, the Gaza Strip was governed by Hamas, and the West Bank by Fatah.
International recognition
The State of Palestine has been recognized by 138 of the 193 UN members and since 2012 has had a status of a non-member observer state in the United Nations.
On 29 November 2012, in a 138–9 vote (with 41 abstentions and 5 absences), the United Nations General Assembly passed resolution 67/19, upgrading Palestine from an "observer entity" to a "non-member observer state" within the United Nations system, which was described as recognition of the PLO's sovereignty. Palestine's new status is equivalent to that of the Holy See.
The UN has permitted Palestine to title its representative office to the UN as "The Permanent Observer Mission of the State of Palestine to the United Nations", and Palestine has instructed its diplomats to officially represent "The State of Palestine"—no longer the Palestinian National Authority. On 17 December 2012, UN Chief of Protocol Yeocheol Yoon declared that "the designation of 'State of Palestine' shall be used by the Secretariat in all official United Nations documents", thus recognising the title 'State of Palestine' as the state's official name for all UN purposes; on 21 December 2012, a UN memorandum discussed appropriate terminology to be used following GA 67/19. It was noted therein that there was no legal impediment to using the designation Palestine to refer to the geographical area of the Palestinian territory. At the same time, it was explained that there was also no bar to the continued use of the term "Occupied Palestinian Territory including East Jerusalem" or such other terminology as might customarily be used by the Assembly. () of the member states of the United Nations have recognised the State of Palestine. Many of the countries that do not recognise the State of Palestine nevertheless recognise the PLO as the "representative of the Palestinian people". The PLO's Executive Committee is empowered by the Palestinian National Council to perform the functions of government of the State of Palestine.
Geography
The areas claimed by the State of Palestine lie in the Levant. The Gaza Strip borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Egypt to the south, and Israel to the north and east. The West Bank is bordered by Jordan to the east, and Israel to the north, south, and west. Thus, the two enclaves constituting the area claimed by State of Palestine have no geographical border with one another, being separated by Israel. These areas would constitute the world's 163rd largest country by land area.
Palestine has a number of environmental issues; issues facing the Gaza Strip include desertification; salination of fresh water; sewage treatment; water-borne diseases; soil degradation; and depletion and contamination of underground water resources. In the West Bank, many of the same issues apply; although fresh water is much more plentiful, access is restricted by the ongoing dispute.
Three terrestrial ecoregions are found in the area: Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests, Arabian Desert, and Mesopotamian shrub desert.
Climate
Temperatures in Palestine vary widely. The climate in the West Bank is mostly Mediterranean, slightly cooler at elevated areas compared with the shoreline, west to the area. In the east, the West Bank includes much of the Judean Desert including the western shoreline of the Dead Sea, characterised by dry and hot climate. Gaza has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSh) with mild winters and dry hot summers. Spring arrives around March–April and the hottest months are July and August, with the average high being . The coldest month is January with temperatures usually at . Rain is scarce and generally falls between November and March, with annual precipitation rates approximately at .
Government and politics
The State of Palestine consists of the following institutions that are associated with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO):
President of the State of Palestine – appointed by the Palestinian Central Council
Palestinian National Council – the legislature that established the State of Palestine
Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization – performs the functions of a government in exile, maintaining an extensive foreign-relations network
These should be distinguished from the President of the Palestinian National Authority, Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) and PNA Cabinet, all of which are instead associated with the Palestinian National Authority.
The State of Palestine's founding document is the Palestinian Declaration of Independence, and it should be distinguished from the unrelated PLO Palestinian National Covenant and PNA Palestine Basic Law.
Administrative divisions
The State of Palestine is divided into sixteen administrative divisions.
a. Data from Jerusalem includes occupied East Jerusalem with its Israeli population
The governorates in the West Bank are grouped into three areas per the Oslo II Accord. Area A forms 18% of the West Bank by area, and is administered by the Palestinian government. Area B forms 22% of the West Bank, and is under Palestinian civil control, and joint Israeli-Palestinian security control. Area C, except East Jerusalem, forms 60% of the West Bank, and is administered by the Israeli Civil Administration, except that the Palestinian government provides the education and medical services to the 150,000 Palestinians in the area. More than 99% of Area C is off limits to Palestinians. There are about 330,000 Israelis living in settlements in Area C. Although Area C is under martial law, Israelis living there are judged in Israeli civil courts.
East Jerusalem (comprising the small pre-1967 Jordanian eastern-sector Jerusalem municipality together with a significant area of the pre-1967 West Bank demarcated by Israel in 1967) is administered as part of the Jerusalem District of Israel but is claimed by Palestine as part of the Jerusalem Governorate. It was effectively annexed by Israel in 1967, by application of Israeli law, jurisdiction and administration under a 1948 law amended for the purpose, this purported annexation being constitutionally reaffirmed (by implication) in Basic Law: Jerusalem 1980, but this annexation is not recognised by any other country. In 2010 of the 456,000 people in East Jerusalem, roughly 60% were Palestinians and 40% were Israelis. However, since the late 2000s, Israel's West Bank Security Barrier has effectively re-annexed tens of thousands of Palestinians bearing Israeli ID cards to the West Bank, leaving East Jerusalem within the barrier with a small Israeli majority.
Foreign relations
Representation of the State of Palestine is performed by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). In states that recognise the State of Palestine it maintains embassies. The Palestine Liberation Organization is represented in various international organizations as member, associate or observer. Because of inconclusiveness in sources in some cases it is impossible to distinguish whether the participation is executed by the PLO as representative of the State of Palestine, by the PLO as a non-state entity or by the PNA.
International recognition
On 15 December 1988, the State of Palestine's declaration of independence of November 1988 was acknowledged in the General Assembly with Resolution 43/177.
() of the member states of the United Nations have recognised the State of Palestine. Many of the countries that do not recognise the State of Palestine nevertheless recognise the PLO as the "representative of the Palestinian people". The PLO's executive committee is empowered by the PNC to perform the functions of government of the State of Palestine.
On 29 November 2012, UN General Assembly resolution 67/19 passed, upgrading Palestine to "non-member observer state" status in the United Nations. The change in status was described as "de facto recognition of the sovereign state of Palestine".
In 2013 the Swedish Parliament upgraded the status of the Palestinian representative office in the country to full embassy status. On 3 October 2014, new Swedish Prime Minister Stefan Löfven used his inaugural address in parliament to announce that Sweden would recognise the state of Palestine. The official decision to do so was made on 30 October, making Sweden the first EU member state outside of the former communist bloc to recognise the state of Palestine. Most of the EU's 27 member states have refrained from recognising Palestinian statehood and those that do—such as Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia—did so before accession. In February 2015, Mahmoud Abbas visited Sweden to open the new embassy. Sweden’s Prime Minister, Stefan Lofven said "According to our view, Palestine is from now on a state."
On 13 October 2014, the UK House of Commons voted by 274 to 12 in favour of recognising Palestine as a state. The House of Commons backed the move "as a contribution to securing a negotiated two-state solution"—although less than half of MPs took part in the vote. However, the UK government is not bound to do anything as a result of the vote: its current policy is that it "reserves the right to recognise a Palestinian state bilaterally at the moment of our choosing and when it can best help bring about peace".
On 2 December 2014, the French parliament voted by 331 to 151 in favour of urging their government to recognise Palestine as a state. The text, proposed by the ruling Socialists and backed by left-wing parties and some conservatives, asked the government to "use the recognition of a Palestinian state with the aim of resolving the conflict definitively".
On 31 December 2014, the United Nations Security Council voted down a resolution demanding the end of Israeli occupation and statehood by 2017. Eight members voted for the Resolution (Russia, China, France, Argentina, Chad, Chile, Jordan, Luxembourg), however following strenuous US and Israeli efforts to defeat the resolution, it did not get the minimum of nine votes needed to pass the resolution. Australia and the United States voted against the resolution, with five other nations abstaining.
On 16 January 2015, the International Criminal Court announced that, since Palestine was granted observer State status in the UN by the UNGA, it must be considered a "State" for the purposes of accession to the Rome Statute.
On 13 May 2015, the Vatican announced it was shifting recognition from the PLO to the State of Palestine, confirming recognition of Palestine as a state after the UN vote of 2012. Monsignor Antoine Camilleri, Vatican foreign minister, said the change was in line with the evolving position of the Holy See, which has referred unofficially to the State of Palestine since Pope Francis's visit to the Holy Land in May 2014.
On 23 December 2015, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution demanding Palestinian sovereignty over the natural resources in the Palestinian territories under Israeli occupation. It called on Israel to desist from the exploitation, damage, cause of loss or depletion and endangerment of Palestinian natural resources, the right of Palestinians to seek restitution for extensive destruction. The motion was passed by 164 votes to 5, with Canada, Federated States of Micronesia, Israel, Marshall Islands, and the United States opposing.
Raising the flag at the UN
In August 2015, Palestine's representatives at the UN presented a draft resolution that would allow the non-member observer states Palestine and the Holy See to raise their flags at the United Nations headquarters. Initially, the Palestinians presented their initiative as a joint effort with the Holy See, which the Holy See denied.
In a letter to the Secretary General and the President of the General Assembly, Israel's Ambassador at the UN Ron Prosor called the step "another cynical misuse of the UN ... in order to score political points".
After the vote, which was passed by 119 votes to 8 with 45 countries abstaining, the US Ambassador Samantha Power said that "raising the Palestinian flag will not bring Israelis and Palestinians any closer together". US Department of State spokesman Mark Toner called it a "counterproductive" attempt to pursue statehood claims outside of a negotiated settlement.
At the ceremony itself, U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said the occasion was a "day of pride for the Palestinian people around the world, a day of hope", and declared "Now is the time to restore confidence by both Israelis and Palestinians for a peaceful settlement and, at last, the realization of two states for two peoples."
Legal status
There are a wide variety of views regarding the status of the State of Palestine, both among the states of the international community and among legal scholars. The existence of a state of Palestine, although controversial, is a reality in the opinions of the states that have established bilateral diplomatic relations.
Law and security
The State of Palestine has a number of security forces, including a Civil Police Force, National Security Forces and Intelligence Services, with the function of maintaining security and protecting Palestinian citizens and the Palestinian State.
Demographics
According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, the State of Palestine had population of 4,420,549 people in 2013. Within an area of , there is a population density of about 827 people per square kilometre. To put this in a wider context, the average population density of the world was 25 people per square kilometre as of 2017.
Healthcare
According to the Palestinian Ministry of Health (MOH), as of 2017, there were 743 primary health care centers in Palestine (583 in the West Bank and 160 in Gaza), and 81 hospitals (51 in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and 30 in Gaza).
Operating under the auspices of the World Health Organization (WHO), the Health Cluster for the occupied Palestinian territory (oPt) was established in 2009 and represents a partnership of over 70 local and international nongovernmental organisations and UN agencies providing a framework for health actors involved in the humanitarian response for the oPt. The Cluster is co-chaired by the MOH to ensure alignment with national policies and plans.
The report of WHO Director-General of 1 May 2019 describes health sector conditions in the oPt identifying strategic priorities and current obstacles to their achievement pursuant to the country cooperation strategy for WHO and the Occupied Palestinian Territory 2017–2020.
Education
The literacy rate of Palestine was 96.3% according to a 2014 report by the United Nations Development Programme, which is high by international standards. There is a gender difference in the population aged above 15 with 5.9% of women considered illiterate compared to 1.6% of men. Illiteracy among women has fallen from 20.3% in 1997 to less than 6% in 2014.
Religion
93% of Palestinians are Muslim, the vast majority of whom are followers of the Sunni branch of Islam, with a small minority of Ahmadiyya, and 15% being nondenominational Muslims. Palestinian Christians represent a significant minority of 6%, followed by much smaller religious communities, including Druze and Samaritans.
Economy
Tourism
Tourism in the territory claimed by the State of Palestine refers to tourism in East Jerusalem, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. In 2010, 4.6 million people visited the Palestinian territories, compared to 2.6 million in 2009. Of that number, 2.2 million were foreign tourists while 2.7 million were domestic. Most tourists come for only a few hours or as part of a day trip itinerary. In the last quarter of 2012 over 150,000 guests stayed in West Bank hotels; 40% were European and 9% were from the United States and Canada. Lonely Planet travel guide writes that "the West Bank is not the easiest place in which to travel but the effort is richly rewarded." In 2013 Palestinian Authority Tourism minister Rula Ma'ay'a stated that her government aims to encourage international visits to Palestine, but the occupation is the main factor preventing the tourism sector from becoming a major income source to Palestinians. There are no visa conditions imposed on foreign nationals other than those imposed by the visa policy of Israel. Access to Jerusalem, the West Bank, and Gaza is completely controlled by the Government of Israel. Entry to the occupied Palestinian territories requires only a valid international passport.
Communications
The Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) and the Ministry of Telecom and Information Technology said there were 4.2 million cellular mobile subscribers in Palestine compared to 2.6 million at the end of 2010 while the number of ADSL subscribers in Palestine increased to about 363 thousand by the end of 2019 from 119 thousand over the same period. 97% of Palestinian households have at least one cellular mobile line while at least one smartphone is owned by 86% of households (91% in the West Bank and 78% in Gaza Strip). About 80% of the Palestinian households have access to the internet in their homes and about a third have a computer.
On 12 June 2020, the World Bank approved a US$15 million grant for the Technology for Youth and Jobs (TechStart) Project aiming to help the Palestinian IT sector upgrade the capabilities of firms and create more high-quality jobs. Kanthan Shankar, World Bank Country Director for West Bank and Gaza said "The IT sector has the potential to make a strong contribution to economic growth. It can offer opportunities to Palestinian youth, who constitute 30% of the population and suffer from acute unemployment."
Financial services
The Palestine Monetary Authority has issued guidelines for the operation and provision of electronic payment services including e-wallet and prepaid cards.
Transportation
Water supply and sanitation
Water supply and sanitation in the Palestinian territories are characterized by severe water shortage and are highly influenced by the Israeli occupation. The water resources of Palestine are fully controlled by Israel and the division of groundwater is subject to provisions in the Oslo II Accord.
Generally, the water quality is considerably worse in the Gaza strip when compared to the West Bank. About a third to half of the delivered water in the Palestinian territories is lost in the distribution network. The lasting blockade of the Gaza Strip and the Gaza War have caused severe damage to the infrastructure in the Gaza Strip.
Concerning wastewater, the existing treatment plants do not have the capacity to treat all of the produced wastewater, causing severe water pollution. The development of the sector highly depends on external financing.
Culture
Media
There are a number of newspapers, news agencies, and satellite television stations in the State of Palestine. Its news agencies include Ma'an News Agency, Wafa, Palestine News Network. Al-Aqsa TV, Al-Quds TV, Sanabel TV are its main satellite broadcasters.
Sports
Association football (soccer) is the most popular sport among the Palestinian people. The Palestine national football team represents the country in international football. Rugby is also a popular sport.
Art, music, and clothing
Ameed Zaghal (born 1991), a Palestinian singer and artist
See also
Flag of Palestine
International recognition of the State of Palestine
Israeli settlement
Israeli-occupied territories
Palestinian self-determination
Water Rights in Israel-Palestine
Palestine (region)
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Gerson, Allan (1978). Israel, the West Bank and International Law. London: Frank Cass. .
p. 49 p. 279 p. 291 p. 294
Further reading
Shatz, Adam, "We Are Conquerors" (review of Tom Segev, A State at Any Cost: The Life of David Ben-Gurion, Head of Zeus, 2019, 804 pp., ), London Review of Books, vol. 41, no. 20 (24 October 2019), pp. 37–38, 40–42. "Segev's biography... shows how central exclusionary nationalism, war and racism were to Ben-Gurion's vision of the Jewish homeland in Palestine, and how contemptuous he was not only of the Arabs but of Jewish life outside Zion. [Liberal Jews] may look at the state that Ben-Gurion built, and ask if the cost has been worth it." (p. 42 of Shatz's review.)
External links
Status of Palestine in the United Nations (A/RES/67/19) Full Text
Cross, Tony (24 September 2011). "After Abbas's UN Bid Are Palestinians Closer To Having a State?". Radio France Internationale. Retrieved 2011-9-28.
Recognition of a Palestinian state Premature Legally Invalid and Undermining any Bona Fide Negotiation Process
Political Statement accompanying Palestinian Declaration of Independence
Permanent Observer Mission of Palestine to the United Nations
The Historic Compromise: The Palestinian Declaration of Independence and the Twenty-Year Struggle for a Two-State Solution
International Recognition of a Unilaterally Declared Palestinian State: Legal and Policy Dilemmas, by Tal Becker
State of Palestine
Arabic-speaking countries and territories
Eastern Mediterranean
Levant
Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
Middle Eastern countries
Near Eastern countries
Western Asian countries
Republics
Two-state solution
United Nations General Assembly observers
States and territories established in 1988
States with limited recognition
1988 establishments in Asia
Countries in Asia | [
0.4471936523914337,
0.0006736145005561411,
-0.30667027831077576,
-0.1384219080209732,
0.023346228525042534,
-0.28775113821029663,
-0.5405750870704651,
0.5227722525596619,
0.06627439707517624,
-0.5677935481071472,
-1.0937597751617432,
-0.1691010296344757,
-0.43328791856765747,
0.4621814787387848,
-0.5356342792510986,
0.7077268958091736,
0.466673344373703,
0.5091657042503357,
-0.05422790348529816,
-0.18887780606746674,
-0.0884118527173996,
0.20996901392936707,
0.18788039684295654,
-0.14863711595535278,
-0.3865620493888855,
-0.3884195387363434,
0.6514106392860413,
-0.0266084186732769,
-0.42202895879745483,
-0.12928320467472076,
-0.3668348491191864,
-0.048163630068302155,
-0.5535849332809448,
0.08618193864822388,
0.09943702071905136,
0.10473909974098206,
0.047381021082401276,
0.06657998263835907,
0.04866202920675278,
-0.9208961725234985,
-0.21021531522274017,
-0.47188833355903625,
0.2424096167087555,
0.5161234736442566,
0.31992653012275696,
-0.6628069281578064,
-0.33325955271720886,
0.8053827881813049,
-0.26263412833213806,
0.2646200954914093,
-0.5253931879997253,
0.0769040435552597,
-0.6530880928039551,
0.7157157063484192,
0.3532741069793701,
-0.28471043705940247,
-0.7542576193809509,
-0.4203574061393738,
0.43110737204551697,
-0.18786264955997467,
0.48896774649620056,
0.18786421418190002,
0.29601094126701355,
0.15807588398456573,
0.16195756196975708,
-0.10211841017007828,
0.08767841756343842,
0.21779005229473114,
0.4560832977294922,
-0.4580878019332886,
-0.6525118350982666,
0.006227495148777962,
-0.8600068688392639,
-0.44358330965042114,
0.051011085510253906,
-0.2722628116607666,
0.29980576038360596,
-0.21467265486717224,
-0.4290279448032379,
0.7331112027168274,
-0.08048858493566513,
-0.004512058105319738,
0.4034586548805237,
0.20340603590011597,
-0.023736124858260155,
-0.2226332575082779,
-0.39715710282325745,
-0.00759615283459425,
-0.4166496694087982,
0.4890042841434479,
0.022642454132437706,
0.376687616109848,
0.4797115623950958,
-0.8185230493545532,
-0.51605224609375,
-0.22929927706718445,
0.4108043909072876,
0.04661326855421066,
0.1214040145277977,
-0.3231389820575714,
0.06857039779424667,
0.7737776041030884,
0.2963109612464905,
-0.4275030791759491,
-0.04511677846312523,
-0.4548710286617279,
0.44743070006370544,
0.09425099194049835,
0.3277835547924042,
-0.022443870082497597,
0.464804083108902,
0.39646562933921814,
0.4143168330192566,
-0.020299628376960754,
0.25942713022232056,
0.167510524392128,
-0.12833832204341888,
-0.5338351726531982,
-0.014734035357832909,
0.012829739600419998,
0.04579384624958038,
0.6589396595954895,
-0.35600876808166504,
0.19053420424461365,
0.6161949038505554,
-0.23508450388908386,
0.39451736211776733,
0.2516382336616516,
-0.7803841829299927,
0.19072072207927704,
0.7044803500175476,
0.24236629903316498,
-0.09619884192943573,
0.08056602627038956,
0.1019451767206192,
0.0641290470957756,
0.05664911866188049,
-0.14945217967033386,
0.9966365694999695,
-0.0542297437787056,
-0.9407255053520203,
-0.07673230022192001,
-0.2888906002044678,
0.24414215981960297,
0.2864709198474884,
-0.21709901094436646,
0.4705488979816437,
-0.509501039981842,
-0.7275844216346741,
-0.36762720346450806,
0.19879446923732758,
0.13661570847034454,
0.2110031098127365,
0.09568426012992859,
-0.39422640204429626,
-0.3387887179851532,
0.5080538988113403,
0.15693946182727814,
0.2749146521091461,
0.2796266973018646,
0.34536322951316833,
-0.09936506301164627,
0.4845108389854431,
-0.080256886780262,
-0.13646043837070465,
0.3992026448249817,
0.21678562462329865,
0.8705708384513855,
0.5334487557411194,
-0.29227402806282043,
-0.31638312339782715,
-0.586300790309906,
0.5549909472465515,
-0.48725414276123047,
-0.4321022033691406,
-0.30088678002357483,
0.5890240669250488,
0.5730128288269043,
0.15383806824684143,
-0.1958398073911667,
-0.615802526473999,
0.290487676858902,
-0.3629206120967865,
0.409549742937088,
-0.4892943799495697,
-0.09961051493883133,
-0.34396740794181824,
-0.11364298313856125,
-0.09282048791646957,
0.2661116421222687,
0.1043766513466835,
-0.4391910135746002,
0.0300812479108572,
0.20538733899593353,
0.6228027939796448,
-0.10917165130376816,
-0.9448848366737366,
0.697462797164917,
-0.09860436618328094,
0.3910357654094696,
-0.563835859298706,
0.06171588972210884,
0.3051896393299103,
0.07721405476331711,
-0.2737331986427307,
0.5378947854042053,
0.046048570424318314,
0.4795334041118622,
0.23498618602752686,
0.244349405169487,
0.6394129395484924,
-0.6388813257217407,
0.15567246079444885,
-0.0946180447936058,
0.2786107659339905,
-0.025210170075297356,
-0.047367844730615616,
-0.17546424269676208,
0.05837645381689072,
0.2638733685016632,
0.9418330192565918,
0.10253088176250458,
0.18149353563785553,
0.17261719703674316,
0.3739188313484192,
-0.20194081962108612,
0.2124186009168625,
0.7238258719444275,
0.04213453829288483,
-0.007525009103119373,
-0.37008991837501526,
-0.2658589780330658,
0.5279099941253662,
-0.37105539441108704,
0.009099402464926243,
-0.5456233024597168,
-0.06116418167948723,
-0.043257422745227814,
0.9299473166465759,
0.13920438289642334,
-0.1870846152305603,
0.04844240844249725,
0.20502860844135284,
-0.33057400584220886,
0.5091710090637207,
0.6284060478210449,
-0.1606994867324829,
-0.04975762963294983,
-0.35041189193725586,
-0.13357014954090118,
-0.6057403683662415,
0.2736401855945587,
0.019360292702913284,
-0.5080525279045105,
0.29809147119522095,
-0.16443733870983124,
0.035319965332746506,
0.03700324892997742,
0.6135895252227783,
-0.1671106368303299,
0.15580293536186218,
0.25122734904289246,
-0.12916524708271027,
0.464007169008255,
-0.20822495222091675,
-0.33109110593795776,
-0.47138512134552,
-0.1145847961306572,
-0.14659085869789124,
0.5391807556152344,
1.055665373802185,
-0.02970138005912304,
0.07087568938732147,
-0.07539492100477219,
0.12203530222177505,
0.8031841516494751,
-0.3170648217201233,
0.18928125500679016,
-0.23328600823879242,
0.37831181287765503,
0.27892836928367615,
-0.17630912363529205,
0.0939306691288948,
-0.4370917081832886,
-0.046784285455942154,
-0.35026317834854126,
0.3605249524116516,
-0.5270453691482544,
0.04766656458377838,
-0.285605251789093,
-0.250592440366745,
0.823874294757843,
0.520678699016571,
0.20529814064502716,
0.1432875096797943,
-0.0475953109562397,
-0.020877443253993988,
-0.3456771671772003,
0.004673152696341276,
-0.11316155642271042,
-1.165708303451538,
0.5036927461624146,
-0.9363325834274292,
-0.27810221910476685,
0.12022977322340012,
0.14250169694423676,
-0.6404374241828918,
0.18185381591320038,
-5.694148540496826,
0.11783243715763092,
-0.5450008511543274,
0.34675782918930054,
-0.10843150317668915,
-0.2694752812385559,
0.2970616817474365,
-0.38213613629341125,
-0.0456826277077198,
-0.3259480893611908,
0.16672000288963318,
-0.36849141120910645,
0.047954607754945755,
0.6317989230155945,
0.5733224153518677,
0.680030345916748,
0.5184552073478699,
0.11487781256437302,
0.07380630820989609,
-0.13472144305706024,
-0.7352569699287415,
-0.526884138584137,
0.1802794188261032,
0.5671998262405396,
0.3985074758529663,
0.18095219135284424,
0.11670266836881638,
-0.12098219245672226,
-0.5967442393302917,
-0.29711100459098816,
-0.5563133358955383,
-0.7034019827842712,
0.7060729265213013,
0.15141555666923523,
-0.1335730403661728,
-0.2709607779979706,
0.6542248725891113,
-0.22232896089553833,
0.5262364745140076,
-0.8341649174690247,
-0.5962699055671692,
0.7143421769142151,
-0.3255147933959961,
-0.163746178150177,
0.05191032588481903,
-0.19355951249599457,
-0.6357704401016235,
0.2088840901851654,
-0.45516160130500793,
0.7233171463012695,
0.5367870926856995,
-0.38902318477630615,
-0.24149569869041443,
-0.6560981869697571,
-0.4967917799949646,
0.10013873130083084,
0.37543168663978577,
-0.32359299063682556,
-0.39379310607910156,
0.21968966722488403,
0.47670263051986694,
-0.4763682782649994,
-0.10685336589813232,
-0.2606710195541382,
0.18029099702835083,
-0.2163926512002945,
-0.9049707651138306,
-0.3869006633758545,
0.35247400403022766,
0.016663793474435806,
-0.22721630334854126,
-0.0491350032389164,
-0.44254007935523987,
-0.6401060819625854,
-0.529983639717102,
-0.7472888827323914,
-0.5600333213806152,
-0.19666405022144318,
0.2671968638896942,
0.06710906326770782,
-0.36729884147644043,
-0.18708723783493042,
0.18578268587589264,
0.2575233280658722,
0.016725867986679077,
-0.6671823263168335,
0.37296566367149353,
0.4042808711528778,
0.29517289996147156,
-0.3998895287513733,
0.6945104002952576,
-0.7602766752243042,
0.8752703070640564,
0.19496777653694153,
-0.462776780128479,
0.7273939847946167,
0.1499592810869217,
0.4843396544456482,
0.296089768409729,
0.097188800573349,
0.017200738191604614,
-0.2027314305305481,
-0.37323707342147827,
-0.606660008430481,
-0.21140532195568085,
0.7306087017059326,
-0.039136044681072235,
0.5091530680656433,
0.3998672664165497,
-0.5346972942352295,
-0.26729464530944824,
0.09655705094337463,
-0.0784231498837471,
-0.543517529964447,
0.3061957359313965,
-0.3821469247341156,
0.31235748529434204,
0.7595930695533752,
0.3483234643936157,
0.4370024800300598,
0.005854959599673748,
-0.06451769173145294,
0.14660851657390594,
-0.10887037217617035,
-0.41598939895629883,
0.18638916313648224,
-0.10431423038244247,
0.4850718080997467,
0.550750195980072,
0.24217826128005981,
0.41911646723747253,
0.23359407484531403,
0.3174259662628174,
0.12171389907598495,
0.8010237812995911,
0.036843158304691315,
-0.40851956605911255,
-0.506706178188324,
-0.1251034438610077,
0.25903743505477905,
-0.30973854660987854,
-0.15200893580913544,
0.20067305862903595,
0.0704965740442276,
0.5692721605300903,
-0.012659519910812378,
-0.2868633568286896,
-0.17937177419662476,
-0.36696532368659973,
0.1427900344133377,
0.6505331993103027,
0.17005792260169983,
0.34689220786094666,
0.05020192265510559,
0.06385095417499542,
-0.1856158971786499,
0.5976437330245972,
0.302639901638031,
0.1721220314502716,
0.06957023590803146,
-0.0727410539984703,
-0.6539409756660461,
-0.6859244108200073,
0.28904685378074646,
0.6864689588546753,
-0.12826575338840485,
0.28920817375183105,
0.12647058069705963,
-0.31412312388420105,
0.640675961971283,
0.08328396081924438,
-0.5273432731628418,
-0.3209432363510132,
-0.1314636617898941,
-0.05442534387111664,
-0.24948470294475555,
-0.06781860440969467,
0.5830260515213013,
0.1825597733259201,
-0.596107006072998,
0.00019516194879543036,
-0.17417806386947632,
-0.3407272696495056,
0.06731759756803513,
0.1878257393836975,
-0.39243966341018677,
-0.05518114194273949,
-0.15191909670829773,
-0.38715195655822754,
0.25977858901023865,
0.2679780125617981,
-0.007509783376008272,
-0.13181394338607788,
0.8315420746803284,
-0.2723027467727661,
-0.15379968285560608,
0.3282099962234497,
0.4195786416530609,
-0.13054899871349335,
0.07933638244867325,
0.20218078792095184,
0.07896530628204346,
-0.7345184087753296,
0.19562123715877533,
0.15247167646884918,
-0.08394241333007812,
0.49865609407424927,
0.0732777789235115,
-0.13204210996627808,
0.11592669039964676,
-0.6210469007492065,
-0.019681766629219055,
-0.14404891431331635,
0.38697999715805054,
-0.5818051099777222,
-0.312223345041275,
0.551547110080719,
-0.39652562141418457,
0.10769543796777725,
-0.21218840777873993,
0.810474157333374,
0.40690866112709045,
0.1786680370569229,
0.12740100920200348,
-0.07250948995351791,
0.2548486590385437,
-0.0498301163315773,
-0.33125489950180054,
-0.4764423072338104,
-0.09828730672597885,
0.3876083791255951,
-0.5404242873191833,
0.6608749628067017,
0.0914650484919548,
0.04720790311694145,
0.26865798234939575,
0.4881287217140198,
-0.24541912972927094,
-0.546562671661377,
0.4242691695690155,
0.040947675704956055,
0.5025796890258789,
-0.15505284070968628,
-0.6419036984443665,
-0.3634369969367981,
0.13940085470676422,
0.07206975668668747,
-0.42242273688316345,
-0.18887990713119507,
0.2538576126098633,
0.3313412070274353,
-0.10778230428695679,
-0.8785707950592041,
-0.3517599403858185,
0.2714671790599823,
0.17872412502765656,
0.21346807479858398,
-0.0032957131043076515,
0.1281423270702362,
0.11346463859081268,
0.1766541600227356,
-0.3673492670059204,
-0.6627624034881592,
0.47321468591690063,
0.2621089220046997,
-0.520443856716156,
-0.15938815474510193,
-0.3538791239261627,
-0.16007158160209656,
-0.20732812583446503,
-0.4050210416316986,
-0.18476718664169312,
0.40249285101890564,
0.04255543649196625,
-0.07136129587888718,
0.2139473706483841,
-0.01902107335627079,
-0.22287501394748688,
-0.3701082468032837,
0.06020805239677429,
-0.5705302953720093,
0.0897778794169426,
0.10341517627239227,
0.16553281247615814,
0.4356097877025604,
-1.1307854652404785,
-0.12617719173431396,
0.2738969326019287,
-0.12382218986749649,
-0.35376787185668945,
0.1650770604610443,
-0.46909892559051514,
-0.23708155751228333,
-0.17387929558753967,
-0.12642623484134674,
-0.26490119099617004,
0.41032519936561584,
0.4698381721973419,
0.09415033459663391,
-0.3533645272254944,
-0.43919047713279724,
0.441772997379303,
-0.011964275501668453,
-0.1199197918176651,
0.43147873878479004,
0.07015205919742584,
-0.528260350227356,
-0.1889369636774063,
0.42921575903892517,
0.07828754186630249,
0.7472638487815857,
-0.37464776635169983,
0.37195268273353577,
0.05602811649441719,
-0.5699660181999207,
0.412914514541626,
0.8277804851531982,
-0.6009237170219421,
-0.11988427489995956,
0.5455948114395142,
0.01051344908773899,
-0.09320330619812012,
0.11364394426345825,
0.5759446620941162,
0.04039334878325462,
0.004853393416851759,
0.5113788843154907,
-0.32800838351249695,
0.34897854924201965,
0.2927131652832031,
0.6728084683418274,
-0.09057673066854477,
-0.32135409116744995,
-0.569615364074707,
-0.2119436264038086,
-0.17785564064979553,
-0.056215375661849976,
-0.1525518298149109,
-0.058052923530340195,
0.8543124198913574,
0.19185180962085724,
0.47199323773384094,
-0.5182536840438843,
-0.15678177773952484,
0.14819824695587158,
0.5467823147773743,
-0.3058004677295685,
0.02700628526508808,
0.4050885736942291,
0.4104278087615967,
0.8807075023651123,
-0.4687669575214386,
-0.04632233828306198,
-0.3500463664531708,
0.2318550944328308,
-0.03635454922914505,
0.3672415018081665,
-0.24318774044513702,
-0.4780171513557434,
0.10953300446271896,
0.20079252123832703,
-0.29207107424736023,
0.606869637966156,
-0.1312805414199829,
0.438081294298172,
-0.586983323097229,
0.1810465306043625,
-0.8153852820396423,
0.16035903990268707,
0.013788384385406971,
0.13953779637813568,
0.11864777654409409,
-0.33495989441871643,
-0.022336093708872795,
0.16516540944576263,
0.21401792764663696,
0.02259223721921444,
0.5998964309692383,
-0.031179534271359444,
0.6513780355453491,
0.13720569014549255,
-0.9305446147918701,
-0.11865898966789246,
-1.338423252105713,
-0.3538525700569153,
0.04489697143435478,
0.1269807368516922,
-0.8474276661872864,
-0.7728580236434937,
0.2501988410949707,
-0.37290841341018677,
-0.7441954016685486,
0.36613336205482483,
-0.21007941663265228,
0.16994339227676392,
-0.13251090049743652,
-0.8184590935707092,
0.6902282238006592,
0.2823101878166199,
-0.3083251416683197,
0.5627380609512329,
0.36204031109809875,
0.10194062441587448,
-0.14336515963077545,
0.34310364723205566,
-0.13056479394435883,
-0.493938148021698,
-0.2744288444519043,
-0.7179563641548157,
0.4997985363006592,
0.3636883795261383,
0.439313143491745,
0.434555321931839,
0.18027837574481964,
-0.568949282169342,
0.4630489647388458,
0.5744231939315796,
-0.10705292224884033,
0.6172123551368713,
-0.539300799369812,
0.12425738573074341,
-0.7107370495796204,
-0.8394821882247925,
0.4706219434738159,
-0.1163061186671257,
-0.0801992416381836,
0.39137107133865356,
0.39263561367988586,
-0.7445452213287354,
0.5912261605262756,
-0.03967764228582382,
-0.2033701092004776,
-0.1285676509141922,
-0.485914409160614,
-1.0528184175491333,
-0.05136517807841301,
0.18017375469207764,
0.3904387950897217,
-0.146569162607193,
-1.054566740989685,
-0.3585093319416046,
-0.17632529139518738,
0.26643431186676025,
0.10743635892868042,
0.08673165738582611,
-0.41433408856391907,
-0.5320318341255188,
0.09454714506864548,
-1.146332025527954,
0.9940891265869141,
0.014565128833055496,
-0.029469074681401253,
0.7092079520225525,
-0.17340853810310364,
0.12217925488948822,
-0.3605203628540039,
0.38663026690483093,
-0.7694228887557983,
0.3296581506729126,
0.024543417617678642
] |
241408 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rader%27s%20FFT%20algorithm | Rader's FFT algorithm | Rader's algorithm (1968), named for Charles M. Rader of MIT Lincoln Laboratory, is a fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm that computes the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of prime sizes by re-expressing the DFT as a cyclic convolution (the other algorithm for FFTs of prime sizes, Bluestein's algorithm, also works by rewriting the DFT as a convolution).
Since Rader's algorithm only depends upon the periodicity of the DFT kernel, it is directly applicable to any other transform (of prime order) with a similar property, such as a number-theoretic transform or the discrete Hartley transform.
The algorithm can be modified to gain a factor of two savings for the case of DFTs of real data, using a slightly modified re-indexing/permutation to obtain two half-size cyclic convolutions of real data; an alternative adaptation for DFTs of real data uses the discrete Hartley transform.
Winograd extended Rader's algorithm to include prime-power DFT sizes , and today Rader's algorithm is sometimes described as a special case of Winograd's FFT algorithm, also called the multiplicative Fourier transform algorithm (Tolimieri et al., 1997), which applies to an even larger class of sizes. However, for composite sizes such as prime powers, the Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm is much simpler and more practical to implement, so Rader's algorithm is typically only used for large-prime base cases of Cooley–Tukey's recursive decomposition of the DFT.
Algorithm
Begin with the definition of the discrete Fourier transform:
If N is a prime number, then the set of non-zero indices forms a group under multiplication modulo N. One consequence of the number theory of such groups is that there exists a generator of the group (sometimes called a primitive root, which can be found quickly by exhaustive search or slightly better algorithms). This generator is an integer g such that for any non-zero index n and for a unique (forming a bijection from q to non-zero n). Similarly, for any non-zero index k and for a unique , where the negative exponent denotes the multiplicative inverse of . That means that we can rewrite the DFT using these new indices p and q as:
(Recall that xn and Xk are implicitly periodic in N, and also that (Euler's identity). Thus, all indices and exponents are taken modulo N as required by the group arithmetic.)
The final summation, above, is precisely a cyclic convolution of the two sequences aq and bq (of length N–1, because ) defined by:
Evaluating the convolution
Since N–1 is composite, this convolution can be performed directly via the convolution theorem and more conventional FFT algorithms. However, that may not be efficient if N–1 itself has large prime factors, requiring recursive use of Rader's algorithm. Instead, one can compute a length-(N–1) cyclic convolution exactly by zero-padding it to a length of at least 2(N–1)–1, say to a power of two, which can then be evaluated in O(N log N) time without the recursive application of Rader's algorithm.
This algorithm, then, requires O(N) additions plus O(N log N) time for the convolution. In practice, the O(N) additions can often be performed by absorbing the additions into the convolution: if the convolution is performed by a pair of FFTs, then the sum of xn is given by the DC (0th) output of the FFT of aq plus x0, and x0 can be added to all the outputs by adding it to the DC term of the convolution prior to the inverse FFT. Still, this algorithm requires intrinsically more operations than FFTs of nearby composite sizes, and typically takes 3–10 times as long in practice.
If Rader's algorithm is performed by using FFTs of size N–1 to compute the convolution, rather than by zero padding as mentioned above, the efficiency depends strongly upon N and the number of times that Rader's algorithm must be applied recursively. The worst case would be if N–1 were 2N2 where N2 is prime, with N2–1 = 2N3 where N3 is prime, and so on. In such cases, supposing that the chain of primes extended all the way down to some bounded value, the recursive application of Rader's algorithm would actually require O(N2) time. Such Nj are called Sophie Germain primes, and such a sequence of them is called a Cunningham chain of the first kind. The lengths of Cunningham chains, however, are observed to grow more slowly than log2(N), so Rader's algorithm applied in this way is probably not O(N2), though it is possibly worse than O(N log N) for the worst cases. Fortunately, a guarantee of O(N log N) complexity can be achieved by zero padding.
References
FFT algorithms | [
-0.5387539267539978,
0.15813496708869934,
-0.5669976472854614,
-0.5603151917457581,
-0.6299326419830322,
0.998268723487854,
0.4113379418849945,
-0.6167283654212952,
-0.2988267242908478,
-0.2965400218963623,
0.08900477737188339,
0.6916443705558777,
-0.6924428343772888,
-0.005713732447475195,
-0.0014312760904431343,
0.49884653091430664,
0.10387293994426727,
-0.19024096429347992,
-0.12960509955883026,
-0.5179538726806641,
0.015367822721600533,
0.11041030287742615,
0.12320008873939514,
-0.21384909749031067,
0.3825271725654602,
0.04616829380393028,
-0.07349181175231934,
0.026262076571583748,
0.07186026871204376,
0.5524612665176392,
0.3271012008190155,
0.8967123627662659,
0.292133092880249,
-0.7075780034065247,
0.24479830265045166,
-0.27865636348724365,
0.28286275267601013,
0.14691196382045746,
0.07764142751693726,
-0.31076961755752563,
0.39267268776893616,
-0.1639760285615921,
0.25227588415145874,
0.05424802005290985,
-0.2592775523662567,
-0.5553348064422607,
-2.0857677459716797,
0.04647015035152435,
-0.10004882514476776,
-0.5190563201904297,
-0.635360062122345,
0.29474589228630066,
0.6799584627151489,
0.2536190152168274,
-0.3038661777973175,
0.5352193117141724,
-0.33149608969688416,
-0.12294238060712814,
0.7729533314704895,
-0.08112721890211105,
0.2851234972476959,
-0.5894209742546082,
0.1549752652645111,
0.6583486199378967,
-0.19032731652259827,
0.8614884614944458,
0.01629951409995556,
0.28402701020240784,
-0.3058373034000397,
-0.0767444372177124,
-0.23473449051380157,
-0.5915625095367432,
-0.19812241196632385,
0.005035960581153631,
-0.36644184589385986,
-0.4240344166755676,
0.07560212910175323,
-0.069254569709301,
-0.07167810946702957,
0.03608318790793419,
0.20132699608802795,
0.24402697384357452,
0.4535539150238037,
-0.18078914284706116,
0.4054587781429291,
0.15409092605113983,
-0.5495557188987732,
0.06302103400230408,
-0.5759003758430481,
0.010803768411278725,
-0.4578256905078888,
-0.38250237703323364,
0.3073408901691437,
0.2605769634246826,
-0.06178039684891701,
0.12748895585536957,
-0.1591026335954666,
-0.2980496883392334,
0.017868351191282272,
0.39633625745773315,
-0.5555812120437622,
0.5161734819412231,
0.40069010853767395,
-0.01172698475420475,
-0.4581042230129242,
-0.08747997879981995,
-0.4565657377243042,
-0.36365410685539246,
-0.05777986720204353,
-0.20504264533519745,
-0.18656793236732483,
0.6174744963645935,
0.038865864276885986,
-0.2922329008579254,
-0.3648485243320465,
0.3788347840309143,
0.3238467872142792,
0.08063329756259918,
-0.33819127082824707,
0.5270023941993713,
0.31718477606773376,
0.9157118797302246,
0.2770329415798187,
0.7793222069740295,
-0.2910577058792114,
0.19142135977745056,
0.3386537432670593,
0.6875506043434143,
-0.40382906794548035,
0.1224614679813385,
0.05986670404672623,
1.0666393041610718,
0.5279811024665833,
0.2748246192932129,
-0.2030191421508789,
-0.14363709092140198,
-0.00908272247761488,
-0.11188734322786331,
-0.4638683497905731,
0.39710673689842224,
-0.24395519495010376,
-0.22937935590744019,
0.05995403975248337,
-0.1621468961238861,
0.442080020904541,
-0.06262917071580887,
0.210489884018898,
-0.3536027669906616,
-0.028902752324938774,
-0.2435123771429062,
0.23005299270153046,
-0.13393090665340424,
-0.3908279538154602,
0.031170612201094627,
-0.3305165767669678,
0.9058694243431091,
-0.6303623914718628,
-0.041218195110559464,
-0.04042811691761017,
0.6515410542488098,
0.023986060172319412,
0.3006611466407776,
-0.1132407858967781,
-0.15614090859889984,
-0.23472380638122559,
-0.8869675397872925,
0.19297237694263458,
0.14303508400917053,
0.22483229637145996,
-0.0626337006688118,
-0.44710490107536316,
-0.33571141958236694,
0.5083001852035522,
-0.42098990082740784,
0.24597646296024323,
0.06449588388204575,
0.8367903232574463,
-0.1259130984544754,
0.06930623948574066,
-0.051297470927238464,
-0.5082621574401855,
0.006219855509698391,
0.014617683365941048,
0.29602211713790894,
0.5251266360282898,
-0.15124914050102234,
0.7239406108856201,
-0.26010358333587646,
0.2824549973011017,
0.24672797322273254,
-0.7074218988418579,
-0.026992488652467728,
0.7540197968482971,
-0.44767364859580994,
1.35783052444458,
0.44156748056411743,
-0.6526739001274109,
0.12071001529693604,
-0.15282008051872253,
0.8028724789619446,
-0.35041937232017517,
-0.7626680135726929,
0.573818027973175,
-0.5671902894973755,
-0.023579005151987076,
0.3030036389827728,
-0.14255690574645996,
-0.15751782059669495,
-0.4204730689525604,
0.8479331135749817,
0.27216923236846924,
0.5234689712524414,
-0.038217317312955856,
-0.21473924815654755,
0.31427761912345886,
0.3445904850959778,
0.16044367849826813,
0.43189898133277893,
0.31943610310554504,
-0.1177549883723259,
0.5315534472465515,
-0.013695013709366322,
-0.1503116935491562,
0.6043252348899841,
0.27381473779678345,
1.2147822380065918,
1.081836462020874,
0.5433483719825745,
0.7901045680046082,
-0.42137569189071655,
0.41042375564575195,
-0.0968928411602974,
0.0021921314764767885,
-0.29183685779571533,
0.18476150929927826,
0.10826864093542099,
-0.1793471723794937,
-0.21877774596214294,
0.6471179127693176,
-0.25593802332878113,
0.5510414838790894,
0.6362237930297852,
-0.34523680806159973,
-0.2558996379375458,
-0.17450794577598572,
-0.3049791753292084,
-0.07731198519468307,
0.04704289138317108,
-0.45466092228889465,
0.08089011162519455,
-0.14249394834041595,
0.7325654029846191,
0.05616454780101776,
-0.5008059144020081,
0.0001697861443972215,
0.49482259154319763,
-0.07791902869939804,
-0.26561814546585083,
0.7729247212409973,
0.4540562033653259,
-0.34545695781707764,
-0.2957608997821808,
0.30023542046546936,
-0.15541709959506989,
-0.07252045720815659,
-0.16419096291065216,
-0.8065380454063416,
-0.3851470351219177,
0.7397361993789673,
-0.06558191776275635,
-0.2147630900144577,
-0.24461716413497925,
-0.4156453013420105,
0.02365090884268284,
-0.12264840304851532,
-0.8173937201499939,
-0.18606533110141754,
0.0530572235584259,
-0.8864550590515137,
-0.23858971893787384,
0.18577660620212555,
0.883306086063385,
-0.23760803043842316,
-0.19463464617729187,
-0.5185238122940063,
0.178671732544899,
-0.3001019358634949,
0.057759348303079605,
0.05601593479514122,
0.004844223614782095,
-0.715656578540802,
0.3115212917327881,
-0.7486123442649841,
-0.22288629412651062,
-0.06420081853866577,
0.8240452408790588,
0.010069171898066998,
-0.5641003847122192,
0.18779481947422028,
-0.164742574095726,
-0.3599650263786316,
0.14797165989875793,
-0.1927720159292221,
-0.2515496611595154,
-0.07104330509901047,
-0.08609659224748611,
-0.5325206518173218,
0.7170476317405701,
-5.429047107696533,
0.3100363612174988,
-0.3621852695941925,
-0.0471755675971508,
-0.09811190515756607,
0.31280699372291565,
0.39775848388671875,
-0.2568593919277191,
-0.004549437668174505,
-0.6595858931541443,
-0.2720779478549957,
-0.6818668246269226,
-0.19358773529529572,
1.0924954414367676,
0.5326212644577026,
0.08731822669506073,
0.6206187605857849,
-0.2471427321434021,
0.3119123578071594,
0.7809116244316101,
-0.018177218735218048,
-0.9465210437774658,
-0.5956645607948303,
-0.30229371786117554,
0.3499128520488739,
0.48400789499282837,
-0.21362552046775818,
0.6251562237739563,
-0.8378946185112,
-0.1439841389656067,
0.14693839848041534,
-0.2409447878599167,
-0.31956684589385986,
-0.17565418779850006,
-0.3543891906738281,
0.2933538556098938,
0.7744067311286926,
-0.17191742360591888,
0.5655390620231628,
-0.41336408257484436,
-0.12346339225769043,
0.5416905879974365,
0.04089308902621269,
-0.178562194108963,
0.3093114495277405,
0.4252772331237793,
-0.5218456983566284,
0.271518737077713,
-0.19398221373558044,
0.6322956085205078,
-0.07276024669408798,
0.2746853232383728,
0.2140263319015503,
0.7591130137443542,
-0.05127455294132233,
-0.5267177224159241,
-0.2137812376022339,
-0.10755996406078339,
0.228830024600029,
0.1732518970966339,
1.0017918348312378,
-0.6733417510986328,
0.509672224521637,
-0.4335387349128723,
-0.289595365524292,
-0.8309822678565979,
-0.11848745495080948,
-0.6094080209732056,
0.19318760931491852,
0.039609309285879135,
-0.38973987102508545,
0.32621514797210693,
-0.4167798161506653,
-0.7823611497879028,
-0.18494796752929688,
-0.1942087858915329,
0.2628844380378723,
0.050340186804533005,
-0.024261876940727234,
0.36803776025772095,
-0.3417315185070038,
-1.2165250778198242,
-0.9799731373786926,
0.6165140867233276,
0.1841779500246048,
-0.1472853571176529,
-0.5467346906661987,
0.03675275295972824,
-0.7251627445220947,
-0.16757778823375702,
0.43011873960494995,
-0.5178744792938232,
0.2820560932159424,
0.47321784496307373,
0.17304669320583344,
0.3602680265903473,
0.6695343255996704,
0.24485650658607483,
0.8619553446769714,
0.09877648949623108,
0.19076280295848846,
-0.7652761936187744,
-0.11667889356613159,
-0.5428662300109863,
0.34309935569763184,
-0.0944267138838768,
-0.9488001465797424,
0.19959330558776855,
0.5092176795005798,
0.1054442748427391,
-0.5486959218978882,
-0.4634689390659332,
-0.6751993298530579,
-0.19391706585884094,
0.7661725282669067,
0.027836807072162628,
-0.4267122745513916,
-0.07911134511232376,
0.7853235006332397,
0.08967941254377365,
0.14292925596237183,
0.03637726977467537,
0.11740168184041977,
-0.09805145859718323,
0.6466642618179321,
-0.3211207985877991,
0.48917704820632935,
-0.07560382038354874,
-0.6687991619110107,
-0.23844841122627258,
0.11024901270866394,
0.0036657063756138086,
-0.4244546592235565,
0.3698177635669708,
0.32204699516296387,
-0.5984617471694946,
-0.6007602214813232,
0.07776901125907898,
0.5228725075721741,
0.05234488099813461,
0.47631967067718506,
-0.26305001974105835,
-0.17602692544460297,
-0.3131396472454071,
0.28678709268569946,
0.8289452791213989,
0.8366367220878601,
-0.6774889826774597,
-0.5529308915138245,
0.02375410683453083,
-0.0659680962562561,
-0.5008773803710938,
0.6137433052062988,
-0.13170111179351807,
0.23506546020507812,
-0.19266225397586823,
-0.3022310137748718,
-0.006413839757442474,
-0.541027843952179,
-0.40252742171287537,
0.5326669216156006,
0.22857992351055145,
-1.1821073293685913,
-0.14531223475933075,
0.053609322756528854,
-0.12103959172964096,
0.013918419368565083,
-0.5116880536079407,
-0.08161389827728271,
0.7978194952011108,
-0.5278078317642212,
0.09579173475503922,
-0.3212112784385681,
-0.14467252790927887,
0.21575935184955597,
-0.10875659435987473,
0.40841150283813477,
-0.5408321619033813,
-0.3227313160896301,
-0.37807247042655945,
0.25943344831466675,
0.30362799763679504,
-0.16325435042381287,
1.2711526155471802,
0.5266326069831848,
-0.4271339476108551,
-0.6196678280830383,
0.2387342005968094,
-0.7981885671615601,
-0.12259187549352646,
0.28003188967704773,
-0.022276975214481354,
0.3801801800727844,
0.22177140414714813,
-0.8724904656410217,
-0.6061086654663086,
-0.15435272455215454,
0.5074151158332825,
-0.23184311389923096,
-0.7795572876930237,
-0.31524303555488586,
0.7267429232597351,
-0.09098029881715775,
0.3381909430027008,
0.3715032637119293,
-0.8951483368873596,
0.0714852586388588,
0.4294678866863251,
-0.8623327612876892,
0.6116518974304199,
-0.1733773797750473,
-0.7993587255477905,
-0.48934197425842285,
0.08957487344741821,
-0.32189294695854187,
0.2232980877161026,
0.2314462512731552,
-0.22495228052139282,
-0.43752649426460266,
-0.4708317518234253,
0.2373833954334259,
-0.9069302678108215,
0.17435714602470398,
-0.1087036207318306,
-0.2164265662431717,
0.28475531935691833,
0.10804793238639832,
-0.49598097801208496,
0.466580867767334,
0.3656758964061737,
-0.35777103900909424,
-0.013205076567828655,
0.3341529071331024,
-0.05727039650082588,
-0.38943222165107727,
-0.480459988117218,
-0.4368607997894287,
0.7277873158454895,
-0.6538833379745483,
-0.17025500535964966,
0.16975855827331543,
0.6004180312156677,
-0.30722707509994507,
-0.2027912437915802,
0.38359498977661133,
0.0897723138332367,
0.05107800289988518,
0.25459209084510803,
-0.027292337268590927,
0.271637886762619,
0.0513702854514122,
0.06702177226543427,
-0.3316515386104584,
-0.5099447965621948,
0.8576704859733582,
0.3078894019126892,
-0.2381451576948166,
-0.3600367307662964,
0.22216174006462097,
0.33998599648475647,
-0.1990952491760254,
0.432802677154541,
-0.4455749988555908,
0.23172183334827423,
0.26237326860427856,
0.3503078818321228,
0.2751869261264801,
-0.6647029519081116,
0.5766903162002563,
-0.14291346073150635,
-0.16394715011119843,
-0.758945643901825,
-0.05881257727742195,
0.7705191373825073,
-0.07486896961927414,
0.06638691574335098,
-0.04717808961868286,
0.2201022058725357,
0.15824879705905914,
-0.42909005284309387,
-0.7261438369750977,
0.18118689954280853,
0.2148616462945938,
-0.2232949435710907,
0.019716983661055565,
-0.1499614268541336,
-0.20795343816280365,
-0.43197399377822876,
-0.4730779528617859,
0.3572022616863251,
-0.5049217343330383,
-0.01971043460071087,
-0.463157057762146,
0.25025394558906555,
-0.5950552225112915,
0.26810720562934875,
0.018490714952349663,
0.6560783982276917,
-0.6037565469741821,
-0.04766572266817093,
-0.2785300314426422,
0.1484965980052948,
0.45860639214515686,
-0.19418157637119293,
0.3544366657733917,
0.41910120844841003,
0.5710643529891968,
0.40377920866012573,
-0.44597622752189636,
-0.34920135140419006,
0.004995066672563553,
-0.12636354565620422,
0.0183904767036438,
0.511467695236206,
-1.303980827331543,
-0.22082927823066711,
0.7461115121841431,
-0.38006290793418884,
0.41977453231811523,
0.27529603242874146,
-0.0009277206263504922,
-0.16353905200958252,
0.7514603734016418,
-0.36278507113456726,
-0.8234401941299438,
0.8183033466339111,
-0.06053066626191139,
0.08368927240371704,
0.14820365607738495,
0.4896184802055359,
0.42980533838272095,
0.05514339357614517,
-0.8253963589668274,
0.9079105854034424,
0.03220897167921066,
-0.02727392129600048,
0.6418969035148621,
-0.7470666766166687,
-0.09757417440414429,
-0.24070991575717926,
1.0566580295562744,
0.7317847609519958,
-0.18536227941513062,
0.6646109819412231,
-0.3373476266860962,
-0.13544218242168427,
0.15748609602451324,
0.016296954825520515,
-0.2032330483198166,
0.6601501107215881,
-0.19280672073364258,
0.4214286208152771,
0.2249373495578766,
-0.10031735897064209,
-0.09329330921173096,
-0.23272760212421417,
-0.08510272949934006,
-0.36473169922828674,
-0.08397755771875381,
-0.26288583874702454,
0.09355560690164566,
-0.11606500297784805,
-0.08115876466035843,
-0.23563224077224731,
-0.6352392435073853,
0.07138004899024963,
0.4205807149410248,
-0.6144307851791382,
0.17546182870864868,
0.43958479166030884,
0.32069316506385803,
-0.15346530079841614,
-0.21110078692436218,
0.12981288135051727,
0.43840330839157104,
-0.09209977090358734,
0.12386125326156616,
-0.4258139729499817,
-0.05322936922311783,
0.25114431977272034,
0.1481567621231079,
0.42084813117980957,
-0.45659565925598145,
-0.4199466407299042,
-0.5864042639732361,
0.012282569892704487,
-0.439195454120636,
0.22582347691059113,
0.22240842878818512,
-0.38207656145095825,
0.13810409605503082,
-0.40073108673095703,
0.25204023718833923,
0.034768518060445786,
-0.25619927048683167,
0.8240629434585571,
-0.4688532054424286,
0.6631647348403931,
0.7245258092880249,
0.052076492458581924,
0.25458797812461853,
0.4594751298427582,
-0.027502819895744324,
0.24418362975120544,
-0.5545269250869751,
0.2786630094051361,
-0.09121926128864288,
0.4582078158855438,
0.01696501113474369,
0.3940035104751587,
0.04431653395295143,
-0.14465036988258362,
-0.3394645154476166,
-0.029980173334479332,
-0.7519193887710571,
0.16525153815746307,
0.7836909294128418,
-0.39452338218688965,
-0.008495431393384933,
0.00993588287383318,
-0.36523059010505676,
0.4494573771953583,
-0.12270135432481766,
0.0729295089840889,
-0.10759004205465317,
0.0009577960590831935,
0.20071548223495483,
0.06775952130556107,
-0.2502453029155731,
-0.25419363379478455,
0.3652781844139099,
0.05374208465218544,
-0.8713509440422058,
0.009585125371813774,
-0.27193140983581543,
-0.21367014944553375,
0.43965280055999756,
-0.07008632272481918,
0.02248063124716282,
-0.14018544554710388,
-0.47438278794288635,
0.07050451636314392,
0.322953462600708,
0.17615966498851776,
-0.5420700311660767,
0.6240652203559875,
-0.10685480386018753,
-0.4916156828403473,
-0.07496582716703415,
0.41351112723350525,
0.21516117453575134,
0.0246060062199831,
-0.27342650294303894,
0.030476471409201622,
0.161638081073761,
0.5147163271903992,
-0.06167621165513992,
-0.5419020652770996,
-0.14845697581768036,
0.35747843980789185
] |
241409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astroturfing | Astroturfing | Astroturfing is the practice of masking the sponsors of a message or organization (e.g., political, advertising, religious or public relations) to make it appear as though it originates from and is supported by grassroots participants. It is a practice intended to give the statements or organizations credibility by withholding information about the source's financial connection. The term astroturfing is derived from AstroTurf, a brand of synthetic carpeting designed to resemble natural grass, as a play on the word "grassroots". The implication behind the use of the term is that instead of a "true" or "natural" grassroots effort behind the activity in question, there is a "fake" or "artificial" appearance of support.
Definition
In political science, it is defined as the process of seeking electoral victory or legislative relief for grievances by helping political actors find and mobilize a sympathetic public, and is designed to create the image of public consensus where there is none. Astroturfing is the use of fake grassroots efforts that primarily focus on influencing public opinion and typically are funded by corporations and governmental entities to form opinions.
On the internet, astroturfers use software to mask their identity. Sometimes one individual operates through many personas to give the impression of widespread support for their client's agenda. Some studies suggest astroturfing can alter public viewpoints and create enough doubt to inhibit action. In the first systematic study of astroturfing in the United States, Oxford Professor Philip N. Howard argued that the internet was making it much easier for powerful lobbyists and political movements to activate small groups of aggrieved citizens to have an exaggerated importance in public policy debates. Astroturfed accounts on social media do not always require humans to write their posts; one January 2021 study detailed a "set of human-looking bot accounts" used to post political content, which was able to operate automatically for fourteen days (and make 1,586 posts) before being detected and suspended by Twitter.
Policies and enforcement
Many countries have laws that prohibit more overt astroturfing practices. In the United States, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) may send cease-and-desist orders or require a fine of $16,000 per day for those that violate its "Guides Concerning the Use of Endorsements and Testimonials in Advertising". The FTC's guides were updated in 2009 to address social media and word-of-mouth marketing. According to an article in the Journal of Consumer Policy, the FTC's guides holds advertisers responsible for ensuring bloggers or product endorsers comply with the guides, and any product endorsers with a material connection are required to provide honest reviews.
In the European Union, the Unfair Commercial Practices Directive requires that paid-for editorial content in the media provide a clear disclosure that the content is a sponsored advertisement. Additionally, it prohibits those with a material connection from misleading readers into thinking they are a regular consumer.
The United Kingdom has the Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations, which prohibits "Falsely representing oneself as a consumer." They allow for up to two years in prison and unlimited fines for breaches. Additionally, the advertising industry in the UK has adopted many voluntary policies, such as the Code of Non-Broadcast Advertising, Sale, Promotion and Direct Marketing. A trade association, the Advertising Standards Authority, investigates complaints of breaches. The policy requires that marketing professionals not mislead their audience, including by omitting a disclosure of their material connection.
In Australia, astroturfing is regulated by Section 18 of the Australian Consumer Law, which broadly prohibits "misleading and deceptive conduct". According to the Journal of Consumer Policy, Australia's laws, which were introduced in 1975, are more vague. In most cases, they are enforced through lawsuits from competitors, rather than the regulatory body, the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission. There is also an International Consumer Protection and Enforcement Network (ICPEN).
Legal regulations are primarily targeted towards testimonials, endorsements and statements as to the performance or quality of a product. Employees of an organization may be considered acting as customers if their actions are not guided by authority within the company.
In October 2018, after denying that they had paid for people to show up in support of a controversial power plant development project in New Orleans, Entergy was fined five million dollars for using astroturf firm The Hawthorn Group to provide actors to prevent real community members' voices from being counted at city council meetings and show false grassroots support.
Debate
Effectiveness
In the book Grassroots for Hire: Public Affairs Consultants in American Democracy, Edward Walker defines "astroturfing" as public participation that is perceived as heavily incented, as fraudulent (claims are attributed to those who did not make such statements), or as an elite campaign masquerading as a mass movement. Although not all campaigns by professional grassroots lobbying consultants meet this definition, the book finds that the elite-sponsored grassroots campaigns often fail when they are not transparent about their sources of sponsorship and/or fail to develop partnerships with constituencies that have an independent interest in the issue. Walker highlights the case of Working Families for Wal-Mart, in which the campaign's lack of transparency led to its demise.
A study published in the Journal of Business Ethics examined the effects of websites operated by front groups on students. It found that astroturfing was effective at creating uncertainty and lowering trust about claims, thereby changing perceptions that tend to favor the business interests behind the astroturfing effort. The New York Times reported that "consumer" reviews are more effective, because "they purport to be testimonials of real people, even though some are bought and sold just like everything else on the commercial Internet." Some organizations feel that their business is threatened by negative comments, so they may engage in astroturfing to drown them out. Online comments from astroturfing employees can also sway the discussion through the influence of groupthink.
Justification
Some astroturfing operatives defend their practice. Regarding "movements that have organized aggressively to exaggerate their sway," author Ryan Sager said that this "isn't cheating. Doing everything in your power to get your people to show up is basic politics." According to a Porter/Novelli executive, "There will be times when the position you advocate, no matter how well framed and supported, will not be accepted by the public simply because you are who you are."
Impact on society
Data mining expert Bing Liu (University of Illinois) estimated that one-third of all consumer reviews on the Internet are fake. According to The New York Times, this has made it hard to tell the difference between "popular sentiment" and "manufactured public opinion". According to an article in the Journal of Business Ethics, astroturfing threatens the legitimacy of genuine grassroots movements. The authors argued that astroturfing that is "purposefully designed to fulfill corporate agendas, manipulate public opinion and harm scientific research represents a serious lapse in ethical conduct." A 2011 report found that often paid posters from competing companies are attacking each other in forums and overwhelming regular participants in the process. George Monbiot said that persona-management software supporting astroturfing "could destroy the Internet as a forum for constructive debate". An article in the Journal of Consumer Policy said that regulators and policy makers needed to be more aggressive about astroturfing. The author said that it undermines the public's ability to inform potential customers of sub-standard products or inappropriate business practices, but also noted that fake reviews were difficult to detect.
Techniques
Use of one or more front groups is one astroturfing technique. These groups typically present themselves as serving the public interest, while actually working on behalf of a corporate or political sponsor. Front groups may resist legislation and scientific consensus that is damaging to the sponsor's business by emphasizing minority viewpoints, instilling doubt and publishing counterclaims by corporate-sponsored experts. Fake blogs can also be created that appear to be written by consumers, while actually being operated by a commercial or political interest. Some political movements have provided incentives for members of the public to send a letter to the editor at their local paper, often using a copy and paste form letter that is published in dozens of newspapers verbatim.
Another technique is the use of sockpuppets, where a single person creates multiple identities online to give the appearance of grassroots support. Sockpuppets may post positive reviews about a product, attack participants that criticize the organization, or post negative reviews and comments about competitors, under fake identities. Astroturfing businesses may pay staff based on the number of posts they make that are not flagged by moderators. Persona management software may be used so that each paid poster can manage five to seventy convincing online personas without getting them confused. Online astroturfing using sockpuppets is a form of Sybil attack against distributed systems.
Pharmaceutical companies may sponsor patient support groups and simultaneously push them to help market their products. Bloggers who receive free products, paid travel or other accommodations may also be considered astroturfing if those gifts are not disclosed to the reader. Analysts could be considered astroturfing, since they often cover their own clients without disclosing their financial connection. To avoid astroturfing, many organizations and press have policies about gifts, accommodations and disclosures.
Detection
Persona management software can age accounts and simulate the activity of attending a conference automatically to make it more convincing that they are genuine. At HBGary, employees are given separate thumb drives that contain online accounts for individual identities and visual cues to remind the employee which identity they are using at the time.
Mass letters may be printed on personalized stationery using different typefaces, colors and words to make them appear personal.
According to an article in The New York Times, the Federal Trade Commission rarely enforces its astroturfing laws. However, astroturfing operations are frequently detected if their profile images are recognized or if they are identified through the usage patterns of their accounts. Filippo Menczer's group at Indiana University developed software in 2010 that detects astroturfing on Twitter by recognizing behavioral patterns.
Business and adoption
According to an article in the Journal of Consumer Policy, academics disagree on how prolific astroturfing is.
According to Nancy Clark from Precision Communications, grass-roots specialists charge $25 to $75 for each constituent they convince to send a letter to a politician. Paid online commentators in China are purportedly paid 50 cents for each online post that is not removed by moderators, leading to the nickname of the "50-cent party". The New York Times reported that a business selling fake online book reviews charged $999 for 50 reviews and made $28,000 a month shortly after opening.
According to the Financial Times, astroturfing is "commonplace" in American politics, but was "revolutionary" in Europe when it was exposed that the European Privacy Association, an anti-privacy "think-tank", was actually sponsored by technology companies.
History of incidents
Origins
Although the term "astroturfing" was not yet developed, an early example of the practice was in Act 1, Scene 2 of Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar. In the play, Gaius Cassius Longinus writes fake letters from "the public" to convince Brutus to assassinate Julius Caesar.
The term "astroturfing" was first coined in 1985 by Texas Democratic Party senator Lloyd Bentsen when he said, "a fellow from Texas can tell the difference between grass roots and AstroTurf... this is generated mail." Bentsen was describing a "mountain of cards and letters" sent to his office to promote insurance industry interests.
AstroTurf itself had recently been invented, and installed in the Houston Astrodome, where natural turf could not grow. According to the manufacturer, "a certain belief that man could conquer the constraints of nature with ingenuity and forward-thinking progress pervaded. The Astrodome was built in the midst of this feverish pursuit of the impossible."
Tobacco
In response to the passage of tobacco control legislation in the US, Philip Morris, Burson-Marsteller and other tobacco interests created the National Smokers Alliance (NSA) in 1993. The NSA and other tobacco interests initiated an aggressive public relations campaign from 1994 to 1999 in an effort to exaggerate the appearance of grassroots support for smoker's rights. According to an article in the Journal of Health Communication, the NSA had mixed success at defeating bills that were damaging revenues of tobacco interests.
Internet
Email, automated phone calls, form letters, and the Internet made astroturfing more economical and prolific in the late 1990s. In 2001, as Microsoft was defending itself against an antitrust lawsuit, Americans for Technology Leadership (ATL), a group heavily funded by Microsoft, initiated a letter-writing campaign. ATL contacted constituents under the guise of conducting a poll and sent pro-Microsoft consumers form and sample letters to send to involved lawmakers. The effort was designed to make it appear as though there was public support for a sympathetic ruling in the antitrust lawsuit.
In January 2018, YouTube user Isaac Protiva uploaded a video alleging that internet service provider Fidelity Communications was behind an initiative called "Stop City-Funded Internet", based on how some images on the Stop City-Funded Internet website had "Fidelity" in their file names. The campaign appeared to be in response to the city of West Plains expanding their broadband network, and advocated for the end of municipal broadband on the basis that it was too risky. Days later, Fidelity released a letter admitting to sponsoring the campaign.
Politics
In 2009–2010, an Indiana University research study developed a software system to detect astroturfing on Twitter due to the sensitivity of the topic in the run up to the 2010 U.S. midterm elections and account suspensions on the social media platform. The study cited a limited number of examples, all promoting conservative policies and candidates.
In 2003, GOPTeamLeader.com offered the site's users "points" that could be redeemed for products if they signed a form letter promoting George Bush and got a local paper to publish it as a letter to the editor. More than 100 newspapers published an identical letter to the editor from the site with different signatures on it. Similar campaigns were used by GeorgeWBush.com, and by MoveOn.org to promote Michael Moore's film Fahrenheit 9/11. The Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget's "Fix the Debt" campaign advocated to reduce government debt without disclosing that its members were lobbyists or high-ranking employees at corporations that aim to reduce federal spending. It also sent op-eds to various students that were published as-is.
Some organizations in the Tea Party movement have been accused of being astroturfed.
In October and November 2018, conservative marketing firm Rally Forge created what The New Yorker described as "a phony left-wing front group, America Progress Now, which promoted Green Party candidates online in 2018, apparently to hurt Democrats in several races." Its ads on Facebook used socialist memes and slogans to attack Democrats and urge third-party protest voting in several tight races, including the Wisconsin governor contest.
In 2018, Jeff Ballabon, a Republican operative in his mid-50s, set up a website called "Jexodus" claiming to be by "proud Jewish Millennials tired of living in bondage to leftist politics", but has been denounced as "likely a clumsy astroturf effort rather than an actual grassroots movement". The website was registered November 5, 2018, before the congressional election, and before those representatives accused of antisemitism had even been voted in. This website was later cited by Donald Trump as though it were an authentic movement.
Environment
The Koch brothers started a public advocacy group to prevent the development of wind turbines offshore in Massachusetts. The Kennedy family was also involved.
Corporate efforts to mobilize the public against environmental regulation accelerated in the US following the election of president Barack Obama.
In 2014, the Toronto Sun conservative media organization has published an article accusing Russia of using astroturf tactics to drum up anti-fracking sentiment across Europe and the West, supposedly in order to maintain dominance in oil exports through Ukraine.
In Canada, a coalition of oil and gas company executives grouped under the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers also initiated a series of Canadian actions to advocate for the oil and gas industry in Canada through mainstream and social media, and using online campaigning to generate public support for fossil fuel energy projects.
Commercial
In 2006, two Edelman employees created a blog called "Wal-Marting Across America" about two people traveling to Wal-Marts across the country. The blog gave the appearance of being operated by spontaneous consumers, but was actually operated on behalf of Working Families for Walmart, a group funded by Wal-Mart. In 2007, Ask.com deployed an anti-Google advertising campaign portraying Google as an "information monopoly" that was damaging the Internet. The ad was designed to give the appearance of a popular movement and did not disclose it was funded by a competitor.
In 2010, the Federal Trade Commission settled a complaint with Reverb Communications, who was using interns to post favorable product reviews in Apple's iTunes store for clients. In September 2012, one of the first major identified case of astroturfing in Finland involved criticisms about the cost of a €1.8 billion patient information system, which was defended by fake online identities operated by involved vendors.
In September 2013, New York Attorney General Eric T. Schneiderman announced a settlement with 19 companies to prevent astroturfing. "'Astroturfing' is the 21st century's version of false advertising, and prosecutors have many tools at their disposal to put an end to it," said Scheiderman. The companies paid $350,000 to settle the matter, but the settlement opened the way for private suits as well. "Every state has some version of the statutes New York used," according to lawyer Kelly H. Kolb. "What the New York attorney general has done is, perhaps, to have given private lawyers a road map to file suit."
State-sponsored
An Al Jazeera TV series The Lobby documented Israel's attempt to promote more friendly, pro-Israel rhetoric to influence the attitudes of British youth, partly through influencing already established political bodies, such as the National Union of Students and the Labour Party, but also by creating new pro-Israel groups whose affiliation with the Israeli administration was kept secret.
In 2008, an expert on Chinese affairs, Rebecca MacKinnon, estimated the Chinese government employed 280,000 in a government-sponsored astroturfing operation to post pro-China propaganda on social media and drown out voices of dissent.
In June 2010, the United States Air Force solicited for "persona management" software that would "enable an operator to exercise a number of different online persons from the same workstation and without fear of being discovered by sophisticated adversaries. Personas must be able to appear to originate in nearly any part of the world and can interact through conventional online services and social media platforms..." The $2.6 million contract was awarded to Ntrepid for astroturfing software the military would use to spread pro-American propaganda in the Middle East, and disrupt extremist propaganda and recruitment. The contract is thought to have been awarded as part of a program called Operation Earnest Voice, which was first developed as a psychological warfare weapon against the online presence of groups ranged against coalition forces.
See also
Crowds on Demand
Front organization
Greenwashing
Government-organized non-governmental organization
Internet activism
Internet Water Army
Pinkwashing
Purplewashing
Redwashing
Shill
State-sponsored internet sockpuppetry
Whitewashing
References
Further reading
King, Gary; Pan, Jennifer; Roberts, Margaret E. (2017). "How the Chinese Government Fabricates Social Media Posts for Strategic Distraction, Not Engaged Argument". American Political Science Review. 111 (3): 484–501. . .
Ethically disputed business practices
Internet manipulation and propaganda
Political campaign techniques
Political corruption
Political metaphors
Political science terminology
Political terminology of the United States
Public relations techniques | [
1.0327121019363403,
0.2813677191734314,
0.04889314994215965,
0.11210527271032333,
-0.1373654156923294,
-0.6538611054420471,
0.04444986581802368,
0.6432493925094604,
-0.22978046536445618,
-0.032145142555236816,
-0.7682231664657593,
0.5983297228813171,
-0.40206894278526306,
-0.13572029769420624,
-0.601055383682251,
0.22525155544281006,
0.06080080196261406,
0.8307610750198364,
-0.020783621817827225,
-0.051252588629722595,
-0.6046225428581238,
0.08873239904642105,
-0.17540502548217773,
-0.8694745898246765,
-0.0030019679106771946,
0.2933419346809387,
0.06720692664384842,
0.04503408446907997,
-0.3041481077671051,
0.5189875960350037,
0.7269546389579773,
0.6350670456886292,
0.08649081736803055,
-0.2846885025501251,
0.24025723338127136,
0.1892772763967514,
0.4704805314540863,
-0.305998295545578,
-0.2263970524072647,
0.003971967846155167,
-0.07416040450334549,
0.08927928656339645,
0.3773227035999298,
0.2774500250816345,
-0.13670837879180908,
-0.5081841945648193,
-1.7602595090866089,
0.31543681025505066,
-0.7547974586486816,
-0.04282158240675926,
-0.9044606685638428,
-0.03879933059215546,
-0.294357031583786,
0.6484103202819824,
0.3966940939426422,
0.7712820172309875,
-0.3893775939941406,
-0.2942390441894531,
0.04060593619942665,
-0.0518936850130558,
0.4906594753265381,
-0.2345094531774521,
-0.04833275079727173,
-0.26724377274513245,
0.10652563720941544,
-0.30200162529945374,
-0.4613080620765686,
0.33232393860816956,
-0.6278467178344727,
-0.850274920463562,
-0.10959970951080322,
0.13435417413711548,
-0.4706195294857025,
-0.5727714896202087,
-0.29791611433029175,
0.4019666016101837,
0.382932186126709,
0.0989711582660675,
0.05928691849112511,
-0.5742009282112122,
-0.13804470002651215,
0.3673819601535797,
0.10090051591396332,
0.3205156922340393,
0.3907841444015503,
-0.07398492842912674,
-0.4404708743095398,
0.7338851690292358,
0.11815828084945679,
0.49507418274879456,
0.7659782767295837,
-0.4443284571170807,
0.8505174517631531,
0.034823909401893616,
0.26232466101646423,
0.2630976736545563,
0.4629647433757782,
-0.17567408084869385,
0.1835593581199646,
-0.31410959362983704,
-0.002018389292061329,
-0.07437421381473541,
0.2884059548377991,
-0.09247315675020218,
-0.19960123300552368,
0.14576728641986847,
-0.12062185257673264,
-0.509972870349884,
0.10819071531295776,
-0.9550519585609436,
-0.43062132596969604,
0.7317067980766296,
0.1887364536523819,
0.14655083417892456,
-0.4240194261074066,
0.589044988155365,
0.4372231960296631,
0.4213199019432068,
-0.23905685544013977,
0.15553723275661469,
0.518159031867981,
0.996137797832489,
0.15207532048225403,
-0.5478672981262207,
0.2350134551525116,
0.5483328700065613,
0.3719143867492676,
0.7369392514228821,
-0.46911272406578064,
0.23447488248348236,
-0.04267970845103264,
0.45739585161209106,
-0.3566317558288574,
-0.044692665338516235,
-0.18090258538722992,
-0.18564361333847046,
0.7120925188064575,
-0.11319983750581741,
0.8843114972114563,
0.32175400853157043,
-0.4011959433555603,
-0.4434584975242615,
-1.4232381582260132,
-0.10986119508743286,
0.6994286775588989,
-0.298740416765213,
0.18436163663864136,
-0.47828322649002075,
-0.17220890522003174,
0.4613524079322815,
-0.20470301806926727,
-0.23925960063934326,
0.19718994200229645,
0.2844751477241516,
0.2386857122182846,
0.245439812541008,
0.9829733371734619,
-0.8636893630027771,
0.06509914249181747,
0.14213912189006805,
0.4520406723022461,
-0.3711923360824585,
-0.8034858107566833,
0.27457499504089355,
0.17123591899871826,
-0.04721323028206825,
-0.2865883409976959,
0.7067590951919556,
0.21666036546230316,
0.3280221223831177,
-0.5542725920677185,
0.13629718124866486,
0.4988090693950653,
-0.40151694416999817,
0.3765147626399994,
0.40729212760925293,
0.2611446976661682,
-0.10935842245817184,
0.6018310785293579,
0.3604799211025238,
-0.9725102186203003,
-0.24762432277202606,
0.35169312357902527,
-0.34508126974105835,
0.26498886942863464,
-0.2412240207195282,
0.3336891531944275,
-0.05802752077579498,
0.22137872874736786,
-0.18835234642028809,
-0.6464977264404297,
-0.20895561575889587,
0.6818198561668396,
-0.3046058714389801,
0.9060975909233093,
-0.18737934529781342,
-0.2997017204761505,
0.5211277008056641,
0.3920876085758209,
0.10478472709655762,
-0.28156858682632446,
0.15125484764575958,
0.14834876358509064,
0.019715338945388794,
-0.4397610127925873,
1.3685559034347534,
0.42685893177986145,
0.19965051114559174,
-0.04413243755698204,
-0.11934652924537659,
0.7801061868667603,
-0.49632102251052856,
0.16296006739139557,
-0.28160586953163147,
-0.026358582079410553,
0.021395105868577957,
-0.6908987164497375,
0.8826856017112732,
-0.12294436246156693,
-0.022288508713245392,
0.2461654394865036,
0.1411641240119934,
-0.7089204788208008,
0.19423915445804596,
0.4288442134857178,
1.0279293060302734,
-0.4245148003101349,
-0.07135812193155289,
0.5325155854225159,
-0.6847513318061829,
0.5306938290596008,
0.12532936036586761,
0.10742916166782379,
-0.5749830603599548,
-0.6143194437026978,
-0.357785701751709,
0.4394322335720062,
-0.2831994891166687,
0.1320963203907013,
-0.4298860430717468,
-0.3142493963241577,
0.47322767972946167,
-0.76740962266922,
0.4927763044834137,
-0.23029880225658417,
0.08766516298055649,
-0.2517639696598053,
0.21596288681030273,
-0.09718076884746552,
0.03563081845641136,
-0.025545962154865265,
-0.024993307888507843,
-0.27631548047065735,
-0.7154942154884338,
0.46490129828453064,
0.2633270025253296,
-0.30890384316444397,
0.08760561794042587,
0.12824100255966187,
-0.31338372826576233,
-0.23951204121112823,
0.2797504663467407,
0.25597643852233887,
0.40307241678237915,
-0.6260217428207397,
-0.6428273320198059,
-0.1428590714931488,
0.1949874758720398,
0.06779031455516815,
-0.1617150455713272,
0.7588199377059937,
-0.2552559971809387,
-0.6791917681694031,
-1.1644864082336426,
-0.43888577818870544,
-0.6027068495750427,
-0.12479329854249954,
0.3814654052257538,
-0.2535272240638733,
0.06642249971628189,
-0.27766168117523193,
0.5459587574005127,
0.37126651406288147,
-0.11944059282541275,
-0.5971714854240417,
-0.29106229543685913,
0.4340081214904785,
-0.035173919051885605,
0.08106181025505066,
0.23101644217967987,
-0.07565449178218842,
0.6609395742416382,
0.23169595003128052,
0.189177006483078,
0.10992097854614258,
0.22276781499385834,
-0.021525399759411812,
0.07708828151226044,
-0.02107411064207554,
0.1221657320857048,
-0.13776999711990356,
0.14339524507522583,
-0.3026394546031952,
-0.3934447467327118,
-0.04601157084107399,
-0.43094027042388916,
-0.2658812999725342,
-0.44029682874679565,
-5.359031677246094,
0.45722925662994385,
-0.0690198615193367,
-0.23139241337776184,
0.1760116070508957,
0.36078745126724243,
0.4889082908630371,
-0.3926336169242859,
-0.27528437972068787,
0.12302277237176895,
-0.3998076915740967,
-0.18205687403678894,
0.2960817813873291,
0.4085562825202942,
0.4899892210960388,
0.1348700076341629,
0.42109426856040955,
-0.22609342634677887,
0.6381997466087341,
-0.11686963587999344,
-0.10471972078084946,
0.5294501781463623,
0.2559579908847809,
0.792704164981842,
-0.089533232152462,
0.04765864461660385,
-0.42831361293792725,
0.007043423131108284,
0.2711453139781952,
-0.014902209863066673,
0.6084998846054077,
0.4152619540691376,
-0.18271175026893616,
0.09422355145215988,
-0.3449991047382355,
0.39010995626449585,
0.7315364480018616,
-0.3557640314102173,
-0.27465444803237915,
-0.35375306010246277,
-0.007539774291217327,
0.9240880608558655,
-0.18376372754573822,
0.0958627387881279,
0.8863783478736877,
-0.14019928872585297,
-0.06597702950239182,
-0.3910366892814636,
-0.1414853185415268,
0.18996603786945343,
0.13192534446716309,
-0.19771109521389008,
0.23523090779781342,
0.19697260856628418,
-0.3006328344345093,
-0.3892558217048645,
0.45851948857307434,
-0.28689590096473694,
-0.36163607239723206,
0.11970722675323486,
0.4882300794124603,
-0.2916005253791809,
0.056575845927000046,
-0.48906296491622925,
0.17482076585292816,
-0.27827492356300354,
-0.19875012338161469,
-0.6995741128921509,
0.8870055675506592,
-0.12363738566637039,
-0.6168729066848755,
0.693696916103363,
0.0539637990295887,
-1.0292621850967407,
0.5553838014602661,
-0.08733053505420685,
0.18370768427848816,
0.1980692446231842,
0.5798255801200867,
0.04584671929478645,
-0.2920841574668884,
-0.1794845461845398,
-0.597862184047699,
-0.09561218321323395,
0.29069653153419495,
-0.5907590985298157,
-0.34097355604171753,
0.3289765417575836,
-0.6498068571090698,
-0.2197938859462738,
1.4497860670089722,
0.13070455193519592,
-0.09616602212190628,
0.5299088954925537,
0.05746939405798912,
1.081220269203186,
-0.08445366472005844,
-0.4648990333080292,
0.37671658396720886,
0.07516539096832275,
0.10718554258346558,
-0.1824839562177658,
-0.011913186870515347,
-0.6312443614006042,
-0.19564886391162872,
-0.09968014061450958,
0.00829967949539423,
0.25545594096183777,
0.5359668135643005,
-0.5925183892250061,
-0.011377295479178429,
0.7654557824134827,
-0.5388133525848389,
-0.1563791185617447,
0.24082714319229126,
0.2090180218219757,
-0.05673316866159439,
0.42701056599617004,
0.13147860765457153,
-0.4534616768360138,
0.20335930585861206,
0.006731911562383175,
-0.01307758316397667,
-0.5074659585952759,
-0.7030306458473206,
-0.4449650049209595,
-0.10273437947034836,
0.0495426245033741,
0.05081339552998543,
0.20955973863601685,
0.7061941027641296,
0.16584722697734833,
0.22189722955226898,
-0.11668747663497925,
0.2703752815723419,
-0.5954291224479675,
-0.15102608501911163,
0.1955966204404831,
-0.5637734532356262,
-0.8710245490074158,
0.39016231894493103,
-0.25753116607666016,
0.3332981765270233,
0.5284577012062073,
0.38007232546806335,
-0.007745060604065657,
-0.08262106031179428,
-0.053553611040115356,
0.140354186296463,
1.1736000776290894,
0.08475837111473083,
-0.17082510888576508,
0.07445012032985687,
-0.9633212685585022,
0.7045717239379883,
0.46780720353126526,
0.40480291843414307,
-0.20980089902877808,
-0.32928991317749023,
-0.5164822340011597,
-0.1553296446800232,
-0.06673608720302582,
-1.3784563541412354,
-0.16671672463417053,
-0.2687627077102661,
-0.4408451318740845,
-0.7152044773101807,
-0.13122113049030304,
-0.45033594965934753,
0.11669397354125977,
-0.40288496017456055,
-0.4135143756866455,
-1.059563159942627,
0.018733998760581017,
0.07359679043292999,
-0.0684758797287941,
0.07093510031700134,
0.313935250043869,
-0.21117709577083588,
-0.8398381471633911,
-0.034771665930747986,
-0.09869443625211716,
-0.48410630226135254,
-0.03784963861107826,
0.8250024318695068,
-0.6894913911819458,
-0.07989758253097534,
0.11026927083730698,
-0.41194722056388855,
0.11314833909273148,
-0.13661067187786102,
0.47525647282600403,
0.444867342710495,
0.03917896747589111,
-0.05486181005835533,
-0.5754057765007019,
-0.4623001515865326,
0.9816946387290955,
0.10847990214824677,
-0.2571331262588501,
0.1515498012304306,
0.5395203232765198,
-0.9774402379989624,
0.01799952983856201,
-0.04182075336575508,
-0.5854603052139282,
0.5483676791191101,
0.27048784494400024,
-0.009316622279584408,
0.5402776598930359,
-0.23611365258693695,
-0.28258711099624634,
-0.3845793604850769,
0.03965247794985771,
-0.501603901386261,
0.010582811199128628,
-0.3691134452819824,
-0.26647359132766724,
-0.6168714761734009,
-0.27623799443244934,
0.37211745977401733,
-0.25620216131210327,
-0.35423794388771057,
0.4058288633823395,
-0.3777092695236206,
-0.28160184621810913,
0.19881093502044678,
-0.41419705748558044,
0.793225109577179,
0.045827899128198624,
0.04583808407187462,
0.04754355549812317,
-0.000707196188159287,
0.6817242503166199,
-0.27744343876838684,
0.03351086750626564,
-0.3353565037250519,
0.670596718788147,
0.06920213997364044,
-0.10414083302021027,
0.2629069685935974,
0.10958395153284073,
-0.20599962770938873,
-0.35136738419532776,
-0.611862301826477,
0.44773373007774353,
0.06679915636777878,
-0.23883938789367676,
-0.8676815629005432,
-0.30091235041618347,
0.40867868065834045,
-0.05870957672595978,
-0.3695746064186096,
-0.27041688561439514,
0.1423119604587555,
-0.4434819519519806,
-0.3531253933906555,
0.14927242696285248,
0.43944934010505676,
0.010204595513641834,
0.10795234143733978,
-0.09983275085687637,
-0.47621428966522217,
0.06539664417505264,
0.0817188248038292,
0.042619489133358,
-0.16978241503238678,
0.007839229889214039,
-0.09014412760734558,
0.055018793791532516,
-0.134362131357193,
-0.191290482878685,
0.8245187401771545,
0.5403178930282593,
0.17778553068637848,
-0.2607382535934448,
0.31975996494293213,
-0.7770510911941528,
-0.3377099931240082,
0.0728539302945137,
0.21169884502887726,
-0.04548707604408264,
0.41711196303367615,
-0.24065163731575012,
0.1573663055896759,
-1.0087591409683228,
0.4714256227016449,
0.014526939950883389,
-0.23838669061660767,
-0.545862078666687,
-0.55470871925354,
0.4557532072067261,
-0.4443869888782501,
0.1570330262184143,
-0.08480729907751083,
0.3225535750389099,
0.6235580444335938,
0.03920206427574158,
0.12050841003656387,
-0.3458333909511566,
-0.4641757905483246,
-0.15462064743041992,
0.4644198417663574,
-0.9567531943321228,
0.6580315828323364,
-0.10197381675243378,
-0.2858814597129822,
-0.8884783387184143,
-0.048615410923957825,
-0.2317056506872177,
-0.25328198075294495,
-0.10848376154899597,
-0.43974077701568604,
1.0974757671356201,
-0.12366325408220291,
0.11949919909238815,
0.18233641982078552,
-0.4776464104652405,
0.5076138377189636,
0.5104620456695557,
-0.1439279168844223,
-0.9233186841011047,
0.7973289489746094,
-0.06062695384025574,
-0.05609123408794403,
-0.11060450226068497,
0.6707066893577576,
0.1423741579055786,
0.35345202684402466,
-0.12207789719104767,
0.5917525291442871,
0.4428479075431824,
0.36545076966285706,
0.39781421422958374,
-0.13824449479579926,
-0.7577231526374817,
0.5416979789733887,
-0.6282062530517578,
-0.7135276198387146,
0.3957163393497467,
-0.0011080270633101463,
0.3664427399635315,
0.3870067596435547,
-0.19913043081760406,
-0.4045052230358124,
0.2046324461698532,
0.2053762525320053,
0.67265385389328,
-0.5091686844825745,
0.02396080270409584,
0.1885025054216385,
0.13374865055084229,
-0.10502330213785172,
-0.5422183871269226,
0.43631410598754883,
-0.49772584438323975,
0.4810033142566681,
-0.34103062748908997,
-0.29845839738845825,
-0.9146023392677307,
0.3146280348300934,
-0.09241430461406708,
0.27970823645591736,
-0.10540452599525452,
0.3707374036312103,
-0.16911515593528748,
0.20142729580402374,
-0.2508472502231598,
0.38786137104034424,
0.3388747572898865,
0.19523346424102783,
-0.012690098956227303,
-0.16015520691871643,
0.4987492263317108,
-0.33106157183647156,
-0.00238209986127913,
0.6361881494522095,
-0.015007252804934978,
-0.20951077342033386,
-0.040744319558143616,
-0.27327585220336914,
-0.017731375992298126,
-0.11699336022138596,
-0.24292884767055511,
0.35320815443992615,
0.08070170134305954,
-0.2264074832201004,
0.34846723079681396,
-0.3248567283153534,
0.2421496957540512,
-0.14769351482391357,
-0.31661051511764526,
0.0037772220093756914,
-0.014543388038873672,
-0.1371322125196457,
0.37109631299972534,
0.2590477168560028,
0.47223961353302,
-0.273505836725235,
-0.23762312531471252,
-0.2244511842727661,
0.32261329889297485,
0.651452898979187,
-0.29067325592041016,
-0.5251975655555725,
0.059410691261291504,
-0.30874893069267273,
0.2773456871509552,
-0.32837292551994324,
0.38043954968452454,
0.4255964457988739,
-0.17994119226932526,
0.06707243621349335,
0.2932559549808502,
0.40704283118247986,
0.05343814939260483,
0.7581335306167603,
-0.15845029056072235,
-0.21555858850479126,
0.15739431977272034,
0.0676194503903389,
0.31854021549224854,
0.2758353054523468,
0.18881098926067352,
-0.2960728704929352,
0.16616833209991455,
0.4003331661224365,
-0.16047507524490356,
-0.4504210650920868,
-0.06266797333955765,
-0.5652281641960144,
-0.25223156809806824,
-0.8026377558708191,
0.14983119070529938,
-0.3383415639400482,
-0.6343263387680054,
0.24014709889888763,
0.5238215327262878,
0.7667800188064575,
-0.6119412183761597,
0.3099859952926636,
0.027466906234622,
0.35426729917526245,
-0.08122134208679199,
-2.2743725776672363,
-0.049529947340488434,
0.18798837065696716,
0.11900268495082855,
0.0950431376695633,
0.1194620206952095,
-0.005847343243658543,
-0.7875218987464905,
0.28638800978660583,
-0.2448987513780594,
0.11753033846616745,
0.3706665337085724,
0.2774296700954437,
-0.2853619456291199,
-0.12159070372581482,
1.128455638885498
] |
241411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OmniWeb | OmniWeb | OmniWeb is a discontinued web browser that was developed and marketed by The Omni Group exclusively for Apple's macOS operating system. Though no longer maintained, it is still available as a free download.
History
OmniWeb was originally developed by Omni Group for the NeXTSTEP platform, and was released by Lighthouse Design on March 17, 1995 after only one month's development time. As NeXTSTEP evolved into OPENSTEP and then Mac OS X, OmniWeb was updated to run on these platforms. These early versions of OmniWeb also run on Microsoft Windows through the Yellow Box or the OpenStep frameworks. After Lighthouse Design was bought by Sun Microsystems, the Omni Group released the product themselves, from version 2.5 onwards. From version 4.0 onwards, OmniWeb was developed solely for the OS X platform.
OmniWeb was developed using the Cocoa API which allow it to take full advantage of OS X features. It uses Quartz to render images and smooth text. It makes use of multiple processors if available, and features an interface that made use of Aqua UI features such as drawers, sheets, and customizable toolbars.
The Omni Group originally employed its own proprietary HTML layout engine that use standard API NSText components. However, this engine was very slow, particularly when scrolling, and was not fully compatible with the most recent web standards, such as Cascading Style Sheets. In OmniWeb version 4.5, the Omni Group adopted Apple's KHTML-based WebCore rendering engine, which was created by Apple for its Safari browser.
On August 11, 2004, the Omni Group released version 5.0 of OmniWeb which added a number of new features. The most notable addition was an unusual implementation of tabbed browsing, in which the tabs are displayed vertically in a drawer on the side of the window (including optional thumbnail pictures of the pages.) Despite a certain amount of controversy over the merits of a tab drawer over a tab toolbar, the feature persists through the final version.
On September 7, 2006, version 5.5 was released. Major new features include the use of a custom version of WebKit instead of WebCore, universal binary support, saving to web archive, support for user-defined style sheets, a "Select Next Link" feature, FTP folder display, ad-blocking improvements, updated localizations, and many other small changes and bug fixes.
OmniWeb was Omni Group's flagship app but as OS X web browsers improved—Apple eventually bundled Safari into OS X— and Omni successfully introduced other products such as OmniGraffle and OmniOutliner, OmniWeb's importance diminished. OmniWeb's price was successively lowered, first to $39.95, then on February 24, 2009, Omni Group announced that OmniWeb would be made available for free, a change from its previous price of $14.95. The Omni Group official website now states that the browser is no longer under active development.
Features
Separate window form editing: Click the square in the upper right corner of multi line form fields to open it in a separate window. This helped when adding much text to a small area and wanting to see all of it at once. This feature also allowed you to enter tab characters.
Workspaces: groups of web browser windows and tabs in them. A user can have multiple workspaces for different web research topics and quickly switch between them with a key shortcut or menu choice
View Links: By clicking on this button in the toolbar, one can quickly view all the links contained in the page.
Ad blocking: OmniWeb uses a powerful pattern match ad blocking feature to stop images from loading from servers matching the pattern. It is also possible to block images that didn't originate from the current server and to block images that match common advertisement sizes.
Shortcuts: allows one to type a key word or phrase to open a certain web site or begin a specific web search.
Site-specific preferences: OmniWeb allows you to specify preferences that apply to specific websites. For example, if you adjust the font size on a given web page, the adjusted font size is used on all other pages of the same site. Preferences are saved automatically and retained between browsing sessions.
Reception
OmniWeb was popular in the early 2000s when the OmniGroup's experience developing for OpenStep (which became the foundation for Mac OS X) gave them an edge over other developers. Until Apple's Safari, the Omni Group had the best support for Mac OS X technologies among its competition (chiefly Mozilla Firefox and Internet Explorer for Mac). John Siracusa, a technology journalist and critic writing for Ars Technica, said, "Finding [this level of functionality] in a proper Mac OS X application from a respected developer with a proven track record is like finding a perfect 1/10,000th scale replica of the Eiffel Tower in a box of crackerjacks. Then the tower transforms into a tiny robot and makes you lunch."
See also
List of web browsers
Comparison of web browsers
List of feed aggregators
Comparison of feed aggregators
References
External links
Web
1995 software
Gopher clients
MacOS web browsers
Software based on WebKit | [
0.05918605998158455,
-0.2368466556072235,
-0.15373912453651428,
-0.18408820033073425,
0.5307950377464294,
0.1527910977602005,
0.2032637745141983,
0.8123152256011963,
-0.22093060612678528,
-0.2590675354003906,
-0.2377268671989441,
0.32539689540863037,
-0.7292502522468567,
0.30640894174575806,
0.0848754420876503,
-0.5179996490478516,
0.2849549353122711,
0.7648394703865051,
-0.08719077706336975,
-0.10726185142993927,
-0.058447517454624176,
-0.22596138715744019,
-0.4048180878162384,
-0.5213587880134583,
-0.08222433179616928,
0.20254291594028473,
0.559829831123352,
0.20220240950584412,
-0.025149893015623093,
0.19612258672714233,
0.3203405439853668,
0.4499799907207489,
0.09901459515094757,
-0.3061349093914032,
0.17338845133781433,
-0.23646117746829987,
-0.8867608308792114,
-0.1250302791595459,
-0.7507402300834656,
-0.07352370768785477,
0.060874007642269135,
-0.053579866886138916,
-0.03590897470712662,
0.5432329773902893,
0.10645321756601334,
0.015663275495171547,
-2.0189974308013916,
-0.22064772248268127,
-0.35211145877838135,
0.371972918510437,
-0.6566360592842102,
0.29895496368408203,
0.3356126844882965,
0.3097519278526306,
0.3065546154975891,
0.004568044561892748,
0.09885874390602112,
-0.2947019636631012,
0.22037754952907562,
-0.03695527836680412,
0.5217078924179077,
-0.3125914931297302,
-0.1100531592965126,
-0.208892360329628,
-0.30557146668434143,
0.41441410779953003,
0.03223995491862297,
0.44826430082321167,
-0.30089154839515686,
0.116014264523983,
0.3028906583786011,
-0.38843610882759094,
0.006499310024082661,
0.16084544360637665,
-0.19856154918670654,
0.1900210976600647,
0.5143353343009949,
-0.16448098421096802,
0.7267528176307678,
0.26945760846138,
-0.07627677172422409,
0.8452758193016052,
1.213003396987915,
0.315598726272583,
0.285218209028244,
-0.22546270489692688,
-0.46017786860466003,
0.5585082769393921,
-0.5631385445594788,
0.5442986488342285,
-0.30669736862182617,
-0.43990325927734375,
0.6021074056625366,
0.41112175583839417,
-0.15018360316753387,
-0.15799571573734283,
-0.5602190494537354,
-0.2734716236591339,
0.3975043296813965,
0.3284071385860443,
-0.47346553206443787,
0.15765617787837982,
-0.29190120100975037,
0.07441271096467972,
-0.39652618765830994,
-0.01589442789554596,
-0.335829496383667,
-0.5857687592506409,
-0.14572575688362122,
0.2208617776632309,
-0.15741099417209625,
0.22113797068595886,
-0.04148570075631142,
-0.2816177010536194,
0.028554463759064674,
0.4660884439945221,
0.04418898746371269,
0.10998832434415817,
-0.32800841331481934,
0.044882312417030334,
0.7548184990882874,
0.9649468660354614,
0.1732000708580017,
-0.17394475638866425,
0.6721026301383972,
0.1480199694633484,
0.3587070107460022,
-0.07441534101963043,
-0.16042234003543854,
0.2605672776699066,
0.3130795955657959,
0.9027535319328308,
0.12869808077812195,
-0.2958298623561859,
0.05592662841081619,
-0.12968513369560242,
0.37055715918540955,
0.08254983276128769,
0.3765682280063629,
-0.025648919865489006,
-0.04199229180812836,
-0.022810153663158417,
-1.17467200756073,
-0.19588935375213623,
0.5566166043281555,
0.08414870500564575,
0.11727698147296906,
0.022962473332881927,
-0.449095755815506,
-0.3228437602519989,
-0.4071108400821686,
-0.06471759080886841,
-0.31386008858680725,
-0.15031839907169342,
-0.47711437940597534,
0.6526031494140625,
0.00002931977178377565,
-0.2966284155845642,
0.7701270580291748,
0.3871328830718994,
0.07920150458812714,
0.48187369108200073,
-0.6157539486885071,
-0.48790034651756287,
-0.06188810244202614,
0.13552887737751007,
0.3257470428943634,
0.1608574390411377,
0.7828357219696045,
0.307454377412796,
-0.4645368158817291,
0.19668325781822205,
0.4442095160484314,
0.2784980535507202,
0.26145511865615845,
0.17978931963443756,
1.29925537109375,
-0.09600162506103516,
0.27184098958969116,
-0.08952126652002335,
-0.6476105451583862,
-0.5340698957443237,
0.2613283395767212,
0.00351930339820683,
0.06951086968183517,
-0.22466260194778442,
0.3978317677974701,
-0.05687015503644943,
-0.08756431937217712,
-0.3533712327480316,
-0.8875415325164795,
-0.4372856616973877,
0.5504372119903564,
-0.5371924638748169,
0.8453518152236938,
0.09123402833938599,
-0.8654606938362122,
0.31543225049972534,
-0.059746235609054565,
0.03693830966949463,
0.1586167812347412,
0.3080717623233795,
0.3563225567340851,
-0.3056947886943817,
-0.169756680727005,
-0.08651891350746155,
-0.15765880048274994,
-0.3310074806213379,
-0.361432284116745,
0.5237119197845459,
0.3690667450428009,
-0.22181470692157745,
0.3410959839820862,
-0.07986263185739517,
0.5698301792144775,
-0.04932418093085289,
-0.15214473009109497,
0.10460544377565384,
-0.3312651216983795,
-0.12534663081169128,
0.5680156946182251,
-0.4461880624294281,
-0.5284003615379333,
0.44224098324775696,
-0.2037026435136795,
0.733942449092865,
0.2806670665740967,
-0.39371705055236816,
1.081099271774292,
-0.12761370837688446,
-0.28442174196243286,
0.13920113444328308,
0.044208478182554245,
-0.6533548831939697,
0.18964716792106628,
-0.2633584141731262,
0.232855424284935,
-0.3630827069282532,
0.5048587322235107,
0.20384539663791656,
0.2966783046722412,
-0.30097341537475586,
-0.7281488180160522,
-0.042837437242269516,
0.6001023054122925,
-0.3759976029396057,
-0.005049878265708685,
0.34896573424339294,
-0.23815253376960754,
-0.12903974950313568,
0.6279804110527039,
0.7162594795227051,
0.24913130700588226,
-0.5805445313453674,
0.0723428800702095,
0.32769548892974854,
-0.21566660702228546,
0.023200862109661102,
0.23335634171962738,
0.5309336185455322,
0.09636922180652618,
0.1295051872730255,
0.28371113538742065,
0.6911293864250183,
-0.04221103712916374,
-0.9212049245834351,
0.1948540210723877,
-0.3786569833755493,
-0.02255241572856903,
0.2861124575138092,
0.2022266536951065,
-0.14828234910964966,
-0.42452090978622437,
-0.36036747694015503,
0.10359246283769608,
-0.24480055272579193,
0.23901446163654327,
0.6337875127792358,
-0.14540934562683105,
-0.6915116906166077,
0.09841873496770859,
0.9769583940505981,
0.3863770067691803,
0.011416180059313774,
-0.4988482892513275,
0.2586035430431366,
0.1533956229686737,
-0.7622067332267761,
-0.7410264611244202,
0.1344074159860611,
-0.5817766189575195,
0.4521951675415039,
-0.26534393429756165,
0.48908090591430664,
-0.5594536662101746,
0.32539069652557373,
-0.28495535254478455,
0.03383319824934006,
-0.20655809342861176,
0.0022742287255823612,
-0.026560883969068527,
0.2890997529029846,
0.12593179941177368,
-0.07033535093069077,
0.11271553486585617,
-0.030078811571002007,
0.06518688797950745,
-0.5355080366134644,
-5.62364387512207,
0.39049333333969116,
0.3140328824520111,
-0.10631176084280014,
-0.3734429180622101,
0.3435584604740143,
0.13063722848892212,
-0.3214324712753296,
0.49834904074668884,
0.08775908499956131,
-0.0036046423483639956,
0.3692203462123871,
0.048980530351400375,
0.32365691661834717,
0.04759968817234039,
0.1949528008699417,
0.4155556261539459,
0.42387107014656067,
0.06004811450839043,
-0.299024373292923,
0.07295242697000504,
-0.12898577749729156,
0.24174612760543823,
0.497559517621994,
0.1688675880432129,
-0.19365084171295166,
-0.7067976593971252,
0.18754786252975464,
-0.21326297521591187,
-0.16194048523902893,
0.2295350581407547,
-0.30747190117836,
-0.619358479976654,
-0.30962350964546204,
-0.08134809881448746,
0.31630146503448486,
1.048912525177002,
0.4485449492931366,
0.5143234133720398,
-0.4923114478588104,
0.6283038854598999,
0.6165940761566162,
-0.2694057822227478,
-0.1354907900094986,
0.5323025584220886,
0.06659004092216492,
-0.6320680379867554,
-0.126241534948349,
-0.03348550945520401,
0.8441476225852966,
-0.26556992530822754,
0.06805380433797836,
0.06325919926166534,
0.8447635769844055,
0.29385870695114136,
-0.7050065398216248,
-0.0753595158457756,
0.1404133290052414,
-0.19982171058654785,
0.49469733238220215,
0.38081973791122437,
-0.5150872468948364,
-0.21467278897762299,
-0.527093231678009,
-0.14985814690589905,
-0.3868560791015625,
-0.6275019645690918,
-0.06438606232404709,
0.6318649053573608,
0.20600606501102448,
-0.351529598236084,
0.261539101600647,
0.013068389147520065,
-1.1813851594924927,
0.48273417353630066,
-0.02423154003918171,
0.062234874814748764,
-0.06360291689634323,
-0.38120508193969727,
0.023559218272566795,
0.08065184950828552,
-0.3971904516220093,
-0.3958330452442169,
0.2772596776485443,
-0.6618035435676575,
-0.8585882782936096,
-0.6853806972503662,
0.29523947834968567,
-0.2205154448747635,
0.07913528382778168,
0.9122435450553894,
0.015787573531270027,
-0.2976323664188385,
0.405025839805603,
1.0064098834991455,
-0.005003657191991806,
0.7214372158050537,
0.259065181016922,
0.34547159075737,
-0.014980345964431763,
0.31573373079299927,
-0.06684475392103195,
0.02588573470711708,
-0.4590434730052948,
-0.03685979172587395,
0.11563896387815475,
-0.4184260964393616,
-0.7695315480232239,
0.5692973136901855,
-0.12856820225715637,
-0.6757229566574097,
-0.3205282390117645,
-0.4960280954837799,
-0.10457870364189148,
-0.03569820895791054,
0.0925997719168663,
-0.2312421351671219,
0.026789465919137,
0.02076086401939392,
-0.49084439873695374,
-0.11844482272863388,
0.3740321397781372,
-0.09934781491756439,
-0.2919711470603943,
0.13833168148994446,
-0.39476630091667175,
0.3693660497665405,
0.32999712228775024,
0.014650429598987103,
-0.4991074502468109,
-0.10918823629617691,
0.0026773118879646063,
-0.20801518857479095,
-0.060347702354192734,
0.4226272404193878,
-0.5363406538963318,
-0.49122554063796997,
-0.07090417295694351,
0.23781462013721466,
0.06857277452945709,
-0.29672643542289734,
-0.10760726779699326,
0.2594389021396637,
0.009722079150378704,
0.4616174101829529,
0.40525880455970764,
0.5079643130302429,
-0.31426867842674255,
-0.4510505199432373,
0.3618508577346802,
-0.48161008954048157,
-0.35837581753730774,
0.7349403500556946,
-0.20248284935951233,
-0.48013752698898315,
0.0029616395477205515,
0.3288849890232086,
0.08129142969846725,
-0.1952372044324875,
-0.36126095056533813,
0.25685587525367737,
-0.06560949236154556,
-0.7772837281227112,
0.40654414892196655,
0.14114601910114288,
-0.14165867865085602,
-0.2936602830886841,
-0.11481274664402008,
-0.07163938879966736,
-0.10997951775789261,
0.0940193459391594,
0.03564032167196274,
-0.721207320690155,
0.080074243247509,
0.5301851034164429,
0.20413942635059357,
-0.2887466251850128,
0.0034031011164188385,
-0.12775158882141113,
0.25875070691108704,
0.3938278555870056,
-0.1365707963705063,
-0.0684039443731308,
-0.19464363157749176,
0.7869248390197754,
-1.0678341388702393,
-0.3650650680065155,
0.17167513072490692,
-0.4065077602863312,
-0.5700072050094604,
0.07689105719327927,
0.6708423495292664,
0.7442637085914612,
0.07108866423368454,
-0.3165900409221649,
-0.38030877709388733,
-0.0656505897641182,
0.2684372663497925,
-0.00810763519257307,
-1.357094168663025,
-0.27133291959762573,
-0.1855459064245224,
-1.0571175813674927,
0.6352208256721497,
-0.030951905995607376,
-0.5358333587646484,
0.05715705826878548,
-0.32915636897087097,
0.02280653826892376,
0.4499671459197998,
-0.2825694680213928,
-0.4531465470790863,
-0.1369573324918747,
0.031891029328107834,
-0.2262837439775467,
0.4610541760921478,
-0.3152026832103729,
-0.1348412036895752,
-0.3140977919101715,
-0.4168092906475067,
-0.8725203275680542,
-0.2562909722328186,
-0.1320413202047348,
0.09074277430772781,
-0.8176802396774292,
0.8317257761955261,
0.799468457698822,
-0.1120426282286644,
-0.009544291533529758,
-0.2142009437084198,
0.3952518105506897,
-0.13052798807621002,
-0.2785581350326538,
-0.05653320625424385,
-0.2608602046966553,
-0.03690498694777489,
0.349791944026947,
0.2555272579193115,
0.5476711392402649,
0.29615578055381775,
0.09035518020391464,
0.8072333931922913,
-0.6273841261863708,
-0.237627774477005,
0.27215805649757385,
0.3513214588165283,
-0.1909645050764084,
-0.36696067452430725,
-1.2351722717285156,
0.08156569302082062,
0.13562162220478058,
-0.5431374907493591,
0.26523977518081665,
-0.27201375365257263,
0.9405418634414673,
-0.8918861150741577,
-0.25423693656921387,
-0.09935647249221802,
-0.23383063077926636,
-0.3831466734409332,
-0.03268510103225708,
0.01665014587342739,
-0.46374669671058655,
0.4020192623138428,
0.19928434491157532,
-0.0869549959897995,
0.11110582947731018,
-0.5967623591423035,
0.32527828216552734,
-1.0167068243026733,
0.5354195237159729,
0.09489663690328598,
0.4906465709209442,
0.8672237992286682,
0.04422667250037193,
-0.46945929527282715,
0.05614060163497925,
-0.8298961520195007,
0.1539538949728012,
0.04296949505805969,
-0.13472922146320343,
-0.15699875354766846,
-0.32891973853111267,
-0.5748001933097839,
0.23289377987384796,
-0.5710874795913696,
0.3307460844516754,
-0.1867915242910385,
0.011919962242245674,
-0.08003681153059006,
-0.586851954460144,
0.7653400301933289,
-0.044447943568229675,
-0.027822375297546387,
0.027275383472442627,
0.06556999683380127,
0.11353332549333572,
-0.6287657618522644,
-0.09404603391885757,
-0.27580133080482483,
-0.08121500164270401,
-0.009020408615469933,
0.637392520904541,
-0.08940526843070984,
0.6781988143920898,
0.1316376030445099,
-0.4693553149700165,
-0.0765700489282608,
-0.33931952714920044,
-0.1363539844751358,
-0.23046988248825073,
-0.22401046752929688,
-0.03999938815832138,
0.7701233625411987,
-0.6543304920196533,
0.20615918934345245,
0.2605699300765991,
-0.4226815104484558,
0.730019211769104,
-0.38211148977279663,
0.2091282606124878,
0.6056331396102905,
-0.14265486598014832,
0.20796458423137665,
-0.8412158489227295,
0.49593114852905273,
-0.23248031735420227,
0.15685486793518066,
0.30595874786376953,
-0.1308189332485199,
0.2007371187210083,
-0.3136093318462372,
-0.563456654548645,
0.14738138020038605,
0.06598235666751862,
-0.22350196540355682,
0.05953606218099594,
0.24168066680431366,
-0.4744417667388916,
0.7452744245529175,
0.6820907592773438,
0.20910978317260742,
-0.324806809425354,
0.11002113670110703,
-0.489509642124176,
0.3630675971508026,
0.2334592193365097,
0.06220858544111252,
0.38604849576950073,
0.44545701146125793,
-0.20280016958713531,
-0.024443842470645905,
0.16409210860729218,
0.20500482618808746,
0.02652916871011257,
-0.37891480326652527,
0.23195283114910126,
-0.46259555220603943,
0.26689252257347107,
-0.01921408623456955,
-0.18467113375663757,
0.5421793460845947,
-0.020998932421207428,
0.16620443761348724,
-0.5537063479423523,
0.0013273184886202216,
-0.31102192401885986,
-0.4118557274341583,
0.2707712650299072,
0.20745931565761566,
0.41570863127708435,
0.3080986440181732,
0.013912640511989594,
0.45984745025634766,
-0.10344687849283218,
0.4460943937301636,
0.24520361423492432,
0.30426275730133057,
-0.21675966680049896,
-0.26096662878990173,
-0.46882590651512146,
0.00523054413497448,
0.27842581272125244,
0.041006430983543396,
0.5440515279769897,
0.12636379897594452,
-0.2933434545993805,
0.44833141565322876,
0.2630663216114044,
-0.48147884011268616,
-0.6051487326622009,
-0.5286874175071716,
-0.23057891428470612,
0.38592728972435,
-0.05978115648031235,
0.09431597590446472,
-0.1668035387992859,
0.6377177834510803,
0.08101727813482285,
-0.18286782503128052,
0.16112525761127472,
0.4885645806789398,
-0.004034371115267277,
0.19595032930374146,
-0.5052734017372131,
0.3175926208496094,
-0.4645366072654724,
-0.06326737254858017,
-0.8711628913879395,
0.7498723864555359,
-0.1208515614271164,
0.5312932729721069,
0.14679473638534546,
-0.023655850440263748,
0.12142817676067352,
0.16740143299102783,
0.5368805527687073,
-0.15676593780517578,
-0.39734596014022827,
-0.06522126495838165,
0.03991451486945152,
-0.6534315347671509,
0.16992221772670746,
-0.3728158175945282,
0.3784753382205963,
-0.2920934855937958,
0.3419778048992157,
0.11945634335279465,
-0.2822510004043579,
0.5736081004142761,
-0.18867512047290802,
-0.352979838848114,
-0.6162487864494324,
0.45896390080451965,
-0.2587730884552002,
-0.10788967460393906,
0.19709070026874542,
0.9835139513015747,
0.7334276437759399,
-0.24697820842266083,
-0.48642590641975403,
-0.07589216530323029,
0.06904110312461853,
-0.2140047401189804,
-1.6287434101104736,
-0.2205454409122467,
0.4040834307670593,
-0.3390183448791504,
-0.40380945801734924,
-0.06851426512002945,
-0.06951046735048294,
-0.20534759759902954,
-0.12714143097400665,
-0.453582227230072,
0.3918813467025757,
0.5952445864677429,
0.7275070548057556,
-0.006213091779500246,
-0.09057740867137909,
0.2456272691488266
] |
241414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt%20Tank | Kurt Tank | Kurt Waldemar Tank (24 February 1898 – 5 June 1983) was a German aeronautical engineer and test pilot who led the design department at Focke-Wulf from 1931 to 1945. He was responsible for the creation of several important Luftwaffe aircraft of World War II, including the Fw 190 fighter aircraft, the Ta 152 fighter-interceptor and the Fw 200 Condor airliner. After the war, Tank spent two decades designing aircraft abroad, working first in Argentina and then in India, before returning to Germany in the late 1960s to work as a consultant for Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB).
Early life
Tank was born in Bromberg (Bydgoszcz), Province of Posen. His grandfather was a cavalry sergeant in the Uhlans and his father, Willi Tank, was a grenadier sergeant in the 3rd Division. When World War I broke out Tank wished to join the Deutsches Heer'''s then-named Fliegertruppe air service, but his father insisted he instead follow the family tradition and enlist in the cavalry. He ended the war as a captain, with many decorations for bravery.
Career
After the war, Tank graduated from the Technical University of Berlin in 1923. A mentor from the university secured him his first job, in the design department of Rohrbach Metallflugzeug GmbH, where he worked on flying boats, and helped design a passenger aircraft, the Ro VIII Roland.
Tank moved to the firm Albatros Flugzeugwerke, where he worked as a test pilot. The Albatros company went bankrupt in 1929 and in 1931, under government pressure, was merged with Focke-Wulf.
Tank then started work on the design of the Fw 44 Stieglitz (Goldfinch), a two-seat civilian biplane. It was Focke-Wulf's first commercially successful design, launched in 1932. In 1934 Tank's Fw 56 advanced trainer began production. This led to burgeoning growth for the company as Hitler began to prepare the country for war.
Ludwig Roselius, chairman and 46% majority shareholder of Focke-Wulf via Kaffee HAG, and Barbara Goette - his closest confidante, met with Kurt Tank in the Marcus-Allee, Bremen on many occasions. Barbara declared Focke-Wulf to be a "war-determining" enterprise.
In 1936 Tank designed the Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor to a Deutsche Luft Hansa specification for air transport. The first flight, with Tank as pilot, occurred in July 1937, less than a year after work had begun. The Condor made a famous non-stop flight from Berlin to New York City in 1938, proving the concept of transatlantic air travel. The Condor would later be used as a maritime patrol bomber aircraft of some repute during the war.
World War II
The Fw 190 Würger (Shrike), first flying in 1939 and produced from 1941 to 1945, was a mainstay Luftwaffe single-seat fighter during World War II, and Tank's most-produced (over 20,000) and famous design. In January 1943, he was named honorary professor with a chair at the Technical University of Braunschweig, in recognition of his work developing aircraft.
In 1944, the Reichsluftfahrtministerium'' (German Air Ministry) decided that new fighter aircraft designations must include the chief designer's name. Kurt Tank's new designs were therefore given the prefix Ta. His most notable late-war design was the high-speed/high-altitude Ta 152 single-engine fighter, a continuation of the Fw 190 design.
Postwar
After the war, Tank negotiated for an employment position with the United Kingdom, with the Nationalist government of China, and with representatives of the Soviet Union. When those negotiations proved unsuccessful, he accepted an offer from Argentina to work at its aerotechnical institute, the Instituto Aerotécnico in Córdoba under the name of Pedro Matthies. The British government decided not to offer him a contract on the grounds that they could not see how he could be integrated into a research project or design group.
Tank moved to Córdoba in northern Argentina in late 1946, with many of his Focke-Wulf co-workers. One of these was Ronald Richter, who proposed to power airplanes with nuclear energy, to be developed in the Huemul Project, which was later proven to be a fraud according to some.
The Instituto Aerotécnico later became Argentina's military aeroplane factory, the Fábrica Militar de Aviones. While there, Tank designed the IAe Pulqui II based on the Focke-Wulf Ta 183 design that had reached mock-up stage by the end of World War II. It was a state-of-the-art design for its day, but the project was cancelled after the fall of Peron in 1955. When President Juan Perón fell from power, the ex-Focke-Wulf team dispersed, with many, including Tank, moving to India. First he worked as Director of the Madras Institute of Technology, where one of his students was future President of India Abdul Kalam, who went on to design the indigenous Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV) and lead the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme. Tank later joined Hindustan Aeronautics, where he designed the Hindustan Marut fighter-bomber, the first military aircraft constructed in India. The first prototype flew in 1961, and the Marut was retired from active service in 1985. Tank left Hindustan Aeronautics in 1967 and by the 1970s, he had returned to live in Berlin, basing himself in Germany for the rest of his life. He worked as a consultant for MBB. He died in Munich in 1983.
References
External links
1898 births
1983 deaths
Aircraft designers
People from Bydgoszcz
German aerospace engineers
German military personnel of World War I
German people of World War II
German expatriates in Argentina
People from the Province of Posen
Technical University of Berlin alumni
Technical University of Braunschweig faculty
Engineers from Berlin
German expatriates in India | [
-0.13992588222026825,
0.4420897662639618,
-0.2839706242084503,
0.4367671310901642,
-0.2341851443052292,
0.9673117995262146,
0.4500870406627655,
-0.7913382649421692,
0.26809927821159363,
-0.1722937673330307,
-0.1722104847431183,
0.3232685327529907,
0.025027714669704437,
0.15872687101364136,
-0.3606328070163727,
0.36047977209091187,
-0.12619996070861816,
-0.37309733033180237,
-0.4111568033695221,
0.22881001234054565,
0.15658210217952728,
-0.7688483595848083,
0.20710644125938416,
0.22200030088424683,
0.17898927628993988,
0.13810348510742188,
0.7231607437133789,
0.2973403036594391,
0.3465306758880615,
0.5844396352767944,
0.08270971477031708,
0.5587776899337769,
-0.0781676396727562,
-0.05153980851173401,
-0.6257638335227966,
-0.15119047462940216,
0.18347403407096863,
-0.501213550567627,
0.4729953408241272,
-0.38115695118904114,
-0.28492116928100586,
0.3327905237674713,
0.04255206882953644,
0.19943024218082428,
-0.33462852239608765,
-0.4343132972717285,
-2.066840648651123,
0.41097086668014526,
-0.3626324236392975,
-0.006579550914466381,
-0.07260435074567795,
0.24146422743797302,
-0.007331727538257837,
0.32273662090301514,
0.24990302324295044,
0.24836000800132751,
-0.4936690032482147,
-0.4297318160533905,
-0.059970688074827194,
-0.38175854086875916,
0.5001923441886902,
-0.1365353763103485,
0.6595455408096313,
0.3516915738582611,
0.6930282115936279,
0.18277178704738617,
-0.15870918333530426,
-0.0832362249493599,
-0.04329745098948479,
0.0430067703127861,
-0.43721339106559753,
-0.0833829939365387,
0.17710907757282257,
-0.4151337146759033,
0.20203329622745514,
-0.4808913767337799,
0.05167395621538162,
-0.09463633596897125,
0.3526783883571625,
0.3330545127391815,
0.3053797483444214,
-0.5075905323028564,
0.34898465871810913,
0.08235490322113037,
-0.10816077888011932,
0.08658318221569061,
-0.530745804309845,
0.14500771462917328,
-0.8204768896102905,
-0.38935166597366333,
-0.02693220227956772,
-1.051657795906067,
0.04960282891988754,
-0.1596587747335434,
-0.05987922102212906,
0.16268126666545868,
0.01309093926101923,
0.7601412534713745,
0.012885387055575848,
-0.024416368454694748,
0.5478265881538391,
0.10066894441843033,
-0.2498292475938797,
0.09016702324151993,
-0.6079471707344055,
-0.3326960504055023,
-0.19210085272789001,
-0.423507422208786,
-0.07891909778118134,
0.6342949867248535,
-1.087560772895813,
0.024907581508159637,
0.18512222170829773,
-0.3324560225009918,
-0.10079667717218399,
-0.0662585124373436,
-0.3835126459598541,
-1.1086082458496094,
-0.48654213547706604,
0.10717163980007172,
-0.5573587417602539,
0.2019888162612915,
-0.28316211700439453,
0.3461553752422333,
-0.35518085956573486,
0.21504908800125122,
-0.041091348975896835,
0.43775784969329834,
-0.868938684463501,
-0.14982904493808746,
0.7870393395423889,
1.1236491203308105,
-0.11406825482845306,
0.09774089604616165,
-0.5067849159240723,
-0.0844104215502739,
0.27181926369667053,
0.24164263904094696,
-0.729798436164856,
0.5699450373649597,
-0.3754483759403229,
-0.386377215385437,
-0.2732601761817932,
-0.07235700637102127,
0.14936257898807526,
-0.2163221538066864,
-0.14792126417160034,
-0.3055518567562103,
-0.22531446814537048,
-0.38436633348464966,
0.03158445656299591,
-0.03361450135707855,
-0.5532174110412598,
-0.34126046299934387,
-0.06787998229265213,
1.0060229301452637,
0.1850852072238922,
-0.11241430789232254,
-0.00013292348012328148,
0.027189919725060463,
0.23195920884609222,
-0.1778922975063324,
-0.9774008989334106,
0.40391063690185547,
0.8072340488433838,
-0.2810490131378174,
0.02704906277358532,
-0.3838788866996765,
-0.2345127910375595,
0.034490667283535004,
-0.3213646709918976,
-0.3312336206436157,
0.22381912171840668,
-0.07046611607074738,
0.43256789445877075,
0.22842244803905487,
0.8213123083114624,
-0.6740492582321167,
0.5808538794517517,
-0.13002702593803406,
-0.4492485225200653,
-0.3290225565433502,
-0.12473689019680023,
0.487014502286911,
-0.036302678287029266,
0.562351644039154,
0.2702751159667969,
-0.13296370208263397,
0.25752541422843933,
-0.39756813645362854,
-0.40090757608413696,
-1.2387443780899048,
-0.004608287010341883,
-0.28528231382369995,
1.5412858724594116,
-0.011126106604933739,
-0.41876155138015747,
0.28691717982292175,
-0.1195489913225174,
0.22860755026340485,
-0.2650262415409088,
-0.3729628026485443,
0.2903360426425934,
0.005184216424822807,
0.42122384905815125,
0.11371705681085587,
0.3694005012512207,
-0.4060244858264923,
-0.29085952043533325,
0.7324740290641785,
0.4525372087955475,
-0.21439073979854584,
-0.1079544648528099,
-0.20207367837429047,
-0.2692623436450958,
-0.17657221853733063,
-0.9259037375450134,
0.3036404550075531,
0.09507016837596893,
-0.14678266644477844,
0.5437760353088379,
0.11846955865621567,
-0.6023728251457214,
0.37463289499282837,
0.04594677686691284,
0.39700448513031006,
0.13486488163471222,
0.07285396009683609,
-0.0657363161444664,
-0.427683562040329,
0.17945817112922668,
0.2725239396095276,
-0.022491615265607834,
-0.12227851897478104,
-0.02529948204755783,
0.27823904156684875,
0.20522260665893555,
0.6010518074035645,
0.6047263145446777,
-0.4489510953426361,
-0.1358776092529297,
1.1333643198013306,
-0.7677379250526428,
0.19129978120326996,
-0.16541323065757751,
-0.16074062883853912,
0.08725836873054504,
0.09752514958381653,
-0.5153332948684692,
-0.3495613634586334,
0.03154051676392555,
0.776442289352417,
0.3866938650608063,
-0.6003779172897339,
-0.2842482626438141,
-0.14379805326461792,
0.28083691000938416,
-0.35486072301864624,
0.18152502179145813,
0.5086572766304016,
0.33426254987716675,
0.019430814310908318,
0.44203653931617737,
-0.17427995800971985,
0.06423725932836533,
-0.5884225964546204,
0.038580019026994705,
-0.25704219937324524,
-0.07685080915689468,
0.03297600895166397,
0.008716440759599209,
-0.31512510776519775,
0.10741810500621796,
0.35721784830093384,
0.2568064332008362,
-0.5669640898704529,
-0.7185612320899963,
0.7399126887321472,
-0.2706386148929596,
-0.29024937748908997,
0.22810538113117218,
1.1527379751205444,
0.09781912714242935,
-0.7490119934082031,
0.08783327788114548,
0.49982595443725586,
-0.26367923617362976,
-0.3745555281639099,
0.3999580442905426,
-0.5886583924293518,
-0.360029399394989,
0.8484536409378052,
-0.8157082200050354,
0.3534568250179291,
-0.19191373884677887,
0.7950955629348755,
-0.7268193364143372,
-0.6466346383094788,
0.3523176312446594,
0.16542580723762512,
-0.535468339920044,
0.7374250292778015,
-0.17134913802146912,
-0.04312870651483536,
0.06957925111055374,
0.23737886548042297,
-0.3985409438610077,
0.11587744206190109,
-5.449962139129639,
-0.14742372930049896,
0.3050650358200073,
-0.1899137794971466,
0.5895577669143677,
0.7455801963806152,
-0.04810670018196106,
-0.2834640443325043,
0.071001797914505,
-0.6230806112289429,
0.18602363765239716,
0.06038976460695267,
-0.0697793960571289,
0.817420482635498,
0.41901645064353943,
0.3963945806026459,
0.7476953864097595,
-0.08138337731361389,
0.30196645855903625,
0.21963359415531158,
0.15016964077949524,
-0.17253652215003967,
-0.2700290381908417,
0.22987999022006989,
-0.09398101270198822,
-0.3155262768268585,
-0.5906509757041931,
0.3051654100418091,
-0.5136656761169434,
0.029643818736076355,
0.05200495943427086,
-0.3083034157752991,
-0.4998385012149811,
0.28063976764678955,
0.6197006106376648,
-0.3797430396080017,
0.18223758041858673,
0.11905071139335632,
0.3320606052875519,
0.4692228436470032,
-0.1654106080532074,
0.19912423193454742,
-0.32289889454841614,
-0.49334484338760376,
0.22956566512584686,
0.04945933073759079,
-0.38672637939453125,
0.5884168148040771,
-0.3836118280887604,
0.32297542691230774,
0.654699981212616,
-0.031367283314466476,
0.3918939232826233,
-0.03297252580523491,
0.28674495220184326,
-0.2162807583808899,
-0.13143104314804077,
0.5328080654144287,
-0.10948720574378967,
0.2988278269767761,
-0.47647058963775635,
-0.2876303791999817,
0.015056083910167217,
-0.18509888648986816,
-0.5122645497322083,
0.1553967148065567,
-0.08358588069677353,
-0.5650524497032166,
0.08333051204681396,
-0.3539530336856842,
-0.4435342848300934,
1.341550350189209,
0.15690714120864868,
-1.2516608238220215,
0.37408655881881714,
-0.42307496070861816,
-0.4368213713169098,
-0.49912726879119873,
-0.2696439027786255,
-0.2343621701002121,
0.11950521916151047,
-0.8685855865478516,
-0.09681648015975952,
-0.050990939140319824,
0.4080445468425751,
-0.009258382953703403,
-0.2275109738111496,
0.003999428357928991,
0.5307061076164246,
-0.5194952487945557,
0.47863540053367615,
-0.5186249017715454,
0.5183095932006836,
-0.1783314347267151,
0.3331564664840698,
0.14124539494514465,
-0.3707123398780823,
0.17137475311756134,
0.43691352009773254,
0.5504494905471802,
-0.1810358464717865,
-0.07231982052326202,
-0.22359851002693176,
-0.05056347697973251,
0.21359936892986298,
-0.23040704429149628,
0.4080307185649872,
-0.16425558924674988,
0.764715313911438,
0.7062734365463257,
-0.06679020076990128,
0.5892689228057861,
-0.8978002071380615,
-0.14482614398002625,
0.19384820759296417,
-0.21114519238471985,
-0.15011167526245117,
-0.10041191428899765,
0.012498200871050358,
-0.006636752746999264,
-0.23487691581249237,
-0.4277116656303406,
-0.14216575026512146,
-0.7052351832389832,
0.47734880447387695,
0.15618938207626343,
-0.21856166422367096,
-0.5928590297698975,
-0.37180107831954956,
0.2562912106513977,
-0.4810735583305359,
1.5041345357894897,
-0.1517454981803894,
0.37322723865509033,
0.14639776945114136,
-0.192362442612648,
-0.28123852610588074,
-0.02665422298014164,
-0.04222843796014786,
-0.28550636768341064,
-0.12817569077014923,
0.27725571393966675,
0.024853184819221497,
-0.4112154245376587,
0.17623533308506012,
0.2609938085079193,
0.13334298133850098,
-0.002255359198898077,
0.053658053278923035,
0.4467173218727112,
-0.09920835494995117,
-0.4272509515285492,
0.25061118602752686,
-0.13405999541282654,
-0.4482971131801605,
0.6065607070922852,
-0.10005119442939758,
0.3163054585456848,
-0.32385843992233276,
-0.103126160800457,
0.04788537323474884,
-0.2615300118923187,
-0.7626549601554871,
-0.43273696303367615,
0.3970286548137665,
0.637580931186676,
-0.2232005000114441,
-0.22353078424930573,
0.2577234208583832,
0.4886055290699005,
0.1479405164718628,
-0.641822338104248,
-0.8321318626403809,
-0.3085439205169678,
-0.3500463366508484,
0.2975139915943146,
-0.15331289172172546,
-0.3039209246635437,
0.013302721083164215,
0.2492496520280838,
0.1446443498134613,
0.6883436441421509,
-0.3732866048812866,
0.04066839814186096,
0.5211693048477173,
-0.2788497805595398,
-1.0204477310180664,
-0.07010531425476074,
-0.29790931940078735,
-0.264415979385376,
0.22543606162071228,
-0.34016498923301697,
0.6729068756103516,
0.9287797212600708,
0.14965420961380005,
-0.47284722328186035,
-0.031852394342422485,
-0.11649108678102493,
-0.3257827162742615,
-0.2908918857574463,
-0.3117757737636566,
-0.10603833943605423,
-0.3205726444721222,
0.10018360614776611,
0.05601072683930397,
-0.36799710988998413,
0.27036237716674805,
0.323738157749176,
0.6649914383888245,
0.5740517973899841,
-0.5542867183685303,
-1.0145503282546997,
-0.188750222325325,
0.24668559432029724,
-0.6512629985809326,
0.16821947693824768,
0.13412481546401978,
0.0521840825676918,
-0.8683050870895386,
-0.10240867733955383,
-0.8508576154708862,
0.2041909247636795,
-0.45331791043281555,
-0.16373781859874725,
-0.9484875202178955,
-0.30378201603889465,
0.14828431606292725,
0.11721445620059967,
0.28882288932800293,
-0.0591985285282135,
0.4907134771347046,
-0.29923009872436523,
0.3879818320274353,
0.2770230174064636,
0.14513587951660156,
-0.3989209234714508,
0.28025951981544495,
0.27516281604766846,
-0.24579744040966034,
-0.46884679794311523,
0.7720290422439575,
1.0596896409988403,
0.256567120552063,
0.33310332894325256,
0.2738700807094574,
-0.28103119134902954,
0.27308231592178345,
-0.4412165582180023,
-0.1520867943763733,
-0.23136943578720093,
-0.1338319480419159,
-0.03256266191601753,
-1.1155729293823242,
-0.18381717801094055,
0.6029171347618103,
-0.12644343078136444,
-0.36215612292289734,
0.0031376646365970373,
0.17184408009052277,
0.36932992935180664,
0.2736903131008148,
0.8669806122779846,
-0.05224651098251343,
-0.3708306849002838,
-0.33954116702079773,
0.6495041251182556,
-0.7227610349655151,
-0.39569827914237976,
0.06767473369836807,
-0.8759588003158569,
0.010844913311302662,
0.16610661149024963,
0.05412082001566887,
0.14352937042713165,
0.04705256596207619,
0.05938732996582985,
0.048965826630592346,
-0.7166889905929565,
-0.004724344238638878,
0.1028866395354271,
-0.9306796193122864,
0.4326627254486084,
0.03029005229473114,
-0.3339923620223999,
-0.5715782642364502,
-0.10585496574640274,
-0.17076250910758972,
0.028855597600340843,
-0.1597461849451065,
0.3747447729110718,
-0.22824817895889282,
0.2523399591445923,
-0.4462439715862274,
0.30132877826690674,
0.19236552715301514,
0.21435871720314026,
-0.10803136229515076,
0.5010417699813843,
0.3758847117424011,
0.27764061093330383,
-0.19863341748714447,
0.530651330947876,
0.6248268485069275,
-0.044534072279930115,
0.614947497844696,
0.11353319138288498,
-0.06065785139799118,
-0.007554630283266306,
0.17919227480888367,
0.21367524564266205,
0.49100160598754883,
-0.4345984160900116,
-0.5601291060447693,
0.5502976775169373,
-0.7765853404998779,
-0.0602373443543911,
1.0435667037963867,
-0.3323915898799896,
0.30235350131988525,
-0.3381727635860443,
0.4540042579174042,
0.6722585558891296,
0.4152660071849823,
-0.3988267779350281,
-0.5462660193443298,
0.38465458154678345,
0.10021238029003143,
-0.11650507152080536,
-0.42288482189178467,
0.293515682220459,
0.3982899785041809,
-0.029104800894856453,
0.15801970660686493,
0.4705973267555237,
0.14895734190940857,
0.3222305178642273,
0.0408785417675972,
-0.13855357468128204,
-0.025631967931985855,
0.3600720167160034,
-0.4171735644340515,
0.7672265768051147,
0.02902858518064022,
0.14881333708763123,
0.2618955969810486,
0.7364250421524048,
-0.35604578256607056,
0.08107787370681763,
0.22141849994659424,
0.5991647839546204,
0.23789525032043457,
0.06270353496074677,
-0.09912295639514923,
-0.5416473746299744,
-0.5638604164123535,
0.15129709243774414,
0.9951250553131104,
-0.2512710392475128,
-0.3844011723995209,
0.4463011920452118,
0.4463781416416168,
-0.011803152039647102,
0.8404539227485657,
0.15028530359268188,
-0.12714557349681854,
0.3910645842552185,
-0.25932013988494873,
-0.6854790449142456,
0.27311256527900696,
-0.012252471409738064,
-0.09077034145593643,
-0.15157245099544525,
-0.359430730342865,
0.22310543060302734,
0.015633653849363327,
0.33172473311424255,
1.1242384910583496,
0.21764717996120453,
-0.24822157621383667,
0.03365268558263779,
-0.21515512466430664,
0.5782219171524048,
-0.48009932041168213,
-0.031140100210905075,
-0.13097164034843445,
-0.3632582128047943,
-0.21106907725334167,
-0.03345014527440071,
0.5556727647781372,
-0.6465084552764893,
0.19197499752044678,
-1.0028791427612305,
-0.3287166357040405,
0.4665733873844147,
-1.0019618272781372,
-0.01929781399667263,
-0.3154447376728058,
0.5424839854240417,
0.24362201988697052,
0.07532358169555664,
-0.384775847196579,
0.1745164841413498,
-0.5227614045143127,
0.280349999666214,
-0.39705073833465576,
-0.2069939821958542,
-0.35956302285194397,
0.39009079337120056,
-0.10166990756988525,
0.7990238666534424,
0.31377553939819336,
0.4985206723213196,
0.02443889155983925,
0.2824970781803131,
-0.388700395822525,
-0.5476582050323486,
0.6135323643684387,
-0.24811580777168274,
0.09826841205358505,
-0.2545018494129181,
0.3156980276107788,
-0.27464839816093445,
-0.027723463252186775,
-0.3486013412475586,
-0.28365063667297363,
0.1597311794757843,
0.2886974513530731,
0.06790508329868317,
-0.043901391327381134,
0.2641471326351166,
-0.16893421113491058,
0.2319762408733368,
-1.0424045324325562,
-0.2503126561641693,
-0.37777143716812134,
-0.192103311419487,
0.8797205090522766,
0.6931582093238831,
0.5483639240264893,
-0.2069309949874878,
0.6585952639579773,
0.10671999305486679,
0.1539868861436844,
-0.5295737981796265,
0.4867274761199951,
0.13369199633598328,
-0.33225515484809875,
0.14016187191009521,
0.06101081520318985,
0.49184146523475647,
-0.055369455367326736,
0.10102562606334686,
0.5321164727210999,
-1.1519743204116821,
0.10632526129484177,
0.08668960630893707,
0.002139871474355459,
-0.44673603773117065,
0.448719322681427,
0.08910205960273743
] |
241420 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyromania | Pyromania | Pyromania is an impulse control disorder in which individuals repeatedly fail to resist impulses to deliberately start fires, in order to relieve some tension or for instant gratification. The term pyromania comes from the Greek word (pyr, 'fire'). Pyromania is distinct from arson, the deliberate setting of fires for personal, monetary or political gain. Pyromaniacs start fires to induce euphoria and often fixate on institutions of fire control like fire houses and firemen. Pyromania is a type of impulse control disorder, along with kleptomania, intermittent explosive disorder and others.
There are specific symptoms that separate pyromaniacs from those who start fires for criminal purposes or due to emotional motivations not specifically related to fire. Someone suffering from this disorder deliberately and purposely sets fires on more than one occasion, and before the act of lighting the fire the person usually experiences tension and an emotional buildup. When around fires, a person suffering from pyromania gains intense interest or fascination and may also experience pleasure, gratification or relief. Another long term contributor often linked with pyromania is the buildup of stress. When studying the lifestyle of someone with pyromania, a buildup of stress and emotion is often evident and this is seen in teens' attitudes towards friends and family. At times it is difficult to distinguish the difference between pyromania and experimentation in childhood because both involve pleasure from the fire.
Causes
Most studied cases of pyromania occur in children and teenagers. There is a range of causes, but an understanding of the different motives and actions of fire setters can provide a platform for prevention. Common causes of pyromania can be broken down into two main groups: individual and environmental. This includes the complex understanding of factors such as individual temperament, parental psychopathology, and possible neurochemical predispositions. Many studies have shown that patients with pyromania were in households without a father figure present.
Environmental
Environmental factors that may lead to pyromania include an event that the patient has experienced in the environment they live in. Environmental factors include neglect from parents and physical or emotional abuse in earlier life. Other causes include early experiences of watching adults or teenagers using fire inappropriately and lighting fires as a stress reliever.
Treatment and prognosis
The appropriate treatment for pyromania varies with the age of the patient and the seriousness of the condition. For children and adolescents treatment usually is cognitive behavioral therapy sessions in which the patient's situation is diagnosed to find out what may have caused this impulsive behavior. Once the situation is diagnosed, repeated therapy sessions usually help continue to a recovery. Other important steps must be taken as well with the interventions and the cause of the impulse behavior. Some other treatments include parenting training, over-correction/satiation/negative practice with corrective consequences, behavior contracting/token reinforcement, special problem-solving skills training, relaxation training, covert sensitization, fire safety and prevention education, individual and family therapy, and medication. The prognosis for recovery in adolescents and children who suffer from pyromania depends on the environmental or individual factors in play, but is generally positive. Pyromania is generally harder to treat in adults, often due to lack of cooperation by the patient. Treatment usually consists of more medication to prevent stress or emotional outbursts, in addition to long-term psychotherapy. In adults, however, the recovery rate is generally poor, and if an adult does recover, it usually takes a longer period of time.
History
Pyromania was thought in the 1800s to be a concept involved with moral insanity and moral treatment, but had not been categorized under impulse control disorders. Pyromania is one of the four recognized types of arson, alongside burning for profit, to cover up an act of crime and for revenge. Pyromania is the second most common type of arson. Common synonyms for pyromaniacs in colloquial English include firebug (US) and fire raiser (UK), but these also refer to arsonists. Pyromania is a rare disorder with an incidence of less than one percent in most studies; also, pyromaniacs hold a very small proportion of psychiatric hospital admissions. Pyromania can occur in children as young as age three, though such cases are rare. Only a small percentage of children and teenagers arrested for arson are child pyromaniacs. A preponderance of the individuals are male; one source states that ninety percent of those diagnosed with pyromania are male. Based on a survey of 9,282 Americans using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition, impulse-control problems such as gambling, pyromania and compulsive shopping collectively affect 9% of the population. A 1979 study by the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration found that only 14% of fires were started by pyromaniacs and others with mental illness. A 1951 study by Lewis and Yarnell, one of the largest epidemiological studies conducted, found that 39% of those who had intentionally set fires had been diagnosed with pyromania.
Popular culture
Beavis
Fire (The X-Files)
Firefly (DC Comics)
Mamimi Samejima
Trashcan Man
Deidara(Naruto)
The Pyro (Team Fortress 2)
See also
Child pyromaniac
Macdonald triad
Pyrophobia – the hatred or fear of fire
Pyrophilia – arousal or sexual gratification involving fire
References
External links
Fire
Habit and impulse disorders
Public safety
Mania | [
0.29294314980506897,
0.2917534410953522,
-0.6652072072029114,
0.2058861404657364,
-0.4355778694152832,
-0.2558777928352356,
1.0387192964553833,
-0.36620816588401794,
-0.16822010278701782,
-0.19641047716140747,
-0.37083423137664795,
0.30846717953681946,
-0.6319576501846313,
0.05270981043577194,
-0.2265528291463852,
0.597762942314148,
0.5618022680282593,
0.835646390914917,
-0.4596153199672699,
0.18696530163288116,
-0.18031246960163116,
-0.42766544222831726,
0.2870672345161438,
-0.32246795296669006,
0.2632118761539459,
-0.36996567249298096,
0.3275284767150879,
0.32356157898902893,
0.12882864475250244,
0.23613731563091278,
-0.40262994170188904,
0.7179584503173828,
0.24371175467967987,
-0.5221894383430481,
0.26491716504096985,
0.2672724425792694,
-0.12154548615217209,
-0.8968110084533691,
-0.055083826184272766,
-0.4492117166519165,
0.03543070703744888,
-0.09097766876220703,
0.042965397238731384,
0.21394158899784088,
0.4660753011703491,
-0.21320036053657532,
-1.5339138507843018,
0.2794044017791748,
-0.10379522293806076,
-0.19753462076187134,
-0.23439091444015503,
0.22603559494018555,
0.5130101442337036,
0.5727838277816772,
-0.26260751485824585,
0.5073330402374268,
-0.9407534599304199,
0.11200981587171555,
0.17356324195861816,
-0.6817815899848938,
0.15063905715942383,
-0.2846600115299225,
-0.05623885989189148,
-0.11314903944730759,
0.11063382774591446,
0.10460130870342255,
-0.14039434492588043,
0.8339059352874756,
0.059364888817071915,
-0.1903822273015976,
-0.6087090969085693,
-0.2835738956928253,
0.21430791914463043,
0.03472576662898064,
-0.6041108965873718,
0.18447135388851166,
0.3581736087799072,
-0.5756680369377136,
-0.49491631984710693,
0.49549606442451477,
0.019670356065034866,
0.7819107174873352,
0.16923309862613678,
0.015537461265921593,
0.4813687205314636,
-0.19670245051383972,
-0.2564678192138672,
0.7526237368583679,
0.24649646878242493,
0.4224233031272888,
0.22097539901733398,
0.07156464457511902,
0.8739706873893738,
-0.23230986297130585,
-0.20866046845912933,
0.4633735716342926,
0.5621452331542969,
-0.031243769451975822,
-0.13465960323810577,
-0.08284477889537811,
0.24930360913276672,
0.17593994736671448,
0.018263231962919235,
0.07401332259178162,
0.31450575590133667,
-0.24399515986442566,
0.1352558135986328,
-0.51776123046875,
0.41132527589797974,
-0.3140736222267151,
-0.7578721046447754,
0.22930368781089783,
-0.15857917070388794,
-0.3204266130924225,
-0.47869738936424255,
0.2602589428424835,
0.5223883986473083,
0.7002980709075928,
-0.07516518235206604,
-0.3171462416648865,
-0.10647258162498474,
0.3113469183444977,
-0.17241694033145905,
0.2901352345943451,
-0.8520786166191101,
0.2756136357784271,
0.593392550945282,
0.392008513212204,
-0.3800753355026245,
0.08556491136550903,
-0.10586006194353104,
0.7846661806106567,
-0.40399375557899475,
-0.49942663311958313,
0.09791518747806549,
-0.08909318596124649,
0.15790492296218872,
0.5543105602264404,
0.3934774696826935,
0.16927187144756317,
-0.5627633929252625,
-0.33934202790260315,
0.09590212255716324,
0.14538244903087616,
0.13870494067668915,
-0.1943463683128357,
0.273541659116745,
-0.2463219314813614,
-0.2672169506549835,
-0.23122398555278778,
0.3135547935962677,
-0.0282274316996336,
-0.27223894000053406,
0.6840793490409851,
-0.3145142197608948,
-0.35947713255882263,
0.4301273226737976,
-0.8349303603172302,
0.15546417236328125,
0.17454572021961212,
0.030611800029873848,
-0.33062994480133057,
-0.40463387966156006,
0.1971505582332611,
0.04128945618867874,
-0.16665983200073242,
0.04008954018354416,
0.6782240271568298,
0.05269342660903931,
0.090237557888031,
-0.37289589643478394,
0.35660892724990845,
0.06927797198295593,
-0.33734479546546936,
0.5031063556671143,
0.7779664397239685,
0.3552677631378174,
0.38134822249412537,
0.5247718095779419,
0.164719358086586,
-0.6729908585548401,
0.13621753454208374,
0.19396212697029114,
-0.5929518938064575,
0.3225986361503601,
-0.40014955401420593,
0.3402566611766815,
-0.574017345905304,
-0.1374950110912323,
-0.29502972960472107,
-0.4933677315711975,
-0.1521283984184265,
0.43648743629455566,
-0.40935805439949036,
1.8035215139389038,
-0.31946972012519836,
-0.5768303275108337,
0.2173839658498764,
0.8243427872657776,
0.01628527045249939,
0.04552505537867546,
-0.10072578489780426,
0.5460850596427917,
-0.16624435782432556,
-0.7681453824043274,
0.12376688420772552,
0.1612292379140854,
0.49313434958457947,
-0.2820849120616913,
-0.26660242676734924,
0.3308897018432617,
-0.3227844536304474,
0.43775108456611633,
-0.3367438018321991,
0.011976908892393112,
0.13985992968082428,
-0.8057762980461121,
0.5286738276481628,
0.2154175043106079,
-0.12148839980363846,
0.08236803859472275,
-0.32695430517196655,
-0.41605451703071594,
0.6704001426696777,
0.2618698179721832,
0.5928594470024109,
0.718521773815155,
-0.29852116107940674,
0.7736102342605591,
-0.9390637278556824,
-0.012457752600312233,
0.49473997950553894,
0.13145101070404053,
-0.14626474678516388,
-0.5558874607086182,
0.25810861587524414,
0.26252785325050354,
-0.7155858874320984,
-0.2197660356760025,
-0.9545285105705261,
0.09641300141811371,
0.7174037098884583,
0.005858796648681164,
0.7007465958595276,
0.025057578459382057,
0.1221427246928215,
-0.36135411262512207,
0.592587947845459,
-0.4695916771888733,
-0.1213795393705368,
0.3010135591030121,
0.8041936755180359,
0.5036090612411499,
-0.6687759757041931,
0.4802522361278534,
-0.3261890113353729,
0.004805224947631359,
-0.19548465311527252,
-0.004171089734882116,
-0.6337639689445496,
-0.123110830783844,
0.047411542385816574,
-0.1951453685760498,
0.16485419869422913,
0.019398057833313942,
-0.636545717716217,
-0.3021681010723114,
-0.11348825693130493,
-0.1827690154314041,
-0.02012575976550579,
0.8185163736343384,
-0.2844010591506958,
-0.4217830002307892,
-0.07129035145044327,
-0.6326342225074768,
-0.8902547359466553,
0.06688471883535385,
0.22529520094394684,
-0.20662528276443481,
-0.26554402709007263,
-0.04806353151798248,
0.6346896886825562,
0.47055190801620483,
-0.5699533224105835,
-0.3360762894153595,
0.10865334421396255,
0.09443067759275436,
-0.05339702591300011,
0.19613248109817505,
-0.16940073668956757,
-0.4490470886230469,
-0.08102899044752121,
0.25076138973236084,
0.4092356562614441,
0.2896997928619385,
0.1405963897705078,
-0.30581626296043396,
0.5779715180397034,
0.3796343505382538,
0.13888603448867798,
-0.245378777384758,
-0.21084393560886383,
-0.7835100293159485,
-0.04306761547923088,
-0.03504270315170288,
-0.2948978543281555,
-0.19424203038215637,
0.30674758553504944,
-5.55236291885376,
0.13588276505470276,
-0.1979605108499527,
-0.2016942948102951,
-0.514362096786499,
0.4099256992340088,
0.5799656510353088,
-0.4460345506668091,
-0.6671319603919983,
0.5174012780189514,
0.01822274550795555,
0.18617166578769684,
0.3124096393585205,
0.5348693132400513,
0.11579002439975739,
0.0002722676144912839,
0.09323080629110336,
-0.38258451223373413,
0.16169044375419617,
-0.008688344620168209,
0.23709876835346222,
0.7975361943244934,
-0.48811444640159607,
0.25448814034461975,
0.2987140417098999,
-0.1344660520553589,
0.10078812390565872,
0.22712257504463196,
-0.7357505559921265,
0.22783346474170685,
0.4346052408218384,
-0.5297785401344299,
-0.02255191281437874,
0.38125306367874146,
-0.10099583864212036,
0.5289596915245056,
0.35171860456466675,
-0.08269213885068893,
-0.9572241902351379,
0.014127042144536972,
-0.6769019365310669,
0.0772487223148346,
0.049248483031988144,
0.6074939966201782,
0.9307646155357361,
0.11752256751060486,
-0.15816748142242432,
-0.45753878355026245,
-0.19015641510486603,
0.5873456597328186,
0.2042836993932724,
0.09392565488815308,
0.4664892554283142,
0.02480323240160942,
0.15192745625972748,
0.27919358015060425,
0.6918524503707886,
-0.2053779661655426,
-0.1686883419752121,
-0.11740627139806747,
0.12414304167032242,
0.09915642440319061,
-0.07173366844654083,
-0.0589628741145134,
0.14318765699863434,
0.11936118453741074,
-0.05325468257069588,
-0.7696287035942078,
0.5556265115737915,
-0.1910020411014557,
-0.22934666275978088,
0.281296968460083,
0.2525693476200104,
-0.9847337603569031,
0.23129089176654816,
-0.6204760670661926,
-0.15043167769908905,
0.019606314599514008,
0.35226336121559143,
-0.07237955927848816,
-0.7541682720184326,
-0.0054338835179805756,
-0.5429360866546631,
-0.1403551995754242,
0.43421679735183716,
-0.17300648987293243,
-0.0009839067934080958,
0.23737411201000214,
-0.01030766498297453,
0.10502374172210693,
1.150390386581421,
0.11473941802978516,
0.3226701021194458,
0.4488063156604767,
0.13771796226501465,
1.6100287437438965,
0.17388737201690674,
0.2832166850566864,
0.48322561383247375,
-0.006085408851504326,
-0.0980052500963211,
-0.40547460317611694,
-0.24543051421642303,
-0.10280583798885345,
-0.26598551869392395,
-0.26907142996788025,
-0.395028293132782,
0.14410167932510376,
0.8438622951507568,
-0.31411030888557434,
0.5495595335960388,
0.48246219754219055,
-0.12426921725273132,
-0.439704954624176,
0.5194271206855774,
0.05755498260259628,
0.020644227042794228,
1.0113569498062134,
0.7911887764930725,
0.06246769055724144,
0.20522981882095337,
0.5850270986557007,
-0.5167823433876038,
-0.4352189004421234,
-0.1478271484375,
-0.15792471170425415,
0.1191585585474968,
-0.10558247566223145,
0.04292939230799675,
-0.1467495560646057,
0.03642168641090393,
0.2652595341205597,
0.1526612639427185,
0.3521580696105957,
-0.04911139979958534,
-0.5519837141036987,
-0.18735061585903168,
0.031297191977500916,
-0.022404152899980545,
-0.27380433678627014,
-0.5374226570129395,
-0.15784421563148499,
-0.7390885353088379,
0.30920660495758057,
0.8244718909263611,
0.12391151487827301,
-0.1385716050863266,
-0.29080474376678467,
-0.4003388285636902,
0.3892894387245178,
-0.08631061762571335,
-0.5759286880493164,
0.2756906747817993,
-0.6740113496780396,
-0.3368118107318878,
-0.16586296260356903,
-0.07753350585699081,
0.3808700740337372,
0.18393288552761078,
-0.4252442717552185,
0.15791429579257965,
-0.7377933859825134,
-1.3228795528411865,
-0.5900322794914246,
-0.12890323996543884,
-0.675624430179596,
-0.552023708820343,
-0.7878457307815552,
-0.42504119873046875,
0.3484141528606415,
-0.69974684715271,
-0.2073945552110672,
-0.2659689486026764,
-0.5262179374694824,
0.6442381143569946,
-0.3824138939380646,
-0.3011959195137024,
0.021544266492128372,
-0.34765586256980896,
-0.4016886353492737,
-0.44443753361701965,
0.13967640697956085,
-0.502390444278717,
0.40590745210647583,
0.7188720107078552,
-0.5413646697998047,
0.19255799055099487,
0.1743137240409851,
-0.2214973121881485,
-0.22673290967941284,
0.2951525151729584,
0.2909660041332245,
0.22762621939182281,
-0.16487669944763184,
-0.012764351442456245,
-0.03852170705795288,
-0.2276918739080429,
0.046622972935438156,
-0.0895766094326973,
-0.44007325172424316,
0.036102619022130966,
-0.1630445420742035,
-0.7884705662727356,
0.1190425381064415,
0.6778470873832703,
-0.3519520163536072,
0.2147095650434494,
0.022721556946635246,
-0.5919607281684875,
0.10601925104856491,
-0.33827680349349976,
-0.5156620740890503,
-0.7250390648841858,
0.25831979513168335,
-0.4162150025367737,
0.2549522817134857,
-0.10508531332015991,
-0.6594265103340149,
-0.430094450712204,
-0.17927785217761993,
0.25026196241378784,
0.08021963387727737,
-0.190602645277977,
-0.19822263717651367,
-0.09379234910011292,
-0.5129848122596741,
0.446585476398468,
-0.6833372712135315,
0.9054575562477112,
-0.28671795129776,
-0.36292240023612976,
0.30782195925712585,
0.1850915253162384,
-0.6926175355911255,
-0.32806190848350525,
-0.534907341003418,
-0.04986909031867981,
0.47932031750679016,
-0.2962630093097687,
0.14540527760982513,
-0.10989025235176086,
0.714184045791626,
0.3454117178916931,
-0.5080854296684265,
-0.2739681303501129,
0.006976927164942026,
0.46739405393600464,
-0.7048357725143433,
-0.47570377588272095,
-0.23187562823295593,
0.4896913766860962,
0.12810388207435608,
-0.6557040810585022,
0.014642427675426006,
0.36489173769950867,
-0.07443133741617203,
0.05898995324969292,
-0.6548577547073364,
0.5414255857467651,
0.05498384311795235,
0.276828795671463,
-0.026183774694800377,
-0.13416002690792084,
0.27400752902030945,
0.1501251459121704,
0.27510353922843933,
-0.2590644657611847,
-0.5334810018539429,
-0.028510505333542824,
-0.6176531314849854,
0.16547907888889313,
0.04825354367494583,
0.5329155921936035,
0.3503275215625763,
0.0780559629201889,
0.2164667397737503,
0.015229656361043453,
-0.5980784296989441,
-0.2701970040798187,
-0.07857159525156021,
0.43086007237434387,
-0.2968890070915222,
0.2245112657546997,
-0.3436243534088135,
0.26077282428741455,
-0.536518931388855,
0.0496402345597744,
-0.9307146072387695,
-0.8901685476303101,
-0.12287132441997528,
-0.3916316330432892,
0.1300705075263977,
-0.05790526047348976,
0.08006702363491058,
0.30903735756874084,
0.01587759703397751,
0.07256747037172318,
-0.21792884171009064,
-0.4754566550254822,
0.038946669548749924,
-0.9079376459121704,
0.4478625953197479,
0.2521931231021881,
-0.5535241961479187,
0.15210452675819397,
-0.018074817955493927,
-0.09201272577047348,
-0.8918782472610474,
-0.22419653832912445,
-0.24395602941513062,
0.0598972886800766,
-0.06608977168798447,
0.1011163592338562,
0.7242088317871094,
-0.61504727602005,
0.25978291034698486,
0.5398334860801697,
0.17811401188373566,
0.06227156147360802,
0.35474541783332825,
0.5445179343223572,
-0.3672676384449005,
0.9231821894645691,
-0.348175048828125,
0.4017332196235657,
0.26861733198165894,
-0.09379982948303223,
0.18886691331863403,
0.6816086769104004,
0.24487654864788055,
1.0993572473526,
0.3403613865375519,
-0.541618287563324,
1.0382416248321533,
0.0381363183259964,
-0.16498792171478271,
0.5972288250923157,
-0.6457297205924988,
-1.1043766736984253,
0.006927499547600746,
0.7445711493492126,
-0.1295955628156662,
0.47846347093582153,
0.30323418974876404,
-0.1154787465929985,
0.4394405484199524,
0.2952382266521454,
0.08856578916311264,
-0.29183050990104675,
-0.032264646142721176,
0.3648405969142914,
0.04497549310326576,
0.04900570958852768,
-0.5155692100524902,
0.21100914478302002,
-0.3185102641582489,
0.4226996600627899,
0.009826060384511948,
-0.1586180031299591,
-0.12432868778705597,
0.4742392301559448,
0.12800100445747375,
-0.08374322205781937,
0.1782815307378769,
0.4412851929664612,
-0.23939944803714752,
0.23717457056045532,
-0.010195286944508553,
-0.2973538041114807,
0.35030651092529297,
0.3114272952079773,
-0.11279433965682983,
-0.18297702074050903,
0.20328061282634735,
0.431376576423645,
-0.14408297836780548,
0.625346839427948,
0.44964033365249634,
0.198726087808609,
0.005480415187776089,
-0.3403051197528839,
0.6164044737815857,
-0.701962947845459,
-0.27381661534309387,
0.56146639585495,
-0.44323521852493286,
0.03950268030166626,
0.2921147048473358,
-0.05854955315589905,
0.12096705287694931,
0.28380104899406433,
0.32002758979797363,
-0.4785357713699341,
-0.010752100497484207,
0.23504738509655,
-0.34789949655532837,
0.5720369219779968,
0.4185560345649719,
0.2694016098976135,
0.23578490316867828,
0.1601223349571228,
0.05405348539352417,
-0.0509791374206543,
0.34104448556900024,
-0.48167064785957336,
0.30855610966682434,
-0.5029249787330627,
0.014237642288208008,
-0.9911962151527405,
0.31575000286102295,
0.3229396343231201,
0.13923946022987366,
0.21627821028232574,
0.6204066276550293,
0.10050737857818604,
-0.009597393684089184,
0.6662232279777527,
-0.562404215335846,
-0.0019934852607548237,
-0.5964500904083252,
0.48783355951309204,
-0.5979971289634705,
0.49629929661750793,
0.45913225412368774,
-1.0125443935394287,
-0.15235535800457,
0.5112824440002441,
-0.710307240486145,
0.1847112625837326,
0.05491374805569649,
-0.23606561124324799,
0.2539397180080414,
-0.41827934980392456,
0.3656492531299591,
-0.16273929178714752,
-0.7381013631820679,
0.8522024750709534,
-0.13173913955688477,
0.10687143355607986,
0.10128151625394821,
0.4862831234931946,
-0.8900606632232666,
0.01739794760942459,
0.052984241396188736,
-0.6617159843444824,
0.6077967882156372,
-0.47752273082733154,
0.17113922536373138,
-0.03072921559214592,
-0.03168591111898422,
0.2404373586177826,
-0.6007500290870667,
-0.12467741966247559,
-0.38771703839302063,
-0.2552143931388855,
-0.05824173614382744,
0.048283904790878296,
-0.6477261185646057,
-0.2594710886478424,
0.2398580014705658
] |
241425 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara | Avalokiteśvara | In Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara ( Sanskrit: अवलोकितेश्वर ) is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He has 108 avatars; one notable avatar being Padmapāṇi, the one who holds the lotus (padma). This bodhisattva is variably depicted, described and portrayed in different cultures as either male or female. In Tibet, he is known as Chenrezig. In China, Taiwan and other Chinese communities, Avalokiteśvara has evolved into the somewhat different female figure Guanyin or Guanshiyin, also known as Kannon or Kanzeon in Japan, Gwanseum in Korea and Quán Thế Âm in Vietnamese. In the Kathmandu valley, this figure is known as Jana Baha Dyah, Karunamaya or Seto Machindranath. He is known as Natha Deviyo in Sri Lanka and Lokanatha In Myanmar(Burma). In Thailand and Cambodia, he is called as Lokesvara.
Etymology
The name Avalokiteśvara combines the verbal prefix ava "down", lokita, a past participle of the verb lok "to notice, behold, observe", here used in an active sense; and finally īśvara, "lord", "ruler", "sovereign" or "master". In accordance with sandhi (Sanskrit rules of sound combination), a+īśvara becomes eśvara. Combined, the parts mean "lord who gazes down (at the world)". The word loka ("world") is absent from the name, but the phrase is implied. It does appear in the Cambodian form of the name, Lokesvarak.
The earliest translation of the name Avalokiteśvara into Chinese by authors such as Xuanzang was as Guānzìzài (), not the form used in East Asian Buddhism today, Guanyin (). It was initially thought that this was due to a lack of fluency, as Guanyin indicates the original Sanskrit form was instead Avalokitasvara, "who looked down upon sound", i.e., the cries of sentient beings who need help. It is now understood Avalokitasvara was the original form, and is also the origin of Guanyin "Perceiving sound, cries". This translation was favored by the tendency of some Chinese translators, notably Kumārajīva, to use the variant Guānshìyīn "who perceives the world's lamentations"—wherein lok was read as simultaneously meaning both "to look" and "world" (Sanskrit loka; ). The original form Avalokitasvara appears in Sanskrit fragments of the fifth century.
This earlier Sanskrit name was supplanted by the form containing the ending -īśvara "lord"; but Avalokiteśvara does not occur in Sanskrit before the seventh century.
The original meaning of the name fits the Buddhist understanding of the role of a bodhisattva. The reinterpretation presenting him as an īśvara shows a strong influence of Hinduism, as the term īśvara was usually connected to the Hindu notion of Vishnu (in Vaishnavism) or Śiva (in Shaivism) as the Supreme Lord, Creator and Ruler of the world. Some attributes of such a god were transmitted to the bodhisattva, but the mainstream of those who venerated Avalokiteśvara upheld the Buddhist rejection of the doctrine of any creator god.
In Sanskrit, Avalokiteśvara is also referred to as Lokeśvara ("Lord of the World"). In Tibetan, Avalokiteśvara is Chenrézig, () and is said to emanate as the Dalai Lama, the Karmapa and other high lamas. An etymology of the Tibetan name Chenrézik is spyan "eye", ras "continuity" and gzig "to look". This gives the meaning of one who always looks upon all beings (with the eye of compassion).
Origin
Mahayana account
According to the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra, the Sun and Moon are said to be born from Avalokiteśvara's eyes, Shiva from his brow, Brahma from his shoulders, Narayana from his heart, Sarasvati from his teeth, the winds from his mouth, the Earth from his feet, and the sky from his stomach. In this text and others, such as the Longer Sukhavativyuha Sutra, Avalokiteśvara is an attendant of Amitabha.
Some texts which mention Avalokiteśvara include:
We come across the name Avalokiteshvara in the Avatamsaka Sutra, a Mahayana scripture that precedes the Lotus Sutra. On account of its popularity in Japan, and as a result of the works of the earliest Western translators of Buddhist Scriptures, the Lotus, however, has long time been accepted to be the earliest literature teaching about the doctrines of Avalokiteśvara. These are found in Chapter 25 of the Lotus Sutra: Universal Gate of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (). This chapter is devoted to Avalokiteśvara, describing him as a compassionate bodhisattva who hears the cries of sentient beings, and who works tirelessly to help those who call upon his name. A total of 33 different manifestations of Avalokiteśvara are described, including female manifestations, all to suit the minds of various beings. The chapter consists of both a prose and a verse section. This earliest source often circulates separately as its own sutra, called the Avalokiteśvara Sūtra (), and is commonly recited or chanted at Buddhist temples in East Asia.
When the Chinese monk Faxian traveled to Mathura in India around 400 CE, he wrote about monks presenting offerings to Avalokiteśvara. When Xuanzang traveled to India in the 7th century, he provided eyewitness accounts of Avalokiteśvara statues being venerated by devotees from all walks of life: kings, to monks, to laypeople.
In Chinese Buddhism and East Asia, Tangmi practices for the 18-armed form of Avalokiteśvara called Cundī are very popular. The popularity of Cundī is attested by the three extant translations of the Cundī Dhāraṇī Sūtra from Sanskrit to Chinese, made from the end of the seventh century to the beginning of the eighth century. In late imperial China, these early esoteric traditions still thrived in Buddhist communities. Robert Gimello has also observed that in these communities, the esoteric practices of Cundī were extremely popular among both the populace and the elite.
In the Tiantai school, six forms of Avalokiteśvara are defined. Each of the bodhisattva's six qualities are said to break the hindrances respectively of the six realms of existence: hell-beings, pretas, animals, humans, asuras, and devas.
And also according to prologue of Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī Sūtra, Gautama Buddha told a disciple Ānanda that Avalokiteśvara had become a Buddha from countless previous incarnations ago, alias "Wisdom of Right Dharma Tathāgata", also had Ten titles of Buddha include Tathāgata (Thus Come One), Arhat (One Worthy of Offerings), Saṃyak-saṃbuddha (One of Proper and Universal Knowledge), Vidyacaraṇa-Saṃpaṇṇa (One Perfect in Clarity and Practice), Sugata (Well Gone One), Lokavid (Unsurpassed One Who Understands the World, Anuttarā (Unsurpassed Knights), Purusa-damya-sarathi (Taming Heroes), Sastā deva-manuṣyanam (Teacher of Gods and Humans), Buddha-lokanātha or Bhagavat (World-Honored One). Because of his great compassion, because he wanted to create proper conditions for all the Bodhisattva ranks, because he wanted to bring happiness and peacefulness to sentient living beings, he became a Bodhisattva, the title of Quan Avalokiteshvara, often abiding in the Sahā world. At the same time, Avalokiteśvara is also the attendant of Amitabha Buddha, assisting Amitabha Buddha to teach the Dharma in his Pure Land.
Theravāda account
Veneration of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva has continued to the present day in Sri Lanka:
In times past both Tantrayana and Mahayana have been found in some of the Theravada countries, but today the Buddhism of Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia is almost exclusively Theravada, based on the Pali Canon. The only Mahayana deity that has entered the worship of ordinary Buddhists in Theravada countries is Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. In Ceylon he is known as Natha-deva and mistaken by the majority for the Buddha yet to come, Bodhisattva Maitreya. The figure of Avalokitesvara usually is found in the shrine room near the Buddha image. In more recent times, some western-educated Theravādins have attempted to identify Nātha with Maitreya Bodhisattva; however, traditions and basic iconography (including an image of Amitābha Buddha on the front of the crown) identify Nātha as Avalokiteśvara. Andrew Skilton writes:
Avalokiteśvara is popularly worshiped in Myanmar, where he is called Lokanat or lokabyuharnat, and Thailand, where he is called Lokesvara. The bodhisattva goes by many other names. In Indochina and Thailand, he is Lokesvara, "The Lord of the World." In Tibet he is Chenrezig, also spelled Spyan-ras gzigs, "With a Pitying Look." In China, the bodhisattva takes a female form and is called Guanyin (also spelled Kwan Yin, Kuanyin or Kwun Yum), "Hearing the Sounds of the World." In Japan, Guanyin is Kannon or Kanzeon; in Korea, Gwan-eum; in Vietnam, Quan Am.
Modern scholarship
Avalokiteśvara is worshipped as Nātha in Sri Lanka. Tamil Buddhist tradition developed in Chola literature, such as in Buddamitra's Virasoliyam , states that the Vedic sage Agastya learnt Tamil from Avalokiteśvara. The earlier Chinese traveler Xuanzang recorded a temple dedicated to Avalokitesvara in the South Indian Mount Potalaka, a Sanskritzation of Pothigai, where Tamil Hindu tradition places Agastya having learnt the Tamil language from Shiva. Avalokitesvara worship gained popularity with the growth of the Abhayagiri vihāra's Tamraparniyan Mahayana sect.
Western scholars have not reached a consensus on the origin of the reverence for Avalokiteśvara. Some have suggested that Avalokiteśvara, along with many other supernatural beings in Buddhism, was a borrowing or absorption by Mahayana Buddhism of one or more deities from Hinduism, in particular Shiva or Vishnu. This seems to be based on the name Avalokiteśvara.
On the basis of study of Buddhist scriptures, ancient Tamil literary sources, as well as field survey, the Japanese scholar Shu Hikosaka proposes the hypothesis that, the ancient mount Potalaka, the residence of Avalokiteśvara described in the Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra and Xuanzang’s Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, is the real mountain Pothigai in Ambasamudram, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu-Kerala border. Shu also says that mount Potalaka has been a sacred place for the people of South India from time immemorial. It is the traditional residence of Siddhar Agastya, at Agastya Mala. With the spread of Buddhism in the region beginning at the time of the great king Aśoka in the third century BCE, it became a holy place also for Buddhists, who gradually became dominant as a number of their hermits settled there. The local people, though, mainly remained followers of the Tamil Animist religion. The mixed Tamil-Buddhist cult culminated in the formation of the figure of Avalokiteśvara.
The name Lokeśvara should not be confused with that of Lokeśvararāja, the Buddha under whom Dharmakara became a monk and made forty-eight vows before becoming Amitābha.
Hindu tradition
In Hindu tradition, he has been depicted as an emanation of Shiva.
Mantras and Dharanis
Mahāyāna Buddhism relates Avalokiteśvara to the six-syllable mantra .
In Tibetan Buddhism, due to his association with this mantra, one form of Avalokiteśvara is called Ṣaḍākṣarī "Lord of the Six Syllables" in Sanskrit. Recitation of this mantra while using prayer beads is the most popular religious practice in Tibetan Buddhism. The connection between this famous mantra and Avalokiteśvara is documented for the first time in the . This text is dated to around the late 4th century CE to the early 5th century CE. In this sūtra, a bodhisattva is told by the Buddha that recitation of this mantra while focusing on the sound can lead to the attainment of eight hundred samādhis. The also features the first appearance of the dhāraṇī of Cundī, which occurs at the end of the sūtra text. After the bodhisattva finally attains samādhi with the mantra "oṃ maṇipadme hūṃ", he is able to observe 77 koṭīs of fully enlightened buddhas replying to him in one voice with the Cundī Dhāraṇī:
Another mantra for Avalokiteśvara commonly recited in East Asian Buddhism is Om Arolik Svaha. In Chinese, it is pronounced Ǎn ālǔlēi jì suōpóhē (唵 阿嚕勒繼 娑婆訶). In Korean, it is pronounced Om aroreuk Ge Sabaha (옴 아로늑계 사바하). In Japanese, it is pronounced On arori kya sowa ka (おん あろりきゃ そわか).
The Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī is an 82-syllable dhāraṇī for Avalokiteśvara.
Thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara
One prominent Buddhist story tells of Avalokiteśvara vowing never to rest until he had freed all sentient beings from saṃsāra. Despite strenuous effort, he realizes that many unhappy beings were yet to be saved. After struggling to comprehend the needs of so many, his head splits into eleven pieces. Amitābha, seeing his plight, gives him eleven heads with which to hear the cries of the suffering. Upon hearing these cries and comprehending them, Avalokiteśvara tries to reach out to all those who needed aid, but found that his two arms shattered into pieces. Once more, Amitābha comes to his aid and invests him with a thousand arms with which to aid the suffering multitudes.
The Bao'en Temple located in northwestern Sichuan has an outstanding wooden image of the Thousand-Armed Avalokiteśvara, an example of Ming dynasty decorative sculpture.
Tibetan Buddhist beliefs
Avalokiteśvara is an important deity in Tibetan Buddhism. He is regarded in the Vajrayana teachings as a Buddha.
In Tibetan Buddhism, Tãrã came into existence from a single tear shed by Avalokiteśvara. When the tear fell to the ground it created a lake, and a lotus opening in the lake revealed Tara. In another version of this story, Tara emerges from the heart of Avalokiteśvara. In either version, it is Avalokiteśvara's outpouring of compassion which manifests Tãrã as a being.
Manifestations
Avalokiteśvara has an extraordinarily large number of manifestations in different forms (including wisdom goddesses (vidyaas) directly associated with him in images and texts). Some of the more commonly mentioned forms include:
Gallery
See also
Guanyin
Ishvara
Pure Land Buddhism
Ushnishasitatapattra
Vishnu
Dalai Lama
References
Sources
ill. colour
External links
The Origin of Avalokiteshvara of Potala
An Explanation of the Name Avalokiteshvara
The Bodhisattva of Compassion and Spiritual Emanation of Amitabha - from Buddhanature.com
Depictions at the Bayon in Cambodia of Avalokiteshvara as the Khmer King Jayavarman VII
Mantra Avalokitesvara
Avalokiteshvara at Britannica.com
Chenrezig Tibetan Buddhist Center of Philadelphia
Bodhisattvas
Buddhist tantras
Yidams | [
-0.05234638229012489,
0.7877976894378662,
-0.8121757507324219,
-0.5089443325996399,
-0.6238528490066528,
0.7514855861663818,
1.472155213356018,
-0.05209462344646454,
-0.634871780872345,
0.17755435407161713,
-0.24217800796031952,
0.38416239619255066,
-0.41477498412132263,
-0.05606923997402191,
-0.1707698553800583,
-0.21683576703071594,
1.3799281120300293,
0.44529664516448975,
0.3953666090965271,
-0.11091473698616028,
0.08661806583404541,
0.0696844756603241,
-0.0025954667944461107,
0.17697758972644806,
0.3011587858200073,
-0.12453378736972809,
0.2948857247829437,
-0.3278254568576813,
0.08777927607297897,
-0.4328483045101166,
-0.12250354886054993,
0.9070154428482056,
0.041159387677907944,
-0.3737199604511261,
-0.2541830241680145,
-0.0010068773990496993,
0.11187553405761719,
0.16633817553520203,
-0.6234056353569031,
0.3875901699066162,
-0.044852692633867264,
-0.04746531322598457,
0.2425609827041626,
0.09168624877929688,
-0.5082972645759583,
-0.6927049160003662,
-1.444916844367981,
0.2528364062309265,
-0.42045530676841736,
0.19909828901290894,
-0.11332336068153381,
0.3103834092617035,
-0.16731272637844086,
0.06447479128837585,
0.34182822704315186,
0.8952828645706177,
-0.7440384030342102,
0.25076913833618164,
0.29939284920692444,
-0.46379274129867554,
0.3163950741291046,
0.031223082914948463,
0.4456428587436676,
0.11381560564041138,
-0.04217013344168663,
0.7471407651901245,
0.15852729976177216,
0.10745692998170853,
0.1427283138036728,
-0.3464411199092865,
-0.534875214099884,
-0.34208178520202637,
-0.18563896417617798,
1.0646378993988037,
-0.8615915775299072,
-0.5791770815849304,
0.022032083943486214,
-0.812224268913269,
0.30940312147140503,
-0.6054948568344116,
0.11763054877519608,
0.4985293447971344,
0.43706563115119934,
0.46331632137298584,
-0.11747778207063675,
-0.3023005723953247,
0.09420448541641235,
-0.14633691310882568,
-0.08075975626707077,
-0.024425305426120758,
0.1885131448507309,
0.024562083184719086,
0.7024132013320923,
0.16509535908699036,
-0.34496691823005676,
-0.5821629166603088,
-0.14695723354816437,
-0.1826825737953186,
-0.14730705320835114,
-0.5159298777580261,
-0.37298697233200073,
-0.14256370067596436,
0.17883089184761047,
-0.4992844760417938,
-0.3183598220348358,
-0.06950274854898453,
-0.264462947845459,
-0.3003677725791931,
-0.38329488039016724,
0.6622587442398071,
-1.1629351377487183,
0.48460686206817627,
-0.38758936524391174,
0.029362257570028305,
-0.5807738900184631,
0.2631615102291107,
-0.4591551721096039,
-1.500482201576233,
-0.4008830487728119,
-0.2934536337852478,
0.7247817516326904,
0.7246979475021362,
0.5789690017700195,
0.4029493033885956,
-0.12128651887178421,
-0.3148387372493744,
0.4457871615886688,
0.7755622267723083,
0.005332822911441326,
0.6455483436584473,
-0.21278467774391174,
0.8758172392845154,
-0.25477179884910583,
-0.3992181718349457,
-0.6500352621078491,
0.06650952994823456,
0.32375726103782654,
-0.18162789940834045,
-0.322345495223999,
0.3781706988811493,
-0.9983879923820496,
-0.16956298053264618,
-0.6325616240501404,
0.13921567797660828,
0.9828696846961975,
0.02105957269668579,
0.3787916898727417,
0.6003949046134949,
-0.9375561475753784,
-0.42274102568626404,
-0.18277853727340698,
0.7994399070739746,
0.01134626567363739,
0.01710636168718338,
0.46636122465133667,
0.982891857624054,
0.6345217227935791,
0.37587231397628784,
-0.05180806294083595,
-0.323135644197464,
-0.042307231575250626,
-0.21621908247470856,
-0.271350234746933,
-0.0055870674550533295,
0.2916259169578552,
-0.4874660074710846,
0.022118428722023964,
-0.0017421513330191374,
-0.14315198361873627,
-0.05020003765821457,
-0.615554690361023,
-0.3454139828681946,
0.16470877826213837,
-0.08278657495975494,
-0.1444701850414276,
-0.5417171120643616,
0.7404382228851318,
-0.13685384392738342,
0.14763197302818298,
0.050574541091918945,
-0.7649409770965576,
0.47746479511260986,
-0.6571951508522034,
0.09573309123516083,
0.4108005464076996,
-0.08051782101392746,
0.10672155022621155,
0.6509472131729126,
0.3159186542034149,
-0.20249104499816895,
-0.5990121364593506,
-0.2819541394710541,
-0.24453793466091156,
0.5235775709152222,
1.0719610452651978,
0.2044508159160614,
-0.5337212681770325,
1.0667694807052612,
0.26920223236083984,
0.6746459007263184,
0.18981504440307617,
-0.1911102682352066,
-0.3474234342575073,
0.1340501308441162,
-0.5540661215782166,
0.3730563521385193,
-0.5776114463806152,
0.324537068605423,
0.5762752294540405,
0.58664870262146,
0.035314470529556274,
-0.40346041321754456,
-0.0871201753616333,
-0.9965938329696655,
-0.1908882111310959,
0.5365623831748962,
-0.5743480324745178,
0.20678451657295227,
-0.009154734201729298,
-0.30944499373435974,
0.6944242715835571,
-0.17666767537593842,
-0.004747630562633276,
0.1278248131275177,
0.1827813684940338,
0.7747994661331177,
0.001908488105982542,
-0.1564885973930359,
-0.3312292695045471,
-0.5626641511917114,
0.40042844414711,
-0.5259534120559692,
0.21899238228797913,
0.27396824955940247,
-0.19047552347183228,
0.1755683720111847,
0.45781925320625305,
-0.4790172874927521,
0.8009680509567261,
-0.7873591184616089,
0.07738427817821503,
0.3018421530723572,
0.015255247242748737,
-0.031118789687752724,
0.0420721136033535,
-0.07028816640377045,
-0.3662678301334381,
-0.48956596851348877,
-0.936517059803009,
0.6507248878479004,
0.38631340861320496,
-0.09232816100120544,
0.2568974494934082,
0.24849677085876465,
-0.025219103321433067,
-0.23464085161685944,
-0.6418542861938477,
0.13100633025169373,
0.46075430512428284,
0.3238946795463562,
-0.22055290639400482,
-0.39333823323249817,
0.26410987973213196,
0.15788720548152924,
-0.3061665892601013,
-0.4773326516151428,
0.25253963470458984,
0.24987152218818665,
1.0815171003341675,
0.6182272434234619,
-0.13056959211826324,
-0.489544540643692,
-0.7647963166236877,
0.49818137288093567,
-0.11831031739711761,
-0.7740069627761841,
0.6045585870742798,
0.8170477151870728,
-0.2316562831401825,
-0.5114243626594543,
0.47279396653175354,
0.7056542634963989,
0.17704597115516663,
-0.5909291505813599,
0.15018148720264435,
-0.660835325717926,
-0.09423477947711945,
-0.8248984813690186,
-0.0832555890083313,
0.2804577052593231,
0.2419402152299881,
0.8213251233100891,
0.2771039605140686,
-0.8879669308662415,
0.2680922746658325,
0.4616270065307617,
0.1566191017627716,
0.21534515917301178,
0.2965014576911926,
-0.409032940864563,
-0.3274286091327667,
-0.11369991302490234,
0.48834577202796936,
0.3688264489173889,
0.07502564787864685,
0.2993045151233673,
-0.09844508022069931,
0.3285658657550812,
-5.282251358032227,
-0.14283548295497894,
0.17435869574546814,
-0.27973824739456177,
-0.20764906704425812,
0.24205560982227325,
0.4139707684516907,
0.2884146273136139,
0.1051921471953392,
-0.2829512357711792,
-0.2168322503566742,
0.17856325209140778,
0.24321824312210083,
0.30808225274086,
-0.2569516599178314,
0.6447624564170837,
0.40121355652809143,
0.5034114718437195,
0.22316484153270721,
0.9032727479934692,
0.13050994277000427,
-0.27456408739089966,
-0.19479764997959137,
0.5111829042434692,
-0.12995900213718414,
0.04862172156572342,
-0.17354731261730194,
0.24399951100349426,
0.08327485620975494,
0.11208419501781464,
-0.11440984159708023,
-0.39839622378349304,
-0.12277544289827347,
-0.5507978796958923,
-0.473458856344223,
0.40776327252388,
0.5089753270149231,
-0.27098655700683594,
0.708275318145752,
0.1181936040520668,
0.13479062914848328,
-0.6100763082504272,
0.3915562331676483,
0.04651370644569397,
0.1032005101442337,
-0.540653645992279,
-0.8945661783218384,
0.24969474971294403,
0.0016375394770875573,
0.05504195764660835,
-0.39404353499412537,
-0.46707189083099365,
0.2019122987985611,
0.14604350924491882,
0.11406490951776505,
-0.04569191858172417,
-0.002100789686664939,
0.3589647114276886,
-0.38454461097717285,
-0.10214830189943314,
-0.11568041145801544,
-0.24207592010498047,
0.059305015951395035,
-0.4018827974796295,
0.48979952931404114,
0.367092490196228,
-0.09050705283880234,
-0.7741354703903198,
-0.04381628707051277,
0.10050476342439651,
-0.3816457688808441,
0.5646129846572876,
-0.3348209857940674,
-1.0530439615249634,
-0.4339926838874817,
-0.6134165525436401,
-0.434156209230423,
0.289016991853714,
-0.5209233164787292,
0.6937135457992554,
-0.6121371984481812,
-0.511742889881134,
-0.2683234214782715,
0.0335426889359951,
0.4698479473590851,
0.33284884691238403,
-0.013228064402937889,
-0.17443813383579254,
-0.4744817018508911,
0.4494441747665405,
0.7884805798530579,
0.08098293095827103,
-0.08369888365268707,
0.7329097986221313,
-0.004453356843441725,
0.44700366258621216,
-0.2951134741306305,
0.05679551884531975,
0.562578022480011,
0.20346444845199585,
0.40630191564559937,
-0.37537649273872375,
0.1985073983669281,
0.04492975398898125,
-0.2316398322582245,
-0.05915508791804314,
-0.4125724732875824,
0.24182941019535065,
0.9015341997146606,
-0.42957741022109985,
0.07032549381256104,
-0.4702269732952118,
0.5547240376472473,
0.24836909770965576,
0.7404183149337769,
0.6996898055076599,
-0.037105996161699295,
0.6009325981140137,
0.3108579218387604,
-0.17588046193122864,
0.19802339375019073,
0.6521005630493164,
-0.6100654602050781,
-0.2627461850643158,
-0.021276121959090233,
-0.34611302614212036,
-0.20345868170261383,
-0.10087555646896362,
-0.20279714465141296,
-0.15049314498901367,
0.516909122467041,
-0.18625034391880035,
0.26561129093170166,
0.2442033886909485,
0.04688819497823715,
-0.12333063036203384,
0.23770079016685486,
-0.2797182500362396,
-0.11971291899681091,
-0.2560897171497345,
-0.5148051977157593,
0.19143429398536682,
-0.23190288245677948,
0.3780234754085541,
0.4936962127685547,
0.01684139482676983,
0.06702116876840591,
-0.26830539107322693,
-0.22825628519058228,
0.13398070633411407,
0.15267859399318695,
-0.6363560557365417,
0.39117252826690674,
-0.6370741128921509,
-0.8903371095657349,
-0.3506150543689728,
-0.4730009436607361,
0.04010315611958504,
-0.13113997876644135,
0.5397513508796692,
-0.023069249466061592,
-0.6981664896011353,
-0.5313588380813599,
-0.7502675652503967,
0.22845183312892914,
-0.48342326283454895,
-0.2891266942024231,
-1.1008009910583496,
-0.1923077255487442,
0.12626788020133972,
0.22225069999694824,
0.2530566453933716,
0.030612241476774216,
-0.08094336837530136,
0.8740077018737793,
0.39173614978790283,
-0.20572690665721893,
0.07252797484397888,
-0.2808171808719635,
0.4326179027557373,
-0.32886332273483276,
-0.9159951210021973,
-0.5965251326560974,
0.11376167833805084,
0.42537203431129456,
0.019612690433859825,
-0.49889370799064636,
-0.7465239763259888,
-0.21026289463043213,
-0.035574134439229965,
-0.5256144404411316,
0.20589666068553925,
0.1819797158241272,
0.0934358686208725,
0.2278597205877304,
-0.42829087376594543,
-0.3180699944496155,
-0.07959539443254471,
0.14334791898727417,
-0.6168443560600281,
0.13407205045223236,
0.21519039571285248,
-0.5128504037857056,
0.013451702892780304,
0.240541011095047,
-0.6025241613388062,
0.6374140977859497,
0.531766951084137,
0.34925150871276855,
0.2917921245098114,
-0.2632746994495392,
-0.27064067125320435,
0.34287139773368835,
0.27721846103668213,
0.054054923355579376,
0.4629287123680115,
-0.2687382400035858,
-0.1493573784828186,
-0.2955862283706665,
-0.9415013194084167,
0.47232556343078613,
-0.45965588092803955,
0.1423194706439972,
-0.3654485046863556,
-0.12758417427539825,
0.0351935513317585,
0.589114248752594,
-0.4459766447544098,
0.948188304901123,
-0.17369627952575684,
-0.32949456572532654,
0.24825800955295563,
-0.5227569341659546,
-0.2240222841501236,
-0.2485923320055008,
-0.5374996662139893,
0.2985979914665222,
0.26059213280677795,
0.08770792931318283,
-0.07150379568338394,
-0.34571126103401184,
0.8168487548828125,
-0.3222137689590454,
-0.3059535324573517,
-0.10729870945215225,
0.32815977931022644,
-0.4269188642501831,
-0.4584304690361023,
-0.06432458013296127,
0.26832789182662964,
0.4800167381763458,
0.15585654973983765,
-0.07121418416500092,
-0.4001360237598419,
1.0226047039031982,
-0.3898611068725586,
-0.15131835639476776,
-0.09868212789297104,
-0.21494485437870026,
-0.26840633153915405,
0.19340376555919647,
-0.23171480000019073,
0.24887776374816895,
-0.05104425549507141,
-0.48279744386672974,
0.23538832366466522,
-0.23718318343162537,
-0.030106090009212494,
0.3249084949493408,
-1.065158724784851,
0.12037570774555206,
-0.2844673693180084,
-0.793006181716919,
-0.23487570881843567,
-0.04274217411875725,
0.4452311098575592,
-0.6913625001907349,
-0.17518019676208496,
-0.09635645896196365,
-0.3353990316390991,
0.24707089364528656,
-0.28937819600105286,
-0.11119366437196732,
-0.30714550614356995,
-0.3073148727416992,
-0.9670271277427673,
0.5275012254714966,
-0.07228942960500717,
-0.3394850194454193,
-0.06952165812253952,
-1.0899056196212769,
0.16216273605823517,
0.22266334295272827,
-0.11864560097455978,
-0.28785669803619385,
0.5416039228439331,
0.1716935634613037,
0.25208035111427307,
-0.1949663758277893,
-0.5222156047821045,
-0.7627294659614563,
-0.04726211726665497,
0.6368539929389954,
0.03639103099703789,
-0.5915740728378296,
0.5259042382240295,
0.4022977650165558,
-0.6487314701080322,
-0.3756323754787445,
0.36537155508995056,
0.11179903894662857,
-0.059477370232343674,
0.9565868973731995,
0.501378059387207,
-0.32207736372947693,
0.056534215807914734,
0.16315291821956635,
-0.30372151732444763,
-0.35325902700424194,
0.6189320683479309,
-0.2576606273651123,
-0.5431602597236633,
0.44932374358177185,
-0.32187095284461975,
0.029187055304646492,
0.5081813335418701,
-0.7383837103843689,
-0.06380381435155869,
0.3254355192184448,
0.8389548659324646,
0.451165109872818,
-0.29473233222961426,
-0.6059160828590393,
0.5734573602676392,
0.3442012369632721,
-0.2889637351036072,
0.3174893856048584,
-0.5103909969329834,
-0.9151027202606201,
0.019882654771208763,
0.896415650844574,
0.7071263194084167,
-0.2415754497051239,
0.4623578190803528,
-0.31353944540023804,
0.4249134659767151,
0.6344777345657349,
0.6920489072799683,
-0.4058384597301483,
0.3719247579574585,
-0.0103005887940526,
0.3090221881866455,
0.22806508839130402,
-0.36603236198425293,
0.1506011188030243,
0.1913180649280548,
0.7360728979110718,
0.015575086697936058,
0.03928421810269356,
0.08021751791238785,
-0.21779420971870422,
0.08672503381967545,
0.42588138580322266,
0.1505124568939209,
-0.14726483821868896,
-0.13191741704940796,
-0.009491859003901482,
-0.6178317070007324,
-0.11223267018795013,
-0.23274697363376617,
-0.2513156831264496,
0.7883557677268982,
-0.37990081310272217,
0.15870222449302673,
0.17125608026981354,
0.13662654161453247,
0.050628017634153366,
-0.2455063909292221,
-0.1589938849210739,
-0.21533292531967163,
-0.062229882925748825,
-0.30250072479248047,
-0.020714281126856804,
-0.7466875314712524,
-0.02164142206311226,
0.3188592195510864,
-0.18179117143154144,
0.38054290413856506,
-0.46400055289268494,
0.32635995745658875,
-0.5096526145935059,
0.5322399139404297,
-0.367432564496994,
0.7861635088920593,
0.23884586989879608,
0.4142303764820099,
-0.5448395609855652,
0.6697747707366943,
0.6197835206985474,
-0.039442263543605804,
0.3873305022716522,
0.4090595841407776,
0.34767627716064453,
0.30750226974487305,
-0.19773703813552856,
-0.18742989003658295,
-0.6291619539260864,
-0.9160750508308411,
-0.9624847173690796,
-0.45144352316856384,
-0.03856322541832924,
-0.11720171570777893,
0.04260098561644554,
0.30871474742889404,
0.18222609162330627,
0.6420232057571411,
0.5246920585632324,
-0.7617849111557007,
0.29817575216293335,
-0.25746679306030273,
-0.20346559584140778,
-0.08943372964859009,
-0.04505561292171478,
0.945962131023407,
-0.4970591366291046,
-0.329843670129776,
0.31454387307167053,
0.25529783964157104,
-0.7483794093132019,
0.25389063358306885,
-0.0432581827044487,
-0.3095751404762268,
-0.47591090202331543,
0.54563307762146,
-0.044769931584596634,
-0.621037483215332,
0.9040290713310242,
0.5633020401000977,
0.2047303318977356,
-0.7998101115226746,
-0.2417445182800293,
0.2234233170747757,
0.453447550535202,
0.43519484996795654,
0.3566814363002777,
0.07291040569543839,
-0.7061713933944702,
-0.8460098505020142,
0.0554986372590065,
0.6696820855140686,
0.27825918793678284,
0.15878263115882874,
0.4802979528903961,
-0.4575328528881073,
-0.061328478157520294,
0.6717743277549744,
0.8072452545166016,
0.4302651584148407,
0.48370397090911865,
-0.05140683427453041
] |
241429 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Monmouth | Battle of Monmouth | The Battle of Monmouth (also known as the Battle of Monmouth Court House) was fought near Monmouth Court House (modern-day Freehold Township, New Jersey) on June 28, 1778, during the American Revolutionary War. It pitted the Continental Army, commanded by General George Washington, against the British Army in North America, commanded by General Sir Henry Clinton.
It was the last battle of the Philadelphia campaign, begun the previous year, during which the British had inflicted two major defeats on Washington and occupied Philadelphia. Washington had spent the winter at Valley Forge rebuilding his army and defending his position against political enemies who favored his replacement as commander-in-chief. In February 1778, the French-American Treaty of Alliance tilted the strategic balance in favor of the Americans, forcing the British to abandon hopes of a military victory and adopt a defensive strategy. Clinton was ordered to evacuate Philadelphia and consolidate his army. The Continental Army shadowed the British as they marched across New Jersey to Sandy Hook, from where the Royal Navy would ferry them to New York. Washington's senior officers urged varying degrees of caution, but it was politically important for him not to allow the British to withdraw unscathed. Washington detached around a third of his army and sent it ahead under the command of Major General Charles Lee, hoping to land a heavy blow on the British without becoming embroiled in a major engagement.
The battle began badly for the Americans when Lee botched an attack on the British rearguard at Monmouth Court House. A counter-attack by the main British column forced Lee to retreat until Washington arrived with the main body. Clinton disengaged when he found Washington in an unassailable defensive position and resumed the march to Sandy Hook.
Clinton had divided his army into two divisions for the march from Philadelphia; most of the combat troops were concentrated in the first division, while the second comprised most of the heavy transport of a 1,500-wagon baggage train. The British were harassed by increasingly strong American forces as they traversed New Jersey, and by June 27, 1778, Lee's vanguard was within striking distance. When the British left Monmouth Court House the next day, Lee attempted to isolate and defeat their rearguard. The attack was poorly coordinated, and the Americans were quickly outnumbered when the British first division returned. Some of Lee's units began to withdraw, leading to a breakdown in command and control and forcing Lee to order a general retreat. A fiercely fought rearguard action by the vanguard gave Washington enough time to deploy the main body in a strong defensive position, against which British efforts to press the vanguard foundered. The infantry battle gave way to a two-hour artillery duel, during which Clinton began to disengage. The duel ended when a Continental brigade established artillery on a hill overlooking the British lines, forcing Clinton to withdraw his guns. Washington launched two small-unit attacks on Clinton's infantry as they withdrew, inflicting heavy casualties on the British during the second. An attempt by Washington to probe the British flanks was halted by sunset, and the two armies settled down within of each other. The British slipped away unnoticed during the night to link up with the baggage train. The rest of the march to Sandy Hook was completed without further incident, and Clinton's army was ferried to New York in early July.
The battle was tactically inconclusive and strategically irrelevant; neither side landed the blow they hoped to on the other, Washington's army remained an effective force in the field, and the British redeployed successfully to New York. Both sides sustained considerable casualties, though the majority were from heat-related illness and exhaustion rather than combat. The Continental Army is estimated to have inflicted more losses than it received, and it was one of the rare occasions on which it retained possession of a battlefield. It had proven itself to be much improved after the training it underwent over the winter, and the professional conduct of the American troops during the battle was widely noted by the British. Washington was able to present the battle as a triumph, and he was voted a formal thanks by Congress to honor "the important victory of Monmouth over the British grand army." His position as commander-in-chief became unassailable. He was lauded for the first time as the father of his country, and his detractors were silenced. Lee was vilified for his failure to press home the attack on the British rearguard. Because of his tactless efforts to argue his case in the days after the battle, Washington had him arrested and court-martialed on charges of disobeying orders, conducting an "unnecessary, disorderly, and shameful retreat" and disrespect towards the commander-in-chief. Lee made the fatal mistake of turning the proceedings into a contest between himself and Washington. He was found guilty on all counts, although his culpability on the first two charges was debatable.
Today, the site of the battle is a New Jersey State Park that preserves the land for the public, called Monmouth Battlefield State Park.
Background
In 1777, some two years into the American Revolutionary War, the British commander-in-chief General Sir William Howe launched the Philadelphia campaign to capture the rebels' capital and persuade them to sue for peace. In the fall of that year, Howe inflicted two significant defeats on General George Washington and his Continental Army, at Brandywine and Germantown, and occupied Philadelphia, forcing the Second Continental Congress to hurriedly decamp to York, Pennsylvania. Washington avoided battle for the rest of the year, and in December he withdrew to winter quarters at Valley Forge, despite the desire of Congress that he continue campaigning. In comparison, his subordinate General Horatio Gates had won major victories in September and October at the Battles of Saratoga. Washington was criticized in some quarters within the army and Congress for relying on a Fabian strategy to wear the British down in a long war of attrition instead of defeating it decisively in a pitched battle.
In November, Washington was hearing rumors of a "Strong Faction" within Congress that favored replacing him with Gates as commander-in-chief. The congressional appointments of the known critic General Thomas Conway as Inspector General of the Army and of Gates to the Board of War and Ordnance in December convinced Washington there was a conspiracy to take command of the army from him. Over a winter in which supplies were scarce and deaths from disease accounted for 15 per cent of his force, he battled to keep both the army from dissolution and his position as its commander-in-chief. He successfully waged a "clever campaign of political infighting" in which he presented a public image of disinterest, a man without guile or ambition, while working through his allies in Congress and the army to silence his critics. Nevertheless, the doubts about his leadership remained, and he needed success on the battlefield if he was to be sure of his position.
The British, meanwhile, had failed to eliminate the Continental Army and force a decisive end to the American rebellion, despite investing significant resources in North America to the detriment of defenses elsewhere in the empire. In Europe, France was maneuvering to exploit the opportunity to weaken a long-term rival. Following the Franco-American alliance of February 1778, French forces were sent to North America to support the revolutionaries. This led to the Anglo-French War (1778–1783), which Spain joined on the French side in 1779. With the rest of Europe moving towards a hostile neutrality, Great Britain would come under further pressure in 1780 when the Dutch allied with France, leading to the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War. Faced with military escalation, increasing diplomatic isolation and limited resources, the British were forced to prioritize the defense of the homeland and more valuable colonial possessions in the Caribbean and India above their North American colonies. They abandoned their efforts to win a decisive military victory, repealed the Intolerable Acts that had precipitated the rebellion and, in April 1778, sent the Carlisle Peace Commission in an attempt to reach a negotiated settlement. In Philadelphia, the newly installed commander-in-chief General Sir Henry Clinton was ordered to redeploy 8,000 troops, a third of his army, to the West Indies and Florida, consolidate the rest of his army in New York and adopt a defensive posture.
Continental Army
Washington's preference for a professional standing army rather than a militia had been another source of criticism. He had seen his army dissolve in the fall of 1775 as short-term enlistments expired, and blamed his defeat in the Battle of Long Island in August 1776 in part on a poorly performing militia. At his urging, Congress passed legislation between September and December 1776 to create an army in which troops would enlist for the duration. Recruitment failed to raise sufficient numbers, and the harsh discipline implemented by Washington, the long periods away from home and the defeats of 1777 further weakened the army through desertions and frequent officer resignations.
Although the army that went into Valley Forge contained the kernel of regimental organization and a core of experienced officers and men, no-one was under any illusion that it was a match for the tactical skill of the British Army. The situation improved measurably with the arrival in March 1778 of Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, to whom Washington gave the responsibility for training the army. With the commander-in-chief's enthusiastic support, Steuben implemented a uniform standard of drill where none had previously existed and worked the army hard, transforming it into a more professional force that might compete on equal terms with the British Army.
On May 21, Major General Charles Lee rejoined the Continental Army. Lee was a former British Army officer who had retired to Virginia before the revolution and had been touted as a potential commander of the army alongside Washington when war broke out. He had been captured in December 1776 following Washington's defeat at New York, and had been released in April in a prisoner exchange. He had been critical of Washington's indecisiveness at New York and insubordinate during the retreat from the city. But Washington had regarded him as his most trusted adviser and the best officer in the Continental Army, and he eagerly welcomed Lee back as his second-in-command.
Sixteen months in captivity had not mellowed Lee. He remained respectful to Washington's face but continued to be critical about the commander-in-chief's abilities to others, and it is likely that Washington's friends reported this back to Washington. Lee was dismissive of the Continental Army, denigrated Steuben's efforts to improve it and went over Washington's head to submit to Congress a plan to reorganize it on a militia basis, prompting Washington to reprove him. Nevertheless, Lee was respected by many of Washington's officers and held in high esteem by Congress, and Washington gave him command of the division that would soon lead the Continental Army out of Valley Forge.
Prelude
In April, before news of the French alliance reached him, Washington issued a memorandum to his generals seeking their opinions on three possible alternatives for the upcoming campaign: attack the British in Philadelphia, shift operations to New York or remain on the defensive at Valley Forge and continue to build up the army. Of the twelve responses, all agreed it was vital that, whatever course was chosen, the army had to perform well if public support for the revolution was to be maintained after the disappointments of the previous year. Most generals supported one or other of the offensive options, but Washington sided with the minority, among them Steuben, who argued the Continental Army still needed improvement at Valley Forge before it was ready to take on the British. After news of the Franco-American alliance arrived and as British activity in and around Philadelphia increased, Washington met with ten of his generals on May 8 to further discuss plans. This time they unanimously favored the defensive option and waiting until the British intentions became clearer.
In May, it became evident that the British were preparing to evacuate Philadelphia, but Washington still had no detailed knowledge of Clinton's intentions and was concerned that the British would slip away overland through New Jersey. The 2nd New Jersey Regiment, which had been conducting operations against British foragers and sympathizers in New Jersey since March, was a valuable source of intelligence, and by the end of the month a British evacuation by land looked increasingly likely. Washington reinforced the regiment with the rest of the New Jersey Brigade, commanded by Brigadier General William Maxwell, with orders to obstruct and harry British activities. The Continentals were to co-operate with the experienced New Jersey militia, commanded by Major General Philemon Dickinson, one of the most capable militia commanders of the war and Washington's single best source of intelligence on British activities. On May 18, Washington sent the inexperienced, 20-year-old Major General Lafayette with 2,200 men to establish an observation post at Barren Hill, from Philadelphia. The Frenchman's first significant independent command almost ended in disaster for him two days later in the Battle of Barren Hill, and only the discipline of his men prevented his entrapment by the British.
March from Philadelphia
On June 15, the British began to withdraw from Philadelphia, crossing the River Delaware into New Jersey. The last troops crossed three days later, and the army consolidated around Haddonfield. Clinton, who had not yet decided on the exact route to New York approximately away, divided his army into two divisions and set out for Allentown, some to the northeast. He accompanied the first division, which comprised some 10,000 troops under the command of Lieutenant General Charles Lord Cornwallis. The second division, commanded by Lieutenant General Wilhelm von Knyphausen, comprised just over 9,000 personnel, of which over 7,500 were combatants. This division contained the bulk of the slow-moving heavy transport of the 1,500-wagon baggage train.
The march was conducted in short segments during a heat wave in which temperatures frequently exceeded , which further slowed progress and caused casualties from heat exhaustion. The slow progress did not concern Clinton. He was confident his troops were more than a match for Washington's forces and felt that a major battle would compensate for the humiliation of having to abandon Philadelphia and might even deal a serious blow to the rebellion. Wherever possible, the two divisions followed parallel routes that allowed them to be mutually supporting. Light troops and pioneers screened the route ahead of the main force and cleared obstacles, combat units were embedded with the baggage train and battalion-sized units provided flank guards. The frequent sniping and skirmishing of Maxwell's Continentals and Dickinson's militia, and their attempts to obstruct and hinder the British by blocking roads, destroying bridges and spoiling wells, did not materially impede progress.
On June 24, the first division arrived at Allentown while the second reached Imlaystown, to the east. Clinton decided to head for Sandy Hook, from where the Royal Navy could ferry his army to New York. When the march resumed at 04:00 the next day, the road network made it impossible for the two divisions to follow separate routes and still remain within supporting distance of each other. Knyphausen's second division led the column on the road towards Monmouth Court House (modern-day Freehold). Cornwallis followed, Guards and Grenadiers at the rear, putting his combat-heavy division between the baggage train and the likely direction of attack. At the end of the day, Knyphausen camped at Freehold Township, some from Monmouth Court House, while Clinton established his headquarters at Robin's Rising Sun Tavern, from Knyphausen.
The next day, June 26, the British suffered almost forty casualties in near-constant skirmishing in which one unit came close to being overrun. Knyphausen reached Monmouth Court House early that morning, and by 10:00 the entire column had concentrated there. It was clear to Clinton that Washington's forces were gathering in numbers, and the British were exhausted after their march from Philadelphia. Monmouth Court House offered a good defensive position, and it is possible that Clinton saw an opportunity for the battle he desired. He deployed his army to cover all approaches and decided to rest his troops for the next two nights. The bulk of his force, the first division, was deployed on the Allentown road, covering the second division in the village.
The revolution had precipitated a vicious civil war in Monmouth County that did credit to neither side and which would continue after the armies had departed. It was fought between Patriots, who sided with the rebellion, and Loyalists, who remained loyal to Great Britain and even formed units, such as the Queen's American Rangers, which fought alongside the British Army. The two sides also fought each other in the civil arena, and it is estimated that fifty per cent of Monmouth County families suffered significant harm to person or property during the war. By spring 1778, the formerly loyalist Monmouth Court House had come under patriot control. When the British arrived, they found themselves in an enemy settlement that had been largely deserted by its inhabitants. Clinton's orders against pillaging were ignored by the rank and file and went unenforced by the officers. British and Hessian soldiers acting out of frustration and anger, and Loyalists acting out of rage and vengeance, committed numerous acts of vandalism, looting and arson. By the time Clinton resumed the march on June 28, thirteen of the village's near two dozen buildings had been destroyed, all of them Patriot owned.
Pursuit
Washington learned the British were evacuating Philadelphia on June 17. He immediately convened a war council, at which all but two of seventeen generals believed the Continental Army still could not win a pitched battle against the British, Lee arguing it would be criminal to attempt one. Unsure of Clinton's exact intentions and with his officers urging caution, Washington determined to pursue the British and move to within striking distance. Lee's brigades led the Continental Army out of Valley Forge on the afternoon of June 18, and four days later the last troops crossed the Delaware into New Jersey at Coryell's Ferry. Washington divided his army into two wings commanded by Lee and Major General Lord Stirling and a reserve commanded by Lafayette. Traveling light, Washington reached Hopewell on June 23, less than north of the British at Allentown. While the army set up camp, Colonel Daniel Morgan was ordered south with 600 light infantry to reinforce Maxwell and Dickinson.
On June 24, Dickinson informed Washington the efforts he and Maxwell were making to slow Clinton were having little impact, and that he believed Clinton was deliberately lingering in New Jersey to provoke a battle. Washington convened another war council in which the twelve officers who attended all recommended varying degrees of caution. Lee argued that a victory would be of little benefit while a defeat would do irrevocable damage to the revolutionary cause. He preferred not to risk the Continental Army against a professional, well-trained enemy until French intervention swayed the odds in the Americans' favor and proposed that Clinton should be allowed to proceed to New York unmolested. Four other generals agreed. Even the most aggressive of the remainder wanted to avoid a major engagement; Brigadier General Anthony Wayne suggested the dispatch of 2,500–3,000 additional troops to reinforce Maxwell and Dickinson that would enable them, with a third of the army, to make "an Impression in force." In the end, a compromise was agreed in which 1,500 picked men would reinforce the vanguard to "act as occasion may serve." To Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Hamilton, who attended as an aide, the council "would have done honor to the most honorab[le] society of midwives, and to them only." A disappointed Washington sent the token force under the command of Brigadier General Charles Scott.
Soon after the council adjourned, Wayne – who had refused to put his name to the compromise – Lafayette and Major General Nathanael Greene contacted Washington individually with the same plea for a stronger vanguard action supported by the main body, while still avoiding a major battle. Lafayette assured Washington that Steuben and Brigadier General Louis Duportail agreed, and told Washington it "would be disgraceful for the leaders and humiliating for the troops to allow the enemy to cross the Jerseys with impunity." Greene emphasized the political aspect, advising Washington the public expected him to attack and that even if a limited attack did lead to a major battle, he thought their chances of success were good. It was all Washington, keen to erase the defeats of the previous year and prove his critics wrong, needed to hear. By the early hours of June 25 he had ordered Wayne to follow Scott with another 1,000 picked men. He wanted to do more than simply harass Clinton and, while still avoiding the risk of a major battle, hoped to inflict a heavy blow on the British, one that would surpass his success at the Battle of Trenton in 1776.
Reining in Lafayette
Washington offered Lee command of the vanguard, but Lee declined, stating the force was too small for a man of his rank and position. Washington appointed Lafayette instead, with orders to attack "with the whole force of your command" if the opportunity presented itself. Lafayette failed to establish full control of the disparate forces under his command, and in his haste to catch the British, he pushed his troops to breaking point and outran his supplies. Washington grew increasingly concerned, and on the morning of June 26 he warned Lafayette not to "distress your men by an over hasty march." By that afternoon, Lafayette was at Robin's Tavern, where Clinton had stayed the previous night. He was within three miles of the British, too far away from the main army for it to support him, and his men were exhausted and hungry. He remained eager to fight and discussed with his officers a night march with the intention of striking Clinton the next morning.
That evening, Washington ordered Lafayette to leave Morgan and the militia behind as a screen and move to Englishtown, where he would be back in range of both supplies and the main army. By this time Lee, having realized Lafayette's force was more significant than he first thought, had changed his mind and requested command of it. Washington ordered Lee to take Scott's former brigade and the brigade of Brigadier General James Varnum, link up with Lafayette in Englishtown and take command of all advance forces. Greene took over command of Lee's wing of the main body. By June 27, Lafayette was safely back in the fold with what was now Lee's vanguard of some 4,500 troops at Englishtown, from the British at Monmouth Court House. Washington was with the main body of just over 7,800 troops and the bulk of the artillery at Manalapan Bridge, behind Lee. Morgan's light infantry, now increased to 800 men by the addition of a militia detachment, was at Richmond Mills, a little over to the south of Monmouth Court House. Dickinson's 1,200 or more militia were on Clinton's flanks, with a significant concentration about west of Monmouth Court House.
Battle
On the afternoon of June 27, Washington conferred with the vanguard's senior officers at Englishtown but did not offer a battle plan. Lee believed he had full discretion on whether and how to attack and called his own war council after Washington left. He intended to advance as soon as he knew Clinton was on the move, in the hope of catching the British rearguard when it was most vulnerable. In the absence of any intelligence about Clinton's intentions or the terrain, Lee believed it would be useless to form a precise plan of his own; he told his commanders only to be ready for action at short notice and follow his orders. In response to a written order received from Washington in the early hours of June 28, Lee ordered Colonel William Grayson to take 700 men forward. They were to watch for any British move and, if one did occur, try to slow them to give the vanguard time to close the distance.
Grayson did not depart Englishtown until 06:00, an hour after news arrived that Clinton was on the move. Both vanguard and main body broke camp immediately, and both were slow to move; the vanguard was delayed when brigades formed up in the wrong march order and the main body was slowed by its artillery train. At 07:00, Lee rode ahead to scout the situation for himself. Following some confusion when a militia rider erroneously reported the British were not withdrawing but preparing to attack, Lee learned that the British had begun moving at 02:00 and only a small party of infantry and cavalry remained in the area.
Clinton's first move had been to deploy the Queen's Rangers northwest of Monmouth Court House to cover the departure of the second division, scheduled for an hour later but delayed until 04:00. By 05:00, the first division had begun moving, and the last British troops left Monmouth Court House by 09:15, heading northeast on the road to Middletown. Trailing the column was the rearguard, comprising a battalion of light infantry and a regiment of dragoons which, with the Rangers, totaled 1,550–2,000 troops.
Advance to contact
The first shots were exchanged around 08:00 in an entirely American skirmish between a small detachment of Rangers and Dickinson's militia. Grayson arrived just in time to deploy his troops in support of the militia near a bridge over a ravine and watch the Rangers withdraw. The bridge was on the Englishtown–Monmouth Court House road and spanned the Spotswood Middle Brook, one of three ravines bordered by marshy wetlands or 'morasses' that cut through what would soon become a battlefield. Other than by bridge, the ravines were negotiable with difficulty by infantry and not at all by artillery; any unit cut off on the wrong side or pinned up against them would find itself in grave danger. When Lee caught up with Grayson shortly after the skirmish, Dickinson, who still believed the British occupied Monmouth Court House in force, strongly urged him not to venture across the brook. With intelligence about British activity still contradictory, Lee lost an hour at the bridge. He did not advance until Lafayette arrived with the rest of the vanguard.
Once the vanguard was concentrated at the bridge, Lee replaced Grayson with Wayne to command the approximately 550-man lead element, which comprised detachments led by Colonel Richard Butler, Colonel Henry Jackson and Grayson (returned to the command of his original composite battalion of Virginians), supported by four artillery. The vanguard advanced along the Englishtown road towards Monmouth Court House until it reached the junction with the road north to Foreman's Mill at around 09:30. Lee went forward with Wayne to reconnoiter Monmouth Court House, where they discovered the British rearguard. Estimating the British strength at some 2,000 men, Lee decided on a plan to hook round to their rear. He left Wayne with orders to fix the rearguard in place and returned to the rest of the vanguard to lead it on a left flanking maneuver. Lee's confidence crept into reports back to Washington that implied "the certainty of success."
After Lee departed, Butler's detachment exchanged fire with mounted troops screening the rearguard, prompting the British to begin withdrawing to the northeast, towards the main column. In the subsequent pursuit, Wayne repulsed a charge by British dragoons and launched a feint against the British infantry, prompting the rearguard to halt and form up on a hill at the junction of the Middletown and Shrewsbury roads. Meanwhile, because Lee was leading the rest of the vanguard himself, he neglected to provide Scott and Maxwell with a detailed plan. After a march, he emerged from some woods at around 10:30, in time to witness Wayne's troops in action to his left.
When it became evident the British were present in considerably larger numbers than he had anticipated, Lee operated with Lafayette to secure what he considered to be a vulnerable right flank. On the left flank, the appearance of another British force 2,000–3,000 strong prompted Jackson to pull his regiment back from its isolated position on the banks of Spotswood North Brook. In the vanguard center, Scott and Maxwell, who was to Scott's left, were not in communication with Lee and not privy to his plan. They felt increasingly isolated watching Lee push out the right flank, and with British troops marching towards Monmouth Court House to their south, they became apprehensive about being cut off. They agreed between themselves to adjust their positions; Scott fell back a short distance southwest across the Spotswood Middle Brook to a more defensible position while Maxwell pulled back with the intention of circling round and coming up on Scott's right flank.
Lee was dumbfounded when the two staff officers he had sent with orders for Scott returned with the news that he was nowhere to be found and disconcerted by their reports of the British returning in force. When he observed part of Lafayette's force retreating after a failed attempt to silence some British artillery, it appeared to Lee that the right flank too was pulling back without orders. It had become clear that he was losing control of the vanguard, and with his immediate command now only 2,500 strong, he realized his plan to envelop the British rearguard was finished. His priority now was the safety of his command in the face of superior numbers.
Counter-attack and retreat
As soon as he received news that his rearguard was being probed, Clinton ordered Cornwallis to march the first division back towards Monmouth Court House. He believed Washington's main body was not close enough to come up in support and that the terrain would make it difficult for Lee to maneuver. He intended to do more than simply defend his baggage train; he thought the vanguard was vulnerable, and saw an opportunity to turn its right flank, just as Lee had feared, and destroy it. After pausing at Monmouth Court House, Clinton began to push westwards. He formed his best troops into two columns, Guards on the right, Grenadiers on the left and the guns of the Royal Artillery between them, while a regiment of dragoons ranged about them. The infantry of the 3rd and 4th Brigades followed in line, while the 5th Brigade remained in reserve at Monmouth Court House. The Queen's Rangers and the infantry of the rearguard operated on the British right flank. To the rear, a brigade of Hessian grenadiers remained in a defensive line to which Clinton could fall back if things went badly. In total, his force comprised some 10,000 troops.
Lee ordered a general retreat to a line about to the west of Monmouth Court House that ran from Craig's House, north of Spotswood Middle Brook, to Ker's House, south of the brook. He had significant difficulties communicating with his subordinates and exhausted his aides attempting to do so. Although he arrived in the vicinity of Ker's house with a sizeable force by noon, he was unable to exercise command and control of it as a unified organization. As disorganized as the retreat was for Lee, at unit level it was generally conducted with a discipline that did credit to Steuben's training. The Americans suffered only some one dozen casualties as they fell back, an indication of how little major fighting there was; there were no organized volleys by infantry muskets, and only the artillery engaged in any significant action. Lee believed he had conducted a model "retrograde manoeuver in the face and under fire of an enemy" and claimed his troops moved with "order and precision." He had remained calm during the retreat but began to unravel at Ker's house. When two of Washington's aides informed Lee that the main body was still some away and asked him what to report back, Lee replied "that he really did not know what to say." Crucially, he failed to keep Washington informed of the retreat.
Lee realized that a knoll in front of his lines would give the British, now deployed from column into line formation, command of the ground and render his position untenable. With no knowledge of the main body's whereabouts and believing he had little choice, Lee decided to fall back farther, across the Spotswood Middle Brook bridge. He believed he would be able to hold the British there from Perrine's Hill until the main body came up in support. With his aides out of action, Lee pressed whomever he could find into service as messengers to organize the withdrawal. It was during this period that he sent the army auditor, Major John Clark, to Washington with news of the retreat. But Washington was by now aware, having learned from Lee's troops who had already crossed the ravine.
Washington's arrival
The main body had reached Englishtown at 10:00, and by noon it was still some from Monmouth Court House. Without any recent news from Lee, Washington had no reason to be concerned. At Tennent's Meeting House, some east of Englishtown, he ordered Greene to take Brigadier General William Woodford's brigade of some 550 men and 4 artillery pieces south then east to cover the right flank. The rest of the main body continued east along the Englishtown–Monmouth Court House road. In the space of some ten minutes, Washington's confidence gave way to alarm as he encountered a straggler bearing the first news of Lee's retreat and then whole units in retreat. None of the officers Washington met could tell him where they were supposed to be going or what they were supposed to be doing. As the commander-in-chief rode on ahead, over the bridge and towards the front line, he saw the vanguard in full retreat but no sign of the British. At around 12:45, Washington found Lee marshalling the last of his command across the middle morass, marshy ground southeast of the bridge.
Expecting praise for a retreat he believed had been generally conducted in good order, Lee was uncharacteristically lost for words when Washington asked without pleasantries, "I desire to know, sir, what is the reason – whence arises this disorder and confusion?" When he regained his composure, Lee attempted to explain his actions. He blamed faulty intelligence and his officers, especially Scott, for pulling back without orders, leaving him no choice but to retreat in the face of a superior force, and reminded Washington that he had opposed the attack in the first place. Washington was not convinced; "All this may be very true, sir," he replied, "but you ought not to have undertaken it unless you intended to go through with it." Washington made it clear he was disappointed with Lee and rode off to organize the battle he felt his subordinate should have given. Lee followed at a distance, bewildered and believing he had been relieved of command.
With the main body still arriving and the British no more than away, Washington began to rally the vanguard to set up the very defenses Lee had been attempting to organize. The commander-in-chief directed Wayne to take three battalions and form a rearguard in the Point of Woods, south of the Spotswood Middle Brook, that could delay the British. He issued orders for the 2nd New Jersey Regiment and two smaller Pennsylvanian regiments to deploy on the slopes of Perrine's Hill, north of the brook overlooking the bridge; they would be the rallying point for the rest of the vanguard and the position on which the main body would form. Washington offered Lee a choice: remain and command the rearguard, or fall back to and organize the main body. Lee opted for the former and, as Washington departed to take care of the latter, promised he would "be the last one to leave the field."
American rearguard action
Lee positioned himself with four guns supported by two infantry battalions on the crest of a hill to the right of Wayne. As the British advanced – Guards on the right, Grenadiers on the left – they passed the Point of Woods, oblivious to the Continentals concealed in them. Wayne's troops inflicted up to forty casualties. The Guards reacted as they were trained and with the support of the dragoons and some of the Grenadiers, crashed into the Americans at the charge. Within ten minutes, Wayne's three battalions were being chased back to the bridge. The rest of the Grenadiers, meanwhile, continued to advance on Lee's position, pushing the Continental artillery back to a hedgerow to which the two infantry battalions had already withdrawn. Another short, sharp fight ensued until Lee, seeing both flanks being turned, ordered his men to follow Wayne back across the bridge.
As Lee and Wayne fought south of the Spotswood Middle Brook, Washington was deploying the main body on Perrine's Hill, northwest of the bridge across the brook. Stirling's wing had just taken up positions on the American left flank when its artillery started to engage troops of the British 3rd Brigade. Clinton had earlier ordered the brigade to move right, cross the brook and cut the vanguard's line of retreat at the bridge. After the infantry of the 42nd (Royal Highland) Regiment of Foot crossed the brook, they ran into three battalions of Scott's detachment retreating westwards. Under pressure from the Highlanders, the Continentals continued through an orchard to the safety of Stirling's line while Stirling's artillery forced the Highlanders back to the orchard. A second battalion of Highlanders and the 44th Regiment of Foot that had swung right and crossed the Spotswood North Brook were also persuaded by the artillery to retreat. Even farther to the right, an attempt to outflank Stirling's position by the Queen's Rangers and the light infantry of the rearguard lacked the strength to carry it through, and they too fell back to join the 3rd Brigade.
At 13:30, Lee was one of the last American officers to withdraw across Spotswood Middle Brook. The rearguard action had lasted no more than thirty minutes, enough time for Washington to complete the deployment of the main body. When a battalion of Grenadiers led by Lieutenant Colonel Henry Monckton chased Lee's troops over the bridge, the British found themselves facing Wayne's detachment reforming some away. As the Grenadiers advanced to engage Wayne they came under heavy fire from Stirling's artillery, another behind Wayne. Monckton became the highest-ranking British casualty of the day, and in the face of an unexpectedly strong enemy, the Grenadiers retreated back across the bridge to the hedgerow from which they had expelled Lee earlier.
Washington had acted decisively to form a strong defensive position anchored on the right above the bridge on the Englishtown road and extending in a gentle curve up the slope of Perrine's Hill. When Lee joined it, Washington sent him with two battalions of Maxwell's New Jersey Brigade, around half of Scott's detachment and some other units of the former vanguard to form a reserve at Englishtown. The rest of the vanguard, which included the other half of Scott's detachment and most of Wayne's, remained with Washington. The infantry battle gave way to a two-hour artillery duel across the of no-man's land on either side of the brook, in which both sides suffered more casualties due to heat exhaustion than they did from enemy cannon.
British withdrawal
Clinton had lost the initiative. He saw no prospect of success assaulting a strong enemy position in the brutal heat, and decided to break off the engagement. His first task was to bring in his isolated right flank – the 3rd Brigade, Rangers and light infantry still sheltering in the orchard north of Spotswood Middle Brook. While the Highlanders of the 42nd Regiment remained in place to cover the withdrawal, the remainder fell back across the brook to join the Grenadiers at the hedgerow. Around 15:45, while the withdrawal was in progress, Greene arrived with Woodford's brigade at Combs Hill overlooking the British left flank and opened fire with his artillery. Clinton was forced to withdraw his own artillery, bringing the cannonade with Washington's guns on Perrine's Hill to an end, and move the Grenadiers to sheltered ground at the north end of the hedgerow.
At 16:30, Washington learned of 3rd Brigade's withdrawal and launched the first American offensive action in six hours. He ordered two battalions of picked men "to go and see what [you] could do with the enemy's right wing." Only one battalion some 350 strong led by Colonel Joseph Cilley actually made it into action. Cilley made good use of cover along the Spotswood North Brook to close with and engage the 275–325 troops of the 42nd Regiment in the orchard. The Highlanders found themselves in a disadvantageous position and, with the rest of British right flank already departed, they had no reason to stay. They conducted a fighting retreat in good order with minimal casualties. To the British, the rebels were "unsuccessful in endeavouring to annoy." To the Americans, it was a significant psychological victory over one of the British Army's most feared regiments.
As his right flank pulled back, Clinton issued orders for what he intended to be a phased general withdrawal back towards Monmouth Court House. His subordinates misunderstood. Instead of waiting until the 3rd Brigade had rejoined before pulling back, all but the 1st Grenadier Battalion withdrew immediately, leaving it and the 3rd Brigade dangerously exposed. Washington was buoyed by what he saw of Cilley's attack, and although he lacked specific intelligence about what the British were doing, the fact that their artillery had gone quiet suggested they might be vulnerable. He ordered Wayne to conduct an opportunistic advance with a detachment of Pennsylvanians.
Wayne's request for three brigades, some 1,300 men, was denied, and at 16:45 he crossed the bridge over Spotswood Middle Brook with just 400 troops of the Third Pennsylvania Brigade. The Pennsylvanians caught the 650–700 men of the lone Grenadier battalion in the process of withdrawing, giving the British scant time to form up and receive the attack. The Grenadiers were "losing men very fast", Clinton wrote later, before the 33rd Regiment of Foot arrived with 300–350 men to support them. The British pushed back, and the Pennsylvanian Brigade began to disintegrate as it retreated to Parsonage farm. The longest infantry battle of the day ended when the Continental artillery on Combs Hill stopped the British counter-attack in its tracks and forced the Grenadiers and infantry to withdraw.
Washington planned to resume the battle the next day, and at 18:00 he ordered four brigades he had previously sent back to the reserve at Englishtown to return. When they arrived, they took over Stirling's positions on Perrine's Hill, allowing Stirling to advance across the Spotswood Middle Brook and take up new positions near the hedgerow. An hour later, Washington ordered a reinforced brigade commanded by Brigadier General Enoch Poor to probe Clinton's right flank while Woodford's brigade was to drop down from Combs Hill and probe Clinton's left flank. Their cautious advance was halted by sunset before making contact with the British, and the two armies settled down for the night within of each other, the closest British troops at Ker's House.
While the battle was raging, Knyphausen had led the baggage train to safety. His second division endured only light harassment from militia along the way, and eventually set up camp some from Middletown. With the baggage train secure, Clinton had no intention of resuming the battle. At 23:00, he began withdrawing his troops. The first division slipped away unnoticed by Washington's forward troops and, after an overnight march, linked back up with Knyphausen's second division between 08:00 and 09:00 the next morning.
Aftermath
On June 29, Washington withdrew his army to Englishtown, where they rested the next day. The British were in a strong position near Middletown, and their route to Sandy Hook was secure. They completed the march largely untroubled by a militia that considered the threat to have passed and had melted away to tend to crops. The last British troops embarked on naval transports on July 6, and the Royal Navy carried Clinton's army to New York. The timing was fortuitous for the British; on July 11, a superior French fleet commanded by Vice Admiral Charles Henri Hector d'Estaing anchored off Sandy Hook.
The battle was tactically inconclusive and strategically irrelevant; neither side dealt a heavy blow to the other, and the Continental Army remained in the field while the British Army redeployed to New York, just as both would have if the battle had never been fought. Clinton reported 358 total casualties after the battle – 65 killed, 59 died of fatigue, 170 wounded and 64 missing. Washington counted some 250 British dead, a figure later revised to a little over 300. Using a typical 18th-century wounded-to-killed ratio of no more than four to one and assuming no more than 160 British dead caused by enemy fire, Lender and Stone calculate the number of wounded could have been up to 640. A Monmouth County Historical Association study estimates total British casualties at 1,134 – comprising 304 dead, 770 wounded and 60 prisoners. Washington reported his own casualties to be 370 – comprising 69 dead, 161 wounded and 140 missing. Using the same wounded-to-killed ratio and assuming a proportion of the missing were fatalities, Lender and Stone estimate Washington's casualties could have exceeded 500.
Claims of victory
In his post-battle report to Lord George Germain, Secretary of State for the Colonies, Clinton claimed he had conducted a successful operation to redeploy his army in the face of a superior force. The counter-attack was, he reported, a diversion intended to protect the baggage train and was ended on his own terms, though in private correspondence he conceded that he had also hoped to inflict a decisive defeat on Washington. Having marched his army through the heart of enemy territory without the loss of a single wagon, he congratulated his officers on the "long and difficult retreat in the face of a greatly superior army without being tarnished by the smallest affront." While some of his officers showed a grudging respect for the Continental Army, their doubts were rooted not in the battlefield but in the realisation that the entry of France into the conflict had swung the strategic balance against Great Britain.
For Washington, the battle was fought at a time of serious misgivings about his effectiveness as commander-in-chief, and it was politically important for him to present it as a victory. On July 1, in his first significant communication to Congress from the front since the disappointments of the previous year, he wrote a full report of the battle. The contents were measured but unambiguous in claiming a significant win, a rare occasion on which the British had left the battlefield and their wounded to the Americans. Congress received it enthusiastically and voted a formal thanks to Washington and the army to honor "the important victory of Monmouth over the British grand army."
In their accounts of the battle, Washington's officers invariably wrote of a major victory, and some took the opportunity to finally put an end to criticism of Washington; Hamilton and Lieutenant Colonel John Laurens, another of Washington's aides, wrote to influential friends – in the case of Laurens, his father Henry, President of the Continental Congress – praising Washington's leadership. The American press portrayed the battle as a triumph with Washington at its center. Governor William Livingston of New Jersey, who never came any nearer to Monmouth Court House during the campaign than Trenton, almost away, published an anonymous 'eyewitness' account in the New Jersey Gazette only days after the battle, in which he credited the victory to Washington. Articles were still being published in a similar vein in August.
Congressional delegates who were not Washington partisans, such as Samuel Adams and James Lovell, were reluctant to credit Washington but obliged to recognize the importance of the battle and keep to themselves any questions they might have had about the British success in reaching New York. The Washington loyalist Elias Boudinot wrote that "none dare to acknowledge themselves his Enemies." Washington's supporters were emboldened in defending his reputation; in July, Major General John Cadwalader challenged Conway, the officer at the center of what Washington had perceived to be a conspiracy to remove him as commander-in-chief, to a duel in Philadelphia in which Conway was wounded in the mouth. Thomas McKean, chief justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, was perhaps the only congressional delegate to register his disapproval of the affair, but did not think it wise to bring Cadwalader up before the court to answer for it. Faith in Washington had been restored, Congress became almost deferential to him, public criticism of him all but ceased and for the first time he was hailed as the Father of his Country. The epithet became commonplace by the end of the year, by which time the careers of most of his chief critics had been eclipsed or were in ruins.
Lee's court martial
Even before the day was out, Lee was cast in the role of villain, and his vilification became an integral part of the narrative Washington's lieutenants constructed when they wrote in praise of their commander-in-chief. Lee continued in his post as second-in-command immediately after the battle, and it is likely that the issue would have simply subsided if he had let it go. But on June 30, after protesting his innocence to all who would listen, Lee wrote an insolent letter to Washington in which he blamed "dirty earwigs" for turning Washington against him, claimed his decision to retreat had saved the day and pronounced Washington to be "guilty of an act of cruel injustice" towards him. Instead of the apology Lee was tactlessly seeking, Washington replied that the tone of Lee's letter was "highly improper" and that he would initiate an official inquiry into Lee's conduct. Lee's response demanding a court-martial was again insolent; Washington ordered his arrest and set about obliging him.
The court convened on July 4, and three charges were laid before Lee: disobeying orders in not attacking on the morning of the battle, contrary to "repeated instructions"; conducting an "unnecessary, disorderly, and shameful retreat"; and disrespect towards the commander-in-chief. The trial concluded on August 12, but the accusations and counter-accusations continued until the verdict was confirmed by Congress on December 5. Lee's defense was articulate but fatally flawed by his efforts to turn it into a personal contest between himself and Washington. He denigrated the commander-in-chief's role in the battle, calling Washington's official account "from beginning to end a most abominable damn'd lie", and disingenuously cast his own decision to retreat as a "masterful manoeuvre" designed to lure the British onto the main body. Washington remained aloof from the controversy, but his allies portrayed Lee as a traitor who had allowed the British to escape and linked him to the previous winter's alleged conspiracy against Washington.
Although the first two charges proved to be dubious, Lee was undeniably guilty of disrespect, and Washington was too powerful to cross. As the historian John Shy noted, "Under the circumstances, an acquittal on the first two charges would have been a vote of no-confidence in Washington." Lee was found guilty on all three counts, though the court deleted "shameful" from the second and noted the retreat was "disorderly" only "in some few instances." Lee was suspended from the army for a year, a sentence so lenient that some interpreted it as a vindication of all but the charge of disrespect. Lee's fall from grace removed Washington's last significant critic from the army and the last realistic alternative to Washington as commander-in-chief, and silenced the last voice to speak in favor of a militia army. Washington's position as the "indispensable man" was now unassailable.
Assessing the Continental Army
Joseph Bilby and Katherine Jenkins consider the battle to have marked the "coming of age" of a Continental Army that had previously achieved success only in small actions at Trenton and Princeton. Their view is reflected by Joseph Ellis, who writes of Washington's belief that "the Continental Army was now a match for British professionals and could hold its own in a conventional, open-field engagement." Mark Lender and Garry Stone point out that while the Continental Army was unquestionably improved under Steuben's tutelage, the battle did not test its ability to meet a professional European army in European-style warfare in which brigades and divisions maneuvered against each other. The only army to mount any major offensive operation on the day was British; the Continental Army fought a largely defensive battle from cover, and a significant portion of it remained out of the fray on Perrine's Hill. The few American attacks, such as Cilley's, were small-unit actions.
Steuben's influence was apparent in the way the rank and file conducted themselves. Half of the troops who marched onto the battlefield at Monmouth in June were new to the army, having been recruited only since January. The significant majority of Lee's vanguard comprised ad hoc battalions filled with men picked from numerous regiments. Without any inherent unit cohesion, their effectiveness depended on officers and men who had never before served together using and following the drills they had been taught. That they did so competently was demonstrated throughout the battle, in the advance to contact, Wayne's repulse of the dragoons, the orderly retreat in the face of a strong counter-attack and Cilley's attack on the Highlanders. The army was well served too by the artillery, which earned high praise from Washington. The professional conduct of the American troops gained widespread recognition even among the British; Clinton's secretary wrote, "the Rebels stood much better than ever they did", and Brigadier General Sir William Erskine, who as commander of the light infantry had traded blows with the Continentals, characterized the battle as a "handsome flogging" for the British, adding, "We had not receiv'd such an one in America."
Legacy
In keeping with a battle that was more politically than militarily significant, the first reenactment in 1828 was staged to support the presidential candidacy of Andrew Jackson. In another attempt to reenact the battle in 1854, the weather added an authentic touch to the proceedings and the reenactment was called off due to the excessive heat. As the battle receded into history so too did its brutality, to be replaced by a sanitized romanticism. The public memory of the fighting was populated with dramatic images of heroism and glory, as epitomized by Emanuel Leutze's Washington Rallying the Troops at Monmouth.
The transformation was aided by the inventiveness of 19th-century historians, none more creative than Washington's step-grandson, George Washington Parke Custis, whose account of the battle was as artistic as Leutze's painting. Custis was inevitably derogatory towards Lee, and Lee's calumny achieved an orthodoxy in such works as Washington Irving's Life of George Washington (1855–1859) and George Bancroft's History of the United States of America, from the Discovery of the American Continent (1854–1878). The role Lee had unsuccessfully advanced for the militia in the revolution was finally established in the poetic 19th-century popular narrative, in which the Continental Army was excised from the battle and replaced with patriotic citizen-soldiers.
The battlefield remained largely undisturbed until 1853, when the Freehold and Jamesburg Agricultural Railroad opened a line that cut through the Point of Woods, across the Spotswood Middle Brook and through the Perrine estate. The area became popular with tourists, and the Parsonage, the site of Wayne's desperate battle with the Grenadiers and the 33rd Regiment, was a favorite attraction until it was demolished in 1860. During the 19th century, forests were cleared and marshes drained, and by the early 20th century traditional agriculture had been replaced by orchards and truck farms. In 1884, the Monmouth Battle Monument was dedicated outside the modern-day county courthouse in Freehold, near where Wayne's troops first brushed with the British rearguard. In the mid 20th century, two battlefield farms were sold to builders, but before the land could be developed, lobbying by state officials, Monmouth County citizens, the Monmouth County Historical Association and the Monmouth County Chapter of the Sons of the American Revolution succeeded in initiating a program of preservation. In 1963, the first tract of battlefield land came under state ownership with the purchase of a 200-acre farm. The Monmouth Battlefield State Park was dedicated on the bicentennial of the battle in 1978 and a new visitor center was opened in 2013. By 2015, the park encompassed over 1,800 acres, incorporating most of the land on which the afternoon battle was fought. The state park helped restore a more realistic interpretation of the history of the battle to the public memory, and the Continental Army takes its rightful place in the annual reenactments staged every June.
Legend of Molly Pitcher
Five days after the battle, a surgeon treating the wounded reported a patient's story of a woman who had taken her husband's place working a gun after he was incapacitated. Two accounts attributed to veterans of the battle that surfaced decades later also speak of the actions of a woman during the battle; in one she supplied ammunition to the guns, in the other she brought water to the crews. The story gained prominence during the 19th century and became embellished as the legend of Molly Pitcher. The woman behind Molly Pitcher is most often identified as Mary Ludwig Hays, whose husband William served with the Pennsylvania State Artillery, but it is likely that the legend is an amalgam of more than one woman seen on the battlefield that day; it was not unusual for camp followers to assist in 18th-century battles, though more plausibly in carrying ammunition and water than crewing the guns. Late 20th-century research identified a site near Stirling's artillery line as the location of a well from which the legendary Molly drew water, and a historic marker was placed there in 1992.
In popular culture
The Battle of Monmouth is referenced in the A. W. Burns/George W. Hewitt song "America Shall Aye Be Free".
The battle is depicted in the 2012 video game Assassin's Creed III, where it is intentionally sabotaged by Charles Lee in order to ruin George Washington's reputation and replace him as commander of the Continental Army. However, Lee's efforts are thwarted by the protagonist Connor, who is able to fend off the British forces and then expose his betrayal to Washington, leading to Lee's court martial.
In her 2014 book Written in my Own Heart's Blood Diana Gabaldon covers the Battle of Monmouth.
The battle is mentioned in the song "Stay Alive", in the Broadway show Hamilton: An American Musical, written by Lin-Manuel Miranda.
See also
List of American Revolutionary War battles
American Revolutionary War § British northern strategy fails. Places 'Battle of Monmouth' in overall sequence and strategic context.
New Jersey in the American Revolution
Footnotes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Monmouth Battlefield: Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings
Monmouth County Historical Association: Coll. 72 Battle of Monmouth Collection
1778 in New Jersey
1778 in the United States
Conflicts in 1778
Freehold Borough, New Jersey
Monmouth
Monmouth
Monmouth | [
-0.4783218801021576,
-0.48028823733329773,
-0.9223036170005798,
0.04806756228208542,
0.5034821033477783,
0.12591452896595,
0.5129990577697754,
0.061828725039958954,
0.11021213978528976,
-0.7573714852333069,
-0.2055061310529709,
1.007853388786316,
0.1633477658033371,
0.5150330066680908,
-0.9054617881774902,
0.7514371871948242,
0.9460020065307617,
-0.6143089532852173,
0.45762327313423157,
-0.4770337641239166,
-0.3382727801799774,
0.2724711000919342,
0.03594813868403435,
0.5608960390090942,
0.06495475769042969,
0.09646522998809814,
0.6846151351928711,
-0.3300246298313141,
0.8060638904571533,
-0.06459101289510727,
-0.2429545670747757,
0.3399658203125,
-0.0429556705057621,
-0.1310112476348877,
-0.5913751125335693,
-0.3682297170162201,
-0.6504991054534912,
0.21066702902317047,
-0.11472848057746887,
-0.1998351514339447,
-0.1502932757139206,
0.05077863112092018,
0.66401606798172,
0.15336483716964722,
0.16065342724323273,
0.7167870998382568,
-0.9905381202697754,
0.039959073066711426,
-0.5802072286605835,
-0.6719892621040344,
-0.3991905152797699,
0.40936997532844543,
-0.16621407866477966,
0.5519409775733948,
0.08216308057308197,
0.23994849622249603,
-0.7003385424613953,
-0.7206409573554993,
0.4603346288204193,
-0.441982626914978,
0.5759896039962769,
0.8236802816390991,
0.06515328586101532,
-0.2887915372848511,
-0.07823053747415543,
-0.45840948820114136,
0.5063906311988831,
0.7045779228210449,
0.29355567693710327,
-0.5728795528411865,
0.38574016094207764,
0.2968265116214752,
-0.11267752200365067,
0.012344333343207836,
0.23242352902889252,
-0.09276778995990753,
0.2782754600048065,
-0.08292774856090546,
-0.3554724156856537,
-0.17310060560703278,
-0.3251073956489563,
-0.9127268195152283,
0.7960571050643921,
-0.3125552535057068,
0.16827139258384705,
0.7607164978981018,
-0.37679052352905273,
0.018106909468770027,
-0.5789204835891724,
0.3297930657863617,
-0.6081212759017944,
0.2323460429906845,
-0.029483623802661896,
0.24096497893333435,
-0.7717432975769043,
-0.1306956261396408,
0.14786948263645172,
0.3079414665699005,
-0.1104227676987648,
0.0013236295199021697,
-0.3146507441997528,
0.2985493540763855,
0.6649720668792725,
0.23191672563552856,
-0.9718867540359497,
-0.001037603709846735,
0.369601845741272,
-0.37935614585876465,
-0.2475253790616989,
-0.2599303722381592,
0.1409340351819992,
0.1138773187994957,
-0.5081402063369751,
-0.05051221325993538,
-0.4919523298740387,
0.11428568512201309,
0.18877506256103516,
-0.6368131041526794,
-0.05428984388709068,
-0.30867213010787964,
-0.4632914960384369,
0.6483635902404785,
-0.19996850192546844,
0.3533857762813568,
-0.018936989828944206,
-0.12670928239822388,
0.278209388256073,
0.38914987444877625,
-0.08222907036542892,
-0.42728114128112793,
0.3695257306098938,
0.9747415781021118,
-0.6330246329307556,
-0.14250659942626953,
0.4318128228187561,
0.19541123509407043,
0.4593549370765686,
-0.034328993409872055,
0.10700888931751251,
0.5026799440383911,
-0.53993821144104,
-0.4411466717720032,
0.3123997747898102,
0.234351247549057,
-0.16491852700710297,
-0.641076385974884,
0.2543143928050995,
-0.5323763489723206,
-0.07801792025566101,
0.05622900277376175,
0.6355621218681335,
-0.20434851944446564,
-0.2745567262172699,
-0.1988753080368042,
-0.09931985288858414,
0.25530561804771423,
0.5165430307388306,
0.09895023703575134,
0.16771607100963593,
0.5722169280052185,
-0.19402752816677094,
0.10195714980363846,
0.3731183707714081,
0.18213629722595215,
0.29225558042526245,
0.2606448233127594,
0.49190691113471985,
-0.31825393438339233,
-0.27202731370925903,
-0.27205079793930054,
-0.42736610770225525,
-0.25911664962768555,
-0.33636099100112915,
-0.050867125391960144,
0.039498548954725266,
0.11120535433292389,
0.61753249168396,
0.008250211365520954,
0.5974134802818298,
-0.08289515972137451,
-0.3453296720981598,
-0.2788536548614502,
0.7873542904853821,
0.105987049639225,
0.6447412967681885,
0.4111425578594208,
-0.26066410541534424,
-0.5708141922950745,
-0.1523391604423523,
0.5005420446395874,
-0.19377297163009644,
-0.4903949201107025,
0.23488089442253113,
-0.25964421033859253,
0.8145031332969666,
-0.051548607647418976,
-0.890105664730072,
0.4056842029094696,
0.20949813723564148,
0.3556801974773407,
-0.10932344943284988,
-0.4549298584461212,
0.8276320099830627,
0.5129761099815369,
-0.12747006118297577,
-0.35229501128196716,
-0.02805369161069393,
-0.11558447778224945,
0.4907546937465668,
0.15409409999847412,
0.2125537246465683,
0.08872400224208832,
-0.6797594428062439,
0.28923970460891724,
0.21241140365600586,
-0.14187130331993103,
-0.10329598188400269,
-0.142843559384346,
0.7903786301612854,
-0.9242753386497498,
0.2637190520763397,
-0.26807522773742676,
0.6287505030632019,
0.28541654348373413,
0.5543490648269653,
0.6934995651245117,
-0.7758280634880066,
0.5592256188392639,
-0.2956034541130066,
-0.5907537341117859,
-0.566340982913971,
0.17980898916721344,
-0.5863022804260254,
-0.3264484405517578,
1.038396954536438,
-0.06409122794866562,
-0.5341160893440247,
-0.23937812447547913,
0.9828006029129028,
-0.09474486112594604,
0.13800477981567383,
-0.05284805968403816,
-0.7950387597084045,
0.5622398257255554,
0.3735150694847107,
0.4475623667240143,
-0.09967704117298126,
0.27779239416122437,
0.16750480234622955,
-0.9637163281440735,
-0.29213812947273254,
-0.19096139073371887,
0.460151344537735,
-0.16540436446666718,
0.20474213361740112,
-0.4324759244918823,
-0.060247354209423065,
-0.41757652163505554,
0.1375296711921692,
0.37886080145835876,
-0.04406089708209038,
-0.07721973210573196,
-0.19291077554225922,
0.43860653042793274,
0.46633821725845337,
-0.4489954113960266,
-0.9525455236434937,
-0.10840979218482971,
0.2277284413576126,
-0.2770158052444458,
0.5058454275131226,
-0.29549509286880493,
-0.05266834795475006,
-0.29471758008003235,
0.35848239064216614,
0.07721513509750366,
-0.6499215364456177,
-0.0260071512311697,
0.028013912960886955,
-0.13399718701839447,
0.048768531531095505,
0.38157859444618225,
0.028625445440411568,
-0.47824957966804504,
0.10275134444236755,
-0.38565710186958313,
-0.038015495985746384,
-0.1523878425359726,
-0.49821558594703674,
0.3427751660346985,
-0.016626138240098953,
0.10252194106578827,
-0.15967756509780884,
0.5387155413627625,
0.2875525951385498,
0.47647514939308167,
-0.5087487697601318,
-0.1085876002907753,
-0.22303849458694458,
0.0513128899037838,
-0.5249946117401123,
0.24627134203910828,
-0.5193653702735901,
-0.14651969075202942,
0.3879432678222656,
-1.0379568338394165,
0.04187271371483803,
0.3726399540901184,
-5.131717681884766,
0.3214477300643921,
-0.15176233649253845,
0.010353676974773407,
0.11633998900651932,
0.1040133684873581,
-0.01940019428730011,
-0.6158648133277893,
0.3486284017562866,
0.360932320356369,
0.3125305771827698,
-0.8398356437683105,
0.037142883986234665,
0.13867542147636414,
0.5895583033561707,
0.05869815871119499,
0.8905556201934814,
-1.0989787578582764,
0.48711538314819336,
0.620345950126648,
0.688973605632782,
-0.05387098714709282,
-0.2254437655210495,
-0.13371621072292328,
-0.1476464569568634,
0.3434223532676697,
0.2646186053752899,
-0.2756410539150238,
0.06882458180189133,
0.3959398865699768,
-0.1991492658853531,
0.049545954912900925,
0.7284094095230103,
0.23256391286849976,
-0.15024743974208832,
-0.6986922025680542,
-0.019698280841112137,
-0.07541169971227646,
0.10311364382505417,
-1.1283644437789917,
0.11111794412136078,
0.5817819833755493,
-0.6425478458404541,
-0.32377269864082336,
0.5501564741134644,
-0.4040752053260803,
-0.09750095754861832,
0.2550376355648041,
-0.1774194985628128,
0.4727448523044586,
0.08798812329769135,
0.5007714629173279,
0.06211433187127113,
-0.07051827013492584,
0.04403935745358467,
-0.14411193132400513,
-0.04994022473692894,
-0.6703197956085205,
-0.25138282775878906,
0.2787344455718994,
-0.13070572912693024,
-0.6805844306945801,
-0.1942000836133957,
-0.4197240173816681,
0.6029449701309204,
-0.6961379647254944,
0.0028041794430464506,
0.2831721603870392,
0.18535901606082916,
0.22043439745903015,
0.7711334228515625,
0.6707953810691833,
0.15510687232017517,
-1.1248685121536255,
0.2586926519870758,
-0.23903721570968628,
-0.8532212376594543,
-0.6447666883468628,
0.13260968029499054,
0.1941755712032318,
-0.07059863954782486,
-0.33118459582328796,
0.09745119512081146,
0.2894326150417328,
0.4717130959033966,
-0.18252311646938324,
-0.679645299911499,
0.31465888023376465,
-0.5001681447029114,
-0.6852913498878479,
0.8328937292098999,
0.12474837154150009,
-0.2406405210494995,
-0.4427524507045746,
0.060527220368385315,
0.6632698178291321,
-0.03180908039212227,
0.7466433048248291,
0.47466203570365906,
0.41821950674057007,
0.40144917368888855,
-0.296353280544281,
0.44597479701042175,
-0.6780903339385986,
0.30347031354904175,
0.3473656475543976,
-0.1401735544204712,
0.11791443079710007,
0.9354789853096008,
0.1716146171092987,
-0.7775368690490723,
-0.6296331882476807,
-0.1885107457637787,
-0.430467426776886,
0.005812801420688629,
-1.2816002368927002,
0.3933422565460205,
0.17696960270404816,
1.013079047203064,
0.08230896294116974,
0.08125782012939453,
0.4202665090560913,
-0.5478574633598328,
0.12875449657440186,
0.5067119002342224,
-0.6732968091964722,
0.23948389291763306,
-0.35497674345970154,
-0.3488832116127014,
0.8889560699462891,
0.2624691128730774,
0.4180394411087036,
-0.09311823546886444,
0.4006779193878174,
-0.19962775707244873,
-0.309638112783432,
0.17840509116649628,
-1.201645016670227,
-0.7705113887786865,
0.6736746430397034,
-0.0024723296519368887,
-0.3024846017360687,
0.19467994570732117,
-0.282828688621521,
-0.28246408700942993,
0.30739206075668335,
0.12927086651325226,
-0.3405836224555969,
-0.2915392518043518,
0.8071670532226562,
-0.4163512885570526,
-0.10531595349311829,
0.039874132722616196,
0.2861635088920593,
0.14468219876289368,
-0.1432788372039795,
-0.07328450679779053,
-0.17884153127670288,
-0.19418968260288239,
-0.16923409700393677,
0.1943516880273819,
0.3701499402523041,
-0.7321069240570068,
-0.19006438553333282,
0.23606635630130768,
-0.21516193449497223,
-0.634069561958313,
-0.4493892788887024,
-0.5973135232925415,
0.2647194564342499,
0.26259368658065796,
-0.31432172656059265,
-0.1361517310142517,
0.3641400635242462,
0.2510940730571747,
0.19267280399799347,
-0.1669185757637024,
-0.15354189276695251,
-0.17571136355400085,
-0.42404764890670776,
0.5155684947967529,
-0.1306997388601303,
-0.13199631869792938,
0.38376107811927795,
0.7570404410362244,
-0.618514358997345,
-0.44498589634895325,
0.29623255133628845,
-0.021384457126259804,
0.5082089304924011,
0.09661418944597244,
-0.5961934924125671,
0.24621976912021637,
0.0828290656208992,
-0.4426718056201935,
0.17236559092998505,
-0.04860768839716911,
0.3083394467830658,
-0.32227906584739685,
-0.32712602615356445,
-0.4074811637401581,
0.24809402227401733,
-0.9335784316062927,
-0.1643005609512329,
-0.4554196894168854,
-0.7881428599357605,
0.5576449632644653,
0.32066407799720764,
-0.34678536653518677,
0.9167492985725403,
-0.5809387564659119,
-0.5671755075454712,
0.3238530158996582,
0.10614130645990372,
0.15830685198307037,
0.35213881731033325,
-0.2377878576517105,
0.38942578434944153,
0.24197404086589813,
-0.43883848190307617,
-0.20872578024864197,
-0.07541776448488235,
-0.29367202520370483,
-0.34958648681640625,
-0.6476028561592102,
0.18383227288722992,
-0.3513745069503784,
-0.528866171836853,
0.595162034034729,
0.4298587739467621,
-0.4793127477169037,
-0.3336266577243805,
0.1868544965982437,
0.28190934658050537,
0.06676129251718521,
-0.5204581022262573,
0.6635653972625732,
-0.37092283368110657,
-0.1884285807609558,
0.7182830572128296,
0.7643073201179504,
0.5665258169174194,
0.2122538834810257,
0.31136465072631836,
-0.0019637139048427343,
-0.07320980727672577,
0.5111945271492004,
-0.03541196882724762,
-0.5989324450492859,
0.14133481681346893,
0.0017248422373086214,
-0.09712545573711395,
-0.6920010447502136,
-0.5879293084144592,
1.005446195602417,
-0.2904570400714874,
0.16541141271591187,
0.5275976061820984,
-0.35167455673217773,
0.21941056847572327,
-0.1614953577518463,
-0.02273215726017952,
-0.6417479515075684,
-0.40956518054008484,
0.27571409940719604,
-0.7738710045814514,
0.027183616533875465,
-0.5883253216743469,
-0.40199434757232666,
0.4568749964237213,
0.43034517765045166,
-0.5334404110908508,
-0.08844725042581558,
0.381548672914505,
0.509330153465271,
0.3693266808986664,
-0.27987056970596313,
-0.7033712267875671,
0.7983576059341431,
0.2268301546573639,
-1.0407264232635498,
-0.26419249176979065,
-0.8388305902481079,
-0.3111691474914551,
-0.04577501490712166,
-0.590627908706665,
0.23257233202457428,
-0.14030195772647858,
0.3215161859989166,
0.11894630640745163,
0.23572707176208496,
-0.14131702482700348,
-0.04340101778507233,
-0.7304701805114746,
0.31230705976486206,
0.5983961224555969,
-0.5466792583465576,
0.8876493573188782,
-0.34793776273727417,
0.4838043749332428,
-0.9899030327796936,
0.7014120221138,
0.2859947681427002,
-0.3612144887447357,
0.004095665644854307,
0.16490423679351807,
0.025365276262164116,
0.048602718859910965,
-0.18934766948223114,
0.03205198794603348,
0.11262857913970947,
-0.009201323613524437,
0.35045021772384644,
-0.0413583368062973,
-0.4951768219470978,
-0.08671678602695465,
0.6844472885131836,
-0.9260474443435669,
-0.43684011697769165,
-0.10811172425746918,
0.020055599510669708,
-0.16083095967769623,
0.20611923933029175,
0.34879785776138306,
0.2120480239391327,
1.2427918910980225,
-0.5565664768218994,
0.05493393540382385,
0.1502915620803833,
-0.4271249771118164,
0.23985503613948822,
-0.45839330554008484,
-0.5782561898231506,
0.648952841758728,
-0.5882858633995056,
-0.09165595471858978,
-0.46985986828804016,
-0.7499606013298035,
-0.2899935245513916,
0.6101571321487427,
0.2811184525489807,
0.7726409435272217,
0.4352398216724396,
-0.31139132380485535,
-0.2854480743408203,
0.2711816430091858,
0.41613420844078064,
0.37502604722976685,
0.12377609312534332,
-0.5847845077514648,
0.4582211375236511,
-0.5134426355361938,
0.3886454403400421,
-0.6217340230941772,
0.30908846855163574,
0.05872224643826485,
-0.15365925431251526,
0.42714181542396545,
-0.19379094243049622,
0.10643942654132843,
-0.23387058079242706,
-0.09568654745817184,
1.6208410263061523,
-0.6830723285675049,
-0.27986782789230347,
0.2740558385848999,
-0.2911790907382965,
0.4543636441230774,
-0.2916608452796936,
0.6916846632957458,
0.33738973736763,
-0.3585781753063202,
-0.2393268644809723,
-1.0378360748291016,
0.1842615008354187,
0.6152258515357971,
0.20214654505252838,
0.2855035066604614,
0.14125363528728485,
-0.0003925673954654485,
-0.33055901527404785,
-0.3490505516529083,
-0.7558808922767639,
-0.5897578001022339,
0.07400510460138321,
0.09874865412712097,
0.01974034495651722,
-0.0563579723238945,
-1.0473344326019287,
-0.8071036338806152,
0.4927747845649719,
-0.6663998365402222,
0.1358295977115631,
-0.22849737107753754,
-0.09758538007736206,
0.14883263409137726,
0.8373201489448547,
0.6747814416885376,
0.8353531956672668,
0.3659925162792206,
0.2092118263244629,
-0.14740495383739471,
0.23570232093334198,
-0.04193433001637459,
-0.42221346497535706,
1.0169416666030884,
-0.30915841460227966,
0.20705661177635193,
-0.5608214139938354,
0.6006163358688354,
0.2871898114681244,
-0.0752769485116005,
0.06637997925281525,
0.6079040169715881,
-1.0724934339523315,
-0.12326107919216156,
1.2457799911499023,
-0.1937350183725357,
-0.5094050765037537,
-1.0971461534500122,
0.0613732747733593,
0.1376260668039322,
0.2122262567281723,
0.1318475306034088,
0.16516076028347015,
-0.4865111708641052,
0.7157775163650513,
0.03340591862797737,
0.1899244338274002,
0.5457439422607422,
0.8617657423019409,
-0.735741138458252,
-0.28695088624954224,
0.14471293985843658,
-0.38839057087898254,
-0.7550239562988281,
1.3604923486709595,
0.5685235261917114,
0.09589645266532898,
-0.14213119447231293,
0.4923969805240631,
-0.5209442973136902,
0.3393492102622986,
-0.16697895526885986,
-0.01228653360158205,
-0.7362819314002991,
0.3712005913257599,
-0.449253112077713,
0.12868940830230713,
0.6252537369728088,
0.059716369956731796,
0.008251412771642208,
0.9050928354263306,
0.0029007261618971825,
0.04741697758436203,
0.02079354040324688,
-0.48901697993278503,
-0.48423802852630615,
-0.31352925300598145,
0.2591535151004791
] |
241431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirp%20Z-transform | Chirp Z-transform | The chirp Z-transform (CZT) is a generalization of the discrete Fourier transform (DFT). While the DFT samples the Z plane at uniformly-spaced points along the unit circle, the chirp Z-transform samples along spiral arcs in the Z-plane, corresponding to straight lines in the S plane. The DFT, real DFT, and zoom DFT can be calculated as special cases of the CZT.
Specifically, the chirp Z transform calculates the Z transform at a finite number of points zk along a logarithmic spiral contour, defined as:
where A is the complex starting point, W is the complex ratio between points, and M is the number of points to calculate.
Like the DFT, the chirp Z-transform can be computed in O(n log n) operations where .
An O(N log N) algorithm for the inverse chirp Z-transform (ICZT) was described in 2003, and in 2019.
Bluestein's algorithm
Bluestein's algorithm expresses the CZT as a convolution and implements it efficiently using FFT/IFFT.
As the DFT is a special case of the CZT, this allows the efficient calculation of discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of arbitrary sizes, including prime sizes. (The other algorithm for FFTs of prime sizes, Rader's algorithm, also works by rewriting the DFT as a convolution.) It was conceived in 1968 by Leo Bluestein. Bluestein's algorithm can be used to compute more general transforms than the DFT, based on the (unilateral) z-transform (Rabiner et al., 1969).
Recall that the DFT is defined by the formula
If we replace the product nk in the exponent by the identity
we thus obtain:
This summation is precisely a convolution of the two sequences an and bn defined by:
with the output of the convolution multiplied by N phase factors bk*. That is:
This convolution, in turn, can be performed with a pair of FFTs (plus the pre-computed FFT of complex chirp bn) via the convolution theorem. The key point is that these FFTs are not of the same length N: such a convolution can be computed exactly from FFTs only by zero-padding it to a length greater than or equal to 2N–1. In particular, one can pad to a power of two or some other highly composite size, for which the FFT can be efficiently performed by e.g. the Cooley–Tukey algorithm in O(N log N) time. Thus, Bluestein's algorithm provides an O(N log N) way to compute prime-size DFTs, albeit several times slower than the Cooley–Tukey algorithm for composite sizes.
The use of zero-padding for the convolution in Bluestein's algorithm deserves some additional comment. Suppose we zero-pad to a length M ≥ 2N–1. This means that an is extended to an array An of length M, where An = an for 0 ≤ n < N and An = 0 otherwise—the usual meaning of "zero-padding". However, because of the bk–n term in the convolution, both positive and negative values of n are required for bn (noting that b–n = bn). The periodic boundaries implied by the DFT of the zero-padded array mean that –n is equivalent to M–n. Thus, bn is extended to an array Bn of length M, where B0 = b0, Bn = BM–n = bn for 0 < n < N, and Bn = 0 otherwise. A and B are then FFTed, multiplied pointwise, and inverse FFTed to obtain the convolution of a and b, according to the usual convolution theorem.
Let us also be more precise about what type of convolution is required in Bluestein's algorithm for the DFT. If the sequence bn were periodic in n with period N, then it would be a cyclic convolution of length N, and the zero-padding would be for computational convenience only. However, this is not generally the case:
Therefore, for N even the convolution is cyclic, but in this case N is composite and one would normally use a more efficient FFT algorithm such as Cooley–Tukey. For N odd, however, then bn is antiperiodic and we technically have a negacyclic convolution of length N. Such distinctions disappear when one zero-pads an to a length of at least 2N−1 as described above, however. It is perhaps easiest, therefore, to think of it as a subset of the outputs of a simple linear convolution (i.e. no conceptual "extensions" of the data, periodic or otherwise).
z-transforms
Bluestein's algorithm can also be used to compute a more general transform based on the (unilateral) z-transform (Rabiner et al., 1969). In particular, it can compute any transform of the form:
for an arbitrary complex number z and for differing numbers N and M of inputs and outputs. Given Bluestein's algorithm, such a transform can be used, for example, to obtain a more finely spaced interpolation of some portion of the spectrum (although the frequency resolution is still limited by the total sampling time, similar to a Zoom FFT), enhance arbitrary poles in transfer-function analyses, etc.
The algorithm was dubbed the chirp z-transform algorithm because, for the Fourier-transform case (|z| = 1), the sequence bn from above is a complex sinusoid of linearly increasing frequency, which is called a (linear) chirp in radar systems.
See also
Fractional Fourier transform
References
General
Leo I. Bluestein, "A linear filtering approach to the computation of the discrete Fourier transform," Northeast Electronics Research and Engineering Meeting Record 10, 218-219 (1968).
Lawrence R. Rabiner, Ronald W. Schafer, and Charles M. Rader, "The chirp z-transform algorithm and its application," Bell Syst. Tech. J. 48, 1249-1292 (1969). Also published in: Rabiner, Shafer, and Rader, "The chirp z-transform algorithm," IEEE Trans. Audio Electroacoustics 17 (2), 86–92 (1969).
D. H. Bailey and P. N. Swarztrauber, "The fractional Fourier transform and applications," SIAM Review 33, 389-404 (1991). (Note that this terminology for the z-transform is nonstandard: a fractional Fourier transform conventionally refers to an entirely different, continuous transform.)
Lawrence Rabiner, "The chirp z-transform algorithm—a lesson in serendipity," IEEE Signal Processing Magazine 21, 118-119 (March 2004). (Historical commentary.)
Vladimir Sukhoy and Alexander Stoytchev: "Generalizing the inverse FFT off the unit circle", (Oct 2019). # Open access.
Vladimir Sukhoy and Alexander Stoytchev: "Numerical error analysis of the ICZT algorithm for chirp contours on the unit circle", Sci Rep 10, 4852 (2020).
External links
A DSP algorithm for frequency analysis - the Chirp-Z Transform (CZT)
Solving a 50-year-old puzzle in signal processing, part two
FFT algorithms | [
0.06137322634458542,
-0.20381958782672882,
0.07065390795469284,
-0.09551171213388443,
-0.37952932715415955,
-0.2619941234588623,
-0.2554742991924286,
-0.10475895553827286,
0.12028121203184128,
-0.36707717180252075,
-0.8679040670394897,
0.36291471123695374,
-0.40238726139068604,
0.4002109467983246,
-0.2660347521305084,
0.5705076456069946,
0.4873305857181549,
0.41338858008384705,
-0.527622401714325,
-0.7905265688896179,
0.5167746543884277,
-0.13655641674995422,
0.6183717846870422,
-0.2712704539299011,
0.3496008515357971,
0.0767802819609642,
-0.06249701604247093,
0.5551450252532959,
0.4023670256137848,
0.6180266737937927,
-0.3309478461742401,
0.7364826202392578,
0.16415530443191528,
-0.3097218871116638,
0.17005214095115662,
0.17090922594070435,
-0.20953911542892456,
-0.35005900263786316,
-0.21487237513065338,
-0.475698322057724,
0.2554478645324707,
-0.18943536281585693,
0.14072571694850922,
0.17913219332695007,
-0.5578381419181824,
-0.6630252599716187,
-1.9194145202636719,
0.18050123751163483,
-0.5585289597511292,
-0.7302104830741882,
-0.053159378468990326,
0.44945573806762695,
0.5160093903541565,
0.20567962527275085,
-0.036226414144039154,
0.9763087034225464,
-0.7539907693862915,
-0.43153488636016846,
0.5423784255981445,
0.3209451735019684,
-0.043823886662721634,
-0.24026371538639069,
-0.18919524550437927,
0.31341370940208435,
0.22518587112426758,
0.7139086127281189,
0.1253761202096939,
-0.15909701585769653,
-0.4799059331417084,
-0.3215215802192688,
-0.09377644956111908,
0.024076934903860092,
0.24124740064144135,
0.6142966151237488,
-0.8855298757553101,
0.02764502540230751,
-0.11415347456932068,
0.026157166808843613,
0.3237494230270386,
0.14383745193481445,
-0.20261898636817932,
0.32619696855545044,
0.8649662137031555,
-0.02999076247215271,
0.3250942826271057,
-0.3704400360584259,
-0.49439555406570435,
0.3246676027774811,
-0.7231964468955994,
0.4974627196788788,
0.011577137745916843,
-0.1671544909477234,
0.2373010516166687,
0.40417715907096863,
0.1732688695192337,
0.10075421631336212,
-0.5031829476356506,
-0.3440782427787781,
-0.1696697175502777,
0.5937151312828064,
-0.37705400586128235,
0.29120153188705444,
0.0747489407658577,
-0.15966518223285675,
-0.09011828899383545,
-0.36290547251701355,
-0.5132352113723755,
-0.4759638011455536,
-0.06396575272083282,
-0.07029691338539124,
-1.041929006576538,
0.14803899824619293,
0.4338158965110779,
-0.20913054049015045,
-0.18607771396636963,
-0.09800177067518234,
0.22893312573432922,
0.16103368997573853,
0.054381195455789566,
0.11560910940170288,
-0.15391820669174194,
0.6774295568466187,
-0.2213553488254547,
0.17275263369083405,
-0.1674998700618744,
0.3889143466949463,
0.5450683832168579,
1.0014928579330444,
-0.9112449884414673,
-0.3416396677494049,
0.10843468457460403,
0.9427343606948853,
0.3615942895412445,
0.12523823976516724,
-0.04584067687392235,
-0.8009360432624817,
0.27812060713768005,
-0.5635818243026733,
-0.5168276429176331,
0.009766246192157269,
-0.19222912192344666,
-0.10170331597328186,
-0.3075770139694214,
-0.2893355190753937,
0.3756915330886841,
-0.1404314637184143,
-0.41436827182769775,
-0.17296180129051208,
-0.11882975697517395,
-0.05360323190689087,
0.08379270136356354,
0.32389453053474426,
-0.9309400320053101,
-0.17974986135959625,
-0.27918556332588196,
0.2089547961950302,
0.18173952400684357,
0.09615679830312729,
-0.4010155200958252,
0.38586485385894775,
-0.5845131278038025,
-0.40049949288368225,
-0.35370856523513794,
-0.44303151965141296,
0.044655244797468185,
-0.9435024261474609,
0.658596932888031,
0.19818048179149628,
-0.1820569783449173,
0.3360779285430908,
-0.2785291373729706,
-0.15123626589775085,
0.1366787552833557,
0.15215323865413666,
0.3384530246257782,
-0.23745058476924896,
0.1371908187866211,
-0.05625397711992264,
0.3301558196544647,
0.1535537987947464,
-1.0457897186279297,
0.2486143410205841,
0.3512236475944519,
-0.2133464366197586,
0.6238307356834412,
0.11773239076137543,
0.6450845003128052,
-0.04386933892965317,
-0.04585467278957367,
-0.0015236627077683806,
-0.5958169102668762,
-0.0996587872505188,
0.15619871020317078,
-0.6107849478721619,
0.952989399433136,
0.4912198781967163,
-0.13137584924697876,
-0.31092697381973267,
-0.3141518831253052,
0.4375821352005005,
-0.6815603971481323,
-0.1639045923948288,
0.4156372547149658,
0.12373349070549011,
-0.3555399775505066,
0.28340432047843933,
-0.052266184240579605,
-0.17621569335460663,
-0.08660061657428741,
0.22276854515075684,
0.4401736259460449,
-0.15616148710250854,
0.29451650381088257,
-0.3608461320400238,
-0.17338359355926514,
-0.4390375316143036,
-0.4103489816188812,
0.28641289472579956,
0.12035676836967468,
0.19382162392139435,
0.4927193224430084,
0.044443510472774506,
-0.2147333323955536,
0.42659783363342285,
0.08939757943153381,
1.0587224960327148,
0.4986856281757355,
0.4397471845149994,
0.5501055717468262,
-0.3442692756652832,
-0.5237060189247131,
-0.39173808693885803,
-0.22801269590854645,
-0.13693509995937347,
0.08145422488451004,
0.1153954565525055,
0.08400306105613708,
-0.16830894351005554,
0.012425304390490055,
-0.2419741153717041,
0.20444761216640472,
0.3001161813735962,
-0.31336745619773865,
-0.2945631444454193,
-0.20189082622528076,
-0.015010027214884758,
-0.3592835068702698,
-0.061002299189567566,
0.0431973934173584,
-0.27883297204971313,
0.18518444895744324,
0.6513873934745789,
0.13904370367527008,
-0.9339374303817749,
-0.4276348352432251,
0.14486242830753326,
-0.13045001029968262,
-0.46892857551574707,
0.05805414542555809,
0.5070767998695374,
0.0237286314368248,
-0.3198883831501007,
0.015311726368963718,
-0.43108075857162476,
-0.49670666456222534,
-0.6838394999504089,
-0.9563906788825989,
0.06065237149596214,
0.9625595211982727,
-0.13404588401317596,
-0.18469639122486115,
-0.46988481283187866,
-0.3323912024497986,
-0.10198922455310822,
-1.277297019958496,
-0.9138324856758118,
-0.07064681500196457,
0.21402610838413239,
-0.7401715517044067,
-0.5903233885765076,
0.3767203986644745,
1.0099191665649414,
0.470636248588562,
0.04958951473236084,
-0.8606536388397217,
0.4600659906864166,
-0.282170832157135,
-0.12225450575351715,
0.35706523060798645,
-0.9188963174819946,
-0.5989845991134644,
0.29145315289497375,
-0.15292827785015106,
0.07734622806310654,
-0.0021521742455661297,
0.5210191011428833,
0.17318621277809143,
-0.25049465894699097,
0.2391548603773117,
-0.44983211159706116,
-0.33916398882865906,
0.23744122684001923,
-0.42211031913757324,
-0.4004713296890259,
-0.014770552515983582,
-0.22984740138053894,
-0.4214377999305725,
0.02705385908484459,
-5.525818824768066,
0.07925763726234436,
-0.25730404257774353,
-0.1986197531223297,
0.10934672504663467,
0.29982563853263855,
0.6589862704277039,
-0.05122453346848488,
-0.43186914920806885,
0.27801403403282166,
-0.5265581607818604,
-0.38444823026657104,
-0.45815137028694153,
0.3902408182621002,
0.6386520266532898,
-0.3101476728916168,
0.05903717875480652,
-0.26412665843963623,
0.7116926312446594,
0.45809206366539,
0.5133282542228699,
-0.4601130485534668,
-0.2369542270898819,
0.48648253083229065,
0.12800562381744385,
0.17165562510490417,
0.35208821296691895,
0.04853752255439758,
-0.8619564175605774,
-0.37692487239837646,
-0.10299305617809296,
-0.4532526433467865,
-0.3051868677139282,
0.3232972323894501,
0.15083880722522736,
0.5430921912193298,
0.622077465057373,
-0.14087364077568054,
0.33445051312446594,
-0.032988615334033966,
-0.03244028240442276,
0.7239793539047241,
-0.07030702382326126,
-0.3235046863555908,
0.41309478878974915,
0.041066236793994904,
-0.1520116627216339,
-0.10415548086166382,
-0.3828253746032715,
0.8430572748184204,
0.06398681551218033,
-0.01628296449780464,
0.21349774301052094,
0.17140346765518188,
-0.20346711575984955,
-0.36346471309661865,
0.30943965911865234,
-0.06245073676109314,
-0.4172365367412567,
0.25073909759521484,
0.6347434520721436,
-0.20780827105045319,
0.39776840806007385,
-0.7859301567077637,
-0.4386386573314667,
0.24151171743869781,
-0.6071909666061401,
-0.3555712103843689,
0.1264113187789917,
0.2241453379392624,
-0.12809830904006958,
0.27573466300964355,
-0.31535106897354126,
-0.6177880764007568,
0.30498358607292175,
-0.34718045592308044,
-0.014892038889229298,
0.016261452808976173,
0.17142848670482635,
0.627876341342926,
-0.20665082335472107,
-0.7880019545555115,
-0.4213302731513977,
0.22958709299564362,
-0.19134339690208435,
-0.5162194967269897,
-0.43720951676368713,
0.009426916018128395,
0.0636536255478859,
-0.068369060754776,
0.8474766612052917,
-0.29299840331077576,
0.2981359362602234,
0.5002345442771912,
0.4145120680332184,
0.320070743560791,
0.5012496113777161,
0.08665276318788528,
0.6461418867111206,
-0.08914496749639511,
0.49746614694595337,
-0.19854477047920227,
-0.47799038887023926,
-0.1360178291797638,
-0.05040387436747551,
-0.368108868598938,
-0.3251292109489441,
0.18963675200939178,
0.5090384483337402,
0.06113158166408539,
0.3918713629245758,
-0.16815008223056793,
-0.7491792440414429,
0.2818412780761719,
0.5661095976829529,
0.021278491243720055,
-0.5792233943939209,
0.08758877217769623,
0.615284264087677,
0.19542653858661652,
0.14286670088768005,
0.15517933666706085,
-0.6222642660140991,
0.16067394614219666,
0.20112206041812897,
-0.13833321630954742,
0.18405599892139435,
0.8112756013870239,
-0.2362753301858902,
-0.43904927372932434,
0.2044551968574524,
0.32917526364326477,
0.25880059599876404,
0.2073209136724472,
-0.0750335082411766,
-0.19311125576496124,
-0.3145240545272827,
0.133502796292305,
0.27904951572418213,
-0.5462468862533569,
0.7680646777153015,
0.3810029625892639,
0.1989717185497284,
-0.3888034522533417,
0.8919907212257385,
0.2979680001735687,
-0.1372753083705902,
-0.2452537566423416,
-0.40942656993865967,
0.21835632622241974,
0.13664141297340393,
-0.42640140652656555,
0.6790496706962585,
-0.14935463666915894,
0.28152671456336975,
0.24492208659648895,
0.005468839313834906,
0.17051219940185547,
0.4162355959415436,
-0.4601474106311798,
0.3864688575267792,
0.4670964777469635,
-0.8494808673858643,
0.03617461398243904,
0.03942352533340454,
-0.33150795102119446,
-0.6412026286125183,
-0.40692338347435,
-0.06285250186920166,
0.6354601383209229,
-0.13831230998039246,
-0.1763049215078354,
-0.26746857166290283,
-0.4046988785266876,
0.09770148992538452,
-0.12919247150421143,
0.4569847583770752,
0.07228688895702362,
0.0026377872563898563,
-0.7659462094306946,
-0.1804945319890976,
-0.09120369702577591,
-0.3230903744697571,
1.1732397079467773,
1.0204159021377563,
0.1345776468515396,
-0.502889096736908,
0.2798147201538086,
-0.43070489168167114,
0.12329547852277756,
0.21957291662693024,
0.22863146662712097,
-0.008929861709475517,
-0.05921464413404465,
-0.24019837379455566,
-0.36473366618156433,
0.540351152420044,
0.8321291208267212,
-0.41410496830940247,
-0.7997756004333496,
0.3408581614494324,
0.6049947142601013,
0.04092533141374588,
0.517245352268219,
0.5150893926620483,
-0.33331793546676636,
0.04326636716723442,
0.31230199337005615,
-0.7608166337013245,
-0.17469905316829681,
-0.12384884804487228,
-0.7278996109962463,
-0.2642363905906677,
-0.6066304445266724,
-0.20548413693904877,
0.14731283485889435,
0.6228682994842529,
-0.1559721678495407,
-0.2551620602607727,
-0.5966417789459229,
0.24748383462429047,
-0.6235117316246033,
0.3082534074783325,
-0.010465569794178009,
-0.94831782579422,
-0.053814515471458435,
0.08051091432571411,
-0.402332067489624,
0.6533767580986023,
-0.5083647966384888,
-0.35970205068588257,
0.32056063413619995,
-0.07792936265468597,
0.0009805085137486458,
-0.325415700674057,
-0.5685399770736694,
-0.8334259986877441,
0.2966773509979248,
-0.5917109847068787,
-0.4624302089214325,
0.21285812556743622,
0.7542384266853333,
0.15555286407470703,
0.1406041830778122,
0.03684446960687637,
0.3459455072879791,
0.49241670966148376,
-0.15065644681453705,
-0.40588513016700745,
0.5681483149528503,
0.3996986150741577,
0.24896712601184845,
-0.7601149082183838,
-0.08343148976564407,
0.7399110198020935,
-0.07941044121980667,
-0.38617926836013794,
-0.6774333715438843,
0.13816574215888977,
0.6013085842132568,
-0.17105332016944885,
0.061818208545446396,
-0.12389898300170898,
-0.11176205426454544,
0.3248184621334076,
0.5384292602539062,
-0.44284188747406006,
-0.14057345688343048,
0.5794001221656799,
-0.17802025377750397,
0.19270119071006775,
-0.31420665979385376,
0.5288221836090088,
0.7646122574806213,
0.18508696556091309,
0.17603600025177002,
-0.037179239094257355,
0.0764436349272728,
-0.12267953902482986,
0.06631218641996384,
-0.3279709815979004,
-0.2506691515445709,
0.4767746329307556,
-0.6895174980163574,
0.00897191371768713,
0.06806030869483948,
-0.09611871093511581,
-0.355327308177948,
-0.3079449236392975,
0.546471893787384,
-0.5553380846977234,
0.18598231673240662,
-0.4490288496017456,
0.31418377161026,
-0.18482109904289246,
0.0021288576535880566,
0.42117613554000854,
0.3350045084953308,
0.11861120164394379,
-0.23317861557006836,
-0.398301899433136,
0.35001230239868164,
0.2400345653295517,
-0.702423095703125,
0.4675307273864746,
0.155459463596344,
0.5468353033065796,
0.13194742798805237,
-0.15586960315704346,
-0.7438148856163025,
0.34303537011146545,
0.2672930061817169,
-0.5131884813308716,
0.6684228777885437,
-0.5626730918884277,
0.26657697558403015,
0.8316210508346558,
-0.028092382475733757,
0.567390501499176,
0.4019903838634491,
-0.22035536170005798,
0.22522523999214172,
0.568710446357727,
-0.8263447880744934,
-1.0713086128234863,
0.043622419238090515,
-0.6540522575378418,
-0.39908838272094727,
0.012881827540695667,
-0.08370978385210037,
0.5929114818572998,
0.35832735896110535,
-0.4138907492160797,
0.852227509021759,
0.3267950713634491,
-0.5823512077331543,
-0.23701806366443634,
-0.22008787095546722,
-0.24204005300998688,
0.5888975262641907,
0.6554881930351257,
0.6749671697616577,
-0.14785847067832947,
0.6209092140197754,
0.16307087242603302,
0.18740320205688477,
-0.0373709611594677,
0.25896400213241577,
0.040176503360271454,
0.43552836775779724,
-0.02587212808430195,
-0.01409804169088602,
-0.06641433387994766,
-0.3034040629863739,
0.19408515095710754,
-0.40757042169570923,
0.3701969087123871,
0.40865567326545715,
0.04128692299127579,
0.4868946075439453,
-0.07204663753509521,
0.8442509174346924,
0.14531324803829193,
-0.22622528672218323,
-0.4542997181415558,
0.32445091009140015,
0.7026026844978333,
-0.11253329366445541,
0.10568753629922867,
0.11652495712041855,
0.5411614775657654,
0.5249972343444824,
-0.1707649528980255,
0.5528132915496826,
0.3974030315876007,
-0.545015811920166,
0.12502025067806244,
0.334581196308136,
-0.5324427485466003,
0.040324676781892776,
0.15222352743148804,
0.767042338848114,
-0.2543353736400604,
-0.5596346259117126,
0.2797609567642212,
-0.1236233338713646,
-0.3268497884273529,
0.33055320382118225,
0.14489465951919556,
-0.19927148520946503,
0.7107797265052795,
-0.526633083820343,
0.1498575061559677,
0.06702794134616852,
-0.19446557760238647,
0.41519176959991455,
-1.083045482635498,
0.469378799200058,
0.4967319369316101,
-0.5060935020446777,
0.6356042623519897,
0.059791307896375656,
0.18895600736141205,
0.23122259974479675,
-0.43933507800102234,
0.6257280707359314,
-0.25708842277526855,
0.026180699467658997,
-0.7064446806907654,
0.5616226196289062,
0.8054742813110352,
0.4405807852745056,
-0.1337525099515915,
0.5354552268981934,
-0.27571699023246765,
0.22855406999588013,
0.5761247873306274,
-0.3054564893245697,
-0.12066704034805298,
-0.7654097080230713,
-0.5031358599662781,
-0.45916882157325745,
0.36937323212623596,
0.3773465156555176,
0.518037736415863,
-0.39331603050231934,
0.8202439546585083,
0.07608930766582489,
-0.07063236087560654,
0.25663578510284424,
0.051645174622535706,
0.15136945247650146,
-0.5108717679977417,
0.695215106010437,
-0.2373044490814209,
-0.03151584789156914,
0.12892821431159973,
0.4484136700630188,
0.408220112323761,
-0.3489898145198822,
-0.07831984758377075,
-0.18467605113983154,
-0.37210598587989807,
0.058495860546827316,
-0.3268994987010956,
0.1780005246400833,
-0.12990044057369232,
-0.5975625514984131,
-0.9570679664611816,
0.2138054370880127,
0.34857338666915894,
-0.30967751145362854,
-0.3780984878540039,
-0.06100478395819664,
-0.2058524340391159,
0.053881775587797165,
-0.12462421506643295,
-0.28588053584098816,
-0.21567191183567047,
0.22177885472774506
] |
241436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per%20se | Per se | Per se may refer to:
per se, a Latin phrase meaning "by itself" or "in itself".
Illegal per se, the legal usage in criminal and antitrust law
Negligence per se, legal use in tort law
Per Se (restaurant), a New York City restaurant
perse, a vulgar Finnish and Estonian word meaning "buttocks"
See also
Perse (disambiguation)
Pro se legal representation in the United States | [
0.7558629512786865,
-0.2956848740577698,
-0.36128807067871094,
0.11775192618370056,
-0.17754796147346497,
-0.025335295125842094,
0.20496995747089386,
0.4330233335494995,
0.11292723566293716,
-0.23432688415050507,
-0.3077757954597473,
0.3539315164089203,
-0.13119347393512726,
0.041734423488378525,
-0.4751609265804291,
0.3213138282299042,
0.503451406955719,
1.0399547815322876,
0.17832355201244354,
-0.0947626531124115,
-0.1581125557422638,
0.5751404166221619,
-0.06459268927574158,
-0.6292665600776672,
-0.028883885592222214,
-0.1157684400677681,
0.26688656210899353,
-0.2750221788883209,
-0.6211239695549011,
0.2664029002189636,
0.6447755098342896,
0.27284500002861023,
-0.41354894638061523,
0.040435679256916046,
-0.0034792779479175806,
0.017893485724925995,
-0.09477764368057251,
-0.35635024309158325,
-0.49104979634284973,
-0.5788617134094238,
-0.19356153905391693,
-0.48786070942878723,
0.1788528859615326,
0.012819432653486729,
-0.6768001317977905,
-0.6727562546730042,
-1.024297833442688,
0.02543608658015728,
-0.9521809816360474,
0.5716817378997803,
-0.4754123091697693,
-0.392911434173584,
-0.3086446225643158,
0.7175781726837158,
-0.08270671963691711,
0.3753731846809387,
-0.7761513590812683,
-0.3117973804473877,
0.3383881449699402,
-0.7881323099136353,
0.7459878921508789,
0.2563049793243408,
0.3601759076118469,
-0.03231994807720184,
0.8340379595756531,
0.0005394687759689987,
0.08013324439525604,
0.3271956443786621,
-0.17517872154712677,
-0.733387291431427,
-0.9080921411514282,
-0.5723285675048828,
-0.4730352461338043,
0.12324404716491699,
-0.15657255053520203,
-0.3277401328086853,
0.03758380189538002,
0.19891907274723053,
-0.3611896336078644,
0.03640653192996979,
0.35056978464126587,
0.7509943246841431,
0.27125823497772217,
-0.10348968952894211,
0.10793851315975189,
0.010608975775539875,
-0.3391777575016022,
-0.2617945373058319,
0.3708694279193878,
0.28456178307533264,
0.2153482437133789,
-0.1992766112089157,
0.3165911138057709,
-0.27396029233932495,
-0.0035531583707779646,
0.497890830039978,
0.21175642311573029,
-0.07386912405490875,
0.08105931431055069,
0.43348249793052673,
-0.11030112951993942,
-0.29063838720321655,
0.2827996611595154,
-0.4453691244125366,
-0.5493719577789307,
-0.06158002093434334,
-0.22776663303375244,
-0.7994791865348816,
0.5886901021003723,
0.14415092766284943,
0.7268849015235901,
0.15995481610298157,
-0.14863833785057068,
0.0019609304144978523,
-0.9526128172874451,
0.8487573266029358,
0.5056163668632507,
0.5105269551277161,
0.15922987461090088,
-0.1207554042339325,
0.2550601065158844,
0.35637199878692627,
0.615607500076294,
-0.48528119921684265,
0.2910810708999634,
-0.08992192149162292,
0.4845103621482849,
0.6853599548339844,
-0.8328242897987366,
-0.178518146276474,
-0.0639314204454422,
0.5331658720970154,
-0.22182820737361908,
0.030591826885938644,
-0.3243819773197174,
-0.05954105406999588,
0.1571780890226364,
0.0948011726140976,
0.0706503614783287,
-0.03491992875933647,
-0.6780300140380859,
-0.08267365396022797,
-0.6839796900749207,
-0.017541689798235893,
0.6360628008842468,
-0.06485524028539658,
0.7578445672988892,
-0.2377312332391739,
-0.3525983393192291,
0.12409642338752747,
0.2409256100654602,
-0.10983460396528244,
0.5192995667457581,
0.3491310775279999,
0.11220383644104004,
0.4266625940799713,
0.5636492967605591,
0.5321610569953918,
-0.56944340467453,
0.7155064940452576,
0.4688355624675751,
-0.213723823428154,
-0.005968437530100346,
-0.43465152382850647,
0.10243140906095505,
0.2900860011577606,
-0.5434668064117432,
0.27432194352149963,
0.5093656778335571,
0.41993284225463867,
-0.3451783061027527,
-0.43864530324935913,
-0.44107234477996826,
-0.8622975945472717,
0.011320147663354874,
0.33534467220306396,
0.0453830286860466,
0.1734970211982727,
0.684116780757904,
-0.04327845200896263,
-0.4170747399330139,
-0.022901000455021858,
0.34703823924064636,
-0.12467239797115326,
-0.2049223929643631,
-0.6434823274612427,
0.3815380930900574,
-0.009443782269954681,
-0.16528937220573425,
-0.3887346386909485,
-0.5847328305244446,
-0.6283605694770813,
0.016865434125065804,
-0.8869795203208923,
0.6339703798294067,
-0.2005125731229782,
-0.5625562071800232,
1.3088877201080322,
-0.09601558744907379,
0.048237137496471405,
-0.28992128372192383,
0.13164354860782623,
0.210820272564888,
-0.3058325946331024,
-0.7388817071914673,
1.0428544282913208,
0.7858809232711792,
-0.22570517659187317,
-0.03836112469434738,
0.21141447126865387,
0.31351813673973083,
0.0817856416106224,
0.4804157614707947,
-0.7608827352523804,
0.017294161021709442,
-0.21233375370502472,
-0.5309510827064514,
0.2863386273384094,
-0.18063810467720032,
-0.1997850090265274,
0.8177222609519958,
-0.21065650880336761,
0.09494177997112274,
0.4541109800338745,
-0.7034795880317688,
0.345935195684433,
-0.02898286283016205,
-0.1711738258600235,
0.3267562985420227,
-0.3395739793777466,
0.3890964686870575,
0.18832510709762573,
0.4097452461719513,
-0.07014685869216919,
-0.16936200857162476,
0.03216835483908653,
0.21478715538978577,
0.0679161325097084,
0.20655080676078796,
-0.29624810814857483,
-0.003859182819724083,
0.6110811829566956,
-0.14849348366260529,
0.6288868188858032,
-0.21129965782165527,
0.5313423275947571,
-0.02259664796292782,
0.38086339831352234,
0.4466842710971832,
0.5209976434707642,
0.16889537870883942,
0.1499175876379013,
-0.0007206776645034552,
-0.7101024389266968,
-0.0013493021251633763,
-0.0050385319627821445,
-0.45929673314094543,
0.28426483273506165,
0.4217393100261688,
-0.4339908957481384,
-0.7201224565505981,
-0.017294762656092644,
0.6290043592453003,
0.17222072184085846,
-0.2230834662914276,
-0.5674955248832703,
-0.3317068815231323,
-0.20217275619506836,
-0.5029102563858032,
0.6876199245452881,
0.8823151588439941,
0.10831763595342636,
-0.9968860745429993,
0.15625925362110138,
0.06082252040505409,
0.6374896764755249,
0.34657642245292664,
0.20238511264324188,
-0.5822540521621704,
-0.03595271706581116,
0.30007094144821167,
0.36588114500045776,
0.26531901955604553,
-1.0262705087661743,
-0.06410369277000427,
-0.21107281744480133,
0.5635705590248108,
0.1454794853925705,
-0.03683727607131004,
0.41366538405418396,
0.3240225613117218,
0.07143694162368774,
-0.1198485791683197,
0.08279282599687576,
0.9250670671463013,
0.04980159550905228,
-0.5337551832199097,
0.11663676053285599,
0.29815641045570374,
-0.532072126865387,
0.04726335406303406,
-0.33517467975616455,
-0.7540180087089539,
-0.05490453541278839,
0.2387096881866455,
-0.4713040292263031,
-0.10931257158517838,
0.43615108728408813,
-5.521312713623047,
-0.03230373188853264,
-0.646946907043457,
0.24041646718978882,
-0.0221570935100317,
0.3136500120162964,
0.40343016386032104,
-0.09901417791843414,
-0.45705053210258484,
0.06518139690160751,
0.17199890315532684,
0.0025204645935446024,
0.6287819743156433,
0.892067015171051,
0.6133111119270325,
-0.16975617408752441,
0.308494508266449,
-0.1474950909614563,
0.26754987239837646,
0.5733524560928345,
-0.3020986318588257,
-0.2843872308731079,
0.1852334886789322,
0.1778891682624817,
0.15589632093906403,
-0.8726184368133545,
-0.8019225597381592,
0.4134978652000427,
-0.17673583328723907,
-0.020169295370578766,
0.23814307153224945,
0.044963594526052475,
-0.20396119356155396,
-0.7153058052062988,
-0.12051106244325638,
0.2442013919353485,
0.5270900130271912,
-0.22542370855808258,
-0.10924161970615387,
-0.45093995332717896,
-0.4292928874492645,
0.27730435132980347,
0.3494740426540375,
-0.04290590062737465,
-0.2709323763847351,
0.25143957138061523,
-0.18018293380737305,
-0.21487560868263245,
0.059876810759305954,
0.5601472854614258,
-0.3229491710662842,
0.5155361890792847,
0.5306587815284729,
0.05839947611093521,
-0.3695834279060364,
0.059419840574264526,
0.7935683131217957,
-0.12716063857078552,
-0.5820263028144836,
-0.016406100243330002,
0.41085222363471985,
-0.8243041038513184,
0.5450373291969299,
-0.3784657418727875,
0.1303701102733612,
-0.0006047358037903905,
-0.33555227518081665,
-0.23732824623584747,
0.6911373138427734,
0.46169427037239075,
0.14455825090408325,
0.7812826633453369,
0.49556389451026917,
-1.1001478433609009,
0.052481792867183685,
-0.6390849947929382,
-0.22247858345508575,
0.40107035636901855,
0.48873022198677063,
0.35492274165153503,
-0.039963994175195694,
-0.030509695410728455,
-0.5946752429008484,
0.03140348196029663,
0.33192217350006104,
0.022096598520874977,
0.6106687188148499,
0.008929427713155746,
-0.7630383372306824,
-0.6049284338951111,
0.37352246046066284,
-0.06277033686637878,
0.027490433305501938,
0.549338698387146,
-0.2541932165622711,
0.7457728981971741,
-0.39174792170524597,
0.12176088988780975,
0.2150687575340271,
-0.17318129539489746,
0.07654761523008347,
0.05422305688261986,
-0.10636317729949951,
-0.18371690809726715,
-0.5199041366577148,
-0.2211250215768814,
-0.7865434288978577,
0.3672676682472229,
-0.0761580839753151,
-0.10490663349628448,
0.09520762413740158,
0.2857600748538971,
-0.27232810854911804,
-0.09272821992635727,
0.06407572329044342,
-0.013712562620639801,
-0.8372934460639954,
0.9346352219581604,
0.6807499527931213,
-0.34296098351478577,
0.42878979444503784,
0.14717622101306915,
-0.39726999402046204,
-0.8047035932540894,
-1.5100765228271484,
-0.06653454899787903,
-0.15676040947437286,
0.3739027976989746,
0.07325182855129242,
0.7167249917984009,
0.014403448440134525,
0.8398211002349854,
-0.21227121353149414,
-0.21510083973407745,
0.3221665024757385,
-0.23906856775283813,
0.25175508856773376,
0.8052385449409485,
-0.3706521689891815,
-0.5451132655143738,
-0.01675000973045826,
-0.36146533489227295,
-0.17530125379562378,
-0.4107116460800171,
0.39502766728401184,
0.37304139137268066,
-0.1882617324590683,
0.20284096896648407,
-0.6998100280761719,
0.912958562374115,
0.1909647136926651,
-0.2382860630750656,
0.4925664961338043,
-0.8588504791259766,
-0.052983611822128296,
-0.7870715856552124,
0.37796157598495483,
-0.29190269112586975,
0.3024764657020569,
-0.6101685166358948,
-0.2829435169696808,
-0.41166067123413086,
-0.9460130333900452,
-0.28911319375038147,
-0.5812326073646545,
0.1494981348514557,
-0.14079007506370544,
-0.07647965848445892,
-0.439607709646225,
0.8896137475967407,
-0.4029011130332947,
0.07161377370357513,
-0.26683273911476135,
-0.0008596215047873557,
0.058022160083055496,
-0.028783388435840607,
0.12188535928726196,
-0.03737962990999222,
0.22567124664783478,
0.2418915331363678,
0.5975230932235718,
-0.21537744998931885,
-0.47911661863327026,
-0.234641894698143,
0.22736969590187073,
-0.8951314687728882,
0.31983619928359985,
0.1975001096725464,
-0.7699095010757446,
-0.35311973094940186,
0.057082537561655045,
0.008563879877328873,
0.4388207495212555,
-0.5519000291824341,
-0.6700283288955688,
-0.07381976395845413,
0.06579180806875229,
0.35740676522254944,
-0.3879963457584381,
-0.14639237523078918,
0.6887551546096802,
0.34552159905433655,
-0.5298362970352173,
0.06501700729131699,
-0.4397835433483124,
-0.7230436205863953,
-0.128875732421875,
-0.10608623176813126,
-0.9489490985870361,
0.6344662308692932,
-0.5212836265563965,
-0.006864134222269058,
-0.23555761575698853,
0.4022723436355591,
-0.4804450273513794,
-0.05011249706149101,
0.22399303317070007,
-0.15844275057315826,
-0.48133736848831177,
-0.5709622502326965,
1.0892854928970337,
-0.2362222671508789,
-0.013356257230043411,
-0.07593760639429092,
-0.2824833393096924,
0.4568703770637512,
0.35762250423431396,
-0.6461819410324097,
0.8517379760742188,
-0.2399786412715912,
-0.1681145280599594,
-0.1154908612370491,
-0.05457983911037445,
-0.1726681888103485,
-0.3143150508403778,
-0.38921043276786804,
-0.18792597949504852,
0.01733923889696598,
-0.6790730953216553,
0.0712728500366211,
0.1587037742137909,
0.6573372483253479,
-0.31916725635528564,
-0.6279064416885376,
-0.2696099877357483,
0.6490278840065002,
0.33521604537963867,
-0.6470892429351807,
-0.8459048867225647,
0.17116722464561462,
-0.1368788480758667,
-0.292439728975296,
-0.5398917198181152,
0.05339406430721283,
0.6104682087898254,
-0.1999194473028183,
0.3778253495693207,
0.07247771322727203,
0.05633652210235596,
0.30824851989746094,
0.25706544518470764,
-0.46231040358543396,
-0.6743267774581909,
0.2394091784954071,
0.395648717880249,
-0.1085505560040474,
0.3990562856197357,
0.700070321559906,
0.2301660180091858,
-0.3645913600921631,
0.2106655091047287,
-0.6545665264129639,
-0.036424148827791214,
0.27411535382270813,
0.3163403272628784,
-0.1426953822374344,
0.029994118958711624,
0.003307135310024023,
0.3461208939552307,
-0.17693226039409637,
-0.6555370092391968,
-0.1325482726097107,
0.169551819562912,
0.015172118321061134,
0.16451451182365417,
-0.16218118369579315,
0.23418264091014862,
0.6305219531059265,
-1.1410696506500244,
-0.3116544187068939,
-0.444760799407959,
-0.024066608399152756,
-0.17809608578681946,
0.46422314643859863,
0.050246912986040115,
0.0791754424571991,
-0.1404331475496292,
-0.0105630774050951,
-0.10107144713401794,
-0.05731397867202759,
-0.3934907913208008,
-0.23684468865394592,
0.24392354488372803,
-0.32108375430107117,
-0.07914569228887558,
-0.1029961034655571,
0.5648373365402222,
-0.6807476282119751,
-0.08318401873111725,
-0.3754400312900543,
0.1722477227449417,
0.02056087926030159,
0.4822348654270172,
0.8840655088424683,
-0.515852153301239,
-0.44084465503692627,
0.19832660257816315,
-0.6064236760139465,
-0.007483772002160549,
-0.07743147760629654,
-0.029417734593153,
-0.8189796209335327,
1.0056140422821045,
-0.44846025109291077,
-0.023033300414681435,
0.19676414132118225,
0.310392826795578,
0.024889394640922546,
-0.1872016340494156,
-0.10679903626441956,
1.1512700319290161,
-0.005976275075227022,
-0.2565300166606903,
0.35058456659317017,
-0.1530655324459076,
-0.4752843677997589,
0.19757701456546783,
-0.1864945888519287,
-0.23802442848682404,
0.2890154719352722,
0.44350874423980713,
0.1225225105881691,
0.2787463366985321,
0.0167558491230011,
-0.11656352132558823,
0.7010354995727539,
0.3079242706298828,
0.14578558504581451,
-0.16104184091091156,
0.4262385964393616,
0.6546915173530579,
0.05661621317267418,
0.6246228218078613,
-0.05625666305422783,
0.599601686000824,
-0.701546311378479,
0.28565576672554016,
0.14577509462833405,
-0.22872582077980042,
-0.29988542199134827,
0.319529265165329,
0.4442918598651886,
0.3076207637786865,
-0.17641234397888184,
0.2243848294019699,
-0.6176987290382385,
0.3570450246334076,
-0.13713833689689636,
-0.11984458565711975,
-0.2931388020515442,
0.29294636845588684,
0.04988585785031319,
-0.6246681809425354,
0.5046976208686829,
0.4502321779727936,
-0.26843002438545227,
0.62209153175354,
0.15078015625476837,
0.40911513566970825,
-0.7001113891601562,
0.018196826800704002,
-0.15767550468444824,
-0.05723211541771889,
-0.8948351740837097,
-0.3861386775970459,
-0.060923513025045395,
0.2992158532142639,
0.6550623774528503,
-0.47965097427368164,
-0.03665923327207565,
0.007376345340162516,
-0.44524696469306946,
-0.2224191427230835,
-0.09831473231315613,
-0.23468734323978424,
0.052661746740341187,
-0.2575111985206604,
0.5827999114990234,
0.39745160937309265,
-1.0898010730743408,
0.4976414442062378,
0.5453348159790039,
-0.27494382858276367,
-0.39957234263420105,
0.4616190791130066,
0.43462681770324707,
-0.43311184644699097,
0.3901369273662567,
-0.6134999990463257,
0.276017963886261,
0.6981547474861145,
-0.2908472418785095,
-0.23075507581233978,
0.4704192578792572,
0.13089099526405334,
0.226927250623703,
0.5432119369506836,
-0.12246239185333252,
0.23215629160404205,
-0.0831722691655159,
-0.08881864696741104,
0.8505944013595581,
0.09357412904500961,
-0.04986375942826271,
-0.28044363856315613,
0.163588285446167,
0.1788712441921234,
0.25312671065330505,
-0.0028683010023087263,
0.37479302287101746,
-0.30362921953201294,
0.47308680415153503,
0.012651420198380947,
0.39892852306365967,
0.04976930096745491,
0.22591562569141388,
-0.17796766757965088,
-0.09604030102491379,
-0.02378207817673683,
0.017677050083875656,
0.18191605806350708,
-0.34207895398139954,
-0.042093150317668915,
-0.7733874320983887,
-0.7539719343185425,
0.005022328346967697,
-0.034089576452970505,
-0.024997573345899582,
-0.3360508382320404,
-0.13552869856357574,
0.580355167388916,
-0.47625240683555603,
0.5416954159736633,
-0.13018479943275452,
-0.3446212112903595,
-0.02353733219206333,
0.46310803294181824,
-0.47494927048683167,
-0.08027999848127365,
1.1211692094802856
] |
241440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaving%20group | Leaving group | In chemistry, a leaving group is a molecular fragment that departs with a pair of electrons in heterolytic bond cleavage. Leaving groups can be anions, cations or neutral molecules, but in either case it is crucial that the leaving group be able to stabilize the additional electron density that results from bond heterolysis. Common anionic leaving groups are halides such as Cl−, Br−, and I−, and sulfonate esters such as tosylate (TsO−). Fluoride (F−) functions as a leaving group in the nerve agent sarin gas. Common neutral molecule leaving groups are water and ammonia. Leaving groups may also be positively charged cations (such as H+ released during the nitration of benzene); these are also known specifically as electrofuges.
Leaving group ability
The physical manifestation of leaving group ability is the rate at which a reaction takes place. Good leaving groups give fast reactions. By transition state theory, this implies that reactions involving good leaving groups have low activation barriers leading to relatively stable transition states.
It is helpful to consider the concept of leaving group ability in the case of the first step of an SN1/E1 reaction with an anionic leaving group (ionization), while keeping in mind that this concept can be generalized to all reactions that involve leaving groups. Because the leaving group bears a larger negative charge in the transition state (and products) than in the starting material, a good leaving group must be able to stabilize this negative charge, i.e. form stable anions. A good measure of anion stability is the pKa of an anion's conjugate acid, and leaving group ability indeed generally follows this trend, with a lower pKaH being associated with better leaving group ability.
The correlation between pKaH and leaving group ability, however, is not perfect. Leaving group ability represents the difference in energy between starting materials and a transition state (ΔG‡) and differences in leaving group ability are reflected in changes in this quantity (ΔΔG‡). The quantity pKaH, however, represents the difference in energy between starting materials and products (ΔG) with differences in acidity reflected in changes in this quantity (ΔΔG). Also, the starting materials in these cases are different. In the case of pKa, the "leaving group" is bound to a proton in the starting material, while in the case of leaving group ability, the leaving group is bound to (usually) carbon. It is with these important caveats in mind that one must consider pKaH to be reflective of leaving group ability, but nevertheless the trends in each tend to correlate well with each other. Consistent with this picture, strong bases such as OH−, OR− and NR2− tend to make poor leaving groups, due their inability to stabilize a negative charge.
What constitutes a reasonable leaving group is dependent on context. For SN2 reactions, typical synthetically useful leaving groups include Cl–, Br–, I–, –OTs, –OMs, –OTf, and H2O. Substrates containing phosphate and carboxylate leaving groups are more likely to react by competitive addition-elimination, while sulfonium and ammonium salts generally form ylides or undergo E2 elimination when possible. Phenoxides (–OAr) constitute the lower limit for what is feasible as SN2 leaving groups: very strong nucleophiles like Ph2P– or EtS– have been used to demethylate anisole derivatives through SN2 displacement at the methyl group. Hydroxide, alkoxides, amides, hydride, and alkyl anions do not serve as leaving groups in SN2 reactions.
On the other hand, when anionic or dianionic tetrahedral intermediates collapse, the high electron density of the neighboring heteroatom facilitates the expulsion of a leaving group. Thus, in the case of ester and amide hydrolysis under basic conditions, alkoxides and amides are commonly proposed as leaving groups. Likewise, E1cb reactions involving hydroxide as a leaving group are not uncommon (e.g., in the aldol condensation). It is exceedingly rare for groups such as H− (hydrides) and R3C− (alkyl anions, R=alkyl or H) to depart with a pair of electrons because of the high energy of these species. The Chichibabin reaction provides an example of hydride as a leaving group, while the Wolff-Kishner reaction and Haller-Bauer reactions feature unstabilized carbanion leaving groups.
Contextual differences in leaving group ability
It is important to note that the list given above is qualitative and describes trends. The ability of a group to leave is contextual. For example, in SNAr reactions, the rate is generally increased when the leaving group is fluoride relative to the other halogens. This effect is due to the fact that the highest energy transition state for this two step addition-elimination process occurs in the first step, where fluoride's greater electron withdrawing capability relative to the other halides stabilizes the developing negative charge on the aromatic ring. The departure of the leaving group takes place quickly from this high energy Meisenheimer complex, and since the departure is not involved in the rate limiting step, it does not affect the overall rate of the reaction. This effect is general to conjugate base eliminations.
Even when the departure of the leaving group is involved in the rate limiting step of a reaction there can still exist contextual differences that can change the order of leaving group ability. In Friedel-Crafts alkylations, the normal halogen leaving group order is reversed so that the rate of the reaction follows RF > RCl > RBr > RI. This effect is due to their greater ability to complex the Lewis acid catalyst, and the actual group that leaves is an "ate" complex between the Lewis acid and the departing leaving group. This situation is broadly defined as leaving group activation.
There can still exist contextual differences in leaving group ability in the purest form, that is when the actual group that leaves is not affected by the reaction conditions (by protonation or Lewis acid complexation) and the departure of the leaving group occurs in the rate determining step. In the situation where other variables are held constant (nature of the alkyl electrophile, solvent, etc.), a change in nucleophile can lead to a change in the order of reactivity for leaving groups. In the case below, tosylate is the best leaving group when ethoxide is the nucleophile, but iodide and even bromide become better leaving groups in the case of the thiolate nucleophile.
Activation
It is common in E1 and SN1 reactions for a poor leaving group to be transformed into a good one by protonation or complexation with a Lewis acid. Thus, it is by protonation before departure that a molecule can formally lose such poor leaving groups as hydroxide.
The same principle is at work in the Friedel-Crafts reaction. Here, a strong Lewis acid is required to generate either a carbocation from an alkyl halide in the Friedel-Crafts alkylation reaction or an acylium ion from an acyl halide.
In the vast majority of cases, reactions that involve leaving group activation generate a cation in a separate step, before either nucleophilic attack or elimination. For example, SN1 and E1 reactions may involve an activation step, whereas SN2 and E2 reactions generally do not.
In conjugate base eliminations
The requirement for a good leaving group is relaxed in conjugate base elimination reactions. These reactions include loss of a leaving group in the β position of an enolate as well as the regeneration of a carbonyl group from the tetrahedral intermediate in nucleophilic acyl substitution. Under forcing conditions, even amides can be made to undergo basic hydrolysis, a process that involves the expulsion of an extremely poor leaving group, R2N−. Even more dramatic, decarboxylation of benzoate anions can occur by heating with copper or Cu2O, involving the loss of an aryl anion. This reaction is facilitated by the fact that the leaving group is most likely an arylcopper compound rather than the much more basic alkali metal salt.
This dramatic departure from normal leaving group requirements occurs mostly in the realm of C=O double bond formation where formation of the very strong C=O double bond can drive otherwise unfavorable reactions forward. The requirement for a good leaving group is still relaxed in the case of C=C bond formation via E1cB mechanisms, but because of the relative weakness of the C=C double bond, the reaction still exhibits some leaving group sensitivity. Notably, changing the leaving group's identity (and willingness to leave) can change the nature of the mechanism in elimination reactions. With poor leaving groups, the E1cB mechanism is favored, but as the leaving group's ability changes, the reaction shifts from having a rate determining loss of leaving group from carbanionic intermediate B via TS BC‡ through having a rate determining deprotonation step via TS AB‡ (not pictured) to a concerted E2 elimination. In the latter situation, the leaving group X has become good enough that the former transition state connecting intermediates B and C has become lower in energy than B, which is no longer a stationary point on the potential energy surface for the reaction. Because only one transition state connects starting material A and product C, the reaction is now concerted (albeit very asynchronous in the pictured case) due to the increase in leaving group ability of X.
"Super" and "hyper" leaving groups
The prototypical super leaving group is triflate, and the term has come to mean any leaving group of comparable ability. Compounds where loss of a super leaving group can generate a stable carbocation are usually highly reactive and unstable. Thus, the most commonly encountered organic triflates are methyl triflate and alkenyl or aryl triflates, all of which cannot form stable carbocations on ionization, rendering them relatively stable. It has been noted that steroidal alkyl nonaflates (another super leaving group) generated from alcohols and perfluorobutanesulfonyl fluoride were not isolable as such but immediately formed the products of either elimination or substitution by fluoride generated by the reagent. Mixed acyl-trifluoromethanesulfonyl anhydrides smoothly undergo Friedel-Crafts acylation without a catalyst, unlike the corresponding acyl halides, which require a strong Lewis acid. Methyl triflate, however, does not participate in Friedel-Crafts alkylation reactions with electron-neutral aromatic rings.
Beyond super leaving groups in reactivity lie the "hyper" leaving groups. Prominent among these are λ3-iodanes, which include diaryl iodonium salts, and other halonium ions. In one study, a quantitative comparison of these and other leaving groups was conducted. Relative to chloride (krel=1), reactivities increased in the order bromide (krel=14), iodide (krel=91), tosylate (krel=3.7 x 104), triflate (krel=1.4 x 108), phenyliodonium tetrafluoroborate (PhI+ BF4−, krel=1.2 x 1014). Along with the criterion that a hyper leaving group be a stronger leaving group than triflate is the necessity that the leaving group undergo reductive elimination. In the case of halonium ions this involves reduction from a trivalent halonium to a monovalent halide coupled with the release of an anionic fragment. Part of the exceptional reactivity of compounds of hyper leaving groups has been ascribed to the entropic favorability of having one molecule split into three.
Dialkyl halonium ions have also been isolated and characterized for simple alkyl groups. These compounds, despite their extreme reactivity towards nucleophiles, can be obtained pure in the solid state with very weakly nucleophilic counterions such as SbF and CHB11Cl11−. The strongly electrophilic nature of these compounds engendered by their attachment to extremely labile R-X (R = alkyl, X = Cl, Br, I) leaving groups is illustrated by their propensity to alkylate very weak nucleophiles. Heating neat samples of (CH3)2Cl+ [CHB11Cl11]− under reduced pressure resulted in methylation of the very poorly nucleophilic carborane anion with concomitant expulsion of the CH3Cl leaving group. Dialkyl halonium hexafluoroantimonate salts alkylate excess alkyl halides to give exchanged products. Their strongly electrophilic nature, along with the instability of primary carbocations generated from ionization of their alkyl groups, points to their possible involvement in Friedel-Crafts alkylation chemistry. The order of increasing lability of these leaving groups is R-I < R-Br < R-Cl.
See also
Electrofuge
Electrophile
Elimination reaction
Nucleofuge
Nucleophile
Substitution reaction
References
Organic reactions
Reaction mechanisms | [
-0.42890414595603943,
0.36558157205581665,
-0.3441213071346283,
-0.13196393847465515,
-0.2283995896577835,
-0.6456612348556519,
0.09977702051401138,
-0.4043819010257721,
-0.03407003730535507,
-0.48327118158340454,
-0.5127560496330261,
-0.41826993227005005,
-0.2575503885746002,
0.601395308971405,
-0.014597934670746326,
1.2423646450042725,
0.5975203514099121,
0.18323370814323425,
-0.902509868144989,
-0.6703755259513855,
0.17857956886291504,
0.3373435139656067,
0.13764606416225433,
-0.5753461718559265,
0.5476307272911072,
-0.24802514910697937,
0.0888884887099266,
-0.1884419471025467,
0.4667659401893616,
-0.16881023347377777,
0.026084093376994133,
0.2484240084886551,
0.3493485450744629,
0.4442385733127594,
0.3656078279018402,
-0.08118907362222672,
-0.2702607214450836,
-0.3857787847518921,
0.10111020505428314,
-0.32273560762405396,
-0.17908038198947906,
-0.32566529512405396,
0.27620214223861694,
0.859775185585022,
-0.4068439304828644,
-0.1871434599161148,
-1.2739516496658325,
0.25639235973358154,
-0.7024715542793274,
-0.420989990234375,
0.17336668074131012,
0.4250597059726715,
0.48139598965644836,
0.2691890299320221,
-0.21147669851779938,
-0.017917511984705925,
-0.41979315876960754,
-0.43087372183799744,
0.2897540032863617,
-0.7740976810455322,
0.1565595418214798,
0.29921725392341614,
0.0022633925545960665,
0.47474151849746704,
0.3952764868736267,
0.5516760349273682,
-0.06484035402536392,
-0.15720181167125702,
-0.8989022970199585,
-0.20759013295173645,
-0.04529804736375809,
-0.1320093870162964,
-0.46617165207862854,
-0.21396329998970032,
0.02563904970884323,
0.025815704837441444,
-0.11653178185224533,
-0.23675157129764557,
-0.0547679103910923,
-0.06354179978370667,
-0.5416423678398132,
1.182198166847229,
-0.3741567134857178,
-0.005554715171456337,
0.25037142634391785,
-0.27421683073043823,
-0.9387094974517822,
0.5348832011222839,
-1.0043736696243286,
0.5640163421630859,
-0.05604177713394165,
-0.38630181550979614,
0.18592381477355957,
0.03340929001569748,
-0.02240655943751335,
-0.262641042470932,
0.2888924181461334,
-0.21877421438694,
0.4432983100414276,
0.3721734285354614,
0.2915433347225189,
-0.5842835903167725,
0.029275575652718544,
-0.36647704243659973,
-0.05822039395570755,
-0.7076367735862732,
-0.2724372148513794,
-0.6302040815353394,
-0.22404834628105164,
-0.45011192560195923,
-0.3750889301300049,
-0.2035912126302719,
-0.45244622230529785,
-0.11790692806243896,
-0.23750673234462738,
-0.26746293902397156,
-0.2221953123807907,
-0.21978507936000824,
0.005050009582191706,
-0.15569424629211426,
0.05511758476495743,
1.0933825969696045,
-0.28400105237960815,
0.004961465019732714,
0.011870906688272953,
-0.1601712852716446,
0.29615530371665955,
0.4159189760684967,
-1.400132179260254,
-0.08061731606721878,
0.5803665518760681,
0.7861855626106262,
-0.0397731214761734,
0.4606201648712158,
-0.32580843567848206,
-0.5919869542121887,
0.11508030444383621,
0.22151179611682892,
0.43384072184562683,
-0.14989042282104492,
-0.7499483227729797,
0.2839140295982361,
-0.5048940181732178,
0.3212261199951172,
0.5480701327323914,
-0.05356261879205704,
-0.3133549988269806,
0.13737881183624268,
-0.031715068966150284,
0.11539945006370544,
-0.1355920284986496,
-0.7859806418418884,
-0.03779030218720436,
0.4011414349079132,
-0.6383868455886841,
-0.4633725583553314,
0.5243385434150696,
-0.2278587371110916,
-0.07691271603107452,
0.11448159068822861,
0.4255153238773346,
-0.3565218150615692,
0.06560260057449341,
-0.07598455250263214,
0.5873898267745972,
-0.3266454041004181,
-0.1153130829334259,
0.6700118184089661,
-0.11978384107351303,
0.4490470588207245,
0.2433857023715973,
-0.4688253402709961,
-0.05592649057507515,
-0.6579756736755371,
-0.2853752374649048,
-0.35976728796958923,
-0.3769552707672119,
0.047958873212337494,
0.43315210938453674,
-0.11650349944829941,
-0.8345962166786194,
-0.6718204021453857,
-0.06653808802366257,
-0.19668838381767273,
-0.1042361631989479,
0.169337198138237,
0.34936267137527466,
0.13736030459403992,
-0.24968352913856506,
0.40168827772140503,
-0.3413679897785187,
0.12115629017353058,
-0.18979845941066742,
-0.594335675239563,
1.2323882579803467,
-0.19665081799030304,
-0.37497034668922424,
0.4566921889781952,
0.037163663655519485,
-0.14008019864559174,
-1.1485856771469116,
0.4177742600440979,
0.37683412432670593,
0.05308670923113823,
-0.1595902442932129,
0.9934259653091431,
0.8083412647247314,
0.1172160729765892,
0.1545809656381607,
0.40676823258399963,
0.1506449431180954,
-0.23938335478305817,
0.31441766023635864,
-0.05678170546889305,
0.45850709080696106,
-0.2518922984600067,
-0.28799179196357727,
-0.13119840621948242,
0.08985830843448639,
0.5292941331863403,
-0.08259840309619904,
0.0006304117850959301,
0.2007666379213333,
0.4380675256252289,
-0.32466161251068115,
0.6809545159339905,
0.3468862473964691,
0.3896656334400177,
0.42833876609802246,
0.10479355603456497,
0.27778416872024536,
-0.3624069392681122,
0.35847869515419006,
0.23035934567451477,
-0.0991683080792427,
-0.37845590710639954,
0.08458057790994644,
-0.11475004255771637,
-0.17642033100128174,
-0.3757542669773102,
-0.20182135701179504,
-0.12813787162303925,
-0.5152559280395508,
0.02099822275340557,
0.1900428831577301,
0.04961711913347244,
0.391097754240036,
0.14646051824092865,
-0.25802290439605713,
0.1614096611738205,
0.07203464210033417,
0.550969123840332,
0.1819959133863449,
-1.0985842943191528,
0.22246557474136353,
-0.20916689932346344,
-0.22528783977031708,
0.3980618417263031,
0.544550359249115,
-0.18881279230117798,
-0.44307368993759155,
-0.07368326187133789,
0.16243964433670044,
-0.5168113708496094,
-0.5067327618598938,
-0.1758730411529541,
-0.4453675448894501,
-0.1935611069202423,
1.0438567399978638,
0.1987508237361908,
0.5787457823753357,
0.08849021047353745,
-1.141885757446289,
0.08773115277290344,
-1.2890888452529907,
-0.27191776037216187,
0.1285388320684433,
-0.03506392613053322,
-0.2643781304359436,
-0.266723096370697,
0.25057780742645264,
-0.11931317299604416,
0.3258898854255676,
-0.8809814453125,
-0.22412683069705963,
0.018795540556311607,
0.4881759285926819,
0.14214138686656952,
0.16202111542224884,
-0.6279540657997131,
-0.13563287258148193,
0.1144501343369484,
0.11301979422569275,
-0.14542455971240997,
0.04998030513525009,
0.30186280608177185,
-0.38655349612236023,
0.14398285746574402,
0.3779028356075287,
-0.3834243416786194,
-0.40278956294059753,
-0.43161261081695557,
-0.4860946834087372,
-0.3427307605743408,
0.3709678053855896,
0.26535212993621826,
0.3715302050113678,
0.49549728631973267,
-5.581475257873535,
-0.014934442937374115,
0.24890519678592682,
0.4096527099609375,
0.29385480284690857,
0.355167418718338,
0.854651689529419,
-0.5054904222488403,
-0.7252383232116699,
0.027166813611984253,
-0.6139623522758484,
0.028523938730359077,
0.20721186697483063,
0.3299673795700073,
0.10407529771327972,
0.12257318943738937,
0.27620455622673035,
-0.1241115927696228,
0.694700300693512,
0.3811599910259247,
0.12084882706403732,
0.25476691126823425,
-0.2110907882452011,
0.26035696268081665,
-0.6444356441497803,
-0.2075854241847992,
-0.16798295080661774,
0.2999165952205658,
-0.3654174506664276,
-0.23048008978366852,
0.10214176028966904,
0.12405990809202194,
-0.0044006165117025375,
0.01891328953206539,
0.019576113671064377,
0.025853058323264122,
0.591450035572052,
-0.30470728874206543,
-0.324365496635437,
-0.2336397022008896,
0.0271084476262331,
1.0582962036132812,
0.4534730017185211,
0.13617703318595886,
0.6204153299331665,
-0.27772992849349976,
-0.32934969663619995,
-0.848803699016571,
0.21930937469005585,
0.7208092212677002,
-0.3597136437892914,
0.058825016021728516,
0.5310041904449463,
-0.2949349880218506,
0.33974915742874146,
0.30664002895355225,
-0.14114725589752197,
-0.10943207889795303,
-0.21784229576587677,
-0.006240837275981903,
0.26881617307662964,
-0.10436074435710907,
-0.08069279044866562,
-0.6306676864624023,
-0.220638707280159,
-0.09754452109336853,
-0.8713372945785522,
0.10255637764930725,
0.39400485157966614,
0.32842913269996643,
-0.5322310328483582,
0.29114624857902527,
0.338792085647583,
-0.5308102369308472,
0.3700256049633026,
-0.047137435525655746,
-0.004034877754747868,
-0.4259043335914612,
0.004895531106740236,
0.5425559282302856,
0.07893022894859314,
0.695057213306427,
-0.028618108481168747,
0.5398328304290771,
0.16330598294734955,
-0.4361511468887329,
0.03770294785499573,
0.6500372290611267,
-0.5129968523979187,
0.3751521110534668,
0.08163538575172424,
0.7049953937530518,
0.3094105124473572,
0.148707315325737,
-0.15564775466918945,
0.552665650844574,
-0.12833045423030853,
0.15411141514778137,
0.6220846772193909,
0.07320002466440201,
0.984416663646698,
0.21124599874019623,
-0.3124323785305023,
-0.15432733297348022,
-0.5436602830886841,
-0.06641673296689987,
-0.05048106983304024,
0.41889944672584534,
0.22391457855701447,
0.4064219295978546,
-0.2250785231590271,
0.3046718239784241,
-0.526241660118103,
0.15841083228588104,
0.12714415788650513,
-0.05525337904691696,
-0.7898645401000977,
-0.05247495695948601,
0.3019307851791382,
-0.3779965341091156,
0.07811964303255081,
0.49173688888549805,
-0.8490762114524841,
-0.3227348029613495,
-0.30909907817840576,
-0.5544987320899963,
-0.3108232021331787,
0.1460200697183609,
0.12115291506052017,
0.4180886447429657,
0.14954809844493866,
0.8268059492111206,
-0.11947710812091827,
-0.5081658959388733,
0.4806498885154724,
-0.56805819272995,
-0.31773364543914795,
0.4539746344089508,
-0.356360524892807,
-1.0311607122421265,
0.23062442243099213,
-0.6549073457717896,
-0.20554928481578827,
-0.09360440075397491,
0.5843273401260376,
0.15011751651763916,
0.18921755254268646,
0.29842373728752136,
-0.08749829977750778,
0.7308045029640198,
-0.305159330368042,
-0.33513250946998596,
0.5828331112861633,
-0.31213751435279846,
0.21518611907958984,
-0.22446785867214203,
0.16322802007198334,
0.22432930767536163,
0.6111817359924316,
-0.34637436270713806,
-0.39058998227119446,
0.10821356624364853,
-0.5459423661231995,
0.16541214287281036,
-0.3610800802707672,
-0.017938200384378433,
-0.7787327766418457,
-0.3868444859981537,
-0.6562858819961548,
0.20873978734016418,
-0.9736068844795227,
0.15749984979629517,
0.33394819498062134,
-0.2991441488265991,
-0.022159894928336143,
0.1523406207561493,
0.4375443756580353,
0.19029754400253296,
-0.15874217450618744,
-0.713221549987793,
-0.25500479340553284,
0.022742154076695442,
0.20580238103866577,
0.6633332967758179,
0.48443642258644104,
-0.33616048097610474,
-0.5118376016616821,
0.21360984444618225,
-0.649611234664917,
-0.712949275970459,
0.5884040594100952,
-0.2968352437019348,
0.17483441531658173,
0.008073809556663036,
0.11960490047931671,
0.4472694396972656,
-0.18470951914787292,
0.5133799910545349,
0.012605372816324234,
-0.3914489448070526,
0.49771323800086975,
0.1199689731001854,
-0.5041405558586121,
0.5132156610488892,
0.7221087217330933,
0.0671633929014206,
0.22962218523025513,
-0.08238191902637482,
-0.33724838495254517,
-0.06565341353416443,
0.021459970623254776,
-0.7067412734031677,
-0.3049430549144745,
-0.1403643935918808,
-0.004315480589866638,
0.28982192277908325,
0.36416515707969666,
-0.37092068791389465,
-0.026915740221738815,
-0.18193234503269196,
0.41788241267204285,
-0.13645611703395844,
0.5235375165939331,
-0.029795637354254723,
-0.29907190799713135,
0.288425475358963,
0.3448375463485718,
0.23059332370758057,
0.5079107284545898,
0.44275519251823425,
-0.12003812938928604,
-0.28862687945365906,
-0.1515773981809616,
-0.08522558957338333,
-0.40641525387763977,
-0.5803569555282593,
-0.37199389934539795,
-0.15166325867176056,
-0.22510209679603577,
0.07428672164678574,
0.3953506350517273,
0.6080989837646484,
0.279914915561676,
-0.21347622573375702,
-0.5748308897018433,
-0.14983320236206055,
0.9747880101203918,
-0.8819742202758789,
-0.21774819493293762,
0.3903825879096985,
0.7761263847351074,
-0.3961229622364044,
-0.15538164973258972,
-0.5172697305679321,
0.6088758111000061,
0.6181954145431519,
-0.2672790586948395,
-0.45959827303886414,
0.03650563955307007,
0.7928017377853394,
0.17096774280071259,
-0.19139109551906586,
-0.5139338970184326,
0.05236757546663284,
0.2674618363380432,
0.019716104492545128,
-0.40761780738830566,
-0.13745899498462677,
0.23287442326545715,
-0.2380041480064392,
0.3344877362251282,
0.12738928198814392,
0.708122968673706,
0.1133980080485344,
0.005595222115516663,
0.580122709274292,
-0.26171430945396423,
-0.5738314390182495,
-0.526772677898407,
-0.21778301894664764,
-0.8365065455436707,
-0.2799328863620758,
0.25646108388900757,
-0.2696093022823334,
0.49134233593940735,
-0.6902205944061279,
-0.13056913018226624,
-0.23566478490829468,
-0.5618002414703369,
-0.015550971031188965,
-0.40472739934921265,
-0.08994586765766144,
-0.3538031280040741,
0.6359145641326904,
0.3427492380142212,
0.543897271156311,
-0.49963125586509705,
0.5242274403572083,
-0.3460804224014282,
0.3758942186832428,
-0.7136163115501404,
0.1298268884420395,
0.3343665897846222,
-0.44451308250427246,
-0.1108955591917038,
0.06803998351097107,
0.032789964228868484,
-0.4987449049949646,
0.20317918062210083,
0.3759099841117859,
0.18288375437259674,
0.2337815761566162,
-0.41911551356315613,
0.3093300461769104,
-0.3373967409133911,
-0.12466087192296982,
0.2934246361255646,
-0.05532141402363777,
0.10930412262678146,
0.23320889472961426,
0.12829317152500153,
0.24256108701229095,
0.3154689073562622,
-0.2959948480129242,
-0.6308197379112244,
0.24521136283874512,
0.2125283181667328,
-0.14473602175712585,
-0.20314078032970428,
0.27278411388397217,
0.6799067854881287,
0.39997825026512146,
0.6664435267448425,
0.24924984574317932,
-0.355747252702713,
-0.11686183512210846,
-0.23731261491775513,
-0.27131423354148865,
-0.08494988083839417,
0.6783069968223572,
0.08623360842466354,
0.5399298071861267,
-0.6756877303123474,
-0.17380203306674957,
0.421176552772522,
0.14625419676303864,
0.285736620426178,
-0.2584120035171509,
0.33464083075523376,
0.9191330671310425,
0.396152138710022,
0.09787904471158981,
-0.23932704329490662,
0.1066330149769783,
-0.26508164405822754,
0.29499852657318115,
0.6079023480415344,
-0.15994936227798462,
-0.2519070506095886,
0.2040911316871643,
-0.06759173423051834,
1.2667529582977295,
-0.16116829216480255,
0.3713723123073578,
-0.33969926834106445,
-0.6123495101928711,
-0.08185821026563644,
-0.3313545882701874,
0.1710880994796753,
-0.18983961641788483,
0.34646522998809814,
0.35893774032592773,
-0.3540011942386627,
0.20998060703277588,
0.4857853949069977,
-0.16324234008789062,
0.6419386863708496,
0.32781359553337097,
-0.325808048248291,
0.11993277817964554,
0.046387940645217896,
0.1497502624988556,
-0.8443974852561951,
-0.5511711835861206,
-0.4477424919605255,
0.0073347133584320545,
0.2029586136341095,
-0.05707006901502609,
-0.349977970123291,
0.1252797394990921,
0.9591676592826843,
-0.36174559593200684,
-0.011738155968487263,
-0.5908612608909607,
-0.21832352876663208,
-0.091346874833107,
0.18112245202064514,
1.0606071949005127,
0.5282580852508545,
-0.08448328822851181,
0.004723668098449707,
0.20962700247764587,
0.2690686583518982,
0.48025229573249817,
-0.06573902815580368,
0.4865659773349762,
-0.7426941990852356,
0.38871049880981445,
-0.7925480604171753,
0.20452697575092316,
1.32571280002594,
-0.06890638172626495,
-0.36393898725509644,
1.2583837509155273,
0.6855349540710449,
-0.26052308082580566,
0.26195892691612244,
-0.3295567035675049,
-0.3114500939846039,
-0.0799674540758133,
0.7233138084411621,
0.027214372530579567,
0.16482914984226227,
0.34762197732925415,
-0.5805541276931763,
0.5199405550956726,
0.004497799091041088,
0.1905084103345871,
-0.21751560270786285,
0.5521665215492249,
0.08891505748033524,
-0.26620903611183167,
-0.15383054316043854,
0.5094025135040283,
-0.2276667356491089,
0.15800176560878754,
-0.34637337923049927,
0.24936340749263763,
0.10657502710819244,
-0.1726607084274292,
0.031271375715732574,
0.017121650278568268,
-0.2676163613796234,
0.12041028589010239,
-0.6389560103416443,
-0.3842984437942505,
-0.3355717062950134,
-0.5100110769271851,
-0.17706270515918732,
0.12492906302213669,
0.3489593267440796,
0.04322894662618637,
0.00998838059604168,
0.23638837039470673,
-0.6191085577011108,
-0.5768007040023804,
0.12258370220661163,
-0.3516292870044708,
0.2699293792247772,
0.48461174964904785
] |
241441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20M.%20Jones | Richard M. Jones | Richard M. Jones, born Richard Marigny Jones (sometimes written Richard Mariney Jones), (June 13, 1892 – December 8, 1945) was an American jazz pianist, composer, band leader, and record producer. Numerous songs bear his name as author, including "Trouble in Mind".
He was born in Donaldsonville, Louisiana, United States. Jones grew up in New Orleans, Louisiana. Jones suffered from a stiff leg and walked with a limp; fellow musicians gave him the nickname "Richard My Knee Jones" as a pun on his middle name. In his youth he played alto horn in brass bands. His main instrument, however, became the piano. By 1908, he was playing in Storyville, the red-light district of New Orleans. A few years later, he often led a small band which sometimes included Joe Oliver. Jones also worked in the bands of John Robichaux, Armand J. Piron, and Papa Celestin.
In 1918, Jones moved to Chicago, Illinois. He worked as Chicago manager for publisher and pianist Clarence Williams. Jones began recording in 1923, making gramophone records as a piano soloist, accompanist to vocalists, and with his bands The Jazz Wizards and The Chicago Cosmopolitans. He recorded for Gennett, OKeh, Victor, and Paramount Records in the 1920s. He also worked for OKeh Records as Chicago supervisor of the company's "Race" (African-American) Records for most of the decade. During this period he was the producer of the influential Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings led by cornetist (later trumpeter) Louis Armstrong. In the 1930s, Jones performed a similar management role for Decca.
Richard M. Jones worked for Mercury Records until his death in December 1945 in Chicago, at the age of 53.
References
Other sources
Roy Middleton, Hennie van Veelo, and Christopher Hillman. Richard M. Jones: Forgotten Man of Jazz. London: Cygnet Productions, 1997.
External links
Richard M. Jones recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings
1892 births
1945 deaths
Jazz musicians from New Orleans
African-American pianists
American jazz bandleaders
American male jazz composers
American jazz pianists
American male pianists
Gennett Records artists
Paramount Records artists
Record producers from Louisiana
20th-century American conductors (music)
20th-century American composers
20th-century American pianists
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century jazz composers
20th-century African-American musicians | [
-0.47287964820861816,
1.0836530923843384,
-0.4875968396663666,
-0.4059707820415497,
0.06948250532150269,
0.797431468963623,
0.5339402556419373,
0.10715613514184952,
-0.5146814584732056,
-0.40492793917655945,
-0.24042803049087524,
0.5935894846916199,
-0.13133148849010468,
0.09250455349683762,
-0.09912392497062683,
0.49818742275238037,
-0.2079111635684967,
0.3688708245754242,
-0.12052199244499207,
-0.6397876739501953,
0.11943094432353973,
-0.2890397906303406,
0.08259665966033936,
-0.4749341309070587,
-0.1350642889738083,
0.04847513884305954,
0.3563183844089508,
0.002402383368462324,
-0.1534542292356491,
0.11233780533075333,
-0.04381817579269409,
0.4622145891189575,
0.04169962927699089,
0.045215021818876266,
0.107322558760643,
-0.009561410173773766,
0.34050917625427246,
-0.26319441199302673,
0.12166891247034073,
0.05734722316265106,
0.3354533314704895,
0.3017677664756775,
0.12128594517707825,
-0.08776052296161652,
0.22744052112102509,
-0.0621047243475914,
-2.0749294757843018,
-0.4122721254825592,
-0.3217628300189972,
-0.2555520236492157,
0.3212669789791107,
0.1049802303314209,
0.491860955953598,
0.2548534870147705,
0.093875452876091,
0.37502521276474,
-0.33588072657585144,
0.4200303554534912,
0.6300429105758667,
0.4824357330799103,
0.3462739586830139,
0.01302824541926384,
-0.07763398438692093,
0.2675257623195648,
-0.1263381689786911,
0.214527890086174,
-0.24033300578594208,
0.49963852763175964,
-0.214896097779274,
0.5923410058021545,
-0.3842355012893677,
-0.2982825040817261,
0.7647640109062195,
0.3437615931034088,
-0.2643290162086487,
-0.03543347492814064,
0.25927817821502686,
-0.09567731618881226,
-0.21293972432613373,
-0.2386617809534073,
0.31506526470184326,
0.1365111619234085,
0.6641656756401062,
0.10800483077764511,
0.3664759397506714,
0.26860135793685913,
-0.48827457427978516,
0.016878746449947357,
0.12441526353359222,
0.3800012767314911,
-0.767827570438385,
-0.08611132949590683,
-0.5321768522262573,
0.31018102169036865,
-0.0788903683423996,
0.01791117526590824,
-0.16845843195915222,
0.3418596684932709,
0.44682446122169495,
0.3382772207260132,
-0.029475022107362747,
0.22501298785209656,
0.26372483372688293,
-0.2769007980823517,
-0.5857585668563843,
0.3705137372016907,
-0.5543426275253296,
-0.031415604054927826,
0.12272032350301743,
-2.2715814113616943,
-0.3884820342063904,
0.4979041516780853,
-0.12109887599945068,
-0.4266245663166046,
-0.03408509120345116,
0.517837643623352,
0.5074243545532227,
-0.19421029090881348,
-0.10614816099405289,
0.1519758254289627,
-0.19193613529205322,
0.7261930704116821,
-0.20161394774913788,
0.2527696490287781,
-0.0505141019821167,
0.6708919405937195,
0.5073625445365906,
-0.12225795537233353,
0.32161837816238403,
0.21869631111621857,
0.1438254863023758,
0.7017307877540588,
-0.2663651704788208,
-0.15019862353801727,
-0.3236076831817627,
-0.10386797785758972,
0.7381171584129333,
0.41241255402565,
0.24924683570861816,
0.2589980363845825,
-0.25492602586746216,
-0.24937549233436584,
-2.8055529594421387,
0.35562554001808167,
0.283510684967041,
0.3908938765525818,
-0.32198649644851685,
0.21010421216487885,
0.006837851833552122,
0.6247344017028809,
0.2557641863822937,
-0.18492764234542847,
0.0028990439604967833,
0.28806155920028687,
-0.2589784860610962,
0.4822787642478943,
0.14043869078159332,
-0.27799519896507263,
0.4290146827697754,
0.4908216893672943,
0.06206749007105827,
-0.11009857803583145,
-0.11932849138975143,
0.15821847319602966,
0.0890577957034111,
0.24998827278614044,
0.28371888399124146,
-0.4541221261024475,
0.22780075669288635,
-0.26743564009666443,
-0.8558552265167236,
-0.36414769291877747,
-0.333118200302124,
-0.5884277820587158,
0.6155227422714233,
0.19279828667640686,
0.8592236042022705,
0.5352513194084167,
0.10908094048500061,
-0.34547799825668335,
-0.3213205635547638,
-0.4576813578605652,
0.07051548361778259,
-0.25971806049346924,
0.36590003967285156,
0.13037706911563873,
0.5680405497550964,
-0.0857481136918068,
0.18847917020320892,
0.4494396150112152,
-0.22032296657562256,
0.009593043476343155,
0.5694099068641663,
-0.3029041588306427,
0.3653177320957184,
0.3900504410266876,
0.0714433565735817,
-0.11515060812234879,
0.08854173123836517,
0.8350777626037598,
0.10702934116125107,
-0.3324763774871826,
0.2520960569381714,
-0.3440176248550415,
-0.0709085687994957,
2.6569340229034424,
0.3701270818710327,
-0.1949879676103592,
0.1426933854818344,
0.5550419688224792,
0.28487929701805115,
-0.014728275127708912,
-0.41657984256744385,
-0.20249104499816895,
0.05586492270231247,
-0.27480414509773254,
0.4031853973865509,
-0.2651211619377136,
-0.04557442665100098,
-0.24182488024234772,
0.430212140083313,
0.18973088264465332,
0.07368460297584534,
0.24311242997646332,
-0.19002212584018707,
0.93744295835495,
0.06543546915054321,
0.25564634799957275,
-0.24502846598625183,
-0.8373978734016418,
-0.401405394077301,
0.31257718801498413,
-0.41932690143585205,
-0.46114441752433777,
0.5220857262611389,
0.015837756916880608,
-0.3503298759460449,
-0.44974780082702637,
0.17539861798286438,
0.06423632055521011,
0.6987698078155518,
-0.12573647499084473,
-0.3282838463783264,
0.14763697981834412,
-0.34243375062942505,
0.4662708342075348,
-0.1102096363902092,
-0.02034960314631462,
-0.042816162109375,
-0.04923038184642792,
0.4381774663925171,
-0.08244098722934723,
0.47888731956481934,
-0.34654659032821655,
-0.19997800886631012,
0.06548411399126053,
-0.395725816488266,
-0.18154428899288177,
-0.4422222077846527,
0.05141256004571915,
-0.5106553435325623,
0.08024009317159653,
0.12330561876296997,
0.029059642925858498,
-0.5017401576042175,
-0.19484621286392212,
-0.2603454887866974,
-0.6822648644447327,
-0.12521369755268097,
-0.04616180807352066,
0.017338216304779053,
-0.4612301290035248,
-0.0408572256565094,
-3.3524324893951416,
0.15400446951389313,
0.4138539135456085,
-0.19789429008960724,
0.4684392809867859,
-0.30977505445480347,
-0.1057242751121521,
0.45170119404792786,
0.7963192462921143,
0.18280638754367828,
0.08794968575239182,
-0.250108003616333,
0.1655697524547577,
0.2515185475349426,
-0.40645158290863037,
-0.15054723620414734,
-0.16102810204029083,
-0.15295621752738953,
0.10589053481817245,
-0.12337791919708252,
0.13992612063884735,
0.24314045906066895,
0.23417362570762634,
-0.26714614033699036,
-0.49584147334098816,
-0.17759032547473907,
-0.07183483242988586,
-0.04773435369133949,
0.44882720708847046,
-0.3523652255535126,
0.21266402304172516,
0.6738248467445374,
-0.1201840192079544,
-0.28016600012779236,
0.267161101102829,
-3.8861467838287354,
-0.18112705647945404,
-0.07736305147409439,
-0.24213361740112305,
0.39884284138679504,
-0.21509839594364166,
0.42139148712158203,
-0.3228607773780823,
-0.18776361644268036,
0.06461109966039658,
0.42528992891311646,
-0.07738032937049866,
0.02376081608235836,
0.3874572515487671,
0.5238134860992432,
0.5066652894020081,
0.5284778475761414,
-0.07188170403242111,
0.41918960213661194,
-0.18150626122951508,
0.3432650864124298,
-0.3375554382801056,
-0.6650766730308533,
-0.39794009923934937,
0.30107736587524414,
0.41768065094947815,
0.06952118873596191,
-0.14742885529994965,
-0.7303456664085388,
-0.047020114958286285,
-0.15614494681358337,
0.10349410772323608,
-0.10965953767299652,
-0.3234696388244629,
-0.6231194138526917,
-0.2573821246623993,
0.23711258172988892,
0.4698377847671509,
0.568812370300293,
-0.1842934489250183,
-0.29800793528556824,
0.674493670463562,
-0.3112752139568329,
0.29115769267082214,
0.027827143669128418,
0.1311676800251007,
-0.8392072319984436,
-0.11088728904724121,
-0.17482684552669525,
0.372243732213974,
-0.09454812854528427,
-0.08504746854305267,
1.2605533599853516,
0.39321959018707275,
0.18775269389152527,
-0.2427903115749359,
0.5234947204589844,
-0.4695662260055542,
-0.30883243680000305,
0.06976622343063354,
0.7268601655960083,
-0.41321128606796265,
0.4584950804710388,
-0.12375538051128387,
-0.1287813037633896,
-0.5343825817108154,
0.11262064427137375,
-0.2633410096168518,
0.10578211396932602,
0.1164855882525444,
-0.3769475817680359,
0.4597063362598419,
0.16980351507663727,
-0.7720864415168762,
0.027856390923261642,
-0.010612396523356438,
-0.44084474444389343,
0.17874138057231903,
0.07686702907085419,
-0.5166134834289551,
0.21774786710739136,
-0.1869896501302719,
-0.37865787744522095,
0.43050867319107056,
0.24650071561336517,
0.11342967301607132,
-0.38414260745048523,
0.146400585770607,
-0.23005247116088867,
-0.3187738358974457,
-0.34857258200645447,
-0.07551105320453644,
0.17955200374126434,
0.6025276184082031,
0.20222225785255432,
0.043715376406908035,
0.735553503036499,
-0.41904914379119873,
0.44051215052604675,
-0.6576096415519714,
-0.29501432180404663,
-0.6447461843490601,
-0.5436668395996094,
-0.3528733551502228,
-0.47332119941711426,
-0.11739429086446762,
-0.5269238352775574,
0.15616503357887268,
-0.05989116430282593,
0.11033932119607925,
-0.06512974947690964,
-0.15737439692020416,
-0.3311050534248352,
-0.12105968594551086,
0.9276585578918457,
-0.2608051598072052,
-0.07879434525966644,
0.17298345267772675,
0.44852006435394287,
0.3776865005493164,
0.34849533438682556,
0.9140629172325134,
0.19535334408283234,
-0.07766561955213547,
0.07729380577802658,
-0.19879460334777832,
0.48755860328674316,
-0.03886350989341736,
-0.510332465171814,
-0.128816619515419,
-0.20422521233558655,
0.29928162693977356,
0.0673351064324379,
-0.6610816121101379,
-0.32640454173088074,
-0.4129560589790344,
-0.38909417390823364,
0.3141251504421234,
0.19162733852863312,
0.20652665197849274,
0.06517428904771805,
-0.142161563038826,
-0.3013461232185364,
0.08731631189584732,
-0.0548672154545784,
0.497378945350647,
0.3744077682495117,
0.10747164487838745,
-0.30149000883102417,
0.2703332304954529,
-0.36243897676467896,
-0.7671939134597778,
0.6253628730773926,
-0.21053862571716309,
-0.20224450528621674,
-0.23392285406589508,
-0.31637367606163025,
0.045809388160705566,
-0.18753457069396973,
0.12175770103931427,
0.06943320482969284,
0.011247954331338406,
-0.9187076687812805,
0.32813242077827454,
0.7925156354904175,
-0.33334046602249146,
0.02756231650710106,
0.12688487768173218,
-0.4462107717990875,
0.6246160864830017,
-0.0029423939995467663,
-0.001213239273056388,
-0.1509627103805542,
-0.06211918219923973,
0.48697254061698914,
-0.30660852789878845,
0.14556457102298737,
0.3650497496128082,
0.3278364837169647,
0.04108501598238945,
0.13635443150997162,
0.21117660403251648,
-0.2030426561832428,
0.5646940469741821,
0.2157357782125473,
-0.46332961320877075,
-0.6046369075775146,
-0.36580342054367065,
-0.14800052344799042,
0.07739965617656708,
0.0643097311258316,
-0.021478885784745216,
0.7828935980796814,
0.25516435503959656,
-0.5154917240142822,
-0.13849444687366486,
0.39879676699638367,
-0.4340455234050751,
-0.10499286651611328,
-0.4284937083721161,
0.1569107174873352,
0.3724816143512726,
-0.16254672408103943,
0.5777374505996704,
-0.09340930730104446,
-0.7902829647064209,
-0.14282917976379395,
-0.1704164296388626,
-0.40422892570495605,
0.3468891382217407,
0.12518525123596191,
-0.38042089343070984,
-0.06286225467920303,
0.6748618483543396,
-0.0214603953063488,
-0.2940169870853424,
0.6009226441383362,
0.33547574281692505,
-0.1652035415172577,
-0.5067444443702698,
0.4367791712284088,
-0.7723215818405151,
-0.21209955215454102,
0.007773984223604202,
-0.41646915674209595,
0.7477179169654846,
-0.16181428730487823,
-0.7786352038383484,
0.8873430490493774,
-0.0850004032254219,
-0.5715662240982056,
0.03438586741685867,
0.22688576579093933,
0.23545747995376587,
-0.0120352478697896,
-0.004097850993275642,
-0.18815794587135315,
0.32296621799468994,
-0.2549077570438385,
0.08058951795101166,
0.24349111318588257,
0.4749531149864197,
0.2528049349784851,
-0.3067914843559265,
-0.3093566596508026,
-0.40134841203689575,
-0.0712694302201271,
-0.1840898096561432,
-0.1600092202425003,
0.19810710847377777,
0.23277829587459564,
-0.17590360343456268,
-0.24356353282928467,
-0.743419349193573,
0.9025494456291199,
-0.061656754463911057,
-0.19974757730960846,
0.03694545105099678,
0.1881646364927292,
-0.20558565855026245,
-0.19111554324626923,
-0.013028653338551521,
-0.06966042518615723,
0.1338115781545639,
0.08086295425891876,
0.4942849576473236,
0.4033796489238739,
-0.038421131670475006,
0.6247512102127075,
-0.3057146668434143,
-0.8388502597808838,
-0.24188850820064545,
-0.38612639904022217,
0.38946306705474854,
0.18437300622463226,
-0.255159467458725,
0.21882319450378418,
-0.5839541554450989,
0.26740068197250366,
-0.06512071937322617,
1.2968939542770386,
0.3553426265716553,
0.025584617629647255,
-0.25013503432273865,
0.03302820771932602,
-0.16867797076702118,
-0.35678011178970337,
-0.2615387737751007,
-0.36753833293914795,
-0.13414044678211212,
-0.0667017325758934,
-0.14686588943004608,
0.004588180221617222,
0.261648029088974,
-0.11097144335508347,
0.22171032428741455,
-0.31114494800567627,
-0.31970852613449097,
-0.4768817722797394,
0.16019442677497864,
-0.5743484497070312,
0.6544471383094788,
0.14462921023368835,
0.1824316382408142,
0.7812642455101013,
-0.19398072361946106,
-0.17276203632354736,
-0.43679094314575195,
-0.0558677539229393,
-0.30536508560180664,
0.09790049493312836,
0.000729041697923094,
0.21657367050647736,
0.3983832001686096,
-0.36714687943458557,
-0.08278291672468185,
0.41957584023475647,
-0.8114732503890991,
-0.16511660814285278,
0.1418648660182953,
-0.30434006452560425,
-0.23459185659885406,
0.4889628291130066,
0.009066671133041382,
-0.028687335550785065,
0.4378102421760559,
-0.3650612533092499,
-0.35779333114624023,
0.18821470439434052,
-0.40737515687942505,
0.37261801958084106,
0.043287042528390884,
-0.7852185964584351,
0.3381515145301819,
-0.0004583489499054849,
0.1684959977865219,
0.04678685963153839,
-0.6835818886756897,
0.0036562944296747446,
0.7182624340057373,
-0.05606833100318909,
0.5085632801055908,
0.04719771072268486,
0.0009802159620448947,
0.012914679013192654,
0.1146889328956604,
-0.3848921060562134,
0.16441380977630615,
-0.049042679369449615,
-0.3276310861110687,
0.0785309448838234,
0.2852190136909485,
0.2290063202381134,
-0.10517840087413788,
-0.48658663034439087,
-0.09511600434780121,
0.184203639626503,
-0.32205989956855774,
-0.08545154333114624,
-2.7104451656341553,
0.12083222717046738,
-0.1488550901412964,
0.7449256777763367,
0.23141922056674957,
0.3222234845161438,
-0.21240603923797607,
-0.1664201319217682,
0.17560143768787384,
0.08954665064811707,
0.5532687902450562,
0.24172239005565643,
-0.014879277907311916,
-0.018888698890805244,
0.2854202091693878,
0.5756630897521973,
0.03464796766638756,
0.19365932047367096,
-0.3624670207500458,
0.05518760159611702,
-0.1962708979845047,
-0.21135865151882172,
-0.0885559618473053,
-0.32979658246040344,
-0.066856250166893,
0.6969059109687805,
0.11453060060739517,
-0.1484992504119873,
0.12268918007612228,
0.047631699591875076,
-0.18785862624645233,
0.4075072705745697,
-0.1307903379201889,
0.031531255692243576,
0.3788146674633026,
-0.858406662940979,
0.41350939869880676,
-0.5717648267745972,
0.5206106901168823,
0.12892304360866547,
0.0819552093744278,
0.25701773166656494,
0.41993728280067444,
-0.21172471344470978,
-0.07102398574352264,
-0.27788373827934265,
-0.07603473216295242,
-0.6499115228652954,
0.32428985834121704,
-0.6793730854988098,
0.09759562462568283,
0.07306838035583496,
0.2918533384799957,
-0.2552936375141144,
0.4235680401325226,
-0.20669400691986084,
-0.17888382077217102,
0.22813603281974792,
-0.5029703378677368,
0.01960529386997223,
-0.042962294071912766,
-0.10484366118907928,
0.24954313039779663,
0.10677420347929001,
0.09308331459760666,
-0.06412694603204727,
-0.42841416597366333,
-0.000724307494238019,
0.09207780659198761,
0.6496890187263489,
0.03481974080204964,
0.35731241106987,
0.19953572750091553,
-0.2763766050338745,
-0.25938305258750916,
0.2856570780277252,
0.021958375349640846,
0.6836482882499695,
0.6144617199897766,
0.17756131291389465,
0.060648929327726364,
-0.5090813636779785,
-0.2354249209165573,
0.13323025405406952,
0.31437948346138,
-6.561850547790527,
-0.8394520282745361,
0.235100656747818,
-0.645370364189148,
0.7106420397758484,
0.4639478027820587,
0.2510608434677124,
0.1233351081609726,
-0.320642352104187,
0.06845617294311523,
0.36157283186912537,
0.039276376366615295,
0.05291954055428505,
-0.3589990735054016,
0.33276960253715515,
0.2877570688724518
] |
241458 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Taylor%20%28Liberian%20politician%29 | Charles Taylor (Liberian politician) | Charles McArthur Ghankay Taylor (born 28 January 1948) is a former Liberian politician and convicted war criminal who served as the 22nd President of Liberia from 2 August 1997 until his resignation on 11 August 2003, as a result of the Second Liberian Civil War and growing international pressure.
Born in Arthington, Montserrado County, Liberia, Taylor earned a degree at Bentley College in the United States before returning to Liberia to work in the government of Samuel Doe. After being removed for embezzlement and imprisoned in Massachusetts by president Doe, Taylor would escape prison in 1989. He eventually arrived in Libya, where he was trained as a guerrilla fighter. He returned to Liberia in 1989 as the head of a Libyan-backed rebel group, the National Patriotic Front of Liberia, to overthrow the Doe government, initiating the First Liberian Civil War (1989–1996). Following Doe's execution, Taylor gained control of a large portion of the country and became one of the most prominent warlords in Africa. Following a peace deal that ended the war, Taylor was elected president in the 1997 general election.
During his term of office, Taylor was accused of war crimes and crimes against humanity as a result of his involvement in the Sierra Leone Civil War (1991–2002). Domestically, opposition to his government grew, culminating in the outbreak of the Second Liberian Civil War (1999–2003). By 2003, Taylor had lost control of much of the countryside and was formally indicted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone. That year, he resigned, as a result of growing international pressure; he went into exile in Nigeria. In 2006, the newly elected President of Liberia, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, formally requested his extradition. He was detained by UN authorities in Sierra Leone and then at the Penitentiary Institution Haaglanden in The Hague, awaiting trial by the Special Court. He was found guilty in April 2012 of all eleven charges levied by the Special Court, including terror, murder and rape. In May 2012, Taylor was sentenced to 50 years in prison. Reading the sentencing statement, Presiding Judge Richard Lussick said: "The accused has been found responsible for aiding and abetting as well as planning some of the most heinous and brutal crimes in recorded human history."
Early life
Taylor was born in Arthington, a town near the capital of Monrovia, Liberia, on 28 January 1948, to Nelson and Yassa Zoe (Louise) Taylor. He attended The Newman School in his early years. He took the name "Ghankay" later on, possibly to please and gain favor with indigenous Liberians. His mother was a member of the Gola ethnic group, part of the 95% of the people who are indigenous to Liberia. According to most reports, his father was an Americo-Liberian who worked as a teacher, sharecropper, lawyer and judge.
In 1977, Taylor earned a degree at Bentley College in Waltham, Massachusetts, United States.
Government, imprisonment and escape
Taylor supported the 12 April 1980 coup led by Samuel Doe, which resulted in the murder of President William R. Tolbert Jr. and seizure of power by Doe. Taylor was appointed to the position of Director General of the General Services Agency (GSA), a position that left him in charge of purchasing for the Liberian government. He was sacked in May 1983 for embezzling an estimated $1,000,000 and sending the funds to another bank account.
Taylor fled to the United States but was arrested on 21 May 1984 by two US Deputy Marshals in Somerville, Massachusetts, on a warrant for extradition to face charges of embezzling $1 million of government funds while the GSA boss. Taylor fought extradition with the help of a legal team led by former US Attorney General Ramsey Clark. His lawyers' primary arguments before US District Magistrate Robert J. DeGiacomo stated that his alleged acts of lawbreaking in Liberia were political rather than criminal in nature and that the extradition treaty between the two republics had lapsed. Assistant United States Attorney Richard G. Stearns argued that Liberia wished to charge Taylor with theft in office, rather than with political crimes. Stearns' arguments were reinforced by Liberian Justice Minister Jenkins Scott, who flew to the United States to testify at the proceedings. Taylor was detained in the Plymouth County Correctional Facility.
On 15 September 1985, Taylor and four other inmates escaped from the jail. Two days later, The Boston Globe reported that they sawed through a bar covering a window in a dormitory room, after which they lowered themselves on knotted sheets and escaped into nearby woods by climbing a fence. Shortly thereafter, Taylor and two other escapees were met at nearby Jordan Hospital by Taylor's wife, Enid, and Taylor's sister-in-law, Lucia Holmes Toweh. They drove a getaway car to Staten Island in New York, where Taylor disappeared. All four of Taylor's fellow escapees, as well as Enid and Toweh, were later apprehended.
In July 2009, Taylor claimed at his trial that US CIA agents had helped him escape from the maximum security prison in Boston in 1985. This was during his trial by the UN-backed Special Court for Sierra Leone in The Hague. The US Defense Intelligence Agency confirmed that Taylor first started working with US intelligence in the 1980s but refused to give details of his role or US actions, citing national security.
Civil war
Taylor escaped the United States without issue. He then resurfaced in Libya where he took part in militia training under Muammar Gaddafi, becoming Gaddafi's protégé. He later left Libya and travelled to the Ivory Coast, where he founded the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL).
In December 1989, Taylor launched a Gaddafi-funded armed uprising from the Ivory Coast into Liberia to overthrow the Doe regime, leading to the First Liberian Civil War. By 1990, his forces controlled most of the country. That same year, Prince Johnson, a senior commander of Taylor's NPFL, broke away and formed the Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia (INPFL).
In September 1990, Johnson captured Monrovia, depriving Taylor of outright victory. Johnson and his forces captured and tortured Doe to death, instigating a violent political fragmentation of the country. The civil war turned into an ethnic conflict, with seven factions among indigenous peoples and the Americo-Liberians fighting for control of Liberia's resources (especially iron ore, diamonds, timber, and rubber).
Amos Sawyer alleges that Taylor's aims extended beyond Liberia—that he wanted to re-establish the country as a regional power player. Taylor's ambitions, which were held from the civil war period into his presidency, not only resulted in the domestic Liberian conflict, they also triggered regional instability which manifested itself in the forms of the Sierra Leone Civil War and unrest in the forest region of Guinea.
According to a 2 June 1999 article in The Virginian-Pilot, Taylor had extensive business dealings with the American televangelist Pat Robertson during the civil war. He gave Robertson the rights to mine diamonds in Liberia. According to two Operation Blessing pilots who reported this incident to the Commonwealth of Virginia for an investigation which it was conducting in 1994, Robertson used his Operation Blessing aeroplanes to haul diamond-mining equipment to his new mines in Liberia, while he was telling his 700 Club viewers that the planes were sending relief supplies to the victims of the genocide in Rwanda. The subsequent investigation by the Commonwealth of Virginia concluded that Robertson diverted his ministry's donations to the Liberian diamond-mining operation. Attorney General of Virginia Mark Earley blocked any prosecution of Robertson, as the relief supplies were also sent.
Presidency
After the official end of the civil war in 1996, Taylor ran for president in the 1997 general election. He campaigned on the notorious slogan "He killed my ma, he killed my pa, but I will vote for him."
The elections were overseen by the United Nations' peacekeeping mission, United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia, along with a contingent from the Economic Community of West African States. Taylor won the election in a landslide, garnering 75 percent of the vote. Although the election was generally regarded as free and fair by international observers, Taylor had a significant advantage from the outset. During the civil war, he had seized virtually all of the country's radio stations and used his control over the Liberian airwaves to spread propaganda and bolster his image. Additionally, there was widespread fear in the country that Taylor would resume the war if he lost.
During his time in office, Taylor cut the size of the Armed Forces of Liberia, dismissing 2,400–2,600 former personnel, many of whom were ethnic Krahn brought in by former President Doe to give advantage to his people. In 1998, Taylor attempted to murder one of his political opponents, the former warlord Roosevelt Johnson, causing clashes in Monrovia, during and after which hundreds of Krahn were massacred and hundreds more fled Liberia. This event was one of the factors that led to the outbreak of the Second Liberian Civil War.
In 2003, members of the Krahn tribe founded a rebel group, the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL), opposing Taylor. The group disbanded as part of the peace agreement at the end of the second civil war. In its place, Taylor installed the Anti-Terrorist Unit, the Special Operations Division of the Liberian National Police (LNP), which he used as his own private army.
During his presidency, Taylor was alleged to have been involved directly in the Sierra Leone Civil War. He was accused of aiding the rebel Revolutionary United Front (RUF) through weapon sales in exchange for blood diamonds. Due to a UN embargo against arms sales to Liberia at the time, these weapons were largely purchased on the black market through arms smugglers such as Viktor Bout. Taylor was charged with aiding and abetting RUF atrocities against civilians, which left many thousands dead or mutilated, with unknown numbers of people abducted and tortured. He was also accused of assisting the RUF in the recruitment of child soldiers. In addition to aiding the RUF in these acts, Taylor reportedly personally directed RUF operations in Sierra Leone.
Taylor obtained spiritual and other advice from the evangelist Kilari Anand Paul. As president, he was known for his flamboyant style. Upon being charged by the UN of being a gunrunner and diamond smuggler during his presidency, Taylor appeared in all-white robes and begged God for forgiveness, while denying the charges. He was reported to have said that "Jesus Christ was accused of being a murderer in his time."
During the last four years of Taylor's presidency, he is believed to have stolen and diverted nearly $100 million, amounting to roughly half of total government revenue.
Rebellion and indictment
In 1999, a rebellion against Taylor began in northern Liberia, led by a group calling itself Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD). This group was frequently accused of atrocities, and is thought to have been backed by the government of neighboring Guinea. This uprising signaled the beginning of the Second Liberian Civil War.
By early 2003, LURD had gained control of northern Liberia. That year, a second Ivorian-backed rebel group, Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL), emerged in southern Liberia and achieved rapid successes. By the summer, Taylor's government controlled only about a third of Liberia: Monrovia and the central part of the country. More than one-third of the total population lived in this area.
On 7 March 2003, the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) issued a sealed indictment for Taylor. Earlier that year, Liberian forces had killed Sam Bockarie, a leading member of the RUF in Sierra Leone, in a shootout under Taylor's orders. Some have claimed that Taylor ordered Bockarie killed in order to prevent the leader from testifying against him at the SCSL.
In June 2003, Alan White, the Prosecutor to the Special Court unsealed the indictment and announced publicly that Taylor was charged with war crimes. The indictment asserted that Taylor created and backed the RUF rebels in Sierra Leone, who were accused of a range of atrocities, including the use of child soldiers. The Prosecutor also said that Taylor's administration had harbored members of Al-Qaeda sought in connection with the 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania.
The indictment was unsealed during Taylor's official visit to Ghana, where he was participating in peace talks with MODEL and LURD officials. As result, the possibility arose that Taylor might be arrested by Ghanaian authorities; in response, Taylor's chief bodyguard and military commander Benjamin Yeaten threatened to execute Ghanaians who lived in Liberia, deterring Ghana's government from taking action. With the backing of South African president Thabo Mbeki and against the urging of Sierra Leone president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, Ghana consequently declined to detain Taylor, who returned to Monrovia.
Resignation
During Taylor's absence for the peace talks in Ghana, the U.S. government was alleged to have urged Vice President Moses Blah to seize power. Upon his return, Taylor briefly dismissed Blah from his post, only to reinstate him a few days later.
In July 2003, LURD initiated a siege of Monrovia, and several bloody battles were fought as Taylor's forces halted rebel attempts to capture the city. The pressure on Taylor increased as U.S. President George W. Bush twice that month stated that Taylor "must leave Liberia". On 9 July, Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo offered Taylor exile in his country on the condition that Taylor stay out of Liberian politics.
Taylor insisted that he would resign only if U.S. peacekeeping troops were deployed to Liberia. Bush publicly called upon Taylor to resign and leave the country in order for any American involvement to be considered. Meanwhile, several African states, in particular the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) under the leadership of Nigeria, sent troops under the banner of ECOMIL to Liberia.
Logistical support was provided by a California company called PAE Government Services Inc., which was given a $10 million contract by the U.S. State Department. On 6 August, a 32-member U.S. military assessment team were deployed as a liaison with the ECOWAS troops, landing from the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit, commanded by Colonel A.P. Frick, from three U.S. Navy amphibious ships waiting off the Liberian coast.
On 10 August, Taylor appeared on national television to announce that he would resign the following day and hand power to Vice President Blah. He harshly criticized the United States in his farewell address, saying that the Bush administration's insistence that he leave the country would hurt Liberia. On 11 August, Taylor resigned, with Blah serving as president until a transitional government was established on 14 October. Ghanaian President John Kufuor, South African President Thabo Mbeki, and Mozambican President Joaquim Chissano, all representing African regional councils, were present at his announcement. The U.S. brought Joint Task Force Liberia's Amphibious Ready Group of three warships with 2,300 Marines into view of the coast. Taylor flew to Nigeria, where the Nigerian government provided houses for him and his entourage in Calabar.
Exile
In November 2003, the United States Congress passed a bill that included a reward offer of two million dollars for Taylor's capture. While the peace agreement had guaranteed Taylor safe exile in Nigeria, it also required that he refrain from influencing Liberian politics. His critics said he disregarded this prohibition. On 4 December, Interpol issued a red notice regarding Taylor, suggesting that countries had a duty to arrest him. Taylor was placed on Interpol's Most Wanted list, declaring him wanted for crimes against humanity and breaches of the 1949 Geneva Convention, and noting that he should be considered dangerous. Nigeria stated it would not submit to Interpol's demands, agreeing to deliver Taylor to Liberia only in the event that the President of Liberia requested his return.
On 17 March 2006, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, the newly elected President of Liberia, submitted an official request to Nigeria for Taylor's extradition. This request was granted on 25 March, whereby Nigeria agreed to release Taylor to stand trial in the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL). Nigeria agreed only to release Taylor and not to extradite him, as no extradition treaty existed between the two countries.
Disappearance and arrest
Three days after Nigeria announced its intent to transfer Taylor to Liberia, the leader disappeared from the seaside villa where he had been living in exile. A week before that, Nigerian authorities had taken the unusual step of allowing local press to accompany census takers into Taylor's Calabar compound.
Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo was scheduled to meet with President Bush less than 48 hours after Taylor was reported missing. Speculation ensued that Bush would refuse to meet with Obasanjo if Taylor were not apprehended. Less than 12 hours prior to the scheduled meeting between the two heads of state, Taylor was reported apprehended en route to Liberia.
On 29 March, Taylor tried to cross the border into Cameroon through the border town of Gamboru in northeastern Nigeria. His Range Rover with Nigerian diplomatic plates was stopped by border guards, and Taylor's identity was eventually established. US State Department staff later reported that significant amounts of cash and heroin were found in the vehicle.
Upon his arrival at Roberts International Airport in Harbel, Liberia, Taylor was arrested and handcuffed by LNP officers, who immediately transferred responsibility for the custody of Taylor to the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL). Irish UNMIL soldiers escorted Taylor aboard a UN helicopter to Freetown, Sierra Leone, where he was delivered to the SCSL.
Trial
The SCSL prosecutor originally indicted Taylor on 3 March 2003 on a 17-counts for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during the conflict in Sierra Leone. On 16 March 2006, a SCSL judge gave leave to amend the indictment against Taylor. Under the amended indictment, Taylor was charged with 11 counts. At Taylor's initial appearance before the court on 3 April 2006, he entered a plea of not guilty.
In early June 2006, the decision on whether to hold Taylor's trial in Freetown or in Leidschendam had not yet been made by the new SCSL president, George Gelaga King. King's predecessor had pushed for the trial to be held abroad because of fear that a local trial would be politically destabilizing in an area where Taylor still had influence. The Appeals Chamber of the Special Court dismissed a motion by Taylor's defence team, who argued that their client could not get a fair trial there and also wanted the Special Court to withdraw the request to move the trial to Leidschendam.
On 15 June 2006, the British government agreed to jail Taylor in the United Kingdom in the event that he was convicted by the SCSL. This fulfilled a condition laid down by the Dutch government, which had stated it was willing to host the trial but would not jail him if convicted. British Foreign Minister Margaret Beckett stated that new legislation would be required to accommodate this arrangement. This legislation came in the form of the International Tribunals (Sierra Leone) Act 2007. While awaiting his extradition to the Netherlands, Taylor was held in a UN jail in Freetown.
On 16 June 2006, the United Nations Security Council agreed unanimously to allow Taylor to be sent to Leidschendam for trial; on 20 June 2006, Taylor was extradited and flown to Rotterdam Airport in the Netherlands. He was taken into custody and held in the detention centre of the International Criminal Court, located in the Scheveningen section of The Hague. The Association for the Legal Defence of Charles G. Taylor was established in June 2006 to assist in his legal defence.
When Taylor's trial opened on 4 June 2007, Taylor boycotted the proceeding and was not present. Through a letter that was read by his attorney to the court, he justified his absence by alleging that at that moment he was not ensured a fair and impartial trial.
On 20 August 2007, Taylor's defence, now led by Courtenay Griffiths, obtained a postponement of the trial until 7 January 2008. During the trial, the chief prosecutor alleged that a key insider witness who testified against Taylor went into hiding after being threatened for giving evidence against Taylor. Furthermore, Joseph "Zigzag" Marzah, a former military commander, testified that Charles Taylor celebrated his new-found status during the civil war by ordering human sacrifice, including the killings of Taylor's opponents and allies that were perceived to have betrayed Taylor, and by having a pregnant woman buried alive in sand. Marzah also accused Taylor of forcing cannibalism on his soldiers in order to terrorize their enemies.
In January 2009, the prosecution finished presenting its evidence against Taylor and closed its case on 27 February 2009. On 4 May 2009, a defence motion for a judgment on acquittal was dismissed, and arguments for Taylor's defence began in July 2009. Taylor testified in his own defence from July through November 2009. The defence rested its case on 12 November 2010, with closing arguments set for early February 2011.
On 8 February 2011, the trial court ruled in a 2–1 decision that it would not accept Taylor's trial summary, as the summary had not been submitted by the 14 January deadline. In response, Taylor and his counsel boycotted the trial and refused an order by the court to begin closing arguments. This boycott came soon after the 2010 leak of American diplomatic cables by WikiLeaks, in which the United States discussed the possibility of extraditing Taylor for prosecution in the United States in the event of his acquittal by the SCSL. Taylor's counsel cited the leaked cable and the court's decision as evidence of an international conspiracy against Taylor.
On 3 March, the appeals court of the SCSL overturned the trial court's decision, ruling that as the trial court had not established that Taylor had been counseled by the court and personally indicated his intent to waive his right to a trial summary, Taylor's due process rights would be violated by preventing him from submitting a trial summary. The appeals court ordered the trial court to accept the summary and set a date for the beginning of closing arguments. On 11 March, the closing arguments ended and it was announced that the court would begin the process to reach a verdict.
Verdict
The verdict was announced in Leidschendam on 26 April 2012. The SCSL unanimously ruled that he was guilty of all 11 counts of "aiding and abetting" war crimes and crimes against humanity, making him the first (former) head of state to be convicted by an international tribunal since Karl Dönitz at the Nuremberg Trials. Taylor was charged with:
At his trial, Taylor claimed that he was a victim, denied the charges and compared his actions of torture and crimes against humanity to the actions of George W. Bush in the War on Terror. Sentencing hearings commenced on 3 May and were announced on 30 May. Taylor was sentenced to 50 years in prison. He was about 64 years of age at the time of sentencing, making his sentence effectively a de facto life sentence. His sentence was upheld on appeal.
Sierra Leone's government described the sentence as "a step forward as justice has been done, though the magnitude of the sentence is not commensurate with the atrocities committed".
Taylor appealed against the verdict, but on 26 September 2013 Appeals Chamber of the Special Court confirmed his guilt and the penalty of 50 years in prison.
Imprisonment
On 15 October 2013 Taylor was transferred to British custody, and began serving his sentence at HM Prison Frankland in County Durham, England. Taylor's attorneys filed a motion to have him transferred to a prison in Rwanda, but in March 2015 the motion was denied and he was ordered to continue serving his sentence in the United Kingdom. In January 2017 it was found that he had been making phone calls from the prison to provide guidance to the National Patriotic Party and threaten some of his enemies.
In October 2021, Charles Taylor, filed a complaint against Liberia for "non-payment of his retirement". This complaint was lodged with the Court of Justice of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).
Family
In 1997 Taylor married Jewel Taylor, with whom he has one son. She filed for divorce in 2005, citing her husband's exile in Nigeria and the difficulty of visiting him due to a UN travel ban on her. The divorce was granted in 2006. Jewel Taylor currently serves as the Vice President of Liberia.
Phillip Taylor, Taylor's son with Jewel, remained in Liberia following his father's extradition to the SCSL. He was arrested by Liberian police officials on 5 March 2011 and charged with attempted murder in connection with an assault on the son of an immigration officer who had assisted in Charles Taylor's extradition; the mother of the victim claimed that Phillip Taylor had sworn vengeance against the immigration officer. He was arrested at Buchanan in Grand Bassa County, allegedly while attempting to cross the border into the Ivory Coast.
Taylor has three children with his second wife Victoria Addison Taylor; the youngest, Charlize, was born in March 2010. In 2014, Victoria was denied a visa to visit her husband while he serves his sentence in the United Kingdom.
Taylor also has another son, a U.S. citizen named Charles McArther Emmanuel, born to his college girlfriend. Emmanuel was arrested in 2006 after entering the United States and was charged with three counts, including participation in torture while serving in the Anti-Terrorist Unit in Liberia during his father's presidency. The law that prosecuted Taylor was put in place in 1994, before "extraordinary rendition" in an attempt to prevent U.S. citizens from committing acts of torture overseas. To date, this is the only prosecuted case. In October 2008, Emmanuel was convicted on all three counts and sentenced to 97 years in prison.
Charles Taylor is also said to have been the husband or partner to Agnes Reeves Taylor Agnes and Charles met when Taylor was head of the General Services Agency in the mid 1980s during the regime of former President Samuel Kanyon Doe. According to Trial international, Charles Taylor and Agnes Reeves Taylor married in Ghana in 1986. However, according to allafrica.com, the two were never legally married. She is reported to have left Liberia in 1992 before the end of the civil war and settled in the United Kingdom where she was a lecturer at Coventry University. On 2 June 2017, she was arrested in London by the Metropolitan Police and charged with torture on the grounds of her suspected involvement with the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NFPL) rebel group, which was led by her ex-husband, during the First Liberian Civil War, from 1989 to 1996. On 6 December 2019 the Central Criminal Court (The Old Bailey) in London decided to dismiss the charges against Agnes Reeves Taylor. The Court's decision came after the UK Supreme Court confirmed, in a historic judgment on 13 November 2019, that members of non-State armed groups may be prosecuted for crimes of torture under section 134(1) of the UK Criminal Justice Act 1988, thus legally paving the way for the case against Agnes Reeves Taylor to proceed to trial. However, after rendering its judgment, the UK Supreme Court sent the case back to the Central Criminal Court to consider further evidence from the prosecution's expert and apply the legal standard confirmed by the Supreme Court to the facts of the case. In order for a member of a non-State armed group to be prosecuted for torture, the group must have been exercising “governmental functions”. The Central Criminal Court ruled that the evidence presented by the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) failed to prove that the NPFL had the requisite authority over the relevant territory at the time the crimes in question were committed. Therefore, the Court dismissed the case.
In popular culture
Taylor is a prominent character in the 2004 novel The Darling by Russell Banks.
The character Andre Baptiste Sr. from the 2005 film Lord of War is partially based on Taylor.
Taylor appears in the 2008 documentary Pray the Devil Back to Hell.
Idris Elba's Commandant character from the 2015 film Beasts of No Nation is partially based on Taylor.
See also
Exotic Tropic Timber Enterprises
References
Further reading
External links
Trial proceedings are available directly from: the UN Special Court for Sierra Leone BBC profile of Charles Taylor
Charles Taylor legal news and resources, JURIST
Handing Over Charles Taylor: It's Time, JURIST (op-ed by David Crane, former Chief Prosecutor for the Special Court for Sierra Leone who signed the indictment for Charles Taylor)
Nigeria agrees to hand Taylor over to Liberia
"Charles Taylor: A wanted man", CNN, 29 March 2006.
Special Court for Sierra Leone
The trial of Charles Taylor – TRIAL WATCH
Charles Taylor on Trial U.S. Institute of Peace, 7 April 2006 (Audio)
10 Fascinating Things About Charles Taylor by The Young Turks''
Firestone and the Warlord – Frontline, PBS
Charles Taylor collected news and commentary at The New York Times
1948 births
20th-century Liberian politicians
20th-century criminals
21st-century Liberian politicians
21st-century criminals
African warlords
Americo-Liberian people
Bentley University alumni
Blood diamonds
Escapees from United States federal government detention
Fugitives wanted by the United States
Genocide perpetrators
Heads of government who were later imprisoned
Heads of state convicted of war crimes
Liberian exiles
Liberian expatriates in Nigeria
Liberian people convicted of crimes against humanity
Liberian people convicted of murder
Liberian people convicted of war crimes
Liberian people imprisoned abroad
Liberian people of Gola descent
Liberian politicians convicted of crimes
Liberian rebels
Living people
National Patriotic Party politicians
People convicted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone
People convicted of crimes against humanity
Liberian people convicted of rape
People extradited from Liberia
People extradited from Sierra Leone
People extradited to Sierra Leone
People from Montserrado County
Politicians convicted of murder
Politicians convicted of sex offences
Presidents of Liberia
Prisoners and detainees of England and Wales | [
-0.5523611903190613,
0.5881835222244263,
-0.14158514142036438,
-0.32656657695770264,
0.013135924935340881,
0.41642603278160095,
0.40771159529685974,
0.18950015306472778,
-0.711087167263031,
0.363552451133728,
-0.06804026663303375,
0.32895997166633606,
-0.8829205632209778,
0.9144307971000671,
0.30233660340309143,
0.7740075588226318,
0.03371794521808624,
0.3032201826572418,
-0.4595586657524109,
-0.2548692524433136,
-0.2374342828989029,
0.07713069021701813,
0.30682092905044556,
0.04915003851056099,
0.4024858772754669,
0.3451653718948364,
0.15482166409492493,
0.20146161317825317,
0.027233894914388657,
0.009681787341833115,
0.739315927028656,
0.2752794921398163,
0.31763991713523865,
0.302054226398468,
-0.1608024388551712,
-0.17222988605499268,
0.0214266087859869,
-0.28667011857032776,
0.02416331321001053,
-0.1737307608127594,
-0.3692615032196045,
0.3236928880214691,
-0.11373905092477798,
-0.06301441043615341,
0.413300096988678,
-1.232811689376831,
-0.963230311870575,
-0.008192470297217369,
-0.23808534443378448,
-0.5494295954704285,
-0.18680793046951294,
0.6784752607345581,
0.21147331595420837,
-0.08769721537828445,
0.20606155693531036,
0.009907674044370651,
-0.18448080122470856,
-0.5080769062042236,
-0.1420370191335678,
-0.6069047451019287,
0.5602231621742249,
-0.020396606996655464,
0.02617833949625492,
-0.2068018913269043,
-0.030729597434401512,
0.24652114510536194,
0.20386964082717896,
0.6049126982688904,
-0.34938278794288635,
-0.26266929507255554,
-0.3266552686691284,
0.1983095407485962,
0.32740941643714905,
0.4409553110599518,
-0.007194338832050562,
-0.5216750502586365,
0.34790119528770447,
-0.04477832838892937,
0.38659781217575073,
0.12064432352781296,
0.11103688925504684,
-0.5327339172363281,
0.20860837399959564,
0.597987711429596,
-0.42783793807029724,
0.37566930055618286,
0.11225881427526474,
0.4540802538394928,
-0.07372927665710449,
0.4510532021522522,
-0.842366635799408,
-0.5282584428787231,
0.12034782022237778,
-0.2051488608121872,
-0.649079442024231,
-0.6893271803855896,
0.0911734402179718,
0.4181186556816101,
0.03264356404542923,
-0.006186025217175484,
-0.08383865654468536,
-0.24375160038471222,
-0.10603682696819305,
-0.0875784158706665,
-0.665816068649292,
-0.3183295726776123,
-0.19644662737846375,
-0.07095007598400116,
-0.3271713852882385,
-0.41481801867485046,
-0.3042374849319458,
0.0020716546569019556,
-0.6819109320640564,
0.08035115152597427,
0.03721530735492706,
0.30696138739585876,
0.19535419344902039,
-0.3684943616390228,
0.015513552352786064,
-0.1773461550474167,
-0.13450399041175842,
-0.030284356325864792,
-0.20889589190483093,
0.2536673843860626,
-0.2852291464805603,
-0.1584351658821106,
-0.2862003445625305,
-0.09777882695198059,
-0.3854121267795563,
0.6995863318443298,
0.7399473190307617,
0.5372969508171082,
-0.5125566720962524,
0.2207183688879013,
0.15981313586235046,
-1.0724914073944092,
0.39497026801109314,
-0.04877185821533203,
-0.029748091474175453,
0.07676870375871658,
-0.18546192348003387,
-0.25061261653900146,
-0.3673277497291565,
-0.26455017924308777,
0.09152468293905258,
-0.09387265145778656,
-0.21000757813453674,
0.2916524112224579,
-0.003898708149790764,
-0.34321555495262146,
0.2697935104370117,
-0.18478815257549286,
0.1550542414188385,
-0.041760366410017014,
-0.6750817894935608,
0.7855716347694397,
0.2413760870695114,
-0.23397336900234222,
0.17632299661636353,
0.39333251118659973,
0.3526923954486847,
0.5412209033966064,
-0.006801264360547066,
-0.24044202268123627,
0.7769356369972229,
-0.029894378036260605,
0.3917434513568878,
0.32803982496261597,
0.29152318835258484,
-0.5290166139602661,
-0.34315022826194763,
0.08440202474594116,
-0.4325575828552246,
-0.7763034701347351,
-0.3546748757362366,
0.8110864758491516,
0.5484308004379272,
-0.10053566098213196,
-0.004806519951671362,
-0.1025543063879013,
-0.6450626850128174,
-0.27439433336257935,
-0.2362324744462967,
0.22414283454418182,
0.7316464185714722,
0.19567973911762238,
0.5234397053718567,
-0.20089760422706604,
0.4327273368835449,
-0.14830447733402252,
-0.40854111313819885,
-0.47192007303237915,
0.2574039101600647,
-0.175160750746727,
0.6149346232414246,
0.7528255581855774,
-0.12999142706394196,
0.2482992559671402,
-0.3458585739135742,
0.6028133034706116,
-0.3596895933151245,
0.15701991319656372,
-0.10470765084028244,
-0.7786794304847717,
-0.46698591113090515,
0.5222628712654114,
0.5323367714881897,
0.23546597361564636,
-0.019522372633218765,
1.081209659576416,
0.29201987385749817,
-0.2749224901199341,
-0.6003926992416382,
0.28841012716293335,
0.13027290999889374,
-0.21843960881233215,
-0.2511734962463379,
-0.4866243898868561,
0.053015585988759995,
-0.19728480279445648,
0.012430691160261631,
0.05558597296476364,
-0.22418604791164398,
1.2341771125793457,
0.2776254415512085,
0.3282984495162964,
-0.014582782983779907,
-0.04156578704714775,
-0.6633151769638062,
-0.027538960799574852,
0.001004118355922401,
0.17651978135108948,
0.25098076462745667,
-1.1129124164581299,
0.16583572328090668,
0.39769992232322693,
-0.5005790591239929,
-0.5572892427444458,
-0.14547482132911682,
0.04866337776184082,
0.6387362480163574,
-0.1410450041294098,
-0.30885300040245056,
-0.1801581233739853,
0.4839639365673065,
0.3410659730434418,
-0.8318042159080505,
-0.1503085047006607,
-0.30098578333854675,
-0.07495123147964478,
0.1341066062450409,
0.5554134845733643,
0.8152338862419128,
-0.1202351525425911,
0.28191274404525757,
-0.342185378074646,
-0.1547977477312088,
0.19959741830825806,
-0.46218550205230713,
0.12966662645339966,
0.16157658398151398,
-0.6668411493301392,
-0.3132608234882355,
-0.0033899748232215643,
-0.1489001363515854,
0.09787308424711227,
-0.41108131408691406,
-0.3076280355453491,
-0.04110117256641388,
-0.01368302945047617,
-0.5256574153900146,
-0.23507387936115265,
0.10222508758306503,
0.24878180027008057,
0.46688857674598694,
0.17544950544834137,
-0.25074222683906555,
0.3323150873184204,
-0.6367937326431274,
-1.062395453453064,
1.1101981401443481,
0.7421509027481079,
-0.06134863942861557,
-0.36599719524383545,
-0.93032306432724,
0.038199640810489655,
-0.3422260582447052,
-0.5530799031257629,
0.11905922740697861,
0.009417780674993992,
-0.6718131899833679,
0.33811718225479126,
0.08787205815315247,
0.1890447735786438,
-0.21428747475147247,
0.29461491107940674,
0.10335472971200943,
-0.4865049719810486,
0.559634268283844,
-0.5458646416664124,
-0.17887583374977112,
0.20011715590953827,
-0.3893440067768097,
-0.11102498322725296,
0.7625861167907715,
0.007166083436459303,
-0.22706514596939087,
-0.368990421295166,
-5.656727313995361,
0.15651263296604156,
0.0750056654214859,
-0.34938061237335205,
-0.20071107149124146,
0.5982931852340698,
0.681157112121582,
-0.3885614275932312,
0.4294487237930298,
-0.3499320149421692,
0.308460533618927,
0.22479090094566345,
-0.27458474040031433,
0.5784093141555786,
0.5102146863937378,
0.6103014945983887,
0.8676159381866455,
-0.240122988820076,
0.5737200975418091,
0.23611989617347717,
0.6618520617485046,
-0.5903422832489014,
-0.6860409379005432,
-0.23839212954044342,
0.7055220603942871,
0.5379014015197754,
0.058487217873334885,
0.10740921646356583,
-0.48072412610054016,
0.1840004324913025,
-0.06557093560695648,
0.46441587805747986,
-0.1118016168475151,
-0.1141992062330246,
-0.3026808202266693,
-0.3234982490539551,
-0.034580688923597336,
0.42928969860076904,
-0.21284638345241547,
0.09728246182203293,
0.1727478951215744,
-0.5013025403022766,
-0.7172501087188721,
-0.14644376933574677,
-0.21943345665931702,
-0.014895387925207615,
-0.38173145055770874,
-0.16114263236522675,
-0.6855438947677612,
0.7854885458946228,
-0.2870911657810211,
-0.11663105338811874,
0.16126815974712372,
-0.10708445310592651,
0.2945234179496765,
0.08524639904499054,
-0.3365030884742737,
0.09593107551336288,
-1.0595011711120605,
0.4092910587787628,
0.38577380776405334,
-0.285820335149765,
-0.12625530362129211,
0.06962760537862778,
-0.5261254906654358,
0.06163111701607704,
0.1535547375679016,
-0.017573479562997818,
0.1179649606347084,
0.5844991207122803,
-0.37640172243118286,
0.46240776777267456,
-0.2648029327392578,
-0.7229211926460266,
-0.05990476906299591,
-0.4393792450428009,
-0.4569820761680603,
0.21330931782722473,
-0.6343018412590027,
-0.2221228927373886,
0.20459073781967163,
-0.4561331570148468,
0.22770991921424866,
0.6282212138175964,
0.13105644285678864,
-0.33659663796424866,
-0.04507308825850487,
0.25317874550819397,
0.43845295906066895,
0.0696873888373375,
-0.0023980981204658747,
-0.9705244302749634,
0.014793433248996735,
0.009049023501574993,
0.6220304369926453,
-0.05789990723133087,
0.02051532082259655,
-0.18582700192928314,
0.32685261964797974,
-0.8543353080749512,
0.19179470837116241,
-0.2692379653453827,
0.1082492247223854,
-0.5917567610740662,
0.5939566493034363,
0.31019696593284607,
-0.577664315700531,
-0.5829622745513916,
-0.11213020980358124,
0.6295599341392517,
0.6275778412818909,
-0.16283738613128662,
-0.0011590365320444107,
0.12334150820970535,
0.12549804151058197,
-0.2807099521160126,
0.2679143249988556,
0.10963992029428482,
0.701137125492096,
0.02121901884675026,
0.02587667480111122,
0.5986996293067932,
-0.24249331653118134,
0.291675329208374,
-0.09918265044689178,
0.312121719121933,
0.23697049915790558,
0.4761557877063751,
-0.26262369751930237,
0.13732098042964935,
0.33469605445861816,
0.4054363965988159,
0.007482560351490974,
-0.12380533665418625,
0.6889116168022156,
-0.5780039429664612,
0.022350361570715904,
-0.8250020742416382,
0.1250513643026352,
-0.043439872562885284,
-0.023426439613103867,
-0.5841634273529053,
0.17302760481834412,
0.23101221024990082,
0.178560271859169,
-0.0567021407186985,
0.11774829030036926,
-0.0796823725104332,
0.01025649905204773,
0.26959940791130066,
-0.018914705142378807,
-0.016894759610295296,
0.347106397151947,
-0.4212721586227417,
-0.12452595680952072,
-0.3670821189880371,
0.28523319959640503,
-0.06947900354862213,
-0.3012514114379883,
-0.08704706281423569,
0.49362844228744507,
-0.29860547184944153,
-1.0025715827941895,
-0.1841297298669815,
0.35923048853874207,
0.4791354238986969,
-0.49230727553367615,
-0.034695908427238464,
-0.03662014752626419,
0.9547017216682434,
0.5089069604873657,
-0.8766706585884094,
-0.6059419512748718,
-0.017994217574596405,
0.36501622200012207,
-0.5628005862236023,
-0.0032205162569880486,
-0.01160955335944891,
-0.12952877581119537,
0.04472389444708824,
-0.8033392429351807,
0.42360422015190125,
-0.013390995562076569,
-0.15257634222507477,
0.24734072387218475,
-0.7307390570640564,
0.006328858435153961,
-0.45541322231292725,
-0.2047007977962494,
0.1526259332895279,
0.8618813753128052,
0.22536608576774597,
-0.4601227641105652,
0.37989577651023865,
0.27784422039985657,
-0.9157053828239441,
-0.4405660629272461,
0.25200915336608887,
0.17513437569141388,
-0.5776492953300476,
-0.2786330580711365,
0.3560485541820526,
0.4084324836730957,
0.49808523058891296,
-0.43667009472846985,
-0.07033813744783401,
0.22106581926345825,
-0.10559343546628952,
-0.035754453390836716,
0.6853286027908325,
-0.23096023499965668,
-0.7079949378967285,
0.08282449096441269,
0.6478134393692017,
-0.7287226915359497,
0.3862328827381134,
0.5628960132598877,
0.1837971955537796,
0.027248844504356384,
-0.7739745378494263,
-0.6345462203025818,
-0.4482441842556,
-0.5719836354255676,
0.0491730161011219,
-0.1002810001373291,
0.5720551609992981,
0.7607463598251343,
-0.48371627926826477,
0.2780206799507141,
0.11920014768838882,
-0.8220763802528381,
-0.47612619400024414,
0.26437854766845703,
0.1465172916650772,
-0.510126531124115,
0.08970220386981964,
0.2007617950439453,
0.4201110005378723,
0.4168357253074646,
-0.1871507316827774,
0.23953142762184143,
1.328413724899292,
-0.1866656392812729,
-0.5352982878684998,
0.030476437881588936,
0.15181633830070496,
0.17250359058380127,
0.13702359795570374,
-0.010272718034684658,
0.2614882290363312,
0.14055800437927246,
0.6407294273376465,
-0.3487962484359741,
-0.3965908885002136,
0.26422539353370667,
-0.6861326694488525,
-0.26298508048057556,
0.08177919685840607,
0.5252223610877991,
-0.05348766967654228,
-0.2759518027305603,
0.2658102214336395,
-0.07033256441354752,
-0.37117084860801697,
0.37772712111473083,
0.28729483485221863,
-0.2995162606239319,
0.2799684703350067,
0.39034712314605713,
-0.2817917466163635,
-0.5498306155204773,
-0.46703583002090454,
0.005186884198337793,
0.7171489596366882,
0.11588304489850998,
0.006731019821017981,
-0.16010236740112305,
0.4417140781879425,
-0.46930885314941406,
0.2908994257450104,
-0.6709716320037842,
-0.11409205198287964,
-0.14180941879749298,
-0.19383804500102997,
0.5420742630958557,
-1.2149012088775635,
-0.2582570016384125,
-0.09932980686426163,
0.08523833006620407,
-0.3718551695346832,
-0.19788116216659546,
0.352222204208374,
-0.09747396409511566,
-0.20027735829353333,
-0.4246324598789215,
0.2768385708332062,
0.16569653153419495,
0.909680962562561,
-0.4950214922428131,
-0.2873365879058838,
-0.28340670466423035,
0.4289121925830841,
0.6491602063179016,
-0.08393636345863342,
0.09321163594722748,
-0.3825451135635376,
0.018166620284318924,
0.06951265037059784,
0.5917359590530396,
0.15767064690589905,
0.37492507696151733,
0.24655835330486298,
0.2228984236717224,
0.10090729594230652,
-1.0776233673095703,
-0.17971502244472504,
0.3837745189666748,
-0.12634079158306122,
-0.0713903158903122,
-0.07874137908220291,
0.07258408516645432,
0.1120525673031807,
0.2988516390323639,
0.05561685562133789,
0.6139854788780212,
0.7409198880195618,
-0.07909232378005981,
0.46104639768600464,
-0.02151966094970703,
0.034132786095142365,
-0.2564544975757599,
0.1164371594786644,
-0.9317103028297424,
0.433634877204895,
-0.21854515373706818,
0.07196830958127975,
0.2659462094306946,
-0.38323941826820374,
0.21186286211013794,
0.645696222782135,
0.3617161512374878,
0.4696142077445984,
0.0951305404305458,
-0.07736388593912125,
0.14954723417758942,
-0.13216960430145264,
-0.6310994029045105,
0.15550848841667175,
0.6048516035079956,
-0.4382266700267792,
0.24009865522384644,
-0.10249826312065125,
-0.054243944585323334,
-0.27542349696159363,
-0.046723928302526474,
-0.29234033823013306,
0.05225924775004387,
0.01844746619462967,
-0.10829168558120728,
-0.012745053507387638,
0.09742321074008942,
-0.35919106006622314,
0.8048375844955444,
0.37353575229644775,
0.8580796122550964,
0.13603907823562622,
0.40577468276023865,
-0.13246804475784302,
-0.052596550434827805,
-0.025763539597392082,
0.38850006461143494,
-0.6542101502418518,
0.12089794874191284,
0.519919216632843,
0.2625383138656616,
-0.5720624923706055,
-0.054501090198755264,
0.1614079475402832,
-0.41112661361694336,
0.08107025176286697,
-0.061814069747924805,
0.5372313261032104,
0.0973757952451706,
-0.45031309127807617,
0.16216200590133667,
0.35082459449768066,
0.022751828655600548,
-0.12220090627670288,
-0.16704913973808289,
-0.26613736152648926,
0.5706322193145752,
-0.29040756821632385,
-0.7080990672111511,
0.27365875244140625,
-0.36419692635536194,
-0.17917300760746002,
-0.1771775633096695,
0.9409188032150269,
0.610611081123352,
-0.35302916169166565,
0.30681273341178894,
0.02882467582821846,
-0.6016751527786255,
0.241354301571846,
-0.006962974555790424,
-0.07561509311199188,
-0.6232010126113892,
0.785802960395813,
-0.34097450971603394,
0.8132070302963257,
-0.17921432852745056,
0.19510459899902344,
-0.4501473009586334,
0.5914583206176758,
0.252147376537323,
0.5181624889373779,
0.3689892292022705,
-0.41803932189941406,
-0.38330772519111633,
-0.5799643397331238,
-0.21420279145240784,
-0.17212848365306854,
0.19219939410686493,
0.6557782292366028,
0.5542802214622498,
-0.4569172263145447,
-0.43045827746391296,
0.3540567457675934,
-0.14047950506210327,
0.6965452432632446,
-0.2744688093662262,
-0.36234280467033386,
-0.25467005372047424,
-0.3226396441459656,
-0.1066860482096672,
-0.6436418294906616,
0.6821252703666687,
0.7711019515991211,
-0.36821529269218445,
-0.3230883479118347,
-0.28139951825141907,
-0.10027263313531876,
0.3339918851852417,
0.20853862166404724,
0.07495677471160889,
-0.2787984311580658,
-0.0009285680716857314,
-0.0725465938448906,
-0.14810845255851746,
-0.20146840810775757,
0.4579789936542511,
0.08117567747831345,
-0.2036721110343933,
-0.3507743775844574,
0.9840270280838013,
-0.6295815110206604,
-0.4271099865436554,
0.07524798810482025,
0.6153165698051453,
-0.5720376372337341
] |
241469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemonium%20%281982%20film%29 | Pandemonium (1982 film) | Pandemonium is a 1982 American parody slasher film. It was directed by Alfred Sole and features an ensemble cast including
Tom Smothers, Eileen Brennan, Phil Hartman, Tab Hunter, Carol Kane, David Lander, Eve Arden, and Paul Reubens.
The film went into production under the working title of Thursday the 12th. The film was the last feature in which Eve Arden appeared and also the last feature film Sole directed in his career.
Plot
In the fictional town of It Had To Be, Indiana, fullback Blue Grange scores the winning touchdown for It Had To Be University in the 1963 National Championship game. Afterwards, a shunned cheerleader named Bambi is seen fawning over Grange's locker before the on-field celebration pours into the locker room. As a group of cheerleaders are cleaning up the field after the game, all five are skewered with a javelin thrown by an unknown assailant. The bizarre murder makes headlines, as does a subsequent murder involving exploding pompons. As a result, the college's summer cheerleading camp is closed down. In 1982, the camp reopens with Bambi as the instructor. After arriving on campus, she meets Pepe the maintenance man and his mother Salt. Both warn her against reopening the camp as they believe it to be cursed with death, but Bambi is undeterred.
At a bus station, a young woman named Candy (labeled Victim #1) prepares to board a bus to the cheerleading camp but her religious fanatic mother tries to dissuade her. As they quarrel, red beams of light suddenly streak from Candy's eyes and levitate her mother into the air. As she hangs suspended, Candy tells her that she just wants to be normal and marches away to catch the bus. In another part of town, a male cheerleader named Glenn Dandy (Victim #2) says goodbye to his eccentric family before leaving for camp. Next, Mandy (Victim #3) is introduced by her father in a beauty pageant-style interview, revealing her obsession with dental hygiene. Sandy (Victim #4) asks for directions to the camp at a food truck and decides to hitchhike, but insists on getting references from every driver she passes (eventually accepting a ride with then-U.S. President Ronald Reagan). Andy and Randy (Victims #5 and #6 respectively), two lecherous cheerleaders, are shown smoking marijuana while driving to the camp. The cheerleaders assemble at the camp and are greeted by Bambi.
Meanwhile, a Mountie named Sgt. Reginald Cooper makes a phone call to Warden June to express his concerns about the new cheerleading camp. He also learns of an escaped convict named Jarrett who murdered his entire family with a hand drill and turned them into bookshelves. Cooper then leaves the station in the care of his ill-tempered assistant Johnson to visit the Indiana State Asylum, where he inquires about another recent escapee named Fletcher, with whom Jarrett ends up hitching a ride to the college.
The cheerleaders begin training, unaware that they are being stalked by a mysterious figure on campus. Cooper then arrives to meet the cheerleaders and quickly falls in love with Candy, singing a duet with her. Inspired, Glenn dresses in a tuxedo and attempts to woo Mandy, but fails to catch her during a routine practice drill and she injures her ankle. Bambi calls off practice for the day, but while the others go out to eat, a guilty Glenn stays in the gym to continue practicing and is killed when the mysterious figure rigs the trampoline with dynamite. While recovering in her dorm room, Mandy is brushing her teeth with copious amounts of toothpaste when the mystery man bursts through her medicine cabinet and kills her with a hand drill.
Back at the police station, Cooper receives a call from Warden June who tells him that Jarrett has been spotted at a cemetery and museum called Lover's Lane. He and Johnson leave to investigate and find the wrecked car Fletcher was driving, and meet Dr. Fuller from the asylum who is looking for Fletcher. Alerted by a scream inside the museum, Cooper and Johnson interrupt Jarrett before he can murder Fletcher. They are shocked to discover that Jarrett and Dr. Fuller are working together in a scheme to create and sell furniture made from their victims' bodies, but both deny harming any cheerleaders. Suddenly, Fletcher rises up and drives a butcher knife into Jarrett's mechanical arm, electrocuting both of them and Dr. Fuller.
Nevertheless, the slayings continue on campus. Bambi is enjoying a bath of milk and cookies when the killer reappears and drowns her. After a game of strip poker, Randy, Andy, and Sandy are killed in succession, and a panicked Candy discovers all the bodies before being stalked by the killer herself. She flees into the locker room where the killer reveals himself as Blue Grange, who secretly wanted to be a cheerleader instead of a football star and began murdering cheerleaders out of angst. Candy escapes onto the football field and uses her eye beams to run down Grange with a giant statue of himself, killing him. Cooper arrives to sweep Candy onto his horse named Bob and they happily ride off the field together.
Cast
Tom Smothers as Cooper
Carol Kane as Candy
Paul Reubens as Johnson
Eve Arden as the Warden
Candice Azzara as Bambi (as Candy Azzara)
Eileen Brennan as Candy's Mom
Judge Reinhold as Glenn-Dandy
Kaye Ballard as Glenn's Mom
Donald O'Connor as Glenn's Dad
Tab Hunter as Blue Grange
David L. Lander as Pepe
Phil Hartman as the Reporter
Debralee Scott as Sandy
Marc McClure as Randy
Teri Landrum as Mandy
Reception
The film earned mostly negative reviews and performed poorly at the box office.
Stephen Hill at HorrorNews wrote: "An hour and seventeen minutes has never felt so long... Pandemonium feels as though someone who had their sense of humour surgically removed is attempting to ape a Mel Brooks movie by going through all the motions."
See also
List of American films of 1982
References
External links
1982 films
1980s comedy horror films
American comedy horror films
American films
American parody films
English-language films
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
United Artists films
Royal Canadian Mounted Police in fiction
1982 comedy films
Films set in Indiana | [
0.4805482029914856,
0.40782082080841064,
-0.11800152063369751,
-0.03549019619822502,
-0.15350030362606049,
-0.533562421798706,
0.4773874282836914,
-0.020723171532154083,
-0.4321320056915283,
0.5419015288352966,
0.2159138023853302,
0.26942571997642517,
-0.48112034797668457,
0.2821026146411896,
0.6450323462486267,
-0.15440118312835693,
0.6243161559104919,
0.2623213231563568,
-0.0847032368183136,
-0.5050893425941467,
-0.4537941515445709,
-0.2890815734863281,
0.7735570669174194,
0.23225495219230652,
-0.2783965766429901,
0.3843747079372406,
0.40754425525665283,
0.03774549067020416,
0.07810239493846893,
0.4208405613899231,
0.4150199294090271,
-0.26310214400291443,
0.39988723397254944,
-0.08219843357801437,
0.023553382605314255,
0.12104859203100204,
-0.30999812483787537,
0.6217320561408997,
-0.25230827927589417,
-0.8310227990150452,
0.17874720692634583,
-0.08808908611536026,
0.42181655764579773,
-0.4116617441177368,
-0.12989892065525055,
-0.08115929365158081,
-0.9728583097457886,
-0.4756767153739929,
-0.8571959137916565,
-0.12249382585287094,
0.32206210494041443,
0.4245685338973999,
0.27117788791656494,
0.03749853000044823,
0.06337036937475204,
0.576970100402832,
-0.7436314821243286,
0.20807287096977234,
-0.18997406959533691,
-0.5754690170288086,
0.310340940952301,
-0.10616781562566757,
0.3900259733200073,
-0.18966148793697357,
0.16894665360450745,
0.2213369905948639,
-0.06833603978157043,
0.6309303045272827,
0.3537762463092804,
-0.932001531124115,
0.03277366980910301,
-0.5903383493423462,
0.04321804270148277,
0.09872809797525406,
0.2090931385755539,
-0.6397086381912231,
0.3600716292858124,
-0.03675857558846474,
-0.7506822943687439,
0.18543864786624908,
-0.11471133679151535,
0.37198013067245483,
0.8912010192871094,
0.5336005687713623,
0.48960548639297485,
-0.5147007703781128,
-0.04530792683362961,
0.6345282793045044,
0.18124689161777496,
0.6197795867919922,
-0.21984164416790009,
-0.07832369208335876,
0.4354749917984009,
0.46935176849365234,
0.21043521165847778,
0.08860934525728226,
-0.31205740571022034,
0.0732499435544014,
0.08777893334627151,
-0.09445550292730331,
0.1466624140739441,
0.2395530790090561,
-0.045564185827970505,
-0.5669136643409729,
-0.38057616353034973,
-0.11722059547901154,
0.37367531657218933,
-0.21584640443325043,
0.1480201929807663,
0.031087590381503105,
-0.32631292939186096,
0.473756343126297,
-0.15150341391563416,
-0.4219840466976166,
-0.1476263850927353,
0.5105613470077515,
0.3639529347419739,
-0.5701707601547241,
-0.16798456013202667,
0.17801250517368317,
0.4252227544784546,
0.10933554917573929,
0.030238570645451546,
1.0878053903579712,
-0.10636628419160843,
0.903677225112915,
0.017511673271656036,
0.6133254170417786,
-0.6501408815383911,
0.21526533365249634,
-0.1253119856119156,
0.9480502605438232,
0.258082777261734,
0.019986554980278015,
-0.3664039373397827,
-0.2704625427722931,
1.1070226430892944,
-0.055954303592443466,
-0.47643905878067017,
-0.4420183002948761,
-0.22648610174655914,
-0.1296616494655609,
-0.5285048484802246,
0.3873329162597656,
0.005778410937637091,
-0.5508019924163818,
0.797161340713501,
-0.06280238926410675,
0.1520887017250061,
-0.2763107419013977,
0.31511786580085754,
-0.07264406234025955,
-0.22481392323970795,
-0.7292692065238953,
-0.04486807435750961,
0.3188645541667938,
0.6068440079689026,
-0.28380292654037476,
0.274839848279953,
-0.07556033134460449,
0.2570948600769043,
0.2640666961669922,
-0.2745652496814728,
-0.3356945812702179,
0.12052489817142487,
-0.52671879529953,
-0.29310446977615356,
-0.28019699454307556,
0.5915566086769104,
0.056028131395578384,
-0.31145036220550537,
0.41083967685699463,
-0.05809968709945679,
-0.04145555570721626,
0.008673243224620819,
-0.2569376826286316,
0.77542644739151,
0.7769014835357666,
0.1589455008506775,
-0.15753859281539917,
-0.32977765798568726,
-0.4695253372192383,
-0.07594585418701172,
-0.050669144839048386,
0.5039012432098389,
0.0773649588227272,
0.26742812991142273,
-0.2694898843765259,
-0.08800312876701355,
0.30321598052978516,
-0.1569829285144806,
-0.3099541664123535,
-0.14573028683662415,
-0.6811983585357666,
1.5982311964035034,
0.11192069202661514,
-0.5532881021499634,
-0.5498318672180176,
0.2863275110721588,
0.5771304965019226,
-0.410136342048645,
0.2573443651199341,
0.7594487071037292,
0.696658730506897,
-0.6680151224136353,
-0.13574789464473724,
-0.3246365189552307,
0.41737645864486694,
0.3007453382015228,
0.6993218660354614,
0.054222472012043,
-0.4854991137981415,
0.5096234083175659,
0.0219650249928236,
0.3337711691856384,
0.2548520565032959,
-0.9522221684455872,
0.002848956501111388,
0.4215690791606903,
-0.06067940965294838,
-0.17834411561489105,
-0.413372278213501,
-0.39744624495506287,
0.04519510269165039,
-0.18159964680671692,
0.7106781005859375,
0.21078293025493622,
0.0452495738863945,
0.64645916223526,
-0.6884704828262329,
0.11156563460826874,
0.9415832757949829,
-0.583159863948822,
-0.0996766909956932,
-0.06117077171802521,
0.007878487929701805,
0.22060565650463104,
-0.5243149995803833,
-0.6508622765541077,
0.007997763343155384,
0.8913264274597168,
0.231765016913414,
-0.3834330439567566,
0.3765076994895935,
0.18774479627609253,
0.031566571444272995,
0.7504192590713501,
-0.03297039121389389,
-0.7332056760787964,
0.44788408279418945,
0.3467724025249481,
0.17177172005176544,
0.21566320955753326,
-0.4205326437950134,
0.3198671042919159,
0.29840928316116333,
-0.1530063897371292,
-0.6765469908714294,
0.028980618342757225,
-0.7995798587799072,
0.07558505982160568,
0.11000911891460419,
0.190775066614151,
0.19677025079727173,
-0.5555020570755005,
-0.32284578680992126,
-0.6408910155296326,
0.04224059730768204,
-0.2579170763492584,
0.3615957200527191,
0.25783365964889526,
-0.1324511617422104,
-0.36295196413993835,
0.1806246042251587,
0.0008716448792256415,
-0.14185985922813416,
-0.19565902650356293,
0.3164845108985901,
-0.292976975440979,
-0.20379751920700073,
0.14195948839187622,
0.5971559882164001,
0.06809316575527191,
-0.39688432216644287,
-0.24903708696365356,
0.16886524856090546,
0.12973101437091827,
-0.27485668659210205,
-0.0639798492193222,
-0.8782268762588501,
-0.026043716818094254,
-0.3639361262321472,
-0.22384566068649292,
0.041160259395837784,
-0.11069659888744354,
-0.04660520330071449,
-0.4285915791988373,
0.2915354371070862,
0.15022478997707367,
0.11143551021814346,
-0.49869635701179504,
0.5671639442443848,
-0.6798712611198425,
-0.23778089880943298,
0.23146502673625946,
-0.597317099571228,
0.06653399765491486,
-0.43243440985679626,
-5.636557102203369,
0.5215463042259216,
-0.04897787794470787,
0.27102991938591003,
0.4829977750778198,
0.23943805694580078,
0.38126319646835327,
-0.31447872519493103,
-0.3404703438282013,
0.04394036531448364,
-0.838814377784729,
0.07157664000988007,
0.08342479914426804,
0.26298364996910095,
0.3498205244541168,
-0.21077153086662292,
0.2919515371322632,
-0.192402184009552,
-0.11938951164484024,
-0.0743977427482605,
-0.13555632531642914,
-0.017586776986718178,
0.20354822278022766,
0.18784894049167633,
0.2001037299633026,
0.7085183262825012,
-0.365186482667923,
0.46236541867256165,
-0.602011501789093,
0.18098098039627075,
-0.07886499166488647,
0.33230870962142944,
-0.12033951282501221,
-0.6008291244506836,
-0.31770434975624084,
0.08195313066244125,
0.6865496635437012,
-0.44990038871765137,
-0.09359899908304214,
-0.9116385579109192,
-0.43799129128456116,
0.05517009645700455,
-0.35691535472869873,
0.16570353507995605,
0.8801615238189697,
-0.47686442732810974,
-0.32234013080596924,
-0.47244641184806824,
-0.1418590247631073,
0.2940483093261719,
0.2771531939506531,
0.05106138437986374,
0.15804293751716614,
0.6665840148925781,
0.057062115520238876,
-0.38755276799201965,
-0.12724438309669495,
0.4415271282196045,
-0.05029991269111633,
-0.11726590991020203,
0.34224817156791687,
-0.12801988422870636,
0.030513131991028786,
-0.35345032811164856,
-0.035689931362867355,
-0.12656597793102264,
-0.05162876844406128,
-0.6589613556861877,
0.25415515899658203,
-0.08671891689300537,
-0.05906827375292778,
0.27826711535453796,
-0.29295864701271057,
-0.8380729556083679,
0.09043262898921967,
0.4854770600795746,
-0.4983038306236267,
-0.12673044204711914,
-0.27408650517463684,
0.13219298422336578,
-0.19087547063827515,
-0.2865961194038391,
0.16779686510562897,
0.3061174154281616,
-0.08273588865995407,
0.1040080189704895,
-0.1458001285791397,
-0.08870955556631088,
-0.29290997982025146,
-0.14886678755283356,
0.741654634475708,
-0.13434599339962006,
-0.3911736309528351,
0.36346518993377686,
-0.04731854423880577,
0.5395827889442444,
0.1194927766919136,
0.4130154252052307,
0.7288009524345398,
0.06221918389201164,
0.0774761438369751,
-0.29144585132598877,
0.11057204008102417,
-0.49526968598365784,
-0.27345988154411316,
-0.6883330345153809,
-0.30279624462127686,
0.8008912801742554,
0.10690583288669586,
-0.2844683527946472,
0.378033846616745,
-0.509291410446167,
-0.05358587205410004,
-0.22224895656108856,
0.5812293887138367,
0.21315273642539978,
-0.23715561628341675,
0.3511609137058258,
0.5114862322807312,
0.018564384430646896,
-0.17033272981643677,
0.2594131827354431,
-0.5820022821426392,
0.0603112168610096,
0.1343621462583542,
-0.2064274400472641,
0.39723533391952515,
0.39037075638771057,
0.2299429029226303,
-0.4983116090297699,
-0.6020655632019043,
0.586994469165802,
0.0375116765499115,
-0.16498610377311707,
0.5397248864173889,
-0.5575152635574341,
-0.5571438670158386,
-0.06405230611562729,
0.3953302800655365,
-0.05174083262681961,
0.0841776430606842,
-0.2715184986591339,
0.18281133472919464,
0.6134375929832458,
-0.30511391162872314,
0.3507230877876282,
0.45351922512054443,
-0.08664863556623459,
0.3918383717536926,
0.5266330242156982,
-0.21868734061717987,
-0.694273829460144,
0.814237654209137,
-0.6881240606307983,
-0.32276758551597595,
0.35750216245651245,
0.5360475778579712,
-0.024547012522816658,
-0.07810547947883606,
-0.4343247413635254,
0.5759840607643127,
0.13383424282073975,
-1.116308569908142,
0.2118692845106125,
-0.025914687663316727,
-0.4616186320781708,
0.09318043291568756,
-0.7856293320655823,
-0.2903220057487488,
0.3159821629524231,
0.2702082097530365,
0.27437761425971985,
-0.24014507234096527,
0.5423402786254883,
0.406421422958374,
0.23668241500854492,
-0.6337337493896484,
-0.21754190325737,
0.40347591042518616,
-0.37685421109199524,
0.2544730603694916,
-0.2566312551498413,
-0.7348312735557556,
0.35582974553108215,
0.11534450203180313,
-0.3822573721408844,
-1.0583040714263916,
-0.11624936759471893,
-0.5585996508598328,
-0.04205385223031044,
-0.07906223088502884,
0.5190655589103699,
0.41390088200569153,
0.03981245309114456,
-0.7963672876358032,
-0.3739578127861023,
-0.37233051657676697,
0.32571718096733093,
-0.07091841846704483,
-0.5286570191383362,
0.3460986614227295,
0.49369481205940247,
-0.3975830674171448,
0.1569625288248062,
0.5230183005332947,
-0.599764347076416,
0.6684849858283997,
0.4710993766784668,
-0.2517053782939911,
0.5211875438690186,
-0.1200714260339737,
-0.4188266098499298,
-0.7518362402915955,
0.17093005776405334,
-0.5623063445091248,
0.049784764647483826,
0.4342145025730133,
-0.4538465440273285,
-0.621822714805603,
-0.07377560436725616,
-0.46442165970802307,
0.10111259669065475,
-0.41977667808532715,
-0.09377050399780273,
-1.4880616664886475,
0.4517036974430084,
0.7597506642341614,
-0.4061041474342346,
-0.19342957437038422,
-0.3222969174385071,
-0.4747518301010132,
0.5281082987785339,
-0.06847367435693741,
-0.25223931670188904,
-0.20597313344478607,
-0.013170294463634491,
0.5104536414146423,
0.17222362756729126,
-0.06446326524019241,
0.43891972303390503,
-0.03629817068576813,
0.8191788196563721,
0.4507046043872833,
0.20071831345558167,
-0.01898764632642269,
0.01955467276275158,
-0.09890813380479813,
-0.5300692915916443,
-0.6435389518737793,
-0.3274892568588257,
-0.21135112643241882,
-0.14709830284118652,
-0.10567069798707962,
-0.7933012843132019,
0.7981798052787781,
-1.2718552350997925,
-0.05672374367713928,
0.018808545544743538,
0.22863365709781647,
-0.32415080070495605,
-0.2758610248565674,
0.4789663255214691,
-1.1673829555511475,
0.11759640276432037,
0.27661824226379395,
0.18102869391441345,
0.31722450256347656,
-0.29286253452301025,
0.17800432443618774,
-0.017603425309062004,
-0.030542349442839622,
0.00252342177554965,
0.31596121191978455,
0.44058048725128174,
0.48797160387039185,
-0.051196202635765076,
-0.19517020881175995,
-0.9030819535255432,
0.0017241134773939848,
-0.4145559072494507,
-0.5781657695770264,
0.35042399168014526,
0.307799369096756,
-0.7970150709152222,
-0.09623433649539948,
-1.0165365934371948,
-0.2925274968147278,
-0.5091521143913269,
-0.6529113054275513,
0.359402060508728,
-0.3823988735675812,
0.12056118249893188,
-0.15254195034503937,
-0.4116077721118927,
-0.21152813732624054,
-0.14774617552757263,
-0.010406889952719212,
0.016767004504799843,
-0.4610227346420288,
-0.36645638942718506,
-0.7099665999412537,
0.33591699600219727,
-0.16131064295768738,
-0.7220511436462402,
-0.0058320192620158195,
-0.18207523226737976,
0.4977772533893585,
-0.0585603266954422,
-0.43631088733673096,
0.36237388849258423,
0.4338696599006653,
-0.47469621896743774,
0.1087881326675415,
0.46137428283691406,
-0.8078280091285706,
0.15426196157932281,
0.6151838898658752,
-0.1949022263288498,
0.03491285815834999,
0.03126836195588112,
0.6481820344924927,
0.1389256864786148,
0.9246000647544861,
-0.15480682253837585,
-0.09127560257911682,
0.10861404985189438,
0.07911116629838943,
0.3067176640033722,
0.6522864103317261,
-0.2808295488357544,
0.5824586153030396,
0.1657726913690567,
-0.3860016465187073,
0.5823322534561157,
-0.3498085141181946,
-0.4318276047706604,
0.281954288482666,
-0.3956037163734436,
-0.1277860403060913,
0.6402305364608765,
0.34489408135414124,
0.4718362092971802,
-0.24148641526699066,
0.020874114707112312,
0.07490893453359604,
0.1436002403497696,
0.3725254535675049,
-0.42510008811950684,
0.32238444685935974,
0.5551583766937256,
-0.12129980325698853,
-0.027546633034944534,
-0.022967839613556862,
-0.35107457637786865,
0.8097137212753296,
-0.33827099204063416,
0.42371824383735657,
-0.3698335587978363,
0.44719406962394714,
-0.022935889661312103,
-0.13414950668811798,
0.1900053769350052,
-0.24458275735378265,
0.460598886013031,
0.208867147564888,
0.6420655250549316,
-0.6971487402915955,
-0.12820884585380554,
-0.13517194986343384,
0.06702256947755814,
0.3940954804420471,
-0.3909814655780792,
0.06728074699640274,
0.28745102882385254,
0.4277229309082031,
0.3331889510154724,
-0.23430925607681274,
0.23342755436897278,
-0.3489535450935364,
-0.15995129942893982,
-0.45825740694999695,
0.5401117205619812,
-0.762700080871582,
-0.06346362084150314,
0.35891658067703247,
0.16790823638439178,
0.2627728283405304,
0.2951739728450775,
0.32774344086647034,
-0.5057819485664368,
-0.07760036736726761,
-0.235899418592453,
-0.06806346774101257,
-0.19717727601528168,
-0.4375860095024109,
-0.051246825605630875,
-0.1556292027235031,
0.0558728463947773,
-0.22033248841762543,
0.3726252019405365,
0.33251047134399414,
0.25749319791793823,
-0.06609711050987244,
0.7353495955467224,
-0.04857364296913147,
0.07232651859521866,
-0.772189736366272,
-0.3620817959308624,
-0.7660812139511108,
0.6207146644592285,
0.010474208742380142,
0.19715477526187897,
-0.11821208149194717,
0.4173598289489746,
0.11298488825559616,
-0.3501862585544586,
0.49468788504600525,
-0.8284610509872437,
-0.4456263482570648,
0.020115742459893227,
-0.25623819231987,
-0.7698509097099304,
-0.09504092484712601,
-0.007016007322818041,
-0.5270858407020569,
-0.23349609971046448,
0.8343387246131897,
-0.44157111644744873,
0.36375412344932556,
0.2561466097831726,
-0.055233947932720184,
0.4677961766719818,
-0.2358751893043518,
0.3111550807952881,
-0.2203717678785324,
-0.28923022747039795,
0.508624792098999,
0.8392307162284851,
0.46634557843208313,
-0.33907783031463623,
0.12317129224538803,
-0.20413078367710114,
0.3175256848335266,
-0.16245560348033905,
0.14514395594596863,
-0.461656391620636,
0.05410078912973404,
-0.34960904717445374,
0.4202880561351776,
0.4558678865432739,
0.18214866518974304,
0.042647022753953934,
-0.10640775412321091,
-0.11535598337650299,
-0.1525385081768036,
1.0086743831634521,
0.10690678656101227,
-0.4950498342514038,
0.4864497184753418,
0.3965282142162323
] |
241471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Pie%202 | American Pie 2 | American Pie 2 is a 2001 American sex comedy film directed by James B. Rogers and written by Adam Herz and David H. Steinberg from a story by Herz. A sequel to the 1999 comedy film American Pie, it is the second film in the American Pie series and stars Jason Biggs, Shannon Elizabeth, Alyson Hannigan, Chris Klein, Natasha Lyonne, Thomas Ian Nicholas, Tara Reid, Seann William Scott, Mena Suvari, Eddie Kaye Thomas, and Eugene Levy. The film follows the sexual exploits of five friends—Jim, Kevin, Stifler, Oz, and Finch—and their attempts to have the greatest summer party ever at a summer beach house in Michigan.
American Pie 2 was released in the United States on August 10, 2001, and grossed over $145 million in the US and $142 million overseas on a budget of $30 million, making it highest-grossing film in the franchise at just under $288 million worldwide. The film was followed by American Wedding.
Plot
Home for the summer after college, Jim Levenstein, Kevin Meyers, Chris "Oz" Ostreicher, and Paul Finch attend Steve Stifler's party until the police shut it down. Kevin is inspired by his brother to rent a Lake Michigan beach house and throw a massive party to close out the summer. The group obtains jobs painting houses in order to afford the rent. Jim receives a call from former love interest Nadia who informs him that she plans to visit him. To gain sexual experience, Jim seeks out his prom date, Michelle, who agrees to help him after he is mistaken for a mentally challenged trombone prodigy and makes a fool of himself in front of a band camp concert audience.
The group hosts a small party where Kevin and his ex-girlfriend Vicky awkwardly lie to one another regarding the number of sexual partners they have had at college. Oz attempts to have phone sex with his girlfriend Heather while she is studying abroad in Spain but they are interrupted by Stifler.
While painting a house, the group observes the two female occupants Stifler assumes are lesbians and he enters their home while they are away in order to find proof. Jim and Finch pursue him inside in an attempt to stop him when the women return home and find the trio inside. They tempt the boys with some quid pro quo sex acts. However, when Stifler exposes his genitals after the women request watching the boys give each other handjobs, Finch and Jim leave in disgust.
Jim visits Michelle again to obtain sexual tips and they are nearly caught by a camp director. Stifler brings the group pornography and Jim later accidentally mistakes super glue for lubricant and learns his penis will be "unusable" for a short period of time. Meanwhile, Finch has become involved in the art of Tantra and waits to use his new skills with Stifler's mom, who he mistakenly believes has arrived but is disappointed when he learns it is Stifler's younger brother.
Nadia unexpectedly arrives early, much to the dismay of Jim as his penis has not fully healed. He and Michelle pretend to be in a relationship. However, Michelle realizes that she has fallen in love with Jim but stages a mock breakup the night of the party so that Jim is free to hook up with Nadia. As the party begins, Jim realizes that he loves Michelle. Jim interrupts her concert performance and they return to the party together. Meanwhile, Sherman is seduced by Nadia who is attracted to his geeky persona. Kevin is disappointed to learn Vicky has brought a date and storms off onto the beach. Oz is happy when Heather unexpectedly arrives early. Jim, Oz, and Finch speak to Kevin, who admits he is struggling to move on after high school; but they reassure and convince him to return to the party. The group returns, Kevin apologizes to Vicky, and they all enjoy an evening of partying together. The two "lesbians" arrive to the party and later have a threesome with Stifler.
The next day, the group prepares to leave when a car pulls up; Finch approaches and finds Stifler's mom inside. They drive off together and have sex again.
Cast
Production
Principal photography began on February 14 and wrapped on April 27, 2001. Two versions of the film were released: the R-rated theatrical version and the unrated version. To ensure an R rating, the film was cut slightly. Altogether 19 scenes were altered.
Reception
Box office
During the opening weekend, the film grossed $45.1 million from 3,063 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking at number one at the box office ahead of Rush Hour 2, a record for an R-rated comedy. The film has grossed $145,103,595 in the United States and Canada closing on December 20, and $142,450,000 overseas adding to total worldwide gross of $287,553,595. It grossed $8.4 million in its opening weekend in Germany, a record for a comedy and for United International Pictures in the country, beating UIP's previous record set by Jurassic Park.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 52% based on 127 reviews. The website's consensus states: "Being a sequel, American Pie 2 doesn't retain the freshness of the original, nor is it as funny." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 43 out of 100 based on reviews from 28 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average rating of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert gave the film 3 out of 4 stars. In At the Movies, Ebert and Richard Roeper both gave the film "two thumbs up", with Roeper stating that the film had "more laughs than the original".
Home media
American Pie 2 was released on VHS and DVD on January 15, 2002. The movie was released in two different versions: an R-rated version and an unrated version.
Soundtrack
Blink-182 – "Everytime I Look for You"
Green Day – "Scumbag"
Left Front Tire – "Bring You Down"
American Hi-Fi – "Vertigo"
Uncle Kracker – "(I'm Gonna) Split This Room in Half"
3 Doors Down – "Be Like That" (American Pie Edit)
Alien Ant Farm – "Good (For a Woman)"
Angela Ammons – "Always Getting Over You"
Jettingham – "Cheating"
Flying Blind – "Smokescreen"
Fenix*TX – "Phoebe Cates"
The Exit – "Susan"
Sum 41 – "Fat Lip"
Lucia Cifarelli – "I Will"
Oleander – "Halo"
Witness – "Here's One for You" (only on some soundtrack versions)
The following songs were included in the movie but not featured on the soundtrack:
The Afghan Whigs – "Something Hot" (Plays when Jim and Michelle walk along the beach before entering the lighthouse)
Lit – "A Place in the Sun" (Heather arrives at the party)
The Lemonheads – "Mrs. Robinson" (written and originally performed by Simon & Garfunkel) (Finch and Stifler's mom drive off)
Oleander – "Bruise" (Heather sees Oz, Kevin says hello to Summer)
Lit – "The Last Time Again" (First song that plays in the closing credits)
Libra presents Taylor – "Anomaly (Calling Your Name)" (Jim sees the photo of Nadia before his dad walks in)
American Hi-Fi – "Flavor of the Weak" (Stifler chases Finch out of his mom's room)
Hoi Polloi – "On My Mind" (Sherman, seduces Jessica)
Transmatic – "Blind Spot" (First Dog Years Scene)
John Philip Sousa – "Gladiator March"
Hoagy Carmichael & Stuart Gorrell – "Georgia on My Mind"
Ali Dee – "In and Out" (Stifler sees the lesbians)
Rafael Hernandez Marin – "El Cumbanchero"
Michelle Branch – "Everywhere" (Plays during the montage of the guys having fun in their beach house)
Weezer – "Hash Pipe" (Stifler breaks into the lesbians' house)
Julius Wechter – "Spanish Flea"
Alien Ant Farm – "Smooth Criminal" (During the iconic scene with Jim super-gluing himself to himself)
Toilet Böys – "Another Day in the Life" (Beginning of the lake house party)
The Offspring – "Want You Bad" (Montage of Michelle and Jim dating)
Sum 41 – "In Too Deep" (Heather and Oz and Jim and Michelle dance with each other)
New Found Glory – "Hit or Miss" (The guys return from the beach)
Witness – "Here's One for You" (uncredited) (only on some soundtrack versions)
Larry Marciano – "The Way It Used to Be"
Third Eye Blind – "Semi-Charmed Life"
Zed – "Renegade Fighter"
References
External links
2001 films
2001 comedy films
2000s teen sex comedy films
American films
American Pie (film series)
American sequel films
American sex comedy films
2000s English-language films
Films directed by J. B. Rogers
Films set in Michigan
Films set in 2000
Films with screenplays by Adam Herz
Universal Pictures films | [
-0.28554385900497437,
-0.0988076850771904,
-0.45826539397239685,
-0.01990092545747757,
-0.16813579201698303,
0.33732426166534424,
0.5824964046478271,
0.35416537523269653,
0.0034323567524552345,
0.008761451579630375,
0.064242422580719,
0.45177337527275085,
-0.0057518696412444115,
-0.34961989521980286,
-0.05673851817846298,
-0.11757336556911469,
0.8388451337814331,
0.516930103302002,
0.06239482760429382,
-0.665952742099762,
-0.5142479538917542,
0.14389462769031525,
0.3821466267108917,
-0.17488321661949158,
-0.5807585120201111,
0.3940592110157013,
0.060958877205848694,
-0.23963260650634766,
0.21366919577121735,
-0.31664904952049255,
-0.12783223390579224,
-0.0800195038318634,
-0.19718097150325775,
-0.7459945678710938,
0.011201812885701656,
0.13880117237567902,
-0.34561365842819214,
-0.3281712234020233,
0.03784696012735367,
0.10765289515256882,
-0.20612388849258423,
0.17986217141151428,
0.43033546209335327,
0.031222432851791382,
-0.1545739769935608,
0.09781241416931152,
-1.5944418907165527,
-0.005893303081393242,
-0.5150780081748962,
0.047068603336811066,
0.5889536142349243,
-0.08319715410470963,
0.15789669752120972,
0.4049851596355438,
0.3127160370349884,
1.3560720682144165,
-0.658890962600708,
0.059686657041311264,
-0.34502843022346497,
-0.18095512688159943,
0.376949667930603,
0.42347028851509094,
0.10567130148410797,
-0.8833552002906799,
-0.36763274669647217,
0.0960608497262001,
-0.10285058617591858,
1.0491259098052979,
-0.21280962228775024,
-0.0761253610253334,
0.28066486120224,
-0.9338299632072449,
0.4329112768173218,
-0.025181593373417854,
0.36723440885543823,
-0.7758269309997559,
0.11109234392642975,
0.3559025228023529,
-0.08664851635694504,
-0.025530537590384483,
-0.08334385603666306,
-0.01161278411746025,
0.8354640007019043,
0.6218569874763489,
-0.17262499034404755,
-0.10212114453315735,
0.3927297294139862,
0.029355384409427643,
-0.4735563397407532,
0.482551246881485,
-1.3368390798568726,
-0.11862897872924805,
0.3200003206729889,
0.5042144060134888,
0.18106673657894135,
-0.35918933153152466,
-0.3296746015548706,
-0.19125854969024658,
0.774868905544281,
0.1576126664876938,
-0.3749081790447235,
0.2308725118637085,
0.21365447342395782,
0.13746726512908936,
-0.7622674703598022,
-0.25079864263534546,
-0.0642416775226593,
-0.6085823774337769,
-0.12204531580209732,
-0.07981182634830475,
-0.08155518025159836,
0.25038009881973267,
-0.3223276436328888,
0.5090693831443787,
-0.7593088150024414,
0.5655350089073181,
-0.2565653324127197,
-0.5497465133666992,
-1.006543755531311,
-0.21422737836837769,
0.18925976753234863,
0.5425481200218201,
0.1379125714302063,
0.4882168471813202,
0.16292692720890045,
0.11625222116708755,
0.20156027376651764,
0.6352981925010681,
0.4399438798427582,
0.31060081720352173,
0.12892474234104156,
0.12909716367721558,
-0.057524316012859344,
-0.09398707747459412,
0.20551112294197083,
-0.8898262977600098,
0.46238499879837036,
-0.04454631730914116,
-0.024830317124724388,
0.1880941092967987,
-0.3420298993587494,
-0.014893509447574615,
0.037410520017147064,
-0.15117335319519043,
0.4207024574279785,
0.5962251424789429,
-0.09364862740039825,
0.20488792657852173,
-0.2941097319126129,
-0.6118859648704529,
0.2907950282096863,
-0.02910660021007061,
0.02218787558376789,
-0.3464132845401764,
-0.19891153275966644,
1.0555715560913086,
0.11972265690565109,
-0.2016042023897171,
0.03489245846867561,
0.7821285724639893,
0.3078930675983429,
-0.0339888259768486,
0.011298315599560738,
-0.39712682366371155,
0.4776219129562378,
0.3909260332584381,
0.9630590081214905,
-0.08296970278024673,
0.37325093150138855,
0.765799880027771,
-0.40283721685409546,
-0.14548690617084503,
0.26929473876953125,
0.05343233048915863,
0.23283027112483978,
-0.42300093173980713,
0.7067355513572693,
0.38393327593803406,
0.716554582118988,
-0.1315167099237442,
-0.6487976312637329,
0.3723909854888916,
0.4476930797100067,
-0.43037140369415283,
0.6173442006111145,
-0.24807614088058472,
0.5112611651420593,
-0.48338577151298523,
-0.32960376143455505,
0.2317279428243637,
-0.266144335269928,
-0.6661070585250854,
0.12450692057609558,
-0.2824433743953705,
0.7885841727256775,
0.3114688992500305,
-0.7895889282226562,
-0.13049215078353882,
-0.07442938536405563,
0.5030602812767029,
-0.7004330158233643,
-0.162312313914299,
1.0018082857131958,
0.17728915810585022,
-0.5095821022987366,
0.038670048117637634,
0.5945819616317749,
0.0011639161966741085,
0.635552704334259,
0.7014704346656799,
-0.2049424648284912,
0.1385062336921692,
0.19886459410190582,
0.3884369730949402,
0.11514217406511307,
0.4549262225627899,
0.0011711427941918373,
-0.06253284960985184,
0.31199267506599426,
-0.5134983658790588,
0.42007824778556824,
0.23557250201702118,
0.015850650146603584,
0.33951979875564575,
0.44580888748168945,
1.4316048622131348,
0.2215735763311386,
-0.15857623517513275,
0.13547343015670776,
0.6992620229721069,
-0.06939905136823654,
0.9853614568710327,
0.19849954545497894,
-0.6650451421737671,
0.08462259918451309,
0.16388557851314545,
0.6504881381988525,
-0.47904470562934875,
0.21982909739017487,
0.1253371387720108,
0.3149651288986206,
0.6118176579475403,
-0.13570882380008698,
0.1304134577512741,
-0.40665677189826965,
-0.28415346145629883,
0.5103747248649597,
0.35117727518081665,
-0.07208965718746185,
-0.5714550018310547,
0.05505974218249321,
0.410434752702713,
0.09953055530786514,
-0.44367218017578125,
0.1673927903175354,
0.3889447748661041,
-0.6153247356414795,
-0.0822686031460762,
0.4075506031513214,
0.0735892653465271,
-0.06228037178516388,
0.299845427274704,
0.33155304193496704,
0.7333536148071289,
0.22210481762886047,
-0.2679639756679535,
-1.0330421924591064,
0.017444970086216927,
0.2927771806716919,
0.37507015466690063,
0.3902086913585663,
-0.12157658487558365,
-0.3536272943019867,
-0.18134567141532898,
0.15256443619728088,
-0.3636086583137512,
-0.3768472671508789,
0.13892140984535217,
-0.4240041673183441,
-0.766061544418335,
0.5002580285072327,
1.0228092670440674,
0.2892839312553406,
0.014406370930373669,
-0.5492870211601257,
0.10086683928966522,
0.0876450389623642,
-1.4110532999038696,
-0.5260528922080994,
-0.5859413743019104,
0.39762118458747864,
-0.16140946745872498,
-0.40696775913238525,
-0.20779825747013092,
-0.126973494887352,
-0.17390620708465576,
-0.1595199853181839,
0.0772847905755043,
0.3769091069698334,
-0.06694190204143524,
0.33025282621383667,
-0.2153291255235672,
-0.5161533355712891,
-0.06708890199661255,
0.6288435459136963,
-0.2200479507446289,
0.07383760809898376,
-0.819921612739563,
-5.60465145111084,
-0.14076079428195953,
-0.24307429790496826,
0.03763008490204811,
0.2984306216239929,
-0.25652191042900085,
0.5124192237854004,
-0.5399048924446106,
0.24880149960517883,
0.47395187616348267,
-0.4281100332736969,
-0.19601088762283325,
0.09275159984827042,
0.21827110648155212,
-0.30120226740837097,
-0.5697746872901917,
-0.2659361660480499,
-0.6511609554290771,
-0.11461955308914185,
0.09983453154563904,
-0.12516865134239197,
-0.06027262657880783,
0.10653785616159439,
0.038424938917160034,
0.2644231617450714,
0.40312448143959045,
-0.8476783633232117,
0.4934588372707367,
0.122115358710289,
-0.0452665351331234,
-0.08133414387702942,
0.2697732448577881,
0.13149471580982208,
-0.16623163223266602,
-0.12561576068401337,
0.0007333752000704408,
0.5213102102279663,
-0.035807374864816666,
0.702362060546875,
0.09350600093603134,
0.11184034496545792,
0.11913318186998367,
-0.35999852418899536,
0.006801225244998932,
1.2005860805511475,
-0.652434766292572,
-0.31219199299812317,
-0.8117187023162842,
0.12434592843055725,
0.47615090012550354,
0.717091977596283,
0.38053634762763977,
0.001015311456285417,
0.6468055248260498,
0.6153802871704102,
-0.4176035225391388,
-0.10082338005304337,
0.020709393545985222,
0.016018584370613098,
-0.18248264491558075,
0.09077036380767822,
-0.37284567952156067,
0.07493358850479126,
-0.12077361345291138,
0.33505916595458984,
-0.41078808903694153,
0.26220646500587463,
0.07705739885568619,
0.06119414418935776,
0.2532709240913391,
-0.31671884655952454,
-0.2891511619091034,
0.002420328091830015,
-1.0301569700241089,
0.4400347173213959,
-0.11745025962591171,
-0.3426964581012726,
-0.006469508167356253,
-0.44713813066482544,
0.28944283723831177,
0.33359476923942566,
-0.14098389446735382,
-0.45571085810661316,
0.39206594228744507,
0.3563898205757141,
0.051823846995830536,
-0.2782611548900604,
0.09166433662176132,
-0.38201162219047546,
-0.2442941516637802,
0.13586603105068207,
-0.1602238565683365,
-0.4316084086894989,
0.05238949507474899,
0.23410210013389587,
0.29778507351875305,
0.00604655547067523,
0.12040809541940689,
0.1909964680671692,
0.027397869154810905,
-0.10541915893554688,
-0.6844606995582581,
-0.10237275063991547,
-0.21325308084487915,
-0.028386075049638748,
-0.47335726022720337,
0.39598318934440613,
0.3620865046977997,
-0.23344971239566803,
-0.20122434198856354,
0.07631982117891312,
-0.1422330141067505,
-0.8571555614471436,
0.05343814939260483,
0.14166578650474548,
0.35985007882118225,
-0.5803302526473999,
-0.32417169213294983,
0.3658410608768463,
0.5455681681632996,
0.13705551624298096,
0.5977723002433777,
-0.26906290650367737,
0.3014885187149048,
-0.5398944020271301,
-0.5003880858421326,
-0.017112456262111664,
-0.00790230743587017,
0.4202171862125397,
0.5239929556846619,
-0.385097861289978,
-0.2005460411310196,
-0.36097532510757446,
0.11360177397727966,
0.4045346677303314,
-0.3288207948207855,
0.043011635541915894,
-0.04378091171383858,
-0.318055123090744,
0.05146212875843048,
0.4075447916984558,
-0.5505567193031311,
-0.019458215683698654,
0.09130267053842545,
-0.005717262625694275,
0.17397870123386383,
-0.0491328090429306,
-0.7205440998077393,
-0.5129470229148865,
-0.16262535750865936,
-0.45870497822761536,
0.05026814714074135,
0.8084651827812195,
-0.32391059398651123,
-0.2774903178215027,
0.4659017324447632,
0.14455601572990417,
0.3912118077278137,
-0.8648673892021179,
-0.07309155911207199,
0.9151836037635803,
-0.7653683423995972,
-1.0113215446472168,
0.257633239030838,
-0.11362169682979584,
0.00421703839674592,
-0.33423396944999695,
-0.8567596673965454,
-0.6018169522285461,
0.05320027098059654,
0.7802640795707703,
-0.05125362426042557,
0.05811193212866783,
0.5206258893013,
0.3832402527332306,
0.05759771913290024,
0.43332403898239136,
-0.5248546004295349,
-0.09479464590549469,
-0.599863588809967,
-0.20870955288410187,
-0.5194220542907715,
0.11124876886606216,
0.2734870910644531,
0.555586576461792,
-0.7303067445755005,
-0.26548463106155396,
0.23927590250968933,
-0.3798438310623169,
0.3072627782821655,
0.020129051059484482,
0.3564859926700592,
0.7598467469215393,
-0.12947653234004974,
-0.9966456890106201,
-0.4079703688621521,
0.07009485363960266,
0.5021497011184692,
-0.26664742827415466,
-0.5928125381469727,
-0.11079772561788559,
0.11000407487154007,
-0.0760139673948288,
0.16782686114311218,
0.4677572548389435,
-0.3525521457195282,
0.5590251088142395,
0.6717043519020081,
-0.2917645275592804,
0.14823132753372192,
0.1410183310508728,
-0.7770440578460693,
-0.17710819840431213,
-0.08845601230859756,
0.03353272005915642,
0.3910459578037262,
0.14330631494522095,
0.7355617880821228,
-0.03471478447318077,
-0.32083022594451904,
-0.1699615716934204,
-0.6644255518913269,
-1.0332708358764648,
-0.21615387499332428,
-1.020422101020813,
0.6076163649559021,
0.0072255306877195835,
-0.6785017251968384,
0.09074661880731583,
-0.5336452722549438,
0.49647751450538635,
-0.09715300798416138,
-0.380447119474411,
0.49128177762031555,
0.0760408267378807,
0.05268014594912529,
-0.0968298465013504,
0.775159478187561,
-0.1886318176984787,
0.0594182163476944,
0.11287480592727661,
0.6823104619979858,
0.11359851062297821,
0.12468032538890839,
-0.1833025962114334,
0.6096203327178955,
-0.4683409333229065,
-0.489093542098999,
-0.5592949390411377,
0.16983185708522797,
0.09784683585166931,
0.03048885613679886,
-0.11253195255994797,
0.07428451627492905,
0.3120971918106079,
-1.1590484380722046,
-0.3663538992404938,
-0.09283433854579926,
-0.5678979158401489,
0.13681043684482574,
-0.4384082555770874,
0.021362001076340675,
-0.7325943112373352,
0.3876190781593323,
-0.023175382986664772,
-0.3583601117134094,
0.7140093445777893,
-0.5142842531204224,
-0.2905372083187103,
0.18882694840431213,
-0.06388209760189056,
-0.05065120756626129,
-0.2768506407737732,
0.061392221599817276,
-0.3561505079269409,
-0.0055739437229931355,
-0.6056351065635681,
-0.7145646214485168,
-0.11056365072727203,
-0.18792730569839478,
-0.2771276533603668,
-0.2596759498119354,
-0.5947620868682861,
-0.45452696084976196,
-0.3816492557525635,
-0.6373265385627747,
0.35082873702049255,
-0.44458135962486267,
-0.2988665699958801,
0.4124016761779785,
0.16154056787490845,
0.11903054267168045,
-0.39155513048171997,
-0.5797697305679321,
0.3293902575969696,
-0.4547509253025055,
-0.06386808305978775,
-0.1525188535451889,
-0.381175696849823,
-0.7547135353088379,
0.237571120262146,
0.3374830186367035,
-0.2377186417579651,
0.4374167323112488,
-0.11577235162258148,
0.5097032189369202,
-0.3980594277381897,
0.015234437771141529,
-0.3680706024169922,
0.23397482931613922,
0.005929787643253803,
-0.12390296906232834,
0.08336146175861359,
0.1744745820760727,
-0.10531508922576904,
0.7271862030029297,
0.8195956349372864,
-0.10208924114704132,
-0.6698690056800842,
0.20007406175136566,
0.2845354974269867,
-0.4578494727611542,
0.6524441838264465,
-0.3509400188922882,
0.03004157729446888,
0.36344364285469055,
-0.16604992747306824,
0.09126082807779312,
0.26713287830352783,
0.05070171505212784,
0.5577275156974792,
0.30923396348953247,
0.14932851493358612,
0.5520880818367004,
0.45977726578712463,
-0.45444536209106445,
-0.3931736350059509,
-0.02455267682671547,
0.08046694099903107,
0.7637813091278076,
0.14720594882965088,
0.6928569078445435,
0.02343813143670559,
0.07446464896202087,
-0.07876190543174744,
0.0026795919984579086,
-0.25455886125564575,
-0.6238833069801331,
0.6166037321090698,
0.21493013203144073,
-0.020942943170666695,
0.4002831280231476,
0.029713502153754234,
-0.3590981960296631,
0.23313160240650177,
-0.012646854855120182,
-0.18065769970417023,
-0.07144314795732498,
0.07482054084539413,
-0.04965569078922272,
0.30355775356292725,
0.439546674489975,
0.338449090719223,
0.43257296085357666,
-0.05201048403978348,
-0.2188819944858551,
-0.6399872303009033,
0.44631993770599365,
-0.334850549697876,
0.0632789358496666,
-0.0703873261809349,
0.18237634003162384,
0.012327063828706741,
-0.43683600425720215,
0.6763275861740112,
1.133703589439392,
-0.385688841342926,
-0.2140524983406067,
-0.43072178959846497,
0.13059432804584503,
-0.5173768997192383,
0.3405582308769226,
-0.7997188568115234,
-0.1989281326532364,
0.07103599607944489,
0.34483909606933594,
0.35436195135116577,
0.43125855922698975,
-0.40755125880241394,
-1.022889494895935,
-0.013182009570300579,
-0.7663149833679199,
0.15809908509254456,
0.03215905651450157,
-0.6178266406059265,
-0.18150755763053894,
0.07189590483903885,
0.07251276820898056,
0.29276761412620544,
0.42571812868118286,
0.3368743360042572,
0.20566757023334503,
0.22187872231006622,
0.21830777823925018,
-0.6248891949653625,
0.4071340262889862,
-0.5327461957931519,
-0.14806996285915375,
-0.5788061618804932,
0.2114049345254898,
0.2975955903530121,
-0.10308253765106201,
-0.6024791598320007,
-0.23456117510795593,
0.03569421172142029,
0.013890789821743965,
0.34455475211143494,
-0.48888030648231506,
0.1386135220527649,
0.012188885360956192,
0.031433574855327606,
-0.9440642595291138,
0.44038140773773193,
0.10809687525033951,
0.17359571158885956,
-0.17456109821796417,
0.3664607107639313,
-0.4081130027770996,
0.16864360868930817,
0.3155989646911621,
0.24956399202346802,
0.41323918104171753,
0.2862265110015869,
-0.2902495265007019,
0.6364444494247437,
-0.6401157379150391,
0.18667805194854736,
0.48483940958976746,
0.7390598058700562,
-0.12441866844892502,
0.18988186120986938,
-0.2210015505552292,
-0.11757007241249084,
-0.3018118739128113,
-0.7209252715110779,
-0.16549666225910187,
0.19403009116649628,
-0.33299291133880615,
0.012899941764771938,
0.03334704041481018,
0.014051767066121101,
0.18368841707706451,
-0.2599046230316162,
0.014657544903457165,
-0.04747261479496956,
-0.003978264983743429,
0.5816646814346313,
-0.350495845079422,
0.9199442267417908,
-0.016870958730578423
] |
241473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomen | Nomen | Nomen may refer to:
Nomen (Roman name), the middle part of Ancient Roman names
Nomen (Ancient Egypt), the personal name of Ancient Egyptian pharaohs
Jaume Nomen (born 1960), Catalan astronomer
Nomen, Latin for a certain part of speech
Nomen, part of the FRSAD library model
See also
Nō-men, the mask used in Noh performances (see Noh#Masks)
Nomina (journal), published by the Society for Name Studies in Britain and Ireland | [
-0.028476417064666748,
-0.06098347157239914,
-0.21551929414272308,
0.10986880213022232,
-0.40195968747138977,
0.3946954011917114,
0.5830212235450745,
0.31084784865379333,
-0.3046238124370575,
-0.6266682147979736,
-0.6367436647415161,
0.3567063808441162,
-0.1724970042705536,
0.11176244914531708,
-0.017211752012372017,
0.12054629623889923,
0.25989726185798645,
0.6961737275123596,
-0.24210861325263977,
0.16372007131576538,
-0.44499671459198,
-0.04898777976632118,
0.3110331594944,
-0.8633825778961182,
0.4096206724643707,
-0.257143497467041,
-0.2032279521226883,
-0.07910245656967163,
-0.27400070428848267,
0.29186514019966125,
-0.36488938331604004,
0.552362322807312,
-0.1724194437265396,
-0.0029682933818548918,
-0.4049743413925171,
-0.11801565438508987,
-0.1921486258506775,
-0.3964715003967285,
0.11869725584983826,
-0.308110773563385,
0.18140901625156403,
-0.3672003149986267,
-0.050042882561683655,
-0.1413554698228836,
-0.7568898797035217,
-0.3188518285751343,
-1.2142940759658813,
0.27742353081703186,
-0.8268963098526001,
0.27195897698402405,
-0.6980389356613159,
-0.4285711646080017,
-0.3120037019252777,
0.6547423601150513,
-0.09028440713882446,
-0.1732998639345169,
-0.5404334664344788,
-0.3545275330543518,
0.29506686329841614,
-0.23634696006774902,
0.6085172891616821,
0.3770389258861542,
-0.4823673665523529,
0.4987620711326599,
0.6773554682731628,
0.35250037908554077,
0.26392149925231934,
0.4517035484313965,
-0.9399732351303101,
-0.3170165717601776,
-0.3313789963722229,
0.05086800456047058,
-0.19779478013515472,
0.24242880940437317,
0.04086564853787422,
-0.3426375091075897,
0.11646674573421478,
-0.3922977149486542,
0.1431986540555954,
-0.11454411596059799,
0.3244169056415558,
0.18755078315734863,
1.0014132261276245,
0.16877518594264984,
0.12899059057235718,
0.019657354801893234,
-0.6447402834892273,
0.17562028765678406,
-0.4112476408481598,
-0.47614574432373047,
0.3420480787754059,
-0.16980822384357452,
0.6226027607917786,
-0.0896938294172287,
-0.15413182973861694,
0.50680011510849,
0.30856865644454956,
-0.28943294286727905,
0.1553429812192917,
-0.5727673172950745,
-0.3853210210800171,
-0.5096433162689209,
0.1257997751235962,
-0.6243069767951965,
-0.6287462711334229,
-0.2756975591182709,
-0.05915459990501404,
0.36254405975341797,
0.2666166424751282,
0.5208624601364136,
0.1104569286108017,
0.22702454030513763,
0.45050981640815735,
0.11017352342605591,
-0.14851967990398407,
0.2746189832687378,
0.03258894383907318,
0.004543760791420937,
0.03229975327849388,
-0.17779064178466797,
0.12440729141235352,
0.44209301471710205,
0.675626814365387,
0.22217459976673126,
-0.3774055540561676,
0.3733091354370117,
0.16758687794208527,
0.5081359148025513,
-0.25048285722732544,
0.3104793131351471,
0.0412607379257679,
0.6433099508285522,
0.20356327295303345,
0.4116780459880829,
-0.07036231458187103,
-0.35914668440818787,
-0.05022191256284714,
0.25743865966796875,
0.5214428305625916,
0.34917694330215454,
-0.8971342444419861,
-0.28313973546028137,
-0.7848919034004211,
0.3672899603843689,
0.8954318761825562,
-0.3320700526237488,
0.2068907618522644,
0.14936915040016174,
0.13339033722877502,
0.1030694767832756,
-0.16922128200531006,
-0.496358722448349,
0.25409284234046936,
0.049824971705675125,
-0.3599242568016052,
0.3226580023765564,
0.6672435402870178,
0.24792298674583435,
0.4240001440048218,
0.19186487793922424,
-0.10368458181619644,
0.05669798702001572,
-0.15259408950805664,
0.2310398370027542,
0.36566171050071716,
-0.2075739949941635,
-0.20746982097625732,
0.34820809960365295,
-0.435683012008667,
0.2598574459552765,
0.10413053631782532,
-0.4342617690563202,
0.3164392113685608,
-0.1316719353199005,
-0.3567487895488739,
0.14173084497451782,
0.22541497647762299,
0.4207257628440857,
0.4515605568885803,
-0.030857838690280914,
-0.6732117533683777,
0.27130454778671265,
0.2551864981651306,
-0.04144640639424324,
0.07545964419841766,
-0.303798645734787,
0.0885351225733757,
-0.07098133116960526,
-0.4114624261856079,
-0.3095610439777374,
-0.840636134147644,
0.21907025575637817,
0.01631026342511177,
-0.1436508148908615,
0.5138182640075684,
0.06663931906223297,
-0.2692398428916931,
1.0678730010986328,
0.33411961793899536,
0.7128227949142456,
0.22980232536792755,
-0.43263116478919983,
0.05942975729703903,
0.36711403727531433,
-0.2718009352684021,
0.8026601076126099,
0.4318077862262726,
0.17623567581176758,
0.5295827388763428,
0.018537277355790138,
0.5535815358161926,
-0.12933097779750824,
0.3594748079776764,
-0.39631807804107666,
0.06139746308326721,
-0.2939623296260834,
-0.2300386130809784,
-0.0763569176197052,
-0.37291818857192993,
-0.3929077088832855,
1.2333143949508667,
-0.5077503323554993,
0.190883070230484,
-0.5306398272514343,
-0.6624554991722107,
0.5294230580329895,
-0.021923108026385307,
-0.07072696834802628,
0.15217375755310059,
-0.22772826254367828,
0.18260803818702698,
0.21535439789295197,
0.33825525641441345,
-0.009734735824167728,
-0.06933180242776871,
-0.3593895435333252,
0.5232179164886475,
-0.6188107132911682,
0.3161885440349579,
-0.5233575701713562,
-0.2936631739139557,
0.5938603281974792,
-0.17228668928146362,
0.5130290389060974,
0.216697558760643,
0.13856878876686096,
0.6705111861228943,
0.08586816489696503,
0.13143569231033325,
0.09065839648246765,
0.11313226073980331,
0.029037848114967346,
0.048682600259780884,
-0.3138714134693146,
0.03761935234069824,
0.1993436962366104,
0.22446370124816895,
0.3371964395046234,
0.28378918766975403,
-0.02670101635158062,
-0.6070887446403503,
0.4156761169433594,
0.27001357078552246,
-0.07813165336847305,
-0.4405783712863922,
-0.44178128242492676,
-0.1916196495294571,
-0.43243175745010376,
0.4771711528301239,
0.1997690051794052,
0.8705906867980957,
0.47783738374710083,
-1.0673208236694336,
-0.04245981574058533,
-0.2598600387573242,
0.23299527168273926,
0.32824888825416565,
0.2441241592168808,
-0.34712064266204834,
-0.7358114719390869,
-0.10771256685256958,
0.8210620284080505,
0.21955986320972443,
-0.3925199806690216,
-0.06359823793172836,
-0.39906662702560425,
0.04966883361339569,
-0.11473749577999115,
0.2054549902677536,
-0.34958577156066895,
-0.014315163716673851,
0.36552250385284424,
0.08090025931596756,
0.011957013048231602,
0.08197267353534698,
0.09735499322414398,
0.0944056510925293,
0.17819848656654358,
-0.06484182924032211,
-0.055457841604948044,
-0.9761645197868347,
0.2126476764678955,
0.03604036569595337,
0.10016486048698425,
0.17964066565036774,
0.15764985978603363,
0.10930413007736206,
0.43665748834609985,
-5.873622417449951,
-0.19941286742687225,
-0.24084411561489105,
0.09309814870357513,
0.6067778468132019,
-0.09252575784921646,
0.5821106433868408,
0.026462024077773094,
-0.2402145266532898,
-0.4107091724872589,
0.45000240206718445,
0.06934071332216263,
0.009998221881687641,
0.8870818018913269,
0.27879926562309265,
-0.3238845765590668,
-0.20612189173698425,
0.13326755166053772,
-0.23729804158210754,
0.23204508423805237,
0.02080661989748478,
0.3286671042442322,
0.362274706363678,
0.14368785917758942,
0.09257557988166809,
0.18722540140151978,
-0.3716382086277008,
0.21413150429725647,
-0.4508967697620392,
-0.7951723337173462,
0.12333328276872635,
-0.017777271568775177,
0.22644178569316864,
-0.40982145071029663,
-0.24172352254390717,
-0.0928468331694603,
0.7582501173019409,
-0.23732633888721466,
0.6724694967269897,
-0.33205199241638184,
-0.6123131513595581,
0.11283044517040253,
0.3410967290401459,
0.11454595625400543,
-0.0034434006083756685,
0.11013753712177277,
-0.15828067064285278,
-0.05271058902144432,
0.07194042950868607,
0.4298887848854065,
-0.43702590465545654,
-0.24738363921642303,
0.38245171308517456,
-0.18409381806850433,
0.4524839222431183,
0.1451357752084732,
0.34908774495124817,
0.340581476688385,
-0.22009164094924927,
0.2134135216474533,
-0.053693629801273346,
-0.8329497575759888,
0.0502927303314209,
-1.0782618522644043,
-0.11524999886751175,
-0.17609232664108276,
-0.3331187963485718,
0.2068832367658615,
0.7457383275032043,
0.2779729962348938,
-0.18767739832401276,
0.45527780055999756,
0.3657371997833252,
-0.5828077793121338,
-0.0249782707542181,
-0.13179156184196472,
-0.3307451605796814,
-0.18583698570728302,
-0.09062892198562622,
0.0286250039935112,
-0.45509156584739685,
-0.3113083243370056,
-0.3850819766521454,
0.16925795376300812,
0.16120599210262299,
-0.13715368509292603,
0.5812717080116272,
0.04559928551316261,
-0.10715844482183456,
-0.4083491265773773,
0.7525736689567566,
0.030730342492461205,
0.08543018251657486,
0.26951006054878235,
-0.05784498527646065,
0.6220335960388184,
-0.04690729081630707,
-0.048652805387973785,
0.46626171469688416,
0.1719849705696106,
0.04409736767411232,
-0.5406861901283264,
0.13415874540805817,
-0.4139319062232971,
-0.3318865895271301,
-0.019411245360970497,
-0.9147309064865112,
0.30696654319763184,
0.5687004923820496,
-0.4293519854545593,
0.20288020372390747,
0.3886396586894989,
0.07619920372962952,
-0.2033446580171585,
-0.07453995943069458,
-0.25057268142700195,
-0.3138267695903778,
0.703910768032074,
0.6553748846054077,
0.5230490565299988,
0.3369502127170563,
0.7692192196846008,
-0.09272725135087967,
-0.3206937909126282,
-0.5332746505737305,
-0.007601703982800245,
0.22647187113761902,
-0.037039026618003845,
-0.23640935122966766,
-0.1593518853187561,
-0.0928773507475853,
0.5808979272842407,
-0.13149335980415344,
-0.22136926651000977,
0.5189297199249268,
-0.2933328449726105,
-0.4769555628299713,
0.6444960236549377,
-0.035773832350969315,
-0.6308003067970276,
0.21424688398838043,
-0.7789362668991089,
-0.6850119233131409,
0.15541042387485504,
0.11087542772293091,
0.019345419481396675,
-0.02457580156624317,
-0.49732160568237305,
-0.5865126848220825,
0.9707261919975281,
0.31070294976234436,
-0.7478687167167664,
0.33511799573898315,
-0.8326289057731628,
0.10417145490646362,
-0.49067920446395874,
-0.1453796774148941,
0.05980552360415459,
-0.39501357078552246,
-0.45933517813682556,
-0.7186948657035828,
-0.28371885418891907,
-0.7671122550964355,
-0.06385333836078644,
0.34374430775642395,
-0.6237928867340088,
-0.2525550425052643,
-0.6247369647026062,
-0.38110852241516113,
0.7384436130523682,
-0.36948034167289734,
0.28623315691947937,
-0.45888420939445496,
-0.36056166887283325,
0.2227511703968048,
-0.14394579827785492,
0.12328366190195084,
0.5302940607070923,
-0.08706121146678925,
0.38422834873199463,
0.2634924054145813,
0.1526583880186081,
0.008588508702814579,
-0.002704351209104061,
0.8000348806381226,
-0.4495846629142761,
0.058806538581848145,
-0.051836129277944565,
-0.3487939238548279,
-0.3858630955219269,
-0.26552528142929077,
-0.17258144915103912,
0.07176323235034943,
-0.45249730348587036,
-0.6589536666870117,
0.35376396775245667,
0.025711309164762497,
0.29818353056907654,
-0.14801448583602905,
-0.1389891803264618,
0.6790838837623596,
-0.0003665731637738645,
-0.4207295775413513,
-0.13431385159492493,
0.030518924817442894,
-0.7445768117904663,
0.532253086566925,
-0.37511539459228516,
-0.6218289732933044,
-0.08989102393388748,
-0.23200909793376923,
-0.8348921537399292,
0.011652346700429916,
0.1289207935333252,
-0.40878406167030334,
-0.23424383997917175,
0.026425771415233612,
-0.4494747221469879,
-0.6302424669265747,
-0.28954675793647766,
0.4746144711971283,
-0.10592266172170639,
-0.07642437517642975,
0.3578197658061981,
0.24303701519966125,
-0.2016105055809021,
0.25275254249572754,
-0.08374019712209702,
1.0434387922286987,
-0.5787025690078735,
-0.009806632995605469,
0.21697458624839783,
0.1458849012851715,
-0.20808395743370056,
-0.08031796663999557,
-0.4115583598613739,
0.38412344455718994,
-0.33018574118614197,
-0.5747747421264648,
0.056406158953905106,
0.9092718958854675,
0.38994625210762024,
-0.1303122192621231,
-0.44369715452194214,
-0.5419614911079407,
0.24112308025360107,
0.017095312476158142,
-0.5757855176925659,
-0.3530213236808777,
0.05385521799325943,
0.4682331383228302,
-0.252259761095047,
-1.0930925607681274,
0.10467278212308884,
0.547726035118103,
-0.16706691682338715,
0.33692407608032227,
-0.007666416000574827,
-0.48291492462158203,
0.3257279694080353,
0.5152420401573181,
-0.1815907210111618,
-0.05664012208580971,
0.15159295499324799,
-0.4595193564891815,
0.2223449945449829,
-0.4357684552669525,
0.1783330738544464,
0.6565520763397217,
-0.2537190318107605,
-0.43771135807037354,
-0.09521479904651642,
0.10375040769577026,
0.010374587960541248,
-0.10532785207033157,
0.1482267826795578,
-0.2271493524312973,
-0.05621905252337456,
-0.10644634813070297,
-0.08357052505016327,
-0.5616918802261353,
0.3770625591278076,
0.2583751976490021,
-0.10184567421674728,
0.32823580503463745,
-0.5450939536094666,
0.07026879489421844,
-0.09121610969305038,
-0.28782588243484497,
-0.06539642065763474,
-0.531948447227478,
-0.12712228298187256,
-0.11794642359018326,
0.3544299006462097,
-0.2480316460132599,
-0.10697508603334427,
-0.16735413670539856,
0.48367375135421753,
0.20470349490642548,
-0.031559526920318604,
-0.8843739628791809,
0.2924467921257019,
0.680597186088562,
-0.10247129201889038,
0.12945695221424103,
0.8841466903686523,
0.3177846670150757,
-0.8736782670021057,
-0.14363621175289154,
0.0054243942722678185,
-0.2201109528541565,
-0.10601523518562317,
0.5007172226905823,
0.8443114161491394,
-0.11801781505346298,
-0.09388600289821625,
0.13777537643909454,
-0.5288872718811035,
0.041195761412382126,
0.2282782942056656,
0.3192025423049927,
-0.26034408807754517,
0.4499147832393646,
0.23184403777122498,
-0.3874123692512512,
0.7480660676956177,
0.07923541963100433,
-0.2646488547325134,
0.3833829462528229,
0.6790196895599365,
0.9099152088165283,
0.46253299713134766,
-0.29241400957107544,
0.26013898849487305,
-0.5936251878738403,
-0.6958912014961243,
0.34928232431411743,
-0.4553976058959961,
-0.08000965416431427,
1.014838695526123,
0.2845579981803894,
0.666721761226654,
-0.10929995030164719,
-0.3483250141143799,
-0.006476284004747868,
0.05407470837235451,
-0.058705952018499374,
-0.18645088374614716,
0.12637436389923096,
-0.2145831286907196,
0.43949759006500244,
-0.4902131259441376,
-0.007789967581629753,
0.13859502971172333,
0.17360563576221466,
-0.10335789620876312,
0.08117985725402832,
-0.04986289143562317,
-0.39713576436042786,
0.09352116286754608,
0.2586265504360199,
0.2580289840698242,
0.45738497376441956,
0.08459141105413437,
-0.5236904621124268,
0.0019555329345166683,
-0.006792249623686075,
-0.2881023585796356,
-0.20908226072788239,
-0.3418760299682617,
0.2593849003314972,
0.15446755290031433,
-0.6611870527267456,
0.030504154041409492,
0.4114878475666046,
0.07431597262620926,
0.8326330184936523,
0.43990182876586914,
-0.15037497878074646,
-0.4932989776134491,
-0.07440990954637527,
-0.38128843903541565,
-0.29318222403526306,
-0.38863512873649597,
0.21525070071220398,
-0.4052465856075287,
-0.023544425144791603,
-0.05995352193713188,
-0.40654483437538147,
0.5174940228462219,
0.2637335956096649,
0.10509984195232391,
0.3734046518802643,
-0.1490306556224823,
-0.5680956244468689,
-0.21548564732074738,
-0.2613001763820648,
0.4969286620616913,
-0.17107878625392914,
-0.3497098684310913,
0.4663601517677307,
0.43881550431251526,
0.11242470145225525,
-0.04383279010653496,
-0.22110243141651154,
0.2915564477443695,
-0.4217130243778229,
0.15187637507915497,
-0.3818083703517914,
0.3538298010826111,
0.6023153066635132,
0.12437216192483902,
-0.09278547018766403,
0.7160487771034241,
0.1772373765707016,
-0.062146395444869995,
0.24044939875602722,
0.007988817058503628,
0.19531074166297913,
-0.222345769405365,
0.05441302806138992,
0.31130340695381165,
-0.2869934141635895,
0.3195992410182953,
-0.683498203754425,
-0.06621284037828445,
0.47166571021080017,
0.2727713882923126,
-0.730343759059906,
0.4588167071342468,
-0.4167232811450958,
0.22692173719406128,
-0.5999309420585632,
-0.03868678957223892,
-0.5344817638397217,
0.2384541928768158,
-0.09843413531780243,
0.45356351137161255,
-0.37491223216056824,
-0.4075601100921631,
0.03388527035713196,
0.07678675651550293,
-0.2052534818649292,
0.5771676301956177,
-0.30777406692504883,
0.2070692628622055,
-0.762315034866333,
-0.16124510765075684,
-0.40244409441947937,
-0.0331118181347847,
0.5788891315460205,
-0.12157438695430756,
0.7715237140655518,
-0.10343246161937714,
-0.07091192156076431,
-0.1534268707036972,
0.22510163486003876,
-0.49949613213539124,
0.377959281206131,
0.8319485783576965
] |
241474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemonium | Pandemonium | Pandæmonium, Pandemonium or Pandamonium may refer to:
Literature
Pandæmonium (Paradise Lost), capital of Hell in John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost
Pandaemonium (history book), a book by Humphrey Jennings, published posthumously in 1985
Pandaemonium (novel), a 2009 novel by Christopher Brookmyre
Pandemonium (novel), a 2012 novel by Lauren Oliver
Film and television
Pandemonium, a 1971 Japanese film directed by Toshio Matsumoto
Pandemonium (1982 film), a 1982 American comedy
Pandemonium (1987 film), Australian horror movie
Pandaemonium (film), a 2000 UK drama about the poets Coleridge and Wordsworth
Pandamonium (TV series), a 1982 American animated series
"Pandemonium" (Kaze no Stigma), an episode of Kaze no Stigma
Pandemonium, the opening segment of the London 2012 opening ceremony
"Pandemonium" (The Unit), an episode of The Unit
"Pandemonium" (The Good Place), an episode of The Good Place
Pandemonium (TV series), an upcoming BBC sitcom
Gaming and amusements
Pandemonium (role-playing game), a 1993 comedy role-playing game designed by Stephan Michael Sechi
Pandemonium! (video game), a 1996 platform game
Pandemonium 2, a 1997 platform game and sequel to Pandemonium!
Pandemonium (Dungeons & Dragons), a fictional location in the fantasy role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons
Pandemonium (roller coaster), a roller coaster at several Six Flags parks
Pandamonium (ride), Chinese-themed ride at Dreamworld in Australia
Music
Pandemonium (band), a 1980s American hard rock/heavy metal band
Pandemonium: the Lost and Found Orchestra, a music-based theatre piece by Luke Cresswell and Steve McNicholas
Pandemonium Tour, a 2009–2010 concert tour by Pet Shop Boys
Pandemonium, a Trinidadian steel band with Ray Holman
Albums
Pandemonium (Chthonic album), 2008
Pandemonium (Killing Joke album), or the title song (see below), 1994
Pandemonium (Loudness album), or the title song, "The Pandemonium", 2001
Pandemonium (Pet Shop Boys album), 2010
Pandemonium (SIC album), 2007
Pandemonium (The Time album), or the title song, 1990
Pandemonium (Torture Squad album), or the title song, 2003
Pandemonium! (album), by B2K, 2002
Pandemonium – The Singles Collection, by BWO, 2008
Pandemonium (Pretty Maids album), 2010
Pandemonium (Cavalera Conspiracy album), 2014
Pandemonium, a 2002 album by Nigel Eaton
Pandemonium, a 2015 compilation album by Bellowhead
Pandemonium (EP), a 2010 EP by In Legend
Songs
"Pandemonium" (song), by Killing Joke
"Pandemonium", a 1983 single by Pel Mel
"Pandemonium", a 2005 song from the musical The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee
Technology and science
Pandemonium architecture, an early connectionist AI technique proposed in 1959
Pandemonium effect, a problem that may appear when high resolution detectors are used in beta decay studies
Pandemonium Dorsa, a mountain range on the dwarf planet Pluto
See also
Pandemonia | [
0.2814888656139374,
0.5273675322532654,
-0.43073272705078125,
0.005926603451371193,
-0.2561872899532318,
0.11531022191047668,
0.4397481381893158,
0.016392039135098457,
-0.42957741022109985,
0.11188476532697678,
-0.6519997119903564,
0.07994797080755234,
-0.1736881285905838,
0.4819236397743225,
0.5442162156105042,
0.26480698585510254,
0.5604180693626404,
0.014179996214807034,
-0.47812095284461975,
-0.45974183082580566,
-0.3316954970359802,
0.1358308345079422,
0.6661407351493835,
0.07666517794132233,
0.025650708004832268,
0.1916607916355133,
0.26325079798698425,
0.0028437923174351454,
-0.17302945256233215,
0.3661622107028961,
0.003400924615561962,
0.2197955697774887,
0.2776888906955719,
-0.1548203080892563,
-0.14504407346248627,
-0.008364676497876644,
-0.6658456921577454,
0.07159876823425293,
-0.22307194769382477,
-0.5469810962677002,
0.2978397309780121,
-0.28375422954559326,
0.7378928065299988,
-0.26507681608200073,
-0.4625677168369293,
0.414013534784317,
-1.6097025871276855,
0.22753259539604187,
-1.0545536279678345,
0.30097681283950806,
0.41551801562309265,
0.3849697411060333,
0.5201143622398376,
-0.04593693092465401,
0.3932913541793823,
0.36725711822509766,
-0.8298699855804443,
0.05439358577132225,
0.10819653421640396,
-1.023166537284851,
0.18122808635234833,
0.4046499729156494,
0.30336323380470276,
0.27321046590805054,
0.26818910241127014,
-0.16074024140834808,
-0.05669226124882698,
0.1933935135602951,
0.06584762036800385,
-0.7909495234489441,
0.10691768676042557,
-0.21823254227638245,
-0.3537750840187073,
0.3262917697429657,
-0.3513413369655609,
-0.5591241717338562,
0.12350266426801682,
-0.11302732676267624,
-0.23716020584106445,
0.27243325114250183,
-0.203363299369812,
0.03805779293179512,
1.0619295835494995,
0.11504652351140976,
0.29879114031791687,
-0.7416949272155762,
0.16235552728176117,
0.6677426695823669,
-0.037013959139585495,
-0.11407589912414551,
0.07399890571832657,
-0.6198407411575317,
0.09830548614263535,
0.323096364736557,
0.22613625228405,
0.10825615376234055,
0.6009147763252258,
-0.2820912301540375,
0.10169421136379242,
-0.35097989439964294,
-0.17464102804660797,
-0.1030813604593277,
0.28829658031463623,
-0.16634248197078705,
-0.2724025845527649,
-0.2039567530155182,
0.16106289625167847,
0.0695386752486229,
0.31965482234954834,
0.41940078139305115,
-0.06357121467590332,
0.05070793628692627,
-0.13270846009254456,
0.05557882785797119,
0.13580386340618134,
-0.4608757197856903,
-0.3740508258342743,
-0.4526680111885071,
-0.2285947948694229,
0.07077893614768982,
0.5850743055343628,
0.16387630999088287,
0.31390637159347534,
0.4989948272705078,
-0.36678171157836914,
0.2580386698246002,
0.10143817216157913,
-0.014052930288016796,
-0.752174437046051,
0.2535204291343689,
0.3921186327934265,
0.886776328086853,
-0.018173670396208763,
0.003147152019664645,
-0.3744523823261261,
0.1487278789281845,
0.3819226026535034,
-0.22099021077156067,
-0.2775954008102417,
0.2806261479854584,
-0.3712260127067566,
0.07864474505186081,
-0.744164228439331,
0.2506943345069885,
0.46702471375465393,
-0.6171334385871887,
0.23917244374752045,
0.09119556844234467,
0.11509394645690918,
-0.4950811266899109,
0.004177074413746595,
-0.04819498583674431,
-0.29125097393989563,
-0.6476994156837463,
-0.24759815633296967,
-0.18869677186012268,
0.6026754975318909,
-0.21155261993408203,
0.19232669472694397,
-0.140166237950325,
0.21400074660778046,
0.4363335072994232,
-0.278516560792923,
-0.1415371298789978,
0.01303092110902071,
-0.08427749574184418,
0.1283961534500122,
0.44558191299438477,
-0.31346169114112854,
-0.10598727315664291,
-0.3478849232196808,
0.5595921874046326,
0.13331978023052216,
0.3459867238998413,
-0.509040117263794,
0.16187234222888947,
0.7919571399688721,
0.9251030683517456,
0.15697483718395233,
0.14251519739627838,
-0.6359635591506958,
-0.15436260402202606,
-0.20541194081306458,
-0.3935491144657135,
0.11987163126468658,
0.20629245042800903,
0.1439746916294098,
-0.09556153416633606,
0.2840811312198639,
0.03384687751531601,
-0.6954044699668884,
-0.43218299746513367,
0.30319681763648987,
-0.3666708171367645,
1.4232497215270996,
0.16106992959976196,
-0.30397483706474304,
0.2677691578865051,
0.2656751275062561,
0.20835353434085846,
-0.051396846771240234,
0.29552164673805237,
0.3263288736343384,
0.2640199065208435,
-0.40024325251579285,
-0.20000377297401428,
-0.12765967845916748,
0.4287949502468109,
-0.0027230558916926384,
0.18804782629013062,
0.2382948100566864,
-0.21638526022434235,
0.4720316529273987,
0.39949437975883484,
0.10462194681167603,
-0.2652318775653839,
-0.9077016711235046,
-0.11117611825466156,
-0.03340243175625801,
-0.23115038871765137,
0.23804549872875214,
-0.34272336959838867,
0.034667618572711945,
-0.30469682812690735,
0.08394835144281387,
0.7206808924674988,
0.08416417241096497,
0.2917114198207855,
0.8083897829055786,
-0.9177513122558594,
-0.016853010281920433,
1.25797438621521,
-0.2519395351409912,
-0.2526836097240448,
0.607409656047821,
0.31451016664505005,
0.4174366295337677,
-0.5888251662254333,
0.16491904854774475,
-0.11232368648052216,
0.26153817772865295,
-0.24537521600723267,
-0.07860606163740158,
0.29825812578201294,
0.48141294717788696,
-0.057391464710235596,
0.361173152923584,
-0.015900786966085434,
-0.4073032736778259,
0.31954362988471985,
0.2734914720058441,
0.7169355154037476,
0.006486277095973492,
0.2386745661497116,
0.22978338599205017,
0.23071448504924774,
-0.12917955219745636,
-0.36378827691078186,
0.03947912156581879,
-0.32398778200149536,
-0.3262825906276703,
-0.22715453803539276,
0.28337761759757996,
-0.23041637241840363,
-0.09829171001911163,
-0.4164164364337921,
-0.139971062541008,
-0.051063813269138336,
0.12366393953561783,
0.5815965533256531,
0.01398753933608532,
0.17217278480529785,
-0.9677131175994873,
0.39605969190597534,
-0.2311297357082367,
-0.41950535774230957,
0.1398623287677765,
-0.24827153980731964,
-0.14289464056491852,
-0.6491161584854126,
-0.6745334267616272,
0.40402525663375854,
0.17011168599128723,
-0.5501114130020142,
-0.02232818305492401,
-0.012300081551074982,
0.16544991731643677,
-0.2985909879207611,
0.06840451061725616,
-0.0084811607375741,
-0.26765450835227966,
0.14311902225017548,
0.039125896990299225,
-0.48319554328918457,
-0.03583861514925957,
0.3727589249610901,
-0.2810528576374054,
0.030778439715504646,
0.09144538640975952,
0.10721176117658615,
-0.5331088900566101,
0.2601264417171478,
0.04108956828713417,
0.32006120681762695,
0.64679354429245,
-0.3306131958961487,
-0.22460618615150452,
-0.1957554668188095,
-5.97216796875,
0.2530371844768524,
0.0640799030661583,
0.25483229756355286,
-0.024730900302529335,
0.36306485533714294,
0.3340051770210266,
-0.11138981580734253,
-0.4343006908893585,
-0.5637950897216797,
-0.23525376617908478,
0.003117883577942848,
0.07444820553064346,
0.698959231376648,
0.4109000265598297,
-0.0653664693236351,
-0.16870583593845367,
0.33575913310050964,
-0.5503484010696411,
-0.017237789928913116,
0.04107975587248802,
0.19365133345127106,
0.12039238959550858,
0.4768211245536804,
0.23205526173114777,
0.42221418023109436,
0.044483013451099396,
0.5262774229049683,
-0.18059280514717102,
-0.17794710397720337,
0.06075603514909744,
0.1884346306324005,
0.2888958752155304,
-0.21493075788021088,
0.08588828146457672,
0.20380036532878876,
0.4652433395385742,
-0.2170642763376236,
0.17218390107154846,
-0.6049943566322327,
-0.1508166790008545,
0.16638626158237457,
-0.22633855044841766,
-0.846465528011322,
0.09821408241987228,
-0.3065791726112366,
-0.13105282187461853,
0.4778105914592743,
-0.14848501980304718,
0.4043373167514801,
0.3005847632884979,
-0.13385464251041412,
0.03847700357437134,
0.35149839520454407,
0.04181778430938721,
-0.2407676875591278,
0.3163995146751404,
0.11692838370800018,
0.03938005864620209,
0.12808115780353546,
0.24278122186660767,
0.042306430637836456,
-0.08147624880075455,
-0.3413095474243164,
-0.3155324161052704,
-0.034825582057237625,
-0.4085755944252014,
-0.04335146024823189,
0.29911792278289795,
0.1856260746717453,
-0.41537803411483765,
-0.36693546175956726,
-0.018716802820563316,
-0.8742865324020386,
-0.5760499835014343,
0.14384815096855164,
-0.343516081571579,
-0.19331508874893188,
-0.24989017844200134,
0.30182698369026184,
-0.22677476704120636,
-0.19871588051319122,
0.008431264199316502,
-0.14172682166099548,
0.1899639368057251,
-0.6286532282829285,
-0.6905117034912109,
-0.007263438310474157,
-0.3559303879737854,
-0.17112989723682404,
0.4605634808540344,
0.058829162269830704,
-0.2613377571105957,
0.3205656111240387,
0.5852649807929993,
0.38923168182373047,
-0.14459680020809174,
0.3053034543991089,
0.5111860036849976,
0.33017030358314514,
-0.2857608497142792,
-0.3547629117965698,
0.3846628665924072,
-0.2150469869375229,
0.057767387479543686,
0.04801246523857117,
-0.41445472836494446,
0.3292869031429291,
0.4416108727455139,
-0.5739961266517639,
0.2701564431190491,
-0.27124515175819397,
0.18290767073631287,
-0.6085771918296814,
0.6363641619682312,
-0.3240578770637512,
0.22234906256198883,
0.22753430902957916,
0.5127421021461487,
-0.027883196249604225,
-0.03825902193784714,
0.42394810914993286,
-0.9293128848075867,
0.1365082561969757,
-0.06187286227941513,
-0.13145427405834198,
0.28584736585617065,
-0.011579776182770729,
0.3660215437412262,
-0.11649278551340103,
-0.26890236139297485,
0.43148744106292725,
0.13810816407203674,
-0.05745895579457283,
0.38236668705940247,
-0.6793601512908936,
-0.5891797542572021,
-0.07112526893615723,
-0.2537086606025696,
-0.03449475020170212,
0.22182202339172363,
-0.6746804714202881,
-0.19224978983402252,
0.3042413294315338,
0.11341764032840729,
-0.0013402987970039248,
0.09655680507421494,
-0.2308087795972824,
0.5666894912719727,
0.3292522132396698,
0.005572713445872068,
0.23027043044567108,
1.2369464635849,
-0.6374099850654602,
-0.45543959736824036,
-0.1297609955072403,
-0.3166090250015259,
0.4137144088745117,
0.2132963091135025,
-0.3285483121871948,
0.4527057707309723,
-0.10950642079114914,
-1.0929417610168457,
-0.2036575973033905,
-0.01956440694630146,
-0.5350289940834045,
-0.025980064645409584,
-0.7935735583305359,
-0.013862894847989082,
-0.14091919362545013,
0.6765409111976624,
-0.1634570062160492,
0.03940436616539955,
0.6712126731872559,
0.05727342143654823,
0.17866991460323334,
-0.40496692061424255,
-0.1965956836938858,
0.3966822028160095,
-0.07023037225008011,
-0.11335227638483047,
-0.29248103499412537,
-0.3715502619743347,
0.19614621996879578,
0.5553314089775085,
0.2209889441728592,
-0.4362494945526123,
-0.30230623483657837,
-0.5244824290275574,
-0.5680155158042908,
-0.271928995847702,
0.39879709482192993,
0.49483418464660645,
0.11809313297271729,
-0.12394947558641434,
-0.3135664165019989,
-0.07546795159578323,
-0.09403298050165176,
0.1846950352191925,
-0.17170663177967072,
0.547727108001709,
0.10276490449905396,
-0.6191172003746033,
-0.5590393543243408,
0.460657000541687,
-0.8673521280288696,
0.4616498649120331,
-0.5018414258956909,
-0.02620420791208744,
0.1644238978624344,
-0.3672684133052826,
0.12361124157905579,
-0.174176424741745,
0.29130810499191284,
-0.3273373246192932,
0.1652456670999527,
0.35978132486343384,
-0.7453510761260986,
-0.6784791946411133,
-0.26856333017349243,
-0.08236948400735855,
0.09303216636180878,
-0.615226686000824,
0.38483381271362305,
-1.0018422603607178,
0.1081334725022316,
0.6743391752243042,
-0.9919663071632385,
-0.20920738577842712,
-0.3400332033634186,
-0.19674260914325714,
0.2997824251651764,
-0.3185679614543915,
-0.36370691657066345,
-0.27755528688430786,
0.036737605929374695,
0.36586683988571167,
-0.43396374583244324,
-0.06559037417173386,
0.2734914720058441,
0.36164766550064087,
0.4105260670185089,
0.50860196352005,
0.14449122548103333,
0.011553633026778698,
0.22694453597068787,
-0.04445039853453636,
-0.49352940917015076,
-0.485137939453125,
-0.2135097235441208,
0.22287560999393463,
-0.21403120458126068,
-0.06315335631370544,
-0.4189424514770508,
0.34256482124328613,
-0.9309225082397461,
0.06647609919309616,
-0.24755346775054932,
0.2387307584285736,
0.34066474437713623,
0.019403649494051933,
0.18362648785114288,
-0.4544283449649811,
-0.46368607878685,
0.11141425371170044,
0.27443549036979675,
0.15080277621746063,
-0.6028809547424316,
-0.09648417681455612,
-0.5284193754196167,
0.16413649916648865,
0.5264776349067688,
0.40946945548057556,
0.11516919732093811,
0.628339946269989,
-0.09227368235588074,
-0.14594154059886932,
-0.7093669772148132,
0.09366702288389206,
-0.1226697638630867,
-0.22975105047225952,
0.3102177381515503,
-0.0845407098531723,
-0.946056067943573,
0.2384946048259735,
-0.8428073525428772,
-0.09428256005048752,
-0.5863919258117676,
-0.1150120422244072,
-0.056381452828645706,
-0.12112842500209808,
-0.14432741701602936,
0.056152187287807465,
-0.07262774556875229,
-0.24063436686992645,
0.16980107128620148,
-0.26131656765937805,
-0.2428087592124939,
-0.16988562047481537,
-0.31012973189353943,
-0.39134496450424194,
0.021997544914484024,
0.05297381803393364,
-0.6335567235946655,
0.6013157367706299,
0.1544203907251358,
0.017314033582806587,
-0.5752477049827576,
-0.6256434917449951,
0.10248884558677673,
0.8091071844100952,
-0.4726085066795349,
0.10316532105207443,
0.47749149799346924,
-0.015285179018974304,
0.1816994547843933,
0.2058633267879486,
0.011437013745307922,
0.35566022992134094,
0.2322583943605423,
0.47160646319389343,
0.6703896522521973,
1.009185791015625,
-0.23531889915466309,
0.24349120259284973,
-0.10561768710613251,
-0.1284613162279129,
0.06415841728448868,
0.38964560627937317,
0.03738340362906456,
0.6272216439247131,
0.17333178222179413,
-0.04806234687566757,
0.5973809361457825,
-0.237153097987175,
-0.4696406424045563,
0.018160147592425346,
-0.20624035596847534,
-0.1297888308763504,
0.5200321078300476,
0.06632919609546661,
0.19729726016521454,
-0.44374385476112366,
0.04835709184408188,
0.07832437753677368,
0.25528207421302795,
0.3151170611381531,
-0.16778840124607086,
-0.1876157522201538,
0.6612015962600708,
-0.17349699139595032,
0.08928734809160233,
-0.0563826784491539,
-0.349901020526886,
0.437600314617157,
0.024392571300268173,
0.7064937353134155,
-0.10659702867269516,
0.3713016211986542,
0.294877290725708,
-0.16787123680114746,
0.2784980833530426,
-0.058185137808322906,
0.27769145369529724,
-0.09703227877616882,
0.3406752943992615,
-0.2732289135456085,
-0.17238390445709229,
0.07590339332818985,
-0.3088541328907013,
0.5078087449073792,
-0.03628944978117943,
-0.10263264179229736,
-0.11363697797060013,
0.12162936478853226,
-0.11850660294294357,
0.6066780090332031,
0.36084094643592834,
0.3648645281791687,
-0.26752719283103943,
-0.5246244668960571,
-0.15907229483127594,
-0.09417311102151871,
-0.17281584441661835,
0.6902661323547363,
-0.2016945481300354,
0.4734181761741638,
0.034108277410268784,
-0.4831916391849518,
-0.30477315187454224,
0.062091730535030365,
-0.47976481914520264,
0.047828469425439835,
-0.1497606486082077,
-0.34701409935951233,
-0.030706994235515594,
0.015764277428388596,
0.6408844590187073,
-0.16751670837402344,
0.1265043169260025,
0.15293140709400177,
0.027728015556931496,
0.20608174800872803,
0.6225910782814026,
-0.4702731966972351,
0.06463225185871124,
-0.8920997977256775,
0.06654202938079834,
-0.9775151610374451,
0.36373162269592285,
0.29513290524482727,
0.4127057194709778,
-0.10542751103639603,
0.34472721815109253,
-0.0640191063284874,
-0.2525428533554077,
0.04516996815800667,
0.002707690466195345,
0.3747095763683319,
-0.34354308247566223,
-0.046662479639053345,
-0.01768263429403305,
0.0070197442546486855,
0.0487203449010849,
-0.5755110383033752,
-0.2705066502094269,
0.5806136727333069,
-0.15573741495609283,
-0.12145638465881348,
0.34152156114578247,
0.0331086590886116,
0.029958756640553474,
-0.3255930244922638,
0.5205832719802856,
-0.1557411104440689,
-0.22452951967716217,
0.42769330739974976,
0.76806640625,
-0.35461506247520447,
-0.8785384893417358,
0.14185035228729248,
0.06895033270120621,
0.1769884079694748,
0.0010884926887229085,
-0.04338674247264862,
-0.04801415279507637,
0.2122424989938736,
-0.4045499563217163,
-0.25123119354248047,
0.552571713924408,
0.554094135761261,
-0.0497826486825943,
0.037693317979574203,
-0.24104776978492737,
0.3773185610771179,
0.3098401725292206,
-0.1310669481754303,
0.0832737535238266,
0.2098444700241089,
0.18184758722782135
] |
241475 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandaemonium%20%28film%29 | Pandaemonium (film) | Pandaemonium is a 2000 film, directed by Julien Temple, screenplay by Frank Cottrell Boyce. It is based on the early lives of English poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth, in particular their collaboration on the Lyrical Ballads (1798), and Coleridge's writing of Kubla Khan (completed in 1797, published in 1816).
Much of the film was shot on location on and around the Quantock Hills in Somerset.
Cast
Linus Roache as Samuel Taylor Coleridge
John Hannah as William Wordsworth
Samantha Morton as Sara Fricker Coleridge (Coleridge's wife)
Emily Woof as Dorothy Wordsworth
Samuel West as Robert Southey
Andy Serkis as John Thelwall
Andrea Lowe as Edith Southey
Clive Merrison as Dr. Gillman
Reception
Release Dates
Accolades
"It's rattling good stuff. There's just one small objection. None of it ever happened. This is fantasy literary history". John Sutherland.
References
External links
Pandaemonium at Box Office Mojo
Pandaemonium at BBFC
The Guardian review
New York Times review
2000 films
2000 drama films
British films
Films scored by Dario Marianelli
Films about poets
Films directed by Julien Temple
Films set in the 18th century
Films set in the Lake District
Films shot in Somerset
Films with screenplays by Frank Cottrell-Boyce
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
William Wordsworth
Biographical films about poets | [
-0.2230231761932373,
0.46172279119491577,
-0.07688800245523453,
0.07186011970043182,
0.34689533710479736,
0.078304223716259,
0.008920119144022465,
-0.33122655749320984,
-0.526279866695404,
-0.046434082090854645,
-0.010554201900959015,
0.1867283135652542,
-0.0648171529173851,
-0.11378002911806107,
0.18442986905574799,
-0.13976101577281952,
0.36149272322654724,
0.2010793387889862,
0.2238328754901886,
-0.6729928851127625,
-0.8053262233734131,
-0.1640491485595703,
0.632422149181366,
-0.2804197072982788,
-0.83213871717453,
0.14230826497077942,
0.17453284561634064,
1.189953088760376,
0.43368008732795715,
-0.20051002502441406,
0.2766757011413574,
0.2991567552089691,
0.25825637578964233,
-0.11441902071237564,
0.4472731649875641,
0.1908896118402481,
-0.01275421492755413,
0.24635377526283264,
0.043338973075151443,
-0.8937573432922363,
0.4127773344516754,
0.028696861118078232,
-0.19378504157066345,
0.1818985939025879,
-0.4845397472381592,
-0.2325662225484848,
-1.0676993131637573,
-0.033408135175704956,
-0.8118032217025757,
0.06681003421545029,
0.003330679377540946,
-0.0006146765081211925,
0.6998453736305237,
-0.44536104798316956,
0.29874053597450256,
0.7878344058990479,
-0.9265856146812439,
0.03650896996259689,
-0.13887271285057068,
-0.20357120037078857,
0.20179513096809387,
0.01989525556564331,
0.16925935447216034,
-0.03783775866031647,
-0.07713684439659119,
0.2775433361530304,
0.20382274687290192,
0.401146799325943,
0.9340010285377502,
-0.8269593715667725,
0.22933465242385864,
0.03547145426273346,
0.06113644689321518,
0.4096379578113556,
-0.09759730845689774,
-0.7250948548316956,
0.36159470677375793,
0.07434812933206558,
0.0503336600959301,
0.06132519617676735,
0.18890328705310822,
0.005539754871279001,
1.0740333795547485,
0.1309821456670761,
0.33638882637023926,
0.04409994184970856,
-0.012954355217516422,
0.26077333092689514,
-0.6094165444374084,
0.06538039445877075,
-0.706371545791626,
-0.7784517407417297,
0.4075741469860077,
0.6437177062034607,
-0.05455977842211723,
-0.018063850700855255,
-0.37226399779319763,
-0.14575070142745972,
0.6801096200942993,
0.018759338185191154,
-0.11520271003246307,
0.2479119747877121,
-0.5262848734855652,
-0.5382575988769531,
-0.38425198197364807,
-0.16297547519207,
-0.26255059242248535,
-0.5655167698860168,
-0.31380411982536316,
0.29179254174232483,
-0.31642284989356995,
0.00521982042118907,
-0.3977665305137634,
-0.13880479335784912,
0.2442348152399063,
0.6217715740203857,
0.09371740370988846,
-0.3133120834827423,
-0.6118171811103821,
0.2993375360965729,
0.5274316668510437,
0.691993236541748,
-0.07664773613214493,
0.4579753279685974,
0.018955975770950317,
0.6038483381271362,
0.17537735402584076,
0.4589364528656006,
0.08344054967164993,
0.4197484850883484,
0.15623541176319122,
0.34940850734710693,
-0.17160256206989288,
-0.09964519739151001,
-0.026186712086200714,
-0.16204464435577393,
0.26609840989112854,
0.21588221192359924,
-0.03637652099132538,
-0.04052906855940819,
-0.5863050818443298,
0.0026659525465220213,
-0.17827342450618744,
0.21471072733402252,
-0.17693358659744263,
-0.20827554166316986,
0.36606302857398987,
-0.35205915570259094,
0.008551537059247494,
-0.044620171189308167,
0.06865979731082916,
-0.10745140165090561,
0.13979250192642212,
-0.2915647029876709,
-0.7050011157989502,
0.6802048683166504,
0.5419040322303772,
-0.26663246750831604,
0.19704130291938782,
0.06571491062641144,
0.6084150075912476,
-0.30211469531059265,
-0.23138181865215302,
-0.32615381479263306,
0.2586921453475952,
-0.38652265071868896,
0.10614748299121857,
0.3476567566394806,
0.310169517993927,
-0.036517780274152756,
-0.6449733972549438,
0.021026426926255226,
-0.2787444293498993,
-0.1152723953127861,
-0.1651763916015625,
0.11260680109262466,
0.6632874011993408,
0.7325204610824585,
-0.08930646628141403,
-0.25244584679603577,
-0.6429201364517212,
0.09187844395637512,
-0.4036380350589752,
0.5981042981147766,
0.6940235495567322,
0.12214498221874237,
0.11631661653518677,
-0.07968766242265701,
0.42277681827545166,
0.27872714400291443,
-0.7260026335716248,
-0.3014824092388153,
0.5379343032836914,
-0.5453935265541077,
1.3717811107635498,
-0.09282439202070236,
-0.549389123916626,
-0.030025389045476913,
0.3811657130718231,
0.11355689913034439,
-0.41252851486206055,
0.04908136650919914,
0.5452051758766174,
0.20960715413093567,
-0.17323662340641022,
-0.2045363187789917,
-0.10104073584079742,
-0.19356359541416168,
0.40910086035728455,
0.5141413807868958,
0.17695119976997375,
-0.2672293484210968,
0.5243121385574341,
-0.07302369922399521,
0.4178122282028198,
0.06814122200012207,
-0.7359695434570312,
0.05887491628527641,
0.32063770294189453,
0.39841416478157043,
0.5252172946929932,
0.02372351847589016,
0.03988722339272499,
0.6622692346572876,
-0.030956707894802094,
0.993757963180542,
0.48439204692840576,
0.17862312495708466,
0.3652142584323883,
-0.47287502884864807,
-0.018314113840460777,
0.6494512557983398,
-0.4902363419532776,
-0.9180458784103394,
0.1443891078233719,
0.0667332261800766,
0.2335764318704605,
-0.4027172327041626,
0.4888046383857727,
0.024554992094635963,
0.04199415445327759,
0.5183932781219482,
-0.6168749332427979,
0.11823956668376923,
0.3675353527069092,
0.11979127675294876,
0.4393027424812317,
-0.2162998765707016,
-0.3851016163825989,
-0.5874945521354675,
-0.01929490454494953,
0.6655740737915039,
-0.3771592974662781,
-0.210153266787529,
0.15291738510131836,
0.16044338047504425,
-0.1941707581281662,
-0.6365067362785339,
0.33104100823402405,
-0.26645785570144653,
-0.10437224060297012,
-0.25844481587409973,
0.520280659198761,
0.39816299080848694,
-0.3790437579154968,
-0.26909905672073364,
-0.43621933460235596,
-0.7689931988716125,
-0.442423015832901,
0.3458074629306793,
-0.1817871779203415,
0.28876805305480957,
-0.4681382179260254,
0.0744754821062088,
-0.060208845883607864,
0.13960999250411987,
-0.5078779458999634,
0.17594532668590546,
-0.2901149094104767,
-0.5268054008483887,
0.3712780177593231,
0.7056821584701538,
0.12924765050411224,
-0.21587517857551575,
-0.05306956544518471,
0.2658046782016754,
0.11228248476982117,
-0.07324055582284927,
-0.047791194170713425,
-0.4980703592300415,
0.009677140042185783,
0.17573122680187225,
-0.19443495571613312,
0.2888493835926056,
0.11133880913257599,
0.03764709457755089,
-0.2784877121448517,
0.02835197001695633,
0.2351551502943039,
0.5979976058006287,
-0.27243325114250183,
0.46308884024620056,
-0.3637951612472534,
0.04219561070203781,
0.3291206657886505,
-0.3882409334182739,
0.1339140087366104,
-0.5078205466270447,
-5.826224327087402,
0.22159428894519806,
0.14929041266441345,
0.5371637940406799,
-0.07454428821802139,
0.24812904000282288,
0.05380972474813461,
-0.06535618752241135,
-0.013931904919445515,
0.15619339048862457,
-0.4790246784687042,
0.20223712921142578,
0.14294059574604034,
0.29269939661026,
0.3189072906970978,
0.42129987478256226,
-0.011622452177107334,
-0.010077884420752525,
0.01702515035867691,
0.19270682334899902,
-0.5932007431983948,
0.001119674532674253,
-0.10395170003175735,
0.34897536039352417,
0.12277419120073318,
0.485248327255249,
-0.31768664717674255,
0.2117730677127838,
-0.8081936240196228,
-0.042782075703144073,
-0.10125579684972763,
0.014885080978274345,
0.047168225049972534,
-0.01815653219819069,
-0.15765583515167236,
0.368708074092865,
0.24398775398731232,
-0.26889467239379883,
-0.08720404654741287,
-0.7079702019691467,
-0.32628732919692993,
0.1007721796631813,
-0.4032437801361084,
-0.08651718497276306,
0.3924476206302643,
-0.6844526529312134,
-0.41000401973724365,
-0.25470206141471863,
-0.15789654850959778,
0.710437536239624,
0.4431825280189514,
-0.08996080607175827,
0.03091592714190483,
0.5664438605308533,
0.12106578797101974,
-0.08645081520080566,
0.10302907228469849,
0.0859098806977272,
0.03714647889137268,
-0.0345601849257946,
0.46247372031211853,
-0.32021093368530273,
-0.12815313041210175,
-0.6421178579330444,
0.33591145277023315,
0.19787254929542542,
0.0341600738465786,
-0.25695276260375977,
0.13123032450675964,
0.033911727368831635,
-0.6745943427085876,
0.18058480322360992,
-0.007883279584348202,
-1.0232445001602173,
-0.00946462620049715,
0.06626246124505997,
-0.3689568340778351,
0.3491275906562805,
-0.1488088220357895,
-0.053073178976774216,
0.08755907416343689,
-0.3348085284233093,
0.047329843044281006,
0.580701470375061,
0.245160773396492,
-0.27318182587623596,
-0.15238016843795776,
-0.19886420667171478,
-0.3663579225540161,
0.23585671186447144,
1.050355315208435,
-0.19208985567092896,
-0.6566929221153259,
0.4118213951587677,
0.37080609798431396,
0.5217397809028625,
0.26393821835517883,
0.05740886926651001,
0.23123344779014587,
-0.21758970618247986,
0.26823732256889343,
-0.3032105267047882,
-0.165231853723526,
-0.5642816424369812,
-0.3150656521320343,
-0.2271534651517868,
-0.04113340750336647,
0.2539028525352478,
0.30583029985427856,
-0.19074591994285583,
-0.1270296275615692,
-0.4504379332065582,
0.28541475534439087,
-0.27650654315948486,
0.64112389087677,
-0.19672444462776184,
-0.46930623054504395,
0.36460596323013306,
0.3444991707801819,
0.10201539099216461,
0.004232476931065321,
0.7662439942359924,
-0.08674474060535431,
-0.23609347641468048,
0.0688026025891304,
0.20121026039123535,
0.13891607522964478,
0.11320270597934723,
0.09490682929754257,
-0.14748357236385345,
-0.6982033252716064,
0.1265709549188614,
-0.056808676570653915,
-0.26896101236343384,
0.22926178574562073,
-0.6316698789596558,
-0.41522935032844543,
-0.03636443614959717,
0.26690009236335754,
0.014816059730947018,
0.2365264594554901,
-0.26129430532455444,
-0.03046184405684471,
0.3555319011211395,
-0.05623664706945419,
-0.14048504829406738,
0.5939782857894897,
-0.1142842099070549,
-0.07218781113624573,
0.47728490829467773,
0.11821482330560684,
-0.37739506363868713,
1.2181396484375,
-0.26280757784843445,
-0.22261252999305725,
-0.2953386604785919,
-0.13822390139102936,
-0.1871691197156906,
0.4783281683921814,
0.1393546611070633,
0.45728394389152527,
-0.13482430577278137,
-0.37747663259506226,
-0.13120433688163757,
0.4050293564796448,
-0.1857317090034485,
0.0350366048514843,
-0.779354989528656,
-0.7498226761817932,
0.23276516795158386,
0.0025002399925142527,
0.06775394082069397,
-0.5216286182403564,
0.1179269328713417,
-0.03524141386151314,
-0.14040060341358185,
-0.42637899518013,
-0.035405151546001434,
-0.16047175228595734,
0.28879329562187195,
-0.09036749601364136,
-0.27338701486587524,
-0.4356021285057068,
0.01629932038486004,
0.5128204822540283,
-0.4583736062049866,
-0.5056350231170654,
-0.41808265447616577,
-0.2995014488697052,
0.4458162486553192,
0.09826305508613586,
0.7820881605148315,
0.9404557943344116,
-0.18233934044837952,
-0.2531053125858307,
-0.7866858839988708,
-0.17586776614189148,
0.29367005825042725,
-0.34120845794677734,
-0.6924147605895996,
-0.11394566297531128,
0.627648115158081,
-0.6318928599357605,
0.31906741857528687,
0.6801368594169617,
-0.5066726803779602,
0.6955602765083313,
0.35467103123664856,
-0.045024000108242035,
-0.037569619715213776,
-0.46585020422935486,
-0.6238501667976379,
-0.06867165863513947,
-0.4156727194786072,
-0.44689539074897766,
0.3073788285255432,
0.024954238906502724,
-0.47476112842559814,
-0.5433295965194702,
-0.4726559817790985,
-0.3140643239021301,
-0.5722099542617798,
-0.7740212678909302,
-0.5223384499549866,
-1.0265631675720215,
0.01617242395877838,
0.8946234583854675,
-0.2518214285373688,
-0.10772702097892761,
-0.16102641820907593,
-0.4289240837097168,
0.07938197255134583,
-0.20876248180866241,
-0.4048152565956116,
-0.6130332350730896,
-0.00542047992348671,
-0.04840268939733505,
0.22058026492595673,
0.32717567682266235,
0.2500579357147217,
0.13039538264274597,
0.6696754693984985,
0.15357892215251923,
0.0697479248046875,
0.06863416731357574,
0.47709277272224426,
0.10219840705394745,
-0.47432926297187805,
-0.8520497679710388,
-0.20030242204666138,
0.15976233780384064,
0.0004328331269789487,
-0.44379374384880066,
-0.7470003366470337,
0.8342590928077698,
-1.1004233360290527,
0.10004107654094696,
0.6034455299377441,
0.12630876898765564,
0.12107395380735397,
-0.02886548824608326,
0.3630405366420746,
-1.2673193216323853,
-0.4640926420688629,
-0.21709133684635162,
0.23144997656345367,
0.38961687684059143,
-0.23744504153728485,
0.31282442808151245,
-0.4191949665546417,
0.03980522230267525,
-0.24339312314987183,
0.37336644530296326,
0.4662303328514099,
0.06315285712480545,
-0.20192807912826538,
-0.2800320088863373,
-0.40686511993408203,
0.001979486085474491,
-0.5864776372909546,
-0.2314259260892868,
0.9313762784004211,
0.11847372353076935,
-0.072580985724926,
0.23696455359458923,
-0.6440380811691284,
-0.34870514273643494,
-0.4375242292881012,
0.033583782613277435,
0.09697485715150833,
-0.25866514444351196,
0.04303671792149544,
-0.17136907577514648,
-0.13317283987998962,
0.43513011932373047,
0.21033334732055664,
0.09904079139232635,
-0.21209432184696198,
-0.5360407829284668,
-0.2585372030735016,
-0.22334417700767517,
0.9553645849227905,
0.4862227439880371,
-0.656651496887207,
0.15443271398544312,
0.19940322637557983,
0.32789355516433716,
-0.6351883411407471,
-0.2951095998287201,
0.5602489113807678,
0.2870456874370575,
-0.33054646849632263,
-0.47451889514923096,
0.6268211007118225,
-0.2994477152824402,
0.34022414684295654,
0.32695189118385315,
-0.3394967317581177,
-0.23381569981575012,
0.01651313528418541,
-0.2484561800956726,
0.19239987432956696,
0.402456670999527,
-0.6109396815299988,
-0.31153175234794617,
0.38681724667549133,
-0.34057483077049255,
0.4049276113510132,
0.7625924348831177,
0.16323575377464294,
0.5064938068389893,
0.10846354067325592,
0.012570254504680634,
0.13144713640213013,
0.216970294713974,
-0.04442233964800835,
0.44335079193115234,
0.029645279049873352,
0.03409593179821968,
0.508235514163971,
-0.04117073491215706,
0.05671907216310501,
-0.5186825394630432,
-0.15479063987731934,
-0.023253275081515312,
0.09823062270879745,
0.055513862520456314,
0.17141450941562653,
0.0849779024720192,
0.6835126280784607,
0.10023465007543564,
0.3255041837692261,
-0.13087089359760284,
-0.2028588354587555,
0.2527191638946533,
-0.10880628973245621,
-0.5172421932220459,
0.13457059860229492,
0.8800004124641418,
0.4159204661846161,
0.28607988357543945,
-0.26872023940086365,
0.008775085210800171,
0.4626004099845886,
-0.26788827776908875,
0.09683425724506378,
0.04289243370294571,
-0.18049082159996033,
0.22316722571849823,
0.1473633348941803,
0.04689985141158104,
0.020439423620700836,
0.3015061020851135,
0.16866280138492584,
0.4044455885887146,
0.020902488380670547,
-0.03336413949728012,
-0.234696164727211,
-0.501643180847168,
0.09803906828165054,
-0.5343369841575623,
0.34698009490966797,
-0.7740311026573181,
0.036234647035598755,
0.10043177753686905,
0.06970104575157166,
0.1967645287513733,
0.5220963954925537,
0.14878608286380768,
-0.832161009311676,
0.2775510549545288,
-0.5219432711601257,
0.05400872603058815,
0.17486853897571564,
-0.6198945045471191,
-0.013309835456311703,
-0.45378339290618896,
0.36988213658332825,
-0.3196239769458771,
0.16564448177814484,
0.4578862488269806,
0.007048581261187792,
0.09556563943624496,
0.7151501774787903,
0.674466609954834,
-0.08197969943284988,
-1.2490788698196411,
0.30793896317481995,
-0.9793136715888977,
0.28618332743644714,
0.31259286403656006,
0.18400372564792633,
-0.028918687254190445,
0.45494040846824646,
0.6003687381744385,
0.24277189373970032,
0.0326489582657814,
0.18551893532276154,
0.04193653166294098,
-0.3862720727920532,
-0.5093211531639099,
-0.8988842368125916,
0.16955183446407318,
0.3640824556350708,
-0.07908191531896591,
-0.22634847462177277,
0.348512202501297,
0.09030192345380783,
-0.04856923967599869,
-0.00045956578105688095,
0.08534199744462967,
0.42303982377052307,
-0.5662214159965515,
-0.3137038052082062,
-0.7733802199363708,
-0.6901109218597412,
0.2731783986091614,
0.734844982624054,
0.11324755102396011,
-0.13936510682106018,
0.07026749104261398,
-0.04024435207247734,
1.1875938177108765,
0.04920736700296402,
-0.15478739142417908,
-0.7895240187644958,
0.09408644586801529,
0.06776070594787598,
-0.8795474767684937,
0.15524087846279144,
0.1969875991344452,
-0.48641538619995117,
0.5357983708381653,
-0.2307921051979065,
-0.441577672958374,
1.1579149961471558,
-0.09830677509307861,
-0.1442137509584427,
0.051940347999334335,
0.09137750416994095
] |
241480 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1ir%C3%ADn%20U%C3%AD%20Dh%C3%A1laigh | Máirín Uí Dhálaigh | Máirín Anne Uí Dhalaigh or Máirín O'Daly (; 30 November 1908 – 25 January 1994) was a scholar of the Irish language and the wife of the 5th President of Ireland, Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh.
Early life and education
She was the eldest of four children, of a Dublin father and Cork mother, born in Mussoorie, India, where her father was a teacher with the Royal Munster Fusiliers. At age two she was sent to her father's sister in Tralee, County Kerry. She was educated at various schools in Dublin, and studied Latin and Irish in University College Dublin (UCD). While there in 1931, she gave an address on "Women in Irish life long ago" which Philip O'Leary described in 2004 as "unapologetically feminist". She worked as a teacher before completing a masters in Old Irish.
Professional life
She joined the arts faculty at UCD, and later (from 1965 on) served on the governing body. For the Irish Texts Society, she edited Cath Maige Mucrama and produced a glossary and corrections for The Life of Aodh Ruadh Ó Domhnaill. She also contributed to the Royal Irish Academy's Dictionary of the Irish Language.
She got to know Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh at UCD, through the Literary and Historical Society, Conradh na Gaeilge and hillwalking club; in 1934, they were married. The couple had no children.
From 1979 to 1985, she served as a pro-chancellor of Trinity College Dublin. In 1985, she was also made an honorary fellow of Trinity College Dublin.
She donated her husband's extensive personal archive to UCD in two substantial donations in 1980 and 1981 opening up his public career of over four decades. In 1983, five years after her husband's death, she was appointed to the Council of State by his successor, President Patrick Hillery. Her last years were blighted by ill health. She is buried with her husband in Sneem, County Kerry.
References
Sources
Spouses of presidents of Ireland
Academics of University College Dublin
1908 births
1994 deaths
Honorary Fellows of Trinity College Dublin
Presidential appointees to the Council of State (Ireland)
Translators to Irish
Translators from Irish
Irish-language writers
20th-century translators | [
-0.613159716129303,
0.4349299669265747,
-0.5312984585762024,
-0.7598482370376587,
-0.4038061201572418,
0.5831131339073181,
0.6400669813156128,
0.30613061785697937,
-0.305729478597641,
-0.11041172593832016,
-0.9093521237373352,
0.07516080141067505,
-0.07726243883371353,
0.34456831216812134,
0.27294856309890747,
-0.3844311833381653,
0.22733280062675476,
-0.060235634446144104,
-0.4742549657821655,
-0.05411915108561516,
0.0827045887708664,
0.1114911437034607,
0.03813065215945244,
0.12163662165403366,
0.06966028362512589,
-0.06287702172994614,
0.10471857339143753,
-0.4726482033729553,
0.2364894300699234,
-0.08741231262683868,
0.1170404851436615,
-0.28479933738708496,
0.34899091720581055,
-0.03068922646343708,
-0.4487614631652832,
0.49631497263908386,
-0.06743721663951874,
0.07562240213155746,
-0.4662543535232544,
0.5835820436477661,
-0.4886080324649811,
0.10244012624025345,
-0.04445671662688255,
0.38188883662223816,
-0.35739246010780334,
-0.4394630789756775,
-1.6661587953567505,
0.8961707949638367,
0.07375781983137131,
0.327786386013031,
-0.47202128171920776,
0.2900099754333496,
1.086130976676941,
0.2535886764526367,
0.05369170755147934,
0.5390619039535522,
-1.042953610420227,
-0.03014434315264225,
-0.09763215482234955,
-0.6116495132446289,
0.1970777064561844,
0.5471153259277344,
0.304180771112442,
-0.17533256113529205,
-0.031460169702768326,
-0.19920247793197632,
-0.12953925132751465,
-0.3251967430114746,
-0.46218061447143555,
-0.08126958459615707,
0.32837650179862976,
0.6950712203979492,
0.46959182620048523,
0.40214648842811584,
0.12536609172821045,
-0.7248514890670776,
0.5498417019844055,
0.01308177039027214,
0.16818706691265106,
-0.21339836716651917,
0.06154515966773033,
-0.07333829998970032,
0.502554714679718,
0.7739542126655579,
0.2973746359348297,
-0.09158647805452347,
-0.42613279819488525,
0.5586983561515808,
-0.38972344994544983,
0.11066136509180069,
-0.40907683968544006,
-0.04664170369505882,
-0.15805454552173615,
-0.20170950889587402,
-0.3709578216075897,
0.38748276233673096,
1.03983473777771,
-0.14501208066940308,
-0.08521396666765213,
-0.4778994917869568,
-0.676410436630249,
-0.1949871927499771,
0.06684771925210953,
-0.36716657876968384,
-0.7646026611328125,
-0.008866876363754272,
-0.725857138633728,
-0.11291471123695374,
-0.5971755981445312,
-0.21096043288707733,
-0.8165323138237,
-0.15956470370292664,
0.09604378044605255,
-0.07398957759141922,
0.20106634497642517,
0.1346479207277298,
-0.25456714630126953,
-0.5817548632621765,
-0.5746413469314575,
0.1940087229013443,
0.13936291635036469,
-0.16275407373905182,
0.13159529864788055,
-0.08514779061079025,
-0.5333150029182434,
-0.1891547590494156,
-0.04830847680568695,
0.20206785202026367,
-0.4052082300186157,
0.4467220902442932,
-0.1929476410150528,
0.2460239827632904,
-0.9072534441947937,
-0.1598968803882599,
0.16738533973693848,
-0.19431953132152557,
0.5221529603004456,
-0.36574116349220276,
0.7032690048217773,
0.7301397323608398,
0.16332876682281494,
0.25913795828819275,
-0.47386908531188965,
-0.34402143955230713,
0.6941185593605042,
-0.05179085209965706,
-0.49312788248062134,
0.34704717993736267,
-0.22336921095848083,
-0.5179593563079834,
-0.37384942173957825,
-0.49480411410331726,
0.5573744773864746,
-0.07466862350702286,
-0.7070870995521545,
1.0031073093414307,
-0.06302692741155624,
0.539534330368042,
0.07676281780004501,
0.13822542130947113,
0.02432442642748356,
0.1967371553182602,
-0.020329883322119713,
0.11542998999357224,
0.23551535606384277,
0.3669549524784088,
0.2983175218105316,
0.6974828243255615,
-0.5368200540542603,
-0.21726880967617035,
-0.13334321975708008,
0.29878586530685425,
0.7876330614089966,
-0.09088505804538727,
-1.0423376560211182,
0.7274342775344849,
-0.5153210759162903,
-0.12893852591514587,
-0.04077575355768204,
-0.1460140347480774,
-0.8128026723861694,
-0.13562409579753876,
-0.28269076347351074,
0.4719124436378479,
0.20817720890045166,
-0.18099699914455414,
0.40654945373535156,
-0.7839795351028442,
0.5379303097724915,
-0.22761164605617523,
-0.876786470413208,
-0.290944904088974,
0.26359912753105164,
-0.13875947892665863,
0.4937525689601898,
0.260902464389801,
0.48622557520866394,
0.8009173274040222,
-0.19104032218456268,
1.0745190382003784,
0.4377310276031494,
0.00292759551666677,
0.14996659755706787,
-0.5143976211547852,
0.17010989785194397,
0.6918145418167114,
0.2356610745191574,
0.5361189842224121,
0.4210403561592102,
0.7274896502494812,
0.23446877300739288,
-0.21086466312408447,
0.44151583313941956,
0.5949080586433411,
-0.6809259653091431,
-0.17585153877735138,
-0.37627488374710083,
-0.5880959033966064,
0.18578583002090454,
0.059340089559555054,
0.995177149772644,
0.5387609601020813,
-0.07879295945167542,
0.8267395496368408,
-0.2884388864040375,
0.2302442491054535,
0.22317297756671906,
0.15379293262958527,
0.21231494843959808,
-0.6087592840194702,
-0.1419605016708374,
-0.3923594653606415,
0.5421057939529419,
-0.7352361679077148,
0.8883676528930664,
-0.03460076451301575,
0.13893598318099976,
0.08989130705595016,
0.5999885201454163,
-0.15976418554782867,
0.1847308874130249,
0.11180376261472702,
-0.12383115291595459,
0.7623327970504761,
-0.21124039590358734,
0.3804011642932892,
-0.5277417898178101,
0.15124428272247314,
0.36474332213401794,
0.05632714927196503,
0.8255563378334045,
0.4503248333930969,
0.5070887804031372,
0.24417731165885925,
-0.33085164427757263,
-0.08595829457044601,
-0.12410806864500046,
0.4069688022136688,
0.5142840147018433,
0.35981884598731995,
-0.033743925392627716,
-0.08444251865148544,
0.40538352727890015,
0.1791316121816635,
-0.1967877745628357,
-0.18874381482601166,
0.5011416077613831,
-0.8163120746612549,
0.563740611076355,
-0.2831481099128723,
0.16406655311584473,
-0.5223150849342346,
0.04089289531111717,
-0.19136515259742737,
-0.3337165415287018,
0.17720146477222443,
-0.5629220604896545,
0.3733731210231781,
-1.0164365768432617,
-0.5171970725059509,
0.31117886304855347,
0.6119036674499512,
-0.3401193618774414,
0.18909361958503723,
-0.6942741870880127,
0.27930590510368347,
-0.3608056902885437,
-0.7426384687423706,
-0.532152533531189,
0.3942599892616272,
0.06802649050951004,
0.2998969554901123,
-0.06974633783102036,
-0.6720966696739197,
-0.1521153301000595,
-0.05695147067308426,
0.3093058168888092,
0.3679863214492798,
-0.16587994992733002,
-0.02573106810450554,
-0.578612208366394,
0.26398423314094543,
-0.05054210126399994,
0.4998255968093872,
0.7844141125679016,
0.6412713527679443,
-0.006708807311952114,
-0.375419557094574,
-5.533571243286133,
0.08486716449260712,
0.28213316202163696,
-0.47663381695747375,
0.5279913544654846,
-0.030668392777442932,
0.10086852312088013,
-0.6888983249664307,
0.11595014482736588,
-0.5235708355903625,
0.25800666213035583,
0.19382885098457336,
-0.399103581905365,
0.3146783411502838,
0.28583261370658875,
0.26159101724624634,
0.3107672929763794,
-0.481240838766098,
-0.15103255212306976,
0.7158536911010742,
0.17069804668426514,
0.25146445631980896,
0.06431775540113449,
0.5174594521522522,
0.11705880612134933,
0.1287023276090622,
-0.007917686365544796,
-0.546820878982544,
-0.9673942923545837,
-0.3582877218723297,
-0.017153209075331688,
0.026061298325657845,
-0.04971471056342125,
0.06355880945920944,
-0.194639652967453,
-0.00843698438256979,
0.4690663516521454,
-0.18357136845588684,
-0.08134610205888748,
-0.2018796056509018,
0.08161374181509018,
-0.20785968005657196,
0.2761869430541992,
-0.5748783946037292,
-0.38612106442451477,
-0.4188915193080902,
-0.930445671081543,
-0.41522282361984253,
-0.049801845103502274,
0.5687565207481384,
-0.7476995587348938,
0.45417916774749756,
0.24744819104671478,
-0.021185649558901787,
0.20233961939811707,
0.23715807497501373,
-0.012247500941157341,
-0.5022169351577759,
-0.8315867781639099,
-0.1068296730518341,
0.37410780787467957,
-0.45230552554130554,
-0.2483733743429184,
-0.30955788493156433,
-0.3748011291027069,
0.04143807664513588,
-0.06172746419906616,
0.18508972227573395,
-0.072639599442482,
-0.25133469700813293,
-0.31079357862472534,
0.05041848123073578,
0.024518892168998718,
-1.1414806842803955,
-0.828635036945343,
-0.8044899702072144,
-0.2733401358127594,
0.007263966370373964,
-0.49231070280075073,
-0.03427010774612427,
-0.15786658227443695,
0.23408567905426025,
-0.5811421275138855,
0.740419328212738,
0.2051013559103012,
-0.21942009031772614,
-0.1722170114517212,
0.06161922216415405,
-0.2044823318719864,
0.059475284069776535,
-0.031015489250421524,
-0.49362707138061523,
-0.15321002900600433,
0.4699828624725342,
0.5984987020492554,
0.2829255759716034,
-0.15837258100509644,
0.042012158781290054,
0.8465161919593811,
0.13909664750099182,
-0.7963988184928894,
-0.14379501342773438,
1.0187273025512695,
-0.16392934322357178,
-0.18685394525527954,
0.3389495611190796,
-0.554741382598877,
-0.06936129182577133,
0.5748472213745117,
-0.4689978361129761,
-0.34488049149513245,
0.04490058869123459,
0.6679547429084778,
0.06368394196033478,
-0.15172551572322845,
-0.13976521790027618,
-0.17296205461025238,
0.21350350975990295,
0.8633187413215637,
0.057938363403081894,
-0.2829395830631256,
0.19026465713977814,
-0.5520504713058472,
0.5553582310676575,
-0.06477565318346024,
-0.07446925342082977,
0.5105397701263428,
-0.5952128171920776,
-0.13372200727462769,
0.19933946430683136,
-0.30496060848236084,
-0.4662880301475525,
0.632228434085846,
0.13981717824935913,
0.22003953158855438,
-0.21074208617210388,
0.11820328235626221,
-0.44957298040390015,
-0.39930465817451477,
-0.11724241077899933,
-0.13041333854198456,
-0.34070301055908203,
-0.290901243686676,
-0.2043045610189438,
0.03492077812552452,
-0.014291414059698582,
-0.4506015181541443,
-0.38465234637260437,
-0.025047801434993744,
0.3922193646430969,
-0.3173724114894867,
0.12993033230304718,
0.6284563541412354,
-0.3521896004676819,
-0.9234524965286255,
-0.1876179575920105,
0.07398273795843124,
0.16957658529281616,
-0.40446919202804565,
0.00021309516159817576,
0.02372598461806774,
-0.6989533305168152,
-0.7981583476066589,
-0.506177544593811,
-0.00031749613117426634,
0.31458979845046997,
0.43116265535354614,
0.06661324948072433,
-0.4327038526535034,
0.5617770552635193,
0.3747139573097229,
-0.3574696481227875,
-0.0766475647687912,
-0.006566341035068035,
-0.12876775860786438,
0.01105030719190836,
0.11458168923854828,
0.9098682403564453,
0.11565465480089188,
0.48916956782341003,
-0.43766698241233826,
-0.22194810211658478,
-0.08255083113908768,
0.7571997046470642,
0.15598757565021515,
-0.2952030897140503,
-0.2517554461956024,
-0.4088480770587921,
-0.21007849276065826,
0.42011383175849915,
0.5577083826065063,
0.33832311630249023,
-0.10783150047063828,
0.2787312865257263,
-0.6479054689407349,
-0.38381797075271606,
-0.27491211891174316,
-0.17105205357074738,
-0.33954721689224243,
0.12986212968826294,
0.5641876459121704,
0.11951267719268799,
-0.2861494719982147,
-0.12048327177762985,
0.13123229146003723,
-0.745549201965332,
-0.3209368884563446,
-0.3696018159389496,
0.46401214599609375,
0.49483567476272583,
-0.11599978059530258,
-0.5494518280029297,
0.3004518449306488,
0.9619879722595215,
0.2333497852087021,
0.536264181137085,
-0.5774458050727844,
0.11737441271543503,
0.040972717106342316,
-0.6789520382881165,
-0.5137807130813599,
-0.8174017667770386,
-0.3323043882846832,
0.42247697710990906,
-0.1350174844264984,
0.2668212354183197,
0.012831754982471466,
-0.2712606191635132,
0.7879122495651245,
0.07607324421405792,
-0.3029811382293701,
0.4298766851425171,
0.4735357165336609,
0.5698634386062622,
-0.47373414039611816,
-0.5214685201644897,
0.6764093637466431,
0.7306548357009888,
-0.38805755972862244,
0.311933696269989,
0.4200313091278076,
0.7923132181167603,
0.029641002416610718,
0.0815684124827385,
-0.48701953887939453,
0.15648868680000305,
-0.38288095593452454,
-0.6249057650566101,
0.40681666135787964,
0.25396597385406494,
0.10357894748449326,
-0.004077748861163855,
-0.520058810710907,
-0.477504163980484,
0.21252204477787018,
-0.7828698754310608,
0.3129303455352783,
-0.23472709953784943,
0.44976863265037537,
0.03154401108622551,
0.37358948588371277,
-0.6010113954544067,
0.03200532868504524,
-0.15696443617343903,
-0.13131128251552582,
0.07748406380414963,
0.030214279890060425,
-0.5017417669296265,
0.3883627951145172,
0.11475272476673126,
-0.28623032569885254,
-0.21315933763980865,
-0.028271494433283806,
-0.07219936698675156,
-0.3688601851463318,
0.4227522909641266,
-0.0358743891119957,
0.09062494337558746,
0.6679533123970032,
-0.24539527297019958,
-0.26103490591049194,
-0.2169143259525299,
-0.04253417253494263,
0.050760723650455475,
-0.07742827385663986,
-1.0571534633636475,
0.5185419917106628,
-0.14258910715579987,
-0.31577906012535095,
-0.08113455772399902,
-0.4315785765647888,
0.30300506949424744,
0.2803269922733307,
0.4354665279388428,
-0.3995836675167084,
0.7447026968002319,
-0.5017964243888855,
0.5596508383750916,
-0.46611878275871277,
-0.5822886824607849,
-0.4594707190990448,
-0.5182979106903076,
0.5934285521507263,
0.043092891573905945,
-0.6251001358032227,
-0.3851725459098816,
0.005048278719186783,
-1.057084560394287,
0.2045479714870453,
-0.3907443881034851,
-0.24198250472545624,
0.2781834602355957,
0.6440635919570923,
0.14042134582996368,
-0.1449127048254013,
0.14096929132938385,
0.09560602903366089,
-0.4581869840621948,
-0.3704417645931244,
-0.34016454219818115,
0.4148222804069519,
0.2186129242181778,
-0.1302114874124527,
-0.2251282036304474,
0.7111650705337524,
0.616211473941803,
-0.7015401721000671,
0.5382128357887268,
0.1712542027235031,
0.13625676929950714,
-0.04596460983157158,
0.20730043947696686,
-0.06428670883178711,
0.42608633637428284,
0.305685430765152,
-0.9117180705070496,
-0.10394977778196335,
-0.6309176683425903,
0.5616036653518677,
0.27632662653923035,
0.4682701528072357,
0.6376103758811951,
-0.079152911901474,
0.0809340626001358,
-0.37068894505500793,
0.06570061296224594,
0.05783189833164215,
0.5372511744499207,
-0.3009563684463501,
-0.5011172294616699,
0.3585033416748047,
0.4909822642803192,
-0.13678324222564697,
-0.26642075181007385,
0.3454015552997589,
0.7070108652114868,
0.009724444709718227,
-0.532161295413971,
-0.23743225634098053,
0.453592449426651,
-0.3737541139125824,
0.009973491542041302,
0.5552026033401489,
-0.0699952095746994,
0.16409535706043243,
-0.14869463443756104,
0.3166618347167969,
-0.26454344391822815,
0.6760879158973694,
0.015577162615954876,
-0.003947306424379349,
-0.17593711614608765,
-0.6823866367340088,
-0.03836429491639137,
0.6656333208084106,
0.4159306287765503,
0.446328341960907,
-0.2432435154914856,
0.04169104993343353,
-0.19395606219768524,
-0.33519497513771057,
-0.43062135577201843,
0.2304983139038086,
-0.05454205721616745,
0.2031186819076538,
0.3819350600242615,
0.49787208437919617,
0.2212812751531601,
-0.16340474784374237,
0.5106714963912964,
0.6678073406219482,
-0.06919462233781815,
-0.19160422682762146,
0.5022802352905273,
0.6795153617858887,
0.4099090099334717,
-0.5096021890640259,
0.2965177893638611,
0.9615604877471924,
-0.049909114837646484,
-0.2568633258342743,
0.18712754547595978,
-0.16244351863861084,
0.10159705579280853,
-0.3181648850440979,
0.3972100615501404,
0.197016179561615,
-0.09458412975072861,
-0.9464139938354492,
-0.19678539037704468,
-0.10760845243930817,
-0.2224990278482437,
-0.3383648097515106,
0.32091787457466125,
-0.24335138499736786,
0.7461117506027222,
0.9428796768188477,
0.24108968675136566,
0.039255399256944656,
-0.3851063549518585,
0.10919085890054703,
-0.28037962317466736,
0.37666305899620056,
0.3526078164577484,
-0.133637934923172,
0.16647201776504517,
-0.034582432359457016,
0.28314828872680664,
-0.17951235175132751,
-0.03360193222761154,
0.13611267507076263,
0.36595964431762695,
0.4656064212322235,
0.28475135564804077,
-0.10149198025465012,
0.2931297719478607,
-0.2408338487148285,
0.335653156042099,
-0.3888932466506958,
-0.30429235100746155,
-0.11654240638017654,
0.6784875392913818,
0.1608533263206482,
-0.032355841249227524,
0.1636071503162384,
0.011169594712555408,
-0.06598275899887085,
-0.5934785604476929,
0.17277906835079193,
-0.24738474190235138,
-0.12210509181022644,
-0.31097412109375,
0.0987110361456871,
-0.6884377002716064,
0.49231061339378357,
-0.2491942048072815,
0.02749885804951191,
-0.3826064467430115,
0.38741403818130493,
0.18233360350131989
] |
241482 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Wedding | American Wedding | American Wedding (known as American Pie 3: The Wedding or American Pie: The Wedding, in some countries) is a 2003 American sex comedy film written by Adam Herz and directed by Jesse Dylan. It is the sequel to American Pie (1999) and American Pie 2 (2001), and the third and intended final installment of the American Pie theatrical series. This was to be the last film in the franchise, ending it as a trilogy; however, a third theatrical sequel, American Reunion, was released nine years later, while the franchise expanded into a series of direct-to-DVD standalone sequels, under the umbrella title American Pie Presents, that began with the release of Band Camp (2005).
The film's main plot focuses on the wedding ceremony of Jim Levenstein (Jason Biggs) and Michelle Flaherty (Alyson Hannigan), while its subplot centers on Steve Stifler (Seann William Scott), and his outrageous antics including his attempt to organize a bachelor party, teaching Jim to dance for the wedding, and competing with Finch (Eddie Kaye Thomas) to win the heart of Michelle's sister, Cadence (January Jones).
It is the last film in the series to be written by Herz, who conceptualized the franchise, and also the only theatrical film in the series in which Chris Klein (Oz), Chris Owen (Sherman), Mena Suvari (Heather), Tara Reid (Vicky), Shannon Elizabeth (Nadia) and Natasha Lyonne (Jessica) do not appear.
Plot
Jim Levenstein prepares to propose to Michelle at a restaurant when his dad calls to tell him he has the ring. She misinterprets when Jim stalls the question and his dad arrives as he is receiving fellatio from under the table. The mishap grasps everyone's attention but Jim proposes and Michelle accepts.
Jim wishes to exclude Steve Stifler from the wedding; who becomes upset when he finds out. Stifler agrees to teach Jim how to dance if he is allowed at the wedding. Jim asks Stifler to mask his obnoxious personality in exchange for planning the bachelor party.
Jim, Stifler, Paul Finch, and Kevin Meyers travel to Chicago to find the designer who makes the dress Michelle wants. Stifler inadverently walks into a gay bar, and his initially raucous behavior gets several patrons annoyed. Battling Bear in a dance-off, Stifler is offered strippers by him for the bachelor party. Dress designer Leslie reveals himself and agrees to make the dress for Michelle.
Michelle's younger sister, Cadence, flies in for the wedding. Both Finch and Stifler are attracted to her, and, trying to win her over, they each act differently. Stifler arranges the bachelor party but does not tell Jim, who unknowingly invited Michelle's parents to dinner in his home. With assistance from Bear, who poses as a butler, Jim nearly succeeds in keeping the bachelor's party a secret, until Michelle's mother opens a closet door to find Kevin inside; blindfolded, stripped to his boxers, and tied to a chair. They explain that it was a failed attempt to make Jim seem like a hero, and Michelle's parents tell him if he puts that much effort into the upcoming marriage, they can give their blessing.
Michelle is concerned that Jim's paternal grandmother disapproves of the wedding as she is not Jewish. On the night before the wedding, Stifler inadvertently turns off the walk-in refrigerator while getting a bottle of champagne to seduce Cadence, which kills the flowers. Stifler finally reveals his true rude and obnoxious personality. Angry, Jim asks him to leave, and all the others, including Cadence (who has heard him talking about doing her), support Jim's decision.
Feeling guilty for his thoughtless behavior, Stifler convinces the florist to put together a new batch of flowers, and he enlists the help of his football players and Bear. As a gesture of remorse, he also gives a rose to Cadence. Moved by his actions, Cadence agrees to have sex with him in a supply closet before the ceremony, but Stifler's presence is delayed by a brief meeting Jim calls among his groomsmen, citing how he is grateful to have friends like them. Quickly returning to the hotel, Stifler hears someone in the supply closet and steps inside, unaware that Cadence was interrupted by wedding preparations and that Jim's disgruntled grandmother was shoved inside by the ushers, the "MILF guys" from high school. Stifler only realizes this upon walk-in by Finch and Kevin. She becomes pleasant, particularly towards Stifler, making Michelle and Jim's dad happy.
Despite the chaotic events leading up to it, Michelle and Jim get married. At the reception, the couple dances while Stifler dances with Cadence. Finch sits by himself when Stifler's mom arrives. Although agreeing they are over each other, Stifler's mom mentions having a hotel suite and invites Finch to join her. The film ends with the "MILF guys" (Justin and John) spying on Stifler's mom and Finch having sex in the hot tub.
Cast
Production
The outdoor wedding scene was filmed at the Ritz-Carlton Half Moon Bay near San Francisco.
Soundtrack
The film's soundtrack includes songs by Van Morrison, Blue October, The Working Title, Foo Fighters, Feeder, Avril Lavigne, American Hi-Fi, Sum 41, the All-American Rejects, Joseph Arthur, New Found Glory, and Hot Action Cop. Everclear, Badly Drawn Boy and The Libertines also have songs in the feature. Note that most songs used were already singles. And, this is the first film to feature the song "Laid" (Matt Nathanson covering the band James) in both the trailers and the opening sequence. Notably, it is also the only film in the series to not play the song "Mrs. Robinson" in a scene where Finch has sex with Stifler's mother. It is also the first of the American Pie films not to feature the song Anomaly(Calling Your Name), or a song by blink 182.
The song "Into the Mystic", played at the end of the film when Jim and Michelle take to the dance floor at the reception, begins as Van Morrison's recording, but midway through it changes to The Wallflowers' cover version due to licensing reasons. The band's lead singer Jakob Dylan is the brother of the film's director Jesse Dylan.
The film's soundtrack peaked at number 23 on the Billboard 200 chart.
Songs that appear during Stifler's dance in the gay bar:
"Beat It" - Michael Jackson (only few seconds)
"Maniac" - Michael Sembello
"Heaven Is a Place on Earth" - Belinda Carlisle
"Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)" - Eurythmics
"Venus" - Bananarama
"The Reflex" - Duran Duran
Songs that appear during the bachelor party:
"Summertime Girls" - Y&T
"Freakin You" - Jungle Brothers
Release
American Wedding was released in the United States on August 1, 2003, and opened at #1 with $33,369,440 before dropping 53.7% the next weekend, landing at #3 behind the new releases of S.W.A.T. and Freaky Friday. Closing about 3.5 months later (November 20, 2003), the film had grossed a domestic total of $104,565,114 and $126,884,089 overseas for a worldwide total of $231,449,203, based on a $55 million budget. Despite being a huge box office success, it is the lowest-grossing film in the series, making roughly $3 million less than American Reunion would in 2012.
American Wedding grossed $15.85 million on DVD and was the number seven DVD rental in 2004.
Reception
American Wedding received mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, assigns the film a rating of 54%, based on 155 reviews, with an average rating of 5.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Raunchier and even more gross than the first two American Pies, American Wedding ought to please fans of the series." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 43 out of 100, based on 34 critics, which indicates "mixed or average reviews".
Robert Koeler of Variety compared it to the works of John Waters and called it a "strong finish" for the franchise. Roger Ebert rated it 3/4 stars and wrote that the film "is proof of the hypothesis that no genre is beyond redemption." Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times wrote that the film "struggles so hard to be tasteless that it's almost quaint." Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle rated it 2/5 stars and called it strained and desperate to find jokes.
Awards
Wins
2004 - MTV Movie Award for Best Dance Sequence (Seann William Scott)
2004 - Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Villain (Seann William Scott) and Choice Movie Your Parents Didn't Want You To See
Nominations
2004 - Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie – Comedy, Choice Movie Actor – Comedy (Seann William Scott), Choice Movie Actress – Comedy (Alyson Hannigan), Choice Movie Blush (Seann William Scott), Choice Movie Hissy Fit (Jason Biggs), & Choice Movie Liplock (Jason Biggs & Alyson Hannigan)
References
External links
American Pie (film series)
2003 films
2003 romantic comedy films
2000s sex comedy films
American films
American romantic comedy films
American sequel films
American sex comedy films
2000s English-language films
Films scored by Christophe Beck
Films directed by Jesse Dylan
Films set in Michigan
Films shot in California
Films shot in Chicago
Films set in 2003
Films about weddings in the United States
American interfaith romance films
Films with screenplays by Adam Herz
Universal Pictures films | [
-0.16408774256706238,
0.18980608880519867,
0.40270286798477173,
-0.2716595232486725,
0.33024609088897705,
0.04480694606900215,
0.5836413502693176,
-0.21530307829380035,
0.33624520897865295,
0.16510172188282013,
-0.11829663813114166,
0.5283463001251221,
0.05085396021604538,
-0.24154111742973328,
-0.515806257724762,
0.13306958973407745,
0.49211663007736206,
0.3637969493865967,
0.16554652154445648,
-0.7464615106582642,
-0.6858174204826355,
-0.2539549767971039,
0.4760887622833252,
-0.1054341197013855,
0.042028993368148804,
0.017775988206267357,
0.2412801831960678,
-0.5363314747810364,
-0.19003649055957794,
0.2362852692604065,
0.13789761066436768,
0.05303815379738808,
-0.28914764523506165,
-0.6060295701026917,
-0.04234014451503754,
-0.10463521629571915,
-0.13437916338443756,
-0.19950146973133087,
-0.2554389238357544,
0.0765913799405098,
-0.03380929306149483,
-0.6741043925285339,
0.4006439745426178,
-0.017450843006372452,
-0.12466798722743988,
0.3260338306427002,
-1.3286452293395996,
0.23566840589046478,
-0.6691327095031738,
0.12220381945371628,
0.1638767272233963,
-0.27154678106307983,
0.09600351005792618,
0.49269595742225647,
0.6400860548019409,
0.6045480370521545,
-0.7154183387756348,
0.00014980934793129563,
-0.2310119867324829,
-0.49697625637054443,
-0.21765223145484924,
0.10599228739738464,
0.423298180103302,
-0.6824219822883606,
0.31369465589523315,
-0.1016940176486969,
-0.31818467378616333,
0.27624809741973877,
0.13307014107704163,
0.13592125475406647,
0.6591953039169312,
-1.215335726737976,
0.18415871262550354,
-0.000329263653839007,
0.5556995868682861,
-0.03187734633684158,
-0.48390108346939087,
0.562859833240509,
0.05407591164112091,
0.020743202418088913,
-0.36814597249031067,
-0.12783926725387573,
0.5179930329322815,
0.6277474761009216,
-0.021185724064707756,
-0.09958350658416748,
0.3095077574253082,
0.37396031618118286,
-0.30671226978302,
0.4424242079257965,
-0.530898928642273,
0.10598772764205933,
0.3141120374202728,
0.3497687876224518,
0.26173272728919983,
-0.4943851828575134,
-0.04123622551560402,
-0.10464157909154892,
0.5214164853096008,
0.3223510682582855,
-0.06625837087631226,
0.30850979685783386,
0.2855035960674286,
-0.2050628960132599,
-0.43583863973617554,
-0.11760230362415314,
0.009715836495161057,
-0.36044856905937195,
0.4767191410064697,
0.3060489296913147,
0.1592635214328766,
0.25362274050712585,
0.32985296845436096,
0.3084537982940674,
-0.529944658279419,
0.267630010843277,
-0.2627842426300049,
-0.3035215735435486,
-0.577358603477478,
-0.35716283321380615,
0.33820781111717224,
0.7635195255279541,
0.12797489762306213,
0.4315568804740906,
0.3203333020210266,
0.3783882260322571,
0.24025733768939972,
0.7451171875,
-0.27175745368003845,
-0.09216159582138062,
-0.045863665640354156,
-0.3895284831523895,
-0.20059651136398315,
0.30314505100250244,
-0.1925562024116516,
-0.44603168964385986,
0.2000769078731537,
-0.6090561151504517,
0.674812376499176,
0.6503532528877258,
-0.4892114996910095,
-0.16572712361812592,
0.31398090720176697,
-0.19277061522006989,
-0.073142409324646,
0.13827982544898987,
-0.06851478666067123,
-0.2577776610851288,
-0.1816219538450241,
-0.23766754567623138,
0.07883992791175842,
0.3054278790950775,
-0.2145020067691803,
-0.2636999189853668,
-0.1585201770067215,
0.5201072096824646,
0.5886374711990356,
-0.12134147435426712,
-0.25405266880989075,
0.4387570917606354,
0.2896564304828644,
0.3464917540550232,
0.38787171244621277,
-0.05715184658765793,
0.3587326407432556,
0.10018700361251831,
0.6923201084136963,
0.5803573727607727,
0.009674820117652416,
0.12935751676559448,
-0.17820344865322113,
0.4189056158065796,
0.3725925385951996,
0.4016391932964325,
0.18515948951244354,
0.044763900339603424,
0.3877422511577606,
-0.05202809348702431,
0.006596632767468691,
0.3421419560909271,
-0.35266852378845215,
0.5107317566871643,
0.24844251573085785,
-0.5167239904403687,
0.29397469758987427,
-0.12040558457374573,
0.045105066150426865,
-0.3161694407463074,
-0.5651342868804932,
-0.0987313911318779,
-0.3579152524471283,
-0.8729174733161926,
-0.149617001414299,
-0.35760679841041565,
0.663817286491394,
-0.15152296423912048,
-0.5947532057762146,
0.6576807498931885,
0.15450452268123627,
0.532622754573822,
-0.2217867523431778,
-0.07939267158508301,
0.691310465335846,
0.23001398146152496,
-0.5659023523330688,
-0.10766436159610748,
0.18568861484527588,
0.48437371850013733,
0.583301842212677,
0.12191145867109299,
-0.01941153034567833,
0.0809793621301651,
0.3300186097621918,
0.3391074240207672,
-0.007578462827950716,
0.01622140035033226,
-0.1029214859008789,
0.19510695338249207,
0.06323373317718506,
-0.05002427101135254,
0.8087406158447266,
0.34552744030952454,
-0.08879519999027252,
0.1250038892030716,
0.0946061983704567,
0.8604416847229004,
0.05330026149749756,
0.23182103037834167,
0.01102032233029604,
0.13069647550582886,
-0.08636065572500229,
0.4308019280433655,
-0.3960713744163513,
-0.6923039555549622,
0.741687536239624,
0.18944020569324493,
0.01674721948802471,
0.06303111463785172,
-0.394821435213089,
0.1134728193283081,
0.3647143244743347,
0.3442145884037018,
-0.2835645377635956,
0.26261720061302185,
-0.4515281319618225,
0.013426784425973892,
0.4293196499347687,
0.0003692518512252718,
0.05086935684084892,
-0.08146747946739197,
-0.2705986499786377,
-0.1569778472185135,
0.15882405638694763,
0.3012070655822754,
0.247733473777771,
0.3141520917415619,
-0.22364965081214905,
0.33828461170196533,
0.04612740874290466,
0.10909782350063324,
0.3229347765445709,
0.3443855941295624,
0.06047613546252251,
0.23638924956321716,
0.35273289680480957,
-0.3539762794971466,
-0.6958707571029663,
-0.2914782762527466,
0.18566685914993286,
0.36243730783462524,
-0.03422870114445686,
-0.2939402759075165,
-0.29719433188438416,
0.33642324805259705,
0.05232143774628639,
-0.7367212772369385,
-0.453471839427948,
0.11744894087314606,
-0.42125338315963745,
-0.48833218216896057,
-0.07492236793041229,
0.4285062551498413,
0.10527725517749786,
-0.5200095772743225,
-0.51445072889328,
-0.1925697773694992,
-0.16731788218021393,
-0.7093808650970459,
-0.44733548164367676,
0.0010245945304632187,
0.1169966608285904,
-0.23881740868091583,
-0.041817475110292435,
-0.41524940729141235,
0.5255177617073059,
-0.04469532147049904,
0.5842536687850952,
0.08373070508241653,
-0.0849190354347229,
0.37030231952667236,
-0.46758490800857544,
-0.06834010034799576,
0.019277872517704964,
-0.2960902750492096,
0.6119971871376038,
-0.11467540264129639,
0.27433112263679504,
-0.47346460819244385,
-6.074878215789795,
-0.22610419988632202,
-0.19964048266410828,
-0.43614158034324646,
0.4394811987876892,
-0.24527929723262787,
0.5225562453269958,
-0.666608989238739,
0.4609929919242859,
0.24289292097091675,
-0.1429358571767807,
0.20903380215168,
-0.05194178968667984,
-0.032856881618499756,
-0.022068427875638008,
-0.6867189407348633,
-0.3316003382205963,
-0.3745160400867462,
0.1068093329668045,
0.2580079436302185,
-0.29418057203292847,
0.1413639634847641,
0.3565639853477478,
0.27330318093299866,
-0.20703081786632538,
0.22612984478473663,
-0.04961204156279564,
0.06639372557401657,
0.2086605727672577,
0.23158292472362518,
-0.010136377066373825,
0.3206382095813751,
0.8670717477798462,
-0.09559401124715805,
-0.20761753618717194,
-0.3057405650615692,
0.6511010527610779,
-0.06180619075894356,
0.3059791922569275,
0.027390887960791588,
0.49040260910987854,
0.1574755609035492,
0.08840361982584,
-0.3989456593990326,
0.8279543519020081,
-0.6347377896308899,
-0.26239505410194397,
-0.3829810917377472,
-0.06285276263952255,
0.6288241147994995,
0.6125364303588867,
0.6533970832824707,
0.5708900094032288,
0.3208885192871094,
0.1425536572933197,
-0.08542471379041672,
0.1505395621061325,
0.19466014206409454,
-0.006233972031623125,
-0.22068488597869873,
-0.07350330799818039,
-0.15050262212753296,
0.3014524579048157,
-0.05802347883582115,
0.2398192286491394,
-0.5928024649620056,
-0.16757693886756897,
0.27201151847839355,
-0.18014611303806305,
0.15121902525424957,
-0.26535215973854065,
-0.33540022373199463,
0.08044128119945526,
-0.9101492166519165,
0.3850140869617462,
-0.5349401831626892,
0.18811187148094177,
-0.5411089658737183,
-0.7479048371315002,
0.048589639365673065,
0.2834494411945343,
0.05405333265662193,
0.3707749843597412,
-0.2221892774105072,
0.49558600783348083,
0.009518606588244438,
-0.6291356086730957,
0.011080047115683556,
0.0426238551735878,
-0.3453906178474426,
0.44883596897125244,
-0.2744608521461487,
-0.045084986835718155,
-0.05534372478723526,
0.5186423063278198,
0.6094186305999756,
-0.12557896971702576,
0.470893532037735,
0.6618587970733643,
0.34016552567481995,
-0.3333454728126526,
-0.23517119884490967,
0.5151948928833008,
-0.158933624625206,
-0.1808662712574005,
-0.39042049646377563,
0.03769517317414284,
0.4326435327529907,
0.4433404207229614,
-0.3723468482494354,
0.0797082707285881,
0.2298118621110916,
-0.16796307265758514,
-0.458053857088089,
0.08508798480033875,
0.1825706958770752,
-0.28294533491134644,
-0.11010701209306717,
0.30276644229888916,
0.8060203194618225,
0.11117463558912277,
-0.41450661420822144,
-0.493703693151474,
0.2759428322315216,
-0.12459396570920944,
-0.27849870920181274,
0.23399131000041962,
0.043678220361471176,
0.11354916542768478,
0.141776442527771,
0.1879204958677292,
-0.22049199044704437,
0.14439482986927032,
0.46885982155799866,
0.6362350583076477,
0.18884466588497162,
0.18822559714317322,
-0.15629996359348297,
-0.23154304921627045,
-0.07629667967557907,
0.5055543184280396,
-0.5368399024009705,
-0.9053918719291687,
0.5624263286590576,
0.08636831492185593,
0.0908462256193161,
-0.569007158279419,
-0.27994903922080994,
-0.030759666115045547,
-0.05097649246454239,
-0.5592637658119202,
0.25932854413986206,
0.5848994851112366,
-0.4839904010295868,
-0.3139984607696533,
0.28697463870048523,
0.04068545624613762,
0.3937540650367737,
-1.082098364830017,
-0.1898478865623474,
0.05035501718521118,
-0.5633745789527893,
-1.1489014625549316,
-0.13349445164203644,
0.05564066395163536,
0.22949126362800598,
-0.6230638027191162,
-0.6067065000534058,
-0.23603948950767517,
0.3544231355190277,
0.6824946999549866,
0.30372974276542664,
-0.024855323135852814,
-0.5707376599311829,
0.09581021964550018,
0.2558983862400055,
0.2055930197238922,
-0.2919125556945801,
0.05981937423348427,
-0.35468530654907227,
0.08081502467393875,
-0.3938206732273102,
-0.1727462261915207,
0.08730661123991013,
0.3415065109729767,
-0.3958258032798767,
-0.09006015956401825,
0.13852442800998688,
-0.2220219075679779,
0.2273874133825302,
0.06659162044525146,
0.03944106772542,
0.09114724397659302,
-0.10359781980514526,
-0.7866240739822388,
-0.4699777364730835,
-0.028613969683647156,
0.09047013521194458,
-0.13468371331691742,
-0.19355499744415283,
0.06207457184791565,
-0.08763409405946732,
-0.6798819899559021,
0.17670467495918274,
-0.0055740512907505035,
-0.527814507484436,
0.7122461199760437,
0.5272934436798096,
-0.12928207218647003,
0.5102293491363525,
0.16456691920757294,
-0.889918863773346,
0.10854974389076233,
0.36744651198387146,
-0.015013100579380989,
0.13616733253002167,
-0.08212059736251831,
-0.03560841083526611,
-0.15285658836364746,
-0.35237184166908264,
0.11609277874231339,
-0.055222637951374054,
-0.42778727412223816,
0.23856428265571594,
-0.41304710507392883,
0.2235492318868637,
-0.11229480803012848,
-0.679729163646698,
-0.3452366888523102,
-0.7309325337409973,
0.25882112979888916,
0.19204948842525482,
-0.46539294719696045,
0.42972731590270996,
0.14305798709392548,
-0.24751126766204834,
-0.48924243450164795,
0.34693458676338196,
-0.023936238139867783,
0.27103033661842346,
0.25897449254989624,
0.3112579882144928,
-0.0583527535200119,
-0.2859984040260315,
-0.3557882308959961,
-0.03146437928080559,
-0.3686125576496124,
-0.07967721670866013,
-0.17796052992343903,
0.866472601890564,
0.02469050884246826,
0.06490437686443329,
0.09336448460817337,
-0.060628876090049744,
-0.23558197915554047,
-0.9081586599349976,
-0.24960023164749146,
-0.22337907552719116,
-0.6113856434822083,
0.18024374544620514,
-0.5329419374465942,
-0.20920535922050476,
-0.5731674432754517,
-0.2557350695133209,
0.41293033957481384,
-0.09809613972902298,
0.24150808155536652,
-0.6402382254600525,
-0.4842422604560852,
0.32529696822166443,
-0.056098971515893936,
0.015827307477593422,
-0.040022436529397964,
-0.09669879078865051,
-0.2962989807128906,
-0.005612676031887531,
0.021402213722467422,
-0.43745654821395874,
0.15512076020240784,
0.3818929195404053,
-0.47980067133903503,
-0.44624537229537964,
-1.0901768207550049,
-0.10641280561685562,
-0.3627833425998688,
-0.6295958161354065,
0.40602052211761475,
-0.42521730065345764,
-0.49455395340919495,
0.16587267816066742,
-0.265219122171402,
0.08225773274898529,
-0.31927964091300964,
0.08719196915626526,
-0.0944691151380539,
-0.4328260123729706,
0.6421059966087341,
0.5560951232910156,
-0.5485511422157288,
0.07180235534906387,
-0.022391274571418762,
0.38103991746902466,
0.016291826963424683,
-0.004467943217605352,
0.2128565013408661,
0.030603324994444847,
-0.13130219280719757,
-0.32051515579223633,
0.130337193608284,
0.5237634181976318,
-0.3378199338912964,
-0.0728146880865097,
0.2991985082626343,
0.5086140036582947,
-0.058017488569021225,
0.5503939986228943,
0.8053538203239441,
0.036043062806129456,
-0.06922923773527145,
0.17396263778209686,
0.11222667992115021,
0.08610875904560089,
0.1266603022813797,
-0.3256591558456421,
0.07682232558727264,
0.29711171984672546,
0.07599130272865295,
0.37105005979537964,
0.13012848794460297,
0.302255779504776,
0.8078491687774658,
0.43302616477012634,
0.22325056791305542,
-0.03238237649202347,
0.18820002675056458,
-0.577375054359436,
-0.4898202121257782,
-0.2226836085319519,
-0.38902243971824646,
0.8259751796722412,
-0.04903506115078926,
0.3132656514644623,
0.034110285341739655,
0.2510789930820465,
0.5814090967178345,
0.031201256439089775,
0.09313150495290756,
-0.13357676565647125,
0.3539246916770935,
-0.04538377746939659,
0.3341969847679138,
-0.055390749126672745,
-0.0378594733774662,
-0.7459064722061157,
0.3666855990886688,
-0.07048588246107101,
0.016759993508458138,
-0.15605005621910095,
0.31497472524642944,
0.023960690945386887,
-0.11799152195453644,
-0.05230781435966492,
0.09076245129108429,
0.5824418663978577,
0.392162948846817,
-0.2106042504310608,
-0.3673091232776642,
0.09842099994421005,
-0.21435721218585968,
0.12728604674339294,
-0.2450716346502304,
-0.05149971693754196,
-0.3301023244857788,
-0.3791503310203552,
0.2937253415584564,
0.5708205699920654,
-0.16798466444015503,
0.08818906545639038,
-0.01066854689270258,
0.09563329815864563,
-0.8007147908210754,
-0.32898783683776855,
-0.6489600539207458,
-0.14341847598552704,
-0.7972643375396729,
-0.02800581231713295,
-0.1616058200597763,
0.03570859506726265,
-0.41304922103881836,
-0.5206689238548279,
0.11701603978872299,
-0.46521925926208496,
0.210092231631279,
-0.02860884927213192,
-0.7012017965316772,
-0.19820116460323334,
0.2628878355026245,
0.06278831511735916,
0.36694371700286865,
0.683253824710846,
0.038823578506708145,
0.45895513892173767,
0.2372969388961792,
-0.2107047140598297,
-0.6624826788902283,
0.057408273220062256,
0.0738762840628624,
-0.22786575555801392,
-0.4327884018421173,
-0.4462985098361969,
0.016304705291986465,
-0.2823822796344757,
-0.04738227650523186,
-0.29995080828666687,
-0.07777572423219681,
-0.2566397786140442,
0.5711826086044312,
-0.19165915250778198,
0.5903180241584778,
-0.5276011228561401,
-0.2596147954463959,
-0.5662990808486938,
0.13882295787334442,
0.18701083958148956,
0.24185603857040405,
-0.17386865615844727,
0.7046428322792053,
0.17351320385932922,
-0.47437554597854614,
0.6406108140945435,
0.12367500364780426,
0.0555545836687088,
0.0004047474649269134,
0.16726604104042053,
0.2817036807537079,
-0.35431718826293945,
-0.19941742718219757,
0.6125198006629944,
0.1165655106306076,
-0.09772421419620514,
0.22382965683937073,
0.15335851907730103,
-0.7158793210983276,
0.020995333790779114,
-0.07795128971338272,
0.23060505092144012,
0.039757438004016876,
-0.06973127275705338,
-0.5472990274429321,
-0.16965287923812866,
-0.1670863926410675,
-0.4396854639053345,
0.10847751051187515,
-0.28608205914497375,
-0.17332254350185394,
-0.2982005476951599,
0.0806787833571434,
-0.15775354206562042,
0.8070659637451172,
-0.08179178088903427
] |
241483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal | Sidereal | Sidereal, meaning "of the stars", may refer to:
Sidereal time
Sidereal day
Sidereal month
Sidereal year
Sidereal period of an object orbiting a star
Sidereal and tropical astrology | [
0.1524798721075058,
-0.015499521046876907,
0.5758156776428223,
-0.004584801848977804,
-0.3898143470287323,
-0.27424344420433044,
-0.531153678894043,
0.3330540060997009,
-0.07735603302717209,
-0.5065211057662964,
-0.1671396940946579,
0.31459900736808777,
0.09148822724819183,
0.8409414291381836,
-0.11706268787384033,
0.3648790717124939,
0.09500591456890106,
0.43811720609664917,
-0.39471784234046936,
-0.34535181522369385,
-0.2822933793067932,
0.06886322051286697,
0.10179271548986435,
-0.6598679423332214,
-0.44505009055137634,
-0.02227180451154709,
-0.3378174602985382,
0.166274756193161,
-0.01294037140905857,
0.1139836460351944,
-0.23163841664791107,
0.6827735900878906,
-0.3209327459335327,
0.0741177573800087,
0.12262313067913055,
-0.004880414344370365,
0.08584307134151459,
-0.7022205591201782,
-0.4308096468448639,
-0.6400836110115051,
0.12163699418306351,
-0.35279619693756104,
0.615623950958252,
0.2556048035621643,
-0.5210504531860352,
-0.7389956116676331,
-1.0319031476974487,
0.34738314151763916,
-0.1381145417690277,
0.11981260031461716,
0.21667270362377167,
-0.07979346066713333,
0.15367436408996582,
0.21051380038261414,
-0.36512285470962524,
0.872943103313446,
-0.30887895822525024,
0.06154468655586243,
0.4384087324142456,
-0.16387051343917847,
0.4726606607437134,
-0.20325157046318054,
-0.2561684250831604,
0.288046658039093,
0.4114295244216919,
0.1512305736541748,
0.2467128038406372,
-0.01788906753063202,
0.09034959226846695,
-0.3625369369983673,
0.2885786294937134,
0.4735143780708313,
-0.22405369579792023,
0.14549577236175537,
-0.4852329194545746,
-0.2126431167125702,
0.27490922808647156,
0.021383514627814293,
-0.3302273452281952,
-0.3408834934234619,
-0.041193023324012756,
-0.26318660378456116,
0.9476179480552673,
-0.41080623865127563,
-0.34724488854408264,
0.10453666001558304,
-0.6413873434066772,
-0.4872872829437256,
-0.4580692648887634,
0.6676852107048035,
0.5343348383903503,
-0.23221412301063538,
0.4220614731311798,
0.38740214705467224,
-0.28077101707458496,
-0.27389657497406006,
0.3861871361732483,
-0.2728739082813263,
0.34328895807266235,
-0.17176131904125214,
-0.397403746843338,
0.2629644274711609,
0.3723072111606598,
0.0028734279330819845,
-0.00031949474941939116,
-0.1954297423362732,
-0.19993457198143005,
-1.1112823486328125,
0.31311386823654175,
0.3902246356010437,
-1.0141533613204956,
0.44141149520874023,
0.07219042629003525,
0.41131383180618286,
-0.7057815790176392,
-0.34969305992126465,
-0.15946725010871887,
-0.16776646673679352,
-0.07812705636024475,
-0.19980522990226746,
0.2785321772098541,
1.34853196144104,
0.3100756108760834,
-0.13398054242134094,
0.5100702047348022,
0.5199081301689148,
0.5332759618759155,
-0.14081114530563354,
-0.612679660320282,
-0.3979746103286743,
0.22500833868980408,
0.37648192048072815,
-0.3328928053379059,
-0.039869923144578934,
0.15190747380256653,
-0.3923286497592926,
0.3414209187030792,
-0.03502601757645607,
0.34808555245399475,
0.49400976300239563,
-0.48175495862960815,
-0.9618169069290161,
-0.5084911584854126,
0.023912200704216957,
0.1956188827753067,
-0.039481401443481445,
0.2256608009338379,
-0.8453156352043152,
-0.7150948643684387,
0.01090307254344225,
-0.07217083126306534,
0.10985734313726425,
0.13475237786769867,
-0.020033299922943115,
-0.43785467743873596,
-0.3267582356929779,
-0.2060430943965912,
0.7907893061637878,
-0.14588360488414764,
-0.09611979871988297,
0.28555962443351746,
0.2506062984466553,
-0.2599667012691498,
0.14249570667743683,
0.2912304103374481,
0.1223469227552414,
0.6792570352554321,
0.5009756088256836,
-0.5637413263320923,
0.2086222618818283,
-0.15554815530776978,
-0.3560788929462433,
0.16857649385929108,
-0.6023280620574951,
-0.5025505423545837,
-0.17505349218845367,
0.7049252986907959,
0.21776901185512543,
0.5290388464927673,
-0.15204507112503052,
-0.4138273000717163,
-0.068577341735363,
-0.18418137729167938,
-0.4261240065097809,
-0.058143459260463715,
-0.34314480423927307,
-0.3441038131713867,
-0.009924878366291523,
0.13832545280456543,
0.12086901813745499,
-0.6316058039665222,
0.041892386972904205,
-0.10528122633695602,
-0.5640183091163635,
0.13918240368366241,
-0.419054239988327,
-0.4925011396408081,
0.7941341996192932,
-0.4261132776737213,
0.07079143077135086,
-0.7844244241714478,
-0.2093554586172104,
0.46333935856819153,
0.7319879531860352,
0.11103209853172302,
-0.13516579568386078,
0.3771912157535553,
0.11099517345428467,
0.38163819909095764,
0.4755101203918457,
0.22149507701396942,
-0.1830081343650818,
-0.08074746280908585,
0.23965764045715332,
0.31783607602119446,
0.37617185711860657,
-0.9829365015029907,
0.38415956497192383,
-0.5223163366317749,
0.672062337398529,
0.5843266844749451,
-0.17499050498008728,
-0.018066998571157455,
0.12161681056022644,
-0.30798202753067017,
0.6016414761543274,
0.3094739019870758,
-0.019504090771079063,
-0.020332450047135353,
-0.9587287902832031,
0.4516660273075104,
-0.6775893568992615,
0.3019958436489105,
-0.4734985828399658,
-0.49428790807724,
0.3104502260684967,
-0.06258466839790344,
-0.5782672166824341,
-0.146102637052536,
-0.996139645576477,
-0.11279833316802979,
-0.020678453147411346,
-0.36120840907096863,
0.9039471745491028,
-0.1574573665857315,
0.35765716433525085,
-0.2303255796432495,
0.20855699479579926,
-0.6265019774436951,
0.04777802526950836,
-0.2934668958187103,
0.3108489215373993,
-0.29007232189178467,
-0.4577147662639618,
0.49384114146232605,
0.08190219104290009,
-0.453340619802475,
-0.22517995536327362,
0.485210657119751,
0.5225523710250854,
0.04689627140760422,
0.3364635705947876,
0.7353811860084534,
-0.05286838114261627,
-0.24808543920516968,
-0.3753262460231781,
-0.5085891485214233,
-0.2549179792404175,
0.01705813594162464,
0.8343955874443054,
-0.0749925747513771,
0.11978183686733246,
-0.29836133122444153,
0.06681113690137863,
-0.36111322045326233,
-0.6048102974891663,
-0.1687234789133072,
-0.1659848988056183,
-0.27873122692108154,
-0.18265892565250397,
0.11535785347223282,
-0.003122504334896803,
0.6622732281684875,
-0.24465994536876678,
-0.19347332417964935,
-0.19292010366916656,
0.07791665196418762,
0.10281424969434738,
-0.07213027030229568,
-0.19350342452526093,
-0.766996443271637,
0.6210443377494812,
-0.10977378487586975,
0.6663320064544678,
0.15364296734333038,
-0.2551380693912506,
-0.019346071407198906,
-0.11844518035650253,
0.10414452105760574,
-0.21164418756961823,
-0.45198526978492737,
-0.10237514972686768,
0.07866508513689041,
-0.6545490026473999,
0.09356898814439774,
-0.3199043571949005,
-0.48205697536468506,
0.5236597061157227,
-5.687829971313477,
-0.033293258398771286,
-0.5876982808113098,
-0.2938324213027954,
-0.15998618304729462,
0.19496005773544312,
0.9059063196182251,
0.08174581825733185,
-0.045926425606012344,
0.014625735580921173,
-0.0806504338979721,
-0.3468722105026245,
-0.3294152319431305,
0.5291374921798706,
0.5815954208374023,
0.21498681604862213,
-0.04003852233290672,
0.18398822844028473,
-0.25962498784065247,
0.8232372999191284,
-0.3810557723045349,
0.7057226300239563,
-0.04940390959382057,
0.6536830067634583,
-0.08417467772960663,
0.11569196730852127,
-0.017613274976611137,
-0.8556176424026489,
-0.17848865687847137,
-0.02074512094259262,
0.4531460106372833,
0.2879161238670349,
-0.043582018464803696,
0.16432633996009827,
0.414665549993515,
0.08246539533138275,
0.07153806835412979,
-0.369649201631546,
0.6261106133460999,
-0.09076094627380371,
-0.021238943561911583,
0.5954116582870483,
0.1630573719739914,
-0.07683201134204865,
0.6117787957191467,
-0.20835167169570923,
0.030873095616698265,
1.0823020935058594,
-0.39135539531707764,
0.7405034303665161,
0.07646794617176056,
-0.18816234171390533,
-0.28302377462387085,
-0.7556476593017578,
-0.5580397248268127,
-0.13134019076824188,
-0.004017369821667671,
-0.20746955275535583,
-0.9380577206611633,
-0.18385712802410126,
0.5402213931083679,
-0.17188242077827454,
0.16629184782505035,
-0.3981174826622009,
-0.2640911340713501,
-0.027840813621878624,
-0.7988391518592834,
-0.3749712109565735,
0.8230987191200256,
0.38344788551330566,
-0.20273347198963165,
-0.343446284532547,
0.20132191479206085,
-0.6407140493392944,
0.248012974858284,
0.18043652176856995,
0.12821151316165924,
0.010910860262811184,
0.35280582308769226,
0.23030494153499603,
-0.10042978823184967,
-0.2691955864429474,
-0.028269434347748756,
0.07551199942827225,
0.17217713594436646,
-0.16400602459907532,
-0.12899740040302277,
-0.36747094988822937,
-0.6367210745811462,
0.016380663961172104,
0.9620563387870789,
-0.6457722187042236,
0.8679001331329346,
0.041708365082740784,
0.13186754286289215,
0.9183900356292725,
0.05590302497148514,
-0.2961864173412323,
0.7388866543769836,
-0.34925806522369385,
0.44825437664985657,
0.13807016611099243,
0.41790658235549927,
-0.44391757249832153,
-0.7693442702293396,
-0.015596066601574421,
0.1567370593547821,
0.3814769685268402,
0.3498086929321289,
-0.16752970218658447,
0.22924795746803284,
0.03656407818198204,
-0.16508948802947998,
-0.1958308219909668,
0.35423678159713745,
0.2596144676208496,
-0.25844645500183105,
1.0197086334228516,
0.4303094148635864,
0.12947870790958405,
0.08927005529403687,
-0.5487840175628662,
-0.8819709420204163,
-0.06402993202209473,
-0.7152964472770691,
0.1192331612110138,
-0.749070405960083,
0.2343476414680481,
0.17713283002376556,
0.6566214561462402,
0.41894903779029846,
0.2562039792537689,
0.148825541138649,
0.09691456705331802,
0.013876239769160748,
0.11794714629650116,
-0.37658432126045227,
-0.34857702255249023,
0.2175011932849884,
-0.21048182249069214,
0.4224945604801178,
0.21450601518154144,
0.26982149481773376,
0.3154207766056061,
-0.17982454597949982,
-0.010034698992967606,
-0.1398475617170334,
-0.3950510621070862,
0.02859502099454403,
0.6507344841957092,
0.17136350274085999,
0.3068835735321045,
-0.01729000173509121,
-0.243486687541008,
-0.5645902156829834,
0.05588735640048981,
-0.15903091430664062,
-0.3103887140750885,
0.31899726390838623,
-0.49436071515083313,
0.04733215272426605,
-0.350768119096756,
-0.8079053163528442,
-0.2846093475818634,
-0.21316882967948914,
0.32429075241088867,
-0.4084869623184204,
0.12057438492774963,
0.33017492294311523,
0.553467869758606,
-0.2049632966518402,
-0.1002546027302742,
0.1341172456741333,
-0.8457706570625305,
-0.19323302805423737,
0.49301862716674805,
0.10708119720220566,
-0.06625562906265259,
0.0431220680475235,
-0.7909257411956787,
0.006646763999015093,
0.1763586848974228,
-0.7798137664794922,
0.035793159157037735,
0.253937304019928,
-0.2998217046260834,
-0.06658935546875,
-0.5934255123138428,
0.18229986727237701,
0.1175113320350647,
0.7636232376098633,
0.7709457278251648,
0.07998649775981903,
-0.4317997694015503,
0.13284426927566528,
-0.16868706047534943,
-0.47813305258750916,
1.1495219469070435,
-0.03248845785856247,
0.18296445906162262,
0.23979434370994568,
-0.010107738897204399,
-0.5786555409431458,
0.03724236041307449,
0.5993134379386902,
-0.5318157076835632,
0.6025757789611816,
-0.1051478460431099,
-0.38149556517601013,
-0.021868597716093063,
-0.5542681813240051,
-0.2853005528450012,
-0.21783621609210968,
-0.37843602895736694,
0.2273578643798828,
0.7062042951583862,
0.1574118286371231,
-0.7440516352653503,
-0.04704918712377548,
-0.14873509109020233,
0.813159704208374,
0.3670443296432495,
-0.27345868945121765,
0.044407207518815994,
0.18866708874702454,
-0.2675834596157074,
0.2971033453941345,
-0.23448362946510315,
0.3398495614528656,
0.19532355666160583,
-0.2074524611234665,
0.3398989140987396,
-0.19245058298110962,
-0.25085175037384033,
-0.4553806185722351,
-0.5105951428413391,
-0.12437251210212708,
-0.4782521724700928,
0.5312851071357727,
0.1943262666463852,
0.14929525554180145,
0.303692102432251,
0.2234274297952652,
-0.2709521949291229,
-0.23896197974681854,
0.03457189351320267,
0.5683542490005493,
-0.768129825592041,
-0.4823063910007477,
0.039217885583639145,
0.4607832729816437,
-0.9464601278305054,
-0.2381780594587326,
-0.5654028654098511,
0.7004597783088684,
-0.04017993435263634,
-0.24081803858280182,
0.2807510495185852,
0.09692489355802536,
0.3955599069595337,
0.1998075544834137,
-0.30203428864479065,
-0.3267975449562073,
-0.14049533009529114,
0.3830902576446533,
0.35651829838752747,
0.044607289135456085,
-0.3008219003677368,
0.4993504583835602,
0.03256328031420708,
0.9175832271575928,
-0.021721486002206802,
0.7011980414390564,
0.4257768988609314,
0.5199629068374634,
0.0365183986723423,
-0.5857794880867004,
-0.31595131754875183,
-0.10038754343986511,
-0.6618110537528992,
-0.3619617819786072,
0.3462260961532593,
-0.17503876984119415,
-0.060651931911706924,
0.4881303310394287,
-0.3304150700569153,
-0.06776340305805206,
-0.3165372908115387,
-0.07576561719179153,
0.05747225880622864,
-0.08875950425863266,
0.31869325041770935,
0.10547696799039841,
0.2612520158290863,
0.048162344843149185,
0.40980154275894165,
0.6059092283248901,
0.2604230046272278,
-0.3229598104953766,
-0.16757988929748535,
-0.07650993764400482,
0.23312053084373474,
0.19357475638389587,
-0.5763939619064331,
-0.028997080400586128,
-0.07909664511680603,
0.9939002990722656,
-0.6080912351608276,
-0.4757872521877289,
-0.18872028589248657,
0.42792847752571106,
0.4645392894744873,
-0.12780626118183136,
-0.1710754930973053,
-0.24796898663043976,
0.1356319934129715,
0.799545407295227,
-0.05175701901316643,
0.20065371692180634,
0.5374590754508972,
0.5002864599227905,
0.4649566411972046,
0.5760871171951294,
-0.7666105031967163,
-0.30751803517341614,
0.002352654468268156,
-0.6223823428153992,
0.6819630861282349,
-0.22834070026874542,
-0.025828853249549866,
0.5882408618927002,
0.12431210279464722,
-0.09813309460878372,
0.743472158908844,
-0.8004919290542603,
0.19929641485214233,
0.3586103916168213,
-0.5952853560447693,
-0.5929498672485352,
0.023854298517107964,
-0.10121490061283112,
0.7635387182235718,
0.5473671555519104,
0.12279108166694641,
0.032540213316679,
0.6679320931434631,
0.1197056993842125,
0.5236592292785645,
-0.48340797424316406,
-0.3046792447566986,
0.2572794258594513,
-0.738373339176178,
0.21042346954345703,
-0.10710349678993225,
0.10025697946548462,
-0.18979330360889435,
0.6361445188522339,
-0.15544550120830536,
-0.31699004769325256,
0.0835532695055008,
-0.3309723138809204,
0.3562244474887848,
0.7036252021789551,
-0.4523244798183441,
0.0856848880648613,
-0.596026599407196,
0.47939056158065796,
-0.05819590389728546,
-0.40948882699012756,
-0.3955080211162567,
-0.02265634760260582,
0.3007204532623291,
-0.36172395944595337,
0.42954015731811523,
-0.0375569723546505,
-0.16590355336666107,
0.3458273112773895,
0.5756627321243286,
-0.015162412077188492,
-0.5535303950309753,
-0.229499951004982,
-0.6092223525047302,
-0.17689955234527588,
-0.6522573828697205,
-0.3589633107185364,
0.1832679957151413,
-0.16291701793670654,
0.22484159469604492,
0.11909183114767075,
-0.07100066542625427,
0.7837021946907043,
-0.15527749061584473,
0.20953798294067383,
-0.5766979455947876,
-0.24599747359752655,
0.0299018993973732,
0.29476743936538696,
0.49517032504081726,
0.5576740503311157,
-0.2941783368587494,
0.23705805838108063,
-0.3540534973144531,
0.22445447742938995,
-0.014431106857955456,
-0.7353510856628418,
0.43794146180152893,
-0.07866498082876205,
0.9460854530334473,
-0.6895423531532288,
1.406601905822754,
-0.4038826823234558,
-0.6119009256362915,
-0.1036507710814476,
0.5490788817405701,
-0.0356547050178051,
-0.3466672897338867,
0.8314224481582642,
-0.10040505975484848,
0.29782354831695557,
-0.4990028142929077,
-0.12391556054353714,
0.07095258682966232,
0.3436633348464966,
-0.10396412014961243,
0.10729901492595673,
-0.2925555408000946,
-0.18115416169166565,
0.6428535580635071,
-0.03833397850394249,
0.3689279556274414,
0.070281021296978,
-0.27640706300735474,
-0.8038058280944824,
0.46525800228118896,
-0.5245662927627563,
-0.6269626021385193,
0.30698081851005554,
0.6132181286811829,
0.6135876774787903,
-0.3922137916088104,
-0.37350139021873474,
0.5066367983818054,
-0.27952510118484497,
-0.01903572492301464,
0.45635703206062317,
0.12803314626216888,
0.03057119995355606,
0.03707070276141167,
-0.5370224118232727,
0.48022979497909546,
-0.02708088792860508,
-0.25435441732406616,
-0.06036600470542908,
-0.08077921718358994,
-0.25757887959480286,
-0.14841271936893463,
-0.0716765969991684,
-0.3903888463973999,
0.159213587641716,
0.3231546878814697
] |
241485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synodic | Synodic | Synodic, may refer to:
Synodic day
Synodic month
Synodic orbital period, synodic year or synodic time, the time of an celestial object reappearing in relation two other objects | [
0.11513816565275192,
0.3293550908565521,
0.3742043673992157,
0.18878141045570374,
-0.3645053207874298,
0.4226197600364685,
0.2876017987728119,
0.23469758033752441,
-0.47938773036003113,
-0.8156097531318665,
-0.08502034842967987,
-0.020497264340519905,
-0.14281120896339417,
0.40251827239990234,
0.26812252402305603,
0.3941494822502136,
0.4773276448249817,
0.01714201457798481,
-0.5088382959365845,
-0.2445756196975708,
0.034039244055747986,
0.28827956318855286,
0.2633793354034424,
-0.6857131123542786,
0.28997790813446045,
0.1956763118505478,
-0.3073461949825287,
-0.385505735874176,
-0.37886419892311096,
-0.03268315643072128,
-0.11188965290784836,
0.8127408027648926,
0.108596071600914,
0.08413243293762207,
0.49713999032974243,
-0.014379337430000305,
0.4505023956298828,
-0.21844357252120972,
-0.34714192152023315,
-0.5531859397888184,
-0.009136714972555637,
-0.7427979111671448,
0.3959502875804901,
-0.2521560490131378,
-0.3495693504810333,
-0.19974620640277863,
-1.3272281885147095,
-0.017355909571051598,
-0.7621014714241028,
-0.3373450040817261,
0.08660822361707687,
-0.7111803293228149,
-0.04950832948088646,
0.20314446091651917,
-0.4997144043445587,
0.4963817596435547,
-0.8633902668952942,
-0.1307949423789978,
0.5614337921142578,
-0.1151159405708313,
0.5584033131599426,
-0.290364533662796,
0.004993357229977846,
0.35102877020835876,
0.36489352583885193,
-0.05016658827662468,
0.06813731044530869,
0.33383190631866455,
-0.40058889985084534,
-0.5460801720619202,
-0.13261720538139343,
-0.03467339277267456,
-0.5105759501457214,
0.2947901785373688,
-0.11439552903175354,
-0.3433036804199219,
-0.18737463653087616,
-0.10500718653202057,
0.0400267131626606,
-0.450947105884552,
-0.47017577290534973,
0.16956113278865814,
0.10844120383262634,
0.2143794298171997,
-0.15660522878170013,
-0.014259878545999527,
-0.2601815164089203,
0.2999088764190674,
-0.15080173313617706,
0.29844412207603455,
0.6069019436836243,
-0.3793122172355652,
0.5394667387008667,
0.5671941041946411,
-0.344760000705719,
-0.17663423717021942,
-0.11270596832036972,
-0.038723886013031006,
-0.04826202616095543,
-0.16213935613632202,
-0.12549015879631042,
0.10266866534948349,
0.20726220309734344,
-0.0879472866654396,
0.3598484694957733,
-0.3329746425151825,
-0.2576429843902588,
-0.5408240556716919,
0.4149348735809326,
0.37302133440971375,
-0.4780663251876831,
0.2910940647125244,
0.14992664754390717,
0.6370758414268494,
-0.4817427098751068,
-0.42605724930763245,
0.29080426692962646,
-0.5515725612640381,
-0.4044020175933838,
-0.4008771777153015,
0.01492944173514843,
0.7822214365005493,
0.6366372108459473,
-0.4461562931537628,
-0.1011890172958374,
0.3319600522518158,
0.5093295574188232,
0.3762039244174957,
-1.285718321800232,
-0.1364300400018692,
-0.21416865289211273,
0.5970090627670288,
0.05070275440812111,
0.34310978651046753,
0.02640051580965519,
-0.3099313974380493,
-0.10625200718641281,
-0.4951697885990143,
0.5266294479370117,
0.5318461060523987,
-0.7700061202049255,
-0.3658815920352936,
-0.6241374015808105,
0.13140207529067993,
0.09831425547599792,
-0.136954665184021,
0.201929971575737,
-0.5809819102287292,
-0.34292998909950256,
0.23912319540977478,
0.011279886588454247,
0.045192234218120575,
0.21050085127353668,
0.16414524614810944,
-0.5520790219306946,
-0.7377554178237915,
0.4046460688114166,
0.4565851390361786,
-0.48921993374824524,
0.4228347837924957,
-0.011777128092944622,
0.07736072689294815,
-0.329828679561615,
-0.26197779178619385,
0.12846313416957855,
-0.2729223370552063,
0.4448120594024658,
0.04353238269686699,
0.30490320920944214,
0.10424205660820007,
-0.2997099459171295,
-0.13335387408733368,
-0.15190711617469788,
0.05527966842055321,
-0.09454679489135742,
0.07649537920951843,
1.0346436500549316,
0.21902108192443848,
-0.11744274199008942,
-0.5268955230712891,
-0.5295015573501587,
0.0122965257614851,
-0.2383822202682495,
-0.3293876051902771,
0.264178603887558,
0.2252456694841385,
-0.42881685495376587,
0.22558793425559998,
-0.16692835092544556,
-0.19201475381851196,
-0.6595575213432312,
-0.24654237926006317,
-0.44654807448387146,
-0.4761801064014435,
0.58451908826828,
-0.4582274854183197,
-0.06785354018211365,
0.2341473549604416,
-0.030551524832844734,
0.5337172150611877,
-0.8061497211456299,
0.11947785317897797,
0.17210166156291962,
0.4410931169986725,
-0.16346366703510284,
0.38035130500793457,
0.2618192732334137,
0.302830308675766,
0.22875827550888062,
0.5546315908432007,
0.23961547017097473,
-0.39506521821022034,
0.15998215973377228,
0.174700528383255,
0.061117079108953476,
0.20028606057167053,
-0.5614675283432007,
-0.04547475650906563,
-0.22176867723464966,
0.33692771196365356,
0.49151456356048584,
-0.26942598819732666,
0.06761959940195084,
0.3398706316947937,
-0.6210908889770508,
-0.003738044761121273,
0.15649834275245667,
0.19586825370788574,
0.343452125787735,
-0.3913635015487671,
0.7342832684516907,
-0.01239705178886652,
0.07456070184707642,
-0.21128691732883453,
-0.1721130907535553,
-0.1151556596159935,
0.4942692816257477,
-0.5382500886917114,
-0.06366564333438873,
-0.741652250289917,
0.008577932603657246,
-0.12428706139326096,
0.023114904761314392,
0.5438664555549622,
-0.09947605431079865,
0.20471090078353882,
0.0030919911805540323,
0.15837043523788452,
-0.046833135187625885,
-0.19186966121196747,
-0.04705790430307388,
0.2876652181148529,
0.08239898085594177,
-0.615596354007721,
0.40134426951408386,
0.014743535779416561,
0.2265203893184662,
-0.13013361394405365,
0.1749596893787384,
0.04478170722723007,
-0.462495356798172,
0.05705348774790764,
0.6209513545036316,
-0.5148606896400452,
0.12259598821401596,
-0.517270565032959,
-0.0831971988081932,
0.07592591643333435,
0.3065289258956909,
0.33862537145614624,
0.06594280898571014,
-0.07772953808307648,
-0.856292724609375,
0.23493914306163788,
-0.7789129614830017,
-0.5301930904388428,
0.4840855002403259,
0.21658076345920563,
-0.4485761821269989,
-0.2997940480709076,
-0.5082677602767944,
-0.20096001029014587,
0.12658806145191193,
-0.022478139027953148,
-0.6686816215515137,
0.29489803314208984,
-0.21676474809646606,
-0.3172729015350342,
-0.14442197978496552,
-0.671343207359314,
-0.3494962155818939,
0.3771815598011017,
0.28530409932136536,
0.20955297350883484,
0.2973119020462036,
0.24746641516685486,
0.1459261029958725,
-0.5379137396812439,
0.10478835552930832,
-0.36329197883605957,
-0.09027089178562164,
-0.02550799585878849,
0.3070417046546936,
0.0028653342742472887,
0.4217654764652252,
-0.13868561387062073,
-0.11259307712316513,
0.6092687249183655,
-5.8319501876831055,
-0.5318166017532349,
-0.4627995491027832,
0.056605927646160126,
0.11648683249950409,
0.2282247394323349,
1.3057550191879272,
-0.29327329993247986,
0.07592816650867462,
-0.02877211384475231,
-0.16984817385673523,
-0.03909826651215553,
0.03897202014923096,
0.6794753074645996,
0.8416875600814819,
-0.005473547149449587,
0.6604307293891907,
-0.10496590286493301,
0.2693861722946167,
0.24181346595287323,
0.018851468339562416,
0.0744008719921112,
0.22124189138412476,
0.6345999836921692,
-0.18789611756801605,
-0.5296038389205933,
0.13298247754573822,
0.1196913942694664,
-0.04205622524023056,
0.15010257065296173,
0.4267424941062927,
0.029158860445022583,
0.12262822687625885,
-0.034592196345329285,
-0.11036807298660278,
0.016294321045279503,
0.5040290355682373,
-0.1784009337425232,
0.05527789890766144,
-0.28314679861068726,
0.21504764258861542,
0.18596738576889038,
0.33461856842041016,
-0.2330118715763092,
-0.24226249754428864,
-0.07560933381319046,
0.07754424214363098,
0.21088165044784546,
-0.4802323579788208,
0.7462509870529175,
0.06467466056346893,
0.12029074132442474,
-0.0997663363814354,
-0.49687594175338745,
-0.17757242918014526,
-0.10018577426671982,
0.45626118779182434,
-0.03597158193588257,
-0.37234896421432495,
-0.14733362197875977,
0.24751201272010803,
-0.5405054092407227,
0.18538367748260498,
-0.2542777359485626,
-0.23584873974323273,
-0.05946827679872513,
-1.0921839475631714,
0.05465621501207352,
0.7739332914352417,
0.37988394498825073,
-1.143710732460022,
-0.23050753772258759,
-0.21435928344726562,
-0.7591043710708618,
0.5112387537956238,
-0.003962237387895584,
0.2010994255542755,
0.5277290344238281,
-0.2281263917684555,
0.2066972255706787,
-0.2790413796901703,
0.05872969329357147,
0.1437353789806366,
0.5677356123924255,
0.5617164969444275,
0.09629765152931213,
-0.11356746405363083,
-0.03112703002989292,
-0.1509760469198227,
-0.18683062493801117,
1.0733509063720703,
-0.7390347719192505,
0.5284011960029602,
0.054726578295230865,
0.29257524013519287,
0.6995518207550049,
-0.23230387270450592,
0.07891279458999634,
0.822547435760498,
-0.13825660943984985,
0.04976127669215202,
0.01234346628189087,
0.6295430064201355,
-0.07521265000104904,
-0.6453315019607544,
-0.24712660908699036,
-0.46899113059043884,
0.6535590291023254,
0.1609037220478058,
0.35572174191474915,
0.5078942179679871,
0.44101575016975403,
-0.012362233363091946,
-0.7659561038017273,
-0.011020718142390251,
0.5835163593292236,
-0.1923944354057312,
0.5682554841041565,
0.12159101665019989,
0.4145558774471283,
-0.4276700019836426,
-0.243601992726326,
-1.1713786125183105,
0.10387811064720154,
-0.920114278793335,
-0.18079133331775665,
-0.5285876989364624,
-0.003922436386346817,
0.26090338826179504,
0.5188834071159363,
0.7431545257568359,
0.28105002641677856,
0.41270461678504944,
-0.293791264295578,
0.09484367072582245,
-0.2180839478969574,
0.3457085192203522,
-0.5856091380119324,
-0.08401528000831604,
-0.6427543759346008,
0.23995836079120636,
-0.16712860763072968,
-0.5706707239151001,
0.3477017879486084,
0.2251419723033905,
0.4726814925670624,
-0.13362742960453033,
-0.26016879081726074,
-0.18753378093242645,
0.8859879374504089,
0.2248264104127884,
-0.3658759593963623,
0.1955639123916626,
-0.22121340036392212,
-0.2560155689716339,
0.42332959175109863,
0.4065185785293579,
0.1224130168557167,
0.22364376485347748,
-0.09394090622663498,
-0.6383695602416992,
-0.46142813563346863,
-0.6102365851402283,
-0.6082192063331604,
-0.11614866554737091,
-0.05764000862836838,
-0.4289051592350006,
-0.3184604346752167,
0.30067795515060425,
0.45081034302711487,
-0.3250373601913452,
-0.007634877692908049,
-0.35065796971321106,
-0.08637060970067978,
0.5837566256523132,
0.6129491329193115,
0.627049446105957,
0.22507824003696442,
-0.20503060519695282,
-0.5530785918235779,
-0.0013415026478469372,
-0.04043300822377205,
-0.5775721669197083,
0.05528678372502327,
0.5471436381340027,
-0.05564626678824425,
-0.13360188901424408,
-0.702358067035675,
-0.4687345027923584,
-0.021108098328113556,
0.39045393466949463,
0.4477326571941376,
-0.24746417999267578,
-0.2873336374759674,
0.4103688895702362,
-0.6074888110160828,
0.2175828218460083,
0.8119759559631348,
0.11867915093898773,
0.11395054310560226,
0.23860885202884674,
0.06228902190923691,
-0.194630429148674,
0.29864808917045593,
0.11376775056123734,
-0.3746531903743744,
0.9318581819534302,
-0.373539537191391,
-0.07952797412872314,
-0.12957027554512024,
0.00281164632178843,
-0.3015221953392029,
-0.3085230588912964,
0.35055893659591675,
-0.3173508048057556,
0.4999483525753021,
0.08004168421030045,
-0.4663566052913666,
-0.1281864047050476,
-0.418782114982605,
0.30457064509391785,
0.5768797397613525,
-0.1622850000858307,
0.10266213864088058,
0.2607038915157318,
-0.0640273317694664,
0.7369399666786194,
-0.7703426480293274,
-0.2201208770275116,
0.49875131249427795,
0.1961350440979004,
-0.001038387999869883,
-0.3165441155433655,
-0.4750030040740967,
-0.4596122205257416,
-0.7722793817520142,
-0.33734390139579773,
-0.2924939692020416,
-0.2633171081542969,
0.14016547799110413,
-0.029442913830280304,
0.38596805930137634,
0.5554016828536987,
-0.7965506315231323,
-0.5716854929924011,
0.20724575221538544,
0.42239633202552795,
-0.47272613644599915,
-0.43187597393989563,
0.22878342866897583,
0.17010901868343353,
-0.03394227847456932,
-0.4128754734992981,
-0.877137303352356,
0.4726753830909729,
-0.07856148481369019,
-0.397001177072525,
0.021982358768582344,
0.1704317033290863,
0.25163036584854126,
0.39842671155929565,
-0.7342656850814819,
0.02352459914982319,
-0.3163668215274811,
-0.039474546909332275,
0.6926928162574768,
0.17608311772346497,
-0.0764644518494606,
0.5809332132339478,
-0.09330599009990692,
-0.15265560150146484,
-0.10354244709014893,
0.5476478934288025,
-0.059998348355293274,
0.33759230375289917,
0.12410441040992737,
-0.1241232231259346,
0.0013317818520590663,
-0.1516956090927124,
-0.011009843088686466,
-0.4955384135246277,
-0.04183155670762062,
-0.10836315155029297,
0.41933685541152954,
0.3616766035556793,
-0.5895302295684814,
0.1183261126279831,
-0.021369043737649918,
-0.20427224040031433,
0.11050893366336823,
-0.03458867967128754,
-0.19132520258426666,
-0.3266322910785675,
0.2933991253376007,
-0.5349618792533875,
0.24734805524349213,
0.5917357802391052,
0.17784880101680756,
-0.3964833617210388,
-0.16440974175930023,
-0.4630240499973297,
0.1399935781955719,
0.5403391718864441,
-1.2756428718566895,
-0.14526209235191345,
-0.23025350272655487,
0.5922091603279114,
-0.34381866455078125,
0.05507383123040199,
0.16032938659191132,
0.6710015535354614,
0.5719680190086365,
0.33427849411964417,
0.29602810740470886,
-0.16477462649345398,
0.03218149021267891,
0.8246942758560181,
0.05859053507447243,
0.16246405243873596,
0.1646021604537964,
0.5584656596183777,
0.07818779349327087,
0.38234683871269226,
-0.2248603254556656,
-0.48771974444389343,
0.09769055992364883,
-0.02413126826286316,
0.3242250382900238,
-0.07516099512577057,
0.03162490576505661,
0.7998444437980652,
0.28326866030693054,
-0.31723904609680176,
0.5493958592414856,
-0.4465285837650299,
0.07398021966218948,
0.307147353887558,
-0.9391666650772095,
-0.40111076831817627,
0.4750896394252777,
0.2529420852661133,
1.1258654594421387,
0.45055803656578064,
0.18014273047447205,
-0.26317039132118225,
0.24655234813690186,
-0.38830113410949707,
-0.17811793088912964,
-0.07246784120798111,
-0.0670701116323471,
-0.02258406952023506,
-0.3692363500595093,
0.19399406015872955,
0.05036504566669464,
0.04961913451552391,
-0.28313925862312317,
0.5134530067443848,
-0.6895709037780762,
-0.14683742821216583,
-0.3309074640274048,
-0.4044206440448761,
0.22925689816474915,
-0.18462440371513367,
0.19279845058918,
0.3100143373012543,
-0.23636426031589508,
0.7387305498123169,
-0.5881218910217285,
0.01777316816151142,
-0.1358204036951065,
0.17860984802246094,
0.2522481083869934,
-0.44261935353279114,
0.365947425365448,
0.32358676195144653,
-0.2283141165971756,
0.8073955774307251,
0.3704550564289093,
-0.06172662973403931,
-0.32535940408706665,
-0.209682434797287,
-0.19070501625537872,
-0.29927581548690796,
-0.761355459690094,
-0.49551457166671753,
0.5689957141876221,
0.3754442632198334,
0.12764033675193787,
0.08833552896976471,
0.11522409319877625,
0.3336034417152405,
-0.2708737552165985,
0.37787559628486633,
-0.6129684448242188,
-0.6297171711921692,
0.2339724600315094,
0.1803484708070755,
0.6479611992835999,
0.42696142196655273,
0.007120375521481037,
-0.1646648645401001,
-0.3564274311065674,
0.2985069453716278,
-0.2775539457798004,
-0.471752792596817,
-0.015903711318969727,
0.20816023647785187,
0.733631432056427,
-0.9643493294715881,
0.3968815505504608,
0.5492789149284363,
-0.5177262425422668,
0.32370898127555847,
0.4991074800491333,
0.1662421077489853,
-0.28480303287506104,
0.6336660981178284,
-0.4031807780265808,
0.4268854558467865,
-0.33260759711265564,
-0.14549796283245087,
0.3601597845554352,
0.2488054782152176,
0.17696109414100647,
-0.19679327309131622,
-0.20047730207443237,
0.35384052991867065,
0.49035853147506714,
-0.20585158467292786,
0.4995557963848114,
-0.34205687046051025,
-0.10786139219999313,
-0.7561752200126648,
0.5390132069587708,
-0.3693932890892029,
-0.001648539211601019,
-0.14954856038093567,
0.49452072381973267,
0.7738144397735596,
-0.4611419439315796,
0.3788723945617676,
0.08906840533018112,
-0.9393484592437744,
0.15613391995429993,
0.04238620772957802,
0.3287954330444336,
-0.25961974263191223,
-0.22174783051013947,
-0.4872369170188904,
0.34924787282943726,
0.5796904563903809,
-0.6457162499427795,
0.00811038538813591,
-0.18401475250720978,
0.005226346664130688,
-0.5923044681549072,
0.4984794557094574,
-0.25560685992240906,
0.25241121649742126,
0.6553939580917358
] |
241488 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddy%20Cianci | Buddy Cianci | Vincent Albert "Buddy" Cianci Jr. (, ; , ; April 30, 1941 – January 28, 2016) was an American politician, attorney, radio talk show host, political commentator, and convicted felon who served as the mayor of Providence, Rhode Island from 1975 to 1984 and again from 1991 to 2002. Cianci was the longest-serving mayor of Providence and one of the longest-serving mayors in United States history, having held office for over 21 years.
Cianci was twice elected Mayor of Providence. Earlier in his career he served as a state prosecutor in the Rhode Island Department of Attorney General. Cianci was forced to resign from office during both mayoral tenures due to felony convictions. His first administration ended in 1984 when he pleaded nolo contendere to charges brought against him involving kidnapping and torturing a man Cianci believed was romantically involved with his ex-wife. His second stint as mayor ended when he was forced to resign following his conviction for one count of racketeering conspiracy, and he served four years in federal prison.
Cianci was first elected mayor as the candidate of the Republican Party. While in office, he declared himself an independent and, , he said that he had no party affiliation. On his radio show in June 2014, Cianci announced that he would run for mayor again. He was defeated by Democratic candidate Jorge Elorza in the 2014 election.
Family and personal life
Cianci was born on April 30, 1941, in Providence, Rhode Island. His family lived in the Laurel Hill section of nearby Cranston, Rhode Island. Cianci was the younger child of Dr. Vincent Albert Cianci and Esther Cianci, née Capobianco (whose great-grandfather served as mayor of Benevento, Italy) who married in 1937.
His only marriage, in 1973, was to Sheila Bentley McKenna; the couple divorced in 1983. They had one daughter, Nicole, who died in 2012. Shortly before dying in early 2016, the 74-year-old Cianci announced his engagement to model and actress Tara Marie Haywood, then in her 30s.
Education and military service
At the age of seven, Cianci began appearing regularly on WJAR's Kiddie Revue Sunday radio broadcast from the Outlet Department Store on Weybosset Street, downtown Providence. After briefly attending public school, Cianci enrolled in Moses Brown School, a private school on the east-side of Providence. There he became the roommate of Adrian Hendricks, the first black student to attend the prestigious school. Later, Cianci transferred schools and would earn a bachelor's degree in government at Fairfield University.
Cianci earned a master's degree in Political Science at Villanova University and a Juris Doctor at Marquette University Law School in 1966. Cianci also held honorary doctorates awarded by Fairfield University (his alma mater), Johnson & Wales University, Roger Williams University, and, most recently, from the Southern New England School of Law.
Cianci enlisted in the United States Army on November 29, 1966. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Military Police Corps on April 24, 1967. He served on active duty until 1969 and then in the Army Reserve as a civil affairs officer through 1972.
Early legal career
After being admitted to the Rhode Island Bar Association in 1967, Cianci was hired by Rhode Island Attorney General Herbert F. DeSimone as a special assistant attorney general in 1969. The position was part-time but prestigious. In 1972, Cianci backed up lead prosecutor Irving Brodsky in the trial of mob boss Raymond L.S. Patriarca. Patriarca was found not guilty, but Cianci won praise as an Italian-American fighting "The Mob", when the film The Godfather painted an unflattering image of Italian-Americans.
In 1973, he became the prosecutor of the Rhode Island Attorney General's Anti-Corruption Strike Force, a position he held until his first election as mayor in 1974. As part of this task force, Cianci was involved in an investigation of Providence Mayor Joseph A. Doorley Jr. Cianci was gaining a reputation as an anti-corruption crusader.
During this time, Cianci gained political experience working on Attorney General Herbert DeSimone's unsuccessful campaigns for governor in 1970 and 1972.
Mayor of Providence, 1974–1984
In the fall of 1974, Cianci narrowly beat incumbent Mayor Joseph A. Doorley Jr. on an anti-corruption campaign. Cianci was helped by a revolt of Democrats upset with Doorley's administration. Cianci presented himself as a visionary reformer, outlining plans to revive an economically troubled downtown, rebuild the waterfront, restore blighted neighborhoods, create parks, and improve schools. Positioning himself as "the Anti-Corruption candidate," an Italian-American candidate taking on the Irish-American Democratic machine, Cianci won his first election by 709 votes.
Cianci became the city's first Italian-American Republican mayor, ending a 150-year "power monopoly" held by Irish Democrats. At the age of 33 years, 10 months and seven days, he was then the city's youngest mayor and the first Republican to lead that heavily Democratic city since 1939. Cianci was well known to be a charismatic and media-savvy politician. Cianci's propensity to attend parades, weddings, public events, and backyard neighborhood barbecues prompted a common joke that Cianci would jump to "attend the opening of an envelope". Cianci was revered by many residents of Providence, credited with the revitalizing of the city's economy and image.
In the mid to late 1970s, Cianci became a rising star in the national Republican Party. After being introduced by Bob Dole, Cianci made an address at the 1976 Republican convention. There was talk of him being the first Italian-American vice president. Cianci was also seriously considered for a federal Cabinet seat in the second Gerald Ford administration, had Ford been elected in 1976. After Ford's loss to Jimmy Carter, Cianci promoted himself as a candidate for one of Rhode Island's U.S. Senate seats, aiming to expand the Republican Party's ethnic votership. Cianci clashed behind the scenes with John Chafee over Rhode Island's Republican nomination for the Senate seat. Chafee was elected to the Senate in 1976 and Cianci was re-elected as Mayor of Providence as a Republican in 1978.
Cianci ran for governor in 1980, losing out to incumbent J. Joseph Garrahy. After this loss, Cianci drifted away from the Republican Party after he was not given an appointment in the Reagan administration despite his support of Ronald Reagan and intimations by Reagan's campaign manager, John Sears. In 1982 he was re-elected as Mayor of Providence as an independent.
During his first tenure in office, Buddy Cianci often clashed with the Providence City Council over issues such as the municipal budget. Cianci was supported by political allies in the Providence City Council's Republican minority
First resignation
During Cianci's first administration, the Providence City Council tried to create an ordinance for residents of the city to be able to vote their public officials out of office.
Cianci was forced by law to resign from office for the first time in 1984 after pleading nolo contendere or "no contest" – neither admitting nor disputing – on an assault charge alleging an altercation with Bristol, Rhode Island contractor, Raymond DeLeo. Cianci claimed that the man had been romantically involved with his wife, from whom Cianci was separated at the time. Both DeLeo and Cianci's estranged wife disputed the relationship. Providence municipal regulations prohibit a convicted felon from holding public office. Ironically, Cianci had promulgated that rule a few years earlier.
After Cianci's resignation, a special election was held to name a replacement. Cianci attempted to run in the election under the rubric that he had been convicted of a felony, but received a five-year suspended sentence rather than being sent to prison. After a few weeks it was decided by the Rhode Island Supreme Court that Cianci could not run in the special election, because the legislative intent was that the convicted incumbent could not succeed himself in office. The special election was won by City Council Chairman, Acting Mayor, and future ambassador to Malta Joseph R. Paolino Jr.
Talk show host, 1984–1991
Cianci spent the next few years as a radio talk show host on Providence AM station 920 WHJJ and as a television commentator. In 1990 he successfully mounted a re-election campaign with the slogan, "He never stopped caring about Providence."
In the early 2000s, Cianci also made several guest appearances as himself on the television show Providence.
Mayor of Providence, 1991–2002
It was during Cianci's second run as mayor, beginning in 1991, that the city of Providence entered its "Renaissance phase."
During his tenure, Providence became visibly cleaner and more tourist-friendly. Cianci brought the Providence Bruins hockey team to Rhode Island from Maine, and pushed to further several projects in the city, including new hotels, the Providence Place shopping mall and the Fleet Skating Center. He also helped to orchestrate the establishment of the summer weekend festivals known as WaterFire in downtown Providence, which continues to bring up to 100,000 people to the downtown area alone on the summer nights it takes place.
Arts-friendly city
In 1996, Cianci pushed to create an Arts and Entertainment District in downtown Providence by offering income and sales tax breaks to attract artists to downtown. Cianci said the tax breaks were part of an arts-centered economic development strategy. The idea was to develop an image of Providence as an "artist-friendly" city; this would attract not only artists, but well-educated workers, high-technology firms, economic development, and tourism. The strategy was copied as a model by Baltimore and other cities.
In 1998, Cianci ran again for re-election, unopposed on the ballot. The popular Cianci had never lost a mayoral election, until losing to Jorge Elorza in November 2014.
Operation Plunder Dome
Cianci was indicted in April 2001 on federal criminal charges of racketeering, conspiracy, extortion, witness tampering, and mail fraud. Several other Providence city officials were also indicted. Judge Ronald R. Lagueux said of the case: "Clearly, there is a feeling in city government in Providence that corruption is tolerated. In this mayor's two administrations, there has been more corruption in the City of Providence than in the history of this state."
Much of the trial was focused around a video tape showing top Cianci aide Director of Administration Frank A. Corrente taking a bribe. NBC reporter Jim Taricani aired the tape on local television station WJAR, and he was sentenced to six months of house arrest for refusing to reveal his sources to the court. Cianci did not maintain a low profile after the indictment but poked fun at the investigation, code-named "Operation Plunder Dome". Nine people (including Cianci) were convicted in the trials, which were presided over by Judge Ernest C. Torres. Cianci was acquitted of 26 out of 27 charges, including bribery, extortion, and mail fraud, but he was found guilty of racketeering conspiracy, running a corrupt criminal enterprise.
In September 2002, Cianci was sentenced to serve five years in federal prison by Judge Torres, who opted for a higher sentence than the minimum required by the Federal Sentencing Guidelines. Cianci was forced by law to resign immediately following the sentencing.
Between his sentencing and the start of his jail term, Cianci resumed his radio career hosting a midday show with former Providence radio host (and former director of communications to Governor Don Carcieri) Steve Kass on AM talk station WPRO. After some legal wrangling, Cianci's lawyers managed to have him sent to prison closer to Rhode Island, and Cianci served his sentence at the Federal Correctional Institution, Fort Dix, in Burlington County, New Jersey. Cianci appealed the conviction to the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, but was unsuccessful. In August 2005, Cianci made a request for early release, but was denied.
Later life
Cianci was released from prison on May 30, 2007, to a halfway house near Northeastern University in Boston.
Upon his initial release from federal prison, he had already secured a job in marketing and sales for the XV Beacon, a luxury hotel in Boston. However, he ultimately chose to return to Rhode Island and began work at the 903 Residences in Providence.
Political commentator
On September 20, 2007, Cianci returned to the airwaves on local Providence AM radio station WPRO, hosting a weekday talk show. He said that he had no plans to run for political office again, although he had not entirely ruled it out when pressed on the issue. On October 24, 2007, Cianci appeared on WLNE-TV ABC6 to announce that in addition to his radio show, he was joining the television station as chief political analyst and contributing editor. The work included moderating a weekly political segment called Your Attention Please, which was renamed Buddy TV. The timeslot became a daily segment in July 2008, and was renamed The World According to Buddy as of May 2011. His position at WLNE began on November 1, 2007. Cianci also hosted the station's weekend public affairs program On the Record with Buddy Cianci. He began in October 2008 as co-host of the program with WLNE weeknight anchor John DeLuca and became solo host in May 2011.
2014 campaign for Mayor of Providence
Cianci became eligible to run for mayor again in the year 2012, three years after his probation ended (due to the provisions of the 1986 Rhode Island constitutional amendment, aptly named "the Buddy amendment"). The next election in which Cianci would have been eligible to run was the November 2014. In 2010, Cianci was quoted as saying that he was "taking a good look" at running for the U.S. House seat to be vacated by Democrat Patrick J. Kennedy. He did not declare his candidacy.
In May 2014, Cianci, after being successfully treated for cancer, was cleared by his doctors to run for mayor in the 2014 November election. On June 25, Cianci declared his candidacy for Mayor of Providence as an independent. In August he named former Cianci staffer Cyd McKenna as his campaign manager and Dee Dee Witman as his finance chair, alongside other former staffers Charles Mansolillo and Beryl Kenyon. His campaign was unsuccessful and he lost to Democrat Jorge Elorza, conceding the election on November 4.
Illness and death
In January 2014, Cianci was diagnosed with colon cancer.
Cianci died on January 28, 2016, at the age of 74. He had been taken to the hospital the previous day after experiencing abdominal pain while filming his television show, On the Record with Buddy Cianci, at the WLNE-TV studio.
Thousands of people viewed Cianci's open casket as his body lay in state for two days in Providence City Hall, the first mayor to be so honored since Thomas Doyle in 1886. A horse-drawn carriage carried his casket through the city during a snowstorm on February 8, as it made its way to the Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul where Roman Catholic Bishop Thomas Joseph Tobin presided over a funeral mass. The funeral procession then passed through Olneyville and Silver Lake, where Cianci grew up, ending at St. Ann's Cemetery in Cranston for a private burial next to his parents and daughter, Nicole.
In popular culture
Trinity Repertory Company in Providence, Rhode Island began its 2019-20 Season with the world premiere of The Prince of Providence by George Brant, based on the book of the same name by Mike Stanton.
"Buddy" Cianci: The Musical, an off-Broadway musical created by Jonathan Van Gieson and Mike Tarantino. The musical incorporates much of the material from The Prince of Providence.
On the animated sitcom Family Guy (set in Rhode Island), Chris attended Buddy Cianci Junior High School. One episode was titled "Fast Times at Buddy Cianci Jr. High".
Cianci launched a brand of tomato sauce, "Mayor's Own Marinara Sauce." It was claimed that proceeds from sales were "Benefiting Providence School Children" and helped hundreds of students attend college. However, an August 2014 Associated Press report found that "in recent years, no money from the sauce's sales has been donated to Cianci's charity scholarship fund." From 2009 to 2012, the sauce made a total of $3 in income, longtime Cianci adviser Charles Mansolillo told the AP. In 2009, they lost $2,200 on the sauce, Mansolillo said. The following year, they made $2,974, while in 2011, they lost $2,969. In 2012, they made $2,198 profit, he said. That adds up to a profit of just $3 during the 4-year period."
Providence hip-hop artist, Zumo Kollie released a song titled "Buddy Cianci" on November 4, 2014.
Further reading and documentary film
The Prince of Providence, a book by Mike Stanton () details Cianci's life, from childhood, to mob-busting prosecutor, to mayor, to conviction.
Politics and Pasta: How I Prosecuted Mobsters, Rebuilt a Dying City, Advised a President, Dined with Sinatra, Spent Five Years in a Federally Funded Gated Community, and Lived to Tell the Tale, a book by Vincent "Buddy" Cianci with David Fisher (), is Cianci's memoir.
Cianci is the subject of the documentary film Buddy: The Rise and Fall of America's Most Notorious Mayor, directed by Cherry Arnold and narrated by James Woods.
Season One of Crimetown, a podcast by Marc Smerling and Zac Stuart-Pontier, focuses on Mayor Cianci's ties to organized crime in New England.
References
The Prince of Providence, a book by Mike Stanton () details Cianci's life, from childhood, to mob-busting prosecutor, to mayor, to conviction.
External links
"Charges in 30-Count Indictment against Cianci and other Defendants"
Vice and Virtue—2002 special by Rhode Island's The Providence Journal.
"ABC6 News names Buddy chief political analyst"
The Buddy Cianci Show on 630 WPRO
Crimetown, a podcast which details Cianci's ties to organized crime in New England
Military personnel from Rhode Island
1941 births
2016 deaths
20th-century American criminals
20th-century American politicians
20th-century Roman Catholics
21st-century American criminals
21st-century American politicians
21st-century Roman Catholics
American people convicted of assault
American politicians of Italian descent
Mayors of Providence, Rhode Island
Deaths from cancer in Rhode Island
Deaths from colorectal cancer
Rhode Island Independents
Rhode Island Republicans
Rhode Island lawyers
United States Army officers
Fairfield University alumni
Marquette University Law School alumni
Villanova University alumni
Politicians convicted of racketeering
Politicians from Cranston, Rhode Island
Rhode Island politicians convicted of crimes
Moses Brown School alumni
American politicians convicted of corruption
Catholics from Rhode Island
20th-century American lawyers
American lawyers and judges of Italian descent | [
-0.7538976669311523,
0.2243899554014206,
-0.10148727148771286,
-0.5587497353553772,
0.012642145156860352,
0.11694680899381638,
0.7745254635810852,
0.8716679215431213,
-0.7546494603157043,
0.05638456344604492,
-0.1074410229921341,
0.516447901725769,
-0.06885477900505066,
0.3093491792678833,
-0.19933481514453888,
0.08733516931533813,
0.2581549286842346,
0.8820987343788147,
0.2727639973163605,
-0.6401948928833008,
-0.14557957649230957,
-0.09945057332515717,
-0.2735843062400818,
-0.4122585654258728,
-0.5886828303337097,
0.6983187794685364,
-0.23794929683208466,
0.357349157333374,
0.11710003763437271,
0.4131866991519928,
0.18444174528121948,
0.7022027969360352,
0.2574557363986969,
-0.5951516032218933,
0.026412568986415863,
0.24152909219264984,
0.6905257105827332,
-0.26470932364463806,
-0.19748902320861816,
-0.4247415065765381,
0.36916178464889526,
-0.03229473903775215,
0.325361430644989,
0.25952038168907166,
-0.09501850605010986,
-0.649612307548523,
-1.6320335865020752,
-0.18593230843544006,
-0.5357388854026794,
-0.7802017331123352,
0.5843754410743713,
-0.1517537385225296,
0.2552204132080078,
0.6741064190864563,
-0.23134970664978027,
0.5515748858451843,
-0.7418839335441589,
0.032205916941165924,
0.8489884734153748,
-0.009877380914986134,
-0.4406190812587738,
-0.09632959961891174,
0.7072960138320923,
-0.2984446883201599,
-0.5574697256088257,
0.5824405550956726,
0.11361169815063477,
0.7985873222351074,
-0.17630526423454285,
-0.16497774422168732,
-0.297920823097229,
-0.28650981187820435,
0.737736701965332,
-0.216688334941864,
-0.2826160192489624,
-0.17154060304164886,
0.06213682144880295,
0.154851496219635,
0.004385313484817743,
0.0702219307422638,
-0.056256406009197235,
0.08385452628135681,
0.428333580493927,
0.540890634059906,
0.6121140718460083,
-0.2025333046913147,
-0.4324052333831787,
-0.583214282989502,
-0.03961675986647606,
1.1868040561676025,
-0.9897869825363159,
0.31921035051345825,
0.19865277409553528,
-0.10426663607358932,
-0.12743403017520905,
0.007489548996090889,
-0.16921710968017578,
0.4004150927066803,
0.33609557151794434,
0.3261248469352722,
0.16646230220794678,
0.5859490036964417,
0.3753856420516968,
0.047005198895931244,
-0.5877442955970764,
-0.11790388822555542,
-0.41913139820098877,
-0.12534481287002563,
-0.5077190399169922,
-1.3100756406784058,
-0.4907175898551941,
-0.667673647403717,
-0.6486889123916626,
-0.0516408234834671,
-0.517967164516449,
0.23615486919879913,
0.5807472467422485,
-0.3388831317424774,
-0.28239384293556213,
-0.2978399395942688,
-0.272786021232605,
0.6347216963768005,
-0.6320987343788147,
0.24904416501522064,
-0.20790264010429382,
0.5152771472930908,
0.4552827775478363,
0.18316234648227692,
0.4681001901626587,
0.4078083038330078,
-0.31776541471481323,
0.8648902177810669,
-0.51969313621521,
-0.13857775926589966,
-0.16554582118988037,
-0.6221213340759277,
0.7283406853675842,
0.9468275904655457,
-0.10811764001846313,
-0.2023443579673767,
-0.6299458146095276,
-0.17638467252254486,
-1.779897689819336,
0.349638968706131,
0.443118155002594,
-0.039762794971466064,
-0.3217132091522217,
0.07096382975578308,
-0.07297420501708984,
0.167403444647789,
0.2123533934354782,
-0.6059125661849976,
0.6897708177566528,
0.047263361513614655,
0.03021026961505413,
0.5617906451225281,
0.44543445110321045,
-0.25826841592788696,
0.634403645992279,
0.36233460903167725,
0.1346777230501175,
-0.06497012078762054,
-0.6416494846343994,
0.20194412767887115,
-0.27674996852874756,
0.7192714810371399,
-0.25242653489112854,
-0.3546373248100281,
-0.23368822038173676,
0.5692864656448364,
-0.10408816486597061,
0.5826221704483032,
-0.30185481905937195,
-1.1235401630401611,
0.27824023365974426,
0.6427820920944214,
0.554197371006012,
0.20537275075912476,
-0.2949012517929077,
-0.3319668173789978,
-0.7938687205314636,
0.35613682866096497,
0.17182673513889313,
0.06165637820959091,
0.3185340464115143,
-0.31563201546669006,
0.48508501052856445,
0.06257358938455582,
0.0029626968316733837,
-0.1412399709224701,
-0.6293301582336426,
0.2224292904138565,
0.3158189654350281,
-0.5976732969284058,
0.3459538519382477,
0.3558053970336914,
-0.23020967841148376,
0.47421789169311523,
0.6672738194465637,
0.5397847890853882,
-0.5426843762397766,
-0.12377816438674927,
0.31607404351234436,
-0.046985793858766556,
-1.0516581535339355,
1.3732681274414062,
0.6297078728675842,
-0.1994299292564392,
1.152721881866455,
1.0082207918167114,
1.1216390132904053,
-0.565211296081543,
-0.7049927711486816,
0.0484677292406559,
0.008729037828743458,
-0.02977953478693962,
-0.4349099099636078,
0.15179289877414703,
-0.039542920887470245,
-0.3865213394165039,
0.41793060302734375,
-0.18692688643932343,
-0.060527872294187546,
0.3759993016719818,
-0.5110151171684265,
1.5236728191375732,
-0.20673242211341858,
-0.02395193837583065,
0.2759203314781189,
-0.4959504008293152,
1.2425940036773682,
-0.5935709476470947,
-0.7059722542762756,
-0.6944595575332642,
-0.23952430486679077,
0.11994067579507828,
0.3226245045661926,
-1.0301272869110107,
-0.3414415121078491,
-0.34147390723228455,
0.18188691139221191,
0.38663190603256226,
-0.675399899482727,
-0.2080148160457611,
-0.2374732494354248,
0.1766931265592575,
0.2744278311729431,
0.43416836857795715,
-0.21683400869369507,
-0.18714690208435059,
0.02856113575398922,
0.6324478983879089,
0.5310463905334473,
-0.7193601727485657,
0.19984087347984314,
0.12250976264476776,
0.013036355376243591,
0.13247530162334442,
-0.4044821560382843,
-0.6231933832168579,
0.2897767126560211,
0.32126274704933167,
0.14592863619327545,
0.3475136160850525,
-0.618865966796875,
-0.5325493812561035,
-0.006067297421395779,
-0.01450272835791111,
-0.22866947948932648,
-0.23289652168750763,
-0.130181223154068,
0.08700359612703323,
0.2669774293899536,
-1.4464691877365112,
0.33934417366981506,
0.9317927360534668,
-0.11198892444372177,
0.8137261867523193,
-0.6520560383796692,
-0.4931178390979767,
0.37489691376686096,
0.4100991487503052,
-0.11463833600282669,
-0.3844091594219208,
-0.7184087634086609,
0.04686419293284416,
-0.15989725291728973,
-0.004808954894542694,
-0.5905777812004089,
-0.2706509232521057,
-0.2813844680786133,
-0.6353064179420471,
-0.5917057394981384,
0.4616316854953766,
-0.44634026288986206,
0.019473478198051453,
0.30745065212249756,
0.3622283637523651,
0.48507705330848694,
-0.167499378323555,
-0.17448461055755615,
0.39867204427719116,
-0.72305828332901,
-0.3722879886627197,
0.43363645672798157,
-0.5100511312484741,
-0.19906514883041382,
-0.3545236587524414,
-4.362857341766357,
1.0003862380981445,
-0.5504634976387024,
0.03546677157282829,
0.5313000082969666,
-0.5112889409065247,
0.7153229117393494,
-0.6237990856170654,
-0.4228057861328125,
0.3528757691383362,
-0.7835091352462769,
0.2593795657157898,
0.41247260570526123,
0.2396288812160492,
0.2450414001941681,
0.44702279567718506,
0.1464497596025467,
-0.42765334248542786,
0.3766988515853882,
-0.010356441140174866,
-0.07444557547569275,
0.16767753660678864,
-0.7186689376831055,
0.18222200870513916,
-0.017349081113934517,
0.720754086971283,
-0.36577144265174866,
0.23142684996128082,
-0.9028975963592529,
0.12924113869667053,
-0.38165032863616943,
0.3892821669578552,
-0.2964955270290375,
-0.7188950777053833,
-1.0360816717147827,
-0.5301016569137573,
0.30400073528289795,
-0.08186764270067215,
-0.21538136899471283,
-0.5893681645393372,
-0.45282816886901855,
0.41041049361228943,
-0.12347657978534698,
0.43349388241767883,
0.7412551641464233,
0.03624001517891884,
-0.9728622436523438,
-1.0272037982940674,
-0.11826451867818832,
0.9237422347068787,
0.10816143453121185,
-0.18578918278217316,
0.8035068511962891,
0.29343611001968384,
0.28367406129837036,
-0.8133736252784729,
0.7967237234115601,
-0.17582130432128906,
-0.35045886039733887,
0.077213816344738,
0.6752979159355164,
-0.28273192048072815,
0.11689678579568863,
-0.504438042640686,
0.47845858335494995,
-0.06470932811498642,
0.11491471529006958,
-0.48493653535842896,
-0.15541669726371765,
0.3855154514312744,
-0.51276695728302,
0.5802239179611206,
-0.4652344286441803,
-1.0532212257385254,
0.5608590841293335,
0.20041361451148987,
-0.07424815744161606,
0.9240312576293945,
0.41252779960632324,
0.4238937795162201,
0.5908045172691345,
-0.1506340652704239,
-0.13060790300369263,
0.37473857402801514,
-0.0384790413081646,
0.3202446699142456,
-0.10927795618772507,
0.1302553117275238,
-1.0459500551223755,
-0.5194438695907593,
0.1850455105304718,
0.4073903560638428,
0.1056419387459755,
0.527137041091919,
-0.4728694558143616,
0.4632149338722229,
-0.13494077324867249,
-0.20945492386817932,
-0.1179458424448967,
-0.3686947822570801,
0.12434915453195572,
-0.863129198551178,
-0.2835894823074341,
-0.3420790135860443,
0.07237017154693604,
-0.610499382019043,
0.18809457123279572,
0.1069684699177742,
0.3077874779701233,
0.09373380243778229,
-0.04780871421098709,
-0.41590720415115356,
-0.19190986454486847,
0.3620074391365051,
0.7941879034042358,
-0.10223947465419769,
-0.02490798383951187,
0.607674241065979,
0.346485435962677,
0.522468090057373,
0.9571350812911987,
0.5959254503250122,
0.5024902820587158,
-0.2304188460111618,
-0.4482367932796478,
-0.09781397134065628,
0.22379137575626373,
-0.18366995453834534,
0.6364589333534241,
0.32363104820251465,
-0.7183846831321716,
0.028787722811102867,
-0.11400962620973587,
0.21962718665599823,
0.14782540500164032,
-0.03058798611164093,
-0.43346574902534485,
-0.5688986778259277,
0.8929044008255005,
-0.5268540382385254,
0.5220816731452942,
-0.4584430158138275,
-0.29840824007987976,
0.02220901846885681,
-0.08147258311510086,
0.8584032654762268,
-0.16816529631614685,
-0.2152998298406601,
-0.9554677605628967,
0.5153926014900208,
0.20670604705810547,
-0.6963924169540405,
0.10471178591251373,
-0.973404586315155,
-0.7171521186828613,
0.3333364725112915,
-0.17202267050743103,
0.05089870095252991,
0.24380454421043396,
0.19880419969558716,
0.15025925636291504,
-0.3142959773540497,
-1.0295900106430054,
0.5132507681846619,
0.4846968352794647,
0.08634299039840698,
0.6206718683242798,
-1.494057536125183,
-1.0762982368469238,
1.5378938913345337,
-0.4780309498310089,
-0.24504078924655914,
-0.4789939522743225,
-0.46716374158859253,
0.5680115818977356,
-0.06713873147964478,
0.6104400157928467,
-0.04146357998251915,
0.4258117377758026,
0.28394815325737,
0.4671895503997803,
-0.0771450325846672,
0.07959634810686111,
0.09052897989749908,
0.25398755073547363,
-0.2665616571903229,
-0.20338577032089233,
-0.5047501921653748,
-0.4876304566860199,
0.6624146699905396,
-0.05116129666566849,
0.8823652863502502,
0.6593276262283325,
0.10026819258928299,
-0.8226531147956848,
-0.5694898962974548,
-0.3084034323692322,
0.8822933435440063,
-0.15743479132652283,
-0.788946807384491,
0.22901427745819092,
0.8587380647659302,
-0.6351112723350525,
0.4830959737300873,
0.22082634270191193,
-0.41050660610198975,
0.6410034894943237,
0.7150155901908875,
-0.6806289553642273,
0.5191468596458435,
0.6149382591247559,
-1.0873305797576904,
0.17056548595428467,
0.39396801590919495,
-0.22827762365341187,
-0.2695081830024719,
0.46193403005599976,
-0.09312985092401505,
-0.652366578578949,
-0.8506821393966675,
-0.00967410858720541,
-0.2762996256351471,
-0.5281903743743896,
-0.3485901653766632,
-0.5461116433143616,
0.7014391422271729,
0.04753357172012329,
-0.522357165813446,
0.6702256202697754,
-0.07454054802656174,
-0.7266814112663269,
-0.24626678228378296,
0.48162275552749634,
-0.034791942685842514,
-0.7848780155181885,
0.3706735670566559,
-0.0679682046175003,
0.6480114459991455,
0.2635025382041931,
-0.2523519992828369,
0.4006076455116272,
1.2744513750076294,
0.16655683517456055,
-0.706490159034729,
-0.5723527669906616,
0.09285379201173782,
0.38913851976394653,
-0.28352099657058716,
-0.2246464192867279,
0.6005871891975403,
0.13441909849643707,
-0.3560267388820648,
-1.0435665845870972,
-0.051124218851327896,
0.891343355178833,
-0.4125046730041504,
-0.36345869302749634,
0.1259058564901352,
-0.038105349987745285,
-0.02851654589176178,
-0.31322750449180603,
0.6777705550193787,
-0.8625031113624573,
-0.03666957467794418,
0.11706573516130447,
0.15697112679481506,
0.3190424144268036,
0.11723582446575165,
0.636986494064331,
-0.7512977123260498,
-0.10804963856935501,
-0.45366454124450684,
0.6776315569877625,
0.4574918746948242,
-0.373843789100647,
-0.23809653520584106,
0.4147489666938782,
-0.5247325897216797,
0.19865676760673523,
-0.4415161907672882,
0.2137238085269928,
0.48595190048217773,
-0.03921051695942879,
0.19492308795452118,
0.18217886984348297,
-0.5486323833465576,
-0.3875931203365326,
-0.03490651771426201,
-0.5175361037254333,
0.5995676517486572,
-0.37029826641082764,
0.42078927159309387,
0.1396140605211258,
0.3164249360561371,
0.1689462661743164,
0.6923677921295166,
-0.1896609663963318,
-0.5086108446121216,
-0.17440687119960785,
0.26502108573913574,
-0.4419456124305725,
1.1619806289672852,
0.05790802463889122,
-0.26513025164604187,
0.5642477869987488,
-0.007204725872725248,
-0.08971934765577316,
-0.7912908792495728,
0.2828598916530609,
0.008005350828170776,
-0.14527593553066254,
-0.3041563332080841,
-0.05166725069284439,
0.3555382788181305,
0.04637772589921951,
0.3464168608188629,
0.8201587200164795,
-0.349168062210083,
-0.505141019821167,
0.06496743112802505,
0.07872682809829712,
-1.0538721084594727,
0.6227688789367676,
0.5131762027740479,
0.48914897441864014,
0.6873011589050293,
-0.8245725035667419,
-0.7576878666877747,
0.7771903872489929,
0.0390753336250782,
0.2825690507888794,
0.056588314473629,
-0.37717729806900024,
0.1426646113395691,
-0.11805562674999237,
0.2560568153858185,
-0.02020612359046936,
-0.4839761257171631,
-0.1930801272392273,
0.7654464244842529,
-0.22315910458564758,
0.8244946002960205,
-0.13296538591384888,
0.33699026703834534,
0.19163495302200317,
-0.12927821278572083,
-0.33858761191368103,
0.1958598494529724,
0.31118544936180115,
-0.7338964939117432,
0.5421653985977173,
0.3945452868938446,
-0.31583505868911743,
-0.8002204895019531,
0.561630368232727,
-0.1252942532300949,
0.3482552170753479,
-0.5010556578636169,
-0.1426069587469101,
-1.6458598375320435,
-0.22864888608455658,
-0.29020026326179504,
1.0323566198349,
0.10687580704689026,
0.4672403037548065,
-0.8126092553138733,
-0.44471243023872375,
-0.5776082277297974,
-0.27104899287223816,
0.6619346737861633,
0.3839595913887024,
0.3329581022262573,
-0.4878426790237427,
0.9633410573005676,
0.6218228340148926,
0.23111049830913544,
0.5373544096946716,
-0.1533573865890503,
0.1592281609773636,
0.32634928822517395,
-0.45759984850883484,
0.2906019389629364,
-0.8193706274032593,
-0.08162488043308258,
0.57427978515625,
0.12954092025756836,
0.04925832152366638,
0.4075283110141754,
0.7034414410591125,
-0.47848474979400635,
0.23709729313850403,
-0.547486424446106,
-0.40366777777671814,
0.3849000036716461,
0.35999563336372375,
-0.3932153582572937,
-0.8846133351325989,
0.22674383223056793,
0.4333353340625763,
-0.18731380999088287,
0.16323673725128174,
0.3624905049800873,
0.01413410808891058,
-0.1097961887717247,
-0.2554614543914795,
-0.08656361699104309,
-0.4714921712875366,
0.41021278500556946,
-1.0056159496307373,
1.0188934803009033,
0.023879656568169594,
0.031096497550606728,
-0.32168522477149963,
0.45348820090293884,
-0.12471380084753036,
0.4619867205619812,
0.4250888526439667,
-0.8751006126403809,
-0.5954347252845764,
-0.5359797477722168,
0.12682385742664337,
-0.3667512536048889,
0.7741945385932922,
0.9451696276664734,
0.10434583574533463,
-0.7787842154502869,
0.03652447089552879,
-0.07914778590202332,
-0.08125438541173935,
0.25437241792678833,
0.5921950340270996,
0.4829418361186981,
0.10542799532413483,
-0.6088919639587402,
0.08497589826583862,
-0.7605124115943909,
0.09307044744491577,
1.0446560382843018,
0.916236937046051,
0.14636459946632385,
0.4523578882217407,
-0.3820643723011017,
0.5529980063438416,
0.21921071410179138,
-1.8745368719100952,
-0.8503154516220093,
-0.42307746410369873,
-0.3896121084690094,
-0.0006619883934035897,
-0.11907455325126648,
-0.295351505279541,
-0.5040557980537415,
0.24725206196308136,
-0.5193671584129333,
0.20929284393787384,
0.13318784534931183,
-0.4357096552848816,
-0.49610018730163574,
0.33213695883750916,
0.13636529445648193
] |
241489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Miguel | San Miguel | San Miguel, Spanish for Saint Michael, may refer to:
Places
Argentina
San Miguel Partido
San Miguel, Buenos Aires
San Miguel, Catamarca
San Miguel, Corrientes
San Miguel, La Rioja
San Miguel Arcángel, a Volga German colony in Adolfo Alsina Partido, Buenos Aires Province
San Miguel del Monte
San Miguel Department, Corrientes
San Miguel de Tucumán
Belize
San Miguel, Belize, a village in Toledo District, Belize
Bolivia
San Miguel de Velasco
San Miguel del Bala, a little community in the rainforest on the Beni River, near Rurrenabaque
Brazil
São Miguel das Missões, a municipality in Rio Grande do Sul state, southern Brazil
Chile
San Miguel, Chile, in Santiago
Colombia
San Miguel, Putumayo, a town and municipality in the Putumayo Department
San Miguel, Santander, a town and municipality in the Santander Department
San Miguel de Sema a town and municipality in the Boyacá Department
Costa Rica
San Miguel District, Naranjo
Cuba
San Miguel del Padrón, a town and municipality in Havana
Ecuador
San Miguel, Bolívar
San Miguel de Ibarra
San Miguel de Salcedo
San Miguel de los Bancos
El Salvador
San Miguel (volcano)
San Miguel Department (El Salvador)
San Miguel, El Salvador, capital of the forementioned department
Guatemala
San Miguel Acatán
San Miguel Chicaj
San Miguel Dueñas
San Miguel Ixtahuacán
San Miguel Panán
San Miguel Sigüilá
Mexico
San Miguel, Quintana Roo, the biggest city on the island Cozumel
San Miguel de Allende, Guanajuato
San Miguel de Horcasitas, in the state of Sonora
San Miguel el Alto, in the state of Jalisco
San Miguel Totocuitlapilco, in the State of México
San Miguel Totolapan, in the state of Guerrero
Misión San Miguel Arcángel de la Frontera, a Spanish Dominican mission in Ensenada, Baja California
Oaxaca, Mexico
San Miguel Achiutla
San Miguel Ahuehuetitlán
San Miguel Aloápam
San Miguel Amatitlán
San Miguel Amatlán
San Miguel Chicahua
San Miguel Chimalapa
San Miguel Coatlán
San Miguel del Puerto
San Miguel del Río
San Miguel Ejutla
San Miguel El Grande
San Miguel Huautla
San Miguel Mixtepec
San Miguel Panixtlahuaca
San Miguel Peras
San Miguel Piedras
San Miguel Quetzaltepec
San Miguel Santa Flor
San Miguel Soyaltepec
San Miguel Suchixtepec
San Miguel Tecomatlán
San Miguel Tenango
San Miguel Tequixtepec
San Miguel Tilquiapam
San Miguel Tlacamama
San Miguel Tlacotepec
San Miguel Tulancingo
San Miguel Yotao
Panama
San Miguel, Los Santos
San Miguel, Panamá Province
Paraguay
San Miguel, Paraguay, a district of the Misiones Department
Peru
San Miguel, La Mar Province, capital of the La Mar province
San Miguel District, Lima, a district in western Lima
San Miguel Province, a province in the Cajamarca region
San Miguel de Piura, the capital of the Piura province
Philippines
San Miguel, former name of Cebu
San Miguel Bay
San Miguel Island (Philippines)
San Miguel, Bohol
San Miguel, Bulacan
San Miguel, Catanduanes
San Miguel, Iloilo
San Miguel, Manila
San Miguel, Leyte
San Miguel, Samar Gandara
San Miguel, Surigao del Sur
San Miguel, Zamboanga del Sur
San Miguel, Tarlac
Portugal
São Miguel Island, the largest and most populous island in the Portuguese archipelago of the Azores
Spain
San Miguel de Abona, in the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife
San Miguel de Aguayo, Cantabria, in the autonomous community of Cantabria
San Miguel de Aras, in the autonomous community of Cantabria;
San Miguel de Basauri, in the province of Biscay
San Miguel de Bernuy, in the province of Segovia
San Miguel de Corneja, in the province of Ávila
San Miguel de la Ribera, in the province of Zamora
San Miguel de Salinas, in the province of Alicante
San Miguel de Serrezuela, in the province of Ávila
San Miguel de Valero, in the province of Salamanca
San Miguel del Arroyo, in the province of Valladolid
San Miguel del Cinca, in the province of Huesca
San Miguel del Pino, in the province of Valladolid
San Miguel del Robledo, in the province of Salamanca
San Miguel del Valle, in the province of Zamora
United States
San Miguel, Arizona, census designated place
San Miguel, original name given to San Diego, California in 1542
San Miguel, Contra Costa County, California, census designated place
San Miguel, San Luis Obispo County, California, census designated place
Mission San Miguel Arcángel, located in the above
San Miguel de los Noches, California, former settlement in Kern County
San Miguel Island, the westernmost of California's Channel Islands
San Miguel, New Mexico
San Miguel County, Colorado
San Miguel County, New Mexico
San Miguel River (Colorado)
Churches
San Miguel, Córdoba, Andalusia, Spain
Church of San Miguel (Cogolludo), Castile-La Mancha, Spain
Church of San Miguel (Jerez de la Frontera), Andalusia, Spain
Church of San Miguel, Mota del Cuervo, Cuenca, Spain
Church of San Miguel (Vitoria), Basque Country, Spain
Church of the Monastery of San Miguel de Bárcena, Asturias, Spain
San Miguel Mission, Santa Fe, New Mexico
San Miguel de Socorro, Socorro, New Mexico
San Miguel Arcángel Church (Cabo Rojo), Puerto Rico
San Miguel Arcangel Church (Marilao), Bulacan, Philippines
San Miguel Arcangel Church (Masantol), Pampanga, Philippines
San Miguel Arcangel Church (San Miguel, Bulacan), Philippines
Ships
SS San Miguel, a ship
San Miguel, a 28-gun Spanish ship captured by the Royal Navy and renamed Coventry
Spanish galleon San Miguel, a treasure ship
Forts
Fort San Miguel, Vancouver Island, Canada
Fuerte de San Miguel (Campeche), Mexico; see timeline of Campeche City
Fuerte San Miguel (Uruguay)
Other uses
Barangay Ginebra San Miguel, a professional basketball team in the Philippines
Ginebra San Miguel, a Filipino beverage company and namesake gin brand
"San Miguel" (song), recorded by The Beach Boys
"San Miguel", recorded by the Kingston Trio and Lonnie Donegan (among others)
San Miguel Beer
San Miguel Brewery, a Philippine brewery
San Miguel Corporation, a Philippine food, beverage and packaging company
San Miguel Beermen, a professional basketball team in the Philippines playing in the Philippine Basketball Association
San Miguel Beermen (ABL), a professional basketball team in the Philippines that played in the ASEAN Basketball League
See also
Saint Michael (disambiguation)
San Michele (disambiguation)
San Miguel Beer (disambiguation)
San Miguel River (disambiguation)
San Miguel de Aguayo (disambiguation)
São Miguel (disambiguation) | [
-0.20919698476791382,
0.6124251484870911,
0.4809342622756958,
0.020587047562003136,
-0.42202210426330566,
0.5648267865180969,
0.4245468080043793,
0.8107993006706238,
-0.4263302683830261,
-0.223274827003479,
0.16749455034732819,
0.0865212008357048,
0.045838963240385056,
0.32703179121017456,
-0.280557245016098,
0.6594293117523193,
0.6370123028755188,
0.973675012588501,
0.03491365537047386,
-0.47093093395233154,
-0.1914980411529541,
-0.5407875776290894,
0.28068310022354126,
-0.08268549293279648,
0.665584146976471,
0.2261669784784317,
0.4259280562400818,
0.23032625019550323,
0.08821757882833481,
0.3793818950653076,
-0.01730097085237503,
0.1376241147518158,
0.1791018694639206,
-0.2778571844100952,
-0.08984682708978653,
0.16626127064228058,
-0.41262924671173096,
-0.9403138756752014,
-0.01001851074397564,
-0.38770151138305664,
-0.027912301942706108,
-0.5343506932258606,
-0.053097013384103775,
0.8207033276557922,
-0.19971176981925964,
-0.07732099294662476,
-1.585375428199768,
0.9328523278236389,
-0.28727853298187256,
0.32296252250671387,
-0.8254115581512451,
0.2141551524400711,
0.07742809504270554,
-0.4998279809951782,
0.1371777057647705,
0.3758598864078522,
-0.5702162981033325,
0.013060711324214935,
0.4275619387626648,
-0.4171034097671509,
-0.08256564289331436,
0.8726882934570312,
0.2795165479183197,
-0.008488018065690994,
-0.0554170124232769,
-0.4543740153312683,
0.3234395384788513,
-0.1648074835538864,
-0.5708379745483398,
-0.31498849391937256,
-0.07995375245809555,
-0.12133743613958359,
-0.4461059868335724,
-0.5848125219345093,
0.11408192664384842,
-0.818146824836731,
-0.8498263955116272,
-0.07161832600831985,
-0.0246768556535244,
0.7955572009086609,
0.42791616916656494,
-0.36972859501838684,
0.47716861963272095,
-0.39913812279701233,
0.7423939108848572,
0.639885663986206,
-0.3164576292037964,
-0.15418516099452972,
-0.6922702789306641,
0.12262477725744247,
-0.4969276487827301,
-0.19352668523788452,
0.27363887429237366,
-0.02099940925836563,
-0.15702702105045319,
-0.10405366122722626,
0.07606631517410278,
-0.3980315327644348,
-0.48934561014175415,
0.4495925307273865,
0.17854273319244385,
0.17563115060329437,
0.577312171459198,
0.5237862467765808,
-0.4926554560661316,
-0.12890954315662384,
-0.8262318968772888,
-0.0998404398560524,
-0.44876059889793396,
-0.551552414894104,
-0.212050661444664,
0.12896868586540222,
0.1876368373632431,
0.8775272369384766,
0.7018546462059021,
0.10869553685188293,
0.2559523582458496,
-0.48381415009498596,
-0.21843576431274414,
-0.29768654704093933,
-0.3632960021495819,
0.6286765336990356,
-0.30318257212638855,
-0.21417871117591858,
0.3210197687149048,
0.021351825445890427,
0.46097368001937866,
0.054275963455438614,
-0.7264570593833923,
0.1780085414648056,
0.07349349558353424,
0.7843883633613586,
-0.0867222249507904,
0.057663943618535995,
-0.05017878860235214,
-0.765802264213562,
-0.637688159942627,
0.015026994049549103,
0.09467471390962601,
-0.3462517261505127,
-0.9649844765663147,
-0.06138104572892189,
0.05947445333003998,
0.04027550294995308,
0.9003730416297913,
-0.3167589008808136,
-0.07075159251689911,
-0.7500647306442261,
-0.4270514249801636,
-0.7881968021392822,
-0.11629863828420639,
-0.11675839871168137,
-0.19153952598571777,
0.25339946150779724,
-0.434465229511261,
0.09524323046207428,
0.28644615411758423,
-0.34918224811553955,
0.26785343885421753,
0.10797639191150665,
-0.14787989854812622,
0.15973003208637238,
0.4346214830875397,
0.21724316477775574,
0.18460533022880554,
0.3750370442867279,
0.4052232801914215,
0.19538629055023193,
-0.10905086994171143,
0.28804445266723633,
0.11024677008390427,
0.5606095194816589,
0.32554924488067627,
-1.2601392269134521,
-0.08415316790342331,
-0.12800748646259308,
0.24853767454624176,
0.1631271094083786,
-0.34183210134506226,
0.23809769749641418,
-0.3413443863391876,
0.6454052329063416,
-0.30480048060417175,
0.11852549761533737,
-0.8245831727981567,
-0.11382817476987839,
0.42552927136421204,
0.9895785450935364,
-0.11143134534358978,
0.15392915904521942,
0.1116470992565155,
0.07211843132972717,
-0.02144094556570053,
-0.1865888237953186,
0.6766176223754883,
0.17538169026374817,
-0.4005151391029358,
0.7689929604530334,
-0.5794626474380493,
0.3435988128185272,
-0.8250555396080017,
0.17689931392669678,
1.131726622581482,
0.11814484745264053,
-0.4511145055294037,
0.2000073939561844,
0.4667351543903351,
0.10185776650905609,
0.6033465266227722,
1.1101380586624146,
0.14243215322494507,
-0.20250500738620758,
-0.13287658989429474,
-0.1400882452726364,
-0.03214216232299805,
-0.2745588421821594,
-0.3588698208332062,
-0.07027844339609146,
-0.055347561836242676,
-0.044630635529756546,
0.4210568368434906,
0.06007746234536171,
-0.28706300258636475,
0.4204855263233185,
0.006967425346374512,
0.5632546544075012,
0.12733423709869385,
-0.3231709897518158,
0.9368340373039246,
-0.33895114064216614,
0.6957812905311584,
0.6451125144958496,
0.5630677938461304,
-0.3551895320415497,
-0.12267256528139114,
0.025486642494797707,
-0.1436559110879898,
-0.34451353549957275,
-0.15116630494594574,
-0.3845265209674835,
-0.40431416034698486,
0.5214968323707581,
-0.08172991126775742,
0.3187209367752075,
0.4324590265750885,
0.3426940143108368,
-0.1541835367679596,
0.33401724696159363,
-0.29329758882522583,
0.04876474291086197,
0.0846850648522377,
0.49859562516212463,
0.16655123233795166,
0.030316248536109924,
0.47952353954315186,
0.125089630484581,
-0.5633155107498169,
-0.157807394862175,
-0.21264393627643585,
0.34234684705734253,
-0.41710543632507324,
-0.06417157500982285,
-0.48080602288246155,
0.9132000207901001,
-0.21051332354545593,
-0.27050456404685974,
0.048607874661684036,
-0.5133171677589417,
0.1380128264427185,
0.4463139474391937,
-0.1531326323747635,
-0.1415821760892868,
-0.5828164219856262,
0.19380196928977966,
0.4433214068412781,
0.035836491733789444,
0.12751005589962006,
0.4597918689250946,
-0.47230902314186096,
-0.05449517443776131,
-0.27667999267578125,
0.5722692608833313,
0.14301955699920654,
-0.9370056390762329,
-0.781995415687561,
-0.4860381484031677,
-0.1300182342529297,
-0.8131128549575806,
-0.4106600284576416,
-0.4692240059375763,
0.006419758312404156,
-0.031455568969249725,
0.22698284685611725,
0.14407925307750702,
-0.5194100141525269,
0.012747270986437798,
0.5121809244155884,
-0.13911022245883942,
0.5506645441055298,
-0.5098004937171936,
-0.16094069182872772,
0.29103711247444153,
-0.21288995444774628,
0.04091022536158562,
0.23245391249656677,
0.2686380445957184,
-0.23201410472393036,
0.1312958151102066,
-5.555933952331543,
0.05999450385570526,
0.13242003321647644,
-0.43654102087020874,
0.36924344301223755,
-0.7834059000015259,
0.6190047860145569,
-0.4074484407901764,
0.23096328973770142,
-0.5243433117866516,
0.24686704576015472,
0.5554232001304626,
0.09114141017198563,
0.39689528942108154,
0.6791272759437561,
0.7198768854141235,
0.13947367668151855,
-0.15948382019996643,
0.24867752194404602,
-0.3566511869430542,
-0.5145920515060425,
0.06696871668100357,
-0.0890745297074318,
0.40423017740249634,
0.5095234513282776,
0.7194992899894714,
-0.6872376799583435,
-0.3645498752593994,
-0.6395732164382935,
0.20066900551319122,
-0.3468320965766907,
0.5247367024421692,
-0.1089676022529602,
0.03670608252286911,
-0.13666565716266632,
0.6771801114082336,
0.6236683130264282,
-0.16297461092472076,
0.291814386844635,
-0.5566935539245605,
0.1313033103942871,
0.7757264971733093,
-0.1328050047159195,
-0.19475385546684265,
0.1900835633277893,
-0.17776042222976685,
-0.7491106986999512,
0.02775818668305874,
-0.0807947963476181,
0.3456624150276184,
0.547857403755188,
-0.25034648180007935,
0.33645278215408325,
-0.3899843692779541,
0.7164447903633118,
-0.6168710589408875,
0.8060151934623718,
-0.47551101446151733,
-0.6814172863960266,
0.7481824159622192,
0.3122846484184265,
0.09726309031248093,
-0.26044201850891113,
-0.6587157845497131,
0.07068373262882233,
0.0841057077050209,
0.3267627954483032,
0.0009543481282889843,
0.7109857797622681,
-0.56124347448349,
-0.21156971156597137,
0.3052546977996826,
-0.16004499793052673,
-0.692672610282898,
-0.31206297874450684,
-0.48742300271987915,
-0.9223750233650208,
0.2263602763414383,
-0.47361046075820923,
0.5168740749359131,
-0.31434744596481323,
0.04210204258561134,
-0.289438396692276,
0.18175019323825836,
-0.30922389030456543,
-0.2622063159942627,
0.3528992235660553,
0.080442875623703,
-0.6490311026573181,
-0.04212379455566406,
-0.1031552404165268,
-0.43636855483055115,
0.5697600841522217,
-0.11811011284589767,
-0.23249588906764984,
0.39790552854537964,
-0.10489978641271591,
0.12046696245670319,
-0.3352312445640564,
-0.2681085169315338,
0.8738751411437988,
0.04026103764772415,
0.382174015045166,
-0.2912183701992035,
0.08740772306919098,
-0.04060225561261177,
-0.014401850290596485,
0.4869585633277893,
-0.012167299166321754,
-0.16968606412410736,
0.13268738985061646,
0.1638687551021576,
-0.8442609310150146,
-0.6338241100311279,
0.6610280275344849,
-0.1253977119922638,
-0.31396007537841797,
0.44786351919174194,
0.07313479483127594,
0.3375413119792938,
0.37388142943382263,
0.0012736632488667965,
-0.3587440252304077,
0.5045751333236694,
-0.2986827790737152,
-0.29527342319488525,
-0.08509780466556549,
0.4172084927558899,
0.47073930501937866,
0.42049896717071533,
0.5178574323654175,
0.24068373441696167,
0.14033591747283936,
-0.34701570868492126,
0.3238793909549713,
0.3928467631340027,
-0.3400159478187561,
-0.9885500073432922,
0.3633272051811218,
-0.536909282207489,
0.10463432967662811,
-0.1945308893918991,
-0.2814328074455261,
0.48761552572250366,
0.08354335278272629,
0.28665706515312195,
-0.45112550258636475,
-0.5354835391044617,
-0.7262378334999084,
0.4333927035331726,
-0.03036837838590145,
0.25608888268470764,
-0.3928632438182831,
-0.3019210994243622,
-0.049374211579561234,
-1.100644826889038,
-0.0364801399409771,
0.10310048609972,
0.21792097389698029,
-0.02858651615679264,
0.17377233505249023,
-0.5330715179443359,
-0.5056001543998718,
0.5117499828338623,
0.7403846383094788,
-0.45316821336746216,
-0.1880924254655838,
-0.19666531682014465,
0.0895790234208107,
0.5145191550254822,
0.04769526422023773,
-0.5629975199699402,
-0.552640974521637,
-0.5619277954101562,
0.583531379699707,
-0.62883460521698,
-0.05484676733613014,
0.20941343903541565,
0.21387580037117004,
0.22092801332473755,
0.37072059512138367,
0.09924684464931488,
0.48088958859443665,
0.4435267150402069,
0.4853176176548004,
-0.3899023234844208,
-0.45559924840927124,
-0.6530439853668213,
-0.16213010251522064,
-0.13952511548995972,
0.1189391016960144,
-0.018175417557358742,
0.3729705810546875,
0.6051252484321594,
-0.06480822712182999,
-0.6694493889808655,
-0.07329500466585159,
-0.0484636165201664,
0.17837007343769073,
0.08391380310058594,
0.24123704433441162,
0.08384478092193604,
-0.8159223198890686,
0.5958425998687744,
0.34546542167663574,
-0.2294778674840927,
0.437157541513443,
0.04716736823320389,
-0.7994665503501892,
-0.15553142130374908,
0.04731271415948868,
-0.3417165279388428,
-0.03581101447343826,
0.6602863669395447,
0.26486635208129883,
0.09603903442621231,
0.33623307943344116,
0.11770747601985931,
-0.7034600377082825,
0.22974638640880585,
-0.003638502676039934,
-0.4155489504337311,
0.13779139518737793,
0.1565055102109909,
0.06864622235298157,
0.7078949809074402,
0.30568933486938477,
-0.8348742723464966,
0.24059857428073883,
0.03691031038761139,
0.4437277615070343,
-0.5238863229751587,
0.4402172267436981,
-0.1948288232088089,
-0.24947169423103333,
0.3757375478744507,
-0.043404802680015564,
-0.19518417119979858,
-0.24774694442749023,
0.20288339257240295,
0.11521559953689575,
0.5870181918144226,
-0.2297731339931488,
-0.7426996827125549,
-0.3782039284706116,
-0.0074849859811365604,
0.2519504129886627,
-0.26066359877586365,
-0.21831879019737244,
0.19218552112579346,
-0.2102663666009903,
-0.627816379070282,
0.26707231998443604,
0.29050907492637634,
0.1236833855509758,
0.09109369665384293,
-0.5421781539916992,
0.4790255129337311,
0.04962195083498955,
0.6038909554481506,
0.1970498263835907,
0.022484850138425827,
-0.23957213759422302,
0.17068225145339966,
-0.04423185810446739,
-0.046258989721536636,
0.015197797678411007,
-0.6788414120674133,
-0.10823409259319305,
-0.06542680412530899,
-0.17056891322135925,
0.4976218640804291,
0.43122541904449463,
0.5190458297729492,
-0.2415146380662918,
0.1493997573852539,
-0.3325576186180115,
0.0885259211063385,
-0.3619302809238434,
-0.08093925565481186,
-0.7621698379516602,
-0.03047608584165573,
-0.1584162563085556,
-0.2737785279750824,
0.24314343929290771,
-0.5238324999809265,
-0.3735343813896179,
0.032308582216501236,
-0.06469029933214188,
-0.1603935807943344,
-0.40159153938293457,
0.18920136988162994,
-0.13666830956935883,
0.09906850755214691,
-0.0801653116941452,
-0.08840988576412201,
-0.18879643082618713,
0.15792199969291687,
-0.298915833234787,
0.3871629536151886,
-0.5871509909629822,
0.36094826459884644,
0.06521505862474442,
0.07246110588312149,
0.06984300911426544,
-0.0058259726502001286,
0.4992753267288208,
-0.21731773018836975,
-0.2686905860900879,
-0.6582244634628296,
0.11191167682409286,
-0.08099580556154251,
-0.10916081070899963,
0.6512899398803711,
-0.4503844380378723,
0.5808754563331604,
0.4194633960723877,
-0.12401775270700455,
-0.5570979714393616,
0.9149248600006104,
0.3638942241668701,
0.07501333951950073,
-0.012815328314900398,
0.1278839409351349,
0.8382010459899902,
0.5872546434402466,
-0.36532488465309143,
-0.7215433716773987,
-0.1557220071554184,
0.19134877622127533,
0.4476238191127777,
0.06625033169984818,
-0.7463924884796143,
0.3070780336856842,
-0.7494956851005554,
0.030176635831594467,
-0.12718959152698517,
-0.11749258637428284,
-0.6955744028091431,
0.39204925298690796,
0.6336997151374817,
0.5239840149879456,
-1.1469889879226685,
-0.21861472725868225,
0.2082701474428177,
0.015583857893943787,
0.45820537209510803,
0.039202164858579636,
0.6090630888938904,
0.42706772685050964,
0.35915064811706543,
-0.3768913745880127,
0.05754844844341278,
0.5287208557128906,
-0.3399733603000641,
-0.04607533663511276,
0.4474649131298065,
0.06478754431009293,
-1.0503603219985962,
-0.3093512952327728,
-0.036518894135951996,
-0.28101015090942383,
0.054465778172016144,
-0.4161720275878906,
-0.09060050547122955,
-0.04806890711188316,
0.10904762893915176,
0.19071272015571594,
-0.823002815246582,
0.4530716836452484,
0.012613161467015743,
0.22131498157978058,
-0.24901513755321503,
0.1422121375799179,
0.08795850723981857,
0.5307623147964478,
0.7017760872840881,
0.8964966535568237,
-0.22377747297286987,
0.5337418913841248,
-0.2523175776004791,
0.37319305539131165,
0.009064688347280025,
-0.41522952914237976,
-0.2092781513929367,
-0.16756068170070648,
0.08107315003871918,
-0.01160360686480999,
-0.633625864982605,
-0.026013534516096115,
0.1747436672449112,
-0.13111096620559692,
0.03154066205024719,
0.7542324066162109,
-0.29398801922798157,
-0.36796170473098755,
-0.4665965139865875,
0.7704680562019348,
0.7565919160842896,
-0.09808473289012909,
-0.08665326982736588,
-0.06952879577875137,
0.1500016301870346,
0.15107353031635284,
-0.25959253311157227,
-0.22174623608589172,
-0.6140005588531494,
0.32409772276878357,
-0.5735324025154114,
0.348442941904068,
0.08253315836191177,
0.2172589749097824,
-0.883369505405426,
-0.16986176371574402,
-0.7342190742492676,
0.4406522512435913,
0.1938823163509369,
0.0006789045874029398,
0.230996236205101,
-0.6575444340705872,
0.7702181935310364,
-0.33127787709236145,
-0.06488094478845596,
0.5252093076705933,
0.07803839445114136,
-0.8329154849052429,
-0.3657185137271881,
0.1824798583984375,
-0.8952227830886841,
0.04066595435142517,
0.9922073483467102,
-0.20935603976249695,
-0.10519836843013763,
0.5531317591667175,
-0.511437714099884,
-0.5525603890419006,
0.7140719890594482,
0.7424542307853699,
0.16041119396686554,
-0.354844331741333,
-0.23048408329486847,
-0.16805939376354218,
0.2955130636692047,
-0.4531155824661255,
-0.2428683191537857,
0.14340713620185852,
0.25317180156707764,
-0.28781241178512573,
-0.6788593530654907,
0.25345396995544434,
0.19019430875778198,
0.1741410493850708,
0.09817343205213547,
0.20349769294261932,
-0.06435735523700714,
-0.2897711992263794,
0.15938611328601837,
-0.7207306027412415,
0.5567203760147095,
-0.19834090769290924
] |
241490 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime-factor%20FFT%20algorithm | Prime-factor FFT algorithm | The prime-factor algorithm (PFA), also called the Good–Thomas algorithm (1958/1963), is a fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm that re-expresses the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of a size N = N1N2 as a two-dimensional N1×N2 DFT, but only for the case where N1 and N2 are relatively prime. These smaller transforms of size N1 and N2 can then be evaluated by applying PFA recursively or by using some other FFT algorithm.
PFA should not be confused with the mixed-radix generalization of the popular Cooley–Tukey algorithm, which also subdivides a DFT of size N = N1N2 into smaller transforms of size N1 and N2. The latter algorithm can use any factors (not necessarily relatively prime), but it has the disadvantage that it also requires extra multiplications by roots of unity called twiddle factors, in addition to the smaller transforms. On the other hand, PFA has the disadvantages that it only works for relatively prime factors (e.g. it is useless for power-of-two sizes) and that it requires a more complicated re-indexing of the data based on the Chinese remainder theorem (CRT). Note, however, that PFA can be combined with mixed-radix Cooley–Tukey, with the former factorizing N into relatively prime components and the latter handling repeated factors.
PFA is also closely related to the nested Winograd FFT algorithm, where the latter performs the decomposed N1 by N2 transform via more sophisticated two-dimensional convolution techniques. Some older papers therefore also call Winograd's algorithm a PFA FFT.
(Although the PFA is distinct from the Cooley–Tukey algorithm, Good's 1958 work on the PFA was cited as inspiration by Cooley and Tukey in their 1965 paper, and there was initially some confusion about whether the two algorithms were different. In fact, it was the only prior FFT work cited by them, as they were not then aware of the earlier research by Gauss and others.)
Algorithm
Recall that the DFT is defined by the formula:
The PFA involves a re-indexing of the input and output arrays, which when substituted into the DFT formula transforms it into two nested DFTs (a two-dimensional DFT).
Re-indexing
Suppose that , where and are relatively prime, i.e. . Then the re-indexing is performed using two bijective mappings between and .
The first map
is a bijection called the Ruritanian mapping (also Good's mapping).
Indeed it is a homomorphism , because and :
Therefore, according to the first isomorphism theorem, is an injection to the quotient group . Here the kernel , because otherwise there would exist a pair and , which are not simultaneously zero, such that for some nonzero . Since , the only remaining value of is 1. In this case would be an integer from which is impossible, because for the fraction to yield an integral value, must be a multiple of (since ). But this would contradict . Thus, , that is injects to . Now since , is indeed bijective, i.e. for distinct values of the pair it produces distinct values of throughout the whole set .
The second map
is called the CRT mapping. The name refers to the Chinese remainder theorem which provides the bijective mapping , in which and are any solution to the linear diophantine equation equation (see Bézout's identity).
In order to perform the DFT, one needs to map different pairs of and to distinct values of and also pairs and to . To do it one can use the Ruritanian mapping to produce indices in the input vector and the CRT mapping to evaluate indices of the output vector or use the two mappings the opposite way.
A great deal of research has been devoted to schemes for evaluating this re-indexing efficiently, ideally in-place, while minimizing the number of costly modulo (remainder) operations (Chan, 1991, and references).
DFT re-expression
The above re-indexing is then substituted into the formula for the DFT, and in particular into the product in the exponent. Because , this exponent is evaluated modulo . Similarly, and are implicitly periodic in , so their subscripts are evaluated modulo .
First, substitute the Ruritanian mapping into the formula for DFT:
.
Now substitute the CRT mapping in place of to produce
Likewise, substitution of the CRT mapping in place of and Ruritanian mapping in place of yields
.
In both cases the inner and outer sums are simply DFTs of size and , respectively.
References
Addendum, ibid. 22 (2), 373-375 (1960) .
See also
Rader's FFT algorithm
Bluestein's FFT algorithm
FFT algorithms | [
-0.5534709095954895,
-0.2324770987033844,
0.007050898391753435,
-0.3961580693721771,
-0.18856364488601685,
0.6075351238250732,
-0.1691196858882904,
-0.5082336664199829,
-0.29943135380744934,
-0.674778401851654,
-0.1374390572309494,
0.6447277069091797,
-0.853329062461853,
-0.4563123881816864,
0.09484577924013138,
0.36909011006355286,
0.46904700994491577,
-0.048338860273361206,
-0.31226450204849243,
-0.620060384273529,
0.39075490832328796,
0.3295048177242279,
0.3388325870037079,
0.07392238080501556,
0.1449812650680542,
-0.26951682567596436,
0.28483474254608154,
-0.11815321445465088,
0.4196177124977112,
0.5514563918113708,
-0.2456156462430954,
0.31416237354278564,
0.6081541180610657,
-0.3577774465084076,
0.078705795109272,
-0.06445225328207016,
0.2977772057056427,
0.22424562275409698,
0.16471745073795319,
0.16205915808677673,
0.26289457082748413,
-0.3314264714717865,
0.1524049937725067,
0.33959683775901794,
-0.20263519883155823,
-0.6149351596832275,
-1.6756272315979004,
0.1185624748468399,
-0.11699462682008743,
-0.40342968702316284,
-0.5967651605606079,
0.45693501830101013,
0.4919617176055908,
0.7740027904510498,
-0.08302762359380722,
0.8833642601966858,
-0.09747950732707977,
-0.24240615963935852,
0.6031476855278015,
-0.22678208351135254,
0.021615618839859962,
-0.4197405278682709,
0.08626669645309448,
0.24717755615711212,
-0.18400786817073822,
0.5525218844413757,
0.13137948513031006,
0.345227986574173,
-0.4740026891231537,
-0.08949220925569534,
-0.18178914487361908,
-0.5871515870094299,
-0.5700956583023071,
0.3334735929965973,
-0.40287643671035767,
-0.22225864231586456,
-0.21205581724643707,
-0.12342420220375061,
0.07937484979629517,
0.27531275153160095,
-0.15123139321804047,
0.30898505449295044,
0.2813856601715088,
0.21196496486663818,
0.32346680760383606,
0.07239554077386856,
-0.20986779034137726,
0.13462311029434204,
-0.7442569136619568,
0.07661930471658707,
0.064189612865448,
-0.434347927570343,
0.15831629931926727,
-0.18004801869392395,
0.23088377714157104,
0.09517718851566315,
-0.3665153682231903,
-0.26421716809272766,
0.4192473590373993,
0.3279328942298889,
-0.5655816197395325,
-0.2532625198364258,
0.13571427762508392,
-0.2243453860282898,
-0.4188271164894104,
-0.48216110467910767,
-0.25736621022224426,
-0.35289493203163147,
0.21769724786281586,
-0.07063385844230652,
-0.7028301358222961,
0.36605021357536316,
0.43307986855506897,
-0.22362187504768372,
-0.2693861722946167,
0.07787548750638962,
-0.13797691464424133,
0.0008429560693912208,
-0.3320130705833435,
0.3712626099586487,
-0.09224624931812286,
1.173085331916809,
0.10237305611371994,
0.5042441487312317,
-0.17441336810588837,
0.04936425760388374,
0.9618312120437622,
1.163608193397522,
-0.547195553779602,
-0.15677174925804138,
0.34006258845329285,
0.5097593665122986,
0.3754270672798157,
0.034898508340120316,
-0.051932863891124725,
-0.19403313100337982,
-0.36553794145584106,
-0.13510790467262268,
-0.7403731942176819,
-0.20327895879745483,
0.06418406963348389,
-0.28820088505744934,
0.3625568449497223,
-0.11195114254951477,
0.1767105609178543,
0.13811564445495605,
0.14810417592525482,
-0.34421348571777344,
0.09578006714582443,
-0.4584558308124542,
0.3866339325904846,
0.05767461284995079,
-0.4806725084781647,
0.002488492988049984,
-0.42298150062561035,
0.16160140931606293,
0.012634513899683952,
-0.019784092903137207,
-0.609565794467926,
0.5914407968521118,
-0.04733368754386902,
-0.027134010568261147,
-0.2005285769701004,
-0.47329363226890564,
0.24230043590068817,
-0.6509636044502258,
0.9233579039573669,
0.49685919284820557,
-0.08611992746591568,
0.08984958380460739,
-0.13793909549713135,
-0.05797608569264412,
0.3582752048969269,
-0.06959693133831024,
-0.17279571294784546,
0.2910284101963043,
0.6702800989151001,
-0.255676805973053,
0.43726053833961487,
0.006213401444256306,
-0.8100444674491882,
0.12201253324747086,
0.3086473047733307,
0.12792278826236725,
0.42218127846717834,
-0.02225152589380741,
0.5797173976898193,
-0.22749753296375275,
0.4888571500778198,
0.10405293107032776,
-0.16009236872196198,
0.09524926543235779,
0.07241956889629364,
-0.8464545607566833,
1.369273066520691,
0.3706818222999573,
-0.6131993532180786,
0.2367081493139267,
0.28529998660087585,
0.5964583158493042,
0.17300646007061005,
-0.2860165536403656,
0.43509215116500854,
-0.19025146961212158,
-0.39691126346588135,
0.07593750953674316,
-0.3618811070919037,
0.18036270141601562,
-0.6388072371482849,
0.5475865006446838,
0.29454997181892395,
0.39233219623565674,
-0.258858859539032,
0.08976364135742188,
-0.08398072421550751,
0.19689008593559265,
-0.185753732919693,
0.42946165800094604,
0.13196741044521332,
-0.060575611889362335,
0.5047506093978882,
0.030691981315612793,
-0.23082081973552704,
0.2994265854358673,
0.07184348255395889,
0.9223628640174866,
0.9338143467903137,
0.29404065012931824,
0.9163588285446167,
-0.14578334987163544,
0.17574624717235565,
0.03049146570265293,
0.11926086992025375,
-0.344405859708786,
0.18279622495174408,
0.24298258125782013,
-0.019058365374803543,
-0.20904238522052765,
0.3652844727039337,
-0.07848957180976868,
0.1017308235168457,
0.7444655299186707,
-0.20394916832447052,
-0.5764518976211548,
0.03981105610728264,
-0.2547549605369568,
-0.40794840455055237,
0.005685196723788977,
0.139396071434021,
-0.093898706138134,
-0.22492490708827972,
0.2668869197368622,
0.12522274255752563,
-0.2842206060886383,
-0.48019999265670776,
0.4214937686920166,
0.13780555129051208,
-0.08761074393987656,
0.27734774351119995,
0.26481935381889343,
-0.18368494510650635,
-0.5415481328964233,
0.24312210083007812,
-0.34718653559684753,
-0.1947319060564041,
-0.675991415977478,
-0.7454779148101807,
-0.05663689598441124,
0.4352850914001465,
0.24092796444892883,
-0.08709953725337982,
-0.04411737620830536,
-0.4822264015674591,
0.0406251922249794,
-0.5042470097541809,
-1.1479774713516235,
0.042032547295093536,
0.3084023892879486,
-0.8900115489959717,
-0.7146202921867371,
0.04789360985159874,
0.6879627704620361,
0.43506646156311035,
-0.2681242823600769,
-0.7822760343551636,
0.2149752974510193,
-0.38754644989967346,
-0.3238179087638855,
0.2072107046842575,
-0.03955323249101639,
-0.5540533065795898,
0.11559365689754486,
-0.6581430435180664,
-0.538943886756897,
0.8392776846885681,
0.7274861335754395,
0.017922941595315933,
-0.11810661107301712,
0.18574604392051697,
-0.350612998008728,
-0.17948338389396667,
-0.051017358899116516,
0.027421142905950546,
-0.2957090437412262,
-0.1468193680047989,
-0.14061219990253448,
-0.7402747869491577,
0.3786528706550598,
-5.878182888031006,
0.1084088683128357,
-0.684061586856842,
-0.22680804133415222,
-0.3578336834907532,
0.26878878474235535,
0.3559566140174866,
-0.05660703405737877,
0.0384807325899601,
-0.13479827344417572,
0.18645265698432922,
-0.5260905027389526,
-0.39407849311828613,
0.5256851315498352,
0.32632437348365784,
0.16503237187862396,
-0.041271697729825974,
-0.09327919036149979,
0.4570036232471466,
0.18886417150497437,
0.4759887754917145,
-0.7845041155815125,
-0.12686458230018616,
-0.06584055721759796,
0.4499153792858124,
0.4570479094982147,
-0.36856740713119507,
0.07371225208044052,
-0.12624460458755493,
-0.21197724342346191,
0.04219096526503563,
-0.5873616337776184,
-0.016010580584406853,
-0.10439028590917587,
-0.04725594073534012,
0.29994097352027893,
0.93464595079422,
0.008285299874842167,
0.29672130942344666,
-0.17225083708763123,
0.3723628520965576,
0.6366212368011475,
-0.28883278369903564,
-0.3232213854789734,
0.158773735165596,
0.582907497882843,
0.03286953270435333,
0.3568502366542816,
-0.269062876701355,
0.3133441209793091,
-0.03494803234934807,
0.3573128283023834,
-0.32650452852249146,
-0.03330310061573982,
0.19337791204452515,
-0.03449665755033493,
-0.09023217111825943,
-0.10426491498947144,
0.12571687996387482,
-0.029153713956475258,
0.46422290802001953,
-0.19905586540699005,
0.38100025057792664,
-0.30211034417152405,
-0.6358302235603333,
-0.18057091534137726,
-0.16010528802871704,
-0.2586804926395416,
0.5938586592674255,
0.3547697961330414,
-0.08204929530620575,
-0.42080628871917725,
-0.07345632463693619,
-0.5654288530349731,
-0.23611752688884735,
-0.33542895317077637,
0.15330035984516144,
0.26908841729164124,
-0.4599549174308777,
-0.002982362871989608,
-0.09902361780405045,
-0.9028955698013306,
-0.5147497653961182,
0.06672147661447525,
0.2805781066417694,
-0.035952482372522354,
-0.712900698184967,
0.041845954954624176,
-0.36393383145332336,
0.05956884101033211,
0.5827879905700684,
-0.5818504691123962,
0.26655974984169006,
0.27567341923713684,
0.44086599349975586,
0.3205479383468628,
0.6754921078681946,
0.17469680309295654,
0.3143732249736786,
0.16905981302261353,
0.09422656148672104,
-0.16972820460796356,
-0.17228883504867554,
-0.6100115776062012,
0.059157758951187134,
0.27543458342552185,
-1.0196402072906494,
0.6176230907440186,
0.5662146210670471,
0.06749685853719711,
-0.2919533848762512,
-0.40275880694389343,
-0.1986086368560791,
-0.3104442358016968,
0.2875376045703888,
0.036538783460855484,
-0.3504073917865753,
-0.31968045234680176,
0.5726961493492126,
-0.20994246006011963,
-0.3616873323917389,
0.29589352011680603,
-0.39093416929244995,
0.06103577837347984,
-0.09899147599935532,
-0.4285666346549988,
0.007248100358992815,
0.18881985545158386,
-0.4350181818008423,
-0.2223018854856491,
0.48181217908859253,
0.5846083760261536,
-0.5293720960617065,
0.35435324907302856,
0.159221351146698,
-0.23414529860019684,
0.133686363697052,
0.35824936628341675,
0.43637529015541077,
-0.2578347623348236,
0.6297745108604431,
-0.35810691118240356,
-0.2797246277332306,
-0.681624174118042,
0.4098685383796692,
0.5464867353439331,
0.4896356165409088,
-0.5082541704177856,
-0.20468097925186157,
-0.09586375206708908,
0.043945398181676865,
-0.40226271748542786,
0.5563656091690063,
0.14576195180416107,
-0.20411649346351624,
-0.010734218172729015,
-0.3252212405204773,
0.2726362645626068,
-0.3100678324699402,
-0.42008039355278015,
0.3822435438632965,
-0.060223016887903214,
-1.0106397867202759,
-0.6596325039863586,
0.1672181338071823,
-0.23151542246341705,
-0.5243018865585327,
-0.28986606001853943,
-0.28967374563217163,
0.4671781361103058,
0.13696707785129547,
-0.44812601804733276,
-0.01504510547965765,
-0.40685564279556274,
0.30867698788642883,
-0.3113057613372803,
0.30178555846214294,
-0.07030273973941803,
-0.4625830054283142,
-0.09964734315872192,
0.17756196856498718,
-0.28387945890426636,
-0.4363095164299011,
0.6322948932647705,
0.7029675245285034,
-0.3166857957839966,
0.07239463180303574,
0.43808668851852417,
-0.48366832733154297,
-0.4743000864982605,
0.09723389893770218,
-0.350149929523468,
0.46801042556762695,
-0.48356255888938904,
0.09759771078824997,
-0.5316424369812012,
0.44815555214881897,
0.7308244109153748,
-0.33355972170829773,
-0.6041014790534973,
-0.33054858446121216,
0.664790153503418,
-0.23548614978790283,
0.28036993741989136,
0.28151023387908936,
0.027476221323013306,
-0.18101756274700165,
-0.27130571007728577,
-0.3456162214279175,
0.2512287497520447,
-0.1644861251115799,
-0.33890894055366516,
-0.1921474188566208,
-0.17760230600833893,
-0.36123329401016235,
0.4940575957298279,
0.16599375009536743,
0.4119398891925812,
0.06787671893835068,
-0.6693969964981079,
0.25957199931144714,
-0.665439784526825,
0.01366790384054184,
0.4252246022224426,
-0.008739559911191463,
0.36261963844299316,
0.20922121405601501,
-0.7085011005401611,
0.4594475328922272,
0.10276629775762558,
0.1910865157842636,
-0.4868958294391632,
-0.25915300846099854,
0.044098515063524246,
-0.1751163750886917,
-0.827410876750946,
-0.9113587141036987,
0.39569804072380066,
-0.8098443150520325,
-0.30976182222366333,
0.2462247759103775,
0.5837867259979248,
-0.0932079553604126,
-0.04257133975625038,
-0.20760522782802582,
-0.11902008205652237,
0.4512847065925598,
-0.38362428545951843,
0.03457946330308914,
0.2687658667564392,
-0.33227941393852234,
0.08146107196807861,
-0.08884162455797195,
0.018139345571398735,
0.40138381719589233,
0.2426195591688156,
-0.22117836773395538,
-0.5429614186286926,
-0.014488175511360168,
0.7150560021400452,
-0.016058001667261124,
0.007333385292440653,
-0.3923027217388153,
-0.14889071881771088,
0.2594449520111084,
0.5056340098381042,
0.13332705199718475,
-0.470969557762146,
0.26053258776664734,
0.05577930435538292,
0.042912423610687256,
-0.3663814067840576,
0.2252446711063385,
0.923138439655304,
0.3984694480895996,
-0.06296223402023315,
0.022681791335344315,
0.5429175496101379,
0.2225819230079651,
0.0896555706858635,
-0.30918088555336,
-0.19581900537014008,
0.47934406995773315,
-0.6944021582603455,
-0.15554548799991608,
-0.3892035484313965,
0.14033962786197662,
-0.08450350165367126,
-0.28461065888404846,
0.11136866360902786,
-0.35910743474960327,
0.18102863430976868,
-0.5764709711074829,
-0.33565109968185425,
-0.4628570079803467,
0.0750693529844284,
0.15541747212409973,
0.2605988681316376,
-0.17095959186553955,
-0.4876288175582886,
-0.276282399892807,
0.2790760397911072,
0.15070299804210663,
-0.14386507868766785,
0.44712764024734497,
0.29856956005096436,
0.19397202134132385,
0.03943466395139694,
-0.544247567653656,
-0.056957393884658813,
0.09336576610803604,
-0.34460124373435974,
0.18385295569896698,
0.7085428237915039,
-0.46915945410728455,
0.10711078345775604,
0.35808736085891724,
-0.07317505031824112,
0.33851027488708496,
0.4300912022590637,
-0.059656932950019836,
0.33075982332229614,
0.636681854724884,
-0.3563271164894104,
-0.5675417184829712,
0.36282870173454285,
-0.15400341153144836,
0.31403928995132446,
0.1399051696062088,
0.32557937502861023,
0.6898999810218811,
0.31963008642196655,
-0.6290457844734192,
0.60328608751297,
0.33115899562835693,
-0.164947047829628,
-0.020244477316737175,
-0.3417060375213623,
0.10788127779960632,
0.056092943996191025,
1.1577895879745483,
0.7205674052238464,
0.035555705428123474,
0.43680906295776367,
0.11055410653352737,
-0.12360148876905441,
-0.06452738493680954,
-0.12627539038658142,
0.08110768347978592,
0.3684452474117279,
0.04594838619232178,
-0.23071302473545074,
-0.22663874924182892,
-0.1359139382839203,
-0.006857988424599171,
-0.08451735228300095,
0.3711516857147217,
-0.5574267506599426,
0.4506394863128662,
0.09758496284484863,
0.6335555911064148,
0.23740516602993011,
-0.16359592974185944,
-0.1874101608991623,
-0.42434895038604736,
0.15939927101135254,
0.4456031024456024,
0.05975141003727913,
0.0758775845170021,
0.25365298986434937,
-0.06486377865076065,
0.5854777097702026,
0.20819784700870514,
0.4483642280101776,
0.18425339460372925,
-0.15169426798820496,
0.11272966116666794,
0.3634800314903259,
-0.19163723289966583,
0.06762173771858215,
0.37677156925201416,
-0.20186546444892883,
-0.2505896985530853,
-0.5085815191268921,
0.027466947212815285,
-0.731883704662323,
0.2646685242652893,
-0.21061955392360687,
-0.08749102056026459,
-0.20212958753108978,
0.05061136186122894,
-0.8898620009422302,
-0.30453792214393616,
0.10220739990472794,
0.08607408404350281,
0.04924045503139496,
-0.3668513000011444,
0.9905099868774414,
0.7509923577308655,
0.3104516267776489,
0.33180591464042664,
-0.518926203250885,
0.3233869671821594,
0.3809185028076172,
-0.1870456486940384,
0.034815434366464615,
0.04414089396595955,
-0.07745475322008133,
-0.18351095914840698,
0.19108253717422485,
0.7812551259994507,
-0.032483287155628204,
-0.04245534539222717,
-0.06508311629295349,
-0.3421807289123535,
-0.006603088695555925,
0.2672140300273895,
-0.2516571283340454,
0.31115254759788513,
-0.3985409438610077,
-0.05814775452017784,
-0.21542786061763763,
0.5088745951652527,
0.1413354128599167,
-0.4367366135120392,
-0.20062531530857086,
0.6694586873054504,
-0.09581900388002396,
0.1685038059949875,
0.35092392563819885,
-0.09097451716661453,
0.08397413790225983,
-0.5456231236457825,
0.4579744040966034,
-0.3221425414085388,
0.03573669493198395,
0.229694664478302,
-0.05836714804172516,
-0.06733427196741104,
-0.5088178515434265,
-0.21263836324214935,
-0.30914106965065,
0.00792081467807293,
0.5546079874038696,
-0.1485459953546524,
0.381344735622406,
0.047593217343091965,
-0.6074812412261963,
-0.6275836229324341,
0.4899826645851135,
0.3868837356567383,
-0.02169051580131054,
-0.27670225501060486,
0.2092476636171341,
-0.03229966759681702,
0.5175482034683228,
-0.32047009468078613,
-0.4989328682422638,
-0.5305038690567017,
0.2613697052001953
] |
241491 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albatros%20Flugzeugwerke | Albatros Flugzeugwerke | Albatros Flugzeugwerke GmbH was a German aircraft manufacturer best known for supplying the German airforces during World War I.
The company was based in Johannisthal, Berlin, where it was founded by Walter Huth and Otto Wiener on December 20, 1909. The company (and its subsidiary, Ostdeutsche Albatros Werke (OAW)) produced some of the most capable fighter aircraft of World War I, notably the Albatros D.III and Albatros D.V, both designed by Robert Thelen for the firm. The works continued to operate until 1931, when it was merged into Focke-Wulf.
History
The company was founded in Berlin-Johannisthal the end of 1909 by Enno Walther Huth as Albatros Werke AG.
The first aircraft the company produced was a French Antoinette monoplane, which they built under licence.
They then produced several versions of the Etrich Taube monoplane, as well the Doppeltaube biplane which used the same basic planform. A variety of other biplanes, with more conventional wing planforms were also built and flown.
In 1912 five Albatros F-2 were built. This was a development of the French Farman III biplane (hence the letter F) with a gondola for the crew and an Argus in-line engine instead of the original Gnome rotary engine. Four were sold to Bulgaria and they took an active part in the 1912-1913 Balkan wars.
On October 16, 1912 one of these carried out the first combat mission over Europe.
During World War I Albatros Flugzeugwerke produced about 10,300 aircraft.
Aircraft
References
External links
The Virtual Aviation Museum
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of Germany
Manufacturing companies based in Berlin
Manufacturing companies established in 1909
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1931
1909 establishments in Germany
1931 disestablishments in Germany
Companies of Prussia | [
0.5453978776931763,
0.679652750492096,
-0.7069496512413025,
-0.2428877204656601,
-0.7376232147216797,
0.5568751096725464,
0.8322227001190186,
-0.31083250045776367,
0.1903483122587204,
-0.3754723072052002,
-0.5269127488136292,
-0.27632924914360046,
-0.2706619203090668,
0.5024212002754211,
-0.16705027222633362,
0.08234259486198425,
-0.14200524985790253,
0.4561963379383087,
0.2351585030555725,
-0.7616828083992004,
0.07613763213157654,
-0.06450335681438446,
0.317879319190979,
0.3621830642223358,
-0.22471731901168823,
-0.41706326603889465,
0.7580870389938354,
0.14814263582229614,
-0.11656975001096725,
-0.05129481852054596,
0.5647063255310059,
0.7584748268127441,
-0.47368744015693665,
-0.12541072070598602,
-0.36160382628440857,
-0.1967829018831253,
0.005500458180904388,
0.04503820464015007,
0.31488558650016785,
-0.8892161250114441,
-0.2654719948768616,
0.18395693600177765,
-0.0009412660729140043,
0.04700027406215668,
-0.09772775322198868,
-0.7323426008224487,
-1.6342440843582153,
0.43189555406570435,
-0.8784734606742859,
-0.19900105893611908,
-0.2515230178833008,
0.44923850893974304,
0.4969198405742645,
0.23499222099781036,
0.011063704267144203,
0.5892255902290344,
-0.4428587853908539,
-0.136877179145813,
-0.03539794683456421,
-0.3573583662509918,
0.7498463988304138,
0.19525200128555298,
0.3756088316440582,
0.18719303607940674,
0.4947361946105957,
0.08067625015974045,
0.13245315849781036,
0.690034806728363,
-0.05707455426454544,
-0.21628457307815552,
-0.47939327359199524,
-0.3946288824081421,
0.34693560004234314,
0.026255231350660324,
0.38349175453186035,
-0.5675846934318542,
0.037064604461193085,
-0.1653684824705124,
0.4692970812320709,
0.13446083664894104,
0.3407762944698334,
0.45396625995635986,
0.9634628295898438,
-0.07557646930217743,
0.018087979406118393,
0.8649710416793823,
-0.9568679332733154,
-0.3279113173484802,
-0.6002969145774841,
0.09924249351024628,
-0.24515841901302338,
-0.5775963068008423,
0.4078826308250427,
-0.23403730988502502,
-0.04436522722244263,
0.06796903163194656,
0.23067936301231384,
0.7880951166152954,
0.0740213468670845,
0.41472533345222473,
0.12925095856189728,
0.21255190670490265,
0.08188652992248535,
-0.03968769311904907,
-0.7170873284339905,
0.3605892062187195,
-0.10906603932380676,
-0.22420339286327362,
-0.4211534559726715,
-0.08770129084587097,
-0.6866997480392456,
-0.5019805431365967,
-0.35568785667419434,
-0.045472998172044754,
-0.2495444267988205,
-0.3069833815097809,
0.19568291306495667,
-0.7831445336341858,
0.036120809614658356,
0.5279814004898071,
0.010908315889537334,
1.0643670558929443,
-0.8998259902000427,
0.17142848670482635,
-0.7663573026657104,
0.4041998088359833,
-0.018437152728438377,
0.32892724871635437,
-0.24896304309368134,
-0.12033746391534805,
1.0090947151184082,
1.2948299646377563,
-0.1497374027967453,
0.029422082006931305,
-0.07324668765068054,
-0.38169020414352417,
0.5592387914657593,
0.36795008182525635,
-0.09947364777326584,
0.010315795429050922,
-1.1789155006408691,
-0.5690948367118835,
-1.0142933130264282,
-0.08841627836227417,
0.2065417468547821,
-0.09229337424039841,
-0.06349479407072067,
-0.36344408988952637,
-0.13706475496292114,
-0.6525653004646301,
0.1685127466917038,
-0.5368843078613281,
-0.9288609623908997,
0.2592460811138153,
0.0606880858540535,
0.35174596309661865,
0.4891161620616913,
-0.539137601852417,
0.7637031078338623,
0.2159935086965561,
0.16900300979614258,
0.26440510153770447,
-0.884872555732727,
0.7180867791175842,
0.08573025465011597,
-0.09415986388921738,
0.09886908531188965,
-0.13558092713356018,
-0.15457047522068024,
-0.15084140002727509,
-0.6543058156967163,
-0.3214721083641052,
0.44584307074546814,
-0.08071528375148773,
0.34097087383270264,
0.5751526355743408,
0.8860793113708496,
-0.2529789209365845,
0.3174862563610077,
-0.17918698489665985,
-0.44751572608947754,
0.24447345733642578,
0.42674267292022705,
0.21146619319915771,
0.46021878719329834,
0.6565566658973694,
0.15961946547031403,
-0.5892151594161987,
0.014133734628558159,
-0.2769278287887573,
-0.45082005858421326,
-0.7189485430717468,
0.6292958855628967,
-0.433293879032135,
1.2839769124984741,
0.01838139072060585,
-0.6959483623504639,
0.5782867670059204,
-0.052764154970645905,
0.13631989061832428,
-0.032409343868494034,
-0.02911503240466118,
-0.3333829641342163,
0.19064277410507202,
-0.09042739123106003,
0.13849106431007385,
0.17797094583511353,
-0.156239852309227,
-0.027693532407283783,
0.33694344758987427,
0.4296475052833557,
0.08344472944736481,
0.1327989250421524,
-0.7040032744407654,
-0.1250101923942566,
-0.03138609603047371,
-0.9712173342704773,
0.44487351179122925,
-0.38480764627456665,
-0.2557854950428009,
0.43096643686294556,
-0.14982879161834717,
-0.25403860211372375,
0.6863622665405273,
0.12604890763759613,
0.001291061518713832,
0.08425913006067276,
0.11428210139274597,
-0.4638899564743042,
-1.0779905319213867,
0.6063640117645264,
0.19166193902492523,
-0.11538773030042648,
-0.07861895114183426,
0.38527241349220276,
0.16010569036006927,
-0.1979150027036667,
-0.29586243629455566,
0.7961438894271851,
-0.09787619858980179,
0.7933213710784912,
0.24953898787498474,
-0.7025978565216064,
0.32423651218414307,
0.06559393554925919,
-0.004981466103345156,
0.061100419610738754,
0.2682304084300995,
-0.41316086053848267,
-0.3383356034755707,
0.4257134199142456,
0.5135332942008972,
0.09479048103094101,
-0.7225134372711182,
-0.09984131157398224,
-0.42326387763023376,
0.14713095128536224,
-0.28230366110801697,
-0.006459987722337246,
-0.007928616367280483,
-0.05728359520435333,
0.01076054573059082,
0.6706666350364685,
0.7256428599357605,
0.47850942611694336,
-0.5652812123298645,
-0.5411881804466248,
-0.3779418468475342,
-0.14629989862442017,
0.023666933178901672,
0.6045817136764526,
-0.26290369033813477,
-0.0897350013256073,
-0.09887430816888809,
-0.19721291959285736,
-0.4821341931819916,
-0.7031118869781494,
0.1965205818414688,
-1.1084399223327637,
0.10350261628627777,
0.32810863852500916,
0.8418754935264587,
0.4735225737094879,
-0.8690515756607056,
-0.11836966872215271,
-0.029718277975916862,
0.8462110161781311,
-0.27899038791656494,
-0.23157913982868195,
0.28772011399269104,
-0.2777550518512726,
0.4315202832221985,
-1.2276777029037476,
0.7880459427833557,
-0.35281720757484436,
0.5271561741828918,
-0.31722259521484375,
0.14667749404907227,
0.5748709440231323,
-0.4648926258087158,
-0.7462654113769531,
0.6414808630943298,
-0.526292622089386,
-0.43122398853302,
-0.045652080327272415,
-0.17972563207149506,
-0.3006950616836548,
-0.07962626218795776,
-5.224086284637451,
-0.029741952195763588,
-0.016992010176181793,
-0.4653346836566925,
0.25446492433547974,
0.3653959333896637,
0.01601429469883442,
-0.39836716651916504,
-0.4905068874359131,
-0.2047874927520752,
0.7781137228012085,
-0.08109449595212936,
0.30126285552978516,
0.17199555039405823,
0.09868119657039642,
0.7142589688301086,
0.9190971851348877,
0.052496328949928284,
0.33610209822654724,
-0.10491514205932617,
0.13274453580379486,
0.05003971979022026,
0.08810148388147354,
-0.00576208857819438,
0.46170422434806824,
-0.3276461064815521,
-0.35584384202957153,
0.10075647383928299,
-0.3030569553375244,
-0.1572914719581604,
0.2073226124048233,
-0.1166725680232048,
0.4746875762939453,
0.06434259563684464,
-0.21596208214759827,
-0.3759361207485199,
0.7371443510055542,
0.2869499921798706,
0.20350289344787598,
0.051425300538539886,
-0.0029595450032502413,
0.6874976754188538,
-0.3241625428199768,
-0.19281437993049622,
0.5813488960266113,
0.12226959317922592,
-0.6486639380455017,
0.4259975552558899,
-0.19185833632946014,
1.0002479553222656,
0.5986838936805725,
-0.4328564703464508,
0.04447353258728981,
0.27736106514930725,
0.2549681067466736,
-0.05935997515916824,
-0.12538695335388184,
-0.11360429227352142,
0.10821429640054703,
0.408260703086853,
-0.19342787563800812,
0.08487360924482346,
0.21222710609436035,
-0.24532927572727203,
-0.20504404604434967,
-0.43426841497421265,
-0.1347462385892868,
-0.590991735458374,
0.35200047492980957,
-0.21929717063903809,
-0.1185678020119667,
1.142804503440857,
0.10025595873594284,
-0.9751836657524109,
0.49240127205848694,
-0.7665947079658508,
0.1912078708410263,
-0.4905531406402588,
0.07701534777879715,
0.30827635526657104,
0.2648279070854187,
-0.2489570826292038,
-0.42695918679237366,
-0.33554214239120483,
0.5321469306945801,
0.20635484158992767,
0.13669928908348083,
0.24731898307800293,
-0.27842947840690613,
0.26407936215400696,
0.4915192425251007,
0.0015534491976723075,
0.39893078804016113,
0.5764429569244385,
-0.3759829103946686,
-0.03077668696641922,
-0.22158712148666382,
0.23905505239963531,
0.5351226925849915,
-0.005972694605588913,
0.1850288361310959,
-0.14962349832057953,
-0.02733098901808262,
-0.47039496898651123,
0.09615424275398254,
-0.22468560934066772,
0.45987966656684875,
-0.2507959306240082,
0.9004714488983154,
0.22810813784599304,
0.2290147989988327,
0.04455804079771042,
-0.21957191824913025,
-0.20007109642028809,
0.5557137131690979,
-0.8995546698570251,
-0.4519643485546112,
0.4114632308483124,
-0.017905205488204956,
-0.6985144019126892,
-0.31716540455818176,
0.19882822036743164,
-0.13291573524475098,
-1.0670487880706787,
-0.4192836582660675,
0.20643380284309387,
-0.21377934515476227,
0.22788667678833008,
-0.2083970308303833,
0.1897507905960083,
-0.4633370339870453,
0.5649945139884949,
-0.38417425751686096,
0.48785021901130676,
-0.22263292968273163,
-0.5165626406669617,
-0.7162767648696899,
-0.18481171131134033,
0.1467404067516327,
-0.2648320496082306,
-0.16422908008098602,
0.5301517248153687,
-0.10864640027284622,
-0.3493310511112213,
0.6526935696601868,
0.8300329446792603,
0.41475942730903625,
-0.7465795278549194,
-0.02766798995435238,
0.16392576694488525,
0.32889389991760254,
-0.11754131317138672,
0.2602814733982086,
-0.1152789518237114,
-0.23993097245693207,
0.10218090564012527,
0.39993879199028015,
0.6783731579780579,
-0.21033915877342224,
-0.5162267088890076,
0.521271824836731,
-0.11484602838754654,
-0.8277818560600281,
-0.31812623143196106,
0.48347392678260803,
-0.1797862946987152,
-0.12462782114744186,
-0.33176928758621216,
-0.3541658818721771,
0.13789919018745422,
0.08969418704509735,
-0.13888686895370483,
-0.8313445448875427,
0.3027009665966034,
-0.0172272901982069,
0.6893107295036316,
-0.35734906792640686,
-0.11955846101045609,
-0.1648014932870865,
-0.21346357464790344,
-0.5062997341156006,
0.3767765462398529,
-0.5885171890258789,
0.16469724476337433,
-0.28808537125587463,
-0.8378819823265076,
-0.4853425920009613,
-0.022738805040717125,
-0.7533652186393738,
-0.246466264128685,
0.19812311232089996,
-0.24924114346504211,
0.7762698531150818,
-0.0482679083943367,
-0.4296427071094513,
-1.0390052795410156,
-0.2888393998146057,
0.05520201101899147,
-0.4075790345668793,
-0.7664594650268555,
-0.1100262701511383,
0.6111358404159546,
-0.38590505719184875,
0.14979858696460724,
-0.011311455629765987,
-0.6621006727218628,
0.169215589761734,
0.10739150643348694,
0.1157422661781311,
1.021176815032959,
-0.6503537893295288,
-1.008940577507019,
0.03641867637634277,
0.9150870442390442,
-0.7226135730743408,
0.4277937412261963,
0.18299901485443115,
0.12609051167964935,
-0.8370708227157593,
0.10804098844528198,
-0.1528734713792801,
-0.020445259287953377,
-0.49718520045280457,
-0.22537080943584442,
-1.3277812004089355,
0.8463606834411621,
-0.06598059833049774,
-0.5695610642433167,
0.5106815099716187,
-0.07569372653961182,
-0.23839691281318665,
0.25465402007102966,
0.13734014332294464,
0.027953585609793663,
0.21163325011730194,
-0.21902374923229218,
0.23264700174331665,
0.26850980520248413,
0.5305426716804504,
-0.02033345215022564,
0.49995335936546326,
1.2874692678451538,
-0.08770719170570374,
-0.06062556803226471,
0.45841389894485474,
0.33533915877342224,
0.3292369842529297,
-0.1782306730747223,
-0.40990567207336426,
-0.20338726043701172,
-0.40537846088409424,
-0.1449601650238037,
-0.7354568243026733,
0.07847841829061508,
0.9788644313812256,
-0.3524133861064911,
-0.3573736250400543,
0.45979616045951843,
-0.3545040190219879,
0.049907535314559937,
-0.15230759978294373,
0.6956634521484375,
-0.06736382842063904,
0.03003837540745735,
-0.2619260847568512,
0.31777361035346985,
-0.5585750937461853,
-0.5127339959144592,
0.17812083661556244,
-0.2630966901779175,
0.540097177028656,
0.026324965059757233,
0.2218918651342392,
0.4835446774959564,
0.6215900182723999,
-0.13462883234024048,
0.02076348289847374,
-0.28753647208213806,
0.042740851640701294,
0.18048369884490967,
-0.45548737049102783,
-0.16319020092487335,
0.19269582629203796,
-0.5861546397209167,
-0.43573176860809326,
-0.6811216473579407,
-0.28888821601867676,
0.1781400740146637,
-0.5606278777122498,
0.010985592380166054,
-0.16104575991630554,
0.12249042093753815,
-0.4866766333580017,
0.4097955822944641,
-0.00032806137460283935,
0.3310086131095886,
-0.4889219105243683,
-0.36950400471687317,
0.40899544954299927,
0.30090010166168213,
-0.5770255923271179,
0.10301193594932556,
0.027098381891846657,
0.15309293568134308,
0.06402188539505005,
0.3922978341579437,
0.15607739984989166,
-0.3583269715309143,
-0.41800686717033386,
-0.28072476387023926,
0.34628140926361084,
-0.8323481678962708,
-0.5174596905708313,
0.420378178358078,
-0.290429025888443,
0.015254042111337185,
0.5980075597763062,
0.016356926411390305,
0.006128854583948851,
0.09331024438142776,
-0.026905294507741928,
0.23635904490947723,
0.6497315764427185,
-0.2294938564300537,
-0.32610413432121277,
0.6021914482116699,
-0.09419100731611252,
0.11071554571390152,
-0.4038287103176117,
0.3341008126735687,
0.512943685054779,
-0.3043311536312103,
-0.5640106797218323,
0.9578972458839417,
0.02564563974738121,
-0.004303161520510912,
0.289535254240036,
-0.5375666618347168,
-0.32099443674087524,
0.6367354393005371,
0.09975338727235794,
0.41806548833847046,
0.08180619031190872,
-0.49188482761383057,
-0.2969202697277069,
0.71456378698349,
-0.4896968603134155,
0.5664075016975403,
0.6269831657409668,
0.2313891500234604,
0.20880518853664398,
0.42820027470588684,
0.40266770124435425,
0.5391671061515808,
-0.19663947820663452,
0.3543516993522644,
0.6755240559577942,
0.17530600726604462,
0.42356550693511963,
0.19567252695560455,
0.07052965462207794,
-0.18721424043178558,
0.500950276851654,
-0.5782176852226257,
-0.6769796013832092,
0.42297443747520447,
-0.012322904542088509,
-0.48050668835639954,
0.18825724720954895,
-0.1121659129858017,
0.030845243483781815,
-0.3344733417034149,
-0.29175302386283875,
0.24868887662887573,
-0.03840404003858566,
0.15851563215255737,
0.8331907391548157,
0.13660654425621033,
0.15044178068637848,
0.17167676985263824,
-0.14078502357006073,
0.9689359664916992,
0.1830790787935257,
-0.3483830392360687,
0.22459626197814941,
-0.27452322840690613,
-0.8181777000427246,
-0.12911488115787506,
0.6645329594612122,
-0.6615228056907654,
-0.5071077346801758,
-1.0936530828475952,
-0.6297387480735779,
-0.1021457314491272,
-0.5242258310317993,
-0.01139005646109581,
-0.1912859082221985,
0.7944793105125427,
0.1037912666797638,
-0.6307233572006226,
-0.04085317254066467,
0.5235074162483215,
-0.2916907072067261,
-0.015690751373767853,
0.22400273382663727,
0.3608435094356537,
-0.46982526779174805,
0.5203757286071777,
-0.16018369793891907,
0.9753033518791199,
-0.008834164589643478,
0.29535868763923645,
-0.02421499602496624,
0.8015931248664856,
-0.061725933104753494,
-0.744727373123169,
0.8907020092010498,
-0.6604670286178589,
-0.39272549748420715,
-0.28375762701034546,
0.19257332384586334,
-0.37529250979423523,
0.029099971055984497,
-0.452843576669693,
-0.21672439575195312,
-0.13325491547584534,
0.34221792221069336,
-0.12444709241390228,
-0.22145749628543854,
1.023813009262085,
-0.35325682163238525,
-0.07913171499967575,
-0.631618082523346,
-0.21283935010433197,
-0.6830407381057739,
-0.10068769007921219,
0.6031989455223083,
0.6666930913925171,
0.9897585511207581,
-0.14677926898002625,
0.7606723308563232,
-0.42220962047576904,
0.6711116433143616,
-0.019499272108078003,
0.32276633381843567,
0.0643441453576088,
-0.33273109793663025,
-0.26931723952293396,
-0.10680213570594788,
0.8809157609939575,
-0.006778562907129526,
-0.1631188541650772,
0.7734094858169556,
-0.9966399669647217,
-0.08543719351291656,
0.7656951546669006,
-0.2493995726108551,
-0.500857949256897,
0.27496108412742615,
-0.13773202896118164
] |
241494 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%20Campaign%20%28UK%29 | No Campaign (UK) | The 'no' campaign was a Eurosceptic campaign in the United Kingdom beginning in 2000 which was opposed to the UK's adoption of the euro. The campaign was funded by Business for Sterling and New Europe groups and was mothballed in spring 2004 after Chancellor Gordon Brown ruled out UK membership of the euro for the foreseeable future. The campaign was founded by Nick Herbert, who as chief executive of Business for Sterling hired Dominic Cummings as campaign director.
The campaign title was simply "No" while its slogan and explanation was "Europe Yes. Euro No."
External links
Anti-euro campaign launched
Anti-euro campaign shuns 'political elite'
Anger at video spoof of Hitler backing euro
Euro no campaign halted
References
Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom
Political campaigns in the United Kingdom | [
0.3784923553466797,
-0.45541292428970337,
0.3637951910495758,
-0.5678937435150146,
-0.6950291991233826,
0.021016715094447136,
-0.03592974692583084,
0.09465672075748444,
-0.24932290613651276,
0.20886661112308502,
-0.26075994968414307,
0.17114177346229553,
-0.44105058908462524,
0.3570806086063385,
0.062154371291399,
0.07259619235992432,
0.3836122453212738,
0.6046285033226013,
-0.013514343649148941,
-0.11546123027801514,
-0.13007330894470215,
-0.055773135274648666,
0.2729863226413727,
-0.2646646201610565,
0.05589032545685768,
-0.11853447556495667,
0.9578639268875122,
-0.3145263195037842,
-0.21181656420230865,
0.06690014898777008,
0.17134153842926025,
0.42143669724464417,
-0.15044699609279633,
-0.011603303253650665,
0.14235253632068634,
0.19959095120429993,
-0.11778289824724197,
0.23119193315505981,
-0.457796186208725,
-0.21798378229141235,
-0.282900869846344,
-0.14244383573532104,
0.2835042178630829,
0.5737990140914917,
0.3591296076774597,
0.17679129540920258,
-0.8120707869529724,
0.04359173774719238,
-0.458120733499527,
0.043814677745103836,
-0.5019705891609192,
0.4269494116306305,
0.25418439507484436,
0.20920707285404205,
-0.11609377712011337,
-0.08718426525592804,
-0.7487618327140808,
-0.8570731282234192,
-0.4454899728298187,
-0.6136029958724976,
0.3117833733558655,
-0.00047405349323526025,
-0.26634758710861206,
-0.15757086873054504,
0.34801825881004333,
-0.36927568912506104,
-0.19288116693496704,
1.2245382070541382,
-0.4203049838542938,
-0.8480708003044128,
-0.3507135212421417,
-0.11352544277906418,
-0.1674140840768814,
0.2701238989830017,
0.2681947946548462,
-0.24643594026565552,
0.5064190626144409,
0.07608286291360855,
0.14288154244422913,
-0.11255434900522232,
0.7708610892295837,
0.0014735960867255926,
0.6166634559631348,
0.1810104101896286,
0.6652320623397827,
-0.22401981055736542,
0.25963103771209717,
0.4198652505874634,
0.34258708357810974,
0.5590223670005798,
0.4818108379840851,
-0.19935880601406097,
0.9019400477409363,
-0.12122702598571777,
-0.26258015632629395,
0.33294036984443665,
0.3188976049423218,
0.0077156852930784225,
0.024736179038882256,
-0.41474655270576477,
0.012371526099741459,
-0.4576745629310608,
0.21951429545879364,
-0.32147884368896484,
-0.467333048582077,
-0.35539862513542175,
-0.2515145540237427,
0.06514910608530045,
0.5334157943725586,
-0.005429438780993223,
-0.09435952454805374,
0.3686903715133667,
-0.3327542543411255,
0.15564940869808197,
-0.00012390381016302854,
0.5536680817604065,
-0.044258471578359604,
-0.424113392829895,
0.05749364197254181,
0.12386298924684525,
0.31451699137687683,
0.9595580101013184,
-0.3548671007156372,
0.3059440553188324,
0.5328584313392639,
0.3715813159942627,
0.3693377375602722,
0.7048249244689941,
-0.7858311533927917,
0.11819694936275482,
0.19728384912014008,
0.724944531917572,
-0.3788277506828308,
-0.42067408561706543,
-0.31538185477256775,
0.22217069566249847,
0.7995519638061523,
-0.3127135932445526,
0.5267269611358643,
0.1556294560432434,
-0.20518134534358978,
0.09816652536392212,
-0.13236583769321442,
0.5874356031417847,
0.7419383525848389,
0.10506626218557358,
-0.06647858768701553,
0.14067764580249786,
-0.34343621134757996,
-0.6625474095344543,
0.5490207672119141,
-0.3628384470939636,
0.5472436547279358,
0.22578638792037964,
-0.28179800510406494,
0.397885799407959,
0.258736789226532,
-0.282183438539505,
0.12636397778987885,
0.5836799144744873,
0.5399398803710938,
-0.2797134220600128,
-0.029346289113163948,
0.27817872166633606,
0.3994915783405304,
-0.25596916675567627,
-0.10323263704776764,
-0.12863202393054962,
0.3440941572189331,
0.2141072005033493,
-0.2527419924736023,
-0.27579382061958313,
0.48465240001678467,
-0.1942928284406662,
0.1704012006521225,
-0.10597916692495346,
0.7448787093162537,
0.30843836069107056,
0.3094668686389923,
0.15881229937076569,
-0.606666088104248,
0.019408440217375755,
0.19424766302108765,
0.24030596017837524,
0.37066179513931274,
0.19788771867752075,
0.5693197846412659,
-0.3803647458553314,
-0.17196354269981384,
0.18416963517665863,
-0.13143661618232727,
-0.3964695334434509,
0.42490777373313904,
-0.1994575709104538,
1.0465087890625,
-0.16519996523857117,
0.060587137937545776,
0.4916006922721863,
0.08913645893335342,
1.0768088102340698,
0.08880500495433807,
0.001987885218113661,
0.5589640140533447,
-0.10641013085842133,
-0.3371766209602356,
0.6987045407295227,
-0.04778481647372246,
-0.0011444927658885717,
0.17977480590343475,
0.4598850607872009,
-0.03909677639603615,
-0.177279993891716,
0.45575428009033203,
0.4020201563835144,
0.20708797872066498,
-0.4077906906604767,
0.374996542930603,
-0.016591953113675117,
-0.058991774916648865,
0.0935763344168663,
0.29502299427986145,
0.13552813231945038,
0.1006760448217392,
-0.06812696158885956,
0.1925942450761795,
0.03559001162648201,
0.16399359703063965,
-0.050673678517341614,
0.09088952094316483,
-0.4103924036026001,
-0.15063318610191345,
0.8020657896995544,
0.10012210160493851,
0.14320573210716248,
0.21576546132564545,
-0.20546799898147583,
0.05382995307445526,
-0.17584171891212463,
-0.16025076806545258,
-0.4576042592525482,
0.44900545477867126,
-0.41386714577674866,
-0.10899396240711212,
0.3877904713153839,
-0.5264177918434143,
0.5506523251533508,
0.20703965425491333,
0.5030468106269836,
0.12348150461912155,
0.19463595747947693,
0.11202243715524673,
0.17970603704452515,
-0.2171432375907898,
-0.3235509693622589,
0.03904692828655243,
0.03083897940814495,
0.3229345679283142,
-0.39830541610717773,
0.5352715849876404,
0.014327853918075562,
0.07106619328260422,
0.227739155292511,
0.37403225898742676,
0.3346489369869232,
0.16987547278404236,
-0.6426524519920349,
-1.3608574867248535,
-0.12548968195915222,
-0.030117003247141838,
-0.07136822491884232,
0.28643402457237244,
0.06086082011461258,
-0.6098425984382629,
-0.013864847831428051,
-0.2984767258167267,
-0.06668610125780106,
-0.21521565318107605,
0.46783730387687683,
-0.36562517285346985,
-0.8676524758338928,
-0.41371944546699524,
0.6743829846382141,
-0.18792538344860077,
-0.7154002785682678,
0.4202958941459656,
0.30743029713630676,
0.29574888944625854,
-0.5701640844345093,
-0.1688036322593689,
0.05936587601900101,
0.12012238055467606,
0.056483473628759384,
0.17737014591693878,
-0.7112423181533813,
0.14671367406845093,
0.3169527053833008,
-0.14559489488601685,
0.3312462568283081,
0.4321993887424469,
0.6725453734397888,
0.014404240995645523,
0.4422070384025574,
-0.10436218231916428,
-0.12081136554479599,
0.2806251049041748,
-0.39447951316833496,
-0.1293046623468399,
-0.3435342311859131,
-6.031515598297119,
0.09846626222133636,
0.17379221320152283,
0.33670756220817566,
0.04739731550216675,
0.12577186524868011,
0.6969567537307739,
-0.18952259421348572,
-0.3935074210166931,
-0.3238927721977234,
-0.5878734588623047,
0.40081748366355896,
-0.3450469374656677,
0.5092229247093201,
0.3896380066871643,
-0.11762845516204834,
0.610162079334259,
-0.144788920879364,
0.5159823298454285,
0.11661433428525925,
-0.06787396222352982,
-0.3816251754760742,
0.3498404622077942,
0.27581340074539185,
0.3479950726032257,
1.094820499420166,
-0.18875697255134583,
0.1407017856836319,
-0.22996315360069275,
-0.09840685874223709,
0.5030293464660645,
-0.13852469623088837,
-0.12649238109588623,
-0.5441102981567383,
-0.43372198939323425,
-0.0647839829325676,
0.6125453114509583,
0.16320163011550903,
-0.2431715577840805,
-0.5615461468696594,
0.05559999868273735,
0.35665804147720337,
-0.06646376848220825,
0.22674119472503662,
0.8875354528427124,
-0.08918415009975433,
0.12520410120487213,
-0.2256484180688858,
-0.5566694736480713,
0.3139195144176483,
-0.07668259739875793,
-0.04916666820645332,
0.2905355989933014,
-0.18776832520961761,
-0.2048659771680832,
0.34521082043647766,
-0.43340277671813965,
-0.12974610924720764,
0.06380902230739594,
0.2001618891954422,
0.06662210077047348,
-0.22451959550380707,
0.01207921002060175,
-0.5566288828849792,
-0.3353061378002167,
-0.04084727168083191,
-0.2190922200679779,
-0.4574228823184967,
0.4142363965511322,
0.21554696559906006,
-0.01441307831555605,
0.2409990131855011,
-0.1880071461200714,
-0.7725361585617065,
-0.41641226410865784,
-0.3265221416950226,
0.10064763575792313,
-0.4649377167224884,
0.03745635971426964,
0.2580164670944214,
-0.2708160877227783,
-0.323418527841568,
-0.26843196153640747,
0.43590617179870605,
-0.2543535530567169,
-0.18626534938812256,
0.25274619460105896,
0.4930436313152313,
-0.37755265831947327,
-0.39817872643470764,
0.3125569522380829,
-0.029006943106651306,
0.20894862711429596,
0.1748676747083664,
0.5844331383705139,
0.32174691557884216,
-0.022667517885565758,
-0.12129055708646774,
-0.08269696682691574,
0.04879812151193619,
0.13729815185070038,
0.14770495891571045,
-0.39592984318733215,
-0.9926148653030396,
-0.2424445003271103,
-0.03132736682891846,
-0.5722204446792603,
0.4425053000450134,
0.25295165181159973,
0.0011512839701026678,
-0.08911836892366409,
-0.0950009897351265,
-0.3686985969543457,
0.024045519530773163,
-0.26403188705444336,
0.035192955285310745,
-0.04858819395303726,
-0.11519326269626617,
0.3875965178012848,
-0.03293369337916374,
0.18179388344287872,
0.4335170090198517,
-0.36281463503837585,
-0.2330567091703415,
-0.7032718658447266,
0.2940059006214142,
-0.11372046917676926,
-0.06976774334907532,
-0.2575519382953644,
0.12389851361513138,
0.10888735949993134,
0.24440456926822662,
-0.305780291557312,
-0.16255979239940643,
0.38197261095046997,
0.02553052455186844,
-0.32898399233818054,
0.2911723256111145,
-0.05735220015048981,
0.07664164155721664,
-0.12008151412010193,
-0.2513231635093689,
0.30683594942092896,
0.2735431492328644,
-0.04007820039987564,
0.3020454943180084,
-0.14874134957790375,
0.05200092867016792,
-0.053757503628730774,
0.40220338106155396,
0.4905804991722107,
-0.21090123057365417,
0.42883655428886414,
-0.4515393078327179,
0.6233379244804382,
-0.07157999277114868,
0.35539889335632324,
-0.021873125806450844,
-0.09010231494903564,
-0.46133530139923096,
-0.22123129665851593,
-0.2295433133840561,
-1.1402342319488525,
0.12024164944887161,
0.6815759539604187,
-0.8711549639701843,
0.15568134188652039,
-0.497173011302948,
0.22027185559272766,
0.48764193058013916,
-0.040130648761987686,
-0.16530729830265045,
-0.3077969253063202,
-0.06295613944530487,
0.04144664853811264,
-0.5860318541526794,
-0.3786778151988983,
-0.11146639287471771,
-0.6273285746574402,
-0.35820668935775757,
0.18423259258270264,
0.21278564631938934,
-0.38361242413520813,
-0.02763175033032894,
0.6369678378105164,
-1.0574703216552734,
-0.605671763420105,
0.12926077842712402,
0.17289261519908905,
0.06880668550729752,
-0.12568248808383942,
0.11384427547454834,
0.5022461414337158,
-0.0896381363272667,
-0.8409520387649536,
-0.4901960492134094,
-0.21564827859401703,
0.363263875246048,
-0.5100860595703125,
-0.382554292678833,
0.5125018358230591,
0.19222129881381989,
-0.12945909798145294,
-0.371581494808197,
-0.32298725843429565,
-0.40182220935821533,
0.5064939856529236,
-0.20879274606704712,
-0.44600194692611694,
0.5793365240097046,
-0.39211225509643555,
-0.770751953125,
-0.6312991380691528,
0.3314482569694519,
-0.6928203701972961,
-0.15790048241615295,
-0.39891162514686584,
-0.5659465193748474,
-0.24919572472572327,
-0.1364152431488037,
-0.13719405233860016,
0.2627650797367096,
-0.563757061958313,
0.1792856603860855,
-0.10665955394506454,
0.3303409814834595,
0.16489200294017792,
-0.45636048913002014,
0.21294526755809784,
-0.3882685899734497,
-0.6866567730903625,
-0.506057620048523,
-0.032167255878448486,
0.31335705518722534,
-0.21073931455612183,
0.26576530933380127,
0.2380155622959137,
0.12687094509601593,
-0.5211624503135681,
0.3845817446708679,
-0.24470846354961395,
0.1681276559829712,
0.4992550313472748,
-0.660614013671875,
0.1107613667845726,
0.1786334067583084,
0.2187727391719818,
-0.16206136345863342,
-0.584536612033844,
0.03749972581863403,
-0.12771755456924438,
0.340331494808197,
-0.5729089379310608,
-0.5907981991767883,
0.5419756174087524,
-0.5398794412612915,
0.2142714112997055,
-0.36511969566345215,
0.15450596809387207,
-0.5240375995635986,
0.21878249943256378,
-0.14575476944446564,
-0.4077356457710266,
0.08724956214427948,
0.28071075677871704,
-0.05963267385959625,
0.6339946389198303,
-0.4620051681995392,
-0.5203041434288025,
-0.1681733876466751,
0.13161548972129822,
0.03885180875658989,
0.2009698897600174,
0.3988417685031891,
0.5701063275337219,
-0.11697166413068771,
-0.1678141951560974,
-0.5794779658317566,
0.1397157907485962,
0.1999843269586563,
-0.45364829897880554,
0.050977159291505814,
0.1998644769191742,
-0.055961377918720245,
0.18779003620147705,
-0.951589047908783,
0.17291758954524994,
-0.05073230713605881,
-0.3629617393016815,
-0.5683162212371826,
0.111980140209198,
-0.21478748321533203,
-0.4724872410297394,
-0.21940091252326965,
-0.2181333601474762,
0.14902876317501068,
-0.40333783626556396,
0.12252286821603775,
-0.2685547173023224,
-0.7458010911941528,
-0.9928171634674072,
0.41353651881217957,
-0.035867251455783844,
0.3384777307510376,
0.009193645790219307,
0.578102171421051,
0.06952964514493942,
-0.4966222643852234,
0.1778307557106018,
0.27191007137298584,
-0.11176185309886932,
-0.017024019733071327,
-0.15097060799598694,
0.839950680732727,
-0.5919451117515564,
0.2964060306549072,
0.285506933927536,
-0.7077162265777588,
0.12634290754795074,
-0.22230295836925507,
0.3344106674194336,
0.07892285287380219,
0.31202220916748047,
0.12719173729419708,
-0.09768244624137878,
-0.04312804341316223,
-0.2838261127471924,
0.40565523505210876,
0.5791407823562622,
0.17375604808330536,
0.08729329705238342,
0.33379966020584106,
-0.11746256053447723,
0.42772147059440613,
-0.41584426164627075,
-0.3374592363834381,
-0.026721468195319176,
-0.4833131730556488,
-0.17461353540420532,
0.31754541397094727,
0.16583463549613953,
0.02491512894630432,
-0.3168526887893677,
-0.311956524848938,
-0.053004030138254166,
0.33922266960144043,
-0.04428801313042641,
-0.10157577693462372,
0.09182792901992798,
0.4908963441848755,
0.42751437425613403,
-0.12854591012001038,
-0.6536476612091064,
0.020187921822071075,
-0.1910921335220337,
-0.05321301892399788,
-0.07653620839118958,
-0.02025349624454975,
0.13922764360904694,
-0.47379106283187866,
0.06799893826246262,
0.2935425341129303,
-0.07388772070407867,
0.08952896296977997,
-0.035244084894657135,
0.43298590183258057,
0.39516693353652954,
-0.25228914618492126,
-0.07102960348129272,
0.5018297433853149,
0.4895961582660675,
-0.47056204080581665,
-0.07903888076543808,
-0.006456559058278799,
0.14965735375881195,
-0.2257615327835083,
-0.19685104489326477,
-0.07461725175380707,
-0.20882844924926758,
-0.15619416534900665,
-0.44113054871559143,
-0.29439693689346313,
-0.014661960303783417,
-0.23556241393089294,
0.13559912145137787,
-0.36719951033592224,
-0.10862979292869568,
-0.33536022901535034,
-0.48880735039711,
-0.1569594442844391,
-0.7583670616149902,
-0.04671243578195572,
-0.22345469892024994,
0.053109508007764816,
-0.43494364619255066,
-0.14736995100975037,
0.03242512047290802,
0.8585705757141113,
0.06426801532506943,
0.24642568826675415,
0.41154903173446655,
0.33344271779060364,
-0.00815384741872549,
0.025729568675160408,
0.06514324247837067,
0.564207911491394,
-0.6460474133491516,
0.1238202229142189,
-0.5324863791465759,
0.2964889109134674,
-0.10712678730487823,
0.5146334171295166,
0.11360020190477371,
0.8569091558456421,
-0.3223399221897125,
0.00546097569167614,
0.8270382881164551,
-0.1680871844291687,
-0.17851415276527405,
0.2574813961982727,
-0.2648242712020874,
-0.2946510910987854,
-0.4118623435497284,
0.016035351902246475,
-0.236708864569664,
-0.2925407290458679,
0.7474414706230164,
0.4235914945602417,
0.11376165598630905,
0.6108690500259399,
-0.5679871439933777,
-0.2069617211818695,
-0.348644495010376,
-0.13302826881408691,
-0.9113513231277466,
0.4316299557685852,
0.4663602411746979,
0.1294662058353424,
-0.4574809670448303,
-0.47337058186531067,
0.23333324491977692,
-0.3278149366378784,
0.47798222303390503,
0.3935675024986267,
-0.05458564683794975,
-0.25371694564819336,
0.33846327662467957,
-0.6282143592834473,
-0.1680898219347,
0.0115197179839015,
0.40283823013305664,
0.2552782893180847,
0.21846385300159454,
-0.22907572984695435,
0.43260425329208374,
0.03490807116031647,
0.25991344451904297,
-0.37448227405548096,
-0.08792432397603989,
0.5798310041427612
] |
241497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Sydney%20suburbs | List of Sydney suburbs | This is a complete listing of the suburbs and localities in the greater Sydney area in alphabetical order.
Sydney has about 30 local government areas, each consisting of several suburbs Suburbs in Australia are purely geographical, not political, divisions. See table below, :Category: Suburbs of Sydney and :Category: Local government areas in Sydney.
Suburbs are listed here if they are inside the Sydney metro area, and are listed in the New South Wales Geographical Names Register as being suburbs. For this list, the boundaries of the Sydney metro area are defined as the Hawkesbury/Nepean River in the north/north west, and then the outer boundaries of the City of Penrith, Camden Council, the City of Campbelltown and Sutherland Shire.
Some but not all Sydney localities are also listed, and localities are shown in italics to differentiate them from suburbs. Further localities may be added if they are on the Geographical Names Register, are inside the Sydney metro area, and are also listed in the "Suburb and Localities Index" of the most recent (2019) edition of the Sydney UBD Street Directory.
A
Abbotsbury -
Abbotsford -
Acacia Gardens -
Agnes Banks -
Airds -
Alexandria -
Alfords Point -
Allambie Heights -
Allawah -
Ambarvale -
Angus -
Annandale -
Annangrove -
Arcadia -
Arncliffe -
Arndell Park -
Artarmon -
Ashbury -
Ashcroft -
Ashfield -
Asquith -
Auburn -
Austral -
Avalon Beach
B
Badgerys Creek -
Balgowlah -
Balgowlah Heights -
Balmain -
Balmain East -
Bangor -
Banksia -
Banksmeadow -
Bankstown -
Bankstown Aerodrome -
Barangaroo -
Barden Ridge -
Bardia -
Bardwell Park -
Bardwell Valley -
Bass Hill -
Baulkham Hills -
Bayview -
Beacon Hill -
Beaconsfield -
Beaumont Hills -
Beecroft -
Belfield -
Bella Vista -
Bellevue Hill -
Belmore -
Belrose -
Berala -
Berkshire Park -
Berowra -
Berowra Creek -
Berowra Heights -
Berowra Waters -
Berrilee -
Beverley Park -
Beverly Hills -
Bexley -
Bexley North -
Bickley Vale -
Bidwill -
Bilgola Beach -
Bilgola Plateau -
Birchgrove -
Birrong -
Blackett -
Blacktown -
Blair Athol -
Blairmount -
Blakehurst -
Bligh Park -
Bondi -
Bondi Beach -
Bondi Junction -
Bonnet Bay -
Bonnyrigg -
Bonnyrigg Heights -
Bossley Park -
Botany -
Bow Bowing -
Box Hill -
Bradbury -
Breakfast Point -
Brighton-Le-Sands -
Bringelly -
Bronte -
Brooklyn -
Brookvale -
Bundeena -
Bungarribee -
Burraneer -
Burwood -
Burwood Heights -
Busby
C
Cabarita -
Cabramatta -
Cabramatta West -
Caddens -
Cambridge Gardens -
Cambridge Park -
Camden -
Camden South -
Camellia -
Cammeray -
Campbelltown -
Camperdown -
Campsie -
Canada Bay -
Canley Heights -
Canley Vale -
Canoelands -
Canterbury -
Caringbah -
Caringbah South -
Carlingford -
Carlton -
Carnes Hill -
Carramar -
Carss Park -
Cartwright -
Castle Cove -
Castle Hill -
Castlecrag -
Castlereagh -
Casula -
Catherine Field -
Cattai -
Cawdor -
Cecil Hills -
Cecil Park -
Centennial Park -
Central Business District -
Chatswood -
Chatswood West -
Cheltenham -
Cherrybrook -
Chester Hill -
Chifley -
Chippendale -
Chipping Norton -
Chiswick -
Chullora -
Church Point -
Claremont Meadows -
Clarendon -
Clareville -
Claymore -
Clemton Park -
Clontarf -
Clovelly -
Clyde -
Coasters Retreat'' -
Cobbitty -
Colebee -
Collaroy -
Collaroy Plateau -
Colyton -
Como -
Concord -
Concord West -
Condell Park -
Connells Point -
Constitution Hill -
Coogee -
Cornwallis -
Cottage Point -
Cowan -
Cranebrook -
Cremorne -
Cremorne Point -
Cromer -
Cronulla -
Crows Nest -
Croydon -
Croydon Park -
Cumberland Reach -
Curl Curl -
Currans Hill -
Currawong Beach
D
Daceyville -
Dangar Island -
Darling Point -
Darlinghurst -
Darlington -
Davidson -
Dawes Point -
Dean Park -
Dee Why -
Denham Court -
Denistone -
Denistone East -
Denistone West -
Dharruk -
Dolans Bay -
Dolls Point -
Doonside -
Double Bay -
Dover Heights -
Drummoyne -
Duffys Forest -
Dulwich Hill -
Dundas -
Dundas Valley -
Dural
E
Eagle Vale -
Earlwood -
East Gordon -
East Hills -
East Killara -
East Kurrajong -
East Lindfield -
East Ryde -
Eastern Creek -
Eastgardens -
Eastlakes -
Eastwood -
Ebenezer -
Edensor Park -
Edgecliff -
Edmondson Park -
Elanora Heights -
Elderslie -
Elizabeth Bay -
Elizabeth Hills -
Ellis Lane -
Elvina Bay -
Emerton -
Emu Heights -
Emu Plains -
Enfield -
Engadine -
Englorie Park -
Enmore -
Epping -
Ermington -
Erskine Park -
Erskineville -
Eschol Park -
Eveleigh
F
Fairfield -
Fairfield East -
Fairfield Heights -
Fairfield West -
Fairlight -
Fiddletown -
Five Dock -
Flemington -
Forest Glen -
Forest Lodge -
Forestville -
Freemans Reach -
Frenchs Forest -
Freshwater
G
Gables -
Galston -
Georges Hall -
Gilead -
Girraween -
Gladesville -
Glebe -
Gledswood Hills -
Glen Alpine -
Glendenning -
Glenfield -
Glenhaven -
Glenmore Park -
Glenorie -
Glenwood -
Glossodia -
Gordon -
Grantham Farm -
Granville -
Grasmere -
Grays Point -
Great Mackerel Beach -
Green Valley -
Greenacre -
Greendale -
Greenfield Park -
Greenhills Beach -
Greenwich -
Gregory Hills -
Greystanes -
Grose Vale -
Grose Wold -
Guildford -
Guildford West -
Gymea -
Gymea Bay
H
Haberfield -
Hammondville -
Harrington Park -
Harris Park -
Hassall Grove -
Haymarket -
Heathcote -
Hebersham -
Heckenberg -
Henley -
Hillsdale -
Hinchinbrook -
Hobartville -
Holroyd -
Holsworthy -
Homebush -
Homebush West -
Horningsea Park -
Hornsby -
Hornsby Heights -
Horsley Park -
Hoxton Park -
Hunters Hill -
Huntingwood -
Huntleys Cove -
Huntleys Point -
Hurlstone Park -
Hurstville -
Hurstville Grove
I
Illawong -
Ingleburn -
Ingleside
J
Jamisontown -
Jannali - Jordan Springs
K
Kangaroo Point -
Kareela -
Kearns -
Kellyville -
Kellyville Ridge -
Kemps Creek -
Kensington -
Kenthurst -
Kentlyn -
Killara -
Killarney Heights -
Kings Langley -
Kings Park -
Kingsford -
Kingsgrove -
Kingswood -
Kingswood Park -
Kirkham -
Kirrawee -
Kirribilli -
Kogarah -
Kogarah Bay -
Ku-ring-gai Chase -
Kurmond -
Kurnell -
Kurraba Point -
Kurrajong -
Kurrajong Hills -
Kyeemagh -
Kyle Bay
L
La Perouse -
Lakemba -
Lalor Park -
Lane Cove -
Lane Cove North -
Lane Cove West -
Lansdowne -
Lansvale -
Laughtondale -
Lavender Bay -
Leets Vale -
Leichhardt -
Len Waters Estate -
Leonay -
Leppington -
Lethbridge Park -
Leumeah -
Lewisham -
Liberty Grove -
Lidcombe -
Lilli Pilli -
Lilyfield -
Lindfield -
Linley Point -
Little Bay -
Liverpool -
Llandilo -
Loftus -
Londonderry -
Long Point -
Longueville -
Lovett Bay -
Lower Portland -
Lucas Heights -
Luddenham -
Lugarno -
Lurnea
M
Macquarie Fields -
Macquarie Links -
Macquarie Park -
Maianbar -
Malabar -
Manly -
Manly Vale -
Maraylya -
Marayong -
Maroota -
Maroubra -
Marrickville -
Marsden Park -
Marsfield -
Mascot -
Matraville -
Mays Hill -
McCarrs Creek -
McGraths Hill -
McMahons Point -
Meadowbank -
Melonba -
Melrose Park -
Menai -
Menangle Park -
Merrylands -
Merrylands West -
Middle Cove -
Middle Dural -
Middleton Grange -
Miller -
Millers Point -
Milperra -
Milsons Passage -
Milsons Point -
Minchinbury -
Minto -
Minto Heights -
Miranda -
Mona Vale -
Monterey -
Moore Park -
Moorebank -
Morning Bay -
Mortdale -
Mortlake -
Mosman -
Mount Annan -
Mount Colah -
Mount Druitt -
Mount Kuring-Gai -
Mount Lewis -
Mount Pritchard -
Mount Vernon -
Mulgoa -
Mulgrave
N
Narellan -
Narellan Vale -
Naremburn -
Narrabeen -
Narraweena -
Narwee -
Nelson -
Neutral Bay -
Newington -
Newport -
Newtown -
Nirimba Fields -
Normanhurst -
North Balgowlah -
North Bondi -
North Curl Curl -
North Epping -
North Kellyville -
North Manly -
North Narrabeen -
North Parramatta -
North Richmond -
North Rocks -
North Ryde -
North St Ives -
North St Marys -
North Strathfield -
North Sydney -
North Turramurra -
North Wahroonga -
North Willoughby -
Northbridge -
Northmead -
Northwood -
Norwest
O
Oakhurst -
Oakville -
Oatlands -
Oatley -
Old Guildford -
Old Toongabbie -
Oran Park -
Orchard Hills -
Oxford Falls -
Oxley Park -
Oyster Bay
P
Paddington -
Padstow -
Padstow Heights -
Pagewood -
Palm Beach -
Panania -
Parklea -
Parramatta -
Peakhurst -
Peakhurst Heights -
Pemulwuy -
Pendle Hill -
Pennant Hills -
Penrith -
Penshurst -
Petersham -
Phillip Bay -
Picnic Point -
Pitt Town -
Pitt Town Bottoms -
Pleasure Point -
Plumpton -
Point Piper -
Port Botany -
Port Hacking -
Potts Hill -
Potts Point -
Prairiewood -
Prestons -
Prospect -
Punchbowl -
Putney -
Pymble -
Pyrmont
Q
Quakers Hill -
Queens Park -
Queenscliff
R
Raby -
Ramsgate -
Ramsgate Beach -
Randwick -
Redfern -
Regents Park -
Regentville -
Revesby -
Revesby Heights -
Rhodes -
Richards -
Richmond -
Richmond Lowlands -
Riverstone -
Riverview -
Riverwood -
Rockdale -
Rodd Point -
Rookwood -
Rooty Hill -
Ropes Crossing -
Rose Bay -
Rosebery -
Rosehill -
Roselands -
Rosemeadow -
Roseville -
Roseville Chase -
Rossmore -
Rouse Hill -
Royal National Park -
Rozelle -
Ruse -
Rushcutters Bay -
Russell Lea -
Rydalmere -
Ryde
S
Sackville -
Sackville North -
Sadleir -
Sandringham -
Sandy Point -
Sans Souci -
Scheyville -
Schofields -
Scotland Island -
Seaforth -
Sefton -
Seven Hills -
Shalvey -
Shanes Park -
Silverwater -
Singletons Mill -
Smeaton Grange -
Smithfield -
South Coogee - South Granville -
South Hurstville -
South Maroota -
South Penrith -
South Turramurra -
South Wentworthville -
South Windsor -
Spring Farm -
St Andrews -
St Clair -
St Helens Park -
St Ives -
St Ives Chase -
St Johns Park -
St Leonards -
St Marys -
St Peters -
Stanhope Gardens -
Stanmore -
Strathfield -
Strathfield South -
Summer Hill -
Surry Hills -
Sutherland -
Sydenham -
Sydney Olympic Park -
Sylvania -
Sylvania Waters
T
Tallawong -
Tamarama -
Taren Point -
Telopea -
Tempe -
Tennyson -
Tennyson Point -
Terrey Hills -
The Ponds -
The Rocks -
The Slopes -
Thornleigh -
Toongabbie -
Tregear -
Turramurra -
Turrella
U
Ultimo
V
Varroville -
Vaucluse -
Villawood -
Vineyard -
Voyager Point
W
Wahroonga -
Waitara -
Wakeley -
Wallacia -
Wareemba -
Warrawee -
Warriewood -
Warwick Farm -
Waterfall -
Waterloo -
Watsons Bay -
Wattle Grove -
Waverley -
Waverton -
Wedderburn -
Wentworth Point -
Wentworthville -
Werrington -
Werrington County -
Werrington Downs -
West Hoxton -
West Killara -
West Pennant Hills -
West Pymble -
West Ryde -
Westleigh -
Westmead -
Wetherill Park -
Whalan -
Whale Beach -
Wheeler Heights -
Wilberforce -
Wiley Park -
Willmot -
Willoughby -
Willoughby East -
Windsor -
Windsor Downs -
Winston Hills -
Wisemans Ferry -
Wolli Creek -
Wollstonecraft -
Woodbine -
Woodcroft -
Woodpark -
Woollahra -
Woolloomooloo -
Woolooware -
Woolwich -
Woronora -
Woronora Heights
Y
Yagoona -
Yarramundi -
Yarrawarrah -
Yennora -
Yowie Bay
Z
Zetland
References
External links
Sydney Suburbs Map
Sydney
Suburbs | [
0.33493009209632874,
0.35485273599624634,
-0.34784841537475586,
-0.5463835597038269,
-0.488443523645401,
0.3452945947647095,
0.6441929340362549,
0.15072141587734222,
-0.735663115978241,
-0.6909255385398865,
-0.38173016905784607,
0.040620069950819016,
0.07050907611846924,
0.40674108266830444,
0.3461732566356659,
0.5174401998519897,
0.20976842939853668,
0.9195696115493774,
0.10301410406827927,
-0.07193156331777573,
-0.01666068285703659,
-0.198086678981781,
0.25335565209388733,
-0.184168741106987,
0.38425755500793457,
-0.05329054221510887,
0.6710290908813477,
0.20963381230831146,
-0.26972731947898865,
0.21547499299049377,
-0.15315312147140503,
0.8613415956497192,
-0.08929545432329178,
0.0239531472325325,
0.5941889882087708,
-0.7410246133804321,
0.33070117235183716,
-0.43361803889274597,
0.20409052073955536,
-0.6328709125518799,
-0.16761955618858337,
-0.3204379081726074,
0.3834937512874603,
0.5828651189804077,
0.34751203656196594,
-0.2781353294849396,
-2.154163122177124,
-0.38767939805984497,
-0.6908649802207947,
-0.201017826795578,
-0.13981114327907562,
0.2226635068655014,
0.5852399468421936,
0.1736658215522766,
0.25517526268959045,
0.16852840781211853,
-0.3137613832950592,
0.2086726427078247,
0.38150906562805176,
0.1899925321340561,
-0.042011987417936325,
0.5334337949752808,
0.1770225614309311,
0.20110101997852325,
0.637847363948822,
0.4534166753292084,
0.08121581375598907,
0.8126532435417175,
-0.23933254182338715,
0.0896473228931427,
-0.23388154804706573,
-0.21560055017471313,
0.365847647190094,
0.1767091006040573,
-0.9042490720748901,
0.3397049903869629,
-0.2392532378435135,
-0.04957813397049904,
0.0875243991613388,
-0.24572615325450897,
-0.19640174508094788,
0.029111379757523537,
0.07758896052837372,
-0.1829216480255127,
0.7785038948059082,
0.019964143633842468,
-0.5844206809997559,
-0.7693119645118713,
-0.28803855180740356,
1.0533099174499512,
-0.1839374601840973,
0.521904468536377,
0.12042071670293808,
0.2720256447792053,
-0.054396871477365494,
-0.4582561254501343,
-0.18515047430992126,
0.3870204985141754,
-0.2593938708305359,
0.19559767842292786,
-0.4623245298862457,
0.18605372309684753,
0.7129467129707336,
-0.11344271153211594,
-0.5104015469551086,
-0.23108452558517456,
-0.16423939168453217,
0.13231629133224487,
0.1774410754442215,
-1.030490517616272,
-0.6243094205856323,
0.08835779130458832,
0.05395962670445442,
-0.2960762679576874,
0.11399003118276596,
0.17036835849285126,
0.44436219334602356,
0.4228639006614685,
-0.6361593008041382,
-0.2969050705432892,
-0.4190233647823334,
0.8236095905303955,
-0.057751093059778214,
0.15639008581638336,
-0.1167895719408989,
0.4854219853878021,
0.7786579728126526,
-0.28853175044059753,
0.38018798828125,
0.6114429831504822,
-0.6928210258483887,
1.350058674812317,
-0.3575068414211273,
-0.36392924189567566,
-0.21242563426494598,
-0.253047913312912,
-0.36071330308914185,
0.8398928642272949,
0.18207477033138275,
-0.02554384246468544,
-0.5912522673606873,
-0.11008094251155853,
-1.583863377571106,
-0.13481344282627106,
0.4576869308948517,
-0.4454689025878906,
-0.3229683041572571,
-0.7031944394111633,
0.041050590574741364,
-0.2143300473690033,
0.27197474241256714,
0.10846200585365295,
-0.4327225089073181,
0.1853906214237213,
-0.010467189364135265,
0.052838556468486786,
0.2954423427581787,
-0.2538915276527405,
0.5549335479736328,
0.029213882982730865,
0.1110142394900322,
0.36467617750167847,
0.5301616787910461,
-0.18059153854846954,
0.2491922378540039,
-0.13626158237457275,
0.0926990807056427,
-0.24143321812152863,
0.350378155708313,
0.24379731714725494,
-0.7081972360610962,
-0.4391833543777466,
0.3009640872478485,
-0.31135094165802,
-0.14078933000564575,
-0.12865181267261505,
0.9749739766120911,
0.31990960240364075,
0.30049678683280945,
-0.4930836260318756,
-0.3087505102157593,
-0.21359732747077942,
-0.22452901303768158,
-0.2653888761997223,
0.3930841088294983,
0.2129373848438263,
-0.01387967262417078,
0.6846107840538025,
-0.34834951162338257,
0.22339315712451935,
0.4459611177444458,
-0.5499907732009888,
0.7845714688301086,
-0.4911372661590576,
0.48018741607666016,
0.2829953134059906,
0.36168110370635986,
0.029926829040050507,
0.6577108502388,
0.18832062184810638,
-0.15757298469543457,
-0.12922169268131256,
-0.08237341791391373,
0.07354290783405304,
-0.38498568534851074,
1.4810420274734497,
0.15939387679100037,
-0.017388153821229935,
0.022606300190091133,
0.1798773556947708,
0.042926955968141556,
-0.5683760643005371,
0.09905294328927994,
-0.49037134647369385,
0.24651753902435303,
0.04799182340502739,
0.10882765799760818,
0.5010310411453247,
-0.1378035992383957,
-0.6641854643821716,
0.7144092917442322,
0.2369474619626999,
0.4327179193496704,
-0.15202879905700684,
-0.16889190673828125,
0.48603376746177673,
0.3308678865432739,
0.009030545130372047,
0.21560364961624146,
-0.9177147150039673,
0.7521917223930359,
-0.39958006143569946,
-0.25378382205963135,
-0.3196295201778412,
-0.43598267436027527,
-0.5195814967155457,
0.18017816543579102,
-0.25545060634613037,
-0.033374033868312836,
-0.20085856318473816,
0.16114678978919983,
0.2939412295818329,
-0.6467606425285339,
-0.07054644078016281,
-0.13701322674751282,
0.1796749383211136,
-0.08116790652275085,
-0.19576498866081238,
-0.2330029308795929,
0.5346694588661194,
0.4363837242126465,
-0.036828964948654175,
0.523021399974823,
-0.00833924114704132,
0.014032651670277119,
-0.1773693561553955,
-0.5995786190032959,
-0.5701028108596802,
0.045094236731529236,
-0.2521110475063324,
-0.43306881189346313,
0.0525110587477684,
-0.07554296404123306,
0.11423264443874359,
-0.10259691625833511,
-0.2311655879020691,
0.14196479320526123,
-0.9236953854560852,
0.026959707960486412,
0.3338361382484436,
0.2878006398677826,
0.008939103223383427,
-0.7857856154441833,
-1.975223183631897,
0.7526115775108337,
0.3765455484390259,
-0.3130761384963989,
0.337189644575119,
-0.10217756778001785,
0.2990269958972931,
-0.11584062874317169,
0.7166723608970642,
-0.19995515048503876,
-0.5550937056541443,
-0.38041073083877563,
0.022812046110630035,
1.1990278959274292,
0.3104822635650635,
-0.5600161552429199,
0.11407515406608582,
-0.8663038611412048,
-0.1800101399421692,
-0.33964139223098755,
0.07339493930339813,
-0.1986616551876068,
-0.4425967335700989,
-0.191285640001297,
0.30435699224472046,
-0.38641631603240967,
-0.5595826506614685,
-0.21860480308532715,
0.44874435663223267,
-0.11908096075057983,
-0.3325153589248657,
-0.38767707347869873,
0.13288766145706177,
-0.4814850687980652,
0.31686487793922424,
-4.755733489990234,
0.40419507026672363,
-0.327505886554718,
-0.4830860197544098,
0.3277234137058258,
-0.15264081954956055,
0.28588682413101196,
-0.2851440906524658,
0.04248613119125366,
0.11356015503406525,
-0.028490841388702393,
-0.40517207980155945,
0.16988828778266907,
0.698462963104248,
0.7572848200798035,
0.1345265507698059,
0.39596980810165405,
0.09737250953912735,
0.48971202969551086,
-0.1940535455942154,
0.27652665972709656,
0.027370337396860123,
-0.13851499557495117,
0.23893673717975616,
0.34579846262931824,
0.6448885798454285,
-0.06292847543954849,
-0.5598623752593994,
-0.3679167628288269,
-0.4705956280231476,
-0.31615081429481506,
-0.424093633890152,
0.2599579989910126,
-0.3273513913154602,
0.08556114137172699,
0.12465386092662811,
0.1250268518924713,
0.2469298243522644,
0.063454769551754,
-0.6032611131668091,
-0.3089427649974823,
0.7502100467681885,
-0.2664496898651123,
0.23825061321258545,
0.6110377311706543,
-0.6564127206802368,
-0.38351765275001526,
0.3372824490070343,
-0.06279030442237854,
0.7770754098892212,
-0.25606364011764526,
0.48219534754753113,
0.8379833102226257,
0.9828594923019409,
-0.09591367095708847,
-0.8208135366439819,
0.7663111090660095,
-0.0958409234881401,
-0.24971316754817963,
0.7036950588226318,
0.5296453237533569,
-0.3994775712490082,
-0.04941517859697342,
-0.19930341839790344,
0.14434491097927094,
-0.32024070620536804,
-0.24697016179561615,
0.18904118239879608,
-0.058759767562150955,
0.16518829762935638,
-0.3160550892353058,
-0.3796648383140564,
-0.26742273569107056,
-0.932653546333313,
0.3690827190876007,
0.11206759512424469,
-0.6153659224510193,
0.5054261684417725,
0.6325517892837524,
-0.07692299038171768,
-0.5090430378913879,
-0.10476439446210861,
-0.47054505348205566,
0.6048568487167358,
0.11928978562355042,
-0.2768591642379761,
-0.6215174198150635,
0.03132185712456703,
-0.37500157952308655,
-1.0677917003631592,
0.013348137959837914,
-0.3195916414260864,
0.495452880859375,
0.3106731176376343,
0.09804794192314148,
0.6740905046463013,
0.6905140280723572,
0.08602000027894974,
0.7995157241821289,
-0.14434994757175446,
0.5861004590988159,
-0.28339216113090515,
-0.08651139587163925,
0.0029817214235663414,
-0.24793171882629395,
-0.5243819952011108,
0.36500442028045654,
0.376819908618927,
0.2340204119682312,
-0.4273749589920044,
-0.21565872430801392,
-0.42499205470085144,
-0.6421945095062256,
-0.4733375906944275,
0.6668881773948669,
-0.20332902669906616,
-0.49679797887802124,
0.5340589284896851,
0.913274884223938,
0.428254097700119,
0.33584246039390564,
-0.11540186405181885,
-0.11889606714248657,
0.5340191721916199,
-0.013699956238269806,
-0.17052391171455383,
0.04493587836623192,
-0.03896387666463852,
-0.536331832408905,
0.070663683116436,
0.8700530529022217,
0.3580544590950012,
-0.3392491638660431,
-0.03626324236392975,
-0.5305401682853699,
0.29441210627555847,
-0.08111494034528732,
-0.03007827326655388,
0.07714689522981644,
-0.40085819363594055,
0.2883894443511963,
0.2115785777568817,
-0.3676067590713501,
0.4932622015476227,
-0.2569076120853424,
0.45473751425743103,
0.0665220320224762,
-0.5876566767692566,
-0.23542310297489166,
0.1213112622499466,
-0.43256083130836487,
-0.5434675216674805,
-0.40557119250297546,
-0.7888678908348083,
-0.27078157663345337,
-0.05242213234305382,
0.2315581887960434,
0.24394866824150085,
-0.35712340474128723,
-0.5320405960083008,
-0.009128461591899395,
-0.33519288897514343,
-1.0039910078048706,
0.6890783309936523,
0.06763135641813278,
-0.8195059895515442,
-0.2615129053592682,
-0.3665615916252136,
-0.03899417817592621,
0.8478519320487976,
-0.043112948536872864,
-0.15735763311386108,
-0.7459648847579956,
0.03209901228547096,
0.38019296526908875,
-0.21985316276550293,
0.048926979303359985,
0.13643811643123627,
-0.1018308699131012,
-0.25161418318748474,
0.06849858164787292,
0.1245129182934761,
-0.0073088291101157665,
0.9428435564041138,
0.7088008522987366,
0.020338894799351692,
-0.9387468695640564,
0.3078889846801758,
0.21512234210968018,
0.1713593453168869,
-0.018023701384663582,
0.3410719037055969,
-0.0008463738486170769,
-0.28439396619796753,
-0.3523827791213989,
-0.7796287536621094,
0.41277846693992615,
0.0439857579767704,
0.10541442036628723,
-0.3771481215953827,
0.04972343519330025,
0.4315186142921448,
-0.46983495354652405,
0.4615206718444824,
0.7123900651931763,
-0.5045908093452454,
0.24565520882606506,
0.3141497075557709,
-0.45075514912605286,
-0.09053398668766022,
-0.1336667239665985,
-0.19855205714702606,
-0.0883249044418335,
0.2888559401035309,
-0.43592551350593567,
-0.07925187796354294,
0.37024542689323425,
-0.12328755110502243,
-0.1689109206199646,
-0.5414440631866455,
0.44185948371887207,
0.04726247489452362,
0.08549463748931885,
-0.18258139491081238,
-0.24179740250110626,
0.42346373200416565,
0.11088451743125916,
-1.3030321598052979,
0.32868385314941406,
-0.10664427280426025,
-0.15798847377300262,
0.3404908776283264,
0.4747300148010254,
0.08030746877193451,
-0.1903795748949051,
0.10943970829248428,
-0.22240900993347168,
-0.13395331799983978,
0.007216120604425669,
0.5436458587646484,
-0.20818933844566345,
0.9021835327148438,
0.14453007280826569,
-0.8321182727813721,
-0.5225494503974915,
0.1558309644460678,
0.5608553290367126,
-0.37328311800956726,
-0.8920766711235046,
-0.39811110496520996,
0.08499074727296829,
-0.8286893963813782,
-0.6950488686561584,
-0.7232048511505127,
1.0568608045578003,
-0.21439404785633087,
0.02681192383170128,
0.48953473567962646,
0.4249653220176697,
0.4808276295661926,
0.5062761902809143,
-0.021102486178278923,
0.2855696678161621,
1.0772134065628052,
0.6496937274932861,
0.049555931240320206,
-0.07028572261333466,
-0.5198408961296082,
0.5782524347305298,
-0.2946426272392273,
-0.031481631100177765,
-0.13129912316799164,
0.13585150241851807,
0.6404988765716553,
0.46938589215278625,
-0.07924453169107437,
0.16059978306293488,
-0.9583721160888672,
0.438246488571167,
-0.864983081817627,
0.5251798629760742,
0.20451395213603973,
0.0348748154938221,
-0.40509316325187683,
0.35955610871315,
-0.49608612060546875,
-0.7872505187988281,
-0.29329633712768555,
-0.6767789721488953,
0.19821153581142426,
0.02535909414291382,
-0.3400398790836334,
-0.07120703160762787,
0.07706601917743683,
0.22857502102851868,
0.6593452095985413,
0.08991232514381409,
-0.23278795182704926,
0.11056128144264221,
-0.15075035393238068,
-0.7233160138130188,
0.7605108618736267,
-0.21022538840770721,
-0.0972326323390007,
0.5372639298439026,
0.5391204357147217,
0.5354406237602234,
-0.2271423041820526,
0.09766145795583725,
-0.031116655096411705,
0.6365138292312622,
0.44485166668891907,
0.5398895144462585,
1.1059151887893677,
-0.4903351366519928,
0.36020246148109436,
0.5288234353065491,
-0.767818033695221,
0.3980739414691925,
0.4974013864994049,
-0.4059582054615021,
-0.17566467821598053,
0.3725619912147522,
0.7116394639015198,
-0.2868998646736145,
0.6254389882087708,
-0.09511412680149078,
-0.5576174259185791,
0.7435544729232788,
0.13728182017803192,
0.08014015853404999,
0.37309202551841736,
-1.0941860675811768,
0.36132165789604187,
-0.9854812026023865,
-0.3863186240196228,
0.30925583839416504,
-0.011025010608136654,
-0.6327812075614929,
0.5306330919265747,
0.3822784125804901,
0.17859329283237457,
-0.03794463723897934,
-0.15526103973388672,
-0.2526034116744995,
-0.07756280153989792,
-0.010913514532148838,
0.21751898527145386,
-0.19231979548931122,
-0.15847937762737274,
-0.32500123977661133,
0.42229703068733215,
0.04391249269247055,
-0.019100284203886986,
0.12706433236598969,
0.2880149781703949,
0.2049190253019333,
-0.11599360406398773,
-0.24984993040561676,
-1.6215265989303589,
0.10842502862215042,
0.07274895161390305,
0.40681737661361694,
-0.029979243874549866,
-0.17585745453834534,
-0.23314502835273743,
0.3018379509449005,
0.04638051986694336,
-0.36029052734375,
0.688379168510437,
0.40186452865600586,
0.5560646653175354,
-0.3086494505405426,
-0.6817880868911743,
-0.2289256453514099,
0.226995050907135,
0.06257327646017075,
0.45916667580604553,
-0.1499490737915039,
-0.037322841584682465,
0.16750290989875793,
0.1930830031633377,
-0.5193411111831665,
-0.6240971088409424,
0.30125537514686584,
-0.21913453936576843,
-0.6470409035682678,
0.11665754020214081,
0.1129896268248558,
-0.15710820257663727,
0.07494039833545685,
-0.24429035186767578,
0.15832474827766418,
0.1376579850912094,
-1.034284234046936,
0.002971512731164694,
-0.7231348752975464,
0.8682206273078918,
0.5492040514945984,
-0.6785291433334351,
0.44721218943595886,
0.47613397240638733,
-0.029054272919893265,
0.1060991957783699,
-0.2867635190486908,
0.8521851301193237,
-0.050089601427316666,
-0.2530544698238373,
-0.10595645755529404,
0.39246776700019836,
-0.3557378649711609,
0.26916924118995667,
0.22731636464595795,
0.19634319841861725,
-0.15415863692760468,
0.500482439994812,
0.043888092041015625,
-0.03848617151379585,
-0.210952490568161,
-0.10852270573377609,
0.5038774013519287,
-0.32688647508621216,
0.36738598346710205,
0.4357105791568756,
-0.1743101328611374,
-0.37215128540992737,
-0.20191465318202972,
0.10468253493309021,
-0.3284338116645813,
0.0753432884812355,
0.024928554892539978,
-0.3801000714302063,
-0.8612629175186157,
-0.09134453535079956,
-0.6358899474143982,
0.5721521377563477,
0.7343844771385193,
0.6694081425666809,
0.8641480207443237,
0.3613974153995514,
-0.5326187014579773,
-0.15315237641334534,
0.4223424196243286,
0.5073512196540833,
-3.9222829341888428,
0.2668375074863434,
-0.19046352803707123,
-0.322278767824173,
-0.5981401205062866,
0.6759621500968933,
0.0373639278113842,
0.053435761481523514,
-0.268992155790329,
-0.006050288677215576,
0.04932141304016113,
-0.1861441731452942,
0.2750932574272156,
-0.849367618560791,
-0.1349247395992279,
0.5448375940322876
] |
241503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry-Thomas | Terry-Thomas | Terry-Thomas (born Thomas Terry Hoar Stevens; 10 July 19118 January 1990) was an English comedian and character actor who became internationally known through his films during the 1950s and 1960s. He often portrayed disreputable members of the upper classes, especially cads, toffs and bounders, using his distinctive voice; his costume and props tended to include a monocle, waistcoat and cigarette holder. His striking dress sense was set off by a gap between his two upper front teeth.
Born in London, he made his film debut, uncredited, in The Private Life of Henry VIII (1933). He spent several years appearing in smaller roles, before wartime service with Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA) and Stars in Battledress. The experience helped sharpen his cabaret and revue act, increased his public profile and proved instrumental in the development of his successful comic stage routine. On his demobilisation, he starred in Piccadilly Hayride on the London stage and was the star of the first comedy series on British television, How Do You View? (1949). He appeared on various BBC Radio shows, and made a successful transition into British films. He appeared in Private's Progress (1956), The Green Man (1956), Blue Murder at St Trinian's (1957), I'm All Right Jack (1959) and Carlton-Browne of the F.O. (1959).
He then began appearing in American films, coarsening his already unsubtle screen character in films such as Bachelor Flat (1962), It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963) and How to Murder Your Wife (1965). From the mid-1960s on he also frequently starred in European films, in roles such as Sir Reginald in the successful French film La Grande Vadrouille.
In 1971 he was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease, which slowly brought his career to a conclusion; his last film role was in 1980. He spent much of his fortune on medical treatment and, shortly before his death, was living in poverty, existing on charity from the Actors' Benevolent Fund. A charity gala was held in his honour, which raised sufficient funds for him to live his remaining time in a nursing home.
Biography
Early life: 1911–1933
Terry-Thomas was born Thomas Terry Hoar Stevens at 53 Lichfield Grove, Finchley, North London, the fourth of five children born to Ernest Frederick Stevens, managing director of a butcher's business at Smithfield Market and part-time amateur actor, and his wife Ellen Elizabeth Stevens (née Hoar). As a child, he was often referred to as Tom, the diminutive used by his family. He led a generally happy childhood, but believed his parents secretly desired a daughter in his place. By the time he reached adolescence, his parents' marriage had failed and both became alcoholics. In an attempt to bring them together, he often entertained them by performing impromptu slapstick routines, reciting jokes and singing and dancing around the family home. The performances seldom worked, and his father became increasingly distant from his family.
In 1921 he began to nurture his distinctive, well-spoken voice, reasoning that "using good speech automatically suggested that you were well-educated and made people look up to you". He used the speech of the actor Owen Nares as a basis for his own delivery. He became fascinated by the stage, and regularly attended the Golders Green Hippodrome to see the latest shows. It was there that he developed an interest in fashion, and adopted the debonair dress-sense of his hero Douglas Fairbanks. He attended Fernbank School in Hendon Lane, Finchley, which was a welcome escape from the stresses of his parents' break-up. When he was 13, he transferred to Ardingly College, a public school in Sussex. He excelled in Latin and geography, and briefly took up drama. The latter subject later led to his expulsion from the school, after his frequent and inappropriate use of ad lib during lessons. He also took up a position in the school jazz band, first playing the ukulele and then percussion. He also often performed comedy dance routines to the band's music.
He enjoyed his time at Ardingly, and relished his association with upper middle class school friends. His academic abilities were modest, and he came to the notice of staff only through his frequent tomfoolery. Although he initially felt intimidated by his school surroundings, his confidence grew as he put on "a bold, undiluted and sustained show of chutzpah", according to his biographer, Graham McCann. On his return home to Finchley in 1927, his more mature manner impressed the family's housekeeper Kate Dixon, who seduced him at the family home. He stayed at Ardingly for one more term and returned home to London, but made no plans to further his education or start long-term work. Instead, he accepted a temporary position at Smithfield Market, where he earned 15 shillings a week as a junior transport clerk for the Union Cold Storage Company.
By his own admission, he never stopped "farting around" and often kept his colleagues entertained with impersonations of the Hunchback of Notre-Dame and Erich von Stroheim. He invented various characters, including Colonel Featherstonehaugh-Bumleigh and Cora Chessington-Crabbe, and frequently recited comic stories involving them to his colleagues. His characterisations soon came to the notice of the company's management who prompted him to enrol in the company's amateur drama club. He made his début with the drama company as Lord Trench in The Dover Road which was staged at the Fortune Theatre, London. It was popular with audiences, and he subsequently became a regular performer in amateur productions.
He made his professional stage début on 11 April 1930 at a social evening organised by the Union of Electric Railwayman's Dining Club in South Kensington. He appeared in a small part, billed as Thos Stevens. The drunken audience heckled him, but he earned 30 shillings. He played a few minor roles in Gilbert and Sullivan productions by the Edgware Operatic Society at the Scala Theatre. In 1933, he left Smithfield Market to work briefly with a friend at an electrical shop before he became a travelling salesman of electrical equipment. He enjoyed the job and relished being able to dress in fine clothing to make his pitch. In his spare time, he began playing the ukulele with a local jazz band, the Rhythm Maniacs. He took up dancing and formed a partnership with a sister of Jessie Matthews. They starred in local exhibitions and at minor venues, and earned well from it. News soon travelled of their talent, and they were engaged as ballroom dancers at a hall in Cricklewood. He found the dance-style too restrictive and left the act to try other aspects of entertainment.
Early performances: 1933–1939
By 1933 Terry-Thomas had moved out of Finchley and into the flat of a film-extra friend who gave him the idea of working in the industry. He made his uncredited film debut in The Private Life of Henry VIII (1933), starring Charles Laughton. Between 1933 and 1941 Terry-Thomas appeared in 16 films, as an uncredited extra in all but one; he later said that "This work suited me down to the ground. It wasn't really like work to me. I got an enormous kick out of it." His first speaking role came in the Buddy Rogers comedy Once in a Million (1935), where he shouted "A thousand!" during an auction. During the 1936 musical comedy This'll Make You Whistle, starring Jack Buchanan, he permanently damaged his hearing as a result of jumping into a water tank. Between his film work, he developed his cabaret act and was employed as a dance teacher at the Aida Foster School of Dancing in Golders Green.
During this period, he billed himself as Thomas (or Thos) Stevens. He briefly used its backward spelling, Mot Snevets, then changed it to Thomas Terry. He soon realised people were mistaking him as a relative of Dame Ellen Terry, so he inverted the name to Terry Thomas. He did not add the hyphen until 1947, and later explained that it was "not for snob reasons, but to tie the two names together. They didn't mean much apart; together they made a trade name". He said the hyphen was also "to match the gap in his front teeth". By now he was developing a unique sense of style on and off stage. To avoid staining his fingers with smoke, he used a cigarette holder and later purchased "the most irresistible holder in Dunhill's. It was slightly outré because it was made of lacquered, black whangee ... with a gold band twisting neatly round it". Adding to his look were a "monocle, raffish waistcoat and red carnation". He later wrote, "Sartorially I was an eccentric. But I knew that underneath the clothes I was very much a conservative Englishman who would have loved to have been a genuine eccentric".
In 1937 he met South African dancer and choreographer Ida Florence Patlansky, who used the stage-name Pat Patlanski, while she was auditioning in London for a partner for her flamenco dancing act. Patlanski was keen to employ Terry-Thomas as a comedian rather than a dancer, and they established a cabaret double-act, "Terri and Patlanski", which was immediately popular. They became romantically involved, married on 3 February 1938 at Marylebone Register Office, and moved to 29 Bronwen Court in St John's Wood. Despite their success, the act lasted only three months and they took on small engagements on the cabaret circuit.
On 6 June 1938 Terry-Thomas made his first radio broadcast on the BBC London Regional dance programme Friends to Tea. He later recounted, "I didn't give a very good performance ... I was a dismal failure". At the end of the summer of 1938 they were hired by bandleader Don Rico, who incorporated them into his orchestra, with Patlanski playing the piano and Terry-Thomas acting as the compère.
Second World War
The Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA) was formed in 1938 to provide entertainment to the British Armed Forces. Terry-Thomas and Patlanski signed up in 1939, and during the Phoney War were posted to France, where they appeared in a variety show. From early in their marriage, Patlanski had affairs, which prompted Terry-Thomas to reciprocate; he made sure he was sent on tour to France where a girlfriend was due to perform, although Patlanski accompanied him on the trip. During the tour, Terry-Thomas ensured Patlanski was sent back to Britain to enable him to continue his affair. On his return to Britain, he continued with his solo variety act, while also acting as the head of the cabaret section of ENSA at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, where he clashed regularly with his counterparts running the drama sections, Sir Seymour Hicks and Lilian Braithwaite. He aimed to produce "good shows, sophisticated, impeccable and highly polished", which included violinist Eugene Pini playing light classical music, and the Gainsborough Girls chorus line.
In April 1942 he received his call-up papers, and later wrote, "It would have seemed rather rude and ungrateful to refuse." He left ENSA and reported to the Royal Corps of Signals training depot in Ossett, West Riding of Yorkshire. Within two weeks of his arrival he hired Ossett Town Hall and staged a concert, which included a freshly written sketch about his feet, which had been suffering in his army boots. After basic training he was promoted to corporal and applied for a commission. He was turned down because training had given him a duodenal ulcer, and his hearing was still problematic; as a result he was downgraded from A1 to B1 fitness at the start of 1943.
He continued to appear in cabaret and variety shows while in the army, including at the Astoria Cinema in York, where he was seen by George Black. Black established the entertainment troupe Stars in Battledress, composed of entertainers who were serving in the forces, and he invited Terry-Thomas to join. In February 1943 he appeared in his first Stars in Battledress show at London's Olympia, where he introduced the sketch "Technical Hitch". This involved him portraying a harassed BBC announcer introducing records that are missing. In order to cover up for the absent records he used his vocal range of four and a half octaves to mimic the singers; he included "impersonations of Britain's clipped crooner Noël Coward, the African-American bass-baritone Paul Robeson, the Peruvian songbird Yma Sumac, the Austrian tenor Richard Tauber and ... the entire Luton Girls Choir". The show went on a national tour, with stand-up comedian Charlie Chester as compere, during which Terry-Thomas refined and polished his act and finished as "one of the most prominent and influential members of Stars in Battledress".
Terry-Thomas, along with his Stars in Battledress unit, travelled through Britain and Europe on a tour that lasted several months. With his demobilisation approaching, he took compassionate leave to have free time while still receiving army pay. During his absence he went on a tour of the UK organised by George Black, accompanied on the piano by a former colonel, Harry Sutcliffe. Terry-Thomas finished the war as a sergeant, and was finally demobbed on 1 April 1946.
Early post-war work: 1946–1955
The ENSA and Stars in Battledress tours of Britain and Europe had raised Terry-Thomas's profile and, by October 1946, he was appearing alongside Sid Field in Piccadilly Hayride at the Prince of Wales Theatre, London. The show was described by Graham McCann as "the West End's biggest money-spinner for years". Terry-Thomas compered the show as well as appearing in some of the sketches, including his own "Technical Hitch" routine. In 1959 he described the effect of Piccadilly Hayride on his career, saying "This show made me overnight. I'd arrived". Ivor Brown, writing in The Observer, remarked on the "glorious rag of BBC modes, moods and intonations by Mr. Terry Thomas, a grand discovery". Within three weeks of starting his run, Terry-Thomas was invited to appear at the Royal Command Performance on 4 November 1946 at the London Palladium.
Piccadilly Hayride ran for 778 performances and ended on 17 January 1948. The show was seen by over a million people and earned £350,000 at the box office. In conjunction with Piccadilly Hayride, Terry-Thomas undertook a number of other additional one-off appearances in cabaret and private functions. He also appeared in editions of Variety Bandbox and Workers' Playtime on BBC Radio. His ever-evolving act consisted of imitations, including that of his friend, the musician Leslie Hutchinson (known as "Hutch"); sketches, including "Technical Hitch"; urbane monologues, and "languid shaggy dog stories". At the end of his run with Piccadilly Hayride, Terry-Thomas took a three-week break to recover from nervous exhaustion and a recurrence of his peptic ulcer. He went back to cabaret and acted as a compere at the London Palladium before making his radio breakthrough on 12 October 1948 with his own series on the BBC Home Service. Consisting of a "mixture of sketches, solo routines, musical interludes and a range of popular and topical star guests", To Town with Terry was broadcast weekly and ran for 24 episodes until 28 March 1949. He was disappointed with the series, saying "I was never totally satisfied with [it] ... The perfectionist in me always made me aware of anything that was less than first class". He also appeared in his first post-war film, A Date with a Dream, in 1949, alongside his wife.
On 26 October 1949 Terry-Thomas wrote and starred in a new series on the BBC Television Service, How Do You View?, noted for being the first comedy series on British television. The programme was based around an on-screen persona of Terry-Thomas as "a glamorous, mischievous and discreetly cash-strapped man-about-town", introducing a series of sketches in which he appeared alongside Peter Butterworth as his chauffeur; Janet Brown (Butterworth's real-life wife); Avril Angers; H.C. Walton as the family retainer, Moulting; and Diana Dors. The programme was broadcast live and often included Terry-Thomas walking through control rooms and corridors of the BBC's Lime Grove and Alexandra Palace studios. The author and historian Mark Lewisohn described the series as being "inventive ... truly televisual and not just a radio programme in costume". The series ran until 21 December 1949; a second series followed between April and May 1950, with Sid Colin taking over the scripting duties and Terry-Thomas providing additional material. By the third series, which was broadcast between November 1950 and February 1951, the audience reached four million viewers. In total there were five series of How Do You View?; the final episode was broadcast on 11 June 1952. Writing about Terry-Thomas on television, Wilfred Greatorex observed that "he has ... physical attributes that make him a gift to visual entertainment: a large, rather gaunt face, pre-fabricated for close-ups; the notorious space of one-third of an inch between his two most prominent top teeth; a mouth that is full of expression. Add to these pictoral advantages his eight-inch cigarette holder and Eddie Cantor eyes".
In between filming How Do You View?, Terry-Thomas continued performing on radio as well as in cabaret, in Britain and increasingly the US. In October and November 1949 he appeared at the Palmer House Night Club, Chicago; in June 1951 he appeared at The Wedgwood Room, Waldorf Astoria Hotel, New York, and between 22 December 1951 and 29 February 1952 he returned to the London Palladium for 109 performances in Humpty Dumpty. In September 1952 he travelled to the Federation of Malaya to entertain British troops in a series of concert parties, before returning to the UK to appear in the Royal Variety Performance in November. He finished the year in South Africa, as Honourable Idle Jack in Dick Whittington, which finished in January 1953; he considered the pantomime to be "so tatty and unrehearsed it was pathetic".
In June 1953 Terry-Thomas broadcast the pilot episode of the radio show, Top of the Town; the show was successful and the BBC commissioned a series of 16 episodes, which ran between November 1953 and February 1954. In between recording sessions, he appeared at the London Palladium in the revue Fun and the Fair, with George Formby and the Billy Cotton band, from October 1953. Fun and the Fair was unsuccessful at the box office and closed on 19 December 1953, after 138 performances. Terry-Thomas then reprised his role of Idle Jack for a run of performances in the Granada theatres of Sutton and Woolwich, and the Finsbury Park Empire, which ran to the end of January 1954. That year, he separated from Patlanski following an increase in domestic tension and the plethora of affairs in which they had both indulged. Patlanski moved out of the shared home, and the couple lived separate lives; the press did not report the separation until 1957.
Terry-Thomas spent the 1954 summer season performing at the Winter Gardens Pavilion, Blackpool before starring in a second series of Top of the Town, which ran from October 1954 to February 1955. At the end of the series he appeared as Hubert Crone in the play Room for Two, which had a UK tour prior to a run at the Prince of Wales Theatre, London. The last stop on the UK tour was at the Brighton Hippodrome, where Terry-Thomas broke his arm on stage; he returned to the show five days later when the tour reached London. He later joked that "the audience roared with laughter when I fell and made horrible faces, so much so that I considered breaking the other arm for an encore". The London run was not a success and the show closed after 48 performances.
British film years: 1956–1961
In February 1956 Terry-Thomas appeared on Desert Island Discs, and chose two songs from his "Technical Hitch" routine as part of his selection. Later that year he appeared in his first major film roles: Charles Boughtflower in The Green Man, and Major Hitchcock, "a charlatan military officer on the take", in Private's Progress, directed by the Boulting brothers. Terry-Thomas appeared in the latter film only briefly, with a total screen time of about ten minutes, but his biographer Graham McCann thought the actor "came close to stealing the show from the central character", Windrush played by Ian Carmichael. Terry-Thomas's depiction of the character was not how he wished to play it: his desired choice was that of a "silly-ass" sergeant major, but the role was written as a strict, alcohol and prescription drug-dependent Army officer. He was initially disappointed with the role, and turned it down but, after being persuaded to accept it by his agent, he embraced its possibilities. One of his lines, delivered in his clipped upper class voice, was "You're an absolute shower", which became a catchphrase for him. The Boulting brothers were so impressed with Terry-Thomas's performance that they signed him up to a five-film deal.
The first of the five films was Brothers in Law, in which Terry-Thomas played the spiv Alfred Green, a performance which was based on Sid Field's characterisation in Piccadilly Hayride. Roy Boulting later recounted that one short scene with Terry-Thomas, Richard Attenborough and Ian Carmichael took 107 takes because of Terry-Thomas's unfamiliarity with filming techniques; he initially struggled to hit his marks, or give his line and move on, while still acting. Filming the scene took two days and Boulting described it as a "unique experience for him, and had a wonderful after-effect". Following Brothers in Law he was cast as Romney Carlton-Ricketts in Blue Murder at St Trinian's by producers Frank Launder and Sidney Gilliat, before again appearing for the Boulting brothers in the cameo role of a local policeman in Happy Is the Bride. Terry-Thomas starred in two further films in 1957. The first was as Bertrand Welch in Lucky Jim, an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Kingsley Amis. Although Amis thought Terry-Thomas has been "totally miscast as Bertrand, the posturing painter and leading shit" of the book, the critic for The Manchester Guardian considered Terry-Thomas as being "the nearest to a complete success" in the film, in a portrayal that "suggests possibilities for more serious roles". His final part of 1957 was Lord Henry Mayley in The Naked Truth; this brought him together with Peter Sellers for the first time, and the two of them appeared frequently together over the next few years in scenes in which, Graham McCann considered that each actor's performance "highlight[ed] what was special about the other". During one scene Terry-Thomas was dumped in a near-freezing lake, and his health was affected for some time afterwards.
In 1958 Terry-Thomas received the first of his two film award nominations, the BAFTA Award for the "Best British Actor in 1959" for the part of Ivan in the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film tom thumb. He later described the film as his second favourite; he appeared opposite Sellers for much of his screen time, and later said that "my part was perfect, but Peter's was bloody awful. He wasn't difficult about it, but he knew it". Terry-Thomas was still suffering with poor health following the filming of The Naked Truth when he suffered an attack of lumbago; filming went on for 85 days during 1957–58, and he took painkillers to enable him to continue. The role was physically demanding, and required him to ride a horse, run long distances and fight in a duel. He said he fought and ran "just as [he] had seen Douglas Fairbanks Snr do in The Mark of Zorro". Towards the end of filming, Terry-Thomas went to a Christmas party at the Trocadero, where he drank champagne, as well as taking codeine tablets, and was subsequently arrested on suspicion of being drunk and disorderly. He considered the arresting policemen to have been rude, and "their attitude made me extremely angry and when I get angry ... I just go completely off my nut". The case came to court on 14 March 1958 and his legal team from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer provided a medical report which showed Terry-Thomas had been on a course of prescription painkillers due to a gruelling filming schedule; along with inconsistencies in the arresting policemen's notes, the case proved inconclusive and was dismissed. For much of the rest of 1958, Terry-Thomas appeared on stage at the London Palladium in Large as Life, alongside Harry Secombe, Eric Sykes and Hattie Jacques. He played one of the Three Musketeers in one sketch and had another turn called "Filling the Gap"; the show ran for a total of 380 performances between May and December 1958. He also released his first record, Strictly T-T, a collection of comic songs and sketches.
In 1959 Terry-Thomas published his first autobiography, Filling the Gap, named after his spot in Large as Life; he explained that "everything that has been printed about me is lies. I'm not suggesting the writers were lying, I was". During the year he also appeared in two further instalments of the Boultings brothers' series of institutional satires, having appeared in the previous three. The first, in which he was joined again by Sellers, was Carlton-Browne of the F.O., in which he played Cadogan de Vere Carlton-Browne, a character he described as being "rubble from the nostrils up", "a certain type of Englishman, the Englishman who reads The Times and no other newspaper. A brolly carrier. A squash player. A bowler hat wearer. White collar, stiff, of course". Film writer Andrew Spicer thought Terry-Thomas's role "was the quintessential upper-class 'silly-ass', a sad relic of a vanished world". The film was initially chosen as Britain's entry for the 1959 Moscow International Film Festival until the Foreign Office petitioned the British Film Producers' Association for it to be withdrawn on the basis that the Russians might consider the film to accurately portray British diplomatic behaviour.
Terry-Thomas's final film with the Boulting brothers was I'm All Right Jack, a post-war follow-up to Private's Progress with Terry-Thomas reprising the role of Major Hitchcock in an industrial setting, as the "tetchily incompetent" personnel manager. Many of the other cast from Private's Progress also returned, including Attenborough, Carmichael and Dennis Price; they were joined by Peter Sellers, who took most of the plaudits from the critics, although Stanley Kauffman, writing in The New Republic also delighted in Terry-Thomas's "finesse" and "extraordinary skill". The Los Angeles Times retrospectively considered I'm All Right Jack and Carlton-Browne of the F.O. to have been Terry-Thomas's best works. His final film of 1959 was as William Delany Gordon in Too Many Crooks. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times thought Terry-Thomas provided "some of the fieriest conniptions to be seen on the contemporary screen", going on to say the actor's "skill is exercised in demonstrating how magnificently and completely a mad-cap comedian can completely blow his top. His eyes flash, his lips curl, his sibilants whistle and he glares like a maniac". Filming took place during the daytime; in the evenings he appeared at the London Palladium, something he found trying on his nervous system.
In 1960 Terry-Thomas appeared as Raymond Delauney in School for Scoundrels, a film his biographer, Robert Ross, called "the definitive screen presentation of his frightfully well-mannered, well-read and well-educated lounge lizard: T-T the man as T-T the film star". He again appeared opposite Ian Carmichael, and they were joined by Alastair Sim and Janette Scott. Michael Brooke, writing for the British Film Institute, thought Terry-Thomas was "outstanding as a classic British bounder". CNN would list the performance among the top 10 British villains, stating, "generally found twirling his cigarette holder while charming the ladies — at least, when not swindling, cheating or behaving like an absolute rotter." Later the same year he appeared in Make Mine Mink as Major Albert Rayne, a veteran of the Second World War who forms a gang of mink coat thieves with his female co-lodgers. When he made an appearance at a screening of the film in Dalston, north-east London, he was presented with a white mink waistcoat by a local furrier.
In 1961 Terry-Thomas played Archibald Bannister in A Matter of WHO, which he described as "my first (fairly) serious role". He was joined in the film by his cousin's son Richard Briers, with Terry-Thomas noting that he provided "no nepotic help" in getting Briers the part. The film was not well received by the critics; an internal BBC memo described that in the UK the film was "murdered by the critics", although it was "something of a success" in America. By this time Terry-Thomas had decided to stop being a stand-up comedian and compere and instead concentrate solely on making films. He stopped appearing on television and radio shows of his own, declaring "it was the cinema for me and me for the cinema!" Having accumulated considerable experience by appearing in British films, he decided to try Hollywood, and moved to America.
Breaking into Hollywood: 1961–1965
Terry-Thomas spent part of 1961 in America, filming the role of Professor Bruce Patterson in Bachelor Flat—his first Hollywood role—before flying to Gibraltar to film Operation Snatch, in which he teamed up with Lionel Jeffries. By the end of 1961 he was appearing on radio, such as the December broadcast of The Bing Crosby Show and in guest spots on American television shows; he was frequently the subject of US newspaper interviews. In 1962 Bachelor Flat and Operation Snatch were both released, and were followed by two more films: a large-budget biopic from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer called The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm, in which he shared his scenes with American comedian Buddy Hackett, and Kill or Cure, in which he appeared with Sykes, a friend since they worked together in Large as Life.
On 1 February 1962 Terry-Thomas and Pat Patlanski divorced, after spending the previous eight years estranged. He had by then split from his mistress of the previous few years, Lorrae Desmond, who returned to Australia shortly afterwards and married a surgeon. Terry-Thomas resumed his bachelor lifestyle. The break-up with Desmond caused him great upset, and he sought solace with Belinda Cunningham, a 21-year-old whom he had met on holiday in Majorca two years earlier. They married in August 1963 at Halstead Registry Office near Colchester, Essex, and the following year she gave birth to their first son, Timothy Hoar, at the Princess Beatrice Hospital in London.
In 1962 Terry-Thomas was offered the role of Lt-Colonel J. Algernon Hawthorne in It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World, and turned it down before leaving for the UK. By the time his flight arrived in London he had changed his mind, so he telephoned producer Stanley Kramer from the airport and "popped back on a plane to be fitted for the part" the same day. He was not comfortable with many of the other actors on set, later commenting that "I was the only non-American, and I found it exhausting and embarrassing because they never relaxed. They were always 'on'." One of the American stars was Spencer Tracy, whom Terry-Thomas considered "an extra-special man"; Tracy and Buster Keaton—who also appeared in the film—were described by Terry-Thomas as "the only two people who ever produced in me this awe of greatness".
Later in 1963 he picked up his second film nomination, the Golden Globe for Best Comedy Actor, for his portrayal of Spender in The Mouse on the Moon. He also tried his hand at production, with three 15-minute travelogues: Terry-Thomas in Tuscany, Terry-Thomas in the South of France and Terry-Thomas in Northern Ireland. He did not enjoy the producer's role, complaining that "for some extraordinary reason that I could never understand, everybody was always out to do the producer of any film whoever he was. I had to be on the watch the whole time". He worked consistently during 1963, appearing in television programmes on both sides of the Atlantic; these included Terry-Thomas, a one-off variety show on BBC Television in July that included Donald Sutherland.
In 1964 he started filming the role of Charles Furbank in How to Murder Your Wife, a part which brought him £100,000, his largest fee to that point. He said it was his favourite to make, "because I felt that I did a very good job". He enjoyed working with Jack Lemmon, the film's star, partly because Lemmon played jazz and sang while the scenes were being lit. They became friends and Terry-Thomas was invited to Lemmon's wedding. Throughout the rest of the year he continued to appear on US television—again in Burke's Law, and on What's My Line? and An Hour with Robert Goulet, both on CBS. He also released another record, Terry-Thomas Discovers America, a collection of songs and sketches described by Billboard as "a funny, funny comedy masterpiece". His earlier record, Strictly T-T, was also released in the US.
Alongside How to Murder Your Wife, he was in two other films released in 1965: Strange Bedfellows, where he played a mortician; and Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines, where he played Sir Percy Ware-Armitage, a character film historian Andrew Spicer calls "a cartoon version" of his usual persona in a "bloated mid-Atlantic comed[y]". In the film, Terry-Thomas appeared again with Sykes, an experience Sykes later described as magical. The roles of Ware-Armitage and his sidekick were written especially for Terry-Thomas and Sykes at the behest of the director Ken Annakin.
European cinema: 1966–1970
By the mid-1960s Terry-Thomas was tiring of the Hollywood lifestyle, and, during the latter half of the 1960s, he worked with European filmmakers, returning occasionally to the US when he was filming there. In one of his French-produced films, La Grande Vadrouille, he played Sir Reginald, a stranded Royal Air Force pilot travelling through occupied France with characters played by Bourvil and Louis de Funès. The film, released in 1966, held the record for highest box-office takings in France until 2004, and it remains "one of the most popular films with television audiences in France". Terry-Thomas undertook a number of roles with the Italian cinema industry. For one of the Italian-produced films, the 1967 farce Arabella, he played four parts and used "the help of wigs, moustaches and lashings of Max Factor" to help achieve the different characterisations, which were all with the Italian actress Virna Lisi.
Although the European films allowed him to travel and gave him a constant source of income, he received bigger fees from his less-frequent engagements in US films, which he continued to appear in, joking that he "knew the fat cheques in the pipe-line were endless". One of the bigger fees came with Gene Kelly's 1967 film A Guide for the Married Man; he was disappointed by Kelly's direction, later saying "I found him a very prudish director, not as imaginative or experimental as I would have liked". Terry-Thomas had more time for the actress with whom he shared his short scene, Jayne Mansfield, commenting that "I found her rather intelligent to talk to and felt quite shattered when I read about the gruesome car accident that killed her". An actress he had difficulties in working with was Doris Day: in the 1968 film Where Were You When the Lights Went Out?, which was produced by her husband Martin Melcher. Day would instruct Terry-Thomas how he should act in a scene (he would "listen ... politely, then do it my own way, as if the conversation had never taken place"). She would also launch into improvisations while filming; director Hy Averback would mimic a scissor action behind her back to signal to Terry-Thomas that the material would be duly cut from the final print.
In 1967 Terry-Thomas met his long-time friend Denholm Elliott in Bel Air and the pair talked about Elliott's new villa in Santa Eulària des Riu on the Spanish island of Ibiza. Terry-Thomas was intrigued by the possibility of a Mediterranean retreat and visited the island on the way to sing in the television special Monte Carlo: C'est La Rose (1968), a musical tour of Monte Carlo hosted by Princess Grace of Monaco. Although he initially struggled to find the right plot of ground for the right price, he eventually settled on an appropriate location; declaring he was "allergic to architects", he designed the house himself. His former wife Pat moved to the nearby island of Majorca, and Terry-Thomas's relationship with her became warm and friendly; Patlanski also had a firm friendship with Terry-Thomas's wife.
In between films Terry-Thomas appeared on television on both sides of the Atlantic. In the US in March–April 1967 he was in "The Five Daughters Affair", a two-part story in the TV series The Man from U.N.C.L.E., and on 22 May he appeared on The Red Skelton Hour. On British television, in an episode of the Comedy Playhouse called "The Old Campaigner", he played James Franklin-Jones, a salesman for a plastics company who was continually searching for love affairs while travelling on business. This character was "yet another variation on his rakish cad persona", according to Mark Lewisohn. The episode was well-received, and a six-part series was commissioned that ran over December 1968 and January 1969. Although the series performed well in the ratings, a second series was not commissioned. In between the pilot and the series of The Old Campaigner, in April 1968, Terry-Thomas appeared on the British ITV network in a one-off variety special, The Big Show, which combined musical numbers and his urbane monologues. Robert Ross commented that Terry-Thomas "seemed to delight in resurrecting his vintage sophisticated patter after years in movies ... the top raconteur was back where he belonged". In 1969 he again teamed up with Eric Sykes and director Ken Annakin for a joint Italian, French and British production Monte Carlo or Bust!. The film was "the only copper-bottomed sequel to ... Those Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines", according to Richard Ross. Terry-Thomas played Sir Cuthbert Ware-Armitage, the "thoroughly bad egg son of flying ace Sir Percy Ware-Armitage", his role in Those Magnificent Men. Terry-Thomas secured four other roles in minor films that year, including Arthur? Arthur! (which he joked had "never been shown anywhere—as far as I know!"), as well as on television in the UK, US and Australia.
The 1970s began well for Terry-Thomas; television appearances in the UK and US were augmented by filming for The Abominable Dr. Phibes, which became what author Bruce Hallenbeck called a "camp classic", despite being described by Time Out critic David Pirie, as "the worst horror film made in England since 1945"; the film was released in 1971. On 1 August 1970 Terry-Thomas made his second appearance on Desert Island Discs; his luxury item was a case of brandy, chosen because it lasted longer than champagne.
Dealing with Parkinson's: 1971–1983
While appearing in Don't Just Lie There, Say Something! at the Metro Theatre, Sydney in 1971, Terry-Thomas felt unwell and visited a doctor, who noticed his patient's left hand was shaking slightly. The doctor suggested he visit a specialist on his return to the UK, who diagnosed him with Parkinson's disease. Fearing the condition would affect offers of work, Terry-Thomas did not make the news public, but as the symptoms began to manifest themselves in tremors, a shuffling gait, stooped posture and affected speech, he made the news known—partly to stop rumours of on-set drunkenness.
He continued to work as much as possible, although—as the film historian Geoff Mayer pointed out—the situation "reduced his film career to supporting roles and cameos". The lucrative voice-over role of Sir Hiss in the 1973 Walt Disney film Robin Hood was one notable part, while others were less well-known, such as The Vault of Horror, a film described by Richard Ross as a "cornball terror", in which he starred with Curd Jürgens, Tom Baker and Denholm Elliott. He also continued to appear on television shows in the US and UK; and in advertisements, including appearing with June Whitfield for Birds Eye fish fingers, a series of vermouth advertisements filmed in Italy, and an award-winning series for Benson & Hedges with Eric Sykes.
During the 1970s he starred in a series of low-budget British films, including two in 1975, Spanish Fly—called a "gruesome smutfest" by writer Christopher Fowler—and The Bawdy Adventures of Tom Jones, described by Film Review Digest as a "cheap, crude, sexed-up rehash" of the other film adaptations of Henry Fielding's source novel.
In 1977 he starred in The Last Remake of Beau Geste and The Hound of the Baskervilles, the latter starring Peter Cook and Dudley Moore as Holmes and Watson; Terry-Thomas thought "it was the most outrageous film I ever appeared in ... there was no magic ... it was bad!" By then he had exhibited a decrease in bodily movement, a sign of how serious his condition had become. His distinctive voice had developed a softer tone and his posture was contorted. Between 1978 and 1980, he spent much time with medical consultants. Despite this he was offered a few engagements and was voted the most recognisable Englishman among Americans in a poll which also featured Laurence Olivier, Robert Morley and Wilfrid Hyde-White. As a result, he secured a lucrative advertising contract with the Ford Motor Company. Derek Jarman offered Terry-Thomas a role in his 1979 film The Tempest, but the actor was forced to pull out because of his deteriorating health.
Terry-Thomas undertook his final film role in 1980 in Febbre a 40!, a German-Italian co-production that was "nondescript and barely screened", according to Robert Ross, and did not even have a theatrical release in its two domestic markets. He continued his involvement in the film industry, where he funded three films during the early 1980s (noted by Ross to be "destined from the outset for B-picture status or straight-to-video exposure"); he commented, "I have made a loss of one hundred per cent". In 1982, with his condition worsening, he was featured in two episodes of the BBC series The Human Brain, which examined his condition; his frank interview brought much public awareness of the disease and raised £32,000 for the Parkinson's Disease Society. Privately, he was becoming more depressed; he had sold his London flat to provide badly needed funds, and his work offers were decreasing.
Final years and death: 1983–1990
By 1983, with his medical bills at £40,000 a year, Terry-Thomas's financial resources were dwindling. He and his wife sold their dream house and moved into the small cottage once owned by his former wife Pat Patlanski, which she left to him in her will on her death in June that year. Shortly afterwards he worked with ghostwriter Terry Daum on an autobiography, Terry-Thomas Tells Tales. Although the first draft was completed by late summer 1984, Terry-Thomas refused to release the manuscript and continued making alterations, but never completed his copyediting: the book was finally published after his death.
By 1984 Terry-Thomas was increasingly depressed by his condition. When he was interviewed that year, he said that "one doctor said I've got about four more years to live. God forbid! I shall probably blow my brains out first". In 1987 the couple could no longer afford to live in Spain and moved back to London. They lived in a series of rented properties before ending up in a three-room, unfurnished charity flat, where they lived with financial assistance from the Actors' Benevolent Fund. Richard Briers was one of his first visitors there, and was shocked by the change he saw: "Sitting there, motionless, he was just a mere shadow. A crippled, crushed, shadow. It was really bloody awful."
On 9 April 1989 actors Jack Douglas and Richard Hope-Hawkins organised a benefit concert for Terry-Thomas, after discovering he was living in virtual obscurity, poverty and ill health. The five-hour gala, held at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, featured 120 artists, with Phil Collins topping the bill and Michael Caine as chairman. It raised over £75,000 for Terry-Thomas and Parkinson's UK. The funds allowed Terry-Thomas to move out of his charity flat and into Busbridge Hall nursing home in Godalming, Surrey. He died there on 8 January 1990 at the age of 78. The funeral service was held at St. John the Baptist Church, Busbridge, where the theme from Those Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines was played; he was cremated at Guildford Crematorium.
Screen persona and technique
Terry-Thomas's screen characters were generally similar; Geoff Mayer wrote that "although there would be variations, he would remain the 'rotter', a pretentious, elitist, seedy, sometimes lecherous cad with an eye for quick money and the easy life". Eric Sykes, with whom Terry-Thomas shared a number of screen moments, said it was "always the same character and always funny". Andrew Spicer, writing for the British Film Institute, called him "the definitive postwar cad or rotter". Terry-Thomas himself agreed with the view he presented, writing in the 1980s that "T-T with his permanent air of caddish disdain ... bounder ... aristocratic rogue ... upper-class English twit ... genuine English eccentric ... one of the last real gentlemen ... wet, genteel Englishman ... high-bred idiot ... cheeky blighter ... camel-haired cad ... amiable buffoon ... pompous Englishman ... twentieth-century dandy ... stinker ... king of the cads ... All those descriptions added up to my image as Terry-Thomas".
Terry-Thomas identified himself as a comedy actor, but regarded himself "first and foremost, as a comedian with a built-in ability to inject humour into situations". He worked hard at the humour element, especially during his days in cabaret and revue; he wrote that he "spent an enormous amount of time studying how to write humour and reading books on the philosophical approach to it, but it didn't get me very far. I decided that humour was like a good watch. It would go well if left to do its job but the moment one started poking around, it went wonky". While working on his television series How do you View?, he would change lines around to ensure the scene worked well, even if he gave the best lines to others; it was a quality which was appreciated by a number of others, including Jack Lemmon, who appeared with Terry-Thomas in How to Murder Your Wife. Lemmon commented that "like most really good professionals he was generous to fellow actors. He worked with you, not at you".
Before starting filming or making an entrance on stage, Terry-Thomas had a routine he would undertake: "my own technique to get myself going was ... to jump in the air and execute a few dance steps". His approach for much of his film work was to underplay many of his reactions. Filming a scene in a cinema in Private's Progress, a close-up was needed showing his character "registering shock, fury, indignation and anything else I could stuff in"; he "just looked into the camera and kept my mind blank. It's a trick I've used often since. In this way, the audience does the work". Terry-Thomas said "I like to do my own stunts", which he did for films such as A Matter of WHO and Bachelor Flat. This included some dangerous work; for example, during Those Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines, he ran along the roof of a moving train.
Legacy and reputation
Following Terry-Thomas's death, Lionel Jeffries called him "the last of the great gentlemen of the cinema", while the director Michael Winner commented that "no matter what your position was in relation to his, as the star he was always terribly nice. He was the kindest man and he enjoyed life so much". Reviewing his career in The Guardian, Adrian Turner considered that "we took him for granted and he was ideal for his time. Not to put too serious a point on it, his portrayal of crass stupidity and blatant deviousness struck a chord with British audiences during the fifties as they experienced the clumsy dismemberment of the Empire and the 'never had it so good' ethos of the Macmillan era. During the sixties he became a glorious anachronism, much in demand in America, who saw in him the irrelevant pageantry of Britain"; he also said Terry-Thomas was "a national treasure". Gilbert Adair, writing in The Independent, considered that "for three decades, and in literally scores of films, he personified the Englishman as amiable bounder"; Adair wrote that "the characterisation he was to assume represented the very essence of patrician, double-barrelled caddishness". Terry-Thomas's friend Jack Lemmon called him "a consummate professional... he was a gentleman, a delight to be with personally, let alone professionally, and above all as an actor he had one of the qualities that I admire so much—he made it look simple".
Terry-Thomas's image of an English cad was used by others. The personification started in the 1960s when the voice actor Ivan Owen, who had worked alongside Terry-Thomas in "Stars in Battledress", based the voice for Basil Brush on that of Terry-Thomas, in a characterisation which also copied Terry-Thomas's "penchant for bad, self-satisfied, golf-club-bore jokes". The 1960s also witnessed the fictional cartoon character Dick Dastardly in two Hanna-Barbera cartoon series (Wacky Races and Dastardly and Muttley in Their Flying Machines), who was inspired by Terry-Thomas.
Other actors have used Terry-Thomas's persona as an inspiration for their characters: Dustin Hoffman acknowledged that he based his interpretation of Captain Hook in Hook on him; Rupert Everett disclosed that when he provided the voice for Prince Charming in Shrek 2, Terry-Thomas "was vocally my role model while I was doing it"; and Paul Whitehouse's character, the 13th Duke of Wybourne, from The Fast Show was also modelled on Terry-Thomas's on-screen persona.
Terry-Thomas's popularity continued after his death. In February 1999 the National Film Theatre ran a season of his films; an NFT spokesman described how attendees turned up "in evening dress, with false moustaches and carrying cigarettes in long holders... everyone has been trying to steal the cardboard cutouts of Terry...We've never had a response like it. To be honest, we are rather unprepared. Nobody expected Terry-Thomas Fever".
Some of the innovations Terry-Thomas brought into his earlier television programmes were later copied by others; How Do You View? provided the "prologue" format of Up Pompeii!, and was the first to use regular BBC announcers as foils in comic sketches—a practice continued later, particularly with the shows of Morecambe and Wise. Terry-Thomas's anecdotes, stringing several stories together, later inspired Ronnie Corbett in his monologue spot in his series The Two Ronnies. In 2014, BBC Radio 4 broadcast Memories of a Cad, a comedy drama by Roy Smiles about the relationship between Terry-Thomas and Richard Briers, played by Martin Jarvis and Alistair McGowan respectively.
Filmography and other work
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Terry-Thomas on Pathé News
Terry-Thomas at Aveleyman
1911 births
1990 deaths
20th-century English male actors
Male actors from London
Neurological disease deaths in England
Deaths from Parkinson's disease
British male comedy actors
English male film actors
English male stage actors
English male television actors
English male voice actors
English male comedians
People educated at Ardingly College
People from Finchley
British expatriate male actors in the United States
20th-century British comedians
British Army personnel of World War II
Royal Corps of Signals soldiers | [
-0.24474993348121643,
0.43989160656929016,
-0.6855137348175049,
-0.5213790535926819,
0.36101284623146057,
1.033185362815857,
0.4996621608734131,
-0.09665358066558838,
-0.923048198223114,
0.6619793176651001,
-0.6897404789924622,
0.4535581171512604,
-0.027304211631417274,
0.12873932719230652,
-0.12323978543281555,
0.36279624700546265,
-0.1142011508345604,
0.07582340389490128,
-0.268725723028183,
-0.4187665283679962,
-0.4971246123313904,
0.23653945326805115,
-0.08446861803531647,
-0.05888596922159195,
-0.7627134323120117,
0.6822934150695801,
-0.4362278878688812,
0.059802696108818054,
-0.1598808765411377,
-0.1234649047255516,
0.37430787086486816,
-0.10197974741458893,
0.07893609255552292,
-0.08804095536470413,
-0.4892176687717438,
-0.06762316823005676,
-0.491077184677124,
-0.48492327332496643,
-0.3472232520580292,
-0.10985944420099258,
0.15704810619354248,
0.04718594253063202,
0.39260637760162354,
-0.14422374963760376,
-0.6924622654914856,
-0.17955107986927032,
-1.545192837715149,
-0.053711581975221634,
-0.9472866654396057,
-0.3794746696949005,
-0.006386208813637495,
0.41768476366996765,
0.47048071026802063,
-0.38317185640335083,
0.3186471164226532,
-0.05741049349308014,
-0.19466792047023773,
-0.15459124743938446,
0.08146301656961441,
-0.13793812692165375,
0.45147013664245605,
-0.40449532866477966,
0.3093595504760742,
-0.4797547161579132,
0.06061284989118576,
0.4354405403137207,
0.2883859872817993,
0.404464453458786,
-0.10669839382171631,
0.42818698287010193,
0.4417635202407837,
0.6705808043479919,
0.08465901762247086,
-0.0011305037187412381,
0.30188125371932983,
-0.5349279046058655,
0.8445952534675598,
-0.17825862765312195,
-0.26462501287460327,
0.045272063463926315,
0.15605327486991882,
-0.08223886787891388,
0.7469255924224854,
1.043397307395935,
0.20861394703388214,
0.08810137957334518,
-0.4012819528579712,
0.5200698375701904,
-0.5971290469169617,
-0.2644631266593933,
-0.9045532941818237,
-0.19814853370189667,
-0.5834419131278992,
0.3954216241836548,
-0.5048490166664124,
-0.3120426535606384,
-0.3776124119758606,
-0.1519574522972107,
0.5452948808670044,
-0.1679513156414032,
-0.051463522017002106,
-0.18296657502651215,
0.35332685708999634,
-1.1312665939331055,
-0.4354599118232727,
0.668168842792511,
0.2633408308029175,
-0.4350580871105194,
-0.4390524923801422,
0.4098970890045166,
-0.8619718551635742,
-0.07032927870750427,
-0.05226118117570877,
0.1902148276567459,
0.2516219913959503,
0.1982918083667755,
-0.13612495362758636,
-0.5035416483879089,
-0.829448938369751,
0.39048439264297485,
0.26768967509269714,
0.026244670152664185,
-0.1238822340965271,
0.722973644733429,
-0.5431100130081177,
-0.06789352744817734,
-0.06607621163129807,
0.05745872110128403,
-0.17214134335517883,
-0.12136735767126083,
0.41899028420448303,
0.8521648645401001,
-0.4042522609233856,
-0.2854956090450287,
-0.45872288942337036,
0.2548074722290039,
0.5693263411521912,
0.5799331665039062,
0.017890378832817078,
0.16241824626922607,
-0.16031406819820404,
0.05000854283571243,
-0.5520907640457153,
0.1940726339817047,
0.33861809968948364,
-0.3544345498085022,
0.11238617449998856,
0.45395398139953613,
0.1332341730594635,
-0.28976374864578247,
-0.37293460965156555,
0.4649665355682373,
0.46120285987854004,
-0.630396842956543,
-0.5708388090133667,
0.47882080078125,
0.16533413529396057,
-0.11547629535198212,
0.11456466466188431,
-0.6602466106414795,
0.47502613067626953,
-0.2280479222536087,
-0.19450661540031433,
-0.1908336579799652,
0.830227792263031,
-0.5330962538719177,
-0.16605383157730103,
-0.7968621850013733,
-0.247352734208107,
0.29971131682395935,
-0.16518662869930267,
0.08770012110471725,
0.31825944781303406,
0.10190803557634354,
-0.786261796951294,
0.330694317817688,
0.6072008609771729,
0.588813066482544,
0.3060012757778168,
-0.3010654151439667,
-0.8151339888572693,
-0.1478957235813141,
0.0038999810349196196,
-0.07595133036375046,
0.2993655204772949,
0.40730753540992737,
0.19700534641742706,
-0.26327750086784363,
0.35983744263648987,
0.06711224466562271,
-0.28788483142852783,
-0.3533434271812439,
0.15939338505268097,
-0.3742769658565521,
0.5298788547515869,
-0.04368571564555168,
-0.7432529330253601,
0.06915262341499329,
0.2818280756473541,
0.6554871797561646,
-0.004386570770293474,
-0.33020249009132385,
0.320748507976532,
0.3686898350715637,
-0.3103516101837158,
0.11264008283615112,
0.4370720088481903,
0.5049688816070557,
0.9017667770385742,
0.5149261355400085,
0.284803181886673,
-0.7178778052330017,
0.19367247819900513,
0.13255439698696136,
-0.11257018148899078,
-0.2964726984500885,
-0.730458676815033,
-0.28282302618026733,
0.12339086085557938,
-0.16850043833255768,
0.15392599999904633,
1.0079152584075928,
-0.06044052913784981,
0.1776927411556244,
0.1925581842660904,
0.8703497052192688,
-0.05496103689074516,
-0.1718219369649887,
0.3855184018611908,
-0.4194703698158264,
-0.054235175251960754,
0.2035013735294342,
-0.36267954111099243,
-0.5120398998260498,
-0.24483640491962433,
-0.3445069491863251,
0.5015233159065247,
-0.6299051642417908,
-0.6098220944404602,
-0.5493173003196716,
0.4306497275829315,
0.11460475623607635,
-1.0072062015533447,
0.6109889149665833,
0.4522451162338257,
-0.06920753419399261,
0.2800126075744629,
0.033682506531476974,
-0.03464028611779213,
-0.009384382516145706,
0.22796359658241272,
0.24837243556976318,
0.4067336916923523,
-0.08568868786096573,
0.45060861110687256,
-0.052321162074804306,
0.09374912828207016,
-0.13197533786296844,
0.2543126940727234,
0.5238533020019531,
-0.0031384113244712353,
-0.30976834893226624,
-0.01024184376001358,
0.11789079010486603,
-0.4114038348197937,
-0.20153804123401642,
-0.12549343705177307,
-0.9145251512527466,
0.023426208645105362,
0.154755637049675,
0.38824182748794556,
-0.2030116766691208,
-0.24010780453681946,
-0.15415121614933014,
0.40873751044273376,
0.26079463958740234,
-0.23199030756950378,
0.03529583662748337,
-0.2424590289592743,
-0.47485068440437317,
0.5546305179595947,
0.7905341386795044,
-0.3118182122707367,
-0.1401614397764206,
-0.28080078959465027,
0.1250012069940567,
-0.42660048604011536,
-0.2009226530790329,
0.1528434157371521,
-0.2522462010383606,
-0.22771143913269043,
0.8162387013435364,
-0.297292560338974,
0.5634133815765381,
-0.2428283840417862,
0.014885258860886097,
-0.2074993997812271,
0.12770774960517883,
0.024302860721945763,
0.08892998099327087,
-0.08891461044549942,
0.7671605944633484,
-0.38915714621543884,
0.26049739122390747,
0.6963056921958923,
0.32914841175079346,
-0.7824839949607849,
-0.6506966352462769,
-5.462274551391602,
0.03946598246693611,
0.2679845988750458,
-0.1591898649930954,
1.3099461793899536,
0.3662857711315155,
0.5913036465644836,
-0.0027341179084032774,
0.14034579694271088,
0.05425184965133667,
-0.18345250189304352,
-0.13955150544643402,
-0.3526756763458252,
0.8302079439163208,
0.6330258250236511,
0.24559423327445984,
0.0030971034429967403,
-0.29124337434768677,
0.4565775692462921,
0.5551505088806152,
-0.2925916314125061,
-0.3846234977245331,
-0.058181822299957275,
0.07429865747690201,
-0.44204941391944885,
-0.0000897608624654822,
-0.5287339091300964,
-0.1944345086812973,
-0.9510551691055298,
-0.09810218960046768,
-0.5002471804618835,
0.05180243402719498,
-0.47738248109817505,
-0.08729176968336105,
-0.2774742841720581,
-0.21237178146839142,
0.426209419965744,
-0.4955432713031769,
0.3179643750190735,
-0.5127843022346497,
-0.40286749601364136,
0.2254638969898224,
-0.7179651260375977,
0.19150568544864655,
0.43596020340919495,
-0.0737747997045517,
-0.47430023550987244,
-0.6900531649589539,
0.6426548957824707,
0.3521609902381897,
0.3237801492214203,
0.39086470007896423,
0.5044907331466675,
-0.5119788646697998,
0.7424503564834595,
-0.14300614595413208,
0.23328928649425507,
0.40227121114730835,
-0.45545703172683716,
0.05732337385416031,
0.03051411174237728,
-0.19634388387203217,
-0.03898425027728081,
-0.2861161231994629,
-0.31781673431396484,
0.12637004256248474,
0.18190494179725647,
-0.005954047664999962,
0.5579489469528198,
-0.8321452736854553,
-0.3139674961566925,
0.09108877182006836,
0.32331350445747375,
-1.1337261199951172,
-0.14460527896881104,
-0.19718800485134125,
0.1326771229505539,
0.11499619483947754,
-0.4784976541996002,
-0.40390780568122864,
-0.30112841725349426,
-0.7147127389907837,
-0.212799072265625,
0.2489895075559616,
0.0958874374628067,
-0.3073900640010834,
-0.390960693359375,
-0.04239355027675629,
0.27188530564308167,
-0.6845790147781372,
0.09285800904035568,
0.1609904021024704,
-0.24336351454257965,
0.45909130573272705,
0.19868016242980957,
0.557790994644165,
-0.06765573471784592,
0.8766869306564331,
0.1042368933558464,
0.481728196144104,
-0.5926582217216492,
-0.513799786567688,
0.25624576210975647,
-0.6713154315948486,
0.4186417758464813,
-0.20547708868980408,
-0.002992878435179591,
-0.2201428860425949,
0.3707386553287506,
-0.0880683958530426,
0.10389484465122223,
-0.058355215936899185,
-0.7885738611221313,
-0.061050452291965485,
-0.15031306445598602,
-0.26553159952163696,
-0.020430393517017365,
-0.05000131204724312,
0.16027970612049103,
0.5547926425933838,
-0.058411940932273865,
0.6403289437294006,
-0.15662646293640137,
-0.09674104303121567,
0.10409054905176163,
-0.31124386191368103,
-0.2905077338218689,
-0.28011634945869446,
0.25637301802635193,
-0.4728642404079437,
-0.48023974895477295,
0.7168129682540894,
0.14916899800300598,
0.2550649642944336,
0.27830591797828674,
-0.47637078166007996,
-0.23548071086406708,
-0.13739241659641266,
-0.3438691794872284,
0.1852533519268036,
-0.007513966877013445,
-0.7249488234519958,
0.07831382006406784,
0.7231745719909668,
0.25771284103393555,
-0.4865739345550537,
0.15281769633293152,
0.49225327372550964,
0.20680229365825653,
0.9733381867408752,
0.5332021713256836,
-0.35235244035720825,
0.6944625377655029,
-0.4919348955154419,
-0.612531304359436,
-0.12204938381910324,
-0.5730271339416504,
-0.1422455757856369,
0.03771807625889778,
-0.2178264856338501,
0.16693000495433807,
-0.0034214043989777565,
-0.5344961881637573,
0.3119160234928131,
0.16185906529426575,
-0.08612550050020218,
-0.08730630576610565,
-0.3213917016983032,
-0.25119391083717346,
0.5451239347457886,
-0.6732133626937866,
-0.3596149981021881,
-0.15557944774627686,
0.4567321240901947,
0.4665358066558838,
0.3268182575702667,
-0.5590141415596008,
0.021872494369745255,
-0.18096596002578735,
-0.16198210418224335,
0.25031816959381104,
0.17860078811645508,
-1.0281912088394165,
0.050937529653310776,
0.20453785359859467,
-0.7487515211105347,
-0.6579949259757996,
-0.6339778304100037,
-0.01446970272809267,
-0.5638415217399597,
0.3915061950683594,
0.28140366077423096,
0.5759175419807434,
0.4226051867008209,
-0.5528251528739929,
-0.020730463787913322,
0.24232082068920135,
0.13772334158420563,
0.27003514766693115,
0.03841405361890793,
-0.39982160925865173,
0.03478262573480606,
-0.6498291492462158,
-0.4050348699092865,
0.8241788744926453,
-0.9686809182167053,
-0.29394808411598206,
0.1067715510725975,
-0.15170489251613617,
0.6696479916572571,
-0.003913801163434982,
-0.5210250616073608,
0.06815217435359955,
-0.2519484758377075,
-0.5321470499038696,
0.2688051760196686,
0.4342339336872101,
0.20866592228412628,
0.2216969132423401,
-0.4464409053325653,
-0.4995541572570801,
-0.8535382151603699,
-0.012846611440181732,
0.21841973066329956,
-0.9281522035598755,
-0.35007864236831665,
0.4309646189212799,
-0.04567962884902954,
0.6669995784759521,
-0.38018980622291565,
0.23770581185817719,
-0.13835307955741882,
0.3234449625015259,
0.3233686685562134,
-0.26264113187789917,
0.21839916706085205,
0.2903245687484741,
0.027418380603194237,
0.06589878350496292,
0.1737813651561737,
0.9968202114105225,
1.2768598794937134,
0.18454158306121826,
0.0787808895111084,
-0.0753248929977417,
0.4910632371902466,
0.20083492994308472,
-0.7766808867454529,
-0.013951246626675129,
-0.00989857129752636,
0.4329969882965088,
0.4482682943344116,
-0.4154539406299591,
0.16073298454284668,
0.10412131249904633,
-0.49662667512893677,
0.11470084637403488,
-0.11886364221572876,
0.04507005959749222,
-0.06224796175956726,
0.2207287847995758,
0.36216530203819275,
0.15201188623905182,
-0.15590572357177734,
-0.2143624722957611,
0.07970084249973297,
-0.3043422996997833,
-0.13169601559638977,
0.44414404034614563,
-0.3916195034980774,
-0.24657727777957916,
0.10207725316286087,
-0.18594765663146973,
0.4509453773498535,
-0.024184085428714752,
0.11775863170623779,
0.41415923833847046,
-0.5710944533348083,
0.5512781739234924,
-0.2001989334821701,
-0.2995520234107971,
0.5971963405609131,
0.3568762540817261,
-0.736858069896698,
-0.1463901400566101,
-0.7034527063369751,
0.39443308115005493,
-0.345355749130249,
0.058262355625629425,
0.15953050553798676,
-0.06698619574308395,
0.6481284499168396,
0.07406571507453918,
0.12790903449058533,
-0.43938449025154114,
-0.32291916012763977,
-0.4393898844718933,
1.138274073600769,
-0.7739196419715881,
-0.07976911216974258,
-0.11206977814435959,
-0.02953028306365013,
0.5080285668373108,
-0.17454148828983307,
0.032726991921663284,
-0.16299229860305786,
0.3882235586643219,
-1.0419394969940186,
-0.3201580047607422,
0.4633825719356537,
0.5190268754959106,
-0.44645485281944275,
0.23824012279510498,
0.6547595858573914,
-0.45070865750312805,
-0.1190156489610672,
1.0396729707717896,
-0.3421329855918884,
-0.13026559352874756,
0.07127019017934799,
-0.23997731506824493,
-0.19893866777420044,
0.18249765038490295,
-0.8235493898391724,
0.25482648611068726,
1.0530675649642944,
0.5254567861557007,
0.10878755897283554,
-0.05348799377679825,
0.4360613524913788,
0.22776205837726593,
-0.8988952040672302,
0.36421671509742737,
0.15208317339420319,
0.27217987179756165,
-0.5312836170196533,
0.7130530476570129,
0.32575806975364685,
0.1822434663772583,
0.2294592559337616,
-0.39058569073677063,
0.47681593894958496,
0.03138304129242897,
-0.025309870019555092,
0.1247129812836647,
0.15237180888652802,
0.06102992594242096,
0.26156479120254517,
-0.7403199672698975,
-0.21965962648391724,
0.5086713433265686,
0.2872817814350128,
0.20978675782680511,
-0.4387074410915375,
0.9236700534820557,
-0.38530248403549194,
0.23946815729141235,
-0.2727072238922119,
-0.09631084650754929,
0.3933091461658478,
0.13446594774723053,
-0.059890300035476685,
0.8852348923683167,
0.2648850381374359,
-0.2998337745666504,
-0.04506967216730118,
0.2135169506072998,
-0.5278855562210083,
0.4921468198299408,
0.6226681470870972,
-0.11898624897003174,
-0.03711457550525665,
-0.2573547661304474,
0.3105751872062683,
0.27114757895469666,
-0.2642442584037781,
0.5219230651855469,
-0.37879353761672974,
-0.3752177059650421,
-0.00019446741498541087,
0.07036814838647842,
0.16283470392227173,
-0.26374149322509766,
-0.26089078187942505,
0.575802206993103,
0.01782236434519291,
-0.520758867263794,
0.18918724358081818,
-0.3212290108203888,
-0.06945671141147614,
0.23507770895957947,
-0.6465619802474976,
-0.5894347429275513,
0.33928367495536804,
-0.9504103660583496,
0.06835220754146576,
-0.5848395228385925,
0.9874697327613831,
0.5774982571601868,
-0.5572912096977234,
0.6983135342597961,
1.0763949155807495,
0.0908016487956047,
0.3584870994091034,
0.24137257039546967,
0.1253807097673416,
-0.3643551468849182,
-0.22940431535243988,
-0.916107177734375,
0.5122472643852234,
-0.1397130787372589,
0.13417160511016846,
-0.04774664714932442,
0.04375823959708214,
-0.4347057044506073,
-0.35610005259513855,
0.37808021903038025,
0.10081563144922256,
0.22153489291667938,
-0.0681287944316864,
0.30873584747314453,
0.24597615003585815,
0.17579157650470734,
-0.43732258677482605,
-0.3777520954608917,
0.6296558380126953,
0.42465513944625854,
-0.45266544818878174,
-0.4232887625694275,
0.34245529770851135,
-0.02937684766948223,
0.6111448407173157,
-0.4089120924472809,
-0.3992002010345459,
-0.4026469588279724,
-0.34404391050338745,
0.44423970580101013,
0.7655647397041321,
0.4702914357185364,
-0.2668313980102539,
0.6156809329986572,
0.4327538013458252,
0.4039109945297241,
0.19219793379306793,
0.001605106284841895,
-1.0390721559524536,
0.06184131279587746,
-0.2949701249599457,
0.07353603094816208,
0.18548010289669037,
-0.08518891036510468,
-0.3807884752750397,
0.24501200020313263,
-0.43275943398475647,
-0.1652975231409073,
0.32576262950897217,
0.04445018991827965,
0.1701408475637436,
0.23878587782382965,
0.08038713037967682
] |
241510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi%20phenomenon | Phi phenomenon | The term phi phenomenon is used in a narrow sense for an apparent motion that is observed if two nearby optical stimuli are presented in alternation with a relatively high frequency. In contrast to beta movement, seen at lower frequencies, the stimuli themselves do not appear to move. Instead, a diffuse, amorphous shadowlike something seems to jump in front of the stimuli and occlude them temporarily. This shadow seems to have nearly the color of the background. Max Wertheimer first described this form of apparent movement in his habilitation thesis, published 1912, marking the birth of Gestalt psychology.
In a broader sense, particularly if the plural form phi phenomena is used, it applies also to all apparent movements that can be seen if two nearby optical stimuli are presented in alternation. This includes especially beta movement, which has been regarded as the illusion of motion in cinema and animation, although it can be argued that beta movement indicates long-range apparent motion rather than the short-range apparent motion seen in film. Actually, Wertheimer applied the term "φ-phenomenon" to all apparent movements described in his thesis when he introduced the term in 1912, the objectless movement he called "pure φ". Nevertheless, some commentators assert that he reserved the Greek letter φ for pure, objectless movement.
Experimental demonstration
Wertheimer's classic experiments used two light lines or curves repeatedly presented one after the other using a tachistoscope. If certain, relatively short, intervals between stimuli were used, and the distance between the stimuli was suitable, then his subjects (who happened to be his colleagues Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka) reported seeing pure "objectless" motion.
However, it turns out to be difficult to demonstrate phi stably and convincingly. To facilitate demonstrating the phenomenon, 21st-century psychologists designed a more vivid experimental arrangement using more than two stimuli. In this demonstration, called "Magni-phi," identical disks are arranged in a circle and, in a rapid sequence, one of the disks is hidden in clockwise or counter-clockwise order. This makes it easier to observe the kind of shadow-like movement Wertheimer discovered. The Magni-phi demonstration is robust to changes of parameters such as timing, size, intensity, number of disks, and viewing distance.
Furthermore, the phenomenon may be observed more reliably even with only two elements if a negative interstimulus interval (ISI) is used (that is, if the periods during which the two elements are visible overlap slightly). In that case, the viewer may see the two objects as stationary and suppose unconsciously that the reappearance of the stimulus on one side means that the object previously displayed in that position has reappeared and not, as observed with beta movement, that the object from the opposite side has just moved to a new position. The crucial factor for this perception is the shortness of discontinuity of the stimulus on each side. This is supported by the observation that two parameters have to be chosen properly to produce the pure phi phenomenon: first the absolute duration of the gap on each side must not exceed about 150 ms., and second, the duration of the gap must not exceed 40% of the stimulus period.
History of research
In his 1912 thesis, Wertheimer introduced the symbol φ (phi) in the following way:
Besides the "optimal movement" (later called beta movement) and partial movements of both objects, Wertheimer described a phenomenon he called "pure movement." Concerning this, he summarized the descriptions of his test subjects as follows:
Wertheimer attributed much importance to these observations because, in his opinion, they proved that movement could be perceived directly and was not necessarily deduced from the separate sensation of two optical stimuli in slightly different places at slightly different times. This aspect of his thesis was an important trigger in launching Gestalt psychology.
Starting in the mid-20th century, confusion arose in the scientific literature as to exactly what the phi phenomenon was. One reason could be that the anglophone scientists had difficulties understanding Wertheimer's thesis, which was published in German. Wertheimer's writing style is also idiosyncratic. Furthermore, Wertheimer's thesis does not specify precisely under which parameters "pure movement" was observed. Moreover, it is difficult to reproduce the phenomenon. Edwin Boring's influential history of the psychology of sensation and perception, first published in 1942, contributed to this confusion. Boring listed the phenomena Wertheimer had observed and sorted them by the length of the interstimulus interval. However, Boring placed the phi phenomenon in the wrong position, namely as having a relatively long inter stimulus interval. In fact, with such long intervals, subjects do not perceive movement at all; they only observe two objects appearing successively.
This confusion has probably contributed to the "rediscovery" of the phi phenomenon under other names, for example, as "omega motion," "afterimage motion," and "shadow motion."
Reverse phi illusion
As apparent phi movement is perceived by human’s visual system with two stationary and similar optical stimuli presented next to each other exposing successively with high frequency, there is also a reversed version of this motion, which is reversed phi illusion. Reverse phi illusion is the kind of phi phenomenon that fades or dissolves from its positive direction to the displaced negative, so that the apparent motion human perceive is opposite to the actual physical displacement. Reverse phi illusion is often followed by black and white patterns.
It is believed that reverse phi illusion is indeed brightness effects, that it occurs when brightness-reversing picture moving across our retina. It can be explained by mechanisms of visual receptive field model, where visual stimuli are summated spatially (a process that is reverse to spatial differentiation). This spacial summation blurs the contour to a small extent, and thus changes the brightness perceived. Four predictions are confirmed from this receptive field model. First, foveal reverse-phi should be broken down when the displacement is greater than the width of foveal receptive fields. Second, reverse phi illusion exists in the peripheral retina for greater displacements than in the fovea, for receptive fields are greater in the peripheral retina. Third, the spacial summation by the receptive fields could be increased by the visual blurring of the reversed phi illusion projected on a screen with defocus lens. Fourth, the amount of reversed phi illusion should be increasing with the decrease of displacement between positive and negative pictures.
Indeed, our visual system processes forward and reversed phi phenomenon in the same way. Our visual system perceives phi phenomenon between individual points of corresponding brightness in successive frames, and phi movement is determined on a local, point-for-point basis mediated by brightness instead of on a global basis.
Neural mechanism underlying sensitivity to reversed phi phenomenon
T4 and T5 motion detectors cells are necessary and sufficient for reversed phi behavior, and there is no other pathways to produce turning responses for reversed phi motion
Tangential cells show partial voltage response with the stimulation of reversed phi motion
Hassenstein-Reichardt detector model
There is substantial responses for reversed-phi in T4 dendrites, and marginal responses in T5 dendrites
Phi phenomenon and beta movement
Phi phenomenon has long been confused with beta movement; however, the founder of Gestalt School of Psychology, Max Wertheimer, has distinguished the difference between them in 1912. While Phi phenomenon and Beta movement can be considered in the same category in a broader sense, they are quite distinct indeed.
Firstly, the difference is on neuroanatomical level. Visual information is processed in two pathways, one processes position and motion, and the other one processes form and color. If an object is moving or changing position, it would be likely to stimulate both pathways and result in a percept of beta movement. Whereas if the object changes position too rapidly, it might result in a percept of pure movement such as phi phenomenon.
Secondly, phi phenomenon and beta movement are also different perceptually. For phi phenomenon, two stimuli A and B are presented successively, what you perceive is some motion passing over A and B; while for beta movement, still with two stimuli A and B presented in succession, what you perceive would be an object actually passing from position A to position B.
The difference also lies on cognitive level, about how our visual system interprets movement, which is based on the assumption that visual system solves an inverse problem of perceptual interpretation. For neighboring stimuli produced by an object, the visual system has to infer the object since the neighboring stimuli do not give the complete picture of the reality. There are more than one way for our visual system to interpret. Therefore, our visual system needs to put constraints to multiple interpretations in order to acquire the unique and authentic one. Principles employed by our visual system to set the constraints are often relevant to simplicity and likelihood.
Hassenstein–Reichardt detector model
The Hassenstein–Reichardt detector model is considered to be the first mathematical model to propose that our visual system estimates motion by detecting a temporal cross-correlation of light intensities from two neighboring points, in short a theoretical neural circuit for how our visual system track motion. This model can explain and predict phi phenomenon and its reversed version. This model consists two locations and two visual inputs, that if one input at one location is detected, the signal would be sent to the other location. Two visual inputs would be asymmetrically filtered in time, then the visual contrast at one location is multiplied with the time-delayed contrast from the other location. Finally, the multiplication result would be subtracted to obtain an output.
Therefore, two positive or two negative signals would generate a positive output; but if the inputs are one positive and one negative, the output would be negative. This corresponds to the multiplication rule mathematically.
For phi phenomenon, motion detector would develop to detect a change in light intensities at one point on the retina, then our visual system would compute a correlation of that change with a change in light intensities of a neighboring point on the retina, with a short delay.
Reichardt model
The Reichardt model is a more complex form of the simplest Hassenstein–Reichardt detector model, which is considered to be a pairwise model with a common quadratic nonlinearity. As Fourier method is considered to be linear method, Reichardt Model introduces multiplicative nonlinearity when our visual responses to luminance changes at different element locations are combined. In this model, one photoreceptor input would be delayed by a filter to be compared by the multiplication with the other input from a neighboring location. The input would be filtered two times in a mirror-symmetrical manner, one before the multiplication and one after the multiplication, which gives a second-order motion estimation. This generalized Reichardt model allows arbitrary filters before the multiplicative nonlinearity as well as filters post-nonlinearity. Phi Phenomenon is often regarded as first-order motion, but reversed phi could be both first-order and second-order, according to this model.
See also
Color phi phenomenon
Motion perception
External links
Beta movement and Phi phenomenon.
References
Concepts in film theory
Optical illusions
Visual perception
1912 introductions | [
0.47474291920661926,
-0.11327391117811203,
-0.07141809165477753,
-0.005791407078504562,
-0.31881919503211975,
-0.17325906455516815,
0.24827779829502106,
0.08734627813100815,
-0.3013394773006439,
-0.7504895925521851,
-0.5555973649024963,
0.5888411998748779,
-0.6519173383712769,
0.6015384793281555,
-0.1406974494457245,
0.6618144512176514,
0.4823341965675354,
0.33014363050460815,
-0.8432091474533081,
-0.46296340227127075,
-0.1474016010761261,
0.32671281695365906,
0.22636806964874268,
-0.5938321948051453,
-0.3758571743965149,
0.08397360146045685,
0.16825084388256073,
0.04066869989037514,
0.5236950516700745,
0.36811500787734985,
0.29688289761543274,
0.8538101315498352,
-0.2705416679382324,
0.22254830598831177,
0.04535510763525963,
0.3078676164150238,
0.13662020862102509,
-0.015497975051403046,
-0.1793123036623001,
-0.20309630036354065,
0.16989226639270782,
-0.14734473824501038,
-0.18143805861473083,
0.134950652718544,
-0.6630015969276428,
-0.7019792199134827,
-2.1133923530578613,
-0.15154531598091125,
-0.524840772151947,
-0.2189847230911255,
-0.014735543169081211,
0.16538196802139282,
0.7411519885063171,
0.4997069537639618,
-0.6280843615531921,
0.4959937632083893,
-0.87656569480896,
-0.21912512183189392,
0.6210339665412903,
-0.4800444543361664,
0.5845894813537598,
-0.15740177035331726,
-0.37298205494880676,
0.02644585818052292,
-0.35152146220207214,
0.584223210811615,
0.268547385931015,
0.5938562750816345,
-0.26493939757347107,
-0.40994518995285034,
-0.011999269016087055,
0.04113396629691124,
-0.08864997327327728,
0.31596577167510986,
-0.6721292734146118,
0.5235715508460999,
0.5867373943328857,
0.23927749693393707,
-0.032113831490278244,
-0.1166229397058487,
-0.08033247292041779,
0.10395593196153641,
0.5901259779930115,
-0.06255022436380386,
-0.16278012096881866,
-0.1111878901720047,
-0.6089742183685303,
0.5835773348808289,
0.15600688755512238,
0.7840390801429749,
0.14701427519321442,
-0.4312083423137665,
0.7628067135810852,
0.4880982041358948,
0.13734377920627594,
0.21657060086727142,
0.0517348013818264,
-0.891417920589447,
0.18308481574058533,
0.39199042320251465,
0.1684538573026657,
-0.21232755482196808,
0.3829581141471863,
0.16855449974536896,
0.3411290943622589,
-0.13385829329490662,
-0.30654898285865784,
-0.9531238675117493,
-0.11749078333377838,
-0.589652955532074,
-1.3049259185791016,
0.3431684970855713,
-0.05032344534993172,
-0.271308034658432,
-0.5203185081481934,
-0.12373509258031845,
0.4874317944049835,
0.31939560174942017,
-0.16191519796848297,
-0.13981123268604279,
0.14795368909835815,
0.8429458737373352,
-0.035486605018377304,
-0.20472238957881927,
-0.04805175960063934,
0.31692951917648315,
0.7284850478172302,
0.7684488296508789,
-0.7737554311752319,
-0.1612233817577362,
-0.23186594247817993,
0.49248990416526794,
0.30847010016441345,
0.12179309129714966,
0.34556886553764343,
-0.38111069798469543,
0.3303297162055969,
-0.025825750082731247,
-0.2604471445083618,
0.3554554581642151,
0.003451228141784668,
-0.38738468289375305,
-1.1698882579803467,
-0.23324431478977203,
0.20638002455234528,
-0.2053316831588745,
-0.14969703555107117,
-0.4562007486820221,
-0.1096598356962204,
0.09776618331670761,
-0.442902147769928,
-0.008065915666520596,
0.14165398478507996,
0.10881556570529938,
-0.38102710247039795,
-0.6645601987838745,
-0.15149745345115662,
0.07055933773517609,
0.1771622747182846,
0.28734734654426575,
0.20410019159317017,
0.016069920733571053,
-0.7060958743095398,
-0.2497054934501648,
0.13040035963058472,
-0.18348456919193268,
0.11604711413383484,
0.1846632957458496,
-0.2892860174179077,
0.4173409938812256,
-0.09778432548046112,
-0.1830950230360031,
-0.11953330785036087,
0.3362460732460022,
0.05666738003492355,
0.19880744814872742,
0.06733481585979462,
-0.3900291323661804,
0.562197744846344,
0.0382191501557827,
-0.7089340090751648,
-0.23315581679344177,
0.3732234239578247,
-0.16346710920333862,
0.4245256185531616,
0.18166306614875793,
0.34809446334838867,
0.26832032203674316,
0.3528926372528076,
-0.16725504398345947,
-0.1640329211950302,
-0.19224980473518372,
-0.08679931610822678,
-0.825995147228241,
1.2864536046981812,
-0.0118574108928442,
-0.27234581112861633,
0.8531275987625122,
0.2712938189506531,
0.23557768762111664,
-0.04451809823513031,
-0.4131774306297302,
0.44786882400512695,
0.5574377179145813,
-0.5937545299530029,
0.40260279178619385,
0.009893417358398438,
0.1869727224111557,
-0.17515885829925537,
0.13802935183048248,
0.668269693851471,
-0.6706641912460327,
0.01887570694088936,
-0.08204534649848938,
0.015826553106307983,
0.22856271266937256,
-0.7909485101699829,
0.16629615426063538,
-0.5755760669708252,
0.3499716520309448,
0.4598627984523773,
-0.2859767973423004,
0.08048246055841446,
0.26875707507133484,
0.4712159335613251,
0.6475050449371338,
0.5192536115646362,
0.19986644387245178,
0.5058733820915222,
-1.124755859375,
0.5118135809898376,
-0.3519061207771301,
0.36914992332458496,
-0.3425290286540985,
-0.35129523277282715,
-0.30823391675949097,
0.4012642502784729,
-0.24341990053653717,
0.06665115803480148,
-0.5660952925682068,
0.018358562141656876,
0.6572774648666382,
-0.6441914439201355,
0.6373946070671082,
-0.36688461899757385,
-0.19712215662002563,
-0.055271804332733154,
0.20336337387561798,
-0.23653298616409302,
-0.20053429901599884,
-0.003283110447227955,
0.6838338375091553,
0.21843698620796204,
-0.7568805813789368,
-0.009571232832968235,
-0.21061356365680695,
0.1292923092842102,
-0.3497397303581238,
0.530573844909668,
0.17557352781295776,
0.10456386208534241,
0.31821322441101074,
0.6268012523651123,
-0.09293666481971741,
-0.46616074442863464,
-0.6330856084823608,
-0.27696970105171204,
-0.2443518191576004,
0.15457509458065033,
0.15335394442081451,
0.5645037889480591,
0.21211367845535278,
-0.28374749422073364,
-0.4205203354358673,
-0.4910508990287781,
-0.5858498811721802,
0.13022302091121674,
0.0972723513841629,
-0.876615583896637,
-0.4204670786857605,
-0.2947443425655365,
0.9313045144081116,
0.5626477599143982,
-0.1923348605632782,
-0.7358928322792053,
-0.26929253339767456,
-0.20268887281417847,
0.29607927799224854,
-0.016947967931628227,
-0.1716710776090622,
-0.7195605635643005,
0.1888636201620102,
0.04045324772596359,
-0.0018922678427770734,
-0.31273531913757324,
0.3690890669822693,
0.23262737691402435,
0.07680843025445938,
-0.01932099089026451,
-0.26235395669937134,
-0.29801055788993835,
0.11269509047269821,
-0.39322730898857117,
-0.332093209028244,
-0.13682423532009125,
-0.5545400977134705,
-0.09821131080389023,
0.7388995885848999,
-5.625581741333008,
0.10186571627855301,
0.43707484006881714,
0.015374238602817059,
-0.18740332126617432,
0.4573943018913269,
1.0183898210525513,
-0.07525832951068878,
-0.2952868938446045,
0.636051595211029,
-0.4173271059989929,
-0.014926603995263577,
-0.44380098581314087,
0.41340819001197815,
0.3689216375350952,
-0.20268632471561432,
0.005607828497886658,
-0.14009875059127808,
0.13935650885105133,
0.342951238155365,
0.022620510309934616,
0.37338486313819885,
-0.12101878970861435,
0.8391921520233154,
0.008677897043526173,
-0.26358261704444885,
-0.2850929796695709,
0.006866601295769215,
-0.18818151950836182,
0.03327738121151924,
0.42012736201286316,
-0.3746791183948517,
-0.3225610852241516,
-0.04852770268917084,
0.036714524030685425,
0.27023956179618835,
0.5590998530387878,
-0.34732651710510254,
-0.15398001670837402,
-0.18208278715610504,
-0.3540794849395752,
0.6829358339309692,
-0.20392471551895142,
-0.3686000108718872,
0.6365770101547241,
-0.14145220816135406,
-0.4059128165245056,
0.020432239398360252,
-0.04676121100783348,
0.3598251938819885,
-0.5124050974845886,
-0.17808468639850616,
0.3011102080345154,
0.1038554385304451,
0.05303654819726944,
0.1871272772550583,
0.32041504979133606,
-0.13112394511699677,
-0.24670034646987915,
-0.1088082492351532,
0.7520424723625183,
-0.4285741448402405,
-0.11504607647657394,
-0.6664930582046509,
-0.0630895271897316,
0.039702028036117554,
-0.8165077567100525,
-0.4403259754180908,
0.8300279974937439,
0.04914610832929611,
-0.027509255334734917,
0.28409045934677124,
-0.07760811597108841,
-1.1820050477981567,
0.23643016815185547,
-0.016165319830179214,
0.14277176558971405,
0.12118875980377197,
0.0010191843612119555,
0.15849687159061432,
-0.5937274098396301,
-0.26227694749832153,
-0.4926188588142395,
0.3212597668170929,
0.3583447337150574,
-0.3930797874927521,
-0.6438894867897034,
-0.30262240767478943,
-0.35159385204315186,
-0.007857938297092915,
0.9262654781341553,
0.13197480142116547,
0.32923921942710876,
0.1608748584985733,
0.10942855477333069,
0.41437581181526184,
0.2860768139362335,
0.43801724910736084,
0.6446712613105774,
0.30970266461372375,
0.13451623916625977,
-0.3843970000743866,
-0.27004873752593994,
-0.3448658287525177,
0.04520641267299652,
0.3708612024784088,
-0.37005987763404846,
0.21485109627246857,
0.8128247857093811,
-0.09172951430082321,
0.047289393842220306,
-0.21529388427734375,
-0.7367867827415466,
0.4653329849243164,
0.23605549335479736,
0.10007417947053909,
-0.035478610545396805,
0.34232455492019653,
0.570915162563324,
-0.15067435801029205,
-0.37748098373413086,
0.2387198656797409,
-0.48714014887809753,
0.32164302468299866,
-0.11427901685237885,
-0.31703731417655945,
-0.7050762176513672,
0.12670443952083588,
-0.1609182357788086,
0.034981075674295425,
0.26416441798210144,
0.3226185441017151,
0.01938461698591709,
0.26676344871520996,
0.0671611800789833,
-0.6329749226570129,
0.35600903630256653,
0.15551361441612244,
0.04655725136399269,
-0.5584538578987122,
0.5994399189949036,
0.14775234460830688,
0.11790015548467636,
0.3709441125392914,
0.9015549421310425,
0.5614250302314758,
0.23994019627571106,
-0.18744130432605743,
-0.6742545962333679,
0.6899321675300598,
0.25674203038215637,
-0.9669174551963806,
0.3052450716495514,
0.1528991013765335,
0.12356916069984436,
0.5782175064086914,
0.11427043378353119,
-0.19239063560962677,
0.0794997364282608,
0.06629785895347595,
0.38077253103256226,
0.2093999683856964,
-0.9096841216087341,
-0.4280781149864197,
-0.2750261127948761,
0.06471440196037292,
-0.9290489554405212,
0.1703321486711502,
0.36549684405326843,
0.5387184023857117,
-0.3013836145401001,
-0.16038456559181213,
-0.7099063992500305,
-0.49416565895080566,
-0.22027648985385895,
0.35152602195739746,
-0.2578819692134857,
0.5960328578948975,
-0.37374958395957947,
-0.5374535322189331,
0.5631062388420105,
0.1493104100227356,
-0.23107704520225525,
0.7667989134788513,
0.8468605875968933,
-0.6083038449287415,
0.07058553397655487,
0.14326874911785126,
-0.3034023344516754,
-0.26534032821655273,
0.29638251662254333,
0.8480779528617859,
-0.05854020267724991,
-0.3179364800453186,
0.22029948234558105,
-0.4920991063117981,
-0.2840609848499298,
0.3242177367210388,
-0.5339378118515015,
-0.4328278601169586,
0.465002179145813,
0.747734546661377,
0.008398515172302723,
0.4654534161090851,
0.29840147495269775,
-0.39606040716171265,
-0.00495273619890213,
-0.2094104290008545,
-0.6900840997695923,
-0.12841106951236725,
-0.5448358058929443,
-0.2028934210538864,
-0.11705022305250168,
-0.030313603579998016,
-0.27532753348350525,
0.39176690578460693,
-0.06425204128026962,
-0.257555216550827,
-0.0627155601978302,
-0.1282820850610733,
0.3614024817943573,
0.11318125575780869,
-0.1858089566230774,
-0.26444211602211,
-0.0897722840309143,
-0.05532459914684296,
0.0897907018661499,
-0.30121347308158875,
1.050036907196045,
-0.5109140872955322,
-0.36730265617370605,
0.02080610767006874,
-0.2599746882915497,
0.026822024956345558,
-0.954470694065094,
-0.4456799328327179,
-0.3885631561279297,
0.11004874855279922,
0.10356415808200836,
0.17096081376075745,
0.08660691231489182,
0.4843096137046814,
-0.05538184568285942,
0.1861313134431839,
-0.30894920229911804,
0.3309731185436249,
0.6885690093040466,
-0.4260835349559784,
-0.6774637699127197,
0.13306847214698792,
-0.03478957340121269,
0.021445490419864655,
-0.4468708634376526,
-0.3926713168621063,
0.6973074674606323,
-0.0637982115149498,
-0.3131024241447449,
-0.4936050474643707,
0.22554107010364532,
0.41008976101875305,
-0.11933548748493195,
-0.45837604999542236,
-0.6508862376213074,
-0.3444494605064392,
0.0804808959364891,
0.4774850010871887,
-0.012618648819625378,
0.08099965751171112,
0.35484811663627625,
-0.06298143416643143,
0.3746722936630249,
-0.5916730761528015,
0.32375818490982056,
0.5921097993850708,
0.2271747589111328,
0.3826873004436493,
-0.4238293170928955,
-0.13596637547016144,
-0.08703050017356873,
-0.47387292981147766,
0.2261093556880951,
-0.10184640437364578,
0.40392017364501953,
0.09604101628065109,
0.5454477071762085,
-0.42785653471946716,
0.27126264572143555,
-0.5012850761413574,
-0.12819448113441467,
-0.10790333896875381,
-0.952088475227356,
0.599619448184967,
-0.01402119267731905,
0.2847384214401245,
0.06371184438467026,
0.4125474691390991,
0.5248318910598755,
0.4201512038707733,
-0.5241531729698181,
-0.521253228187561,
-0.8635815382003784,
-0.10855317115783691,
0.348119854927063,
-0.6094821095466614,
0.36478930711746216,
-0.4108341634273529,
0.3739936947822571,
-0.5536389946937561,
0.17807967960834503,
-0.36425191164016724,
0.09663375467061996,
0.22427412867546082,
-0.1908918172121048,
0.44214341044425964,
0.014276073314249516,
0.11530046164989471,
0.34343239665031433,
-0.36831778287887573,
0.2582147717475891,
0.16389964520931244,
-0.038596220314502716,
0.18239454925060272,
0.8943843245506287,
-0.4168756902217865,
-0.7361015677452087,
-0.020679865032434464,
-0.10325495153665543,
0.3141339123249054,
0.037486959248781204,
0.12440768629312515,
0.7507089972496033,
0.07595370709896088,
-0.25234150886535645,
0.6682237386703491,
0.04447189345955849,
-0.33882030844688416,
0.3428647518157959,
-0.4950835704803467,
-0.9132488965988159,
0.3359478712081909,
0.5667614936828613,
1.0367860794067383,
0.1836402267217636,
0.29888853430747986,
-0.34670424461364746,
-0.0952664241194725,
0.21434172987937927,
0.9104480743408203,
-0.07412155717611313,
-0.20959597826004028,
0.40006932616233826,
0.08040302246809006,
-0.14966320991516113,
-0.2491927444934845,
0.16260936856269836,
-0.19708870351314545,
0.05686216428875923,
-0.3716369569301605,
-0.1643161028623581,
-0.29636335372924805,
-0.20860449969768524,
0.33206379413604736,
0.0670035183429718,
-0.22408300638198853,
-0.18233320116996765,
-0.18355609476566315,
0.24565263092517853,
-0.08656098693609238,
0.17292974889278412,
-0.27413293719291687,
0.368416965007782,
0.25615882873535156,
-0.028479911386966705,
0.5799943208694458,
0.3160352110862732,
-0.035024493932724,
0.32457467913627625,
0.15271684527397156,
-0.22507500648498535,
-0.450528085231781,
0.19889821112155914,
0.583877444267273,
-0.20487724244594574,
-0.4865490198135376,
0.542389988899231,
-0.14879779517650604,
0.2961072623729706,
0.7843385338783264,
0.026956025511026382,
-0.2158154845237732,
0.3569154441356659,
-0.3401380479335785,
0.29197484254837036,
0.2395205795764923,
-0.2414923757314682,
0.12447331100702286,
-0.28219130635261536,
0.4985886216163635,
-0.04969439283013344,
0.023671217262744904,
0.36644819378852844,
-0.36444196105003357,
0.2187894731760025,
0.18359678983688354,
-0.3138786554336548,
0.4348617196083069,
-0.03739945590496063,
0.11766356974840164,
-1.1406033039093018,
0.7231249213218689,
0.4653431475162506,
-0.28711995482444763,
0.13326147198677063,
0.3001669943332672,
0.18784677982330322,
-0.2899923324584961,
0.26259419322013855,
-0.39767637848854065,
-0.39962267875671387,
-0.7045897245407104,
-0.3442683517932892,
-0.29226577281951904,
0.8789604902267456,
0.4094768762588501,
-0.198373943567276,
-0.6886643767356873,
0.4309113025665283,
-0.12715105712413788,
0.2194942981004715,
-0.28485584259033203,
-0.026496494188904762,
0.30428794026374817,
-0.3612065017223358,
0.26330065727233887,
-0.4372735023498535,
-0.8589354753494263,
-0.12378445267677307,
0.5044399499893188,
0.4612780809402466,
-0.010365399532020092,
0.03362317755818367,
-0.32008108496665955,
0.11786513775587082,
0.3279449939727783,
-0.764914870262146,
0.43819358944892883,
0.08545257151126862,
-0.25035664439201355,
-0.43890058994293213,
0.0553540363907814,
0.0943155512213707,
-0.5550053715705872,
-0.04392121732234955,
-0.06713388115167618,
-0.618907630443573,
0.34016725420951843,
0.19425931572914124,
-0.34894517064094543,
-0.45670047402381897,
0.3814702033996582
] |
241512 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frindle | Frindle | Frindle is an American children's novel written by Andrew Clements, illustrated by Brian Selznick, and published by the company Aladdin in 1996. It was the winner of the 2016 Phoenix Award, which is granted by the Children's Literature Association to the best English-language children's book that did not win a major award when it was published twenty years earlier.
Frindle was Clements's first novel; all of his previous works had been picture books. According to Clements, the book originated from the thought, "What would happen if a kid started using a new word, and other kids really liked it, but his teacher didn't?"
Plot
Nicholas "Nick" Allen is a class clown who has been formulating creative schemes throughout grade school. At the start of fifth grade in 1987, he is unhappy because his English teacher is the no-nonsense Mrs. Granger. One day, in an attempt to forestall, Nick decides to question Granger on where each word in the dictionary comes from. This backfires, as Mrs. Granger assigns him an essay about it. From this experience, Nick learns that individuals get to determine what words mean, and when he comes across a gold colored pen in the street, he decides to give a "pen" a new name: frindle.
Nick's classmates really like the idea and soon, every child in the fifth grade starts using the word frindle. Mrs. Granger makes any students who are caught saying frindle stay after school and write lines, but this proves to be a problem, as this causes almost every student to stay after school. The school principal decides to visit Nick's house to end the use of frindle, but the situation is beyond Nick's personal control, and the word's usage cannot be curtailed. Frindle starts to gain national attention, and a family friend purchases the merchandising rights to the word. The word frindle spreads across the nation, and Nick thinks through the trouble that this one scheme has caused.
In the epilogue, Nick is a young adult. Mrs. Granger sends him a new copy of the dictionary, recently updated to include new words, including the word frindle. She includes a letter, in which she explains that she intentionally stood against the word in order to make it more popular. Nick sends back a present — the pen that started it all, engraved with the words, "This object belongs to Mrs. Lorelei Granger, and she may call it any name she chooses."
Awards and honors
The U.S. National Education Association named Frindle one of "Teachers' Top 100 Books for Children" based on a 2007 online poll.
In 2012, it was ranked number 38 among all-time children's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal, a monthly with a primarily U.S. audience.
The book has received more than 35 awards and honors, including among other schoolchildren's choice awards:
Judy Lopez Memorial Honor Book (L.A.), Award 97
1998–99 Maud Hart Lovelace Award, MN Youth Rdg. Award
Prize Cento, 1998, Cento, Italy
Year 1999 Young Hoosier Book Award
2016 Phoenix Award
Film adaptation
In 2015, it was announced that a film adaptation was in development with Mike Karz and Bill Bindley producing and Sam Harper penning the script. Susan Sarandon signed on to portray Mrs. Lorelei Granger. , no further development has been announced.
References
External links
Books by Andrew Clements
American children's novels
1996 American novels
Novels set in elementary and primary schools
1996 children's books
1996 debut novels | [
-0.6370335221290588,
-0.1098286509513855,
0.26747238636016846,
0.10775960236787796,
-0.17411261796951294,
0.2713322937488556,
0.44738277792930603,
0.08821749687194824,
-0.11635810136795044,
0.2500128149986267,
-0.41338634490966797,
0.23190996050834656,
0.023716682568192482,
0.31586959958076477,
0.260824590921402,
0.2031395137310028,
-0.0825204998254776,
0.6945335268974304,
-0.22838203608989716,
-0.3777461051940918,
-0.2419530302286148,
-0.6864588260650635,
0.0005408909055404365,
-0.15754620730876923,
0.6741586923599243,
0.013537556864321232,
0.231421560049057,
-0.050632674247026443,
0.30240535736083984,
0.17509092390537262,
-0.06304093450307846,
0.2666473388671875,
0.2696899175643921,
-0.3936534523963928,
-0.1238437220454216,
-0.24328754842281342,
-0.28449496626853943,
-0.6547459363937378,
-0.4207192063331604,
-0.4120960831642151,
0.16592592000961304,
0.4211708605289459,
0.36149200797080994,
0.17610885202884674,
-0.1405028998851776,
-0.3065789043903351,
-1.3302749395370483,
0.1870797723531723,
-0.46265706419944763,
0.07340601086616516,
-0.5941634178161621,
0.03262735530734062,
0.0578719824552536,
-0.5027416944503784,
0.6385035514831543,
0.4177573621273041,
-0.4975489675998688,
0.019985148683190346,
0.11484362185001373,
-0.2841602861881256,
0.5392237901687622,
0.3038541078567505,
0.5004194378852844,
0.30779290199279785,
0.07299983501434326,
0.7364343404769897,
-0.28494560718536377,
0.3115001916885376,
-0.20660234987735748,
-0.4242452383041382,
0.21085704863071442,
0.0045946198515594006,
-0.04431736096739769,
0.43607911467552185,
0.3109923303127289,
-0.3981679379940033,
0.26565197110176086,
0.3823297321796417,
0.11323908716440201,
0.4785436689853668,
-0.143197700381279,
0.6716524958610535,
0.9264631271362305,
-0.07801133394241333,
0.36843159794807434,
-0.03814833611249924,
-0.3598681092262268,
0.7323038578033447,
-0.10267717391252518,
-0.0069204820320010185,
-0.31223106384277344,
-0.6020501852035522,
-0.35075685381889343,
0.3087393343448639,
0.33761656284332275,
-1.0064094066619873,
-0.3436294198036194,
-0.18266752362251282,
0.039389416575431824,
0.535528838634491,
-0.18070104718208313,
0.44898203015327454,
0.5548452734947205,
-0.09321834146976471,
-0.5943698287010193,
-0.026016872376203537,
-0.2262938916683197,
-0.39848238229751587,
0.20795048773288727,
0.3337119221687317,
0.1714489609003067,
0.42033037543296814,
0.009504396468400955,
-0.06610188633203506,
0.3152371644973755,
1.0325379371643066,
0.2760598957538605,
-0.29943105578422546,
-0.7813634276390076,
0.1979391723871231,
0.2902149558067322,
0.16037926077842712,
0.7733734250068665,
-0.011236222460865974,
0.2670947015285492,
-0.07994294911623001,
-0.40853071212768555,
0.17225153744220734,
-0.5794013738632202,
0.6408985257148743,
0.37572160363197327,
0.8374316096305847,
-0.20881839096546173,
-0.485835999250412,
-0.31512418389320374,
0.024853648617863655,
0.14057213068008423,
0.23509711027145386,
0.057007864117622375,
0.20195050537586212,
-0.48954513669013977,
0.5068392157554626,
-0.5693084001541138,
-0.29449358582496643,
0.046067655086517334,
-0.3509668707847595,
0.10254649072885513,
-0.3142370581626892,
-0.14477504789829254,
-0.37517547607421875,
0.07661396265029907,
-0.29939329624176025,
-0.3848761022090912,
-0.21546372771263123,
-0.2597000300884247,
0.41783320903778076,
0.25166070461273193,
0.4458629786968231,
0.33746832609176636,
0.09656859934329987,
-0.06882039457559586,
0.18788382411003113,
-0.16063039004802704,
-0.12757465243339539,
-0.29979830980300903,
-0.30577221512794495,
0.6842420697212219,
0.2926495671272278,
-0.06190197169780731,
0.404856413602829,
-0.6754944324493408,
0.16930878162384033,
0.44810691475868225,
0.21546807885169983,
0.9477418661117554,
-0.13433460891246796,
0.8994380235671997,
0.09328266233205795,
-0.0269609484821558,
0.04891965910792351,
-0.38724496960639954,
0.3051645755767822,
0.0799698755145073,
-0.3991416394710541,
-0.41187211871147156,
0.10195966064929962,
0.04197851940989494,
-0.16253717243671417,
0.21435236930847168,
-0.13907834887504578,
-0.8338109254837036,
-0.4196544885635376,
0.8584522604942322,
0.1264447122812271,
0.8042898178100586,
0.5472776889801025,
-0.3370380401611328,
0.5540385246276855,
-0.1507081389427185,
0.5505706071853638,
0.21699078381061554,
-0.002613978460431099,
0.5962811708450317,
0.03299494460225105,
-0.6187218427658081,
0.05685582384467125,
-0.1910373568534851,
0.14066964387893677,
-0.12671655416488647,
0.5026110410690308,
0.031192230060696602,
-0.07197186350822449,
0.518554151058197,
-0.14208687841892242,
-0.2682720720767975,
-0.10795571655035019,
0.034139618277549744,
0.2699231505393982,
0.2120969593524933,
-0.2482072412967682,
0.4042101204395294,
0.20082984864711761,
-0.5627990961074829,
0.23314997553825378,
-0.029136251658201218,
0.17397208511829376,
0.5297114253044128,
-0.035790957510471344,
0.48009586334228516,
-0.2316737174987793,
-0.6505406498908997,
0.003649813821539283,
0.43754756450653076,
-0.6151684522628784,
-0.26875197887420654,
0.24779708683490753,
-0.15255774557590485,
-0.32308030128479004,
0.5983129739761353,
-0.04621269553899765,
0.21090799570083618,
-0.19569355249404907,
-0.6108601689338684,
0.40469080209732056,
0.4738147258758545,
-0.033860139548778534,
0.24589093029499054,
0.49475038051605225,
0.20522630214691162,
-0.3936019837856293,
0.3262178301811218,
0.8073681592941284,
0.03907063230872154,
0.07021612673997879,
0.03704928979277611,
0.1192631646990776,
-0.3709951341152191,
0.420888751745224,
0.9733173847198486,
0.47327345609664917,
-0.32807207107543945,
-0.27955612540245056,
0.11387410759925842,
-0.030817320570349693,
-0.18874607980251312,
-0.5345767140388489,
-0.4165244698524475,
-0.6306090950965881,
0.35082748532295227,
0.5886702537536621,
-0.17088407278060913,
-0.021158985793590546,
-0.9816892147064209,
0.23643000423908234,
0.11526452749967575,
-0.6464852094650269,
0.5661981105804443,
-0.27255576848983765,
-0.1681976318359375,
-1.0092519521713257,
-0.033117372542619705,
0.7961590886116028,
0.2642325758934021,
-0.4539165794849396,
-0.13421796262264252,
-0.5368552207946777,
0.5915986895561218,
-0.49706798791885376,
-0.17617350816726685,
-0.11479659378528595,
0.013640805147588253,
0.33756497502326965,
-0.2997370958328247,
0.6116037368774414,
-0.4709339737892151,
0.34321027994155884,
-0.18365950882434845,
-0.03303173556923866,
-0.06531095504760742,
0.04584171250462532,
0.37116941809654236,
0.32724469900131226,
0.007336694281548262,
0.15176261961460114,
0.5813875198364258,
0.5684840083122253,
-0.09603238105773926,
-0.23012953996658325,
-5.8719282150268555,
0.13248251378536224,
0.47844430804252625,
0.07812801748514175,
0.0991639569401741,
0.5632960200309753,
0.15302371978759766,
-0.0893823578953743,
0.35327932238578796,
0.10536696016788483,
-0.11035771667957306,
-0.05179857835173607,
-0.24595575034618378,
-0.0488271526992321,
0.22786203026771545,
0.15568313002586365,
0.4211218059062958,
-0.2971738874912262,
-0.6958446502685547,
0.300292044878006,
-0.26447200775146484,
0.04787534475326538,
0.2992498576641083,
0.15229392051696777,
0.19260819256305695,
0.6953827142715454,
0.07937538623809814,
-0.525114893913269,
-0.465409517288208,
-0.008438666351139545,
-0.1251404583454132,
-0.5124627947807312,
0.33748045563697815,
-0.23700568079948425,
-0.3540879786014557,
-0.19110780954360962,
0.7441391348838806,
0.06288401037454605,
0.6783653497695923,
0.5318015217781067,
-0.04914157837629318,
-0.06174269691109657,
-0.002857876941561699,
-0.29310786724090576,
0.3397868871688843,
-0.48659685254096985,
-0.5512987375259399,
-0.5936793088912964,
-0.3778945505619049,
0.7050041556358337,
0.22978776693344116,
-0.013819658197462559,
-0.2205735296010971,
0.30543214082717896,
0.0648520216345787,
0.2498137503862381,
-0.10381440073251724,
0.02831955812871456,
-0.4585561752319336,
0.16404826939105988,
0.34074869751930237,
-0.027570785954594612,
-0.13222867250442505,
0.32080525159835815,
0.21967969834804535,
-0.23818737268447876,
-0.08468092978000641,
-0.2144787758588791,
0.19852061569690704,
0.13050004839897156,
-0.2727348208427429,
-0.20970503985881805,
0.28661566972732544,
-1.060035228729248,
0.19641447067260742,
-0.3794170320034027,
-0.1456661820411682,
-0.3649263083934784,
0.08786016702651978,
-0.12661060690879822,
-0.02948155254125595,
-0.289848655462265,
-0.421833336353302,
0.535429060459137,
-0.23282912373542786,
-0.7275684475898743,
-0.6309390068054199,
-0.36136800050735474,
-0.3101026713848114,
-0.33521726727485657,
0.6988235116004944,
-0.05872266739606857,
-0.03939759358763695,
0.09260527044534683,
0.2688049077987671,
0.27845293283462524,
0.6448214650154114,
0.17254061996936798,
0.2894773781299591,
0.10728495568037033,
0.34800347685813904,
-0.22630169987678528,
0.7786702513694763,
-0.4171465039253235,
-0.21930235624313354,
0.01428295485675335,
0.0574418343603611,
0.27597755193710327,
0.5317386388778687,
-0.5698379874229431,
-0.24912318587303162,
-0.027117010205984116,
-0.3881881535053253,
0.003708077361807227,
0.3405039310455322,
0.26463815569877625,
0.11039204895496368,
0.45295199751853943,
0.14285174012184143,
0.4772453308105469,
0.24943704903125763,
0.01230277493596077,
-0.2489538937807083,
-0.6037814021110535,
0.00913050677627325,
-0.0036879864055663347,
0.3861260712146759,
-0.4033406376838684,
0.4366118311882019,
-0.037590380758047104,
-0.4456080198287964,
-0.7783619165420532,
0.1584901511669159,
-0.6136168837547302,
-0.2623339593410492,
-0.7359780073165894,
-0.5819884538650513,
-0.5204821825027466,
-0.2191263735294342,
0.2517563998699188,
0.12258916348218918,
-0.27411454916000366,
0.24282579123973846,
0.08043006807565689,
0.11715400964021683,
-0.42484086751937866,
0.34459003806114197,
-0.3240228295326233,
-0.19456541538238525,
0.22756770253181458,
-0.3765249252319336,
0.5000551342964172,
0.8361612558364868,
-0.6781922578811646,
-0.5187509655952454,
0.14377538859844208,
0.32583826780319214,
0.20869459211826324,
-0.1726691573858261,
-0.018261048942804337,
-0.04963615536689758,
-0.4721617102622986,
-0.9612274765968323,
0.20535965263843536,
-0.4054735004901886,
0.938477635383606,
-0.13831578195095062,
-0.42978528141975403,
-0.3276832699775696,
-0.08906161040067673,
0.12974001467227936,
-0.03303645923733711,
-0.2376391738653183,
0.6243236660957336,
-0.12696368992328644,
0.4979524612426758,
-0.2681787610054016,
-0.9789155721664429,
0.1437264382839203,
-0.296786904335022,
-0.6967602968215942,
-0.32543471455574036,
-0.006799505557864904,
0.3120371401309967,
0.557746171951294,
-0.8371905088424683,
0.08934400975704193,
-0.13261441886425018,
-0.8483566641807556,
0.44558003544807434,
-0.14932440221309662,
0.5865383744239807,
0.4703496992588043,
0.19206120073795319,
-0.6115562319755554,
-0.3070236146450043,
-0.11589793115854263,
0.14830893278121948,
0.17675870656967163,
-0.27505409717559814,
-0.46396878361701965,
-0.2855665683746338,
-0.33011704683303833,
-0.14533042907714844,
-0.037647075951099396,
-1.005043387413025,
0.08723445981740952,
-0.1373264491558075,
-0.3915422260761261,
0.9030317664146423,
-0.1564418226480484,
-0.4149457812309265,
0.1906622052192688,
0.16227002441883087,
0.09799373894929886,
0.15239877998828888,
-0.40385228395462036,
-0.4851202368736267,
-0.5390689373016357,
-0.04135742038488388,
-0.5224555134773254,
-0.7324638962745667,
-0.438075989484787,
-0.21036045253276825,
-0.8507903218269348,
0.2850393056869507,
0.12522736191749573,
-0.6865403652191162,
0.25502389669418335,
-0.07957080751657486,
0.1342470794916153,
0.03693987429141998,
0.2736393213272095,
0.3959060311317444,
-0.4241964519023895,
0.561936616897583,
-0.32832515239715576,
0.19713270664215088,
0.1187782883644104,
0.2984967827796936,
0.6642166972160339,
0.3302899897098541,
-0.11311665922403336,
-0.33153820037841797,
0.13819590210914612,
0.28278234601020813,
-0.4187471270561218,
-0.6141303181648254,
-0.5907729268074036,
0.44229188561439514,
0.014395507983863354,
-0.24167577922344208,
0.2791709303855896,
0.11964240670204163,
0.7090256810188293,
-0.5162633657455444,
-0.0567045733332634,
0.17398019134998322,
-0.3623902201652527,
0.01812009885907173,
-0.3590792417526245,
0.7232592701911926,
-0.06740576028823853,
0.47716620564460754,
0.15344290435314178,
-0.13353954255580902,
0.09000515937805176,
-0.5612009763717651,
0.3503495454788208,
0.09066466987133026,
0.03611451014876366,
-0.3228488862514496,
0.5188442468643188,
0.013865171931684017,
-0.5788388252258301,
0.1852865070104599,
-0.36350852251052856,
-0.6102774739265442,
0.14150886237621307,
-0.20700715482234955,
-1.098199486732483,
0.3208123445510864,
-0.4235047698020935,
-0.7800675630569458,
-0.1124272346496582,
-0.19675563275814056,
-0.24015136063098907,
-0.2517699599266052,
-0.034414760768413544,
0.30990496277809143,
0.1026301309466362,
0.324828177690506,
-0.6239813566207886,
0.30999159812927246,
0.4773699641227722,
0.08362173289060593,
-0.17098276317119598,
0.07927481830120087,
-0.7656826972961426,
-0.24742181599140167,
-0.5141472816467285,
0.3049331605434418,
0.3292838931083679,
-0.500902533531189,
0.37931230664253235,
0.19266469776630402,
-0.06526025384664536,
0.22302673757076263,
-0.4239147901535034,
-0.028179695829749107,
-0.012179108336567879,
-0.058549486100673676,
-0.4833829998970032,
0.3927486836910248,
-0.25133588910102844,
0.12959599494934082,
0.2115871012210846,
-0.24478304386138916,
0.3243313431739807,
0.767893373966217,
0.3397084176540375,
0.0010601028334349394,
0.12990054488182068,
-0.156797394156456,
-0.9938700795173645,
0.3613586723804474,
-0.4103858768939972,
0.4154871702194214,
0.7700864672660828,
0.0488513819873333,
-0.15743109583854675,
-0.13002750277519226,
-0.08074329793453217,
0.3246387541294098,
0.029355313628911972,
-0.38499969244003296,
0.4304354190826416,
-0.0873039960861206,
0.058037374168634415,
0.3854922652244568,
-0.05565144866704941,
0.22602489590644836,
-0.17839980125427246,
-0.5219275951385498,
-0.37805527448654175,
0.0013871509581804276,
0.2885587215423584,
0.12157052010297775,
0.10633029788732529,
0.5177605152130127,
-0.1943879872560501,
0.17201121151447296,
0.14753833413124084,
-0.5726343989372253,
0.18263423442840576,
-0.49653467535972595,
-0.2824396789073944,
-0.6148033142089844,
-0.38838210701942444,
-0.3253259062767029,
-0.437351793050766,
-0.19223861396312714,
0.02163630910217762,
0.856732964515686,
0.24644844233989716,
0.6089714169502258,
-0.021320324391126633,
0.2353118509054184,
-0.30194398760795593,
0.3130973279476166,
0.5768070220947266,
-0.17204871773719788,
0.15580560266971588,
0.4703109860420227,
0.16577474772930145,
0.689589262008667,
0.20675019919872284,
0.17884504795074463,
-0.21981659531593323,
0.20551729202270508,
-0.6380993723869324,
0.13252809643745422,
-0.07627636939287186,
0.1547069549560547,
0.2158658802509308,
-0.15720796585083008,
0.07396689802408218,
0.032439664006233215,
0.00807530339807272,
-0.3446924090385437,
-0.04696887731552124,
-0.6766114234924316,
-0.6288219690322876,
0.4636630415916443,
-0.5327785611152649,
-0.16241732239723206,
0.3095959424972534,
1.1116552352905273,
-0.25633493065834045,
-0.17081794142723083,
0.3633978068828583,
-0.10562025010585785,
-0.09393943846225739,
0.15666650235652924,
-0.4654046893119812,
0.3969931900501251,
-0.2887137532234192,
0.31586772203445435,
-0.32401272654533386,
0.3231440782546997,
0.07112717628479004,
0.3520422577857971,
0.07436991482973099,
-0.14366231858730316,
-0.3237779438495636,
-0.9340584874153137,
0.4655292332172394,
0.11475527286529541,
0.5386613607406616,
-0.28341343998908997,
-0.1716630905866623,
0.41691136360168457,
-0.3167811930179596,
0.783105731010437,
0.21427926421165466,
0.34637367725372314,
-0.48576003313064575,
0.5047018527984619,
-0.5572791695594788,
0.21625225245952606,
-0.25291094183921814,
-0.6873093843460083,
-0.4661077558994293,
0.34294113516807556,
0.17253731191158295,
0.07663379609584808,
0.18817493319511414,
0.3175005614757538,
-0.20601315796375275,
-0.35379618406295776,
0.5039278268814087,
-0.04473986476659775,
-0.2723803222179413,
0.327217698097229,
-0.3277396261692047,
0.3546639680862427,
0.3544803261756897,
0.006156809162348509,
0.07136940211057663,
0.29506054520606995,
0.4505767822265625,
-0.1979864239692688,
-0.03464598208665848,
-0.05863792449235916,
-0.23374636471271515,
0.14017131924629211,
-0.18017230927944183,
-0.036180198192596436,
0.37281718850135803,
0.20822249352931976
] |
241513 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incitatus | Incitatus | Incitatus (, meaning "swift" or "at full gallop") was the favourite horse of Roman Emperor Caligula (reigned 37–41 AD). According to legend, Caligula planned to make the horse a consul.
Legend
According to Suetonius, in the Lives of the Twelve Caesars (121 AD), Caligula planned to make Incitatus a consul, and the horse would "invite" dignitaries to dine with him in a house outfitted with servants there to entertain such events. Suetonius also wrote that the horse had a stable of marble, with an ivory manger, purple blankets and a collar of precious stones.
Cassius Dio (155–235 AD) indicated that the horse was attended by servants and was fed oats mixed with gold flake and that Caligula made the horse a priest.
Historical accuracy
The accuracy of the received history is generally questioned. Historians such as Anthony A. Barrett suggest that later Roman chroniclers such as Suetonius and Dio Cassius were influenced by the political situation of their own times, when it may have been useful to the current emperors to discredit the earlier Julio-Claudian emperors. Also, the lurid nature of the story added spice to their narratives and won them additional readers.
Scholars suggest that the treatment of Incitatus by Caligula was an elaborate prank intended to ridicule and provoke the senate, rather than a sign of insanity, or was perhaps a form of satire with the implication that a horse could perform a senator's duties.
Barrett noted, "Many stories were spread about Incitatus, originating most likely from Caligula's own humorous quips." "Possibly out of perverted sense of humor Caligula would pour libations to Incitatus' salus [health and well-being], and claimed that he intended to co-opt him as his priest."
Ancient sources are clear that the horse was never made a consul.
In art and metaphor
Incitatus has for centuries been an allegorical figure when referencing examples of political ineptitude, going back at least to 1742.
Act III of Anton Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard (1904) Pishchik says that his family is "descended from that very nag Caligula inducted into the Senate."
Aleister Crowley's Liber VII Chapter 4, v. 28–30, suggest Incitatus had a deeper significance, reading, "Who wast Thou, O Caesar, that Thou knewest God in an horse? For lo! we beheld the White Horse of the Saxon engraven upon the earth; and we beheld the Horses of the Sea that flame about the old grey land, and the foam from their nostrils enlightens us!"
The life of Incitatus is the subject of Zbigniew Herbert's poem "Caligula" (in Pan Cogito, 1974).
In I, Claudius, Robert Graves wrote that Incitatus was made a senator and was put on the list to become a consul; that eventually, Claudius removed the governmental stipend for Incitatus and his status as senator for lacking the monetary requirements; that later, Incitatus was slaughtered after injuring his leg at a race; and that the mate of Incitatus, Penelope, was used by Claudius during his war with Britain.
In the Ayn Rand novel Atlas Shrugged, a mention of Incitatus is overheard by the newly wed wife of James Taggert, Cherryl. She overhears the conversation of two men apparently discussing her wedding and her husband.
The 2000 BBC Radio 4 comedy Me and Little Boots, by Shaun McKenna, told the story of Caligula (Latin for "little boots") from the point of view of Incitatus, who was played by Leslie Phillips.
In the 2006–2011 comic Jack of Fables, Incitatus talks so much that he risks giving away his status as a fable and frequently mentions his former status as a Roman senator.
The progressive metal band Caligula's Horse is named after Incitatus.
References
Ancient individual animals
Caligula
Animals in politics
Individual male horses | [
-0.10385720431804657,
-0.9323727488517761,
-0.6178079843521118,
0.2719918489456177,
-0.48153042793273926,
1.10161292552948,
-0.154130756855011,
0.7432988882064819,
-0.25657954812049866,
-0.30793508887290955,
0.24661728739738464,
0.618279755115509,
-0.5093786716461182,
-0.07252656668424606,
-0.02460259385406971,
-0.05284453183412552,
0.17778369784355164,
0.3813890218734741,
-0.15174369513988495,
0.14934755861759186,
0.5258493423461914,
-0.3985852897167206,
0.40686437487602234,
-0.10340704023838043,
0.4548827111721039,
-0.15030118823051453,
0.25359398126602173,
0.22202371060848236,
-0.5008514523506165,
-0.14214251935482025,
-0.09689630568027496,
0.4677327871322632,
0.1123017892241478,
-0.1074477955698967,
-0.8629337549209595,
-0.44836124777793884,
0.19231560826301575,
-0.38933566212654114,
-0.2587852478027344,
-0.5139269828796387,
0.08964750170707703,
-0.25643861293792725,
0.2486484795808792,
-0.14757175743579865,
-0.973365068435669,
-0.4135637581348419,
-1.5751545429229736,
0.08057724684476852,
-0.46961238980293274,
-0.5522785782814026,
0.04407212883234024,
0.4282190203666687,
-0.7919516563415527,
1.1466264724731445,
0.044782381504774094,
0.9027632474899292,
-0.6622886657714844,
-0.8030685782432556,
0.09613873064517975,
-0.4293481707572937,
0.43173763155937195,
0.031892552971839905,
0.11888208240270615,
0.5314663052558899,
0.3653540015220642,
0.4978749454021454,
0.053021177649497986,
0.6754060387611389,
-0.05282856896519661,
-0.30656668543815613,
-0.4236944615840912,
0.2083548605442047,
-0.3240082561969757,
0.7469542026519775,
-0.31422898173332214,
-0.41004666686058044,
-0.7367784976959229,
-0.06255437433719635,
0.036565519869327545,
0.40317341685295105,
0.4951084852218628,
-0.154643714427948,
0.7219113707542419,
0.29625171422958374,
-0.014990579336881638,
0.45227134227752686,
0.4644106328487396,
-0.20399297773838043,
-0.17921139299869537,
-0.5115547180175781,
0.1509469449520111,
-0.5629526376724243,
0.03373816981911659,
-0.20381610095500946,
-0.38453659415245056,
-0.0529148131608963,
-0.07185623794794083,
-0.41190922260284424,
-0.1498980075120926,
-0.630469799041748,
-0.5510676503181458,
0.286327987909317,
-0.41707542538642883,
-0.0282664205878973,
-0.9503697752952576,
0.07451131939888,
0.2478473037481308,
-0.7208182215690613,
0.025862455368041992,
0.6831270456314087,
-0.20365260541439056,
-0.47831398248672485,
0.3964167833328247,
-0.5261526107788086,
-0.45033174753189087,
0.15671759843826294,
0.09179583936929703,
0.4124617278575897,
-0.27671921253204346,
-0.14818045496940613,
0.09404660761356354,
0.0213676355779171,
0.6308356523513794,
-0.160171777009964,
-0.34064164757728577,
0.2988673150539398,
0.19220112264156342,
0.13248006999492645,
-0.3083951771259308,
0.4341467618942261,
0.541219174861908,
0.17175136506557465,
-0.44159337878227234,
0.5431010127067566,
0.09118194133043289,
-0.38241031765937805,
-0.04431832954287529,
-0.23630595207214355,
0.07903765887022018,
0.6327950954437256,
-0.22935062646865845,
-0.2228296548128128,
-0.02102634869515896,
0.002473240252584219,
0.5455961227416992,
-0.2079945206642151,
0.43421539664268494,
-0.4857504367828369,
-0.007753306068480015,
-0.37675270438194275,
0.057624850422143936,
-0.2548305094242096,
0.5669112205505371,
0.18251021206378937,
-0.06471354514360428,
0.054975368082523346,
0.13828006386756897,
-0.21576477587223053,
0.28580915927886963,
0.32012784481048584,
-0.08125333487987518,
0.5514925718307495,
-0.36510539054870605,
-0.16865001618862152,
-0.11599944531917572,
-0.15013428032398224,
0.1617952436208725,
0.18977586925029755,
-0.4628858268260956,
-0.13977587223052979,
-0.4056318998336792,
0.23334132134914398,
0.5033351182937622,
0.13960738480091095,
0.31132712960243225,
0.49061012268066406,
0.48170578479766846,
0.23742559552192688,
0.16181963682174683,
-0.6411935687065125,
-0.48161959648132324,
0.5281707644462585,
0.4257500469684601,
0.2791560888290405,
0.5285319089889526,
-0.3360227346420288,
0.26198098063468933,
-0.5563068985939026,
-0.17342478036880493,
-0.7347168922424316,
-0.4891871511936188,
-0.014186473563313484,
-0.20252816379070282,
-0.5826463103294373,
1.0577802658081055,
-0.477638840675354,
-0.6158227920532227,
0.017091693356633186,
0.21797221899032593,
0.6770017147064209,
-0.03062225878238678,
-0.8239203095436096,
0.8778939843177795,
-0.2357397824525833,
-0.3069709837436676,
0.01695752516388893,
-0.004765505902469158,
-0.11773747205734253,
0.35102578997612,
0.5453866720199585,
0.16458724439144135,
0.08213815838098526,
0.14361967146396637,
-0.19415798783302307,
-0.5015990138053894,
0.28360626101493835,
-0.11986199021339417,
0.48682495951652527,
0.1153852716088295,
-0.684830904006958,
0.751237154006958,
-0.4787781536579132,
-0.8038255572319031,
0.5794475078582764,
-0.605006992816925,
0.35123559832572937,
-0.08096925169229507,
-0.9409008026123047,
-0.37517812848091125,
-0.42288264632225037,
-0.20676006376743317,
0.45462262630462646,
0.12988828122615814,
0.18611323833465576,
0.12087687849998474,
-0.30613839626312256,
0.5463428497314453,
-0.33764272928237915,
0.7945350408554077,
-0.47038236260414124,
0.3451177179813385,
0.29708677530288696,
-0.10447143763303757,
0.5453429222106934,
-0.38015833497047424,
0.18695129454135895,
0.5219848155975342,
1.0119372606277466,
-0.028438018634915352,
-0.3969941735267639,
0.3603864014148712,
0.3171914517879486,
0.3598878085613251,
-0.13374245166778564,
-0.18674302101135254,
-0.6932368874549866,
0.43043580651283264,
0.21530736982822418,
0.544370710849762,
0.22501209378242493,
-0.5257195234298706,
-0.07456996291875839,
0.4657178223133087,
0.3197670876979828,
0.5540158748626709,
-0.3719780147075653,
0.15948352217674255,
-0.23172466456890106,
-0.22830714285373688,
-0.07106219977140427,
0.3073095977306366,
0.7183076739311218,
-0.36193394660949707,
0.2007143199443817,
0.08541591465473175,
-0.5110271573066711,
-0.509044349193573,
0.3783349096775055,
-0.30718693137168884,
-0.4785369336605072,
-0.43242165446281433,
0.5522138476371765,
0.0016954380553215742,
-0.7713188529014587,
-0.4440058767795563,
-0.2734019458293915,
-0.2926045060157776,
-0.3731898069381714,
-0.31545621156692505,
-0.08504119515419006,
0.015204987488687038,
0.2498806118965149,
-0.30565083026885986,
0.5606592893600464,
-0.8022714257240295,
0.1879706084728241,
0.06576894223690033,
-0.21874579787254333,
0.7065889835357666,
-0.2993227541446686,
-0.11704079806804657,
0.8040264844894409,
0.3066609501838684,
0.1877971738576889,
0.6115090847015381,
-0.4528937339782715,
-0.13282138109207153,
0.07342901080846786,
-5.589121341705322,
-0.0038059460930526257,
-0.012613893486559391,
-0.11032798141241074,
0.4313642382621765,
0.6207361817359924,
-0.06869978457689285,
0.1522062122821808,
-0.06660226732492447,
-0.48795512318611145,
0.3630943298339844,
-0.0034536831080913544,
0.014809594489634037,
0.25293615460395813,
0.3482348322868347,
-0.06278710812330246,
0.08987908065319061,
0.24579763412475586,
-0.07024563103914261,
0.479830265045166,
0.19989700615406036,
0.15302176773548126,
-0.12030856311321259,
0.21126006543636322,
0.032041631639003754,
0.008753051050007343,
-0.8281468152999878,
0.26047760248184204,
-0.36587926745414734,
0.48431456089019775,
0.008947125636041164,
0.15507858991622925,
0.017983388155698776,
-0.19192971289157867,
-0.2544960081577301,
-0.10039345920085907,
0.6303619146347046,
-0.027460414916276932,
0.5029931664466858,
0.15760758519172668,
-0.18493734300136566,
-0.1308884471654892,
0.3024479150772095,
-0.21673820912837982,
-0.2768899202346802,
0.42567864060401917,
0.13974985480308533,
0.1901395469903946,
-0.13065484166145325,
0.41117754578590393,
0.28510579466819763,
0.27644404768943787,
-0.5553022027015686,
0.46606722474098206,
0.4178816080093384,
-0.23392219841480255,
0.35897767543792725,
0.49232858419418335,
-0.2729470431804657,
0.519119918346405,
0.0954911857843399,
-0.766372561454773,
-0.4025828540325165,
-0.13616226613521576,
0.020608285441994667,
-0.03100442886352539,
0.10157648473978043,
0.06972076743841171,
0.19655084609985352,
0.5870088338851929,
0.19498631358146667,
0.4959040880203247,
0.30011287331581116,
-0.777995228767395,
0.502528190612793,
-0.29387059807777405,
0.009463454596698284,
0.07556550949811935,
0.05920704826712608,
0.12387052178382874,
-0.24109631776809692,
-0.7114590406417847,
-0.010996594093739986,
-0.4061428904533386,
0.586900532245636,
0.05811125040054321,
0.35833391547203064,
-0.1639937460422516,
-0.0007671354105696082,
-0.4531441628932953,
0.7996074557304382,
-0.7908239960670471,
0.12046018242835999,
-0.30649831891059875,
0.1881149411201477,
0.47183874249458313,
-0.64406418800354,
0.12661276757717133,
0.48564639687538147,
0.1848403960466385,
0.5741528272628784,
0.5476490259170532,
-0.15985509753227234,
-0.05791344866156578,
-0.4810333847999573,
-1.0081719160079956,
-0.2905942499637604,
-0.03844374418258667,
0.5461037158966064,
-0.41363292932510376,
0.1353224515914917,
-0.40474748611450195,
-0.550681471824646,
-0.5972906351089478,
-0.016890157014131546,
0.5593159794807434,
0.039190005511045456,
0.5794199705123901,
1.0046162605285645,
0.27752289175987244,
0.2506057024002075,
0.2104284018278122,
-0.9630388617515564,
-0.4114534556865692,
0.14141486585140228,
0.41601666808128357,
-0.06991787999868393,
-0.1636454164981842,
0.056700728833675385,
-0.32874470949172974,
0.2681947350502014,
-0.6457338929176331,
-0.3915698230266571,
0.29227375984191895,
0.25421497225761414,
-0.12314359098672867,
-0.39112570881843567,
0.03652052581310272,
-0.21816091239452362,
-0.027380669489502907,
-0.38530147075653076,
0.0613032802939415,
-0.28751128911972046,
0.050756052136421204,
0.7282116413116455,
0.09162317216396332,
-0.39047348499298096,
-0.17247147858142853,
-0.5105361938476562,
0.21592655777931213,
0.709418773651123,
-0.150328129529953,
-0.04125942662358284,
-0.5504903197288513,
-0.39919012784957886,
-0.014737864024937153,
0.08556419610977173,
0.2572088837623596,
-0.18454378843307495,
-0.40529730916023254,
-0.323862224817276,
-0.26790735125541687,
-0.9317126274108887,
-0.3886491358280182,
0.2893821597099304,
0.3112363815307617,
0.10486763715744019,
-1.3969404697418213,
-0.21153824031352997,
0.34155192971229553,
-0.04758426547050476,
-0.0655645951628685,
-0.011543442495167255,
0.2050165981054306,
0.11332002282142639,
-0.009105982258915901,
-0.23551364243030548,
-0.21857516467571259,
0.38224801421165466,
0.616889238357544,
-0.3937738835811615,
0.5651504993438721,
0.15348581969738007,
-0.2366141825914383,
0.48073700070381165,
-0.7316541075706482,
-0.25194430351257324,
-0.11523914337158203,
-0.8301295042037964,
0.5080259442329407,
-0.1322234570980072,
0.5474796295166016,
-0.15456454455852509,
0.13480907678604126,
-0.48143550753593445,
0.25082096457481384,
-0.3350341320037842,
0.22997219860553741,
-0.1511109471321106,
0.09030172973871231,
-0.37097373604774475,
0.399324893951416,
-0.22584331035614014,
-0.4181324243545532,
-0.31899550557136536,
0.2756618559360504,
0.297611266374588,
-0.30981913208961487,
-0.4934147298336029,
0.5935441851615906,
-0.13510142266750336,
-0.8465259075164795,
0.008063098415732384,
0.8160226941108704,
0.022083371877670288,
0.6938381791114807,
-0.6614011526107788,
-0.27516424655914307,
-0.17979063093662262,
0.047187913209199905,
-0.4716172218322754,
-0.339192271232605,
-0.5735558867454529,
-0.10052135586738586,
-0.12807004153728485,
0.15387149155139923,
0.1168602705001831,
-0.49469155073165894,
0.34860652685165405,
-0.2969089150428772,
0.42005249857902527,
-0.2883068323135376,
0.21562819182872772,
0.1392001062631607,
0.34172460436820984,
-0.4006810188293457,
0.4657507836818695,
-0.3100605309009552,
-0.07842715829610825,
-0.29517582058906555,
0.7663407325744629,
0.6350107789039612,
0.12168542295694351,
0.07650114595890045,
-0.10621583461761475,
0.4729973077774048,
-0.02073083445429802,
-0.4493718445301056,
-0.23942214250564575,
-0.016691429540514946,
0.27210500836372375,
-0.046541936695575714,
-0.907707929611206,
-0.050746988505125046,
0.0044007073156535625,
-0.6628860831260681,
0.4082605540752411,
0.16230621933937073,
0.17020449042320251,
0.427951455116272,
0.4786110818386078,
0.5344417095184326,
0.696713924407959,
0.33798086643218994,
-0.35837098956108093,
0.3720548450946808,
-0.02550148032605648,
-0.23288489878177643,
0.22257886826992035,
-0.5653161406517029,
-0.17162534594535828,
-0.5024622678756714,
0.43288666009902954,
0.47293925285339355,
0.2868989408016205,
-0.18416720628738403,
-0.21497298777103424,
-0.20341265201568604,
0.4386853575706482,
0.0820297971367836,
-0.39518600702285767,
0.17296916246414185,
-0.28158342838287354,
-0.23071473836898804,
-0.612236738204956,
-0.5651062726974487,
-0.5780526995658875,
-0.21183881163597107,
0.24707430601119995,
0.626271665096283,
-0.23790623247623444,
0.07281344383955002,
0.3114092946052551,
-0.22944192588329315,
-0.42392024397850037,
0.30503910779953003,
-0.29308298230171204,
0.1988276243209839,
-0.5247566103935242,
0.5190112590789795,
-0.7529805898666382,
0.7214634418487549,
0.8528874516487122,
-0.2574720084667206,
-0.28551730513572693,
0.1455117166042328,
0.4330333471298218,
-0.01693383976817131,
-0.22107234597206116,
-0.11439937353134155,
-0.3421856164932251,
-0.44923317432403564,
0.04925675690174103,
0.29776063561439514,
-0.09399557113647461,
-0.7040033340454102,
0.49278777837753296,
0.0957290455698967,
0.036645643413066864,
0.367028146982193,
1.0100072622299194,
0.14503279328346252,
0.19949160516262054,
-0.24877557158470154,
-0.5201040506362915,
0.3191693127155304,
-0.7528861165046692,
0.3327954113483429,
0.14184947311878204,
0.7898648977279663,
-0.19625791907310486,
-0.2210048884153366,
-1.1051826477050781,
0.3523765802383423,
-0.04909611865878105,
-0.781485378742218,
0.4783035218715668,
-0.8745952248573303,
0.3062558174133301,
-0.02849855087697506,
0.43935561180114746,
0.3216869533061981,
0.31991496682167053,
0.4699816405773163,
-0.3063602149486542,
0.4907318949699402,
0.1379975974559784,
-0.7358361482620239,
-0.018316909670829773,
-0.17992568016052246,
0.2075037956237793,
-0.14786916971206665,
0.2697490453720093,
0.1940305382013321,
0.038036610931158066,
-0.3502762019634247,
0.08360970765352249,
0.030249731615185738,
0.260610967874527,
-0.22571872174739838,
0.35343971848487854,
0.35619592666625977,
0.7769451141357422,
-0.7167723774909973,
-0.6295725703239441,
0.5648984909057617,
0.1368868499994278,
-0.5001159310340881,
-1.0790231227874756,
0.16676907241344452,
-0.11605849117040634,
0.13247185945510864,
-0.299943208694458,
-0.011248491704463959,
0.46787402033805847,
0.0389946810901165,
0.9173121452331543,
0.7399911284446716,
-0.007264821790158749,
0.07327044010162354,
-0.5810489654541016,
-0.1665010154247284,
0.06023874506354332,
0.22485172748565674,
0.3332420587539673,
-0.27574843168258667,
-0.18368616700172424,
-0.6424997448921204,
-0.23583701252937317,
0.00012130391405662522,
-0.14588488638401031,
0.08278519660234451,
-0.01679869368672371,
0.11727918684482574,
-0.13666921854019165,
-0.6336141228675842,
0.3919992744922638,
0.7141591310501099,
-0.12873058021068573,
-0.1948108822107315,
0.6830552220344543,
-0.10569538921117783,
0.0777888149023056,
0.1009439080953598,
0.46186238527297974,
-0.47978729009628296,
0.24909250438213348,
0.3979865312576294,
-0.4916575849056244,
0.0710538998246193,
0.4061587154865265,
0.03491532430052757,
-0.3574531078338623,
0.15932229161262512,
-0.5256835222244263,
-0.5327855944633484,
0.4904986321926117,
-0.3392755091190338,
-0.23383267223834991,
-0.30769553780555725,
0.30932188034057617,
0.7810250520706177,
0.15201584994792938,
0.3087952136993408,
-0.17381365597248077,
0.3128810226917267,
0.7991538643836975,
-0.2625836431980133,
-0.6901308298110962,
0.7234874963760376,
-0.6256701350212097,
-0.22772954404354095,
0.07878809422254562,
-0.3560909032821655,
-0.19708772003650665,
-0.009995128959417343,
0.5601961612701416,
-0.03561399132013321,
-0.16752611100673676,
-0.06408771127462387,
1.0225212574005127,
0.2113143801689148,
0.007579570170491934,
-0.6990123391151428,
0.7515815496444702,
0.5987645983695984,
-0.375887006521225,
-0.26207616925239563,
-0.29667648673057556,
-0.1741478145122528,
0.5848883390426636,
0.37284889817237854,
0.5010342597961426,
-0.12516184151172638,
0.21793636679649353,
-0.3798241913318634,
0.2014564871788025,
-0.5378132462501526,
-0.05161005258560181,
0.34112006425857544
] |
241515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worzel%20Gummidge | Worzel Gummidge | Worzel Gummidge is a scarecrow in British children's fiction, who originally appeared in a series of books by the English novelist Barbara Euphan Todd. It was the first story book published by Puffin Books.
The books have been adapted for radio and television a number of times. Frank Atkinson was the first person to play the role on television in 1953, and former Doctor Who actor Jon Pertwee took the lead role from 1979 to 1981 in the Southern Television series Worzel Gummidge, originally produced in the UK (this series was ranked among the top 50 greatest British children's programmes). Pertwee reprised the role later in a New Zealand version (1987–1989). For the series, the character had a set of interchangeable turnip, mangelwurzel and swede heads, each of which suited a particular occasion or endowed him with a specific skill.
In 2019 the character returned to the screen in a BBC Television version starring Mackenzie Crook in the titular role.
Outline
Worzel Gummidge is a scarecrow that can come to life on Scatterbrook Farm. Worzel stands in a ten-acre field. He befriended John and Susan who came to stay during the school holidays on the Braithwaites' farm. Worzel normally lands John and Susan in trouble when he is being mischievous, as he goes into a sulk and becomes a normal lifeless scarecrow. This leads others to blame the two children for the trouble he causes.
The Worzel Gummidge books differ from the television adaption, one difference being that in the books Worzel is married to Earthy Mangold. In the first book, Aunt Sally (his femme fatale in the TV series) is only mentioned in one chapter and the character is an antagonistic bully to Worzel. For the television adaptation, Worzel has a collection of interchangeable heads. In the books, the maker of Worzel Gummidge and other scarecrows is not named the Crowman, but is described as a mysterious figure.
Books
Worzel Gummidge (1936)
Worzel Gummidge Again (1937)
More About Worzel Gummidge (1938)
Worzel Gummidge And Saucy Nancy (1947)
Worzel Gummidge Takes A Holiday (1949)
Earthy Mangold And Worzel Gummidge (1954)
Worzel Gummidge And The Railway Scarecrows (1955)
Worzel Gummidge At The Circus (1956)
Worzel Gummidge And The Treasure Ship (1958)
Detective Worzel Gummidge (1963)
The first paperback version of the first book, released in 1941, has the distinction of being the first story book published by the famous children's imprint Puffin.
Adaptations
Children's Hour
The first broadcast with Worzel was before World War II on the BBC's Children's Hour. By 1946, Worzel was played by veteran radio actor Philip Wade, John by John Clark, Susan by Rosamund Barnes, and Earthy Mangold by Mabel Constanduros. Later, Worzel was played by Denis Folwell, who went on to play Jack Archer in the long-running BBC radio 4 soap opera The Archers.
Worzel Gummidge Turns Detective
The character first appeared on television in 1953 in a four-part series starring Frank Atkinson in the title role.
Jackanory
In July 1967 five Worzel Gummidge stories were read on Jackanory by Gordon Rollings. Worzel Gummidge Again was read in November 1974 (with one story tying in with Guy Fawkes Night) by Geoffrey Bayldon, later to appear in the 1979-81 TV series.
1979-81 television series
Southern Television's production for ITV was written by Keith Waterhouse and Willis Hall, and starred Jon Pertwee as Worzel, with Una Stubbs as Aunt Sally, a life-size fairground doll and Worzel's femme fatale. This was a significant change from the original books, where Aunt Sally is, in fact, Worzel's aunt. The Crowman, who made Worzel and some of his other scarecrow friends, was played by Geoffrey Bayldon (who read Worzel Gummidge Again in November 1974 on BBC1's Jackanory), better known for his starring role as the title character of Catweazle. Bill Maynard also appeared as a scarecrow called Sergeant Beetroot.
Worzel Gummidge Down Under
Television New Zealand and Channel 4 collaborated on a follow-up programme that ran for two series in 1987 and 1989, with Worzel Gummidge and Aunt Sally, still played by Pertwee and Stubbs, relocated to New Zealand.
Worzel Gummidge (2019 adaptation)
Worzel Gummidge is a 2019 British TV fantasy miniseries, and an adaptation of the Worzel Gummidge series by Barbara Euphan Todd. It stars Mackenzie Crook, who also wrote and directed the series, as the magical scarecrow. It was produced by Leopard Pictures (part of the Argonon Group) and was broadcast by BBC One on 26 and 27 December 2019. A further four episodes followed in 2020 and 2021.
References
Worzel Gummidge
Worzel Gummidge
British novels adapted into television shows
Fictional anthropomorphic characters
Fictional scarecrows
Literary characters introduced in 1936
Male characters in literature
Worzel Gummidge | [
-0.4848984181880951,
0.57487952709198,
-0.43920713663101196,
-0.4087481200695038,
-0.3079718053340912,
0.46817129850387573,
0.5224428772926331,
0.5466989874839783,
-0.1526823490858078,
0.23450212180614471,
-0.47080621123313904,
-0.019210899248719215,
0.2031744420528412,
0.7216068506240845,
-0.14190998673439026,
-0.02081439457833767,
0.10001734644174576,
0.9871621131896973,
-0.21246446669101715,
-0.41014257073402405,
0.06994476914405823,
-0.6348835825920105,
-0.19682660698890686,
-0.6088798642158508,
0.7321154475212097,
0.1953602284193039,
0.8482193350791931,
-0.12730346620082855,
0.11707606911659241,
-0.16686518490314484,
-0.2493150234222412,
0.9584255218505859,
0.2934494614601135,
-0.1510794758796692,
-0.00495110871270299,
0.12125308811664581,
-0.1268007755279541,
-0.6037206053733826,
-0.394211083650589,
-0.7276984453201294,
0.457280695438385,
0.7699527740478516,
0.2814927101135254,
0.1667327731847763,
-0.16729651391506195,
-0.49354538321495056,
-2.0453848838806152,
-0.013978682458400726,
-0.32820838689804077,
-0.5024520754814148,
-0.6169965863227844,
0.4376419484615326,
0.6534926891326904,
0.02887442149221897,
-0.08195352554321289,
0.2610468566417694,
-0.5968415141105652,
0.03419046103954315,
0.5131670832633972,
0.5312877297401428,
0.18759270012378693,
-0.004591043572872877,
0.103029765188694,
0.21427592635154724,
-0.27623897790908813,
0.9252939820289612,
-0.11476825177669525,
0.6506408452987671,
-0.2987184226512909,
0.2829185724258423,
-0.7667840123176575,
-0.8838129043579102,
0.43289774656295776,
0.3563433885574341,
-0.5686976909637451,
0.031098758801817894,
0.6919225454330444,
-0.340440034866333,
0.6239256262779236,
0.529911458492279,
-0.0023482779506593943,
0.43978872895240784,
0.9026746153831482,
0.14591993391513824,
0.1370992511510849,
0.28232523798942566,
-0.49548929929733276,
0.2675951421260834,
-0.37449416518211365,
0.7735247611999512,
-0.18990375101566315,
-0.5765085220336914,
-0.13367603719234467,
0.11602787673473358,
-0.023307403549551964,
-0.5918355584144592,
0.31310805678367615,
0.039249420166015625,
0.05251085385680199,
0.3759329617023468,
-0.06068567931652069,
0.8884623646736145,
0.510373592376709,
-0.026993421837687492,
-0.8576502203941345,
-0.42356550693511963,
-0.2049456536769867,
-0.4756307005882263,
0.02001400850713253,
0.35619962215423584,
-0.22041885554790497,
0.5199968814849854,
-0.16702298820018768,
0.37966230511665344,
0.11961491405963898,
0.7074254751205444,
0.3918542265892029,
-0.11399151384830475,
-0.6023331880569458,
0.1210905909538269,
0.30950143933296204,
-0.2583777904510498,
0.45298394560813904,
-0.3679046034812927,
0.2785625457763672,
0.08088084310293198,
-0.4688015580177307,
0.3936840891838074,
-0.49265238642692566,
0.5993454456329346,
0.18299445509910583,
0.9827620387077332,
-0.19419531524181366,
-1.5910661220550537,
-0.1916557252407074,
0.25195425748825073,
0.34928202629089355,
0.738091766834259,
0.5396372079849243,
0.13144268095493317,
-0.3166300058364868,
0.008251200430095196,
-1.4197371006011963,
0.18626785278320312,
0.2085169404745102,
-0.06323952972888947,
-0.11811131238937378,
-0.19847697019577026,
-0.5010634064674377,
0.03218209370970726,
0.08846789598464966,
-0.04029795899987221,
-0.48014259338378906,
-0.5159496665000916,
-0.4539075493812561,
0.27460527420043945,
-0.09909574687480927,
-0.2913670539855957,
0.5422236919403076,
-0.19481244683265686,
-0.4491822123527527,
-0.11812937259674072,
-0.3784850537776947,
-0.07680411636829376,
-0.3740984797477722,
-0.5521789193153381,
0.7676292061805725,
-0.16260108351707458,
-0.19345495104789734,
0.26353418827056885,
-0.5833591818809509,
0.001592550310306251,
0.5369257926940918,
-0.15805189311504364,
0.2913276255130768,
0.2907907962799072,
1.6264361143112183,
0.14574916660785675,
0.3161206841468811,
-0.3031936585903168,
-0.7068092823028564,
0.25815248489379883,
0.45475706458091736,
0.026487430557608604,
0.1736903190612793,
0.26015979051589966,
0.23633384704589844,
-0.12819279730319977,
0.1857975572347641,
-0.16686120629310608,
-1.130327582359314,
-0.2779880464076996,
1.2121148109436035,
0.09157626330852509,
1.0200302600860596,
0.7040127515792847,
-0.13044658303260803,
-0.05369744077324867,
-0.0344388373196125,
0.2989766597747803,
0.17438678443431854,
0.002620435319840908,
-0.12960340082645416,
-0.25879979133605957,
-0.7848300933837891,
0.29313719272613525,
-0.377108633518219,
0.2954854965209961,
0.35141462087631226,
0.45432522892951965,
0.21349729597568512,
-0.3495762050151825,
0.6230260133743286,
-0.2072862684726715,
-0.09729606658220291,
-0.037379298359155655,
0.01649995520710945,
0.10285784304141998,
-0.16308820247650146,
-1.0213261842727661,
-0.2875617742538452,
0.16123050451278687,
-0.6015511155128479,
-0.15370652079582214,
0.40741056203842163,
0.6453352570533752,
-0.18732623755931854,
-0.30008092522621155,
0.25831595063209534,
-0.9307642579078674,
-0.15934282541275024,
0.47055426239967346,
0.4170627295970917,
-0.47549232840538025,
-0.22972989082336426,
0.13143430650234222,
0.17638210952281952,
-0.5000907778739929,
0.612976610660553,
-0.39181065559387207,
-0.15895481407642365,
-0.30002355575561523,
-0.5781027674674988,
0.47196733951568604,
-0.017362015321850777,
-0.0495433509349823,
0.02411273866891861,
0.3745960593223572,
-0.42575785517692566,
-0.11618534475564957,
0.7158790826797485,
0.5757704973220825,
0.40061429142951965,
0.15951088070869446,
0.3823590576648712,
-0.1075381264090538,
-0.3803415298461914,
-0.03898900747299194,
0.9168331623077393,
0.5517950654029846,
-0.09253814816474915,
0.25066208839416504,
0.48385918140411377,
0.1844741404056549,
-0.49493223428726196,
-0.3568460941314697,
-0.03829987719655037,
-0.30909499526023865,
-0.1665187031030655,
0.09425430744886398,
0.025411931797862053,
0.09629189968109131,
-0.2817525267601013,
-0.11321383714675903,
0.1842469424009323,
-0.5202250480651855,
0.3100816607475281,
0.30265936255455017,
-0.10734561085700989,
-0.5890772938728333,
-0.09104958176612854,
0.968984067440033,
-0.39276570081710815,
-0.5249449014663696,
-0.07496494054794312,
-0.44912227988243103,
0.6719491481781006,
-0.6567730903625488,
-0.2213849127292633,
0.2847633361816406,
-0.3033999800682068,
0.6330339312553406,
-0.547442615032196,
0.2426435500383377,
-0.6008156538009644,
0.5831069350242615,
-0.8248966336250305,
0.1303141713142395,
0.06241302937269211,
-0.17667116224765778,
0.4939524531364441,
0.2111445814371109,
-0.5066783428192139,
0.2064441442489624,
-0.40889328718185425,
0.5294299721717834,
-0.6218653917312622,
-0.15164296329021454,
-5.303538799285889,
0.10314235091209412,
0.06189921498298645,
-0.28262796998023987,
-0.13446341454982758,
0.2835772931575775,
0.24364499747753143,
-0.2102038860321045,
-0.4764229655265808,
0.30539003014564514,
0.3746751844882965,
-0.16933545470237732,
0.044183697551488876,
0.44326910376548767,
0.619625449180603,
0.04778366908431053,
0.45585373044013977,
-0.4280553460121155,
-0.2462007850408554,
0.16950494050979614,
-0.2784655690193176,
0.04872683435678482,
0.3662540316581726,
0.25102585554122925,
0.0431988462805748,
0.8056433796882629,
0.04579012468457222,
-0.7498694062232971,
-0.8717160224914551,
0.3673297166824341,
0.6624910235404968,
-0.5922804474830627,
-0.09353319555521011,
0.12648317217826843,
-0.2203517109155655,
-0.006493714638054371,
0.5518770813941956,
0.4978933036327362,
0.5679907202720642,
0.1893554925918579,
-0.11439858376979828,
0.0861879363656044,
-0.20764344930648804,
0.5617887377738953,
0.6180033087730408,
-0.06848444789648056,
-0.3179752826690674,
-0.7430516481399536,
-0.5847200751304626,
0.7981992363929749,
0.3136625289916992,
-0.089902862906456,
-0.08965899795293808,
0.14380057156085968,
0.6020707488059998,
-0.09734971821308136,
0.1437007337808609,
-0.3393491804599762,
-0.8217144012451172,
-0.11545305699110031,
0.38874226808547974,
0.007396523375064135,
0.0047067259438335896,
-0.24630822241306305,
-0.16110704839229584,
-0.2855305075645447,
-0.9066709876060486,
-0.27477502822875977,
0.18762733042240143,
-0.3059175908565521,
0.14971919357776642,
-0.49781277775764465,
-0.06898079067468643,
-0.970747709274292,
-0.10680194944143295,
0.24201883375644684,
-0.2548406422138214,
0.02253483422100544,
0.2410118281841278,
-0.4265076518058777,
-0.09615776687860489,
-0.28916630148887634,
-0.27696892619132996,
0.514029860496521,
-0.21158236265182495,
-0.8275221586227417,
-0.7597136497497559,
-0.058603208512067795,
-0.6570584774017334,
-0.36836114525794983,
0.3026011288166046,
-0.2191350758075714,
-0.39484551548957825,
0.9302434921264648,
0.5434367656707764,
0.4904146194458008,
0.47416549921035767,
0.41743582487106323,
0.19929681718349457,
-0.44180333614349365,
0.10342726111412048,
-0.19844041764736176,
0.5995386242866516,
0.012383266352117062,
0.4152913987636566,
-0.06911817938089371,
-0.1261887401342392,
-0.08854614198207855,
1.2307881116867065,
-0.7114038467407227,
-0.14950674772262573,
0.08078061044216156,
-0.23880834877490997,
-0.20401634275913239,
0.3753160536289215,
-0.047265924513339996,
0.24070528149604797,
0.47807154059410095,
0.2727510631084442,
0.09734653681516647,
0.02046196348965168,
0.42757856845855713,
-0.14803899824619293,
-0.3373233377933502,
-0.4946381747722626,
0.09251563251018524,
0.42681923508644104,
-0.11655095964670181,
-0.22790393233299255,
-0.18968798220157623,
-0.257209450006485,
-0.44267719984054565,
0.14615030586719513,
-0.49837207794189453,
-0.41040363907814026,
-0.41394686698913574,
-0.8360942602157593,
-0.5626687407493591,
-0.6488291025161743,
-0.06278922408819199,
0.07195573300123215,
-0.19320473074913025,
0.34367528557777405,
0.2974245548248291,
1.0380616188049316,
-0.425638347864151,
0.031190792098641396,
-0.40209275484085083,
-0.5130847692489624,
0.40357932448387146,
-0.27374064922332764,
0.21934281289577484,
0.6940094828605652,
-0.8500595092773438,
-0.2679455876350403,
0.1319374293088913,
-0.15565115213394165,
0.34682029485702515,
-0.1128244698047638,
-0.2705874741077423,
0.28374624252319336,
-0.3949284553527832,
-0.3319397270679474,
0.2823377847671509,
0.0827140063047409,
0.31381890177726746,
0.4197033643722534,
-0.4585877060890198,
-0.2017493098974228,
0.41900619864463806,
0.26687484979629517,
0.16138586401939392,
-0.8385612964630127,
0.6692759394645691,
0.2069331258535385,
0.21108490228652954,
-0.2601569592952728,
0.05959181860089302,
0.1744508445262909,
-0.2100904881954193,
-0.5495314002037048,
-0.5580343008041382,
-0.24700382351875305,
-0.2158631980419159,
0.4227637052536011,
-0.2637762725353241,
-0.14480744302272797,
-0.20807446539402008,
-0.9866253733634949,
-0.544334888458252,
-0.048069801181554794,
0.308983713388443,
0.6842476725578308,
0.31656336784362793,
-1.1622854471206665,
-0.5736799240112305,
-0.2620484530925751,
0.11372589319944382,
-0.12633326649665833,
-0.690733790397644,
-0.2255045622587204,
0.14236874878406525,
-0.7522976398468018,
0.33908069133758545,
0.7911586165428162,
-1.344161033630371,
0.12768623232841492,
-0.2042972594499588,
-0.4246675670146942,
0.9196670651435852,
-0.02567942813038826,
-0.17861834168434143,
-0.26433175802230835,
0.41302454471588135,
0.08597732335329056,
-0.6199373006820679,
0.02496246248483658,
0.02158648520708084,
0.12625056505203247,
-0.36601799726486206,
-0.4911450147628784,
-0.25236478447914124,
-0.7063175439834595,
0.1061592847108841,
-0.29576125741004944,
-0.2563987374305725,
0.191615030169487,
-0.6091409921646118,
0.7283996939659119,
-0.6113179922103882,
0.10493884980678558,
0.30271047353744507,
0.4392811059951782,
0.4107663035392761,
-0.27381977438926697,
0.13002406060695648,
0.4137924909591675,
0.545418918132782,
0.6629247665405273,
1.111581802368164,
0.9557884335517883,
0.7379412055015564,
0.17306756973266602,
-0.03986835852265358,
0.0005648998194374144,
0.4784122407436371,
-0.3405023217201233,
-0.6726874709129333,
-1.1032474040985107,
0.29287317395210266,
-0.31591030955314636,
0.12681353092193604,
-0.2514513432979584,
0.21623745560646057,
0.7115049362182617,
-0.5790596008300781,
-0.1628151535987854,
0.13942265510559082,
-0.07078579068183899,
-0.1641397923231125,
0.08643784373998642,
0.5775324702262878,
0.33259841799736023,
0.5070606470108032,
0.3930371105670929,
0.06736558675765991,
-0.26445767283439636,
0.07903335243463516,
0.1284966766834259,
-0.5829460620880127,
0.3423103392124176,
0.0017730878898873925,
0.7556264400482178,
0.10753048956394196,
0.2772183120250702,
0.079871267080307,
-0.29506415128707886,
-0.8098568916320801,
0.2493939846754074,
-0.583958625793457,
0.10695847123861313,
0.35343194007873535,
-0.5023978352546692,
-0.711858868598938,
0.10324341803789139,
-0.6662288904190063,
0.07718594372272491,
-0.028924593701958656,
0.28531843423843384,
-0.1485193520784378,
-0.4472251236438751,
0.40132617950439453,
-0.07444395124912262,
0.32659751176834106,
0.21519555151462555,
0.3392534852027893,
0.06330554187297821,
-0.07642930001020432,
-0.06531943380832672,
-0.39686867594718933,
-0.7477942109107971,
0.5091356635093689,
0.3501623272895813,
-0.30318671464920044,
0.7724238038063049,
0.46051979064941406,
-0.40077027678489685,
-0.19041088223457336,
-0.4771037697792053,
-0.21370983123779297,
-0.13106641173362732,
0.1742563098669052,
-0.4513075053691864,
0.7097612023353577,
-0.26369571685791016,
-0.2208290547132492,
0.4844052493572235,
-0.5426461100578308,
0.33510273694992065,
1.0845056772232056,
0.21359212696552277,
-0.36183661222457886,
0.16018374264240265,
-0.08927816897630692,
-1.05104660987854,
0.4569273293018341,
-0.5778791904449463,
0.5178710222244263,
0.5145658850669861,
-0.2759793996810913,
0.13068200647830963,
-0.29565027356147766,
-0.40556177496910095,
0.49364951252937317,
0.44652292132377625,
-0.43130260705947876,
0.4106377065181732,
-0.5943259000778198,
-0.38628730177879333,
0.5026506185531616,
0.40184906125068665,
0.34591662883758545,
-0.23679685592651367,
-0.1151866465806961,
-0.4880770444869995,
-0.03526598960161209,
0.22432971000671387,
0.42065367102622986,
0.07072845846414566,
0.43755725026130676,
0.13909651339054108,
0.5331794619560242,
0.45076245069503784,
-0.5822007656097412,
0.603196918964386,
0.08151348680257797,
0.44665253162384033,
-0.44108325242996216,
-0.8324477076530457,
-0.03908323124051094,
-0.5523511171340942,
-0.3464754521846771,
-0.2043519765138626,
0.4432375729084015,
0.13695740699768066,
0.23426109552383423,
-0.15124304592609406,
-0.22288811206817627,
-0.23110714554786682,
0.630792498588562,
0.5957069396972656,
-0.16279086470603943,
0.01826801523566246,
0.4613555073738098,
-0.04866734519600868,
0.22399838268756866,
0.14998695254325867,
0.083864726126194,
0.3308990001678467,
0.2118310183286667,
-0.39959290623664856,
0.18207207322120667,
0.35194793343544006,
0.26005393266677856,
0.7987923622131348,
0.008692750707268715,
-0.10800428688526154,
0.20822204649448395,
-0.004763495642691851,
-0.17209862172603607,
0.08109818398952484,
-0.15937656164169312,
-0.7320416569709778,
0.1915217489004135,
-0.24814561009407043,
0.14253847301006317,
-0.1186341643333435,
1.2031742334365845,
-0.49783989787101746,
-0.2562636733055115,
0.3897015452384949,
0.4698217809200287,
-0.33421406149864197,
0.33054062724113464,
-0.5782386660575867,
0.6677249073982239,
-0.10333061218261719,
0.347044974565506,
-0.7705872654914856,
0.26070770621299744,
-0.1438390612602234,
-0.02749015763401985,
0.04840477555990219,
-0.4722542464733124,
-0.4115944504737854,
-0.5067956447601318,
0.006246748846024275,
0.04625629261136055,
-0.016815340146422386,
-0.7923620939254761,
0.14787384867668152,
-0.1325415074825287,
-0.3465801477432251,
0.09027568995952606,
-0.20378582179546356,
-0.081863172352314,
0.18807737529277802,
-0.045400917530059814,
-0.5992752313613892,
-0.15982162952423096,
-0.36548155546188354,
0.11330953240394592,
-0.46645715832710266,
-0.1316634565591812,
-0.31645458936691284,
-0.029395252466201782,
0.7099195718765259,
0.7491490244865417,
0.09820226579904556,
-0.1977325677871704,
-0.01759958639740944,
-0.6361051201820374,
0.3440437912940979,
0.28335633873939514,
-0.8399090766906738,
0.2572540044784546,
0.35208526253700256,
-0.2033049315214157,
0.04319010302424431,
0.4001903533935547,
0.3294070065021515,
-0.0015327249420806766,
-0.32464799284935,
-0.3060574531555176,
0.06812211871147156,
-0.13793013989925385,
-0.2500508427619934,
-0.09664356708526611,
0.3813053369522095,
0.21286942064762115
] |
241517 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch%20Golden%20Age | Dutch Golden Age | The Dutch Golden Age ( ) was a period in the history of the Netherlands, roughly spanning the era from 1588 (the birth of the Dutch Republic) to 1672 (the Rampjaar, "Disaster Year"), in which Dutch trade, science, and art and the Dutch military were among the most acclaimed in Europe. The first section is characterized by the Eighty Years' War, which ended in 1648. The Golden Age continued in peacetime during the Dutch Republic until the end of the century, when costly conflicts, including the Franco-Dutch War and War of the Spanish Succession fuelled economic decline.
The transition by the Netherlands to becoming the foremost maritime and economic power in the world has been called the "Dutch Miracle" by historian K. W. Swart.
Causes of the Golden Age
In 1568, the Seven Provinces that later signed the Union of Utrecht () started a rebellion against Philip II of Spain that led to the Eighty Years' War. Before the Low Countries could be completely reconquered, a war between England and Spain, the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585-1604, broke out, forcing Spanish troops to halt their advances and leaving them in control of the important trading cities of Bruges and Ghent, but without control of Antwerp, which was then arguably the most important port in the world. Antwerp fell on 17 August 1585, after a siege, and the division between the Northern and Southern Netherlands (the latter mostly modern Belgium) was established.
The United Provinces (roughly today's Netherlands) fought on until the Twelve Years' Truce, which did not end the hostilities. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which ended the Eighty Years' War between the Dutch Republic and Spain, and the Thirty Years' War between other European superpowers, brought the Dutch Republic formal recognition and independence from the Spanish crown.
Migration of skilled workers to the Dutch Republic
Protestants were especially well-represented among the skilled craftsmen and rich merchants of the port cities of Bruges, Ghent, and Antwerp. Under the terms of the surrender of Antwerp in 1585, the Protestant population (if unwilling to reconvert) were given four years to settle their affairs before leaving the city and Habsburg territory. Similar arrangements were made in other places.
More Protestants moved to the north between 1585 and 1630 than Catholics moved in the other direction, although there were also many of these. Many of those moving north settled in Amsterdam, transforming what was a small harbor into one of the most important ports and commercial centres in the world by 1630.
In addition to the mass migration of Protestant natives from the southern Netherlands to the northern Netherlands, there were also influxes of non-native refugees who had previously fled from religious persecution, particularly Sephardi Jews from Portugal and Spain, and later Protestants from France. The Pilgrim Fathers also spent time there before their voyage to the New World.
Protestant work ethic
Economists Ronald Findlay and Kevin H. O'Rourke attribute part of the Dutch ascendancy to its Protestant work ethic based on Calvinism, which promoted thrift and education. This contributed to "the lowest interest rates and the highest literacy rates in Europe. The abundance of capital made it possible to maintain an impressive stock of wealth, embodied not only in the large fleet but in the plentiful stocks of an array of commodities that were used to stabilize prices and take advantage of profit opportunities."
Cheap energy sources
Several other factors also contributed to the flowering of trade, industry, the arts and the sciences in the Netherlands during this time. A necessary condition was a supply of cheap energy from windmills and from peat, easily transported by canal to the cities. The invention of the wind powered sawmill enabled the construction of a massive fleet of ships for worldwide trading and for military defense of the republic's economic interests.
Birth and wealth of corporate finance
In the 17th century the Dutch – traditionally able seafarers and keen mapmakers – began to trade with the Far East, and as the century wore on, they gained an increasingly dominant position in world trade, a position previously occupied by the Portuguese and Spanish.
In 1602, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) was founded. It was the first-ever multinational corporation, financed by shares that established the first modern stock exchange. The Company received a Dutch monopoly on Asian trade, which it would keep for two centuries, and it became the world's largest commercial enterprise of the 17th century. Spices were imported in bulk and brought huge profits due to the efforts and risks involved and demand. This is remembered to this day in the Dutch word peperduur, (as expensive as pepper) meaning something is very expensive, reflecting the prices of spices at the time. To finance the growing trade within the region, the Bank of Amsterdam was established in 1609, the precursor to, if not the first true central bank.
Although the trade with the Far East was the more famous of the VOC's exploits, the main source of wealth for the Republic was in fact its trade with the Baltic states and Poland. Called the "Mothertrade" (), the Dutch imported enormous amounts of bulk resources like grain and wood, stockpiling them in Amsterdam so Holland would never lack for basic goods, as well as being able to sell them on for profit. This meant that unlike their main rivals the Republic would not face the dire repercussions of a bad harvest and the starvation it accompanied, instead profiting when this happened in other states (bad harvests were commonplace in France and England in the 17th century, which also contributed to the Republic's success in that time).
Geography
According to Ronald Findlay and Kevin H. O'Rourke, geography favored the Dutch Republic, contributing to its wealth. They write, "The foundations were laid by taking advantage of location, midway between the Bay of Biscay and the Baltic. Seville and Lisbon and the Baltic ports were too far apart for direct trade between the two terminal points, enabling the Dutch to provide profitable intermediation, carrying salt, wine, cloth and later silver, spices, and colonial products eastward while bringing Baltic grains, fish, and naval stores to the west. The Dutch share of European shipping tonnage was enormous, well over half during most of the period of their ascendancy."
Dutch Empire
Outside of Europe, the Republic also prospered. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the Dutch West India Company (WIC) not only obtained a monopoly on the spice trade, their ships also controlled the world's seas. This was very much against the wishes of England, who was envious of the economic success of the Republic. Although they had both fought the Spanish during the Eighty Years War, the two countries were diametrically opposed when the Republic captured a large colonial empire. This led to the Anglo-Dutch Wars.
The prosperity gained from this was accompanied by horrors against the local population. For example, in 1621, Jan Pieterszoon Coen had almost all the inhabitants of the Banda Islands massacred.
For a short time, the Republic seemed very successful in Brazil. The Dutch had succeeded in taking the coast between the mouth of the Amazon and the São Francisco (a river south of Recife) from the Portuguese. Under governor John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen (1637-1644), the lucrative sugar trade was largely in Dutch hands.
Curaçao was conquered in 1634. By 1648, Aruba and Bonaire were also in Dutch hands. A promising colony in North America was New Amsterdam (in present day New York City).
The role that the Netherlands was able to play in the transatlantic slave trade was the result of a series of conquests against the Portuguese. Trade routes of African slaves in the seventeenth century ran largely through Elmina in Ghana to Brazil and the Caribbean Islands. Elmina was conquered in 1637, Axim in 1642. In 1641, led by Cornelis Jol, Angola was also conquered. It is estimated that more than 550,000 people were brought to America in slavery by Dutch ships. Conditions during these voyages were miserable, and it was commonplace for large numbers of enslaved people to die before they reached their destination. In addition to the personal hardships of enslaved people, the trade also massively disrupted African societies. Estimates of the direct profitability vary, but without slavery the colonization of the Americas would have looked very different.
Asian slaves were also traded extensively. The slave was indispensable in the economy of the Dutch colonial empire in the Golden Age as a labor force; in the second half of the seventeenth century, half of the inhabitants of Batavia were unfree.
Monopoly on trade with Japan
Amsterdam's dominant position as a trade center was strengthened in 1640 with a monopoly for the Dutch East India Company (VOC) for trade with Japan through its trading post on Dejima, an island in the bay of Nagasaki. From here the Dutch traded between China and Japan and paid tribute to the shōgun. Until 1854, the Dutch were Japan's sole window to the western world.
The collection of scientific learning introduced from Europe became known in Japan as Rangaku or Dutch Learning. The Dutch were instrumental in transmitting to Japan some knowledge of the industrial and scientific revolution then occurring in Europe. The Japanese purchased and translated numerous scientific books from the Dutch, obtained from them Western curiosities and manufactures (such as clocks) and received demonstrations of various Western innovations (such as electric phenomena, and the flight of a hot air balloon in the early 19th century). In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch were arguably the most economically wealthy and scientifically advanced of all European nations, which put them in a privileged position to transfer Western knowledge to Japan.
European great power
The Dutch also dominated trade between European countries. The Low Countries were favorably positioned at a crossing of east–west and north–south trade routes and connected to a large German hinterland through the Rhine river. Dutch traders shipped wine from France and Portugal to the Baltic lands and returned with grain for countries around the Mediterranean Sea. By the 1680s, an average of nearly 1000 Dutch ships entered the Baltic Sea each year, to trade with markets of the fading Hanseatic League. The Dutch were able to gain control of much of the trade with the nascent English colonies in North America; and after the end of the war with Spain in 1648, Dutch trade with that country also flourished.
Other industries
National industries expanded as well. Shipyards and sugar refineries are prime examples. As more and more land was utilized, partially through transforming lakes into polders such as the Beemster, Schermer and Purmer, local grain production and dairy farming soared.
National consciousness
The outcome of the revolt against Spain, better known as the Eighty Years' War, fought over religious freedom and economic and political independence, ended in total independence of the reformist northern provinces (see also Dutch Republic), almost certainly would have boosted national morale. Already in 1609 much of this was accomplished, when a temporary truce was signed with Spain, which would last for 12 years.
Social structure
In the Netherlands in the 17th century, social status was largely determined by income. The landed nobility had relatively little importance, since they mostly lived in the more underdeveloped inland provinces, and it was the urban merchant class that dominated Dutch society. The clergy did not have much worldly influence either: the Catholic Church had been more or less suppressed since the onset of the Eighty Years' War with Spain. The new Protestant movement was divided, although exercising social control in many areas to an even greater extent than under the Catholic Church.
That is not to say that aristocrats were without social status. On the contrary, wealthy merchants bought themselves into the nobility by becoming landowners and acquiring a coat of arms and a seal. Aristocrats also mixed with other classes for financial reasons: they married their daughters to wealthy merchants, became traders themselves or took up public or military office. Merchants also started to value public office as a means to greater economic power and prestige. Universities became career pathways to public office. Rich merchants and aristocrats sent their sons on a so-called Grand Tour through Europe. Often accompanied by a private tutor, preferably a scientist himself, these young people visited universities in several European countries. This intermixing of patricians and aristocrats was most prominent in the second half of the century.
After aristocrats and patricians came the affluent middle class, consisting of Protestant ministers, lawyers, physicians, small merchants, industrialists and clerks of large state institutions. Lower status was attributed to farmers, craft and tradesmen, shopkeepers, and government bureaucrats. Below that stood skilled laborers, maids, servants, sailors, and other persons employed in the service industry.
At the bottom of the pyramid were "paupers": impoverished peasants, many of whom tried their luck in a city as a beggar or day laborer.
Workers and laborers were generally paid better than in most of Europe, and enjoyed relatively high living standards, although they also paid higher than normal taxes. Farmers prospered from mainly cash crops needed to support the urban and seafaring population.
Women's roles
The central role of women in the 17th-century Dutch household revolved around the home and domestic tasks. In Dutch culture, the home was regarded as a safe-haven from the lack of Christian virtue and immorality of the outside world. Additionally, the home represented a microcosm of the Dutch Republic, in that the smooth running of an ideal household reflected the relative stability and prosperity of the government. The home was an integral part of public life in Dutch society. Public passersby could clearly view the entrance halls of Dutch homes decorated to show off a particular family's wealth and social standing. The home was also a place for neighbors, friends, and extended family to interact, further cementing its importance in the social lives of 17th-century Dutch burghers. The physical space of the Dutch home was constructed along gender lines. In the front of the house, the men had control over a small space where they could do their work or conduct business, known as the Voorhuis, while women controlled most every other space in the house, such as the kitchens and private family rooms. Although there was a clear separation in spheres of power between husband and wife (the husband had authority in the public realm, the wife in the domestic and private), women in 17th-century Dutch society still enjoyed a wide range of freedoms within their own sphere of control. Unmarried young women were known to enjoy various freedoms with their lovers and suitors, while married women enjoyed the right to publicly shame their husbands who patronized brothels. Moreover, married women could legally reject the sexual desires of their husbands if there were proof or reason to believe that a sexual encounter would result in the transmission of syphilis or other venereal diseases. Dutch women were also allowed to take communion alongside men, and widows were able to inherit property and maintain control over their finances and husband's wills. However, a woman's sphere of authority still primarily lay in household duties, though historical evidence exists showing certain cases of wives maintaining considerable control in family businesses. Manuals written by men instructing women and wives in various aspects of domestic duties proliferated, the most popular being Jacob Cats' Houwelyck. As evidenced by numerous 17th-century Dutch genre paintings, the most important domestic tasks performed by women included supervising maids, cooking, cleaning, needlework, and spinning.
Unmarried women
As seen in art and literature at the time, unmarried young women were valued for maintaining their modesty and diligence as this time in a woman's life was regarded to be the most precarious. From a young age, burgher women were taught various household related duties by their mothers, including reading, so as to prepare them for their lives as housewives. Dutch art at this time shows the idealized situation in which an unmarried young girl ought to conduct herself in situations such as courtship, which commonly included themes relating to gardens or nature, music lessons or parties, needlework, and receiving love letters. However, ideals of the young women espoused by genre painting and Petrarchian poetry did not reflect the reality. Accounts from travellers described the various freedoms young women were provided in the realm of courtship. The prevalence of Calvinist sermons regarding the consequences of leaving young women unsupervised also spoke to a general trend of a lack of parental oversight in the matters of young love.
Married women and mothers
Dutch writers, such as Jacob Cats, held the prevailing public opinion concerning marriage. He and other cultural authorities were influenced by Calvinist ideals that stressed an equality between husband and wife, considered companionship a primary reason for marriage, and regarded procreation as a mere consequence of that companionship. However, non-egalitarian ideas still existed regarding women as the weaker sex, and the image of the turtle was commonly used to express the separate spheres and strengths of both genders. In addition to supervising maids, cooking, cleaning, and prating needlework, women were also encouraged to maintain some financial control over domestic affairs, such as going to market and buying their own food.
Maternity and motherhood were highly valued in Dutch culture. Mothers were encouraged to breastfeed their children, as using a wet nurse would prevent a bond from forming between mother and child. The Dutch believed that a mother's milk came from the blood originally in her womb and that feeding the infant such substances would also reap physiological and health related benefits. Seventeenth-century Dutch society dictated that children should first begin to learn religion at home. Therefore, along with their husbands, women used family meal times to discuss religious topics and to focus on prayer.
Old women and widows
Seventeenth-century Dutch culture maintained contradictory attitudes regarding the elderly, in particular, elderly women. Some Dutch writers idealized old age as a poetic transition from life to death. Others regarded aging as an illness in which one is gradually deteriorating until they reach their final destination, while some lauded the elderly as wise and people who deserve the highest forms of respect. However, treatises on behaviour for elderly women and widows stressed not necessarily their inherent wisdom, but that they should maintain piety, practice moderation, and live a relatively secluded life. Unlike other European artistic traditions, Dutch art rarely depicts elderly women as disgusting or grotesque creatures, but rather they are idolized as figures of piety and purity whom the younger generations of women can look up to.
Religion
Calvinism was the state religion in the Dutch Republic, though this does not mean that unity existed. Although the Netherlands was a tolerant nation compared to neighboring states, wealth and social status belonged almost exclusively to Protestants. The cities with a predominantly Catholic background, such as Utrecht and Gouda, did not enjoy the benefits of the Golden Age. As for the Protestant towns, unity of belief was also far from standard. At the beginning of the century bitter controversies between strict Calvinists and more permissive Protestants, known as Remonstrants, split the country. The Remonstrants denied predestination and championed freedom of conscience, while their more dogmatic adversaries (known as Contra-Remonstrants) gained a major victory at the Synod of Dort (1618–19). The variety of sects may well have worked to make religious intolerance impractical.
Renaissance Humanism, of which Desiderius Erasmus (c. 1466–1536) was an important advocate, had also gained a firm foothold and was partially responsible for a climate of tolerance.
Tolerance towards Catholics was not so easy to uphold, as religion had played an important part in the Eighty Years' War of independence against Spain (with political and economic freedom being other important motives). Intolerant inclinations, however, could be overcome by money. Thus Catholics could buy the privilege of holding ceremonies in a conventicle (a house doubling inconspicuously as a church), but public offices were out of the question. Catholics tended to keep to themselves in their own section of each town, even though they were one of the largest single denominations: for example, the Catholic painter Johannes Vermeer lived in the "Papist corner" of the town of Delft. The same applied to Anabaptists and Jews.
Overall, the country was tolerant enough to attract religious refugees from other countries, notably Jewish merchants from Portugal who brought much wealth with them. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in France in 1685 resulted in the immigration of many French Huguenots, many of whom were shopkeepers or scientists. However, some figures, such as the philosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), experienced social stigma.
Science
Due to its climate of intellectual tolerance, the Dutch Republic attracted scientists and other thinkers from all over Europe. In particular, the renowned University of Leiden (established in 1575 by the Dutch stadtholder Willem van Oranje as a token of gratitude for Leiden's fierce resistance against Spain during the Eighty Years' War) became a gathering place for intellectuals. Jan Amos Comenius, the Czech educator and writer, was known for his theories of education, but also as a pioneer of Czech Protestantism during the 17th century. To escape the Counter-Reformation, he migrated to the Dutch Republic and is buried in Naarden, North Holland. Comenius accepted the invitation of Laurens de Geer to visit Amsterdam, where he lived the last 14 years of his life (1656–1670). He published his most important works there: 43 volumes in all, about half of his total output. French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes (1596-1650) lived in Holland from 1628 until 1649. He also had his most important works published in Amsterdam and Leiden. Another French-born philosopher, Pierre Bayle, left France in 1681 for the Dutch Republic, where he became a professor of history and philosophy at the Illustrious School of Rotterdam. He lived in Rotterdam until his death in 1706. As Bertrand Russell noted in his A History of Western Philosophy (1945), "He [Descartes] lived in Holland for twenty years (1629–49), except for a few brief visits to France and one to England, all on business. It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of Holland in the 17th century, as the one country where there was freedom of speculation. Hobbes had to have his books printed there; Locke took refuge there during the five worst years of reaction in England before 1688; Bayle (of the Dictionary) found it necessary to live there; and Spinoza would hardly have been allowed to do his work in any other country."
Dutch lawyers were famous for their knowledge of international law of the sea and commercial law. Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) played a leading part in the foundation of international law. He invented the concept of the "Free seas" or Mare liberum, which was fiercely contested by England, the Netherlands' main rival for domination of world trade. He also formulated laws on conflicts between nations in his book De lure Belli ac pacis ("On the law of war and peace").
Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) was a famous astronomer, physicist and mathematician. He invented the pendulum clock, which was a major step forward towards exact timekeeping. Among his contributions to astronomy was his explanation of Saturn's planetary rings. He also contributed to the field of optics. The most famous Dutch scientist in the area of optics is Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who was the first to methodically study microscopic life—he was the first person to describe bacteria—thus laying the foundations for the field of microbiology. The "microscopes" were simple magnifiers, not compound microscopes. His skill in grinding lenses (some as small as 1mm in diameter) resulted in a magnification as high as 245x.
Famous Dutch hydraulic engineer Jan Leeghwater (1575–1650) gained important victories in the Netherlands' eternal battle against the sea. Leeghwater added a considerable amount of land to the republic by converting several large lakes into polders, pumping the water out with windmills.
Again due to the Dutch climate of tolerance, book publishers flourished. Many books on religion, philosophy, and science that might have been deemed controversial abroad were printed in the Netherlands and secretly exported to other countries. Thus during the 17th century, the Dutch Republic became more and more Europe's publishing house.
Culture
Cultural development in the Low Countries stood out from neighboring countries. With some exceptions (notably Dutch playwright Joost van den Vondel) the Baroque movement did not gain much influence. Its exuberance did not fit the austerity of the largely Calvinistic population. The major force behind new developments was the citizenry, notably in the western provinces: first and foremost in Holland, to a lesser extent Zeeland and Utrecht. Where rich aristocrats often became patrons of art in other countries, because of their comparative absence in the Netherlands this role was played by wealthy merchants and other patricians.
Centres of cultural activity were town militia (Dutch: schutterij) and chambers of rhetoric (rederijkerskamer). The former were created for town defence and policing, but also served as a meeting-place for the well-to-do, who were proud to play a prominent part and paid well to see this preserved for posterity by means of a group portrait. The latter were associations at a city level that fostered literary activities, like poetry, drama and discussions, often through contests. Cities took pride in their associations and promoted them.
In the Dutch Golden Age, the meals of the middle class consisted of a rich variety of dishes.
During the 15th century haute cuisine began to emerge, largely limited to the aristocracy, but from the 17th century onward dishes of this kind became available to the wealthy citizens as well. The Dutch Empire enabled spices, sugar, and exotic fruits to be imported to the country. By the late 17th century, tea and coffee consumption were increasing and becoming part of everyday life. Tea was served with sweets, candy or marzipan and cookies. A rich Dutch mealtime of the time contained many extravagant dishes and drinks.
Painting
Dutch Golden Age painting followed many of the tendencies that dominated Baroque art in other parts of Europe, such as Caravaggism and naturalism, but was the leader in developing the subjects of still life, landscape, and genre painting. Portraiture was also popular, but history painting – traditionally the most-elevated genre – struggled to find buyers. Church art was virtually non-existent, and little sculpture of any kind was produced. While art collecting and painting for the open market was also common elsewhere, art historians point to the growing number of wealthy Dutch middle-class and successful mercantile patrons as driving forces in the popularity of certain pictorial subjects.
This trend, along with the lack of Counter-Reformation church patronage that dominated the arts in Catholic Europe, resulted in the great number of "scenes of everyday life" or genre paintings, and other secular subjects. Landscapes and seascapes, for example, reflect the land reclaimed from the sea and the sources of trade and naval power that mark the Republic's Golden Age. One subject that is quite characteristic of Dutch Baroque painting is the large group portrait, especially of civic and militia guilds, such as Rembrandt van Rijn's Night Watch. A special genre of still life was the so-called pronkstilleven (Dutch for 'ostentatious still life'). This style of ornate still-life painting was developed in the 1640s in Antwerp by Flemish artists such as Frans Snyders, Osias Beert, Adriaen van Utrecht and a whole generation of Dutch Golden Age painters. They painted still lifes that emphasized abundance by depicting a diversity of objects, fruits, flowers and dead game, often together with living people and animals. The style was soon adopted by artists from the Dutch Republic.
Today, the best-known painters of the Dutch Golden Age are the period's most dominant figure Rembrandt, the Delft master of genre Johannes Vermeer, the innovative landscape painter Jacob van Ruisdael, and Frans Hals, who infused new life into portraiture. Some notable artistic styles and trends include Haarlem Mannerism, Utrecht Caravaggism, the School of Delft, the Leiden fijnschilders, and Dutch classicism.
Architecture
Dutch architecture was taken to a new height in the Golden Age. Cities expanded greatly as the economy thrived. New town halls, weighhouses and storehouses were built. Merchants who had made their fortune ordered a new house along one of the many new canals that were dug out in and around many cities (for defense and transport purposes), a house with an ornamented façade that befitted their new status. In the countryside, many new castles and stately homes were built; but most of them have not survived.
Early in the 17th century late Gothic elements still prevailed, combined with Renaissance motives. After a few decades French classicism gained prominence: vertical elements were stressed, less ornamentation was used, and natural stone was preferred above bricks. In the last decades of the century this trend towards sobriety intensified. From around 1670 the most prominent feature of a house front was its entrance, with pillars on each side and possibly a balcony above it, but no further decoration.
Starting at 1595, Reformed churches were commissioned, many of which are still landmarks today.
The most famous Dutch architects of the 17th century were Jacob van Campen, Pieter Post, Philips Vingboons, Lieven de Key, and Hendrick de Keyser.
Sculpture
Dutch achievements in sculpture in the 17th century are less prominent than in painting and architecture, and fewer examples were created than in neighbouring countries, partly because of their absence in the interiors of Protestant churches, as objections to the Roman Catholic veneration of statues had been one of the contentious points of the Reformation. Another reason was the comparatively small class of nobles. Sculptures were commissioned for government buildings, private buildings (often adorning house fronts) and the exteriors of churches. There was also a market for grave monuments and portrait busts.
Hendrick de Keyser, who was active at the dawn of the Golden Age, is one of the few prominent home-grown sculptors. In the 1650s and 1660s, the Flemish sculptor Artus I Quellinus, along with his family and followers like Rombout Verhulst, were responsible for the classicizing decorations for the Amsterdam city hall (now the Royal Palace, Amsterdam). This remains the major monument of Dutch Golden Age sculpture.
Literature
The Golden Age was also an important time for developments in literature. Some of the major figures of this period were Gerbrand Bredero, Jacob Cats, Pieter Hooft, and Joost van den Vondel.
During this time, a climate of tolerance developed in comparison to other European states with strict censorship restrictions paving the way for the Dutch to become a powerhouse in the book trade. This transformation is described by modern historians as the 'Dutch miracle.' Additionally, the Dutch enjoyed high literacy rates, and Dutch entrepreneurs took advantage of this. As a result, seventeenth century Holland became a great centre for the production of news, Bibles, political pamphlets. Louis Elzevir and his descendants created what is considered one of the most eminent dynasties of the book trade. The House of Elzevir produced pocket editions of classical Latin texts which were scholarly, reliable, and reasonably priced. The Elzevir dynasty died out in 1712 and the 'Dutch miracle' waned as international competition caught up to the Dutch book trade.
See also
Dutch Golden Age painting
Golden Age of Flanders
First Stadtholderless Period
Flemish painting
List of people from the Dutch Golden Age
Tulip mania
Vermeer's Hat: The Seventeenth Century and the Dawn of the Global World
Notes
References and further reading
Helmers, Helmer J. and Geert H. Janssen, eds. The Cambridge Companion to the Dutch Golden Age (Cambridge University Press, 2018) 428 pp online review
Hoftijzer, Paul G., The Dutch Republic, Centre of the European Book Trade in the 17th Century, EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2015, retrieved: March 8, 2020 (pdf).
Margócsy, Dániel. Commercial Visions: Science, Trade, and Visual Culture in the Dutch Golden Age (University of Chicago Press, 2014).
External links
Dutch Golden Age at Art Painting Artist
Golden Age
Rangaku
Culture of the Dutch Republic
16th century in the Dutch Republic
17th century in the Dutch Republic
18th century in the Dutch Republic | [
-0.30746158957481384,
-0.31305256485939026,
-0.4965965747833252,
-0.2455885261297226,
0.2730368673801422,
0.0928354561328888,
0.2024247795343399,
0.7897365093231201,
-0.714828610420227,
-0.32619965076446533,
0.05856465920805931,
0.3229807913303375,
0.2565419375896454,
0.4723173975944519,
-0.6026313900947571,
0.1847473531961441,
0.8158072829246521,
-0.0015191810671240091,
0.14546221494674683,
-0.09700963646173477,
-0.9237449765205383,
0.03135733678936958,
0.39704903960227966,
0.21351055800914764,
0.5087347030639648,
-0.9450470209121704,
0.22186896204948425,
-0.20732754468917847,
0.4462738335132599,
-0.7391607761383057,
-0.20239229500293732,
0.007825726643204689,
-0.6011214852333069,
-0.10633540898561478,
-0.3893972337245941,
0.017189402133226395,
-0.17867453396320343,
-0.08361002057790756,
-0.24780084192752838,
-0.2467947155237198,
-0.41290757060050964,
-0.3198050260543823,
0.5220234990119934,
-0.021285856142640114,
-0.39450737833976746,
-0.5013284683227539,
-1.5273220539093018,
0.6137362718582153,
0.06260106712579727,
0.07625181972980499,
-0.36537665128707886,
0.11907926946878433,
-0.45810309052467346,
0.7908762693405151,
0.023520490154623985,
0.0004115444899071008,
-0.746833086013794,
-0.12559856474399567,
-0.30202627182006836,
0.11483228206634521,
1.0285444259643555,
0.1727827787399292,
-0.19756746292114258,
0.038733579218387604,
-0.17349590361118317,
0.11755622178316116,
-0.16916696727275848,
0.40042728185653687,
0.38758379220962524,
-0.5603627562522888,
0.1365554928779602,
-0.17851240932941437,
-0.1091766282916069,
-0.38486209511756897,
-0.14728611707687378,
-0.8135393261909485,
-0.02035648375749588,
-0.4100518822669983,
-0.26057106256484985,
-0.6232470273971558,
0.26734817028045654,
-0.5913156867027283,
0.9578073024749756,
-0.025102289393544197,
0.6166592240333557,
0.1956348419189453,
0.4233623743057251,
-0.3585951328277588,
-0.6735247373580933,
-0.2646632194519043,
0.09510237723588943,
0.13551433384418488,
0.6081287860870361,
0.4000664949417114,
-0.5026517510414124,
-0.19910047948360443,
-0.10870180279016495,
0.330195814371109,
-0.280559241771698,
0.2233983874320984,
-0.1473204344511032,
0.7202024459838867,
0.10412092506885529,
-0.5720936059951782,
-0.4629952907562256,
-0.1824570745229721,
0.56696617603302,
-0.32882681488990784,
-0.05123445764183998,
0.1720363348722458,
0.3494940996170044,
0.24906519055366516,
-0.13303261995315552,
0.6821988821029663,
0.045041464269161224,
0.5676993131637573,
0.07328790426254272,
-0.38705772161483765,
-0.07096276432275772,
0.08058769255876541,
0.1873185783624649,
0.39250490069389343,
-0.11191276460886002,
-0.05532865598797798,
-0.35767388343811035,
-0.012788377702236176,
0.3770556151866913,
0.22572144865989685,
0.1520867943763733,
-0.11062537878751755,
0.588160514831543,
0.7865832448005676,
-0.6393025517463684,
-0.36240774393081665,
-0.16181497275829315,
0.5851554274559021,
0.5567726492881775,
0.7718019485473633,
0.3212507367134094,
0.047237180173397064,
-0.43841752409935,
-0.5795104503631592,
0.10288587212562561,
0.24474886059761047,
-0.1725565642118454,
-0.680419921875,
0.7207727432250977,
-0.476322740316391,
-0.5955520868301392,
-0.20289058983325958,
-0.3464599549770355,
-0.288348525762558,
-0.0028522349894046783,
0.14279954135417938,
-0.5136739611625671,
0.4942350685596466,
0.24971072375774384,
0.1736651062965393,
0.2823373079299927,
0.2910465598106384,
-0.1711975783109665,
-0.3831033706665039,
0.2944411337375641,
0.11186246573925018,
0.16056926548480988,
-0.1169336587190628,
0.70445317029953,
0.7014024257659912,
-0.26947617530822754,
0.23597629368305206,
-0.5883439779281616,
-0.0703507587313652,
0.22439788281917572,
0.0691940113902092,
-0.213592991232872,
0.44147220253944397,
0.9063087701797485,
0.05496065318584442,
0.2310582995414734,
0.09698128700256348,
-0.3871333599090576,
0.3437528908252716,
0.1858750879764557,
-0.05395125225186348,
0.6911816000938416,
-0.09571783989667892,
0.018697740510106087,
-0.01594071090221405,
0.11564292758703232,
-0.19572538137435913,
0.13634081184864044,
-0.2507173418998718,
0.35807034373283386,
-0.6473384499549866,
0.6268207430839539,
0.014996135607361794,
-0.39438557624816895,
0.33796730637550354,
-0.02984706312417984,
0.4742521345615387,
-0.32136407494544983,
-0.5080405473709106,
0.164279967546463,
0.2022130787372589,
0.21274368464946747,
-0.04284254088997841,
-0.021430958062410355,
0.21699710190296173,
1.1032283306121826,
-0.14420922100543976,
0.11165779829025269,
0.12672896683216095,
-0.15347816050052643,
-0.012105507776141167,
0.237074613571167,
-0.18144012987613678,
-0.056446339935064316,
0.24096211791038513,
-0.444947212934494,
-0.32424262166023254,
0.2906651496887207,
-0.06776708364486694,
-0.19929362833499908,
0.2500324249267578,
0.54376220703125,
0.3722129762172699,
0.2712186276912689,
-0.013973506167531013,
0.6306756138801575,
-0.1021197959780693,
-0.36417970061302185,
-0.4656568467617035,
0.4412193298339844,
-0.2022801637649536,
-0.12543320655822754,
0.0016576421912759542,
-0.31981077790260315,
-0.09672630578279495,
-0.06155567616224289,
-0.35460442304611206,
0.49673280119895935,
-0.06034587696194649,
-0.5286099314689636,
0.7841058969497681,
-0.13174639642238617,
0.769249439239502,
-0.16143418848514557,
0.06907664984464645,
-0.8321664333343506,
-0.674639105796814,
0.06774824112653732,
0.41913336515426636,
-0.2793697118759155,
-0.11908947676420212,
-0.0107658039778471,
-0.49088767170906067,
-0.08691073209047318,
-0.12039989233016968,
0.5615952014923096,
0.10018856078386307,
-0.10991206765174866,
-0.5080773830413818,
0.49016809463500977,
0.8475422859191895,
0.24670638144016266,
-0.2484501600265503,
-0.018837394192814827,
-0.4168742895126343,
0.4174859821796417,
0.14214417338371277,
0.12908054888248444,
-0.05837774649262428,
-0.3768342435359955,
0.03979314863681793,
0.42750468850135803,
-0.5822180509567261,
0.14770007133483887,
-0.5314412117004395,
0.19565102458000183,
-0.32927626371383667,
-0.38802534341812134,
1.1224130392074585,
-0.21496234834194183,
-0.8321486711502075,
0.15411975979804993,
0.12955161929130554,
-0.22464974224567413,
-0.04029175639152527,
0.28570836782455444,
0.14739294350147247,
0.26396432518959045,
-0.4184323847293854,
-0.6604396104812622,
0.1443808376789093,
0.2484600841999054,
0.20469102263450623,
-0.12013023346662521,
-0.23386798799037933,
0.24778133630752563,
-0.21600699424743652,
-0.5065354108810425,
-0.1419663429260254,
-0.558398425579071,
0.22114785015583038,
0.2841458022594452,
0.2548961937427521,
-0.4555843770503998,
0.3791467547416687,
-5.784247875213623,
0.26560699939727783,
0.08890387415885925,
-0.08092978596687317,
-0.30185022950172424,
-0.44421613216400146,
0.3954705595970154,
0.28205522894859314,
0.4321992099285126,
-0.04655788093805313,
0.5692688226699829,
-0.5438932180404663,
-0.21705912053585052,
1.1263840198516846,
0.16769282519817352,
0.32661035656929016,
-0.00011905394785571843,
-0.07841558754444122,
-0.3944157063961029,
0.07169561088085175,
-0.2646641135215759,
-0.5919472575187683,
0.04527553170919418,
0.5763631463050842,
0.44003498554229736,
0.07575985789299011,
-0.08422897011041641,
-0.027596335858106613,
-0.4227888584136963,
0.10027071088552475,
-0.29485467076301575,
-0.5679827928543091,
0.6423951387405396,
-0.058456383645534515,
0.26411840319633484,
0.19581645727157593,
0.715605616569519,
0.6666770577430725,
0.20589229464530945,
-0.1458331197500229,
0.1849326342344284,
0.662244975566864,
-0.27414634823799133,
0.68159019947052,
0.360347718000412,
-0.4953029453754425,
-0.13058681786060333,
0.4573138952255249,
-0.2553245425224304,
0.6253044009208679,
0.18963508307933807,
-0.024610713124275208,
-0.3424570858478546,
-0.3436877727508545,
0.4804350733757019,
-0.10226838290691376,
-0.33600619435310364,
0.04211467131972313,
-0.5547428727149963,
-0.1369953602552414,
0.07311578094959259,
-0.06332005560398102,
0.273639976978302,
0.1840803176164627,
0.3479488790035248,
-0.8264152407646179,
-0.288392573595047,
-0.059249699115753174,
0.0746612697839737,
0.1996733844280243,
0.1969415843486786,
-0.12232238799333572,
0.059967368841171265,
-1.005328893661499,
0.2349192351102829,
-0.5197725892066956,
-0.22356601059436798,
-0.16875627636909485,
0.31091442704200745,
0.11664797365665436,
0.2804465889930725,
-0.07832131534814835,
0.22508461773395538,
0.9666626453399658,
0.3688034117221832,
-0.23162733018398285,
-0.11459828168153763,
-0.13675887882709503,
-0.5902003645896912,
0.07199510186910629,
0.9104459881782532,
-0.3789389133453369,
-0.16064606606960297,
-0.008079767227172852,
-0.01772375777363777,
0.7679633498191833,
-0.3751228153705597,
-0.38307884335517883,
0.343758225440979,
0.26883888244628906,
0.05841222405433655,
0.12316515296697617,
-0.05939795821905136,
0.05171847715973854,
-0.43298211693763733,
-0.26663607358932495,
-0.31891828775405884,
0.2700797915458679,
0.7486701011657715,
-0.41018328070640564,
0.0007475876482203603,
0.37362539768218994,
-0.3863999843597412,
-0.2935630679130554,
0.49955469369888306,
-0.3172439932823181,
-0.5825173258781433,
0.5635768175125122,
0.5979171991348267,
-0.08612679690122604,
0.17818085849285126,
0.5647158622741699,
-0.557871401309967,
0.17612162232398987,
-0.22622942924499512,
0.023218117654323578,
-0.45751434564590454,
0.05267056077718735,
-0.01732088252902031,
-0.5936828255653381,
0.12095462530851364,
-0.12603759765625,
0.27115556597709656,
-0.01897294446825981,
0.3750240206718445,
-0.23128293454647064,
-0.0806570053100586,
-0.9036015272140503,
-0.4573359191417694,
-0.39973077178001404,
-0.24574337899684906,
-0.4091460704803467,
0.36489003896713257,
0.2334459275007248,
-0.16132330894470215,
-0.4504348337650299,
0.15671522915363312,
-0.5406911373138428,
-0.11970464885234833,
-0.08396768569946289,
-0.1297067403793335,
0.4836106300354004,
0.6222882270812988,
-0.21502532064914703,
-0.781026303768158,
-0.5598549842834473,
-0.10775955021381378,
-0.27554431557655334,
-0.02044566161930561,
-0.49774640798568726,
0.2209806889295578,
-0.4354286789894104,
-0.7744947075843811,
-0.001421606633812189,
0.3504672646522522,
-0.3155345618724823,
-0.1327555775642395,
-0.04248793423175812,
0.04459570348262787,
0.26486271619796753,
0.6554886698722839,
-0.31273791193962097,
-0.2318790853023529,
-0.40703779458999634,
0.10206890106201172,
-0.3840550184249878,
-0.022552084177732468,
-0.20937295258045197,
-0.38685086369514465,
-0.531085729598999,
0.37068885564804077,
0.16824349761009216,
-0.7218548059463501,
0.298069030046463,
0.9637152552604675,
-0.5743308663368225,
-0.06682579219341278,
-0.19666056334972382,
-0.5397810935974121,
-0.009137323126196861,
0.5060616135597229,
0.4391091465950012,
0.5074436664581299,
0.3075665533542633,
-1.147632360458374,
-0.9371406435966492,
-0.14249259233474731,
0.8176572918891907,
0.07230106741189957,
-0.018139591440558434,
0.4269149601459503,
-0.10541331022977829,
-0.5321710109710693,
-0.571111261844635,
0.0033740894868969917,
-0.8686156272888184,
0.6318641901016235,
-0.34545859694480896,
0.00781615637242794,
0.3354819118976593,
-0.47826719284057617,
-0.4741102159023285,
-0.02430090866982937,
0.45835450291633606,
-0.11227251589298248,
0.14335249364376068,
-0.4691736698150635,
-0.48038411140441895,
0.09500487148761749,
-0.293251097202301,
0.06131690740585327,
0.15507806837558746,
-0.8436168432235718,
-0.02135026454925537,
-0.33612656593322754,
0.22951534390449524,
0.25551271438598633,
-0.28024300932884216,
0.03733200952410698,
-0.3415403962135315,
0.34374311566352844,
-0.2334737628698349,
-0.32105016708374023,
-0.15653318166732788,
-0.1077067032456398,
-0.002675167052075267,
0.7409577965736389,
0.2761540412902832,
-0.059568844735622406,
0.7860655188560486,
0.26354411244392395,
0.11611588299274445,
0.3660757839679718,
0.05462087690830231,
-0.11003457754850388,
0.10797904431819916,
-0.0008741022320464253,
0.17384441196918488,
-0.21828411519527435,
0.0045460243709385395,
-0.40756702423095703,
-0.04910825565457344,
-0.6931234002113342,
-0.02194862812757492,
0.8574082255363464,
-0.28496378660202026,
0.1636420637369156,
0.1281827688217163,
-0.4593631327152252,
0.10517368465662003,
0.33283519744873047,
0.32764971256256104,
-0.14507058262825012,
0.0009296749485656619,
0.4806329011917114,
-0.3351113498210907,
-0.6240063905715942,
-0.3489362299442291,
0.19149887561798096,
-0.015230951830744743,
-0.15087224543094635,
-0.4923480451107025,
0.02001703903079033,
0.06031613051891327,
0.2536351978778839,
-0.05990513414144516,
-0.2880879342556,
-0.4956156015396118,
0.19193723797798157,
-0.3874065577983856,
-0.5184712409973145,
-0.09749811887741089,
-0.5491080284118652,
-0.15286487340927124,
-0.015931768342852592,
-1.293505072593689,
-0.273236483335495,
-0.513041615486145,
0.07125247269868851,
0.29562443494796753,
-0.11956848949193954,
0.0893639400601387,
0.008591985329985619,
0.19420237839221954,
0.05608915165066719,
0.3745519518852234,
-0.3144459128379822,
-0.3105013072490692,
0.1389370858669281,
-0.05797689035534859,
-0.38078629970550537,
0.45775076746940613,
0.7157446146011353,
-0.07897830009460449,
0.18258072435855865,
0.11169036477804184,
-0.01036621630191803,
0.5239754915237427,
-0.5511235594749451,
0.48279452323913574,
0.44788822531700134,
0.035614270716905594,
-0.2110520899295807,
-0.3634604215621948,
-0.6879764795303345,
-0.10332605242729187,
0.9520789384841919,
-0.37762945890426636,
0.13596583902835846,
0.08829496055841446,
0.20904210209846497,
0.0756618082523346,
-0.3573113977909088,
-0.18002288043498993,
-0.05430567264556885,
1.097118616104126,
-0.27621927857398987,
0.06716838479042053,
-0.09546642750501633,
-0.1768651157617569,
0.5558403730392456,
0.11840686202049255,
-0.47768279910087585,
0.7677794694900513,
-0.4022690951824188,
0.0813567042350769,
0.2797839939594269,
-0.5352030992507935,
0.4826153516769409,
0.5557221174240112,
0.6777066588401794,
0.35483893752098083,
-0.2599920630455017,
0.0005759624182246625,
-0.0872991755604744,
0.0002853043843060732,
-0.047599732875823975,
0.233832448720932,
0.1694282740354538,
0.00612939428538084,
0.6875398755073547,
-0.35545867681503296,
0.34104233980178833,
-0.47752970457077026,
0.2060280740261078,
-0.4097481966018677,
0.31316784024238586,
0.4288488030433655,
-0.05891808867454529,
0.047046683728694916,
0.7171115875244141,
0.38176125288009644,
0.5743880271911621,
0.07700091600418091,
0.07014759629964828,
0.18444697558879852,
-0.03845836967229843,
0.5463906526565552,
0.10174190253019333,
-0.06193012744188309,
0.16417400538921356,
0.007656187284737825,
0.2544926702976227,
-0.4216259717941284,
-0.12041403353214264,
0.5208159685134888,
0.6901995539665222,
-0.05144311115145683,
0.1983136087656021,
0.08708339184522629,
-0.4445870816707611,
-0.059323765337467194,
-0.3351597487926483,
0.2960467040538788,
-0.5803478956222534,
-0.06256211549043655,
0.20660486817359924,
0.16354477405548096,
-0.6690564751625061,
-0.38519924879074097,
-0.4586643874645233,
-0.3759557902812958,
0.46524322032928467,
-0.03493514657020569,
-0.6875200271606445,
0.2230798751115799,
-0.3333478271961212,
0.99697345495224,
-0.2707597315311432,
-0.5351561307907104,
0.1651025414466858,
0.16272109746932983,
-0.15218724310398102,
0.4385446608066559,
-0.29915934801101685,
0.708447277545929,
-0.07954631000757217,
0.04263192415237427,
0.22721336781978607,
0.6317698955535889,
0.35740137100219727,
-0.12403849512338638,
0.2593391537666321,
0.32010191679000854,
-0.07370763272047043,
-0.0720720887184143,
0.2459791898727417,
0.022574055939912796,
-0.015167247503995895,
-0.29015177488327026,
0.07614807784557343,
-0.21440277993679047,
-0.2526005506515503,
0.048873260617256165,
-0.6552771925926208,
0.04415613412857056,
0.20232604444026947,
0.7871607542037964,
0.04059639573097229,
0.19097574055194855,
-0.4242202043533325,
-0.3808603882789612,
-0.5639548897743225,
0.28291547298431396,
-0.6143770217895508,
-0.10444218665361404,
0.4833907186985016,
-0.3920145332813263,
-0.27718695998191833,
-0.6900026798248291,
0.2516994774341583,
0.3376845121383667,
1.0425646305084229,
-0.12133610993623734,
0.1697550117969513,
-0.05947531387209892,
0.5198841094970703,
0.6363974213600159,
-0.7222950458526611,
0.36789292097091675,
0.15729834139347076,
-0.05580858513712883,
0.6389808654785156,
-0.2765673100948334,
-0.05262808874249458,
-0.21485835313796997,
-0.043443161994218826,
-0.2818920612335205,
0.7671647667884827,
-0.41958603262901306
] |
241519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf%20City%2C%20Florida | Gulf City, Florida | Gulf City is an unincorporated community in Hillsborough County, Florida, United States, near Ruskin. It is south of Tampa by road, on the south bank of the Little Manatee River.
History
Gulf City was founded by British pirate Ben Margoza in the mid-17th century. It went into decline in the 19th century. In 1895 it was listed as having a population of 76 people, and a post office. The town site is now the location of several housing developments.
References
Former populated places in Hillsborough County, Florida
Former populated places in Florida | [
-0.1893310248851776,
0.009547735564410686,
0.6184852123260498,
-0.3813569247722626,
0.9444993734359741,
0.17751233279705048,
0.25285667181015015,
0.40936279296875,
-0.2953123152256012,
0.1632426530122757,
-0.639135479927063,
0.5785362124443054,
-0.3668476343154907,
0.7840814590454102,
-0.41445690393447876,
0.8168565034866333,
0.2543680965900421,
0.44212326407432556,
0.3823574483394623,
-0.2404894381761551,
-0.5585740208625793,
-0.22556805610656738,
0.2648676633834839,
0.4440113604068756,
0.11618468165397644,
-0.050681039690971375,
0.09841969609260559,
0.5969756841659546,
-0.10854402184486389,
0.305122435092926,
-0.0019210268510505557,
0.5703239440917969,
-0.6312020421028137,
-0.19085028767585754,
0.16479428112506866,
0.07135827094316483,
0.19057723879814148,
-0.22975791990756989,
0.1244809702038765,
-0.3131243884563446,
-0.9125083088874817,
0.16379693150520325,
0.45968228578567505,
0.16389743983745575,
0.35567161440849304,
-0.25482258200645447,
-1.594651222229004,
0.25761446356773376,
-0.6401747465133667,
-0.3263208270072937,
-0.5830358862876892,
0.2905272841453552,
0.20454202592372894,
-0.1950245201587677,
0.657825767993927,
0.7079327702522278,
-0.8056250810623169,
0.008104847744107246,
0.5736061930656433,
-0.28968799114227295,
0.06843730062246323,
0.5280929803848267,
0.5219711065292358,
-0.22519145905971527,
0.13302086293697357,
0.0011776654282584786,
-0.24747183918952942,
0.6615676879882812,
0.00264413352124393,
-0.10325715690851212,
-0.029079893603920937,
0.12163763493299484,
-0.21417757868766785,
-0.29450350999832153,
-0.3128874897956848,
0.5731267929077148,
-0.5428630709648132,
-0.17189538478851318,
0.7120018005371094,
0.2850981652736664,
0.5509525537490845,
-0.29155048727989197,
1.0053231716156006,
-0.17485995590686798,
0.4507908821105957,
-0.14031343162059784,
-0.8341639637947083,
-0.06769771128892899,
-0.2714952826499939,
0.7642444372177124,
-0.24267764389514923,
0.22957435250282288,
0.3165404796600342,
0.13616709411144257,
-0.3139815032482147,
-0.3565579950809479,
-0.09821195900440216,
0.7114033699035645,
-0.20625776052474976,
1.1084157228469849,
-0.9210777878761292,
0.0965130627155304,
0.41463613510131836,
0.09578898549079895,
-0.42260560393333435,
0.018902063369750977,
-0.9802862405776978,
-0.04819531738758087,
0.13656367361545563,
-0.011212385259568691,
-0.9285762906074524,
0.623588502407074,
-0.2153717428445816,
-0.31363344192504883,
-0.6985217928886414,
-0.07626144587993622,
0.11549767106771469,
0.07912112772464752,
-0.07249276340007782,
-0.3848842680454254,
0.432216614484787,
0.1326817125082016,
-0.1212177649140358,
-0.4505619704723358,
-0.40289875864982605,
0.04646169766783714,
0.0845780298113823,
-0.03898938372731209,
-0.2005176544189453,
0.0471707358956337,
-0.1667768359184265,
0.7336345314979553,
-0.743689775466919,
0.5930327773094177,
0.21556691825389862,
-0.26289981603622437,
0.06814536452293396,
0.11937863379716873,
0.6645243167877197,
-0.147849902510643,
-0.6451002359390259,
-0.24160945415496826,
-0.8838978409767151,
-0.2790701389312744,
-0.13687318563461304,
-0.6514390707015991,
-0.1852533370256424,
-0.1306813657283783,
-0.033414896577596664,
0.08949532359838486,
0.2708826959133148,
0.4693845808506012,
-0.19657622277736664,
0.3296113610267639,
-0.3602639436721802,
-0.3363209068775177,
0.3596663773059845,
-0.15710939466953278,
0.1628854125738144,
0.24097894132137299,
0.03537503257393837,
0.5035480260848999,
0.30725759267807007,
-0.04414676874876022,
0.4250448942184448,
0.28553515672683716,
0.44819024205207825,
-0.22036683559417725,
0.3152049481868744,
1.137050747871399,
0.03700580447912216,
0.633713960647583,
0.8342106342315674,
-0.3828444182872772,
0.3298386335372925,
-0.6195370554924011,
0.5423610210418701,
0.06504952162504196,
0.2003362774848938,
-0.030391449108719826,
-0.8262777328491211,
0.3395117521286011,
0.04868723824620247,
0.35259580612182617,
-0.16819486021995544,
-0.4250279664993286,
-0.02802869863808155,
-0.3197994828224182,
-0.33077752590179443,
-0.8316373825073242,
-0.06447089463472366,
-1.0706734657287598,
0.2531243562698364,
0.04938075318932533,
0.28731009364128113,
0.12398084998130798,
-0.5228208899497986,
0.613593339920044,
-0.36418551206588745,
0.7124841213226318,
0.002973418217152357,
-0.43951448798179626,
0.43431591987609863,
0.06418377161026001,
-0.6447634696960449,
0.09692014753818512,
0.6779710650444031,
0.20116257667541504,
-0.2829913794994354,
0.6834630966186523,
-0.38870367407798767,
-0.6940613985061646,
0.04357287287712097,
0.20142465829849243,
0.2571657598018646,
-0.6534305810928345,
-0.27513790130615234,
0.16754883527755737,
0.07937195152044296,
-0.367963969707489,
0.37816858291625977,
0.2327643483877182,
-0.10146921128034592,
0.10449610650539398,
0.0487799234688282,
0.7729560136795044,
-0.10160379856824875,
0.04180387407541275,
0.2252354621887207,
-0.1465190201997757,
0.6121241450309753,
-0.12332945317029953,
-0.10108231753110886,
-0.9113849997520447,
0.023994674906134605,
0.027909517288208008,
0.23093006014823914,
-0.42547208070755005,
0.06835149973630905,
-0.05078596994280815,
-0.11308200657367706,
0.2372313290834427,
-0.9779579043388367,
0.8003930449485779,
0.43296223878860474,
0.10823661834001541,
0.09367845952510834,
-0.03659062832593918,
0.06421392410993576,
-0.7322495579719543,
0.721660852432251,
0.44482457637786865,
0.6061371564865112,
0.13873742520809174,
0.4409470558166504,
0.014205613173544407,
-0.49810704588890076,
-0.01844361238181591,
-0.006548798177391291,
-0.4390227496623993,
-0.777035653591156,
0.5934621095657349,
-0.2299925982952118,
0.4386764168739319,
0.2605670690536499,
-0.38410481810569763,
-0.09995631873607635,
-0.3525107204914093,
0.06673131883144379,
0.6440799236297607,
-0.2248726636171341,
-0.31537503004074097,
-0.05723767355084419,
0.09140210598707199,
-0.20115454494953156,
0.20098967850208282,
-1.0010881423950195,
-0.299481064081192,
-0.603113055229187,
-0.2179122120141983,
0.6307268142700195,
0.603456974029541,
-0.47837358713150024,
-0.707227349281311,
-0.2594633996486664,
-0.9806048274040222,
0.5704989433288574,
0.07657045125961304,
-0.4935387074947357,
-0.7947036027908325,
-0.9511860609054565,
-0.4893982410430908,
-0.19609777629375458,
1.392335057258606,
-0.8264970183372498,
0.37511688470840454,
-0.0252981036901474,
0.08662091940641403,
0.5165817737579346,
-0.929317057132721,
-0.6379716396331787,
0.5126877427101135,
-0.6213787198066711,
-0.3525078296661377,
-0.2842595875263214,
-0.15242041647434235,
-0.1602867841720581,
-0.0984824001789093,
-4.610233306884766,
1.1956071853637695,
-0.8433541059494019,
-0.06479787826538086,
0.06366962194442749,
-0.45585083961486816,
0.5184713006019592,
-0.19047212600708008,
-0.047378432005643845,
-0.07367686927318573,
-0.41793665289878845,
-0.28085562586784363,
0.06558787822723389,
1.1259199380874634,
0.5427700877189636,
0.3928157389163971,
0.340015709400177,
-0.680793046951294,
0.17953705787658691,
0.4334574043750763,
-0.4082862138748169,
-0.015523557551205158,
-0.4310778081417084,
0.03909124433994293,
0.6151130199432373,
0.7652779817581177,
-0.46817490458488464,
-0.6722126007080078,
-1.055011510848999,
0.08124258369207382,
-0.40173256397247314,
0.24784216284751892,
-0.307630330324173,
0.015676597133278847,
0.6850181221961975,
0.16514208912849426,
-0.48995715379714966,
-0.8845000267028809,
0.16807225346565247,
-1.0018105506896973,
0.02877313829958439,
0.6236783266067505,
-0.8318115472793579,
-0.2337966412305832,
0.538465678691864,
-0.7908769845962524,
-0.422343909740448,
-0.31459006667137146,
0.40946444869041443,
0.6622830033302307,
0.16186478734016418,
-0.18227286636829376,
0.3114047646522522,
0.7364075779914856,
0.44066181778907776,
-0.579611599445343,
0.7467325925827026,
-0.5755472779273987,
-0.07361209392547607,
0.7592211961746216,
0.29613548517227173,
-0.7444036602973938,
0.14588244259357452,
0.19123709201812744,
-0.06933321058750153,
-0.23664551973342896,
0.30766454339027405,
-0.03242192044854164,
0.08874747902154922,
0.3617587685585022,
0.1736900359392166,
0.12776537239551544,
-0.7623749375343323,
-0.8978130221366882,
0.1428823173046112,
0.013974927365779877,
-1.0852540731430054,
-0.3915535807609558,
-0.6778993010520935,
-0.22289279103279114,
0.3311118185520172,
-0.06251780688762665,
0.08650372177362442,
0.8556510210037231,
-0.25863224267959595,
-1.2414789199829102,
0.09096897393465042,
0.19754397869110107,
-0.6080072522163391,
-0.90678870677948,
0.534119188785553,
-0.17922022938728333,
0.6628930568695068,
-0.7206537127494812,
-0.4566025137901306,
0.17052936553955078,
-0.021405082195997238,
0.5032445192337036,
0.4336366057395935,
-0.4264869689941406,
0.7914571166038513,
-0.0621134378015995,
-0.06957990676164627,
-0.1058276891708374,
0.13819953799247742,
-0.32464778423309326,
0.6590345501899719,
0.5390388369560242,
0.5433849692344666,
-0.2485630065202713,
-0.12185952812433243,
0.6304641962051392,
-0.08166638761758804,
-0.04866906255483627,
0.6935152411460876,
-0.31814998388290405,
-0.3438536822795868,
0.3482402563095093,
0.46199649572372437,
-0.08932286500930786,
0.4792398512363434,
0.10911627858877182,
-0.13383440673351288,
0.34068429470062256,
-0.8016471266746521,
-0.34231266379356384,
0.8569684028625488,
0.0026862549129873514,
-0.27974727749824524,
0.5074711441993713,
-0.14625288546085358,
0.438799113035202,
-0.16596387326717377,
-0.1713009476661682,
-0.23453234136104584,
-0.5889683365821838,
-0.25047045946121216,
-1.388667345046997,
0.0378086157143116,
0.07508853822946548,
0.16051708161830902,
-0.2146100103855133,
0.06212807819247246,
0.4069579243659973,
-0.15884660184383392,
0.45217064023017883,
0.06935165077447891,
0.28714460134506226,
-0.8269373178482056,
0.44207248091697693,
-1.003283143043518,
-0.4343305230140686,
-0.6015463471412659,
-0.7026816606521606,
-0.2751285433769226,
-0.44363343715667725,
0.5796518325805664,
0.37487858533859253,
0.5389612317085266,
-0.28289562463760376,
0.8778876066207886,
-0.1090509295463562,
-0.941373884677887,
0.5826131701469421,
-0.049581799656152725,
-0.005140287801623344,
-0.7699008584022522,
0.0788382962346077,
0.038936346769332886,
0.08567987382411957,
0.37252557277679443,
-0.7520349621772766,
-0.3375495374202728,
-0.20552292466163635,
0.3889336884021759,
-0.6357919573783875,
-0.30457666516304016,
0.4861220419406891,
-0.35151785612106323,
-0.4511965215206146,
0.2979365885257721,
-0.40068313479423523,
-0.8568162322044373,
0.10486096143722534,
0.16200147569179535,
-0.15189939737319946,
-0.3400273025035858,
-0.5387036800384521,
0.37569648027420044,
0.22227807343006134,
-0.03403164818882942,
0.04878716543316841,
-0.059544630348682404,
0.23857994377613068,
-0.18069033324718475,
-0.6981887817382812,
0.15168465673923492,
0.5707753300666809,
-0.6488540172576904,
-0.2584249675273895,
-0.14558587968349457,
0.5235663652420044,
-0.22608323395252228,
1.0292799472808838,
0.42332547903060913,
-0.42402949929237366,
0.8081640601158142,
0.20192572474479675,
-0.7380582094192505,
1.0390199422836304,
-0.20337587594985962,
-0.3794752061367035,
0.5078067779541016,
0.2481016218662262,
-0.4692468047142029,
0.42222991585731506,
0.061337053775787354,
0.5160689353942871,
-0.5963591933250427,
0.07456839084625244,
-0.27580633759498596,
0.13038989901542664,
0.30170542001724243,
-0.5079364776611328,
-0.840034008026123,
0.8178356885910034,
0.39456579089164734,
-0.44231584668159485,
0.8257849812507629,
-0.0631873831152916,
0.06564310193061829,
0.01273131463676691,
0.7987328171730042,
0.0608469657599926,
-0.1324508786201477,
-0.0690433531999588,
-0.4530409872531891,
-0.039559319615364075,
0.11161838471889496,
-0.23896381258964539,
0.428803950548172,
0.7729928493499756,
-0.12791866064071655,
-0.12091413885354996,
-0.23045288026332855,
-0.08615556359291077,
0.788582980632782,
0.4490529000759125,
-1.0820084810256958,
0.7865040898323059,
0.9050354361534119,
0.11406680196523666,
-1.0395160913467407,
0.14046214520931244,
0.9035208821296692,
-0.3909197151660919,
0.19061154127120972,
0.504858672618866,
-0.04688894376158714,
0.26304909586906433,
0.8908196687698364,
0.2606598734855652,
-0.19681748747825623,
0.3429379165172577,
0.8397893309593201,
-0.6018274426460266,
0.3217332661151886,
-0.4477956295013428,
0.591850996017456,
-0.1893618404865265,
-0.1404597908258438,
0.24108169972896576,
0.7829943895339966,
0.4251769185066223,
-0.7331778407096863,
0.01692766323685646,
0.3840208351612091,
-0.9272497296333313,
-0.08362328261137009,
0.45682743191719055,
-0.44517064094543457,
-0.38568830490112305,
-0.2632092237472534,
-0.9519472122192383,
-0.3294075131416321,
-1.203649878501892,
-0.019503967836499214,
0.21570712327957153,
-0.9067755341529846,
-0.41408205032348633,
0.1682501882314682,
-0.008302886039018631,
0.3241259753704071,
-0.5811997652053833,
-0.6736513376235962,
0.28034844994544983,
0.28761839866638184,
0.39519593119621277,
-0.181144580245018,
0.23933935165405273,
-1.144991397857666,
1.1773439645767212,
-0.5783202648162842,
-0.677647590637207,
0.5717880129814148,
-0.8029432892799377,
0.017608672380447388,
-0.4459502398967743,
0.3096022605895996,
0.1453465074300766,
-0.4766680598258972,
-0.2872340977191925,
0.17638364434242249,
0.7837921380996704,
-0.16258057951927185,
1.053953766822815,
0.7624371647834778,
-0.3413214087486267,
-0.004787086509168148,
0.6452441811561584,
0.01946825347840786,
0.1107993870973587,
0.6952094435691833,
0.3095055818557739,
0.03567953407764435,
1.2960251569747925,
-0.3594873249530792,
0.360860139131546,
0.38192132115364075,
0.6546211838722229,
0.09859444200992584,
-0.9659656882286072,
-0.16299249231815338,
0.3486058712005615,
-0.4957442283630371,
-0.1758880466222763,
-0.27129194140434265,
-0.35067883133888245,
-0.7545814514160156,
0.28512829542160034,
0.06397660821676254,
0.5765693783760071,
0.5117154717445374,
-0.20587968826293945,
-0.20179440081119537,
-0.2100655734539032,
-0.5081113576889038,
0.5416497588157654,
0.2838537395000458,
-0.6561070084571838,
0.4971350133419037,
-0.13091476261615753,
-0.3255225121974945,
-0.2583620250225067,
-0.5082021951675415,
0.10543444007635117,
0.4283828139305115,
-0.9396056532859802,
-1.0850567817687988,
0.1600227802991867,
-0.0573430210351944,
0.41789165139198303,
1.2557308673858643,
0.1356607973575592,
-0.1589478850364685,
-0.13525964319705963,
0.3378296494483948,
-0.5323582887649536,
-0.03845112770795822,
0.8784809112548828,
0.41130584478378296,
0.6703057289123535,
0.4377981126308441,
0.6445402503013611,
0.24830962717533112,
0.7228149175643921,
-0.08030437678098679,
0.5768148899078369,
-0.40416350960731506,
0.019247783347964287,
-0.56952965259552,
0.30104827880859375,
-0.46455827355384827,
-0.4586397111415863,
0.43799325823783875,
-0.11951550096273422,
-0.5975781083106995,
-0.3888566493988037,
0.15537616610527039,
-0.05535681173205376,
-0.36447250843048096,
-0.5109890699386597,
-0.9061392545700073,
-0.02963132970035076,
-0.7184544205665588,
-0.1144937127828598,
-0.19281306862831116,
1.0753804445266724,
0.5981906652450562,
0.32747745513916016,
0.45486462116241455,
0.017368322238326073,
0.027795063331723213,
0.04129274934530258,
-0.36604514718055725,
0.7296867370605469,
-0.32678958773612976,
0.3207177519798279,
-0.04355859011411667,
0.9885484576225281,
0.19932611286640167,
0.5817652940750122,
-0.617293119430542,
0.8099089860916138,
-0.1812455952167511,
0.5811247825622559,
0.8438301086425781,
-0.3743661344051361,
-0.3889616131782532,
-0.5827538371086121,
0.6130801439285278,
-0.30394643545150757,
0.14190320670604706,
0.7872165441513062,
-0.11484801024198532,
-0.47873300313949585,
-0.18548163771629333,
0.5106295347213745,
-0.8222464919090271,
-0.09143923223018646,
0.5202315449714661,
-0.7997276782989502,
-0.04947702959179878,
0.5399803519248962,
-0.5312981605529785,
-0.5200163125991821,
-0.14118987321853638,
0.936423122882843,
0.6288489699363708,
0.15422603487968445,
0.25786277651786804,
-0.5049610733985901,
0.4755188226699829,
-0.28901949524879456,
0.8437936902046204,
-0.6460549831390381,
-0.9200865626335144,
-0.8772602081298828,
-0.766228437423706,
0.14130714535713196,
-0.387079119682312,
-0.7279645204544067,
0.04663956165313721,
0.33701425790786743,
-0.14189788699150085,
0.11376310884952545,
0.000449406128609553,
-0.44833269715309143,
0.32380375266075134,
0.1354992836713791
] |
241528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob%20Bronowski | Jacob Bronowski | Jacob Bronowski (18 January 1908 – 22 August 1974) was a Polish-British mathematician and philosopher. He was known to friends and professional colleagues alike by the nickname Bruno. He is best known for developing a humanistic approach to science, and as the presenter and writer of the thirteen-part 1973 BBC television documentary series, and accompanying book, The Ascent of Man, which led to his regard as "one of the world's most celebrated intellectuals".
Bronowski's family moved from Congress Poland to Germany and then to England while he was a child. He won a scholarship to study mathematics at the University of Cambridge. His interests have been described as ranging "widely, from biology to poetry and from chess to Humanism". He taught mathematics at the University College Hull between 1934 and 1942. During World War II he led the field of operations research and worked to increase the effectiveness of Allied bombing. After the war he headed the projects division of UNESCO. Bronowski wrote poetry and had a deep affinity with William Blake. From 1950 to 1963 he worked for the National Coal Board in the UK. From 1963 he was a resident fellow of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in San Diego, until his death in 1974 in East Hampton, New York, just a year after the airing of his Ascent of Man.
Early life and education
Jacob Bronowski was born to a Polish-Jewish family in Łódź, Congress Poland, in 1908. His family moved to Germany during the First World War, and to Britain in 1920, Bronowski's parents having been married in Britain in the London house of his maternal grandfather in 1907. Although, according to Bronowski, he knew only two English words on arriving in Britain, he gained admission to the Central Foundation Boys' School in London and went on to study at the University of Cambridge, where he graduated as Senior Wrangler.
As a mathematics student at Jesus College, Cambridge, Bronowski co-edited—with William Empson—the literary periodical Experiment, which first appeared in 1928. Bronowski would pursue this sort of dual activity, in both the mathematical and literary worlds, throughout his professional life. He was also a strong chess player, earning a half-blue while at Cambridge and composing numerous chess problems for the British Chess Magazine between 1926 and 1970. He received a PhD in mathematics at Cambridge in 1935, writing a dissertation in algebraic geometry. For a time in the 1930s he lived near Laura Riding and Robert Graves in Majorca. From 1934 to 1942, he taught mathematics at the University College of Hull. Beginning in this period, the British secret service MI5 placed him under surveillance believing he was a security risk, which may have restricted his access to senior posts in the UK.
Wartime work in military analysis
During the Second World War, Bronowski worked in operations research for the UK's Ministry of Home Security, where he developed mathematical approaches to bombing strategy for RAF Bomber Command.
At the end of the war, Bronowski was part of a British team of scientists and civil engineers that visited Japan to document the effects of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki for the purpose of studying the effects of the atomic bomb and its implications for future UK civil defence. Bronowski, in conjunction with Professor W. N. Thomas of the University of Cardiff, subsequently produced the secret "Report of the British Mission to Japan on an Investigation of the Effects of the Atomic Bombs Dropped at Hiroshima and Nagasaki", which was passed to various government departments and consulted in the design of future UK public buildings.
Post-war biological analysis
Following his experiences of the after-effects of the Nagasaki and Hiroshima bombings, he discontinued his work for British military research and turned to biology, as did his friend Leo Szilard, and many other physicists of that time, to better understand the nature of violence. Subsequently, Bronowski became Director of Research for the National Coal Board in the UK, and an associate director of the Salk Institute from 1964.
In 1950, Bronowski was given the Taung Child's fossilised skull and asked to try, using his statistical skills, to combine a measure of the size of the skull's teeth with their shape in order to discriminate them from the teeth of apes. Work on this turned his interests towards the biology of humanity's intellectual products.
Public science education
In 1967 Bronowski delivered the six Silliman Memorial Lectures at Yale University and chose as his subject the role of imagination and symbolic language in the progress of scientific knowledge. Transcripts of the lectures were published posthumously in 1978 as The Origins of Knowledge and Imagination and remain in print. He first became familiar to the British public through appearances on the BBC television version of The Brains Trust in the late 1950s. His ability to answer questions on many varied subjects led to an offhand reference in episode 22 of Monty Python's Flying Circus ("Penguin on the Television Set") where one character states that "He knows everything".
Bronowski is best remembered for his 13-part series The Ascent of Man (1973), a BBC television documentary about the history of human life and scientific endeavour. This project was commissioned by David Attenborough, then Head of BBC2, and was intended to complement two preceding series: art historian Kenneth Clark's "personal view" series Civilisation (1969) which had covered cultural history and Alistair Cooke's series America.
Following the making of The Ascent of Man, Bronowski was interviewed on the chat show Parkinson. Host Michael Parkinson later recounted that Bronowski's description of his visit to Auschwitz, where many of the Polish members of his family had died during the Holocaust, was one of the most memorable parts of any interview he had done. After he had completed the last episode of his show, Parkinson stated that 'If I could save one interview from the thousands I have done, it would be the one-man show with Professor Jacob Bronowski.'.
Personal life
Bronowski married Rita Coblentz in 1941. The couple had four children, all daughters, the eldest being the academic Lisa Jardine and another being the filmmaker Judith Bronowski.
Bronowski spent time interviewing the physicist Leo Szilard for about the last year of the scientist's life. Szilard, who died in mid-1964, had authored the 1939 letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt arguing in favour of pursuing nuclear weapons to ensure victory over the Nazis.
Bronowski died in 1974 of a heart attack in East Hampton, New York, a year after The Ascent of Man was completed, and his ashes were buried in the western side of London's Highgate Cemetery, near the entrance. Rita Bronowski died in California in September 2010, aged 92. The ashes of Lisa Jardine were buried on 25th October 2016 next to her father's in Highgate Cemetery.
Books
The Poet's Defence (1939)
William Blake: A Man Without a Mask (1943)
The Common Sense of Science (1951)
The Face of Violence (1954)
William Blake: The Penguin Poets Series (1958)
The Western Intellectual Tradition, From Leonardo to Hegel (1960) – with Bruce Mazlish
Biography of an Atom (1963) – with Millicent Selsam
Insight (1964)
Nature and Knowledge: The Philosophy of Contemporary Science (1969)
Atomic Fusion, illustrated by Bartley Powell. Published by Newman Neame Take Home Books Ltd.
William Blake and the Age of Revolution (1972)
The Ascent of Man (1974)
A Sense of the Future (1977)
Magic, Science & Civilisation (1978)
The Origins of Knowledge and Imagination (1978)
The Visionary Eye: Essays in the Arts, Literature and Science (1979) – edited by Piero Ariotti and Rita Bronowski.
References
External links
Has biography, pictures, and obituary.
The Jacob Bronowski Archive
The Bronowski Trophy (chess)
1908 births
1974 deaths
Scientists from Łódź
People educated at Central Foundation Boys' School
Academics of the University of Hull
Alumni of Jesus College, Cambridge
British agnostics
British humanists
Burials at Highgate Cemetery
Historians of science
Jewish agnostics
Jewish historians
Jewish poets
Jewish scientists
Polish emigrants to the United Kingdom
20th-century Polish Jews
Prix Italia winners
William Blake scholars
20th-century British poets
20th-century historians
Senior Wranglers
Jewish biologists
Salk Institute for Biological Studies people | [
-0.14291568100452423,
0.4166077971458435,
-0.35707563161849976,
-0.08095454424619675,
-0.7180252075195312,
1.010764241218567,
0.7638673782348633,
-0.38552892208099365,
-0.056419737637043,
-0.1465802639722824,
-0.2812374234199524,
0.01523130014538765,
0.027040502056479454,
0.27179622650146484,
0.21606764197349548,
-0.15431487560272217,
-0.05241859331727028,
-0.6482531428337097,
-0.5319807529449463,
0.16964291036128998,
-0.04616504907608032,
0.16737326979637146,
0.07915312051773071,
0.12376078963279724,
-0.6986298561096191,
0.3307490944862366,
-0.01760341040790081,
-0.2380877286195755,
0.15646587312221527,
-0.08447041362524033,
0.08728635311126709,
0.9319993853569031,
-0.20620961487293243,
-0.12901420891284943,
-0.4230581223964691,
0.3908587098121643,
-0.2870892584323883,
-0.35138875246047974,
0.1454022377729416,
0.3217660188674927,
-0.05213291570544243,
0.5545711517333984,
0.1065792515873909,
0.12765860557556152,
-0.13140112161636353,
-0.7044700980186462,
-1.5861461162567139,
0.28146660327911377,
-0.6139125823974609,
-0.8524743914604187,
-0.06609605252742767,
0.3594159185886383,
0.7487951517105103,
0.44571205973625183,
-0.7334191799163818,
0.07922197878360748,
-0.7001086473464966,
-0.1452806442975998,
0.44364815950393677,
0.008031725883483887,
0.6909390091896057,
0.06558069586753845,
0.5379486680030823,
0.160762757062912,
1.0491961240768433,
0.16642075777053833,
-0.20255863666534424,
0.5469103455543518,
-0.23894116282463074,
0.14665773510932922,
-0.4765559136867523,
0.03309065103530884,
-0.17852595448493958,
-0.15762807428836823,
0.04136725887656212,
-0.749713659286499,
0.342536985874176,
-0.08580157160758972,
-0.1424657702445984,
0.12090213596820831,
0.029060982167720795,
-0.321161150932312,
0.9867987632751465,
0.34646910429000854,
0.4841369390487671,
0.006132577080279589,
-0.67013019323349,
0.25891709327697754,
-0.8567686080932617,
-0.1879635453224182,
-0.1739327609539032,
-0.09911566227674484,
0.6369761824607849,
-0.08169026672840118,
0.24119025468826294,
0.637040913105011,
0.3777371048927307,
0.3508700132369995,
-0.0636945441365242,
-0.3842615485191345,
-0.15540270507335663,
0.23948848247528076,
0.18366973102092743,
-0.6173279285430908,
-0.10184311121702194,
-0.16623419523239136,
0.07881425321102142,
-0.25880691409111023,
0.4913581311702728,
-0.47105079889297485,
-0.9032268524169922,
0.2684165835380554,
-0.13271766901016235,
-0.18459196388721466,
0.08161003142595291,
0.3129715323448181,
0.008089983835816383,
-0.5062408447265625,
-0.5913246273994446,
0.4059274196624756,
-0.6758168935775757,
0.505903422832489,
-0.17496149241924286,
0.4914315640926361,
-0.5801612138748169,
0.10394469648599625,
0.11283502727746964,
0.512845516204834,
0.19790804386138916,
0.27481913566589355,
0.40245646238327026,
1.3536574840545654,
0.06966115534305573,
-0.305375337600708,
-0.288371205329895,
0.21531055867671967,
0.06571456789970398,
0.03819245100021362,
-0.867156445980072,
0.6136969923973083,
-0.21216411888599396,
-0.1920989453792572,
-0.7091807126998901,
0.06857606768608093,
0.25509387254714966,
0.2123069018125534,
-0.294861376285553,
-0.18087977170944214,
0.2727649509906769,
-0.050463367253541946,
-0.3901374042034149,
0.020554721355438232,
-0.10659687966108322,
-0.23430095613002777,
0.04403940588235855,
0.7372053861618042,
0.26854079961776733,
0.32778334617614746,
0.25432294607162476,
0.09651292860507965,
0.7838273048400879,
-0.45417284965515137,
-0.11373940110206604,
0.06209510564804077,
0.4587956368923187,
-0.4140941798686981,
0.4027043282985687,
-0.11427564173936844,
-0.11161869764328003,
0.3351845443248749,
-0.45943373441696167,
-0.45794588327407837,
0.17561353743076324,
-0.1636202335357666,
0.2364758551120758,
0.03297900781035423,
0.5509357452392578,
-0.22806651890277863,
0.6946367621421814,
-0.20603831112384796,
-0.49122729897499084,
-0.4305286109447479,
-0.30397507548332214,
0.43449416756629944,
0.4743104577064514,
0.4045768082141876,
0.042337816208601,
-0.05562470480799675,
0.7030316591262817,
-0.04340830445289612,
-0.35322707891464233,
-0.5910252332687378,
0.22150589525699615,
0.15685926377773285,
1.2091445922851562,
0.28997987508773804,
-0.6972389221191406,
0.621050238609314,
0.05659342557191849,
0.5336336493492126,
-0.44776013493537903,
-0.5319622755050659,
-0.6721271276473999,
0.45145440101623535,
0.16276182234287262,
1.1660908460617065,
0.1901344209909439,
-0.3759410083293915,
0.4258095622062683,
0.5741599202156067,
0.23686593770980835,
-0.4314521253108978,
0.19688042998313904,
0.04148663207888603,
-0.42068156599998474,
-0.2353198230266571,
-0.22738206386566162,
-0.14760281145572662,
0.4275584816932678,
-0.31492504477500916,
0.9632761478424072,
0.065106600522995,
0.21992610394954681,
0.7134152054786682,
0.32972481846809387,
0.508375883102417,
0.3506079316139221,
0.7913970351219177,
0.23212653398513794,
-1.1674567461013794,
-0.2777976989746094,
0.30788126587867737,
0.1955982744693756,
-0.314178466796875,
-0.1127929538488388,
-0.0255337655544281,
-0.3855033814907074,
-0.4997100830078125,
0.19927190244197845,
-0.5920210480690002,
0.05363954231142998,
0.40398693084716797,
-0.12219095975160599,
0.2194158434867859,
0.04498274624347687,
0.24805204570293427,
-0.18632665276527405,
-0.06349736452102661,
-0.298279345035553,
0.21227557957172394,
-0.464728444814682,
0.8930339217185974,
0.3128058612346649,
0.028293510898947716,
-0.543967604637146,
0.3861624598503113,
0.469504714012146,
-0.06603071093559265,
0.5774829983711243,
0.4461689889431,
0.39717572927474976,
0.11364544928073883,
0.050042569637298584,
0.15343038737773895,
-0.2179824560880661,
-0.2813185453414917,
-0.06867397576570511,
-0.2243596613407135,
0.26137009263038635,
-0.3774488568305969,
0.32817983627319336,
-0.7573246359825134,
0.15431758761405945,
-0.7168378829956055,
0.2175626903772354,
-0.7900259494781494,
-0.412129282951355,
-0.09005697816610336,
-0.5923645496368408,
-0.14287148416042328,
0.20419946312904358,
0.7159790992736816,
-0.2601717412471771,
0.6290884613990784,
0.0010076528415083885,
0.4217562675476074,
-0.1236933022737503,
0.03613661602139473,
0.6196380257606506,
-0.18312892317771912,
-0.5767434239387512,
1.0502197742462158,
-0.43051743507385254,
0.04116564989089966,
-0.30149510502815247,
0.697144627571106,
-0.5333702564239502,
-1.130709171295166,
-0.24716074764728546,
-0.07746066153049469,
-0.9889634251594543,
0.8510254621505737,
-0.4846014976501465,
0.4731820225715637,
0.0934840738773346,
0.26513513922691345,
-0.35490310192108154,
0.38425758481025696,
-5.206908226013184,
0.3236413598060608,
-0.5212317705154419,
-0.1828698217868805,
-0.29290127754211426,
0.6395091414451599,
0.4546099901199341,
-0.13001981377601624,
-0.5200240612030029,
-0.08919589966535568,
0.1629810780286789,
-0.29007652401924133,
-0.5167055130004883,
1.0205398797988892,
1.0117483139038086,
0.6917951703071594,
0.32951709628105164,
-0.27112409472465515,
0.11964135617017746,
0.089596226811409,
-0.2837830185890198,
-0.14650072157382965,
-0.39171749353408813,
0.258998841047287,
0.04618176445364952,
0.45875006914138794,
0.23138681054115295,
0.4236452579498291,
-1.0185850858688354,
-0.6559125185012817,
0.010781480930745602,
-0.45126280188560486,
-0.343532532453537,
0.11435040831565857,
0.23031193017959595,
-0.11462637037038803,
0.4602797329425812,
0.8506094217300415,
0.029350895434617996,
0.42401227355003357,
-0.3730933964252472,
0.3602236211299896,
-0.5573241114616394,
0.32564637064933777,
-0.19796627759933472,
0.25244879722595215,
-0.7518582344055176,
0.6014240384101868,
-0.5968437790870667,
0.46529659628868103,
-0.00857043731957674,
0.40865007042884827,
0.12690851092338562,
0.07857464998960495,
-0.02335759811103344,
0.09793547540903091,
0.3289942145347595,
-0.11644673347473145,
-0.6411952376365662,
0.32013222575187683,
0.28509268164634705,
-0.30686673521995544,
0.5143623948097229,
-0.5746710300445557,
0.2593170404434204,
0.002820607740432024,
0.11486532539129257,
-0.29126161336898804,
0.06363660097122192,
-0.6779685616493225,
-0.3715507686138153,
0.716157078742981,
-0.3896198868751526,
-1.0678383111953735,
-0.3087145686149597,
-0.35559937357902527,
-0.0977962538599968,
-0.13872043788433075,
-0.22088433802127838,
0.2509680390357971,
0.2808620035648346,
-0.815117597579956,
-0.8943688869476318,
0.6510568261146545,
0.4884479343891144,
0.3170314431190491,
-0.39248189330101013,
0.0028294711373746395,
-0.46912306547164917,
-0.36801692843437195,
0.04089885577559471,
0.013505938462913036,
0.39646753668785095,
0.12912869453430176,
-0.29316964745521545,
0.10471204668283463,
-0.43064624071121216,
0.11976698040962219,
0.17691871523857117,
0.04769168421626091,
-0.6850928664207458,
-0.5210117101669312,
0.255694717168808,
-0.7609813809394836,
0.6789861917495728,
0.08086305111646652,
-0.2770857512950897,
0.10665187984704971,
0.9087819457054138,
0.15436549484729767,
-0.18322929739952087,
0.4345109164714813,
-0.4857151508331299,
-0.25803521275520325,
0.46552562713623047,
-0.23570004105567932,
-0.25139251351356506,
0.5343387126922607,
0.2056301385164261,
0.5509548783302307,
-0.39160841703414917,
-0.20097580552101135,
-0.04371868818998337,
-0.11671470105648041,
0.008639118634164333,
-0.054531849920749664,
0.05789867416024208,
0.08433966338634491,
-0.5930312275886536,
-0.10987318307161331,
0.026613937690854073,
1.0000773668289185,
0.0746317133307457,
0.3637690544128418,
0.1666422188282013,
-0.35607433319091797,
-0.6610434651374817,
-0.3325009346008301,
0.2803550660610199,
0.19478397071361542,
0.38146498799324036,
-0.014662669971585274,
0.2692972421646118,
0.6795397996902466,
0.33746954798698425,
0.14262545108795166,
0.2525973916053772,
0.15146397054195404,
-0.6194612979888916,
0.9639392495155334,
0.0925845056772232,
-0.05715761333703995,
0.7590741515159607,
-0.12497381120920181,
-0.06063032150268555,
0.7598311901092529,
-0.3573172688484192,
0.4777074456214905,
0.07521750032901764,
0.05843093991279602,
-0.12510955333709717,
0.10962662100791931,
-0.9731155633926392,
-0.15601225197315216,
0.48648491501808167,
-0.23000000417232513,
-1.15755295753479,
0.10206452012062073,
-0.46652016043663025,
0.4853297770023346,
-0.05017877742648125,
-0.4675726294517517,
-0.990527331829071,
-0.2596660554409027,
-0.01188601367175579,
0.20055755972862244,
0.06757385283708572,
0.10226593166589737,
-0.40141478180885315,
-0.6071715950965881,
0.6272775530815125,
0.3390856683254242,
-0.8718326687812805,
0.5275814533233643,
0.5897518396377563,
-0.28137972950935364,
-0.14852258563041687,
-0.21819737553596497,
0.06127544492483139,
-0.08311068266630173,
0.25092682242393494,
-0.39457401633262634,
0.2713131308555603,
0.5218459367752075,
0.5073659420013428,
-0.2693900763988495,
0.5531654953956604,
-0.20077434182167053,
-1.016759991645813,
-0.5889947414398193,
-0.15495336055755615,
-0.09612084925174713,
-0.05896691605448723,
0.08935356140136719,
0.4438212513923645,
-1.4080241918563843,
0.018366046249866486,
0.3890070915222168,
0.10837120562791824,
1.2138183116912842,
-0.8225193619728088,
-0.580388605594635,
-0.08189868927001953,
0.19793762266635895,
-0.5384336113929749,
0.17229603230953217,
0.6162839531898499,
-0.03429554030299187,
-1.116487979888916,
-0.4467519223690033,
-0.2848699986934662,
0.09651805460453033,
-0.4109184145927429,
-0.5202426314353943,
-0.3436127007007599,
-0.5779327750205994,
-0.07276710122823715,
0.12036606669425964,
0.7033137679100037,
-0.2545163035392761,
-0.14059965312480927,
-0.411312460899353,
-0.015108654275536537,
-0.07575807720422745,
-0.19135229289531708,
-0.3918035626411438,
-0.2611706256866455,
0.23413369059562683,
-0.5621879696846008,
-0.5580686330795288,
0.37708547711372375,
0.5245652794837952,
0.5014032125473022,
-0.06256432831287384,
0.5536923408508301,
-0.4285992681980133,
0.7770659923553467,
0.26813167333602905,
-0.13772249221801758,
0.17665287852287292,
0.49492257833480835,
0.014733164571225643,
-0.9252569675445557,
-0.25254762172698975,
0.7150039076805115,
-0.07978730648756027,
0.08738971501588821,
-0.02105790190398693,
0.5833460092544556,
0.2691870331764221,
0.0653776228427887,
0.08097748458385468,
-0.037178169935941696,
0.06007908284664154,
-0.029274947941303253,
0.24680452048778534,
0.30216291546821594,
-0.09549190104007721,
0.19597195088863373,
-0.32927149534225464,
0.03740415722131729,
-0.6044009327888489,
-0.58140629529953,
0.5512608885765076,
-0.43626049160957336,
-0.12217093259096146,
0.4447096586227417,
-0.28813835978507996,
0.16756267845630646,
-0.47139447927474976,
-0.39627060294151306,
-0.048795998096466064,
0.01318279281258583,
-0.5267512798309326,
-0.5988008379936218,
-0.26660165190696716,
-0.00399061618372798,
-0.1519593894481659,
-0.13930976390838623,
0.6851728558540344,
-1.1226509809494019,
0.04994566738605499,
-0.2379108965396881,
0.022698651999235153,
0.020378239452838898,
-0.2727692425251007,
-0.15088342130184174,
0.5919947028160095,
-0.3794645071029663,
-0.23344498872756958,
-0.5198167562484741,
0.4758059084415436,
0.21118208765983582,
0.24608342349529266,
0.8665406703948975,
0.5330168604850769,
-0.16896291077136993,
0.500846803188324,
-0.3597073554992676,
0.08240769058465958,
0.32244062423706055,
0.20072060823440552,
-0.2497401386499405,
0.2632059156894684,
-0.693233072757721,
-0.04921102896332741,
0.6261257529258728,
-0.36125409603118896,
0.09309380501508713,
-0.39365506172180176,
0.2135462462902069,
0.363485723733902,
1.0073519945144653,
-0.8732945322990417,
-0.2761821150779724,
0.5836594700813293,
0.35986313223838806,
-0.06450943648815155,
-0.39172250032424927,
0.02582775056362152,
0.33324649930000305,
0.3045278489589691,
-0.4187510907649994,
0.03034036047756672,
0.1634884625673294,
-0.14724604785442352,
0.0668664276599884,
-0.6807522177696228,
-0.013583662919700146,
0.16269642114639282,
0.5716410875320435,
0.9478530883789062,
-0.3565696179866791,
0.47630903124809265,
-0.2652195394039154,
0.48114877939224243,
-0.11607000231742859,
0.8501625061035156,
-0.2518691420555115,
0.19134476780891418,
0.2878344655036926,
0.13257557153701782,
0.5230633020401001,
-1.0032203197479248,
0.01129754725843668,
0.13310804963111877,
0.4138786792755127,
-0.3477688431739807,
-0.1105189397931099,
-0.3414607048034668,
0.1842733770608902,
-0.31000879406929016,
0.7886635661125183,
0.02450731210410595,
0.1409572809934616,
-0.1124291718006134,
-0.007865551859140396,
-0.4979627728462219,
0.32533666491508484,
0.06423469632863998,
0.20035399496555328,
-0.26901504397392273,
-0.33368533849716187,
0.5380918979644775,
0.17603588104248047,
-0.2090228796005249,
0.6060584187507629,
-0.376424103975296,
-0.0822804868221283,
0.20397181808948517,
-0.10911841690540314,
0.10139767080545425,
-0.5803438425064087,
-0.0182912927120924,
0.21336695551872253,
-0.36646443605422974,
-0.18415194749832153,
-0.05941598862409592,
-0.47744235396385193,
-0.3019799590110779,
-0.027211636304855347,
-0.7796736359596252,
-0.14779964089393616,
0.7965472936630249,
-1.0368328094482422,
0.18885406851768494,
-0.526458203792572,
0.022124819457530975,
0.14660215377807617,
-0.1321740299463272,
-0.16628092527389526,
0.05645499750971794,
-0.3046693801879883,
0.027294492349028587,
-0.7318130731582642,
0.13449537754058838,
-0.27753761410713196,
0.1521587073802948,
-0.8284975290298462,
0.3113291561603546,
0.10503629595041275,
0.14778026938438416,
-0.5833413600921631,
0.7079516649246216,
-0.14003103971481323,
0.4137369692325592,
0.34370893239974976,
-0.2011795938014984,
-0.4463067054748535,
0.015536482445895672,
-0.1990109235048294,
-0.566734254360199,
0.05884362384676933,
-0.3306116461753845,
0.035956498235464096,
0.22505483031272888,
0.5864501595497131,
0.051645778119564056,
0.13063190877437592,
-0.400097519159317,
-0.5253950953483582,
-0.11622536182403564,
-0.38980036973953247,
-0.42845356464385986,
-0.04013235121965408,
0.058352164924144745,
1.2282941341400146,
0.9525555968284607,
0.5402905344963074,
-0.56365966796875,
0.11383909732103348,
0.155305877327919,
-0.06897205114364624,
0.2621734142303467,
-1.9325615167617798,
0.06989550590515137,
-0.5464582443237305,
-0.46674585342407227,
0.08447795361280441,
0.3565240204334259,
0.1363886147737503,
0.0991678386926651,
0.5798829197883606,
-0.8767215013504028,
0.1934340000152588,
0.3843876123428345,
-0.1747470498085022,
-0.43627870082855225,
0.2540619969367981,
0.3266308009624481
] |
241529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern%20Television | Southern Television | Southern Television was the ITV broadcasting licence holder for the South and South-East of England from 30 August 1958 to 31 December 1981. The company was launched as 'Southern Television Limited' and the title 'Southern Television' was consistently used on-air throughout its life. However, in 1966, during the application process for contracts running from 1968, the company renamed itself 'Southern Independent Television Limited', a title which was used until 1980 when the company reverted to its original corporate name. Southern Television ceased broadcasting on the morning of 1 January 1982 at 12:43am, after a review during the 1980 franchise round gave the contract to Television South.
Launch
When the Independent Television Authority (ITA) advertised for applicants to run the south of England station in 1958, Southern Television beat eight other applicants for the contract. Its initial shareholders were Associated Newspapers, the Rank Organisation and the Amalgamated Press, each holding one third of the company. Associated Newspapers was allowed to remain a shareholder in Southern, only on the condition that it sold its remaining 10% stake in Associated-Rediffusion to avoid owning parts of two ITV companies; the Amalgamated Press dropped out of the consortium before the station went on air. This led to Associated Newspapers and Rank increasing their stakes to 37.5% each, and D. C. Thomson & Co. Ltd taking the remaining 25%.
Southern Television was the ninth ITA franchise to launch, beginning transmissions on 30 August 1958 at 5:30 pm with the first playing of Southern Rhapsody, the station theme which was used to begin each day's transmission until 31 December 1981, written by composer Richard Addinsell and performed by the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra, with Addinsell himself conducting. The first presenter on air was continuity announcer Meryl O'Keefe (later to become a BBC announcer); her first on-air announcement was followed by an outside broadcast link-up fronted by Julian Pettifer (later a war correspondent) and a regional news bulletin read by Martin Muncaster.
Other opening night programmes included a Filmed Playhouse drama entitled The Last Reunion, a preview programme called Coming Shortly, an episode of the American crime drama Highway Patrol and a networked opening night programme entitled Southern Rhapsody, starring Gracie Fields and the Lionel Blair Dancers, televised from the station's studios in a converted cinema in the Northam area of Southampton and the ocean liner Caronia, which was berthed in Southampton docks.
Programming
Regular programmes produced by Southern Television included the regional news magazine Day by Day, presented by Cliff Michelmore, Christopher Peacock, Barry Westwood, Peter Clark, and long-serving weather forecaster Trevor Baker; Out of Town, a countryside programme introduced by Jack Hargreaves, who would later join Southern Television's board of directors; How, a children's science programme also featuring Hargreaves along with Fred Dinenage, Bunty James (later replaced by Marian Davies) and Jon Miller; Freewheelers, a children's spy series; Winston Churchill: The Wilderness Years and Worzel Gummidge, starring Jon Pertwee as the eponymous walking scarecrow. Southern Television also produced a programme aimed at the farming community, presented by Mark Jenner, Farm Progress was broadcast at around 10:30 on Sunday mornings. A late-night epilogue was introduced by Roger Royle. Alongside 'Trevor the Weather', weather forecasts were also presented by Cyril Ockenden.
Generally, the company produced more networked children's programmes than shows for adults, scoring a particularly strong seller internationally with an adaptation of Enid Blyton's The Famous Five. Also worth noting was the children's programme The Saturday Banana, hosted by Bill Oddie (then one of The Goodies) which saw the placing of a fibreglass banana outside the studios, supported by its peeled 'skin'. Southern also produced the children's game show Runaround which was hosted by Mike Reid.
The broadcaster was known for its enlightened classical music broadcasting, including studio concerts by the local Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra in Music in Camera. From 1972, Southern Television broadcast up to two operas from Glyndebourne each season, some of which have since been issued on DVD.
The Southern Television archive passed to Australian company Southern Star, which later sold it to Renown Pictures, which shows some of the content on its own channel Talking Pictures TV, including Southern soap opera Together, amongst other old film libraries that Renown owns.
In its last three years on the air Southern showed many foreign-language films in its Friday Late, Late Show, including as many as eight by Rainer Werner Fassbinder and others by Werner Herzog, Andrzej Wajda, Wim Wenders, Federico Fellini and many more. These were particularly valuable in the more rural parts of its region where these films were rarely shown in cinemas and home video barely existed.
Studios
Southampton
The station's original studios were in a converted cinema, the Plaza, in Northam, Southampton.
With the advent of colour in 1969, the company moved to purpose-built new studios next door to the existing site, built on land reclaimed from the River Itchen.
The studios at Northam were sold on to TVS in 1981, and sold again by TVS to Meridian Broadcasting in 1992. Meridian relocated to a much smaller office building in Whiteley in 2004, and the site at Northam was sold to developers. The studio complex was demolished in 2010. Blocks of flats have now been erected on the site.
Dover
The company also ran production offices and a studio in Dover, to serve the eastern part of its region. The studio was opened in 1961, after the ITA's VHF Dover television transmitter went into operation the year before. The studio on Russell Street was mainly used for regional news production although some non-news programmes including the long-running rural affairs series Farm Progress, feature series and documentaries such as Elusive Butterflies and Dougalling and the nightly Epilogue (known for years as Guideline) were also produced from Dover.
During Southern's tenure as the ITV franchise broadcaster, the company strived to produce dedicated opt outs for the east of the region – the first British television service of its kind. Southern's South East news team in Dover produced separate bulletins for the area as an opt-out into the Day by Day programme each weeknight. A dedicated South East bulletin was also broadcast after News at Ten. More well known to South East viewers was Scene South East, a weekly magazine programme introduced on 9 October 1964 as Friday on Ten, which replaced Day by Day on Friday nights. Its popularity led to the introduction of a shorter Scene Midweek programme on Wednesdays from 1977 onwards. Local commercials specific to the region were also broadcast to the Dover transmitter only, via the presentation control area at the Southampton studios.
Dover-based presenters and reporters included Mike Field, Jeff Thomas, Malcolm Mitchell, Tim Brinton, Simon Theobalds, Arnie Wilson, Jill Cochrane, Derek Williamson, Pat Sloman, David Haigh (editor of Scene South East), Donald Dougall and Mike Fuller. The Dover studio directors were David Pick and Maurice Harper. The floor manager was John Heather and the production assistant was Gillie Slaven. During the transition from Southern TV to TVS, two production secretaries were appointed, Gwenneth Hughes and Denise Hood.
After Southern lost its franchise to TVS, the studios were used to produce the successor's regional news programmes for the South East — Coast to Coast and TVS News. Once TVS's studios in Maidstone were opened, the Dover studios were closed in 1983 and demolished a year later. The site is now a car park.
Other facilities
Unique in ITV and reflecting the area's maritime history the company converted a Second World War motor torpedo boat into a floating outside broadcasting unit named Southerner.
There were regional offices in Maidstone, Dorchester, Brighton and Reading. There were also sales offices at Stag Place, London and Oxford Street, Manchester.
Identity
Southern Television's logo is sometimes said to be a compass (with the directional station name and the fact that the bottom point on the logo is longest suggesting a compass pointing south in the direction of Southern Television's service area); however, the general consensus is that it is a star, named after the Southern Star and because Southern Television's final transmission showed the logo zooming off into the night sky. For the purposes of this article, the logo will be referred to as a star, to reflect what it is most popularly called.
Southern Television's first identity featured an art deco style star which zoomed into screen before the bottom point extended downwards with varying tones. This was replaced in the early 1960s with a white rotating star against a black background against a drumroll jingle. This was again altered in the mid-1960s to the familiar star shape against a black background and accompanied by a jingle featuring a cacophony of noises. This shape formed from a circle, with the diagonal lines moving out and joining the circle and the horizontal and vertical lines being drawn last, with the name added last.
This ident remained with the station until the end of its existence with some modifications; firstly the jingle was altered to nine notes on a guitar a few years later, and then the background was revealed to be blue in 1969 with the introduction of colour (blue was the background colour of the ident as used in black and white; being shot with black background and white star would have given too much contrast and overexposed the camera). This ident with blue background colour was maintained after the introduction of colour transmissions because this still provided a good contrast on black and white TV sets. This ident, occasionally supplemented by a subsequent caption stating 'The Station that serves the South', lasted until the company ceased transmission in 1982.
In addition to these idents, a clock was used featuring a blue background and Southern legend, and for introducing links between programmes, in-vision continuity was utilised often. Continuity announcers included:
Brian Nissen (transferred to TVS in 1982)
Christopher Robbie (transferred to TVS in 1982)
Keith Martin
Gill Hewitt
Verity Martindill
1980 franchise round
The 1980 franchise round required Southern Television to re-apply to the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) to continue to serve the South East from 1982. Competition was stiff, and in the end, Southern Television lost its franchise to Television South (TVS), a new consortium with fresh ideas and bold plans that were quite different from Southern Television's proposals.
Southern's failure was met with anger and disbelief by its board of directors. Although the IBA gave its standard reason for such decisions—that the competitor offered greater investment and a better mix of programmes—it was believed the station's non-local ownership may have swayed the balance against it. Another factor may have been the company's conservative nature and that, with a new decade just dawned, the south of England would be a radically different area; it was felt that Southern Television's application was more of the same tried and tested formula, which in time would not have reflected the possibilities for the area. Yet another possible factor was the incumbent's complacency: its original application was a mere 16 pages long. Tactfully the IBA invited Southern Television to re-submit, this time asking the company to go into more depth with its plans.
TVS spent months trying to persuade Southern to sell its studios until it finally succeeded. TVS was forced to use portable office buildings (popularly known as Portakabins, a brand name) in Southern's car park (something repeated later by the winner of the 1991 franchise, applicant Meridian Broadcasting, now known as ITV Meridian, while it waited to take over from TVS). Southern finally agreed to lease its studios for the production of TVS programmes and sell them to TVS outright at the end of 1981. The handover was tinged with acrimony on behalf of Southern's management, which appeared to take its anger at the decision out on TVS rather than the IBA, which had made the actual choice.
In Southern Television's final productions, Day by Yesterday (a Day by Day special) and And It's Goodbye From Us, a song was featured, composed and performed by Richard Stilgoe, deriding the incoming TVS as "Portakabin TV" and mocking TVS for choosing Maidstone as a production base in the newly enlarged dual region—despite the fact that Southern Television itself had already purchased a site at Vinters Park in Maidstone for a planned studio complex, which it would have built had it retained its franchise. Southern Television sold the land on to TVS at a considerable profit.
Closure of Southern Television
Southern Television's final programme And It's Goodbye From Us ended at 12:43 am on New Year's Day 1982. The programme closed with a medley of songs "to suit the occasion" sung by Lilian Watson and performed by the Bournemouth Sinfonietta under conductor Owain Arwel Hughes. The show's presenter, long-serving continuity announcer Christopher Robbie, signed off from Southern Television with the words:
Afterwards, the camera panned to show many of the on-air talent and company executives standing (rather solemnly) as their names were displayed on-screen and the "Southern Fantasia" (composed especially for the show by Jonathan Burton, and performed earlier on in the programme) played in Southern Television's final two minutes. When the piece came to a climactic end, the illuminated logo signs and lights on the set were gradually turned off, fading to the Southern Television Colour Production slide (being shown for the final time), which dissolved into the station's logo, spinning away into an animated starry sky. The acoustic guitar jingle played for what would be the final time with a deep extended echo, and the screen slowly and silently faded to black, remaining that way for close to a minute. There were no closing or shut-down announcements, no suggestions for viewers to switch off their television sets, nor even the customary playing of God Save the Queen. At 12:45 am the transmitters were simply, and abruptly, shut down, putting a permanent end to Southern's broadcasts after 24 years. Exactly 8 hours and 40 minutes later, Television South began broadcasting in Southern's former region.
Southern Television's programme archive was sold to Southern Star Group and then Renown Pictures; the names "Southern Television Ltd", "Southern Independent Television" and "Southern Television", and the star device idents used between 1958 and 1981, all transferred to Art Attack and Finger Tips producer Nic Ayling in 2004. Southern Television now trades as an independent production company.
In August 2008, ITV Meridian commemorated the 50th anniversary of Southern Television's first transmission with special reports on Thames Valley Tonight and Meridian Tonight (South and South East editions) alongside a half-hour programme presented by Fred Dinenage.
In 2022, Renown Pictures/Talking Pictures TV put many of the programmes from their Southern TV archive onto their TPTV Encore streaming service. Programmes uploaded to TPTV Encore include Runaround, Rogue's Rock and Tell Me Another.
See also
Television South, Southern Television's successor.
ITV Meridian, the current incumbent of the South franchise.
ITV (TV network)
History of ITV
Hannington transmitting station, the site of a famous Southern Television broadcast interruption by person or persons unknown in 1977.
Timeline of Southern Television
References
External links
Animated Southern Television Idents from 625.uk.com
Southern Television Limited – Marking Nic Ayling's ownership of the name and logo device
Southern Television
ITV franchisees
Television channels and stations established in 1958
Mass media in Kent
Mass media in Sussex
Mass media in Hampshire
Mass media of the Isle of Wight
Mass media in Dorset
1958 establishments in England
1982 disestablishments in England
Television channels and stations disestablished in 1982 | [
-0.02850741147994995,
-0.6409900784492493,
0.6601895093917847,
-0.6476256251335144,
0.041579533368349075,
0.4353722929954529,
0.7382668256759644,
0.23941360414028168,
-0.3268001675605774,
0.16746416687965393,
-0.4027925431728363,
0.41667240858078003,
-0.032033197581768036,
0.5979065895080566,
0.08418039977550507,
0.6902059316635132,
0.5357424020767212,
0.056765951216220856,
0.13007043302059174,
-0.4939384162425995,
-0.250906378030777,
0.4867423474788666,
0.41952013969421387,
-0.12359841912984848,
-0.21898813545703888,
-0.4600917398929596,
0.30986377596855164,
0.3250808119773865,
0.6681166291236877,
0.12664279341697693,
0.3115827739238739,
-0.20968125760555267,
0.07160632312297821,
-0.030908482149243355,
-0.2984479069709778,
0.13932567834854126,
0.4136224389076233,
0.06162437051534653,
-0.8150490522384644,
-0.08454709500074387,
-0.8712939620018005,
-0.011826490983366966,
0.06216417998075485,
-0.07194574177265167,
-0.15901757776737213,
-0.4502340257167816,
-1.0078070163726807,
-0.10126759111881256,
0.04870815947651863,
0.5088531970977783,
-0.356947124004364,
0.9818370342254639,
0.39394429326057434,
0.40806689858436584,
0.1946868598461151,
0.09000787883996964,
-0.2136780321598053,
-0.25448575615882874,
0.17997680604457855,
0.0051160287111997604,
1.0358030796051025,
0.19291682541370392,
0.1013927236199379,
0.1406860202550888,
-0.6820312738418579,
-0.26050788164138794,
-0.15494516491889954,
0.7060189843177795,
-0.4171435236930847,
-0.4893608093261719,
0.15612554550170898,
-0.2461416870355606,
-0.34294745326042175,
-0.22937236726284027,
0.0651383325457573,
-0.46039915084838867,
0.107333242893219,
-0.7258822321891785,
-0.0051530394703149796,
-0.06841517239809036,
-0.2039339542388916,
0.4185820519924164,
0.582097589969635,
0.41247618198394775,
0.5627476572990417,
0.1721113622188568,
-0.11438709497451782,
0.5643537044525146,
0.11933553963899612,
0.3346852958202362,
-0.4665359854698181,
-0.25842568278312683,
0.8453414440155029,
-0.33553412556648254,
-0.11336882412433624,
-0.6323822140693665,
-0.2170349359512329,
0.2670445144176483,
0.2299894392490387,
-0.2885592579841614,
-0.5231658816337585,
0.20991411805152893,
-0.11160096526145935,
-0.7685640454292297,
-0.540854275226593,
-0.6368376016616821,
-0.19308921694755554,
-0.41129744052886963,
-0.8209030032157898,
0.4658651053905487,
-1.2396799325942993,
-0.340066522359848,
0.30086132884025574,
0.12865282595157623,
-0.32891786098480225,
0.010556372813880444,
-0.2872432470321655,
-0.48594000935554504,
-0.16988703608512878,
0.21228228509426117,
0.3913359045982361,
-0.07779042422771454,
-0.45117607712745667,
0.39204099774360657,
-0.50116366147995,
0.10941333323717117,
0.3649386465549469,
0.04158855229616165,
-0.5013190507888794,
0.2471032738685608,
0.6627033352851868,
0.49541348218917847,
-0.24341394007205963,
0.30297958850860596,
0.01360355969518423,
-0.14401909708976746,
0.07713545113801956,
0.2186174988746643,
0.14752323925495148,
-0.24134767055511475,
-0.5310498476028442,
0.9677389860153198,
-0.8777834177017212,
-0.13796894252300262,
-0.03073921613395214,
0.018793689087033272,
0.10296455025672913,
0.05164027959108353,
-0.947394847869873,
-0.79234379529953,
0.03380977734923363,
-0.2946062386035919,
0.5267879962921143,
0.09967323392629623,
-0.43363243341445923,
0.4526796042919159,
0.7714819312095642,
-0.3426015377044678,
-0.22608762979507446,
-0.15892477333545685,
0.22709356248378754,
-0.2206370234489441,
0.44696640968322754,
0.5018937587738037,
0.1422535926103592,
0.13202901184558868,
-0.4508625864982605,
-0.1744934469461441,
0.7388387322425842,
0.38425660133361816,
0.21761122345924377,
0.06168949604034424,
0.2770969867706299,
-0.1654154509305954,
-0.008409916423261166,
-0.9408448934555054,
0.3859235942363739,
0.6899699568748474,
-0.1618860512971878,
-0.002517224056646228,
-0.4085315465927124,
-0.4689981937408447,
0.04108192399144173,
0.36696311831474304,
0.4358324110507965,
0.002760740462690592,
0.6869404911994934,
0.4153168499469757,
0.06428392231464386,
0.18421132862567902,
-0.6537908315658569,
-0.49536484479904175,
-0.25504034757614136,
-0.22863911092281342,
-0.06676969677209854,
-0.2480962872505188,
-0.3857036530971527,
0.652477502822876,
-0.163004532456398,
0.3076799213886261,
0.25760018825531006,
-0.09053105115890503,
0.05274007469415665,
0.07458499819040298,
-0.2373408079147339,
0.0043358150869607925,
0.26877468824386597,
-0.05824960395693779,
0.1259785294532776,
0.45797526836395264,
-0.6616252660751343,
-0.7795332074165344,
-0.28878626227378845,
0.3651406764984131,
0.5262686610221863,
-0.022438129410147667,
-0.12010123580694199,
-0.035867366939783096,
0.10347282141447067,
-0.45000988245010376,
0.21390210092067719,
-0.35626429319381714,
-0.24257737398147583,
-0.030497003346681595,
-0.09558519721031189,
0.14631611108779907,
-0.15137481689453125,
-0.19220678508281708,
0.663899302482605,
-0.3211528956890106,
-0.4763270318508148,
0.06886833906173706,
-0.11338865011930466,
-0.4867168664932251,
0.2717602849006653,
-0.0614238940179348,
-0.41173627972602844,
0.057845816016197205,
-0.4384900629520416,
-0.7002013921737671,
0.9338582754135132,
-0.2578110098838806,
-0.3443477749824524,
-0.14307881891727448,
0.056479230523109436,
0.16567426919937134,
0.25695183873176575,
0.12024253606796265,
0.17506709694862366,
-0.12031570076942444,
0.03822745382785797,
0.2288036048412323,
-0.29240506887435913,
0.1665876805782318,
0.07320503890514374,
0.13392658531665802,
-0.08155132085084915,
-0.3488519489765167,
0.6472982168197632,
0.06437454372644424,
0.3745283782482147,
-0.020025163888931274,
0.013556046411395073,
-0.1691417694091797,
-0.02818984165787697,
-0.5208989381790161,
-0.5726428031921387,
-0.5414853692054749,
0.1922142058610916,
0.06989336758852005,
0.3724173307418823,
-0.1040145680308342,
0.12303931266069412,
-0.08970215916633606,
-0.2901524007320404,
-0.16709908843040466,
0.4175952076911926,
0.15653856098651886,
-0.031370505690574646,
-0.2700965106487274,
0.3243039548397064,
0.11938626319169998,
0.4643552303314209,
0.013183655217289925,
-0.63084876537323,
0.6960523128509521,
0.11052669584751129,
0.35720252990722656,
-0.023641319945454597,
0.06992937624454498,
0.02464510314166546,
0.5677621364593506,
-0.3898005783557892,
-0.16724444925785065,
-0.4314461350440979,
0.6439884901046753,
-0.05950376018881798,
0.14870469272136688,
0.44636744260787964,
-0.9288793802261353,
-0.7169911861419678,
-0.009812736883759499,
-0.5398350954055786,
0.009862370789051056,
0.23059363663196564,
-0.007941054180264473,
-0.3680383861064911,
-0.6955525875091553,
-5.557100772857666,
0.06282293796539307,
-0.1544099599123001,
0.13265454769134521,
0.8883146643638611,
0.45897799730300903,
0.07329268753528595,
-0.11459910869598389,
0.19254720211029053,
-0.10271818935871124,
0.09999073296785355,
-0.11233245581388474,
-0.3333008587360382,
0.20530268549919128,
0.32371795177459717,
0.3483361601829529,
-0.1401694267988205,
0.22129866480827332,
0.4697730839252472,
0.08550956100225449,
0.32150158286094666,
-0.6653827428817749,
-0.07170482724905014,
0.4347974359989166,
-0.13378946483135223,
1.1374109983444214,
-0.23796305060386658,
-0.21121178567409515,
-0.36815521121025085,
-0.3108418583869934,
0.08352988958358765,
-0.8303459286689758,
-0.11485854536294937,
0.31814977526664734,
-0.2120109498500824,
0.09613288193941116,
0.41877108812332153,
0.1136404499411583,
0.4954160451889038,
-0.7064153552055359,
0.22059693932533264,
0.5742577910423279,
-0.4737098515033722,
0.2202576845884323,
0.1382845640182495,
-0.211697518825531,
-0.4034711420536041,
-0.031457822769880295,
-0.2254517674446106,
0.9165951013565063,
-0.023648586124181747,
0.8558274507522583,
-0.1814776211977005,
-0.05258587747812271,
-0.3216725289821625,
0.3759787976741791,
-0.6889753937721252,
-0.34568387269973755,
0.3171789050102234,
0.20459087193012238,
0.05265776440501213,
-0.05168021470308304,
-0.3851883113384247,
-0.5065792202949524,
-0.403258353471756,
0.3482997715473175,
-0.7497443556785583,
0.2518101930618286,
1.0938581228256226,
0.14668555557727814,
0.022769490256905556,
-0.3516208827495575,
0.5197118520736694,
-0.8135221600532532,
-0.05435721576213837,
-0.3927377164363861,
0.052271999418735504,
-0.25249719619750977,
-0.08950484544038773,
0.3700617551803589,
0.3787081837654114,
-0.1945667564868927,
0.29428204894065857,
0.15749754011631012,
-0.3746776282787323,
-0.9271335005760193,
-0.3322339951992035,
-0.02291758731007576,
-0.3666353225708008,
-0.7681206464767456,
0.03620024025440216,
-0.35151389241218567,
0.13466577231884003,
0.6718288660049438,
0.24903887510299683,
0.681563675403595,
-0.23114849627017975,
0.7646180391311646,
0.12092716991901398,
-0.6038005352020264,
-0.7036994099617004,
-0.053362198173999786,
0.214121013879776,
-0.6932743787765503,
-0.06932664662599564,
-0.10026783496141434,
-0.37235215306282043,
0.008929260075092316,
0.3376300632953644,
-0.33226045966148376,
0.42307648062705994,
0.019524795934557915,
-1.24943208694458,
0.36255332827568054,
0.15976980328559875,
0.184844508767128,
-0.7403924465179443,
0.2874012887477875,
-0.30979835987091064,
0.015616762451827526,
0.0024085137993097305,
0.1274821162223816,
-0.2982926368713379,
-0.342251718044281,
-0.5080366730690002,
-0.22654038667678833,
-0.04808403551578522,
0.031994521617889404,
0.053321078419685364,
0.3780851662158966,
0.19640092551708221,
-0.16013623774051666,
0.3269403874874115,
-0.25466564297676086,
-0.25305673480033875,
-0.3915553390979767,
-0.5995185971260071,
-0.02696406841278076,
0.4629482924938202,
-0.1844983547925949,
-0.3756537139415741,
0.19214773178100586,
0.20008283853530884,
0.23889845609664917,
0.4317575991153717,
0.12168913334608078,
0.3481521010398865,
-0.7549833655357361,
0.0856955423951149,
0.13808581233024597,
-0.0898897722363472,
-0.020457427948713303,
0.09416715800762177,
-0.0786256268620491,
-0.6495674848556519,
-0.41103464365005493,
-0.3322316110134125,
-0.47581952810287476,
0.06730710715055466,
-0.3307955265045166,
-0.5531561374664307,
-0.1305110603570938,
-0.6945401430130005,
0.5018889307975769,
0.6932747960090637,
-0.171516552567482,
-0.21986672282218933,
-0.47497281432151794,
0.7767384052276611,
0.28740212321281433,
-0.4652178883552551,
-0.18894460797309875,
0.37845996022224426,
0.07879117876291275,
0.3220702111721039,
0.3497662842273712,
-0.3220572769641876,
-0.5878854990005493,
-0.6061623692512512,
0.6747685074806213,
0.21418488025665283,
0.11152984201908112,
-0.9800094366073608,
0.6782456040382385,
-0.03087262623012066,
-0.374769002199173,
-1.0292954444885254,
-0.4898204207420349,
0.6121388077735901,
-0.0714341402053833,
0.1813811957836151,
0.018842583522200584,
0.363051176071167,
0.5098364353179932,
-0.5734919905662537,
-0.08682747185230255,
-0.26542162895202637,
-0.05027905851602554,
0.13117271661758423,
-0.8344458341598511,
-0.2528120279312134,
0.16387730836868286,
-0.2083996683359146,
-0.2903367877006531,
0.33378371596336365,
-0.6811259984970093,
0.4420745372772217,
-0.2476753145456314,
-0.6675341129302979,
0.2104259729385376,
0.003137061605229974,
-0.39118891954421997,
-0.2796505093574524,
1.0374913215637207,
-0.3480057120323181,
-0.07446493953466415,
0.15794849395751953,
-0.2214251458644867,
0.14294229447841644,
-0.7486985921859741,
0.09986072778701782,
-0.23720255494117737,
-0.6513400077819824,
0.13363221287727356,
-0.6372756958007812,
0.5096421837806702,
0.5873370170593262,
-0.9235079884529114,
0.213497593998909,
0.08663371205329895,
-0.17649254202842712,
-0.20337629318237305,
0.1237998679280281,
0.6344078183174133,
-0.04320060461759567,
0.4090781509876251,
-0.13276001811027527,
-0.6953727602958679,
0.0015193300787359476,
0.6142085194587708,
0.7119754552841187,
0.9047247171401978,
0.0672360435128212,
-0.7269564270973206,
0.013316299766302109,
0.08856501430273056,
1.0212337970733643,
-0.13284455239772797,
0.0822082906961441,
0.11328506469726562,
0.1192937046289444,
-0.13673803210258484,
-0.54436856508255,
-0.1146337017416954,
0.5636889934539795,
-0.6373368501663208,
-0.013188350014388561,
-0.08291973173618317,
-0.14494401216506958,
0.06894372403621674,
0.08739526569843292,
0.5906610488891602,
-0.3279317319393158,
0.3327738642692566,
0.4338395595550537,
0.0921245813369751,
0.038628049194812775,
-0.15817221999168396,
0.08998811990022659,
0.04186929389834404,
0.1220054104924202,
-0.20897281169891357,
-0.3510212302207947,
0.1956326961517334,
0.5819993615150452,
-0.11072275787591934,
0.2942447066307068,
-0.7113094925880432,
0.38347870111465454,
0.13355088233947754,
-0.31375208497047424,
-0.26412612199783325,
0.2828075587749481,
-0.49264010787010193,
-0.40086838603019714,
-0.7662989497184753,
0.07515033334493637,
0.4397413730621338,
-0.6049445867538452,
-0.09926815330982208,
0.31755077838897705,
-0.33998167514801025,
-0.2611277401447296,
-0.06674498319625854,
-0.3268013298511505,
0.08386354893445969,
-0.09212149679660797,
-0.2010035216808319,
0.09113197773694992,
0.10035113990306854,
-0.10961560904979706,
0.35340428352355957,
-0.1640760898590088,
0.09328332543373108,
0.19299034774303436,
-0.018521632999181747,
0.045043401420116425,
-0.17098075151443481,
0.711701512336731,
0.04021229222416878,
0.41586360335350037,
-0.4989911913871765,
0.6080277562141418,
0.735270619392395,
-0.5156703591346741,
0.39469876885414124,
0.46423766016960144,
0.199091836810112,
0.589195728302002,
0.12289393693208694,
0.7885593175888062,
0.7195058465003967,
0.3949580788612366,
0.03802124783396721,
-0.29402264952659607,
1.0458035469055176,
-0.5366169214248657,
0.676913857460022,
0.8910161852836609,
-0.3923400342464447,
0.15437285602092743,
-0.22539934515953064,
0.009431105107069016,
0.8497803807258606,
-0.6486003398895264,
-0.6678819060325623,
0.3870563209056854,
-0.11620160937309265,
-0.4092176556587219,
0.06405499577522278,
-0.05924689769744873,
0.10499110072851181,
0.1598060578107834,
-0.30540940165519714,
0.07831104844808578,
0.2428806871175766,
0.3671863377094269,
-0.09742993116378784,
0.7807459235191345,
-0.5787173509597778,
0.23795641958713531,
0.12641677260398865,
0.5451714992523193,
1.0179851055145264,
0.32685092091560364,
0.24673883616924286,
0.5803695321083069,
-0.46837565302848816,
-0.03229465335607529,
-0.2506515681743622,
0.013136248104274273,
0.8143529295921326,
0.30065274238586426,
0.34356072545051575,
-0.3926500678062439,
-0.3140844702720642,
-0.09176468104124069,
-0.7655494809150696,
0.2758253216743469,
0.13655595481395721,
1.0026894807815552,
0.44212454557418823,
0.11054083704948425,
0.04035679250955582,
-0.14655287563800812,
0.574009895324707,
0.4360150992870331,
0.273468554019928,
0.2533414661884308,
-0.13080796599388123,
0.26621702313423157,
-0.19008024036884308,
-0.08185181021690369,
-0.9755343198776245,
-0.43674734234809875,
-0.37330740690231323,
-0.5635877847671509,
0.013125147670507431,
-0.24646230041980743,
-0.18706458806991577,
-0.7492655515670776,
-0.6334306597709656,
0.056712232530117035,
-0.628706157207489,
-0.24946673214435577,
0.42165684700012207,
0.047556981444358826,
0.7413648366928101,
0.0492531917989254,
-0.3833886682987213,
0.46829754114151,
0.45101088285446167,
0.07438952475786209,
0.5485402941703796,
-0.0508870966732502,
0.5547558665275574,
0.2740071713924408,
-0.022761978209018707,
-0.5167977809906006,
0.6795766353607178,
0.6436722278594971,
0.25668829679489136,
0.2216651439666748,
0.5844656229019165,
-0.047189850360155106,
0.502638578414917,
1.1287158727645874,
-0.4095650613307953,
-0.031822361052036285,
0.09569911658763885,
0.23595233261585236,
-0.017917264252901077,
0.037216827273368835,
0.5331372618675232,
-0.6655162572860718,
-0.018858568742871284,
0.4070298373699188,
0.6850731372833252,
-0.4645944833755493,
1.0423663854599,
0.0671912431716919,
0.0681641474366188,
-0.11132168769836426,
-0.1645195037126541,
-0.780393123626709,
0.291216105222702,
-0.25988489389419556,
0.33064013719558716,
0.397750586271286,
-0.4040544927120209,
0.07052847743034363,
-0.07493534684181213,
0.5622066259384155,
-0.41516342759132385,
0.06290621310472488,
-0.8077795505523682,
0.4381881058216095,
-0.7422363758087158,
-0.9233188629150391,
0.34456855058670044,
-0.3545437455177307,
-0.6730526089668274,
0.34152624011039734,
-0.7064719200134277,
0.4154741168022156,
-0.00013035752635914832,
0.5212624669075012,
-0.16265614330768585,
0.2935340106487274,
-0.07423834502696991
] |
241533 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iguvine%20Tablets | Iguvine Tablets | The Iguvine Tablets, also known as the Eugubian Tablets or Eugubine Tables, are a series of seven bronze tablets from ancient Iguvium (modern Gubbio), Italy, written in the ancient Italic language Umbrian. The earliest tablets, written in the native Umbrian alphabet, were probably produced in the 3rd century BC, and the latest, written in the Latin alphabet, from the 1st century BC. The tablets contain religious inscriptions that memorialize the acts and rites of the Atiedian Brethren, a group of 12 priests of Jupiter with important municipal functions at Iguvium. The religious structure present in the tablets resembles that of the early stage of Roman religion, reflecting the Roman archaic triad and the group of gods more strictly related to Jupiter. Discovered in a farmer's field near Scheggia in the year 1444, they are currently housed in the Civic Museum of the Palazzo dei Consoli in Gubbio.
The tablets are written in the Umbrian language, and are by far the longest and most important document of any of the Osco-Umbrian group of languages, which are closely related to Latin. The tablets shed light on the grammar of this ancient dead language, and also on the religious practices of the ancient peoples of Italy, including the archaic religion of the Romans. Parts of tablets VI and VII appear to be written in an accentual metre, similar to the Saturnian metre that is encountered in the earliest Latin poetry.
The complete text, together with a translation into Latin, was published in London in 1863 by Francis Newman and 1931 in a book by Albrecht von Blumenthal. They were translated into English and published by James W. Poultney in 1959. Although the general meaning of the tablets is clear, there are still many obscure and debated points and issues. The main difficulty in understanding the text is the insufficient knowledge of the Umbrian vocabulary.
These are the only documents of full details of sacred rituals from the ancient religions of Europe which have come down to us in an almost complete state. Moreover, their content deals with the rituals (sacrifices and prayers) addressed to the highest gods of the local community and to some extent may reflect the common religious beliefs and practices of the Italic peoples. Consequently, a great number of scholars have devoted their efforts to reading and deciphering them since their discovery.
The modern Festival of Ceri, celebrated every year in Gubbio on May 15 in honor of Bishop Ubald or Ubaldo of Gubbio (1084-1160), shares certain features with the rites described in the text and so may be a survival of that ancient pre-Christian custom. It is also celebrated in Jessup, PA, a town with a large number of immigrants from the Gubbio area, as Saint Ubaldo Day.
Discovery
About the discovery of the Tablets there are two versions: the first one says that a farmer found them in a field near Scheggia in 1444. After his death, his son-in-law with his wife and his sister-in-law sold them to the city of Gubbio with a notarial deed on 25 August 1456 for two years' worth of farming rights. Since Scheggia was the site of the temple of Jupiter Apenninus, an important Umbrian sanctuary, it is conceivable that the plates were kept in the temple itself. The second version, born in the 17th century, states that the tablets were found in a basement of the Roman theater in Gubbio. However, given that all the actors involved in the sale of the tablets were natives of Scheggia, that the tradition of finding them in Scheggia has been attested in Scheggia itself since at least the early 1600s, and that the sources of the Gubbio find at the same time attested that the tablets were originally nine and that two of them, loaned to Venice, were never returned (which is patently false), it is likely that the version of the Gubbio find has a chauvinistic origin.
Decipherment
The content of the tablets concerns the religions and ceremonies that were celebrated at Iguvium, the town's religious organization and its boundaries.
The first attempt at deciphering their meaning was made by Bernardino Baldi in the beginning of the 17th century, and he was followed by Adriaan van Schrieck who believed he had got possession of the oldest monument of the Low German language, and interpreted accordingly. Olivieri recognized the name of Eugubium in one frequently recurring word. Louis Bourget pointed out that one of the tablets written in the Etruscan letters corresponded in the main with two written in Roman letters. Karl Otfried Müller, in his great work Die Etrusker, showed that in spite of the use of Etruscan letters the language of the inscriptions was totally different from the Etruscan language. Lepsius added greatly to the epigraphical criticism of the tablets, and Lassen and Grotefend made several successful attempts at interpretation. And finally Aufrecht and Kirchhoff, summing up the labors of their predecessors, and working according to strict scientific method, brought the interpretation of the tables to a degree of perfection that could hardly have been hoped for.
Epigraphic note
The tablets are engraved on bronze. Analysis of the external appearance of the supporting material has led scholars to conclude that only tablets V, VI and VII were meant to be exposed in public. The other ones were cast as an archive document. They are inscribed in Italic alphabet derived from Etruscan (T. I to Vb 8) and in Latin alphabet (T. Vb 9 onwards, VI, VII).
Date
The study of the ductus (writing style), conducted by comparing the tablets with other inscriptions from the area of Central Italy, has allowed scholars to conclude that they date from no later than the end of the 3rd century for T. III and IV to the first half of the 1st century for the latest T. VI and VII.
Content
Tablets I to V present their topic in a concise, matter of fact manner. Tablets VI and VII repeat the same subject of Tablet I in a much more detailed and diluted way, with apparent literary and encomiastic intentions and overtones. The content of the tablets is given below, in their relative order of antiquity as established by Newman on the authority of Aufrecht and Kirchhoff, which is identical to that recently indicated by A. Maggiani.
Tablets III and IV
Sacrifice to Puemonos Popricos and Vesuna.
General prescriptions concerning the holding of the sacrifice, sacrifice of the ovis (lamb) to Puemonos and Vesuna near a sacred grove. Containing details on the choice of the ohtur (auctor, head, perhaps augur) of the ceremony, the dispositions of the ritual instruments, the ritual invocations for the safety of the city to Iove Patre and Puemonos, the distribution of the sacrificial meat and the libations.
Tablet II
Side a (b of Lepsius)
(Lacuna at the beginning of the text).
Sacrifice of an ox to Iove Patre, of a ram to Iovio? (Iuno according to Newman), of a lamb to Iovio (Iuno) and of a boar to Marte.
The Hondia (elements that pertain to ritual sacrifice to Hondus, an earth deity)
Preparations made by the arfertur: readying of the victim(s), grains, strues, fertum; incense or meal, wine; salt, mola; mandraculum (white linen used to wrap the officiant's hand), vases; pure water; ignition of the fire at the ara. Petronian Feast to Hontos Iovios: sacrifice to Hontos Iovios of puppies, offers of wine, libation, partition of the meats and their exposition on a board. Holding and turning of the ara with the hands and offer of wine. Division of the wine, the strues and ferctum, the meats among the participants. Burning (or inhumation) of the puppies at the ara.
Side b (a of Lepsius)
Sacrifice and feast of the Attidian Brotherhood:
Sacrifice of a pig and a ram to Iove at the time of the decuriae of month Semonius by the ten sets of families of each of the 12 regions. Sacred Epulum (feast) in honour of Iove Patre, started in town and profanated at the various fana with libations using the mandraculum.
Vocian (Buck: Lucian) Feast to Iupater:
Sacrifice of a calf to Iove Patre for the Vocian (Lucian?) gens of the Attidians. The sacrifice is conducted with the urfeta in one hand at the offering and the crencatro (augural implement comparable to the lituum but crossed (Newman), or toga wore slanted across the right shoulder (Buck)) in the right hand at the time of the slaughtering.
Tablet I
Side a
Six triplet sacrifices to the Grabovian triad and the minor triad:
After observing the birds before and the behind, three oxen are sacrificed to Iove Grabovius before (without) the Trebulana Gate. Behind (within) it three sows are sacrificed to Trebus Iovio.
Before the Tesenaca Gate three oxen are sacrificed to Marte Grabovie. Behind it three pigs are sacrificed to Fisus Sancius. A libation ensues.
Before the Vehiia Gate three white fronted oxen are sacrificed to Vofione Grabovie. Behind the Gate three ewe lambs are sacrificed to Tefre Iovie. After the profanation of the lambs, the rump is offered in expiation and a libation for the tota, local community, ensues, on the two sides separately starting with the right side. After the profanation of the rumps is over the backs shall be profanated.
Side b
Two more triplet sacrifices to Marte Hodie and Hondos Çerfios in atonement for the citadel:
At the Jovian grove after the shearing of sheep three male calves shall be sacrificed to Marte Hodie for the Iguvine people and tota.
At the Coreties (Quiritius or Curiatius) grove three male calves shall be sacrificed to Hontos Çerfios.
Henceforth the citadel will be expiated. If any anything vicious happened in the discharge of the rite the birds shall be observed, the rite shall be reinstated once again after returning to the Trebulana Gate.
Review of the city militia and expulsion (exterminatio) of the traditional enemies of Iguvium (Tadinates, Etruscans, Nahartes, Iapuzcoi) by the arfertur and the two prinovatus (augures or their attendants):
Tadinates (tařinate(m)), refers to the Umbrians from Gualdo Tadino;
Tusci (tursku(m)) refers to the Etruscans, with the possible meaning in Umbrian of boundary;
Nahartes (Naharku(m)), refers to the Umbrians from around the Nera valley in southeastern Umbria, from Nahar the ancient name of the river Nera. According to another interpretation, it refers to the Sabines east of Nahar/Nera river.
Iapuzcoi (Iapuzku(m), a tribe of unclear origin, on which there are various hypotheses: a people of the Adriatic side near Piceni at the borders with the Umbrians, Iapygians of southeastern Italy, or the Iapydes of Illyria. The first hypothesis is the most plausible.
Four more triplet sacrifices:
Near the small fontains three red boars shall be sacrificed to Çerfos Martios.
On the Rubinian ager three she boars shall be sacrificed to Prestata Çerfia of Çerfos Martios. The sacred jugs, black and white, shall there be ordered and turned.
Beyond the Sahata (Sahata is probably the area considered within the pomerium, possibly marked by a stream) three she calves shall be sacrificed to Tursa Çerfia of Çerfios Martios.
The assignation of the place where to carry out the slaughter of the boars shall be decided according to the site upon which the officiant is watching, whether either behind on the Rubina or beyond on the Sahata.
Three days later the people shall be assembled and three heifers sacrificed below the Forum of Sehemania (Semonia) to Tursa Iovia at Acedonia. One of the heifers shall be consecrated by the arfertur and two by the prinovatus.
Tablet V
Side a
Duties of the arsfertur:
The arsfertur must provide whatever is essential for the ceremony and select the victims.
Fees to be levied for the performance of the rites.
Whenever the banquet of the brotherhood takes place, the fratreks or the cvestor must put to votes whether the banquet was properly arranged. If the majority of those present think it was not, a further vote must be taken to fix the penalty for the arsfertur.
Side b
Contributions to be made by two gentes to the brethren, and portions of flesh to be awarded them by the brethren on the decurial festival.
Tablet VI and VII
These two tablets repeat the content of tablet I while expanding it to include and expound the minutest details of the rituals.
VI Side a
Lustration of the arx
Introductory auspices: as in I the sacrifice is to be preceded by the taking of the auspices. Formulae passed between the augur and the arfertur (legum dictio); warning against noises, interruptions, meddling; boundaries of the augural templum; formulae of announcement of the auspices (conspectio, nuntiatio); prescriptions applying to the ensuing sacrifice concerning the military rod (pirsca arsmatia), the disposition of the pots and the fire.
1. Sacrifice of three oxen to Iove Grabovios before the Trebulan gate. An opening prayer is followed by three long prayers in identical words for each of the three offerings to the three Grabovian gods and these by a general prayer in conclusion. Then follow prayers especially devoted to the rites connected with the sacrifice.
2. Sacrifice of three pregnant sows to Trebos Iovios behind the Trebulan gate: the prayers used in the first sacrifice are to be repeated.
Side b
3. Sacrifice of three oxen to Marte Grabovios before the Tesenaca gate. The prayers of the first sacrifice are to be repeated.
4. Sacrifice of three suckling pigs to Fisus Sancius behind the Tesenaca gate. The prayers of the first sacrifice are to be repeated. Then an offering of cakes accompanied by specific prayers and ceremonies ensues (involving the use of the mandraculum, white linen cloth wrapping the right hand of the officiant): special attention is given to Fisus Sancius, patron of the citadel (ocre Fisia).
5. Sacrifice of three oxen with a white forehead (calersuf) to Vofionos Grabovios before the Vehia gate. The prayers of the first sacrifice are to be repeated.
6. Sacrifice of three she lambs to Tefer Iovios behind the Vehia gate. The prayers of the first sacrifice are to be repeated. Then supplementary offerings follow, thereafter prayers and accompanying rites with vases on both sides of a trench.
7. Sacrifice of three bull calves to Marte Horse at the Iovian grove. The prayers of the first sacrifice are to be repeated.
8. Sacrifice of other three bull calves to Hondos Çerfios at the Coredian grove. The prayers of the first sacrifice are to be repeated.
Rites for the lustration of the poplo (people, i. e. city militia) and execration of the enemies:
The auspices are to be taken in the same way as for the lustration of the arx. Holding the perca arsmatia (ritual staff) and the cringatro the arsfertur lights the fire then with the two assistants (prinovatus), who hold rods of pomegranate wood, marches with the victims along the Augural Way to the district of Acedonia. Proclamation is made expelling the alien enemies. The Iguvines are ordered to form in companies. The arsfertur and the assistants march about them thrice with the victims and the fire. At the end a prayer is made invoking misfortune upon the aliens and blessings upon the Iguvinians.
VII Side a
Sacrifice of three boars to Çerfios Martios at the Fontuli, accompanied by the prayers used at the Trebulan gate.
Sacrifice of three sows to Praestita Çerfia at Rubinia, with the prayers used at the Trebulan gate. Ceremonies with the black vessels and the white vessels, the former meant to bring misfortune to the aliens, the latter to avert it from the Iguvinians. Offering to Fisovius Sancius with the prayersw used behind the Tesenaca gate.
Sacrifice of three female calves beyond the Sahata to Tursa Çerfia of the Çerfios of Marte. The prayers used at the Trebulan gate are to be repeated. The profanation of the offerings must take place where the nuntiatio happened: either in Rubinia or beyond the Sahata.
After three days the holder of the perca arsmatia and the two assistants pray silently for the execration of the enemies and the safety of Iguvium from the shrine of Tursa. Then heifers are set free below the Forum of Sehemenia: the first person who has caught any of the first three shall sacrifice them to Tursa Iovia at Aceronia for Iguvium. The prayers and rituals (offer of cereals, strues, fertum, persea) used at the Trebulan gate are to be repeated.
Side b
Obligations of the fratrexs and entity of the fine he must pay in case of omissions (300 asses).
The religion of the Umbrians as reflected in the Iguvine Tablets
The triad of the Grabovii
The triad of the Grabovii is the highest group of deities of the Iguvian pantheon and looks to be strictly aligned with the archaic triad of Roman religion. The epithet Grabovius seems to be related to Etruscan crapis, ceremonial litter, which might derive from a word meaning oakwood.
The triad is composed by Iove or Iove Patre, Marte and Vofionos. The identity of the last has been understood as corresponding to Roman gods Quirinus or Liber, the former from an IE root *leudh- meaning people, the latter either directly from the Italic theonym Loifer or through the intermediary of the Italic or Etruscan interpretation of Greek god (Dionysos) Eleutheros, recorded also in the Etruscan theonym Tin Luth (=Iuppiter Liber) of the Piacenza Liver.
The gods of the triad of the Grabovii receive in sacrifice three oxen (buf) outside the three town gates (Preveres Treblanes, Tesenaces, Vehiies before the Trebulan, Tesenacan, Vehiian Gate). Those to be offered to Vofionos are qualified as calersu, probably correspondent in meaning to Latin callidus, with a white forehead.
The minor triad
The gods of this triad receive sacrifices in correspondence with those of the major one but these gods are honoured within the town gates. Trebos Iovios corresponds to Iove Grabovios, Fisus Sancius to Marte Grabovios and Tefer Iovios to Vofionos Grabovios. They received sacrifices of three pregnant sows, three suckling pigs and three ewe lambs respectively. Only the identity of the second one is known with any degree of certainty from attestations of his existence in Rome and elsewhere in Italy. In Rome he is known as Semo Sancus Dius Fidius. It is odd that he is here associated with Mars while his association with Jupiter would seem more well grounded theologically. The topic has been the object of a study by Dominique Briquel: he opines the reason should lie in the repressive and henceforth military connotation of the notion of divine sanction of the law. This aspect is particularly relevant as to the divine sanction of the town wall, a fact which is of primary concern in the content of the Tablets.
Trebos in Trebos Iovios is usually understood as corresponding in meaning to Latin trabs, ridge of the roof. Tefer of Tefer Iovios is often explained as burner, from the IE root *tep haet. This interpretation though is very debated.
Both Benveniste and Dumézil have argued that the Iguvine triads are just another testimony of their three functional hypothesis of IE religion. In particular the sacrificial offerings roughly correspond to those of Rome in their three functional significance and the sixfold invocations of VIa 30 and 39, VIb 13 and 32 (nerf, arsmo; veiro, peiquo; castruo, fri: princes, priests; men, cattle; fields, land produce) show a direct connection to the sovereign, military and productive activities.
Other deities
Hondos Iovios
Many scholars, from Bücheler to Prosdocimi, opine this deity is an underworld god of agricultural fertility and plenty on the grounds of the sacrifice of puppies he receives at his festival. Prosdocimi calls it the intermestruae cereales: the declaration of the dog is set at the climax of the feriae. Jörg Rüpke remarks the association of Hondos with Jupiter is one among the numerous in the tablets, in which a complex multilevel and hierarchic structure of relationship among theonyms is envisaged. This phenomenon would put the god into a sort of host–guest relationship with the one given in the attributive. In the case of Hondos this feature is apparent also in the fact that his cults at the Hondia festival take place in the Jovian Grove but those at the lustration of the citadel (when the god bears the epithet of Çerfios) in the Coredian Grove.
It has been suggested that the theonym Hunte Çefi (Honde Serfi), referring to a chthonic god, derives from the Proto-Indo-European root *ǵʰōm-to 'earth', a stem attested in several branches.
Çerfos Martios, Praesta(o)ta Çerfia, Tursa Çerfia, Tursa Iovia
These deities are invoked and receive sacrifices aimed at obtaining their favour for the protection of the arx itself, of the community and of the fields in connexion to the lustration rites of the Iguvian citadel at different locations of augural relevance.
The rites concerning the Praestota and the two Tursae involve a complex of libations aimed at obtaining a twofold action: the safety for the Iguvine community and the offsetting and expulsion of its traditional enemies.
The debated points are few as far as the Praestota and Tursa are concerned. The two theonyms correspond to the Latin Iuppiter Praestes, Iuppiter Praestitus, Iuppiter Praestabilis and the Lares Praestites. Tursa corresponds to god Terminus, being the deity that represents the boundaries of the city at different locations of augural relevance: these are without and within the city for Tursa Çerfia and Tursa Iovia respectively (TI I b; VII a). Such a meaning is connected to the Umbrian word for border, tuder: Tursa is written Tuda in the Etruscan tablets, the intervocalic d being pronounced as a weak rs (i.e.: ḍ). Dumézil on the other hand, on the grounds of the function of Tursa, a deity whose action is to scare, inspire terror into the enemies, opines the theonym derives from a verbal root equivalent to Latin terreo, I scare (interpreting accordingly tursitu, tremitu in VIb 60).
There is no agreement among scholars on the meaning of the epithet Çerfios and as to whether this is also a theonym, i. e. Çerfos Martios is a god different from Mars or not. An inscription from Corfinium reads: Çerfom sacaracicer Semunes sua[d, "priest of the Çerfi and the Semones", placing side by side the two categories of entities, the çerfi and the semunes. Çerfos is most times associated to IE root *ker(s) and Latin theonyms Ceres and Cerus. This view though might create interpretative problems concerning the theology of Mars and of the two deities who in Rome are associated with the sphere of law and defence, i. e. gods Jupiter and Semo Sancus Dius Fidius. Georg Wissowa and Dumézil both underline that the derivation from root *ker(s) is not certain: Umbrian group -rf could have a different origin than -rs.
Marte Hodie; Hondos Çerfios
Marte and Hondos appear also under these epithets. Here too the only certain indication is from Roman Heres (or Here) Martea, connected with heres, he who inherits and also dominus, the position of master of the house. Some scholars though connect the epithet to Latin adjective fodius, he who destroys. The two gods both receive sacrifices of male calves in the rites for the lustration of the citadel at the Iovian and Coredian groves respectively; theirs are the last in the series of sacrifices after the two triads and before the execration of the enemies.
God Hondos receives the epithet Iovios in II and that of Çerfios in VI. This fact raises the question of whether these epithets were used alternatively in connexion with local or temporal constraints. Another similar instance is that of Tursa Çerfia and Tursa Iovia, who are found without and within the pomerium respectively.
Puemonos Pupricos and Vesuna of Puemonos Pupricos
This divine couple appears only in tablets III and IV, the most ancient ones. Puemonos's name seems to be related with Roman goddess Pomona; moreover both the name itself and the epithet Popricos (Publicus) hint towards a universal fertility god, similar to Latin god Liber. Vesuna is also found on a coin from Marsian territory.
General remarks on Iguvinian theonyms
O. de Cazanove observes Iguvinian theonyms appear to be compound formations of two, three and four terms: they may consist of a substantive plus an epithet (e. g. Hondos Iovios, Tursa Iovia, Puemonos Podpricos), of a substantive plus a possessive phrase plus epithet (e. g. Vesuna of Puemonos Podpricos) and of a substantive plus epithet plus possessive phrase plus epithet (e. g. Prestota Çerfia of Çerfios Martios, Tursa Çerfia of Çerfios Martios). In his view this situation is comparable to that of Rome where are recorded purely functional deities in the pontifical books. These divinities were invoked in the prayers according to the Roman rite as mentioned by Gellius: "Lua Saturni, Salacia Neptuni, Hora Quirini, Virites Quirini, Maia Vulcani, Heries Iunonis, Moles Martis, Nerio Martis". These entities would be a concrete representation of the powers of their respective god.
At Iguvium though the situation looks more complex and less fixed as Tursa and Hondos are alternatively Çerfian and Martian and Çerfian and Iovian respectively.
Other theonyms
Some other deities are known just because they are mentioned occasionally in specifying the limits of augural observation (included those of the town). These theonyms are for the most part known in Roman religion. They are Tursa and (possibly) Hulos in IV 17 and 19 respectively, Vestisios (Libasius) apparently god of libations (possibly related to Latin Vesta ), Hoios (cf. Latin Holus, Helus, Roman grove of Helernus in Ovid's Fasti II 67-68) god of vegetation and Padella (cf. Roman goddess Patella), goddess of opening sheaves in VIa 14. Possibly adjective deueia of Asa Deueia (VIa 9, 10) implies a cult of the sky under the name Dius, Dia, similar to that of Dea Dia outside Rome (Ancellotti & Cerri).
Priesthoods
The Attidian brethren had an arsfertur (literally the Umbrian equivalent of Latin adfertor, i. e. "he who carries something to somewhere", clearly referring to a role in the ceremonies, holder of the pirca arsmatia, ceremonial rod). Other mentioned offices include the fratrecs interpreted as curator arcae, the cvestor and the prinovatus, probably agrimensors, attendants of the person who takes the auspices. An ohtor (auctor) is mentioned in T. III and IV: the term denotes the person responsible for the ceremony.
Rites
The tablets record different sets of rites held on different festive occasions: the main and recorded in greatest detail one is the annual lustration of the citadel (ocre, Latin arx) of Iguvium (Tablets I, VI and VII). This rite includes sacrifices to the Grabovian (major) triad and the minor one near the gates of the town, sacrifices to Marte Hodie and Hondos Çerfios at the two sacred groves of Iove and Coredios (interpreted as Quiritius or Curiatius) respectively, the lustral review of the people of Iguvium in arms, i. e. the city militia, the execration and ritual expulsion (exterminatio) of the traditional enemies of Iguvium and final sacrifices to Çerfios Marti(os), the Praestita Çerfia and the two Tursae, Çerfia and Iovia, at various locations without and within the pomerium. Tablets VI and VII relate the ritual actions such as circumambulations, libations, kneelings and dance in minute detail recording all the prayers and the other augural formulae. The older tablet I gives a more concise record.
The ritual triple (three time) circumambulation with fire and the victims about the city militia looks parallel to the Roman ritual performed by king Tullius as described by Dionysius of Halicarnassus.
The most complex ceremonies are those concerning Tefer Iovios and Fisus Sancius. A summary is appended below.
Tefer Iovios (VIb 22-42):
Sacrifice of the ewe lambs with the usual prayers used for each god of the two triads.
(23) Offering of the persondro sorsom (suine) at the right foot of the gate with accompanying libation.
(24) Offering of the libations.
(25-36) Prayer to Tefer Iovios with tripodium.
(37)Offering of the persondro staflare (bovine or ovine) at the left foot of the gate.
Prayer repeated.
(38) Assigning of the prosecta (cuts of sacrificial meat).
Assigning of the libation accompanying the persondro sorsale at the right foot where the sorso was offered to the god (profanated).
Assigning of the libation accompanying the persondro staflare at the left foot as above.
Burning or inhumation of the persondro sorsale.
Burning or inhumation of the persondro staflare.
(40) Throwing away over the head the vessels used for the persondro during the prayer on the incense (or cereal meal).
Fisus Sancius (here appealed to also as Fisovius = Fiducius) (VIb 3-18):
Sacrifice of three suckling piglets with the usual prayers, consecration with incense (or meal) and grains as at the Trebulan gate.
Wearing of the mandraculum (white cloth) around the right hand by the officiant.
Adding of the ficla and strucla to the prosecta.
Placing of the sopo (offa) at the back.
(5) The officiant while kneeling offers the libation, the mefa and the spefa spilling them from the vessels.
(6) Prayers for the arx and the community.
(16) During the prayers libation and tripodium.
Offering of the libation.
Distribution of the prosecta and of the libation while kneeling.
(17) Crushing and spilling over the fire of the mefa, libation, sopa (possibly lower entrails).
Milling while sitting, prayer over the milled incense or meal.
(18) The two profane and the two sacred jugs are disposed in rows.
The opening lines (1-14) of Tablet II records various sacrifices to Iove, Iovio (or Iovia? Newman: Iuno) and Marte to be held in atonement of possible unknown ritual faults:
the Hondia festivals on which occasion dogs were offered in sacrifice to Hondos Iovios--apparently "Earthly Zeus" or "CHTHONIC Zeus"; the feast to Hondos Iovios held by the gens Petronia (these last two festivals might in fact be one); the sacrifice and feast of the sodalitas of the Fratres Atiedii on which rams and pigs were sacrificed to Iove by the ten sets of families of the twelfth pomperias, districts of Iguvium; finally the sacrifice of a calf at the feast of Iove Patre held by the gens Vocia (Lucia). The tablet might be fragmentary, i. e. record only the final part of a ritual at its beginning.
Here is the summary of the ceremonies at the festival of Hondos with dog sacrifice (IIa 15-44) (oddly, in the following translation, katlu is translated both "kid" and "dog"):
(15) the sum of money for the kid(s) is to be raised among the dining tables at the published price
the arfertur makes preparations after observing the birds
(18) the kid(s), grains, strues, fertum; incense, wine, salt, mola; mandraculum, vases (consecrated and not or wet and dry), water (or ointment) are to be prepared
(the rite, proper, seems to begin here:)
(19)--the fire is lit on the ara (probably "altar")
the puni (incense) is consecrated
(20) offering of the kid(s) to Hondos Iovios, declaration of its purity, for the gens Patrona among the Atiedian Brotherhood
(22) the sopas (underparts?) of the kid are taken and the prosiciae (cutlets) divided upon the breadcrusts
(23) empty baskets are placed behind and the cereals before at the foot (of the ara)
offering of the incense
libation and tripodium
(25) tripodium near the vessels of wine chanting in turn nine times: "I honour Thee with incense and wine."
(26) bringing of the crusts with the entrails
(27) libation
two cuts of the kid(s) are divided into three pieces or three times
addition of strues and fertum
(29)offering of the dog
prayer over the [dog's] foot and over the uncut flesh
addition [of strues and fertum] to the flesh cuts
offering of the kid(s); prayer in front of it
prayer on the flesh, both uncut and roasted
offering of the suppa on the plates
prayer on the dedicatory jugs
(31)libation, tripodium, moving and placing down of the offerings
suppas are placed behind, the flesh is taken by hand
(33) the incense is placed in two jars on the bracket
breadcrusts, fried placentas, pots both containing water (ointment) and empty are brought over
(34) libation to Hondos Iovios from the jugs for the gens Petronia of the Attidian Brethren
beyond the bracket, prayer on the pure breadcrusts
same prayer on the placentae, the pure jugs filled with water and the empty ones on the bracket
(37) libation and tripodium
the bracket is moved aside; prayer on the pure water (ointment)
(38) hands are washed from the ara (or the ara is turned in the hands)
(39) back to the ara, near it silent prayer on the pure wine
(40) bringing and distribution of whatever the participants wish: wine, incense
(41) grinding of the strues, fertum; spilling of the incense or meal on the jar
(42) prayer on the whole and the ground grains
the rite is proclaimed over
(43) the kid(s) is burnt near the ara.
Sacrifices of dogs were not common among ancient Italic people. Instances in Rome include the Lupercalia and a parallel may be found in the Augurium Canarium and the Robigalia, both held in late Spring for the propitiation of a good harvest and for the preservation of the grains from mildew respectively. According to the explanation given in Ovid by the flamen Quirinalis the dog was sacrificed because at the time in which the grains in the ears are in danger for the heat and draught the sun enters the constellation of the Dog: this explanation is erroneous. Another ritual aimed at protecting corn in danger from fires concerned foxes which were set afire in the Circus Maximus on the last day of the Cerialia (Cerealia). Finally dogs were crucified on the Capitol at the beginning of August, time of the canicula to avert the rabies contagion or lessen their barking which disturbed sick people.
The hymn has a fairly clear structure, with the central offering of the dog sacrifice and following prayer enveloped in sequence by offerings of strues and fertum, followed by two parallel offerings and prayers, and more distantly preceded and followed by two tripodia. Activities both before and after the formal period of the rite are specified. Prayers and libations are repetitively offered throughout, while consecrating and offering (presumably this involves lighting) of the incense is prominent near the beginning and ritual washing toward the end of the ceremony.
Tablet III and IV record in minute detail the rituals of the festival of Puemonos Popricos and Vesuna at a sacred grove outside the town. Recently Michael Weiss has advanced the view that this was a new year ritual on the grounds of comparative material.
Treatment of the offerings
Latin sources concerning the cooking of the viscera underline the difference between the Etruscan and Roman customs distinguishing the exta aulicocta boiled in the olla extaris before the offering to the god, from the Tuscan exta roasted in veru and partly eaten during the sacrificial rite. At Iguvium the description of some sacrificial rites documents both the use of spits for the viscera and the presence of prosiciae displayed on the table of the offerings beside the fire and perhaps consecrated and burnt to the gods.
Augury
Augural practices are presented in the tablets, most notably in the last two ones. They include the praeire verba, i.e. the uttering of the words to be repeated by the arfertur, the legum dictio, the rules for the taking of the auspices such as silence (silentium) and the avoidance of other incidents, the definition of the boundaries of the augural templum, the nuntiatio, announcement of the appearance of the expected signs from birds, the circumambulation of the army with fire.
Tablet VIa begins with an augural song. Here below is the text (VIa 1-5) with Poultney's translation of the passage:
Rules for the observation of bird signs are given in VIa 15-18: below a certain boundary line (hondra esto tudero VIa 15) defined previously, the augur must see and hear the verse of a parfa (parrha) and a crow; above that line (supu) he must see and hear a woodpecker peiqu and a magpie peica.
Augural terminology
Aveis asseriates Ia 1; aves asseriates VIa 1: avibus observatis, "having observed the birds."
persnaies, pusnaies Ia 1: antici, postici, "(in the part) before and behind.
dersua VIa 1: dextera, "right hand, prosperous." The right hand was apparently seen as auspicious in Umbria as in Greece. Newman (Appendix II) cites the position of the augur in the inauguration of Numa, in which he faced east while Numa faced south. Right and left have both an auspicious and inauspicious meaning in Latin. One problem with this enticing analysis is that there is a distinct and separate word that means 'right (hand)' in Umbrian: destre/testre which is in the expected phonological form for a cognate of Latin dexter/dextra. Poultney suggests a possible relationship of Umbrian dersua to Latin dorsum 'back' since when oriented toward the rising sun, the west is to ones back.
merstu VIa 1: iustissimus, "rightest, most correct, propitious," superlative of mersos. Adjective mersos, from meḍos (literally medius), means iustus (cf. Oscan meddix: supreme magistrate, iudex). Both words in Latin and Osco-Umbrian have a broader meaning than just, lawful: they may mean augurally correct, favourable, in agreement with the divine forces. But here again, the Umbrian word that fits this analysis: mers "law, right, custom" which is likely from the PIE root *med- as in Greek medomai "to think on". Also, Umbrian formed superlatives with -emo-/-temo-, not with -sto. The context seems to call for a direction that contrasts with destrua above. As Poultney points out, the most probable source here is PIE *merk- "spark" with cognates in Germanic meaning 'morning' (including that word itself). The semantic shift for words for "morning/sunrise" to words for "east" is, of course, ubiquitous.
anglaf VIa 1: oscines, "giving signs through their voice." < *an-kla:-, compare Latin cla-mo "I cry (out)", cla-rus "famous"
stiplo, anstiplatu VIa 2, 3: stipulare, leges dicere, "stipulate."
mersta auei, mersta angla, esona VIa 3: "most propitious birds (auspices), most propitious singing, divine [signs]" or more likely "birds in the east, messengers in the east, divine [signs]" The last of these may refer to lightening, according to Poultney.
stahmei stahmeitei VIa 5: statio statuta, templum designatum, "augural templum," the designated space of augural observation.
neip mugatu VIa 6: ne mugito, muttito, "that nobody shall make utterances, murmur." Silence is essential in augural practises,
nep arsir andersistu VIa 6: ne divis intersistito, "that nobody shall come in between, barge in," between the divine (signs) and the augur.
disleralinsust VIa 7: alteravit (eṛali, erali=alter) "render irritual, impair the auspice";
attero VII a 11, 27: "bad, unlucky."
verfale VIa 8: formula of the templum. According to a new etymology, de Vaan connects this noun to Latin cognate urbs, both having the meaning of defined space for augural observation, from a PIE root *u(o)rb(h) plus /d(h)-h(2) enclosure, enclosed area.
stahmito VIa 8: statutum, "designated, established."
tuderato VIa 8: finitum, "defined, provided with boundaries." From noun tuder boundary, Etruscan tular.
vapersus auiehcleir VIa 9: lapididibus auguralibus (ablative), "(near) by the augural stones, rocks." Note the change from *l- to v- in Umbrian, also seen in Umbrian vuco versus Latin locus
tuder VIa 9: "boundary, limit."
anclar VIa 16: oscines "songbirds, messengers", literally "those who call out" < *an-kla:- compare Latin clamo "I cry (out)"
combifiatu VIa 17: conspectum capito, nuntiato, "(the augur) shall announce the appearance of the auspices." Literally confidato "confide".
popler anferener VIa 19: populi recensendi, lustrandi, "review of the levied army." Buck cites the parallel instance of the ritual circumambulation holding a lit torch performed by king Tullus Hostilius in Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities IV 22.
perca arsmatia VIa 19: virga ritualis, "ritual (and/or military) rod."
perne postne sepse sarsite uouse auie esone VIb 11: antice postice septe sarcte voce (et) ave (i. e. auspicio) divina, "from before and behind, clear and cut (fully, wholly) voice and bird sacred." Or ...voto, augurio, sacrificio "by vow, auspice and sacrifice."
peiqu: picus "woodpecker"; peica perhaps "magpie;" parfa: parrha, perhaps oxifraga or "upupa/hoopoe"; curnace: cornix, "crow" (VIa 1 etc.).
prinovatus: legatus, assistant to the arsfertur, possibly agrimensor, land-surveyor: probably from Greek πρινος, Celtic prinni oakwood.
percaf poniçate Ib 15; perca poniçiater VIb 51: virgas Punicae-mali "rods," wands of pomegranate wood.
fato fito VIb 11: it looks fito had an active meaning in Umbrian, i.e. "(having) become"; fato has been interpreted as a passive past participle of a verb corresponding to Latin fateor, thence fato fito: having become defined by utterance.
Topography
Studies have been devoted recently to identifying the location of the rituals described in the tablets, particularly of the Fisian Arx, which has been placed with certainty on Monte Ingino, to the southwest of Gubbio.
Text samples
Here is a sample of their language and content, from Tablet VI a 26 ff. (note that there is no punctuation in the original texts):
Here is the fuller text of Tablet VI a 22-34, being the first of three very repetitive and formulaic prayers that the head/officiating priest (arsfertur = "the one who carries [the sacred fire] to [the altar]) is instructed to say during the libation (line numbers in parentheses):
(The chiastic--AB...BA--envelope construction, beginning with "Thee I invoke ... JG," and ending "JG, Thee I invoke" probably was a stylistic way to clearly mark that this was the end of the complete first prayer, to be followed by the second (below, ll. 35-44) and third (ll. 45-55) essentially identical prayers, both capping with the same phrase, and notably with the verb separated from the phrase at the opening of each of the next two prayers.)
Note that veiro pequo...salua seritu "the men and cattle...keep safe" in lines 32-33 matches Latin pastores pecua salua seruassis "the herdsmen and cattle...keep safe" (in Varro, Rerum Rusticarum 2.1.12), and further afield, Avestan θrāθrāi pasuuå: viraiiå: "for the protection of cattle [and] men" (Yasht 13.10), suggesting that some form of the formula goes back to Proto-Indo-European.
[ "Jupiter Grabovius, thee--with this perfect ox as a second propitiatory offering for the Fisian Mount, for the state of Iguvium, for the name of the mount, for the name of the state--I invoke. Jupiter Grabovius, by the effect of this ox bring it to pass, if on the Fisian Mount fire hath occurred or in the state of Iguvium the due rites have been omitted, that it be as not intended. Jupiter Grabovius, if in thy sacrifice there hath been any omission, any sin, any transgression, any damage, any delinquency, if in thy sacrifice there be any seen or unseen fault, Jupiter Grabovius, if it be right, with this perfect ox as a second propitiatory offering may purification be made. Jupiter Grabovius, purify the Fisian Mount, purify the state of Iguvium. Jupiter Grabovius, purify the name of the Fisian Mount, of the state of Iguvium, (40) purify the magistrates, the priesthoods, the lives of men and of beasts, the fruits. Be favourable and propitious with thy peace to the Fisian Mount, to the state of Iguvium, to the name of the mount, to the name of the state. Jupiter Grabovius, keep safe the Fisian Mount, keep safe the state of Iguvium. Jupiter Grabovius, keep safe the name of the Fisian Mount, of the state of Iguvium, keep safe the magistrates, the priesthoods, the lives of men and of beasts, the fruits. Be favourable and propitious with thy peace to the Fisian Mount, to the state of Iguvium, to the name of the mount, to the name of the state. Jupiter Grabovius, thee with this perfect ox as a second propitiatory offering for the Fisian Mount, for the state of Iguvium, for the name of the mount, for the name of the state, Jupiter Grabovius, thee I invoke. ] "
References
Sources
Simon Theodor Aufrecht and Adolf Kirchhof, Die umbrische Sprachdenkmäler : ein Versuch zur Deutung derselben, Berlin, 1849 and 1851 (2 voll.)
Friedrich Panzerbieter, Questiones Umbricae, Meiningen, 1851
Eduard Huschke, Die iguvischen Tafeln nebst den kleineren umbrischen Inschriften : mit Hinzufügung einer Grammatik und eines Glossars der umbrischen Sprache, Leipzig, 1859
Francis William Newman, The Iguvine Tablets, London, 1863.
Michel Bréal, Les Tables eugubines : texte, traduction et commentaire, avec une grammaire et une introduction historique, Paris, 1875 (2 voll.)
Hermann Osthoff, "Umbrica" in Studien zur Griechische und Lateinische Grammatik, 9, 1876, pp. 273–284
Franz Bücheler, Umbrica, Bonn, 1883.
Luigi Ceci, Tabulae Iguvinae in usum academicum, Turin, 1892
Robert von Planta, Grammatik der Oskisch-Umbrisch Dialekte, Strassburg, 1892-1897 (2 voll.)
Robert S. Conway, The Italic dialects, Cambridge, 1897
Roland G. Kent, "Studies in the Iguvine Tables" in Classical Philology, 15, 1920, p. 353-369
Carl Darling Buck, A grammar of Oscan and Umbrian, Boston, 1928 (2nd ed.)
Albrecht von Blumenthal, Die iguvinische Tafeln : Text, Übersetzung, Untersuchungen, Stuttgart, 1931
Irene Rosenzweig, Ritual and cults in pre-Roman Iguvium : with an appendix giving the text of the Iguvine Tablets, London, 1937
Giacomo Devoto, Tabulae Iguvinae, Rome, 1940 (2nd ed.; reprinted in 1954)
Giacomo Devoto, Le Tavole di Gubbio, Florence, 1948
Giovanni Battista Pighi, Umbrica. 1, La composizione del libro rituale di Gubbio ; 2, L'auspicio, Bologna, 1953
Gino Bottiglioni, Manuale dei dialetti italici, Bologna, 1954
Poultney, James W. "The Two Boar-Sacrifices in the Iguvine Tables." The American Journal of Philology 77, no. 2 (1956): 177-80. Accessed May 5, 2020. doi:10.2307/292478.
Ugo Coli, Il diritto pubblico degli Umbri e le Tavole eugubine, Milan, 1958
James W. Poultney, The bronze Tablets of Iguvium, Baltimore, 1959
Alfred Ernout, Le dialecte ombrien : lexique du vocabulaire des "Tables eugubines" et des inscriptions, Paris, 1961
Giacomo Devoto, Tabulae Iguvinae. Pars quinta : appendix, Rome, 1962
Ambros J. Pfiffig, Religio Iguvina : philologische und religionsgeschichtliche Studien zu den Tabulae Iguvinae : mit Text und Übersetzung, Vienna, 1964
Aldo Luigi Prosdocimi, Studi iguvini, Florence, 1969
Willy Alfred Borgeaud, Fasti Umbrici : études sur le vocabulaire et le rituel des Tables eugubines, Ottawa, 1982
Aldo Luigi Prosdocimi, Le Tavole iguvine. 1, Florence, 1984 (2 voll.)
Gerhard Meiser, Lautgeschichte der umbrischen Sprache, Innsbruck, 1986
Williamson, Callie. "Monuments of Bronze: Roman Legal Documents on Bronze Tablets." Classical Antiquity 6, no. 1 (1987): 160-83. Accessed May 5, 2020. doi:10.2307/25010862.
Augusto Ancellotti and Romolo Cerri, Le Tavole di Gubbio e la civiltà degli Umbri, Perugia, 1996
Franco Benucci, Studi di sintassi umbra : il verbo nelle Tavole iguvine e nelle iscrizioni minori, Padua, 1996
Augusto Ancillotti and Romolo Cerri, Le Tavole iguvine : fotografie a colori, facsimili, testo traslitterato, traduzione e commento, Perugia, 1997
Brigitte Schirmer, Studien zum Wortschatz der Iguvinischen Tafeln : die Verben des Betens und Sprechens, Frankfurt, 1998
Simone Sisani, Tuta Ikuvina : sviluppo e ideologia della forma urbana a Gubbio, Rome, 2001
Carlo D'Adamo, Il dio Grabo, il divino Augusto, e le Tavole iguvine riprodotte, traslitterate, tradotte e commentate, San Giovanni in Persiceto, 2004
Maria Luisa Porzio Gernia, Offerta rituale e mondo divino : contributo all'interpretazione delle Tavole di Gubbio, Alessandria, 2005
Maria Luisa Porzio Gernia, La pax divina : tra storia e preistoria linguistica : la testimonianza delle Tavole di Gubbio, Alessandria, 2007
Rex Wallace, The Sabellic Languages of Ancient Italy, Lincom, 2007
Michael L. Weiss, Language and ritual in Sabellic Italy : the ritual complex of the third and the fourth Tabulae Iguvinae, Leiden, 2010
Patrizia Castelli and Salvatore Geruzzi (edd.), Prima e dopo le Tavole eugubine : falsi e copie fra tradizione antiquaria e rivisitazioni dell’antico, Pisa, 2010
Lacam, J.-C. (2010). Vestiça and vestikatu: New comments on two related terms in the Iguvine Tablets. Revue de philologie, de littérature et d'histoire anciennes. 84. 251-263.
Nagy, Gregory, (2020) "The fire ritual of the Iguvine Tables: Facing a central problem in the study of ritual language" Classical World 100:151–157 https://chs.harvard.edu/curated-article/gregory-nagy-the-fire-ritual-of-the-iguvine-tables-facing-a-central-problem-in-the-study-of-ritual-language/
Further reading
Dupraz, Emmanuel. "Ampentu dans les Tables Eugubines: «immoler» ?". In: L'antiquité classique, Tome 84, 2015. pp. 75–97. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/antiq.2015.3866]; www.persee.fr/doc/antiq_0770-2817_2015_num_84_1_3866
External links
The text of the Iguveine inscriptions, with interlinear latin translation, and notes, Francis W. Newman (edit.), London: Trübner and co., 1864.
Carl Darling Buck, A grammar of oscan and umbrian with a Collection of Inscriptions and a Glossary, Boston, USA, Ginn & Company, Publishers, 1904, pp. 260-310.
Umbrian Tablets of Iguvium, English translation by J.W. Poultney,
1st-millennium BC inscriptions
Osco-Umbrian languages
Bronze
Gubbio
Ancient Roman religion
1440s archaeological discoveries
Umbri | [
0.3827100396156311,
0.3169749975204468,
-0.29340773820877075,
-0.20523089170455933,
0.19289468228816986,
1.2641745805740356,
0.15981929004192352,
0.24157720804214478,
-0.3067631423473358,
-0.7455507516860962,
0.06357903778553009,
0.1884343922138214,
-0.8334492444992065,
0.05770209804177284,
-0.061767131090164185,
-0.05212807282805443,
0.17557856440544128,
0.7816960215568542,
0.3179384469985962,
-0.5147757530212402,
0.31401005387306213,
0.4643472731113434,
0.18174248933792114,
-0.09304302930831909,
0.18460820615291595,
0.08360805362462997,
0.6016544103622437,
-0.2779630720615387,
0.2927282750606537,
-0.3668784201145172,
0.04410667344927788,
0.9513031840324402,
0.25340619683265686,
-0.7570996880531311,
-0.16920632123947144,
0.2161640077829361,
-0.3458516299724579,
-0.2855047881603241,
0.19296255707740784,
-0.08268032968044281,
0.4054068326950073,
-0.24864953756332397,
-0.100770965218544,
0.44147738814353943,
-0.33911609649658203,
0.0846133902668953,
-1.8066552877426147,
0.49730104207992554,
-0.4364010989665985,
0.05122234299778938,
-0.6403994560241699,
0.6330216526985168,
0.3079978823661804,
0.4713498651981354,
0.1701800525188446,
0.4274302124977112,
-0.2411498874425888,
-0.5575278997421265,
1.193720817565918,
-0.00535312807187438,
0.5214783549308777,
0.3529743254184723,
0.2855839133262634,
-0.3664693534374237,
-0.7145419716835022,
0.15580642223358154,
-0.017620956525206566,
0.8517161011695862,
0.02811022289097309,
-0.2959427535533905,
-0.5377296209335327,
0.3451489508152008,
-0.4835161566734314,
-0.34696948528289795,
0.1338391751050949,
-0.5282634496688843,
-0.3360002934932709,
-0.319447785615921,
0.6975868940353394,
0.04985351487994194,
-0.16562533378601074,
0.7027453184127808,
0.8146233558654785,
-0.4868389964103699,
0.2418091893196106,
0.5245535373687744,
-0.5383492112159729,
0.011971493251621723,
-0.701103925704956,
0.26220282912254333,
-0.5268577933311462,
-0.8873592615127563,
0.23462994396686554,
-0.18684597313404083,
-0.36718565225601196,
-0.3313583433628082,
-0.42771488428115845,
0.5866760015487671,
0.012924859300255775,
0.4272497594356537,
0.037677038460969925,
0.08257833868265152,
0.23709094524383545,
0.14233741164207458,
-0.577468752861023,
-0.1465350091457367,
-0.547661304473877,
-0.5191844701766968,
0.005323584657162428,
0.09010531008243561,
0.24909654259681702,
-0.28911927342414856,
-0.3265517055988312,
0.1139243021607399,
0.3780810832977295,
0.2225138545036316,
0.1520971655845642,
-0.6672177910804749,
-0.9325137138366699,
0.15269432961940765,
-0.04080068692564964,
0.49176257848739624,
0.2729579210281372,
0.04107413440942764,
0.10601874440908432,
-0.059491999447345734,
-0.03103805147111416,
-0.09251084178686142,
-0.7117942571640015,
0.22617366909980774,
0.30281496047973633,
0.8940097093582153,
0.17526458203792572,
-0.33633488416671753,
-0.2180192768573761,
-0.10439804941415787,
-0.4568299651145935,
0.19664879143238068,
-0.003412265330553055,
-0.004046035464853048,
-0.33443397283554077,
0.24192029237747192,
-0.6167364716529846,
0.14057132601737976,
0.326266884803772,
-0.13104303181171417,
-0.09675778448581696,
-0.37459060549736023,
-0.14816293120384216,
-0.6708579063415527,
-0.32592934370040894,
-0.9095321297645569,
0.5182285904884338,
0.30688104033470154,
-0.2657809555530548,
0.2638370096683502,
-0.19902007281780243,
0.5550736784934998,
-0.02264486439526081,
-0.45634567737579346,
0.3588699996471405,
0.6015411019325256,
-0.34694480895996094,
0.21267136931419373,
-0.0008248225203715265,
-0.02392549067735672,
0.48270562291145325,
0.3191390633583069,
0.2589282989501953,
0.381132036447525,
0.008178440853953362,
-0.2781696915626526,
0.481728196144104,
-0.5036381483078003,
-0.6920524835586548,
0.04048142954707146,
1.1589664220809937,
0.6169037818908691,
0.48040077090263367,
-0.81231689453125,
-0.4995572566986084,
-0.480205237865448,
0.059039629995822906,
-0.14231383800506592,
0.09673915058374405,
0.43239256739616394,
0.13774146139621735,
-0.13394547998905182,
-0.3700771927833557,
-0.5411310195922852,
-0.5467770099639893,
-0.39239683747291565,
0.6601696014404297,
0.0066397772170603275,
1.3224364519119263,
0.219132661819458,
-0.7279015183448792,
0.7147886753082275,
0.10957760363817215,
0.16691620647907257,
-0.49320217967033386,
0.23449407517910004,
0.4034285843372345,
-0.5657657980918884,
-0.037237003445625305,
0.3408192992210388,
-0.48850613832473755,
-0.0052284011617302895,
0.16863268613815308,
0.2506067454814911,
0.4288690984249115,
-0.18110613524913788,
0.8288182020187378,
-0.179266095161438,
-0.09276507049798965,
0.33911529183387756,
-0.07364382594823837,
0.504830539226532,
0.20019830763339996,
-0.3355357050895691,
0.2373502254486084,
0.13346588611602783,
-0.4570576846599579,
0.33946534991264343,
-0.120823435485363,
0.3221099078655243,
0.3028581440448761,
0.0999951884150505,
0.5749383568763733,
-0.8144970536231995,
0.03753916174173355,
-0.08574403822422028,
0.3839510977268219,
-0.046004969626665115,
-0.09138960391283035,
-0.3559146523475647,
-0.0802401676774025,
-0.5708342790603638,
0.2726471424102783,
-0.05970883369445801,
0.3490210175514221,
0.08656085282564163,
-0.7995696663856506,
-0.6531028151512146,
0.5111223459243774,
0.18624965846538544,
0.6381732225418091,
0.5785778760910034,
-0.2709082067012787,
0.022942904382944107,
0.2626243829727173,
0.7631175518035889,
-0.2705792188644409,
-0.13262470066547394,
0.05220668017864227,
-0.42281538248062134,
0.46338626742362976,
-0.05786736682057381,
0.7190811634063721,
-0.11919818818569183,
-0.25675949454307556,
-0.26732337474823,
0.3928605616092682,
0.16374829411506653,
0.4700871706008911,
-0.2946721911430359,
-0.018476510420441628,
-0.7628946304321289,
0.5843736529350281,
-0.009124094620347023,
0.6786579489707947,
0.4821982979774475,
-0.5729600787162781,
0.9534258246421814,
0.4114808440208435,
-0.0826006606221199,
0.20009824633598328,
-0.12094937264919281,
-0.7738856077194214,
-0.40661385655403137,
-0.037155620753765106,
0.21635565161705017,
-0.002597841899842024,
-0.22233787178993225,
-0.2525477707386017,
0.09697503596544266,
0.06741710007190704,
-0.4334770739078522,
0.03885166347026825,
-0.6673005223274231,
-0.1775640994310379,
0.8837674856185913,
-0.00927119329571724,
0.2501668930053711,
0.1438702940940857,
0.5506739020347595,
-0.20629005134105682,
0.16272908449172974,
0.5291314721107483,
-0.26738879084587097,
0.22033749520778656,
0.5802172422409058,
-0.025122806429862976,
0.3689258396625519,
0.3230222463607788,
0.556165874004364,
0.2145126461982727,
0.12629207968711853,
-5.378785610198975,
0.717154860496521,
-0.46546047925949097,
-0.11942989379167557,
0.40302056074142456,
0.00014916104555595666,
0.3637329041957855,
0.16809803247451782,
0.5102339386940002,
-0.4192061424255371,
0.236074760556221,
0.12339071184396744,
-0.37098634243011475,
0.18447546660900116,
-0.10358618199825287,
0.5931462645530701,
0.4906502962112427,
-0.107466921210289,
0.03226340934634209,
0.277741402387619,
-0.21009495854377747,
-0.01264742948114872,
0.042038969695568085,
1.060402274131775,
-0.4190453290939331,
-0.21153002977371216,
-0.3258209526538849,
0.1460890769958496,
-0.39270851016044617,
-0.11911628395318985,
-0.16844281554222107,
-0.603544294834137,
-0.2739233672618866,
-0.2435319870710373,
-0.33058613538742065,
0.27513453364372253,
0.752494215965271,
0.4070846140384674,
0.752682089805603,
-0.18227261304855347,
-0.2115096002817154,
0.7652394771575928,
0.12329039722681046,
-0.28573328256607056,
0.03362317755818367,
-0.0328422486782074,
-0.5369587540626526,
0.0590214803814888,
-0.2584475874900818,
1.1151286363601685,
0.2171175181865692,
-0.20716799795627594,
0.3934831917285919,
0.4765447676181793,
0.3456936180591583,
0.3422287106513977,
0.08716079592704773,
0.40156319737434387,
-0.2330017387866974,
0.24250228703022003,
0.4459754228591919,
-0.13969522714614868,
-0.39631471037864685,
-0.7844415903091431,
0.050991058349609375,
-0.6665576696395874,
-0.46001312136650085,
0.3907324969768524,
-0.22832638025283813,
0.5832345485687256,
-0.0678311139345169,
0.6141505241394043,
-0.7439330220222473,
-1.2758331298828125,
0.3759101629257202,
-0.5844572186470032,
0.11720439791679382,
0.008681640028953552,
-0.2578217685222626,
0.1583675891160965,
0.047195594757795334,
-0.6315268874168396,
-0.13634367287158966,
0.4945520758628845,
0.617211639881134,
0.07000720500946045,
0.27617067098617554,
-0.20025508105754852,
-0.7359956502914429,
-0.3912976384162903,
0.6225732564926147,
-0.19209590554237366,
-0.39546653628349304,
1.0417656898498535,
-0.32173454761505127,
0.1758645474910736,
0.010703833773732185,
0.3298494517803192,
0.5295957326889038,
-0.05742933973670006,
0.8486061096191406,
-0.2942793071269989,
0.1477133333683014,
-0.24972493946552277,
-0.5628632307052612,
0.168220654129982,
-0.7123919129371643,
0.04071938246488571,
0.5058393478393555,
-0.31171780824661255,
-0.6829003095626831,
-0.04860919341444969,
-0.026176441460847855,
0.5016413331031799,
0.44861504435539246,
-0.32712873816490173,
0.23548269271850586,
0.6088241338729858,
0.2944610118865967,
-0.48474329710006714,
0.16678035259246826,
0.46212640404701233,
0.010453421622514725,
-0.6742724180221558,
-0.3236016035079956,
-0.13575343787670135,
-0.1742379516363144,
0.026091570034623146,
-0.5007630586624146,
-0.2604377269744873,
0.043026745319366455,
-0.6815590858459473,
-0.3784663677215576,
0.457969069480896,
0.10061845183372498,
-0.44422560930252075,
-0.5910986065864563,
-0.7285359501838684,
-0.17695938050746918,
0.22082743048667908,
-0.29121941328048706,
-0.7857946753501892,
-0.30093446373939514,
-0.4635997712612152,
0.7395989298820496,
0.31301894783973694,
-0.45349356532096863,
-0.32084405422210693,
-1.3858544826507568,
0.5248516201972961,
0.06453205645084381,
0.04270428046584129,
-0.05573953688144684,
-0.26782068610191345,
-0.07315494120121002,
0.4655201733112335,
-0.047326259315013885,
0.5415307283401489,
0.4749591052532196,
-0.30704575777053833,
0.2362818419933319,
-0.34161248803138733,
-0.4558298885822296,
0.4427904784679413,
-0.4476095139980316,
-0.08662668615579605,
0.40672194957733154,
-0.8109790682792664,
0.0074018738232553005,
0.25955259799957275,
-0.12779253721237183,
0.16545146703720093,
-0.4120157063007355,
0.06605856120586395,
-0.02816452644765377,
0.0006991684786044061,
-0.5573662519454956,
0.3817533850669861,
-0.022868109866976738,
-0.07991719990968704,
-0.24632751941680908,
-0.27972525358200073,
-0.05884912982583046,
-0.5637447237968445,
-0.3197201192378998,
-0.018106985837221146,
-0.32905441522598267,
-0.1508491486310959,
-0.3305518329143524,
-0.6167762875556946,
-0.06629451364278793,
0.07860054820775986,
0.5301064252853394,
-0.21247538924217224,
-0.42420804500579834,
-0.6908965706825256,
0.14516210556030273,
0.0872785672545433,
-0.3370406925678253,
-0.39235642552375793,
-0.20199282467365265,
0.1361743062734604,
-0.9245253801345825,
0.4623238146305084,
-0.044573914259672165,
-0.8206149339675903,
0.1358867734670639,
-0.145835742354393,
-0.4331626892089844,
0.31345289945602417,
-0.5350213050842285,
-0.7810315489768982,
-0.27700942754745483,
0.5708115100860596,
-0.39406847953796387,
-0.005601516459137201,
-0.10748112201690674,
-0.22975747287273407,
-0.46158161759376526,
-0.5775840878486633,
-0.5348491072654724,
-0.19563835859298706,
-0.3830379247665405,
0.1093682125210762,
0.03288433328270912,
0.498274028301239,
0.2244347184896469,
-0.12282854318618774,
0.5745353102684021,
-0.05345994606614113,
0.02001951076090336,
0.40416219830513,
0.5123350024223328,
0.1706445962190628,
-0.5193288922309875,
0.39710330963134766,
-0.49295490980148315,
-0.38975203037261963,
-0.3631029725074768,
0.8681352734565735,
0.2863750457763672,
0.9181118011474609,
-0.02222014032304287,
-0.08673252165317535,
0.4118592441082001,
0.3898445665836334,
0.060277484357357025,
-0.3910466432571411,
-0.4026663601398468,
0.22131678462028503,
0.03330535441637039,
0.15048593282699585,
0.2404506355524063,
-0.407679945230484,
0.74048912525177,
-0.9116772413253784,
0.6109452843666077,
-0.03986315056681633,
0.39420291781425476,
-0.11608231067657471,
0.40721395611763,
0.061842210590839386,
0.21251869201660156,
-0.03657471761107445,
-0.003150954144075513,
0.001220828853547573,
-0.10061586648225784,
-0.21063867211341858,
0.3034214377403259,
-0.0993802547454834,
0.37075406312942505,
-0.4580909311771393,
0.31893596053123474,
0.3289393484592438,
-0.3918154239654541,
-0.3028101325035095,
0.1894494891166687,
-0.27971524000167847,
0.40508922934532166,
-0.5645899772644043,
-1.1010197401046753,
0.10746221989393234,
-0.2933361232280731,
0.18790844082832336,
0.11676241457462311,
-0.6847161054611206,
-0.8020265698432922,
0.33350950479507446,
-0.013473865576088428,
-0.4233494699001312,
-0.6421244740486145,
0.5665743947029114,
-0.5002905130386353,
0.040012575685977936,
-0.007215108256787062,
0.31725427508354187,
-0.2701030671596527,
0.2530346214771271,
-0.012350840494036674,
0.012928537093102932,
-0.3426125943660736,
0.43902018666267395,
0.43859991431236267,
-0.32929304242134094,
0.40898606181144714,
0.2457781583070755,
-0.3971060514450073,
0.48212337493896484,
-0.5855986475944519,
0.14568576216697693,
0.18347543478012085,
-0.06814662367105484,
0.5877118110656738,
0.0006642706575803459,
-0.07226437330245972,
-0.2559695541858673,
0.38770148158073425,
0.02824137546122074,
-0.13863840699195862,
0.22299253940582275,
0.08594319969415665,
0.7307051420211792,
0.34702855348587036,
-0.013072977773845196,
-0.10413547605276108,
0.498410701751709,
-0.17399805784225464,
0.07753221690654755,
0.163722962141037,
0.8925656080245972,
0.47028103470802307,
-0.5600396394729614,
-0.14990098774433136,
0.29244914650917053,
0.37785476446151733,
-0.4140384793281555,
-0.31883135437965393,
-0.9921299815177917,
0.13902224600315094,
0.5850095748901367,
-0.16702672839164734,
0.8038594722747803,
-0.22904686629772186,
-0.13594390451908112,
-0.07225821167230606,
0.7097676396369934,
-0.7104083299636841,
-0.23115524649620056,
0.23985780775547028,
-0.11621344834566116,
0.4141247570514679,
0.3707294166088104,
0.4966690242290497,
0.46287980675697327,
-0.12845568358898163,
0.16621169447898865,
0.13000038266181946,
0.12588152289390564,
-1.0676971673965454,
0.36968010663986206,
-0.38474389910697937,
-0.11405710875988007,
1.008477807044983,
-0.6551996469497681,
-0.7669809460639954,
0.2198026031255722,
-0.5369809865951538,
-0.4675399661064148,
-0.18836496770381927,
-0.26837754249572754,
0.32504984736442566,
0.28755515813827515,
-0.44142425060272217,
0.6469987630844116,
0.12571753561496735,
0.09267439693212509,
-0.01547513622790575,
0.8249807357788086,
0.042168859392404556,
0.0071870433166623116,
-0.6966149806976318,
0.6574950814247131,
-0.0000032639306937198853,
-0.33787667751312256,
-0.3699761927127838,
-0.08898089826107025,
0.09262864291667938,
-0.06312156468629837,
0.19291023910045624,
-0.5322898626327515,
-0.5279837250709534,
-0.9239218235015869,
-0.9464409947395325,
-0.1976948231458664,
-0.20160771906375885,
0.27884525060653687,
-0.13795267045497894,
1.6018807888031006,
0.12283077836036682,
0.10442893952131271,
0.14545443654060364,
-0.19859984517097473,
0.19713112711906433,
-0.07780671864748001,
-0.13609276711940765,
0.6999073028564453,
-0.22643058001995087,
0.48991426825523376,
-0.14602363109588623,
-0.01186926756054163,
0.5874500870704651,
0.2653311491012573,
0.12599149346351624,
0.06440912932157516,
-0.4622930884361267,
-0.05937562137842178,
0.8011987805366516,
0.22060194611549377,
-0.3320305347442627,
-0.48738518357276917,
0.26947882771492004,
-0.41772210597991943,
-0.262525737285614,
0.05422409251332283,
-0.01316040102392435,
0.48405638337135315,
0.13361911475658417,
0.04089495167136192,
-1.0273346900939941,
0.33481770753860474,
-0.15035362541675568,
-0.5445072650909424,
-0.1392182558774948,
-0.1306307464838028,
-0.6827398538589478,
-0.2322709560394287,
-0.014377610757946968,
0.3607996702194214,
0.505635678768158,
-0.6866486072540283,
0.5659993886947632,
-0.31083837151527405,
0.4011547863483429,
0.1921372264623642,
-0.3094803988933563,
-0.29646173119544983,
0.04793381690979004,
-0.48744043707847595,
-0.05277715623378754,
0.7503089308738708,
-0.11695238202810287,
-0.031941525638103485,
-0.24263118207454681,
-0.10853689908981323,
-0.03398384898900986,
0.1034410372376442,
0.26872679591178894,
-0.5895788669586182,
-0.08395224064588547,
0.19739140570163727
] |
241540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk%20snake | Milk snake | Lampropeltis triangulum, commonly known as the milk snake or milksnake, is a species of kingsnake; 24 subspecies are currently recognized. Lampropeltis elapsoides, the scarlet kingsnake, was formerly classified as a 25th subspecies (L. t. elapsoides), but is now recognized as a distinct species. The subspecies have strikingly different appearances, and many of them have their own common names. Some authorities suggest that this species could be split into several separate species. They are not venomous to humans.
Geographic range
Milk snakes can be found from the southeastern extreme of Canada through the eastern half of the United States.
Habitat
Across the wide range of this species, habitat varies. Typically, milk snakes live in forested regions; however, they can also be found in swamps, prairie, farmland, rocky slopes, and sand dunes/beaches. In some situations, milk snakes also migrate seasonally, during the winter they move to higher and drier habitats for hibernation and moister habitats for the summer. Milk snakes enter hibernation from late October or November to mid-April.
Description
There is a significant amount of variation among milk snakes in terms of size. Depending on subspecies, they can be as small as 14" (36cm) or as large as 72" (183cm) long. Adults in the wild apparently average from in North America. However, unusually large milk snakes can become rather bulkier than average-sized adults and potentially weigh up to , though high weights as such are generally reported from captivity. Males typically are larger than females in maturity, although females can be bulkier than males similar in length as well. Generally more tropical populations, from Mexico and further south, reach larger adult sizes than milk snakes living in the temperate zones.
Milk snakes have smooth and shiny scales and their typical color pattern is alternating bands of red-black-yellow or white-black-red; however, red blotches instead of bands are seen in some populations. Some milk snakes have a striking resemblance to coral snakes, in Batesian mimicry, which likely scares away potential predators. Both milk snakes and coral snakes possess transverse bands of red, black, and yellow. Experts now recognize that common mnemonics that people use to distinguish between the deadly coral snake and the harmless milk snake are not 100% reliable. Some coral snakes do not have the typical banding colors or patterns. Examples of unreliable mnemonics commonly used:
"Red on yellow kill a fellow. Red on black venom lack"
"Red touches black, it's a friend of Jack. Red touches yellow, it's bad for a fellow."
Due to the many colors of the eastern milk snake (L. t. triangulum), it can resemble the coral snake, corn snake, fox snake, scarlet snake, and most importantly, the venomous snake genera Agkistrodon and Sistrurus. Milk, fox, and scarlet snakes are killed because of a resemblance to the venomous pygmy rattlers. Juvenile milk snakes, which are more reddish than adults, are often killed because they are mistaken for copperheads. Enough distinction exists among the five to make the eastern milk snake fairly easy to identify. The eastern milk snakes also have a light-colored V-shaped or Y-shaped patch on their necks. One subspecies, L. t. gaigeae, is melanistic (almost all black) as an adult.
Behavior
Milk snakes are mostly nocturnal, especially during summer months. They are primarily terrestrial and attempt to blend in with ground litter. However, they are able to climb and swim. These snakes tend to be secretive and remain hidden. When threatened, a milk snake will usually first try to escape. If cornered or harassed, it may vibrate its tail and strike energetically, though of course they are non-venomous, have only tiny teeth and their tails lack a rattle. Unless frightened, milk snakes move slowly. They are often fairly docile.
Diet
Young milk snakes typically eat crickets and other insects, slugs, and earthworms; in the western U.S., juveniles also feed on small lizards. Adults' diet is primarily small mammals, but frequently includes lizards (especially skinks). They are also known to eat birds and their eggs, frogs, fish, and other snakes.
Milk snakes are much more opportunistic eaters than the fox snake or corn snake. Although the diet of adult milk snakes primarily consists of rodents, they also have been known to consume a variety of other animals: birds and their eggs, other reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates.
They are nocturnal hunters and are often found resting during the day in old barns and under wood. An old fable about milk snakes is that they suck cow udders to get milk. The story is entirely false, and is discredited by the fact that the milk snake is not physically capable of sucking milk from a cow's udder; however, milk snakes are frequently found in and around barns, making use of the cool and dark environment for a resting-place during the day, and the easily accessible infestations of rodents for a convenient food supply. This preference for barns, and consequently the company of cows, presumably gave rise to the fable.
Reproduction
Milk snakes are oviparous, laying an average of about 10 eggs per clutch, although that number may vary by region. The milk snake mates from early May to late June. In June and July, the female lays three to 24 eggs beneath logs, boards, rocks, and rotting vegetation. The eggs are oval in shape, and white in color. Eggs range from 2.5 cm to 4.2 cm (1 to 1.7 in) in length. The eggs incubate for about two months, and hatch around August or September. The average hatchling in Virginia measures in total length and weighs .
Milk snakes typically live around 12 years, or up to 21 years in captivity. They reach maturity within three or four years.
Conservation status
The milk snake is listed as of least concern by the IUCN (a wildlife conservation union), but in some areas, they may face significant pressure due to pet-trade collection. Because of this species' attractiveness in the pet trade, many subspecies are now being bred in captivity for sale.
Subspecies
Source:
Guatemalan milk snake, L. t. abnorma (Bocourt, 1886)
Louisiana milk snake, L. t. amaura (Cope, 1861)
Andean milk snake, L. t. andesiana (K.L. Williams, 1978)
Mexican milk snake, L. t. annulata (Kennicott, 1861)
Jalisco milk snake, L. t. arcifera (Werner, 1903)
Blanchard's milk snake, L. t. blanchardi (Stuart, 1935)
Pueblan milk snake, L. t. campbelli (Quinn, 1983)
New Mexico milk snake, L. t. celaenops (Stejneger, 1903)
Conant's milk snake, L. t. conanti (K.L. Williams, 1978)
Dixon's milk snake, L. t. dixoni (Quinn, 1983)
black milk snake, L. t. gaigeae (Dunn, 1937)
Central Plains milk snake, L. t. gentilis (Baird & Girard, 1853)
Honduran milk snake, L. t. hondurensis (K.L. Williams, 1978)
pale milk snake, L. t. multistriata (Kennicott, 1861)
Nelson's milk snake, L. t. nelsoni (Blanchard, 1920)
Pacific Central American milk snake, L. t. oligozona (Bocourt, 1886)
Atlantic Central American milk snake, L. t. polyzona (Cope, 1861)
Sinaloan milk snake, L. t. sinaloae (K.L. Williams, 1978)
Smith's milk snake, L. t. smithi (K.L. Williams, 1978)
Stuart's milk snake, L. t. stuarti (K.L. Williams, 1978)
red milk snake, L. t. syspila (Cope, 1889)
Utah milk snake, L. t. taylori (W.W. Tanner & Loomis, 1957)
eastern milk snake, L. t. triangulum (Lacépède, 1788)
References
External links
Milk Snake, Reptiles and Amphibians of Iowa
Lampropeltis
Reptiles described in 1788
Reptiles of Colombia
Reptiles of Ecuador
Reptiles of Guatemala
Reptiles of Mexico
Reptiles of the United States
Snakes of Central America
Snakes of North America
Snakes of South America | [
0.11587437242269516,
0.34615591168403625,
-0.4946444630622864,
-0.07468792051076889,
0.3634667694568634,
0.4307156801223755,
0.6978384852409363,
0.8033187985420227,
-0.5381808876991272,
0.20328986644744873,
0.09564011543989182,
0.004492998588830233,
-0.7522808313369751,
0.3996492326259613,
-0.6167604327201843,
0.6714962124824524,
0.45966413617134094,
0.4356553554534912,
0.8495756983757019,
-0.18409498035907745,
-0.4117688238620758,
-0.6297067999839783,
0.25078725814819336,
-0.5280534029006958,
0.2711620330810547,
0.6734768748283386,
0.05933447554707527,
0.4034692347049713,
-0.20756371319293976,
0.18426689505577087,
0.019070124253630638,
0.8305453658103943,
0.34656208753585815,
0.21107155084609985,
-0.13754315674304962,
0.17016808688640594,
-0.19880610704421997,
-0.8149373531341553,
0.23442809283733368,
-0.3803584575653076,
0.07573392987251282,
-0.356217622756958,
0.11262638121843338,
0.28596657514572144,
-0.27360281348228455,
-0.4171973466873169,
-0.9299405813217163,
0.6072537899017334,
-0.3981216251850128,
0.23535236716270447,
-0.554069995880127,
0.549182653427124,
-0.49906718730926514,
0.026183418929576874,
0.20268094539642334,
0.12929782271385193,
-0.5927377939224243,
0.26983845233917236,
-0.03500545024871826,
-0.4336092472076416,
-0.12343470752239227,
0.07761915773153305,
0.04897690936923027,
0.6148449182510376,
0.1450386494398117,
0.5326753854751587,
0.18447406589984894,
0.5484488606452942,
-0.2349501997232437,
-0.1631256490945816,
-0.062353502959012985,
0.18472248315811157,
-0.27753719687461853,
0.5204620361328125,
-0.03288990259170532,
0.201663076877594,
-0.4950498938560486,
-0.5954166650772095,
0.5180804133415222,
-0.0676967203617096,
0.22381004691123962,
0.03845057636499405,
1.0643433332443237,
0.39314430952072144,
-0.19941306114196777,
0.33876270055770874,
-0.3281432092189789,
0.49304255843162537,
-0.14189563691616058,
-0.04904186353087425,
-0.9324171543121338,
0.31825360655784607,
0.3672391176223755,
0.39770638942718506,
-0.9740999937057495,
-0.6182841658592224,
-0.40344178676605225,
0.1064358502626419,
0.7886767387390137,
-0.47421789169311523,
-0.03210001066327095,
-0.10044411569833755,
0.10298129171133041,
0.22161491215229034,
-1.2203105688095093,
0.28376948833465576,
-0.0246433038264513,
0.3170938193798065,
-0.007064236328005791,
0.4260776937007904,
-0.2581401765346527,
-0.04773272946476936,
-0.021545391529798508,
0.02470516227185726,
0.3449338972568512,
0.5458585619926453,
0.0095573291182518,
-0.11918430775403976,
-0.361344575881958,
-0.6486137509346008,
-0.007803201209753752,
0.010895485989749432,
-0.07822243124246597,
0.24342115223407745,
0.6219001412391663,
0.8809221982955933,
-0.3166317045688629,
0.28494343161582947,
0.007667824160307646,
0.5518257021903992,
0.6794511675834656,
0.9230493903160095,
0.12653519213199615,
0.12205813825130463,
-0.5355846285820007,
-0.3301287889480591,
-0.11007945239543915,
-0.08379480987787247,
0.805483341217041,
0.5747328996658325,
-0.8312113285064697,
0.2402181327342987,
-0.45690080523490906,
-0.35738587379455566,
0.29877766966819763,
0.17231065034866333,
0.08130154013633728,
-0.03422270342707634,
-0.4383218288421631,
-0.22889050841331482,
0.18699687719345093,
0.08010110259056091,
-0.08273397386074066,
0.06196122616529465,
0.17855210602283478,
-0.2415679693222046,
-0.14085552096366882,
-0.2019990086555481,
0.4535103440284729,
-0.1770729273557663,
-0.35069209337234497,
0.7084934115409851,
-0.5680594444274902,
0.11132151633501053,
0.18607491254806519,
-0.34891030192375183,
0.186104878783226,
-0.19916807115077972,
-0.37640535831451416,
0.2920807898044586,
-0.43514853715896606,
0.353340208530426,
0.21154381334781647,
0.3061143159866333,
-0.5346584916114807,
-0.477580726146698,
-0.29040753841400146,
0.4624859690666199,
0.7780887484550476,
-0.6297463178634644,
-0.7539903521537781,
0.7860243320465088,
0.08052101731300354,
-0.1335545927286148,
-0.5585094690322876,
0.05903655290603638,
0.4425046145915985,
-0.13773049414157867,
-0.2589399218559265,
-0.6744667291641235,
-0.49317553639411926,
-0.3232637643814087,
0.3061605989933014,
0.6056889295578003,
0.9849739074707031,
-0.2965949475765228,
-0.946105420589447,
0.9817644357681274,
-0.32737401127815247,
0.264374315738678,
-0.22297987341880798,
0.005097031593322754,
0.5271167159080505,
-0.5214507579803467,
-0.8795338273048401,
0.21646066009998322,
-0.04803859069943428,
-0.42464345693588257,
1.2602739334106445,
-0.14675191044807434,
0.32813113927841187,
-0.6672422885894775,
-0.6636629104614258,
-0.1533431112766266,
0.12825386226177216,
0.25526347756385803,
0.14238305389881134,
0.24016819894313812,
0.6558070778846741,
-0.23935376107692719,
0.9366496801376343,
-0.37951570749282837,
-0.3138803243637085,
0.24575302004814148,
-0.3712977170944214,
0.5190790295600891,
0.33990028500556946,
0.0012958329170942307,
0.3861839175224304,
-0.09946489334106445,
-0.2679019272327423,
0.06146403029561043,
0.6111410856246948,
-0.10590657591819763,
-0.2815189063549042,
-0.03832339122891426,
0.0802735686302185,
-0.5286046266555786,
0.14081768691539764,
-0.10728497058153152,
0.31536000967025757,
0.14159278571605682,
-0.4388341009616852,
0.329194575548172,
0.29880309104919434,
-0.3711739778518677,
-0.3386458158493042,
0.4459231197834015,
-0.5830657482147217,
-0.18486252427101135,
-0.23760811984539032,
1.0813252925872803,
0.19764408469200134,
-0.20641547441482544,
0.42987796664237976,
0.44795599579811096,
-0.11654463410377502,
0.1429489552974701,
0.30543088912963867,
0.26692089438438416,
-0.5929303169250488,
0.46763837337493896,
-0.2695924639701843,
0.15223580598831177,
-0.05764760822057724,
-0.05665367469191551,
-0.12208101898431778,
-0.12167506664991379,
0.5448362231254578,
0.338021844625473,
0.4657456874847412,
0.1369059532880783,
-0.8883551955223083,
0.18389329314231873,
0.3196021318435669,
-0.3358091711997986,
-0.272828608751297,
-0.2698695957660675,
-0.12288808077573776,
-0.3751365840435028,
-0.18095055222511292,
0.49838748574256897,
0.6960030794143677,
-0.3026249408721924,
-0.24278604984283447,
-0.896822988986969,
-0.06637314707040787,
-0.9034813046455383,
-0.18240565061569214,
-1.141322374343872,
-0.8099134564399719,
0.5126616358757019,
-0.3459930121898651,
0.009391356259584427,
-1.317893624305725,
-0.24945364892482758,
-0.29727160930633545,
0.6152141690254211,
0.8025881052017212,
-0.24459931254386902,
-0.5605015754699707,
0.16435450315475464,
0.21065761148929596,
0.38772052526474,
0.33857637643814087,
0.2963641583919525,
0.35622960329055786,
0.23704783618450165,
-5.476436614990234,
0.3237819969654083,
-0.12676125764846802,
-0.4317241311073303,
0.4099868834018707,
0.048922475427389145,
0.24592985212802887,
-0.28458622097969055,
0.1440443992614746,
-0.2148546725511551,
0.573554277420044,
0.747122585773468,
-0.31907397508621216,
-0.014195729978382587,
0.5823095440864563,
-0.12226380407810211,
0.0239998959004879,
0.04899826645851135,
0.6183118224143982,
0.5018928647041321,
0.030376732349395752,
0.28543004393577576,
-0.08080906420946121,
0.4433078467845917,
-0.5557736158370972,
0.8485143780708313,
-0.4129491448402405,
-0.4423052966594696,
-0.5158727169036865,
-0.4357124865055084,
-0.4865752160549164,
-0.1453581005334854,
-0.4171728193759918,
-0.5419597625732422,
0.09321846067905426,
-0.14707599580287933,
0.1577780693769455,
0.012895912863314152,
0.020467570051550865,
-0.18057207763195038,
-0.33712780475616455,
-0.41650450229644775,
0.5599970817565918,
-0.2861793637275696,
0.4225120544433594,
-0.016513530164957047,
0.06609936058521271,
-0.5471947193145752,
-0.4292934834957123,
0.5600858330726624,
-0.32460594177246094,
-0.6660503149032593,
0.11325925588607788,
0.2141864150762558,
0.37844979763031006,
0.15965718030929565,
-0.49071004986763,
0.06359808146953583,
-0.49307531118392944,
0.3431529104709625,
0.48160290718078613,
-0.2470967322587967,
-0.44049763679504395,
-0.42497003078460693,
-0.1794794648885727,
0.2789546251296997,
-0.4519493281841278,
0.31957054138183594,
0.7961598634719849,
0.018994620069861412,
-0.2907079756259918,
0.35287606716156006,
-0.6602425575256348,
-1.082503318786621,
0.7639395594596863,
-0.5905001759529114,
-0.622643232345581,
-0.32016947865486145,
-0.23111383616924286,
-0.1511709839105606,
-0.03681020811200142,
-0.16532719135284424,
-0.13059328496456146,
-0.06096759811043739,
-0.04733534902334213,
-1.0288900136947632,
-0.2645834684371948,
0.17607128620147705,
0.05816545709967613,
-0.7037932276725769,
0.3634503483772278,
-0.07041598856449127,
0.08907737582921982,
0.19297713041305542,
0.3491653501987457,
0.5632995963096619,
0.3975260853767395,
0.4070408344268799,
-0.3544057011604309,
-0.32437098026275635,
0.9685580134391785,
-0.1625983715057373,
-0.07602448016405106,
-0.5948266983032227,
0.06217155605554581,
-0.6703823208808899,
0.21265654265880585,
0.6139606237411499,
0.4804837703704834,
-0.7884222865104675,
-0.06939366459846497,
-0.19281865656375885,
-0.5036661028862,
-0.14037637412548065,
0.3184943199157715,
0.12369236350059509,
0.3252737522125244,
0.23888958990573883,
0.6171056032180786,
-0.15289071202278137,
0.17581596970558167,
0.49476978182792664,
-0.19806206226348877,
-0.15223126113414764,
0.07740452885627747,
-0.7260891795158386,
0.3310326337814331,
0.08508506417274475,
-0.3198668658733368,
-0.44494006037712097,
0.11289321631193161,
-0.1609988957643509,
0.09297998249530792,
-0.11867108941078186,
-0.39245250821113586,
0.07845698297023773,
-0.4121761918067932,
-0.0071976566687226295,
-0.0638117641210556,
0.04515229910612106,
-0.6511077880859375,
0.20165111124515533,
-0.357395738363266,
0.5022672414779663,
0.2725338041782379,
0.12322913110256195,
-0.23876942694187164,
0.1038493812084198,
-0.1618066132068634,
0.9137853980064392,
0.2238255888223648,
-0.14475229382514954,
0.16742734611034393,
-0.3004496097564697,
0.47917282581329346,
-0.054585255682468414,
0.849279522895813,
0.7464103102684021,
0.13407063484191895,
-0.48230379819869995,
-0.5621386766433716,
-0.22712811827659607,
-0.9518101215362549,
0.3902166783809662,
-0.05847369506955147,
-0.10245312005281448,
-0.25993937253952026,
-0.3719432055950165,
0.39213401079177856,
0.8284186124801636,
-0.15838439762592316,
-0.1778147965669632,
-0.09501708298921585,
0.25622105598449707,
-0.06679116934537888,
-0.11012791842222214,
-0.832940399646759,
-0.2895827889442444,
-0.4702538251876831,
-0.014075709506869316,
0.02523389458656311,
0.22334504127502441,
0.12116416543722153,
-0.22241167724132538,
0.4925975203514099,
-0.22588860988616943,
-0.35625290870666504,
-0.23951591551303864,
0.11509668081998825,
0.4113391637802124,
0.448886901140213,
-0.5417540669441223,
0.4047417938709259,
0.28518715500831604,
-0.4224746823310852,
0.506773054599762,
-0.28393781185150146,
0.9445668458938599,
0.010940195992588997,
-0.4204951226711273,
0.23984909057617188,
0.3061748147010803,
0.20710302889347076,
0.28797298669815063,
-0.02431337535381317,
-0.2743759751319885,
0.7401432394981384,
-0.17253291606903076,
-0.5472254157066345,
0.16528448462486267,
0.10925880819559097,
-0.0881638377904892,
0.40836524963378906,
0.8521289229393005,
-0.13857832551002502,
0.10311240702867508,
-0.22566059231758118,
-0.43563225865364075,
-0.02438010275363922,
0.038195524364709854,
-0.38209593296051025,
-0.5598797798156738,
0.1504918783903122,
-0.28314700722694397,
-0.10933501273393631,
-0.2288413792848587,
0.4943433701992035,
-0.4152407944202423,
1.2229053974151611,
-0.05051582306623459,
0.5291866064071655,
-0.48778054118156433,
0.049211371690034866,
0.04974052309989929,
0.1613631248474121,
0.5289356112480164,
0.07472831010818481,
0.15647798776626587,
0.7116069793701172,
0.22759735584259033,
-0.001804082072339952,
0.9697192311286926,
0.013898693025112152,
0.009362662211060524,
0.24806678295135498,
0.10963211953639984,
0.08454301208257675,
-0.2927015721797943,
-0.4243316352367401,
0.20944081246852875,
1.0755118131637573,
-0.015599359758198261,
0.5032351016998291,
0.13030099868774414,
0.8663211464881897,
-0.1367342323064804,
0.27952316403388977,
-0.1564982831478119,
-0.21414153277873993,
0.2934725880622864,
0.02246062085032463,
0.3431858718395233,
0.08022525906562805,
0.14471203088760376,
-0.4229183495044708,
-0.28970715403556824,
-0.9575740694999695,
-0.09563667327165604,
0.33225491642951965,
-0.46721211075782776,
0.24202615022659302,
0.14322368800640106,
0.6058069467544556,
0.31142446398735046,
-0.3705328106880188,
0.1460924595594406,
-0.21395544707775116,
-1.1833006143569946,
-0.005566705949604511,
1.1698402166366577,
-0.141563281416893,
0.02649543434381485,
0.4154551923274994,
-0.08454105257987976,
-0.09077762067317963,
-0.10830358415842056,
-0.17949031293392181,
-0.12434301525354385,
0.31587210297584534,
-0.0074151428416371346,
-0.5938413143157959,
0.20236030220985413,
0.048195719718933105,
-0.36941906809806824,
0.11305657029151917,
0.23552322387695312,
0.21647268533706665,
0.664408802986145,
-0.5727935433387756,
0.3827650249004364,
-0.9378660917282104,
0.2536844313144684,
0.21891362965106964,
-0.22645631432533264,
0.035762619227170944,
0.23120428621768951,
-0.2706845700740814,
-0.01747625507414341,
-0.3423527479171753,
0.07216736674308777,
0.334896057844162,
0.08293680846691132,
0.02874348685145378,
0.3600248694419861,
-0.22812075912952423,
0.1964053362607956,
0.14347685873508453,
-0.47288548946380615,
0.15445588529109955,
0.5765462517738342,
0.4930228590965271,
0.4989500045776367,
0.5898526906967163,
-0.05278760939836502,
-0.06991803646087646,
0.1745925098657608,
-0.3864389955997467,
-0.25542640686035156,
0.30375510454177856,
0.2146766632795334,
0.19193117320537567,
-0.26029330492019653,
-0.013860582374036312,
-0.17277243733406067,
0.04266137257218361,
0.34163543581962585,
0.14452356100082397,
-0.21568451821804047,
-0.2617461681365967,
0.8136098980903625,
0.8375850319862366,
0.04868670180439949,
-0.03133689612150192,
-0.2778884172439575,
-0.09356734156608582,
0.2980721592903137,
0.2568473517894745,
-0.7856874465942383,
0.04457273334264755,
-0.06154493987560272,
0.2926028072834015,
-0.6380680799484253,
-0.21479251980781555,
-0.4979708790779114,
0.5655305981636047,
-0.13735203444957733,
-0.3691237270832062,
-0.07592051476240158,
-0.8131252527236938,
-0.2493591606616974,
-0.3251256048679352,
-0.04685431346297264,
0.13490800559520721,
0.33317074179649353,
-0.5688666701316833,
0.24874359369277954,
-0.02368217334151268,
-0.7140061855316162,
-0.21024830639362335,
-0.004902956075966358,
-0.4476108253002167,
-0.5219106674194336,
-0.4434109926223755,
-0.06968867778778076,
0.4919862151145935,
-0.11407452821731567,
-0.05227084830403328,
0.8426977396011353,
-0.32091236114501953,
0.3162304759025574,
-0.9282646179199219,
-0.07466628402471542,
0.30658501386642456,
-0.808347225189209,
0.43339774012565613,
0.32996588945388794,
-0.46648257970809937,
-0.5483565926551819,
-0.7579998970031738,
-0.14313754439353943,
0.6367226839065552,
0.029965024441480637,
0.14805500209331512,
-0.037576328963041306,
-0.057394322007894516,
-0.2561568021774292,
0.08106930553913116,
0.7969262599945068,
-0.2718098759651184,
0.004331568256020546,
0.11170317232608795,
-0.23735745251178741,
0.05565035343170166,
0.24768120050430298,
-0.12055956572294235,
0.12194022536277771,
-0.8636691570281982,
0.27036502957344055,
-0.5287047028541565,
-0.1528371274471283,
-0.10097722709178925,
0.2058306634426117,
-0.032130517065525055,
-0.11760871112346649,
-0.3400549292564392,
-0.012242288328707218,
0.7328352928161621,
-0.25994205474853516,
-0.5147147178649902,
-0.5380323529243469,
-0.4719622731208801,
-0.43242937326431274,
0.2667827010154724,
0.6195247769355774,
0.12065400928258896,
-0.14339415729045868,
0.4203490912914276,
0.00010992962779710069,
-1.3078696727752686,
0.5201663374900818,
-0.5754660367965698,
-0.008689559064805508,
-0.1436205357313156,
0.10310163348913193,
-0.41410940885543823,
-0.7753623127937317,
0.5420706868171692,
0.6164235472679138,
0.2925841510295868,
-0.23499825596809387,
0.46409645676612854,
-0.15518388152122498,
0.17536571621894836,
-0.6046614646911621,
0.4991401433944702,
-0.03342966362833977,
-0.21467240154743195,
-0.7898530960083008,
-0.47780901193618774,
-0.08761653304100037,
-0.27710670232772827,
-0.18322214484214783,
-0.23180009424686432,
-0.18808579444885254,
-0.024594351649284363,
0.22384421527385712,
0.33704012632369995,
-0.35423415899276733,
-0.030652591958642006,
-0.22015216946601868
] |
241542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee%20Morgan | Lee Morgan | Edward Lee Morgan (July 10, 1938 – February 19, 1972) was an American jazz trumpeter and composer.
One of the key hard bop musicians of the 1960s, Morgan came to prominence in his late teens, recording on John Coltrane's Blue Train (1957) and with the band of drummer Art Blakey before launching a solo career. Morgan stayed with Blakey until 1961 and started to record as leader in the late '50s. His song "The Sidewinder", on the album of the same name, became a surprise crossover hit on the pop and R&B charts in 1964, while Morgan's subsequent recordings found him touching on other styles of music such as post-bop and avant-garde jazz as his artistry matured. Soon after The Sidewinder was released, Morgan rejoined Blakey for a short period. After leaving Blakey for the final time, Morgan continued to work prolifically as both a leader and a sideman with the likes of Hank Mobley and Wayne Shorter, becoming a cornerstone of the Blue Note label.
Morgan died at the age of 33 when his common-law wife Helen Morgan shot and killed him following a confrontation at Slugs' Saloon, in New York City.
Biography
Edward Lee Morgan was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States, on July 10, 1938, the youngest of Otto Ricardo and Nettie Beatrice Morgan's four children.
Originally interested in the vibraphone, he soon showed a growing enthusiasm for the trumpet. Morgan also knew how to play the alto saxophone. On his thirteenth birthday, his sister Ernestine gave him his first trumpet. His primary stylistic influence was Clifford Brown, with whom he took a few lessons as a teenager.
Morgan recorded prolifically from 1956 until a day before his death in February 1972. He joined Dizzy Gillespie's Big Band at 18 and remained as a member for a year and a half until economic circumstances forced Gillespie to disband the unit in 1958. Morgan began recording for Blue Note in 1956, eventually recording 25 albums as a leader for the label. He also recorded on the Vee-Jay label and one album for Riverside Records on its short-lived Jazzland subsidiary. He was a featured sideman on several early Hank Mobley records, and intermittently thereafter. On John Coltrane's only Blue Note album as a leader, Blue Train (1957), he played a trumpet with an angled bell (given to him by Gillespie).
Joining Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers in 1958, further developed his talent as a soloist and composer. He toured with Blakey for a few years, and was featured on numerous albums by the Messengers, including Moanin', which is one of the band's best-known recordings. When Benny Golson left the Jazz Messengers, Morgan persuaded Blakey to hire Wayne Shorter, a young tenor saxophonist, to fill the chair. This version of the Jazz Messengers, including pianist Bobby Timmons and bassist Jymie Merritt, recorded many albums during 1959–61, including for Blue Note Africaine, The Big Beat, [[A Night in Tunisia (1960 album)|A Night in Tunisia]] and The Freedom Rider. During his time with The Jazz Messengers, Morgan also wrote several tunes including "The Midget", "Haina", "Celine", "Yama," "Kozo's Waltz", "Pisces", and "Blue Lace." The drug problems of Morgan and Timmons forced them to leave the band in 1961, and the trumpeter returned to Philadelphia, his hometown. According to Tom Perchard, a Morgan biographer, it was Blakey who introduced the trumpeter to heroin, which impeded progression in his career.
On returning to New York in 1963, he recorded The Sidewinder. The title track cracked the pop chart in 1964 and served as the background theme for Chrysler television commercials during the World Series. The tune was used without Morgan's consent; after he threatened to sue, Chrysler agreed not to show the advertisement again and settled the case. Due to the crossover success of "The Sidewinder" in a rapidly changing pop music market, Blue Note encouraged its other artists to emulate the tune's "boogaloo" beat. Morgan himself repeated the formula several times with compositions such as "Cornbread" (from the eponymous album Cornbread) and "Yes I Can, No You Can't" on The Gigolo. According to drummer Billy Hart, Morgan said he had recorded "The Sidewinder" as filler for the album, and was bemused that it had turned into his biggest hit. He felt that his playing was much more advanced on Grachan Moncur III's essentially avant-garde Evolution album, recorded a month earlier, on November 21, 1963.
After this commercial success, Morgan continued to record prolifically, producing such works as Search for the New Land (1964), which reached the top 20 of the R&B charts. He also briefly rejoined the Jazz Messengers after his successor, Freddie Hubbard, joined another group. Together with tenor saxophonist John Gilmore, pianist John Hicks, and bassist Victor Sproles, this lineup was filmed by the BBC for seminal jazz television program Jazz 625.
As the 1960s progressed, he recorded some twenty additional albums as a leader, and continued to record as a sideman on the albums of other artists, including Wayne Shorter's Night Dreamer; Stanley Turrentine's Mr. Natural; Freddie Hubbard's The Night of the Cookers; Hank Mobley's Dippin', A Caddy for Daddy, A Slice of the Top, Straight No Filter; Jackie McLean's Jackknife and Consequence; Joe Henderson's Mode for Joe; McCoy Tyner's Tender Moments; Lonnie Smith's Think and Turning Point; Elvin Jones' The Prime Element; Jack Wilson's Easterly Winds; Reuben Wilson's Love Bug; Larry Young's Mother Ship; Lee Morgan and Clifford Jordan Live in Baltimore 1968; Andrew Hill's Grass Roots; as well as on several albums with Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers.
He became more politically involved in the last two years of his life, becoming one of the leaders of the Jazz and People's Movement. The group demonstrated during the taping of talk and variety shows during 1970-71 to protest the lack of jazz artists as guest performers and members of the programs' bands. His working band during those last years featured reed players Billy Harper or Bennie Maupin, pianist Harold Mabern, bassist Jymie Merritt and drummers Mickey Roker or Freddie Waits. Maupin, Mabern, Merritt, and Roker are featured on the well-regarded three-disc, Live at the Lighthouse, recorded during a two-week engagement at the Hermosa Beach club, California, in July 1970.
Death and legacy
Morgan was killed in the early hours of February 19, 1972, at Slugs' Saloon, a jazz club in New York City's East Village where his band was performing. Following an altercation between sets, Morgan's common-law wife Helen Moore (a.k.a. Helen Morgan) shot him. The injuries were not immediately fatal, but the ambulance was slow in arriving on the scene as the city had experienced heavy snowfall that resulted in extremely difficult driving conditions. They took so long to get there that Morgan bled to death. He was 33 years old. Helen Morgan was arrested and spent a short time in prison before being released on parole. After her release, she returned to her native North Carolina and died there from a heart condition in March 1996.
Lee and Helen Morgan are the subjects of a 2016 documentary I Called Him Morgan by Swedish filmmaker Kasper Collin. The film premiered on September 1, 2016, at the 73rd Venice Film Festival and was theatrically released in the U.S. on March 24, 2017. In his New York Times review A. O. Scott called the film "a delicate human drama about love, ambition and the glories of music".
Discography
Further reading
Jeff McMillan DelightfuLee: The Life and Music of Lee Morgan (2008) University of Michigan Press
Tom Perchard Lee Morgan: His Life, Music and Culture'' (2006) Equinox
References
External links
Masaya Matsumura's Lee Morgan Discography site
Lee Morgan discography
Lee Morgan playing his famous "Ceora" ballad
1938 births
1972 deaths
20th-century American musicians
American jazz trumpeters
American male trumpeters
Bebop trumpeters
Hard bop trumpeters
The Jazz Messengers members
Murdered African-American people
American murder victims
People murdered in New York (state)
Musicians from Philadelphia
Savoy Records artists
Vee-Jay Records artists
Riverside Records artists
Blue Note Records artists
Jazz musicians from Pennsylvania
American male jazz musicians
20th-century American male musicians
Deaths by firearm in Manhattan | [
-0.3184943199157715,
0.17839832603931427,
-1.1600868701934814,
-0.07620758563280106,
0.40815120935440063,
0.347084641456604,
0.35647207498550415,
-0.08139839768409729,
-0.2268303781747818,
-0.77105712890625,
0.2198442965745926,
0.6813088059425354,
-0.28200504183769226,
-0.24537141621112823,
-0.6782777309417725,
0.17703309655189514,
0.2663023769855499,
-0.74830162525177,
-0.48336806893348694,
-0.7640645503997803,
-0.07017117738723755,
-0.5757113695144653,
-0.1042492538690567,
0.2729838192462921,
-0.40198370814323425,
0.5150378346443176,
-0.716386616230011,
0.2130899280309677,
0.7209914326667786,
0.08112264424562454,
-0.10651014000177383,
0.2308126837015152,
0.8136464357376099,
-0.42687857151031494,
-0.7811399698257446,
0.42808830738067627,
-0.6126406192779541,
-0.28482958674430847,
-0.031001031398773193,
0.3243168592453003,
-0.26068252325057983,
-0.08951469510793686,
0.571673572063446,
0.21617089211940765,
-0.16182862222194672,
-0.2583361566066742,
-1.52169668674469,
0.35118725895881653,
-0.47807177901268005,
-0.7358635663986206,
-0.4233800768852234,
0.21698835492134094,
0.39097145199775696,
0.19269300997257233,
0.16883325576782227,
-0.7295288443565369,
0.29205936193466187,
0.07895556837320328,
-0.3717845678329468,
-0.7012445330619812,
-0.30095288157463074,
-0.172275111079216,
0.5464068055152893,
-0.629848837852478,
0.24590982496738434,
0.08352047204971313,
0.28464528918266296,
-0.3140748143196106,
0.27337899804115295,
0.02333303727209568,
0.1670490950345993,
0.8739820122718811,
0.25380417704582214,
-0.41703179478645325,
0.20301005244255066,
0.04675963893532753,
0.8553035855293274,
-0.37617069482803345,
-0.4148617088794708,
0.5716891288757324,
0.15975196659564972,
-0.7601184248924255,
0.8891175389289856,
0.20488768815994263,
-0.07740966975688934,
-0.17308932542800903,
-0.8419215679168701,
0.506565511226654,
-0.8910564184188843,
-0.02333376370370388,
-0.7015700340270996,
-0.7691800594329834,
0.09813286364078522,
0.5731695890426636,
-0.3645226061344147,
0.14847983419895172,
0.8807555437088013,
0.3227706849575043,
-0.0011798706836998463,
0.21295134723186493,
0.2085263729095459,
-0.6630691289901733,
0.18418893218040466,
-0.13851498067378998,
-0.5618868470191956,
0.19724832475185394,
0.2552281320095062,
-0.877513587474823,
-0.3660769760608673,
0.05106925591826439,
-0.8521450161933899,
-0.2890318036079407,
0.4063572585582733,
-0.5070959329605103,
0.3754541575908661,
0.37495043873786926,
-0.07063702493906021,
0.07537657022476196,
-0.5464066863059998,
0.030583152547478676,
0.18416014313697815,
0.36922892928123474,
-0.2557859420776367,
-0.05743832886219025,
-1.021776795387268,
0.03626307100057602,
0.03870941326022148,
0.25424882769584656,
-0.4029102921485901,
-0.2342047393321991,
0.25941717624664307,
0.421439528465271,
-0.10343106836080551,
-0.07097233086824417,
-0.015697231516242027,
-0.18777582049369812,
-0.05037962272763252,
-0.14382435381412506,
-0.17224833369255066,
0.05675504356622696,
0.043116938322782516,
-0.22484605014324188,
-0.5943971276283264,
-0.8592543601989746,
0.23852811753749847,
-0.45974406599998474,
0.10234920680522919,
0.06102031469345093,
0.6425668001174927,
0.00509276008233428,
0.1762665957212448,
0.07382668554782867,
0.07176633179187775,
-0.02773113176226616,
-0.5193982124328613,
0.020826537162065506,
-0.11399101465940475,
0.1455097794532776,
0.410896360874176,
-0.28744935989379883,
0.5153821706771851,
-0.2200545072555542,
-0.1934790164232254,
0.32687681913375854,
0.17428052425384521,
0.2706888020038605,
-0.10881242901086807,
0.12779653072357178,
-0.25948429107666016,
0.08305714279413223,
0.1944270133972168,
0.182455912232399,
-0.011813454329967499,
0.434810608625412,
-0.153690904378891,
0.06865767389535904,
0.27087709307670593,
0.39042043685913086,
0.03657347708940506,
0.018427278846502304,
-0.33059707283973694,
-0.9637688398361206,
0.2802935838699341,
0.19082488119602203,
0.42704319953918457,
0.34418267011642456,
0.00227912375703454,
-0.3316478431224823,
0.6383671760559082,
-0.5714212656021118,
-0.3551315665245056,
-0.6399568915367126,
0.2099430412054062,
-0.15911951661109924,
0.46572551131248474,
0.012374459765851498,
-0.4412584900856018,
0.2260296791791916,
0.47365185618400574,
0.0004894521553069353,
0.2365722358226776,
-0.1368865817785263,
0.506815493106842,
0.030044347047805786,
0.4677653908729553,
-0.13718679547309875,
0.5616552829742432,
-0.12547357380390167,
-0.09195597469806671,
0.9629021883010864,
0.1977798342704773,
-0.6727861762046814,
0.06322196871042252,
0.5289880037307739,
-0.48400580883026123,
-0.8062112927436829,
-0.9036522507667542,
-0.2020067423582077,
0.41587698459625244,
-0.38381174206733704,
0.9372463822364807,
0.3156169652938843,
-0.1791319102048874,
0.49131694436073303,
-0.3725481331348419,
1.159924030303955,
-0.0891575738787651,
-0.2137448489665985,
0.3492885231971741,
-0.02108088880777359,
0.2193976640701294,
-0.07958222180604935,
0.19015172123908997,
-0.8746663928031921,
0.4918792247772217,
0.8596627712249756,
0.46560972929000854,
-0.3827205002307892,
0.15270394086837769,
-0.7374473214149475,
0.04526819288730621,
-0.4172911047935486,
-0.9583936333656311,
0.11674363911151886,
0.3014589548110962,
-0.021432287991046906,
0.3230381906032562,
-0.4671524167060852,
0.009480790235102177,
0.06150585412979126,
0.2340238243341446,
0.8134344220161438,
0.7503508925437927,
0.1417645961046219,
-0.17921669781208038,
0.5127130150794983,
0.4412221908569336,
-0.6724993586540222,
0.5350401401519775,
-0.10367967188358307,
0.23623986542224884,
0.2489975094795227,
0.5697084665298462,
-0.4645369052886963,
-0.17766155302524567,
-0.6629754304885864,
0.1289483606815338,
0.046353813260793686,
0.15822896361351013,
-0.597100019454956,
0.2319718450307846,
-0.00952564924955368,
-0.017683837562799454,
0.5678972005844116,
-0.011082809418439865,
0.6031659841537476,
-0.5478604435920715,
-0.5506746768951416,
-0.4440748393535614,
-0.8828429579734802,
0.8417649269104004,
0.20682218670845032,
-0.3854645788669586,
-0.3062558174133301,
-0.5688197016716003,
0.2102346569299698,
-0.05286679044365883,
-0.5688528418540955,
0.47407543659210205,
0.1164475530385971,
-0.8157615065574646,
1.0907446146011353,
-0.2760190963745117,
0.21323220431804657,
-0.07995213568210602,
0.628504753112793,
-0.3479875922203064,
-0.5985662937164307,
-0.5614651441574097,
-0.3317829370498657,
0.107787124812603,
0.17649368941783905,
0.15889982879161835,
0.026421725749969482,
0.4341256022453308,
-0.004277450032532215,
-0.31847047805786133,
-0.3066328167915344,
-5.352687835693359,
0.11933813989162445,
-0.3115061819553375,
-0.5780966877937317,
-0.4553837180137634,
0.4759349822998047,
0.2594878077507019,
-0.595001757144928,
0.18339623510837555,
-0.5370988249778748,
-0.2554754912853241,
-0.1330743432044983,
-0.27322256565093994,
0.828384518623352,
0.292447566986084,
0.37347808480262756,
0.4245259761810303,
-0.9777184724807739,
0.09939157217741013,
0.5034615993499756,
0.4175781011581421,
-0.7446250319480896,
-0.0911964401602745,
0.17410799860954285,
-0.1319919377565384,
-0.4229643642902374,
-0.6576691269874573,
0.18194955587387085,
-0.6703087687492371,
-0.26449042558670044,
-0.05769381299614906,
-0.08846303820610046,
-0.4190424084663391,
-0.16290120780467987,
-0.02958635799586773,
0.4742070734500885,
0.15765774250030518,
0.06097325310111046,
-0.17176701128482819,
0.12343721091747284,
0.16025400161743164,
-0.021117838099598885,
-0.7217689752578735,
-0.17631356418132782,
-0.3519757091999054,
-0.22734950482845306,
-0.15472400188446045,
-0.3971686065196991,
-0.5817304849624634,
0.6996825337409973,
0.18120557069778442,
0.44687190651893616,
0.6761517524719238,
-0.3296798765659332,
-0.36431416869163513,
0.17641563713550568,
-0.0854714959859848,
-0.5686798095703125,
-0.5404216051101685,
0.6345333456993103,
0.8006990551948547,
-0.41555655002593994,
-0.09756826609373093,
-0.32616180181503296,
-0.43097707629203796,
-0.21738006174564362,
-0.24116332828998566,
0.4672069847583771,
0.22229720652103424,
0.027585631236433983,
0.6699529886245728,
0.8049210906028748,
0.0884510949254036,
-1.467366099357605,
0.42955130338668823,
-0.2701910734176636,
0.49803298711776733,
0.09360136091709137,
-0.8176503777503967,
0.028397822752594948,
0.45105916261672974,
-0.27253642678260803,
0.38751447200775146,
0.5621666312217712,
0.0933794304728508,
0.21179287135601044,
-0.8921155333518982,
1.2744410037994385,
-0.9015057682991028,
-0.22292163968086243,
0.49664613604545593,
0.12192137539386749,
0.391230970621109,
0.08962426334619522,
0.4826166033744812,
0.35907939076423645,
0.6215460300445557,
0.3799046277999878,
0.7213776707649231,
0.4781651198863983,
-0.4681640565395355,
-0.27621278166770935,
0.32197412848472595,
-0.75697261095047,
-0.09279830008745193,
-0.18062883615493774,
0.4665001332759857,
0.03605462238192558,
1.0279135704040527,
0.16759473085403442,
-0.12727607786655426,
0.32490259408950806,
-0.5694413185119629,
-0.28818652033805847,
0.2934553623199463,
-0.675927460193634,
0.5860166549682617,
0.12783914804458618,
-0.14734800159931183,
0.14372821152210236,
0.10030660778284073,
0.07985709607601166,
0.3441940248012543,
0.16522690653800964,
0.2923946678638458,
-0.08415665477514267,
-0.4094468653202057,
0.1034383475780487,
-0.5379286408424377,
0.1989973932504654,
-0.12807713449001312,
0.7886373996734619,
0.20760411024093628,
0.7375929951667786,
-0.3088851869106293,
-0.17075183987617493,
-0.7930608987808228,
-0.005339490715414286,
0.1298321932554245,
-0.4376161992549896,
0.6507878303527832,
-0.3086710274219513,
0.6109088063240051,
-0.17039844393730164,
-0.010190718807280064,
0.1482103019952774,
-0.028675543144345284,
-0.14364556968212128,
-0.13107386231422424,
0.2448672503232956,
-0.22973696887493134,
-0.16071850061416626,
0.4790867269039154,
-0.9531228542327881,
-0.7334893345832825,
0.3310346007347107,
-0.3664942979812622,
-0.4669380486011505,
-0.04445889592170715,
0.2275639921426773,
0.5099072456359863,
-0.10847869515419006,
-0.9069413542747498,
0.1344188153743744,
0.13122840225696564,
0.6467384696006775,
-0.265129953622818,
-0.44151008129119873,
-0.1695544272661209,
0.31715860962867737,
0.11618771404027939,
-0.45913636684417725,
0.254290372133255,
-0.30611157417297363,
0.15647074580192566,
-0.07904091477394104,
-0.2826286256313324,
-0.34252291917800903,
-0.47486191987991333,
-0.06262467056512833,
-0.017324017360806465,
0.06486541032791138,
-1.5769866704940796,
-0.1405756175518036,
0.1852811574935913,
-0.24876560270786285,
-0.6365097761154175,
-0.747026801109314,
-0.13405965268611908,
0.02954152040183544,
-0.1584378033876419,
-0.4744493365287781,
0.22019778192043304,
0.6084573268890381,
-0.20027939975261688,
0.25081828236579895,
0.1489570587873459,
0.05863090604543686,
-0.5065465569496155,
-0.4900270402431488,
0.29030123353004456,
-0.47508692741394043,
-0.18509849905967712,
-0.10877325385808945,
0.1362098753452301,
-0.9690296649932861,
0.08284217119216919,
-0.5130583047866821,
-0.4419468343257904,
0.3562943935394287,
-0.2634252607822418,
-0.4772082567214966,
-0.15093937516212463,
-0.37971580028533936,
0.01741011254489422,
0.7051662802696228,
0.4007897675037384,
0.31449419260025024,
-0.9333329796791077,
-0.2549208402633667,
-0.5123612284660339,
0.3492696285247803,
-0.09856119751930237,
0.2341422736644745,
-0.5544953346252441,
-0.21077117323875427,
-0.4255993366241455,
0.3663390576839447,
0.421377956867218,
0.272491455078125,
-0.42190682888031006,
0.0895434245467186,
-0.34918689727783203,
0.07555700838565826,
-0.5453746914863586,
-0.1493646502494812,
0.21312828361988068,
0.22000406682491302,
0.2743949890136719,
0.2734370529651642,
0.42430391907691956,
0.8668566942214966,
0.19996008276939392,
0.18405452370643616,
0.10604046285152435,
-0.6343501806259155,
0.5414024591445923,
-0.10986143350601196,
-0.01409539207816124,
0.09869667887687683,
0.6729540228843689,
0.1067088171839714,
-0.13118253648281097,
0.19513985514640808,
0.6965213418006897,
-0.16944453120231628,
0.16520294547080994,
-0.12630073726177216,
0.10552696138620377,
-0.05369443818926811,
0.44068947434425354,
0.4157766103744507,
-0.16191425919532776,
-0.2575231194496155,
-0.06376703828573227,
0.0454101525247097,
0.08277634531259537,
-0.39786186814308167,
0.4060400426387787,
-0.7737839221954346,
0.08068468421697617,
0.38012856245040894,
0.05891774594783783,
0.4842263460159302,
0.027714094147086143,
0.4765799939632416,
0.19309520721435547,
-0.28569865226745605,
0.046878814697265625,
0.060181569308042526,
-0.31766441464424133,
-0.2518284022808075,
0.024122079834342003,
-0.11689943075180054,
0.029235823079943657,
0.0793066993355751,
-0.47087833285331726,
-0.3073257803916931,
0.029243580996990204,
-0.3817778527736664,
0.07356283068656921,
0.4105079472064972,
0.08802338689565659,
0.6006934642791748,
-0.2092779278755188,
-0.061380330473184586,
0.21056903898715973,
0.9469358325004578,
-0.13304775953292847,
-0.28208866715431213,
0.11137606203556061,
0.16805681586265564,
0.18298457562923431,
-0.09109091013669968,
0.05754122883081436,
-0.5615331530570984,
-0.2054087370634079,
-0.47731977701187134,
-0.8275031447410583,
0.4378763437271118,
0.5271133780479431,
-0.3537212908267975,
-0.04900967702269554,
0.38272109627723694,
-0.5095103979110718,
0.5297182202339172,
0.9233932495117188,
-0.06985447555780411,
0.0759691372513771,
-0.08566360175609589,
0.017213506624102592,
0.06974923610687256,
0.015206967480480671,
0.2561975121498108,
0.3429010212421417,
0.37441328167915344,
0.20363615453243256,
-0.1654319316148758,
0.007930196821689606,
0.19278396666049957,
0.07758069038391113,
-0.2521820664405823,
0.3604453206062317,
0.4492996335029602,
-0.1774575412273407,
-0.2676298916339874,
0.05668202415108681,
-0.3562173545360565,
-0.07856675982475281,
0.49016034603118896,
-0.24659165740013123,
0.42197227478027344,
0.3005155026912689,
0.48323848843574524,
0.3099689781665802,
0.06961555033922195,
0.009586338885128498,
0.6511275172233582,
-0.6118674874305725,
-0.3324583172798157,
0.2463172823190689,
0.36200472712516785,
0.03789299726486206,
-0.35296207666397095,
0.6572306156158447,
-0.21814243495464325,
0.21601131558418274,
-0.08937440812587738,
0.2938033640384674,
0.1791602522134781,
-0.17051172256469727,
-0.28845253586769104,
1.6490435600280762,
0.03915267065167427,
-0.18660636246204376,
0.3065589964389801,
-0.09068545699119568,
-0.08283134549856186,
0.06635725498199463,
0.5883137583732605,
0.12384562939405441,
-0.06387723982334137,
-0.4633541405200958,
0.8574005961418152,
0.04419871047139168,
0.29529663920402527,
0.31351926922798157,
0.07219122350215912,
-0.07015151530504227,
-0.11550138890743256,
-0.18913604319095612,
0.3358447849750519,
-0.5980247259140015,
-0.3780424892902374,
0.26048073172569275,
-0.3814942240715027,
-0.15251459181308746,
0.0862252339720726,
0.01906616985797882,
-0.5893033146858215,
0.37599703669548035,
-0.9944334626197815,
-0.39962852001190186,
0.0848395973443985,
0.020163359120488167,
-0.4933322072029114,
-0.06341029703617096,
0.6649311184883118,
0.4578796327114105,
0.26082974672317505,
0.5394113659858704,
-0.1875162273645401,
0.7228188514709473,
-0.586652398109436,
0.022495832294225693,
0.08629973977804184,
-0.3669559359550476,
-0.08801735192537308,
-0.45272180438041687,
0.5580700635910034,
0.08413171768188477,
0.6563721895217896,
-0.6978773474693298,
0.5896957516670227,
-0.09876007586717606,
0.3314032554626465,
0.7551024556159973,
-0.1809944063425064,
-0.49451979994773865,
-0.3420265018939972,
0.673973798751831,
0.34157058596611023,
0.34589138627052307,
-0.3953212797641754,
0.11340682208538055,
0.40431851148605347,
0.14285814762115479,
-0.2765254080295563,
0.3472130000591278,
0.5498483180999756,
0.309034138917923,
-0.3726446330547333,
-0.09157904982566833,
-0.23255270719528198,
-0.2875789999961853,
-0.6821953654289246,
0.9635135531425476,
0.44707682728767395,
0.3973877727985382,
-0.6619786620140076,
0.586437463760376,
0.6118252277374268,
-0.3024173974990845,
-0.027068015187978745,
0.283093124628067,
-0.048967838287353516,
0.5670302510261536,
-0.5090668201446533,
0.12389963865280151,
0.9537023901939392,
-0.7068049311637878,
-0.6751210689544678,
0.1263008862733841,
-0.47588491439819336,
-0.019299931824207306,
-0.1352733075618744,
0.239078551530838,
0.452793687582016,
0.291360467672348,
-0.14935587346553802
] |
241545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modula-3 | Modula-3 | Modula-3 is a programming language conceived as a successor to an upgraded version of Modula-2 known as Modula-2+. While it has been influential in research circles (influencing the designs of languages such as Java, C#, and Python) it has not been adopted widely in industry. It was designed by Luca Cardelli, James Donahue, Lucille Glassman, Mick Jordan (before at the Olivetti Software Technology Laboratory), Bill Kalsow and Greg Nelson at the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) Systems Research Center (SRC) and the Olivetti Research Center (ORC) in the late 1980s.
Modula-3's main features are simplicity and safety while preserving the power of a systems-programming language. Modula-3 aimed to continue the Pascal tradition of type safety, while introducing new constructs for practical real-world programming. In particular Modula-3 added support for generic programming (similar to templates), multithreading, exception handling, garbage collection, object-oriented programming, partial revelation, and explicit marking of unsafe code. The design goal of Modula-3 was a language that implements the most important features of modern imperative programming languages in quite basic forms. Thus allegedly dangerous and complicating features such as multiple inheritance and operator overloading were omitted.
Historical development
The Modula-3 project started in November 1986 when Maurice Wilkes wrote to Niklaus Wirth with some ideas for a new version of Modula. Wilkes had been working at DEC just prior to this point, and had returned to England and joined Olivetti's Research Strategy Board. Wirth had already moved on to Oberon, but had no problems with Wilkes's team continuing development under the Modula name. The language definition was completed in August 1988, and an updated version in January 1989. Compilers from DEC and Olivetti soon followed, and 3rd party implementations after that.
Its design was heavily influenced by work on the Modula-2+ language in use at SRC and at the Acorn Computers Research Center (ARC, later ORC when Olivetti acquired Acorn) at the time, which was the language in which the operating system for the DEC Firefly multiprocessor VAX workstation was written and in which the Acorn Compiler for Acorn C and Modula Execution Library (CAMEL) at ARC for the ARX operating system project of ARM based Acorn Archimedes range of computers was written. As the revised Modula-3 Report states, the language was influenced by other languages such as Mesa, Cedar, Object Pascal, Oberon and Euclid.
During the 1990s, Modula-3 gained considerable currency as a teaching language, but it was never widely adopted for industrial use. Contributing to this may have been the demise of DEC, a key Modula-3 supporter (especially when it ceased to maintain it effectively before DEC was sold to Compaq in 1998). In any case, in spite of Modula-3's simplicity and power, it appears that there was little demand for a procedural compiled language with restricted implementation of object-oriented programming. For a time, a commercial compiler named CM3 maintained by one of the chief implementors prior at DEC SRC who was hired before DEC being sold to Compaq, an integrated development environment (IDE) named Reactor and an extensible Java virtual machine (licensed in binary code and source code formats and buildable with Reactor) were offered by Critical Mass, Inc., but that company ceased active operations in 2000 and gave some of the source code of its products to Software Solutions GmbH. Modula-3 is now taught in universities mostly in comparative programming language courses, and its textbooks are out of print. Essentially the only corporate supporter of Modula-3 is , which inherited the sources from Critical Mass and has since made several releases of the CM3 system in source and binary code. The Reactor IDE has been open source released after several years it had not, with the new name CM3-IDE. In March 2002, also took over the repository of another active Modula-3 distribution, PM3, until then maintained at the École Polytechnique de Montréal but which later continued by the work on HM3 improved over the years later until it was obsoleted.
Syntax
A common example of a language's syntax is the "Hello, World!" program.
MODULE Main;
IMPORT IO;
BEGIN
IO.Put("Hello World\n")
END Main.
All programs in Modula-3 have at least a module file, while most also include an interface file that is used by clients to access data from the module. As in some other languages, a Modula-3 program must export a Main module, which can either be a file named Main.m3, or a file can call EXPORT to export the Main module. MODULE Foo EXPORTS Main Module file names are advised to be the same as the name in source code. If they differ, the compiler only emits a warning.
Other conventions in the syntax include naming the exported type of an interface T, since types are usually qualified by their full names, so a type T inside a module named Foo will be named Foo.T. This aids in readability. Another similar convention is naming a public object Public as in the OOP examples above.
Language features
Modularity
First and foremost, all compiled units are either INTERFACE or implementation MODULEs, of one flavor or another. An interface compiled unit, starting with the keyword INTERFACE, defines constants, types, variables, exceptions, and procedures. The implementation module, starting with the keyword MODULE, provides the code, and any further constants, types, or variables needed to implement the interface. By default, an implementation module will implement the interface of the same name, but a module may explicitly EXPORT to a module not of the same name. For example, the main program exports an implementation module for the Main interface.
MODULE HelloWorld EXPORTS Main;
IMPORT IO;
BEGIN
IO.Put("Hello World\n")
END HelloWorld.
Any compiled unit may IMPORT other interfaces, although circular imports are forbidden. This may be resolved by doing the import from the implementation MODULE. The entities within the imported module may be imported, instead of only the module name, using the FROM Module IMPORT Item [, Item]* syntax:
MODULE HelloWorld EXPORTS Main;
FROM IO IMPORT Put;
BEGIN
Put("Hello World\n")
END HelloWorld.
Typically, one only imports the interface, and uses the 'dot' notation to access the items within the interface (similar to accessing the fields within a record). A typical use is to define one data structure (record or object) per interface along with any support procedures. Here the main type will get the name 'T', and one uses as in MyModule.T.
In the event of a name collision between an imported module and other entity within the module, the reserved word
AS can be used as in IMPORT CollidingModule AS X;
Safe vs unsafe
Some ability is deemed unsafe, where the compiler can no longer guarantee that results will be consistent; for example, when interfacing to the C language. The keyword UNSAFE prefixed in front of INTERFACE or MODULE, may be used to tell the compiler to enable certain low level features of the language. For example, an unsafe operation is bypassing the type system using LOOPHOLE to copy the bits of an integer into a floating point REAL number.
An interface that imports an unsafe module must also be unsafe. A safe interface may be exported by an unsafe implementation module. This is the typical use when interfacing to external libraries, where two interfaces are built: one unsafe, the other safe.
Generics
A generic interface and its corresponding generic module,
prefix the INTERFACE or MODULE keyword with GENERIC, and take as formal arguments other interfaces. Thus (like C++ templates) one can easily define and use abstract data types, but unlike C++, the granularity is at the module level. An interface is passed to the generic interface and implementation modules as arguments, and the compiler will generate concrete modules.
For example, one could define a GenericStack, then instantiate it with interfaces such as IntegerElem, or RealElem, or even interfaces to Objects, as long as each of those interfaces defines the properties needed by the generic modules.
The bare types INTEGER, or REAL can't be used, because they are not modules, and the system of generics is based on using modules as arguments. By comparison, in a C++ template, a bare type would be used.
FILE: IntegerElem.i3
INTERFACE IntegerElem;
CONST Name = "Integer";
TYPE T = INTEGER;
PROCEDURE Format(x: T): TEXT;
PROCEDURE Scan(txt: TEXT; VAR x: T): BOOLEAN;
END IntegerElem.
FILE: GenericStack.ig
GENERIC INTERFACE GenericStack(Element);
(* Here Element.T is the type to be stored in the generic stack. *)
TYPE
T = Public OBJECT;
Public = OBJECT
METHODS
init(): TStack;
format(): TEXT;
isEmpty(): BOOLEAN;
count(): INTEGER;
push(elm: Element.T);
pop(VAR elem: Element.T): BOOLEAN;
END;
END GenericStack.
FILE: GenericStack.mg
GENERIC MODULE GenericStack(Element);
< ... generic implementation details... >
PROCEDURE Format(self: T): TEXT =
VAR
str: TEXT;
BEGIN
str := Element.Name & "Stack{";
FOR k := 0 TO self.n -1 DO
IF k > 0 THEN str := str & ", "; END;
str := str & Element.Format(self.arr[k]);
END;
str := str & "};";
RETURN str;
END Format;
< ... more generic implementation details... >
END GenericStack.
FILE: IntegerStack.i3
INTERFACE IntegerStack = GenericStack(IntegerElem) END IntegerStack.
FILE: IntegerStack.m3
MODULE IntegerStack = GenericStack(IntegerElem) END IntegerStack.
Traceability
Any identifier can be traced back to where it originated, unlike the 'include' feature of other languages. A compiled unit must import identifiers from other compiled units, using an IMPORT statement. Even enumerations make use of the same 'dot' notation as used when accessing a field of a record.
INTERFACE A;
TYPE Color = {Black, Brown, Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet, Gray, White};
END A;
MODULE B;
IMPORT A;
FROM A IMPORT Color;
VAR
aColor: A.Color; (* Uses the module name as a prefix *)
theColor: Color; (* Does not have the module name as a prefix *)
anotherColor: A.Color;
BEGIN
aColor := A.Color.Brown;
theColor := Color.Red;
anotherColor := Color.Orange; (* Can't simply use Orange *)
END B.
Dynamic allocation
Modula-3 supports the allocation of data at runtime. There are two kinds of memory that can be allocated, TRACED and UNTRACED, the difference being whether the garbage collector can see it or not. NEW() is used to allocate data of either of these classes of memory. In an UNSAFE module, DISPOSE is available to free untraced memory.
Object-oriented
Object-oriented programming techniques may be used in Modula-3, but their use is not needed. Many of the other features provided in Modula-3 (modules, generics) can usually take the place of object-orientation.
Object support is intentionally kept to its simplest terms. An object type (termed a "class" in other object-oriented languages) is introduced with the OBJECT declaration, which has essentially the same syntax as a RECORD declaration, although an object type is a reference type, whereas RECORDs in Modula-3 are not (similar to structs in C). Exported types are usually named T by convention, and create a separate "Public" type to expose the methods and data. For example:
INTERFACE Person;
TYPE T <: Public;
Public = OBJECT
METHODS
getAge(): INTEGER;
init(name: TEXT; age: INTEGER): T;
END;
END Person.
This defines an interface Person with two types, T, and Public, which is defined as an object with two methods, getAge() and init(). T is defined as a subtype of Public by the use of the <: operator.
To create a new Person.T object, use the built in procedure NEW with the method init() as
VAR jim := NEW(Person.T).init("Jim", 25);
Modula-3's REVEAL construct provides a conceptually simple and clean yet very powerful mechanism for hiding implementation details from clients, with arbitrarily many levels of friendliness. Use REVEAL to show the full implementation of the Person interface from above.
MODULE Person;
REVEAL T = Public BRANDED
OBJECT
name: TEXT; (* These two variables *)
age: INTEGER; (* are private. *)
OVERRIDES
getAge := Age;
init := Init;
END;
PROCEDURE Age(self: T): INTEGER =
BEGIN
RETURN self.age;
END Age;
PROCEDURE Init(self: T; name: TEXT; age: INTEGER): T =
BEGIN
self.name := name;
self.age := age;
RETURN self;
END Init;
BEGIN
END Person.
Note the use of the BRANDED keyword, which "brands" objects to make them unique as to avoid structural equivalence. BRANDED can also take a string as an argument, but when omitted, a unique string is generated for you.
Modula-3 is one of a few programming languages which requires external references from a module to be strictly qualified. That is, a reference in module A to the object x exported from module B must take the form B.x. In Modula-3, it is impossible to import all exported names from a module.
Because of the language's requirements on name qualification and method overriding, it is impossible to break a working program simply by adding new declarations to an interface (any interface). This makes it possible for large programs to be edited concurrently by many programmers with no worries about naming conflicts; and it also makes it possible to edit core language libraries with the firm knowledge that no extant program will be broken in the process.
Exceptions
Exception handling is based on a TRY...EXCEPT block system, which has since become common. One feature that has not been adopted in other languages, with the notable exceptions of Delphi, Python, Scala and Visual Basic.NET, is that the EXCEPT construct defined a form of switch statement with each possible exception as a case in its own EXCEPT clause. Modula-3 also supports a LOOP...EXIT...END construct that loops until an EXIT occurs, a structure equivalent to a simple loop inside a TRY...EXCEPT clause.
Multi-threaded
The language supports the use of multi-threading, and synchronization between threads.
There is a standard module within the runtime library (m3core) named Thread, which supports the use of multi-threaded applications. The Modula-3 runtime may make use of a separate thread for internal tasks such as garbage collection.
A built-in data structure MUTEX is used to synchronize multiple threads and protect data structures from simultaneous access with possible corruption or race conditions. The LOCK statement introduces a block in which the mutex is locked. Unlocking a MUTEX is implicit by the code execution locus's leaving the block. The MUTEX is an object, and as such, other objects may be derived from it.
For example, in the input/output (I/O) section of the library libm3, readers and writers (Rd.T, and Wr.T) are derived from MUTEX, and they lock themselves before accessing or modifying any internal data such as buffers.
Summary
In summary, the language features:
Modules and interfaces
Explicit marking of unsafe code
Generics
Automatic garbage collection
Strong typing, structural equivalence of types
Objects
Exceptions
Threads
Modula-3 is one of the rare languages whose evolution of features is documented.
In Systems Programming with Modula-3, four essential points of the language design are intensively discussed. These topics are: structural vs. name equivalence, subtyping rules, generic modules, and parameter modes like READONLY.
Standard library features
Continuing a trend started with the C language, many of the features needed to write real programs were left out of the language definition and instead provided via a standard library set. Most of the interfaces below are described in detail in
Standard libraries providing the following features. These are called standard interfaces and are required (must be provided) in the language.
Text: Operations on immutable string references, called TEXTs
Thread: Operations relating to threading, including MUTEX, condition variable, and thread pausing. The threading library provides pre-emptive threads switching
Word: Bitwise operations on unsigned integers (or machine words). Normally implemented directly by the compiler
Floating-point interfaces
Some recommended interfaces implemented in the available implementations but are not required
Lex: For parsing number and other data
Fmt: Formatting various datatypes for printing
Pkl (or Pickle): Object serialization of any reference types reachable by the garbage collector
Table: Generic modules for maps
As in C, I/O is also provided via libraries, in Modula-3 called Rd and Wr. The object-oriented design of the Rd (readers) and Wr (writers) libraries is covered in detail in the book by Greg Nelson. An interesting aspect of Modula-3 is that it is one of few programming languages which standard libraries have been formally verified not to contain various types of bugs, including locking bugs. This was done under the auspices of the Larch/Modula-3 (see Larch family) and Extended static checking projects at DEC Systems Research Center.
Implementations
Several compilers are available, most of them open source.
DEC-SRC M3, the original.
Olivetti Research Center (ORC) Modula-3 toolkit, originally a compiler, now available as a library for syntactic, lexical and semantic analysis of Modula-3 programs.
Critical Mass CM3, a different successor of DEC-SRC M3
Polytechnique Montreal Modula-3 PM3, a successor of DEC-SRC M3, currently merging with CM3
EzM3, an independent lightweight and easily portable implementation, developed in connection with CVSup
HM3, a successor of the pm3-1.1.15 release of PM3, with support of native threading using NPTL
CM3, the successor to Critical Mass CM3. This is the only up to date, maintained and developed implementation. Releases are available from http://www.opencm3.net/releng/.
Since the only aspect of C data structures that is missing from Modula-3 is the union type, all extant Modula-3 implementations are able to provide good binary code compatibility with C language type declarations of arrays and structs.
Books
None of these books are still in print, although used copies are obtainable and some are digitized, partly or fully, and some chapters of one them have prior or posterior versions obtainable as research reports from the web.
Greg Nelson, ed., Systems Programming with Modula-3 The definitive reference on the Modula-3 language with interesting articles on object-oriented systems software construction and a documentation of the discussion leading to the final features of the language. There are some formerly (see for Chapter two, for chapter four, for chapter five, for chapter six) and some posteriorly (see for Chapter one and more updated two, thus of both prior versions of language definition and, for chapter three and for chapter seven) of publishing versions of the majority of its eight chapters individually available from prior DEC Systems Research Center (SRC) as research reports for download.
Samuel P. Harbison, Modula-3 Easy to use class textbook.
Robert Sedgewick, Algorithms in Modula-3
Laszlo Boszormenyi & Carsten Weich, Programming in Modula-3: An Introduction in Programming with Style
Renzo Orsini, Agostino Cortesi Programmare in Modula-3: introduzione alla programmazione imperativa e a oggetti an Italian book of the language explaining its main features.
Projects using Modula-3
Software which is programmed Modula-3 includes:
The SPIN operating system
The CVSup software repository synchronizing program
The Obliq language, which uses Modula-3 network objects ability to migrate objects over local networks transparently, allowing a distributed ability to Modula-3 object-oriented programming paradigm. It has been used to build distributed applications, computer animations, and web programming applications in the form of scripting extension to Modula-3.
Influences on other programming languages
Although Modula-3 did not gain mainstream status, several parts of the DEC-SRC M3 distribution did. Probably the most influential part was the Network Objects library, which formed the basis for Java's first Remote Method Invocation (RMI) implementation, including the network protocol. Only when Sun moved from the Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA) standard to the IIOP based protocol was it dropped. The Java documentation on garbage collection of remote objects still refer to the pioneering work done for Modula-3 Network Objects. Python's implementation of classes was also inspired by the class mechanism found in C++ and Modula-3.
Also the language Nim makes use of some aspects of Modula-3, such as traced vs untraced pointers.
References
External links
CM3 Implementation Website
Modula-3 Home Page (now long dead, mirror)
Modula-3: Language definition
elego Software Solutions
Modula-3 newsgroup, mostly deserted
Modula-3 Development Mailing List, active
Notes from Caltech's CS2 class, taught in Modula-3 in 2002 and 2003
mirror Programming in Modula-3: program examples
Building Distributed OO Applications: Modula-3 Objects at Work. Michel R. Dagenais. Draft Version (January 1997)
Modula-3: Language, Libraries and Tools. Presentation on Modula-3 over 120 slides. Michael R. Dagenais, dead
Object-Oriented Data Abstraction in Modula-3. Joseph Bergin (1997)
Computerworld Interview with Luca Cardelli on Modula-3
Modula programming language family
Object-oriented programming languages
Systems programming languages
Programming languages created in 1988 | [
-0.545798659324646,
-0.2434542030096054,
0.35038432478904724,
-0.4825590252876282,
-0.6754913330078125,
0.2143535614013672,
0.4845677614212036,
-0.4581390917301178,
-0.06755983084440231,
-0.012351625598967075,
-0.38654738664627075,
0.9321267008781433,
-0.7236301898956299,
-0.4280564785003662,
0.2562045156955719,
0.16532276570796967,
0.7408447861671448,
-0.02613225020468235,
0.08099225908517838,
-0.09128530323505402,
0.04562704265117645,
0.0949091911315918,
0.16879361867904663,
-0.8064442873001099,
0.10319672524929047,
0.21996799111366272,
0.5592614412307739,
0.39496728777885437,
-0.33390703797340393,
-0.11933242529630661,
-0.12228558212518692,
0.5585250854492188,
0.03709240257740021,
-0.2863795757293701,
-0.06835651397705078,
0.14704297482967377,
-0.023798013105988503,
-0.23303866386413574,
-0.13319037854671478,
-0.23203891515731812,
-0.005171413067728281,
-0.6588383913040161,
0.10630286484956741,
0.37079915404319763,
0.10220229625701904,
0.08084459602832794,
-1.5865962505340576,
0.04727791249752045,
-0.9520120024681091,
-0.061189670115709305,
-0.9883506298065186,
0.42772436141967773,
0.1239236444234848,
0.17467084527015686,
0.6456890106201172,
-0.03686601296067238,
-0.8383196592330933,
-0.30888813734054565,
0.5096741318702698,
0.1939481496810913,
-0.09903427958488464,
-0.17984145879745483,
0.08848129212856293,
-0.09692353755235672,
-0.418589323759079,
0.5607944130897522,
-0.47892895340919495,
0.2047688513994217,
-0.8886610269546509,
-0.5059298872947693,
0.3388533294200897,
-0.3213823735713959,
-0.18142645061016083,
0.2624889612197876,
-0.16362805664539337,
-0.22630420327186584,
-0.37491315603256226,
-0.21614181995391846,
0.11341883987188339,
0.4120965898036957,
0.16570742428302765,
0.6304824948310852,
1.255035400390625,
-0.4793200194835663,
0.5801225304603577,
-0.21973468363285065,
0.21994653344154358,
0.340768426656723,
-0.4112218916416168,
0.2145031839609146,
-0.4203043580055237,
-0.3020552098751068,
0.4250495433807373,
0.44567152857780457,
0.341276615858078,
0.3030354678630829,
-0.49460509419441223,
-0.01177632063627243,
0.4446101486682892,
0.42699939012527466,
0.11919106543064117,
0.18441545963287354,
-0.025446416810154915,
-0.5111950635910034,
-0.8952645659446716,
-0.37623053789138794,
-0.4867487847805023,
-0.32697945833206177,
-0.4323248565196991,
0.5084983110427856,
-0.6559422016143799,
0.023777734488248825,
0.11245337873697281,
-0.6676967740058899,
-0.25906169414520264,
0.13874535262584686,
-0.2266674041748047,
0.40230700373649597,
-0.44893863797187805,
0.3134240508079529,
0.4443087577819824,
0.7375115156173706,
0.3581309914588928,
0.1428549885749817,
0.31648173928260803,
0.29955947399139404,
0.4006182551383972,
0.5603567957878113,
0.2378675490617752,
0.09996528178453445,
0.10222980380058289,
0.8592516779899597,
0.3515605628490448,
0.13760557770729065,
-0.3078713119029999,
-0.7470380663871765,
0.3584461808204651,
0.04622245207428932,
-0.02906734123826027,
0.14698567986488342,
-0.14082883298397064,
0.029181303456425667,
-0.006944665685296059,
-0.07278767228126526,
0.8079545497894287,
0.3422706425189972,
0.049461618065834045,
0.22877013683319092,
-0.15080606937408447,
-0.04053409397602081,
0.0697370320558548,
0.008199839852750301,
-0.12567929923534393,
0.22603507339954376,
0.010488729923963547,
0.9041730761528015,
0.2901923656463623,
-0.1293688267469406,
0.02330457977950573,
0.3339507579803467,
0.17593367397785187,
0.2566986382007599,
-0.36368098855018616,
0.1285366266965866,
0.21366950869560242,
-0.3435506522655487,
0.32839369773864746,
0.2598213255405426,
0.7494816184043884,
0.2760099768638611,
-0.5741886496543884,
-0.3012183904647827,
0.1771332323551178,
-0.03482889384031296,
0.2521800398826599,
-0.38484370708465576,
0.7273219227790833,
-0.07934243977069855,
0.32715868949890137,
-0.3893347978591919,
-0.7129045724868774,
-0.03740520030260086,
0.3828354477882385,
0.03669853135943413,
0.6853970885276794,
0.129797101020813,
0.8028387427330017,
-0.3071192502975464,
-0.03271438181400299,
-0.20498350262641907,
-0.3857339024543762,
-0.23991936445236206,
0.272784948348999,
-0.2113836258649826,
1.1588596105575562,
0.03626998886466026,
-0.6610159277915955,
0.9299145936965942,
0.16473382711410522,
0.7600367665290833,
0.5089779496192932,
-0.32158800959587097,
0.552467942237854,
0.3429969847202301,
0.4826141893863678,
0.1189897283911705,
-0.26612555980682373,
-0.026615934446454048,
-0.5474621653556824,
0.5673595070838928,
0.376161128282547,
0.18178652226924896,
-0.16706709563732147,
-0.18317371606826782,
0.36655160784721375,
-0.1747681349515915,
0.12442930042743683,
0.14346544444561005,
-0.524264931678772,
0.18549396097660065,
0.648581326007843,
-0.49658262729644775,
-0.4363349378108978,
0.20939014852046967,
-0.598655641078949,
0.6426411271095276,
0.0939825251698494,
0.04784645512700081,
0.6314947009086609,
-0.20493656396865845,
-0.24873977899551392,
0.29419443011283875,
-0.15395459532737732,
-0.286114364862442,
0.22214359045028687,
0.058221615850925446,
-0.02064817026257515,
-0.03342020884156227,
0.03552214801311493,
-0.4219238758087158,
0.2252883017063141,
0.09729087352752686,
-0.3156629204750061,
-0.1892954260110855,
0.19718037545681,
-0.20250026881694794,
0.4224921464920044,
0.34731554985046387,
-0.22538548707962036,
0.025651374831795692,
0.3933694064617157,
0.3802611827850342,
0.09880899637937546,
-0.2916114330291748,
0.08070327341556549,
0.636881411075592,
-0.1086040809750557,
-0.007570252753794193,
0.16382014751434326,
0.7560468912124634,
-0.4407685101032257,
0.5072954893112183,
-0.01186020765453577,
0.12913969159126282,
-0.10375644266605377,
-0.4338662624359131,
0.05046743527054787,
-0.04926368594169617,
0.526336669921875,
0.3686057925224304,
-0.060677576810121536,
-0.6711249351501465,
-0.5529162287712097,
0.09835714846849442,
-0.6734469532966614,
-0.6753637790679932,
0.22327212989330292,
0.03314593434333801,
-0.7492932677268982,
-0.657185435295105,
-0.15667110681533813,
0.9834411144256592,
0.6245763897895813,
-0.18399815261363983,
-0.8942338228225708,
-0.047532446682453156,
0.16349470615386963,
-0.6541328430175781,
0.07485596090555191,
-0.40591877698898315,
-0.4847344756126404,
0.06984084099531174,
-0.5114119052886963,
-0.07263122498989105,
-0.04204526171088219,
-0.0008522763382643461,
-0.24879562854766846,
0.28114113211631775,
0.2661731243133545,
-0.056033048778772354,
-0.227436825633049,
0.19263704121112823,
-0.03420092165470123,
-0.07098338752985,
0.13182015717029572,
-0.39575815200805664,
-0.5003952980041504,
0.7769448757171631,
-5.730021953582764,
0.008508610539138317,
-0.5244680047035217,
-0.5477551817893982,
-0.23369356989860535,
0.513405442237854,
0.27290812134742737,
-0.2037559151649475,
0.10706736892461777,
-0.41782310605049133,
-0.2561268210411072,
0.40792059898376465,
-0.13047094643115997,
0.2769717574119568,
0.07088695466518402,
-0.4553118944168091,
-0.11359098553657532,
0.11972102522850037,
0.2870643138885498,
0.4182354807853699,
0.6939053535461426,
-0.10046946257352829,
0.37867602705955505,
0.04296954348683357,
0.13625691831111908,
0.4615505635738373,
-0.5251931548118591,
0.41925808787345886,
-0.09612575173377991,
-0.5583109259605408,
0.11703959107398987,
0.23506638407707214,
0.16743837296962738,
-0.7377102971076965,
-0.2871802747249603,
0.12348611652851105,
0.9696818590164185,
0.5005648732185364,
0.6813402771949768,
-0.9249971508979797,
-0.011930733919143677,
-0.08154316246509552,
0.16562916338443756,
-0.15185187757015228,
0.5416885018348694,
0.36465343832969666,
-0.5954476594924927,
0.19847705960273743,
-0.10411439836025238,
0.6645411252975464,
-0.49431103467941284,
-0.27807068824768066,
-0.298167884349823,
0.5395281910896301,
0.10285529494285583,
-0.3778092563152313,
0.16256853938102722,
0.029913954436779022,
-0.22257402539253235,
0.37111371755599976,
0.4260901212692261,
-0.7261344790458679,
-0.14228887856006622,
-0.4112601578235626,
-0.2375134825706482,
-0.228946715593338,
-0.4578663408756256,
-0.19322077929973602,
0.44929444789886475,
0.6425994038581848,
-0.7551128268241882,
0.6274601817131042,
0.019987594336271286,
-0.8402854204177856,
0.6214783787727356,
-0.5661750435829163,
-0.292867511510849,
-0.32545047998428345,
-0.04360872507095337,
0.07853555679321289,
-0.08028368651866913,
-0.9587278962135315,
-0.2786143124103546,
0.40161824226379395,
0.2535738945007324,
-0.25800663232803345,
-0.08144710212945938,
0.2833048403263092,
0.1556183397769928,
0.2090032547712326,
0.4973805844783783,
-0.775688886642456,
0.1348692774772644,
0.03783406317234039,
0.2690025269985199,
0.2803085446357727,
0.46701470017433167,
-0.04618501290678978,
0.8132126927375793,
-0.37570998072624207,
0.11760669946670532,
-0.55852210521698,
-0.028085235506296158,
-0.5900529623031616,
-0.25199586153030396,
-0.22725780308246613,
-0.9814243912696838,
0.3974001109600067,
0.4656207859516144,
-0.3369879424571991,
-0.06177947297692299,
-0.04531116783618927,
-0.5474199652671814,
-0.4643928110599518,
0.5600647330284119,
0.4634532332420349,
-0.06656152009963989,
0.08890683948993683,
0.27883705496788025,
-0.07733265310525894,
-0.4025905430316925,
0.04177584871649742,
0.4150463342666626,
-0.07024554908275604,
-0.23357146978378296,
-0.4739893972873688,
0.1589381992816925,
-0.0438830591738224,
-0.3463771343231201,
0.0014661743771284819,
0.21836037933826447,
-0.1263178139925003,
-0.387647420167923,
-0.12829360365867615,
0.41103997826576233,
-0.720081627368927,
-0.49829092621803284,
0.6892037391662598,
0.3994416892528534,
-0.5819543600082397,
0.3132387697696686,
-0.6339549422264099,
-0.44630977511405945,
-0.36521583795547485,
0.09379696100950241,
0.03945149481296539,
0.32236385345458984,
-0.24084551632404327,
-0.41514357924461365,
0.0186813585460186,
0.22102238237857819,
-0.37615320086479187,
0.8706195950508118,
-0.34471452236175537,
-0.6596733331680298,
0.13926224410533905,
0.3485140800476074,
0.6011524796485901,
0.5745789408683777,
-0.6185951828956604,
-0.13878999650478363,
-0.11611101031303406,
-0.6021754145622253,
-0.016879240050911903,
0.3468390107154846,
-0.053188975900411606,
-0.6540279984474182,
-0.4680083692073822,
-0.1205715760588646,
0.1417209357023239,
-0.07904095202684402,
-0.13593289256095886,
-0.6703417301177979,
-0.31238222122192383,
0.8171711564064026,
-0.1804862916469574,
-0.36324846744537354,
0.061309006065130234,
0.04313744232058525,
0.26585903763771057,
0.4013722538948059,
-0.3933865427970886,
0.16631552577018738,
0.25309324264526367,
0.5868887305259705,
-0.1511148363351822,
-0.05553040653467178,
0.02974195033311844,
-0.579734742641449,
-0.5018837451934814,
0.023449502885341644,
0.064433254301548,
0.3717653453350067,
-0.14731749892234802,
-0.4000248908996582,
-0.5162360668182373,
-0.048715125769376755,
1.2981001138687134,
0.19079525768756866,
-0.6559641361236572,
-0.0970069095492363,
0.37679898738861084,
-0.11100941151380539,
-0.06082513555884361,
0.3555969297885895,
-0.24286600947380066,
0.23234838247299194,
-0.02638045884668827,
-0.1740666776895523,
0.5189322233200073,
0.24320857226848602,
-0.9422658681869507,
-0.19570674002170563,
-0.38377267122268677,
-0.09360343962907791,
0.17907007038593292,
-0.3395701050758362,
-0.5320292711257935,
-0.5247592329978943,
-0.5955098867416382,
-0.06281538307666779,
-0.6971401572227478,
-0.3416483998298645,
0.1845528483390808,
-0.5585711598396301,
0.15282407402992249,
0.2597867250442505,
-0.5770391821861267,
0.6720525026321411,
-0.030684975907206535,
0.46540001034736633,
0.2834102213382721,
0.1477590948343277,
0.682269811630249,
-0.2034246027469635,
-0.5009648203849792,
-0.741291880607605,
0.526930034160614,
-0.48475736379623413,
0.0032273693941533566,
0.39117977023124695,
1.0131983757019043,
0.0482935830950737,
-0.45012548565864563,
-0.32633644342422485,
-0.45708557963371277,
0.25782647728919983,
-0.29618769884109497,
-0.5561560988426208,
0.30828040838241577,
0.4043338894844055,
0.005272888578474522,
-0.2854379415512085,
-0.4327615797519684,
0.7887098789215088,
-0.5783782005310059,
0.1635175496339798,
-0.8901484608650208,
-0.2621995508670807,
0.1229170709848404,
0.09776803851127625,
-0.07921957224607468,
-0.0757206454873085,
0.22368472814559937,
0.3557705581188202,
0.14121997356414795,
0.04788581654429436,
-0.7360753417015076,
0.6233186721801758,
-0.5820900201797485,
-0.5082435011863708,
-0.5107543468475342,
0.18428878486156464,
0.6006342768669128,
-0.24982388317584991,
-0.5214824676513672,
0.30040237307548523,
-0.36564183235168457,
0.4508797824382782,
0.16690251231193542,
-0.22189795970916748,
0.27101847529411316,
0.13325625658035278,
-0.6419028043746948,
-0.01783950813114643,
-0.5549195408821106,
-0.010696412064135075,
-0.3842809498310089,
-0.05199704319238663,
0.18046844005584717,
-0.2821316719055176,
0.6108201146125793,
-0.695794403553009,
0.2177678346633911,
-0.30309322476387024,
0.09059447050094604,
-0.14626164734363556,
0.007852989248931408,
-0.1655263751745224,
-0.3365614414215088,
0.04219694435596466,
0.6417940855026245,
0.11523151397705078,
-0.15970246493816376,
0.14225544035434723,
0.1241353377699852,
0.2437795102596283,
-0.1789063960313797,
-0.3918667137622833,
0.4934485852718353,
-0.2464856058359146,
0.27720901370048523,
0.8549404144287109,
0.8776425719261169,
-0.32310396432876587,
0.3910181224346161,
0.2819543182849884,
-0.1462019830942154,
0.2857735753059387,
0.06475101411342621,
0.3910338282585144,
0.018087228760123253,
0.6434935927391052,
0.14370329678058624,
-0.9818852543830872,
0.660722553730011,
0.013490913435816765,
-0.3122835159301758,
0.5880396366119385,
-0.02066335268318653,
0.6338881850242615,
0.04527905210852623,
0.08074447512626648,
0.19130444526672363,
-0.2165287733078003,
-0.8974146842956543,
0.06213836744427681,
0.33922848105430603,
0.27363863587379456,
0.22648586332798004,
0.4771227538585663,
0.498872846364975,
0.006635078229010105,
0.25332045555114746,
-0.08525393903255463,
0.3036900758743286,
-0.18104597926139832,
0.06893642246723175,
0.14430829882621765,
0.41001302003860474,
0.14453622698783875,
0.39807215332984924,
0.09236226975917816,
0.1817440241575241,
-0.10086850821971893,
-0.2276948243379593,
-0.05047518014907837,
-0.5182338356971741,
0.21404922008514404,
-0.008376493118703365,
0.26740044355392456,
0.5269497632980347,
0.20126871764659882,
0.12201417982578278,
0.06307882815599442,
0.12901140749454498,
0.45491281151771545,
0.19743932783603668,
0.27001917362213135,
0.1405962109565735,
0.09239263832569122,
0.7628008127212524,
-0.228370800614357,
0.3506390154361725,
-0.14439362287521362,
-0.09139794111251831,
0.518426775932312,
-0.08163025230169296,
-0.24844880402088165,
-0.24663005769252777,
-0.6643205881118774,
-0.062036819756031036,
-0.009421277791261673,
-0.34700050950050354,
-0.39535394310951233,
-0.30652862787246704,
0.20705388486385345,
0.01356910914182663,
0.06564473360776901,
-0.12586791813373566,
-0.2720061242580414,
-0.34468042850494385,
-0.24149934947490692,
-0.24410906434059143,
-0.2619533836841583,
0.041813768446445465,
0.1658126264810562,
0.6354966759681702,
0.28008130192756653,
0.23903430998325348,
-0.04395117238163948,
0.23783712089061737,
0.3203416168689728,
-0.2858513295650482,
-0.6597802042961121,
0.5444848537445068,
-0.6537830829620361,
-0.454765647649765,
-0.7197152376174927,
0.3400142192840576,
0.3327803611755371,
0.5652652382850647,
-0.392666757106781,
-0.01311796810477972,
-0.34697550535202026,
0.3723067343235016,
0.0905734971165657,
-0.7703087329864502,
0.1296057105064392,
-0.015378438867628574,
-0.2798154354095459,
0.4493033289909363,
0.4457690715789795,
0.0917976126074791,
-0.2536058723926544,
-0.09959051758050919,
0.19361469149589539,
0.05797194689512253,
-0.7814802527427673,
0.06014039367437363,
-0.07659454643726349,
-0.3827424943447113,
-0.10092353820800781,
0.15935124456882477,
-0.8062187433242798,
0.3900737464427948,
-0.14527657628059387,
0.25747746229171753,
0.03846525400876999,
-0.18392489850521088,
-0.6691986322402954,
-0.007010468747466803,
0.2575942277908325,
0.5258294939994812,
-0.75089031457901,
0.31206396222114563,
-0.532528817653656,
-0.5573474168777466,
-0.2224845290184021,
0.46922188997268677,
0.40939849615097046,
0.2918870151042938,
0.164352685213089,
0.0008873188635334373,
0.36142706871032715,
0.4379420280456543,
0.34258124232292175,
-0.4154732823371887,
-0.10846312344074249,
0.5228319764137268
] |
241547 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Harper | Stephen Harper | Stephen Joseph Harper (born April 30, 1959) is a Canadian politician who served as the 22nd prime minister of Canada from 2006 to 2015. The longest-serving prime minister from a right-of-centre party since John A. Macdonald, Harper is the first and only prime minister to come from the modern-day Conservative Party of Canada, serving as the party's first leader from 2004 to 2015.
Harper studied economics, earning a bachelor's degree in 1985 and a master's degree in 1991. He was one of the founders of the Reform Party of Canada and was first elected in 1993 in Calgary West. He did not seek re-election in the 1997 federal election, instead joining and later leading the National Citizens Coalition, a conservative lobbyist group. In 2002, he succeeded Stockwell Day as leader of the Canadian Alliance, the successor to the Reform Party, and returned to parliament as leader of the Official Opposition. In 2003, Harper negotiated the merger of the Canadian Alliance with the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada to form the Conservative Party of Canada and was elected as the party's first leader in March 2004. In the 2004 federal election, the new party lost its first election to the Liberal Party led by Paul Martin. From 2002 to 2015 as party leader, leader of the Official Opposition, and then prime minister, Harper represented the riding of Calgary Southwest in Alberta. He represented Calgary Heritage from 2015 until 2016.
The 2006 federal election resulted in a minority government led by the Conservative Party with Harper becoming the 22nd prime minister of Canada. During his first term, Harper confronted the In and Out scandal, while major legislation passed under Harper's leadership included the Federal Accountability Act, the Québécois nation motion and the Veterans' Bill of Rights. After the 2008 federal election, in which the Conservative Party won a larger minority, Harper passed the Economic Action Plan in response to the financial crisis of 2007–2008, prorogued Parliament to defeat a non-confidence motion by a potential coalition of opposition parties and ordered military intervention during the First Libyan Civil War. The 40th Canadian Parliament was eventually dissolved in March 2011, after another no-confidence vote that found his government to be in contempt of Parliament. In the federal election, the Conservatives won a majority government. During his third term, Harper withdrew Canada from the Kyoto Protocol, launched Operation Impact in opposition to ISIL, repealed the long-gun registry, passed the Anti-terrorism Act, 2015, launched Canada's Global Markets Action Plan and grappled with controversies surrounding the Canadian Senate expenses scandal and the Robocall scandal.
In the 2015 federal election, the Conservative Party lost power to the Liberal Party led by Justin Trudeau. Harper officially stepped down as party leader on October 19, 2015, and Rona Ambrose was subsequently chosen as interim leader on November 5, 2015. After 2015, Harper slowly began to step away from Canadian politics and took on a number of international business and leadership roles, founding a global consulting firm, appearing on US and British media, and being elected leader of the International Democrat Union.
Early life and education
Harper was born and raised in Leaside, a neighbourhood of Toronto, Ontario, the first of three sons of Margaret (née Johnston) and Joseph Harris Harper, an accountant at Imperial Oil. The Harper family traces its ancestry back to Yorkshire, England, with Christopher Harper having emigrated to Nova Scotia in 1784, where he later served as justice of the peace in the area that is now New Brunswick.
Harper attended Northlea Public School and, later, John G. Althouse Middle School and Richview Collegiate Institute, both in Etobicoke, Toronto. He graduated from high school in 1978, and was a member of Richview Collegiate's team on Reach for the Top, a televised academic quiz show for high school students. Harper studied at the University of Toronto's Trinity College before moving to Alberta. In an attempt to establish independence from his parents, Harper dropped out of the University of Toronto and then moved to Edmonton, Alberta, where he found work in the mail room at Imperial Oil. Later, he advanced to work on the company's computer systems. He took up post-secondary studies again at the University of Calgary, where he completed a bachelor's degree in economics in 1985. He later returned there to earn a master's degree in economics, completed in 1991. Throughout his career, Harper has kept strong links to the University of Calgary. Trained as an economist, Harper was the first prime minister with an economics degree since Pierre Trudeau and the first prime minister without a law degree since Joe Clark.
Political beginnings
Harper became involved in politics as a member of his high school's Young Liberals club. He later changed his political allegiance because he disagreed with the National Energy Program (NEP) of Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government. He became executive assistant to Progressive Conservative (PC) Member of Parliament (MP) Jim Hawkes in 1985 but later became disillusioned with the party and the government of Brian Mulroney, citing the administration's economic policy. He left the PC Party that same year.
Harper was then recommended by the University of Calgary's economist Bob Mansell to Preston Manning, the founder and leader of the right-wing populist Reform Party of Canada. At that time Harper "didn't see himself as a politician", Mansell told CBC News in 2002, adding, "Politics was not his first love."
Manning invited him to participate in the party, and Harper gave a speech at Reform's 1987 founding convention in Winnipeg. He became the Reform Party's chief policy officer, and he played a major role in drafting the 1988 election platform, otherwise known as the Blue Book, which helped form the principles and policies of the party. Harper was influenced by his political mentor, Tom Flanagan, when writing the book. He is credited with creating Reform's campaign slogan, "The West wants in!"
Harper ran for the House of Commons in the 1988 federal election in Calgary West and losing by a wide margin to Hawkes, his former employer. After Reform candidate Deborah Grey was elected as the party's first MP in a 1989 by-election, Harper became Grey's executive assistant, serving as her chief adviser and speechwriter until 1993. He remained prominent in the Reform Party's national organization in his role as policy chief, encouraging the party to expand beyond its Western base and arguing that strictly regional parties were at risk of being taken over by radical elements. He delivered a speech at the Reform Party's 1991 national convention, in which he condemned extremist views.
Harper's relationship with Manning became strained in 1992, because of conflicting strategies over the Charlottetown Accord. Harper opposed the accord on principle for ideological reasons, while Manning was initially more open to compromise. Harper also criticized Manning's decision to hire Rick Anderson as an adviser, believing that Anderson was not sufficiently committed to the Reform Party's principles. He resigned as the policy chief in October 1992.
Harper stood for office again in the 1993 federal election, and defeated Jim Hawkes amid a significant Reform breakthrough in Western Canada. His campaign likely benefited from a $50,000 print and television campaign organized by the National Citizens Coalition (NCC) against Hawkes, although the NCC did not endorse Harper directly.
Reform MP (1993–1997)
Harper emerged a prominent member of the Reform Party caucus. He was active on constitutional issues during his first parliament, and played a prominent role in drafting the Reform Party's strategy for the 1995 Quebec referendum. A long-standing opponent of centralized federalism, he stood with Preston Manning in Montreal to introduce a twenty-point plan to "decentralize and modernize" Canada in the event of a "no" victory. Harper later argued that the "no" side's narrow plurality was a worst-case scenario, in that no-one had won a mandate for change.
Harper has expressed some socially conservative views on certain issues. In 1994, he opposed plans by federal Justice Minister Allan Rock to introduce spousal benefits for same-sex couples. Citing the recent failure of a similar initiative in Ontario, he was quoted as saying, "What I hope they learn is not to get into it. There are more important social and economic issues, not to mention the unity question." Harper also spoke against the possibility of the Canadian Human Rights Commission or the Supreme Court changing federal policy in these and other matters.
At the Reform Party's 1994 policy convention, Harper was part of a small minority of delegates who voted against restricting the definition of marriage to "the union of one man and one woman". He opposed both same-sex marriage and mandated benefits for same-sex couples, but argued that political parties should refrain from taking official positions on these and other "issues of conscience".
Harper was the only Reform MP to support the creation of the Canadian Firearms Registry at second reading in 1995, although he later voted against it at third reading stage. He said at the time that he initially voted for the registry because of a poll showing that most of his constituents supported it, and added that he changed his vote when a second poll showed the opposite result. It was reported in April 1995, that some Progressive Conservatives opposed to Jean Charest's leadership wanted to remove both Charest and Manning, and unite the Reform and Progressive Conservative parties under Harper's leadership.
Despite his prominent position in the party, Harper's relationship with the Reform Party leadership was frequently strained. In early 1994, he criticized a party decision to establish a personal expense account for Manning at a time when other Reform MPs had been asked to forego parliamentary perquisites. He was formally rebuked by the Reform executive council despite winning support from some MPs. His relationship with Manning grew increasingly fractious in the mid-1990s, and he pointedly declined to express any opinion on Manning's leadership during a 1996 interview. This friction was indicative of a fundamental divide between the two men: Harper was strongly committed to conservative principles and opposed Manning's inclinations toward populism, which Harper saw as leading to compromise on core ideological matters.
These tensions culminated in late 1996 when Harper announced that he would not be a candidate in the next federal election. He resigned his parliamentary seat on January 14, 1997, the same day that he was appointed as a vice-president of the National Citizens Coalition (NCC), a conservative think-tank and advocacy group. He was promoted to NCC president later in the year.
In April 1997, Harper suggested that the Reform Party was drifting toward social conservatism and ignoring the principles of economic conservatism. The Liberal Party lost seats but managed to retain a narrow majority government in the 1997 federal election, while Reform made only modest gains.
Out of parliament
1997–2000
Soon after leaving Parliament, Harper and Tom Flanagan co-authored an opinion piece entitled "Our Benign Dictatorship", which argued that the Liberal Party only retained power through a dysfunctional political system and a divided opposition. Harper and Flanagan argued that national conservative governments between 1917 and 1993 were founded on temporary alliances between Western populists and Quebec nationalists, and were unable to govern because of their fundamental contradictions. The authors called for an alliance of Canada's conservative parties, and suggested that meaningful political change might require electoral reforms such as proportional representation. "Our Benign Dictatorship" also commended Conrad Black's purchase of the Southam newspaper chain, arguing that his stewardship would provide for a "pluralistic" editorial view to counter the "monolithically liberal and feminist" approach of the previous management.
Harper remained active in constitutional issues. He was a prominent opponent of the Calgary Declaration on national unity in late 1997, describing it as an "appeasement strategy" against Quebec nationalism. He called for federalist politicians to reject this strategy, and approach future constitutional talks from the position that "Quebec separatists are the problem and they need to be fixed". In late 1999, Harper called for the federal government to establish clear rules for any future Quebec referendum on sovereignty. Some have identified Harper's views as an influence on the Chrétien government's Clarity Act.
As president of the National Citizens Coalition (NCC) from 1998 to 2002, Harper launched an ultimately unsuccessful legal battle against federal election laws restricting third-party advertising. He led the NCC in several campaigns against the Canadian Wheat Board, and supported Finance Minister Paul Martin's 2000 tax cuts as a positive first step toward tax reform.
In 1997, Harper delivered a controversial speech on Canadian identity to the Council for National Policy, a conservative American think tank. He made comments such as "Canada is a Northern European welfare state in the worst sense of the term, and very proud of it", "if you're like all Americans, you know almost nothing except for your own country. Which makes you probably knowledgeable about one more country than most Canadians", and "the NDP [New Democratic Party] is kind of proof that the Devil lives and interferes in the affairs of men." These statements were made public and criticized during the 2006 election. Harper argued that the speech was intended as humour, and not as serious analysis.
Harper considered campaigning for the Progressive Conservative Party leadership in 1998, after Jean Charest left federal politics. Among those encouraging his candidacy were senior aides to Ontario Premier Mike Harris, including Tony Clement and Tom Long. He eventually decided against running, arguing that it would "burn bridges to those Reformers with whom I worked for many years" and prevent an alliance of right-wing parties from taking shape. Harper was sceptical about the Reform Party's United Alternative initiative in 1999, arguing that it would serve to consolidate Manning's hold on the party leadership. He also expressed concern that the UA would dilute Reform's ideological focus.
2000–2001
When the United Alternative created the Canadian Alliance in 2000 as a successor party to Reform, Harper predicted that Stockwell Day would defeat Preston Manning for the new party's leadership. He expressed reservations about Day's abilities, however, and accused Day of "[making] adherence to his social views a litmus test to determine whether you're in the party or not". Harper endorsed Tom Long for the leadership, arguing that Long was best suited to take support from the Progressive Conservative Party. When Day placed first on the first ballot, Harper said that the Canadian Alliance was shifting "more towards being a party of the religious right".
After the death of Pierre Trudeau in 2000, Harper wrote an editorial criticizing Trudeau's policies as they affected Western Canada. He wrote that Trudeau "embraced the fashionable causes of his time, with variable enthusiasm and differing results", but "took a pass" on the issues that "truly defined his century". Harper subsequently accused Trudeau of promoting "unabashed socialism", and argued that Canadian governments between 1972 and 2002 had restricted economic growth through "state corporatism".
After the Canadian Alliance's poor showing in the 2000 election, Harper joined with other Western conservatives in co-authoring a document called the "Alberta Agenda". The letter called on Alberta to reform publicly funded health care, replace the Canada Pension Plan with a provincial plan and replace the Royal Canadian Mounted Police with a provincial police force. It became known as the "firewall letter", because it called on the provincial government to "build firewalls around Alberta" to stop the federal government from redistributing its wealth to less affluent regions. Alberta Premier Ralph Klein agreed with some of the letter's recommendations, but distanced himself from the "firewall" comments.
Harper also wrote an editorial in late 2000 arguing that Alberta and the rest of Canada were "embark[ing] on divergent and potentially hostile paths to defining their country". He said that Alberta had chosen the "best of Canada's heritage—a combination of American enterprise and individualism with the British traditions of order and co-operation" while Canada "appears content to become a second-tier socialistic country ... led by a second-world strongman appropriately suited for the task". He also called for a "stronger and much more autonomous Alberta", while rejecting calls for separatism. In the 2001 Alberta provincial election, Harper led the NCC in a "Vote Anything but Liberal" campaign. Some articles from this period described him as a possible successor to Klein.
Harper and the NCC endorsed a private school tax credit proposed by Ontario's Progressive Conservative government in 2001, arguing that it would "save about $7,000 for each student who does not attend a union-run public school". Education Minister Janet Ecker criticized this, saying that her government's intent was not to save money at the expense of public education.
Day's leadership of the Canadian Alliance became increasingly troubled throughout the summer of 2001, as several party MPs called for his resignation. In June, the National Post newspaper reported that former Reform MP Ian McClelland was organizing a possible leadership challenge on Harper's behalf. Harper announced his resignation from the NCC presidency in August 2001, to prepare a campaign.
Canadian Alliance leadership, 2002–2003
Stockwell Day called a new Canadian Alliance leadership race for 2002, and soon declared himself a candidate. Harper emerged as Day's main rival, and declared his own candidacy on December 3, 2001. He eventually won the support of at least 28 Alliance MPs, including Scott Reid, James Rajotte and Keith Martin. During the campaign, Harper reprised his earlier warnings against an alliance with Quebec nationalists, and called for his party to become the federalist option in Quebec. He argued that "the French language is not imperilled in Quebec", and opposed "special status" for the province in the Canadian constitution accordingly. He also endorsed greater provincial autonomy on Medicare, and said that he would not co-operate with the Progressive Conservatives as long as they were led by Joe Clark. On social issues, Harper argued for "parental rights" to use corporal punishment against their children and supported raising the age of sexual consent. He described his potential support base as "similar to what George Bush tapped".
The tone of the leadership contest turned hostile in February 2002. Harper described Day's governance of the party as "amateurish", while his campaign team argued that Day was attempting to win re-election by building a narrow support base among different groups in the religious right. The Day campaign accused Harper of "attacking ethnic and religious minorities". In early March, the two candidates had an especially fractious debate on CBC Newsworld. The leadership vote was held on March 20, 2002. Harper was elected on the first ballot with 55% support, against 37% for Day. Two other candidates split the remainder.
After winning the party leadership, Harper announced his intention to run for parliament in a by-election in Calgary Southwest, recently vacated by Preston Manning. Ezra Levant had been chosen as the riding's Alliance candidate and declared that he would not stand aside for Harper; he later reconsidered. The Liberals did not field a candidate, following a parliamentary tradition of allowing opposition leaders to enter the House of Commons unopposed. The Progressive Conservative candidate, Jim Prentice, also chose to withdraw. Harper was elected without difficulty over New Democrat Bill Phipps, a former United Church of Canada moderator. Harper told a reporter during the campaign that he "despise[d]" Phipps, and declined to debate him.
Harper officially became the leader of the Official Opposition in May 2002. Later in the same month, he said that the Atlantic Provinces were trapped in "a culture of defeat" which had to be overcome, the result of policies designed by Liberal and Progressive Conservative governments. Many Atlantic politicians condemned the remark as patronizing and insensitive. The Legislature of Nova Scotia unanimously approved a motion condemning Harper's comments, which were also criticized by New Brunswick premier, Bernard Lord, federal Progressive Conservative leader Joe Clark and others. Harper refused to apologize, and said that much of Canada was trapped by the same "can't-do" attitude.
In March 2003, their speeches in favour gaining no traction in Parliament, Harper and Stockwell Day co-wrote a letter to The Wall Street Journal in which they condemned the Canadian government's unwillingness to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
Conservative Party leadership, 2004–2006
On January 12, 2004, Harper announced his resignation as the leader of the Official Opposition in order to run for the leadership of the Conservative Party of Canada. Harper was elected the first leader of the Conservative Party, with a first ballot majority against Belinda Stronach and Tony Clement on March 20, 2004. Harper's victory included strong showings outside of Western Canada.
2004 federal election
Harper led the Conservatives into the 2004 federal election. Initially, new Prime Minister Paul Martin held a large lead in polls, but this eroded because of infighting, Adscam (a scandal that came as a result of a Government of Canada "sponsorship program" in the province of Quebec and involving the Liberal Party of Canada) and other scandals surrounding his government. The Liberals attempted to counter this with an early election call, as this would give the Conservatives less time to consolidate their merger.
This, along with an unpopular provincial budget by Liberal Premier Dalton McGuinty in Ontario, moved the Conservatives into a lead for a time. However, comments by Conservative MPs, leaked press releases accusing the then prime minister of supporting child pornography, as well as attack ads suggesting that the Conservatives had a secret agenda, caused Harper's party to lose some momentum.
The Liberals were re-elected to power with a minority government, with the Conservatives coming in second place. The Conservatives managed to make inroads into the Liberals' Ontario stronghold, primarily in the province's socially conservative central region. However, they were shut out of Quebec, marking the first time that a centre-right party did not win any seats in that province. Harper, after some personal deliberation, decided to stay on as the party leader.
Agreement with the BQ and the NDP
Two months after the federal election, Stephen Harper privately met Bloc Québécois leader Gilles Duceppe and New Democratic Party leader Jack Layton in a Montreal hotel. On September 9, 2004, the three signed a letter addressed to the governor general, Adrienne Clarkson, stating,
On the same day the letter was written, the three party leaders held a joint press conference at which they expressed their intent to co-operate on changing parliamentary rules, and to request that the governor general consult with them before deciding to call an election. At the news conference, Harper said "It is the Parliament that's supposed to run the country, not just the largest party and the single leader of that party. That's a criticism I've had and that we've had and that most Canadians have had for a long, long time now so this is an opportunity to start to change that." However, at the time, Harper and the two other opposition leaders denied trying to form a coalition government. Harper said, "This is not a coalition, but this is a co-operative effort."
One month later, on October 4, Mike Duffy, who was later appointed as a Conservative senator by Harper, said "It is possible that you could change prime minister without having an election", and that some Conservatives wanted Harper to temporarily become prime minister without holding an election. The next day Layton walked out on talks with Harper and Duceppe, accusing them of trying to replace Paul Martin with Harper as prime minister. Both Bloc and Conservative officials denied Layton's accusations.
On March 26, 2011, Duceppe stated that Harper had tried to form a coalition government with the Bloc and NDP in response to Harper's allegations that the Liberals may form a coalition with the Bloc and the NDP.
Leader of the Opposition
The Conservative Party's first policy convention was held from March 17 to 19, 2005, in Montreal. Harper had been rumoured to be shifting his ideology closer to that of a Blue Tory, and many thought he'd wanted to move the party's policies closer to the centre. Any opposition to abortion or bilingualism was dropped from the Conservative platform. Harper received an 84% endorsement from delegates in the leadership review.
Despite the party's move to the centre, the party began a concerted drive against same-sex marriage. Harper was criticized by a group of law professors for arguing that the government could override the provincial court rulings on same-sex marriage without using the "notwithstanding clause", a provision of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. He also argued, in general, for lower taxes, an elected Senate, a tougher stance on crime, and closer relations with the United States.
Following the April 2005 release of Jean Brault's damaging testimony at the Gomery Commission, implicating the Liberals in the scandal, opinion polls placed the Conservatives ahead of Liberals. The Conservatives had earlier abstained from the vote on the 2005 budget to avoid forcing an election. With the collapse in Liberal support and a controversial NDP amendment to the budget, the party exerted significant pressure on Harper to bring down the government. In May, Harper announced that Martin's Liberals had lost the "moral authority to govern". Shortly thereafter, the Conservatives and Bloc Québécois united to defeat the government on a vote that some considered to be either a confidence motion or else a motion requiring an immediate test of the confidence of the House. The Martin government did not accept this interpretation and argued that vote had been on a procedural motion, although they also indicated that they would bring forward their revised budget for a confidence vote the following week. Ultimately, the effort to bring down the Martin government failed following the decision of Conservative MP Belinda Stronach to cross the floor to the Liberal Party. The vote on the NDP amendment to the budget tied, and with the speaker of the House voting to continue the debate, the Liberals stayed in power. At the time, some considered the matter to be a constitutional crisis.
Harper was also criticized for supporting his caucus colleague MP Gurmant Grewal. Grewal had produced tapes of conversations with Tim Murphy, Paul Martin's chief of staff, in which Grewal claimed he had been offered a cabinet position in exchange for his defection.
The Liberals' support dropped sharply after the first report from the Gomery Commission was issued, but rebounded soon after. Later that month, Harper introduced a motion of no confidence on the Martin government, telling the House of Commons "that this government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons and needs to be removed". As the Liberals had lost NDP support in the house by refusing to accept an NDP plan to prevent health care privatization, the no-confidence motion was passed by a vote of 171–133. It was the first time that a Canadian government had been toppled by a straight motion of no confidence proposed by the opposition. As a result, Parliament was dissolved and a general election was scheduled for January 23, 2006.
On February 27, 2008, allegations surfaced that two Conservative Party officials offered terminally ill, independent MP Chuck Cadman a million-dollar life insurance policy in exchange for his vote to bring down the Liberal government in a May 2005, budget vote. If the story had been proved true, the actions may have been grounds for charges as a criminal offence as under the Criminal Code, it is illegal to bribe an MP.
When asked by Vancouver journalist Tom Zytaruk about the alleged life insurance offer then-opposition leader Stephen Harper states on an audio tape "I don't know the details. I know there were discussions" and goes on to say "The offer to Chuck was that it was only to replace financial considerations he might lose due to an election". Harper also stated that he had told the Conservative Party representatives that they were unlikely to succeed. "I told them they were wasting their time. I said Chuck had made up his mind." In February 2008, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) investigated the allegations that Section 119's provisions on bribery and corruption in the Criminal Code had been violated. The RCMP concluded their investigation stating that there was no evidence for pressing charges.
Harper denied any wrongdoing and subsequently filed a civil libel suit against the Liberal Party. Because libel laws do not apply to statements made in Parliament, the basis of the lawsuit was that statements made by Liberal Party members outside the House of Commons and in articles which appeared on the Liberal Party web site made accusations that Harper had committed a criminal act.
The audio expert hired by Harper to prove that the tape containing the evidence was doctored reported that the latter part of the tape was recorded over, but the tape was unaltered where Harper's voice said "I don't know the details, I know that, um, there were discussions, um, but this is not for publication?" and goes on to say he "didn't know the details" when asked if he knew anything about the alleged offer to Cadman.
2006 federal election
The Conservatives began the campaign period with a policy-per-day strategy, contrary to the Liberal plan of holding off major announcements until after the Christmas holidays, so Harper dominated media coverage for the first weeks of the election. Though his party showed only modest movement in the polls, Harper's personal numbers, which had always significantly trailed those of his party, began to rise. In response, the Liberals launched negative ads targeting Harper, similar to their attacks in the 2004 election. However, their tactics were not sufficient to erode the Conservative's advantage, although they did manage to close what had been a ten-point advantage in public opinion. As Harper's personal numbers rose, polls found he was now considered not only more trustworthy, but a better choice for prime minister than Martin.
Immediately prior to the Christmas break, in a faxed letter to NDP candidate Judy Wasylycia-Leis, RCMP commissioner Giuliano Zaccardelli announced the RCMP had opened a criminal investigation into her complaint that it appeared Liberal Finance Minister Ralph Goodale's office had leaked information leading to insider trading before making an important announcement on the taxation of income trusts. On December 27, 2005, the RCMP confirmed that information in a press release. At the conclusion of the investigation, Serge Nadeau, a top civil servant in the Department of Finance, was charged with criminal breach of trust. No charges were laid against Goodale.
The election gave Harper's Conservatives the largest number of seats in the House, although not enough for a majority government, and shortly after midnight on January 24, Martin conceded defeat. Later that day, Martin informed Governor General Michaëlle Jean that he would resign as prime minister, and at 6:45 p.m. Jean asked Harper to form a government. Harper was sworn in as Canada's 22nd prime minister on February 6, 2006.
In his first address to Parliament as Prime Minister, Harper opened by paying tribute to the queen of Canada, Elizabeth II, and her "lifelong dedication to duty and self-sacrifice". He also said before the Canada-UK Chamber of Commerce that Canada and the United Kingdom were joined by "the golden circle of the Crown, which links us all together with the majestic past that takes us back to the Tudors, the Plantagenets, the Magna Carta, habeas corpus, petition of rights, and English common law". Journalist Graham Fraser said in the Toronto Star that Harper's speech was "one of the most monarchist speeches a Canadian prime minister has given since John Diefenbaker". An analysis by Michael D. Behiels suggested that a political realignment might be underway, based on the continuance of Harper's government.
After the election, the Conservative party were charged with improper election spending, in a case that became known as the In and Out scandal. It dragged on for years, but in 2012 they took a plea deal, admitting both improper spending and falsifying records to hide it.
Prime Minister of Canada (2006–2015)
In July 2019, a group of independent academics published an assessment of past prime ministers of Canada based on the number of campaign pledges and promises fulfilled. According to the study, the Harper government fulfilled 85 per cent of its pledges (including partially-completed pledges). When factoring only completed, realized pledges, the Harper's government, in their last year, kept 77 per cent of promises. The study found that the governments led by Harper, in addition to the government led by his successor, Justin Trudeau, had the highest rates of follow-through for campaign promises of any Canadian government in the last 35 years.
2008 federal election
On October 14, 2008, after a 5-week-long campaign, the Conservatives increased their seat count in Parliament to 143, up from 127 at the dissolution of the previous Parliament; however, the actual popular vote among Canadians dropped slightly by 167,494 votes. As a result of the lowest voter turnout in Canadian electoral history, this represented only 22% of eligible Canadian voters, the lowest level of support of any winning party in Canadian history. Meanwhile, the number of opposition Liberal MPs fell from 95 to 77 seats. 155 MPs are required to form a majority government in Canada's 308-seat parliament, relegating Harper to minority government once again.
2008 parliamentary dispute and prorogation
On December 4, 2008, Harper asked Governor General Michaëlle Jean to prorogue Parliament to avoid a vote of confidence scheduled for the following Monday, becoming the first Canadian prime minister to do so. The request was granted by Jean, and the prorogation lasted until January 26, 2009. The opposition coalition dissolved shortly after, with the Conservatives winning a Liberal supported confidence vote on January 29, 2009.
2010 prorogation
On December 30, 2009, Harper announced that he would request the governor general to prorogue Parliament again, effective immediately on December 30, 2009, during the 2010 Winter Olympics and lasting until March 3, 2010. Harper stated that this was necessary for Canada's economic plan. Jean granted the request. In an interview with CBC News, Prince Edward Island Liberal MP Wayne Easter accused the prime minister of "shutting democracy down". Tom Flanagan, Harper's University of Calgary mentor and former chief of staff, also questioned Harper's reasoning for prorogation, stating that "I think the government's talking points haven't been entirely credible" and that the government's explanation of proroguing was "skirting the real issue—which is the harm the opposition parties are trying to do to the Canadian Forces" regarding the Canadian Afghan detainee issue. Small demonstrations took place on January 23 in 64 Canadian cities and towns and five cities in other countries. A Facebook protest group attracted over 20,000 members.
A poll released by Angus Reid on January 7, found that 53 per cent of respondents were opposed to the prorogation, while 19 per cent supported it. 38 per cent believed Harper used the prorogation to curtail the Afghan detainee inquiry, while 23 per cent agreed with Harper's explanation that the prorogation was necessary economically.
2010 Senate appointments
Harper, on January 29, 2010, advised the governor general to appoint new Conservative senators to fill five vacancies in the Senate, one each for Quebec, Newfoundland and Labrador, and New Brunswick, and two for Ontario. The new senators were Pierre-Hugues Boisvenu, of Quebec; Bob Runciman, of Ontario; Vim Kochhar, of Ontario; Elizabeth Marshall of Newfoundland and Labrador; and Rose-May Poirier, of New Brunswick. This changed the party standings in the Senate, which had previously been dominated by Liberals, to 51 Conservatives, 49 Liberals, and five others.
2011 vote of no confidence
Harper's Cabinet was defeated in a no-confidence vote on March 25, 2011, after being found in contempt of Parliament. Harper thus, in accordance with constitutional convention, advised the governor general to call a general election. This was the first occurrence in Commonwealth history of a government in the Westminster parliamentary tradition losing the confidence of the lower house on the grounds of contempt of parliament. The no-confidence motion was carried with a vote of 156 in favour of the motion and 145 against.
2011 election
On May 2, 2011, after a five-week campaign, Harper led the Conservatives to their third consecutive election victory—the first time a centre-right party has accomplished this in half a century. The Conservatives increased their standing in parliament to 166, up from 143 at the dissolution of the previous parliament. This resulted in the first centre-right majority government since the Progressive Conservatives had won their last majority in 1988. The Conservatives also received a greater number of total votes than in 2008. Notably, the Conservatives had a significant breakthrough in southern Ontario, a region where neither they nor the Reform/Alliance side of the merger had done well in the previous two decades. They managed to win several seats in Toronto itself; no centre-right party had won seats in the former Metro Toronto since 1988.
The election ended five years of minority governments, made the New Democratic Party the Official Opposition for the first time, relegated the Liberals to third place for the first time, brought Elizabeth May as Canada's first Green Party Member of Parliament, and reduced the Bloc Québécois from 47 to 4 seats.
After the election, the Conservatives were accused of cheating in the Robocall scandal, mainly suppressing votes by directing voters to bogus polling stations. There were complaints in 247 of Canada's 308 ridings, but only one person was charged; Conservative staffer Michael Sona was convicted and jailed.
2015 election
Under the Canada Elections Act, a general election had to take place no later than October 19, 2015. On August 2, at Harper's request, Governor General David Johnson dropped the writs of election for October 19. In that election, Harper's Conservative Party was defeated by Justin Trudeau's Liberals, and became the Official Opposition, dropping to only 99 seats out of 338. This was mainly because of a collapse of Conservative support in southern Ontario, a region that swung heavily to them in 2011. They lost all of their seats in Toronto, and won only three seats in the Greater Toronto Area. They were also shut out of Atlantic Canada—the first time in decades that there will be no centre-right MPs from that region. Harper was re-elected in Calgary Heritage, essentially a reconfigured version of his former riding.
Hours after conceding defeat on election night, Harper resigned as leader of the Conservative Party and returned to the backbench. Former Cabinet minister Rona Ambrose was elected interim leader by the Conservative caucus, pending a formal leadership election. Harper resigned as Prime Minister during a meeting with Governor General David Johnston, who accepted the resignation, after which Johnston invited Trudeau to form a government on November 4, 2015. After Andrew Scheer resigned as Conservative leader in 2019, the National Post criticized Harper, by stating that he "lost in 2015 in a way that left his party struggling to make any sense at all, including on deficits."
Domestic and economic policy
Constitutional issues
After sidestepping the political landmine for most of the first year of his time as prime minister, much as all the post-Charlottetown Accord prime ministers had done, Harper's hand was forced to reopen the Quebec sovereignty debate after the opposition Bloc Québécois were to introduce a motion in the House that called for recognition of Quebec as a "nation". On November 22, 2006, Harper introduced his own motion to recognize that "the Québécois form a nation within a united Canada." Five days later, Harper's motion passed, with a margin of 266–16; all federalist parties, and the Bloc Québécois, supported it.
In 2004, Harper said "the Upper House remains a dumping ground for the favoured cronies of the prime minister". Between 2006 and 2008, by which time Harper was prime minister, he did not put any names to the governor general for appointment to the Senate, resulting in 16 Senate vacancies by the October 2008 election. The one exception was Michael Fortier. When Harper took office, he advised the governor general to appoint Michael Fortier to both the Senate and the Cabinet, arguing the government needed representation from the city of Montreal. Although there is a precedent for this action in Canadian history, the appointment led to criticism from opponents who claimed Harper was reneging on his push for an elected Senate. In 2008, Fortier gave up his Senate seat and sought election as an MP, but was defeated by a large margin by the incumbent Bloc Québécois MP.
After the October 2008, election, Harper again named Senate reform as a priority. By December, he recommended the appointment of 18 senators and, in 2009, provided an additional nine people for appointment as senators. Many of those appointed had close ties with the Conservative Party, including the campaign manager of the Conservative Party, Doug Finley. Critics accused Harper of hypocrisy (the Liberals coined the term "Harpocrisy"). Conservative senator Bert Brown defended Harper's appointments and said "the only way [the Senate]'s ever been filled is by having people that are loyal to the prime minister who's appointing them".
Economic management
During Harper's tenure, Canada had budgetary surpluses in 2006 and 2007 of $13.8 and 9.6 billion respectively. Following the 2008 financial crisis, Canada ran deficits from 2008–2013. The deficit was $55.6 billion in 2009 and was gradually lowered to $5.2 billion in 2013. In 2014, the federal budget was balanced with a surplus of $1.9 billion. For the first 11 months of the 2015–2016 period, the federal government was on track for a $7.5 billion surplus. For 2015–2016, the federal government projected a $1.4-billion surplus. Following the 2015 federal election and a change in government, the 2015 fiscal year ended in a $1 billion deficit instead. In 2010, Canada had the lowest debt-to-GDP ratio in the G7 economies. The Economist magazine stated that Canada had come out the recession stronger than any other rich country in the G7. In 2013, Canada came out with Global Markets Action Plan to generate employment opportunities for Canadians.
2011 Census
Ahead of the Canada 2011 Census, the government announced that the long-form questionnaire (which collects detailed demographic information) will no longer be mandatory. According to Minister of Industry Tony Clement, the change was made because of privacy-related complaints and after consulting with Statistics Canada. However, the federal privacy commissioner reported only receiving three complaints between 1995 and 2010, according to a report in the Toronto Sun.
Munir Sheikh, the chief statistician of Canada—appointed on Harper's advice—resigned on July 21, 2010, in protest of the government's change in policy. Ivan Fellegi, a former chief statistician, criticized the government's decision, saying that those who are most vulnerable (such as the poor, new immigrants, and aboriginals) are least likely to respond to a voluntary form, which weakens information about their demographic.
The move was opposed by some governmental and non-governmental organizations. Federation of Canadian Municipalities; the Toronto government; Canadian Jewish Congress; Evangelical Fellowship of Canada; Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops; Canadian Medical Association; Statistical Society of Canada; the American Statistical Association; and Registered Nurses Association of Ontario all opposed the change. However, the Fraser Institute supported the change. The provincial governments of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Manitoba, also opposed the change.
Veterans
Under Harper, the annual budget of Veterans Affairs Canada increased from $2.85 billion in 2005–2006 to $3.55 billion in 2014–2015, while the quantity of veterans served has declined from 219,152 in 2008–2009 to 199,154 in 2015. Nine Veterans Affairs offices were closed between 2012 and 2015, and 900 positions were phased out from the department since 2009. Former-minister of veterans affairs Erin O'Toole stated that the closures were made to modernize the department, by moving services online and to Service Canada locations. In 2006, Harper implemented the New Veterans Charter passed with all party support by the previous Liberal government. This charter gave veterans the option to select a lump-sum payment, an annual installment over the number of years of a Veteran's choosing, or a combination of these two payment options. Under Harper, the Canadian government spent $700,000 fighting a class-action lawsuit brought by a group of wounded Afghan veterans who argued that the new charter was discriminatory.
Foreign policy
During his term, Harper dealt with many foreign policy issues relating to the United States, the War on Terror, the Arab–Israeli conflict, free trade, China, and Africa.
He reduced defence spending to 1 per cent of Canadian GDP.
In 2009, Harper visited China. During the visit Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao publicly scolded Harper for not visiting earlier, pointing out that "this is the first meeting between the Chinese premier and a Canadian prime minister in almost five years"; Harper in response said that, "it's almost been five years since we had yourself or President Hu in our country." In 2008, former-prime minister Jean Chrétien had criticized Harper for missing opening ceremonies for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing; in response, Dimitri Soudas, a spokesperson for Harper, called the remarks hypocritical, pointing out that Chrétien "attended one of six Olympic opening ceremonies during his 13 years as prime minister".
On September 11, 2007, Harper visited Australia and addressed its Parliament.
On January 20, 2014, Harper addressed the Israeli Knesset in Givat Ram, Jerusalem.
During mid-2015, Harper repeatedly voiced his opinion that Russia should be excluded from association with the G7 group of nations because of Russia's support for Russian-speaking Ukrainian dissidents. On June 8, Harper said,"Mr. Putin ... has no place at the [G7] table, and I don't believe there's any leader who would defend Mr. Putin having a place."
Michael Ignatieff criticized Harper for cutting foreign aid to Africa by $700 million, falling short of the UN Millennium Development Goals, and cutting eight African countries from the list of priority aid recipients.
Afghanistan
On March 11 and 12, 2006, Harper made a surprise trip to Afghanistan, where Canadian Forces personnel had been deployed as part of the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force since late 2001, to visit troops in theatre as a show of support for their efforts, and as a demonstration of the government's commitment to reconstruction and stability in the region. Harper's choice of a first foreign visit was closely guarded from the press until his arrival in Afghanistan (citing security concerns), and is seen as marking a significant change in relationship between the government and the military. Harper returned to Afghanistan on May 22, 2007, in a surprise two-day visit which included visiting Canadian troops at the forward operating base at Ma'Sum Ghar, located south of Kandahar, making Harper the first prime minister to have visited the front lines of a combat operation.
Israel
Harper has shown admiration for Israel since the early 1990s. Friends and colleagues describe his views as being the product of thinking and reading deeply about the Middle East. Toronto rabbi Philip Scheim, who accompanied Harper to Israel in 2014 said, "I sense that [Harper] sees Israel as a manifestation of justice and a righting of historical wrongs, especially in light of the Holocaust."
At the outset of the 2006 Israel–Lebanon conflict, Harper defended Israel's "right to defend itself" and described its military campaign in Lebanon as a "measured" response, arguing that Hezbollah's release of kidnapped Israel Defense Force (IDF) soldiers would be the key to ending the conflict. Speaking of the situation in both Lebanon and Gaza on July 18, Harper said he wanted "not just a ceasefire, but a resolution" but such a thing would not happen until Hezbollah and Hamas recognize Israel's right to exist. Harper blamed Hezbollah for all the civilian deaths. He asserted that Hezbollah's objective is to destroy Israel through violence.
The media noted that Harper did not allow reporters opportunities to ask him questions on his position. Some Canadians, including many Arab and Lebanese Canadians, criticized Harper's description of Israel's response.
In December 2008, the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations recognized Harper's support for Israel with its inaugural International Leadership Award, pointing out Harper's decision to boycott the Durban II anti-racism conference, and his government's "support for Israel and [its] efforts at the U.N. against incitement and... the delegitimization of Israel".
In March 2009, Harper spoke at a Parliament Hill ceremony organized by Chabad-Lubavitch to honour the Jewish victims of the 2008 Mumbai attacks, which included an attack on the Nariman House. He expressed condolences over the murder at Chabad's Mumbai centre of Rabbi Gavriel Holtzberg and his wife Rivka. Harper described the killings as "affronts to the values that unite all civilized people". Harper added that the quick instalment of a new rabbi at the Chabad centre in Mumbai as a signal that the Jewish people will "never bow to violence and hatred".
In 2010, Canada lost a bid for a seat on the UN Security Council. While initially blaming the loss on his rival Ignatieff, Harper later said that it was due to his pro-Israeli stance. Harper then said that he would take a pro-Israeli stance, no matter what the political cost to Canada. Ignatieff criticized Harper's stance as a "mistake", saying Canada would be better able to defend Israel through the Security Council than from the sidelines and pointed out that it is the Security Council that will determine if sanctions are imposed on Iran. Ignatieff also accused Harper of steering the discussion away from implementing the two-state solution, and instead of rendering all discussion into a competition "about who is Israel's best friend".
Harper backed Israel's 2014 war in Gaza and condemned Hamas. Harper said, "It is evident that Hamas is deliberately using human shields to further terror in the region."
Free trade with EFTA
On June 7, 2007, the Conservative government announced it had finalized free trade negotiations with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Under this agreement, Canada increased its trade ties with Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein. In 2006, the value of trade between these partners was $10.7 billion. Canada had originally begun negotiations with the EFTA on October 9, 1998, but talks broke down because of a disagreement over subsidies to shipyards in Atlantic Canada.
United States
Shortly after being congratulated by George W. Bush for his victory, Harper rebuked US Ambassador David Wilkins for criticizing the Conservatives' plans to assert Canada's sovereignty over the Arctic Ocean waters with armed forces. Harper's first meeting as prime minister with the US president occurred at the end of March 2006.
The government received American news coverage during the Democratic Party's 2008 presidential primaries after the details of a conversation between Barack Obama's economic advisor Austan Goolsbee, and Canadian diplomat Georges Rioux were revealed. Reportedly Goolsbee was reassuring the Canadians that Obama's comments on potentially renegotiating the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) were more political rhetoric than actual policy. The accuracy of these reports has been debated by both the Obama campaign and the Canadian government. The news came at a key time nearing the Ohio and Texas primaries, where perceptions among Democratic voters was (and is) that the benefits of the NAFTA agreement are dubious. Thus the appearance that Obama was not being completely forthright was attacked by his opponent Hillary Clinton.
ABC News reported that Harper's chief of staff, Ian Brodie was responsible for the details reaching the hands of the media. Harper has denied that Brodie was responsible for the leak, and launched an investigation to find the source. The Opposition, as well as Democratic strategist Bob Shrum, criticized the government on the issue, stating they were trying to help the Republicans by helping Hillary Clinton win the Democratic nomination instead of Obama. They also alleged the leak would hurt relations with the United States if Obama ever were to become President. Obama was elected president in November. In February, Obama made his first foreign visit as the US president to Ottawa, in which he affirmed support for free trade with Canada, as well as complimenting Canada on its involvement in Afghanistan.
Environmental policy
Since Harper's government took office in 2006, Canadian greenhouse gas emissions fell from 749 to 726 Mt of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2 eq). From 1993 until 2006, during the previous Liberal government greenhouse gas emissions increased from 600 to 749 Mt of CO2 eq. The reduction corresponded Canada's decreased economic output during the Great Recession and emissions began increasing slightly in 2010, when the economy began recovering. Other significant factors in Canada's decreased emissions during Harper's tenure are initiatives such as the carbon tax in British Columbia, the cap and trade system in Quebec, Ontario discontinuing use of coal-fired power plants, and the Clean Air Regulatory Agenda which regulates emissions for automobiles and light trucks. In 2006, a Clean Air and Climate Change Act was proposed to address air pollution as well as greenhouse gas emissions; it never became law. In 2006, the Clean Air Regulatory Agenda (CARA) was established to "support Government of Canada efforts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) and air pollutant emissions in order to improve the environment and health of Canadians". In December 2011, the Harper government announced that Canada would formally withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol. Environment Minister Peter Kent stated, "It's now clear that Kyoto is not the path forward for a global solution to climate change." In December 2012, Canada became the first signatory to formally withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol.
Renewable energy
Other federal initiatives include the 2011 loan guarantee towards the Lower Churchill Project in Labrador, which is scheduled for completion in 2017. The Lower Churchill's two hydroelectric installations at Gull Island and Muskrat Falls will have a combined capacity of over 3,074 MW and have the ability to provide 16.7 TW·h of electricity per year, which is enough to "reduce greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to taking 3.2 million vehicles off the road each year".
Public transit
In 2006, Harper introduced a Public Transit Tax Credit, where individuals could claim 15 per cent of the cost of a transit pass each year. From 2006 to 2013, the Harper government invested over $5 billion towards public transit projects in Canada. In 2006, the federal government provided $697 million towards the Toronto York–Spadina Subway Extension. In September 2013, Finance Minister Jim Flaherty announced a federal contribution of $660 million towards the Scarborough Subway Extension.
Transparency
Starting in 2006, the Harper government implemented policies that had the effect of reducing transparency. During this government, scientists employed by the government were not able to speak with the media and inform the public of their findings without government permission, the government made significant cuts to research and other forms of data collection, and significant destruction and inaccessibility of government-held data and documents occurred.
During the Harper government, it was not possible for government-employed scientists to openly speak about the government policy that prohibited communication with the media. However, following the election of a new government in 2015, several scientists who were or had been employed by the government came forward to confirm the allegations made by anonymous sources during the Harper years.
The government made drastic cuts to scientific research and data collection. Over 2,000 scientists were dismissed and funding was cut from world renowned research facilities. Cuts were also made to many essential programs, some so deep that they had to shut down entirely, including the monitoring of smoke stack emissions, food inspections, oil spills, water quality, and climate change. During this time, the long form census was also discontinued as a mandatory part of the census. This was ostensibly due to privacy concerns, however, the number of complaints about privacy proved to be minimal.
The government closed a number of government libraries without consultation on the closings or the process involved. The manner in which it was done received significant criticism because it left the remaining information in disarray, inaccessible for research.
Supreme Court nominations
Harper chose the following jurists to be appointed as justices of the Supreme Court of Canada by the governor general:
Marshall Rothstein (March 1, 2006 – August 31, 2015)
Thomas Cromwell (September 5, 2008 – September 1, 2016)
Andromache Karakatsanis (October 21, 2011–present)
Michael J. Moldaver (October 21, 2011–present)
Richard Wagner (October 5, 2012–present)
Clément Gascon (June 9, 2014 – September 15, 2019)
Russell Brown (August 31, 2015–present)
Marshall Rothstein
In keeping with Harper's election promise to change the appointment process, Rothstein's appointment involved a review by a parliamentary committee, following his nomination by the prime minister. Rothstein had already been short-listed, with two other candidates, by a committee convened by Paul Martin's previous Liberal government, and he was Harper's choice. Harper then had Rothstein appear before an ad hoc non-partisan committee of 12 members of Parliament. This committee was not empowered to block the appointment, though, as had been called for by some members of Harper's Conservative Party.
Thomas Cromwell
On September 5, 2008, Harper nominated Thomas Cromwell of Nova Scotia Court of Appeal to fill the Supreme Court seat left vacant by the departure of Michel Bastarache. By and large Cromwell's nomination was well received, with many lauding the selection; however, dissent has been noted surrounding the nomination. First, Harper bypassed Parliament's Supreme Court selection panel, which was supposed to produce a list of three candidates for him to choose from. Second, Newfoundland and Labrador Justice Minister Jerome Kennedy criticized the appointment, citing the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador's belief that constitutional convention stipulates that a Newfoundlander should have been named to the court in the rotation of Atlantic Canadian Supreme Court representation.
Marc Nadon
On October 3, 2013, Harper announced the nomination of supernumerary Federal Court of Appeals judge, Marc Nadon to the Supreme Court to replace the retiring Morris Fish. The appointment was challenged by both Ontario lawyer Rocco Galati and the Government of Quebec as being contrary to the appointment criteria of section 6 of the Supreme Court Act. In response, Harper referred the criteria issue to the Supreme Court, as well as the question of whether the government's amendments to the criteria were constitutional. The Supreme Court subsequently ruled in Reference re Supreme Court Act, ss. 5 and 6 that the Nadon appointment was invalid, and that the federal government could not unilaterally amend the Supreme Court Act. Harper subsequently nominated Clement Gascon to the position instead.
Conservative backbencher and post-political life
Harper returned to Ottawa as a Conservative backbencher and addressed a meeting of the Conservative caucus that included defeated MPs in November 2015. Interim leader Rona Ambrose stated that Harper would be in the House for key votes as the member for Calgary Heritage, but had earned the right to keep a low profile after his service as the prime minister. In February 2018, Harper stated that he could have still "easily" been leader of the Conservative Party, but he chose not to amass too much power in order to secure the party's fortunes in the future.
In December 2015, Harper had set up Harper & Associates Consulting Inc., a corporation that lists him a director alongside close associates Ray Novak and Jeremy Hunt.
Harper announced in May 2016 that he planned to resign his seat in the House of Commons during the summer before the fall session of Parliament. On May 26, 2016, he was named as a board member for the Conservative Party’s fundraising arm. The Conservative Fund is noted to have influence on the party operations. Harper and other directors played a role in the removal of Harper–appointed Conservative executive director Dustin Van Vught to avoid backlash from donors and grassroots conservatives. In the same month, Harper delivered a speech to the 2016 Conservative Party convention where his accomplishments as party leader and prime minister were honoured by the party.
In October 2017, Harper received media attention for criticizing Justin Trudeau's handling of the renegotiation of the North American Free Trade Agreement started by the United States under President Donald Trump, stating that Trudeau was too unwilling to make concessions to the U.S., sided too closely with Mexico, and tried to advance left-wing policies through the renegotiations.
On February 2, 2018, Harper revealed in a statement that he knew about the sexual assault allegations against then Conservative MP Rick Dykstra during the 2015 election but could not justify removing him as a candidate because the investigation was closed by police a year before the election.
On March 26, 2018, Harper attended the international Fellowship of Christians and Jews Gala at Mar-a-Lago where he stated that he expressed support for US President Donald Trump's speech on Jerusalem. On May 9, he expressed support for Trump's decision to withdraw from the Iran deal by lending his signature to an ad that appeared in The New York Times a day after the decision.
On November 19, 2018, Harper appeared on a show hosted by Ben Shapiro, where he made comments on issues such as populism, immigration and nationalism. The National Post noted that they "echo the argument made in his recently released book, Right Here, Right Now: Politics and Leadership in the Age of Disruption, which urges conservatives to listen to populist grievances, rather than focus on other priorities like tax cuts for the wealthy."
In January 2019, Harper appeared on a PragerU video explaining why Donald Trump was elected to the presidency in the 2016 United States election. Then in May 2019, he appeared on another PragerU video explaining reasons to support Israel amid the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.
On March 11, 2021, during a virtual gathering hosted by the Conference of Defence Associations Institute, Harper claimed that the world has entered into a Second Cold War between the United States and China, and that middle-power countries such as Canada are also a part of the rivalry between the two main powers.
Honours
100px
Harper received the Woodrow Wilson Award on October 6, 2006, for his public service in Calgary. The awards ceremony was held at the Telus Convention Centre in Calgary, the same place where he made his victory speech.
Time magazine also named him as Canada's Newsmaker of the Year in 2006. Stephen Handelman wrote "that the prime minister who was once dismissed as a doctrinaire backroom tactician with no experience in government has emerged as a warrior in power".
On June 27, 2008, Harper was awarded the Presidential Gold Medallion for Humanitarianism by B'nai B'rith International. He is the first Canadian to be awarded this medal.
On July 11, 2011, Harper was honoured by Alberta's Blood tribe. He was made Honorary Chief of the Kainai Nation during a ceremony, in which they recognized him for making an official apology on behalf of the Government of Canada for the residential schools abuse. Harper issued this apology in 2008. The chief of the tribe explained that he believes the apology officially started the healing and rebuilding of relations between the federal and native councils. Lester B. Pearson, John Diefenbaker, and Jean Chrétien are the only other prime ministers of Canada to have been awarded the same honorary title.
On September 27, 2012, Harper received the World Statesman of the Year award. This award was offered through a US group of various faith representatives. This occurred at a black tie banquet in New York. Jean Chrétien was one of the previous recipients from Canada.
In August 2016 President Petro Poroshenko of Ukraine awarded Stephen Harper with the highest award for foreigners–the Order of Liberty.
In December 2019, it was announced by Governor General Julie Payette that Harper had been appointed as a Companion of the Order of Canada.
Honorary degrees
Honorary degrees
Personal life
Harper married Laureen Teskey on December 11, 1993. Laureen was formerly married to New Zealander Neil Fenton from 1985 to 1988. The Harpers have two children: Benjamin and Rachel. Harper is the third prime minister, after Pierre Trudeau and John Turner, to send his children to Rockcliffe Park Public School, in Ottawa. He is a member of the evangelical Christian and Missionary Alliance and attends church at the East Gate Alliance Church in Ottawa.
An avid follower of ice hockey, he has been a fan of the Toronto Maple Leafs since his childhood in the Leaside and Etobicoke communities in Toronto. Harper is also a fan of the Calgary Flames. He published a book, A Great Game: The Forgotten Leafs and the Rise of Professional Hockey (2013), which chronicles the growth of professional hockey, particularly in Toronto, and writes articles occasionally on the subject. Harper appeared on The Sports Network (TSN) during the broadcast of the Canada–Russia final of the 2007 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships. He was interviewed and expressed his views on the state of hockey and his preference for an overtime period in lieu of a shoot-out. In February 2010, Harper interviewed former National Hockey League greats Wayne Gretzky and Gordie Howe for a Saskatoon Kinsmen Club charity event.
Harper had a cameo appearance in an episode of the television show Corner Gas, which aired March 12, 2007. He owns an extensive vinyl record collection and is a fan of The Beatles and AC/DC. In October 2009, he joined Yo-Yo Ma on stage in a National Arts Centre gala and performed "With a Little Help from My Friends". He was also accompanied by Herringbone, an Ottawa band with whom he regularly practices. He received a standing ovation after providing the piano accompaniment and lead vocals for the song.
In October 2010, Harper taped a cameo appearance in an episode of the television show Murdoch Mysteries, which aired July 20, 2011, during the show's fourth season.
He was the first prime minister to employ a personal stylist, Michelle Muntean, whose duties range from coordinating his clothing to preparing his hair and makeup for speeches and television appearances. While she used to be on the public payroll, she has been paid for by the Conservative Party since "some time [in] 2007".
As of 2013, the Harper family had two cats, Stanley and Gypsy. They have fostered other cats as well.
Electoral record
Bibliography
A Great Game: The Forgotten Leafs and the Rise of Professional Hockey
Right Here, Right Now: Politics and Leadership in the Age of Disruption
See also
28th Canadian Ministry The Harper cabinet
List of prime ministers of Canada
List of prime ministers of Elizabeth II
Canada–United States softwood lumber dispute
Conservative Party of Canada
Reform Party of Canada
Canadian Alliance
Conservatism in Canada
Canada's Global Markets Action Plan
References
Further reading
External links
1959 births
21st-century Canadian male writers
21st-century Canadian non-fiction writers
Canadian anti-communists
Canadian Christians
Canadian economists
Canadian evangelicals
Canadian people of English descent
Canadian pianists
Canadian political consultants
Canadian political party founders
Canadian political writers
Conservative Party of Canada MPs
Leaders of the Conservative Party of Canada
Leaders of the Opposition (Canada)
Living people
Members of the 28th Canadian Ministry
Members of the Christian and Missionary Alliance
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Alberta
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
People from East York, Toronto
Politicians from Calgary
Politicians from Toronto
Prime Ministers of Canada
Reform Party of Canada candidates in the 1988 Canadian federal election
Reform Party of Canada MPs
University of Calgary alumni
Writers from Calgary
Writers from Toronto
Companions of the Order of Canada | [
-0.41359856724739075,
0.2584076523780823,
-0.4010746479034424,
0.0820121094584465,
-0.1214858815073967,
1.0997896194458008,
0.31869664788246155,
0.4107324779033661,
-0.5293535590171814,
-0.09155891090631485,
0.09863777458667755,
0.34946954250335693,
-0.2853814661502838,
-0.19074241816997528,
0.32050034403800964,
0.22931890189647675,
-0.766890823841095,
0.23261702060699463,
-0.48668086528778076,
-0.4180264472961426,
-0.12473958730697632,
-0.47176259756088257,
0.4619377553462982,
0.25775083899497986,
-0.16839560866355896,
0.37950459122657776,
0.144800066947937,
-0.027455734089016914,
-0.7533359527587891,
-0.008078421466052532,
-0.3765313923358917,
0.1710425615310669,
0.7043387293815613,
0.04171249270439148,
0.5638592839241028,
-0.21664217114448547,
-0.09470616281032562,
-0.7734896540641785,
-0.3356717526912689,
-0.09475786238908768,
-0.042845435440540314,
-0.4700971245765686,
-0.024954818189144135,
0.08421428501605988,
0.05376133695244789,
-0.2412293702363968,
-1.2249178886413574,
0.35123440623283386,
-0.49028122425079346,
-0.21763227880001068,
-0.3688240051269531,
0.2672363519668579,
0.31346794962882996,
-0.3865005075931549,
0.595925509929657,
-0.044999945908784866,
-0.3414951264858246,
-0.08004265278577805,
-0.4147871732711792,
-0.39346083998680115,
-0.06931749731302261,
-0.30228686332702637,
0.641829788684845,
-0.1489698439836502,
0.6410581469535828,
-0.007644450757652521,
0.42421698570251465,
0.2028876692056656,
-0.5196956396102905,
0.30285367369651794,
-0.22430311143398285,
0.2128162384033203,
0.5058597326278687,
0.4825412333011627,
0.5310649275779724,
0.19014467298984528,
0.38605615496635437,
0.033470287919044495,
0.8646721839904785,
0.2271849811077118,
0.09696942567825317,
-0.24061770737171173,
0.22993184626102448,
0.8855173587799072,
-0.18133293092250824,
0.5965920090675354,
-0.025924958288669586,
0.5596519112586975,
-0.28961804509162903,
0.06591111421585083,
-1.5605210065841675,
-0.5813099145889282,
0.260282039642334,
0.05170866847038269,
-0.6572763919830322,
-0.6852834224700928,
0.1523866057395935,
-0.15623381733894348,
0.1335480511188507,
-0.41556650400161743,
0.2755795121192932,
-0.20964616537094116,
1.1237860918045044,
-0.3380030393600464,
-0.7834577560424805,
-0.20399203896522522,
-0.4928119480609894,
0.11439286917448044,
-0.7265700101852417,
-0.4606563150882721,
-0.22948837280273438,
0.6089755296707153,
-0.6382744312286377,
0.7332305312156677,
0.4490567445755005,
0.6247563362121582,
-0.10363282263278961,
-0.52493816614151,
-0.6028566956520081,
0.03043256513774395,
0.13350394368171692,
-0.0882004052400589,
-0.34750843048095703,
-0.5825878977775574,
-0.7935882806777954,
-0.1849294751882553,
-0.2953639328479767,
-1.4135078191757202,
-0.030182301998138428,
0.1575697809457779,
0.7954012155532837,
0.7180805802345276,
-1.0448628664016724,
-0.24081800878047943,
-0.11385863274335861,
-0.29784247279167175,
0.3997364640235901,
-0.14199911057949066,
0.04600938409566879,
0.3164784610271454,
-0.449792742729187,
-0.5087655782699585,
0.2712225914001465,
-0.7194392681121826,
0.33638906478881836,
0.39799830317497253,
0.061393123120069504,
-0.24472633004188538,
-0.26601457595825195,
0.11129291355609894,
0.02633371204137802,
0.30778375267982483,
-0.05048161745071411,
-1.18392014503479,
-0.011550589464604855,
0.6928945779800415,
0.18899424374103546,
0.08175234496593475,
0.43933215737342834,
0.23960699141025543,
0.7119303941726685,
0.3078080415725708,
0.14809735119342804,
-0.19897402822971344,
0.5791738629341125,
0.08619017153978348,
0.3039558231830597,
-0.16941754519939423,
0.09254338592290878,
0.07617751508951187,
-0.15903186798095703,
0.5326684713363647,
0.6033493280410767,
-0.8006082773208618,
0.02599284239113331,
0.0715264081954956,
0.6805581450462341,
0.047608062624931335,
0.16419747471809387,
0.2771167755126953,
-0.8005207777023315,
-0.2886158525943756,
0.5622054934501648,
0.1656140238046646,
-0.06928431987762451,
-0.06269563734531403,
0.34906941652297974,
0.0023178064730018377,
0.4352453351020813,
0.18017759919166565,
-0.5453113913536072,
-0.7512081265449524,
0.2893328070640564,
-0.5864577889442444,
0.18370920419692993,
-0.22404447197914124,
-0.5129173994064331,
0.9000297784805298,
-0.6705800294876099,
0.5425997376441956,
-0.27010127902030945,
-0.38385602831840515,
0.3716868460178375,
-0.35462459921836853,
-0.08058151602745056,
0.25084948539733887,
0.08102789521217346,
0.34067502617836,
0.1332457959651947,
0.9218825101852417,
-0.07954232394695282,
-0.24430623650550842,
-0.5263498425483704,
0.9752499461174011,
-0.43556949496269226,
-0.5776521563529968,
-0.5360652804374695,
-0.25807446241378784,
-0.6486893892288208,
-0.015322824008762836,
0.44055646657943726,
0.3961644470691681,
-0.49249067902565,
0.4732971787452698,
-0.4301011860370636,
0.7414162158966064,
-0.16483652591705322,
-0.013218721374869347,
-0.19892607629299164,
-0.39603254199028015,
0.46509915590286255,
0.5204244256019592,
-0.17344002425670624,
-0.5225571990013123,
0.06382934749126434,
0.03577514365315437,
0.03616396337747574,
0.010281441733241081,
0.15753480792045593,
-0.06520909070968628,
0.7086923122406006,
-0.47804194688796997,
-0.39595720171928406,
0.19565701484680176,
0.33736729621887207,
0.16354751586914062,
-0.05717000365257263,
0.620468020439148,
-0.23750169575214386,
-0.21902750432491302,
0.19763343036174774,
0.2984102666378021,
0.5854664444923401,
0.32310768961906433,
0.7903209924697876,
-0.15445537865161896,
0.6788313984870911,
-0.06535394489765167,
0.1602443903684616,
0.8798643350601196,
0.07291530072689056,
-0.2843213379383087,
-0.03347894176840782,
0.43705427646636963,
-0.20578107237815857,
-0.11077911406755447,
0.003364148549735546,
-0.1013273224234581,
-0.8154404759407043,
-0.09626533091068268,
-0.34583139419555664,
-0.5804712772369385,
-0.3735255300998688,
0.4545763432979584,
0.8974738121032715,
0.25501134991645813,
-0.1762351095676422,
0.7267402410507202,
-0.6909112930297852,
-0.8176534175872803,
0.7616156935691833,
1.1376514434814453,
-0.5708298087120056,
-0.06042850390076637,
-0.13360850512981415,
-0.20732460916042328,
-0.3420965075492859,
-0.3507869243621826,
0.06228707730770111,
0.0033861997071653605,
-0.5290778279304504,
0.2058345377445221,
-0.1926680952310562,
-0.0313313826918602,
-0.06930328160524368,
0.3371060788631439,
0.3417375385761261,
-0.46035510301589966,
0.513762891292572,
0.14753909409046173,
0.306243896484375,
-0.1827886551618576,
0.14157778024673462,
0.23896335065364838,
0.33741095662117004,
0.07569357007741928,
-0.0848783552646637,
-0.6558495163917542,
-5.388014316558838,
0.05773872509598732,
-0.004538898356258869,
-0.8051528930664062,
0.6399056911468506,
-0.24925179779529572,
0.3721885085105896,
-0.15086345374584198,
0.3021586537361145,
-0.613432765007019,
0.37703201174736023,
-0.21751707792282104,
-0.2175554782152176,
0.8500825762748718,
0.444583922624588,
0.28647634387016296,
0.42095813155174255,
-0.8710569739341736,
0.5938993096351624,
0.5004578828811646,
0.16415593028068542,
0.1818445324897766,
-0.20317763090133667,
-0.2972804009914398,
0.42383718490600586,
0.08217007666826248,
-0.12062554806470871,
0.05742936208844185,
-0.49735426902770996,
-0.3656642436981201,
-0.05667794868350029,
0.18331795930862427,
0.5238085985183716,
-0.32317718863487244,
-0.1669878214597702,
-0.7366154789924622,
0.24184897541999817,
0.9884464740753174,
0.49653565883636475,
-0.15646260976791382,
-0.039136987179517746,
-0.3939708173274994,
-0.4180372655391693,
-0.03459610417485237,
0.2240367829799652,
0.13220588862895966,
-0.6189823150634766,
0.1552053540945053,
-0.5541055798530579,
0.3307827115058899,
0.17749513685703278,
0.2807750105857849,
0.13733533024787903,
-0.13279969990253448,
0.10280841588973999,
0.053717512637376785,
0.17868657410144806,
-0.018276218324899673,
-0.5429851412773132,
0.6109214425086975,
0.24039070308208466,
-0.05188930034637451,
0.2449471652507782,
0.052345067262649536,
-0.2987903952598572,
-0.3753231167793274,
0.05644921585917473,
0.23650828003883362,
0.8687759041786194,
0.09569568932056427,
-0.07841746509075165,
-0.30588892102241516,
-0.10823503881692886,
-1.085084319114685,
-0.3071311116218567,
-0.8194974064826965,
-0.180214062333107,
1.0008742809295654,
-0.6701407432556152,
-0.23600660264492035,
-0.10617014765739441,
-0.11851046979427338,
-0.2611059248447418,
0.06966077536344528,
0.7529574036598206,
0.3850439488887787,
-0.536889910697937,
1.0301710367202759,
0.2932680547237396,
0.2622285783290863,
-0.3064734935760498,
-0.8548440337181091,
0.23758196830749512,
-0.11856149882078171,
0.22537533938884735,
-1.1605161428451538,
0.40887534618377686,
0.32479092478752136,
0.26961269974708557,
-0.8765270709991455,
-0.6050286889076233,
0.05621160939335823,
0.05427214503288269,
-1.0349258184432983,
0.09300173819065094,
-0.2019260823726654,
-0.22092241048812866,
-0.22860980033874512,
-0.40849342942237854,
0.793927013874054,
-0.2673840820789337,
-0.08321493864059448,
-0.3054012060165405,
-0.27433761954307556,
0.11309131234884262,
-0.045566096901893616,
-0.42602255940437317,
0.047697003930807114,
0.9348152279853821,
0.37776029109954834,
-0.37757745385169983,
-0.03919694945216179,
-0.3146151900291443,
0.2716400623321533,
0.38280317187309265,
-0.18274126946926117,
-0.150870680809021,
-0.2765071988105774,
-0.3399328887462616,
-0.17125816643238068,
0.6974835395812988,
0.4748890995979309,
0.5054867267608643,
-0.21979862451553345,
0.44307592511177063,
0.2006639689207077,
0.07315990328788757,
-0.46402478218078613,
0.18125514686107635,
-0.2447415292263031,
-0.1485050618648529,
0.2641948163509369,
-0.061910852789878845,
0.31324997544288635,
0.19357404112815857,
0.23059003055095673,
0.31747734546661377,
0.8260786533355713,
0.019046712666749954,
0.3146388828754425,
-0.006087216082960367,
0.2591768205165863,
0.6840416193008423,
-0.5228524208068848,
0.37782037258148193,
-0.09509831666946411,
0.02986859157681465,
-0.44323229789733887,
-0.04856179654598236,
-0.8814995288848877,
0.4497230648994446,
-0.1978551596403122,
-0.6649239659309387,
-0.6179624199867249,
0.29510584473609924,
0.6408185958862305,
-0.8526307344436646,
-0.1584787368774414,
0.18650832772254944,
0.5427293181419373,
0.5336493253707886,
-0.6304149627685547,
-0.36050155758857727,
0.20567835867404938,
0.5902934074401855,
-0.5936630964279175,
0.33245500922203064,
0.03172853961586952,
0.3193836212158203,
0.4807785749435425,
-0.09736277163028717,
0.08397925645112991,
0.19540002942085266,
-0.1739155650138855,
0.4402414858341217,
-0.39320477843284607,
-0.7735782861709595,
-0.4720059335231781,
0.04564826190471649,
0.04787185788154602,
0.8901832103729248,
0.25151389837265015,
-0.04567740485072136,
0.689192533493042,
-0.2960300147533417,
-0.22715792059898376,
-0.025429094210267067,
-0.5280019640922546,
-0.09025759249925613,
-0.29121705889701843,
-0.31676697731018066,
0.5221927165985107,
0.039072174578905106,
-0.30278968811035156,
0.33096203207969666,
-0.17137017846107483,
-0.15921315550804138,
-0.06466236710548401,
0.006720739416778088,
0.3200041353702545,
-0.23104991018772125,
0.12104301899671555,
0.2546282708644867,
0.052599240094423294,
-0.06465910375118256,
-0.09321478009223938,
0.28404566645622253,
-0.1118999570608139,
-0.37451839447021484,
-0.41717058420181274,
-0.2925879955291748,
-0.004271784331649542,
0.14773349463939667,
0.12431524693965912,
-0.18583452701568604,
0.23424139618873596,
0.39359351992607117,
0.35230717062950134,
0.29433488845825195,
-0.16912102699279785,
-0.4180529713630676,
-0.4689377546310425,
0.032113634049892426,
0.2694818675518036,
0.11492007225751877,
0.1486762911081314,
0.4176345765590668,
0.5382748246192932,
0.20271305739879608,
0.33563125133514404,
0.7577013373374939,
0.7710034251213074,
0.3140900135040283,
-0.9475135207176208,
-0.4617932438850403,
0.3630966246128082,
0.9068841338157654,
-0.1906277984380722,
-0.3261938691139221,
0.3256959021091461,
0.23548345267772675,
-0.49400439858436584,
-0.5699073076248169,
0.14305253326892853,
1.0534788370132446,
-0.5845739245414734,
0.13358980417251587,
-0.1116805449128151,
0.00910553801804781,
-0.15059086680412292,
-0.17383822798728943,
0.10200677812099457,
0.03528919816017151,
0.42165058851242065,
0.6690764427185059,
0.517859697341919,
-0.41038814187049866,
0.806939959526062,
-0.6168333292007446,
-0.5892404317855835,
-0.8739022612571716,
-0.8071848154067993,
-0.6094958186149597,
0.47767895460128784,
-0.1501016467809677,
-0.053856298327445984,
0.15402616560459137,
0.10694338381290436,
-0.100555919110775,
-0.4623360335826874,
-0.5307821035385132,
0.48540371656417847,
-0.2212313860654831,
-0.46248865127563477,
-0.029312051832675934,
-0.7686870694160461,
-0.11527138948440552,
0.1895999014377594,
0.012405532412230968,
-0.2580839693546295,
0.05480530858039856,
0.30204105377197266,
-0.05636758357286453,
-0.1902015060186386,
-0.36489108204841614,
-0.043492671102285385,
0.10679268836975098,
0.6558053493499756,
-0.015510478988289833,
0.06721068173646927,
-0.37584981322288513,
0.7742316126823425,
0.2734427750110626,
-0.02890525944530964,
-0.12853112816810608,
-0.21508651971817017,
-0.6202283501625061,
-0.841188907623291,
0.0732450783252716,
0.05306614190340042,
0.6181425452232361,
0.23923316597938538,
0.292720228433609,
0.025643963366746902,
-1.107588291168213,
-0.6573943495750427,
0.42159193754196167,
-0.41067996621131897,
0.13877777755260468,
0.10481713712215424,
-0.20303082466125488,
0.3002338409423828,
0.11880495399236679,
0.1876751333475113,
0.4348376393318176,
0.49631789326667786,
0.35223105549812317,
0.18187390267848969,
-0.30601540207862854,
-0.155317485332489,
-0.26995745301246643,
0.6700893044471741,
-0.7996841073036194,
0.39331915974617004,
-0.6225974559783936,
-0.38132014870643616,
0.010338583961129189,
-0.386628121137619,
0.12767964601516724,
0.5179002285003662,
0.46115779876708984,
0.8462488055229187,
-0.9031335115432739,
0.3430090546607971,
0.5210220217704773,
0.42182305455207825,
0.04432100057601929,
0.22431662678718567,
0.28861087560653687,
0.20571984350681305,
0.5522523522377014,
0.04653766006231308,
-0.16087742149829865,
-0.4599871337413788,
-0.21651941537857056,
0.3066205084323883,
0.3364368677139282,
-0.5332359671592712,
0.0019401921890676022,
-0.01550040952861309,
-0.008293109014630318,
-0.536203920841217,
0.9570982456207275,
0.4257729947566986,
0.25117114186286926,
-0.15360279381275177,
0.429217129945755,
-0.5991169810295105,
-0.1767430156469345,
-0.004343041218817234,
-0.05578581616282463,
-0.3338650166988373,
-0.5381636023521423,
0.2423708587884903,
-0.09672333300113678,
-0.07550367712974548,
0.07453315705060959,
-0.5817878842353821,
-0.27471163868904114,
0.24569007754325867,
-0.6105741262435913,
0.10983536392450333,
-0.33237409591674805,
-0.17300039529800415,
-0.4530254304409027,
0.536873459815979,
-0.1828915774822235,
0.3870406746864319,
-0.24026188254356384,
0.10512474179267883,
-0.00032731806277297437,
-0.1424562931060791,
-0.20625166594982147,
0.5719901323318481,
-0.1854562610387802,
-0.3376319110393524,
-0.6560717821121216,
0.22697365283966064,
0.5367661118507385,
0.7202972173690796,
-0.13330727815628052,
0.005488293711096048,
-0.6660717725753784,
0.021338412538170815,
-0.1272946149110794,
0.4046151041984558,
-0.1391410231590271,
-0.19380588829517365,
-0.8249830603599548,
-0.13787105679512024,
-0.294472873210907,
0.6059128046035767,
-0.8813849091529846,
0.031481049954891205,
-0.3866489827632904,
-0.037417907267808914,
0.3634730279445648,
-0.15484212338924408,
0.2915065586566925,
-0.5588383078575134,
-0.019511545076966286,
-0.23957546055316925,
0.7426313161849976,
0.6000111699104309,
-0.09209084510803223,
0.21546657383441925,
0.09612005203962326,
0.3386688530445099,
-0.5655866265296936,
0.23356091976165771,
-0.5030439496040344,
-0.5088915824890137,
-0.09467034786939621,
0.33343374729156494,
0.01980249024927616,
-0.21768583357334137,
0.4137420356273651,
0.6319639682769775,
-0.008892281912267208,
-0.6273341178894043,
0.1638570874929428,
0.3126213252544403,
0.24109967052936554,
-0.3554932177066803,
0.06077028438448906,
0.07523234188556671,
0.23663084208965302,
-0.15046359598636627,
-0.17777885496616364,
-0.41389167308807373,
-0.021542325615882874,
-0.6515542268753052,
0.20856459438800812,
-0.3102836012840271,
-0.18922437727451324,
-0.4814625084400177,
0.9110652208328247,
0.05411341413855553,
0.4138377010822296,
-0.1370069682598114
] |
241554 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milkshake | Milkshake | A milkshake (sometimes simply called a shake) is a sweet drink made by blending milk, ice cream, and flavorings or sweeteners such as butterscotch, caramel sauce, chocolate syrup, fruit syrup, or whole fruit into a thick, sweet, cold mixture. It may also be made using a base made from non-dairy products, including plant milks such as almond milk, coconut milk, or soy milk.
Milkshakes originated in the United States around the turn of the 20th century, and grew in popularity following the introduction of electric blenders in the subsequent two decades. They became a common part of youth popular culture, as ice cream shops were a culturally acceptable meeting place for youth, and milkshakes became symbolic of the innocence of youth.
Starting in 2019, throwing milkshakes at politicians—milkshaking—has become a common protest tactic in some countries.
Preparation
Full-service restaurants, ice cream shops, soda fountains, and diners usually prepare the shake in a specialized mixer known as a milkshake machine. At home, a blender is more commonly used. Milkshakes may be made from any flavor of ice cream; additional flavorings, such as chocolate syrup, malt syrup, or malted milk powder, are often added prior to mixing.
Many fast food outlets do not make shakes from the individual ingredients; rather, they use automatic milkshake machines which freeze and serve a pre-made milkshake mixture consisting of milk, a sweetened flavoring agent, and a thickening agent. These are similar to soft-serve ice cream machines, but keep the shake at a drinkable consistency.
Terminology
Terminology around the distinction between a milkshake that uses ice cream and other forms of flavored milk varies regionally. An ice cream-based milkshake may be called a thick shake to distinguish it. In parts of New England and eastern Canada, the name frappe ( ) is used. Rhode Island residents sometimes refer to milkshakes as "cabinets". A milkshake containing malted milk powder is sometimes called a malt. The term concrete is used for particularly thick milkshakes that do not spill when turned upside down, such as at the restaurant Culver's.
History
1880s–1930s
When the term "milkshake" was first used in print in 1885, milkshakes were an alcoholic whiskey drink that has been described as a "sturdy, healthful eggnog type of drink, with eggs, whiskey, etc., served as a tonic as well as a treat". However, by 1900, the term referred to "wholesome drinks made with chocolate, strawberry, or vanilla syrups." By the "early 1900s people were asking for the new treat, often with ice cream." By the 1930s, milkshakes were a popular drink at malt shops, which were the "typical soda fountain of the period ... used by students as a meeting place or hangout."
The history of the electric blender, malted milk drinks, and milkshakes are interconnected. Before the widespread availability of electric blenders, milkshake-type drinks were more like eggnog, or they were a hand-shaken mixture of crushed ice and milk, sugar, and flavorings. Hamilton Beach introduced its Cyclone Drink Mixer in 1910, and it was widely used in soda fountains.
The Hamilton Beach design, with the motor on top, remains the most common kind of milkshake machine. In 1922, Steven Poplawski invented the bottom-motor blender, which is sometimes used for making milkshakes. With the invention of the blender, milkshakes began to take their modern, whipped, aerated, and frothy form.
The use of malted milk powder in milkshakes was popularized in the US by the Chicago drugstore chain Walgreens. Malted milk powder — a mixture of evaporated milk, malted barley, and wheat flour – had been invented by William Horlick in 1897 for use as an easily digested restorative health drink for disabled people and children, and as an infant's food. However, healthy people soon began drinking beverages made with malted milk simply for the taste, and malted milk beverages containing milk, chocolate syrup, and malt powder became a standard offering at soda fountains. In 1922, Walgreens employee Ivar "Pop" Coulson made a milkshake by adding two scoops of vanilla ice cream to the standard malted milk drink recipe. This item, under the name "Horlick's Malted Milk", was featured by the Walgreen drugstore chain as part of a chocolate milk shake, which itself became known as a "malted" or "malt" and became one of the most popular soda-fountain drinks.
The automation of milkshakes developed in the 1930s, after the invention of freon-cooled refrigerators provided a safe, reliable way of automatically making and dispensing ice cream. In 1936, inventor Earl Prince used the basic concept behind the freon-cooled automated ice cream machine to develop the Multimixer, a "five-spindled mixer that could produce five milkshakes at once, all automatically, and dispense them at the pull of a lever into awaiting paper cups."
In the late 1930s, several newspaper articles show that the term "frosted" was used to refer to milkshakes made with ice cream. In 1937, the Denton Journal in Maryland stated that "For a 'frosted' shake, add a dash of your favorite ice cream." In 1939, the Mansfield News in Ohio stated that "A frosted beverage, in the vernacular, is something good to which ice cream has been added. Example par excellence is frosted coffee—that hot, tasty beverage made chilly with ice and frosty with ice cream."
1940s–1950s
By the 1950s, popular places to drink milkshakes were Woolworth's "5 & 10" lunch counters, diners, burger joints, and drugstore soda fountains. These establishments often prominently displayed a shining chrome or stainless steel milkshake mixing machine.
These establishments made milkshakes in Hamilton Beach or similar styles of drink mixers, which had spindles and agitators that folded air into the drinks for "smooth, fluffy results" and served them in 12½-ounce tall glasses with bulbous top. Soda fountain staff had their own jargon, such as "Burn One All the Way" (chocolate malted with chocolate ice cream), "Twist It, Choke It, and Make It Cackle" (chocolate malted with an egg), "Shake One in the Hay" (a strawberry shake), and a "White Cow" (a vanilla milkshake). In the 1950s, a milkshake machine salesman named Ray Kroc bought exclusive rights to the 1930s-era Multimixer milkshake maker from inventor Earl Prince, and went on to use automated milkshake machines to speed up production at McDonald's restaurants.
Milkshakes had also become popular in other parts of the world, including the United Kingdom and Australia. In Australia, milk bars had grown popular and milkshakes were normally served lightly whipped and often in the aluminium or stainless steel cups in which they were prepared. In addition to more conventional flavors, spearmint and lime flavored milkshakes became popular in Australia.
2000s–present
In 2006, the U.S. Agricultural Research Service developed reduced-sugar, low-fat milk shakes for lunch programs. The shakes have half the sugar and only 10% of the fat of commercial fast-food shakes. Schools need a milk shake machine or soft-serve ice cream machine to serve the milkshakes. The milkshakes also have added fiber and other nutrients, and they have much less lactose, which makes the shakes appropriate for some lactose-intolerant people.
The U.S. sales of milkshakes, malts, and floats rose 11% in 2006, according to the industry research firm NPD Group. Christopher Muller, the director of the Center for Multi-Unit Restaurant Management at Orlando's University of Central Florida said that "milkshakes remind us of summer, youth — and indulgence", and "they're evocative of a time gone by".
Muller stated that milkshakes are an "enormously profitable" item for restaurants, since the drinks contain so much air. The market research firm Technomic states that about 75% of the average-priced $3.38 restaurant shake in 2006 was profit. An executive from Sonic Drive-In, a U.S. chain of 1950s-style diner restaurants, calls shakes "one of our highest-volume, revenue-producing areas".
A 2016 article stated that chefs are trying out innovative ideas with milkshakes to keep customers interested in the drinks. The article noted that coffee-flavored shakes are popular "because it complements both sweet and savory" dishes. Another trend is using different types of milk, such as almond milk, coconut milk, or hemp milk.
Use in protests
In May 2019, during the build-up to the EU parliament elections in the United Kingdom, the throwing of milkshakes emerged as a protest tactic, usually targeting right-wing politicians. The movement originated with the "milkshaking" of Tommy Robinson, with a second thrown later that month.
The UK police requested that an Edinburgh McDonald's refrain from selling milkshakes on May 17 during a visit by Nigel Farage. This prompted Burger King to tweet in response: "We're selling milkshakes all weekend. Have fun." Burger King's tweet was later banned by the UK's Advertising Standards Authority, because they felt that it "condoned the previous anti-social behaviour and encouraged further instances", and that it was therefore an "irresponsible" advertisement. At a separate visit in Newcastle on May 20, Farage had a Five Guys milkshake thrown at him. Carl Benjamin had a total of four milkshakes thrown at him that week. The act of milkshaking is similar to that of egging as a form of protest against political figures.
In popular culture
Milkshakes in the movies have been described a "shorthand for sweetness and goodness". In All About Eve, by director Joseph L. Mankiewicz, Bette Davis’s character is unhappy to see a man she likes chatting up her young female assistant, so Davis's character orders an alcoholic Martini, and "then mockingly suggests [that] Eve [the young assistant] will have a milkshake", thereby "asserting womanhood over girlhood through milkshake's associations with virginity." Similarly, the socially awkward and nerdy character Steve Buscemi plays in Ghost World is made fun of by a teenage girl because he orders a "virginal vanilla milkshake"; in Manhattan, by director Woody Allen, the director draws attention to the difference in age between his 42-year-old character (he also acts in the lead role) and his teenage girlfriend by having her drink a milkshake. In the film Lolita in 1997, a teenage girl drinks a milkshake while she is with the middle-aged man (her mother's new boyfriend) who is attracted to her. Pulp Fiction has a scene in a retro-50s diner where two characters on a first date discuss the merits of a "Five Dollar Milkshake" ("Martin and Lewis" for vanilla, "Amos 'n' Andy" for chocolate).
The characters from Archie Comics are often depicted drinking milkshakes. The TV series Riverdale, inspired by the comics, depicts the characters in a 1950s-inspired local diner, Pop's Chock'lit Shoppe; to promote the show, the cast shared a milkshake during an appearance on The Tonight Show starring Jimmy Fallon.
Master Shake, one of the main characters from the American animated series Aqua Teen Hunger Force (also known by various alternative titles), is a life-sized anthropomorphic milkshake.
The term "milkshake duck" refers to the social media trend where "the internet rushes en masse to embrace something or someone as cute, worthy, fun or funny" (such as a duck that drinks milkshakes), but "then just as quickly drops it, when it’s revealed to somehow be unpleasantly complicated"; the paper called the term "useful shorthand" for when a "favourite [concept] is revealed to be problematic".
In Australia in April 2021, the federal government led by Prime Minister Scott Morrison released a video intended to teach high-school students about sexual consent; it featured a young woman drinking a milkshake and smearing the drink over her male companion's face after he declined to drink it voluntarily. The "milkshake metaphor" was widely criticised by sexual assault experts and was later removed from government websites.
See also
Health shake
Keventers Milkshake – an Indian milkshake brand
Smoothie
References
External links
American drinks
Cold drinks
Shake
Ice cream drinks
Milk-based drinks
Non-alcoholic drinks | [
-0.14643795788288116,
0.6347551941871643,
-0.2034672647714615,
0.3883588910102844,
0.04124639555811882,
0.023444077000021935,
0.118743896484375,
0.7183640599250793,
-0.06407896429300308,
0.16083960235118866,
-0.15952321887016296,
0.1145649403333664,
0.16422292590141296,
0.6316878795623779,
-0.5380468368530273,
-0.06077362969517708,
0.594754695892334,
0.4060940444469452,
0.754990816116333,
-0.03352084755897522,
-0.32958823442459106,
-0.575107216835022,
0.138884499669075,
-0.42155253887176514,
0.14077100157737732,
0.26078668236732483,
-0.3271997272968292,
-0.41988232731819153,
-0.18566977977752686,
-0.1529756784439087,
-0.4510729908943176,
0.2981944680213928,
0.43576300144195557,
-0.2663745582103729,
-0.2322130650281906,
0.42350244522094727,
0.13285432755947113,
-0.24885185062885284,
-0.1817958503961563,
-0.4215879440307617,
-0.2841176688671112,
-0.4958955943584442,
0.5991443991661072,
-0.07312726974487305,
-0.5336595177650452,
-0.2992870807647705,
-0.9093033671379089,
0.4030958414077759,
-1.0197709798812866,
0.14593730866909027,
-0.2676468789577484,
0.6424142718315125,
-0.5151335000991821,
-0.2488510012626648,
0.018805736675858498,
0.47370705008506775,
-0.16290058195590973,
0.5615431070327759,
0.08342967927455902,
-0.4020882248878479,
0.03964685648679733,
0.17531543970108032,
0.13718576729297638,
-0.42238014936447144,
-0.0021504529286175966,
-0.15967747569084167,
-0.2214370220899582,
0.09635429829359055,
-0.48418301343917847,
-0.20856137573719025,
0.13181065022945404,
-0.48827898502349854,
-0.5148634910583496,
0.09847523272037506,
0.38731998205184937,
-0.07442137598991394,
-0.1042073592543602,
-0.2883113622665405,
-0.051481932401657104,
0.3128414750099182,
-0.6960455775260925,
0.005578753538429737,
0.7149991393089294,
0.7089847922325134,
0.1772896945476532,
0.6126249432563782,
-0.15567278861999512,
0.6335465908050537,
-0.6919193863868713,
0.25894713401794434,
-0.6038274168968201,
0.6062588095664978,
1.058866024017334,
0.19977596402168274,
-0.39100539684295654,
-0.6700671911239624,
0.29020795226097107,
-0.01042340137064457,
0.4186931550502777,
0.1373104751110077,
-0.00946806464344263,
-0.09677040576934814,
0.6791515350341797,
0.14980760216712952,
-0.773094892501831,
0.26313546299934387,
-0.20202334225177765,
-0.13956238329410553,
0.32881632447242737,
0.04036139324307442,
0.33277013897895813,
0.2125312089920044,
0.01818324439227581,
1.0852266550064087,
-0.03990399092435837,
-0.3101178705692291,
-0.32481998205184937,
0.21566173434257507,
-0.49772942066192627,
-0.32208573818206787,
-0.05615860968828201,
0.013064449653029442,
0.18470104038715363,
-0.39100462198257446,
0.10760623961687088,
0.20672665536403656,
-0.25532737374305725,
0.7367108464241028,
0.173752099275589,
0.24367301166057587,
0.4469505548477173,
0.07244750112295151,
0.06547413021326065,
-0.10811596363782883,
-0.40388837456703186,
0.1381959766149521,
0.2526034712791443,
-0.40228575468063354,
0.6936584711074829,
0.3109000027179718,
-0.8129672408103943,
0.096338652074337,
-0.1931333988904953,
-0.22771050035953522,
0.19996653497219086,
-0.4614257216453552,
-0.3658962845802307,
0.046069808304309845,
-0.5382067561149597,
-0.1463402658700943,
0.33342820405960083,
0.44177311658859253,
-0.1454090029001236,
0.020810147747397423,
0.41484448313713074,
0.4311533570289612,
-0.8482946157455444,
-0.10166291147470474,
0.008559584617614746,
-0.13891610503196716,
-0.42438870668411255,
0.841936469078064,
-0.25678956508636475,
-0.48105770349502563,
0.4786112308502197,
-0.29307734966278076,
0.20643870532512665,
0.30624017119407654,
-0.40266433358192444,
0.2804008722305298,
0.03425239771604538,
0.22856901586055756,
0.3361263573169708,
-0.1883784979581833,
-0.6243459582328796,
0.0955817773938179,
0.3687155246734619,
0.2422943264245987,
0.880782425403595,
-0.052607085555791855,
-0.6785233616828918,
0.6866356134414673,
0.2689012289047241,
-0.2665256857872009,
-0.5492307543754578,
0.140857994556427,
0.08907387405633926,
-0.2628680467605591,
-0.45632708072662354,
-0.44275209307670593,
-0.5476539134979248,
-0.31804805994033813,
-0.16758976876735687,
-0.033042557537555695,
0.5698947906494141,
-0.3068251609802246,
-0.9829180240631104,
0.9541836977005005,
-0.05050959065556526,
0.09879617393016815,
-0.06077106297016144,
0.19867752492427826,
0.07696515321731567,
-0.5442106127738953,
-0.06179278343915939,
0.15285614132881165,
0.3400133550167084,
-0.022802606225013733,
0.7190185785293579,
-0.027872741222381592,
-0.11804717779159546,
-0.5256261825561523,
0.5589147806167603,
-0.13332374393939972,
-0.4308805763721466,
0.24991217255592346,
-0.015609652735292912,
0.29467517137527466,
0.4857701361179352,
-0.13377054035663605,
0.361881822347641,
-0.005594256334006786,
-0.43467840552330017,
0.17187288403511047,
0.09973981231451035,
0.32917770743370056,
-0.030897704884409904,
0.21695959568023682,
0.3592583239078522,
-0.1713525652885437,
0.4688567519187927,
-0.31532832980155945,
0.2336408942937851,
-0.41423964500427246,
-0.29617300629615784,
0.0492800734937191,
0.6988149285316467,
0.3199934661388397,
0.04165572300553322,
-0.5293700098991394,
0.00854590442031622,
0.017376255244016647,
0.20912520587444305,
0.02669467218220234,
0.37553995847702026,
-0.1478024423122406,
-0.28126847743988037,
0.6214717626571655,
-0.5867376327514648,
-0.450518399477005,
-0.027402399107813835,
0.512775182723999,
0.037297122180461884,
0.35681119561195374,
-0.025482693687081337,
0.103505440056324,
-0.40028703212738037,
0.1614789068698883,
0.12887468934059143,
0.8536098003387451,
-0.38693276047706604,
-0.19727520644664764,
0.21947035193443298,
-0.30108171701431274,
-0.09762882441282272,
-0.2625335454940796,
-0.23993003368377686,
-0.43818148970603943,
0.35024508833885193,
0.14994578063488007,
-0.01490006037056446,
-0.24681608378887177,
-0.5694958567619324,
0.23891542851924896,
0.06703925877809525,
-0.4856851398944855,
0.029798932373523712,
-0.1470058113336563,
-0.59329754114151,
-0.09447156637907028,
-0.039475217461586,
0.1307346224784851,
0.09232441335916519,
-0.22191791236400604,
-0.5121345520019531,
-1.250689148902893,
0.09613189101219177,
-0.7969913482666016,
-0.2738400995731354,
-0.19307909905910492,
-0.046519894152879715,
0.6579115986824036,
-0.00473448634147644,
-0.5388273596763611,
0.17224736511707306,
0.16419564187526703,
0.7252649664878845,
0.2780681848526001,
0.14356103539466858,
0.03359922021627426,
-0.11517458409070969,
-0.4469442367553711,
-0.14017809927463531,
-0.05488933250308037,
0.1173831969499588,
0.2624022960662842,
0.02480282075703144,
-0.48757123947143555,
-5.829660415649414,
-0.17260459065437317,
-0.7996744513511658,
-0.6199965476989746,
0.17821283638477325,
-0.01524173840880394,
0.40550437569618225,
-0.42619356513023376,
-0.2594948709011078,
0.3476315438747406,
-0.2308950275182724,
0.05806867778301239,
-0.024562234058976173,
0.33611324429512024,
0.5904680490493774,
-0.27993133664131165,
0.5722652077674866,
-0.17701487243175507,
0.15348125994205475,
0.44794750213623047,
-0.44410380721092224,
0.1151181161403656,
-0.15988345444202423,
0.9944590330123901,
-0.36596161127090454,
0.6177711486816406,
0.4075174927711487,
-0.11886689811944962,
-0.2585526704788208,
0.02577892132103443,
-0.12130924314260483,
0.04478898644447327,
0.1800830364227295,
-0.5735077857971191,
0.3212316632270813,
0.3067351281642914,
-0.1812894195318222,
-0.09640172868967056,
0.4662996828556061,
-0.051420435309410095,
0.03684723749756813,
0.5808253884315491,
0.38101691007614136,
-0.46529892086982727,
0.5688104033470154,
-0.4658777713775635,
0.05995579808950424,
-0.611270010471344,
-1.001653790473938,
0.4634943902492523,
0.03234529867768288,
-0.03948616981506348,
0.04777980595827103,
-0.270366907119751,
0.015443668700754642,
0.6908972263336182,
0.2908610701560974,
-0.2637201249599457,
-0.4311407208442688,
-0.45384150743484497,
0.6736831068992615,
-0.04709530621767044,
-0.4293358623981476,
0.07519588619470596,
0.005187212023884058,
-0.5044459104537964,
-0.46183162927627563,
0.005099371541291475,
0.7547428607940674,
0.2580741345882416,
-0.25262874364852905,
-0.5835980772972107,
0.15553322434425354,
-0.80599045753479,
0.16402505338191986,
-0.6164028644561768,
-0.2577056288719177,
-0.2555064260959625,
0.0330565981566906,
0.8548834919929504,
-0.17600783705711365,
0.5206440091133118,
-0.11398017406463623,
-0.06716310232877731,
0.2570296823978424,
-0.4907206594944,
-0.4046613276004791,
0.3026174008846283,
-0.23930752277374268,
-0.3246379494667053,
0.9035573601722717,
0.3494207262992859,
0.25145581364631653,
-0.10118617117404938,
0.14243076741695404,
0.6332610845565796,
-0.3336230516433716,
0.5559065341949463,
-0.4388720691204071,
-0.7319790720939636,
0.20366746187210083,
-0.16043247282505035,
0.654664158821106,
-0.6990312933921814,
0.6023740172386169,
-0.3713294565677643,
-0.36567971110343933,
0.04880090430378914,
0.37060466408729553,
0.08913924545049667,
-0.49491190910339355,
0.426077663898468,
-0.41565799713134766,
-0.5112784504890442,
0.4691101610660553,
0.20313125848770142,
0.23971675336360931,
0.5269478559494019,
0.04928136244416237,
-0.06456910818815231,
0.3715257942676544,
0.2930033802986145,
-0.28381776809692383,
-0.2427816540002823,
-0.17283432185649872,
-0.722135603427887,
-0.03441273421049118,
0.43253836035728455,
0.7129377722740173,
0.2362944334745407,
0.732029139995575,
-0.21065540611743927,
0.4103560745716095,
0.29170936346054077,
-0.15153302252292633,
0.11440404504537582,
-0.14544790983200073,
-0.6600584387779236,
-0.8107944130897522,
-0.7044194340705872,
0.410341739654541,
-0.5774809718132019,
-0.06821907311677933,
-0.04704193025827408,
0.6311896443367004,
0.21043281257152557,
-0.4599829912185669,
0.2158455103635788,
-0.1801525503396988,
0.43494606018066406,
-0.15187232196331024,
0.6544504761695862,
-0.6139283180236816,
0.17661094665527344,
-0.01801077090203762,
-0.4276183843612671,
0.8042861819267273,
0.18402908742427826,
0.4304572641849518,
-0.143854558467865,
-0.206953227519989,
-0.6052634716033936,
-1.1306862831115723,
0.09475819021463394,
-0.4927941858768463,
0.053184837102890015,
-0.4499328136444092,
-0.008732536807656288,
0.04338044300675392,
0.6897826194763184,
-0.30838721990585327,
-0.49858006834983826,
-0.34225931763648987,
0.11284370720386505,
0.26053425669670105,
0.2927510738372803,
0.2066800743341446,
-0.25423020124435425,
-0.10706795006990433,
-0.35943394899368286,
-0.06682009994983673,
-0.3506036102771759,
-0.3432314097881317,
-0.19201339781284332,
0.3186333179473877,
-0.039909478276968,
-0.28202274441719055,
0.38475096225738525,
0.1988624781370163,
0.23265010118484497,
0.2825039327144623,
-0.3681735098361969,
0.6314660310745239,
0.14910416305065155,
-0.11054439097642899,
-0.34918275475502014,
-0.6141725182533264,
0.8483781218528748,
0.5459296703338623,
0.05256057530641556,
0.32133588194847107,
-0.09634963423013687,
-0.8772642016410828,
0.2191409319639206,
0.5205889344215393,
-0.5352655053138733,
0.4704418480396271,
-0.02983727864921093,
-0.30169540643692017,
0.3791363537311554,
0.0039087506011128426,
-0.5539484620094299,
0.20508497953414917,
0.2716887295246124,
0.18887734413146973,
0.4430716633796692,
0.0862603560090065,
-0.42475777864456177,
0.31911951303482056,
-0.2168813794851303,
0.1336178481578827,
-0.23098017275333405,
-0.5397300720214844,
0.03514439985156059,
-0.23342028260231018,
-0.2736608684062958,
0.5757808685302734,
-0.06618914753198624,
0.3941494822502136,
0.04581957682967186,
0.6622519493103027,
-0.32974904775619507,
-0.16602498292922974,
0.4490209221839905,
0.17690502107143402,
0.31227192282676697,
-0.054460737854242325,
0.24571429193019867,
0.4574975073337555,
0.09829098731279373,
0.11095395684242249,
0.6058499813079834,
0.43777114152908325,
0.08311609923839569,
-0.329012393951416,
-0.006014615762978792,
0.24835583567619324,
-0.4491615891456604,
-0.09741959720849991,
0.6490077376365662,
0.318833589553833,
-0.4393201172351837,
-0.04920637980103493,
-0.2807900905609131,
0.1954784244298935,
0.0071464828215539455,
0.35878390073776245,
0.12396638840436935,
-0.22823403775691986,
0.4969221353530884,
-0.025364160537719727,
-0.029423750936985016,
0.01482600811868906,
0.18456096947193146,
-0.28091058135032654,
-0.19585056602954865,
-0.5387250781059265,
-0.1761610060930252,
0.28159427642822266,
-0.44232890009880066,
0.6429395079612732,
0.6688963770866394,
0.41294822096824646,
0.17847679555416107,
0.40302255749702454,
0.5814961791038513,
-0.5509097576141357,
-1.0331863164901733,
-0.1211964562535286,
0.4859583377838135,
-0.4244948625564575,
-0.18960346281528473,
-0.5423557162284851,
0.08119257539510727,
0.2579529285430908,
-0.5318577885627747,
-0.08444583415985107,
-0.040472790598869324,
-0.1926020234823227,
0.1381574124097824,
-0.4591279625892639,
0.7805943489074707,
0.3970088064670563,
-0.01854054629802704,
-0.5037556290626526,
0.21327757835388184,
0.4125269055366516,
0.3896884024143219,
-0.5999124050140381,
0.36584773659706116,
-0.20945562422275543,
0.4884992837905884,
-0.1495356410741806,
-0.501609742641449,
-0.1585337072610855,
0.2287318855524063,
-0.22327420115470886,
-0.2638479769229889,
-0.5011746883392334,
0.029436206445097923,
0.5029649138450623,
-0.37829557061195374,
0.10272292047739029,
0.11986064165830612,
0.25041183829307556,
-0.052763938903808594,
0.9612640738487244,
-0.27316802740097046,
-0.1343960464000702,
0.845245897769928,
0.5081202387809753,
-0.4354170858860016,
-0.04148976877331734,
-0.5488574504852295,
0.5494524240493774,
0.20547235012054443,
-0.05076552554965019,
-0.39401400089263916,
-0.24798420071601868,
0.030331244692206383,
0.3741479516029358,
0.33652329444885254,
-0.07539042830467224,
-0.35397228598594666,
-0.1850755512714386,
-0.08189372718334198,
-0.05501624941825867,
0.1337403953075409,
-0.6091535687446594,
0.5152547955513,
0.4042939841747284,
0.2713754177093506,
0.0472993329167366,
-0.19077344238758087,
0.07528509199619293,
0.26017284393310547,
-0.08169850707054138,
-0.24756908416748047,
-0.07853767275810242,
-0.03512849286198616,
-0.013046728447079659,
-0.21714910864830017,
0.32533085346221924,
-0.15697546303272247,
0.8169775009155273,
-0.3357049822807312,
-0.08739038556814194,
-0.4082927405834198,
-0.403089314699173,
0.2783345580101013,
-0.6810353994369507,
0.31395259499549866,
0.9485801458358765,
-0.004423423204571009,
0.1326178014278412,
-0.011104642413556576,
0.053132519125938416,
-0.4324477016925812,
-0.10042868554592133,
0.2533668279647827,
-0.6069730520248413,
-0.16590268909931183,
-0.48467934131622314,
0.3657718896865845,
0.25882652401924133,
-0.13484397530555725,
0.3891276717185974,
0.6360567212104797,
-0.19037789106369019,
0.3952220678329468,
-0.526642918586731,
-0.2627144753932953,
-0.6411188244819641,
-0.3553387224674225,
-0.06559155881404877,
0.36024028062820435,
-0.39729130268096924,
0.06251280009746552,
-0.5446212887763977,
0.2036338597536087,
0.17317689955234528,
-0.12444891780614853,
0.2255307286977768,
-0.05872029438614845,
0.0707443431019783,
-0.06808748841285706,
-0.07163912802934647,
0.709408164024353,
-0.14695926010608673,
-0.3775239586830139,
-0.052842266857624054,
0.14815649390220642,
0.02587069571018219,
0.05863463506102562,
-0.8781117796897888,
0.3034598231315613,
-0.679199755191803,
0.1490701287984848,
-0.09991028904914856,
0.3990139365196228,
-0.04729486256837845,
-0.48641782999038696,
-0.11308201402425766,
-0.3319093883037567,
-0.4647107720375061,
0.04848632216453552,
0.7036957740783691,
-0.002914952579885721,
0.3072923719882965,
-1.0038411617279053,
0.19480356574058533,
0.6686453819274902,
0.46261805295944214,
0.15977433323860168,
0.3914283215999603,
0.38994666934013367,
-0.08710388094186783,
-0.24961426854133606,
-0.6193739175796509,
0.3321365416049957,
-0.41917526721954346,
-0.12789203226566315,
0.3856496810913086,
0.5957202315330505,
-0.6545408368110657,
-0.12045745551586151,
0.2878144681453705,
0.4693680703639984,
0.11327924579381943,
-0.3846762776374817,
0.05097203701734543,
0.46418359875679016,
-0.17549937963485718,
-0.19170530140399933,
0.20706495642662048,
-0.11087155342102051,
0.03807300329208374,
-0.3373149335384369,
-0.6591906547546387,
0.015359261073172092,
-0.49109986424446106,
-0.5462933778762817,
-0.16002292931079865,
0.4771580696105957,
0.04794258251786232,
-0.036003585904836655,
0.03879362344741821,
-0.30462387204170227,
-0.13840806484222412,
0.05140072479844093
] |
241559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oreo | Oreo | Oreo () is a brand of creme-filled sandwich cookie consisting of two (usually chocolate) wafers with a sweet crème filling. It was introduced by Nabisco on March 6, 1912, and through a series of corporate acquisitions, mergers and splits both Nabisco and the Oreo brand have been owned by Mondelez International since 2012. Oreo cookies are available in over one hundred countries. Many varieties of Oreo cookies have been produced, and limited-edition runs have become popular in the 21st century.
Oreo is the best-selling cookie brand in the United States, and in the 21st century it became the number one selling cookie globally, bringing in more than 500 billion sales.
Etymology
The origin of the name "Oreo" is unknown, but there are many hypotheses, including derivations from the French word or, meaning 'gold', or from the Greek word () meaning 'nice' or 'attractive'. Others believe that the cookie was named Oreo simply because the name was short and easy to pronounce. Another theory, proposed by the food writer Stella Parks, is that the name derives from the Latin Oreodaphne, a genus of the laurel family. She observes that the original design of the Oreo includes a laurel wreath; and the names of several of Nabisco's cookies at the time of the original Oreo had botanical derivations, including Avena, Lotus, and Helicon (from Heliconia).
History
Twentieth century
The "Oreo Biscuit" was first developed and produced by the National Biscuit Company (today known as Nabisco) in 1912 at its Chelsea, New York City factory in the present-day Chelsea Market complex, located on Ninth Avenue between 15th and 16th Streets. Today, this same block of Ninth Avenue is known as "Oreo Way". The name Oreo was trademarked on March 14, 1912. It was launched as an imitation of the Hydrox cookie manufactured by Sunshine company, which was introduced in 1908.
The original design on the face of the Oreo featured a wreath around the edge of the cookie and the name "OREO" in the center. In the United States, they were sold for a pound (454 g) in novelty metal canisters with clear glass tops. The first Oreo was sold on March 6, 1912, to a grocer in Hoboken, New Jersey.
The Oreo Biscuit was renamed in 1921 to "Oreo Sandwich"; in 1948, the name was changed to "Oreo Crème Sandwich"; and in 1974 it became the "Oreo Chocolate Sandwich Cookie", the name that has remained to this day. A new design for the face of the cookie was launched in 1924; the modern-day Oreo design was developed in 1952 by William A. Turnier, incorporating the Nabisco logo. In 1920, a second lemon crème-filled variety of the Oreo was introduced, as an alternative to the white crème-filled variety, but this was discontinued in 1924 and the original flavor was the only version available for the next several decades.
The modern Oreo cookie filling was developed by Nabisco's principal food scientist, Sam Porcello, who retired from Nabisco in 1993. Porcello held five patents directly related to his work on the Oreo; he also created a range of Oreo cookies that were covered in dark chocolate and white chocolate. In the early 1990s, health concerns prompted Nabisco to replace the lard in the crème filling with partially hydrogenated vegetable oil. Oreo cookies are popular with people that have certain dietary restrictions, such as vegans, as the crème filling does not use any animal products. However, there is still a risk of cross-contamination from other dairy-containing products made in the same production areas. In the FAQ section of the Oreo.co.uk website, on the question of whether Oreo cookies are suitable for vegans, their response is "No, OREO have milk as cross contact and therefore they are not suitable for vegans."
Twenty-first century
In January 2006, Nabisco replaced the trans fat in the Oreo cookie with non-hydrogenated vegetable oil.
In June 2012, Oreo posted an advertisement displaying an Oreo cookie with rainbow-colored crème to celebrate LGBT Pride month; the cookie itself was fictional and was not being manufactured or made available for sale. The advertisement prompted some negative comments, but Kraft stood by their promotion, stating that "Kraft Foods has a proud history of celebrating diversity and inclusiveness. We feel the Oreo ad is a fun reflection of our values." This was followed during 2012 by a series of adverts commemorating other holidays and events, including a blue, white, and red crème Oreo to honor Bastille Day, a stream of cookie crumbs marking the appearance of the Delta Aquariids meteor shower, and a cookie with a jagged bite taken out of it to promote Shark Week on Discovery Channel.
When the power went out during Super Bowl XLVII in 2013, the Oreo marketing team tweeted "you can still dunk in the dark" from its social media command center; this was retweeted almost 15,000 times and increased Oreo's count of Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram followers. One commentator remarked that this "solidified the viability and necessity of real-time marketing".
International distribution
Oreo cookies are distributed worldwide through a variety of sales and marketing channels. As their popularity continues to grow, so too does the amount of distribution that comes with it. According to the Kraft Foods company, the Oreo is the "World's Best Selling Cookie". In March 2012, Time magazine reported that Oreo cookies were available in more than 100 countries. Overall, it is estimated that since the Oreo cookie's inception in 1912, over 450 billion Oreos have been produced worldwide.
Oreos were first introduced into Britain through the supermarket chain Sainsbury's. For several years, this was the only supermarket chain in the UK to stock the Oreo until May 2008, when Kraft decided to fully launch the Oreo across the whole of the UK. Its packaging was redesigned into the more familiar British tube design, accompanied by a £4.5M television advertising campaign based around the "twist, lick, dunk" catchphrase. In a 2020 national poll the Oreo was ranked the 16th most popular biscuit in the UK, with McVitie's chocolate digestive topping the list.
In the UK, Kraft partnered with McDonald's to introduce the Oreo McFlurry (which was already on sale in several other countries, including the US) into McDonald's locations across the country during its annual Great Tastes of America promotions; in October 2015, the Oreo McFlurry then became a permanent menu item at McDonald's in the UK. An Oreo-flavored "Krushem" drink was also on sale in KFC stores across Britain.
The ingredients of the British Oreo (as listed on the UK Oreo website) are slightly different from those of the US Oreo. Unlike the US version, the British Oreo originally contained whey powder, which was not suitable for people with lactose intolerance. Additionally, as the whey powder was sourced from cheese made with calf rennet, the British version was also unsuitable for vegetarians. On December 6, 2011, Kraft announced that production of Oreo was to start in the UK with their Cadbury Trebor Bassett factory in Sheffield, South Yorkshire, being selected to manufacture Oreo in Britain for the first time. Production began there in May 2013.
Oreo cookies were introduced onto the Indian market by Cadbury India in 2011. In Pakistan, Oreo is manufactured and sold by Continental Biscuits Limited under the LU brand. In Japan, Oreo and other Nabisco products were produced by Yamazaki Baking until Mondelez terminated their licensing deal in favor of moving production to China. A year later, Yamazaki introduced their version of Oreo called "Noir", which is produced at the former Oreo factory in Ibaraki Prefecture.
Production
According to a statement from Kim McMiller, an Associate Director of Consumer Relations, a two-stage process is used to produce Oreo cookies. The base cake dough is formed into the familiar round cookies by a rotary mold at the entrance of a oven.
Most of the Oreo production was once carried out at the Hershey's factory in Hershey, Pennsylvania. By 2017, more than 40 billion Oreo cookies were being produced annually in 18 countries around the world. Oreo cookies for the Asian markets are manufactured in India, Indonesia, Bahrain, and China. Oreo cookies for the European market are made in Spain and at the Cadbury factory in the UK; they are made in Russia (Mondelēz Rus) for consumers in several CIS countries; and those sold in Australia are manufactured in Indonesia (previously China) or Spain, depending on the flavor. The version produced in Canada (sold under the Christie's brand) includes coconut oil and is sold exclusively in that region. Manufacture of Oreo biscuits began in Pakistan in early 2014, in collaboration with Mondelez International of the United States and Continental Biscuits Limited (CBL) of Pakistan, at the CBL production plant in Sukkur.
Oreo boycott
In 2015, Mondelez announced its decision to close some of its American factories and move production to Mexico, prompting the Oreo boycott. In 2016, after production had started in Mexico, the AFL-CIO encouraged the boycott and published consumer guidance to help identify which Mondelez products were made in Mexico.
In July 2016, Oreo cookies ceased production in Chicago.
Ingredients
The ingredients of Oreo cookies have remained largely unchanged from the original, although numerous alternative varieties and flavors have emerged over time. The classic Oreo cookie is made using eleven main ingredients:
Sugar
Unbleached enriched flour (wheat flour, niacin, iron, thiamine mono-nitrate (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), folic acid)
High oleic canola oil or palm oil
Cocoa (treated with alkali)
High-fructose corn syrup
Leavening agent (baking soda or monocalcium phosphate)
Corn starch
Salt
Soy lecithin
Vanillin
Chocolate
Nutrition
One six-pack of Oreos contains 270 calories, hence there are 45 calories in one cookie. Of these 45 calories, 27 come from carbohydrates, 16.5 come from fat, and 1.5 calories are provided by protein.
Different Oreo flavors have varying amounts of carbohydrate: the chocolate fudge Oreo contains 13g of total carbohydrates (4% of the recommended daily intake) and 9g of sugars per serving of 3 cookies, while mint Oreos contain 25g of total carbohydrates and 18g of sugars per serving. Oreos contain small amounts of proteins and minerals (iron and sodium are present) but they do not contain any vitamins.
Varieties
In addition to their traditional design of two chocolate wafers separated by a crème filling, Oreo cookies have been produced in a multitude of different varieties since they were first introduced. This list is only a guide to some of the more notable and popular types; not all are available in every country. The main varieties in the United States are:
Double Stuf Oreo – Introduced in 1974, this variety has about double the normal amount of crème filling as the original. (A math teacher found that Doubled Stuf Oreos only had 1.86 times the amount of cream of normal Oreos.) Available with various flavors of crème filling: original, chocolate, peanut butter, cool mint, and birthday cake. In the UK these are called Double Creme Oreos and are only available in original flavor. The Golden Double Stuf Oreo, featuring golden Oreo wafers with a double portion of original vanilla-flavored crème, was introduced in 2009.
Football Oreo – (American/Canadian) Football-shaped Oreo cookies, introduced in 1976.
Big Stuf Oreo – A short-lived variety of the Oreo cookie, introduced in 1987 but discontinued in 1991, these were several times the size of a normal Oreo. Sold individually, each Big Stuf contained and 13 grams of fat.
Golden Oreo – First released in 2004, this has "golden" vanilla-flavored wafers on the outside of the cookie, as an alternative to the original chocolate-flavored wafers. Available with various flavors of crème filling including original, chocolate, lemon and birthday cake. The chocolate crème variety, being the reverse of the original cookie, was known as the Uh-Oh Oreo until 2007.
Oreo Mini – First introduced in 1991, these are miniature bite-sized versions of the original Oreo cookie. After being discontinued in the late 1990s, they were re-released in 2000 along with the redesigned 2001 Dodge Caravan minivan as part of a promotional tie-in with Daimler AG. Their packaging in the 1990s consisted of a "miniaturized" version of the full-sized cardboard tray and box used in Oreo packaging at the time. Their revised packaging consists of an aluminum foil bag. Oreo Minis are available with various flavors of crème filling including original, chocolate, strawberry, and the new mint flavor which debuted in 2015. As well as the bagged version, they are also sold in Nabisco To-Go Cups, lidded plastic cups which fit into car cup-holders (in line with other Nabisco snacks that come in miniature form, such as Nutter Butters). A Golden Oreo Mini was also made available after the Golden Oreo was released in 2004. According to the Oreo website, the slogan of the Oreo Mini is "Grab 'em. Pop 'em. Love 'em."
Mega Stuf Oreo – Released in February 2013, the Mega Stuf variety is similar to Double Stuf, but with even more white crème filling. They come in both chocolate and golden wafer varieties.
Oreo Thins – Introduced in July 2015, this is a thin version of the original Oreo cookie. Thins come in both chocolate and golden wafer varieties, with various crème filling flavors including chocolate, mint, lemon and tiramisu. Each cookie contains only 40 calories; they are 66% thinner than the original version.
Chocolate Oreo – Simply an Oreo cookie with chocolate crème filling instead of the original vanilla-flavored white crème filling.
Mint Oreo – A variety of Oreo with two chocolate wafers separated by a mint-flavored crème filling.
The Most Stuf – Introduced in January 2019, an initially limited edition Oreo with approximately four times the amount of crème filling of a standard Oreo. After two limited runs, it was quietly brought back as a permanent product in the Fall of 2020. While they were first offered in traditional Oreo packages and widely available when they were limited edition, the permanent version is only found in individual four-packs as well as 12 four-pack collections within convenience store settings.
Gluten Free – Introduced in January 2021, comes in both traditional and Double Stuf varieties
Special edition Double Stuf Oreo cookies are produced during springtime, and around Halloween and Christmas. These have colored frosting reflecting the current holiday: blue or yellow for springtime; orange for Halloween; and red or green for the Christmas holiday. One side of each seasonal cookie is stamped with an appropriate design; the spring cookies feature flowers, butterflies, etc., while the Halloween editions feature a jack o'lantern, ghost, cat, flock of bats, or broom-riding witch. The 2017 Halloween Oreo broke with this tradition, having orange-colored crème filling (albeit with classic vanilla flavor) but carrying no seasonal designs.
In some countries, Oreos come in a variety of flavors that are not familiar to the U.S. market. For example, Green Tea Oreos are only available in China and Japan, while Lemon Ice Oreos were only ever introduced in Japan or Blueberry Ice Cream available in China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. Additionally, there are alfajor Oreo cookies available in Argentina, composed of three Oreo cookies with vanilla filling between each, and covered in chocolate.
Limited editions
Beginning in the early 2010s, Nabisco began releasing limited edition runs of cookies with more exotic flavors. These "limited editions" typically appear in stores for a short period and are then discontinued, although some varieties have since resurfaced, for example: Reese's Oreos returned for a second limited run after they were first introduced for a limited period in 2014; and Birthday Cake Oreos, originally introduced in 2012, have since become permanently available. Some limited editions are only made available at certain retailers.
Limited-edition runs usually feature a crème filling that has been flavored to replicate the taste of a specific fruit or dessert, from familiar flavors such as lemon or mint, to the more specific and unusual flavors of blueberry pie or red velvet cake. They may also incorporate different varieties of cookie wafer, for example Cinnamon-Bun Oreos featured cinnamon-flavored cookies and "frosting-flavored crème". In recent years, some limited editions have paired Oreos with other recognizable confectionery brands, including Reese's, Swedish Fish, and Peeps.
Oreo's six-person team in charge of special flavors is extremely secretive; the company will not disclose even the group's name. The limited-edition flavors largely serve as advertising for Oreo's regular varieties. Oreo cookies was mentioned as one of the strong brands - such as behind family-oriented companies in Forbes.
Use of "oreo" as a slur
Oreo cookies, due to their almost-black cookies and white filling, have often been used in popular culture as a metaphor for relations between people of color and white people. In the 1976 movie, A Star Is Born, Barbra Streisand's character Esther Hoffman is the white central member of The Oreos, a three-girl singing group, between black actresses Venetta Fields and Clydie King.
The term "Oreo" has occasionally been used as a disparaging and offensive racial slur aimed at a person of mixed-race or African-American heritage who is accused of trying to act white. The insult may be levied as an accusation that the person perpetuates the "un-level playing field for blacks", and is based on the implication that the person is like the cookie, "black on the outside and white on the inside". For example, the protagonist of the 1974 novel, Oreo, was nicknamed Oreo because of a mixed Jewish-American and African-American heritage. Former American president Barack Obama, due to his bi-racial heritage, has been compared to an Oreo by political pundits and television personalities such as John McLaughlin and Rush Limbaugh.
In 2021, the chair of the Lamar County Democrats, Gary O'Connor, compared South Carolina Senator Tim Scott, the only African-American Republican in the United States Senate, to an Oreo after Scott gave the Republican response to Joe Biden's joint address to Congress. Amid fierce criticism, O'Connor apologized for his remarks and offered his resignation, but the Lamar County Democrats chose not to accept his resignation and O'Connor wrote a public letter of apology for his remarks.
See also
Cookies and cream
Newman-O's
Hydrox
Domino (cookie)
Explanatory notes
Citations
Further reading
External links
Additional history notes on Oreo cookies
Cookie sandwiches
Mondelez International brands
Nabisco brands
Products introduced in 1912 | [
0.09652096033096313,
0.5690087080001831,
-0.2841067910194397,
0.4041489362716675,
-0.29664748907089233,
0.482399582862854,
-0.3914875090122223,
0.6545152068138123,
0.07708551734685898,
-0.04059859737753868,
-0.27355343103408813,
0.2156677395105362,
0.12731073796749115,
0.46735680103302,
-0.07574653625488281,
-0.0029557771049439907,
0.44960811734199524,
0.47374382615089417,
-0.4801601767539978,
-0.5627387166023254,
0.09942357987165451,
-0.7657744288444519,
0.15661931037902832,
-0.2784141004085541,
0.033278729766607285,
0.47426319122314453,
0.017124434933066368,
-0.35262545943260193,
0.004862727597355843,
0.272441029548645,
-0.21302688121795654,
0.6199427843093872,
0.46529045701026917,
-0.1589180827140808,
-0.03353171795606613,
0.13468673825263977,
0.053546879440546036,
-0.11645853519439697,
-0.07128535956144333,
-0.3378562033176422,
0.6712619662284851,
-0.049175865948200226,
0.12068266421556473,
0.04718310758471489,
-0.24283964931964874,
-0.3141176998615265,
-1.1597368717193604,
0.22726009786128998,
-1.00837242603302,
0.05418388172984123,
-0.20676225423812866,
0.18900835514068604,
0.10539054125547409,
-0.11081621795892715,
0.08790833503007889,
0.7805850505828857,
-0.3285439908504486,
-0.05364443361759186,
0.2169845849275589,
-0.43949460983276367,
-0.02317822352051735,
0.25399380922317505,
0.2201939970254898,
-0.49298223853111267,
-0.42386114597320557,
0.2607960104942322,
-0.20810645818710327,
0.7232650518417358,
-0.38245296478271484,
-0.23805680871009827,
0.1609872430562973,
-0.7647926807403564,
-0.1369263231754303,
-0.0762830600142479,
0.3486780822277069,
-0.2085152566432953,
-0.20844395458698273,
0.04060182720422745,
-0.18649694323539734,
0.5390947461128235,
-0.6224737167358398,
0.05759681761264801,
0.6609244346618652,
0.07947918772697449,
0.3447151780128479,
0.08826100081205368,
-0.5209534168243408,
0.6957584619522095,
-0.3644035756587982,
0.8121106624603271,
-0.540813684463501,
-0.014200594276189804,
0.5919024348258972,
0.4184206426143646,
0.013571027666330338,
-0.4295596778392792,
0.30264902114868164,
0.3722378611564636,
0.6477093696594238,
0.32010555267333984,
-0.15344899892807007,
0.015345308929681778,
0.6946229338645935,
-0.009081522934138775,
-0.7650896310806274,
0.21528159081935883,
-0.43201661109924316,
-0.9527193903923035,
0.12769849598407745,
-0.10502931475639343,
0.0011583910090848804,
-0.025948219001293182,
-0.039868321269750595,
0.8713634610176086,
-0.3088785707950592,
-0.3688213527202606,
-0.17232273519039154,
0.09091215580701828,
-0.5880028605461121,
-0.3421826958656311,
0.1403862088918686,
0.5422629117965698,
0.39392226934432983,
0.12880443036556244,
0.570783257484436,
0.5109640955924988,
-0.6131254434585571,
0.2663838863372803,
0.042149972170591354,
0.39317989349365234,
0.19478949904441833,
0.25467774271965027,
0.33725130558013916,
0.0014445416163653135,
-0.2024458348751068,
-0.13071885704994202,
0.06785032898187637,
-0.44340673089027405,
0.6364405751228333,
-0.16553907096385956,
-0.6511270999908447,
-0.15238457918167114,
-0.44292208552360535,
0.03606750816106796,
0.10289615392684937,
-0.10537294298410416,
-0.3382362425327301,
-0.003615674562752247,
-0.18030601739883423,
-0.14267303049564362,
0.12686856091022491,
-0.22687692940235138,
-0.1500834822654724,
-0.24569536745548248,
0.10351680219173431,
0.22085322439670563,
0.001426810398697853,
0.0861901268362999,
0.2971755266189575,
-0.08603659272193909,
-0.03652625158429146,
0.1402844935655594,
-0.20044851303100586,
-0.41300758719444275,
-0.22014307975769043,
-0.1371309608221054,
0.6086562275886536,
0.21058978140354156,
-0.23689475655555725,
0.44774097204208374,
-0.08896385878324509,
-0.23713499307632446,
0.2308553159236908,
0.48357701301574707,
-0.5445420145988464,
0.14097408950328827,
0.5892911553382874,
0.29112690687179565,
0.8550381660461426,
0.03944389522075653,
-0.33516278862953186,
-0.17422857880592346,
0.3955797553062439,
-0.3922007381916046,
0.2717337906360626,
0.012127758003771305,
0.07734464108943939,
-0.464017391204834,
-0.14022475481033325,
0.38654178380966187,
-0.5946666598320007,
-0.24422381818294525,
0.07118454575538635,
-0.2622462809085846,
0.806372344493866,
0.10977616161108017,
-0.5338267683982849,
-0.038645390421152115,
0.6924233436584473,
-0.1420157253742218,
-0.45238980650901794,
0.03560709208250046,
0.25409218668937683,
-0.5631055235862732,
-1.0562007427215576,
0.627721905708313,
0.2702208161354065,
0.3315875828266144,
0.320525199174881,
-0.17100365459918976,
0.11383527517318726,
-0.030100634321570396,
0.7862569689750671,
-0.18852071464061737,
-0.300174355506897,
0.4396761357784271,
0.11934434622526169,
0.32444193959236145,
0.16437482833862305,
-0.46088945865631104,
0.5474951267242432,
-0.19436098635196686,
0.06644300371408463,
0.07548841089010239,
-0.15443921089172363,
0.5313144326210022,
0.4098122715950012,
0.32461750507354736,
0.72319096326828,
0.26188579201698303,
0.37369707226753235,
-0.25248146057128906,
0.5118305683135986,
-0.09780895709991455,
0.29638054966926575,
-0.040354687720537186,
0.5466521382331848,
-0.18225672841072083,
0.3270973861217499,
-0.08716034144163132,
0.1727648675441742,
0.1444903463125229,
-0.07657527178525925,
-0.029455026611685753,
0.5531799793243408,
-0.17918097972869873,
-0.1963886171579361,
-0.04098513349890709,
-0.15386375784873962,
-0.3442452549934387,
0.1307937502861023,
0.07824540883302689,
0.02183658443391323,
0.18665270507335663,
-0.002076153876259923,
-0.5509732961654663,
-0.06709178537130356,
-0.10006669908761978,
0.34197691082954407,
0.26326411962509155,
-0.046261582523584366,
-0.20539765059947968,
-0.09987881034612656,
-0.11720455437898636,
-0.505698561668396,
-0.3408593237400055,
-0.22492484748363495,
0.16022975742816925,
0.12594610452651978,
0.19171710312366486,
0.11226798593997955,
0.3280392587184906,
-0.6202185750007629,
-0.004123132675886154,
0.16119760274887085,
-1.0847288370132446,
0.09181787073612213,
0.20890580117702484,
-0.7791465520858765,
-0.6659379005432129,
0.0815129280090332,
0.2671433389186859,
0.2444325089454651,
-0.22227123379707336,
-0.16446854174137115,
-0.7885926365852356,
0.4691925644874573,
-0.8174365758895874,
-0.7700954079627991,
-0.31510841846466064,
-0.46756091713905334,
0.8357692360877991,
-0.04298955202102661,
-0.4337293803691864,
0.32485732436180115,
0.4110381305217743,
0.11304718255996704,
0.32232728600502014,
0.6475198864936829,
-0.533232569694519,
0.41420015692710876,
-0.2624019682407379,
-0.0008743053185753524,
0.2137957066297531,
-0.2868553102016449,
-0.2798510491847992,
0.18766815960407257,
-0.2965339422225952,
-5.993258953094482,
-0.04164266213774681,
-0.8165925741195679,
-0.12769347429275513,
-0.1132429838180542,
0.20405127108097076,
0.45816197991371155,
-0.3358204960823059,
-0.05193903297185898,
-0.04438851401209831,
-0.06097792088985443,
0.3650210201740265,
0.4059530794620514,
-0.14650115370750427,
0.4767073690891266,
0.18488264083862305,
0.5920538306236267,
0.30642935633659363,
-0.1901254653930664,
-0.13306894898414612,
0.46340659260749817,
0.04121312126517296,
-0.2605421543121338,
1.0294384956359863,
-0.1914653778076172,
-0.01827768236398697,
-0.16891488432884216,
0.2443889081478119,
0.07639031857252121,
-0.2800300121307373,
0.14547044038772583,
-0.2316409796476364,
0.009103926829993725,
-0.6728314757347107,
0.16493567824363708,
-0.009114322252571583,
0.3357645571231842,
-0.011407277546823025,
0.24244795739650726,
0.19162175059318542,
0.3372494578361511,
0.7262013554573059,
0.21803677082061768,
-0.5581546425819397,
0.7448146343231201,
-0.616138219833374,
-0.27653613686561584,
-0.659481942653656,
-0.3222678005695343,
0.5049715042114258,
0.16957972943782806,
-0.024931883439421654,
0.2161438912153244,
0.16506946086883545,
0.3117910921573639,
0.6991902589797974,
-0.10113512724637985,
0.5019622445106506,
-0.4950500428676605,
-0.12378370016813278,
0.340768963098526,
-0.030334945768117905,
-0.3821212649345398,
-0.42903685569763184,
-0.7345738410949707,
-0.0908249095082283,
-0.40697336196899414,
0.41161325573921204,
0.6054282784461975,
0.06113504245877266,
-0.42976221442222595,
-0.056255098432302475,
-0.02386530302464962,
-0.46848753094673157,
-0.21280033886432648,
-0.1586856245994568,
0.29201486706733704,
0.1965360790491104,
-0.6670827269554138,
0.5539951920509338,
-0.06086139380931854,
-0.007550827693194151,
-0.2325970083475113,
0.0559636652469635,
0.10621187835931778,
-0.27069777250289917,
-0.4840807020664215,
-0.1500411033630371,
-0.14295490086078644,
0.07818610221147537,
0.425743967294693,
0.08529674261808395,
-0.038140542805194855,
0.12626172602176666,
0.6046382188796997,
-0.015368308871984482,
0.21532391011714935,
0.5021734833717346,
-0.20105133950710297,
-0.05270243063569069,
0.2761840522289276,
-0.31058430671691895,
0.5290551781654358,
-0.4347003102302551,
-0.31933483481407166,
0.21445615589618683,
0.27932971715927124,
-0.27055999636650085,
0.7276040315628052,
-0.13370420038700104,
-0.038274381309747696,
0.24504566192626953,
-0.438302218914032,
-0.05886055901646614,
0.1950063705444336,
0.006345988251268864,
-0.24134618043899536,
0.08094371110200882,
0.22883319854736328,
0.1563706398010254,
-0.14255273342132568,
0.21532995998859406,
-0.379351407289505,
-0.562677800655365,
-0.5172160863876343,
-0.6323539614677429,
0.4938155710697174,
-0.1082964614033699,
-0.04298093542456627,
0.3774901330471039,
-0.3859119415283203,
0.08072531223297119,
-0.010110548697412014,
-0.19514821469783783,
-0.12260270118713379,
-0.1687677651643753,
-0.4193504750728607,
-0.26362162828445435,
-0.4198734164237976,
-0.4987453520298004,
0.30340272188186646,
-0.5588676929473877,
0.0075937313959002495,
0.14735093712806702,
0.2698594033718109,
0.40044501423835754,
-0.836199939250946,
-0.15665775537490845,
-0.2551305592060089,
0.43677058815956116,
-0.33502042293548584,
-0.18348847329616547,
0.2728253901004791,
0.26931411027908325,
-0.16900035738945007,
0.557921826839447,
0.17899715900421143,
0.3851669728755951,
0.06976687908172607,
0.08266562968492508,
0.5619247555732727,
-0.7987083792686462,
-0.7100972533226013,
0.4529528319835663,
-0.2364151030778885,
0.33607369661331177,
-0.649638831615448,
-0.47255703806877136,
-0.34617969393730164,
0.6363183856010437,
0.04730019345879555,
-0.40819311141967773,
-0.0710119754076004,
0.2321019023656845,
0.181081160902977,
0.10524483770132065,
0.3880641758441925,
-0.5257478356361389,
0.21629559993743896,
-0.5718249082565308,
-0.06660407781600952,
-0.5066015720367432,
0.1479056030511856,
0.34399619698524475,
0.048185184597969055,
-0.5244774222373962,
-0.1916305273771286,
0.6711413860321045,
-0.07608531415462494,
0.3052864968776703,
-0.3694207966327667,
-0.04016706347465515,
0.28868380188941956,
0.18495406210422516,
-0.0012238355120643973,
-0.21786125004291534,
-0.19018124043941498,
0.21504974365234375,
-0.22740547358989716,
-0.7216684818267822,
-0.17423895001411438,
0.11288861930370331,
-0.7892151474952698,
0.19736561179161072,
-0.06458844244480133,
-0.4820186197757721,
0.16519810259342194,
-0.15118038654327393,
-0.02579917199909687,
0.1033082976937294,
-0.5156669020652771,
-0.3779580891132355,
0.3491203784942627,
0.2415502369403839,
0.17925666272640228,
0.3727765381336212,
0.14544054865837097,
0.28989821672439575,
0.14610816538333893,
-0.4663117825984955,
-0.07854179292917252,
-0.1433725506067276,
-0.1372978538274765,
0.16851961612701416,
-0.29552704095840454,
0.7440329194068909,
0.2377088963985443,
-0.1277468502521515,
-0.23221491277217865,
-0.03799765557050705,
0.06352237612009048,
-0.38205569982528687,
-0.3196761906147003,
0.35577505826950073,
0.8508132696151733,
0.4357948303222656,
-0.05895794928073883,
0.23006682097911835,
0.38851356506347656,
-0.09442360699176788,
0.28861141204833984,
0.2441299706697464,
-0.14891847968101501,
0.212312251329422,
-0.7698146104812622,
0.36116135120391846,
0.4657611548900604,
-0.26071059703826904,
-1.0357310771942139,
0.1494525969028473,
0.09952126443386078,
-0.8628180623054504,
-0.2677527070045471,
-0.5936428904533386,
0.4613046646118164,
-0.516730010509491,
-0.10934234410524368,
0.17237235605716705,
-0.27010616660118103,
0.3093874454498291,
-0.2218197137117386,
0.006034764926880598,
-0.13981424272060394,
0.46441325545310974,
0.22661122679710388,
0.4135439395904541,
-0.38571032881736755,
-0.4583740234375,
-0.13054895401000977,
-0.18137328326702118,
1.1242432594299316,
0.37689560651779175,
0.7668716907501221,
0.634985625743866,
0.09146728366613388,
0.6286688446998596,
-0.3589869737625122,
-0.7346747517585754,
-0.3986481726169586,
-0.1885475218296051,
-0.42522934079170227,
0.13166861236095428,
-0.10981001704931259,
0.22770480811595917,
0.12969562411308289,
-0.5655971169471741,
-0.4996839761734009,
-0.20054616034030914,
-0.495520681142807,
0.016570959240198135,
-0.3967632055282593,
0.7366455793380737,
-0.45137280225753784,
-0.4824177324771881,
0.24529141187667847,
0.19724811613559723,
0.5223218202590942,
-0.00920950248837471,
-0.5661994218826294,
-0.006772785913199186,
-0.3015246093273163,
0.4614265561103821,
0.03905544802546501,
-0.8620521426200867,
0.365848571062088,
0.10544174164533615,
-0.3740433156490326,
0.34867534041404724,
-0.39025670289993286,
-0.40299487113952637,
0.43794000148773193,
-0.21924267709255219,
0.07304927706718445,
0.4266817569732666,
0.16307201981544495,
-0.22339271008968353,
0.7487874627113342,
-0.32948434352874756,
0.23134589195251465,
0.6104390621185303,
0.46210339665412903,
0.044186197221279144,
0.35409286618232727,
0.2781374752521515,
0.06256739050149918,
-0.029278744012117386,
-0.23593589663505554,
-0.29372233152389526,
0.07489948719739914,
0.6278975009918213,
0.42782333493232727,
0.23514364659786224,
-0.24169716238975525,
-0.3474362790584564,
-0.23761877417564392,
-0.41100478172302246,
-0.2626897096633911,
-0.27458781003952026,
-0.4677303433418274,
1.2704514265060425,
0.1889110803604126,
0.4249792993068695,
-0.25794121623039246,
-0.05698663368821144,
0.16641302406787872,
0.23798364400863647,
-0.1368788331747055,
-0.13149981200695038,
-0.10791335254907608,
0.17382174730300903,
-0.25349923968315125,
-0.09584823250770569,
0.20150266587734222,
-0.26351994276046753,
0.04429993778467178,
-0.13968563079833984,
-0.44629570841789246,
0.017225956544280052,
0.1589891016483307,
0.4518590271472931,
-0.2709953486919403,
0.5912134647369385,
0.5221408605575562,
-0.29503679275512695,
-0.2273414433002472,
-0.06939930468797684,
-1.0769116878509521,
-0.5358574986457825,
-0.2852826714515686,
0.3945038616657257,
-0.12398070096969604,
-0.22892776131629944,
-0.05549439415335655,
0.7186082601547241,
-0.2644699513912201,
0.06032763421535492,
-0.22863729298114777,
0.9003861546516418,
0.21750716865062714,
0.41835519671440125,
-0.7333942651748657,
0.09273362159729004,
-0.1201184019446373,
-0.0018277284689247608,
0.3901022672653198,
-0.3066076934337616,
-0.17786696553230286,
0.4187633693218231,
-0.11507533490657806,
-0.028486475348472595,
0.37513795495033264,
-0.5022040605545044,
-0.2744974195957184,
-0.11497154086828232,
0.2549717426300049,
-0.23579370975494385,
0.14779411256313324,
0.3057386577129364,
-0.2419789582490921,
0.262468159198761,
0.15562376379966736,
-0.12876804172992706,
0.4206109642982483,
-0.18717911839485168,
-0.3494586944580078,
0.1291506141424179,
-0.3383975923061371,
0.4445224106311798,
-0.8494447469711304,
-0.01904963329434395,
0.5105302929878235,
-0.554140031337738,
0.16104812920093536,
-0.21439626812934875,
-0.20429009199142456,
-0.3291408121585846,
0.7601524591445923,
-0.14381074905395508,
-0.036862753331661224,
-0.5913320183753967,
-0.03906672075390816,
-0.4181915819644928,
0.5448099374771118,
0.15781214833259583,
0.1801912635564804,
0.11261949688196182,
0.4548249840736389,
-0.08524563163518906,
0.003075200133025646,
0.630596399307251,
-0.2968820333480835,
0.11341699212789536,
-0.43603241443634033,
0.6142858266830444,
-0.2702394723892212,
-0.4641438126564026,
-0.002959351520985365,
0.5610092282295227,
-0.23913800716400146,
-0.20709533989429474,
-0.07378625124692917,
-0.4918961524963379,
-0.7348498106002808,
0.052785176783800125,
-0.45109397172927856,
0.37637025117874146,
0.09239338338375092,
-0.07931841909885406,
-0.6999791860580444,
0.23223739862442017,
-0.29779893159866333,
-0.24115364253520966,
0.06940355151891708,
0.17921914160251617,
-0.14751949906349182,
0.01768828183412552,
0.3592469096183777,
-0.10707971453666687,
0.16896489262580872,
0.4409622550010681
] |
241563 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsolescence | Obsolescence | Obsolescence is the state of being which occurs when an object, service, or practice is no longer maintained, required, or degraded even though it may still be in good working order.
The international standard IEC 62402:2019 Obsolescence Management defines obsolescence as the "transition from available to unavailable from the manufacturer in accordance with the original specification".
Obsolescence frequently occurs because a replacement has become available that has, in sum, more advantages compared to the disadvantages incurred by maintaining or repairing the original.
Obsolete also refers to something that is already disused or discarded, or antiquated. Typically, obsolescence is preceded by a gradual decline in popularity.
Consequences
Driven by rapid technological changes, new components are developed and launched on the market with increasing speed. The result is a dramatic change in production methods of all components and their market availability. A growing industry sector is facing issues where life cycles of products no longer fit together with life cycles of required components. This issue is known as obsolescence, the status given to a part when it is no longer available from its original manufacturer. The problem of obsolescence is most prevalent for electronics technology, wherein the procurement lifetimes for microelectronic parts are often significantly shorter than the manufacturing and support life cycles for the products that use the parts. However, obsolescence extends beyond electronic components to other items, such as materials, textiles, and mechanical parts. In addition, obsolescence has been shown to appear for software, specifications, standards, processes, and soft resources, such as human skills. It is highly important to implement and operate an active management of obsolescence to mitigate and avoid extreme costs.
Types
Technical obsolescence
Technical obsolescence usually occurs when a new product or technology supersedes the old one, and it is preferred to use the new technology instead. Historical examples of new technologies superseding old ones include bronze replacing flint in hand-tools, DVDs replacing videocassettes, and the telephone replacing the telegraph. On a smaller scale, a particular product may become obsolete when a newer version replaces it. Many products in the computer industry become obsolete in this manner. For example, central processing units (CPUs) frequently become obsolete in favor of newer, faster units. Singularly, rapid obsolescence of data formats along with their supporting hardware and software can lead to loss of critical information, a process known as digital obsolescence.
In many cases, a new technology does not totally replace the old technology because the old technology is still useful in certain applications. For example, transistors replaced vacuum tubes in TV and radio receivers in the 1960s, but vacuum tubes were still used for powerful transmitters because transistors for these power levels were not available. Even today, one has to use multiple transistors for a purpose that used to require just one tube.
Products may also become obsolete when supporting technologies are no longer available to produce or even repair a product. For example, many integrated circuits, including CPUs, memory and even some relatively simple logic chips may no longer be produced because the technology has been superseded, their original developer has gone out of business or a competitor has bought them out and effectively killed off their products to remove competition. It is rarely worth redeveloping a product to get around these issues since its overall functionality and price/performance ratio has usually been superseded by that time as well.
Some products become technologically obsolete due to changes in complementary products which results in the function of the first product being made unnecessary. For example, buggy whips became obsolete when people started to travel in cars rather than in horse-drawn buggies.
Functional obsolescence
Items become functionally obsolete when they can no longer adequately perform the function for which they were created. For example, while one could theoretically adapt an Avro Lancaster to deploy modern JDAM bombs, the situations in which it could actually succeed at doing so against modern air defenses would be so few that it would be essentially useless.
Manufacturers and repair companies will typically cease support for products once they become obsolete as keeping production lines in place and parts in storage for a shrinking user base becomes unprofitable. This causes scarcity of spare parts and skilled technicians for repairs and thus escalates maintenance costs for obsolete products. This ultimately leads to prohibitive expense in keeping old technology functioning.
Architectural obsolescence
The term "obsolescence" was first applied to the built environment in 1910 in an attempt to explain American skyscrapers' sudden loss of value. New York engineer Reginald P. Bolton attributed this phenomenon to "something new and better out-competing the old" and calculated the average architectural lifespan of varying building types in order to formulate a rough estimate for their impending obsolescence. For example, he suggested that hotels' obsolescence will occur faster than banks due to their ever-changing functions and tastes.
Planned obsolescence
Sometimes marketers deliberately introduce obsolescence into their product strategy, with the objective of generating long-term sales volume by reducing the time between repeat purchases. One example might be producing an appliance which is deliberately designed to wear out within five years of its purchase, pushing consumers to replace it within five years.
Inventory obsolescence
Inventory obsolescence occurs when retailers and other vendors hold stocks for anticipated future sales which turn out to be too slow to materialise. Holding excessive levels of stock or over-predicting potential demand increase the risks of products becoming obsolete and have a detrimental effect on the organisation's cash flow. Companies may address this problem alongside a periodic stock count by assessing which of their stock items are slow-moving or not selling at all.
Style obsolescence
When a product is no longer desirable because it has gone out of the popular fashion, its style is obsolete. One example is flared leg jeans; although this article of clothing may still be perfectly functional, it is no longer desirable because style trends have moved away from the flared leg cut.
Because of the "fashion cycle", stylistically obsolete products may eventually regain popularity and cease to be obsolete. An example is "acid-wash" jeans, which were popular in the 1980s, became stylistically obsolete in the mid to late 1990s, and returned to popularity in the 2000s.
Obsolescence management
Obsolescence management, also referred to as "Diminishing Manufacturing Sources and Material Shortages" (DMSMS), is defined as to the activities that are undertaken to mitigate the effects of obsolescence. Activities can include last-time buys, lifetime buys, and obsolescence monitoring.
See also
References
Further reading
Bjoern Bartels, Ulrich Ermel, Peter Sandborn, and Michael G. Pecht: Strategies to the Prediction, Mitigation and Management of Product Obsolescence, 1st. Ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, 2012, , ()
External links
Problems in business economics
Product management | [
0.3120560944080353,
0.4382398724555969,
-0.09615816175937653,
0.10683941096067429,
0.28975310921669006,
0.01781185157597065,
1.2369530200958252,
0.5401180982589722,
0.025351455435156822,
-0.48825690150260925,
-0.6901048421859741,
0.06687592715024948,
-0.22506532073020935,
0.8148508667945862,
-0.6132205128669739,
0.6949493288993835,
0.8295562267303467,
1.0139029026031494,
0.007522648200392723,
0.31201431155204773,
-0.40867823362350464,
0.022695470601320267,
0.016816522926092148,
-0.7091415524482727,
0.16334815323352814,
-0.414093554019928,
0.12585878372192383,
0.0624924972653389,
-0.5650535225868225,
-0.03503952920436859,
-0.04162576049566269,
-0.06285439431667328,
-0.10124398022890091,
-0.216921865940094,
-0.044897787272930145,
0.34316426515579224,
0.38099005818367004,
-0.36594128608703613,
-0.45916739106178284,
-0.6566305756568909,
0.11642792820930481,
0.012398404069244862,
0.1833258718252182,
0.25797563791275024,
-0.7866599559783936,
-0.49053874611854553,
-1.270369529724121,
-0.01912153698503971,
-0.12208139896392822,
0.004368321970105171,
-0.6734042763710022,
0.32087013125419617,
0.42565056681632996,
0.25527167320251465,
-0.233363538980484,
-0.027165628969669342,
-0.2953421473503113,
0.08236650377511978,
0.21753132343292236,
-0.7876202464103699,
0.5696880221366882,
-0.48913779854774475,
-0.11519323289394379,
-0.2418285608291626,
-0.26012304425239563,
0.11245015263557434,
0.18037770688533783,
0.22574472427368164,
-0.019293859601020813,
-0.5190063714981079,
-0.26790356636047363,
-0.29155656695365906,
0.22331541776657104,
-0.08102162927389145,
-0.9323799014091492,
-0.2744429409503937,
0.12031017988920212,
-0.404772013425827,
-0.35276129841804504,
-0.30737626552581787,
-0.11490949988365173,
0.9017605185508728,
0.3863101601600647,
-0.40219011902809143,
0.6153309941291809,
-0.4526956081390381,
-0.0987899973988533,
0.8225583434104919,
-0.48602285981178284,
0.46176913380622864,
0.5124682188034058,
0.00479406351223588,
0.9964531660079956,
0.1037578210234642,
-0.19027917087078094,
-0.11944622546434402,
0.7555673718452454,
-0.22054047882556915,
-0.38676759600639343,
0.22831380367279053,
0.4840591251850128,
-0.2817368805408478,
0.26457956433296204,
-0.4877147376537323,
0.5042415261268616,
-0.6481895446777344,
0.32650741934776306,
-0.22590693831443787,
0.547032356262207,
-0.2525050640106201,
-0.279424786567688,
0.233388751745224,
-0.44840753078460693,
0.2620530426502228,
-0.7380324006080627,
0.4944893419742584,
-0.11153525114059448,
0.22239647805690765,
-0.29263439774513245,
-0.05430259928107262,
0.3566798269748688,
0.12974469363689423,
-0.1577042192220688,
-0.688883364200592,
-0.34371787309646606,
-0.04390570521354675,
0.08231495320796967,
0.4016026258468628,
-0.8122774362564087,
0.18509183824062347,
0.40007373690605164,
0.29621097445487976,
-0.525741696357727,
-0.1468265950679779,
0.16196918487548828,
0.1935971975326538,
0.5535136461257935,
0.19259633123874664,
0.4176969826221466,
-0.02009907178580761,
-0.43079590797424316,
-0.2736181318759918,
-0.8101189732551575,
0.09987431019544601,
0.2062646895647049,
-0.06439025700092316,
0.5402442812919617,
0.06063489243388176,
-0.4311315417289734,
0.10737449675798416,
0.2517244219779968,
-0.2786715030670166,
-0.6869213581085205,
-0.1803930699825287,
0.03614840656518936,
0.36522963643074036,
0.2846887707710266,
-0.5496123433113098,
0.04822232574224472,
0.19622036814689636,
0.22554324567317963,
0.15494880080223083,
-0.41983434557914734,
-0.008776574395596981,
0.20812013745307922,
-0.31748223304748535,
-0.20064346492290497,
0.8491722941398621,
0.45377424359321594,
0.053546540439128876,
-0.15171027183532715,
0.17690196633338928,
0.1416751593351364,
-0.4118352234363556,
-0.07911576330661774,
0.46424052119255066,
0.848758339881897,
0.029852814972400665,
0.47240114212036133,
0.17015361785888672,
-0.8796733617782593,
0.15623781085014343,
0.49801069498062134,
0.21621045470237732,
0.23130139708518982,
-0.3223562240600586,
0.4860912561416626,
-0.0006027810159139335,
-0.3928552269935608,
-0.4553757309913635,
-0.7042061686515808,
-0.4793429374694824,
0.2657712399959564,
-0.7776632308959961,
0.8093194365501404,
-0.10143634676933289,
-0.7022099494934082,
0.49981582164764404,
-0.34107306599617004,
0.11356392502784729,
0.18137583136558533,
0.33093830943107605,
0.07067875564098358,
-0.04141336306929588,
-0.10691241919994354,
0.7084357738494873,
0.2544640898704529,
0.3660401701927185,
0.015949329361319542,
-0.042018018662929535,
0.5658289194107056,
-0.684317409992218,
0.17557303607463837,
0.19237737357616425,
0.08538491278886795,
-0.05333166942000389,
-0.6110992431640625,
-0.5243358612060547,
-0.36885952949523926,
-0.5005813837051392,
0.2464485913515091,
0.18562376499176025,
-0.29644423723220825,
0.45006948709487915,
-0.31077566742897034,
0.38924938440322876,
-0.10595142096281052,
-0.2606969177722931,
0.891333818435669,
-0.6148040890693665,
0.33291611075401306,
0.2275325208902359,
-0.2554808259010315,
0.00540911965072155,
-0.5068537592887878,
0.6507915258407593,
0.18473026156425476,
-0.04741852357983589,
0.06011712923645973,
-0.5017980933189392,
-0.43647846579551697,
0.09107624739408493,
0.0925377681851387,
0.5375460982322693,
0.43802016973495483,
0.05165329948067665,
0.17352014780044556,
0.7483814358711243,
-1.0558545589447021,
0.1585017591714859,
0.1906219869852066,
0.6187407374382019,
0.22514845430850983,
-0.43948209285736084,
0.2170032411813736,
-0.2366468608379364,
-0.3597795069217682,
0.1517157107591629,
-0.2280421406030655,
-0.22560851275920868,
-0.333639919757843,
-0.025078564882278442,
-0.13301828503608704,
-0.006082517560571432,
-0.23531922698020935,
-0.05263231322169304,
0.007574010174721479,
-0.21093662083148956,
-0.11204612255096436,
0.4453074634075165,
0.07962946593761444,
-0.10712943971157074,
-0.47609394788742065,
0.2921273410320282,
-0.43818148970603943,
-0.17243815958499908,
0.7558729648590088,
0.2984500825405121,
0.0516100749373436,
-0.04812249168753624,
0.5824437737464905,
1.1134344339370728,
0.14961294829845428,
-0.9476889967918396,
-0.4450892210006714,
-0.3566473424434662,
0.4506884515285492,
0.3574391007423401,
-0.33201345801353455,
0.248162180185318,
-0.6708395481109619,
0.16451452672481537,
-0.02712518535554409,
0.23042404651641846,
0.22643113136291504,
0.18711866438388824,
0.0840843990445137,
-0.03740771487355232,
0.4742937386035919,
-0.05817867070436478,
-0.17625369131565094,
-0.586111307144165,
-0.3020128011703491,
0.2531449496746063,
-0.23252464830875397,
-0.007870861329138279,
-0.4219854176044464,
-0.4651516079902649,
-5.591163158416748,
-0.007236982695758343,
-0.05818364396691322,
-0.1670837551355362,
-0.1932080090045929,
0.5111044645309448,
0.6106624603271484,
0.43367260694503784,
-0.9706568717956543,
0.6424713134765625,
-0.03800993412733078,
0.3356393277645111,
0.6514785885810852,
0.8716414570808411,
0.4414002001285553,
0.01956135407090187,
0.6103451251983643,
-0.08325854688882828,
-0.3647910952568054,
0.12664571404457092,
-0.33645787835121155,
0.04991098865866661,
0.2609822154045105,
0.41105514764785767,
0.12026039510965347,
0.03763851523399353,
-0.8478227853775024,
0.6458505988121033,
-0.6407228112220764,
-0.2427666187286377,
0.23953412473201752,
0.010750923305749893,
-0.036849625408649445,
-0.3645995259284973,
0.08572591841220856,
0.7033682465553284,
0.07145621627569199,
0.25895988941192627,
-0.3948777914047241,
-0.08135513961315155,
0.31279653310775757,
0.33989962935447693,
0.01927403174340725,
0.7587117552757263,
0.6519134640693665,
0.327383428812027,
-0.18516293168067932,
-0.7509598135948181,
-0.25111937522888184,
0.3794654309749603,
-0.15903080999851227,
0.26640796661376953,
0.7538621425628662,
-0.36379191279411316,
0.06895139813423157,
-0.3404688537120819,
0.2145010530948639,
-0.16888609528541565,
-0.2432405799627304,
-0.0988040417432785,
0.11094841361045837,
-0.44526025652885437,
0.0004796341818291694,
-0.3751527965068817,
-0.08124279230833054,
-0.06922327727079391,
-0.7317601442337036,
-0.6076654195785522,
0.8992407917976379,
0.15122078359127045,
-0.45528122782707214,
0.23916493356227875,
0.40609613060951233,
-0.8211206793785095,
-0.21652281284332275,
-0.7870579957962036,
-0.1385975331068039,
-0.048103511333465576,
0.17546114325523376,
-0.2694380283355713,
-0.323485404253006,
-0.12577609717845917,
-0.17048917710781097,
-0.15665173530578613,
0.14218111336231232,
-0.38190972805023193,
0.16621342301368713,
0.74991774559021,
-0.23259198665618896,
0.10836642980575562,
0.8970573544502258,
0.5187317728996277,
-0.09591270983219147,
-0.2620302140712738,
0.06687802821397781,
0.7028932571411133,
0.3978976309299469,
-0.214244082570076,
0.18253272771835327,
-0.15801434218883514,
0.36778271198272705,
-0.5665170550346375,
-0.018813714385032654,
0.03320804983377457,
-0.1309031993150711,
-0.3455551862716675,
-0.5276862978935242,
0.19069956243038177,
0.5978223085403442,
-0.13512203097343445,
0.15725907683372498,
0.24647852778434753,
-0.2729812264442444,
-0.17745786905288696,
0.2216033637523651,
0.20174162089824677,
-0.6448746919631958,
0.5785467028617859,
0.04519812390208244,
-0.403013676404953,
0.36297884583473206,
-0.017760565504431725,
-0.3565466105937958,
-0.17685629427433014,
-0.5495696067810059,
-0.1705457866191864,
-0.19380523264408112,
0.20313306152820587,
-0.11396882683038712,
-0.345937043428421,
0.725993812084198,
0.7774442434310913,
0.054253123700618744,
0.12395107001066208,
0.13576054573059082,
-0.5978045463562012,
-0.07525675743818283,
0.08597835153341293,
-0.5089690685272217,
-1.1076018810272217,
0.41342416405677795,
-0.47019869089126587,
-0.4236036241054535,
0.03648531436920166,
0.6686545014381409,
-0.1783159375190735,
0.053187958896160126,
-0.2833074927330017,
0.23257431387901306,
0.5010077953338623,
-0.07851903885602951,
-0.28054383397102356,
-0.23260563611984253,
-0.3590764105319977,
-0.07451837509870529,
-0.2691785395145416,
0.24302859604358673,
-0.22477136552333832,
0.1052015945315361,
-0.4244655966758728,
-0.16689367592334747,
0.26419082283973694,
-1.177619457244873,
-0.5824614763259888,
0.01463503111153841,
-0.4679216742515564,
-0.853762686252594,
-0.2993403971195221,
-0.2814943194389343,
0.791801393032074,
-0.4754182696342468,
-0.025922060012817383,
-0.3097290098667145,
-0.5790930390357971,
0.515553891658783,
-0.05558495596051216,
0.05026307329535484,
-0.36858248710632324,
0.2157202512025833,
-0.19639110565185547,
0.2424101084470749,
-0.15065762400627136,
-0.3628995716571808,
-0.040680430829524994,
0.18583954870700836,
-0.5186928510665894,
0.17824892699718475,
0.12757988274097443,
-0.25008222460746765,
-0.7195594906806946,
0.3577080965042114,
-0.366138219833374,
0.20603296160697937,
0.2851141393184662,
-0.09448693692684174,
-0.3584668040275574,
-0.21089167892932892,
0.582139253616333,
-0.1274336278438568,
-0.38882219791412354,
0.5324830412864685,
0.421944797039032,
-1.0797398090362549,
0.22726178169250488,
0.4705030918121338,
-0.9230765700340271,
0.3998003304004669,
-0.23729261755943298,
-0.5104104280471802,
0.4002254605293274,
-0.7610726356506348,
-0.3897348642349243,
-0.33854439854621887,
0.09457679092884064,
-0.09442530572414398,
-0.018020024523139,
0.10803664475679398,
-0.49323010444641113,
-0.3049825429916382,
-0.34670543670654297,
0.3228934109210968,
0.3270333409309387,
-0.04217313975095749,
0.39622464776039124,
-0.46039071679115295,
-0.4266711175441742,
0.4180901348590851,
-0.2580397129058838,
0.41206395626068115,
-0.6002776026725769,
0.0693352147936821,
0.040178332477808,
-0.05670597031712532,
-0.7607933282852173,
-0.384181946516037,
-0.28368768095970154,
0.1396612524986267,
-0.11885074526071548,
0.13172230124473572,
0.22499960660934448,
0.1290218085050583,
0.714532732963562,
0.12959693372249603,
-0.7776191234588623,
-0.33315202593803406,
0.32546743750572205,
0.116208016872406,
-0.6659665107727051,
-0.3545944392681122,
0.42040199041366577,
0.053220104426145554,
-0.10681010782718658,
-0.42716383934020996,
0.06768263876438141,
0.36694884300231934,
-0.2506808042526245,
0.1020963042974472,
-0.6349872946739197,
0.28613558411598206,
0.2327471375465393,
-0.04951094835996628,
-0.26241379976272583,
0.3297522962093353,
0.06266950070858002,
0.349007248878479,
0.1682572066783905,
-0.09030918776988983,
0.4825388789176941,
0.3178536891937256,
-1.0072702169418335,
0.510691225528717,
0.28693538904190063,
0.7306023240089417,
-0.010314738377928734,
0.42297065258026123,
-0.40736329555511475,
-0.022783007472753525,
-0.6235052943229675,
-0.07780055701732635,
-0.2555074989795685,
0.1858067363500595,
-0.26462438702583313,
-0.3368072807788849,
-0.5852781534194946,
0.2945154011249542,
-0.9596210718154907,
1.167414903640747,
-0.08352735638618469,
-1.3019092082977295,
-0.5896748304367065,
-0.8868767619132996,
0.27249062061309814,
0.6515435576438904,
0.5727962851524353,
0.05587662011384964,
0.2920767366886139,
-0.4373790919780731,
-0.12838028371334076,
0.00011910390458069742,
0.08476703613996506,
-0.5848472118377686,
0.04411782696843147,
0.16130076348781586,
-0.8282685279846191,
0.6717413067817688,
0.0763629600405693,
-0.02175069972872734,
-0.5464020371437073,
0.16907383501529694,
-0.007393394596874714,
0.24190056324005127,
0.18537120521068573,
0.4738214612007141,
0.9433098435401917,
-0.029542608186602592,
-0.39478084444999695,
0.06398672610521317,
-0.6424481272697449,
0.31528568267822266,
0.1429431438446045,
0.05101434141397476,
-0.43855124711990356,
0.6961190700531006,
-0.1961766481399536,
0.32607302069664,
0.6464654207229614,
-0.07238325476646423,
0.25253230333328247,
0.32408007979393005,
0.4725796580314636,
0.7523617744445801,
0.03970259800553322,
0.291225790977478,
-0.03903116285800934,
-0.26038894057273865,
-0.08042949438095093,
0.5049521923065186,
-0.2862929701805115,
-0.864436686038971,
0.48940005898475647,
0.3745177090167999,
0.5568552613258362,
0.08631367236375809,
0.3095901608467102,
-0.5114003419876099,
0.551971971988678,
-0.4034890830516815,
0.3944690525531769,
0.11312320828437805,
-0.020367572084069252,
0.3225397765636444,
-0.017666196450591087,
0.4545857608318329,
-0.1464913934469223,
0.1160166785120964,
-0.609881579875946,
0.7648621797561646,
-0.21261774003505707,
-0.2215324491262436,
0.12206660956144333,
0.1554965227842331,
0.3040468692779541,
0.3083533048629761,
0.11155389249324799,
0.4992161691188812,
-0.9416982531547546,
0.5331602692604065,
0.07699606567621231,
-0.19616100192070007,
-0.01068867277354002,
0.3616909682750702,
0.817992627620697,
0.19419331848621368,
0.5385190844535828,
0.5658645629882812,
-0.057172324508428574,
0.8902338147163391,
0.5253908634185791,
0.4377540647983551,
-0.024542000144720078,
-0.24583019316196442,
0.24867872893810272,
-0.10343904048204422,
-0.4371437132358551,
0.3741067349910736,
-0.02248210273683071,
0.1889330893754959,
0.2942333519458771,
0.2552834749221802,
-0.08545578271150589,
0.21663779020309448,
-0.1348511427640915,
-0.18380418419837952,
0.2770014703273773,
-0.008045856840908527,
-0.0856727808713913,
0.11955711245536804,
0.719528079032898,
0.2063160538673401,
-0.30428338050842285,
0.043332066386938095,
0.42596131563186646,
-0.19742262363433838,
0.5641544461250305,
-0.7951996922492981,
0.6628637909889221,
-0.28345218300819397,
0.1773456335067749,
-0.6136212348937988,
0.432629257440567,
0.06122909486293793,
-0.2531549632549286,
-0.034854087978601456,
0.11414013803005219,
0.05087064579129219,
-0.08864597231149673,
-0.19465841352939606,
-0.24875864386558533,
0.05285944789648056,
-0.35375910997390747,
0.39747899770736694,
-0.20726990699768066,
0.6449171304702759,
-0.08885908871889114,
-0.36457598209381104,
-0.472388356924057,
-0.04223537817597389,
0.12814529240131378,
-0.0033498702105134726,
0.4929693639278412,
-0.6161502003669739,
0.39453133940696716,
-0.20515789091587067,
0.6542210578918457,
-0.16161158680915833,
-0.0684814602136612,
0.19235798716545105,
-0.32829079031944275,
0.43248188495635986,
-0.5546419620513916,
-0.36764752864837646,
-0.3987889587879181,
0.5049774646759033,
-0.0743655413389206,
-0.7540791630744934,
0.4063345193862915,
-0.5215749144554138,
0.38021984696388245,
-0.33907222747802734,
0.0023913264740258455,
0.4324195683002472,
-0.456856906414032,
0.3503491282463074,
-0.1922767460346222,
-0.2863471210002899,
0.0024441315326839685,
0.1672251969575882,
-0.19212821125984192,
-0.29385611414909363,
0.48984044790267944
] |
241564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen%20triiodide | Nitrogen triiodide | Nitrogen triiodide is an inorganic compound with the formula NI3. It is an extremely sensitive contact explosive: small quantities explode with a loud, sharp snap when touched even lightly, releasing a purple cloud of iodine vapor; it can even be detonated by alpha radiation. NI3 has a complex structural chemistry that is difficult to study because of the instability of the derivatives.
Structure of NI3 and its derivatives
Nitrogen triiodide was first characterized by Raman spectroscopy in 1990 when it was prepared by an ammonia-free route. Boron nitride reacts with iodine monofluoride in trichlorofluoromethane at −30 °C to produce pure NI3 in low yield:
BN + 3 IF → NI3 + BF3
NI3 is pyramidal (C3v molecular symmetry), as are the other nitrogen trihalides and ammonia.
The material that is usually called "nitrogen triiodide" is prepared by the reaction of iodine with ammonia. When this reaction is conducted at low temperatures in anhydrous ammonia, the initial product is NI3 · (NH3)5, but this material loses some ammonia upon warming to give the 1:1 adduct NI3 · NH3. This adduct was first reported by Bernard Courtois in 1812, and its formula was finally determined in 1905 by Oswald Silberrad. Its solid state structure consists of chains of -NI2-I-NI2-I-NI2-I-. Ammonia molecules are situated between the chains. When kept cold in the dark and damp with ammonia, NI3 · NH3 is stable.
Decomposition and explosiveness
The instability of NI3 and NI3 · NH3 can be attributed to the large steric strain caused by the three large iodine atoms being held in proximity to each other around the relatively tiny nitrogen atom. This results in a very low activation energy for its decomposition, a reaction made even more favorable due to the great stability of N2. Nitrogen triiodide has no practical commercial value due to its extreme shock sensitivity, making it impossible to store, transport, and utilize for controlled explosions. Whereas pure nitroglycerin is also greatly shock-sensitive (although not nearly as much so as nitrogen triiodide, which can be set off with the touch of a feather) and powerful, it was only due to phlegmatizers that its shock sensitivity was reduced and it became safer to handle and transport in the form of dynamite.
The decomposition of NI3 proceeds as follows to give nitrogen gas and iodine:
2 NI3 (s) → N2 (g) + 3 I2 (g) (−290 kJ/mol)
However, the dry material is a contact explosive, decomposing approximately as follows:
8 NI3 · NH3 → 5 N2 + 6 NH4I + 9 I2
Consistent with this equation, these explosions leave orange-to-purple stains of iodine, which can be removed with sodium thiosulfate solution. An alternate method of stain removal is to simply allow the iodine time to sublime.
Small amounts of nitrogen triiodide are sometimes synthesized as a demonstration to high school chemistry students or as an act of "chemical magic". To highlight the sensitivity of the compound, it is usually detonated by touching it with a feather but even the slightest air current, laser light, or other movement can cause detonation. Nitrogen triiodide is also notable for being the only known chemical explosive that detonates when exposed to alpha particles and nuclear fission products.
References
External links
See the explosion
Nitrogen Tri-Iodide – explains why the compound is explosive
Nitrogen Tri-Iodide Detonation on Youtube
Inorganic amines
Iodides
Nitrogen halides
Explosive chemicals
Pyrotechnic chemicals | [
-0.2816232442855835,
0.6097028851509094,
-0.6564729809761047,
-0.12181214243173599,
-0.7038477659225464,
0.11682908236980438,
0.3263244032859802,
-0.10984047502279282,
0.1242535188794136,
-0.31671643257141113,
-0.5644684433937073,
-0.09746773540973663,
-0.2572280764579773,
0.764867901802063,
0.462917685508728,
1.1064183712005615,
0.6731202006340027,
0.4359568953514099,
-0.0007428133394569159,
-0.4482838213443756,
-0.3883787989616394,
-0.43252235651016235,
-0.0755138248205185,
-0.8033071160316467,
0.5242925882339478,
0.018366500735282898,
0.11803089082241058,
0.024788659065961838,
0.5433018803596497,
0.2308952510356903,
0.1944039762020111,
0.7658317685127258,
0.15962527692317963,
-0.22237801551818848,
1.0578292608261108,
0.45778900384902954,
-0.08289197087287903,
-0.2738220691680908,
-0.2678549289703369,
-0.08739559352397919,
-0.09277963638305664,
-0.2730419635772705,
0.2239282876253128,
0.6613708138465881,
-0.7969615459442139,
0.7000538110733032,
-1.4696552753448486,
0.8729263544082642,
-0.7074235677719116,
0.09954438358545303,
0.2879073917865753,
-0.09632638096809387,
0.7447088956832886,
0.6611427068710327,
0.34474432468414307,
0.8235468864440918,
-1.2240175008773804,
-0.018206758424639702,
-0.16361962258815765,
0.06453148275613785,
-0.5813857316970825,
0.0064262873493134975,
0.021913038566708565,
0.13617144525051117,
0.6152989268302917,
0.5495519042015076,
-0.18118354678153992,
0.5619790554046631,
-0.4709530770778656,
0.4770832061767578,
-0.1609581857919693,
0.3850766718387604,
-0.28789061307907104,
0.19464612007141113,
-0.3402513265609741,
0.34382256865501404,
-0.0705331414937973,
-0.20302429795265198,
-0.590810239315033,
0.8271241784095764,
-0.33163610100746155,
0.8029504418373108,
1.0386219024658203,
-0.2800796329975128,
0.6441211700439453,
-0.4888461232185364,
-1.3453428745269775,
0.4430994987487793,
-1.0047492980957031,
0.17726105451583862,
-0.10540930926799774,
0.309971421957016,
0.1574265956878662,
-0.15645715594291687,
-0.452684223651886,
-0.0021292753517627716,
-0.2414546012878418,
-0.23748064041137695,
0.7983754277229309,
0.7863937616348267,
0.5151365995407104,
-0.36840158700942993,
0.07864030450582504,
-0.33036842942237854,
-0.24136050045490265,
-0.7871100306510925,
-0.6748389005661011,
-0.9700941443443298,
-0.08935960382223129,
0.23187170922756195,
-0.5250596404075623,
0.7932618856430054,
0.23354730010032654,
-0.6583141088485718,
-0.06867226958274841,
0.16782276332378387,
0.030415959656238556,
0.5292204022407532,
-0.10251548141241074,
0.04446299374103546,
-0.3940833806991577,
0.3717368543148041,
-0.20485647022724152,
0.031433720141649246,
-0.35099902749061584,
1.0949852466583252,
0.15851759910583496,
0.08333293348550797,
-0.6228218078613281,
0.13927778601646423,
0.41493019461631775,
0.6187681555747986,
-0.0273425430059433,
-0.45627209544181824,
0.16459907591342926,
-1.3156087398529053,
-0.1683887541294098,
0.25229111313819885,
0.6399326920509338,
-0.09308359026908875,
-0.22745418548583984,
0.054527800530195236,
-0.7626944184303284,
0.23078614473342896,
0.618230938911438,
0.37066271901130676,
-0.13412430882453918,
0.23566585779190063,
0.8391865491867065,
0.5340291261672974,
0.08124369382858276,
-0.41462603211402893,
0.07851778715848923,
0.1258632093667984,
-0.8777315020561218,
-0.5373458862304688,
-0.10542795807123184,
-0.4128766655921936,
0.15721920132637024,
-0.502210795879364,
0.13698126375675201,
-0.6022617220878601,
-0.03217918798327446,
0.04460647329688072,
0.31067144870758057,
-0.10347316414117813,
-0.35832369327545166,
0.5564539432525635,
-0.12148833274841309,
0.736850380897522,
0.005672956816852093,
-0.7812547087669373,
0.21819350123405457,
-0.42498043179512024,
0.26389455795288086,
-0.3950324058532715,
-0.4886736273765564,
-0.49820736050605774,
0.1490771770477295,
-0.7868818640708923,
-0.8072552680969238,
-0.4211283028125763,
0.6658545732498169,
0.15624836087226868,
0.1216290220618248,
0.12996980547904968,
0.8458581566810608,
-0.21358858048915863,
0.9083994626998901,
0.2908852696418762,
-0.8990598320960999,
0.3691922426223755,
0.30816832184791565,
-0.5443236231803894,
1.4070303440093994,
0.2671618163585663,
-0.39544904232025146,
-0.7859524488449097,
-0.005309531465172768,
0.11482498794794083,
-1.0138217210769653,
0.48119980096817017,
0.9996861219406128,
-0.16512182354927063,
-0.45925334095954895,
1.0939311981201172,
-0.1069880947470665,
0.3161123991012573,
0.38368141651153564,
0.714553713798523,
0.7473741769790649,
-0.5517361760139465,
0.5815579891204834,
-0.1849501132965088,
0.19284527003765106,
-0.4706052839756012,
0.873545229434967,
0.572032630443573,
0.08217845112085342,
0.6049163341522217,
0.5953038930892944,
-0.020172547549009323,
0.4011021852493286,
0.7639233469963074,
0.006408554036170244,
0.9501358270645142,
-0.2512820363044739,
0.038247644901275635,
0.3001578152179718,
0.21908149123191833,
0.4634897708892822,
0.15303711593151093,
0.14827215671539307,
-0.2788652181625366,
0.4486652910709381,
-0.6009666323661804,
0.12969237565994263,
-0.4969210922718048,
-0.004157002549618483,
-0.3319786489009857,
-0.24758422374725342,
0.1476639211177826,
-0.6879149079322815,
-0.27348512411117554,
0.2217329740524292,
-0.27011194825172424,
0.10898095369338989,
-0.09365621209144592,
0.1410575807094574,
-0.04821411892771721,
-0.1951535940170288,
0.3698212802410126,
0.08950045704841614,
-0.884306788444519,
-0.23130539059638977,
0.022092435508966446,
0.08271422237157822,
0.25385409593582153,
0.18670322000980377,
-0.09123747795820236,
-0.8072054982185364,
0.374632865190506,
-0.08388769626617432,
-0.07634114474058151,
-0.545513927936554,
-0.5557300448417664,
-0.6176326870918274,
0.08531621843576431,
0.41045713424682617,
-0.2617641091346741,
1.029685139656067,
-0.2984553873538971,
-0.8700720071792603,
-0.5734801888465881,
-0.7357866764068604,
-0.2105444222688675,
-0.38901787996292114,
0.34702199697494507,
-1.0978153944015503,
-0.2804419696331024,
0.5659158825874329,
0.32497715950012207,
0.21070705354213715,
-0.4948118329048157,
-1.032946228981018,
0.4405551552772522,
0.25888511538505554,
-0.38406211137771606,
-0.5060082077980042,
-0.9005070328712463,
-0.4490618109703064,
-0.1039387509226799,
-0.2793067693710327,
0.28490254282951355,
-0.009462608024477959,
-0.18515320122241974,
-0.39653855562210083,
0.29893478751182556,
-0.09199988842010498,
-0.5363112092018127,
0.24557127058506012,
0.03669869899749756,
-0.5757884979248047,
0.036513686180114746,
0.426423579454422,
0.25450652837753296,
0.1626501828432083,
0.038526080548763275,
-4.647397994995117,
0.23692673444747925,
-0.2980440557003021,
0.44426411390304565,
0.7649914622306824,
0.1920570433139801,
0.6201122403144836,
-0.5032461881637573,
-0.4380357265472412,
-0.11253172159194946,
-0.5077585577964783,
0.11593183130025864,
-0.12905722856521606,
0.30053791403770447,
0.09567145258188248,
-0.20286163687705994,
0.8173381090164185,
-0.12564650177955627,
0.6625773906707764,
0.5152764916419983,
-0.29557833075523376,
0.48757869005203247,
0.2658469080924988,
0.6891816258430481,
-0.12461882084608078,
-0.18241481482982635,
0.1572667360305786,
-0.13674405217170715,
-0.8768636584281921,
-0.49792179465293884,
-0.20449058711528778,
-0.5001736283302307,
-0.2828759253025055,
-0.47230541706085205,
0.18371494114398956,
-0.5133607387542725,
0.12279403209686279,
0.0745280385017395,
-0.4271804988384247,
-0.7403658628463745,
-0.9399751424789429,
0.5010477900505066,
0.7126379013061523,
0.19647124409675598,
1.1516740322113037,
0.028870614245533943,
-0.10030699521303177,
-1.1846342086791992,
0.2295662760734558,
1.3331694602966309,
-0.139664426445961,
0.1499759554862976,
0.41266950964927673,
-0.03382743522524834,
-0.2766227424144745,
-0.18068018555641174,
0.07634097337722778,
-0.2601665258407593,
-0.4405714273452759,
-0.23842975497245789,
0.7310983538627625,
0.4760805368423462,
-0.25160449743270874,
-0.3219139277935028,
-0.2935679852962494,
-0.6077769994735718,
-0.531232476234436,
-0.0034234127961099148,
0.31399646401405334,
0.14735883474349976,
-1.1248936653137207,
0.3493182957172394,
0.10302502661943436,
-0.6056494116783142,
0.9177250862121582,
-0.1611979752779007,
-0.49371135234832764,
-0.41389304399490356,
-0.22383379936218262,
0.16460242867469788,
-0.842801034450531,
-0.568236768245697,
-0.32407286763191223,
0.9789419174194336,
0.6501521468162537,
0.1474100947380066,
-0.6470481753349304,
-0.11952828615903854,
0.20216023921966553,
-0.035743098706007004,
0.6871696710586548,
-0.25120991468429565,
0.7331265807151794,
0.3239748179912567,
-0.18687275052070618,
-0.03775746375322342,
0.10313878953456879,
0.16089750826358795,
0.2895015776157379,
0.5478289723396301,
0.37993863224983215,
-0.15392260253429413,
-0.43345338106155396,
0.16727860271930695,
-0.48943981528282166,
-0.7087329030036926,
0.012118239887058735,
0.2755644619464874,
-0.13264231383800507,
0.12391027063131332,
0.0746660903096199,
0.07357730716466904,
-0.7197245359420776,
0.5118564963340759,
1.106065034866333,
0.05861454829573631,
-0.3581158518791199,
0.28873100876808167,
0.522617757320404,
-0.11318162828683853,
0.5876745581626892,
0.5067394971847534,
-0.014522706158459187,
0.08432784676551819,
0.1726883500814438,
-0.4271492063999176,
-0.04514516144990921,
-0.12334951758384705,
-0.025050468742847443,
0.3714369833469391,
-0.31986409425735474,
0.3790827989578247,
-0.05081706866621971,
-0.03257958963513374,
-0.27879494428634644,
-0.4617946147918701,
-0.8732089996337891,
0.8544919490814209,
-0.2875845730304718,
0.03753264993429184,
0.19763457775115967,
-0.12243317812681198,
-0.07810723781585693,
-0.29027900099754333,
0.7419948577880859,
0.61862713098526,
0.2974167764186859,
-0.06412417441606522,
0.01184934563934803,
0.5289002656936646,
0.14933538436889648,
-0.77840256690979,
0.7267763614654541,
-0.7385472655296326,
0.11272327601909637,
0.1851435899734497,
0.3754003047943115,
0.6790490746498108,
-0.48372340202331543,
-0.7419983148574829,
-0.6181479096412659,
-0.11521065980195999,
-0.7344018220901489,
-0.10033667832612991,
0.1509283185005188,
-0.043157950043678284,
-0.09212017804384232,
0.0271748173981905,
-0.807033896446228,
0.6280216574668884,
-0.3624228239059448,
0.14068622887134552,
-0.2688887119293213,
-0.011903163976967335,
-0.16851307451725006,
0.15813039243221283,
0.6633119583129883,
0.921157956123352,
-0.11407281458377838,
-0.7780970335006714,
-0.646000862121582,
0.19916847348213196,
-0.2816433012485504,
0.09925452619791031,
0.12076503783464432,
-0.7404532432556152,
-0.0645764097571373,
0.16766518354415894,
-0.3675987422466278,
-0.11632491648197174,
0.6224088668823242,
-0.14635330438613892,
-0.16586598753929138,
-0.10977981239557266,
-0.6589129567146301,
-0.436878502368927,
0.652787983417511,
0.5317836999893188,
-0.016344496980309486,
-0.810880720615387,
0.38108721375465393,
1.0100271701812744,
-0.8686895966529846,
0.3151182234287262,
0.4682137370109558,
-0.5832298398017883,
-0.23484094440937042,
0.7722657918930054,
0.24805527925491333,
0.07178138941526413,
-0.19547876715660095,
-0.7228192687034607,
-0.3217024505138397,
-0.8674728274345398,
-0.5479907989501953,
0.0056260027922689915,
0.5151910781860352,
-0.21223308145999908,
-0.1699737012386322,
-0.4705509841442108,
0.45711827278137207,
-0.6418711543083191,
0.9675129055976868,
-0.4926656484603882,
-0.35860010981559753,
0.3084495961666107,
-0.12819014489650726,
-0.0610123947262764,
0.6375057697296143,
-0.5426380038261414,
0.1346856653690338,
0.04743325337767601,
-0.04850044474005699,
0.6272708773612976,
-0.7104031443595886,
-0.2671114206314087,
-0.3938237428665161,
0.7952715158462524,
-0.5428335070610046,
0.6891463398933411,
0.21334876120090485,
0.41426780819892883,
0.5219342112541199,
-0.11142028868198395,
-0.535596489906311,
-0.5620534420013428,
1.0606378316879272,
-0.10055704414844513,
-0.2595800459384918,
0.25226595997810364,
0.8613079786300659,
-1.0877163410186768,
-0.7629125118255615,
-1.1597068309783936,
0.9288099408149719,
-0.29124951362609863,
0.30816569924354553,
-0.6326523423194885,
-0.23019467294216156,
0.043000996112823486,
0.0695248618721962,
0.19032669067382812,
-0.22505638003349304,
0.4401090145111084,
-0.015322349965572357,
-0.41456153988838196,
-0.3949536383152008,
-0.5706329941749573,
0.9249538779258728,
-0.951143205165863,
-0.3540952503681183,
-0.25802960991859436,
0.212612122297287,
0.4931422472000122,
-0.06685192883014679,
1.0301405191421509,
0.3308979570865631,
-0.5400985479354858,
0.22498950362205505,
-0.6852598786354065,
-0.2993377149105072,
0.38624733686447144,
1.012349009513855,
0.6215294599533081,
-0.03809472173452377,
-0.5628201365470886,
-0.9813349843025208,
-0.37531164288520813,
-0.6713107824325562,
0.07687074691057205,
-0.06735657900571823,
-0.06945526599884033,
-0.4435420334339142,
0.09086070954799652,
-0.2679671347141266,
1.0638562440872192,
-0.2192710041999817,
0.4308241605758667,
-0.03779362887144089,
0.47955480217933655,
-0.36351683735847473,
0.7029287219047546,
0.40479862689971924,
-0.49013903737068176,
0.09904927015304565,
-0.11068300902843475,
0.4955510199069977,
-0.4227059483528137,
0.11570706218481064,
0.32136958837509155,
0.27439460158348083,
0.04197290167212486,
-0.2493186593055725,
0.7886698246002197,
0.042972005903720856,
0.510877788066864,
0.5637489557266235,
-0.1912415325641632,
-0.1817387193441391,
-0.08979760855436325,
-0.14907138049602509,
-0.23951944708824158,
-0.1455530971288681,
0.41483503580093384,
-0.43512576818466187,
0.3845690190792084,
-0.08397328108549118,
-0.2892467975616455,
0.08190157264471054,
0.14877066016197205,
0.34108734130859375,
-0.007541681174188852,
-0.23382002115249634,
0.3190121650695801,
0.30582931637763977,
-0.17238929867744446,
-0.3390735387802124,
-0.2453296035528183,
-0.5354512929916382,
0.9528207182884216,
0.7412290573120117,
0.5821804404258728,
-0.22600162029266357,
-0.32372090220451355,
0.7574657201766968,
0.6237413287162781,
0.010123029351234436,
-0.576790452003479,
0.11997745931148529,
0.12973009049892426,
0.6686080694198608,
0.5186995267868042,
-0.11923395842313766,
-0.5507729649543762,
-1.1210705041885376,
0.2517208755016327,
0.32200974225997925,
-0.2823192775249481,
-0.30578094720840454,
-0.06871424615383148,
-0.601356029510498,
-0.37609466910362244,
-0.20724573731422424,
0.3260261118412018,
-0.956240177154541,
-0.624343991279602,
0.10084761679172516,
-0.026705611497163773,
-0.25666189193725586,
0.09806131571531296,
0.2311607003211975,
-0.06141384690999985,
-0.4759794771671295,
0.17555683851242065,
0.23006823658943176,
-0.5300710201263428,
-0.04294735938310623,
-0.11440049111843109,
0.08334478735923767,
-0.221361443400383,
-0.8467167615890503,
0.43595650792121887,
-0.907848060131073,
-0.13452786207199097,
0.22891417145729065,
-0.055668555200099945,
-0.45308446884155273,
0.1803276538848877,
-0.4776536226272583,
0.5103207230567932,
1.067879557609558,
0.12362441420555115,
-0.271220862865448,
-0.2903303802013397,
-0.4522254765033722,
-0.013430015183985233,
0.0710262581706047,
0.44954586029052734,
0.15280133485794067,
-0.23428462445735931,
0.11364947259426117,
0.1227036789059639,
-0.25540125370025635,
0.28275787830352783,
-0.02767956629395485,
0.6222777366638184,
-0.11700478196144104,
0.3381505608558655,
-0.5149035453796387,
0.20106790959835052,
0.06561711430549622,
0.715830385684967,
0.06490863859653473,
0.8863838315010071,
-0.024351244792342186,
0.1951368749141693,
0.7168105840682983,
-0.044723983854055405,
-0.3497658967971802,
0.01647515594959259,
0.6755296587944031,
-0.3249404728412628,
-0.39777204394340515,
0.3050194978713989,
-0.7491455078125,
-0.038794972002506256,
0.011780002154409885,
0.23210307955741882,
-0.08114836364984512,
0.2299170345067978,
0.07347186654806137,
0.7297564744949341,
-0.34602609276771545,
-0.5031847357749939,
-0.8958990573883057,
0.17931580543518066,
0.21375934779644012,
1.1376644372940063,
-0.33148205280303955,
-0.7383593916893005,
0.044850002974271774,
0.5324060320854187,
-0.28033679723739624,
-0.30800050497055054,
-0.8602539896965027,
-0.49005740880966187,
-0.16156406700611115,
-0.46915215253829956,
-0.07826211303472519,
-0.37292033433914185,
0.11132526397705078,
0.3397231996059418,
-0.46837639808654785,
0.06858371943235397,
-0.6352663040161133,
-0.20684503018856049,
0.6881558299064636,
-0.587590754032135,
0.6762044429779053,
0.9029852151870728
] |
241565 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete%20blood%20count | Complete blood count | A complete blood count (CBC), also known as a full blood count (FBC), is a set of medical laboratory tests that provide information about the cells in a person's blood. The CBC indicates the counts of white blood cells, red blood cells and platelets, the concentration of hemoglobin, and the hematocrit (the volume percentage of red blood cells). The red blood cell indices, which indicate the average size and hemoglobin content of red blood cells, are also reported, and a white blood cell differential, which counts the different types of white blood cells, may be included.
The CBC is often carried out as part of a medical assessment and can be used to monitor health or diagnose diseases. The results are interpreted by comparing them to reference ranges, which vary with sex and age. Conditions like anemia and thrombocytopenia are defined by abnormal complete blood count results. The red blood cell indices can provide information about the cause of a person's anemia such as iron deficiency and vitamin B12 deficiency, and the results of the white blood cell differential can help to diagnose viral, bacterial and parasitic infections and blood disorders like leukemia. Not all results falling outside of the reference range require medical intervention.
The CBC is performed using basic laboratory equipment or an automated hematology analyzer, which counts cells and collects information on their size and structure. The concentration of hemoglobin is measured, and the red blood cell indices are calculated from measurements of red blood cells and hemoglobin. Manual tests can be used to independently confirm abnormal results. Approximately 10–25% of samples require a manual blood smear review, in which the blood is stained and viewed under a microscope to verify that the analyzer results are consistent with the appearance of the cells and to look for abnormalities. The hematocrit can be determined manually by centrifuging the sample and measuring the proportion of red blood cells, and in laboratories without access to automated instruments, blood cells are counted under the microscope using a hemocytometer.
In 1852, Karl Vierordt published the first procedure for performing a blood count, which involved spreading a known volume of blood on a microscope slide and counting every cell. The invention of the hemocytometer in 1874 by Louis-Charles Malassez simplified the microscopic analysis of blood cells, and in the late 19th century, Paul Ehrlich and Dmitri Leonidovich Romanowsky developed techniques for staining white and red blood cells that are still used to examine blood smears. Automated methods for measuring hemoglobin were developed in the 1920s, and Maxwell Wintrobe introduced the Wintrobe hematocrit method in 1929, which in turn allowed him to define the red blood cell indices. A landmark in the automation of blood cell counts was the Coulter principle, which was patented by Wallace H. Coulter in 1953. The Coulter principle uses electrical impedance measurements to count blood cells and determine their sizes; it is a technology that remains in use in many automated analyzers. Further research in the 1970s involved the use of optical measurements to count and identify cells, which enabled the automation of the white blood cell differential.
Purpose
Blood is composed of a fluid portion, called plasma, and a cellular portion that contains red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. The complete blood count evaluates the three cellular components of blood. Some medical conditions, such as anemia or thrombocytopenia, are defined by marked increases or decreases in blood cell counts. Changes in many organ systems may affect the blood, so CBC results are useful for investigating a wide range of conditions. Because of the amount of information it provides, the complete blood count is one of the most commonly performed medical laboratory tests.
The CBC is often used to screen for diseases as part of a medical assessment. It is also called for when a healthcare provider suspects a person has a disease that affects blood cells, such as an infection, a bleeding disorder, or some cancers. People who have been diagnosed with disorders that may cause abnormal CBC results or who are receiving treatments that can affect blood cell counts may have a regular CBC performed to monitor their health, and the test is often performed each day on people who are hospitalized. The results may indicate a need for a blood or platelet transfusion.
The complete blood count has specific applications in many medical specialties. It is often performed before a person undergoes surgery to detect anemia, ensure that platelet levels are sufficient, and screen for infection, as well as after surgery, so that blood loss can be monitored. In emergency medicine, the CBC is used to investigate numerous symptoms, such as fever, abdominal pain, and shortness of breath, and to assess bleeding and trauma. Blood counts are closely monitored in people undergoing chemotherapy or radiation therapy for cancer, because these treatments suppress the production of blood cells in the bone marrow and can produce severely low levels of white blood cells, platelets and hemoglobin. Regular CBCs are necessary for people taking some psychiatric drugs, such as clozapine and carbamazepine, which in rare cases can cause a life-threatening drop in the number of white blood cells (agranulocytosis). Because anemia during pregnancy can result in poorer outcomes for the mother and her baby, the complete blood count is a routine part of prenatal care; and in newborn babies, a CBC may be needed to investigate jaundice or to count the number of immature cells in the white blood cell differential, which can be an indicator of sepsis.
The complete blood count is an essential tool of hematology, which is the study of the cause, prognosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases related to blood. The results of the CBC and smear examination reflect the functioning of the hematopoietic system—the organs and tissues involved in the production and development of blood cells, particularly the bone marrow. For example, a low count of all three cell types (pancytopenia) can indicate that blood cell production is being affected by a marrow disorder, and a bone marrow examination can further investigate the cause. Abnormal cells on the blood smear might indicate acute leukemia or lymphoma, while an abnormally high count of neutrophils or lymphocytes, in combination with indicative symptoms and blood smear findings, may raise suspicion of a myeloproliferative disorder or lymphoproliferative disorder. Examination of the CBC results and blood smear can help to distinguish between causes of anemia, such as nutritional deficiencies, bone marrow disorders, acquired hemolytic anemias and inherited conditions like sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.
The reference ranges for the complete blood count represent the range of results found in 95% of apparently healthy people. By definition, 5% of results will always fall outside this range, so some abnormal results may reflect natural variation rather than signifying a medical issue. This is particularly likely if such results are only slightly outside the reference range, if they are consistent with previous results, or if there are no other related abnormalities shown by the CBC. When the test is performed on a relatively healthy population, the number of clinically insignificant abnormalities may exceed the number of results that represent disease. For this reason, professional organizations in the United States, United Kingdom and Canada recommend against pre-operative CBC testing for low-risk surgeries in individuals without relevant medical conditions. Repeated blood draws for hematology testing in hospitalized patients can contribute to hospital-acquired anemia and may result in unnecessary transfusions.
Procedure
The sample is collected by drawing blood into a tube containing an anticoagulant—typically EDTA—to stop its natural clotting. The blood is usually taken from a vein, but when this is difficult it may be collected from capillaries by a fingerstick, or by a heelprick in babies. Testing is typically performed on an automated analyzer, but manual techniques such as a blood smear examination or manual hematocrit test can be used to investigate abnormal results. Cell counts and hemoglobin measurements are performed manually in laboratories lacking access to automated instruments.
Automated
On board the analyzer, the sample is agitated to evenly distribute the cells, then diluted and partitioned into at least two channels, one of which is used to count red blood cells and platelets, the other to count white blood cells and determine the hemoglobin concentration. Some instruments measure hemoglobin in a separate channel, and additional channels may be used for differential white blood cell counts, reticulocyte counts and specialized measurements of platelets. The cells are suspended in a fluid stream and their properties are measured as they flow past sensors in a technique known as flow cytometry. Hydrodynamic focusing may be used to isolate individual cells so that more accurate results can be obtained: the diluted sample is injected into a stream of low-pressure fluid, which causes the cells in the sample to line up in single file through laminar flow.
To measure the hemoglobin concentration, a reagent chemical is added to the sample to destroy (lyse) the red cells in a channel separate from that used for red blood cell counts. On analyzers that perform white blood cell counts in the same channel as hemoglobin measurement, this permits white blood cells to be counted more easily. Hematology analyzers measure hemoglobin using spectrophotometry and are based on the linear relationship between the absorbance of light and the amount of hemoglobin present. Chemicals are used to convert different forms of hemoglobin, such as oxyhemoglobin and carboxyhemoglobin, to one stable form, usually cyanmethemoglobin, and to create a permanent colour change. The absorbance of the resulting colour, when measured at a specific wavelength—usually 540 nanometres—corresponds with the concentration of hemoglobin.
Sensors count and identify the cells in the sample using two main principles: electrical impedance and light scattering. Impedance-based cell counting operates on the Coulter principle: cells are suspended in a fluid carrying an electric current, and as they pass through a small opening (an aperture), they cause decreases in current because of their poor electrical conductivity. The amplitude of the voltage pulse generated as a cell crosses the aperture correlates with the amount of fluid displaced by the cell, and thus the cell's volume, while the total number of pulses correlates with the number of cells in the sample. The distribution of cell volumes is plotted on a histogram, and by setting volume thresholds based on the typical sizes of each type of cell, the different cell populations can be identified and counted.
In light scattering techniques, light from a laser or a tungsten-halogen lamp is directed at the stream of cells to collect information about their size and structure. Cells scatter light at different angles as they pass through the beam, which is detected using photometers. Forward scatter, which refers to the amount of light scattered along the beam's axis, is mainly caused by diffraction of light and correlates with cellular size, while side scatter (light scattered at a 90-degree angle) is caused by reflection and refraction and provides information about cellular complexity.
Radiofrequency-based methods can be used in combination with impedance. These techniques work on the same principle of measuring the interruption in current as cells pass through an aperture, but since the high-frequency RF current penetrates into the cells, the amplitude of the resulting pulse relates to factors like the relative size of the nucleus, the nucleus's structure, and the amount of granules in the cytoplasm. Small red cells and cellular debris, which are similar in size to platelets, may interfere with the platelet count, and large platelets may not be counted accurately, so some analyzers use additional techniques to measure platelets, such as fluorescent staining, multi-angle light scatter and monoclonal antibody tagging.
Most analyzers directly measure the average size of red blood cells, which is called the mean cell volume (MCV), and calculate the hematocrit by multiplying the red blood cell count by the MCV. Some measure the hematocrit by comparing the total volume of red blood cells to the volume of blood sampled, and derive the MCV from the hematocrit and red blood cell count. The hemoglobin concentration, the red blood cell count and the hematocrit are used to calculate the average amount of hemoglobin within each red blood cell, the mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH); and its concentration, the mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC). Another calculation, the red blood cell distribution width (RDW), is derived from the standard deviation of the mean cell volume and reflects variation in cellular size.
After being treated with reagents, white blood cells form three distinct peaks when their volumes are plotted on a histogram. These peaks correspond roughly to populations of granulocytes, lymphocytes, and other mononuclear cells, allowing a three-part differential to be performed based on cell volume alone. More advanced analyzers use additional techniques to provide a five- to seven-part differential, such as light scattering or radiofrequency analysis, or using dyes to stain specific chemicals inside cells—for example, nucleic acids, which are found in higher concentrations in immature cells or myeloperoxidase, an enzyme found in cells of the myeloid lineage. Basophils may be counted in a separate channel where a reagent destroys other white cells and leaves basophils intact. The data collected from these measurements is analyzed and plotted on a scattergram, where it forms clusters that correlate with each white blood cell type. Another approach to automating the differential count is the use of digital microscopy software, which uses artificial intelligence to classify white blood cells from photomicrographs of the blood smear. The cell images are displayed to a human operator, who can manually re-classify the cells if necessary.
Most analyzers take less than a minute to run all the tests in the complete blood count. Because analyzers sample and count many individual cells, the results are very precise. However, some abnormal cells may not be identified correctly, requiring manual review of the instrument's results and identification by other means of abnormal cells the instrument could not categorize.
Point-of-care testing
Point-of-care testing refers to tests conducted outside of the laboratory setting, such as at a person's bedside or in a clinic. This method of testing is faster and uses less blood than conventional methods, and does not require specially trained personnel, so it is useful in emergency situations and in areas with limited access to resources. Commonly used devices for point-of-care hematology testing include the HemoCue, a portable analyzer that uses spectrophotometry to measure the hemoglobin concentration of the sample, and the i-STAT, which derives a hemoglobin reading by estimating the concentration of red blood cells from the conductivity of the blood. Hemoglobin and hematocrit can be measured on point-of-care devices designed for blood gas testing, but these measurements sometimes correlate poorly with those obtained through standard methods. There are simplified versions of hematology analyzers designed for use in clinics that can provide a complete blood count and differential.
Manual
The tests can be performed manually when automated equipment is not available or when the analyzer results indicate that further investigation is needed. Automated results are flagged for manual blood smear review in 10–25% of cases, which may be due to abnormal cell populations that the analyzer cannot properly count, internal flags generated by the analyzer that suggest the results could be inaccurate, or numerical results that fall outside set thresholds. To investigate these issues, blood is spread on a microscope slide, stained with a Romanowsky stain, and examined under a microscope. The appearance of the red and white blood cells and platelets is assessed, and qualitative abnormalities are reported if present. Changes in the appearance of red blood cells can have considerable diagnostic significance—for example, the presence of sickle cells is indicative of sickle cell disease, and a high number of fragmented red blood cells (schistocytes) requires urgent investigation as it can suggest a microangiopathic hemolytic anemia. In some inflammatory conditions and in paraprotein disorders like multiple myeloma, high levels of protein in the blood may cause red blood cells to appear stacked together on the smear, which is termed rouleaux. Some parasitic diseases, such as malaria and babesiosis, can be detected by finding the causative organisms on the blood smear, and the platelet count can be estimated from the blood smear, which is useful if the automated platelet count is inaccurate.
To perform a manual white blood cell differential, the microscopist counts 100 cells on the blood smear and classifies them based on their appearance; sometimes 200 cells are counted. This gives the percentage of each type of white blood cell, and by multiplying these percentages by the total number of white blood cells, the absolute number of each type of white cell can be obtained. Manual counting is subject to sampling error because so few cells are counted compared with automated analysis, but it can identify abnormal cells that analyzers cannot, such as the blast cells seen in acute leukemia. Clinically significant features like toxic granulation and vacuolation can also be ascertained from microscopic examination of white blood cells.
The hematocrit can performed manually by filling a capillary tube with blood, centrifuging it, and measuring the percentage of the blood that consists of red blood cells. This is useful in some conditions that can cause automated hematocrit results to be incorrect, such as polycythemia (a highly elevated red blood cell count) or severe leukocytosis (a highly elevated white blood cell count, which interferes with red blood cell measurements by causing white blood cells to be counted as red cells).
Red and white blood cells and platelets can be counted using a hemocytometer, a microscope slide containing a chamber that holds a specified volume of diluted blood. The hemocytometer's chamber is etched with a calibrated grid to aid in cell counting. The cells seen in the grid are counted and divided by the volume of blood examined, which is determined from the number of squares counted on the grid, to obtain the concentration of cells in the sample. Manual cell counts are labour-intensive and inaccurate compared to automated methods, so they are rarely used except in laboratories that do not have access to automated analyzers. To count white blood cells, the sample is diluted using a fluid containing a compound that lyses red blood cells, such as ammonium oxalate, acetic acid, or hydrochloric acid. Sometimes a stain is added to the diluent that highlights the nuclei of white blood cells, making them easier to identify. Manual platelet counts are performed in a similar manner, although some methods leave the red blood cells intact. Using a phase-contrast microscope, rather than a light microscope, can make platelets easier to identify. The manual red blood cell count is rarely performed, as it is inaccurate and other methods such as hemoglobinometry and the manual hematocrit are available for assessing red blood cells; but if it is necessary to do so, red blood cells can be counted in blood that has been diluted with saline.
Hemoglobin can be measured manually using a spectrophotometer or colorimeter. To measure hemoglobin manually, the sample is diluted using reagents that destroy red blood cells to release the hemoglobin. Other chemicals are used to convert different types of hemoglobin to one form, allowing it to be easily measured. The solution is then placed in a measuring cuvette and the absorbance is measured at a specific wavelength, which depends on the type of reagent used. A reference standard containing a known amount of hemoglobin is used to determine the relationship between the absorbance and the hemoglobin concentration, allowing the hemoglobin level of the sample to be measured.
In rural and economically disadvantaged areas, available testing is limited by access to equipment and personnel. At primary care facilities in these regions, testing may be limited to examination of red cell morphology and manual measurement of hemoglobin, while more complex techniques like manual cell counts and differentials, and sometimes automated cell counts, are performed at district laboratories. Regional and provincial hospitals and academic centres typically have access to automated analyzers. Where laboratory facilities are not available, an estimate of hemoglobin concentration can be obtained by placing a drop of blood on a standardized type of absorbent paper and comparing it to a colour scale.
Quality control
Automated analyzers have to be regularly calibrated. Most manufacturers provide preserved blood with defined parameters and the analyzers are adjusted if the results are outside defined thresholds. To ensure that results continue to be accurate, quality control samples, which are typically provided by the instrument manufacturer, are tested at least once per day. The samples are formulated to provide specific results, and laboratories compare their results against the known values to ensure the instrument is functioning properly. For laboratories without access to commercial quality control material, an Indian regulatory organization recommends running patient samples in duplicate and comparing the results. A moving average measurement, in which the average results for patient samples are measured at set intervals, can be used as an additional quality control technique. Assuming that the characteristics of the patient population remain roughly the same over time, the average should remain constant; large shifts in the average value can indicate instrument problems. The MCHC values are particularly useful in this regard.
In addition to analyzing internal quality control samples with known results, laboratories may receive external quality assessment samples from regulatory organizations. While the purpose of internal quality control is to ensure that analyzer results are reproducible within a given laboratory, external quality assessment verifies that results from different laboratories are consistent with each other and with the target values. The expected results for external quality assessment samples are not disclosed to the laboratory. External quality assessment programs have been widely adopted in North America and western Europe, and laboratories are often required to participate in these programs to maintain accreditation. Logistical issues may make it difficult for laboratories in under-resourced areas to implement external quality assessment schemes.
Included tests
The CBC measures the amounts of platelets and red and white blood cells, along with the hemoglobin and hematocrit values. Red blood cell indices—MCV, MCH and MCHC—which describe the size of red blood cells and their hemoglobin content, are reported along with the red blood cell distribution width (RDW), which measures the amount of variation in the sizes of red blood cells. A white blood cell differential, which enumerates the different types of white blood cells, may be performed, and a count of immature red blood cells (reticulocytes) is sometimes included.
Red blood cells, hemoglobin, and hematocrit
An example of CBC results showing a low hemoglobin, mean red cell volume (MCV), mean red cell hemoglobin (MCH) and mean red blood cell hemoglobin content (MCHC). The person was anemic. The cause could be iron deficiency or a hemoglobinopathy.
Red blood cells deliver oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and on their return carry carbon dioxide back to the lungs where it is exhaled. These functions are mediated by the cells' hemoglobin. The analyzer counts red blood cells, reporting the result in units of 106 cells per microlitre of blood (× 106/μL) or 1012 cells per litre (× 1012/L), and measures their average size, which is called the mean cell volume and expressed in femtolitres or cubic micrometres. By multiplying the mean cell volume by the red blood cell count, the hematocrit (HCT) or packed cell volume (PCV), a measurement of the percentage of blood that is made up of red blood cells, can be derived; and when the hematocrit is performed directly, the mean cell volume may be calculated from the hematocrit and red blood cell count. Hemoglobin, measured after the red blood cells are lysed, is usually reported in units of grams per litre (g/L) or grams per decilitre (g/dL). Assuming that the red blood cells are normal, there is a constant relationship between hemoglobin and hematocrit: the hematocrit percentage is approximately three times greater than the hemoglobin value in g/dL, plus or minus three. This relationship, called the rule of three, can be used to confirm that CBC results are correct.
Two other measurements are calculated from the red blood cell count, the hemoglobin concentration, and the hematocrit: the mean corpuscular hemoglobin and the mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration. These parameters describe the hemoglobin content of each red blood cell. The MCH and MCHC can be confusing; in essence the MCH is a measure of the average amount of hemoglobin per red blood cell. The MCHC gives the average proportion of the cell that is hemoglobin. The MCH does not take into account the size of the red blood cells whereas the MCHC does. Collectively, the MCV, MCH, and MCHC are referred to as the red blood cell indices. Changes in these indices are visible on the blood smear: red blood cells that are abnormally large or small can be identified by comparison to the sizes of white blood cells, and cells with a low hemoglobin concentration appear pale. Another parameter is calculated from the initial measurements of red blood cells: the red blood cell distribution width or RDW, which reflects the degree of variation in the cells' size.
An abnormally low hemoglobin, hematocrit, or red blood cell count indicates anemia. Anemia is not a diagnosis on its own, but it points to an underlying condition affecting the person's red blood cells. General causes of anemia include blood loss, production of defective red blood cells (ineffective erythropoeisis), decreased production of red blood cells (insufficient erythropoeisis), and increased destruction of red blood cells (hemolytic anemia). Anemia reduces the blood's ability to carry oxygen, causing symptoms like tiredness and shortness of breath. If the hemoglobin level falls below thresholds based on the person's clinical condition, a blood transfusion may be necessary.
An increased number of red blood cells, which usually leads to an increase in the hemoglobin and hematocrit, is called polycythemia. Dehydration or use of diuretics can cause a "relative" polycythemia by decreasing the amount of plasma compared to red cells. A true increase in the number of red blood cells, called absolute polycythemia, can occur when the body produces more red blood cells to compensate for chronically low oxygen levels in conditions like lung or heart disease, or when a person has abnormally high levels of erythropoietin (EPO), a hormone that stimulates production of red blood cells. In polycythemia vera, the bone marrow produces red cells and other blood cells at an excessively high rate.
Evaluation of red blood cell indices is helpful in determining the cause of anemia. If the MCV is low, the anemia is termed microcytic, while anemia with a high MCV is called macrocytic anemia. Anemia with a low MCHC is called hypochromic anemia. If anemia is present but the red blood cell indices are normal, the anemia is considered normochromic and normocytic. The term hyperchromia, referring to a high MCHC, is generally not used. Elevation of the MCHC above the upper reference value is rare, mainly occurring in conditions such as spherocytosis, sickle cell disease and hemoglobin C disease. An elevated MCHC can also be a false result from conditions like red blood cell agglutination (which causes a false decrease in the red blood cell count, elevating the MCHC) or highly elevated amounts of lipids in the blood (which causes a false increase in the hemoglobin result).
Microcytic anemia is typically associated with iron deficiency, thalassemia, and anemia of chronic disease, while macrocytic anemia is associated with alcoholism, folate and B12 deficiency, use of some drugs, and some bone marrow diseases. Acute blood loss, hemolytic anemia, bone marrow disorders, and various chronic diseases can result in anemia with a normocytic blood picture. The MCV serves an additional purpose in laboratory quality control. It is relatively stable over time compared to other CBC parameters, so a large change in MCV may indicate that the sample was drawn from the wrong patient.
A low RDW has no clinical significance, but an elevated RDW represents increased variation in red blood cell size, a condition known as anisocytosis. Anisocytosis is common in nutritional anemias such as iron deficiency anemia and anemia due to vitamin B12 or folate deficiency, while people with thalassemia may have a normal RDW. Based on the CBC results, further steps can be taken to investigate anemia, such as a ferritin test to confirm the presence of iron deficiency, or hemoglobin electrophoresis to diagnose a hemoglobinopathy such as thalassemia or sickle cell disease.
White blood cells
The white blood cell and platelet counts are markedly increased, and anemia is present. The differential count shows basophilia and the presence of band neutrophils, immature granulocytes and blast cells.
White blood cells defend against infections and are involved in the inflammatory response. A high white blood cell count, which is called leukocytosis, often occurs in infections, inflammation, and states of physiologic stress. It can also be caused by diseases that involve abnormal production of blood cells, such as myeloproliferative and lymphoproliferative disorders. A decreased white blood cell count, termed leukopenia, can lead to an increased risk of acquiring infections, and occurs in treatments like chemotherapy and radiation therapy and many conditions that inhibit the production of blood cells. Sepsis is associated with both leukocytosis and leukopenia. The total white blood cell count is usually reported in cells per microlitre of blood (/μL) or 109 cells per litre (× 109/L).
In the white blood cell differential, the different types of white blood cells are identified and counted. The results are reported as a percentage and as an absolute number per unit volume. Five types of white blood cells—neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils—are typically measured. Some instruments report the number of immature granulocytes, which is a classification consisting of precursors of neutrophils; specifically, promyelocytes, myelocytes and metamyelocytes. Other cell types are reported if they are identified in the manual differential.
Differential results are useful in diagnosing and monitoring many medical conditions. For example, an elevated neutrophil count (neutrophilia) is associated with bacterial infection, inflammation, and myeloproliferative disorders, while a decreased count (neutropenia) may occur in individuals who are undergoing chemotherapy or taking certain drugs, or who have diseases affecting the bone marrow. Neutropenia can also be caused by some congenital disorders and may occur transiently after viral or bacterial infections in children. People with severe neutropenia and clinical signs of infection are treated with antibiotics to prevent potentially life-threatening disease.
An increased number of band neutrophils—young neutrophils that lack segmented nuclei—or immature granulocytes is termed left shift and occurs in sepsis and some blood disorders, but is normal in pregnancy. An elevated lymphocyte count (lymphocytosis) is associated with viral infection and lymphoproliferative disorders like chronic lymphocytic leukemia; elevated monocyte counts (monocytosis) are associated with chronic inflammatory states; and the eosinophil count is often increased (eosinophilia) in parasitic infections and allergic conditions. An increased number of basophils, termed basophilia, can occur in myeloproliferative disorders like chronic myeloid leukemia and polycythemia vera. The presence of some types of abnormal cells, such as blast cells or lymphocytes with neoplastic features, is suggestive of a hematologic malignancy.
Platelets
Platelets play an essential role in clotting. When the wall of a blood vessel is damaged, platelets adhere to the exposed surface at the site of injury and plug the gap. Simultaneous activation of the coagulation cascade results in the formation of fibrin, which reinforces the platelet plug to create a stable clot. A low platelet count, known as thrombocytopenia, may cause bleeding if severe. It can occur in individuals who are undergoing treatments that suppress the bone marrow, such as chemotherapy or radiation therapy, or taking certain drugs, such as heparin, that can induce the immune system to destroy platelets. Thrombocytopenia is a feature of many blood disorders, like acute leukemia and aplastic anemia, as well as some autoimmune diseases. If the platelet count is extremely low, a platelet transfusion may be performed. Thrombocytosis, meaning a high platelet count, may occur in states of inflammation or trauma, as well as in iron deficiency, and the platelet count may reach exceptionally high levels in people with essential thrombocythemia, a rare blood disease. The platelet count can be reported in units of cells per microlitre of blood (/μL), 103 cells per microlitre , or 109 cells per litre
The mean platelet volume (MPV) measures the average size of platelets in femtolitres. It can aid in determining the cause of thrombocytopenia; an elevated MPV may occur when young platelets are released into the bloodstream to compensate for increased destruction of platelets, while decreased production of platelets due to dysfunction of the bone marrow can result in a low MPV. The MPV is also useful for differentiating between congenital diseases that cause thrombocytopenia. The immature platelet fraction (IPF) or reticulated platelet count is reported by some analyzers and provides information about the rate of platelet production by measuring the number of immature platelets in the blood.
Other tests
Reticulocyte count
Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells, which, unlike the mature cells, contain RNA. A reticulocyte count is sometimes performed as part of a complete blood count, usually to investigate the cause of a person's anemia or evaluate their response to treatment. Anemia with a high reticulocyte count can indicate that the bone marrow is producing red blood cells at a higher rate to compensate for blood loss or hemolysis, while anemia with a low reticulocyte count may suggest that the person has a condition that reduces the body's ability to produce red blood cells. When people with nutritional anemia are given nutrient supplementation, an increase in the reticulocyte count indicates that their body is responding to the treatment by producing more red blood cells. Hematology analyzers perform reticulocyte counts by staining red blood cells with a dye that binds to RNA and measuring the number of reticulocytes through light scattering or fluorescence analysis. The test can be performed manually by staining the blood with new methylene blue and counting the percentage of red blood cells containing RNA under the microscope. The reticulocyte count is expressed as an absolute number or as a percentage of red blood cells.
Some instruments measure the average amount of hemoglobin in each reticulocyte; a parameter that has been studied as an indicator of iron deficiency in people who have conditions that interfere with standard tests. The immature reticulocyte fraction (IRF) is another measurement produced by some analyzers which quantifies the maturity of reticulocytes: cells that are less mature contain more RNA and thus produce a stronger fluorescent signal. This information can be useful in diagnosing anemias and evaluating red blood cell production following anemia treatment or bone marrow transplantation.
Nucleated red blood cells
During their formation in bone marrow, and in the liver and spleen in fetuses, red blood cells contain a cell nucleus, which is usually absent in the mature cells that circulate in the bloodstream. When detected, the presence of nucleated red cells, particularly in children and adults, indicates an increased demand for red blood cells, which can be caused by bleeding, some cancers and anemia. Most analyzers can detect these cells as part of the differential cell count. High numbers of nucleated red cells can cause a falsely high white cell count, which will require adjusting.
Other parameters
Advanced hematology analyzers generate novel measurements of blood cells which have shown diagnostic significance in research studies but have not yet found widespread clinical use. For example, some types of analyzers produce coordinate readings indicating the size and position of each white blood cell cluster. These parameters (termed cell population data) have been studied as potential markers for blood disorders, bacterial infections and malaria. Analyzers that use myeloperoxidase staining to produce differential counts can measure white blood cells' expression of the enzyme, which is altered in various disorders. Some instruments can report the percentage of red blood cells that are hypochromic in addition to reporting the average MCHC value, or provide a count of fragmented red cells (schistocytes), which occur in some types of hemolytic anemia. Because these parameters are often specific to particular brands of analyzers, it is difficult for laboratories to interpret and compare results.
Reference ranges
The complete blood count is interpreted by comparing the output to reference ranges, which represent the results found in 95% of apparently healthy people. Based on a statistical normal distribution, the tested samples' ranges vary with gender and age. On average, adult females have lower hemoglobin, hematocrit, and red blood cell count values than males; the difference lessens, but is still present, after menopause.
The blood of newborn babies is very different from that of older children, which is different again from the blood of adults. Newborns' hemoglobin, hematocrit, and red blood cell count are extremely high to compensate for low oxygen levels in the womb, and they have a high proportion of fetal hemoglobin, which is less effective at delivering oxygen to tissues than mature forms of hemoglobin, inside their red blood cells. The MCV is also increased, and the white blood cell count is elevated with a preponderance of neutrophils. The red blood cell count and related values begin to decline shortly after birth, reaching their lowest point at about two months of age and increasing thereafter. The red blood cells of older infants and children are smaller, with a lower MCH, than those of adults. In the pediatric white blood cell differential, lymphocytes often outnumber neutrophils, while in adults neutrophils predominate.
Other differences between populations may affect the reference ranges: for example, people living at higher altitudes have higher hemoglobin, hematocrit, and RBC results, and people of African heritage have lower white blood cell counts on average. The type of analyzer used to run the CBC affects the reference ranges as well. Reference ranges are therefore established by individual laboratories based on their own patient populations and equipment.
Limitations
Some medical conditions or problems with the blood sample may produce inaccurate results. If the sample is visibly clotted, which can be caused by poor phlebotomy technique, it is unsuitable for testing, because the platelet count will be falsely decreased and other results may be abnormal. Samples stored at room temperature for several hours may give falsely high readings for MCV, because red blood cells swell as they absorb water from the plasma; and platelet and white blood cell differential results may be inaccurate in aged specimens, as the cells degrade over time.
Samples drawn from individuals with very high levels of bilirubin or lipids in their plasma (referred to as an icteric sample or a lipemic sample, respectively) may show falsely high readings for hemoglobin, because these substances change the colour and opacity of the sample, which interferes with hemoglobin measurement. This effect can be mitigated by replacing the plasma with saline.
Some individuals produce an antibody that causes their platelets to form clumps when their blood is drawn into tubes containing EDTA, the anticoagulant typically used to collect CBC samples. Platelet clumps may be counted as single platelets by automated analyzers, leading to a falsely decreased platelet count. This can be avoided by using an alternative anticoagulant such as sodium citrate or heparin.
Another antibody-mediated condition that can affect complete blood count results is red blood cell agglutination. This phenomenon causes red blood cells to clump together because of antibodies bound to the cell surface. Red blood cell aggregates are counted as single cells by the analyzer, leading to a markedly decreased red blood cell count and hematocrit, and markedly elevated MCV and MCHC. Often, these antibodies are only active at room temperature (in which case they are called cold agglutinins), and the agglutination can be reversed by heating the sample to . Samples from people with warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia may exhibit red cell agglutination that does not resolve on warming.
While blast and lymphoma cells can be identified in the manual differential, microscopic examination cannot reliably determine the cells' hematopoietic lineage. This information is often necessary for diagnosing blood cancers. After abnormal cells are identified, additional techniques such as immunophenotyping by flow cytometry can be used to identify markers that provide additional information about the cells.
History
Before automated cell counters were introduced, complete blood count tests were performed manually: white and red blood cells and platelets were counted using microscopes. The first person to publish microscopic observations of blood cells was Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who reported on the appearance of red cells in a 1674 letter to the Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Jan Swammerdam had described red blood cells some years earlier, but did not publish his findings at the time. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, improvements in microscope technology such as achromatic lenses allowed white blood cells and platelets to be counted in unstained samples.
The physiologist Karl Vierordt is credited with performing the first blood count. His technique, published in 1852, involved aspirating a carefully measured volume of blood into a capillary tube and spreading it onto a microscope slide coated with egg white. After the blood dried, he counted every cell on the slide; this process could take more than three hours to complete. The hemocytometer, introduced in 1874 by Louis-Charles Malassez, simplified the microscopic counting of blood cells. Malassez's hemocytometer consisted of a microscope slide containing a flattened capillary tube. Diluted blood was introduced to the capillary chamber by means of a rubber tube attached to one end, and an eyepiece with a scaled grid was attached to the microscope, permitting the microscopist to count the number of cells per volume of blood. In 1877, William Gowers invented a hemocytometer with a built-in counting grid, eliminating the need to produce specially calibrated eyepieces for each microscope.
In the 1870s, Paul Ehrlich developed a staining technique using a combination of an acidic and basic dye that could distinguish different types of white blood cells and allow red blood cell morphology to be examined. Dmitri Leonidovich Romanowsky improved on this technique in the 1890s, using a mixture of eosin and aged methylene blue to produce a wide range of hues not present when either of the stains was used alone. This became the basis for Romanowsky staining, the technique still used to stain blood smears for manual review.
The first techniques for measuring hemoglobin were devised in the late 19th century, and involved visual comparisons of the colour of diluted blood against a known standard. Attempts to automate this process using spectrophotometry and colorimetry were limited by the fact that hemoglobin is present in the blood in many different forms, meaning that it could not be measured at a single wavelength. In 1920, a method to convert the different forms of hemoglobin to one stable form (cyanmethemoglobin or hemiglobincyanide) was introduced, allowing hemoglobin levels to be measured automatically. The cyanmethemoglobin method remains the reference method for hemoglobin measurement and is still used in many automated hematology analyzers.
Maxwell Wintrobe is credited with the invention of the hematocrit test. In 1929, he undertook a PhD project at the University of Tulane to determine normal ranges for red blood cell parameters, and invented a method known as the Wintrobe hematocrit. Hematocrit measurements had previously been described in the literature, but Wintrobe's method differed in that it used a large tube that could be mass-produced to precise specifications, with a built-in scale. The fraction of red blood cells in the tube was measured after centrifugation to determine the hematocrit. The invention of a reproducible method for determining hematocrit values allowed Wintrobe to define the red blood cell indices.
Research into automated cell counting began in the early 20th century. A method developed in 1928 used the amount of light transmitted through a diluted blood sample, as measured by photometry, to estimate the red blood cell count, but this proved inaccurate for samples with abnormal red blood cells. Other unsuccessful attempts, in the 1930s and 1940s, involved photoelectric detectors attached to microscopes, which would count cells as they were scanned. In the late 1940s, Wallace H. Coulter, motivated by a need for better red blood cell counting methods following the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, attempted to improve on photoelectric cell counting techniques. His research was aided by his brother, Joseph R. Coulter, in a basement laboratory in Chicago. Their results using photoelectric methods were disappointing, and in 1948, after reading a paper relating the conductivity of blood to its red blood cell concentration, Wallace devised the Coulter principle—the theory that a cell suspended in a conductive medium generates a drop in current proportional to its size as it passes through an aperture.
That October, Wallace built a counter to demonstrate the principle. Owing to financial constraints, the aperture was made by burning a hole through a piece of cellophane from a cigarette package. Wallace filed a patent for the technique in 1949, and in 1951 applied to the Office of Naval Research to fund the development of the Coulter counter. Wallace's patent application was granted in 1953, and after improvements to the aperture and the introduction of a mercury manometer to provide precise control over sample size, the brothers founded Coulter Electronics Inc. in 1958 to market their instruments. The Coulter counter was initially designed for counting red blood cells, but with later modifications it proved effective for counting white blood cells. Coulter counters were widely adopted by medical laboratories.
The first analyzer able to produce multiple cell counts simultaneously was the Technicon , released in 1965. It achieved this by partitioning blood samples into two channels: one for counting red and white blood cells and one for measuring hemoglobin. However, the instrument was unreliable and difficult to maintain. In 1968, the Coulter Model S analyzer was released and gained widespread use. Similarly to the Technicon instrument, it used two different reaction chambers, one of which was used for the red cell count, and one of which was used for the white blood cell count and hemoglobin determination. The Model S also determined the mean cell volume using impedance measurements, which allowed the red blood cell indices and hematocrit to be derived. Automated platelet counts were introduced in 1970 with Technicon's Hemalog-8 instrument and were adopted by Coulter's S Plus series analyzers in 1980.
After basic cell counting had been automated, the white blood cell differential remained a challenge. Throughout the 1970s, researchers explored two methods for automating the differential count: digital image processing and flow cytometry. Using technology developed in the 1950s and 60s to automate the reading of Pap smears, several models of image processing analyzers were produced. These instruments would scan a stained blood smear to find cell nuclei, then take a higher resolution snapshot of the cell to analyze it through densitometry. They were expensive, slow, and did little to reduce workload in the laboratory because they still required blood smears to be prepared and stained, so flow cytometry-based systems became more popular, and by 1990, no digital image analyzers were commercially available in the United States or western Europe. These techniques enjoyed a resurgence in the 2000s with the introduction of more advanced image analysis platforms using artificial neural networks.
Early flow cytometry devices shot beams of light at cells in specific wavelengths and measured the resulting absorbance, fluorescence or light scatter, collecting information about the cells' features and allowing cellular contents such as DNA to be quantified. One such instrument—the Rapid Cell Spectrophotometer, developed by Louis Kamentsky in 1965 to automate cervical cytology—could generate blood cell scattergrams using cytochemical staining techniques. Leonard Ornstein, who had helped to develop the staining system on the Rapid Cell Spectrophotometer, and his colleagues later created the first commercial flow cytometric white blood cell differential analyzer, the Hemalog D. Introduced in 1974, this analyzer used light scattering, absorbance and cell staining to identify the five normal white blood cell types in addition to "large unidentified cells", a classification that usually consisted of atypical lymphocytes or blast cells. The Hemalog D could count 10,000 cells in one run, a marked improvement over the manual differential. In 1981, Technicon combined the Hemalog D with the Hemalog-8 analyzer to produce the Technicon H6000, the first combined complete blood count and differential analyzer. This analyzer was unpopular with hematology laboratories because it was labour-intensive to operate, but in the late 1980s to early 1990s similar systems were widely produced by other manufacturers such as Sysmex, Abbott, Roche and Beckman Coulter.
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
General bibliography
Articles containing video clips
Concentration indicators
Blood tests | [
0.5461239814758301,
-0.17885971069335938,
-0.16714899241924286,
0.27068573236465454,
0.2945333421230316,
-0.13802622258663177,
0.26772671937942505,
-0.19908829033374786,
0.053078629076480865,
-0.01593683660030365,
-0.06989587843418121,
0.018388334661722183,
-0.05104400962591171,
0.3133334815502167,
0.11867445707321167,
0.12280765175819397,
0.6470694541931152,
0.5374917984008789,
0.40565523505210876,
-0.5673885941505432,
-0.15863429009914398,
-0.40297049283981323,
0.3073326051235199,
0.04668800160288811,
-0.22870856523513794,
0.03540289029479027,
0.1629936546087265,
-0.5095958113670349,
-0.08911213278770447,
0.00526013458147645,
0.26274949312210083,
0.6815887689590454,
0.476811021566391,
-0.041395124047994614,
0.20106357336044312,
-0.11308766156435013,
-0.34010836482048035,
-0.23322997987270355,
-0.16502393782138824,
-0.7306946516036987,
-0.4335719347000122,
-0.31511279940605164,
-0.15039251744747162,
0.6756389737129211,
-0.7754999995231628,
-0.19258633255958557,
-1.0735186338424683,
0.7533614635467529,
-0.60011887550354,
0.5727038383483887,
0.06867429614067078,
0.2677884101867676,
0.013343372382223606,
0.4295766055583954,
-0.09937580674886703,
0.33557215332984924,
-0.6388095617294312,
0.16995282471179962,
-0.05638519302010536,
-0.40280234813690186,
0.6278557181358337,
-0.34109461307525635,
0.30091315507888794,
-0.13516247272491455,
0.6215503811836243,
-0.20779013633728027,
0.13528303802013397,
-0.023433320224285126,
-0.16434557735919952,
-0.41000011563301086,
0.0076454440131783485,
0.1451243907213211,
-0.07079063355922699,
0.3142351806163788,
-0.08138848096132278,
-0.019356202334165573,
-0.27061110734939575,
-0.12868660688400269,
0.39281436800956726,
-0.13993845880031586,
-0.3679545819759369,
0.0651039257645607,
-0.3549725115299225,
0.031207319349050522,
0.3814479410648346,
0.41321423649787903,
-0.062315914779901505,
0.026826126500964165,
-0.3279240131378174,
0.30759957432746887,
-0.2407594472169876,
0.21166162192821503,
0.2722229063510895,
-0.5673465728759766,
-0.022506719455122948,
-0.06633125990629196,
-0.001299376948736608,
-0.48983749747276306,
-0.06366163492202759,
-0.02089131437242031,
-0.09954661130905151,
-0.2558494508266449,
0.355858713388443,
-0.08818508684635162,
-0.4489034116268158,
0.05510959029197693,
-0.37263375520706177,
0.17470179498195648,
0.482793927192688,
-0.035672083497047424,
-0.1932772994041443,
0.12082294374704361,
-0.25671669840812683,
0.24499408900737762,
-0.6873170137405396,
0.39811956882476807,
0.1494748443365097,
-0.043497055768966675,
-0.14315922558307648,
-0.32547682523727417,
-0.2261396199464798,
0.43302345275878906,
0.3339863717556,
-0.18868346512317657,
-0.10324689745903015,
0.25893715023994446,
0.7194071412086487,
0.5101739764213562,
0.06045027822256088,
0.39030125737190247,
-0.4412177503108978,
0.5976501107215881,
0.3656359612941742,
-0.16001291573047638,
-0.30611199140548706,
-0.1459275335073471,
0.10282547771930695,
-0.05386655405163765,
0.1867283135652542,
0.685321033000946,
-0.44906142354011536,
-0.9164438247680664,
0.13857504725456238,
-0.1695403754711151,
0.74814772605896,
-0.27597054839134216,
-0.43863925337791443,
-0.15164923667907715,
0.1682104915380478,
-0.28353041410446167,
0.10443197190761566,
0.6342694759368896,
-0.009072593413293362,
-0.47075244784355164,
0.4892672598361969,
0.5835773348808289,
0.21848119795322418,
0.061252571642398834,
-0.28157639503479004,
0.20598861575126648,
0.380646288394928,
0.723844051361084,
0.005744714289903641,
-0.5170127153396606,
0.07176866382360458,
-0.058454953134059906,
0.39800184965133667,
0.799990177154541,
-0.31957337260246277,
0.4868920147418976,
-0.10412599891424179,
-0.06296958774328232,
0.3487073481082916,
-0.044583410024642944,
-0.34316641092300415,
0.30564501881599426,
0.24049529433250427,
-0.010425054468214512,
0.5990455150604248,
-0.26083147525787354,
-0.37751448154449463,
0.5503391027450562,
0.11470285803079605,
-0.4849267303943634,
0.12257233262062073,
-0.13885849714279175,
0.5255911350250244,
-0.08283933997154236,
-0.7435736656188965,
0.31370091438293457,
0.4998595416545868,
-0.2831268608570099,
0.3602612614631653,
-0.5164636373519897,
1.4917263984680176,
-0.5943519473075867,
0.2348131239414215,
0.7751140594482422,
-0.41974279284477234,
0.09288114309310913,
-0.43337202072143555,
0.0809812992811203,
0.4655022919178009,
-0.49251386523246765,
-0.2985471785068512,
-0.004489777609705925,
0.2651655077934265,
-0.5501346588134766,
0.1660410761833191,
-0.39796948432922363,
0.047282662242650986,
-0.17638534307479858,
0.5290019512176514,
-0.39879196882247925,
-0.2989397346973419,
-0.17005474865436554,
-0.591587245464325,
0.15513508021831512,
0.021835818886756897,
-0.2681094706058502,
0.5368752479553223,
-0.3054197430610657,
0.005682623479515314,
0.3170701563358307,
-0.44191333651542664,
0.361179381608963,
0.40805065631866455,
0.09618225693702698,
0.7626651525497437,
-0.4653353691101074,
0.2487165331840515,
-0.17554643750190735,
0.3044414818286896,
0.4044455885887146,
-0.615250825881958,
-0.2698429226875305,
0.1250702440738678,
-0.3256499171257019,
-0.10932467877864838,
0.06905080378055573,
0.08609049767255783,
0.5420742034912109,
-0.35216841101646423,
-0.26558905839920044,
0.12457644194364548,
0.03235624358057976,
0.016364876180887222,
0.24010615050792694,
-0.23237104713916779,
-0.01910630613565445,
0.03447587043046951,
0.03644135966897011,
-0.10387060791254044,
-0.13240033388137817,
0.33248838782310486,
-0.36044806241989136,
0.7191932797431946,
-0.08477095514535904,
-0.03448144719004631,
-0.10489410161972046,
-0.21616865694522858,
-0.16301754117012024,
0.09120925515890121,
-0.31913435459136963,
0.12806199491024017,
-1.1090079545974731,
-1.1436243057250977,
-0.7280458211898804,
0.5963415503501892,
0.5860661864280701,
0.6019127368927002,
0.11472290009260178,
-0.7166963815689087,
0.272184818983078,
0.230663001537323,
-0.611744225025177,
0.45590612292289734,
0.010764498263597488,
-0.24899671971797943,
0.41359737515449524,
0.07657727599143982,
0.06267938017845154,
0.26831281185150146,
-0.23887208104133606,
-0.13905709981918335,
-0.19951559603214264,
-0.14632801711559296,
0.08053945004940033,
0.22897762060165405,
-0.28179606795310974,
-0.377902626991272,
0.3846408724784851,
0.13238820433616638,
-0.5268257260322571,
0.3221081793308258,
-0.017036892473697662,
0.163908913731575,
-0.14469118416309357,
-0.38921815156936646,
0.15174558758735657,
-0.5444158315658569,
0.03228698670864105,
0.47686567902565,
-0.2628057897090912,
0.04685864970088005,
0.2625219523906708,
0.11945464462041855,
0.2748025059700012,
-5.862276077270508,
0.15550915896892548,
-0.4172844886779785,
-0.5028584003448486,
0.15551577508449554,
0.15218707919120789,
0.41273200511932373,
0.06161986291408539,
-0.29102611541748047,
-0.21368110179901123,
-0.10076843947172165,
0.08353893458843231,
0.19226263463497162,
0.7362420558929443,
0.45555657148361206,
-0.29511234164237976,
-0.4234691858291626,
-0.1771271824836731,
0.408052921295166,
0.7616362571716309,
0.14308542013168335,
-0.11577842384576797,
0.03733857721090317,
0.6210471987724304,
-0.09009212255477905,
0.973163902759552,
-0.5423742532730103,
0.28570663928985596,
-0.3592514097690582,
-0.010079240426421165,
-0.06097056344151497,
-0.5573795437812805,
-0.052438657730817795,
-0.6747499704360962,
-0.1052655354142189,
-0.0513174794614315,
0.31327763199806213,
0.4065309464931488,
-0.305959552526474,
-0.24758586287498474,
-0.055825695395469666,
0.1572519987821579,
-0.09085780382156372,
-0.5358091592788696,
-0.1557285338640213,
0.15303973853588104,
-0.6542676091194153,
0.21657401323318481,
-0.23758713901042938,
0.11120656877756119,
-0.47560974955558777,
-0.011265621520578861,
-0.013162045739591122,
0.05291421338915825,
-0.47947579622268677,
-0.20956748723983765,
0.1857503056526184,
0.25012654066085815,
-0.2254667431116104,
0.2754477858543396,
-0.18524621427059174,
-0.13583976030349731,
0.22554680705070496,
0.3142281770706177,
0.06625375896692276,
0.06293875724077225,
-0.36880603432655334,
-0.26995405554771423,
0.22532297670841217,
0.6337565779685974,
0.2821369469165802,
0.15895222127437592,
0.12133707106113434,
-0.8941199779510498,
-0.02910957857966423,
-0.8307129144668579,
0.20923388004302979,
-0.07297264039516449,
0.08603223413228989,
0.39560580253601074,
-0.5377824306488037,
0.02690105326473713,
-0.4139971137046814,
0.21857650578022003,
0.4725615084171295,
-0.23889315128326416,
-0.5742157697677612,
0.5100271701812744,
0.09591483324766159,
-0.2150731235742569,
0.21120595932006836,
-0.4369494616985321,
0.5812056064605713,
0.21482843160629272,
-0.002095238072797656,
0.012435930781066418,
0.3719044029712677,
0.6762971878051758,
0.3770182132720947,
-0.20996442437171936,
0.7073368430137634,
0.03799056261777878,
0.1899753212928772,
-1.2091349363327026,
-0.5225862860679626,
-0.36077967286109924,
-0.9853301644325256,
0.837635338306427,
0.013385514728724957,
-0.17976659536361694,
-0.4484751224517822,
-0.1567608267068863,
0.06908101588487625,
-0.3019454777240753,
0.26888585090637207,
0.23432786762714386,
-0.042445503175258636,
-0.04895652458071709,
0.8956112265586853,
0.4918786883354187,
0.36942675709724426,
0.05770536884665489,
-0.4044353663921356,
-0.06597001850605011,
0.4112979769706726,
-0.29959508776664734,
0.20285890996456146,
0.14360322058200836,
0.016283120959997177,
-0.4228118360042572,
0.17685718834400177,
0.6961207389831543,
0.1592925786972046,
0.7912410497665405,
0.2748587429523468,
-0.14868849515914917,
-0.21298432350158691,
0.44315892457962036,
-0.05859863758087158,
-0.4085971713066101,
0.7052873373031616,
-0.5088282227516174,
-0.38478243350982666,
0.41056516766548157,
-0.21467319130897522,
0.055354807525873184,
-0.2932590842247009,
0.018972154706716537,
-0.2367234230041504,
0.1609719842672348,
0.4733772873878479,
-0.35916757583618164,
0.22786928713321686,
-0.12119957059621811,
-0.041244376450777054,
-0.06007051840424538,
0.7525732517242432,
0.3894229233264923,
0.13896553218364716,
-0.6151877045631409,
-0.1387312412261963,
-0.20060479640960693,
-1.0591634511947632,
-0.4470701813697815,
-0.34084492921829224,
-0.37812376022338867,
-0.5622823238372803,
-0.5050641894340515,
-0.21320387721061707,
0.6716998219490051,
-0.4527571499347687,
-0.6429986953735352,
0.34490177035331726,
-0.13606107234954834,
0.20577989518642426,
0.2250337302684784,
-0.4085049033164978,
0.2397061288356781,
-0.11148738116025925,
0.1837587207555771,
-0.07199496775865555,
-0.3767807185649872,
-0.25199753046035767,
0.44686877727508545,
0.7974199056625366,
0.8466994762420654,
-0.2673605978488922,
0.26510030031204224,
0.17823882400989532,
0.40936991572380066,
0.09069973975419998,
-0.3131846785545349,
0.34544989466667175,
-0.07128192484378815,
-0.4409328103065491,
0.04614551365375519,
-0.022903112694621086,
0.6399530172348022,
0.358572393655777,
0.27447086572647095,
0.16382786631584167,
0.192035511136055,
-0.1778622418642044,
0.06107461079955101,
1.0192681550979614,
-0.16811974346637726,
-0.10694049298763275,
0.24866051971912384,
-0.8584327101707458,
0.5095647573471069,
-0.33124256134033203,
-0.3002302944660187,
0.02347639575600624,
0.30874699354171753,
-0.4994986355304718,
0.38851040601730347,
-0.13990116119384766,
-0.5898428559303284,
0.1608041524887085,
0.1071847602725029,
-0.19095325469970703,
0.6398361325263977,
0.18869701027870178,
-0.0051145548932254314,
0.008404480293393135,
-0.8555080890655518,
0.5238578915596008,
-0.4472265839576721,
0.12941858172416687,
0.36893150210380554,
-0.14164026081562042,
-0.10426748543977737,
-0.106587253510952,
-0.4116774797439575,
-0.04955821484327316,
-0.4038325250148773,
-0.12405133992433548,
0.25561079382896423,
-0.17134764790534973,
-0.2651169002056122,
0.06488068401813507,
0.6018592715263367,
0.05941811949014664,
0.014544118195772171,
0.0005617102142423391,
0.5683101415634155,
0.41302490234375,
-0.9951695799827576,
0.2222767323255539,
0.20551621913909912,
0.36449870467185974,
-0.4513123631477356,
-0.1703353077173233,
-0.07032280415296555,
0.7909256219863892,
0.6603869795799255,
0.5742253661155701,
-0.5912353992462158,
0.02394883893430233,
0.2619904577732086,
0.08448414504528046,
-0.5457540154457092,
0.21208378672599792,
0.19830752909183502,
0.22370418906211853,
-0.18910780549049377,
-0.22336556017398834,
-0.10002677142620087,
0.2876594364643097,
-0.073211170732975,
0.6743046641349792,
-0.260429322719574,
0.16200324892997742,
0.45095980167388916,
-0.08393439650535583,
0.30340245366096497,
-0.03389693424105644,
-0.14564988017082214,
-0.1762845814228058,
0.21662290394306183,
-0.37440386414527893,
-0.1669127494096756,
0.8931383490562439,
-0.18800950050354004,
0.14948496222496033,
-0.34452271461486816,
0.061033375561237335,
0.11504749208688736,
-0.3182775378227234,
0.24437932670116425,
-0.5704696774482727,
-0.061141081154346466,
-0.14067304134368896,
0.07055619359016418,
0.18332616984844208,
-0.33140695095062256,
0.04845518618822098,
0.8848608732223511,
-0.09165194630622864,
-0.42893481254577637,
-0.391470342874527,
0.6512160897254944,
0.12038826942443848,
-0.651134729385376,
-0.14451266825199127,
0.36186227202415466,
0.4925019145011902,
-0.3977303206920624,
-0.3620279133319855,
-0.20700503885746002,
0.37639713287353516,
-0.3503475785255432,
0.23344339430332184,
0.3703371584415436,
-0.5906412601470947,
-0.26601698994636536,
-0.243149533867836,
-0.1670045256614685,
0.1343144029378891,
0.47127607464790344,
0.5796341896057129,
-0.15706701576709747,
0.4236508905887604,
-0.09830401092767715,
-0.6134055852890015,
0.6708608865737915,
0.3103436231613159,
-0.2251879870891571,
-0.08877209573984146,
0.34753888845443726,
0.8431706428527832,
0.23138795793056488,
-0.20161035656929016,
0.35110583901405334,
-0.31701424717903137,
-0.4507109522819519,
-0.09980084747076035,
-0.06255574524402618,
-0.42509812116622925,
0.7405807971954346,
0.05475839599967003,
-0.07146719843149185,
-0.519138753414154,
0.09304723888635635,
-0.5754064917564392,
0.5947819948196411,
-0.3532911539077759,
0.12154245376586914,
-0.13036681711673737,
0.3801879584789276,
0.2470497041940689,
-0.5082115530967712,
0.06965833157300949,
0.6640301942825317,
0.0805070623755455,
-0.20494861900806427,
0.45228198170661926,
-0.8745982646942139,
0.1461641639471054,
-0.3482780456542969,
-0.8095454573631287,
0.28264063596725464,
0.3550373911857605,
0.8281261920928955,
0.22971168160438538,
0.33847668766975403,
0.4299694001674652,
-0.2919585704803467,
-0.09593282639980316,
0.12282634526491165,
-0.5712509751319885,
0.03147333115339279,
-0.4228518009185791,
0.3168276846408844,
0.06767173111438751,
-0.6493495106697083,
-0.3742252588272095,
0.37080100178718567,
-0.5570290088653564,
-0.39878788590431213,
-0.2798958122730255,
-0.27194252610206604,
-0.357015997171402,
-1.0876444578170776,
-0.28730112314224243,
0.2927111089229584,
-0.13373857736587524,
-0.438761830329895,
-0.17192082107067108,
0.2719862461090088,
0.5457215905189514,
-0.8698214292526245,
0.6338709592819214,
-0.2639012336730957,
-0.4795584976673126,
-0.22871221601963043,
0.07092545181512833,
0.08208978921175003,
0.7362788319587708,
-0.3144254982471466,
-0.3331170380115509,
0.0979204997420311,
-0.059193097054958344,
0.015826696529984474,
-0.9846621155738831,
0.5805080533027649,
-0.4776785969734192,
0.25986987352371216,
-0.4175417125225067,
0.200264111161232,
0.3228989839553833,
-0.36871403455734253,
-0.48248228430747986,
0.724575400352478,
0.060032833367586136,
0.252848356962204,
0.17713730037212372,
-0.5504112839698792,
0.2525871992111206,
-0.1563788652420044,
-0.08409062027931213,
0.19979867339134216,
0.1947208195924759,
0.30708861351013184,
-0.44826579093933105,
0.23475904762744904,
0.26108506321907043,
-0.2858999967575073,
-0.6648175120353699,
0.3944670259952545,
-1.141675353050232,
0.09531302005052567,
-0.622039794921875,
0.06574638932943344,
-0.38625583052635193,
-0.4231075942516327,
0.407869428396225,
-0.1741320788860321,
-0.021384134888648987,
-0.09327766299247742,
0.06288056820631027,
0.09394799172878265,
-0.38272374868392944,
0.08490289002656937,
0.25328972935676575,
0.022426221519708633,
-0.09460549056529999,
-0.9697479009628296,
-0.652641773223877,
0.17066679894924164,
0.004892916884273291,
0.12810905277729034,
0.03842596709728241,
-0.1339959055185318,
-0.4542360305786133,
0.11077943444252014,
0.32773077487945557,
-0.4557204842567444,
0.07998089492321014,
0.6937808990478516
] |
241566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%2C%20Duke%20of%20Gloucester | Richard, Duke of Gloucester | Richard, Duke of Gloucester may refer to:
Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester (born 1944)
Richard III of England (1483–1485), Duke of Gloucester prior to his accession to the throne | [
-0.5491307377815247,
0.024428701028227806,
0.13105958700180054,
-0.17967787384986877,
-0.30443161725997925,
0.7418050169944763,
0.76991206407547,
-0.07279585301876068,
-0.5348102450370789,
-0.5432135462760925,
-0.6792149543762207,
0.19982516765594482,
-0.2316465824842453,
0.37836748361587524,
-0.04167357087135315,
0.2933698296546936,
0.31199902296066284,
-0.1164635419845581,
-0.1876777708530426,
-0.5906861424446106,
0.22164641320705414,
-0.051042068749666214,
0.18339377641677856,
-0.08929991722106934,
0.28201737999916077,
0.09493012726306915,
0.5453813672065735,
-0.04800718277692795,
-0.16544292867183685,
-0.23838107287883759,
0.12413134425878525,
0.23793573677539825,
0.4003565013408661,
-0.11127995699644089,
0.12028486281633377,
-0.49708178639411926,
-0.33254900574684143,
-0.5242670178413391,
-0.32229581475257874,
-0.1001126766204834,
0.30226439237594604,
0.07227255403995514,
0.24588324129581451,
0.06915314495563507,
-0.31564491987228394,
-0.5450450778007507,
-1.4389671087265015,
-0.05279748514294624,
0.11718171089887619,
-0.2442275732755661,
0.5003194212913513,
0.15648551285266876,
0.2598417401313782,
0.2629321813583374,
0.8099210858345032,
-0.13641388714313507,
-1.1326755285263062,
-0.2567271292209625,
0.37349188327789307,
-0.16178767383098602,
0.6447603702545166,
0.5858055949211121,
-0.18754863739013672,
0.6114810705184937,
-0.15386532247066498,
-0.40196165442466736,
0.7623130083084106,
0.372745543718338,
-0.6310632824897766,
-0.3427726626396179,
-0.2771296501159668,
0.2323107272386551,
0.6451345086097717,
0.24909411370754242,
-0.22368280589580536,
-0.09216494858264923,
0.095339834690094,
0.02615979313850403,
0.5088475942611694,
-0.8081769943237305,
0.664883553981781,
-0.2325238287448883,
0.6222608089447021,
0.4992062747478485,
0.15033671259880066,
0.41267943382263184,
-0.036142248660326004,
0.10383668541908264,
-0.5293144583702087,
0.27215155959129333,
-0.38811978697776794,
0.33314183354377747,
0.057317234575748444,
0.10841889679431915,
-0.6292516589164734,
-0.21886880695819855,
-0.26657524704933167,
-0.09241969138383865,
0.06559799611568451,
-0.07984141260385513,
-0.0808614119887352,
-0.17823438346385956,
0.26128196716308594,
-0.1257825642824173,
-0.6075347661972046,
-0.11355538666248322,
-0.5977098345756531,
0.3630772829055786,
-0.5639244318008423,
0.1760200411081314,
-0.23725861310958862,
0.4554535150527954,
0.09898525476455688,
-0.10497482120990753,
0.5685573220252991,
0.33611953258514404,
0.4171985685825348,
-0.6182031631469727,
-0.7514501810073853,
-0.18719305098056793,
-0.023396477103233337,
0.6880216598510742,
-0.4729844927787781,
0.447194367647171,
0.2660430073738098,
-0.28596654534339905,
0.6113975644111633,
0.07621172815561295,
0.08584702759981155,
0.00027896426036022604,
0.3129641115665436,
0.9864196181297302,
-0.6244898438453674,
-0.26720261573791504,
0.2948092520236969,
-0.4150768220424652,
-0.24777278304100037,
0.1311628520488739,
0.31630322337150574,
0.4982709586620331,
-0.7501617074012756,
-0.24739480018615723,
-0.7468402981758118,
0.8050075769424438,
0.561386227607727,
-0.054047245532274246,
-0.08547286689281464,
0.5472617149353027,
-0.1301509588956833,
0.7249467372894287,
-0.07620666921138763,
-0.087619848549366,
-0.4789736568927765,
-0.3200816214084625,
-0.21842309832572937,
0.3076063096523285,
0.6558599472045898,
-0.3263755738735199,
0.485514760017395,
0.44971412420272827,
-0.16648098826408386,
0.04294177144765854,
-0.3441604971885681,
0.18689531087875366,
0.24970263242721558,
-0.27264922857284546,
0.19799138605594635,
-0.28022825717926025,
-0.46382004022598267,
-0.12936727702617645,
-0.6383770108222961,
0.3604857921600342,
-0.2571161091327667,
-0.2814503312110901,
0.09483487904071808,
0.5346787571907043,
0.9649561047554016,
0.22535257041454315,
0.4181522727012634,
-0.5645409226417542,
-0.3892589807510376,
-0.4243594706058502,
0.04663572832942009,
-0.02971426025032997,
0.5216827392578125,
0.3676491379737854,
0.06120070815086365,
-0.4832030236721039,
0.09088091552257538,
-0.5206656455993652,
0.008985576219856739,
-0.2584294378757477,
0.4173286557197571,
-0.08928164839744568,
0.43586134910583496,
0.1780681163072586,
-0.2379046231508255,
0.030551502481102943,
0.22049233317375183,
0.8604007363319397,
0.4807679355144501,
-0.35143277049064636,
0.3438410758972168,
-0.07411886006593704,
-0.17885254323482513,
0.3763250410556793,
0.31984132528305054,
-0.26424121856689453,
0.6495257019996643,
0.8053026795387268,
0.6069440841674805,
-0.09687346965074539,
-0.2315572053194046,
0.14754994213581085,
0.32316625118255615,
-0.17537599802017212,
0.4142967462539673,
-0.14748632907867432,
0.06709565967321396,
-1.0530799627304077,
0.26614880561828613,
0.4570232331752777,
0.0251303780823946,
0.25316211581230164,
-0.25220271944999695,
1.1529717445373535,
-0.6967968344688416,
-0.3252812325954437,
-0.776759684085846,
-0.6299917101860046,
-0.3086676299571991,
0.06195446103811264,
-0.12218616902828217,
-0.22621923685073853,
0.5064933896064758,
-0.1269531100988388,
-0.24903757870197296,
-0.2962476313114166,
-0.02231576293706894,
0.12502597272396088,
0.39008578658103943,
0.351604700088501,
-0.22159485518932343,
0.29556146264076233,
-0.1527702361345291,
0.7063515782356262,
0.24038296937942505,
0.21215927600860596,
-0.18052421510219574,
-0.5217570066452026,
0.6849552392959595,
-0.027595655992627144,
-0.11635734140872955,
-0.36966049671173096,
0.5811653137207031,
-0.1129877045750618,
-0.314893901348114,
0.08976169675588608,
-0.32793641090393066,
1.0336575508117676,
-0.5698931217193604,
0.09704342484474182,
0.2694728374481201,
0.022506987676024437,
-0.13972413539886475,
0.23978972434997559,
-0.22218380868434906,
-0.5638507604598999,
0.20787768065929413,
-0.3583563268184662,
-0.034637805074453354,
-0.08278646320104599,
-0.8175102472305298,
-0.3946923017501831,
0.5202877521514893,
0.2879945635795593,
-0.482663094997406,
0.5007330179214478,
-0.017862923443317413,
-0.5989934206008911,
0.31536608934402466,
0.532313346862793,
-0.50787353515625,
-0.05490544065833092,
-0.2721451222896576,
0.05985664203763008,
0.0022599180229008198,
-0.5102943181991577,
-0.13677087426185608,
-0.3214896321296692,
-0.041801609098911285,
0.40686777234077454,
-0.2528100311756134,
-0.057123813778162,
-0.4012705981731415,
0.7368448972702026,
-0.5011195540428162,
-0.3093782663345337,
-0.389435350894928,
-0.2608630955219269,
-0.006176022347062826,
0.4486393630504608,
0.32953622937202454,
0.1843859702348709,
0.9698259234428406,
-0.45352765917778015,
-0.010125454515218735,
0.0782761499285698,
-5.501194000244141,
-0.05931852012872696,
0.2070554941892624,
0.4364965856075287,
0.6761735677719116,
0.0503980852663517,
0.4159930348396301,
-0.2647600471973419,
0.27941203117370605,
-0.5232610702514648,
0.7311626076698303,
0.01576785184442997,
0.3881877064704895,
0.35410401225090027,
0.7039422988891602,
0.41263315081596375,
1.0651251077651978,
-0.39983201026916504,
0.8419572114944458,
0.2731364071369171,
0.2016773670911789,
0.14051389694213867,
-0.2427453100681305,
0.1409098505973816,
0.15430036187171936,
0.43948739767074585,
-0.30101484060287476,
-0.01768685318529606,
-0.816418468952179,
-0.5512815117835999,
-0.3102929890155792,
0.18466639518737793,
0.6790748834609985,
-0.0541301891207695,
-0.863936722278595,
-0.1649981141090393,
0.24476297199726105,
0.7248444557189941,
0.4521314799785614,
-0.5749689936637878,
-0.10606756061315536,
-0.06660404801368713,
-0.561968982219696,
0.3482836186885834,
-0.3050091862678528,
-0.06669586151838303,
-0.8382861018180847,
0.2845819890499115,
0.005616838578134775,
0.6536487340927124,
-0.3720203936100006,
0.19676725566387177,
0.4924010634422302,
0.019521955400705338,
-0.0814092829823494,
-0.14284631609916687,
-0.6209735870361328,
0.5464644432067871,
-0.20832443237304688,
0.564558207988739,
-0.09360234439373016,
-0.93417888879776,
0.40833932161331177,
0.17970912158489227,
-0.036093030124902725,
-0.3539406359195709,
-0.1935022622346878,
0.4701601564884186,
0.5101000666618347,
0.6410949230194092,
-0.43107524514198303,
0.18182246387004852,
0.2841714024543762,
-1.0939284563064575,
0.46501246094703674,
0.13865908980369568,
-0.11980075389146805,
0.2656562626361847,
0.15863201022148132,
-0.25792744755744934,
-0.2282743602991104,
-0.20770271122455597,
-0.3896197974681854,
0.5551874041557312,
0.30921173095703125,
-0.30737924575805664,
-0.392188161611557,
0.09327791631221771,
-0.3949394226074219,
-0.6572698354721069,
0.31160178780555725,
-0.7375319600105286,
-0.32402873039245605,
0.7826724648475647,
0.2535397410392761,
-0.16773621737957,
-0.02800145372748375,
0.2718135416507721,
0.4835352897644043,
0.22067855298519135,
-0.12117111682891846,
-0.2524105906486511,
-0.12971816956996918,
-0.6847831606864929,
-0.14443743228912354,
-0.24051660299301147,
-0.11615670472383499,
-0.03253057971596718,
-0.0464618094265461,
-0.19395489990711212,
0.14051589369773865,
-0.2647719085216522,
-0.33876848220825195,
-0.6413384079933167,
0.2531089782714844,
-0.7817133069038391,
-0.14806605875492096,
0.35931798815727234,
0.7007484436035156,
0.26645275950431824,
-0.21155595779418945,
0.6041234731674194,
-0.21228981018066406,
-0.053093742579221725,
-0.42460501194000244,
0.1896432638168335,
0.5686624050140381,
-0.08968355506658554,
-0.659907877445221,
-0.04952666908502579,
0.19904164969921112,
0.45884495973587036,
-0.2488839030265808,
0.17443616688251495,
0.2539098262786865,
-0.711209774017334,
0.10288802534341812,
-0.3043665587902069,
0.07862282544374466,
-0.2993776500225067,
-0.11113258451223373,
-0.2499486356973648,
-0.2271990031003952,
-0.29014092683792114,
-0.2779545783996582,
0.4876869022846222,
0.5780103802680969,
-0.1017359271645546,
-0.19614587724208832,
0.8748747110366821,
0.06698640435934067,
-0.33437779545783997,
1.011953353881836,
-0.18895603716373444,
-0.363793283700943,
0.1936921328306198,
-0.144629567861557,
0.20166464149951935,
-0.40232324600219727,
-0.296747088432312,
-0.016931593418121338,
0.10024499893188477,
-0.32906585931777954,
-0.0059249065816402435,
0.5671960115432739,
0.017596952617168427,
-0.39864271879196167,
-0.6071122288703918,
-0.46061843633651733,
0.905493974685669,
0.06911046802997589,
-0.6005643606185913,
-0.4312489330768585,
-0.04353918135166168,
0.33735647797584534,
-0.49559682607650757,
0.0661986693739891,
0.293404757976532,
-0.22999750077724457,
-0.1015002429485321,
0.6215481758117676,
0.1083909347653389,
-0.20418964326381683,
0.3045271635055542,
0.7074829339981079,
-0.17252860963344574,
-0.395804226398468,
-0.412592351436615,
-0.27780309319496155,
-0.13183337450027466,
-0.5053091645240784,
0.06057015806436539,
0.4158376455307007,
0.43290403485298157,
-0.5866836905479431,
-0.024740057066082954,
0.05398034676909447,
0.21424590051174164,
-0.004074911121279001,
-0.22920984029769897,
0.019527962431311607,
0.8479596972465515,
-0.25154733657836914,
0.13459312915802002,
0.15855413675308228,
-0.683411180973053,
0.24663028120994568,
-0.3810831904411316,
0.10495584458112717,
0.3292652368545532,
0.04611620679497719,
-0.8168011903762817,
0.218858540058136,
0.6363978385925293,
-0.2636643946170807,
-0.13193510472774506,
-0.26794636249542236,
-0.1817573755979538,
-0.036673106253147125,
-0.915301501750946,
-0.0994795486330986,
-0.3433438241481781,
-0.36293914914131165,
0.28817397356033325,
-0.16524145007133484,
0.21205733716487885,
0.6767579317092896,
-0.7118606567382812,
1.1006947755813599,
-0.4166698753833771,
-0.3574112057685852,
0.22438949346542358,
-0.5643905401229858,
0.5848370790481567,
-0.49262550473213196,
0.38623395562171936,
0.6158978343009949,
0.056178007274866104,
-0.0688813179731369,
0.27505168318748474,
0.9819905161857605,
1.5909804105758667,
0.005123702809214592,
-0.9837442636489868,
-0.3047235608100891,
0.2049996554851532,
-0.10918469727039337,
-0.3275524377822876,
-0.015797320753335953,
0.3583124577999115,
0.07170744240283966,
-0.5461127161979675,
-0.3252442181110382,
-0.4763811230659485,
1.1032344102859497,
-1.0584574937820435,
0.017961453646421432,
-0.09736745804548264,
0.025751197710633278,
0.2743527293205261,
0.08153457194566727,
0.18213798105716705,
-0.173110231757164,
0.21380886435508728,
0.15376988053321838,
0.25442221760749817,
-0.1334463208913803,
0.2616695761680603,
-0.046472787857055664,
-0.09092927724123001,
-0.47189509868621826,
-0.5557129979133606,
-0.5441030263900757,
0.1890215128660202,
-0.3605131208896637,
-0.04140010476112366,
0.03227727487683296,
-0.6921288371086121,
0.485268771648407,
0.014526516199111938,
-0.7176803350448608,
0.009796728380024433,
0.44843223690986633,
-0.5851233005523682,
-0.0309474878013134,
-0.38769084215164185,
0.02034652605652809,
-0.11180796474218369,
-0.19683225452899933,
-0.06402863562107086,
-0.25306665897369385,
-0.619207501411438,
-0.3299000859260559,
-0.4230019450187683,
0.2251897007226944,
0.346538782119751,
-0.25502675771713257,
0.17154096066951752,
0.16701723635196686,
-0.1830514669418335,
-0.6764822006225586,
1.0957709550857544,
0.4289524257183075,
0.010395304299890995,
0.24883291125297546,
0.11094751954078674,
-0.04160911962389946,
-0.7691144943237305,
0.03818783164024353,
-0.017499089241027832,
0.898901104927063,
-0.21355615556240082,
0.3555852472782135,
0.30462801456451416,
-0.5356513261795044,
-0.16122668981552124,
0.44486096501350403,
-0.3067265748977661,
-0.8309311866760254,
-0.3549804985523224,
-0.1245066300034523,
0.09366189688444138,
0.2157343327999115,
0.269866019487381,
0.17080403864383698,
0.7510849237442017,
-0.34224390983581543,
-0.4400698244571686,
0.2362339198589325,
0.15945443511009216,
0.20482753217220306,
-0.024571700021624565,
-1.022886037826538,
1.5212794542312622,
-0.055834926664829254,
-0.20231780409812927,
0.7557814121246338,
-0.5116732120513916,
0.4803157150745392,
0.6203290820121765,
0.46836748719215393,
0.4608469307422638,
-0.7834040522575378,
-0.16477449238300323,
-0.5391016602516174,
0.25271841883659363,
-0.48281365633010864,
0.02712872438132763,
-0.19697439670562744,
-0.2577493190765381,
0.46061378717422485,
-0.2225649654865265,
-0.18904750049114227,
-0.5005245804786682,
0.06817767024040222,
0.41092321276664734,
0.6746222972869873,
-0.42950618267059326,
-0.308896541595459,
-0.516532838344574,
-0.0895671471953392,
-0.5723323822021484,
0.7171497344970703,
-0.1051684021949768,
0.18031054735183716,
-0.3122403025627136,
0.36103782057762146,
0.17612476646900177,
0.4961758553981781,
0.08334320783615112,
0.511609673500061,
-0.17654426395893097,
-0.16441592574119568,
-0.5170238018035889,
0.19637922942638397,
0.3537077009677887,
-0.046010468155145645,
-0.49186593294143677,
0.10304626077413559,
-0.6108148097991943,
-0.4299250841140747,
-0.5113586783409119,
-0.237130805850029,
-0.7430191040039062,
-0.10724415630102158,
0.4192526638507843,
-0.07131087779998779,
0.6155515313148499,
-0.5663470029830933,
-0.05265219882130623,
0.31361156702041626,
-0.6372050642967224,
-0.31199583411216736,
0.15145309269428253,
-0.8405483365058899,
-0.5704404711723328,
-0.19628538191318512,
0.748516321182251,
0.19310688972473145,
0.3077983558177948,
0.27031829953193665,
0.35048940777778625,
-0.602933406829834,
0.34484121203422546,
0.18957684934139252,
0.1901949942111969,
-0.39444392919540405,
-0.35874781012535095,
-0.9107226729393005,
0.6318309903144836,
0.17240606248378754,
-0.6196169853210449,
-0.15860679745674133,
0.2951342463493347,
0.22245599329471588,
0.29785066843032837,
0.5589038133621216,
-0.23387469351291656,
-0.22987663745880127,
-0.24401503801345825,
-0.1631370633840561,
-0.18583141267299652,
0.12482836097478867,
0.2954295575618744,
-0.1086631640791893,
-0.3935970067977905,
0.5226559042930603,
0.366722971200943,
-0.9291238784790039,
0.11723490804433823,
-0.13466891646385193,
0.010186051949858665,
-0.5859114527702332,
-0.002995789749547839,
0.02024870365858078,
0.1271575540304184,
1.4348326921463013,
0.5368469953536987,
-0.5277413129806519,
0.030479570850729942,
-0.3104126453399658,
-0.047862131148576736,
0.8251214623451233,
0.28544312715530396,
-0.5656111836433411,
-0.6641169190406799,
0.3377503454685211,
-0.3133482336997986,
-0.06914974749088287,
0.48192059993743896,
0.32050061225891113,
0.374289333820343,
0.3035508394241333,
-0.3215249180793762,
0.4790750741958618,
-0.04602277651429176,
-0.24096818268299103,
-0.5410047769546509,
0.008381880819797516,
-0.121138796210289
] |
241568 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford%20Circus%20tube%20station | Oxford Circus tube station | Oxford Circus is a London Underground station serving Oxford Circus at the junction of Regent Street and Oxford Street, with entrances on all four corners of the intersection. The station is an interchange between the Bakerloo, Central and Victoria lines. As of , it was the fourth-busiest station on the London Underground. On the Central line it is between Bond Street and Tottenham Court Road, on the Bakerloo line it is between Regent's Park and Piccadilly Circus, and on the Victoria line it is between Green Park and Warren Street. The station is in Travelcard Zone 1.
The Central line station opened on 30 July 1900, and the Bakerloo line station on 10 March 1906. Both are Grade II listed. The station was rebuilt in 1912 to relieve congestion. Further congestion led to another reconstruction in 1923. Numerous improvements were made as part of the New Works Programme and as a flood protection measure. To accommodate additional passengers on the Victoria line, a new ticket hall was built. The Victoria line platforms opened on 7 March 1969, including cross-platform interchange with the Bakerloo line.
History
Central line
In the 1890s, the Central London Railway (CLR) published a notice of a private bill that would be presented to Parliament for the 1890 parliamentary session. The bill planned an underground route between Shepherd's Bush and Cornhill (now Bank station). These plans were accepted by both Houses of Parliament on 5 August 1891.
The CLR employed the engineers James Henry Greathead, Sir John Fowler, and Sir Benjamin Baker to design the railway. Tunnelling was completed by the end of 1898 and the official opening of the CLR (now the Central line) by the Prince of Wales took place on 27 June 1900; it was opened to the public on 30 July. Oxford Circus station opened as part of the first section of the line, between Shepherd's Bush and Bank. As part of the 1935—40 New Works Programme, the misaligned tunnels of the central section on the Central line that slowed running speeds were corrected and the platforms lengthened to accommodate longer trains.
Bakerloo line
In November 1891, notice was given of a private bill that would be presented to Parliament for the construction of the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway (BS&WR, now the Bakerloo line). The railway was planned to run entirely underground from Marylebone to Elephant & Castle via Baker Street and Waterloo. The route was approved in 1900. Construction commenced in August 1898 under the direction of Sir Benjamin Baker, W.R. Galbraith and R.F. Church. The works were carried out by Perry & Company of Tregedar Works, Bow. Oxford Circus was altered below ground following a Board of Trade inspection; at the end of 1905, the first test trains began running. The official opening of the BS&WR by Sir Edwin Cornwall took place on 10 March 1906. The first section of the BS&WR was between Baker Street and Lambeth North, then known as Kennington Road.
Victoria line
A proposal for a new underground railway running from Victoria to Walthamstow was first proposed by a Working Party set up by the British Transport Commission in 1948, though that largely followed a 1946 plan for an East Croydon to Finsbury Park line. A route was approved in 1955 with future extensions to be decided later, though funding for the construction was not approved by the government until 1962. Construction began in 1962 on the initial Walthamstow to Victoria section, where cross-platform interchange were to be provided at Oxford Circus. The Victoria line platforms opened on 7 March 1969. The station opened as part of a second extension from Warren Street to Victoria. Cross-platform interchange between the Bakerloo and Victoria lines was provided by constructing the Victoria line platforms parallel to the Bakerloo ones.
Incidents and accidents
On 13 February 1976, a bomb left in a case at the station by the Provisional IRA was discovered and safely defused. The station, at the height of the afternoon rush hour, was evacuated.
On 23 November 1984, during renovation works, the station suffered a severe fire which burned out the northbound Victoria line platform. It is believed that the fire was caused by smoking materials being pushed through a ventilation grille into a storeroom where they set several materials on fire. This caused the Victoria line between Warren Street and Victoria to be suspended until 18 December the same year. This incident also led to a smoking ban being introduced on trains in July 1984.
On 3 March 1997, a train derailment caused the northbound Bakerloo line service between Piccadilly Circus and Oxford Circus to be suspended for 12 days.
On 11 August 2017, a fire occurred on a Bakerloo Line train, which was evacuated at Oxford Circus. Services were suspended between Elephant and Castle and Paddington. A number of people were treated for smoke inhalation after the fire broke out.
On 24 November 2017, a fight between passengers on the westbound Central line platform caused a mass panic and stampede that led to 16 injuries.
Station building
Bakerloo and Central lines
The CLR and BSWR had separate surface buildings and lift shafts. The station buildings, which remain today as exits from the station, were built on very confined plots on either side of Argyll Street on the south side of Oxford Street, just east of the circus itself. The stations as originally built were entirely separate, but connecting passages were soon provided at platform level. The surviving Central London Railway building to the east of Argyll Street is the best surviving example of stations designed by Harry Bell Measures, and the Bakerloo line building to the west is a classic Leslie Green structure. Both are Grade II listed since 20 July 2011.
Almost from the outset, overcrowding has been a constant problem, and there have been numerous improvements to the facilities and below-ground arrangements to deal with this. After much discussion between the then two separate operators, a major reconstruction began in 1912. This entailed a new ticket hall, serving both lines, being built in the basement of the Bakerloo station, with the Bakerloo lifts removed and new deep-level escalators opened down to the Bakerloo line level. Access to the CLR was by way of existing deep-level subways. The new works came into use on 9 May 1914 with the CLR lifts still available for passengers. By 1923 even this rearrangement was unable to cope, so a second rebuilding began. This involved a second set of escalators being built directly down to the Central line and the CLR station building becoming exit-only. On 2 October 1928, a third escalator leading to the Bakerloo platforms was opened. Unusually, lifts came back into prominence at an Underground station when, in 1942, a set of high-speed lifts came into use, largely used as an exit route from the Central line platforms directly to the Argyll Street exit building.
The station was closed between 31 August and 20 November 1939 to facilitate flood protection works for the preparation of The Second World War. Although street access was closed, trains still called, and interchange between the Bakerloo and Central lines was still possible within the station.
Victoria line
Station reconstruction to accommodate the Victoria line was described as the most time-consuming for the Victoria line project. To handle the additional Victoria line passenger loads, a new ticket hall was constructed directly under the road junction. Separate banks of escalators to each line were to be built, with the existing structure to be used as exits with the lifts to be removed. A new one-way interchange subways system was to be built between the Bakerloo/Victoria lines and the Central line. To excavate the new ticket hall below the roadway, traffic was diverted for five and a half years (August 1963 to Easter 1968) onto a temporary bridge-like structure known as the "umbrella" covering the Regent Street/Oxford Street intersection. It consisted of 245 pieces of separate prefabricated steel work. The deck plates were placed on top of a system of steel girders which in turn rested on 25 cylindrical diameter concrete foundations, sunk from deep at night. The cylindrical piles had to clear the sites of the main and secondary roof beams of the new ticket hall and various low-level obstructions. The piles had to be built with wide footings to avoid them from collapsing. Service tunnels were constructed to carry water mains and telecom cables past the new ticket hall. The umbrella deck was extended eastwards along Oxford Street to facilitate the construction of a connecting passageway between the old and new ticket halls during the weekend of the August Bank Holiday in 1966. Construction of the Victoria line station tunnels with their platforms, the new escalator shafts and the linking passages to the Central line platforms was carried out from access shafts sunk from nearby Cavendish Square, Upper Regent Street and Argyll Street. For the construction of the southbound Victoria line platform tunnel, a special design of tunnel segment, fabricated with mild steel was adopted as there was limited space available for the construction of the platform tunnel. A pre-stressed concrete raft was constructed below the Peter Robinson's third basement level as an extra precaution against settlement before driving the platform tunnel. The interchange passageway between the Central line and the Bakerloo line in the area of the former junction with the Bakerloo line lift landing was replaced by the southbound Victoria line platform tunnel. From there, a pilot tunnel Ventilation systems were rearranged with a new ventilation plant installed in the former Bakerloo line lift shaft. A new substation for the Bakerloo line was built at the bottom of the shaft. With the additional escalators in place, the one-way circulation scheme was introduced and the remaining lifts were removed.
The station today
In 2007 the station underwent a major modernisation, removing the murals installed on the Central and Bakerloo line platforms in the 1980s and replacing them with plain white tiles, in a style similar to those used when the station opened in 1900. The wall tiling on the Bakerloo line platforms featured the station name and an individual geometric pattern and colour scheme designed by Leslie Green. One 1980s mural remains on one of the platforms. The Central line platform works were substantially complete and a new Station Operations Room at top level opened. This enabled the entire CCTV system to be switched over to new recordable digital technology. The original motifs designed by Hans Unger on the Victoria line platforms were restored, which were originally installed in 1969. These motifs symbolise the circle of the Oxford Circus junction, with the criss-crossed lines as the Bakerloo, Central and Victoria lines.
Oxford Circus station has 14 escalators. Major escalator refurbishment took place in 2010–11. Platform humps were also installed at the station to provide step-free access from the platforms onto the trains. The Victoria line humps resemble in form the Harrington Hump.
Station architecture
On 20 July 2011, the separate station buildings were given Grade II status by the Tourism and Heritage Minister on the advice of English Heritage. Part of the reason was the consistency of the design shown by architect Leslie Green on several stations.
The station building on the northeast corner of Argyll Street and Oxford Street was designed by Harry Bell Measures. The upper storey offices designed by Delissa Joseph were later added in 1908. The building as a whole was described as a "vigorous and well-detailed composition" and the best preserved. This design of the station resembles the traditional design of a Central London Railway (CLR) station. The materials used are of pinkish-buff terracotta and red brick with slate roof. The detailed description of the facade is quoted below:
"Wholly terracotta-clad with Mannerist detailing: pilasters flanking the entrances have capitals broken by masks and scroll brackets, supporting a cornice and frieze with moulded swags and cornucopias. Short elevation to Oxford Street contains main entrance (now exit), a broad segmental archway, originally glazed with timber mullions and now containing an openwork transom panel with diamond bracing. Large cartouche above rising into a gable, its cherub finial now lost. Long elevation to Argyll Street has two smaller segment-headed entrances, that to left cut down from an original window, and between them two similar openings containing shops. In centre, narrower doorway with glazed overlight gives access to upper floors. Curved corner section contains a metal-framed kiosk with bowed side sections bearing monograms, added before 1927 and now blocked."
Opposite the Measures's building, the original two-storey Bakerloo line entrance was designed by Leslie Green which resembles the original architecture of the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway (BS&WR) stations. It is the only station to have the original tiled signage and a cartouche bearing the Underground Electric Railways (UERL) company insignia retained. Like other original BS&WR station designs, it features ox-blood red terracotta and a brick-clad steel frame. The terracotta was manufactured by Leeds Fireclay Co. Ltd. Unlike the other building, the offices above are not Grade II listed. The station name is carved with raised gilded lettering on the lower frieze to Argyll Street and Oxford Street.
Services and connections
Services
Bakerloo line
On this line, the station is between Regent's Park and Piccadilly Circus stations. The typical off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) operating during off-peak hours weekdays and all day Saturday is as follows:
11tph northbound to Queen's Park
3tph northbound to Stonebridge Park (via Queen's Park)
6tph northbound to Harrow & Wealdstone (via Queen's Park and Stonebridge Park)
20tph southbound to Elephant & Castle
Central line
On this line, the station is between Bond Street and Tottenham Court Road stations. Trains generally run between West Ruislip and Epping, and between Ealing Broadway and Hainault (via Newbury Park), with some trains on the latter route continuing to Woodford via Grange Hill. The general frequency between trains is 3–10 minutes.
Night Tube services on Friday and Saturday nights generally operate 6tph in each direction. The typical night tube service as of 2018 is:
3tph eastbound to Hainault via Newbury Park
3tph eastbound to Loughton
3tph westbound to Ealing Broadway
3tph westbound to White City
Victoria line
On this line, the station is located between Warren Street and Green Park. The typical off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is 27 trains per hour in each direction to Walthamstow Central and Brixton, with reduced frequencies of six trains per hour during Night Tube operations.
Connections
London Bus routes 7, 12, 22, 55, 73, 88, 94, 98, 113, 139, 159, 390 and 453, and night routes N3, N7, N8, N15, N18, N22, N55, N73, N98, N109, N113, N136, N137 and N207 serve the station. Additionally, bus routes 12, 88, 94, 139, 159, 390 and 453 provide a 24-hour bus service.
Nearby attractions
All Souls Church, Langham Place
BBC Broadcasting House
Carnaby Street
Langham Hotel
London College of Fashion, John Princes Street
London Palladium, Argyll Street
Oxford Street
Regent Street
Hamleys
St George's, Hanover Square
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
London Transport Museum Photographic Archive
Plans of the station after the Victoria line works , ,
Bakerloo line stations
Victoria line stations
Central line stations
London Underground Night Tube stations
Tube stations in the City of Westminster
Former Central London Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1900
Former Baker Street and Waterloo Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1906
Buildings and structures in Mayfair
Leslie Green railway stations
Railway stations located underground in the United Kingdom
Oxford Street | [
0.13849185407161713,
-0.3570651412010193,
0.5182923078536987,
-0.6418324112892151,
0.36108818650245667,
0.30018335580825806,
0.6000832319259644,
0.2963062524795532,
0.06371110677719116,
-0.6363072991371155,
-0.358988881111145,
-0.19446666538715363,
-0.34662750363349915,
0.2294319123029709,
0.17872795462608337,
-0.5455288887023926,
-0.13670574128627777,
0.09901569038629532,
0.20834122598171234,
-0.4063550531864166,
0.570752739906311,
0.06402813643217087,
-0.2282794862985611,
0.040128424763679504,
0.052447300404310226,
-0.5453720688819885,
0.2811873257160187,
0.05084739625453949,
0.36805588006973267,
-0.15966713428497314,
0.9573677182197571,
0.40726590156555176,
0.22276842594146729,
-0.36374491453170776,
0.3253887891769409,
-0.38450103998184204,
0.197273850440979,
-0.49721333384513855,
-0.1545102596282959,
-0.24427670240402222,
-0.3007698655128479,
-0.0948353111743927,
-0.3275417685508728,
0.2279742807149887,
-0.21765001118183136,
-0.439207524061203,
-0.84464031457901,
-0.04383646696805954,
-1.1629972457885742,
0.20669957995414734,
-0.6995720267295837,
0.3306056261062622,
0.04041735827922821,
0.3729219138622284,
0.5059952735900879,
0.32399794459342957,
-0.664819061756134,
0.2654789388179779,
0.6367550492286682,
-0.17362076044082642,
0.3607897162437439,
0.4131872057914734,
-0.17101247608661652,
0.47383686900138855,
0.039986468851566315,
0.12551531195640564,
0.1223972961306572,
0.5178459882736206,
-0.15105202794075012,
-0.5819925665855408,
-0.011116103269159794,
-0.17206887900829315,
0.5229654908180237,
0.5989924669265747,
-0.44819819927215576,
-0.35885539650917053,
0.10969226062297821,
0.34281304478645325,
0.09648251533508301,
0.4972953200340271,
-0.0820075199007988,
0.04256054013967514,
1.1250265836715698,
0.4926964342594147,
0.8705263137817383,
0.18918679654598236,
-1.215152382850647,
-0.1812211275100708,
-0.5639631152153015,
0.6367981433868408,
-1.0803707838058472,
-0.04442670941352844,
0.1522485315799713,
0.628871500492096,
-0.4646158516407013,
0.04125780984759331,
0.11501193046569824,
-0.057968851178884506,
0.3623464107513428,
-0.01665418967604637,
-0.41469109058380127,
-0.14278458058834076,
0.43167921900749207,
-0.39543887972831726,
-0.25725021958351135,
-0.7579600214958191,
-0.7684423923492432,
-0.7862939834594727,
0.4099912941455841,
0.007321678567677736,
-1.0438337326049805,
0.011998600326478481,
-0.4609934389591217,
-0.007819470018148422,
-0.1266261339187622,
0.1649443656206131,
0.11336950212717056,
-0.19986915588378906,
-0.2818042039871216,
-0.18570350110530853,
0.04669903591275215,
0.6479942202568054,
0.4723348915576935,
0.5168527364730835,
0.08097553253173828,
0.42522332072257996,
0.03498781844973564,
-0.09746074676513672,
0.04232669249176979,
0.7513661980628967,
0.4748523235321045,
1.2652357816696167,
0.04851486161351204,
-0.5610296726226807,
-0.02646040730178356,
-0.25230854749679565,
0.11434079706668854,
0.5542436242103577,
0.6730688810348511,
0.3355054557323456,
-0.4965030252933502,
-0.04870103672146797,
0.25530630350112915,
0.18674969673156738,
0.31098243594169617,
0.3427393436431885,
-0.5581048727035522,
-0.14168542623519897,
-0.025579655542969704,
-0.42103689908981323,
-0.16761578619480133,
0.028043849393725395,
-0.45842260122299194,
-0.6149668097496033,
-0.37563490867614746,
0.18341879546642303,
0.7007336616516113,
0.32502344250679016,
-0.15392006933689117,
0.2061663269996643,
-0.06654567271471024,
0.18365378677845,
0.25233182311058044,
-0.07368942350149155,
-0.14942052960395813,
0.11067614704370499,
0.020027924329042435,
-0.5291141271591187,
0.00905542355030775,
0.09077970683574677,
-0.6279456615447998,
-0.43875789642333984,
0.5568260550498962,
-0.4920087456703186,
0.19234877824783325,
-0.30989134311676025,
0.4470023810863495,
0.2553267180919647,
0.6005485653877258,
-0.167985200881958,
-0.4436039328575134,
0.13879835605621338,
0.2910853326320648,
0.45985180139541626,
0.5093364715576172,
-0.2765578329563141,
-0.04075618088245392,
0.045364025980234146,
-0.4270108938217163,
0.15796339511871338,
-0.4852418899536133,
-0.46767064929008484,
-0.24544356763362885,
-0.6106526851654053,
0.6970697045326233,
0.03970251604914665,
-0.26744991540908813,
0.8581666350364685,
-0.1866977959871292,
0.25958216190338135,
0.0028642399702221155,
-0.19705593585968018,
0.6176689267158508,
0.25426697731018066,
-0.5809271335601807,
-0.1705591082572937,
0.40507617592811584,
-0.7549668550491333,
0.00541433272883296,
0.5836062431335449,
0.5189504623413086,
-0.7230898141860962,
-0.024448212236166,
0.24359266459941864,
0.7665081024169922,
-0.2357938587665558,
-0.30880868434906006,
-0.3519934117794037,
-0.08720193803310394,
-0.5056120157241821,
1.2114311456680298,
0.11624480783939362,
0.6535655856132507,
-0.12204944342374802,
-0.6167045831680298,
0.21059466898441315,
0.02916477806866169,
1.1287033557891846,
0.491441935300827,
-0.5743570923805237,
0.30244147777557373,
0.20964594185352325,
-0.01062045432627201,
0.06263771653175354,
-0.14505882561206818,
-0.8713552355766296,
0.0430372916162014,
-0.8389993906021118,
0.521728515625,
-0.09484244883060455,
-0.08825404196977615,
-0.12243442982435226,
-1.3559592962265015,
0.2822384834289551,
0.08422587066888809,
-0.19325925409793854,
0.17445845901966095,
0.5366243124008179,
-0.49444809556007385,
-0.34102219343185425,
0.3327927887439728,
0.3045791685581207,
0.293409526348114,
-0.004155733156949282,
0.14234670996665955,
0.0530884824693203,
0.11844385415315628,
0.2806030809879303,
0.15041469037532806,
0.6361099481582642,
-0.3379426598548889,
-0.2539713978767395,
0.1987769603729248,
-0.04926745966076851,
-0.20427942276000977,
-0.048957034945487976,
-0.20849764347076416,
-0.6870187520980835,
0.48285534977912903,
-0.05216890573501587,
0.746536374092102,
-0.22766979038715363,
-0.642459511756897,
0.3889497220516205,
-0.1134057343006134,
0.10225150734186172,
0.24568285048007965,
0.37826865911483765,
0.03114916943013668,
-0.03390011191368103,
0.5145888328552246,
0.37474071979522705,
0.2707318961620331,
-0.5372564196586609,
0.04792329668998718,
0.1497006118297577,
-0.028648896142840385,
0.3312745988368988,
-0.8216896057128906,
-0.2181580811738968,
-0.43963268399238586,
0.5197135210037231,
-0.3904206454753876,
0.5888692736625671,
-0.11757368594408035,
0.3898492455482483,
0.04470183700323105,
-0.24496512115001678,
0.281271368265152,
0.06207023188471794,
0.12684454023838043,
0.5369540452957153,
0.1023935079574585,
0.002681912388652563,
0.09212075173854828,
-0.32398155331611633,
0.1091213971376419,
-0.5479308366775513,
-5.396116256713867,
0.811237633228302,
-0.5025538206100464,
0.5604894161224365,
0.2789270579814911,
-0.4707707166671753,
0.4604990780353546,
-0.38613176345825195,
-0.1230432391166687,
-0.8900043368339539,
-0.22472989559173584,
0.01547778956592083,
-0.338454931974411,
-0.04401746764779091,
0.1901167780160904,
0.3174908459186554,
0.4133610129356384,
-0.08921235054731369,
0.7651346325874329,
0.23649699985980988,
-0.16061225533485413,
-0.11103391647338867,
-0.015788065269589424,
0.17732618749141693,
0.3116166293621063,
0.10984879732131958,
-0.3112289309501648,
0.00371342315338552,
-1.1304340362548828,
-0.6637078523635864,
0.5158889293670654,
-0.1416739672422409,
-0.1636873334646225,
-0.5613353252410889,
0.2620365619659424,
0.17342860996723175,
-0.08856615424156189,
-0.5496430993080139,
0.008830716833472252,
-0.3240755796432495,
0.5076946020126343,
0.26172325015068054,
0.5219408869743347,
-0.7814724445343018,
0.391781747341156,
-0.03614829108119011,
-0.5546081066131592,
0.33462101221084595,
-0.10878288745880127,
0.39042943716049194,
0.05559450760483742,
0.788852334022522,
0.8977550864219666,
0.09220746904611588,
-0.2150833159685135,
0.031269460916519165,
0.05213884264230728,
0.024469444528222084,
0.5589287877082825,
0.13547919690608978,
0.3207401633262634,
-0.6687433123588562,
-0.4675278961658478,
-0.5945635437965393,
0.027131004258990288,
-0.36879023909568787,
-0.22245918214321136,
0.26561328768730164,
0.6102959513664246,
0.3152795732021332,
-0.2412046194076538,
-0.026354940608143806,
0.35411837697029114,
-0.8879827857017517,
-0.3172159194946289,
-0.6788898706436157,
-0.4895162582397461,
0.15136611461639404,
0.47995424270629883,
-0.41612693667411804,
-0.22359253466129303,
-0.6952481865882874,
-0.5987218022346497,
0.2727772891521454,
0.05858098715543747,
-1.2262842655181885,
-0.5622737407684326,
0.06942638754844666,
-0.5300402045249939,
-0.3868865370750427,
0.21947740018367767,
-0.018093271180987358,
-0.42942678928375244,
0.3022037744522095,
-0.08568445593118668,
-0.5775504112243652,
-0.12137354165315628,
0.9625059962272644,
-0.10186666995286942,
0.2746262550354004,
0.05962500721216202,
-0.5084362626075745,
-0.32380926609039307,
-0.04403851553797722,
-0.39384928345680237,
-0.40133798122406006,
0.10954031348228455,
-0.021646346896886826,
0.13495191931724548,
-0.2743667960166931,
-0.369756281375885,
-0.7200407981872559,
-0.7424994111061096,
-0.3550342321395874,
0.47783589363098145,
-0.20711854100227356,
-0.1380683183670044,
0.4310133755207062,
-0.1990109235048294,
-0.27199414372444153,
-0.007867956534028053,
0.13441751897335052,
-0.25596120953559875,
-0.03722485527396202,
-0.40859925746917725,
0.4769681692123413,
0.40384936332702637,
-0.08688604086637497,
0.09587110579013824,
-0.7662104368209839,
-0.27877524495124817,
0.13453605771064758,
-0.1831866204738617,
-0.2311825454235077,
-0.8821276426315308,
-0.5889107584953308,
-0.4914185106754303,
0.2978164255619049,
0.21958474814891815,
0.7862182855606079,
0.29306161403656006,
0.14739035069942474,
-0.2259165495634079,
0.16471728682518005,
0.4557640254497528,
0.7350496053695679,
0.06547090411186218,
-0.020133579149842262,
-1.2596253156661987,
0.16192911565303802,
-0.5048788785934448,
-1.0358864068984985,
-0.1266534924507141,
-0.12420083582401276,
0.3294268250465393,
-0.14035403728485107,
-0.4406448006629944,
0.20976749062538147,
0.194639652967453,
0.13729852437973022,
-0.22560296952724457,
-0.3542994558811188,
-0.1561070829629898,
0.12544594705104828,
0.01804051175713539,
0.29380831122398376,
0.3853873908519745,
-0.3973207473754883,
-0.5108157992362976,
0.20051026344299316,
-0.13798443973064423,
-0.3111731708049774,
-0.11388780921697617,
-0.06547074019908905,
0.07851037383079529,
0.43817010521888733,
-0.585547685623169,
-0.2047530710697174,
0.2778615951538086,
-0.19093486666679382,
-0.10222649574279785,
-0.05205001309514046,
-0.138161763548851,
0.11786826699972153,
0.3923291265964508,
-0.3778347671031952,
-0.9108942747116089,
-0.16591596603393555,
0.611948549747467,
-0.8629179000854492,
-0.0220501571893692,
-0.06252540647983551,
-0.11210421472787857,
-0.4027595818042755,
-0.13023167848587036,
-0.7620631456375122,
-0.05912445858120918,
0.011263531632721424,
-0.4495835602283478,
-0.7643958926200867,
-0.40250375866889954,
0.4330326020717621,
-0.7691944241523743,
0.8573119044303894,
0.6617781519889832,
-0.6537589430809021,
0.3030655086040497,
0.5213796496391296,
-0.27033543586730957,
0.3545858561992645,
-0.23167628049850464,
-1.0428909063339233,
0.6945503950119019,
0.06956176459789276,
-0.7296105623245239,
-0.0016111918957903981,
-0.506807804107666,
-0.4069719612598419,
-0.09207622706890106,
0.020548807457089424,
-0.31981590390205383,
-0.2812778353691101,
-0.7291409373283386,
0.057098206132650375,
-0.6909553408622742,
0.5469840168952942,
0.5598100423812866,
-0.7394744157791138,
0.5330566167831421,
-0.5318583846092224,
-0.07783103734254837,
0.3720856308937073,
0.4165939688682556,
0.7896860241889954,
0.3115367591381073,
-0.2759469151496887,
-0.15734124183654785,
-0.16079965233802795,
0.30101752281188965,
0.4138113856315613,
0.4610120952129364,
0.5032603144645691,
-0.3345906138420105,
-0.35526925325393677,
-0.17570200562477112,
0.68748539686203,
0.8436320424079895,
-0.006398818455636501,
-0.6528962254524231,
0.15528245270252228,
0.5387734770774841,
-0.43493130803108215,
-0.10525196045637131,
-0.0772739127278328,
0.43502500653266907,
-0.22363382577896118,
0.19702111184597015,
0.04447290301322937,
0.09051483124494553,
0.3408415913581848,
0.6422656774520874,
0.11347034573554993,
0.12529128789901733,
0.13276013731956482,
0.36196208000183105,
0.07324003428220749,
0.06716474145650864,
-0.3570858836174011,
0.3940391540527344,
-0.5459413528442383,
0.37668031454086304,
-0.45497870445251465,
-0.09181748330593109,
0.07370227575302124,
0.23096562922000885,
0.13514599204063416,
-0.09115227311849594,
-1.034637212753296,
0.4253048002719879,
-0.6878075003623962,
-0.3050473630428314,
0.2624697983264923,
0.15324993431568146,
-0.030095301568508148,
0.29277318716049194,
-0.5149952173233032,
0.11436207592487335,
-0.2424469292163849,
0.041739750653505325,
0.036263007670640945,
-0.5542751550674438,
-0.07230149209499359,
0.2773017883300781,
0.5214281678199768,
-0.01807190105319023,
0.8860244154930115,
0.6510119438171387,
0.2750248610973358,
0.45196861028671265,
-0.24022932350635529,
-0.40772008895874023,
0.8762907981872559,
0.3742222189903259,
-0.2414199709892273,
0.14338180422782898,
0.5276631116867065,
-0.1129094734787941,
-0.6995655298233032,
0.43341711163520813,
-0.1735050082206726,
0.35569503903388977,
-0.10307176411151886,
0.4608621895313263,
0.9463033080101013,
-0.18467514216899872,
0.2046249955892563,
0.2564786970615387,
-0.591643750667572,
-0.31879591941833496,
0.5286779999732971,
-0.3415350615978241,
1.0695643424987793,
0.49071362614631653,
0.11313720792531967,
-0.581761360168457,
0.254838764667511,
-0.37163737416267395,
-0.47707709670066833,
-0.005049200728535652,
0.900302529335022,
-0.04636344313621521,
-0.2969818413257599,
-0.2231149524450302,
0.6843135952949524,
-0.11107731610536575,
-0.5608401298522949,
0.07524830102920532,
-0.4908243715763092,
0.29964664578437805,
0.09140638262033463,
-0.04151538386940956,
-0.16153794527053833,
-0.9307065010070801,
0.1904529184103012,
0.0560336597263813,
-0.0017691137036308646,
0.7012794613838196,
0.17438994348049164,
0.1301569938659668,
0.8282142281532288,
0.17232127487659454,
0.10029766708612442,
-0.2653787434101105,
-0.11142249405384064,
0.3265758454799652,
0.1681666374206543,
-0.21367192268371582,
0.1482171267271042,
-0.2989655137062073,
0.34360283613204956,
0.15279844403266907,
0.648020327091217,
0.20136506855487823,
-0.92685467004776,
-0.5245848298072815,
-0.16270580887794495,
-0.06574393063783646,
-0.433646023273468,
0.3906848132610321,
0.6675442457199097,
-0.22264523804187775,
0.47711634635925293,
-0.14764264225959778,
-0.28355172276496887,
0.07048460096120834,
0.39747822284698486,
0.03429996967315674,
0.3734323978424072,
0.15049462020397186,
-0.26000088453292847,
0.041191477328538895,
0.03160921111702919,
0.04804044961929321,
0.12146264314651489,
0.17483261227607727,
-0.45255011320114136,
-0.44573792815208435,
-0.052444759756326675,
-1.1288957595825195,
-0.7908011078834534,
-0.18232178688049316,
0.1066475659608841,
0.06669768691062927,
-0.5182181596755981,
-0.4074915051460266,
-0.1522480696439743,
-0.2795441448688507,
0.3761226534843445,
-0.11799165606498718,
-0.19387933611869812,
0.2878066897392273,
0.4935756325721741,
-0.3143937587738037,
0.28490015864372253,
0.006006393115967512,
1.276039481163025,
-0.6776113510131836,
-0.19812370836734772,
-0.7163861393928528,
0.8480079174041748,
0.06597569584846497,
0.2599307596683502,
-0.350888192653656,
0.3886749744415283,
-0.38128387928009033,
0.8631358742713928,
-0.4329635798931122,
0.053283918648958206,
-0.11701883375644684,
-0.09653591364622116,
0.06499643623828888,
0.18252992630004883,
0.03844628855586052,
0.04446288198232651,
0.0533207505941391,
-0.28069353103637695,
0.35002124309539795,
0.5251621603965759,
0.25567322969436646,
0.8426762223243713,
0.4289972186088562,
0.15885218977928162,
-0.5135588049888611,
-0.5335906744003296,
-0.7293896079063416,
0.6117386221885681,
-0.07187960296869278,
1.2933982610702515,
0.3814420700073242,
-0.243973970413208,
0.10440473258495331,
0.20231957733631134,
0.518092691898346,
0.6011018753051758,
0.45594194531440735,
-0.7253523468971252,
-0.13937729597091675,
-0.23366913199424744,
-0.7680254578590393,
0.45532485842704773,
0.6807751059532166,
0.14210423827171326,
0.6303187012672424,
-0.24843981862068176,
0.33530378341674805,
-0.23382949829101562,
-0.04671645164489746,
-0.12984727323055267,
0.2386128306388855,
0.2876981794834137
] |
241571 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nam%20Sung-yong | Nam Sung-yong | Nam Sung-yong (November 23, 1912 – February 20, 2001) was a Korean Olympian who won a bronze medal in the marathon at the 1936 Summer Olympics, completing the run in 2 hours, 31 minutes, and 42 seconds.
He was born in Junten (Suncheon), Japanese Korea and received higher education in Japan. Like the gold medalist Sohn Kee-chung, Nam Sung-yong used the Japanese pronunciation of his name, Nan Shōryū as Korea was then a part of the Japanese Empire.
After the Olympics, Nam Sung-yong worked at the Korean Sporting Association with Sohn Kee-chung.
References
1912 births
2001 deaths
People from Suncheon
Korean male long-distance runners
South Korean male long-distance runners
Korean male marathon runners
South Korean male marathon runners
Japanese male long-distance runners
Japanese male marathon runners
Olympic athletes of Japan
Olympic bronze medalists for Japan
Athletes (track and field) at the 1932 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1936 Summer Olympics
Olympic bronze medalists in athletics (track and field) | [
-0.8867790699005127,
0.041391655802726746,
-0.36696967482566833,
-0.08297573029994965,
-0.6909555196762085,
0.4923713803291321,
0.6680593490600586,
0.20140528678894043,
-0.7533704042434692,
-0.010309665463864803,
0.37674733996391296,
-0.2996740937232971,
-0.32996076345443726,
-0.16256770491600037,
0.16110160946846008,
-0.1427716612815857,
0.6093985438346863,
-0.16501806676387787,
-0.17658087611198425,
0.12115418165922165,
-0.25767141580581665,
-0.9112116098403931,
0.26809513568878174,
-0.18246352672576904,
-0.09524282068014145,
0.2872810363769531,
-0.21593326330184937,
0.22851644456386566,
0.1716063767671585,
-0.23025323450565338,
-0.023828884586691856,
0.24706339836120605,
0.2988399267196655,
-0.07426559925079346,
0.15539111196994781,
0.6092434525489807,
-0.1360192596912384,
0.26867514848709106,
-0.0006520551978610456,
0.19673383235931396,
-0.25114262104034424,
0.36465147137641907,
-0.3576909303665161,
0.30833539366722107,
0.14073048532009125,
-0.893657922744751,
-1.112753987312317,
-0.4643109142780304,
-1.1902906894683838,
-0.4554828405380249,
-0.45565295219421387,
0.5684486627578735,
0.1008501946926117,
0.46189242601394653,
-0.016691328957676888,
1.1699589490890503,
-0.12968549132347107,
-0.0976269543170929,
-0.8005622625350952,
-0.28991028666496277,
0.25624388456344604,
-0.33229365944862366,
0.5775484442710876,
-0.12310291081666946,
-0.1958419382572174,
0.3014254570007324,
-0.056286413222551346,
0.17040184140205383,
0.4956878125667572,
0.07345395535230637,
0.766635000705719,
0.9659131169319153,
-0.14976736903190613,
0.5420714020729065,
0.0712781772017479,
-0.883513331413269,
0.13210147619247437,
-0.4301929771900177,
-0.1151672974228859,
-0.08324547857046127,
-0.0649646520614624,
-0.5386651754379272,
0.6257824897766113,
0.8774900436401367,
0.16832251846790314,
-0.06457828730344772,
-0.2805597484111786,
0.5186154246330261,
-0.3015800714492798,
0.2765064537525177,
-0.5312954783439636,
-0.4637598991394043,
0.33477982878685,
-0.05579495429992676,
-0.7638680338859558,
0.33848434686660767,
-0.01982172019779682,
0.8344705700874329,
0.10347573459148407,
-0.7593221664428711,
0.43932273983955383,
-0.4008804261684418,
0.16767624020576477,
-0.28522664308547974,
-0.5644809603691101,
-0.4365246295928955,
0.03553321957588196,
-0.7194134593009949,
0.6955138444900513,
-0.3378722369670868,
-0.7126718759536743,
0.04886103421449661,
0.7630087733268738,
-0.22827409207820892,
0.5386602282524109,
0.34594348073005676,
-0.37063756585121155,
-0.3252934515476227,
-0.35327374935150146,
0.08672499656677246,
-0.15977315604686737,
0.26935872435569763,
-0.37321481108665466,
-0.17395822703838348,
-0.205365851521492,
0.38084185123443604,
-0.15166743099689484,
0.6760284900665283,
-0.13902691006660461,
0.8704994320869446,
0.5862134695053101,
0.42643746733665466,
-0.43534055352211,
-0.26727354526519775,
0.00022776603873353451,
-0.031540922820568085,
0.579306960105896,
0.02508009970188141,
-0.26153630018234253,
-0.007452612277120352,
-0.6601688861846924,
-0.40642693638801575,
-0.3863372504711151,
-0.07307939976453781,
0.1965407431125641,
0.4046429395675659,
-0.20579345524311066,
-0.39287012815475464,
0.09788966178894043,
-0.262094110250473,
0.16616322100162506,
-0.1622360795736313,
0.5620940327644348,
-0.2848854959011078,
-0.4877428114414215,
1.2946829795837402,
-0.16855846345424652,
0.3852127492427826,
0.14108027517795563,
0.2003786861896515,
0.19120781123638153,
0.18243420124053955,
-0.767306923866272,
-0.15568913519382477,
0.04162327200174332,
0.19757716357707977,
0.09673043340444565,
0.22565728425979614,
-0.2953110635280609,
-0.7105295658111572,
0.7402600049972534,
-0.47501587867736816,
0.45298346877098083,
-0.30842268466949463,
0.10673481971025467,
0.34085988998413086,
0.045127056539058685,
0.23211932182312012,
-0.5922458171844482,
-0.17568250000476837,
-0.9454200267791748,
0.24948588013648987,
-0.09355805814266205,
0.03958548232913017,
0.8460718393325806,
0.47224509716033936,
0.5861178040504456,
0.34271326661109924,
-0.06547975540161133,
-0.09751027822494507,
-0.26609259843826294,
-0.30388113856315613,
-0.21264615654945374,
-0.23465541005134583,
0.7620117664337158,
0.24043922126293182,
0.5401769876480103,
0.06022661179304123,
-0.09201551973819733,
0.82062166929245,
-0.15365833044052124,
-0.6814345121383667,
0.06865967810153961,
-0.17115218937397003,
-0.252735435962677,
0.7625234723091125,
0.5223441123962402,
0.77193284034729,
0.4309874475002289,
0.4456704258918762,
-0.012321234680712223,
-0.7028672695159912,
-0.3970959484577179,
1.0731006860733032,
-1.0241502523422241,
-0.4825982451438904,
0.03880325332283974,
0.04300398379564285,
0.34145623445510864,
-0.4603676199913025,
0.5008269548416138,
0.06918749958276749,
-0.462812215089798,
0.8052501678466797,
0.15102072060108185,
1.0158514976501465,
-0.09688463807106018,
-0.04641416296362877,
-0.039587486535310745,
-0.6882649660110474,
0.14189521968364716,
0.41690221428871155,
0.4660632312297821,
-0.5213661193847656,
0.09998353570699692,
-0.5002556443214417,
0.9666568636894226,
-0.2032255083322525,
0.8412539958953857,
-0.9580793976783752,
-0.2700824737548828,
0.2690533995628357,
-0.11561254411935806,
0.2114463448524475,
-0.17388109862804413,
0.23832300305366516,
-0.10044487565755844,
0.4178712069988251,
-0.5384132862091064,
-0.5587401986122131,
0.13441374897956848,
0.7138364315032959,
0.5022926330566406,
-0.3267346918582916,
-0.4729801118373871,
-0.19776539504528046,
-0.1689831167459488,
-0.33889517188072205,
0.17206892371177673,
0.06877047568559647,
0.46738773584365845,
0.016837352886795998,
0.8323934674263,
-0.48690295219421387,
-0.3990543484687805,
-0.6744850277900696,
0.22691087424755096,
-0.8564902544021606,
-0.021089214831590652,
-0.23676703870296478,
0.2253807783126831,
-0.1611572653055191,
-0.5376490354537964,
0.17202050983905792,
0.011818374507129192,
-0.44196492433547974,
-0.05092046409845352,
-0.015139714814722538,
-1.191737413406372,
-0.31434401869773865,
0.5732390880584717,
0.9554250836372375,
-0.19610947370529175,
-0.6691889762878418,
0.07600340992212296,
0.01787465065717697,
-0.7486536502838135,
-0.08745715767145157,
-0.15169326961040497,
0.22212180495262146,
-0.21764054894447327,
0.7911879420280457,
-0.5069483518600464,
0.04983753338456154,
-0.0793851763010025,
-0.11002465337514877,
-0.18281647562980652,
-0.25821399688720703,
0.9951890707015991,
0.1766824871301651,
-0.6515828967094421,
-0.7347719073295593,
-0.15519613027572632,
0.34803280234336853,
-0.006984950974583626,
-0.28113994002342224,
-0.29818880558013916,
-0.04278227686882019,
-5.087294578552246,
0.0030092112720012665,
-0.21530258655548096,
-0.629861056804657,
-0.11078382283449173,
0.29385992884635925,
0.5107231140136719,
0.3206214904785156,
0.16077518463134766,
-0.3389999270439148,
0.4524329602718353,
-1.0335783958435059,
0.32588908076286316,
0.13071173429489136,
0.0858442410826683,
-0.029582249000668526,
0.29414108395576477,
-0.4758153259754181,
0.3722849488258362,
-0.556343674659729,
-0.03515518456697464,
-0.4846605658531189,
-0.472685307264328,
0.6339842677116394,
-0.07215001434087753,
0.38458916544914246,
-0.4303700029850006,
0.1265079826116562,
-0.5257129073143005,
-0.19568517804145813,
-0.019033396616578102,
-0.2479878067970276,
-0.5872924327850342,
0.11433272063732147,
0.07849247753620148,
-0.3309675455093384,
0.3672620952129364,
0.5136106610298157,
0.1625068634748459,
0.17714880406856537,
0.12425745278596878,
-0.48037540912628174,
-0.2893379330635071,
0.1374829262495041,
0.5863621830940247,
-0.009587801992893219,
-0.8208993673324585,
-0.127996563911438,
-0.1493830531835556,
0.20381173491477966,
0.6889930963516235,
0.3959099352359772,
0.6155887246131897,
0.05797402933239937,
0.2329612821340561,
-0.06330689787864685,
-0.10853736847639084,
-0.31027424335479736,
-0.6577699780464172,
0.16652628779411316,
0.21539875864982605,
-0.1228945329785347,
-0.3216148316860199,
-0.6609054803848267,
-0.01608780026435852,
0.03399408608675003,
0.5799744129180908,
-0.0921880379319191,
0.06922653317451477,
0.35244178771972656,
-0.9780629277229309,
0.927857518196106,
0.6235899329185486,
-1.0847580432891846,
0.4633459448814392,
0.1010298877954483,
-0.16290916502475739,
0.10360795259475708,
-0.3817517161369324,
-0.19781076908111572,
-0.054398927837610245,
0.09617183357477188,
0.12694543600082397,
0.8337022662162781,
0.801482081413269,
-0.12807181477546692,
0.29529687762260437,
0.4461061656475067,
0.4349152147769928,
0.7193605303764343,
0.7583818435668945,
-0.5735396146774292,
0.3568764925003052,
0.41478317975997925,
0.77874755859375,
-0.017112454399466515,
-0.3588300943374634,
0.4836544990539551,
0.8000383377075195,
-0.5750744342803955,
-0.40240800380706787,
-0.43858277797698975,
-0.22126251459121704,
-0.5277736186981201,
-0.21823397278785706,
-0.02512616105377674,
-0.4190155863761902,
-0.15796919167041779,
0.4897453486919403,
0.5666820406913757,
-0.2911340296268463,
-0.04906895011663437,
-0.2446434199810028,
0.49061283469200134,
0.48003891110420227,
-0.782690167427063,
-0.049006037414073944,
0.2867719531059265,
0.15081416070461273,
0.3544002175331116,
-0.26205506920814514,
0.6386690735816956,
0.23706801235675812,
-0.5563331842422485,
0.7270251512527466,
-0.31549355387687683,
-0.5125467777252197,
0.04149212688207626,
-0.7742594480514526,
0.1594267189502716,
0.3341542184352875,
0.6838254928588867,
-0.006712429691106081,
-0.3635033071041107,
-0.1829884797334671,
-0.30696558952331543,
-0.5057543516159058,
-0.4396885931491852,
0.3074311912059784,
0.285868763923645,
-0.06289050728082657,
-0.13880322873592377,
0.37417474389076233,
0.10921624302864075,
-0.5302167534828186,
0.28465357422828674,
0.05960746482014656,
-0.58436518907547,
-0.023980258032679558,
0.9366456866264343,
-0.22878292202949524,
-0.5433449149131775,
0.41148754954338074,
-0.39468634128570557,
-0.1693430244922638,
0.5312963724136353,
-0.07006154954433441,
0.07509011030197144,
-0.646880567073822,
-0.06278400868177414,
-0.44116443395614624,
-0.4445439875125885,
-1.0170480012893677,
0.34377336502075195,
-0.32341116666793823,
-0.23907849192619324,
0.12370513379573822,
-0.16846109926700592,
-0.6200963854789734,
0.5809127688407898,
0.6070499420166016,
-1.0984619855880737,
-0.591850221157074,
0.06705587357282639,
-0.02592858485877514,
-0.6971929669380188,
-0.003174551296979189,
-0.11666693538427353,
-0.30533528327941895,
-0.32444819808006287,
-0.4842436909675598,
0.10627596825361252,
-0.434021919965744,
-0.4009567201137543,
1.097449779510498,
-0.49649325013160706,
-0.008341407403349876,
-0.716073215007782,
0.050488851964473724,
0.12069324404001236,
0.445050984621048,
0.013025208376348019,
-0.31176263093948364,
0.48643699288368225,
0.5357016921043396,
-0.6846248507499695,
0.11075340211391449,
0.4394896328449249,
-0.2061115801334381,
0.2589946687221527,
-0.4408716559410095,
-0.1924014389514923,
-0.8002316951751709,
0.038425263017416,
0.20471587777137756,
-0.7676173448562622,
-0.697294294834137,
0.4904879033565521,
0.5358835458755493,
0.16291368007659912,
-0.5313885807991028,
-0.39038532972335815,
-0.07761581987142563,
0.3676946759223938,
0.03836936876177788,
0.8450039029121399,
0.23921886086463928,
0.07380133867263794,
-0.22190630435943604,
-0.9927029013633728,
-0.3549308180809021,
-0.06421862542629242,
-0.9232932329177856,
0.08305484801530838,
-0.7301105260848999,
0.44291722774505615,
-0.12575003504753113,
0.6160898208618164,
0.010978884063661098,
-0.80233234167099,
-0.5542855262756348,
-0.2842082977294922,
0.9103074073791504,
0.4094890356063843,
0.7029879093170166,
-0.31476619839668274,
0.6416148543357849,
-0.09853290766477585,
-0.1566772162914276,
0.2805204689502716,
0.4535771310329437,
0.871302604675293,
0.13570207357406616,
0.03534911200404167,
0.09900110960006714,
0.7365034222602844,
0.1465715914964676,
-0.623526930809021,
0.09778181463479996,
-0.20257499814033508,
0.432090163230896,
-0.8535900115966797,
-1.0586557388305664,
-0.6225282549858093,
0.5325135588645935,
-0.7599155902862549,
-0.05946338176727295,
0.5660205483436584,
0.434257447719574,
-0.4994836449623108,
-0.3691047430038452,
0.08427002280950546,
-0.00043577971518971026,
-0.19632355868816376,
-0.12314759194850922,
1.2758365869522095,
-0.6075455546379089,
-0.3387564420700073,
-0.03001854568719864,
-0.24160026013851166,
-0.25943493843078613,
-1.0640696287155151,
-0.18225258588790894,
0.8431592583656311,
-0.37927278876304626,
0.8028926253318787,
-0.5004819631576538,
-0.12623555958271027,
-0.02301309071481228,
-0.2641479969024658,
-0.39288997650146484,
0.09626618772745132,
-0.11425994336605072,
0.15057873725891113,
-0.08525760471820831,
-0.7861863970756531,
0.35188591480255127,
-0.6566053032875061,
-0.13239742815494537,
0.34248730540275574,
-0.9054630398750305,
0.25919291377067566,
-0.25442904233932495,
0.051142413169145584,
-0.04164474457502365,
0.49990037083625793,
0.14313872158527374,
0.22865179181098938,
-0.9677000045776367,
-0.49409446120262146,
-0.15856613218784332,
-0.008652282878756523,
0.2087922990322113,
-0.14119358360767365,
-0.060937635600566864,
-0.29245996475219727,
0.7671434879302979,
-0.4436560869216919,
-0.226722851395607,
0.43473711609840393,
0.3502063751220703,
0.384732723236084,
-0.11466745287179947,
0.791114866733551,
-0.5555599927902222,
-0.4158801734447479,
0.3562777638435364,
-0.5618947744369507,
-0.6311972141265869,
0.12342726439237595,
0.35597503185272217,
-0.13716073334217072,
0.23090431094169617,
0.32759973406791687,
0.24822790920734406,
0.6090133786201477,
1.0448687076568604,
-0.19935250282287598,
-0.26768192648887634,
0.62565016746521,
-0.23011957108974457,
-0.30793988704681396,
-0.07429470121860504,
-0.03914203867316246,
0.006456094328314066,
0.1802699714899063,
-0.22816716134548187,
-0.571872353553772,
-0.08520299196243286,
0.19742314517498016,
0.2767319679260254,
0.9824050664901733,
-0.2242131531238556,
0.22820693254470825,
0.22865261137485504,
-0.2912496030330658,
0.2701979875564575,
0.20575402677059174,
0.23279596865177155,
0.12636823952198029,
0.067457415163517,
0.5101706385612488,
-0.04870716482400894,
-0.488488107919693,
0.36434701085090637,
0.3097030222415924,
0.15930740535259247,
-0.15351825952529907,
0.34016093611717224,
0.390939325094223,
0.371169775724411,
-0.7331451177597046,
1.4434409141540527,
-0.20461036264896393,
-0.009462420828640461,
-0.6122483611106873,
-0.5795122385025024,
-0.17776688933372498,
0.10912325978279114,
0.9294680953025818,
-0.38926008343696594,
-0.0564863346517086,
0.07463105767965317,
0.2701263427734375,
-0.24533501267433167,
0.6573401093482971,
0.7051333785057068,
-0.3140709698200226,
-0.1425095945596695,
-0.24984119832515717,
-0.3569563031196594,
-0.11719423532485962,
0.039939574897289276,
-0.18639090657234192,
0.2870996594429016,
0.20067894458770752,
0.1511669009923935,
0.28947368264198303,
-0.1970585435628891,
-0.14314840734004974,
0.9654656052589417,
-0.24904833734035492,
-0.0845206081867218,
0.2592138350009918,
0.2238636016845703,
-0.20139391720294952,
-0.19698888063430786,
0.37402084469795227,
0.7121220231056213,
-0.18973177671432495,
0.1070520281791687,
0.01952863112092018,
-0.1893407553434372,
0.7410215735435486,
-0.275768518447876,
0.5331249237060547,
-0.6615308523178101,
0.5933265686035156,
-0.5427375435829163,
0.5709940791130066,
-0.38734644651412964,
0.5796268582344055,
-0.051228705793619156,
0.054023683071136475,
-0.09722559154033661,
0.49473699927330017,
0.9508669972419739,
-0.5268173813819885,
-0.02941581793129444,
-0.4478633403778076,
0.028429562225937843,
-0.3122265040874481,
-0.08950638025999069,
0.05578133836388588,
0.3552132248878479,
0.03669826686382294,
0.1997217983007431,
-0.6074094176292419,
-0.10792309045791626,
0.5805422067642212,
-0.15383616089820862,
-0.43613412976264954,
-0.41366949677467346,
-0.7768899202346802,
-0.037328027188777924,
0.06647859513759613,
0.7191762328147888,
0.7506674528121948,
0.35320091247558594,
-1.1069120168685913,
0.9233511090278625,
-0.06887451559305191,
-0.07602101564407349,
0.17025698721408844,
0.0740235298871994,
0.24015891551971436,
0.6633605360984802,
0.015460176393389702,
-0.5190820693969727,
-0.10779117047786713,
0.3085809648036957,
-0.04002612829208374,
0.6275659799575806,
-0.8248164653778076,
0.48957785964012146,
0.056209348142147064,
-0.04494733363389969,
0.11714479327201843,
0.4185256063938141,
0.3168235123157501
] |
241576 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Pickens | Andrew Pickens | Andrew Pickens may refer to:
Andrew Pickens (congressman) (1739–1817), American revolutionary soldier and US Congressman, South Carolina
Andrew Pickens (governor) (1779–1838), War of 1812 and Governor of South Carolina
Andrew C. Pickens, US Navy admiral during World War II on USS Wichita (CA-45) | [
-0.6517561674118042,
0.16768969595432281,
-0.5961995720863342,
0.034546371549367905,
0.24630826711654663,
0.8201066255569458,
0.40327271819114685,
0.05359775200486183,
-1.1456098556518555,
-0.26585978269577026,
-0.11738163977861404,
-0.19136711955070496,
-0.38186943531036377,
0.7134243845939636,
-0.5162405967712402,
1.0373891592025757,
0.03672347590327263,
0.3239109516143799,
-0.2259492427110672,
-0.502788782119751,
-0.2725496292114258,
-0.008342346176505089,
0.42860233783721924,
0.17860352993011475,
0.6916254162788391,
0.0713377520442009,
0.2310602068901062,
-0.8311222195625305,
0.557401180267334,
0.16689912974834442,
-0.3292040526866913,
0.4059625267982483,
0.6820533871650696,
-0.18012367188930511,
-0.38794639706611633,
-0.5764434933662415,
-0.4105495512485504,
-0.025885144248604774,
0.09189562499523163,
-0.2702464163303375,
-0.07212448120117188,
-0.30088257789611816,
0.1730136275291443,
0.033678144216537476,
-0.026752110570669174,
-0.31955376267433167,
-1.4256157875061035,
0.07930929958820343,
-0.08057740330696106,
-0.3623887300491333,
0.4000985026359558,
0.49833011627197266,
0.2065422087907791,
0.6280967593193054,
-0.7186709046363831,
0.1656428724527359,
-0.3628867566585541,
0.0010440924670547247,
0.8320996761322021,
0.15745723247528076,
0.22273068130016327,
0.20556508004665375,
0.25424060225486755,
0.5844807624816895,
0.23512166738510132,
-0.165744811296463,
-0.16626571118831635,
1.009790062904358,
-0.6840532422065735,
-0.027455030009150505,
-0.3926852345466614,
0.05303068831562996,
0.6091253161430359,
0.24620240926742554,
0.11614571511745453,
-0.15283656120300293,
0.08090655505657196,
0.3214960992336273,
0.2518559694290161,
0.3284759223461151,
-0.17976410686969757,
-0.4425114095211029,
0.5118785500526428,
0.0602889209985733,
0.21943867206573486,
0.5565513968467712,
-0.5953068733215332,
-0.13235686719417572,
0.14885562658309937,
-0.2785187363624573,
-0.26492178440093994,
0.31362035870552063,
0.2861301302909851,
0.27034252882003784,
-0.5609497427940369,
-0.3793955445289612,
-0.3048904538154602,
-0.17546045780181885,
-0.14185750484466553,
-0.16398176550865173,
-0.4643115699291229,
0.4268236458301544,
0.893376886844635,
0.7080406546592712,
-0.1884312927722931,
0.30573955178260803,
-0.17186327278614044,
-0.2289140522480011,
-0.3351679742336273,
-0.1830907166004181,
-0.3204643726348877,
0.15269756317138672,
-0.14360685646533966,
-0.18016508221626282,
-0.04147934168577194,
0.22527122497558594,
0.29318031668663025,
-1.1600353717803955,
-0.2607775032520294,
-0.3821397125720978,
0.133710578083992,
0.895803689956665,
-0.37410417199134827,
0.4409794509410858,
-0.3176552355289459,
0.013457359746098518,
0.4859836995601654,
0.16645753383636475,
-0.14772725105285645,
0.158673956990242,
0.2662845849990845,
0.8175881505012512,
-0.3449598550796509,
-0.2097415328025818,
-0.6642245054244995,
-0.09737600386142731,
-0.19139571487903595,
0.3600589632987976,
-0.10803321748971939,
0.29725179076194763,
-0.48817774653434753,
-0.3023812770843506,
-0.08220391720533371,
-0.3003677427768707,
0.31085771322250366,
0.19624553620815277,
-0.15520086884498596,
0.15570278465747833,
-0.35159873962402344,
0.03630831465125084,
0.11140306293964386,
-0.21857480704784393,
0.3590683341026306,
0.06860609352588654,
-0.22825564444065094,
0.7386138439178467,
0.29528552293777466,
-0.39411261677742004,
0.8845934867858887,
0.5390812754631042,
-0.5158559679985046,
0.15222513675689697,
0.42698362469673157,
0.07924451678991318,
0.34067925810813904,
0.3542739748954773,
0.25420793890953064,
-0.40319716930389404,
-0.5923148393630981,
0.003916389308869839,
-0.5574102997779846,
0.618416428565979,
-0.08885466307401657,
-0.599215567111969,
0.016514847055077553,
0.06834443658590317,
0.3954539895057678,
0.2304084450006485,
0.2727579176425934,
-0.7062255144119263,
-0.5855339765548706,
0.012142403982579708,
0.1982627660036087,
-0.7314242720603943,
-0.309489369392395,
0.48447179794311523,
0.3659026622772217,
0.0676899403333664,
0.6734386682510376,
0.15376630425453186,
-0.22430174052715302,
-0.834269106388092,
-0.7026261687278748,
-0.2458164542913437,
0.8566650748252869,
0.2809634804725647,
-0.2276057004928589,
0.7059246301651001,
0.886127769947052,
0.762956976890564,
-0.12305307388305664,
-0.4700116515159607,
0.3062998056411743,
-0.031191453337669373,
-0.06693762540817261,
0.4475375711917877,
0.25057581067085266,
0.0017356423195451498,
0.5202690362930298,
0.2920367121696472,
0.4860113263130188,
-0.2741708755493164,
0.19502514600753784,
-0.17206816375255585,
0.10124916583299637,
-0.41017454862594604,
0.29139572381973267,
-0.22262491285800934,
-0.13623611629009247,
-0.040481410920619965,
0.47838953137397766,
-0.0969993844628334,
0.2869037985801697,
1.0164463520050049,
0.32167157530784607,
0.6114866733551025,
-0.3689446747303009,
0.16541893780231476,
-0.38225841522216797,
-0.5413227081298828,
-0.036263175308704376,
-0.37259751558303833,
-0.14025460183620453,
-0.6334149837493896,
-0.2821752429008484,
-0.44459962844848633,
-0.4054310619831085,
-0.6887578964233398,
-0.19078604876995087,
-0.2900547981262207,
0.28213924169540405,
0.5263585448265076,
-0.7495683431625366,
-0.24539926648139954,
0.2906299829483032,
-0.06115991249680519,
-0.4793895184993744,
-0.5582955479621887,
0.12873078882694244,
-0.4592408835887909,
0.10820002853870392,
0.38700178265571594,
0.40902531147003174,
-0.012021011672914028,
0.2994902431964874,
-0.015177697874605656,
-0.20054198801517487,
0.016160523518919945,
-0.2075612097978592,
0.09681496769189835,
-0.46226248145103455,
0.1520373821258545,
-0.1909024715423584,
0.22703368961811066,
0.14326544106006622,
-0.016480566933751106,
-0.6527124643325806,
0.1871158331632614,
-0.011069806292653084,
0.16611509025096893,
0.6535025835037231,
-0.5529813766479492,
0.05872546508908272,
0.03414585441350937,
0.6821645498275757,
-0.667189359664917,
0.2578398585319519,
0.5966529250144958,
-0.8233137726783752,
-0.8567346334457397,
-0.004632281605154276,
0.3112136423587799,
-0.41126590967178345,
-0.13624614477157593,
-0.12983378767967224,
-0.6851024627685547,
0.32279089093208313,
0.4348068833351135,
-0.11308857053518295,
0.4328400790691376,
0.3813055157661438,
-0.12361014634370804,
-0.2863498032093048,
0.26759758591651917,
0.18639859557151794,
1.1656233072280884,
0.0662040114402771,
0.20914395153522491,
0.13131393492221832,
-0.1778985559940338,
-0.6142735481262207,
-0.008078512735664845,
-0.1481483280658722,
-0.1387185901403427,
0.5938272476196289,
-0.6819186806678772,
-0.17941318452358246,
-0.22530889511108398,
-5.439516067504883,
0.04454711452126503,
-0.5085239410400391,
-0.14468052983283997,
0.8441295027732849,
0.23500707745552063,
0.6611611843109131,
-0.1338585466146469,
0.3976057171821594,
0.8897360563278198,
0.38551995158195496,
-0.19121567904949188,
-0.1611238270998001,
-0.1429138332605362,
0.6340705156326294,
0.8600717186927795,
0.8939651846885681,
0.14718666672706604,
0.35646334290504456,
0.10782645642757416,
-0.029370779171586037,
-0.04173671826720238,
-0.23178675770759583,
0.24845126271247864,
0.3860291540622711,
0.6639641523361206,
0.049189165234565735,
-0.01497977040708065,
-0.31329458951950073,
-0.3189644515514374,
-0.1884193867444992,
0.5256600975990295,
-0.11584445089101791,
-0.4831576347351074,
-0.14069025218486786,
-0.7707468271255493,
0.09569089859724045,
0.3824595808982849,
0.39302173256874084,
-0.28126344084739685,
-0.15324418246746063,
0.3412228226661682,
-0.8960675597190857,
0.41641098260879517,
0.012556925415992737,
-0.4034810960292816,
-0.33794620633125305,
0.31572425365448,
-0.40963080525398254,
0.7183850407600403,
-0.04450314864516258,
0.2607203722000122,
0.6991841793060303,
0.3726661801338196,
0.45008760690689087,
-0.035132091492414474,
0.4566529393196106,
0.5754098892211914,
-0.5999917387962341,
0.044238440692424774,
0.7255790829658508,
-0.21852096915245056,
-0.22916680574417114,
-0.02475566975772381,
-0.257273405790329,
-1.1026172637939453,
-0.2891004979610443,
-0.31649670004844666,
0.41675516963005066,
0.032033197581768036,
0.3129306435585022,
0.3842088282108307,
0.605995237827301,
-0.8771713376045227,
0.5115159749984741,
-0.5188302993774414,
-0.81308513879776,
0.421446830034256,
-0.3010346591472626,
-0.10641264915466309,
-0.21340708434581757,
0.030592773109674454,
0.19762790203094482,
1.427881121635437,
0.16962827742099762,
0.36379513144493103,
-0.6422548890113831,
0.1495969146490097,
-1.0275506973266602,
-0.29698991775512695,
-0.46348291635513306,
-0.026350462809205055,
-0.44703471660614014,
0.1637527197599411,
-0.06913913041353226,
0.14521685242652893,
-0.06217470020055771,
-0.09776367247104645,
0.16997838020324707,
0.06399210542440414,
0.4428237974643707,
-0.3307932913303375,
-0.40991950035095215,
-0.9044914841651917,
0.32639652490615845,
0.02505996823310852,
-0.42674753069877625,
0.5340074896812439,
0.5691697001457214,
0.43363597989082336,
0.15473933517932892,
-0.4414430558681488,
-0.3278031349182129,
-0.6783509850502014,
0.007626968901604414,
-0.4632737636566162,
0.36148491501808167,
0.029631895944476128,
0.5223211050033569,
0.20043836534023285,
-0.000044636890379479155,
0.43087953329086304,
-0.3281729817390442,
-0.38401612639427185,
0.004595092497766018,
-0.23823480308055878,
0.14929531514644623,
-0.5410342216491699,
-0.6398471593856812,
0.17214520275592804,
0.6843339800834656,
-0.19094440340995789,
-0.37429898977279663,
-0.20948795974254608,
-0.22048528492450714,
-0.0709521546959877,
0.19890806078910828,
-0.6125712990760803,
0.1649019867181778,
-0.2169177383184433,
-0.5888277292251587,
-0.2759825885295868,
-0.39759543538093567,
-0.2086447775363922,
0.055478572845458984,
0.27316808700561523,
0.058444779366254807,
-0.013772344216704369,
-0.5799694657325745,
0.2125636786222458,
-0.833823025226593,
-0.6529231667518616,
-0.09056618064641953,
-0.1412278711795807,
0.15846003592014313,
-0.3899088203907013,
-0.2287052869796753,
-0.2915220856666565,
0.133155956864357,
0.0021469099447131157,
-0.45089682936668396,
0.08098261803388596,
-1.0751489400863647,
-0.18657377362251282,
0.27727845311164856,
-0.04105181246995926,
-0.25258690118789673,
-0.047378066927194595,
-0.14190977811813354,
0.9626398682594299,
0.47548672556877136,
-0.4946332275867462,
-0.37239596247673035,
0.46977469325065613,
0.6162149906158447,
-0.045208461582660675,
0.25522148609161377,
0.51121985912323,
0.360353022813797,
0.09526372700929642,
0.04116863012313843,
-0.05237297713756561,
-0.6327180862426758,
0.17870159447193146,
0.6204550862312317,
-0.37696918845176697,
-0.22194762527942657,
-0.22683262825012207,
-0.2675758898258209,
-0.3123041093349457,
-0.5416533350944519,
-0.22998017072677612,
0.14151090383529663,
0.6454381346702576,
-0.19948481023311615,
-0.24701568484306335,
0.18408995866775513,
-0.36206284165382385,
0.3340384066104889,
-0.810073971748352,
0.1386394500732422,
0.04719531536102295,
-0.21727898716926575,
0.14129309356212616,
-0.613502025604248,
-0.46342942118644714,
0.07719872891902924,
-0.16072329878807068,
-0.06503747403621674,
0.5359604954719543,
0.2489629089832306,
-0.4943981170654297,
0.3070065975189209,
0.4877294898033142,
-0.00623297318816185,
0.09593573957681656,
0.5326523184776306,
-0.32325267791748047,
-0.1747206747531891,
-0.5000057816505432,
-0.67537921667099,
-0.2445300966501236,
-0.5413841605186462,
-0.44541800022125244,
0.058637525886297226,
0.39793744683265686,
0.17420439422130585,
-0.6421324610710144,
1.2157477140426636,
-0.3857814371585846,
-0.8992074728012085,
-0.40295684337615967,
-0.15947769582271576,
0.17823195457458496,
-0.42622408270835876,
0.13091959059238434,
0.10417104512453079,
0.2696027159690857,
-0.46999770402908325,
0.37812018394470215,
0.28233036398887634,
1.2441318035125732,
0.2814486026763916,
-0.7619934678077698,
-0.17442914843559265,
-0.06240363046526909,
0.4735832214355469,
0.0075445640832185745,
-0.1598312258720398,
0.1677451878786087,
0.4711824059486389,
-0.5205352902412415,
-0.45956331491470337,
-0.19704291224479675,
1.030328392982483,
-0.1610468626022339,
-0.09377916902303696,
0.43328505754470825,
0.3359684348106384,
0.12737147510051727,
-0.09003904461860657,
0.21941258013248444,
-0.3028431236743927,
-0.01559550128877163,
0.16952839493751526,
-0.29080384969711304,
-0.24849791824817657,
-0.0797804445028305,
0.21899190545082092,
-0.6477311849594116,
-0.738603949546814,
0.13751710951328278,
-0.4193097651004791,
0.47714298963546753,
0.11973085254430771,
0.27430975437164307,
0.2423330843448639,
-0.3707278370857239,
0.41921839118003845,
-0.3059336543083191,
-1.093987226486206,
-0.1287461519241333,
-0.1501927524805069,
-0.25396928191185,
0.3153230547904968,
-0.6512984037399292,
-0.5082313418388367,
-0.01738801971077919,
-0.11777796596288681,
-0.4500945806503296,
-0.6023030281066895,
0.3473200500011444,
-0.639799177646637,
-0.12901940941810608,
-0.7086911797523499,
0.19220979511737823,
-0.5149906873703003,
0.27907055616378784,
0.5051171779632568,
0.3540278971195221,
-1.3816015720367432,
0.7875578999519348,
0.37925776839256287,
0.15856488049030304,
-0.1901402771472931,
0.41034799814224243,
0.11580117791891098,
0.040036145597696304,
-0.15800480544567108,
0.036176588386297226,
0.045255135744810104,
-0.4199345111846924,
0.4882826805114746,
-0.053261205554008484,
-0.3005816638469696,
-0.14229272305965424,
1.0861135721206665,
-0.19928747415542603,
0.03507347032427788,
0.32944488525390625,
0.09649144113063812,
-0.14927005767822266,
0.3935871422290802,
0.3829490542411804,
0.3617004156112671,
0.9930310249328613,
-0.7718973159790039,
0.05000707879662514,
0.06586528569459915,
0.2424943745136261,
0.027409419417381287,
0.2368524819612503,
-1.201823115348816,
0.4191942811012268,
-0.008125646971166134,
0.6042147278785706,
0.03010750748217106,
-0.5058867931365967,
-0.6621516942977905,
0.6446320414543152,
0.03156670555472374,
1.21019446849823,
0.14849497377872467,
-0.18562613427639008,
-0.36397725343704224,
0.11039566993713379,
0.06502532958984375,
-0.2520478367805481,
0.06896619498729706,
-0.4387246370315552,
0.023714758455753326,
0.37830182909965515,
0.0792156234383583,
-0.385336309671402,
-0.1719639152288437,
0.23703958094120026,
0.6316139101982117,
-0.2021213173866272,
-0.5164453983306885,
-0.5480509996414185,
0.1729632019996643,
-0.21548883616924286,
0.4465284049510956,
-0.18717212975025177,
-0.12098487466573715,
-0.13419900834560394,
0.04947270080447197,
-0.0931234136223793,
-0.46406060457229614,
0.29128941893577576,
0.43197205662727356,
-0.22742505371570587,
0.30978864431381226,
0.10901644080877304,
0.36746764183044434,
0.35748130083084106,
0.8503763675689697,
0.16189835965633392,
-0.30668842792510986,
0.11771317571401596,
-0.1448642909526825,
-0.29621079564094543,
-0.010358601808547974,
-0.4590807259082794,
-0.03751339763402939,
-0.03018801659345627,
-0.2635582685470581,
0.3211613893508911,
-0.1118479073047638,
-0.33874088525772095,
0.5844757556915283,
-0.11021514236927032,
-0.31719955801963806,
0.4640117287635803,
-0.40050607919692993,
0.42018187046051025,
-0.2932291328907013,
1.368950605392456,
0.46913212537765503,
0.5509634017944336,
-0.225625142455101,
-0.15888914465904236,
-0.3490670621395111,
0.09662212431430817,
-0.14709323644638062,
0.5317843556404114,
-0.3856114447116852,
0.3572384715080261,
-0.6126946210861206,
0.7899924516677856,
0.18871138989925385,
0.12279584258794785,
-0.5753495097160339,
0.5637111663818359,
-0.36197325587272644,
-0.07662098854780197,
0.9819594025611877,
-0.36065250635147095,
-0.36475062370300293,
-0.1567404866218567,
0.15362946689128876,
-0.04015728086233139,
-0.1691669523715973,
0.6376327872276306,
-0.6431476473808289,
-0.9010153412818909,
0.2935210168361664,
0.0591568648815155,
-0.4947308897972107,
0.49907398223876953,
0.4477500915527344,
-0.7975890636444092,
-0.2720164358615875,
-0.4037852883338928,
0.06055833026766777,
-0.011972607113420963,
0.13887816667556763,
1.0849475860595703,
0.30011358857154846,
-0.4622483551502228,
0.09855667501688004,
-0.4055856764316559,
0.26406386494636536,
-0.0651535615324974,
0.2122892588376999,
-0.01713755913078785,
0.2739427089691162,
-0.4410032629966736,
0.17452281713485718,
1.1172279119491577,
-0.18881261348724365,
-0.22636407613754272,
-0.04557305946946144,
0.14227865636348724,
0.7077304720878601,
-0.12693847715854645,
-0.3248860239982605,
-0.6021034717559814,
0.1693892627954483,
0.02173757366836071
] |
241578 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabisco | Nabisco | Nabisco (, abbreviated from the earlier name National Biscuit Company) is an American manufacturer of cookies and snacks headquartered in East Hanover, New Jersey. The company is a subsidiary of Illinois-based Mondelēz International.
Nabisco's plant in Chicago is the largest bakery in the world, employing more than 1,200 workers and producing around 320 million pounds of snack foods annually. Its products include Chips Ahoy!, Belvita, Oreo cookies, Ritz Crackers, Teddy Grahams, Triscuit crackers, Fig Newtons, and Wheat Thins for the United States, United Kingdom, Mexico, Bolivia, Venezuela, and other parts of South America.
All Nabisco cookie or cracker products are branded Christie in Canada. Nabisco opened corporate offices as the National Biscuit Company in the Home Insurance Building in the Chicago Loop in 1898, the world's first skyscraper.
History
Pearson & Sons Bakery opened in Massachusetts in 1792, and they made a biscuit called pilot bread for consumption on long sea voyages. In 1889, William H. Moore acquired "Pearson & Sons Bakery", "Josiah Bent Bakery", and six other bakeries to start the "New York Biscuit Company". Chicago lawyer Adolphus Green (1843–1917) started the American Biscuit and Manufacturing Company in 1890 after acquiring 40 different bakeries. Then Moore, Green, and John Gottlieb Zeller (1849–1939, founder of Richmond Steam Bakery) all merged in 1898 to form the "National Biscuit Company", and Green was named president. Zeller was president of National Biscuit Company from 1923–1931.
Nabisco celebrated its golden anniversary in 1948, and Nabisco had become the corporate name by 1971. In 1981, Nabisco merged with Standard Brands to form "Nabisco Brands", which merged with R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company in 1985 to form RJR Nabisco. Kraft General Foods acquired the Nabisco cold cereals from RJR Nabisco in 1993, and the cereal brands are now owned by Post Holdings. In 1999, Nabisco acquired Favorite Brands International. In 2000, Philip Morris Companies Inc. acquired Nabisco and merged it with Kraft Foods in one of the largest mergers in the food industry. In 2011, Kraft Foods announced that it was splitting into a grocery company and a snack food company. Nabisco became part of the snack-food business, which took the name Mondelēz International.
The first use of the name Nabisco was in a cracker brand produced by National Biscuit Company in 1901. The firm later introduced Fig Newtons, Nabisco Wafers, Anola Wafers, Barnum's Animal Crackers (1902), Cameos (1910), Lorna Doones (1912), Oreos (1912), and Famous Chocolate Wafers (1924).
In 1924, the National Biscuit Company introduced a snack in a sealed packet called the Peanut Sandwich Packet. They soon added the Sorbetto Sandwich Packet. These allowed salesmen to sell to soda fountains, road stands, milk bars, lunch rooms, and news stands. Sales increased, and the company started to use the name NAB in 1928. The term Nabs today is used to generically mean any type of snack crackers, most commonly in the southern US.
As of July 16, 2021, parent company Mondelēz International made the decision to close the Fair Lawn plant after 63 years forcing the majority of the 600 employees to move on and/or retire, accept jobs with other businesses or transfer within the company.
In August 2021, over 1,000 workers at several bakeries and distribution centers throughout the United States, organized under the Bakery, Confectionery, Tobacco Workers and Grain Millers' International Union, went on strike over disagreements regarding a new labor contract with Nabisco.
Mergers and acquisitions
Acquisitions
The National Biscuit Company acquired the Shredded Wheat Company, maker of Triscuit and Shredded Wheat cereal, and Christie, Brown & Company of Toronto in 1928, but all of the Nabisco cookie and cracker products in Canada still use the name Christie. It also acquired F.H. Bennett Company, maker of Milk-Bone dog biscuits, in 1931. When Kraft bought Nabisco, it included Christie.
In 1981, Nabisco merged with Standard Brands, maker of Planters Nuts, Baby Ruth and Butterfinger candy bars, Royal gelatin, Fleischmann's and Blue Bonnet margarines, amongst others. The company was then renamed Nabisco Brands, Inc. At that time, it also acquired the Life Savers brand from the E.R. Squibb Company, makers of Bubble Yum & Care-free gum. Commercials were revised as a result of the merger by January 1983.
R. J. Reynolds merger
In 1985, Nabisco was bought by R.J. Reynolds, forming "RJR Nabisco". After three years of mixed results, the company became one of the hotspots in the 1980s leveraged buyout mania. The company was in auction with two bidders: F. Ross Johnson, the company's president and CEO, and Kohlberg Kravis Roberts, a private equity partnership.
The company was sold to KKR in what was then the biggest leveraged buyout in history, described in the book Barbarians at the Gate: The Fall of RJR Nabisco, and a subsequent film.
Subsequent acquisitions and divestitures
In 1989 RJR Nabisco Inc. sold its Chun King foods division to Yeo Hiap Seng Limited and Fullerton Holdings Pte. Ltd for $52 million to reduce its debt from its $24.5 billion buyout by Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co.
In December 1989 RJR Nabisco sold its Del Monte canned fruits and vegetables business in South America to Polly Peck International PLC. One year later, in 1990 RJR Nabisco sold Curtiss Candy, which owned the Baby Ruth and Butterfinger brands, to Nestlé. RJR also sold LU, Belin and other European biscuit brands to Groupe Danone, only reunited in 2007 after Nabisco's present parent, Kraft Foods, bought Danone's biscuit operations for EUR 5.3 billion.
In 1994 RJR sold its breakfast cereal business (primarily the Shredded Wheat franchise) to Kraft Foods Inc. and the international licenses to General Mills, which later became part of the Cereal Partners Worldwide joint venture with Nestlé.
Also in 1994, RJR acquired Rose Knox's Knox gelatin and integrated the Shredded wheat franchise into the Post Foods portfolio. Post continues to sell the product today.
In 1995, Nestlé agreed to buy the Ortega Mexican foods business from Nabisco Inc. That same year, RJR-Nabisco also acquired the North American margarine and table spreads business of Kraft foods. This purchase included Parkay, Touch of Butter and Chiffon.
In 1998 Nabisco Holdings announced its sale of its margarine and egg substitute business to ConAgra.In 1997 the brands of Fleishmann's, Blue Bonnet and Parkay had sales of $480 million. It also sold its College Inn broth brand to HJ Heinz and its Venezuelan Del Monte operations to Del Monte Foods.
In 1999 RJR Nabisco's food and tobacco empire fell apart when they sold its international tobacco division to Japan Tobacco for $7.8 billion.
In 2000 Nabisco Holdings together with several investors (as Finalrealm) acquired United Biscuits, As part of the transaction, United Biscuits acquired Nabisco's European businesses and divested Far East (China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan) business to Nabisco. Nabisco became a leading shareholder in United Biscuits (the position that inherited by Kraft Foods until 2006).
The Altria Group (formerly Philip Morris) acquired Nabisco (sans Bubble Yum which was sold to Hershey) in 2000 for about $19.2 billion. Philip Morris then combined Nabisco with Kraft. That acquisition was approved by the Federal Trade Commission subject to the divestiture of products in five areas: three Jell-O and Royal brands types of products (dry-mix gelatin dessert, dry-mix pudding, no-bake desserts), intense mints (such as Altoids), and baking powder. Kraft Foods, at the time also a subsidiary of Altria, merged with Nabisco.
In 2006 Nabisco sold its Milk-Bone pet snacks to Del Monte Foods Co. for $580 million.
Kraft Foods was spun off from Altria, taking its Nabisco subsidiary with it, in 2007. In January 2007 Cream of Wheat was sold to B&G Foods.
Legal battles
In 1997, the National Advertising Division of the Council of Better Business Bureaus became concerned with an ad campaign for Planters Deluxe Mixed Nuts. The initial commercial featured a man and monkey deserted on an island. They discover a crate of Planters peanuts and rejoice in the peanuts' positive health facts.
Nabisco made a detailed statement describing how their peanuts were healthier than most other snack products, going as far as comparing the nutritional facts of Planters peanuts to those of potato chips, Cheddar cheese chips, and popcorn. Technically, the commercials complied with United States Food and Drug Administration regulations, and they were allowed to continue. However, as requested by the National Advertising Division, Nabisco agreed to make fat content disclosure more conspicuous in future commercials.
The company's A1 Steak Sauce was the subject of a legal battle against a venue called Arnie's Deli in 1991. The delicatessen was selling and using a homemade sauce called "A2 Sauce." The verdict favored Nabisco.
Brands and products
100 Calorie Packs
Arrowroot
Bacon Dippers
Belvita
Better Cheddars
Cameo
Captain's Table
Cheese Nips
Chips Ahoy!
Chicken in a Biskit
Chocolate Wafers
Club Social
Corn Diggers
Crispers (Canada)
Dad's Cookie (c.1929 Canada)
Doo Dads
Frollini de Oro Saiwa
Fudgee-O Cookies (Canada)
Giggles
Good Thins
HeyDay Cookie Bars
Honey Maid
Hony Bran
In A Biskit
Kool Stuf toaster pastry
Kraker Bran
Lorna Doone
Mallomars chocolate marshmallow
Mister Salty Pretzels
Nabisco Classics
Newtons
Nilla
Nutter Butter
Orchard Crisps
Oreo
List of Oreo varieties
Oro Saiwa
Pecanz
Pirate
Potato Chipsters
Premium Plus
Premium Saltines
Ritz Crackers
Rice Thins
Royal gelatin dessert
Royal Lunch
Sea Rounds
Shredded wheat
Social Tea
Sportz
Sugar Rings
Team Flakes
Teddy Grahams
Thinsations
Toasted Chips
Toastettes
Triscuit
Twigs
Uneeda Biscuit
Urra Saiwa
Wheat Squares
Wheat Thins
Zu Zu Ginger Snaps
Zwieback Toast
Corporate image
Nabisco's trademark is a diagonal ellipse with a series of antenna-like lines protruding from the top ("Orb and Cross" or Globus cruciger). It forms the base of its logo and can be seen imprinted on Oreo cookies, in addition to Nabisco product boxes and literature. The company has claimed in promotional material that it is an early European symbol for quality. It may be derived from a medieval Italian printer's mark that represented "the triumph of the moral and spiritual over the evil and the material", or it might represent "Christ's redemption of the world" or the act of winnowing, separating grain from chaff.
The logo of Nabisco was designed by Spanish graphic designer Gerard Huerta, who also designed some famous logos such as AC/DC's, among other works.
Sponsorship
From 2002–2005, Nabisco and Kraft jointly sponsored both Dale Earnhardt, Inc., and Roush Racing. Earnhardt Jr. won four races in a row at Daytona International Speedway with Nabisco sponsorship. Kraft and Nabisco sponsored a part-time Sprint Cup effort in car #81 driven by Jason Keller and John Andretti and fielded by Dale Earnhardt, Inc. Nabisco also sponsored Dale Earnhardt Jr. in the 2010 Subway Jalapeño 250 at Daytona International Speedway in July 2010 with their Oreo/Ritz brands and Tony Stewart with the Ritz brand in the 2010 DRIVE4COPD 300 at Daytona International Speedway in 2010.
References
Notes
External links
(Snack Worlds.com)
FTC summary of competitive concerns about the 2000 acquisition of Nabisco
Historic Nabisco factory in Detroit
Mondelez International
Snack food manufacturers of the United States
Food and drink companies established in 1898
American companies established in 1898
1898 establishments in New Jersey
Companies based in Morris County, New Jersey
Mondelez International brands
Food manufacturers of the United States
East Hanover Township, New Jersey
1985 mergers and acquisitions
2000 mergers and acquisitions | [
0.07867904752492905,
-0.11318306624889374,
-0.43288740515708923,
0.13963435590267181,
0.282462477684021,
-0.11886333674192429,
-0.07153785973787308,
0.7910797595977783,
-0.5019124746322632,
0.12602348625659943,
-0.0026125905569642782,
-0.11885303258895874,
0.06187285855412483,
0.6028720736503601,
-0.18793918192386627,
-0.40145009756088257,
0.44573137164115906,
0.4143759608268738,
0.19140629470348358,
-0.1346244215965271,
-0.7118476033210754,
-0.10694602876901627,
0.1266814023256302,
-0.2756754755973816,
-0.011645697057247162,
0.3865703046321869,
-0.2403739094734192,
-0.23960614204406738,
-0.27088463306427,
0.23009666800498962,
0.21649114787578583,
0.3625023663043976,
0.06393581628799438,
0.028568092733621597,
0.6226435899734497,
-0.08912442624568939,
-0.25594159960746765,
-0.0977214127779007,
-0.36480605602264404,
-0.9156934022903442,
-0.15316031873226166,
-0.0980517566204071,
-0.043540291488170624,
0.14120802283287048,
-0.2118838131427765,
-0.0929768905043602,
-0.5619120001792908,
0.22295667231082916,
-1.2619045972824097,
-0.4976646304130554,
-0.5596639513969421,
0.05312400683760643,
-0.039999958127737045,
0.41908377408981323,
0.11225297302007675,
0.36597996950149536,
-0.4338957667350769,
0.16358819603919983,
-0.0077021485194563866,
-0.6786273717880249,
0.4071867763996124,
0.02102370373904705,
0.15097254514694214,
0.0451972559094429,
0.26112061738967896,
0.057806435972452164,
0.2660306692123413,
0.6845444440841675,
-0.17030104994773865,
0.13011224567890167,
-0.30614981055259705,
-0.13106751441955566,
-0.3006422519683838,
0.05882437154650688,
0.49591031670570374,
-0.49038076400756836,
0.03781803697347641,
-0.20937247574329376,
0.19579587876796722,
0.11188769340515137,
-0.42003026604652405,
0.14879000186920166,
0.7762335538864136,
-0.11785151809453964,
0.30288979411125183,
0.046827320009469986,
-0.17306655645370483,
-0.06648652255535126,
-0.21614794433116913,
0.20273499190807343,
-0.4682862460613251,
0.29751986265182495,
0.6206862330436707,
0.10565102100372314,
-0.9388879537582397,
-0.48799654841423035,
0.1877765953540802,
-0.19036005437374115,
0.7335087060928345,
-0.09529436379671097,
-0.24617116153240204,
-0.10640951991081238,
0.3470465838909149,
0.3749583661556244,
-0.2737894058227539,
0.5081307888031006,
0.1626763790845871,
-0.28254830837249756,
0.42643463611602783,
0.03261135146021843,
0.11741098761558533,
-0.1423940360546112,
-0.015867173671722412,
0.1888693869113922,
-0.3794983923435211,
0.3050548732280731,
0.4325029253959656,
0.03772891312837601,
-0.6415411829948425,
0.14050570130348206,
0.5167137384414673,
0.29580962657928467,
0.03470233082771301,
0.3294191360473633,
0.3487148582935333,
0.250961571931839,
0.006633755750954151,
0.2925060987472534,
0.21101942658424377,
-0.1838778853416443,
0.3060291111469269,
0.15278227627277374,
-0.3515930473804474,
-0.012979984283447266,
0.16124847531318665,
0.2514974772930145,
-0.08315609395503998,
0.019737450405955315,
0.41092488169670105,
0.22017084062099457,
-0.426778644323349,
-0.08835799247026443,
-0.3217620551586151,
-0.02666088379919529,
0.00028599094366654754,
-0.5481343269348145,
0.2553652226924896,
-0.14972425997257233,
0.32149961590766907,
-0.018919838592410088,
0.42320558428764343,
-0.11747659742832184,
-0.10202606767416,
0.3049367368221283,
0.008312670513987541,
-0.306883305311203,
0.03676726296544075,
0.3637000620365143,
0.011799204163253307,
0.5227090716362,
-0.3169163167476654,
0.11586179584264755,
-0.40997549891471863,
-0.2654489278793335,
-0.4533187448978424,
-0.3918527066707611,
0.40112894773483276,
-0.148672953248024,
-0.09502122551202774,
-0.1767015904188156,
-0.17285965383052826,
-0.5551785230636597,
0.5458638668060303,
0.18408377468585968,
-0.43214958906173706,
-0.20019827783107758,
0.4417913258075714,
-0.0029610947240144014,
0.08611937612295151,
0.00003435337566770613,
-0.42895644903182983,
0.19381311535835266,
0.2997044324874878,
-0.22584956884384155,
0.30618879199028015,
-0.29348400235176086,
0.28598329424858093,
-0.2957729697227478,
-0.32888051867485046,
-0.10348522663116455,
0.014761748723685741,
0.04372212290763855,
0.25455036759376526,
-0.1957148164510727,
0.33246901631355286,
0.41543424129486084,
-0.6375304460525513,
0.9954425692558289,
-0.34860512614250183,
-0.2018742710351944,
-0.41682443022727966,
0.1328287124633789,
0.28765302896499634,
-0.45630401372909546,
-0.6736411452293396,
0.4831533133983612,
0.6614001989364624,
-0.02823428437113762,
0.5519101619720459,
0.024117980152368546,
0.1754968762397766,
-0.3138628602027893,
0.2322409749031067,
-0.2863389849662781,
-0.10413175076246262,
-0.3938232362270355,
0.004651686176657677,
0.8642643690109253,
0.24156297743320465,
-0.3576709032058716,
0.7020620703697205,
0.0668657049536705,
0.2727436423301697,
-0.19062234461307526,
0.24015770852565765,
0.7109856605529785,
-0.1480426788330078,
-0.09501492977142334,
0.2001390904188156,
0.5495141744613647,
0.5170978903770447,
-0.2956014573574066,
0.3190484344959259,
-0.493321031332016,
0.22527484595775604,
-0.03887370228767395,
-0.2587076425552368,
-0.4897167980670929,
0.8286880254745483,
-0.1677260845899582,
-0.1341642439365387,
-0.1481458842754364,
-0.6419901251792908,
0.33676183223724365,
0.8443582057952881,
-0.07623771578073502,
-0.48297083377838135,
0.21761982142925262,
-0.1823110580444336,
-0.1571645587682724,
-0.34678831696510315,
0.4653220474720001,
0.5237715840339661,
-0.13213549554347992,
0.1969803422689438,
0.41176849603652954,
-0.13464246690273285,
0.33731958270072937,
0.871425211429596,
0.22234100103378296,
-0.4716293513774872,
-0.3291310966014862,
0.270365446805954,
0.3003350794315338,
-0.6093115210533142,
-0.5581328272819519,
-0.1588144749403,
-0.15240120887756348,
0.1981893926858902,
-0.2001623958349228,
0.6804134845733643,
-0.20217840373516083,
-0.44932880997657776,
-0.42771321535110474,
0.023615406826138496,
-0.716644287109375,
-0.038274794816970825,
0.29985716938972473,
-0.2973374128341675,
-0.7149384617805481,
0.02691689319908619,
0.34393662214279175,
-0.4062000811100006,
-0.5057036280632019,
0.17521312832832336,
-0.33783504366874695,
0.07488682121038437,
-0.762556791305542,
-0.04843733459711075,
0.27129602432250977,
-0.20150645077228546,
0.21825066208839417,
-0.8755479454994202,
-0.01624329201877117,
0.09115573763847351,
0.03169066086411476,
-0.139482781291008,
-0.17506857216358185,
-0.03911398723721504,
-0.5468631386756897,
0.05296571925282478,
0.40484341979026794,
-0.10712789744138718,
0.20497797429561615,
0.16444411873817444,
-0.2746676206588745,
0.20561908185482025,
-0.6684919595718384,
-6.009349346160889,
0.24183623492717743,
-0.31300899386405945,
-0.35490626096725464,
0.41875022649765015,
0.1489322930574417,
0.3281782865524292,
-0.015251410193741322,
-0.014710763469338417,
0.222232848405838,
-0.18194997310638428,
-0.23783288896083832,
0.10036738961935043,
0.21258270740509033,
0.13000887632369995,
0.19934356212615967,
0.8671644330024719,
-0.09875264018774033,
-0.027160262688994408,
0.36428603529930115,
0.5989611744880676,
-0.7092811465263367,
-0.003005499253049493,
0.5730610489845276,
-0.08742476254701614,
0.5481259822845459,
-0.39285188913345337,
-0.040836840867996216,
-0.5569374561309814,
-0.37995654344558716,
0.053150586783885956,
-0.42049235105514526,
-0.1043003499507904,
-0.710796594619751,
0.2775788903236389,
-0.21710097789764404,
0.19935251772403717,
0.2528963088989258,
0.3653712570667267,
0.06507279723882675,
0.5343698263168335,
0.38699138164520264,
0.42339569330215454,
-0.37339723110198975,
0.5553507208824158,
0.6168379187583923,
-0.5847585797309875,
-0.3629758656024933,
-0.7418286800384521,
0.7831664085388184,
0.5624440908432007,
0.26758724451065063,
0.005043456796556711,
0.24549400806427002,
-0.10908325016498566,
-0.3446936011314392,
-0.3726603090763092,
-0.20790384709835052,
-0.273552268743515,
0.31748172640800476,
0.5196101069450378,
0.08925747126340866,
0.06195314973592758,
-0.06608086079359055,
-0.18956640362739563,
-0.29935693740844727,
-0.16288989782333374,
-0.19006113708019257,
0.48466765880584717,
0.3531709313392639,
-0.22890762984752655,
-0.31911030411720276,
-0.22067491710186005,
-0.6734607219696045,
0.18602490425109863,
0.1486964374780655,
0.026854731142520905,
-0.20792613923549652,
-0.008322039619088173,
0.45461615920066833,
0.19812126457691193,
-0.38045287132263184,
-0.5787144899368286,
0.1591498851776123,
-0.04138295724987984,
-0.4255129396915436,
-0.5361235737800598,
0.30491480231285095,
-0.7626258134841919,
-0.19953849911689758,
1.0345226526260376,
0.5877944231033325,
0.4369603991508484,
-0.5424928665161133,
0.43703779578208923,
0.21341116726398468,
0.031831175088882446,
0.5473538637161255,
0.15817204117774963,
-0.26542526483535767,
-0.0028385466430336237,
-0.08408037573099136,
0.44143742322921753,
-1.1105990409851074,
-0.23715519905090332,
0.02242950350046158,
0.3859504163265228,
-0.5389598608016968,
0.10876511037349701,
-0.31089985370635986,
-0.4863288402557373,
-0.1748373657464981,
-0.817653477191925,
-0.37842345237731934,
0.12608523666858673,
-0.08992385864257812,
-0.5706990957260132,
0.4403773546218872,
-0.0828341543674469,
-0.1595885157585144,
0.3346211910247803,
0.5686454772949219,
-0.08954500406980515,
-0.5601286292076111,
-0.5945444703102112,
-0.9038406014442444,
-0.16807761788368225,
0.23124781250953674,
0.30022627115249634,
-0.27608805894851685,
-0.26679205894470215,
0.21877862513065338,
-0.021383630111813545,
-0.05310577526688576,
-0.046326883137226105,
0.01561415009200573,
-0.5304797291755676,
-0.18733453750610352,
-0.4883979558944702,
0.09124467521905899,
0.28338563442230225,
0.0958256945014,
0.45637890696525574,
0.536830723285675,
0.2070482075214386,
0.38729000091552734,
0.4662654995918274,
-0.23021748661994934,
-0.2586327791213989,
0.2561023533344269,
0.14619658887386322,
0.04970720782876015,
0.3410963714122772,
0.11105804145336151,
-0.4201127588748932,
0.30667778849601746,
0.8376972079277039,
-0.016712181270122528,
0.22879506647586823,
0.1937522292137146,
0.039847683161497116,
-0.4651651084423065,
-1.331222414970398,
0.08128798753023148,
0.14497433602809906,
0.45416006445884705,
-0.3720785975456238,
-0.33179113268852234,
0.10589782148599625,
0.3718894422054291,
0.2620953321456909,
-0.24731925129890442,
-0.6693530678749084,
-0.2805215120315552,
0.2632266879081726,
0.1687273383140564,
0.14717358350753784,
-0.3078523874282837,
-0.6817420721054077,
-0.044046808034181595,
0.20371656119823456,
-0.006394675467163324,
-0.6146977543830872,
0.06197682023048401,
0.19957652688026428,
-0.834134578704834,
-0.04386590048670769,
0.3475220203399658,
-0.12347953021526337,
-0.14742419123649597,
0.29982897639274597,
-0.5718467831611633,
0.6446452736854553,
0.15896117687225342,
-0.3703365921974182,
-0.1335223913192749,
0.012668942101299763,
0.6850239634513855,
-0.4327535927295685,
-0.08719098567962646,
-0.16415275633335114,
-0.08273322135210037,
-0.5244442224502563,
0.1372452974319458,
-0.06500966846942902,
-0.5313148498535156,
0.08092210441827774,
0.025827733799815178,
0.09659814834594727,
0.7008944749832153,
-0.7272486090660095,
-0.32269325852394104,
0.23370353877544403,
0.038553714752197266,
-0.23947329819202423,
0.1498573124408722,
-0.035386621952056885,
-0.5471077561378479,
-0.038824718445539474,
-0.44681766629219055,
-0.2347041219472885,
-0.07506981492042542,
-0.280815452337265,
-0.1869921088218689,
0.090464748442173,
1.016530156135559,
0.6923210024833679,
-0.12959539890289307,
-0.2867093086242676,
-0.22530648112297058,
-0.4377308785915375,
-0.09855814278125763,
-0.3601588010787964,
0.12721815705299377,
0.029203353449702263,
0.17906798422336578,
0.2380094975233078,
0.44085922837257385,
0.6533452272415161,
0.4776614308357239,
-0.11208583414554596,
-0.0447525754570961,
-0.11703670769929886,
0.07326626032590866,
0.12162843346595764,
0.03915450721979141,
0.6469478011131287,
0.4143979549407959,
-0.19578562676906586,
0.2512138783931732,
-0.011820141226053238,
-0.271880179643631,
-0.10432405024766922,
0.098871611058712,
0.9611584544181824,
-0.1646190583705902,
-0.35057735443115234,
0.17816650867462158,
-0.06997198611497879,
-0.760637640953064,
0.08075303584337234,
0.398852676153183,
-0.4266679286956787,
0.29506343603134155,
-0.537839412689209,
0.20796410739421844,
-0.4246094226837158,
-0.4445687234401703,
0.19919057190418243,
-0.7687187790870667,
0.362946480512619,
-0.2680017948150635,
0.14826105535030365,
0.8631536960601807,
0.05027783289551735,
0.0784810334444046,
0.09574778378009796,
-0.4899645149707794,
-0.1943480670452118,
0.2097419798374176,
-0.27682170271873474,
0.2675260305404663,
-0.4316122531890869,
-0.10550570487976074,
0.33411064743995667,
-0.45252957940101624,
-0.353571355342865,
-0.3713066279888153,
-0.3289773464202881,
0.44311287999153137,
-0.18621417880058289,
-0.05588144809007645,
0.3066628873348236,
-0.3877706825733185,
-0.9261294603347778,
-0.21770527958869934,
0.5509461760520935,
0.1495506912469864,
-0.11737198382616043,
-0.09098438173532486,
-0.549323558807373,
-0.17958427965641022,
0.49560341238975525,
-0.5661810040473938,
-0.2524551451206207,
0.19003401696681976,
-0.12850746512413025,
-0.07064028084278107,
-0.511157214641571,
-0.09031778573989868,
-0.09190046042203903,
-0.4753991365432739,
0.2802640199661255,
0.41746607422828674,
-0.5681551694869995,
0.5083827972412109,
0.644004762172699,
-0.682322084903717,
0.2599363327026367,
0.21141821146011353,
0.4259129762649536,
0.01332185324281454,
0.03135039657354355,
-0.26902827620506287,
0.046648528426885605,
0.5536469221115112,
-0.23888808488845825,
-0.25670182704925537,
0.48812955617904663,
-0.10357148200273514,
0.23446691036224365,
-0.4396781027317047,
-0.38086503744125366,
-0.05000638589262962,
-0.14043886959552765,
-0.21413300931453705,
-0.20388922095298767,
-0.2293078899383545,
-0.9475083351135254,
1.0167229175567627,
0.8680636882781982,
-0.1198214665055275,
-0.25811371207237244,
0.09076244384050369,
-0.20126985013484955,
-0.18449145555496216,
0.5952117443084717,
-0.024031266570091248,
-0.03628832474350929,
-0.10839015245437622,
-0.04363381117582321,
-0.017177674919366837,
0.31001824140548706,
-0.025036687031388283,
0.5829870104789734,
-0.3072366714477539,
-0.2145974487066269,
-0.24999742209911346,
0.41078388690948486,
-0.12908349931240082,
-0.3148258328437805,
0.6655397415161133,
0.9717468619346619,
-0.20130221545696259,
-0.16500553488731384,
0.1379779875278473,
0.12967932224273682,
-0.12346886843442917,
-0.1992710530757904,
0.7700096964836121,
0.04597342014312744,
-0.1855490356683731,
-0.08589442819356918,
0.0038372862618416548,
-0.4800730347633362,
0.6253798007965088,
-0.19253668189048767,
0.6269994974136353,
0.07135587185621262,
0.30265310406684875,
-0.22739797830581665,
-0.03482851758599281,
-0.3954201638698578,
0.02315383218228817,
0.3616066873073578,
0.06923188269138336,
-0.31591811776161194,
0.16891717910766602,
-0.6849271059036255,
0.4195154905319214,
0.16828396916389465,
-0.4382113814353943,
-0.20169100165367126,
0.42513328790664673,
0.15140873193740845,
0.30436792969703674,
0.18149207532405853,
0.6535924673080444,
-0.3533666431903839,
0.017844174057245255,
0.35341787338256836,
0.2300068885087967,
0.29063984751701355,
0.2293652892112732,
-0.21296487748622894,
0.12549488246440887,
-0.11973612755537033,
-0.07458466291427612,
-0.462713360786438,
0.10177665948867798,
-0.02423509582877159,
0.19107672572135925,
0.3505581021308899,
-0.0411946065723896,
0.1426723152399063,
-0.4834611117839813,
0.628679096698761,
0.11073671281337738,
-0.2492668479681015,
0.26704108715057373,
-0.014052615500986576,
-0.4685898423194885,
0.23558957874774933,
0.22519740462303162,
-0.011604314669966698,
-0.25637489557266235,
0.8035534024238586,
-0.004823276773095131,
-0.7283965945243835,
0.4509018063545227,
-0.3415209650993347,
-0.46446871757507324,
-0.12551644444465637,
0.4894283413887024,
-0.4942706227302551,
-0.37225282192230225,
0.3142569065093994,
0.923416256904602,
0.2544221580028534,
-0.3011764585971832,
0.3856985867023468,
0.6519530415534973,
0.1926063746213913,
-0.0680016353726387,
0.02593202330172062,
0.23162463307380676,
0.20544646680355072,
-0.09160435199737549,
-0.4927699863910675,
0.1794944852590561,
-0.3987968862056732,
-0.09962914139032364,
-0.17858684062957764,
0.038029469549655914,
0.6152393817901611,
-0.030941138043999672,
0.4995221495628357,
0.18225638568401337,
0.4681735932826996,
0.08824124187231064
] |
241579 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countdown%20%28supermarket%29 | Countdown (supermarket) | Countdown is a New Zealand full-service supermarket chain and subsidiary of Woolworths New Zealand, itself a subsidiary of Australia's Woolworths Group. The first Countdown store opened in 1981 and the chain has expanded to 180 stores . It is one of two supermarket chains in New Zealand in terms of number of stores, although the rival Foodstuffs chain has a larger number of premises including smaller retail stores in rural areas.
History
Former era
In May 1981, the first Countdown market opened at Northlands Shopping Centre in Papanui, Christchurch. This business was established by Rattrays Wholesale. The Rattrays Wholesale Group included the Rattrays Cash and Carry warehouses, tobacco vans, now known as the Red Arrow Distributors fleet, and also included the SuperValue group of franchised supermarkets.
In October 1993, Foodland Associated Limited (FAL) bought the majority shareholding in Progressive Enterprises from Coles Myer and, shortly after, bought all remaining public shares and delisted Progressive Enterprises from the New Zealand stock exchange. With this purchase, Progressive Enterprises became the parent company for a number of FAL brands. Progressive Enterprises consisted of Foodtown Supermarkets, Countdown, Georgie Pie, Rattrays and Supervalue.
In 2006, Foodland Associated Limited (FAL) Australia, purchased the Countdown/Rattrays business. This acquisition was then followed by gaining a majority shareholding in Progressive Enterprises Limited, including General Distributors Limited, trading as Foodtown.
On 17 June 2002, Progressive Enterprises bought Woolworths (NZ) Ltd from Hong Kong-based owners Dairy Farm Group. The sale saw Progressive Enterprises's supermarket brands Foodtown, Countdown, 3 Guys, SuperValue and FreshChoice joined by Woolworths, Big Fresh and Price Chopper. As a result, Progressive Enterprises increased its share of the New Zealand grocery market to approximately 45%.
In 2003 Progressive Enterprises closed its Auckland and Christchurch distribution centres and rehired the redundant workers.
During the period of 1993–2005, Countdown changed from a foodmarket type format offering mainly groceries to a "full-service discount supermarket". The stores vary in size due to the consolidation of brands after the merger with Woolworths (NZ) Ltd. A number of Big Fresh, Price Chopper, and 3 Guys stores were rebranded to Countdown stores during after this merger.
On 24 November 2005, Australian company Woolworths Limited purchased Progressive Enterprises from Foodland Associated Limited.
In October 2006, Progressive Enterprises announced a discount fuel scheme with Gull Petroleum and Shell to offer discounts on petrol when shoppers spend $40 or more in their Woolworths, Foodtown or Countdown stores. This scheme was similar to the one their parent company Woolworths Limited offered in Australia. The Australian Competition & Consumer Commission investigated whether this activity was anticompetitive, the result of which was an undertaking by the parent company to change its methods of offering fuel discounts in Australia. Foodstuffs stores in New Zealand also offered fuel discounts at BP and their own New World and Pak'nSave fuel sites.
In July 2008, Onecard, which could previously only be used at Woolworths and Foodtown, was extended to Countdown.
Current era
In September 2009, Progressive Enterprises announced it would re-brand all its Foodtown and Woolworths stores to Countdown as stores were refurbished. The final Foodtown and Woolworths locations to be re-branded were Browns Bay and Meadowlands respectively, both on 14 November 2011. A single Woolworths outlet continued to operate at Mount Maunganui's Bayfair Shopping Centre up until late 2018. The store was not rebranded because a Countdown already existed at the centre. The store has now been closed due to the centre expanding. Johnsonville and Upper Hutt in the Wellington region both have two Countdown stores less than apart - the result of one pre-existing Countdown store and one larger rebranded Woolworths store. Both stores stock a similar range of products. A similar situation occurs in Highland Park, Auckland where a former Foodtown was rebranded to a Countdown alongside a newer Countdown in the same shopping centre and in Napier, where two Countdown stores are located directly across the road from each other.
In terms of branding, the Countdown stores existing before the initial rebranding generally retain the old style logo (although some have been updated) but the rebranded Woolworth/Foodtown stores have been updated to display the new style logo.
On 10 December 2012, Countdown launched its first Countdown branded in-store pharmacy. On 3 November 2014, Countdown began selling low-cost travel and life insurance through a deal with insurance giant Cigna.
On 1 August 2016, Countdown began its partnership with BP and Caltex through the AA Smartfuel program to offer fuel discounts, replacing its partnership with Z. The partnership with Gull continued until October 2016.
In 2019, a quiet-hour was introduced to the supermarkets for customers who had ear or eye sensitivities.
During the national lockdowns in response to COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand, Countdown limited the number of customers allowed inside stores at any one time.
On 10 May 2021, a stabbing attack occurred at the Countdown supermarket in central Dunedin, leaving four injured.
On 3 September 2021, another stabbing attack occurred at the LynnMall Countdown in New Lynn, injuring at least six. The attacker was shot and killed by police.
Operations
As of September 2018 there are a total of 180 Countdown supermarkets operating throughout the North and South Islands of New Zealand.
Major store operations are handled in Woolworths NZ's head office in Mangere, Auckland. The stores are divided in between 10 areas. Each area has an Area Manager (or Group Manager as they are sometimes called), and all areas are supported by a National Operations Manager. Previously, the areas were split into North and South regions, with 5 areas each.
Pricing and specials are divided into two regions: North Island and South Island. Internally, the North Island region is further subdivided into two sub-divisions: Upper and Lower.
Countdown also provides New Zealand wide online grocery delivery (excluding Waiheke Island) services through its online grocery shop.
"New Generation" Countdowns - those that have been built or refurbished since mid-2008 - have 30% of their retail floor space dedicated to fresh foods, a wider range of products than older Countdown stores (up to 30,000 items), and heating and refrigeration systems that are more energy-efficient and sustainable than older Countdown stores.
Logistics
All grocery items and general merchandise is supplied to stores through one of four distribution centres: at the head office in Auckland (National DC), one in Wiri (Upper North Island DC), in Palmerston North (Lower North Island), and in Christchurch (South Island). Deliveries are made daily to stores.
Chilled and frozen goods are supplied to stores by third party logistics operator Versacold. They operate three distribution centers in Auckland, Palmerston North and Christchurch, and deliver to stores daily.
Produce is supplied to stores by third party Freshmax. Fruit and vegetables from across New Zealand and the world are sent to the three distribution centers in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, where they are shipped to stores daily. However, only certain stores receive a Sunday delivery.
In recent years, Countdown has moved away from having on-site butcheries and have moved to centralized facilities. Cabinet Ready Meat (CRM: pre-cut and pre-packed meat) is supplied to non-butchery stores from a central plant in Auckland. Due to the complications of logistics in shipping CRM to the South Island, all South Island Countdowns have retained their butcheries.
Competition
Countdown's main competitors are both owned by co-operative Foodstuffs - the other player in the New Zealand supermarket duopoly - in the form of full-service supermarket chain New World (with 140 stores across NZ) and lower-cost 'food warehouse' Pak'nSave (57 supermarkets mainly concentrated in large, urban/suburban areas).
In terms of pricing, Countdown generally places on par with New World and above Pak n Save. In a September 2009 Consumer magazine survey, Countdown was placed third in Auckland, with a basket of 40 brand items costing $136, four dollars above New World and $21 above Pak'n Save.
A year earlier in September 2008, a Consumer magazine survey placed Countdown second in Auckland, with a basket of 15 private label items costing $38.24, only $0.91 behind fellow Progressive Enterprises's brand Woolworths (the Woolworths store in question has since become a Countdown), and $1.87 ahead of the nearest rival, Pak'n Save.
Marketing and branding
New Countdown branding was introduced on 21 September 2009. The word "Countdown" reused the original logo's red colour, but with a newly adapted font-type. The previous light green background was replaced with a white one and a logo with the "Shop Smarter" slogan was added. The logo - representing fresh produce - is also used by Australian Woolworths outlets. As of 2018, the font used in the logo was changed to one more similar to the Australian Woolworths, and itself is dark green, but when used on stores it is white.
On stores, the slogan is missing and the word "Countdown" is white. The logo and name sit on a dark grey background. On newer Countdowns, however (those built after 2013) the logo and name sit on a dark green background. Some older stores still have the old branding, which is the lettering 'Countdown' in red or orange on either a light or dark green background.
"Shop Smarter" - Countdown's current slogan was introduced in mid-2009 to the Countdown, Woolworths and Foodtown brands. The new slogan also accompanied the introduction of "The Smart Shopper", a series of 60-second twice-weekly television segment hosted by Richard Till.
Countdown Kids Hospital Appeal
From August to November every year, every Countdown store conducts fundraisers for sick children, using techniques including selling $2 wristbands and $5 raffle tickets.
Food donations
In 2011 Countdown put a formal structure in place, partnering with the Salvation Army to launch Countdown Food Rescue. This nationwide program ensures that food that can't be sold but is still fit for consumption is put to good use. They also donate a large trolley full of food from each of their 180 stores every year at Christmas.
Loyalty schemes
Countdown has two major loyalty schemes called Onecard and Onecard Visa
Onecard
Countdown uses a discount and rewards programme called "OneCard" which was introduced in July 2003 and was shared by the Woolworths and Foodtown brands. The actual Onecard is a standard magnetic stripe card that is loaded into the POS system via the EFTPOS terminal. Countdown's Onecard specials are the predominantly visible price on member-discounted products. The non-promotional price is displayed below.
Onecard Visa
Onecard Visa is a Visa card based on Onecard. It is the same as the regular Visa cards and has additional rewards features.
Fuel discounts
Introduced in 2006, Countdown supermarkets began offering fuel discounts for transactions of $40 and over (as of September 2009). In August 2016 fuel discounts redeemable at BP, Caltex and Gull petrol stations replaced the former arrangement with Shell/Z.
Private label brands
Countdown has seven private label brands - of which all except Signature Range and 'Countdown' branded products are in common with private label brands of Woolworths Supermarkets Australia.
Countdown Own Brand - A range of quality products at a great price; which are also healthier than fully branded products
Woolworths Freefrom / Free From Gluten - grocery items for specific dietary requirements
Macro / Macro Free Range / Macro Organic - grocery products sustained from organic and free range sources)
Woolworths Essentials - Low-cost and quality essential items
The Odd Bunch - A range of fresh produce at a lower price; due to irregularities in shape or size.
Platitude - A range of plant-based options, such as plant-based meat substitutes
Countdown Gold - a range of limited edition premium products; often Christmas exclusives
In 2016 Countdown began the process of merging their Homebrand, Select and Signature Range brands to their Woolworths Essentials and Countdown Value / Everyday / Finest Brand. The Homebrand brand will be converted to Essentials and the Select and Signature range to the Countdown brand over the course of 2016, 2017 and 2018. This re-branding is expected to be completed by 2018. Countdown will still retain the Free From, Macro and Gold Brands
Store electrical faults causing the first “O” to go missing
In March 2018, users on social media and online news (e.g. Newshub) reported an electrical fault on the “Countdown” signage causing the first “O” to go missing at Auckland Airport Countdown. It was also believed that Countdown Invercargill and Northcote expected the same issue the year before. Countdown responded, and resolved the issue.
“Visitors to the country have been facing a rather amusing, and possibly offensive, welcome to New Zealand after Auckland Airport Countdown lost its "O"”, causing the signs to spell Cuntdown.
See also
Woolworths (New Zealand supermarket chain)
Woolworths Supermarkets (Australia)
Albert Gubay
References
External links
Supermarkets of New Zealand
Retail companies established in 1981
Woolworths Group (Australia)
1981 establishments in New Zealand | [
0.770150899887085,
-0.0263108778744936,
0.1495068073272705,
-0.34065568447113037,
-0.03492632508277893,
0.6446169018745422,
0.21988284587860107,
0.31869035959243774,
-0.5854024291038513,
0.47484561800956726,
-0.14573398232460022,
0.2714725136756897,
0.03846412152051926,
0.4920557141304016,
0.1819499284029007,
0.2849408686161041,
0.05642823129892349,
0.6120891571044922,
-0.3705739676952362,
-0.18251197040081024,
0.1221202164888382,
-0.6837102770805359,
0.6292937397956848,
-0.36166101694107056,
0.08099538832902908,
0.0066493237391114235,
0.3024812638759613,
0.6924166679382324,
-0.10154083371162415,
0.35823097825050354,
0.1428387314081192,
0.8696170449256897,
0.48864567279815674,
0.09918920695781708,
0.23915642499923706,
-0.2628023028373718,
0.5168899297714233,
0.038892656564712524,
-0.32859721779823303,
-0.44951483607292175,
0.20742276310920715,
-0.49977901577949524,
-0.18278661370277405,
0.29809582233428955,
-0.1939087212085724,
-0.22056786715984344,
-1.6122523546218872,
-0.4314858913421631,
-1.060477375984192,
0.06440865993499756,
0.10182710736989975,
0.8245712518692017,
-0.025087356567382812,
-0.38538143038749695,
0.08183946460485458,
0.9198557734489441,
-0.839712917804718,
-0.2505415678024292,
0.06071460619568825,
-0.5125811696052551,
-0.008595097810029984,
0.09901383519172668,
0.024815130978822708,
0.4907640218734741,
0.15200771391391754,
-0.015299445018172264,
-0.23895958065986633,
1.1908490657806396,
-0.13052693009376526,
-0.44594961404800415,
-0.08380614966154099,
-0.3083638548851013,
0.45174849033355713,
0.14194093644618988,
-0.4579828083515167,
-0.20468366146087646,
-0.4917105436325073,
0.18333181738853455,
0.41184288263320923,
0.5650752782821655,
-0.041145335882902145,
-0.040126118808984756,
0.5327833890914917,
-0.0853620171546936,
0.4129544496536255,
0.17456112802028656,
-0.010634719394147396,
-0.37629348039627075,
-0.018635036423802376,
0.5987038016319275,
-0.20398010313510895,
0.11826096475124359,
0.4053354263305664,
0.4661884605884552,
-0.35413849353790283,
-0.6744152903556824,
-0.35895049571990967,
0.26524055004119873,
0.25130772590637207,
-0.19079606235027313,
-0.07527485489845276,
0.0125278877094388,
0.13568590581417084,
-0.7034205198287964,
-0.01141548901796341,
-0.3633117079734802,
-0.11699307709932327,
-0.5351619720458984,
0.05549696087837219,
0.15967786312103271,
-1.1295397281646729,
-0.21638619899749756,
0.08635510504245758,
0.289802223443985,
0.19775758683681488,
0.7722035050392151,
0.08784235268831253,
-0.09885422140359879,
-0.4850170612335205,
-0.13817590475082397,
0.6164848208427429,
0.2006075382232666,
-0.09444350749254227,
0.41155338287353516,
-0.13193559646606445,
0.13813652098178864,
0.5411977767944336,
0.13323761522769928,
0.3809531033039093,
0.43140721321105957,
0.24891354143619537,
0.42983004450798035,
-0.5493545532226562,
-0.21044963598251343,
-0.1910586804151535,
-0.06971875578165054,
0.2378695160150528,
-0.25869008898735046,
0.3752550482749939,
-0.20676639676094055,
-0.8809959888458252,
-0.14411582052707672,
-0.5386859178543091,
-0.5735832452774048,
0.12805990874767303,
0.22000232338905334,
-0.23379139602184296,
-0.01035383902490139,
-0.6203803420066833,
-0.35156798362731934,
0.12988370656967163,
0.2242732048034668,
-0.1456482857465744,
-0.3578113615512848,
-0.2580203115940094,
0.22160685062408447,
0.4887188971042633,
-0.3439890444278717,
-0.055473025888204575,
0.15735815465450287,
0.26507121324539185,
0.32926198840141296,
0.13589991629123688,
-0.2010785937309265,
0.007080086041241884,
-0.34036439657211304,
0.12027493864297867,
-0.20086199045181274,
0.1803893744945526,
-0.5624964833259583,
-0.6353673338890076,
0.19887588918209076,
0.4307700991630554,
0.40619832277297974,
0.23525938391685486,
-0.08480584621429443,
0.5540501475334167,
0.29998621344566345,
0.31320616602897644,
-0.3543669581413269,
-0.3168067932128906,
0.26360246539115906,
0.5489779710769653,
-0.08242190629243851,
1.0189487934112549,
-0.2819606065750122,
0.5586321353912354,
0.16645509004592896,
0.06574059277772903,
0.17613659799098969,
-0.6523320078849792,
-0.23904630541801453,
-0.1786140650510788,
-0.374557763338089,
0.2881143391132355,
0.11000315099954605,
-0.11545959860086441,
1.1171104907989502,
0.06432846933603287,
0.7098711133003235,
-0.08332720398902893,
0.22049261629581451,
-0.10922027379274368,
0.06596584618091583,
-0.9843544363975525,
-0.07093280553817749,
0.3760906755924225,
-0.053555507212877274,
0.5055471658706665,
0.38127264380455017,
0.3159380853176117,
-0.8458049297332764,
-0.08488433808088303,
-0.25467920303344727,
0.07433202117681503,
0.3743320107460022,
0.03960638865828514,
0.14294365048408508,
-0.29631179571151733,
-0.3372286558151245,
0.9149989485740662,
0.389876127243042,
0.08534235507249832,
-0.3111351728439331,
-0.20737434923648834,
0.44443845748901367,
0.2614128887653351,
-0.5513255000114441,
0.36431920528411865,
-0.06222022697329521,
0.4663417935371399,
0.23518994450569153,
0.07471226900815964,
-0.6313825845718384,
-0.15828579664230347,
0.23493196070194244,
-0.21205246448516846,
-0.2194160521030426,
0.15472190082073212,
0.07558540999889374,
0.16787953674793243,
-0.08363813161849976,
-0.39882606267929077,
-0.0051722959615290165,
0.5386591553688049,
0.05918438360095024,
-0.6629897356033325,
0.07931200414896011,
-0.5783072710037231,
-0.3097793459892273,
0.42278894782066345,
-0.298841267824173,
0.3344152271747589,
0.29078906774520874,
0.10235428065061569,
-0.4641357362270355,
-0.034725550562143326,
0.10220811516046524,
0.39328986406326294,
0.27691569924354553,
-0.23976460099220276,
0.10960739850997925,
0.1263195127248764,
-0.15036705136299133,
-0.06582731753587723,
-0.2146165817975998,
-0.4713447690010071,
-0.41742056608200073,
-0.3106221556663513,
0.2825913429260254,
0.2530694305896759,
0.03248029202222824,
-0.8361771702766418,
0.18502315878868103,
0.003153316443786025,
-0.7269106507301331,
0.10347472876310349,
0.38213062286376953,
-0.0839383453130722,
-0.3897295892238617,
0.09090691059827805,
0.38550230860710144,
0.29548266530036926,
-0.6712411046028137,
-0.23977643251419067,
0.22604626417160034,
-0.1320711076259613,
0.44094058871269226,
-0.46229228377342224,
-0.30565014481544495,
-0.015901081264019012,
0.044089410454034805,
-0.6750873327255249,
0.32300084829330444,
0.030069774016737938,
0.12237825244665146,
0.3121124804019928,
0.1791485995054245,
0.528626024723053,
-0.1637929528951645,
0.1846504956483841,
0.18105565011501312,
0.1359182745218277,
-0.4723358154296875,
-0.2251698523759842,
-0.6664435863494873,
0.28337106108665466,
-0.5323323607444763,
-5.809739112854004,
0.10353084653615952,
-0.4179172217845917,
-0.21159382164478302,
0.49840089678764343,
-0.3441002666950226,
0.6303259134292603,
-0.39047500491142273,
0.21579396724700928,
-0.00243271142244339,
0.1434250771999359,
-0.19255967438220978,
-0.1471220850944519,
-0.3073965311050415,
0.5866904258728027,
0.39922600984573364,
0.5492576956748962,
0.8279550075531006,
0.590874195098877,
-0.22829557955265045,
0.014806129969656467,
-0.4726649224758148,
-0.36512404680252075,
0.24994857609272003,
0.006098637357354164,
0.7486339211463928,
-0.059955283999443054,
0.24667926132678986,
-0.9998959898948669,
-0.18208225071430206,
-0.22209598124027252,
-0.2029932588338852,
-0.4511556923389435,
-0.15602362155914307,
0.007073502521961927,
-0.3881092369556427,
0.4303111732006073,
-0.2786937355995178,
0.011345925740897655,
-0.39274048805236816,
0.437328577041626,
0.22107695043087006,
0.5800251960754395,
-0.4110850989818573,
0.4930870831012726,
-0.41557830572128296,
-0.1501293182373047,
-0.004343121778219938,
-0.5338195562362671,
0.607283890247345,
0.7715880274772644,
0.024794790893793106,
0.07592843472957611,
0.08842890709638596,
-0.15927405655384064,
-0.15438108146190643,
0.17413005232810974,
0.07968704402446747,
0.4477783739566803,
0.2672348916530609,
0.30256515741348267,
-0.4511823356151581,
-0.0715753585100174,
-0.07648973166942596,
-0.3527848720550537,
0.08762921392917633,
-0.11343301832675934,
0.12209024280309677,
0.37339842319488525,
-0.40604665875434875,
-0.43899616599082947,
-0.33325856924057007,
0.09365887194871902,
-0.5673108696937561,
-0.26887601613998413,
-0.2320626825094223,
-0.1006079912185669,
0.25870463252067566,
-0.5793488025665283,
-0.3137422502040863,
-0.3827967941761017,
-0.5924158692359924,
-0.000419043906731531,
0.1914328634738922,
0.3393465578556061,
-1.1431249380111694,
-0.9523382782936096,
0.10078458487987518,
-0.37834957242012024,
-0.15689709782600403,
0.10970709472894669,
-0.4772914946079254,
0.42571625113487244,
-0.11649536341428757,
0.23400583863258362,
0.7074291110038757,
0.5590114593505859,
0.6150773167610168,
-0.046113330870866776,
-0.30714133381843567,
-0.3937060534954071,
-0.2880754768848419,
0.23917704820632935,
-0.399667888879776,
0.09972044825553894,
0.061401210725307465,
0.07307489216327667,
-0.0030372377950698137,
0.2680835723876953,
-0.14947587251663208,
0.03020113706588745,
-0.006391888950020075,
-0.801286518573761,
-0.2576211392879486,
0.06910144537687302,
0.41183754801750183,
-0.4418703615665436,
0.028524495661258698,
0.3065057396888733,
0.35773319005966187,
-0.18668581545352936,
0.24106566607952118,
-0.6452023983001709,
-0.02236192114651203,
-0.42086082696914673,
-0.37357231974601746,
0.2685447335243225,
0.005140792578458786,
0.5097220540046692,
-0.3131435811519623,
0.39804989099502563,
0.14623941481113434,
0.39245089888572693,
-0.13520142436027527,
-0.18903973698616028,
-0.22571255266666412,
0.20291848480701447,
-0.0795149877667427,
0.10372599214315414,
0.193364679813385,
-0.036014728248119354,
0.056662578135728836,
-0.06876445561647415,
0.9016098380088806,
0.06470312178134918,
0.7423952221870422,
0.3500400185585022,
0.0823904275894165,
-0.4024523198604584,
0.19500087201595306,
-0.1210424154996872,
-0.7388116121292114,
0.3856419026851654,
-0.5972635746002197,
0.37571221590042114,
0.20242953300476074,
-0.039963942021131516,
0.2124881148338318,
-0.19981902837753296,
-0.530354380607605,
-0.03599480912089348,
-0.6105861663818359,
-0.5299094915390015,
-0.14107421040534973,
0.26331523060798645,
0.08521252870559692,
-0.21032270789146423,
-0.27357566356658936,
-0.15755754709243774,
0.8646760582923889,
-0.07682434469461441,
-0.29337215423583984,
-0.5279620289802551,
0.025577696040272713,
0.8891492486000061,
-0.030724085867404938,
0.2160464972257614,
-0.4925672709941864,
-0.05715584382414818,
0.16504445672035217,
0.17476756870746613,
0.2523442506790161,
0.06752447783946991,
0.356874942779541,
0.872191309928894,
-0.7507880926132202,
-0.57265704870224,
0.2265072762966156,
-0.23976683616638184,
0.07430195808410645,
-0.2037745863199234,
0.4541494846343994,
0.4790557622909546,
0.1329590380191803,
0.02975601702928543,
-0.653255045413971,
-0.49650105834007263,
0.33884066343307495,
-0.2146461009979248,
-0.4502131938934326,
-0.2804667055606842,
0.6800423860549927,
-0.46574580669403076,
0.3937472701072693,
0.3444937765598297,
-0.05301257222890854,
0.4446907937526703,
-0.23515591025352478,
-0.3450465500354767,
0.002265096176415682,
-0.23970800638198853,
-0.6134967803955078,
-0.05722496658563614,
0.45299437642097473,
-0.7047592997550964,
0.005435063969343901,
0.17985205352306366,
-0.6314756274223328,
-0.07676877081394196,
-0.3896433413028717,
-0.20844291150569916,
-0.36347177624702454,
-0.6335086822509766,
-0.1027354896068573,
-0.30485081672668457,
1.1973921060562134,
0.5763573050498962,
-0.9637781977653503,
-0.036327168345451355,
-0.24485664069652557,
-0.1103726401925087,
-0.38080909848213196,
0.043827932327985764,
0.27439552545547485,
0.13768808543682098,
0.698735773563385,
-0.07654079794883728,
0.2537001371383667,
0.44830936193466187,
0.4305359721183777,
-0.3115888237953186,
0.4231901466846466,
-0.05815558880567551,
-0.3801383376121521,
-0.33565232157707214,
0.07418730854988098,
0.647878110408783,
0.026185210794210434,
-0.8901616334915161,
0.3303799629211426,
-0.013813736848533154,
-0.5071422457695007,
-0.32299670577049255,
-0.030373465269804,
0.7007043361663818,
-0.4852867126464844,
0.08037801831960678,
-0.25175637006759644,
-0.274790495634079,
-0.094445139169693,
0.310506671667099,
0.33462271094322205,
-0.2813137471675873,
0.46543142199516296,
0.8726512789726257,
0.8025875687599182,
-0.5472930073738098,
-0.6076770424842834,
0.38611966371536255,
-0.21132566034793854,
-0.0604093000292778,
0.21882940828800201,
0.30542999505996704,
1.1434425115585327,
0.7288631200790405,
-0.1425846815109253,
0.19226929545402527,
-1.166011095046997,
-0.28506016731262207,
-0.3635106086730957,
0.1513802707195282,
0.27597370743751526,
0.12133318930864334,
-0.1385616809129715,
0.38106727600097656,
-0.9627498388290405,
-0.7261101603507996,
-0.06446460634469986,
-0.6201237440109253,
0.3352442681789398,
0.06627964228391647,
0.0031209124717861414,
0.028262624517083168,
-0.5805679559707642,
-0.10437417775392532,
0.543533980846405,
0.35005131363868713,
-0.27028462290763855,
-0.17865434288978577,
-0.13459445536136627,
-0.5199289321899414,
0.9382445812225342,
0.25127747654914856,
-0.15629459917545319,
0.6043953895568848,
0.3764035701751709,
-0.2722404897212982,
-0.3629615008831024,
0.30616098642349243,
-0.19247061014175415,
0.4839348793029785,
-0.38533857464790344,
0.5091797709465027,
0.5024493336677551,
-0.1885787546634674,
0.20830480754375458,
0.5083662271499634,
-0.4525766968727112,
-0.17883282899856567,
0.5635052919387817,
0.3027741611003876,
0.5799902081489563,
0.4830273985862732,
0.0847269743680954,
-0.3593841791152954,
0.7584599256515503,
-0.49469611048698425,
-0.12251830101013184,
0.7983911037445068,
0.36867856979370117,
-0.07135047763586044,
-0.057196468114852905,
-0.4440591633319855,
0.3967965245246887,
-0.3298094868659973,
0.0007618243689648807,
0.3139494061470032,
-0.3181759715080261,
-0.45272183418273926,
0.30151739716529846,
0.632434070110321,
-0.2548663020133972,
-0.32177501916885376,
0.15876685082912445,
-0.31221911311149597,
0.20648014545440674,
0.25721630454063416,
-0.15151596069335938,
0.3398788571357727,
0.5980823040008545,
-0.2507235109806061,
-0.22879208624362946,
-0.20438481867313385,
-0.3069444000720978,
0.2191380262374878,
-0.08763161301612854,
-0.37964949011802673,
-0.7947264313697815,
0.023228147998452187,
-0.1943884789943695,
0.04987857863306999,
0.16865555942058563,
-0.08182422071695328,
0.0063802036456763744,
-0.32129839062690735,
-0.4735109508037567,
0.19672580063343048,
-0.392118901014328,
-0.01533515565097332,
0.9613505005836487,
0.012589072808623314,
0.15016531944274902,
0.2869389057159424,
0.5880879759788513,
0.3661283254623413,
0.5428968071937561,
0.04888905957341194,
0.6590455770492554,
-0.14263400435447693,
0.19557125866413116,
-0.14996112883090973,
-0.17092883586883545,
-0.4324781000614166,
0.12010360509157181,
0.2981235384941101,
-0.08765530586242676,
-0.2381679266691208,
0.04437640309333801,
-0.5263800024986267,
-0.02069527842104435,
-0.29803869128227234,
-0.34726354479789734,
-0.08342759311199188,
-0.36020636558532715,
-0.14638255536556244,
-0.4622114598751068,
-0.22131475806236267,
0.2007494419813156,
-0.25390326976776123,
0.15338118374347687,
0.11264685541391373,
0.05514661222696304,
0.3040804862976074,
0.7398237586021423,
0.20112276077270508,
0.24189144372940063,
-0.32634255290031433,
0.0012141717597842216,
-0.7056896090507507,
0.49969789385795593,
0.37105798721313477,
0.27462801337242126,
-0.13228970766067505,
0.1255887746810913,
-0.22955209016799927,
-0.3865223526954651,
0.0626913532614708,
-0.21396856009960175,
0.010534601286053658,
-0.44154173135757446,
0.06717026233673096,
-0.5150800943374634,
0.7145929932594299,
0.5094957947731018,
-0.7512308359146118,
-0.5243604183197021,
0.2722284197807312,
0.05093758925795555,
-0.9230477213859558,
0.46492069959640503,
-0.0787372887134552,
-0.1678832322359085,
-0.3558271825313568,
-0.4194301962852478,
-1.171939730644226,
0.02487802691757679,
0.17880326509475708,
0.6081995964050293,
0.32310888171195984,
0.10238244384527206,
-0.09883379191160202,
-0.3157985806465149,
0.4274244010448456,
0.10172467678785324,
0.24084222316741943,
0.3187117576599121,
0.18041041493415833,
-0.2770524322986603,
-1.0857300758361816,
0.2853476405143738,
-0.23837658762931824,
-0.6066896915435791,
0.26368045806884766,
-0.05910053476691246,
0.03556899353861809,
-0.04135908931493759,
0.3873518407344818,
-0.008317030966281891,
0.1470240205526352,
-0.2590412199497223
] |
241582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Pickens%20%28governor%29 | Andrew Pickens (governor) | Andrew Pickens Jr. (December 13, 1779June 24, 1838) was an American soldier and politician. He served as the 46th Governor of South Carolina from 1816 until 1818.
Pickens was the son of well-known American Revolutionary general Andrew Pickens (1739–1817), and Rebecca Floride Pickens (nee Colhoun). He was born on his father's plantation on the Savannah River in Horse Creek Valley in Edgefield County, South Carolina.
He was a maternal cousin of fellow South Carolina politician John C. Calhoun. He was also a paternal cousin of Calhoun's wife Floride.
Pickens attended Brown University, graduating in 1801. He served as a lieutenant-colonel in the U.S. Army during the War of 1812. After the war, he established a plantation, "Oatlands", in Edgefield County, and took up the practice of law. He also established a residence, "Halcyon Grove", in the village of Edgefield, and married Susannah Smith Wilkinson.
On December 5, 1816, the South Carolina General Assembly elected Pickens as governor by secret ballot. Pickens championed the construction of roads and canals by government, a policy called internal improvements. During his administration, South Carolina began an internal improvements program. The price of cotton rose to the highest point reached in South Carolina during the antebellum period. The city of Charleston was struck with a disastrous yellow fever epidemic. After leaving office, Pickens moved to Alabama and helped negotiate a treaty with the Creek Indians of Georgia. For a period of time around 1829, he lived in Augusta. Growing up living by Indians, he had a very tight bond with them.
Pickens died June 24, 1838, in Pontotoc, Mississippi, and was interred at Old Stone Church Cemetery in Clemson, South Carolina.
His son, Francis Wilkinson Pickens (1805–1869) was a U.S. Representative and the Governor of South Carolina when the state seceded from the Union in 1860.
External links
SCIway Biography of Andrew Pickens
NGA Biography of Andrew Pickens
1779 births
1838 deaths
United States Army personnel of the War of 1812
Governors of South Carolina
People from Edgefield County, South Carolina
Brown University alumni
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
United States Army colonels
University of South Carolina trustees
South Carolina Democratic-Republicans
Democratic-Republican Party state governors of the United States | [
-1.028737187385559,
-0.06958012282848358,
-0.5910610556602478,
0.07839078456163406,
-0.21425200998783112,
0.7618287801742554,
0.8558239936828613,
0.6491686701774597,
-0.8249374032020569,
-0.17494192719459534,
0.10485869646072388,
0.27548229694366455,
-0.3731800615787506,
0.6603275537490845,
0.30531543493270874,
0.7180100083351135,
-0.05615229904651642,
0.7694114446640015,
0.07183518260717392,
-0.40143924951553345,
-0.009221088141202927,
0.12346651405096054,
0.0477173887193203,
-0.46706005930900574,
0.21203774213790894,
-0.009677243418991566,
-0.13769219815731049,
-0.23256225883960724,
0.09095575660467148,
-0.1149541363120079,
-0.06174079328775406,
0.34135469794273376,
0.1928921639919281,
-0.43069520592689514,
0.22678737342357635,
-0.2569671869277954,
0.20676684379577637,
-0.09607821702957153,
0.3939514458179474,
0.04239586740732193,
-0.697171151638031,
0.2080647051334381,
0.43684297800064087,
-0.17158406972885132,
0.08244733512401581,
-0.6401678919792175,
-1.5557562112808228,
-0.1483762562274933,
-0.6255509257316589,
-0.2185899019241333,
0.45080500841140747,
0.3712666630744934,
-0.09600797295570374,
0.8056228160858154,
-0.03899819403886795,
0.2971038520336151,
-0.6011437177658081,
0.055556535720825195,
0.3208506107330322,
0.18359382450580597,
-0.06881344318389893,
-0.024782760068774223,
-0.5516697764396667,
0.1849762499332428,
0.2355693280696869,
0.15910972654819489,
-0.23423583805561066,
1.1330453157424927,
-0.39536723494529724,
0.3552629351615906,
-0.6830198168754578,
-0.07395347952842712,
0.9010308980941772,
0.4597114026546478,
0.1370186060667038,
-0.13248611986637115,
-0.04126948118209839,
0.5089849829673767,
0.13563907146453857,
-0.7873508334159851,
0.1407943218946457,
-0.33835387229919434,
0.6763919591903687,
0.5953335165977478,
0.6237884759902954,
0.37134337425231934,
-0.35771816968917847,
-0.32569873332977295,
0.30239206552505493,
0.8567129969596863,
-0.7929971814155579,
0.555233895778656,
0.11247812956571579,
0.1164662316441536,
-0.5068154335021973,
-0.45783016085624695,
0.21029408276081085,
-0.03620433434844017,
-0.05802789330482483,
0.03453250229358673,
-0.16411475837230682,
0.3613799810409546,
0.48857030272483826,
-0.049206577241420746,
-0.38795462250709534,
0.06279696524143219,
-0.5687747001647949,
-0.5357285141944885,
-0.15946775674819946,
-1.4195624589920044,
-0.2477855682373047,
0.5840921998023987,
-0.2928292453289032,
0.10067812353372574,
-0.6716423034667969,
0.6909337639808655,
0.8630775213241577,
-0.6690216064453125,
-0.03307255357503891,
-0.6233482360839844,
0.5244210958480835,
0.9675660133361816,
-0.42327138781547546,
0.2527250349521637,
-0.4733473062515259,
0.5374346375465393,
0.1279188096523285,
0.007094987668097019,
0.7902582883834839,
0.8002166152000427,
0.40016719698905945,
0.447167307138443,
-0.551922082901001,
-0.1306854635477066,
-0.5664036273956299,
-0.5564355850219727,
0.6572994589805603,
0.7922257781028748,
0.38750994205474854,
0.08278221637010574,
-0.769941508769989,
-0.4562985897064209,
-1.8372915983200073,
-0.19735708832740784,
0.7683757543563843,
0.24505585432052612,
-0.3379819691181183,
0.5632902383804321,
-0.36683976650238037,
0.799950897693634,
0.21922403573989868,
-0.12974177300930023,
-0.017145337536931038,
0.4660451412200928,
-0.6372634768486023,
0.8233588933944702,
0.28866851329803467,
-0.6001850366592407,
0.8873239755630493,
1.3069671392440796,
0.10362894833087921,
0.11985651403665543,
0.13524210453033447,
0.04164763540029526,
-0.12963125109672546,
0.6487196087837219,
0.335416316986084,
-0.09762987494468689,
0.24880360066890717,
0.03942190483212471,
-0.47086167335510254,
0.20113368332386017,
-0.5616583824157715,
-1.1149333715438843,
0.6798503398895264,
-0.25122031569480896,
0.7561169862747192,
0.5773208141326904,
0.08061502873897552,
-0.35261964797973633,
-0.42972296476364136,
-0.4575595557689667,
0.2199462652206421,
0.20161275565624237,
-0.12938961386680603,
-0.013914192095398903,
0.38875308632850647,
0.33932486176490784,
0.4406980276107788,
-0.44318920373916626,
-0.01776714250445366,
-0.33942896127700806,
0.37040260434150696,
0.0505228117108345,
0.08000604808330536,
0.34939491748809814,
0.19747819006443024,
0.6342467665672302,
0.4780426323413849,
0.14046813547611237,
-0.1675749570131302,
-0.6209591627120972,
-0.13601556420326233,
-0.4521593749523163,
-0.07259474694728851,
2.1738085746765137,
0.3141515851020813,
-0.3987674415111542,
0.3494109809398651,
1.1518837213516235,
0.2268947958946228,
-0.3915560245513916,
-0.5292039513587952,
-0.10813584178686142,
0.07528689503669739,
-0.2778255045413971,
0.24137438833713531,
-0.6724216341972351,
-0.050988174974918365,
-0.37291446328163147,
0.3891417682170868,
0.5600290298461914,
-0.17401787638664246,
0.5467740297317505,
-0.5317683219909668,
0.9810054302215576,
-0.4857355058193207,
0.14716243743896484,
-0.6337335109710693,
-0.2926410734653473,
0.5936458706855774,
-0.18909981846809387,
-0.38004785776138306,
-0.9253500699996948,
-0.19475774466991425,
-0.16501159965991974,
-0.19251994788646698,
-0.2736051678657532,
0.030162503942847252,
-0.13937200605869293,
0.6308212280273438,
0.042631328105926514,
-0.30560851097106934,
0.19181367754936218,
-0.2347736656665802,
0.09174413979053497,
-0.0985308587551117,
-0.16618913412094116,
0.21776825189590454,
-0.395765483379364,
0.5540703535079956,
-0.23465317487716675,
0.08790790289640427,
-0.4393482804298401,
-0.054634157568216324,
0.26219630241394043,
-0.486355185508728,
-0.4548051953315735,
-0.031247222796082497,
0.18829886615276337,
-0.46904313564300537,
0.26877743005752563,
0.3180363178253174,
0.005212259944528341,
-0.7351862192153931,
-0.6737539768218994,
-0.8014934062957764,
-0.4083085060119629,
-0.3650740683078766,
-0.24079306423664093,
0.062205638736486435,
-0.6153309941291809,
0.2920558750629425,
-2.2620744705200195,
0.8705443739891052,
0.19982516765594482,
-0.13266471028327942,
0.3516024649143219,
-1.0203990936279297,
-0.4961131811141968,
0.7760222554206848,
0.5157206654548645,
-0.6648434400558472,
0.31575775146484375,
-0.9015827178955078,
-0.4277949035167694,
0.8506054878234863,
-0.21152938902378082,
0.038858719170093536,
0.16000664234161377,
-0.0850411131978035,
-0.3052729368209839,
-0.3768748939037323,
0.27969637513160706,
-0.0635589137673378,
0.8579429984092712,
0.3493029475212097,
-0.042916495352983475,
0.5108378529548645,
-0.42028433084487915,
-0.1971607208251953,
0.3130132555961609,
-0.46920040249824524,
0.14001676440238953,
0.21053297817707062,
-0.703633189201355,
0.04447488114237785,
-0.34141895174980164,
-4.016190052032471,
-0.16317157447338104,
-0.6034797430038452,
-0.03173447027802467,
1.1775660514831543,
-0.05312678590416908,
0.5007882118225098,
-0.04468025639653206,
-0.10420238971710205,
0.8107426166534424,
0.4672790467739105,
-0.08613160252571106,
-0.4683624505996704,
0.8238711357116699,
0.7264705300331116,
0.7723070979118347,
1.2159665822982788,
-0.6066921949386597,
0.7776681184768677,
-0.08672720193862915,
0.06408588588237762,
-0.03857395052909851,
-0.17516092956066132,
-0.6778913140296936,
0.761142373085022,
0.8780648708343506,
-0.14870685338974,
0.4516470730304718,
-0.39951327443122864,
-0.07429224997758865,
-0.3865721523761749,
0.5510649681091309,
0.1247951090335846,
-0.5149210691452026,
-0.6145427227020264,
-0.25179553031921387,
0.11522182077169418,
0.6421784162521362,
0.068011574447155,
-0.5038499236106873,
-0.1830119639635086,
0.48856163024902344,
-0.7320099472999573,
0.9801027178764343,
0.5061080455780029,
-0.25548461079597473,
-0.9711990356445312,
-0.3464016020298004,
-0.6155998110771179,
0.4985801875591278,
-0.5066969990730286,
-0.04914256930351257,
1.206162691116333,
0.4655543267726898,
0.658525288105011,
-0.49650838971138,
0.30838048458099365,
0.24918489158153534,
-0.3694230318069458,
0.1381377875804901,
0.9919965267181396,
-0.39783811569213867,
0.4749431312084198,
0.00012330739991739392,
0.5348173975944519,
-0.8541066646575928,
0.3007080852985382,
0.026631735265254974,
-0.16245822608470917,
0.14039364457130432,
-0.17288397252559662,
0.16959819197654724,
0.185791477560997,
-0.6461009979248047,
0.4310204088687897,
-0.2536241412162781,
-0.40003061294555664,
0.5790022015571594,
0.10236682742834091,
-0.10737645626068115,
-0.06398419290781021,
0.6162389516830444,
0.2319493293762207,
0.958248496055603,
0.043368853628635406,
0.23676760494709015,
-0.3049445152282715,
0.28338557481765747,
-1.0312587022781372,
-0.2791993319988251,
-0.5336266756057739,
-0.34891125559806824,
-0.024123085662722588,
0.609408974647522,
-0.41706711053848267,
0.3154827952384949,
0.6591246724128723,
-0.6393374800682068,
-0.10106436163187027,
-0.6683511734008789,
-0.03240060433745384,
-0.41517212986946106,
-0.6343309283256531,
-0.5400468707084656,
0.07645225524902344,
-0.5671787261962891,
-0.24179954826831818,
0.47844555974006653,
-0.22376401722431183,
0.15669666230678558,
0.1358528584241867,
-0.32555851340293884,
-0.23798418045043945,
-0.0790214091539383,
0.7129075527191162,
0.059836771339178085,
-0.13011272251605988,
0.8353983759880066,
0.10520730912685394,
0.8993156552314758,
0.6451003551483154,
0.566970944404602,
0.2785685956478119,
0.05233411118388176,
-0.17377613484859467,
-0.49177083373069763,
-0.11351089179515839,
-0.3794466257095337,
0.011368051171302795,
-0.0967826098203659,
0.11580997705459595,
0.02959963120520115,
-0.15953491628170013,
-0.664221465587616,
-0.1545053869485855,
-0.5808761715888977,
0.8491278290748596,
0.12571981549263,
0.057343948632478714,
-0.54429692029953,
-0.10620918869972229,
-0.3132929503917694,
-0.7351240515708923,
-0.36126887798309326,
-0.4433894455432892,
0.3895372450351715,
0.6162613034248352,
-0.07564554363489151,
-0.3358860909938812,
0.09584979712963104,
-0.44901150465011597,
-0.7811727523803711,
0.17039276659488678,
-0.4606603682041168,
0.19063730537891388,
-0.4810223877429962,
-0.1335485428571701,
-0.49375227093696594,
0.1538754403591156,
-0.7250701785087585,
-0.26347973942756653,
0.2531399130821228,
-0.7921483516693115,
0.2652747929096222,
0.4697723686695099,
-0.5709104537963867,
-0.12634742259979248,
0.04383854195475578,
-0.37175604701042175,
1.071773886680603,
0.08358561247587204,
0.06454893946647644,
-0.5566078424453735,
0.004074395634233952,
0.5026029944419861,
-0.7486964464187622,
0.17458154261112213,
0.26649540662765503,
-0.07791690528392792,
-0.20409056544303894,
-0.10509499907493591,
-0.4479654133319855,
-0.5359134078025818,
0.2227996438741684,
0.034700896590948105,
-0.4520694613456726,
-0.4729986786842346,
-0.14171095192432404,
-0.21114106476306915,
0.11167237162590027,
-0.45921745896339417,
0.3381524980068207,
0.8317192196846008,
0.3651058077812195,
-0.9722467660903931,
-0.43585506081581116,
0.230078786611557,
-0.12914589047431946,
0.3149217665195465,
-0.7642456889152527,
0.222304105758667,
0.6501564979553223,
-0.09861794114112854,
0.6325559616088867,
-0.15315310657024384,
-0.2670692205429077,
-0.0005271220579743385,
0.40329355001449585,
-0.26358354091644287,
1.1833083629608154,
0.5626859664916992,
-0.7423927783966064,
-0.0476505272090435,
0.5870116353034973,
-0.3777286410331726,
-0.6328221559524536,
0.6059828996658325,
-0.0974433571100235,
-0.2560517191886902,
-0.815080463886261,
-0.5159164667129517,
-0.49660757184028625,
-0.3718760013580322,
-0.24818937480449677,
-0.007509561721235514,
0.5457948446273804,
0.10808688402175903,
-0.4724751114845276,
0.9602583646774292,
-0.7866808176040649,
-0.8677677512168884,
-0.16309969127178192,
0.3503051996231079,
0.5690832734107971,
-0.412035197019577,
0.39045923948287964,
0.17385734617710114,
0.9214661121368408,
0.08813678473234177,
-0.0060637216083705425,
0.46259981393814087,
0.7863010764122009,
0.4842775762081146,
-0.5615678429603577,
-0.877890408039093,
0.3647083342075348,
0.04380030557513237,
-0.1861502081155777,
-0.03972192853689194,
0.22390960156917572,
0.3968101441860199,
-0.36548399925231934,
-0.9080542325973511,
-0.22876545786857605,
0.9886032938957214,
-0.3339354693889618,
0.2514530122280121,
0.24667400121688843,
0.01986744813621044,
-0.12035883218050003,
-0.12628595530986786,
-0.15594859421253204,
0.042218178510665894,
0.3090102970600128,
0.31149622797966003,
-0.09613344073295593,
-0.13479653000831604,
0.26092442870140076,
0.5322669148445129,
-0.5669704079627991,
-0.804459273815155,
-0.3325187563896179,
-0.6217554211616516,
0.08417561650276184,
-0.40694916248321533,
0.1379772424697876,
0.45290982723236084,
-0.6720621585845947,
-0.2295658141374588,
-0.2055976241827011,
0.6499773859977722,
0.4027835726737976,
0.05911318212747574,
-0.06780053675174713,
0.485066294670105,
-0.9661397933959961,
-0.2667275369167328,
-0.20205795764923096,
-0.3091314435005188,
-0.2177736610174179,
-0.2879320979118347,
-0.4236283302307129,
-0.3732947111129761,
-0.2188458889722824,
-0.34495747089385986,
0.6507244110107422,
-0.37693747878074646,
0.22723649442195892,
-0.09626129269599915,
0.08149857074022293,
-1.0311474800109863,
1.173160195350647,
-0.02102731540799141,
0.28576549887657166,
0.025128314271569252,
-0.1782444417476654,
0.08987335860729218,
-0.4981382489204407,
0.1054479107260704,
0.06676623225212097,
-0.09765208512544632,
0.2689087986946106,
0.6455714106559753,
0.681423008441925,
-0.4690121114253998,
-0.4608848989009857,
0.8014319539070129,
-0.7322308421134949,
0.14258447289466858,
0.32274919748306274,
-0.23353351652622223,
-0.7332664132118225,
0.2611452639102936,
0.12086162716150284,
0.2853113114833832,
0.8840412497520447,
-0.5114529132843018,
0.11804074048995972,
0.9350869059562683,
-0.06983745098114014,
0.04764239490032196,
0.17978981137275696,
-1.2080597877502441,
0.7442428469657898,
-0.31247591972351074,
0.25131914019584656,
0.3360093832015991,
-0.43702760338783264,
0.19585531949996948,
0.4806693196296692,
-0.09162726998329163,
0.6547573804855347,
-0.4390893876552582,
-0.3710974454879761,
-0.014794017188251019,
-0.3463248014450073,
-0.8341098427772522,
0.20533396303653717,
0.2850198447704315,
-0.6546043157577515,
0.14031244814395905,
0.14997492730617523,
0.026308177039027214,
-0.14570310711860657,
-0.07812132686376572,
-0.516472339630127,
0.4411201775074005,
-0.11135170608758926,
-0.27978450059890747,
-2.0084989070892334,
-0.14449819922447205,
-0.2261582463979721,
0.806056559085846,
0.25649669766426086,
-0.03225117549300194,
-0.8727814555168152,
0.6196575164794922,
0.4142352044582367,
-0.6015496850013733,
0.9557912349700928,
0.5077744722366333,
-0.2514401376247406,
0.3848138451576233,
0.493958443403244,
0.9831607937812805,
0.3233220875263214,
0.17477157711982727,
-0.7333335876464844,
-0.2704119086265564,
0.024725213646888733,
-0.07618872821331024,
0.06761173903942108,
-0.48574671149253845,
-0.5622383952140808,
0.20557358860969543,
0.5411038398742676,
-0.5270880460739136,
0.6547338366508484,
0.4098914563655853,
-0.11659099161624908,
0.1829712688922882,
0.12474774569272995,
-0.2781311571598053,
0.4823567867279053,
-0.7611801028251648,
0.20282912254333496,
-0.5187415480613708,
0.41326212882995605,
0.26669108867645264,
0.5321700572967529,
0.21089830994606018,
0.8007544279098511,
-0.3087674379348755,
0.4955426752567291,
-0.27923595905303955,
-0.0005156327388249338,
-0.4775722920894623,
0.3590770959854126,
-0.032411638647317886,
0.570340096950531,
-0.3911190629005432,
0.3684890568256378,
-0.23745326697826385,
0.40323424339294434,
0.0721382349729538,
0.2977788746356964,
0.23503486812114716,
-0.6202387809753418,
-0.29714828729629517,
-0.4990358352661133,
-0.06107441708445549,
-0.020830973982810974,
0.41800883412361145,
0.9958503842353821,
-0.05461690202355385,
-0.5797987580299377,
0.3011896312236786,
-0.3561463952064514,
0.18365852534770966,
-0.07284807413816452,
0.03227956220507622,
-0.706719696521759,
0.38202324509620667,
-0.7935808300971985,
0.2506543695926666,
0.43610918521881104,
0.00271502323448658,
1.1036052703857422,
0.5477604866027832,
0.27347052097320557,
-0.5261203050613403,
-0.3758361041545868,
0.8459621667861938,
-0.2976786494255066,
-3.463655710220337,
-0.29778698086738586,
-0.27041906118392944,
-1.0885564088821411,
0.3057379126548767,
-0.05235714465379715,
-0.6545573472976685,
-0.2948395609855652,
0.08921805769205093,
0.511530876159668,
0.5504313707351685,
0.114101842045784,
0.36965662240982056,
-0.6961206793785095,
0.204384908080101,
-0.18357017636299133
] |
241583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control%20line | Control line | Control line (also called U-Control) is a simple and light way of controlling a flying model aircraft. The aircraft is connected to the operator by a pair of lines, attached to a handle, that work the elevator of the model. This allows the model to be controlled in the pitch axis. It is constrained to fly on the surface of a hemisphere by the control lines.
The control lines are usually either stranded stainless steel cable or solid metal wires of anywhere from to . Sewing thread or braided fishing line may be used instead of wires, but air resistance is greater. A third line is sometimes used to control the engine throttle, and more lines may be added to control other functions. Electrical signals sent over the wires are sometimes used in scale models to control functions such as retracting undercarriage and flaps.
There is also a control system that uses a single solid wire, this is called Monoline. When the pilot twists the wire around its axis, a spiral inside the airplane spins to move the elevator. While it can be used with some success on any type of model, it is best for speed models where the reduced aerodynamic drag of the single line is a significant advantage. The control provided is not as precise as the two-line control system.
Almost all control-line models are powered with conventional model aircraft engines of various types. It is possible to fly control-line models that do not use on-board propulsion, in a mode called "whip-powered", where the pilot "leading" the model, whose lines are attached to a fishing or similar pole, supplying the necessary energy to keep the airplane aloft, in a fashion similar to kite-flying.
History
Early versions merely constrained the model to fly in a circle but offered no control. This is known as Round-the-pole flying. The origins of control-line flight are obscure but the first person to use a recognizable system that controlled the control surfaces on the model, is generally considered to be Oba St. Clair, in June 1936, near Gresham, Oregon. St. Clair's system used a rather large apparatus similar to a television antenna, onto which many lines were attached. This system is very different from those currently in use on modern control line models. It is of interest to note that St. Clair only produced one model to use this system, which he called "The Full House", the Miss Shirley; and to date, there is no evidence to show anyone else ever built a plane to use the Full House system.
The name most associated with the inventions and promotion of control line, and the inventor of the formerly patented system known as "U-Control" (which was a trademark, and is the system in use on virtually every two-line control line model today) was Nevilles E. " Jim" Walker. His "American Junior" company was by far the biggest producer of models, and held numerous patents on the two-line system until overturned during a patent infringement suit, by Walker, against Leroy M Cox, based on "prior art" from St. Clair in the 1955 trial. One of the most coveted prizes in control-line aerobatics competition sanctioned by the AMA, awarded to the winner of a flyoff between the US Junior, Senior, and Open age class Champions, was originally provided by and is named for Walker. This is one of the oldest perpetual trophies in modeling that is still awarded.
The airframe
Control-line models are built of the same basic materials and construction methods as R/C and free flight models. Control-line model construction varies with the category of model. Aerobatics and combat models are relatively lightly built compare to R/C models as they need high maneuverability in the limited space offered by the control line hemisphere. They are typically built with traditional materials like balsa wood, plywood, paper, plastic, spruce, and polystyrene foam, but modern composite and graphite/epoxy are occasionally used in high-load applications. Combat models must also be relatively easy and quick to build, as mid-air collisions and crashes are common.
Aerobatic model construction is typically quite complex and may require many hundreds of hours. Speed models must be very sturdy to withstand the forces of line tension and to permit a very rigid engine mount for maximum engine performance. Speed models are generally built around an aluminum or magnesium "pan" that forms about half the fuselage. Little or no maneuverability required, as once at speed the model's altitude is maintained by centripetal Acceleration. Racing models need to be both relatively light for good acceleration from the start, or after a pit stop, and to reduce the pitch of the airfoil required to maintain lift. Race Aircraft also be fairly strong to withstand the pit man catching the model after landing.
To control the airplane, the lines must remain in tension. Centripetal Acceleration is generally sufficient to maintain line tension if the airplane is properly "trimmed" (adjusted), but sometimes additional features such as rudder offset and engine offset are added to provide extra tension. It is of interest to note, that when a control line model does a loop, it no longer flies on the edge of a hemisphere, but traverses the edge of a cone, a planar path, and the motion of the model produces no centripetal acceleration. In the condition of flying a loop, other factors must therefore provide the line tension, such as engine offset, or lead-out rake. Weight in the outboard wing tip is usually used to balance the weight of the lines. Top aerobatics models typically have a large number of adjustable features like tip weight boxes, adjustable rudder offset, adjustable line sweep, and adjustable elevator and flap controls. Some aerobatics models use a variable rudder system (commonly called the Rabe rudder after its inventor, Al Rabe) to vary the rudder offset during flight. The adjustment of the various adjustable features on a modern stunt model can become quite complex.
Many models also feature a longer inboard wing; aerobatics models use this to balance the lift from side-to-side, compensating for the difference in velocity from inboard to outboard wing, while some speed models use only an inboard wing, which eliminates the drag of the outboard wing completely (these models are colloquially referred to as "Sidewinders"). In general 2/3rds of the aerodynamic drag of the entire control line model systems (Plane, Lead-Outs, Lines/Connectors, Handle) is created by the lines/connectors.
In general there are two types of fuselage construction that are used in control line: "profile" (flat) and "built up". These are built with differing types of wings depending on the specific use of the aircraft. Profile models, where the fuselage is cut out from a single relatively thin sheet of wood with the "profile" of the airplane, are simple to build and repair, and are very common on trainer models. Sometimes the vibration of the engine causes poor engine runs on profile models. Built-up fuselages are much more difficult to build but generally look better and offer superior engine runs.
Controls
The aircraft is typically controlled by a set of 20–70-foot lines usually of multi strand stainless steel, single strands of piano wire, or G.S.U.M.P. (Gel Spun Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene, made by DuPont). For sport flying, non-metallic lines of kevlar, dacron, or other low-stretch fiber materials are commonly used. This type of control was originally trademarked as "U-Control" and is by far the most common control method.
The controls of a conventional 2-line/"U-Control" system consist of lead-out cables, a bellcrank, push rods and control horns. These are connected so that differential motion of the lines rotates the bellcrank, causing a pushrod to move either forward or aft. The pushrod is connected to the control surface with a control horn that moves the elevator (and flaps, if used) up and down. The pilot holds a handle to which the lines are attached. Tilting the handle with the fingers, wrist, and/or elbow motion causes the differential movement in the lines. By convention, tilting the hand so the top is closer to the pilot than the bottom results in "up" elevator, much like pulling back on a full-scale airplane control stick. Also by convention, most airplanes are flown nominally counter-clockwise as viewed from above, with the leadout cables exiting the left wing. This is not universal and some pilots fly in the opposite direction. Flying clockwise has a slight advantage in some situations because most engines run so that the torque will roll the airplane away from the pilot, increasing line tension in upright level flight.
The controls can be expanded by adding a third line that controls the throttle. The most common system for throttle control is that devised by J. Robert Smurthwait, of Baker Oregon, and is widely available. The throttle is usually a conventional carburetor as used on radio control models schemes that couple limited rudder and/or aileron, and variable leadout position are often found on carrier planes as well as elevator and flaps/
Monoline control works by twisting the single line. The pilot holds a handle with a twisted flat piece of metal on bearings in one hand, and a "bobbin" in the other. Moving bobbin towards or away from the handle twists the line. Inside the airplane, the rotating line rotates a spiral scroll with a follower. The follower moves toward and away from the pivot of the scroll, and has a pushrod attached. Then, as the scroll rotates, the pushrod moves fore and aft. The rest of the system is like the two-line system. The control of a monoline system is much less precise than a two-line system because the line itself tends to twist up before it moves the scroll, leading to a somewhat vague control response with considerable lag. It does however have the advantage of not requiring as much line tension to move the controls, and the single line has less drag than the two slightly smaller lines used in conventional two-line control.
Other control methods were devised early on to avoid having to pay royalties on the "U-Control" patent, including systems with the lines connected directly to the elevator with pulleys to change the pitch, methods that connected the lines directly to the pushrod through screw eyes, but most worked very poorly compared to conventional 2-line control.
Power
Control-Line airplanes usually have a power plant of to , although engines can be as large as .90, or may have electric power. Two-stroke glow engines are most common, but almost any form of model engine has been used, including pulse jet engines and turbojets. Control-line models tend to have very high power-to-weight ratios compared to R/C models or full-scale aircraft. The size of the engines and the models are significantly limited by the maximum line length of used for competition, although very long lines (as much as 150 feet) have been used on rare occasions.
The competition categories that need high power output and speed can turn at very high rotational speeds for a reciprocating engine. A engine used in the FAI Speed event may produce as much as at rotational speeds in the range of 45000 rpm - faster than some full-scale turbojets. The specific output is around 1200 hp/liter which is far in excess of racing motorcycle engines or Formula 1 auto racing engines. Many breakthroughs in two-stroke engine design (both model and motorcycle) can be traced back to C/L speed models, as the small size makes it easy to experiment with new designs at low cost.
Control line models tend to run a varying mix of fuel however 10% nitromethane, 20% castor oil and 70% methanol is common. Castor oil is sometimes replaced by synthetics, however as control line aircraft typically run at high throttle settings for the entire flight, castor oil generally provides better lubrication and cooling and is thus considered safer for the engine. It is however somewhat viscous and the resulting oil drag can rob some power compared to synthetic oil, and can also lead to "varnishing" of the cylinder. Some older-technology engines commonly used for control line can be very quickly damaged with typical R/C fuels because of low oil content.
Pulse jet models use gasoline, a variety of flammable liquids like acetone, methyl-ethyl-ketone, and other similar fluids. Pulse-jet models are started by applying a continuous spark device (e.g. a "buzzer coil" as used on a Fordson tractor) to a spark plug in the side of the combustion chamber, and then using a bicycle pump or pressurized air to blow air across the fuel injector and into the engine. When a flammable mixture is present in the engine, it will detonate, sending a shock wave down the tail pipe and creating suction at the intake end of the engine, sucking in more fuel/air, and creates another explosion. Once started, the engine becomes hot very quickly and no longer requires the spark. The spark box and air source are disconnected and then model launched as quickly as possible to prevent the heat generated by the engine from causing the airplane to catch fire. The engine is extremely loud in operation and cannot be muffled, and can be heard for miles under the right conditions.
The propellers used for control-line models are commonly made of wood (usually maple), fiberglass-reinforced plastic (GRP), or graphite/kevlar/fiberglass and epoxy. The propeller pitch and diameter are chosen based on the engine size, type of performance desired, and cost. A typical .61-sized piped engine uses a 3-bladed propeller around 12-13" in diameter and around 4" of pitch, and is usually made of graphite/epoxy. A .20-sized sport model might use an inexpensive 8" diameter, 4" pitch propeller made of fiberglass-reinforced plastic. The graphite stunt propellers are usually made in small production runs or even by hand, and can cost as much as $50. Small GRP sport propellers are made by injection molding and may cost as little as $2.
The fuel for the engine is usually held in a metal or plastic fuel tank, shaped so that fuel is drawn from the outside edge of the tank, as the fuel tends to be thrown to the side by centrifugal force as the airplane travels in a circle. A "clunk tank" as used in R/C is satisfactory, but dedicated tanks with wedge-shaped cross-sections are frequently used and tend to have better characteristics as the fuel runs out. A tank with a vent on the inner edge, or multiple vents, is usually called a 'suction' tank. The pressure of fuel delivery with a suction tank changes as the fuel runs out, causing the engine mixture ratio to become leaner as the flight proceeds. Tanks vented to only permit air to enter at the outside edge ("uniflow" tanks) provide constant fuel pressure over the duration of the flight and a constant mixture ratio.
Combat and some speed models use rubber tubing ("bladder" tank), baby pacifiers, or fountain pen ink bladders, inflated with fuel from a large syringe, to hold the fuel under fairly high pressure. The fuel line is pinched off to prevent fuel loss until the engine is started. The high pressure of fuel delivery permits the use of a larger intake on the engine, allowing more air flow than would otherwise be possible, and thus more power. This type of fuel delivery is by far the most steady until the fuel finally runs out.
The carburetion on most control-line engines is a simple fixed-size orifice (venturi) with only a mixture ratio adjustment. The engine can be run over a very wide range of mixtures and adjusting the needle valve can be used to adjust the engine speed over a small range. Once released, the engine runs at a more-or-less constant speed until the fuel runs out, or, if equipped, the fuel-shutoff is activated. Altering the size of the venturi used can be used to adjust the gross power. Two-stroke glow motors can be made to run in a 4-stroke mode where the engine mis-fires on every other stroke, and changes mode of firing based on load of the propeller. A tremendous degree of control over how the engine runs in flight is possible by altering the fuel contents, propeller size, pitch, and pitch distribution, venturi size, compression ratio of the engine, and the length of the tuned exhaust, if used.
Landing gear
The landing gear/undercarriage on control line aircraft can vary from basic piano wire and wheels to competition models with spring-loaded shock absorption and wheel pants. Retractable landing gear is common on scale models and is occasionally used in stunt. Most speed and combat models omit the landing gear in the interest of drag and weight reduction, and are launched from hand or a "dolly".
Navy carrier models have a reinforced hook to help them catch an arresting cable on a simulated carrier deck.
Competitions
Competitions for control line aircraft are held in various classes. These include speed, precision aerobatics (AKA stunt), team racing, combat, naval carrier, and scale.
For competition the lines are tested before flight with a "pull test" that varies with the model weight and category to verify that the lines and control system (primarily the bellcrank and its attachment to the rest of the model) will withstand the line tension during flight.
Speed (F2A)
Speed is divided up into different engine capacity classes and a Jet class (using pulse jet engines). As the name suggests, the idea is to have the model go as fast as possible. The model is timed over a number of laps, and the pilot must hold the handle controlling his model in a yoke on top of a pole in the center of the circle. This is in order to stop the pilot from assisting the model to go faster by increasing the line tension and leading the model (known as whipping). Monoline control systems are common in the US, but international classes require the use of two-line control. Speeds of the fastest models - Class D and Jet - have in the past exceeded . Current US rules limit the speeds to < by requiring the use of larger lines if is exceeded. Speed models are usually launched from a "dolly" - a cart that permits a lengthy ground roll for takeoff, but drops away in the air to reduce drag. The airplane lands on a skid or belly pan.
Precision aerobatics (F2B)
Precision aerobatics consists of flying a fixed sequence of maneuvers which are judged by a panel of judges for accuracy and precision. The event was originally dubbed "stunt" and current participants refer to it that way informally. Factors such as height of the maneuver bottoms, shapes, corner radius, and other factors are considered. The judges at large competitions are typically trained for several days on how to assess the maneuvers and apply a score. Judging well is generally considered at least as difficult as flying in competition.
Stunt models tend to be among the larger control line models, wings usually spanning from around . Top competition models have been traditionally powered by a two-stroke engine in the to range, with four-stroke model engines and electric power also becoming popular as power sources. The airplanes, while possessing high thrust-to-weight ratios by full-scale standards (usually at least 1:1), are intended to fly quite slowly to enhance pilot control, typically around , with a single lap of the circle taking around 5.5 seconds.
Engines are commonly set to increase their power output when under load. This permits low speeds but very good speed stability, so the climb performance is excellent. The original scheme used was to take advantage of the tendency of a nominally two-stroke glow engine to change from running in a four-stroke when set with extremely rich mixtures, to running in a two-stroke when the load increases. This is called a "4-2 break". More recently, tuned exhausts have been used to provide regulation of the speed in flight. Combined with propellers of relatively low pitch, this has permitted much more control over the engine's speed and power response to maneuvering. Electric system contain feedback control system that govern the RPM of the motor to a constant value regardless of load.
Most competitive aircraft are fitted with flaps on the wings, which work in conjunction with the elevator to increase the pitch maneuverability. When up-elevator is applied, the flaps on the wings go down, and vice versa. This results in the wing, which is otherwise of a symmetrical section, to be cambered in the direction needed to enhance maneuvering. Aircraft without flaps can be flown successfully and are typically simpler, but flapped models typically fly more smoothly and can be heavier. Some of the simpler stunt models make excellent control-line trainers, as the predictable control response, low speed, and strong line tension make them easy to fly successfully.
Stunt models are often beautifully painted. Stunt rules include the appearance of the model in the score, and creating the most perfectly finished and attractive models is a competition in and of itself. A "Concours d'Elegance" award is voted on by the pilots at the Academy of Model Aeronautics' US Nationals in Muncie, Indiana for the prettiest airplane, and is very highly prized.
Stunt is flown in many countries, with World Championships being held on alternate years. These are open for any flier who makes his or her respective national team. Competition at the highest levels (National or World Championships) can take many years or decades of practice to master the intricacies of designing, building, finishing, adjusting, and controlling the power of the airplanes, in addition to the high piloting skills. Many top competitive pilots have coaches.
Many competitions separate pilots into 4 different skill levels (beginner, intermediate, advanced and expert) allowing pilots to compete against other pilots of similar skill levels.
"Old time" stunt
Much like the "old timer" vintage design movement in free flight aeromodeling, several specialized classes of Stunt include "Old Time Stunt" where simpler maneuvers are performed with a model that was designed before a specific date (Pre 1953 per US rules) and "Classic" stunt which uses the current stunt "pattern" of maneuvers and airplanes designed prior to 1970.
Racing (F2C)
Racing is an event for two-person teams—the pilot and the pit crew. There are various racing classes of various levels of difficulty: F2C (the class flown internationally and at World Championships), Goodyear (semi-scale models of 'Goodyear era' full-size racers), Vintage classes and so on.
The basic idea of all the events is that a number of models (up to three) fly together, aiming to complete a given number of laps before any of the others. The model is also required to make multiple pit stops during the race, where it is refueled, the engine restarted, and the model re-launched. This is the job of the pit crew. There are rules describing how the pilots must walk around each other, and how to pass (harder than one might think, as each model is on the end of a pair of control lines and travelling as fast as 140 mph). Pit stops require that the model be refueled and restarted - which can be a problem with a very hot racing engines. The best FAI Team Race pit stops take around 2–3 seconds for the pilot to cut the motor and land, allowing the pit-man to catch the model which only moments ago was flying at , fill the tank with 7cc of model fuel from a pressurized tank, adjust the engine mixture and compression if needed, restart, and relaunch the model.
Combat (F2D)
Combat is an event where two pilots "dogfight" for cuts on their opponent's streamer, for a perscribed amount of time called the "Match". Models are fast and highly maneuverable typically of flying-wing types, which chase each other around the sky at speeds in excess of . Despite deliberate mid-airs being banned, the carnage rate is high, and pilots commonly bring 10 or more models to a competition.
In the US there are three A.M.A. Events, which are Fast Combat (up to a .36 c.i.d. engine is allowed), Speed Limit Combat and 1/2A (up to a .051 c.i.d. engine is allowed) Combat which can be flown high or low performance. In any event where the model exceeds 75 mph, the model must be equipped with a fuel shut-off, which shuts the engine off, when the control lines are cut. Combat may be held as a kill event, or a no-kill event. A kill is scored when one competitor cuts the string that holds the streamer (of his opponent), to the plane, and is an instant win of the match. Cutting the streamer however results in an award of points. In No-Kill combat cutting the string is the same as cutting the streamer and only points are awarded. There are a lot of un-official events held throughout the US, such as Northwest 80 mph Combat, WWII combat, Formula GX Combat, 15 Fast and the like. Combat requires perhaps the fastest reflexes of any CL event, and pilots skilled at combat typically compete well in other events like Stunt or Racking. Combat has been described as a team sport, with the pilot relying on up to a two-person pit crew. As may be imagined, with two pilots not cooperating with each other, line tangles can happen suddenly, and crash landings are common. Despite the high rate of speed of the models, most combat models are made to be quite robust, and when time allows may hit the ground and suffer little damage and be relaunched. Although for the Speed limit events up to a .40 c.i.d. engine may be used, for the AMA fast event, there is only one manufacture of a high performance .36, that being Henry Nelson. A well-tuned and fueled Nelson 36 may achieve 25,000 r.p.m. while statically running on the ground and gain significant r.p.m. in the air. Current 1/2A engines in use are all from former soviet republics and include the Fora and Cyclon, both of which will run well above 33,000 r.p.m. In all the AMA events pressure fed fuel systems are allowed and virtually every combat plane is equipped with a fuel "Bladder". The Fuel Bladder gives the most consistent fuel feed while the aircraft is undergoing sudden and violent maneuvers, typical of flying in a match.
F2D combat - the international class for combat - is most popular in Russia and Europe, where some countries have professional or semi-professional teams. Russia and the former Soviet countries are currently the main producers of world-class equipment for this sport, including engines. Their combination of the latest engineering and design, with exotic metallurgy and experience, results in combat engines which reliably turn 32,000 rpm, and can be restarted easily in the event of a crash. Requiring lightning-fast reflexes, combat has frequently been used as a training-ground and/or hobby for many commercial and military pilots .
Navy carrier
Navy carrier is an event where semi-scale models of real naval aircraft are flown. The event replicates the requirements of full-scale carrier aircraft, which need high speed for combat performance, and low speeds and toughness for safe carrier landings. Takeoff and landing are from a simulated aircraft carrier deck, with arrestor wires.
The aim of the flight is to complete a number of fast laps, flown as quickly as possible, followed by a number of slow laps, flown as slowly as possible. This is followed by the carrier deck landing, attempting to snag the arrestor wire. The score depends on the difference of the high and low speed, and the arrested landing. Carrier models usually have a third control line, worked by a finger trigger in the handle. This line allows the throttle setting of the engine to be controlled and the arrestor hook to be dropped. Often, a carrier model will have flaps. Unlike a stunt model, however these flaps are worked separately from the elevator. A large amount of flap is usually applied during the slow laps, and a large amount of line sweep is added to yaw the model out of the circle to maintain line tension at the very low ground speeds. Low speeds are frequently no faster than a fast walk, and when aimed into a light breeze forward motion may stop completely with the model hanging at a very high angle of attack from the propeller.
Scale
Scale is an event where an accurate scale model of a real aircraft is flown. Scoring is based on static judging of how closely the aircraft resembles the full-size prototype and on the flight performance. Extra points are often awarded for "working" features of the model, such as a retractable landing gear, droppable bombs, and other functions or operations. The number of features used to be limited by the number of lines that could be practically used to mechanically control them.
Some complex scale models use a fly-by-wire approach to allow a multitude of extra working features. A radio-control transmitter's encoder unit can be adapted, with no RF signal board present, to send its control signals along insulated control lines, instead of broadcasting them using radio frequencies. If signals are sent down the lines, the normal serial multiplexing of the control signals by such an adapted RC transmitter's encoder unit, solely sending those signals along the usual duo or trio of control lines, gets picked up by decoding gear in the model - usually adapted from an RC receiver, without an RF "front end" section - and permits many functions to be controlled without the use of additional lines. Standard servos can then be used in the model. From 2013, in the USA, the radio control "over the airwaves" of any moveable feature of control-line Scale or Carrier models (except the elevator) is permitted - this may spread to Europe and beyond in time.
Safety
Control-line flying is generally quite safe when all prescribed safety measures are followed. The airplane is constrained to fly in a circle, which is generally marked. A pilots' circle is also provided, so as long as the pilot stays in the pilot's circle and everyone else is outside the outer circle, the flying model can hit no one. In most competition categories, a "safety thong" connecting the control handle to the pilot's wrist is also required, so if the pilot inadvertently releases the handle, the airplane cannot fly outside the circle (and, frequently crashes, safely for others if not the airplane, when control is lost). The lines, handle, and control system are subjected to a "pull test" before flight to ensure that they are in good shape with some significant margin. For example, the pull test is around for a Stunt model (a 10G load), and the in-flight pull is around . This provides a 2x margin of safety even if one line should fail. One failed line immediately moves the elevator to the extreme of its movement, which almost always results in a crash, safely in the circle. Other categories of model are tested in a similar way, with the loads set to correspond to the expected speeds with a safety margin around a factor of 4.
Combat models, albeit very rarely, may have their lines cut or otherwise broken by the other airplane, and can fly outside the circle. Most combat competition today requires that the airplane be equipped with a device that shuts off fuel to the engine if the lines are cut. This can work by either using the centripetal acceleration to keep the shutoff from pinching the line, or by using the line tension to hold the pinch-off device open. This way, the engine is not running and tends to decelerate very quickly instead of accelerating quickly as it would otherwise (since the drag of the lines is removed). This technique has proved to be very effective in practice. Many combat events also require the engine to be attached to the bellcrank with a cable, so that a mid-air collision will not result in the engine flying off and into the spectators. Competitors in some forms of combat competition are also required to wear helmets.
Another potential safety issue is overhead power lines. Contact with power lines, or approaching high-tension power lines, is potentially fatal and must be avoided. The use of non-metallic lines may reduce the risk of electrocution, but still a margin of 150 from the plane to power lines, is mandated in the AMA safety code.
Sometimes models with landing gear are flown by using a "stooge" that holds the airplane until released by the pilot from the center, usually with a spring-loaded pin pulled with a string. This allows a pilot to practice with no helper, and is common with stunt fliers trying to practice extensively. This has the potential to be dangerous if the pilot fails to properly reset the stooge, the wire connecting the stooge to the airplane (usually attached to the tail wheel) breaks, the stooge moves under the thrust/vibration of the engines, or the pilot's feet get tangled in the stooge release line.
The other safety issues are common with other powered model categories. Hand-starting very powerful engines, with very sharp propellers, can be quite hazardous. An electric starter can be used, but can have negative effects on the engines due to engines not being designed to take that kind of force pushing the crank shaft back. One such method is the "back-bump" method, where the engine is choked and flipped through with no battery attached to create favorable starting conditions. Once prepared, all that is necessary is to rock the engine backwards so that it coasts up to compression, and if done correctly, starts forwards. This provides time to move the hand out of the way and the fingers are not in contact with the propeller or spinner when the engine starts. Care must be taken even choking the engine as modern engines with their accurate piston/cylinder fit can "bump" or even start without the battery attached. Once the propeller is rotating, extreme care must be taken when preparing for flight and adjusting the engine. A starting accident frequently results in a small cut to the finger, but once the engine is at full speed any injury that is encountered is likely to be quite severe.
Pulse jet engines get extremely hot once started, and use very volatile fuels like gasoline or methyl-ethyl-ketone (as contrasted to relatively benign, although flammable, glow engine fuel). Contact of any type with the tailpipe of the engine is certain to result in severe burns, as the engine reaches red-hot temperatures in seconds. The airplane itself needs some sort of insulation to prevent catching fire on the ground before forward motion provides cooling air, and fully enclosed engines can set the airplane on fire after landing. The airplane should be launched as soon as possible after the engine starts to prevent heat buildup. The spark unit used for starting can also deliver a substantial electrical shock. A fire extinguisher should be at hand at all times when operating the engine. The engine is exceptionally loud when operating and should be operated with hearing protection to prevent damage.
See also
Fédération Aéronautique Internationale
Model aircraft
Round-the-pole flying
Tether cars
Cox Models
Cox model engine
References
Organizations
AMA - Academy of Model Aeronautics USA
MAAC - Model Aeronautics Association of Canada
CLAPA - Control Line Aerobatic Pilots Association UK
FAI - Fédération Aéronautique Internationale
MAAA - Model Aeronautical Association of Australia
PAMPA - Precision Aerobatics Model Pilots Association USA
MACA - Miniature Aircraft Combat Association USA
NCLRA National Control Line Racing Association USA
CFA - Combat Flyers Association UK
CLP - F2 - Control Line Portugal PT
Non Commercial
Australian Control Line Nostalgia
Australian Control Line Forum
Barton Model Flying Club Control Line Forum
Control Line Aircraft Society NSW
Control Line Combat
Cox Model Engine Museum
Kuringai Model Flying Club
Stuka Stunt Works
Stuka Stunt Control Line Forums
StuntHangar Control Line Forums
Taiwan Control Line Forum
Scale Control Line Models UK
Flying Lines, Daily News of Pacific Northwest Control Line Model Aviation
Dutch control line site
Zborcircular/Control Line Stunt
Circlemasters Flying Club Milwaukee Wisconsin
Dutch control line site
Tulsa Oklahoma Club
Model aircraft | [
0.20859001576900482,
-0.14450612664222717,
0.4948495626449585,
0.6592149138450623,
-0.1939021646976471,
-0.1422077864408493,
-0.28743642568588257,
-0.2978667616844177,
-0.122608982026577,
-0.15554042160511017,
-0.4561494290828705,
0.15455228090286255,
-0.3442144989967346,
-0.14095760881900787,
-0.23599281907081604,
0.41003790497779846,
0.04005438834428787,
0.17211012542247772,
0.017184780910611153,
-0.17583437263965607,
-0.3004167973995209,
-0.41870787739753723,
-0.01974172331392765,
-0.49360406398773193,
0.1314495950937271,
-0.21901701390743256,
-0.1012684777379036,
0.20807848870754242,
0.06740935146808624,
0.3655828535556793,
0.2802068889141083,
0.1884743869304657,
0.23957006633281708,
-0.35734909772872925,
-0.18842293322086334,
-0.14790505170822144,
-0.08540015667676926,
-0.019204718992114067,
-0.057538554072380066,
-0.3753714859485626,
-0.5652261972427368,
-0.1763700395822525,
0.1854882538318634,
-0.050192683935165405,
-0.013908528722822666,
-0.1250547468662262,
-1.2089509963989258,
0.19953685998916626,
0.13279910385608673,
0.16853618621826172,
-0.7195113897323608,
0.2883967459201813,
0.0409451499581337,
0.3892587423324585,
0.26737818121910095,
0.17004387080669403,
-0.09045440703630447,
0.017415368929505348,
-0.05278490111231804,
-0.5866537094116211,
0.5067631006240845,
0.24519360065460205,
0.2412331998348236,
0.7764372825622559,
0.35376766324043274,
-0.3850484788417816,
-0.35168227553367615,
-0.039031755179166794,
-0.23462358117103577,
-0.3108573853969574,
0.006110846530646086,
-0.13545411825180054,
0.16534604132175446,
0.2128239870071411,
-0.03197098895907402,
-0.24859608709812164,
0.20035439729690552,
-0.3792295753955841,
0.31765809655189514,
0.009634020738303661,
0.13158084452152252,
0.2829994559288025,
0.11097141355276108,
0.06536704301834106,
0.4053659737110138,
0.09272792190313339,
-0.8878593444824219,
0.4343138337135315,
-0.2611132264137268,
-0.03681463003158569,
0.1283576488494873,
-0.4341163635253906,
-0.113662488758564,
-0.2829987406730652,
-0.25722888112068176,
-0.32705461978912354,
0.307037889957428,
0.23741669952869415,
0.31066617369651794,
0.02702919766306877,
0.08714756369590759,
-0.34674733877182007,
0.7156805396080017,
-0.4442407786846161,
-0.48122429847717285,
-0.3686850368976593,
-0.11258964985609055,
-0.2404300719499588,
-0.19357776641845703,
0.3815782368183136,
-1.065353512763977,
-0.08489365130662918,
-0.21500316262245178,
0.21280378103256226,
-0.5550986528396606,
0.48031914234161377,
-0.2079085111618042,
0.06436608731746674,
0.6634508967399597,
0.24782800674438477,
-0.03319229930639267,
0.694352924823761,
-0.1689704805612564,
0.20461224019527435,
0.010741961188614368,
0.24741357564926147,
0.4795480966567993,
0.5784372687339783,
-0.9782673716545105,
-0.16384318470954895,
0.5822681784629822,
0.7054169178009033,
-0.3613604009151459,
0.1260697841644287,
-0.6580410599708557,
0.03998755291104317,
0.7767744660377502,
0.021405434235930443,
0.3625680208206177,
-0.043570734560489655,
-0.7821338772773743,
-0.5845401287078857,
-0.4198126494884491,
-0.2109804004430771,
-0.0489373616874218,
0.10995803028345108,
0.1566954106092453,
-0.455026239156723,
-0.7467670440673828,
-0.13312946259975433,
-0.029497092589735985,
0.22206567227840424,
-0.3047807514667511,
0.13622455298900604,
-0.05284666270017624,
-0.0993981882929802,
0.5230591297149658,
-0.16815724968910217,
-0.033003147691488266,
-0.12411834299564362,
0.10159951448440552,
0.17314356565475464,
-0.609953761100769,
0.4347516894340515,
0.6979633569717407,
-0.4126758575439453,
-0.16045287251472473,
0.20084689557552338,
0.053077951073646545,
0.03964662551879883,
-0.30576249957084656,
0.34127578139305115,
0.3130969703197479,
-0.20445901155471802,
-0.034569691866636276,
0.20132063329219818,
0.3242766857147217,
-0.04456670209765434,
0.5125290155410767,
-0.18983256816864014,
-0.7897453308105469,
0.005434529390186071,
0.40121105313301086,
-0.21597997844219208,
-0.48569443821907043,
0.007802974432706833,
0.42072752118110657,
-0.4149243235588074,
-0.3620070517063141,
-0.4775013327598572,
-0.2685406804084778,
-0.628409206867218,
0.08769847452640533,
-0.5736829042434692,
0.8362970352172852,
-0.18922407925128937,
-0.1927148699760437,
0.8019632697105408,
-0.08283188939094543,
0.588902473449707,
-0.108118437230587,
0.10136748105287552,
0.5733375549316406,
-0.09148939698934555,
0.15578721463680267,
0.5908001661300659,
0.11425197124481201,
0.10771304368972778,
0.26766741275787354,
-0.10380112379789352,
0.20353254675865173,
-0.27938735485076904,
0.3402694761753082,
-0.19783921539783478,
-0.06813976913690567,
-0.13490277528762817,
-0.8102935552597046,
0.12716010212898254,
0.36231857538223267,
-0.18141858279705048,
0.16279558837413788,
0.26650041341781616,
-0.6130284070968628,
0.5954256057739258,
-0.4394247829914093,
0.3433942198753357,
0.5511951446533203,
0.6019633412361145,
0.10000427067279816,
-0.5162660479545593,
-0.5581004023551941,
-0.22061687707901,
-0.3708465099334717,
0.1057548001408577,
-0.06891583651304245,
0.1858672797679901,
0.4437183737754822,
-0.24110737442970276,
0.39178088307380676,
-0.2683916985988617,
0.1710292249917984,
-0.0605187863111496,
-0.17993323504924774,
0.2356370985507965,
0.16235297918319702,
-0.22098512947559357,
0.18519717454910278,
0.06478951871395111,
0.14675644040107727,
0.1803421974182129,
-0.24076232314109802,
0.6063182950019836,
0.2299947291612625,
-0.571768581867218,
-0.18404453992843628,
0.42393437027931213,
0.04715545102953911,
-0.05678238719701767,
0.07119929790496826,
0.2571374177932739,
-0.1643633395433426,
0.43007320165634155,
-0.04029128700494766,
0.08566202223300934,
-0.2910485863685608,
-0.5803344249725342,
-0.25222480297088623,
-0.09882700443267822,
0.6883705854415894,
0.6584675312042236,
0.20534327626228333,
0.06101508438587189,
-0.4054672420024872,
-0.5929255485534668,
-0.8402894139289856,
-0.7247890830039978,
0.2777540385723114,
0.42435652017593384,
-0.4144100248813629,
-0.3066312372684479,
0.25230908393859863,
0.16573914885520935,
0.8819454312324524,
-0.40079250931739807,
0.2952859699726105,
-0.08627558499574661,
0.7180578708648682,
0.17584006488323212,
-0.6132592558860779,
-0.4112064838409424,
-0.2755284011363983,
0.09671357274055481,
-0.1118086576461792,
0.37060853838920593,
0.1918528527021408,
0.6001446843147278,
0.2354182004928589,
-0.029516570270061493,
0.4352734088897705,
-0.574140191078186,
-0.2840682566165924,
0.36364099383354187,
-0.12739674746990204,
-0.6884908676147461,
-0.5451033115386963,
0.26967695355415344,
-0.0028316148091107607,
-0.17860840260982513,
-6.0336456298828125,
-0.04284094646573067,
-0.43303510546684265,
-0.5399674773216248,
0.19792459905147552,
0.06937270611524582,
0.19017834961414337,
-0.051641784608364105,
-0.5158897042274475,
-0.376327246427536,
0.14076389372348785,
0.3262593150138855,
0.055656351149082184,
0.22744978964328766,
0.6751210689544678,
0.5184208154678345,
0.824701189994812,
-0.27784591913223267,
0.3233966827392578,
0.2944243848323822,
-0.424456387758255,
0.056438643485307693,
0.3386860489845276,
0.3626934885978699,
0.02570354752242565,
0.17375101149082184,
-0.18291905522346497,
-0.04919595271348953,
-0.7011304497718811,
-0.22627130150794983,
0.2361282855272293,
0.10760969668626785,
-0.6504748463630676,
0.07713633030653,
-0.10853829979896545,
-0.4945342242717743,
0.6676480174064636,
0.3377020061016083,
0.03989028558135033,
0.46723681688308716,
-0.11551541835069656,
0.7823706269264221,
0.13130143284797668,
-0.07363322377204895,
-0.031020795926451683,
-0.44580182433128357,
-0.10776346921920776,
-0.3432430922985077,
-0.274489164352417,
0.5076431632041931,
-0.04115992411971092,
0.32088810205459595,
0.7412465214729309,
-0.13774073123931885,
-0.022586070001125336,
-0.0361805334687233,
0.4838285446166992,
0.16849498450756073,
-0.6851441264152527,
0.2851739227771759,
0.06079128384590149,
-0.5457473993301392,
-0.29114824533462524,
-0.5965479016304016,
-0.1272215098142624,
0.02420657128095627,
-0.11118283122777939,
-0.7037721276283264,
0.5117340087890625,
0.23313076794147491,
-0.05243304744362831,
0.15735605359077454,
0.1515902280807495,
-0.8581209182739258,
0.37456488609313965,
-0.734596312046051,
0.20958161354064941,
-0.4700614809989929,
0.5056726336479187,
-0.09706075489521027,
-0.05277687683701515,
0.08900203555822372,
-0.20024195313453674,
-0.4582846760749817,
-0.23115409910678864,
-0.17760957777500153,
-0.029895925894379616,
0.021931594237685204,
0.574515700340271,
0.5292752981185913,
0.8587377667427063,
0.0083159813657403,
0.4325353503227234,
-0.07637587189674377,
0.35914039611816406,
-0.04803634062409401,
-0.04143603891134262,
-0.050185102969408035,
0.16429051756858826,
-0.3444724380970001,
0.44547489285469055,
0.014484625309705734,
-0.13455058634281158,
-0.25255632400512695,
-0.06218617036938667,
-0.07518523186445236,
-0.21631939709186554,
0.27901729941368103,
1.0418905019760132,
0.07302939891815186,
0.0014165925094857812,
-0.14076556265354156,
0.1619756519794464,
-0.3964736759662628,
-0.22897060215473175,
-0.09030076116323471,
-0.39274862408638,
0.34592297673225403,
-0.0919119268655777,
-0.7127965092658997,
-0.191290020942688,
0.020421963185071945,
-0.3382580578327179,
-0.08323660492897034,
-0.3584854006767273,
0.095797099173069,
-0.2122267335653305,
0.1903117597103119,
0.4538724422454834,
0.011531093157827854,
0.4425644874572754,
0.659834086894989,
0.58031165599823,
0.13510236144065857,
-0.2354891151189804,
-0.5424590110778809,
0.32876884937286377,
0.38271820545196533,
-0.03658236935734749,
-0.5418134927749634,
-0.45402708649635315,
-0.0481506772339344,
-0.06286642700433731,
-0.2497568279504776,
0.8571373224258423,
0.2013205885887146,
-0.1564137488603592,
0.09977187216281891,
0.4199983477592468,
0.6065918803215027,
0.008588047698140144,
-0.4558265805244446,
0.13282106816768646,
-0.5092037916183472,
-0.001698393258266151,
-0.38622021675109863,
0.04396561160683632,
-0.3149113655090332,
0.4063599109649658,
-0.3429027497768402,
0.5704231858253479,
-0.06793291866779327,
-0.864788293838501,
-0.3254556655883789,
0.03810858726501465,
0.3724514842033386,
-0.2254749834537506,
-0.4021039605140686,
-0.1627945750951767,
-0.03518333286046982,
-0.25154873728752136,
-0.5616710186004639,
-0.3021789789199829,
-0.1411822885274887,
0.19943544268608093,
0.2765969932079315,
-0.01807892881333828,
0.4235588014125824,
0.17287851870059967,
-0.39727118611335754,
-0.4347890615463257,
-0.18779946863651276,
-0.2988508641719818,
0.32418495416641235,
-0.3306468725204468,
-0.7572615742683411,
-0.4579751789569855,
0.15803341567516327,
0.3364315927028656,
-0.3111831843852997,
-0.1557910144329071,
0.2713412642478943,
0.28981152176856995,
-0.04733823612332344,
-0.2727019190788269,
-0.22348947823047638,
-0.015360933728516102,
0.8411327004432678,
-0.3312588930130005,
-0.5271657705307007,
-0.14942780137062073,
0.5461563467979431,
-0.36588290333747864,
0.43105149269104004,
0.056037064641714096,
0.2762377858161926,
0.7802208662033081,
0.17485329508781433,
0.23470543324947357,
0.19463641941547394,
-0.07674198597669601,
-0.8380047678947449,
-0.2235657423734665,
0.20442575216293335,
-0.31255802512168884,
0.15870380401611328,
-0.11389598250389099,
-0.17940367758274078,
0.029742324724793434,
-0.2851785123348236,
0.21561038494110107,
-0.12270916998386383,
-0.6903418898582458,
0.020973103120923042,
-0.5523059964179993,
-0.09601803123950958,
0.0513349287211895,
-0.40832751989364624,
0.7311362028121948,
0.07738450914621353,
-0.18293027579784393,
-0.04640406370162964,
0.2069738507270813,
0.08358344435691833,
-0.08139930665493011,
-0.2788155972957611,
-0.48914986848831177,
-0.2529813051223755,
-0.13113294541835785,
-0.14200718700885773,
0.3728259801864624,
1.172833800315857,
-0.1645062267780304,
0.11892637610435486,
0.3606356680393219,
0.33437156677246094,
0.40241914987564087,
-1.1951360702514648,
-0.507290780544281,
-0.08011376112699509,
0.5510780215263367,
-0.14406055212020874,
-0.696575939655304,
0.32965320348739624,
0.5099311470985413,
0.3628917932510376,
-0.17570799589157104,
-0.07436787337064743,
0.5871900916099548,
0.48757845163345337,
-0.17521759867668152,
0.36896395683288574,
-0.4286269247531891,
-0.08898353576660156,
-0.23069794476032257,
0.2874087691307068,
-0.3634883165359497,
-0.6189709305763245,
0.0016822816105559468,
-0.5635967254638672,
0.6402355432510376,
0.41992253065109253,
0.7187677621841431,
-0.038654252886772156,
0.806259274482727,
-0.14275310933589935,
0.1815171092748642,
0.11125532537698746,
0.023439357057213783,
0.3663969039916992,
-0.45900723338127136,
-0.2241189181804657,
0.6401863694190979,
-0.38323715329170227,
-0.18251760303974152,
0.22952920198440552,
0.16871176660060883,
0.4331396222114563,
-0.5101679563522339,
-0.050414588302373886,
-0.45794883370399475,
0.4586718678474426,
-0.14506681263446808,
0.4701496660709381,
-0.0006425051251426339,
0.0854678750038147,
0.06642711907625198,
0.2991723120212555,
0.19629323482513428,
-0.23989012837409973,
-0.5430576801300049,
0.043930258601903915,
0.27586629986763,
-0.7677897214889526,
0.3560331463813782,
-0.08676925301551819,
-0.007771010976284742,
-0.6031705737113953,
0.0178235974162817,
-0.08791057020425797,
0.43212711811065674,
-0.2762843072414398,
-0.32410553097724915,
0.6206364631652832,
0.3076806664466858,
-0.062476418912410736,
0.28810614347457886,
0.13778643310070038,
-0.07225106656551361,
-0.12429949641227722,
0.07191230356693268,
0.1833983212709427,
0.05005792900919914,
-0.18825145065784454,
-0.4599241614341736,
-0.4981144070625305,
-0.5030829906463623,
-0.22557967901229858,
-0.11619097739458084,
0.21565218269824982,
0.8176866769790649,
0.4799623489379883,
0.1900263875722885,
0.8130977749824524,
-0.15539993345737457,
-0.2090429812669754,
0.3534413278102875,
-0.44925540685653687,
0.006489381194114685,
0.2028527855873108,
-0.13009437918663025,
0.48700574040412903,
0.5309447646141052,
-0.30022358894348145,
-0.057456355541944504,
0.2099469155073166,
0.4929281771183014,
0.6464515328407288,
-0.6124559044837952,
0.48532506823539734,
0.05343247205018997,
-0.3324067294597626,
0.23407228291034698,
-0.38076871633529663,
0.05220552533864975,
-0.20848503708839417,
0.6411463022232056,
0.0028658213559538126,
0.08753729611635208,
0.1079852432012558,
-0.52984619140625,
0.42417848110198975,
0.25409066677093506,
-0.08406569063663483,
-0.24788327515125275,
0.21055655181407928,
0.5008671283721924,
-0.8585745096206665,
0.39359307289123535,
0.26961448788642883,
-0.14006567001342773,
0.488772988319397,
-0.23456954956054688,
0.6063185930252075,
-0.595946729183197,
-0.13215167820453644,
0.11361032724380493,
0.7338087558746338,
0.1333904266357422,
-0.14552025496959686,
-0.20326349139213562,
0.031154815107584,
0.05416277423501015,
-0.46237823367118835,
-0.04259949550032616,
-0.33596983551979065,
-0.5047189593315125,
-0.2602083384990692,
0.1579715609550476,
0.1890677809715271,
-0.016651613637804985,
-0.5704251527786255,
-0.03819978982210159,
-0.2361377477645874,
-0.054331328719854355,
0.600847065448761,
-0.1127711832523346,
0.7404597401618958,
0.4674574136734009,
0.1938234269618988,
-0.580150842666626,
0.5988309383392334,
-0.03483785316348076,
-0.27902165055274963,
-0.17827247083187103,
0.22007174789905548,
-0.06733724474906921,
0.19534175097942352,
-0.22522486746311188,
0.6155105829238892,
0.1911085546016693,
-0.14578662812709808,
0.14152175188064575,
0.4102056920528412,
0.04330887645483017,
0.056349705904722214,
0.6741914749145508,
-0.2103150337934494,
0.3459640145301819,
-0.4204506278038025,
-0.5037899017333984,
-0.04634495824575424,
0.11628507822751999,
-0.43606841564178467,
0.02632720395922661,
0.027768446132540703,
0.00152818753849715,
0.3579549789428711,
-0.7131891846656799,
0.5100047588348389,
-0.22016476094722748,
-0.3130762577056885,
-0.588218629360199,
0.21326622366905212,
-0.3145221769809723,
0.10175100713968277,
0.0760582685470581,
0.6550465822219849,
0.37112122774124146,
-0.4563625752925873,
0.16661964356899261,
0.21359609067440033,
-0.31695958971977234,
0.15856222808361053,
-0.15409120917320251,
-0.34440919756889343,
-0.04795931279659271,
-0.37657201290130615,
-0.18317484855651855,
0.4010961949825287,
0.30761995911598206,
-0.17471447587013245,
0.2947161793708801,
-0.538223922252655,
-0.25580862164497375,
0.36921653151512146,
0.09642856568098068,
-0.6158983707427979,
-0.624345600605011,
0.8514725565910339
] |
241584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton%20National%20Airport | Clinton National Airport | Bill and Hillary Clinton National Airport , also known as Adams Field, is a joint civil-military airport on the east side of Little Rock, Arkansas. It is operated by the Little Rock Municipal Airport Commission.
The largest commercial airport in Arkansas, it served more than 2.1 million passengers in the year spanning from March 2009 through to February 2010. While Clinton National Airport does not have direct international passenger flights, more than 50 flights arrive or depart at Little Rock each day, with nonstop service to 14 cities. The airport is included in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2019–2023, in which it is categorized as a small-hub primary commercial service facility.
History
The airport was originally named Adams Field after Captain George Geyer Adams, 154th Observation Squadron, Arkansas National Guard, who was killed in the line of duty on September 4, 1937. He was a strong advocate for the airport, and also a Little Rock city councilor.
American Airlines was the first airline to serve Little Rock when it first landed at Adams Field on June 19, 1931.
During World War II the airfield was used by the United States Army Air Forces Third Air Force for antisubmarine patrols and training.
In 1972 the airport opened its current 12-gate terminal.
In August 2008, the airport approved a plan to renovate the terminal over a 15-year period. This would expand the terminal from 12 to 16 gates.
On March 20, 2012, the municipal airport commission voted to rename the airport the Bill and Hillary Clinton National Airport, after former Governor of Arkansas and United States President Bill Clinton and his wife, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. The name Adams Field will continue to be used when referring to the airport's runways and air traffic, and will be the airport's official designator.
In October 2013, Travel + Leisure released a survey of travelers that ranked Clinton National Airport as the worst of the 67 domestic airports considered in the survey. The survey report cited long lines and few food and shopping choices, among other criticisms. A survey commissioned by the airport contradicted Travel + Leisures claim, finding that more than 90% of passengers were satisfied with their experience.
Facilities and aircraft
Clinton National Airport covers 2,000 acres (809 ha) at an elevation of 266 feet (81 m) above mean sea level. It has three concrete runways: 4L/22R is 8,273 by 150 feet (2,522 x 46 m); 4R/22L is 8,251 by 150 feet (2,515 x 46 m); 18/36 is 6,224 by 150 feet (1,897 x 46 m). It has one concrete helipad 50 by 50 feet (15 x 15 m).
In the year ending February 28, 2019, the airport had 95,959 aircraft operations, an average of 263 per day: 38% general aviation, 25% scheduled commercial, 23% military, and 14% air taxi. The military operations are mostly C-130 transports from nearby Little Rock Air Force Base practicing touch-and-go landings. At the time, 145 aircraft were based at this airport: 54 single-engine, 35 multi-engine, 51 jet, and 5 helicopter.
Dassault Aircraft Services (DAS), a subsidiary of Dassault Aviation, operates a large facility at the airport. It is the site of two Falcon aircraft operations: the main Completion Center for all Falcon jets worldwide, and the company-owned Service Center.
Current production model Falcons are manufactured in France, then flown in "green" condition to the Completion Center where optional avionics and custom interiors are installed, and exteriors are painted. Dassault Aircraft Services (DAS) – Little Rock provides inspection, maintenance, modification, completion and repair needs for the Falcon product line.
The Dassault Aircraft Services (DAS) – Little Rock Service Center and Completion Center combined occupy total nearly , making Little Rock the largest Dassault facility in the world.
Terminal
The single terminal has 12 gates. Six gates are along the length of the terminal (three on either side) and a rotunda at the end has six more.
Airlines and destinations
Passenger
Cargo
Statistics
Top destinations
Accidents and incidents
On January 19, 1990, an Eastman Kodak Grumman Gulfstream II crashed during final approach to Little Rock National Airport; all seven on board were killed. Unfavorable weather conditions and pilot error contributed to the accident.
On June 1, 1999, American Airlines Flight 1420, a McDonnell Douglas MD-82 with 145 passengers and crew, attempting to land in a severe thunderstorm, overran the end of runway 4R, crashed through a fence and down a rock embankment into a flood plain; one crewmember and ten passengers were killed.
Notes
See also
List of airports in Arkansas
References
External links
Government
General information
Aerial image as of March 2001 from USGS The National Map
1931 establishments in Arkansas
Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command in North America
Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in Arkansas
Airports established in 1931
Airports in Arkansas
Bill Clinton
Government buildings in Little Rock, Arkansas
Hillary Clinton
Transportation in Little Rock, Arkansas | [
0.14089033007621765,
0.371915340423584,
-0.5264440178871155,
0.2034911960363388,
0.8534252047538757,
0.22348123788833618,
0.3095164895057678,
0.1661311388015747,
0.1434166431427002,
-0.6029235124588013,
-0.34036487340927124,
-0.23223237693309784,
-0.7060815691947937,
0.24638056755065918,
-0.2576868534088135,
0.6783250570297241,
-0.18638893961906433,
-0.007884607650339603,
0.6449180245399475,
-0.7569488883018494,
-0.23416855931282043,
-0.5894688367843628,
0.09229230880737305,
-0.22832614183425903,
0.15245817601680756,
-0.2556647062301636,
0.08037276566028595,
-0.07084964960813522,
-0.4007570147514343,
0.8077789545059204,
-0.5073003172874451,
-0.02127319760620594,
-0.1625417172908783,
-0.27262359857559204,
0.27338606119155884,
0.29555049538612366,
0.21638330817222595,
-0.24354411661624908,
0.3109470009803772,
-0.43016672134399414,
0.02771768532693386,
-0.3235897123813629,
0.20550426840782166,
-0.2664129436016083,
-0.25846850872039795,
-0.24526911973953247,
-0.46651583909988403,
0.3075377643108368,
-0.8497258424758911,
-0.8119632601737976,
-0.3511587083339691,
0.6787842512130737,
0.18965139985084534,
0.5729044079780579,
0.5842418074607849,
0.6665745377540588,
-0.20997802913188934,
-0.0662769004702568,
-0.21832484006881714,
-0.20479074120521545,
0.3535782992839813,
0.7125812768936157,
-0.2000858336687088,
0.2418089658021927,
0.5534757375717163,
-0.09106114506721497,
0.5138501524925232,
0.12929265201091766,
0.07142633944749832,
-0.2188943773508072,
-0.07301998883485794,
0.23623912036418915,
-0.2840002775192261,
0.5852555632591248,
0.08300130814313889,
0.12678608298301697,
0.18825885653495789,
0.2615056037902832,
-0.1762290596961975,
0.49070364236831665,
0.3792094588279724,
-0.12466197460889816,
0.47570013999938965,
0.11807556450366974,
0.2738124430179596,
-0.2587839961051941,
-1.1771612167358398,
-0.250262975692749,
-0.15723717212677002,
-0.5885835289955139,
-0.7628008723258972,
0.13098861277103424,
-0.34249573945999146,
0.5560056567192078,
-0.003916732966899872,
-0.9060289263725281,
-0.08644358813762665,
-0.04695267602801323,
0.3795727491378784,
0.12897157669067383,
-0.08715429902076721,
-0.7470250129699707,
0.6261759996414185,
-0.023364843800663948,
-0.5436775088310242,
-0.19167494773864746,
-0.5270988345146179,
-0.6458947658538818,
0.42300117015838623,
0.3191055357456207,
-0.6297445893287659,
0.5945747494697571,
-0.3906760513782501,
-0.6766303181648254,
-0.9167468547821045,
0.36818772554397583,
0.7431132197380066,
-0.35807210206985474,
0.1517816185951233,
-0.2755386233329773,
0.43641456961631775,
1.2579199075698853,
-0.3139669597148895,
0.17061084508895874,
-0.44272133708000183,
0.15477584302425385,
0.5356143712997437,
0.42818865180015564,
-0.6831220984458923,
-0.13274110853672028,
0.28821036219596863,
0.3340796232223511,
-0.00706021673977375,
0.40038397908210754,
0.5340796113014221,
-0.6737359166145325,
0.12889015674591064,
-0.39966627955436707,
0.6782610416412354,
0.15365727245807648,
-0.5672909617424011,
-0.3916814625263214,
-0.4580458700656891,
-0.31016606092453003,
0.1675601452589035,
0.11738085001707077,
0.003993832506239414,
-0.1810886561870575,
0.128631129860878,
-0.07604429125785828,
0.5123829245567322,
0.08350515365600586,
-0.3595496714115143,
0.3075435161590576,
-0.3720691204071045,
0.005314218811690807,
0.6485376358032227,
-0.6217700839042664,
0.3527074456214905,
1.0010780096054077,
0.40067896246910095,
0.4346562922000885,
-0.14242489635944366,
-0.16205036640167236,
0.2531147599220276,
0.3397781252861023,
0.2749600112438202,
-0.36408549547195435,
0.07328476011753082,
-0.2111322581768036,
-0.3095453679561615,
-0.2230122983455658,
0.7121164202690125,
-0.12108873575925827,
0.13662542402744293,
-0.023597730323672295,
0.7970460057258606,
-0.476791650056839,
0.10983278602361679,
0.796710729598999,
-0.48582494258880615,
-0.08238853514194489,
0.43317291140556335,
-0.28866538405418396,
0.3710383474826813,
-0.17107178270816803,
0.4343046247959137,
-0.13398993015289307,
-0.21444183588027954,
0.06343606859445572,
-1.0437960624694824,
-0.6294302344322205,
-0.34304648637771606,
-0.3708723485469818,
0.5277095437049866,
0.07532832026481628,
-0.2661497890949249,
0.7092474102973938,
-0.2530779540538788,
0.5735957026481628,
-0.13751715421676636,
-0.44780150055885315,
0.8770061731338501,
-0.7114178538322449,
-0.5615845322608948,
0.017700936645269394,
0.48604488372802734,
-0.5499891638755798,
0.2157583385705948,
0.9754965305328369,
0.6653754115104675,
-0.1762475222349167,
0.3031259775161743,
0.6918193101882935,
0.2750738561153412,
-0.43583324551582336,
-0.7950526475906372,
-0.33868831396102905,
-0.2630104124546051,
0.002841961570084095,
0.5071070790290833,
0.27508002519607544,
0.26799526810646057,
0.24378612637519836,
-0.1418427675962448,
0.34714314341545105,
-0.5773422718048096,
0.12728703022003174,
-0.5278710722923279,
0.27024537324905396,
-0.007843060418963432,
0.3562808036804199,
-0.24885576963424683,
-0.8542054891586304,
0.5524561405181885,
-0.23741020262241364,
0.03838660940527916,
-0.44066229462623596,
0.7430964708328247,
0.14338652789592743,
-0.07619833946228027,
0.0037817349657416344,
-0.5693948864936829,
0.5058714151382446,
-0.0658772736787796,
-0.44878414273262024,
0.24447695910930634,
0.16929997503757477,
0.17278952896595,
-0.4260734021663666,
0.05265505611896515,
0.08147288858890533,
0.7424612045288086,
-0.25895553827285767,
0.27484598755836487,
0.49899351596832275,
0.03066689521074295,
0.8011934161186218,
-0.34354254603385925,
-0.1505642831325531,
-0.7159196734428406,
0.23568913340568542,
-0.0042849332094192505,
0.18342915177345276,
0.05092766508460045,
-0.43154698610305786,
-0.4544418156147003,
-0.4935477674007416,
0.30239394307136536,
0.5468814373016357,
0.3410724699497223,
-0.30296820402145386,
0.04228578135371208,
0.12563316524028778,
-0.038824766874313354,
-0.0356106199324131,
-0.7215024828910828,
0.635085940361023,
-1.075102686882019,
-0.4925454556941986,
1.3784197568893433,
0.4416744112968445,
0.35489851236343384,
-1.064903974533081,
-0.4064585268497467,
-0.0053978292271494865,
0.21622700989246368,
-0.47708842158317566,
-0.9671446084976196,
0.05720078572630882,
-0.5918311476707458,
-0.2854253351688385,
-0.0806988775730133,
0.8873953223228455,
0.14267675578594208,
0.546559751033783,
0.7559662461280823,
-0.10428953915834427,
0.3493451476097107,
-0.4076557755470276,
-0.0793585330247879,
0.5663992762565613,
-0.6002114415168762,
-0.5376300811767578,
0.4749685227870941,
-0.5413009524345398,
-0.19306008517742157,
-0.9730169177055359,
-5.37328577041626,
0.9516853094100952,
-0.4134134352207184,
-0.3061767816543579,
0.09749206155538559,
-0.05914074555039406,
0.41040465235710144,
-0.09537989646196365,
0.10795819014310837,
-0.10752298682928085,
-0.06900766491889954,
-0.6378296613693237,
0.3161851465702057,
0.29918035864830017,
0.17379935085773468,
0.20158325135707855,
1.1484050750732422,
-0.7542204260826111,
0.6385160684585571,
0.834768533706665,
0.5926952958106995,
0.10559619218111038,
-0.25211313366889954,
-0.08689970523118973,
0.5162866115570068,
0.5488498210906982,
-0.6165520548820496,
-0.13629469275474548,
-0.5562390089035034,
-0.20427420735359192,
0.7803032398223877,
0.3265242278575897,
-0.11217408627271652,
-0.06647326052188873,
0.17221176624298096,
0.12437600642442703,
-0.2542359530925751,
-0.38409191370010376,
0.46150609850883484,
-0.29470381140708923,
0.17520004510879517,
-0.16677093505859375,
-0.13224880397319794,
-0.48339468240737915,
-0.06324680149555206,
-0.7376983165740967,
0.06457450240850449,
-0.3363224267959595,
-0.06474162638187408,
0.6724445223808289,
-0.02336200140416622,
0.6535750031471252,
0.720961332321167,
0.3517528176307678,
-0.16697043180465698,
-0.4622724652290344,
0.19333641231060028,
0.3594857454299927,
-0.29943111538887024,
0.16079670190811157,
0.3975785970687866,
-0.3039504289627075,
0.18582847714424133,
-0.5819293260574341,
-0.4651724100112915,
-0.2862558662891388,
0.7062523365020752,
0.24220703542232513,
-0.0304267518222332,
0.35442593693733215,
0.28320029377937317,
0.3471207618713379,
-0.6512972712516785,
-0.9170241951942444,
0.4912900924682617,
-0.910914957523346,
-0.2873528301715851,
-0.12399253994226456,
-0.7740634083747864,
-0.2828722596168518,
0.10620098561048508,
-0.23175272345542908,
-0.1915288269519806,
0.04985900595784187,
0.26848331093788147,
-0.279620885848999,
-0.39539635181427,
0.36628660559654236,
0.05404023453593254,
-0.19651518762111664,
0.20633985102176666,
-0.3253714144229889,
0.6469201445579529,
-0.3016485571861267,
-0.009182566776871681,
0.12110357731580734,
0.1537591964006424,
-0.032902464270591736,
0.8087841272354126,
0.5118541121482849,
0.2533198297023773,
-0.05187463387846947,
-0.0449429452419281,
-0.46864211559295654,
0.05202135816216469,
-0.8585593700408936,
0.7141885757446289,
-0.07110677659511566,
0.3681420385837555,
0.23336096107959747,
-0.05961541086435318,
-0.2504221796989441,
0.1982099860906601,
-0.5626305341720581,
-0.15234141051769257,
0.15871097147464752,
0.06127059459686279,
0.340863436460495,
0.19358491897583008,
0.1292547583580017,
0.06586186587810516,
-0.027381520718336105,
-0.13156867027282715,
-0.38753634691238403,
-0.28264057636260986,
0.053064487874507904,
-0.10001210868358612,
0.03520531207323074,
-0.07300965487957001,
-0.22987332940101624,
-0.000824394344817847,
0.29137489199638367,
-0.21445819735527039,
-0.048531681299209595,
-0.13837748765945435,
0.22519443929195404,
-0.009335881099104881,
-0.6735209226608276,
0.6494804620742798,
0.22662419080734253,
0.13878972828388214,
0.09021077305078506,
-0.4923172891139984,
0.10731693357229233,
0.1629929393529892,
0.5698666572570801,
-0.0820671021938324,
-0.24895238876342773,
-0.5071149468421936,
-0.07698091119527817,
-0.4590606093406677,
-0.2107088416814804,
-0.1556350290775299,
-0.4788762032985687,
-0.4279887080192566,
-0.044814519584178925,
0.8320100903511047,
-0.30577322840690613,
0.3577747941017151,
0.012774941511452198,
0.6497043967247009,
-0.38576337695121765,
-0.6608400344848633,
0.34482619166374207,
-0.45174217224121094,
0.06754366308450699,
0.0017673202091827989,
-0.4686617851257324,
-1.0665676593780518,
0.5337533354759216,
0.26658549904823303,
-0.9179785847663879,
-0.3074129819869995,
0.29274117946624756,
0.26460835337638855,
0.21537387371063232,
0.19847503304481506,
0.11616015434265137,
0.3813224732875824,
-0.15254706144332886,
-0.7282148003578186,
-0.4127230644226074,
-0.42863526940345764,
0.5745660066604614,
-0.48519816994667053,
-0.5754793882369995,
-0.30882149934768677,
-0.05362574756145477,
-0.07255709171295166,
-0.36630046367645264,
0.14212703704833984,
-0.2475401908159256,
0.06507514417171478,
-0.1008339673280716,
0.09832294285297394,
-0.4464663863182068,
-0.06958279013633728,
0.7895866632461548,
-0.48344576358795166,
-0.04717929661273956,
-0.4443754255771637,
-0.1090356707572937,
-0.27840495109558105,
0.9074375033378601,
-0.5272838473320007,
-0.1392267942428589,
0.27301183342933655,
0.17580199241638184,
-0.21287061274051666,
0.19538338482379913,
-0.3257034122943878,
-0.36735036969184875,
0.09303730726242065,
0.2623317837715149,
-0.4048331379890442,
0.3494209945201874,
-0.2197357714176178,
0.47169870138168335,
-0.28439822793006897,
-0.023127080872654915,
-0.5526427030563354,
-0.3885752558708191,
0.14623616635799408,
-0.08933233469724655,
-0.7962812185287476,
0.9072924852371216,
0.17237472534179688,
-0.8746327757835388,
0.1199653148651123,
-0.8145906925201416,
-0.17382928729057312,
0.08109049499034882,
0.13962166011333466,
0.7466241717338562,
-0.017229272052645683,
-0.203324094414711,
-0.32178956270217896,
0.06483611464500427,
0.10604607313871384,
-0.16583094000816345,
0.860662043094635,
0.7722155451774597,
0.48271554708480835,
-0.546512246131897,
-0.8327021598815918,
0.4089367985725403,
0.5381730794906616,
-0.4393264949321747,
-0.4017947018146515,
0.34872740507125854,
0.2164909690618515,
0.26028522849082947,
-0.48619431257247925,
0.3824004828929901,
0.4589366316795349,
-0.10653221607208252,
-0.48284876346588135,
0.12962603569030762,
-0.5266133546829224,
-0.10500583797693253,
0.2812689244747162,
0.009160459041595459,
-0.4652746617794037,
0.40154290199279785,
-0.13652771711349487,
-0.3511990010738373,
0.08306315541267395,
-0.13089241087436676,
0.4210795760154724,
-1.2020901441574097,
-0.18879853188991547,
0.38039177656173706,
0.24372713267803192,
0.35707157850265503,
-0.2420986294746399,
-0.20048677921295166,
0.23261995613574982,
-0.12148156762123108,
-0.2222103327512741,
0.3865791857242584,
-0.3382934331893921,
-0.0882544219493866,
0.19632744789123535,
-0.8456400036811829,
0.050763487815856934,
-0.6944714784622192,
-0.41311711072921753,
0.3670150339603424,
-0.6840103268623352,
-0.16151584684848785,
-0.16557733714580536,
-0.04124085605144501,
-0.09145112335681915,
-0.5950320363044739,
-0.5006868243217468,
0.26154303550720215,
0.43866702914237976,
0.6058602333068848,
0.17600254714488983,
-0.3304525315761566,
-1.247175931930542,
0.40756988525390625,
-0.2626151740550995,
-0.1462598443031311,
-0.18112048506736755,
-0.7952741980552673,
0.6389744877815247,
-0.13525420427322388,
0.32343360781669617,
-0.08164951205253601,
0.1384720653295517,
-0.5423514246940613,
0.2572486698627472,
0.4399791657924652,
-0.18929266929626465,
0.5338405966758728,
0.29187390208244324,
-0.32260653376579285,
0.17308096587657928,
0.152669295668602,
-0.8041744232177734,
-0.46060383319854736,
0.5163125395774841,
-0.02690865658223629,
-0.4054661691188812,
0.9950944185256958,
-0.07976531982421875,
0.05914328992366791,
-0.13075314462184906,
0.03835287690162659,
-0.018652213737368584,
-0.15440088510513306,
-0.1628923863172531,
0.49292585253715515,
-0.3452446758747101,
-0.6131283044815063,
-0.13401669263839722,
-0.7460098266601562,
-0.2843533158302307,
0.6036360859870911,
-0.11187892407178879,
0.623289167881012,
0.418413907289505,
0.3329540193080902,
-0.20157171785831451,
0.2243257611989975,
0.32634010910987854,
0.42884883284568787,
0.42431652545928955,
-0.10513226687908173,
-0.4453505277633667,
0.35739028453826904,
-0.527826189994812,
-0.3028121590614319,
0.10247961431741714,
-0.46615007519721985,
0.39058834314346313,
-0.12507212162017822,
0.10005658864974976,
0.26225391030311584,
0.02286672405898571,
0.6977448463439941,
0.24088895320892334,
-0.10932163894176483,
-0.46246013045310974,
-0.29214125871658325,
0.2684251368045807,
-0.528982400894165,
0.46565529704093933,
0.026529019698500633,
-0.18871819972991943,
0.7073037028312683,
-0.3375324010848999,
-0.09006839990615845,
-0.1240285113453865,
0.062187276780605316,
0.22791792452335358,
0.4844754636287689,
0.11989100277423859,
0.05737895518541336,
0.23825563490390778,
-0.25759631395339966,
-0.37871262431144714,
-0.24224920570850372,
0.24404412508010864,
-0.11456003040075302,
0.02761554904282093,
0.24786801636219025,
0.1808716058731079,
-0.32196760177612305,
1.1206363439559937,
-0.4047466218471527,
-0.4114306569099426,
0.13763637840747833,
-0.2218841314315796,
-0.5872344970703125,
0.04678240045905113,
0.3663329482078552,
0.23209671676158905,
0.153299480676651,
0.623222827911377,
0.42068415880203247,
0.0017459973460063338,
0.5281779170036316,
-0.01405898667871952,
0.4840255677700043,
0.32651954889297485,
0.284891813993454,
-0.8596462607383728,
0.5941860675811768,
0.3870345950126648,
0.4162215292453766,
0.105557881295681,
0.6818039417266846,
0.20275793969631195,
-0.02793293260037899,
0.6388401389122009,
0.08857676386833191,
0.007642336189746857,
-0.12359010428190231,
0.35749387741088867,
-0.18159405887126923,
0.0070164017379283905,
-0.25185924768447876,
0.49056920409202576,
-0.8902358412742615,
0.16953444480895996,
0.15059517323970795,
0.1058763712644577,
0.8092852234840393,
0.4449114203453064,
-0.5936356782913208,
-0.07918818295001984,
0.2374495565891266,
-0.793165922164917,
-0.6917991638183594,
-0.1103847399353981,
1.505389928817749,
0.5464945435523987,
-0.35097822546958923,
-0.11320799589157104,
0.16974838078022003,
0.20815221965312958,
-0.1716686338186264,
0.673945963382721,
-0.2296036332845688,
-0.2911381125450134,
-0.9784924983978271,
-0.8685646653175354,
0.5131980180740356,
0.21776072680950165,
0.6925771236419678,
-0.01956225372850895,
-0.06462202966213226,
-0.4702037274837494,
-0.8709754347801208,
0.060741130262613297,
0.23602992296218872,
0.7698209881782532,
0.38375821709632874
] |
241589 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product%20differentiation | Product differentiation | In economics and marketing, product differentiation (or simply differentiation) is
the process of distinguishing a product or service from others, to make it more attractive to a particular target market. This involves differentiating it from competitors' products as well as a firm's own products. The concept was proposed by Edward Chamberlin in his 1933 The Theory of Monopolistic Competition.
Rationale
Firms have different resource endowments that enable them to construct specific competitive advantages over competitors. Resource endowments allow firms to be different which reduces competition and makes it possible to reach new segments of the market. Thus, differentiation is the process of distinguishing the differences of a product or offering from others, to make it more attractive to a particular target market.
Although research in a niche market may result in changing a product in order to improve differentiation, the changes themselves are not differentiation. Marketing or product differentiation is the process of describing the differences between products or services, or the resulting list of differences. This is done in order to demonstrate the unique aspects of a firm's product and create a sense of value. Marketing textbooks are firm on the point that any differentiation must be valued by buyers (a differentiation attempt that is not perceived does not count). The term unique selling proposition refers to advertising to communicate a product's differentiation.
In economics, successful product differentiation leads to competitive advantage and is inconsistent with the conditions for perfect competition, which include the requirement that the products of competing firms should be perfect substitutes. There are three types of product differentiation:
Simple: based on a variety of characteristics
Horizontal: based on a single characteristic but consumers are not clear on quality
Vertical: based on a single characteristic and consumers are clear on its quality
The brand differences are mostly minor; they can be merely a difference in packaging or an advertising theme. The physical product need not change, but it may. Differentiation is due to buyers perceiving a difference; hence, causes of differentiation may be functional aspects of the product or service, how it is distributed and marketed, or who buys it. The major sources of product differentiation are as follows.
Differences in quality which are usually accompanied by differences in price
Differences in functional features or design
Ignorance of buyers regarding the essential characteristics and qualities of goods they are purchasing
Sales promotion activities of sellers and, in particular, advertising
Differences in availability (e.g. timing and location).
The objective of differentiation is to develop a position that potential customers see as unique. The term is used frequently when dealing with freemium business models, in which businesses market a free and paid version of a given product. Given they target the same group of customers, it is imperative that free and paid versions be effectively differentiated.
Differentiation primarily affects performance through reducing directness of competition: As the product becomes more different, categorization becomes more difficult and hence draws fewer comparisons with its competition. A successful product differentiation strategy will move your product from competing based primarily on price to competing on non-price factors (such as product characteristics, distribution strategy, or promotional variables).
Most people would say that the implication of differentiation is the possibility of charging a price premium; however, this is a gross simplification. If customers value the firm's offer, they will be less sensitive to aspects of competing offers; price may not be one of these aspects. Differentiation makes customers in a given segment have a lower sensitivity to other features (non-price) of the product.
History
Edward Chamberlin’s (1933) seminal work on monopolistic competition mentioned the theory of differentiation that says that for the available products within the same industry, customers may have different preferences. However, a generic strategy of differentiation that was popularized by Michael Porter (1980) that it is any product (tangible or intangible) perceived as “being unique” by At least one set of customers. Hence, it depends on their perception the extent of product differentiation. Even until 1999, the consequences of these concepts were not well understood. In fact, Miller (1986) proposed marketing and innovation as two differentiation strategies, which was supported by some scholars like Lee and Miller (1999). Mintzberg (1988) proposed more specific but broad categories: quality, design, support, image, price, and undifferentiated products, which got support from Kotha and Vadlamani (1995). However, IO literature (Ethiraj & Zhu, 2008; Makadok, 2010, 2011) did deeper analysis into the theory and explored a clear distinction between the wide use of vertical and horizontal differentiation.
Vertical product differentiation
Vertical product differentiation can be measured objectively by a consumer, for example when comparing two similar products the quality and price can clearly be identified and ranked by the customer. If both A and B products are charged the same price to the consumer, then the market share for each one will be positive, according to the Hotelling model. The major theory in this is all consumers prefer the higher quality product if two distinct products are offered at the same price. A product can differ in many vertical attributes such as its operating speed. What really matters is the relationship between consumers willingness to pay for improvements in quality and the increase in cost per unit that comes with such improvements. Therefore, the perceived difference in quality is different with different consumer, so it is objective. A green product might be having a lower or zero negative effect on the environment, however, it may turn out to be inferior than other products in other aspects. Hence, it also depends on the way it is advertised and the social pressure a potential consumer is living in. Even one vertical differentiation can be a decisive factor in purchasing.
Horizontal product differentiation
Horizontal differentiation seeks to affect an individual's subjective decision-making, that is the difference cannot be measured in an objective way. For example, different color versions of the same iPhone or MacBook. A lemon ice cream is not superior to a chocolate ice cream, is completely based on the user's preference. A restaurant may price all of its desserts at the same price and lets the consumer freely choose its preferences since all the alternatives cost the same. A clear example of Horizontal Product Differentiation can be seen when comparing Coca Cola and Pepsi: if priced the same then individuals will differentiate between the two based purely on their own taste preference.
Other types of product differentiation
Whilst Product differentiation is typically broken into two types Vertical and Horizontal, it's important to note that all products exhibit a combination of both and they are not the only way to define differentiation. Another way to differentiate a product is through spatial differentiation. Spatial Product Differentiation is using a geographical location as a way to differentiate. An example of Spatial Differentiation is a firm locally sourcing inputs and producing their product.
Substitute goods and product differentiation
According to research conducted by combining mathematics and economics, decisions of pricing depend on the substitutability between products, the level of substitutability varies as the degree of differentiation between firms’ products change. A firm cannot charge a higher price if products are good substitutes, conversely as a product deviates from others in the segment producers can begin to charge a higher price. The lower non-cooperative equilibrium price the lower the differentiation. For this reason, firms might jointly raise prices above the equilibrium or competitive level by coordination between themselves. They have a verbal or written collusion agreement between them. Firms operating in a market of low product differentiation might not coordinate with others, which increases the incentive to cheat the collusion agreement. If a firm slightly lowers there prices, they can capture a large fraction of the market and obtain short term profits if the products are highly substitutable.
Implications of product differentiation
Product differentiation within a given market segment can have both positive and negative affects on the consumer. From the producers perspective building a different product compared to competitors can create a competitive advantage which can result in higher profits. Through differentiation consumers gain greater value from a product, however this leads to increased demand and market segmentation which can cause anti-competitive effects on price. From this perspective greater diversity leads to more choices which means each individual can purchase a product better suited to themselves, the negative to this is prices within the market segment tend to rise. The level of differentiation between goods can also affect demand. For example within grocery stores, If a category of goods is relatively nondifferentiated then a high amount of assortment depth leads to less sales.
Interaction between horizontal and vertical differentiation: an application to banking
During the 1990s, steps taken by government on deregulation and European integration persuaded banks to compete for deposits on many factors like deposit rates, accessibility and the quality of financial services.
In this example using the Hotelling model, one feature is of variety (location) and one feature of quality (remote access). Remote access using bank services via postal and telephonic services like arranging payment facilities and obtaining account information). In this model, banks cannot become vertically differentiated without negatively affecting horizontal differentiation between them.
Horizontal differentiation occurs with the location of bank's branch. Vertical differentiation, in this example, occurs whenever one bank offers remote access and the other does not. With remote access, it can spur a negative interaction between transportation rate and taste for quality: customers who have higher taste for remote access face a lower transportation rate.
A depositor with a high (low) taste for remote access has low (high) linear transportation costs. Different equilibria emerge as the result of two effects. On the one hand, introducing remote access steals depositors from your competitor because the product specification becomes more appealing (direct effect). On the other hand, banks become closer substitutes (indirect effect). First, banks become closer substitutes as the impact of linear transportation costs decreases. Second, deposit rate competition is affected by the size of the quality difference. These two effects, "stealing" depositors versus "substitutability" between banks, determines the equilibrium. For low and high values of the ratio quality difference to transportation rate, only one bank offers remote access (specialization). Intermediate (very low) values of the ratio quality difference to transportation costs yield universal (no) remote access.
This competition is a two factor game: one is of offering of remote access and the other is of deposit rates. Hypothetically, there will be two consequential scenarios if only one bank offers remote access. First, the bank gains a positive market share for all types of remote access, giving rise to horizontal dominance. This occurs when the transportation cost prevail over the quality of service, deposit rate and time. Second, vertical dominance comes into picture when the bank that is not offering remote access gets the entire market for depositors who have lowest preference for remote access. That is when the quality service, deposit rate and time prevails over the cost of transportation.
See also
Crippleware
Non-price competition
Marketing
Mass customization
Configurator
Market segmentation
Product management
Brand
Country of origin
Marketing plan
Freemium
Positioning
Price discrimination
References
External links
Spring 1997 - Jonathan B. Baker Director, Bureau of Economics Federal Trade Commission on Product Differentiation
Product management
Imperfect competition | [
0.23499737679958344,
0.04701635614037514,
-0.1815233677625656,
-0.020055869594216347,
0.30957698822021484,
0.47883620858192444,
-0.03427296504378319,
0.4046928584575653,
0.23605039715766907,
-0.6252084970474243,
-0.5206118226051331,
0.4365944564342499,
-0.042706653475761414,
0.5183837413787842,
-0.5195317268371582,
0.30887168645858765,
0.08417176455259323,
0.6610462665557861,
0.40898647904396057,
0.3786221742630005,
-0.5574628710746765,
0.3922635614871979,
-0.022747816517949104,
-0.5881045460700989,
0.6263657212257385,
-0.3235955238342285,
0.2009659707546234,
-0.06390633434057236,
-0.4177711606025696,
0.1393243819475174,
0.031057065352797508,
0.5075830817222595,
-0.1373499184846878,
0.2684627175331116,
-0.26313239336013794,
-0.12807710468769073,
0.03668999671936035,
-0.4361523985862732,
-0.5350791215896606,
-0.5278136134147644,
-0.5083600282669067,
0.16667591035366058,
0.3784244954586029,
0.2679958641529083,
-0.2823295295238495,
-0.2109009474515915,
-2.0583200454711914,
-0.18482495844364166,
-0.624156653881073,
-0.22058168053627014,
-0.4165884852409363,
-0.18362650275230408,
-0.34828469157218933,
0.6054739952087402,
-0.24205687642097473,
0.28067106008529663,
-0.2943679988384247,
-0.10728656500577927,
0.028863312676548958,
-0.5588148236274719,
0.6873932480812073,
0.021788863465189934,
0.22165535390377045,
0.009652704000473022,
0.5123802423477173,
-0.057029128074645996,
-0.11165346950292587,
-0.1335219293832779,
-0.7785033583641052,
-0.6345797777175903,
-0.4807438850402832,
-0.6412351131439209,
-0.027002276852726936,
0.44900304079055786,
-0.9022706151008606,
0.16376812756061554,
-0.15471231937408447,
0.1096678376197815,
-0.3912680149078369,
-0.18161480128765106,
-0.4787631034851074,
0.3430626392364502,
0.11217071115970612,
-0.15221521258354187,
0.303085595369339,
-0.15882419049739838,
-0.23215630650520325,
0.47951677441596985,
-0.19423384964466095,
0.9188264012336731,
0.23310256004333496,
-0.17263583838939667,
0.8550840020179749,
-0.21379944682121277,
0.17286455631256104,
-0.1281454712152481,
0.7182088494300842,
-0.017071329057216644,
-0.13257987797260284,
0.09992913901805878,
-0.5033007860183716,
0.09831495583057404,
0.35793912410736084,
-0.2229040265083313,
-0.06371401250362396,
-0.4246736764907837,
0.27582183480262756,
-0.3682834804058075,
0.3775867223739624,
-0.11863565444946289,
-0.2298121452331543,
0.08899957686662674,
0.14528344571590424,
0.7485616207122803,
-0.8888953328132629,
0.5806363224983215,
-0.3785962164402008,
0.6574661731719971,
-0.5751045942306519,
0.13429158926010132,
0.573943018913269,
0.17412228882312775,
-0.3513304889202118,
-0.4587215781211853,
0.247623011469841,
0.07262130081653595,
0.21404151618480682,
0.5308340787887573,
-0.6277623176574707,
0.2677377760410309,
0.062088627368211746,
0.2978416979312897,
-0.44131940603256226,
0.3011671006679535,
-0.3392276167869568,
-0.5150076746940613,
0.7450584173202515,
-0.17466801404953003,
0.6953281164169312,
-0.45110347867012024,
-0.5943058133125305,
0.1354406327009201,
-0.3360646665096283,
-0.2481626272201538,
0.2918396592140198,
-0.4420902729034424,
0.24084435403347015,
-0.34263983368873596,
-0.4908128082752228,
-0.3499830961227417,
0.28961828351020813,
0.07182297110557556,
-0.46526825428009033,
0.02811247855424881,
0.4297480583190918,
0.3666037321090698,
0.346968412399292,
-0.2565736472606659,
-0.5303106307983398,
0.2319210022687912,
-0.0454929918050766,
0.13348786532878876,
-0.06075563281774521,
-0.07823216915130615,
-0.16506390273571014,
-0.5503289699554443,
0.36596229672431946,
0.6462551951408386,
0.059113893657922745,
0.21777527034282684,
-0.0795058012008667,
0.15475806593894958,
0.20683056116104126,
-0.13932175934314728,
0.042072150856256485,
0.7065520882606506,
0.3227827847003937,
0.4790327548980713,
0.8633247017860413,
0.06025957688689232,
-0.5559288859367371,
0.4591849148273468,
0.3270857334136963,
-0.005825215019285679,
0.132743701338768,
-0.6568025946617126,
0.549857497215271,
-0.3334267735481262,
-0.4460591673851013,
-0.3323036730289459,
-0.6427450776100159,
-0.2485746443271637,
-0.24214059114456177,
-0.8069048523902893,
0.46636655926704407,
0.005787492264062166,
-0.6396071314811707,
0.3659776747226715,
-0.5246961116790771,
-0.1519768387079239,
-0.3303852677345276,
-0.025371992960572243,
0.1727934330701828,
-0.2736283540725708,
0.015589350834488869,
0.3348202109336853,
0.08494359254837036,
-0.05207637697458267,
0.2064245641231537,
0.8242977261543274,
0.30738717317581177,
-0.24635128676891327,
0.23166042566299438,
-0.44797173142433167,
0.3837485909461975,
0.17097976803779602,
-0.16941972076892853,
0.33517026901245117,
0.13190487027168274,
-0.21502552926540375,
0.6816733479499817,
-0.07875283807516098,
-0.2261999398469925,
0.25651562213897705,
0.04977915808558464,
-0.011897617019712925,
0.3989369571208954,
-0.07398302853107452,
0.41946104168891907,
0.07131948322057724,
0.3634190857410431,
0.14484110474586487,
0.34859490394592285,
-0.4287257194519043,
-0.5167807936668396,
0.21905680000782013,
0.0644771009683609,
-0.09023595601320267,
-0.3487190008163452,
-0.3507969379425049,
-0.21084663271903992,
0.02066652663052082,
-0.3712001144886017,
0.2861374020576477,
0.04399825260043144,
0.02807765267789364,
-0.09084779024124146,
0.3189062178134918,
-0.3397614657878876,
0.042426224797964096,
-0.12257158011198044,
0.319197416305542,
0.5228176116943359,
-0.37886908650398254,
-0.00047201159759424627,
-0.306037575006485,
-0.16217829287052155,
0.40803030133247375,
0.47825008630752563,
-0.09737331420183182,
0.3301111161708832,
0.0792500376701355,
-0.18748660385608673,
0.19533205032348633,
-0.05342165008187294,
-0.16829875111579895,
-0.3722060024738312,
0.33578118681907654,
-0.04873761907219887,
0.6355078816413879,
0.5423900485038757,
0.001261547557078302,
-0.6123157739639282,
-0.11994995921850204,
-0.2626987099647522,
-0.5667320489883423,
0.49470722675323486,
0.03154974803328514,
-0.15923850238323212,
-0.3819238245487213,
0.23413601517677307,
0.16290470957756042,
0.2292231172323227,
-0.3392886519432068,
-0.007781513035297394,
-0.5983310341835022,
0.14892669022083282,
-0.3118547797203064,
0.20869506895542145,
0.29828858375549316,
-0.49862945079803467,
0.4345625936985016,
-0.4216580390930176,
-0.14497871696949005,
0.2564314603805542,
0.0588298924267292,
-0.3897404074668884,
0.2779415249824524,
0.4201953113079071,
-0.22283320128917694,
-0.1716325730085373,
0.18950745463371277,
0.04192625358700752,
-0.10739243775606155,
0.024319639429450035,
-0.10606446117162704,
-0.08865896612405777,
0.07658447325229645,
-5.935663223266602,
-0.12185435742139816,
0.03993770107626915,
-0.009734679013490677,
-0.021252019330859184,
-0.4735330045223236,
0.5855492949485779,
-0.09475426375865936,
-0.13666044175624847,
0.38310110569000244,
-0.4521064758300781,
-0.2895205616950989,
-0.3102305233478546,
0.7318668365478516,
0.42888304591178894,
0.15097136795520782,
0.6047070026397705,
0.20246313512325287,
0.2738274931907654,
0.6962294578552246,
-0.3954083025455475,
-0.45865073800086975,
0.20503169298171997,
0.7700390815734863,
-0.49939122796058655,
-0.2497124820947647,
-0.5316010117530823,
0.46393123269081116,
-0.6298543214797974,
-0.18745410442352295,
-0.16390646994113922,
0.22637410461902618,
-0.14471666514873505,
-0.10427919030189514,
0.3944971561431885,
-0.18070581555366516,
0.19102737307548523,
0.022223474457859993,
0.5526139736175537,
0.005560652352869511,
0.40436887741088867,
0.8116435408592224,
0.19347505271434784,
0.29401877522468567,
0.4315093159675598,
-0.184589684009552,
-0.41169726848602295,
-0.10462061315774918,
-0.5640102624893188,
0.35310840606689453,
0.12539349496364594,
0.3636644184589386,
0.17933125793933868,
-0.4883711040019989,
0.1583874523639679,
-0.029164649546146393,
0.19630633294582367,
-0.46436935663223267,
-0.39736247062683105,
0.5791875720024109,
0.41273441910743713,
-0.5299718379974365,
-0.06783547252416611,
-0.3865130841732025,
-0.5197547674179077,
-0.24706946313381195,
-0.6096007823944092,
-0.6017244458198547,
0.17573732137680054,
0.30255547165870667,
-0.33134105801582336,
0.4614766240119934,
0.09363929182291031,
-0.7184840440750122,
0.24416020512580872,
-0.34865668416023254,
0.07873430103063583,
0.09954828023910522,
0.5398685336112976,
0.4214688241481781,
0.049278005957603455,
-0.04103713110089302,
0.2802230417728424,
-0.23290008306503296,
-0.07126076519489288,
-0.4194658100605011,
-0.1093834936618805,
0.9620182514190674,
-0.35826170444488525,
0.011215634644031525,
0.643837571144104,
0.3085629642009735,
0.16527311503887177,
-0.06323053687810898,
-0.04871562495827675,
-0.0796704813838005,
0.09861783683300018,
-0.04856659471988678,
-0.02086757868528366,
-0.6587433218955994,
0.15961027145385742,
-0.2969178557395935,
-0.3433475196361542,
0.08615436404943466,
-0.12188635021448135,
0.044564977288246155,
-0.5113000273704529,
0.06584948301315308,
0.9518527388572693,
-0.43718287348747253,
0.06819062680006027,
0.7004497051239014,
-0.4565166234970093,
-0.28594961762428284,
0.030441496521234512,
0.45170557498931885,
-0.9548396468162537,
0.12230077385902405,
0.13605204224586487,
-0.1322295218706131,
0.11293068528175354,
-0.19705918431282043,
-0.4651644229888916,
0.08747536689043045,
0.4629878103733063,
-0.518546462059021,
-0.20363041758537292,
0.5577112436294556,
-0.09970413148403168,
0.2609564960002899,
0.8495478630065918,
0.6446293592453003,
-0.46853283047676086,
-0.4437660276889801,
0.39762550592422485,
-0.3514447510242462,
0.12986518442630768,
0.46723857522010803,
-0.4773535132408142,
-0.5246751308441162,
0.6033176779747009,
-0.021803665906190872,
0.3304493725299835,
0.0735156312584877,
0.664057195186615,
-0.15962432324886322,
-0.2753816246986389,
-0.4243159294128418,
0.21386341750621796,
-0.10110759735107422,
-0.1531638503074646,
-0.33732253313064575,
-0.3325122594833374,
-0.1958431750535965,
0.37787386775016785,
-0.3480502665042877,
0.33846837282180786,
0.33736714720726013,
-0.3197067677974701,
-0.7541919946670532,
0.2955867052078247,
0.054494068026542664,
-1.0584840774536133,
-0.09280605614185333,
-0.14491777122020721,
0.040932293981313705,
-0.7918112874031067,
-0.1720414161682129,
0.0376976877450943,
0.6619723439216614,
-0.41519513726234436,
-0.5490931868553162,
-0.40611565113067627,
-0.667052149772644,
0.029197782278060913,
0.08489299565553665,
0.2052358239889145,
-0.10113652795553207,
-0.24073265492916107,
-0.44562777876853943,
0.054587893187999725,
-0.6015866994857788,
-0.6412522792816162,
-0.05679783597588539,
0.23373816907405853,
-0.19605006277561188,
-0.22588424384593964,
0.4815724194049835,
-0.3035297989845276,
-0.6977565884590149,
-0.23429764807224274,
-0.1090669110417366,
0.14423306286334991,
0.22972682118415833,
-0.2508302628993988,
-0.5542219281196594,
-0.34239667654037476,
0.4035641849040985,
-0.33193352818489075,
-0.4633297026157379,
0.2643832564353943,
0.5457864999771118,
-0.6014280915260315,
0.16241350769996643,
0.16555552184581757,
-0.4487342834472656,
0.3367827832698822,
0.5277511477470398,
-0.3903585374355316,
0.5678438544273376,
-0.5735688209533691,
-0.797924280166626,
-0.6753666400909424,
0.35671159625053406,
-0.11932516098022461,
-0.07477664202451706,
-0.032147496938705444,
-0.21708208322525024,
0.1019054427742958,
-0.1754692792892456,
0.7347214818000793,
-0.25357216596603394,
-0.44279277324676514,
0.2644118368625641,
-0.43157827854156494,
0.18243536353111267,
0.31863340735435486,
-0.0676550418138504,
0.6471219658851624,
0.0343642458319664,
0.13776329159736633,
-0.0678381398320198,
-0.10735801607370377,
0.427304208278656,
0.19851423799991608,
-0.040907829999923706,
-0.22442661225795746,
0.3818184733390808,
0.16006697714328766,
-0.37037453055381775,
-0.24199292063713074,
0.5937238335609436,
0.1553911417722702,
-0.3834693133831024,
0.11931544542312622,
0.399615615606308,
0.2945213317871094,
-0.5147592425346375,
-0.6648330092430115,
0.3942420482635498,
-0.30241405963897705,
-0.39154252409935,
-0.36770880222320557,
0.07136154174804688,
0.2565181255340576,
-0.03545926511287689,
-0.3825148046016693,
-0.24343997240066528,
-0.348329097032547,
0.5723058581352234,
-0.0943215861916542,
-0.32169780135154724,
0.40330472588539124,
-0.04657425731420517,
0.7269159555435181,
0.1891009509563446,
-0.22719185054302216,
0.6359541416168213,
-0.14073212444782257,
-0.5025807619094849,
0.5678951144218445,
-0.21023723483085632,
0.40719160437583923,
0.8553851246833801,
0.8668860197067261,
0.03711055591702461,
0.10983004420995712,
-0.5359446406364441,
-0.17578981816768646,
-0.14032365381717682,
0.015279333107173443,
-0.479505330324173,
0.21857886016368866,
-0.46043655276298523,
0.6249963045120239,
-0.5806351900100708,
0.557050347328186,
-0.005609377287328243,
-0.8376547694206238,
0.052282556891441345,
-0.4620009660720825,
0.594891369342804,
-0.05041559413075447,
0.08118885010480881,
-0.6660442352294922,
-0.12257220596075058,
0.5277320146560669,
0.14843261241912842,
-0.14934326708316803,
0.18764619529247284,
0.1707676500082016,
0.04606342315673828,
0.3191572427749634,
-0.6662260293960571,
0.5763066411018372,
0.5556074380874634,
-0.15472128987312317,
-0.5107927918434143,
0.13282030820846558,
-0.11893154680728912,
0.00042439671233296394,
0.057589687407016754,
0.16130873560905457,
0.44328784942626953,
-0.05343857780098915,
0.05280580371618271,
0.4168665111064911,
-0.5789881348609924,
0.5168811082839966,
0.5372745394706726,
-0.208548441529274,
-0.1895270198583603,
0.4653054475784302,
-0.41566136479377747,
0.10404518991708755,
0.3249552845954895,
-0.02119636908173561,
0.23742812871932983,
-0.06959705799818039,
0.19730347394943237,
0.3045823276042938,
0.3708658218383789,
0.03504812717437744,
-0.11870705336332321,
-0.25785553455352783,
-0.6228992938995361,
0.44470787048339844,
-0.706794798374176,
0.11502189189195633,
0.7039568424224854,
0.636413037776947,
0.10957532376050949,
0.223262757062912,
0.16898755729198456,
-0.07938981056213379,
0.36134833097457886,
0.4224050045013428,
0.18083801865577698,
-0.289663702249527,
0.866701602935791,
-0.0277269147336483,
-0.1997518688440323,
0.3393279016017914,
0.23724357783794403,
-0.13512563705444336,
-0.40738704800605774,
0.6574003100395203,
0.013298326171934605,
-0.3230573236942291,
-0.0681595727801323,
0.09956194460391998,
0.60024094581604,
0.2437615841627121,
-0.2381163090467453,
0.40643659234046936,
-0.23360589146614075,
0.5017738938331604,
-0.39849168062210083,
0.08502184599637985,
0.5562173128128052,
0.20472197234630585,
0.42533352971076965,
-0.1478690207004547,
0.16101978719234467,
0.6914910674095154,
0.24012444913387299,
0.35149890184402466,
0.6053199768066406,
0.07093530148267746,
0.23797976970672607,
-0.2783029079437256,
0.28010115027427673,
-0.08547592163085938,
-0.1973433643579483,
-0.39589422941207886,
0.10792876034975052,
-0.438237726688385,
0.0242588110268116,
-0.39720433950424194,
0.2426632046699524,
0.037389080971479416,
-0.17585143446922302,
0.22641466557979584,
0.1527891308069229,
-0.3564107120037079,
0.392500638961792,
0.20148563385009766,
0.5101451277732849,
-0.05742710456252098,
-0.4602636992931366,
-0.3802618384361267,
0.4932365417480469,
-0.20555967092514038,
0.08366155624389648,
-0.40833255648612976,
0.3773297965526581,
-0.35727378726005554,
0.1089789867401123,
-0.14649257063865662,
0.13852711021900177,
0.2209620177745819,
-0.7021673321723938,
-0.2536197900772095,
0.3441651463508606,
0.16711163520812988,
0.19123609364032745,
0.33668994903564453,
-0.05591846629977226,
0.09655951708555222,
-0.516312837600708,
0.17435164749622345,
-0.13902020454406738,
0.06678764522075653,
-0.25564131140708923,
0.05113520100712776,
0.4107241630554199,
0.11353876441717148,
0.5113579630851746,
-0.46520325541496277,
0.6508121490478516,
-0.540653645992279,
0.12530523538589478,
-0.8532960414886475,
0.34116145968437195,
-0.24661535024642944,
-0.30019912123680115,
0.1670064777135849,
-0.0759090706706047,
0.32414713501930237,
-0.23853199183940887,
0.09886833280324936,
-0.33877286314964294,
-0.12768472731113434,
-0.17217226326465607,
-0.7522050142288208,
0.3774186670780182,
0.0202525332570076,
0.08080033957958221,
-0.2770601809024811,
0.3865671455860138,
0.35999026894569397,
-0.22123025357723236,
-0.12060870975255966,
0.32709670066833496,
-0.05213896930217743,
-0.08397926390171051,
0.08873705565929413,
-0.6740339994430542,
-0.03964504599571228,
0.369511216878891
] |
241591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focke-Achgelis | Focke-Achgelis | Focke-Achgelis & Co. G.m.b.H. was a German helicopter company founded in 1937 by Henrich Focke and Gerd Achgelis.
History
Henrich Focke was ousted in 1936 from the Focke-Wulf company, which he had cofounded in 1924, due to shareholder pressure. There is reason to believe that Focke's removal was to allow Focke-Wulf's manufacturing capacity to be used to produce Bf 109 aircraft. The company was taken over by AEG, but soon after this the Air Ministry, which had been impressed by the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 helicopter, suggested that Focke establish a new company dedicated to helicopter development, and issued him with a requirement for an improved design, capable of carrying a payload.
Focke established the Focke-Achgelis company at Hoykenkamp, Germany, on 27 April 1937, in partnership with pilot Gerd Achgelis, and began development work at Delmenhorst in 1938.
Designs
Focke-Achgelis Fa 223 Drache (Dragon), transport helicopter (20 produced)
Focke-Achgelis Fa 225 rotary wing glider (prototype), 1942
Focke-Achgelis Fa 266 Hornisse (Hornet), helicopter (prototype)
Focke-Achgelis Fa 269, VTOL aircraft (project only)
Focke-Achgelis Fa 284, large transport helicopter (project only)
Focke-Achgelis Fa 325 Krabbe (crab), heavy transport multicopter (project only)
Focke-Achgelis Fa 330 Bachstelze (Wagtail), rotor kite, 1942
Focke-Achgelis Fa 336 scout helicopter (prototype), 1944
References
External links
Luft '46
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of Germany
Helicopter manufacturers of Germany
Defunct helicopter manufacturers of Germany | [
-0.5319435596466064,
1.1321684122085571,
-0.3761640787124634,
-0.29134711623191833,
-1.0110868215560913,
0.4798547327518463,
0.40828219056129456,
0.2578238248825073,
-0.3876877725124359,
-0.39259347319602966,
-0.3917480409145355,
-0.0007820093887858093,
-0.3278006613254547,
0.8504825830459595,
0.040786437690258026,
0.2743555009365082,
-0.4760702848434448,
0.8443673253059387,
-0.48246830701828003,
-0.618500828742981,
-0.29716256260871887,
-0.2064254879951477,
0.6635753512382507,
-0.5641374588012695,
0.14796966314315796,
-0.36327865719795227,
0.42335614562034607,
-0.531578540802002,
0.1748262196779251,
0.06697619706392288,
0.18864648044109344,
1.6206203699111938,
-0.28283071517944336,
-0.2853223383426666,
0.17877846956253052,
-0.549367368221283,
0.4821361005306244,
0.2624551057815552,
0.6746122241020203,
-0.286874383687973,
-0.06266972422599792,
0.3408167362213135,
0.33672839403152466,
0.5658316016197205,
0.016399996355175972,
-0.7612278461456299,
-1.9175571203231812,
-0.21535979211330414,
-1.2637144327163696,
-0.2681017816066742,
0.008384782820940018,
-0.8131858110427856,
0.8246957659721375,
1.0071593523025513,
-0.32588991522789,
0.5372008681297302,
-0.9769821763038635,
0.22748582065105438,
0.8390509486198425,
0.2840154767036438,
0.5129393935203552,
0.03316815197467804,
0.18303370475769043,
0.31168338656425476,
0.11707807332277298,
0.19701093435287476,
-0.5454072952270508,
0.5844874382019043,
-0.022977685555815697,
0.17958234250545502,
-0.4432043731212616,
-0.4986737072467804,
0.5436897277832031,
0.0047229682095348835,
0.014362669549882412,
-0.4096412658691406,
0.13082484900951385,
0.0038944180123507977,
0.3935287594795227,
-0.22737237811088562,
0.09771329164505005,
0.47430887818336487,
0.7248769402503967,
-0.20720337331295013,
0.141936257481575,
0.7321851849555969,
-0.7894653081893921,
-0.8676194548606873,
-0.4723873734474182,
0.22699429094791412,
-0.139478400349617,
-0.005360097624361515,
0.0011172009399160743,
0.3170466125011444,
0.0742100179195404,
-0.1605624258518219,
0.07297643274068832,
0.15961813926696777,
-0.07119383662939072,
0.5241193175315857,
0.04939401149749756,
0.6330686807632446,
-0.09304231405258179,
0.050428006798028946,
0.14141783118247986,
0.13743484020233154,
-0.3451727032661438,
-0.3730391561985016,
0.5124155282974243,
-1.2481003999710083,
-0.8032986521720886,
0.19207246601581573,
0.0706034004688263,
-0.24372746050357819,
-0.20467063784599304,
0.5722805261611938,
0.4943091571331024,
-0.5320671200752258,
-0.14173465967178345,
0.11712121218442917,
0.1473170518875122,
1.3646827936172485,
-0.4751861095428467,
0.21297875046730042,
-0.8764355182647705,
0.8155220150947571,
0.5178102850914001,
0.4032753109931946,
0.3564414381980896,
0.7554423213005066,
0.4184839427471161,
0.8357484340667725,
-0.03569244220852852,
-0.6440889239311218,
-0.2815698981285095,
-0.3579886257648468,
0.9683244228363037,
0.8500295877456665,
0.051140110939741135,
0.26540178060531616,
-0.553226888179779,
-0.5054364800453186,
-2.252180814743042,
0.45942381024360657,
0.5155673623085022,
0.01963411271572113,
-0.38008183240890503,
-0.1966165155172348,
0.2388918548822403,
0.24661210179328918,
-0.19751636683940887,
-0.6663126349449158,
-0.34116968512535095,
0.8322020769119263,
-0.3678853213787079,
0.35057172179222107,
0.2151358276605606,
-0.37417930364608765,
0.5154550075531006,
0.684084415435791,
-0.17171142995357513,
-0.025334760546684265,
-0.2004053294658661,
-0.10303117334842682,
-0.6689003705978394,
-0.2652425467967987,
0.7410571575164795,
0.16745667159557343,
-0.36361372470855713,
0.1887008100748062,
-0.6642582416534424,
-0.10821164399385452,
-0.3006979823112488,
-0.30762210488319397,
0.5354205965995789,
0.581932544708252,
0.941070020198822,
0.45016688108444214,
-0.05318249389529228,
-0.3846849799156189,
-0.6859256029129028,
0.234571635723114,
0.39189910888671875,
-0.2672945261001587,
0.6493921875953674,
0.037872448563575745,
0.7560405135154724,
-0.19867999851703644,
0.1438000351190567,
-0.0005531416973099113,
-0.11252084374427795,
-0.8165143728256226,
0.9473369121551514,
0.10978590697050095,
1.4291445016860962,
0.21290607750415802,
-0.21465495228767395,
-0.3135935664176941,
0.146766796708107,
0.5736735463142395,
-0.3552013635635376,
-0.7830510139465332,
-0.07678472995758057,
-0.09407665580511093,
-0.5357645750045776,
1.7530030012130737,
-0.22455835342407227,
-0.053327370434999466,
0.02511177770793438,
0.3123529851436615,
0.5431357026100159,
-0.49583303928375244,
0.32126685976982117,
-0.6913111209869385,
0.10693173110485077,
-0.7218786478042603,
0.6518118381500244,
0.5271023511886597,
-0.27952903509140015,
-0.032285191118717194,
0.4455796480178833,
0.06844908744096756,
0.2856588661670685,
0.5759005546569824,
0.5077208876609802,
0.4583238959312439,
0.622165322303772,
0.30710694193840027,
-0.22810816764831543,
-0.5302767157554626,
0.6877166628837585,
0.290606826543808,
-0.14663831889629364,
-0.5530218482017517,
-0.10716504603624344,
-0.6547221541404724,
-0.673342764377594,
-0.5382702350616455,
0.41764217615127563,
-0.21535426378250122,
0.44267430901527405,
0.8024188876152039,
-0.5406226515769958,
0.27020397782325745,
-0.2884688377380371,
-0.027018586173653603,
-0.2917674481868744,
0.15619739890098572,
-0.292845219373703,
-0.48105835914611816,
0.22550800442695618,
0.11159489303827286,
-0.40264785289764404,
-0.42138367891311646,
-0.006837531924247742,
-0.13889427483081818,
-0.08945795148611069,
0.04927624389529228,
0.04538280516862869,
-0.42305782437324524,
-0.2270917147397995,
-0.17740996181964874,
0.7263109683990479,
0.05024338141083717,
0.15929695963859558,
-1.001471757888794,
-0.08281166851520538,
-0.8089865446090698,
-0.18605735898017883,
-0.6011243462562561,
0.6149730682373047,
-0.28220099210739136,
-0.21927940845489502,
-1.6787947416305542,
0.13733883202075958,
-0.4020269215106964,
-0.19071513414382935,
-0.02646004594862461,
-1.3928221464157104,
0.05490686371922493,
0.54315185546875,
1.0363025665283203,
-0.20316943526268005,
0.3970262408256531,
-0.3955097496509552,
0.3559841215610504,
0.29454928636550903,
-0.26383113861083984,
0.2181878387928009,
-0.0712294653058052,
0.321580708026886,
0.2857162356376648,
-0.9376190304756165,
-0.1014576330780983,
-0.3507595360279083,
0.7977187633514404,
-0.5155465006828308,
-0.5107306838035583,
0.13342399895191193,
-0.36562541127204895,
-0.5453867316246033,
0.24383503198623657,
-0.843802809715271,
-0.23775215446949005,
-0.0696333795785904,
-0.5080443620681763,
-0.7285082936286926,
0.2739526927471161,
-4.328242301940918,
0.08379940688610077,
-0.39230453968048096,
-0.18359850347042084,
0.25484102964401245,
-0.13624253869056702,
0.7981796264648438,
-0.31823137402534485,
-0.5255631804466248,
0.2615802586078644,
-0.08134528249502182,
-0.3425130248069763,
-0.06996691972017288,
0.7950617671012878,
0.8534257411956787,
1.0976803302764893,
0.5459502935409546,
0.008523333817720413,
0.44890978932380676,
-0.296623170375824,
0.24926379323005676,
-0.5712282657623291,
-0.7247240543365479,
-0.08602338284254074,
1.1364049911499023,
0.2734571397304535,
0.13783752918243408,
0.46536940336227417,
-0.85601407289505,
-0.04938381910324097,
-0.2165800929069519,
-0.4441313147544861,
0.33427539467811584,
-0.3962308466434479,
-0.1380840688943863,
-0.18710435926914215,
0.46610456705093384,
0.8260094523429871,
-0.10816118121147156,
-0.5179279446601868,
-0.1665622442960739,
0.8587371706962585,
-0.25043055415153503,
0.6879062056541443,
0.4084693491458893,
-0.12876613438129425,
-1.0749258995056152,
0.6347835659980774,
-0.35471203923225403,
0.5361971259117126,
0.2700629234313965,
-0.22080130875110626,
-0.011843627318739891,
0.7270127534866333,
0.16651681065559387,
-0.5517874360084534,
0.36643093824386597,
-0.22463665902614594,
-0.10044720023870468,
0.3805772662162781,
0.8076643943786621,
-0.14498241245746613,
0.15736965835094452,
-0.12149723619222641,
-0.08638786524534225,
-0.7936195135116577,
-0.01610654592514038,
-0.6494852900505066,
0.14749160408973694,
-0.3727487027645111,
-0.3671504557132721,
0.2832677662372589,
0.17728523910045624,
-0.5643875002861023,
-0.20039868354797363,
-0.21019285917282104,
-0.07514200359582901,
0.029712026938796043,
0.29882803559303284,
0.44399088621139526,
0.038314007222652435,
-0.4198581874370575,
-0.718063235282898,
0.856993556022644,
0.36921828985214233,
-0.007633478846400976,
-0.5428084135055542,
-0.15440678596496582,
-0.8758291006088257,
0.27353066205978394,
0.10073724389076233,
-0.2607172727584839,
0.23377972841262817,
0.6743018627166748,
-0.51866614818573,
-0.12708954513072968,
0.20252090692520142,
-0.16451182961463928,
0.5062366724014282,
-0.33848512172698975,
-0.02390253357589245,
-0.48878568410873413,
0.06627775728702545,
-0.19351384043693542,
-0.006080907303839922,
-0.29664430022239685,
-0.24088647961616516,
-0.20263981819152832,
0.47118696570396423,
0.37711215019226074,
0.17234967648983002,
0.10049199312925339,
-0.15241266787052155,
-0.568324863910675,
0.864974856376648,
-0.2566151022911072,
-0.3765658736228943,
0.5982374548912048,
0.36904868483543396,
0.26003819704055786,
-0.05032391846179962,
-0.35629624128341675,
0.08079749345779419,
-0.8980907201766968,
-0.14886388182640076,
0.08764085173606873,
0.29142412543296814,
0.1829388439655304,
-0.5344376564025879,
-0.1491420716047287,
-0.490479975938797,
0.24156394600868225,
-0.35257214307785034,
-0.0168937798589468,
0.03936859592795372,
-1.37678062915802,
-0.20373186469078064,
0.07737802714109421,
0.18048395216464996,
-0.606641948223114,
0.2959365248680115,
-0.05033901706337929,
0.0465443879365921,
0.25423532724380493,
-0.26296862959861755,
0.919623076915741,
0.8864057064056396,
0.03759104385972023,
-0.7180682420730591,
0.3037651777267456,
-0.22627723217010498,
-0.7820465564727783,
0.36912745237350464,
-0.1265680491924286,
-0.1469503939151764,
0.08911672234535217,
-0.0024116914719343185,
0.49452686309814453,
-0.3033154010772705,
-0.35042741894721985,
0.11204619705677032,
0.1757306456565857,
-0.8239530920982361,
0.01134850550442934,
0.7806646227836609,
-0.604106068611145,
-0.2146379053592682,
-0.3864136040210724,
-0.9621382355690002,
0.7209545373916626,
-0.046065207570791245,
-0.11803280562162399,
-1.0549952983856201,
-0.6504040956497192,
0.49826544523239136,
0.024512257426977158,
0.297480046749115,
0.4112040102481842,
-0.009555834345519543,
-0.5700572729110718,
0.1622719019651413,
0.3520274758338928,
-0.6590167880058289,
0.2816251814365387,
0.4783497452735901,
-0.4658496081829071,
-0.2550467252731323,
-0.3253064751625061,
-0.44310763478279114,
-0.3536730408668518,
0.18294689059257507,
0.31336474418640137,
0.6692421436309814,
0.3382812738418579,
-0.2242376059293747,
-1.029497504234314,
0.16193394362926483,
0.31993433833122253,
0.42658695578575134,
-0.7754126787185669,
0.09512504190206528,
0.8975949883460999,
-0.06118716299533844,
0.6710329055786133,
0.42397934198379517,
-1.1036289930343628,
0.1612548679113388,
0.07435411214828491,
-0.11987561732530594,
0.9502215385437012,
-0.21644774079322815,
-1.1719932556152344,
0.0096230898052454,
0.5560591220855713,
-0.5276495218276978,
0.24269446730613708,
0.7790895700454712,
-0.07295568287372589,
-0.354508638381958,
-0.3072150647640228,
-0.11614754796028137,
-0.4154509902000427,
-1.2737783193588257,
-0.2833269536495209,
-0.6353579759597778,
0.7952831983566284,
0.13750413060188293,
0.030595021322369576,
0.4747457206249237,
-0.6796490550041199,
-0.17872169613838196,
0.24569827318191528,
0.22114813327789307,
0.5122653245925903,
0.2798362672328949,
0.7395239472389221,
-0.44732704758644104,
0.5869951844215393,
-0.07139381766319275,
0.16141317784786224,
0.17478473484516144,
-0.014579787850379944,
0.5625948309898376,
-0.2519015371799469,
-0.25898343324661255,
-0.02438918687403202,
-0.15121230483055115,
-0.16143165528774261,
-0.6801441311836243,
-0.3826172649860382,
-0.17958292365074158,
-0.40104374289512634,
-1.174027442932129,
-0.23864710330963135,
1.5456373691558838,
0.08039133250713348,
-0.32271602749824524,
0.9602898359298706,
-0.04654919356107712,
0.1283789426088333,
-0.4258946478366852,
0.3458643853664398,
-0.28806233406066895,
0.7418078780174255,
0.09602409601211548,
0.7912846803665161,
-0.6084637641906738,
-0.2425808608531952,
0.8329665064811707,
0.30092328786849976,
-0.664454460144043,
-0.827933132648468,
-0.08148238807916641,
0.10572537034749985,
0.30577152967453003,
-0.35518917441368103,
0.24985893070697784,
-0.5291045904159546,
-0.3497422933578491,
-0.5394608974456787,
0.584603488445282,
0.121627576649189,
0.5498135089874268,
-0.30347537994384766,
0.08106842637062073,
-0.5015729069709778,
-0.8985413312911987,
-0.3222278952598572,
-0.7368254661560059,
0.1479007452726364,
-0.3749185800552368,
-0.08210603147745132,
-0.42587703466415405,
0.46714359521865845,
-0.09871773421764374,
0.49416476488113403,
0.11798656731843948,
-0.4016020596027374,
-0.021500609815120697,
-0.005754031706601381,
-0.8580645322799683,
0.8618360161781311,
0.40578001737594604,
-0.020050546154379845,
0.8157457709312439,
0.43605828285217285,
-0.08525964617729187,
0.03934361785650253,
-0.5472922921180725,
-0.046668890863657,
-0.09565764665603638,
0.12914635241031647,
-0.4031667709350586,
0.9415357112884521,
-0.3042159974575043,
-0.3491867184638977,
0.4342449903488159,
-0.381032794713974,
0.31413668394088745,
0.5748417973518372,
-0.004615919664502144,
-0.19881181418895721,
0.7411051988601685,
-0.2680373787879944,
-0.640163779258728,
0.6987497210502625,
0.2896368205547333,
0.1859627664089203,
0.4473154544830322,
-0.07790251821279526,
0.3999556601047516,
-0.12580202519893646,
-0.9279786348342896,
0.668744683265686,
0.3072397708892822,
0.3682977259159088,
0.35394513607025146,
-0.5770450234413147,
-0.4597768485546112,
0.6549856662750244,
0.451833575963974,
0.5013048052787781,
0.036701079457998276,
-0.46153995394706726,
-0.8023630380630493,
-0.28132984042167664,
-0.47042083740234375,
0.5463361740112305,
0.11945647746324539,
-0.0019368112552911043,
0.24917621910572052,
0.33300650119781494,
0.2768763601779938,
-0.34605759382247925,
-0.3769323527812958,
-0.013346732594072819,
0.5367115139961243,
-0.2467423975467682,
0.33309030532836914,
-0.7849288582801819,
0.3111572563648224,
0.06141212210059166,
0.4329940676689148,
0.0027804411947727203,
0.37022408843040466,
-0.03547660633921623,
0.23211465775966644,
-0.45970845222473145,
0.08416765928268433,
0.6067388653755188,
0.5533888339996338,
-0.242662712931633,
0.9833744168281555,
0.27877259254455566,
0.3318985402584076,
0.21173042058944702,
0.33604171872138977,
-0.3874528110027313,
0.5507853031158447,
0.30858317017555237,
-0.1510149985551834,
0.17019400000572205,
0.057022299617528915,
-0.004211410414427519,
0.32858118414878845,
-0.25716885924339294,
-0.44472536444664,
0.044171713292598724,
0.4522174298763275,
-0.3291057348251343,
0.11949804425239563,
-0.3573552370071411,
0.020817993208765984,
0.15771926939487457,
-0.5877423882484436,
0.35380351543426514,
-0.6254481077194214,
0.45671790838241577,
-0.49311354756355286,
-0.5092443227767944,
-0.18922854959964752,
0.25532740354537964,
0.34877467155456543,
-0.343639612197876,
0.024915870279073715,
0.07577536255121231,
-0.4941200911998749,
0.8941102623939514,
-0.22108949720859528,
0.6495534181594849,
-0.3184850811958313,
-0.3061491549015045,
-0.10231254994869232,
0.5020491480827332,
0.2136508822441101,
-0.10566902905702591,
0.24270498752593994,
-0.6489326357841492,
-0.6814420819282532,
0.0905139371752739,
0.3434293568134308,
-0.2375912219285965,
-0.04744527116417885,
-0.4650806188583374,
-0.3401651978492737,
-0.24293194711208344,
0.43373921513557434,
0.0993153527379036,
0.179366335272789,
0.530130922794342,
0.07618778944015503,
0.4568256139755249,
-0.6928563117980957,
-0.5802897810935974,
-0.49828705191612244,
0.1243036761879921,
0.0383199006319046,
0.6363481283187866,
0.3070787787437439,
-0.1704704463481903,
0.1543094515800476,
-0.3000141978263855,
0.49314364790916443,
0.6304042935371399,
-2.6059682369232178,
-0.23185722529888153,
-0.49837639927864075,
-0.7219731211662292,
0.08327870815992355,
0.955620288848877,
0.40614593029022217,
-0.28336256742477417,
0.17321528494358063,
0.05315686762332916,
0.6553847193717957,
0.09203143417835236,
-0.1734999567270279,
-0.8914712071418762,
0.6431288719177246,
-0.124503493309021
] |
241594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camper | Camper | Camper may refer to:
A person who engages in recreational camping
A trailer (vehicle) used for camping:
Popup camper
Travel trailer
Truck camper
Recreational vehicle
Campervan
Camping (gaming), a tactic in video gaming.
People
Carter Camper (born 1988), American ice hockey player
Franklin J. Camper, former American soldier and known mercenary Braulis
Karen Camper (born 1958), American politician
Jennifer Camper, American comics artist, graphic artist and editor residing in Brooklyn, New York
Petrus Camper (1722–1789), Dutch anatomist
Companies
Camper (company), a Spanish shoe company
See also
Camp (disambiguation)
Camper Fascia, a thick, superficial layer of the anterior abdominal wall
Camper Van Beethoven, an American alternative rock band
Camper Vantiquities, a 1993 rarities compilation album by Camper Van Beethoven
Campers Island (disambiguation)
Kamper, a surname | [
0.9455883502960205,
0.1822514683008194,
0.012455834075808525,
0.4797630310058594,
0.302078515291214,
-0.72166907787323,
-0.18092882633209229,
-0.10570148378610611,
-0.5474960803985596,
-0.21328218281269073,
-0.3368558883666992,
0.289145290851593,
0.034838613122701645,
0.10497619211673737,
-0.4855290949344635,
0.812096893787384,
0.2685651183128357,
0.33512645959854126,
-0.5284004211425781,
-0.33617377281188965,
-0.16572806239128113,
-0.6681522727012634,
-0.047174122184515,
-0.0704968124628067,
-0.29637691378593445,
0.422230988740921,
0.47516149282455444,
0.48438408970832825,
-0.15563715994358063,
-0.19398711621761322,
-0.3814544081687927,
0.4934178590774536,
0.5197851657867432,
0.0973559021949768,
0.18799856305122375,
0.0003107825177721679,
0.13849949836730957,
-0.67226243019104,
-0.32840460538864136,
-0.6540062427520752,
-0.0926964208483696,
-0.24792994558811188,
-0.007072868756949902,
0.291375994682312,
0.17739255726337433,
-0.5916105508804321,
-1.3333382606506348,
-0.02033190429210663,
-0.4805045425891876,
-0.05812283232808113,
-0.5089807510375977,
0.6846184134483337,
-0.05679704248905182,
0.5643178224563599,
0.7109595537185669,
0.5138645768165588,
-0.14749065041542053,
-0.514788806438446,
0.2502622604370117,
-0.710216224193573,
0.0018433568766340613,
0.3252377510070801,
0.16743281483650208,
0.036754339933395386,
0.056903280317783356,
-0.26230669021606445,
-0.3408139646053314,
-0.08789984881877899,
0.016146715730428696,
-0.6608745455741882,
-0.7216508388519287,
-0.962177574634552,
-0.111084945499897,
-0.04844528064131737,
0.23885270953178406,
0.2148209810256958,
0.4237951934337616,
-0.16034218668937683,
0.06817112863063812,
0.32275357842445374,
-0.3989730775356293,
0.453567236661911,
0.5317290425300598,
0.3721539080142975,
0.20074045658111572,
0.06211037188768387,
-0.34948432445526123,
0.3734167516231537,
0.015009189955890179,
0.593181312084198,
0.5049638152122498,
-0.10639326274394989,
1.0707530975341797,
0.2783367335796356,
0.24740658700466156,
0.1593225747346878,
0.3772388994693756,
0.3159656524658203,
0.6931654810905457,
0.22924672067165375,
0.1883983165025711,
0.3166225552558899,
0.21700064837932587,
0.42015981674194336,
-0.33467650413513184,
-0.25095799565315247,
-0.2377055138349533,
-0.601841390132904,
0.13912449777126312,
-0.3148133158683777,
-0.2518300712108612,
0.5106682777404785,
0.1949417144060135,
0.31749165058135986,
0.29285305738449097,
0.15719850361347198,
-0.02271469496190548,
0.22303375601768494,
-0.5612504482269287,
0.01552637480199337,
-0.0025146971456706524,
0.49957191944122314,
0.07766231894493103,
-0.2918502986431122,
-0.023198025301098824,
0.723933756351471,
0.5430089235305786,
0.6037390828132629,
-0.7711168527603149,
-0.11696571856737137,
0.20071963965892792,
0.13911424577236176,
-0.24488025903701782,
0.3029261529445648,
-0.34767580032348633,
0.3377869725227356,
0.09152321517467499,
-0.33870571851730347,
0.49877217411994934,
0.021038301289081573,
-1.2624201774597168,
-0.4326495826244354,
-0.07448527961969376,
-0.16691702604293823,
0.2353733777999878,
0.30767175555229187,
0.3352981507778168,
-0.7147665619850159,
-0.9570940732955933,
0.31899741291999817,
-0.05719747394323349,
-0.03691183775663376,
0.05460492894053459,
-0.1617489904165268,
-0.2895233631134033,
0.4843161702156067,
0.17642265558242798,
-0.3542003929615021,
0.1511336714029312,
-0.1793462187051773,
0.04912455007433891,
-0.061767127364873886,
-0.763411283493042,
0.08823877573013306,
0.2998034954071045,
0.10691501200199127,
-0.14727556705474854,
0.28788596391677856,
0.11821012943983078,
0.39107590913772583,
-0.36273193359375,
0.286064475774765,
-0.1628827154636383,
0.012333443388342857,
0.10751292109489441,
0.10983198881149292,
0.707872211933136,
0.0603109709918499,
0.47250646352767944,
0.6306583881378174,
-0.6373913288116455,
-0.15522322058677673,
0.3951073884963989,
-0.4184989631175995,
-0.5834389328956604,
-0.7412185072898865,
0.044111717492341995,
-0.4554561674594879,
-0.24002200365066528,
-0.27492696046829224,
-0.4846150279045105,
-0.485771507024765,
0.09082123637199402,
-0.6510595679283142,
1.385726809501648,
-0.5500590801239014,
-0.5987869501113892,
0.9180653691291809,
0.42693886160850525,
0.1439821869134903,
-0.1365908980369568,
0.21530838310718536,
0.11451377719640732,
-0.10970421135425568,
-0.9557757377624512,
0.44027212262153625,
0.1300635039806366,
0.253758043050766,
-0.0967014953494072,
-0.3663575351238251,
0.3914802074432373,
-0.06188827380537987,
0.605793297290802,
-0.10195469856262207,
0.18391504883766174,
0.2659216821193695,
-0.5427212715148926,
0.768724799156189,
-0.06343855708837509,
-0.23751606047153473,
0.3846263587474823,
-0.4009067118167877,
-0.6811258792877197,
0.3542592525482178,
-0.13896618783473969,
0.5737191438674927,
-0.07348547130823135,
0.10255231708288193,
0.8094258308410645,
-0.6101616621017456,
0.2276185005903244,
0.1525624394416809,
-0.08987237513065338,
-0.3047008216381073,
0.06115112081170082,
0.6379885077476501,
0.28170278668403625,
-0.29244551062583923,
-0.027741268277168274,
-0.05023306980729103,
-0.30121392011642456,
0.22944046556949615,
-0.06699277460575104,
-0.20529860258102417,
0.1636509746313095,
-0.13809865713119507,
-0.38325974345207214,
0.2752670347690582,
-0.3265596330165863,
-0.2989906370639801,
0.3759063482284546,
-0.12360776960849762,
0.6136704087257385,
-0.11818426847457886,
0.32518109679222107,
-0.398342102766037,
-0.6842232942581177,
0.04287315160036087,
0.25787797570228577,
-0.19448406994342804,
0.06238523870706558,
0.2158178687095642,
-0.2086620330810547,
0.06029967963695526,
-0.27556896209716797,
-0.6744522452354431,
-0.24768511950969696,
0.14425349235534668,
-0.624620795249939,
0.912013828754425,
0.2981081008911133,
-0.07441628724336624,
-0.3575523793697357,
-0.15819981694221497,
-0.24668990075588226,
-0.46124768257141113,
0.2109915316104889,
0.013549741357564926,
-0.007938983850181103,
-0.5307368636131287,
-0.295665979385376,
-0.18153023719787598,
0.9139013290405273,
-0.22434978187084198,
-0.188667893409729,
-0.4275699555873871,
-0.08484165370464325,
0.4016248881816864,
-0.48296281695365906,
-0.30472326278686523,
0.3597566485404968,
0.5084640979766846,
0.6400881409645081,
1.0040353536605835,
0.6836943626403809,
0.5406858921051025,
-0.16136735677719116,
0.3528439402580261,
0.4190320670604706,
-0.1145498976111412,
-0.49087318778038025,
0.017379404976963997,
-0.47564148902893066,
-0.22267483174800873,
0.16454638540744781,
-0.2475997507572174,
0.043762482702732086,
-0.5748976469039917,
-5.625566482543945,
-0.19313742220401764,
-0.7774376273155212,
-0.6613008975982666,
-0.28583577275276184,
0.16012804210186005,
0.26529568433761597,
-0.6059152483940125,
-0.315499871969223,
0.735091507434845,
-0.04367019608616829,
-0.06689745932817459,
0.26161760091781616,
-0.01947183534502983,
0.5898575186729431,
0.41256460547447205,
0.8673513531684875,
0.41500124335289,
-0.08056905120611191,
-0.4319852292537689,
0.004428305197507143,
0.32349976897239685,
-0.1718275249004364,
0.4652213454246521,
-0.21414855122566223,
0.05507920682430267,
-0.09626045823097229,
-0.08448874205350876,
-0.08657309412956238,
0.0037503924686461687,
0.2080908566713333,
0.07285739481449127,
-0.15848758816719055,
-0.1365835964679718,
-0.021962856873869896,
0.7199447751045227,
0.5905236005783081,
0.08859681338071823,
-0.17065629363059998,
-0.0859086737036705,
-0.0568959042429924,
0.6281719207763672,
0.5850328207015991,
-0.25567278265953064,
0.636421263217926,
-0.4177173674106598,
-0.25033602118492126,
0.041888173669576645,
-0.4262276887893677,
0.3869583010673523,
0.5780360698699951,
0.13548681139945984,
0.7637467384338379,
0.25418612360954285,
0.1682904213666916,
-0.123265340924263,
0.5317919254302979,
-0.01278633438050747,
-0.7470800280570984,
-0.07916627824306488,
0.22781148552894592,
-0.4993119239807129,
-0.42578989267349243,
-0.5669572353363037,
-0.25451111793518066,
-0.12191562354564667,
-0.5220913887023926,
-0.24335987865924835,
0.5741755962371826,
0.2901003658771515,
-0.6855335235595703,
0.10589335858821869,
0.4805136024951935,
-0.5750319361686707,
0.6039997339248657,
-0.4843037724494934,
-0.1439967155456543,
0.06292799115180969,
-0.3538939654827118,
0.30813318490982056,
-0.1473550796508789,
0.05877614766359329,
0.06637386232614517,
-0.421127051115036,
0.17280912399291992,
-0.2528195083141327,
-0.22512388229370117,
-0.11513060331344604,
-0.28919678926467896,
-0.15910027921199799,
0.8312009572982788,
0.2731393277645111,
0.08986173570156097,
0.14590469002723694,
0.20220738649368286,
0.2144480049610138,
0.2625895142555237,
-0.22496721148490906,
0.5379407405853271,
-0.41639453172683716,
0.2706657946109772,
-0.17168313264846802,
-0.305956095457077,
-0.22470875084400177,
-0.7102391123771667,
-0.12298501282930374,
0.17046067118644714,
0.2627369165420532,
1.1101491451263428,
0.03826366364955902,
0.4601804316043854,
0.6763466000556946,
-0.6719730496406555,
-0.6754856109619141,
0.24311216175556183,
0.29685261845588684,
-0.2477848380804062,
0.8752428293228149,
0.1745520979166031,
-0.016117695719003677,
0.06253042817115784,
-0.24564538896083832,
-0.0292207021266222,
-0.5533369183540344,
0.08914094418287277,
-0.016346046701073647,
0.4171363115310669,
-0.31244879961013794,
0.04497756063938141,
-0.02134663239121437,
0.4810470640659332,
0.3627014458179474,
0.30450624227523804,
-0.04280112311244011,
-0.07873804867267609,
-0.040113385766744614,
-0.31520360708236694,
0.05248973146080971,
0.21605606377124786,
-0.6713350415229797,
-0.08542502671480179,
-0.318005234003067,
0.05026562511920929,
0.21441030502319336,
-0.009231651201844215,
0.3966972529888153,
-0.49631577730178833,
0.1928001344203949,
-0.36168569326400757,
0.23475795984268188,
-0.3425067365169525,
-0.25447309017181396,
0.2692106366157532,
-0.1325179785490036,
0.1922568529844284,
-0.5686345100402832,
0.001443688292056322,
-0.09571235626935959,
0.42494040727615356,
-0.4954182207584381,
0.07731002569198608,
-0.6878241300582886,
-0.8230037093162537,
-0.015127267688512802,
-0.6829060316085815,
0.4436475336551666,
-0.6700611710548401,
-0.5123651027679443,
0.29483282566070557,
0.5425477027893066,
0.1696372777223587,
-0.4334942400455475,
-0.7812699675559998,
-0.14650526642799377,
0.4560895562171936,
0.12284684926271439,
0.46993303298950195,
-0.2779023051261902,
-0.058033499866724014,
-0.35734063386917114,
-0.2651565968990326,
-0.039230529218912125,
-0.16723600029945374,
-0.08723308891057968,
0.323432058095932,
-0.3792007565498352,
-0.1462031900882721,
0.5786037445068359,
-0.3093353807926178,
0.0675738975405693,
-0.10939249396324158,
0.45334649085998535,
0.6048727631568909,
0.41048893332481384,
0.18752197921276093,
-0.34885531663894653,
-0.17627021670341492,
0.2759849429130554,
-0.7152382731437683,
-0.42575010657310486,
0.18607884645462036,
-0.5778383612632751,
-0.8939023613929749,
-0.17004990577697754,
0.12347216159105301,
-0.3779010772705078,
0.5722498297691345,
-0.5760694146156311,
-0.10090088099241257,
0.43099138140678406,
-0.7267410159111023,
-0.41178804636001587,
0.071388378739357,
0.26889321208000183,
-0.27285194396972656,
0.21246318519115448,
-0.08431118726730347,
-0.4878462851047516,
-0.16256704926490784,
-0.15556620061397552,
0.5228431224822998,
0.11945642530918121,
-0.4826510548591614,
-0.08274576812982559,
-0.5354003310203552,
0.3253951668739319,
0.1915483921766281,
-0.8951456546783447,
-0.1339731365442276,
-0.12894201278686523,
-0.06173821911215782,
-0.5252818465232849,
-0.41468122601509094,
-0.35055479407310486,
0.07504258304834366,
-0.28994256258010864,
-0.08712801337242126,
0.14266255497932434,
0.29449963569641113,
0.3051486015319824,
0.194429412484169,
1.0386263132095337,
0.15387225151062012,
-0.4869248569011688,
-0.3703768849372864,
0.10975436121225357,
-0.07885297387838364,
-0.6885209679603577,
-0.7014325857162476,
0.5486482381820679,
0.3345707952976227,
-0.4250144958496094,
-0.5138522386550903,
0.04723765701055527,
0.6870417594909668,
-0.49740105867385864,
-0.8411210179328918,
0.1798672378063202,
0.4364280104637146,
0.6552276015281677,
0.3809267282485962,
0.08525179326534271,
-0.5825628042221069,
-0.14760778844356537,
0.41496512293815613,
-0.13001324236392975,
0.10318506509065628,
-0.09563036262989044,
-0.23203952610492706,
-0.2864179015159607,
0.070011205971241,
0.3685290813446045,
0.8622271418571472,
0.7292178273200989,
0.8350752592086792,
-0.46307823061943054,
-0.014096155762672424,
-0.9396911859512329,
0.062008779495954514,
0.04615522548556328,
-0.055683963000774384,
0.2703707218170166,
0.3323957920074463,
0.11035066097974777,
0.1178513839840889,
-0.19073684513568878,
-0.05484917387366295,
-0.377422958612442,
-0.6655968427658081,
0.12162379920482635,
-0.49544471502304077,
0.12253759801387787,
-0.19965067505836487,
0.22269679605960846,
0.052602022886276245,
0.13389183580875397,
0.93393474817276,
-0.13889534771442413,
-0.06855637580156326,
0.7710677981376648,
-0.6784299612045288,
1.0110126733779907,
0.0109317097812891,
-1.3231956958770752,
0.2991531193256378,
-0.702355146408081,
-0.11251921951770782,
-0.752307653427124,
0.12561571598052979,
0.014468922279775143,
0.24056115746498108,
-0.294119268655777,
0.18052707612514496,
0.8378018140792847,
0.15505072474479675,
-0.2740025520324707,
0.7794981598854065,
-0.24657627940177917,
0.399429589509964,
0.10655226558446884,
0.4912128448486328,
0.1711326688528061,
0.27603650093078613,
-0.09596987068653107,
0.25030699372291565,
-0.08245746046304703,
-0.31338056921958923,
-0.5761025547981262,
0.6830636262893677,
0.3541698753833771,
0.5742232203483582,
-0.059692829847335815,
0.621783435344696,
0.5448774695396423,
-0.48155486583709717,
-0.06588801741600037,
-0.3796347379684448,
-0.49020707607269287,
-0.878950297832489,
0.3959297835826874,
-0.16925360262393951,
0.12809151411056519,
0.3048876225948334,
0.19157567620277405,
0.11284419894218445,
0.46024614572525024,
0.4547416865825653,
-0.05268992483615875,
0.023934537544846535,
0.08477505296468735,
0.2015703320503235,
-0.2755383551120758,
0.0935400128364563,
-0.34724321961402893,
-0.5945670008659363,
-0.8677312731742859,
0.13089080154895782,
-0.17901477217674255,
-0.33815470337867737,
-0.14367559552192688,
0.6252762675285339,
0.1588490903377533,
0.12323332577943802,
-0.06413150578737259,
0.7516205310821533,
-0.44368109107017517,
0.2170484960079193,
-0.6243491172790527,
0.10356657952070236,
0.2583259642124176,
0.3914632499217987,
1.222995400428772,
-0.3332444727420807,
0.23857615888118744,
-0.16234135627746582,
-0.14667870104312897,
0.6254317164421082,
0.6933843493461609,
0.08901126682758331,
0.20994649827480316,
0.18304099142551422,
-0.029209939762949944,
-0.3434469401836395,
-0.5653993487358093,
0.30501624941825867,
-0.850429892539978,
0.5142003297805786,
0.720140278339386,
-0.025684962049126625,
-0.022417880594730377,
-0.06982700526714325,
-0.8980565667152405,
-0.3343784213066101,
-0.4665071666240692,
-0.22915418446063995,
-0.06732475012540817,
0.2634372115135193,
0.3511926233768463,
0.3800271153450012,
0.021681759506464005,
-0.35081711411476135,
-0.17746149003505707,
0.12223400175571442,
-0.26944398880004883,
-0.34201779961586,
0.10808847099542618,
-0.36956995725631714,
0.040839627385139465,
-0.3821888566017151,
0.9463731646537781,
0.9073813557624817,
0.26472994685173035,
-0.026195529848337173,
0.5060286521911621,
0.33561980724334717,
0.29948195815086365,
0.7606428265571594,
-0.7309200763702393,
0.281745046377182,
-0.7457311749458313,
0.1498284935951233,
-0.025108955800533295,
0.6357908248901367,
0.2552405893802643,
0.17967000603675842,
-0.37044429779052734,
0.41962671279907227,
-0.6830615401268005,
-0.20744401216506958,
0.5054610371589661,
-0.08369144052267075,
-0.07164116203784943,
-0.7228749394416809,
0.5260922908782959,
-0.20658327639102936,
-0.6620897650718689,
0.37784045934677124,
0.31238609552383423,
0.721672773361206,
-0.07968902587890625,
0.16431863605976105,
-0.22361421585083008,
-0.44155704975128174,
-0.2850073277950287,
-0.5472392439842224,
0.6209929585456848,
-0.05222668498754501,
0.012444785796105862,
-0.873315691947937,
0.01930365338921547,
0.14533919095993042,
-0.814114511013031,
0.07770518958568573,
-0.4103702902793884,
-0.1396445333957672,
0.18491046130657196,
0.1392688751220703,
-0.4989151060581207,
-0.47833147644996643,
-0.046407587826251984
] |
241595 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrich%20Focke | Henrich Focke | Henrich Focke (8 October 1890 – 25 February 1979) was a German aviation pioneer from Bremen and also a co-founder of the Focke-Wulf company. He is best known as the inventor of the Fw 61, the first successful German helicopter.
Biography
Early life
Henrich Focke was born in Bremen on 8 October 1890, Focke studied at Leibniz University Hannover, where he became friends with Georg Wulf in 1911.
In 1914, he and Wulf both reported for military service and Focke was deferred due to heart problems, but was eventually drafted into an infantry regiment. After serving on the Eastern front, he was transferred to the Imperial German Army Air Service.
Focke graduated in 1920 as Dipl-Ing with distinction. His first job was with the Francke Company of Bremen as a designer of water-gas systems.
Focke-Wulf and Focke-Achgelis
In 1923, with Wulf and Dr. Werner Naumann, Focke co-founded Focke-Wulf-Flugzeugbau GmbH. In 1927 Wulf died while test flying the Focke-Wulf F 19 canard monoplane.
In 1930 Focke was offered a chair at the Danzig Institute of Technology, an honour which he declined. In 1931 the city of Bremen awarded him the title of Professor. The same year, Focke-Wulf was merged with the Albatros Flugzeugwerke company.
Focke-Wulf constructed Juan de la Cierva's C.19 and C.30 autogyros under license from 1933, and Focke was inspired by it to design the world's first practical helicopter, the Focke-Wulf Fw 61, which first flew on 26 June 1936 by Hanna Reitsch. In the Deutschlandhalle arena in 1938, it also became the first practical helicopter to be flown indoors.
In 1936 Focke was ousted from the Focke-Wulf company by shareholder pressure. Though the ostensible reason was that he was considered "politically unreliable" by the Nazi regime, there is reason to believe it was so that Focke-Wulf's manufacturing capacity could be used to produce Bf 109 aircraft. The company was taken over by AEG, but soon after this the Air Ministry, which had been impressed by the Fw 61 helicopter, suggested that Focke establish a new company dedicated to helicopter development and issued him with a requirement for an improved design capable of carrying a payload.
Focke established the Focke-Achgelis company on 27 April 1937 in partnership with pilot Gerd Achgelis, and began development work at Delmenhorst in 1938. The new company built the experimental Fa 225 using the fuselage of a DFS 230 glider and a rotor from a Fa 223. Another project was the Fa 330 kite with rotor, capable of being deployed by a submarine at a moments notice and then used as a towed spotter. It was stored in a watertight container on the deck of the U-boat and was used during the war. A powered version of the kite would have been the Fa 336 which was in the design phase when the war ended and built in France postwar for testing.
Focke subsequently manufactured the heavy-lift transport helicopter Fa 223, and designed the Fa 224, Fa 266, Fa 269, Fa 283, Fa 284, and the Fa 336 during World War II. Only a few of the large Fa 223 Drache ("Dragon") helicopters actually were produced, but even the prototype set a new helicopter speed record of 182 km/h (113 mph) and climb record of 8.8 m/s (1,732 ft/min) in 1940. Subsequent war models were primarily used as mountain troop transport, rescue, and crashed aircraft recovery. The helicopter had provision for a nose-mounted machine gun, and could carry one or two bombs, but the Drache was never used for combat.
Towards the end of the Third Reich Focke started design work on the Focke Rochen, also known as Schnellflugzeug.
Postwar
On 1 September 1945, Focke signed a contract with the French company SNCASE and assisted in development of their SE-3000 passenger helicopter, which was based on the Focke-Achgelis Fa 223 "Drache" and which first flew in 1948.
In 1950, he worked as a designer with the North German Automobile Company (Nordwestdeutscher Fahrzeugbau) of Wilhelmshaven.
In 1952, Focke and other members of his former design team were employed by Brazil's Centro Técnico Aeroespacial (CTA), at the time the air force's technical center, to develop a Convertiplane, the "Convertiplano", which drew heavily on Focke's wartime work on the Fa 269. Also recruited was Bussmann, a transmission specialist formerly of BMW. The Convertiplano was built using the fuselage and wings of a Supermarine Spitfire Mk 15, which was believed to be one delivered to Argentina as a sales example. Britain refused to supply the Armstrong Siddeley Double Mamba engine originally selected and the design was altered to accept a mid-mounted 2200 hp Wright engine instead as used in the Lockheed Constellation, which necessitated a redesign of the transmission due to the increase in weight and vibration. Some 40 workers and US$8 million were devoted to the project, and more than 300 takeoffs were achieved.
While working at the CTA Focke also developed the BF-1 Beija-Flor (hummingbird) two-seater light helicopter from 1954, which made its first flight at Sao Jose dos Campos on 22 January 1959. The BF-1 was similar in design to the Cessna CH-1, with a 225 hp Continental E225 engine in the nose and the rotor mast running vertically between the front seats. An open structure tubular steel tail boom carried a pair of tail surfaces and a small tail rotor. The BF-2 was developed from this and first flew on 1 January 1959, and performed an extended flight-testing campaign until it was damaged in an accident. It is thought that further work on the Beija Flor was then abandoned.
Focke returned permanently to Germany in 1956 and began developing a three-seater helicopter named the "Kolibri" ("hummingbird") at the Borgward company in Bremen, with its first flight taking place in 1958. While working at Borgward Focke set up a wind tunnel in a disused hangar in central Bremen; this wind tunnel was rediscovered in 1997 and is today the centerpiece of a museum devoted to him.
After Borgward collapsed in 1961, Focke became a consulting engineer with Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke of Bremen and Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Luft-und Raumfahrt. Focke was awarded the Ludwig-Prandtl-Ring from the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Luft- und Raumfahrt (German Society for Aeronautics and Astronautics) for "outstanding contribution in the field of aerospace engineering" in 1961. Focke died in Bremen on 25 February 1979.
In 1993, Focke was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.
See also
Focke's wind tunnel
Notes
External links
Henrich Focke's Wind Tunnel
Kovacs, Joseph. "Uma Breve História das Atividades do Prof. Focke no Brasil". ABCM Engenharia (Associação Brasileira de Engenharia e Ciências Mecânicas), April–September 2003, 9 (2): pp. 17–22.
1890 births
1979 deaths
Businesspeople from Bremen
German aerospace engineers
Ludwig-Prandtl-Ring recipients
Howard N. Potts Medal recipients
Engineers from Bremen (state)
Luftstreitkräfte personnel | [
0.352998822927475,
0.5455290079116821,
0.3144426941871643,
0.10876239836215973,
-0.5321649312973022,
0.46252697706222534,
0.34674838185310364,
-0.24345386028289795,
0.20344549417495728,
-0.22684431076049805,
-0.14753293991088867,
-0.07571937143802643,
-0.19532836973667145,
0.5382344722747803,
-0.15327472984790802,
0.13143028318881989,
-0.26703670620918274,
0.16082416474819183,
-0.6972708702087402,
-0.06510302424430847,
-0.27903103828430176,
-0.33263641595840454,
0.7020432949066162,
0.1761520951986313,
0.0345458984375,
-0.5461167693138123,
0.554806113243103,
-0.039934225380420685,
0.3110046684741974,
0.5190792679786682,
0.6474840044975281,
0.575767993927002,
0.1589825451374054,
0.14394500851631165,
-0.4717392027378082,
0.31671378016471863,
0.16570664942264557,
0.003512500785291195,
0.7215416431427002,
-0.29056286811828613,
-0.35502228140830994,
0.4053316116333008,
0.28807172179222107,
-0.0580558143556118,
-0.13331471383571625,
-0.6003265380859375,
-2.070517063140869,
0.33222711086273193,
-0.47610777616500854,
-0.06905809789896011,
-0.21876154839992523,
-0.09660821408033371,
0.4215686619281769,
0.8844718933105469,
0.12013205885887146,
0.11759964376688004,
-0.7328226566314697,
-0.47938159108161926,
0.19369280338287354,
-0.1234576627612114,
0.941656768321991,
0.2314385324716568,
0.5016000866889954,
0.6196642518043518,
0.4669598937034607,
0.10061341524124146,
-0.1805046647787094,
1.0350130796432495,
0.008307572454214096,
-0.2913322448730469,
-0.6117005348205566,
-0.27267953753471375,
0.26058322191238403,
-0.33443570137023926,
0.5540756583213806,
-0.5739160180091858,
-0.23760198056697845,
0.007966555655002594,
0.4130285382270813,
-0.39485403895378113,
0.18850767612457275,
-0.0815480500459671,
0.8273343443870544,
0.6506677865982056,
0.30647435784339905,
0.38137754797935486,
-0.59410560131073,
-0.11915236711502075,
-0.7434607744216919,
-0.2561335563659668,
-0.06038206070661545,
-0.8595514297485352,
0.03657381609082222,
-0.33392322063446045,
-0.0003291444736532867,
0.1102326363325119,
0.39889639616012573,
0.46358248591423035,
-0.012692775577306747,
0.04326609894633293,
0.5074706673622131,
0.16899381577968597,
-0.3438648581504822,
0.030909840017557144,
-0.038964349776506424,
-0.05237135291099548,
0.34607169032096863,
-0.2652391195297241,
0.001374968676827848,
0.1779659539461136,
-1.1855343580245972,
-0.3571227490901947,
-0.013602076098322868,
0.1313362419605255,
-0.1948358565568924,
0.28810036182403564,
0.012653514742851257,
-1.100893497467041,
-0.1602248251438141,
-0.34440070390701294,
-0.01371936034411192,
0.4913664758205414,
-0.36493125557899475,
0.47731858491897583,
-0.7357856035232544,
0.28189510107040405,
-0.007926858961582184,
0.9232065081596375,
-0.5248336791992188,
-0.3824092447757721,
0.6795918941497803,
0.7300208210945129,
-0.1316838413476944,
-0.4762777090072632,
-0.020810352638363838,
-0.07381982356309891,
0.8092473149299622,
0.21576395630836487,
-0.43911629915237427,
0.4143606722354889,
-0.3797539472579956,
-0.7047656178474426,
-0.4655115604400635,
0.0667034387588501,
0.0012666538823395967,
-0.06289651244878769,
0.07131488621234894,
-0.04602742940187454,
-0.35306838154792786,
-0.23236127197742462,
-0.09437697380781174,
-0.006476890295743942,
-0.6058853268623352,
-0.03162294626235962,
-0.19463227689266205,
0.6586923003196716,
0.8930981755256653,
-0.3787870407104492,
0.06474629789590836,
0.5089550614356995,
0.12768970429897308,
-0.25160643458366394,
-0.8429766297340393,
0.26226627826690674,
0.02875574119389057,
-0.6777336597442627,
0.2870366871356964,
-0.005797118414193392,
-0.5444090366363525,
-0.2023884505033493,
-0.4852060377597809,
-0.10774432122707367,
-0.07572349905967712,
0.29703158140182495,
0.23494312167167664,
0.7273038029670715,
0.9590680003166199,
-0.4919297993183136,
0.06013012304902077,
-0.20412103831768036,
-0.6569197177886963,
-0.30976083874702454,
0.3666481077671051,
0.24669595062732697,
0.2639216184616089,
0.37484249472618103,
0.12615978717803955,
-0.374223917722702,
0.257102370262146,
-0.5439195036888123,
0.1350467950105667,
-1.1367219686508179,
0.3897464871406555,
-0.24482126533985138,
1.3382127285003662,
0.2669890224933624,
-0.45090848207473755,
-0.13593502342700958,
-0.3286069333553314,
0.4753710627555847,
-0.2979963719844818,
-0.6117981672286987,
-0.13684631884098053,
0.19728288054466248,
-0.1393847018480301,
0.14713889360427856,
0.08237835019826889,
-0.21354638040065765,
-0.43357279896736145,
0.1396988481283188,
0.4684077799320221,
0.07516311854124069,
0.2424684762954712,
0.012051377445459366,
-0.352539986371994,
-0.2498634308576584,
-0.6552159190177917,
0.19012928009033203,
-0.17052815854549408,
-0.20133063197135925,
0.04781186580657959,
0.5525299906730652,
-0.5696719884872437,
0.8675447106361389,
0.462738037109375,
0.6922536492347717,
0.1058112159371376,
-0.00768999382853508,
-0.7976520657539368,
-0.3828854262828827,
0.18342317640781403,
0.26093411445617676,
-0.15568804740905762,
-0.024449918419122696,
0.3115670084953308,
-0.11665245145559311,
-0.3595469892024994,
0.20386457443237305,
0.11092454940080643,
-0.6856942176818848,
0.6184393763542175,
0.7106860876083374,
-0.8698233366012573,
0.5513045787811279,
-0.10487058758735657,
-0.002703440608456731,
0.01483012642711401,
0.2363816499710083,
-0.5315680503845215,
-0.12107213586568832,
0.30804458260536194,
0.475644588470459,
0.1749623864889145,
-0.5156841278076172,
-0.13021862506866455,
-0.44950950145721436,
0.31776759028434753,
0.019904032349586487,
-0.02122470736503601,
0.14150114357471466,
0.16548891365528107,
-0.6370711922645569,
0.23653681576251984,
-0.061057884246110916,
-0.1349998116493225,
-0.7852387428283691,
-0.11793380975723267,
-0.5814101099967957,
0.20855768024921417,
-0.16844011843204498,
0.1283349245786667,
0.18754518032073975,
0.04992516711354256,
0.21407067775726318,
-0.43012335896492004,
-0.28326866030693054,
-0.3147824704647064,
0.4245990514755249,
-0.8216536641120911,
-0.24767668545246124,
0.18710383772850037,
0.9960166811943054,
-0.0979652926325798,
-0.9712473750114441,
-0.0837239921092987,
0.3066408038139343,
0.25224316120147705,
-0.33026599884033203,
0.28289762139320374,
-0.13006097078323364,
0.01605517603456974,
0.6799508333206177,
-1.0194449424743652,
0.023230385035276413,
-0.23585180938243866,
0.8224554657936096,
-0.1113823875784874,
-0.23836486041545868,
0.1866491585969925,
-0.27042874693870544,
-0.717427134513855,
0.6948772668838501,
-0.061870090663433075,
-0.45319029688835144,
-0.009604180231690407,
-0.024641135707497597,
-0.5261935591697693,
0.048004213720560074,
-5.411733627319336,
-0.12567512691020966,
0.0328606478869915,
-0.5733585953712463,
0.11965242028236389,
0.3801550567150116,
-0.005227961111813784,
-0.1304381936788559,
0.05262720584869385,
-0.2386237382888794,
0.5234171748161316,
-0.355466365814209,
-0.06772737950086594,
0.3586418926715851,
0.37921807169914246,
0.63673996925354,
0.8721047639846802,
-0.15988479554653168,
0.14002856612205505,
-0.12375408411026001,
0.13148531317710876,
-0.5774307250976562,
-0.30443254113197327,
0.5288679599761963,
0.34208518266677856,
-0.2137063890695572,
-0.38723477721214294,
-0.18223096430301666,
-0.4747975766658783,
-0.36022084951400757,
0.33291012048721313,
-0.10141640901565552,
-0.1450148969888687,
0.3276800811290741,
0.26895594596862793,
-0.39990395307540894,
0.6109708547592163,
0.34495091438293457,
-0.3493939936161041,
0.22139771282672882,
-0.005909135565161705,
0.550990104675293,
-0.7526444792747498,
-0.31026491522789,
0.4717709422111511,
-0.049442462623119354,
-0.8146637082099915,
0.6642900109291077,
-0.807234525680542,
0.5258209109306335,
0.30983060598373413,
-0.33957940340042114,
0.04883008822798729,
-0.38937458395957947,
0.5652706623077393,
-0.36932578682899475,
-0.08366802334785461,
0.3543711006641388,
-0.1938713788986206,
0.06738147139549255,
-0.3694612979888916,
0.11493273079395294,
0.3037388026714325,
0.09262498468160629,
-0.6235088109970093,
-0.16551893949508667,
0.12770399451255798,
-0.6722496151924133,
-0.03925717994570732,
-0.30642902851104736,
-0.22078314423561096,
1.1509844064712524,
0.5383115410804749,
-1.1276984214782715,
-0.12100481986999512,
-0.5125793814659119,
-0.20120850205421448,
-0.434922993183136,
-0.15498948097229004,
0.038002096116542816,
0.27339968085289,
-0.5401407480239868,
-0.40792861580848694,
-0.021884087473154068,
0.7904343008995056,
0.691474199295044,
-0.14032776653766632,
-0.11238444596529007,
0.12277042120695114,
0.006122174672782421,
0.11123359948396683,
-0.3687889277935028,
0.1982591450214386,
0.3183683753013611,
-0.1819573938846588,
0.4253176748752594,
-0.6433678269386292,
0.0027609113603830338,
0.2268621027469635,
0.5441665053367615,
0.5287995338439941,
0.008620001375675201,
-0.13912172615528107,
0.040702443569898605,
0.4664399027824402,
0.21284012496471405,
0.6038855910301208,
-0.4852415919303894,
0.8712762594223022,
0.8896437883377075,
0.35696831345558167,
0.18781517446041107,
-0.22511395812034607,
-0.5350233316421509,
0.02269526571035385,
-0.8601589798927307,
-0.5486636757850647,
0.3206896185874939,
0.22075961530208588,
0.0014960962580516934,
-0.10254905372858047,
-0.32781982421875,
-0.5745123624801636,
-1.0929059982299805,
-0.3112114369869232,
0.11489684879779816,
-0.25599461793899536,
0.034857042133808136,
-0.02226916328072548,
0.20962482690811157,
-0.36647406220436096,
0.8126782178878784,
-0.19873662292957306,
0.24122218787670135,
0.005832712631672621,
-0.345060795545578,
-0.41218361258506775,
-0.20678216218948364,
-0.12147625535726547,
-0.25304484367370605,
-0.17072249948978424,
0.34809738397598267,
-0.24718445539474487,
-0.11019208282232285,
0.26058775186538696,
0.49500900506973267,
0.15604297816753387,
0.06091533601284027,
-0.11738074570894241,
0.5079430937767029,
0.26041853427886963,
-0.2747039496898651,
0.3442823588848114,
0.05516599863767624,
-0.6875684261322021,
0.2729986011981964,
-0.04149523377418518,
0.25614455342292786,
-0.021622637286782265,
-0.3182397484779358,
0.14042508602142334,
0.3011481463909149,
-0.9786493182182312,
-0.0290985107421875,
0.3884214758872986,
0.20740266144275665,
-0.38448914885520935,
-0.30625396966934204,
-0.31733977794647217,
0.11018283665180206,
-0.0012710618320852518,
-0.751292884349823,
-0.8897267580032349,
-0.07801205664873123,
0.14163583517074585,
0.23579685389995575,
-0.4193653464317322,
-0.2839607894420624,
0.28744786977767944,
-0.43792587518692017,
-0.12161830067634583,
0.43669962882995605,
-0.6249579191207886,
0.2202019989490509,
0.05101686343550682,
-0.6467972993850708,
-0.12921948730945587,
-0.291564404964447,
-0.3630104064941406,
0.04237264022231102,
0.3523302674293518,
0.3412402868270874,
0.3459111452102661,
0.9284504055976868,
0.02250792644917965,
-0.6258565783500671,
-0.42551836371421814,
-0.2194177210330963,
-0.1426236778497696,
-0.49896565079689026,
-0.5091500282287598,
0.40929919481277466,
-0.05495700612664223,
0.1524103581905365,
0.25203070044517517,
-0.3888665437698364,
-0.07567036151885986,
0.10804565995931625,
0.1280526965856552,
0.7477248311042786,
-0.8318113684654236,
-0.8498410582542419,
0.31748002767562866,
0.5722761154174805,
-0.5822387337684631,
0.28533437848091125,
0.30837348103523254,
0.2023981809616089,
-0.7112292051315308,
-0.20480798184871674,
-0.14699767529964447,
0.09545975178480148,
-0.546496570110321,
-0.3560255467891693,
-0.722238302230835,
-0.11887697130441666,
0.2874981760978699,
0.1532759666442871,
0.5386972427368164,
-0.7056303024291992,
-0.04983183741569519,
0.14821666479110718,
0.28443443775177,
0.43310219049453735,
0.19307565689086914,
0.053756143897771835,
0.1362820714712143,
0.26749497652053833,
0.18815691769123077,
-0.1747802197933197,
0.8919740319252014,
1.30508291721344,
-0.06905164569616318,
0.20827172696590424,
0.17449237406253815,
-0.43821030855178833,
0.6049216985702515,
-0.1694861352443695,
-0.06779568642377853,
-0.23530720174312592,
-0.4837733805179596,
0.1928263157606125,
-1.0508949756622314,
-0.2668941617012024,
0.6687123775482178,
-0.49872225522994995,
-0.14512751996517181,
0.28100237250328064,
-0.0380350761115551,
-0.16005955636501312,
-0.41435495018959045,
0.8605147004127502,
0.12374576181173325,
0.0009552374831400812,
-0.1939489245414734,
0.7976687550544739,
-1.0547245740890503,
-0.18521682918071747,
0.07742220163345337,
-0.04628560319542885,
0.06827136874198914,
-0.11678840965032578,
-0.2220296710729599,
-0.036336418241262436,
0.22007597982883453,
0.3233831524848938,
0.0317394882440567,
-0.038332317024469376,
-0.32181620597839355,
0.228398397564888,
-0.6333882808685303,
-0.23159977793693542,
0.6770052313804626,
-0.7644030451774597,
-1.1103746891021729,
-0.41334477066993713,
-0.49081525206565857,
-0.33613184094429016,
-0.6679588556289673,
-0.01834949105978012,
-0.29547086358070374,
0.17967785894870758,
-0.16677087545394897,
0.18291611969470978,
-0.1461581289768219,
0.2592126727104187,
-0.029811901971697807,
0.16899040341377258,
-0.15378880500793457,
0.23592618107795715,
-0.23187795281410217,
0.49738502502441406,
0.5975306630134583,
-0.27532893419265747,
0.44841712713241577,
0.00848369486629963,
0.09363521635532379,
-0.037927206605672836,
-0.38847506046295166,
0.4278518259525299,
0.5448099374771118,
-0.3098667860031128,
-0.9949052929878235,
0.5600236058235168,
-0.5613195300102234,
0.20140478014945984,
0.7771205306053162,
-0.19167210161685944,
0.19887888431549072,
-0.10358437150716782,
-0.07076997309923172,
0.1954769790172577,
0.6687353253364563,
-0.4097921550273895,
-0.44267773628234863,
-0.0027773797046393156,
0.28826579451560974,
0.545447826385498,
-0.35034340620040894,
0.4850650429725647,
0.06756860762834549,
-0.06767439842224121,
-0.34482115507125854,
1.0531649589538574,
0.3453781008720398,
0.20522621273994446,
0.40940621495246887,
-0.40313491225242615,
-0.6787444949150085,
0.564915657043457,
0.40718385577201843,
0.7246934175491333,
0.3679194450378418,
-0.2810652256011963,
0.21415062248706818,
0.022066239267587662,
-0.4515047073364258,
0.2997545301914215,
-0.1246042475104332,
0.13249334692955017,
0.5376552939414978,
0.15523014962673187,
0.406591534614563,
-0.3419102728366852,
-0.014287786558270454,
-0.18498003482818604,
0.700768768787384,
-0.12711645662784576,
-0.14803606271743774,
0.7114238142967224,
0.13497133553028107,
-0.11719213426113129,
0.7796147465705872,
-0.06375952810049057,
-0.1802753210067749,
0.2911989092826843,
-0.43467089533805847,
-0.663293719291687,
-0.016359014436602592,
-0.22579461336135864,
0.5153418779373169,
-0.36940309405326843,
0.2005317360162735,
0.694976806640625,
-0.03647887706756592,
0.14004109799861908,
0.8487858176231384,
-0.3077349364757538,
0.11123120039701462,
0.20339301228523254,
-0.6480258703231812,
0.41774672269821167,
0.15076982975006104,
0.20700214803218842,
0.15683497488498688,
-0.22779709100723267,
-0.06848148256540298,
-0.3523293435573578,
0.6558111310005188,
-0.4386540353298187,
0.21498310565948486,
-0.6814185380935669,
0.0711599811911583,
0.3514295816421509,
-0.9437466859817505,
-0.13055935502052307,
-0.5094175338745117,
0.4220534861087799,
-0.0353751964867115,
-0.13527856767177582,
-0.19376574456691742,
0.37869054079055786,
-0.3119751214981079,
-0.00014108771574683487,
0.14830084145069122,
-0.2966093420982361,
-0.5479192733764648,
0.44545778632164,
0.08737210929393768,
1.045173168182373,
0.16915692389011383,
-0.03750818595290184,
-0.23536640405654907,
0.33143454790115356,
-0.0044579412788152695,
-0.6714155673980713,
0.6410657167434692,
-0.3506193459033966,
-0.15237349271774292,
-0.2140265256166458,
0.1593858301639557,
-0.048624273389577866,
0.009986785240471363,
-0.5447739958763123,
-0.4808993339538574,
0.20977263152599335,
-0.22875188291072845,
0.3063041865825653,
0.19019079208374023,
0.9824517369270325,
-0.31034108996391296,
0.49646905064582825,
-0.8080059885978699,
-0.2675424814224243,
-0.34466248750686646,
-0.4443421959877014,
0.6937835812568665,
0.2674103379249573,
0.34512799978256226,
-0.23096829652786255,
0.7766774296760559,
0.05007566884160042,
0.3591724932193756,
-0.017514389008283615,
0.49257197976112366,
0.057451702654361725,
-0.1252557784318924,
0.18974116444587708,
0.43879207968711853,
0.7708126902580261,
0.2334277629852295,
0.11242607235908508,
0.36740535497665405,
-0.6604994535446167,
0.6573078036308289,
0.40002721548080444,
-0.24464166164398193,
-0.32888051867485046,
0.669231653213501,
-0.6948899626731873
] |
241596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vereinigte%20Flugtechnische%20Werke | Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke | Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke (VFW) was a West German aerospace manufacturer.
The company was formed by the 1964 merger of two German aerospace firms, Focke-Wulf and Weser Flugzeugbau GmbH (Weserflug). The formation of VFW was a natural outcome, as the two companies had been collaborating, along with Hamburger Flugzeugbau (HFB), in the rocket technology development alliance Entwicklungsring Nord (ERNO) group since 1961, the move was seen as a natural fit. Such collaborative efforts continued throughout VFW's operating years, not just through ERNO but also with the Dutch aircraft producer Fokker, who formed a joint venture with the firm, VFW-Fokker GmbH, during 1969 to promote.
Collaboration with Fokker waned substantially over the years, having been greatly soured by the poor results of the VFW 614 programme, resulting in VFW-Fokker GmbH being wound up in 1980. During 1981, VFW was acquired by its domestic rival, Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB), and was largely integrated into it. Through various mergers and acquisitions, the present-day successor company to VFW is the multinational Airbus Group. The firm's space-based activities under ERNO has also been integrated into one of Airbus's operating divisions.
History
Formation and the VFW 614
During the early 1960s, the government of West Germany promoted the reorganisation and consolidation of its aircraft manufacturing sector; furthermore, as many of these companies were already collaborating on various programmes, such integration was a somewhat logical outcome. During 1964, two such companies, Focke-Wulf and Weser Flugzeugbau GmbH (Weserflug), opted to merge, the resulting combined entity that emerged being Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke (VFW), based at Bremen, Germany.
A key programme undertaken by VFW was the VFW 614 short-haul airliner, which had been proposed prior to its formation by its predecessor companies. The basic design of this aircraft was heavily influenced by the pre-war American piston-engine Douglas DC-3 passenger aircraft. During 1968, having secured considerable financial backing from the West German Government, the programme was given the go-ahead. The VFW 614 was considerably shaped by technical assistance provided by the Dutch aircraft manufacturer Fokker; several early changes to the VFW 614's design, including the discarding of a T-tail in favour of a conventional unit, furnished with a low-set vertical stabilizer and dihedral, has been accredited to Fokker's input into the programme. By the time that full-scale production of the VFW 614 had been approved in 1970, VFW had opted to merge its fledgling commercial aircraft activities with those of Fokker, creating the joint venture company VFW-Fokker GmbH for this purpose; this entity has the distinction of being Europe's first transnational aircraft company.
As envisioned, Fokker's established civil sales unit and support infrastructure was to be used to support the VFW 614 programme; however, the union has been regarded by some commentators as having been an 'unhappy arrangement'. The programme suffered several early blows, including the loss of the first prototype on 1 February 1972, which was attributed to an instance of elevator flutter. VFW had also taken the relatively bold decision to develop both an entirely new airframe and a new engine in parallel; the latter element being impacted by Rolls-Royce's bankruptcy in 1971, effectively threatening the supply of the only suitable engines for the airliner. By February 1975, only ten aircraft had been ordered. During April 1975, the first production VFW 614 made its first flight; it was delivered to Denmark's Cimber Air four months later.
However, perhaps the most major potential customer, West Germany's flagcarrier airline Lufthansa, declined to procure any VFW 614s; the company having prioritised the development of its long haul routes, for which the type was not applicable, while the German government had also declined to pressure the airline to purchase it. According to authors H. Dienel and P. Lyth, Lufthansa's lack of interest in the type was attributed as having been a major factor in the commercial failure of the VFW 614. According to author Mark E. Mendenhall, the management within VFW-Fokker was divided and split along national lines; while a number of German figures within the company attributed the poor sales performance to the Dutch sales team having paid the type little heed, even allegedly regarding it as a competitor to Fokker's established product lines for orders, and that salesmen had prioritised the promotion of Dutch-designed airliners instead. Reportedly, some Dutch managers did hold a preference for their own aircraft, regarding them as established successes and the VFW 614 as a waste of effort to market; furthermore, Dutch management was alleged by Mendenhall to have interfered with the firm's marketing structure to curtail independence and maintain support for their own aircraft.
Other activities
At the time of VFW's formation, the company's management was heavy interested in developing its own VTOL strike aircraft. Around this era, multiple companies had been working on their own conceptual designs for VTOL-capable interceptor aircraft; in order for these designs to be operationally relevant and viable, it was recognised that it would be necessary for the flight performance to equal that of conventional interceptors of the era, such as the contemporary Lockheed F-104G Starfighter. Over time, two separate and distinct requirements emerged, one calling for a VTOL-capable successor to the F-104G interceptor while the other sought a VTOL successor to the Italian Fiat G.91 ground-attack fighter. According to aerospace publication Flight International, this call for a Fiat G.91 replacement, which came under a NATO requirement, known as NBMR-3, was a crucial trigger and greatly influenced the development programme that would lead to VFW's VTOL effort, designated as the VAK 191B.
Initially, Italian aircraft manufacturer Fiat was also a participating company in VFW, however, Italy later chose to withdraw from the joint development agreement with Germany during 1967. Despite this decision, Fiat remained as a major sub-contractor for the venture, being responsible for the production of various structural elements such as wings, tailplanes and some of the fuselage. However, even prior to the first flight of the type, the programme had been heavily affected by political changes. Amongst these were the effective irrelevance of the original NBRM-3 requirement and the decreasing importance of the strike mission as a result of a German government decision to abandon the nuclear role, a divergence of opinion between partner countries, the withdrawal of the Italian government from participation during August 1967, and a growing awareness of the programme's escalating costs. At one stage, the Italian government had agreed to take on 40 per cent of the programme's development costs, thus their departure meant that a substantial amount of funding was lost for the venture.
The emergence of a new German/American "Advanced Vertical Strike" (AVS) programme also diminished the type's perceived value; the prospective aircraft which was on offer from the Americans via a cooperative venture with Germany somewhat eclipsed the VAK 191B in the eyes of the German Air Force and served to effectively undermine support for the programme. During 1968, VFW decided that the VAK 191B should be reclassified as an experimental programme, and that the aircraft should principally function only as a technology demonstrator. The initial programme had called for the construction of three single-seater and three two-seater aircraft; however, amid escalating costs, this intended test batch was first converted to become six single-seat aircraft, and was later on cut down to only involve three single-seat aircraft following Italy's withdrawal.
Likely the most impactful and successor programme that VFW was involved in was the Transall C-160 military transport aircraft. It was developed and manufactured by a consortium, Transporter-Allianz or Transall, which had been formed in January 1959 between the French company Nord Aviation and the German companies Weser Flugzeugbau (which later merged into VFW) and Hamburger Flugzeugbau (HFB) to design and build the new transport. A single prototype was built by each of the production partners, with the first (built by Nord) flying on 25 May 1963, with the VFW and HFB-built prototypes following on 25 May 1963 and 19 February 1964. These were followed by six pre-production examples, stretched by compared with the prototypes, which flew between 1965 and 1966.
On 24 September 1964, a sizable contract for a total of 160 C-160s was signed, comprising 110 for Germany and 50 for France. Manufacturing work was split between Germany and France in line with the number of orders placed; Nord built the wings and engine nacelles, VFW the centre fuselage and horizontal tail, and HFB the forward and rear fuselage. The aircraft's tail fin was also built by Dornier. Three separate production lines were established to assemble these components at each of the three main partners. The first production airframes were delivered to France and Germany from 1967. The first batch included 110 C-160Ds for the German Air Force (Luftwaffe), 50 C-160Fs for the French Air Force, and nine C-160Zs for the South African Air Force. Four C-160Fs were converted to C-160P air mail transport aircraft, and were operated by Air France. Production continued until October 1972. Production of the type persisted throughout VFW's existence, and for several years further through its successors.
Fate
During 1981, VFW was acquired by, and subsequently integrated into, the German aerospace company Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB), which in its turn was taken over by DaimlerChrysler Aerospace (DASA) in 1989. In July 2000, DASA merged with the French aerospace company Aerospatiale-Matra and the Spanish aircraft manufacturer CASA to form European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS), which rebranded itself as the multinational Airbus Group in 2015.
Into the twenty-first century, the Entwicklungsring Nord (ERNO)/VFW descendant has continued to be active as the space infrastructure division of Airbus's Astrium business unit. Amongst its activities, the company has contributed various components of both the European Ariane space launch system and the International Space Station. During June 2003, this unit became part of EADS SPACE Transportation.
Products
SG-1262 Schwebegestell
VFW VAK 191B
VFW-614
VFW H-3
Transall C-160
References
Citations
Bibliography
Buttler, Tony and Jean-Louis Delezenne. X-Planes of Europe: Secret Research Aircraft from the Golden Age 1946-1974. Manchester, UK: Hikoki Publications, 2012.
Dienel, H. and P. Lyth. Flying the Flag: European Commercial Air Transport since 1945. Springer, 1999. .
Eriksson, Sören and Harm-Jan Steenhuis. The Global Commercial Aviation Industry. Routledge, 2015. .
Hirschel, Ernst Heinrich., Horst Prem and Gero Madelung. Aeronautical Research in Germany: From Lilienthal until Today. Springer Science & Business Media, 2012. .
Mellberg, Bill. "VFW 614:Ahead of its Time". Air International, February 1995, Vol 48 No 2. Stamford, UK:Key Publishing. . pp. 94–99.
Pletschacher, Peter. "Transall Resurgent". Air International, Vol. 20 No. 6, June 1981. . pp. 284–289.
Wilson, Michael. ""Transall C-160: An exercise in multi-national transport design". Flight International, Vol. 93, No. 3085, 25 April 1968. pp. 614–620.
External links
From ERNO to Astrium (In German)
Pfalz-Flugzeugwerke (PFW)
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of Germany
Heinkel | [
0.997574508190155,
0.7327969074249268,
-0.40617483854293823,
0.022818129509687424,
-0.7192301750183105,
0.4215557873249054,
0.6455568075180054,
-0.22916561365127563,
-0.2684992849826813,
-0.2399454563856125,
-0.4977083206176758,
-0.30439677834510803,
0.2946232557296753,
0.615453839302063,
-0.38303956389427185,
-0.04466930031776428,
0.12388939410448074,
0.4337240159511566,
0.09924888610839844,
-0.688465416431427,
-0.0726313367486,
-0.1051005870103836,
0.607123851776123,
0.27957525849342346,
-0.6293433904647827,
-0.6028285622596741,
0.5372152328491211,
-0.47686687111854553,
0.23250557482242584,
0.26956599950790405,
0.08297087997198105,
0.8685030937194824,
-0.5800502300262451,
0.08667749911546707,
0.13453029096126556,
0.1627790927886963,
0.570440411567688,
0.08400897681713104,
0.29913413524627686,
-0.693763017654419,
-0.21938854455947876,
0.2735670804977417,
0.05035797134041786,
0.12319649010896683,
0.1439773291349411,
-1.3995219469070435,
-1.8871763944625854,
0.28982046246528625,
-0.8860631585121155,
-0.20236554741859436,
-0.5140073895454407,
0.5122503042221069,
0.545706033706665,
0.9053121209144592,
-0.06583341956138611,
0.6390975713729858,
-0.4683111310005188,
-0.2011207789182663,
0.2826194763183594,
-0.16295577585697174,
0.8282458782196045,
-0.23834066092967987,
-0.031010299921035767,
0.29622364044189453,
0.8306795954704285,
-0.18637989461421967,
0.16564910113811493,
1.0909051895141602,
-0.48771393299102783,
-0.6812586784362793,
-0.7211471796035767,
-0.5204530954360962,
0.6691594123840332,
-0.33193597197532654,
0.7665324807167053,
-0.3599962294101715,
0.19294224679470062,
-0.6544989943504333,
-0.07402104884386063,
-0.10096539556980133,
0.10697222501039505,
0.5486714243888855,
0.5591533184051514,
0.20448057353496552,
0.3625555634498596,
0.5147338509559631,
-1.0426639318466187,
-0.31995728611946106,
-0.6009712219238281,
-0.08844475448131561,
-0.38676971197128296,
-0.25670552253723145,
0.15633900463581085,
-0.4349672794342041,
-0.34233638644218445,
0.23708748817443848,
0.017430853098630905,
0.42282599210739136,
0.3501684367656708,
0.6802129149436951,
-0.07710826396942139,
-0.2531079351902008,
0.41895759105682373,
-0.21258041262626648,
-0.4580097198486328,
-0.01761174574494362,
-0.2543585002422333,
-0.6528568267822266,
-0.3249628245830536,
-0.5663633346557617,
-0.719885528087616,
0.44475290179252625,
-0.2764795422554016,
0.2797621190547943,
-0.08495140820741653,
0.30708643794059753,
-0.0903988629579544,
-1.0892003774642944,
0.24236208200454712,
0.3980458974838257,
-0.17148150503635406,
0.41745781898498535,
-0.8084637522697449,
0.27621403336524963,
-0.5095189213752747,
0.4592384397983551,
0.3608325719833374,
0.6733235716819763,
-0.6712872385978699,
-0.17776328325271606,
1.014773964881897,
1.2373032569885254,
-0.040146611630916595,
-0.07035389542579651,
-0.2865152359008789,
-0.15275755524635315,
1.184325098991394,
0.2363530993461609,
-0.5323467254638672,
0.09983965754508972,
-0.6401423215866089,
-0.24415674805641174,
-1.664422631263733,
0.11104729026556015,
0.3324846923351288,
-0.0017551420023664832,
0.1384875774383545,
-0.32066982984542847,
-0.792009174823761,
-0.5472478866577148,
0.5586424469947815,
-0.543158233165741,
-0.45095017552375793,
0.2792430520057678,
0.4128677248954773,
0.9646743535995483,
0.32641464471817017,
-0.05430668964982033,
0.5858129262924194,
0.3628220558166504,
0.2636675238609314,
-0.0468713641166687,
-0.4377236068248749,
0.9607457518577576,
-0.11563751846551895,
-0.05583079904317856,
-0.0763774961233139,
-0.023811133578419685,
-0.2253529578447342,
0.13760404288768768,
-0.5882536172866821,
-0.4505603611469269,
0.5021432638168335,
0.17840664088726044,
0.4688292443752289,
0.3177967667579651,
0.9888066649436951,
-0.10346030443906784,
0.4250687062740326,
-0.08544034510850906,
-0.49887576699256897,
0.3152218461036682,
0.43695592880249023,
0.4397132992744446,
0.17359645664691925,
0.5346184968948364,
0.4170891344547272,
-0.4914669394493103,
0.06681288778781891,
-0.26904064416885376,
-0.5438327193260193,
-0.6890131235122681,
0.5894057750701904,
-0.5595155358314514,
1.5357688665390015,
0.20020689070224762,
-0.08743557333946228,
0.0014351257123053074,
-0.09795434027910233,
0.1369178295135498,
-0.16018183529376984,
0.0027112187817692757,
-0.2724577784538269,
0.29543304443359375,
-0.09749050438404083,
0.8916527628898621,
0.1036066859960556,
0.17098520696163177,
-0.33897221088409424,
0.5517333745956421,
0.35471251606941223,
-0.24164414405822754,
0.5112887024879456,
-0.21588177978992462,
-0.11278237402439117,
-0.01969081349670887,
-0.6340172290802002,
0.7254086136817932,
-0.2576634883880615,
-0.2991054058074951,
0.37648284435272217,
-0.04736746475100517,
-0.025140583515167236,
0.3613426685333252,
0.30034592747688293,
0.16043870151042938,
-0.1445193588733673,
-0.11710374802350998,
-0.5494890213012695,
-1.065669298171997,
0.31236493587493896,
0.3002071976661682,
-0.23856058716773987,
0.08680790662765503,
-0.11062372475862503,
-0.02344362996518612,
-0.23341579735279083,
-0.12723982334136963,
0.16181223094463348,
-0.7107933759689331,
0.743877112865448,
0.35847902297973633,
-0.5220803022384644,
0.3211238980293274,
-0.1827327460050583,
-0.11462042480707169,
0.10201911628246307,
-0.04408914968371391,
0.016710476949810982,
0.0983361303806305,
0.9583703875541687,
0.4669460952281952,
0.5086434483528137,
-0.44439202547073364,
-0.2648642957210541,
0.06161898002028465,
0.13488821685314178,
-0.6924166679382324,
0.3699362576007843,
0.11142470687627792,
0.38323086500167847,
-0.026934638619422913,
0.8618215322494507,
0.32807451486587524,
-0.15709759294986725,
-0.7524692416191101,
-0.2975727617740631,
-0.366183340549469,
-0.2708912789821625,
-0.07504519820213318,
0.2597030997276306,
-0.48258957266807556,
-0.16892772912979126,
-0.913981020450592,
-0.08292270451784134,
-0.6961497068405151,
-0.974427342414856,
0.33643296360969543,
-1.3498796224594116,
0.11282786726951599,
0.3875175416469574,
0.7243225574493408,
0.3789282441139221,
-0.6032199859619141,
0.0276612788438797,
0.5382592082023621,
0.39165088534355164,
0.20142649114131927,
0.14652803540229797,
-0.04894670844078064,
-0.43809181451797485,
0.25922641158103943,
-1.314008116722107,
0.48654088377952576,
-0.057945266366004944,
1.0445953607559204,
-0.3763492703437805,
0.08704137802124023,
0.7311215400695801,
-0.1763474941253662,
-0.6358055472373962,
0.7490477561950684,
-0.2621994614601135,
-0.41121047735214233,
-0.2858445942401886,
-0.33680668473243713,
-0.606106698513031,
0.055406466126441956,
-4.464078903198242,
-0.5046504139900208,
-0.21345509588718414,
-0.5775662064552307,
0.07893450558185577,
0.6006430387496948,
0.13093622028827667,
-0.5334975719451904,
-0.17829328775405884,
0.06364593654870987,
0.464224249124527,
-0.367544949054718,
-0.029794961214065552,
0.45706287026405334,
0.5888851881027222,
0.5716680884361267,
1.0434350967407227,
0.10632692277431488,
0.3472099006175995,
-0.31740060448646545,
0.1683865785598755,
-0.4266466200351715,
0.0007256229873746634,
-0.40716394782066345,
0.7423074841499329,
-0.5898868441581726,
-0.37439414858818054,
0.12761716544628143,
-0.6078996062278748,
0.0491429939866066,
0.29936110973358154,
-0.21278683841228485,
0.27555540204048157,
0.08866485208272934,
0.009241490624845028,
-0.11997833847999573,
0.9137859344482422,
0.07274667918682098,
0.5612092614173889,
0.15630052983760834,
-0.2438322901725769,
0.954971194267273,
-0.6671255230903625,
-0.23874853551387787,
0.5820508599281311,
0.3400791883468628,
-0.6356027722358704,
0.4545658230781555,
-0.3926679790019989,
1.2628352642059326,
0.5204011797904968,
-0.2555913031101227,
0.32780757546424866,
-0.18068909645080566,
-0.18554159998893738,
0.14412415027618408,
-0.05739207938313484,
-0.04293026030063629,
-0.7656079530715942,
0.09968049824237823,
0.16566167771816254,
-0.2648577094078064,
0.16040094196796417,
-0.6704328656196594,
-0.36350294947624207,
-0.9442812204360962,
-0.37181416153907776,
-0.46839195489883423,
0.0813354104757309,
0.17087574303150177,
-0.08716003596782684,
1.2288978099822998,
0.06406218558549881,
-1.0582771301269531,
0.3341153860092163,
-0.8103253841400146,
0.19812360405921936,
-0.43804413080215454,
0.17552435398101807,
0.046058040112257004,
0.055763550102710724,
-0.5647574067115784,
-0.18429629504680634,
0.11067182570695877,
0.34685131907463074,
0.674278736114502,
-0.07624669373035431,
-0.2782647907733917,
-0.45959407091140747,
0.27725404500961304,
0.44930705428123474,
-0.19840538501739502,
0.5370186567306519,
0.9087828993797302,
-0.9055997133255005,
0.6384932398796082,
-0.002502144081518054,
-0.3530586063861847,
0.3614729046821594,
-0.116729237139225,
0.48640671372413635,
-0.22153456509113312,
-0.3768783509731293,
-0.16713997721672058,
-0.36140140891075134,
-0.3166548013687134,
-0.11059756577014923,
0.08079694956541061,
0.5487117171287537,
0.5429818034172058,
0.14338426291942596,
0.442186564207077,
-0.4749145209789276,
-0.34639981389045715,
0.8917398452758789,
-0.5191125273704529,
-0.8072770833969116,
0.595040500164032,
0.2743184566497803,
-0.43761584162712097,
0.3311890959739685,
-0.009788674302399158,
0.021794810891151428,
-1.227056860923767,
0.057188961654901505,
0.3292163014411926,
-0.2814033627510071,
0.33221402764320374,
-0.28447189927101135,
0.5658841133117676,
-0.7003048062324524,
0.4443895220756531,
-0.007122283801436424,
-0.04558268189430237,
-0.14156542718410492,
-0.14883986115455627,
-0.5283705592155457,
0.33504608273506165,
0.17624163627624512,
-0.20342697203159332,
0.5605176091194153,
0.442290723323822,
-0.1654445230960846,
-0.282123863697052,
0.17360106110572815,
1.2005459070205688,
0.44343212246894836,
-0.5801353454589844,
-0.007838464342057705,
0.297995388507843,
0.015426688827574253,
-0.3425007164478302,
0.09634029120206833,
-0.3862742483615875,
-0.21809285879135132,
-0.07987716048955917,
-0.098934605717659,
0.5439890623092651,
-0.05185477063059807,
-0.6658178567886353,
0.1638660728931427,
0.3587109446525574,
-1.2506214380264282,
-0.12684643268585205,
0.8212687373161316,
-0.3175112307071686,
0.0870387926697731,
-0.09399538487195969,
-0.45611491799354553,
0.7799293398857117,
0.0591924674808979,
-0.20787842571735382,
-0.9444288611412048,
0.14320379495620728,
0.1449262648820877,
0.5214791893959045,
0.017983144149184227,
-0.6735985279083252,
-0.30685484409332275,
0.055490270256996155,
-0.2822068929672241,
0.4510139524936676,
-0.8485580086708069,
0.16141876578330994,
-0.1959104984998703,
-0.9133049249649048,
-0.4291132986545563,
-0.17940397560596466,
-0.984766960144043,
0.37394779920578003,
0.29150745272636414,
0.020486898720264435,
0.6901411414146423,
0.35090282559394836,
-0.7624489665031433,
-1.5511995553970337,
-0.7074127793312073,
0.08211199194192886,
-0.425144761800766,
-0.8301974534988403,
0.01457931287586689,
0.7541027665138245,
0.06929886341094971,
-0.17444543540477753,
0.0896771252155304,
-0.7358779311180115,
0.33140912652015686,
-0.09607087075710297,
0.4800861179828644,
1.1433888673782349,
-1.0044524669647217,
-0.1036061942577362,
-0.1425025463104248,
0.39298731088638306,
-0.8295867443084717,
-0.13268399238586426,
0.679974377155304,
0.11212576180696487,
-0.9377908110618591,
-0.05761800333857536,
-0.07231052219867706,
0.3471328318119049,
-0.7268502712249756,
-0.22331683337688446,
-1.270815134048462,
0.6413212418556213,
-0.14014720916748047,
-0.9299532175064087,
0.742809534072876,
-0.40532439947128296,
-0.2632806897163391,
-0.28302890062332153,
-0.03762676194310188,
-0.42956432700157166,
0.07183116674423218,
0.024265548214316368,
0.21772141754627228,
0.23311932384967804,
0.6707757115364075,
0.13147710263729095,
0.8835849165916443,
1.1703402996063232,
-0.007439703680574894,
-0.7651591897010803,
0.24111241102218628,
-0.03690240532159805,
0.7989544868469238,
-0.2598247528076172,
-0.41095930337905884,
-0.092739038169384,
-0.37165915966033936,
-0.07452093064785004,
-0.9861471056938171,
-0.3195262849330902,
1.0427498817443848,
-0.3622988164424896,
-0.44709548354148865,
0.06345145404338837,
0.2541688084602356,
-0.12819668650627136,
-0.2901812195777893,
0.25338706374168396,
-0.2394522875547409,
-0.08413185179233551,
0.14455975592136383,
0.5654419660568237,
-0.3984493315219879,
-0.12775105237960815,
0.13656426966190338,
-0.2707485556602478,
0.15691928565502167,
0.0746101662516594,
-0.5659407377243042,
0.13077950477600098,
0.7510700821876526,
-0.3409348726272583,
-0.07411881536245346,
-0.8407865762710571,
0.06861185282468796,
-0.68663489818573,
-0.12007155269384384,
-0.3394034504890442,
0.8214003443717957,
-0.15736529231071472,
-0.5383936762809753,
-0.5508600473403931,
0.01814073510468006,
0.09389857202768326,
-1.0496981143951416,
0.2422647923231125,
-0.33263102173805237,
-0.2373993694782257,
-0.9483386874198914,
0.17951464653015137,
-0.14045757055282593,
0.12311675399541855,
-0.1423204392194748,
-0.27098721265792847,
0.1203104704618454,
0.28143075108528137,
-0.35547947883605957,
0.02495647221803665,
0.1978202760219574,
-0.3694212734699249,
1.0005985498428345,
0.1986205279827118,
-0.11342423409223557,
0.13746707141399384,
-0.013523386791348457,
0.026593787595629692,
0.4053596258163452,
-1.013352870941162,
-1.0781257152557373,
0.6560157537460327,
-0.32158371806144714,
0.35216328501701355,
0.7455646991729736,
-0.30175110697746277,
0.34880051016807556,
0.1572703719139099,
0.5275118350982666,
-0.08080397546291351,
0.8470815420150757,
-0.21979832649230957,
-0.44937804341316223,
0.7888538241386414,
-0.040816422551870346,
-0.4501286745071411,
-0.07077039778232574,
-0.02914881892502308,
0.4247201979160309,
0.07466626167297363,
-0.48631560802459717,
0.3946287930011749,
-0.04465489089488983,
0.14116953313350677,
0.16408711671829224,
-0.6032816767692566,
-0.5657374262809753,
0.785647451877594,
-0.13799603283405304,
1.1491634845733643,
0.4337696433067322,
-0.6420941948890686,
-0.4979954957962036,
0.9564631581306458,
-0.3925139904022217,
0.18713107705116272,
0.6173866391181946,
-0.34479638934135437,
0.5483511090278625,
0.1921883523464203,
0.14139500260353088,
0.6414982080459595,
-0.26548388600349426,
0.10993339121341705,
1.050088882446289,
-0.18581464886665344,
0.4481044113636017,
-0.15196199715137482,
0.4978255331516266,
-0.21960614621639252,
0.36244305968284607,
0.054766446352005005,
-0.27499422430992126,
0.2559971511363983,
-0.013194720260798931,
-0.5783944725990295,
-0.33767905831336975,
-0.17955291271209717,
0.4713093340396881,
-0.2801843583583832,
-0.03543512895703316,
0.16973665356636047,
0.12312830239534378,
0.3607500195503235,
0.735431969165802,
-0.12565863132476807,
-0.1154903769493103,
0.2557220458984375,
-0.06536754220724106,
0.8020804524421692,
0.08145375549793243,
-0.14440301060676575,
0.07657908648252487,
-0.18291610479354858,
-0.1418968141078949,
-0.08805210143327713,
0.9162523746490479,
-0.19398319721221924,
-0.14672468602657318,
-0.7881759405136108,
-0.35349684953689575,
0.14653965830802917,
-0.5993725061416626,
0.5280202031135559,
-0.458096981048584,
0.7423494458198547,
0.12359164655208588,
-0.5954418182373047,
-0.18615275621414185,
0.25697997212409973,
-0.4948273003101349,
0.5019950866699219,
-0.09084596484899521,
0.41054630279541016,
-0.3858269453048706,
0.7073140144348145,
0.008158248849213123,
1.2429534196853638,
0.028606778010725975,
0.1922762542963028,
0.07884079217910767,
0.7507408261299133,
-0.6640124320983887,
-0.37980493903160095,
1.165891170501709,
-0.6753047108650208,
-0.07536017149686813,
-0.1688362956047058,
0.10980512946844101,
-0.3392554223537445,
0.31609728932380676,
-0.437258780002594,
-0.6159582734107971,
-0.8375555872917175,
0.2395154982805252,
0.2814357280731201,
0.10020673274993896,
0.3786420524120331,
-0.42376360297203064,
0.2767961025238037,
-0.6843840479850769,
-0.43585729598999023,
-0.8419201374053955,
0.4678017795085907,
0.5408994555473328,
0.7191471457481384,
0.7092137932777405,
-0.49649670720100403,
0.5820695161819458,
-0.7691587209701538,
1.0513153076171875,
0.23011283576488495,
-0.8666546940803528,
-0.025211157277226448,
-0.04605811834335327,
-0.46417462825775146,
-0.18998034298419952,
0.3657352924346924,
0.010357974097132683,
-0.06798064708709717,
0.8465415239334106,
-1.200370192527771,
-0.006239257287234068,
0.5410639643669128,
-0.049169328063726425,
-0.7476358413696289,
0.7731224894523621,
0.18868616223335266
] |
241599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburger%20Flugzeugbau | Hamburger Flugzeugbau | Hamburger Flugzeugbau (HFB) was an aircraft manufacturer, located primarily in the Finkenwerder quarter of Hamburg, Germany. Established in 1933 as an offshoot of Blohm & Voss shipbuilders, it later became an operating division within its parent company and was known as Abteilung Flugzeugbau der Schiffswerft Blohm & Voss from 1937 until it ceased operation at the end of World War II. In the postwar period it was revived as an independent company under its original name and subsequently joined several consortia before being merged to form Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). It participates in the present day Airbus and European aerospace programs.
History
In 1933 the Blohm & Voss shipbuilding company in Hamburg was suffering a financial crisis from lack of work. Its owners, brothers Rudolf and Walther Blohm, decided to diversify into aircraft manufacture, believing that there would soon be a market for all-metal, long-range flying boats, especially with the German state airline Deutsche Luft Hansa. They also felt that their experience with all-metal marine construction would prove an advantage. It was at that time commonly believed that transatlantic air transport would soon take over the role filled by the luxury liners of that time. It was also thought that those planes would be seaplanes and flying boats as they could use the infrastructure and capacity of the seaports already in place, while land facilities at that time were unsuited to such large aeroplanes.
Early years
In June 1933 the Blohm brothers appointed their brother-in-law and fellow B&V director Dipl-Ing Max Andreae and experienced aviator Robert Schröck to the board. Schröck recruited designer Reinhold Mewes away from Heinkel, and with four other designers, on 1 July they began work. The Hamburger Flugzeugbau GmBH officially came into being on 4 July.
The company offices at first occupied the top floor of the B&V administrative headquarters in the Steinwerder quarter of Hamburg, with manufacturing carried out in the under-utilised shipbuilding works. Meanwhile an inland airfield and final assembly building for landplanes were begun a few miles away at Wenzendorf Aircraft Factory, opened in 1935.
During this period the ruling Nazi party was massively increasing the interwar German re-armament program which included the complete overhaul of the aircraft industry. In particular, the Nazis wanted the technical capacities to quickly build large numbers of warplanes for the new Luftwaffe. As a result, the company took on subcontract manufacture of Junkers Ju 52 subassemblies, thus gaining valuable experience in the manufacture of all-metal aircraft. The bulk of the company's output would eventually turn out to be contract manufacturing of this kind, including many thousands of aircraft each for Dornier, Focke-Wulf, Heinkel, Junkers, and Messerschmitt.
The company's own designs were designated with the official RLM company code "Ha". The first to be built was the Ha 135. Mewes was unfamiliar with advanced techniques such as all-metal construction and designed a conventional biplane with fabric covering. The Blohm Brothers had wanted a more radically advanced approach and, unhappy with Mewes, sought the advice of the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM). On their recommendation the company offered the job of Chief Designer to Richard Vogt, who was then occupying that same position at Kawasaki in Japan and was experienced in all-metal construction. Vogt accepted and arrived during late autumn, while the Ha 135 was still under construction. For a while the company maintained two design teams in separate offices.
The Ha 135 took off on its first fight on 28 April 1934. However it failed to attract any orders and Mewes and his team soon left the company.
Vogt proved highly innovative and many of his designs would have unusual features, from the very first incorporating a tubular steel wing main spar which also doubled as the fuel tank. He oversaw all the remaining types, until the company's closure in 1945.
In May 1934 Vogt's team was joined by Hans Amtmann, coming like Mewes from Heinkel and bringing to the team his experience of large flying boats. Amtmann made a good impression and was soon appointed Head of Preliminary Design. Other members included Richard Schubert as Head of Aerodynamics and George Haag as head of wing design.
The only type to enter service during this period was the Ha 139 long-range seaplane mail carrier. Despite its size, with four engines, it was designed to be launched from a shipborne catapult to help extend its range, and was successfully operated in small numbers by Deutsche Luft Hansa. A landplane variant, the Ha 142, was also built for the airline.
Blohm & Voss adoption
The aircraft produced by Hamburger Flugzeugbau were still commonly associated with Blohm & Voss and this was causing confusion, so in September 1937 Hamburger Flugzeugbau was renamed Abteilung Flugzeugbau der Schiffswerft Blohm & Voss ("Aircraft manufacturing division of Blohm & Voss shipbuilder"). The RLM changed the official aircraft type designation code to "BV". Some designs already under development as Ha types were reassigned a BV designation, for example the Ha 138 became the BV 138.
In 1939, with the shipbuilding work revived and production capacity fully utilised again, B&V moved its aircraft subsidiary, including both offices and seaplane manufacturing, to a purpose-built site on the shores of the river Elbe, at Finkenwerder.
The most significant types to be produced were flying boats, mainly used by the Luftwaffe for maritime patrol and reconnaissance. Most numerous was the BV 138 Seedrache (initiated as the Ha 138), a twin-boom trimotor, while the BV 222 Wiking was much larger. Largest of all was the BV 238 prototype, the largest aircraft built by any of the Axis powers. Other notable types include the asymmetric BV 141 tactical reconnaissance aircraft; 20 were built, but the type did not enter full production as the Focke-Wulf Fw 189 Uhu was preferred.
The intention at Finkenwerder was to manufacture B&V's own products there, but subcontract manufacture quickly ate up most of the space and much of the company's own production, such as the BV 138, was in turn subcontracted out to Weser Flugzeugbau. Remarkably, the Finkenwerder site would survive the Allied bombing of Hamburg during the war and would remain with the company.
During the war, Vogt's workload increased so much that Hermann Pohlmann, designer of the Junkers Ju 87, was recruited to be his deputy. Other notable projects of the later part of the war included a variety of highly original bomber and fighter designs, including a series of tailless swept-wing fighters which culminated in an order for three prototypes of the jet-powered P 215 night fighter, just weeks before the war ended.
Postwar revival
At the end of the war, all aircraft production in Germany was shut down. Vogt and Amtmann were swept up by the American Operation Paperclip and made new careers over there. Pohlmann remained in Germany.
In 1955 Germany was allowed to build civil aircraft once again. The main works at Finkenwerder was still there and Hamburger Flugzeugbau GmbH (HFB) re-emerged in 1956, still under the ownership of Walther Blohm but no longer connected to B+V. Blohm tried to tempt Vogt back from the US, but without success and Pohlmann returned to the company to become the new chief designer. Another significant recruit was Hans Wocke, who headed up the engineering team.
As ever, the company's main work would turn out to be as subcontractor for various German – and increasingly European – aircraft projects, and to this end it would participate in a number of consortia. Its first contract was for fuselage manufacture and final assembly of the Nord Noratlas. Other significant work would be undertaken for the Luftwaffe's Lockheed F-104G Starfighter and as a partner in the Transall C-160 military transport.
In 1958 HFB proposed two civil transport projects. The HFB 209 was a twin-turpoprop capable of carrying 48 passengers, while the HFB 314 was a short-haul twin-jet. But the anticipated funding from the German government was not made available and the projects were cancelled in the early 1960s.
In 1961, HFB and Focke-Wulf/Weserflug (VFW) jointly formed the Entwicklungsring Nord (ERNO) to develop air and space products. Work would be carried out for the Dornier Do 31 V/STOL transport and, later, in direct collaboration on the Fokker F28 Fellowship.
The only aircraft type to be both designed and built by the new HFB was the HFB 320 Hansa Jet, a business jet with forward-swept wings, which first flew in 1964 and was made in moderate numbers.
In May 1969, HFB merged with Messerschmitt-Bölkow to form Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB), which in turn was taken over by Deutsche Aerospace (DASA) in September 1989. DASA has since been absorbed into the pan-European Airbus corporation. Airbus has since built a significant presence around the original HFB team and operates the airfield privately as Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport.
Aircraft and related products
Hamburger Flugzeugbau (prewar)
Some of these types were still under construction when the company name was changed to B&V and flew only under the new name. But only those whose design and development continued under B&V were redesignated.
Ha 135. Conventional biplane trainer prototype, designed by Reinhold Mewes.
Ha 136. All-metal monoplane trainer prototype. First to incorporate Vogt's trademark cylindrical main spar with integral fuel tank.
Ha 137. Dive bomber prototype.
Ha 138. Twin-boom flying boat prototype. Entered production as the BV 138 (see below).
Ha 139. Long-range seaplane mail carrier, operated in small numbers by Deutsche Luft Hansa. Later redesignated the BV 139.
Ha 140 Torpedo bomber seaplane prototype. Later redesignated the BV 140.
Ha 141 Asymmetric reconnaissance prototype. Further developed as the BV 141 (see below).
Ha 142. Landplane derivative of the Ha 139. The prototypes were later pressed into service as the BV 142.
Ha 222. Design proposal, would later be built as the BV 222.
Blohm & Voss
Aircraft designed and flown
BV 138 Seedrache (sea-dragon), originally designated Ha 138. Trimotor maritime patrol flying-boat. Only type to enter both series production and operational service, some were built under subcontract by Weserflug.
BV 141, originally designated Ha 141. Asymmetric reconnaissance prototypes. Some 20 pre-production examples delivered but none saw operational service.
BV 144. transport with variable-pitch wing. Two built in France by Breguet.
BV 155. High-altitude interceptor prototype, derived from the Messerschmitt Me 155 project.
BV 222. Wiking (Viking). Six-engine transport flying-boat. Some twelve pre-production examples saw operational service.
BV 238. Flying-boat prototype, the largest Axis aircraft design of the war years to fly.
BV 40. Glider interceptor prototype. Several examples flown but not yet operational by the end of hostilities.
Of these aircraft, few entered operational service and only one, the BV 138 "Fliegende Holzschuh" (flying clog), attained serial production. All other aircraft either remained prototypes or were limited to a small number of pre-series/purpose build machines. Nevertheless, work was sufficient to require a second manufacturing plant at Finkenwerder.
The largest aircraft ever designed and built by any of the Axis powers of World War II, the BV 238, resembled an enlarged BV 222, with only one prototype aircraft built and flown.
Munitions developed
Besides aircraft, during World War II B&V also developed a number of air-launched munitions such as glide bombs and torpedoes. Although the company built thousands of examples during development, none entered operational service. These were:
BV 143. Glide bomb prototype.
BV 246 Hagelkorn (Hailstone), originally designated BV 226. Long-range radar-homing glide bomb prototype.
BV 950 Gliding torpedo prototype, built in two variants:
L 10 Friedensengel. Torpedo with glider attachment.
L 11 Schneewittchen. Later and more advanced derivative.
Design projects
Vogt proved a highly innovative designer and many of his projects gained interest within the German aero community. B&V explored several main themes of interest, each through a series of design projects and proposals. These included; large maritime aircraft "stuka" dive bomber / ground attack replacements for the Junkers Ju 87, fast bombers and advanced fighters. Many studies had unusual configurations such as asymmetry, novel multi-engine layouts and crew locations, wings swept forwards or back (or both) and sometimes tailless. All these lines of study followed through into the jet age, some with piston+jet mixed-power engine combinations.
Significant internal projects of the World War II era included:
Transports:
P 200. Long-range passenger flying boat.
BV 250. Landplane variant of the BV 238.
Bombers:
BV 237. Single-seat dive bomber and ground attack development of the asymmetric Bv 141. Personally ordered by Hitler as a replacement for the ageing Ju 87 Stuka but later cancelled.
P 163. Fast bomber with twin engines coupled to a central contra-prop, and manned wingtip nacelles.
P 170. Fast bomber with three engines, one central and two on unmanned wingtip nacelles.
P 188. W-wing jet bomber.
Fighters:
P 202. Slewed wing variable-geometry jet fighter.
P 203. Multi-role attack aircraft, mixed piston & jet power.
P 208. Tailless swept piston-engined pusher fighter project.
P 211. Jet fighter for the Volksjäger Emergency Fighter Program competition.
P 212. Single engined jet fighter.
P 213. Pulsejet powered miniature fighter for the Miniaturjäger design competition of the Emergency Fighter Program.
P 215. Tailless swept-wing twinjet, developed from the P 208 and P 212 design studies. An order for three prototypes was received just weeks before the end of the war.
Hamburger Flugzeugbau (postwar)
HFB 209. Twin-turpoprop airliner project.
HFB 314. Short-haul twin-jet project.
HFB 320 Hansa Jet. Business jet with forward-swept wings.
Transall C-160. Military transport (major partner).
Airbus consortium (significant contribution to design and manufacture).
See also
List of aircraft § Blohm & Voss
List of aircraft § Hamburger Flugzeugbau
List of aircraft § HFB
List of German aircraft projects, 1939–45 § Blohm & Voss
References
Notes
Bibliography
Hans Amtmann; "Blohm und Voss Remembered", Aeroplane Monthly, February 1998 pp. 22–27 (Part 1) and March 1998 pp. 12–15 (Part 2).
Hans Amtmann; The Vanishing Paperclips, Monogram, 1988.
Pohlmann, Hermann. 'Chronik Eines Flugzeugwerkes 1932-1945. B&V - Blohm & Voss Hamburg - HFB Hamburger Flugzeugbau (in German). Motor Buch Verlag, 1979 .
External links
Luft '46: Blohm Und Voss
Wehrmacht History: Blohm & Voss
Defunct manufacturing companies of Germany
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of Germany
Blohm+Voss | [
0.6869567632675171,
0.7191452980041504,
-0.18320199847221375,
-0.17485056817531586,
-0.4727364480495453,
0.31952953338623047,
-0.06771504878997803,
-0.13756456971168518,
-0.27749091386795044,
-0.27034392952919006,
-0.20138588547706604,
-0.834560215473175,
-0.19634002447128296,
0.4740385115146637,
-0.1036672592163086,
0.12675534188747406,
0.06667393445968628,
0.4179764986038208,
-0.3919820189476013,
-0.6155922412872314,
-0.13609732687473297,
-0.20987805724143982,
0.6133506894111633,
0.5589215159416199,
-0.14019398391246796,
-0.6165871620178223,
0.710088849067688,
-0.1847807615995407,
0.1734420508146286,
0.45751991868019104,
0.2788252830505371,
0.9822563529014587,
-0.3249265253543854,
0.16187357902526855,
0.07139292359352112,
0.30717742443084717,
-0.017281072214245796,
0.04267619550228119,
0.4292968809604645,
-0.6608519554138184,
-0.10147841274738312,
0.499683141708374,
0.18550321459770203,
0.4410524070262909,
-0.1174352839589119,
-0.688726544380188,
-1.414665937423706,
0.3575277626514435,
-0.5372442603111267,
0.049188282340765,
-0.5993667244911194,
0.0762815847992897,
0.2868020534515381,
0.8526758551597595,
0.18307726085186005,
0.3203621208667755,
-0.717968225479126,
0.37762120366096497,
0.060069333761930466,
-0.21034546196460724,
0.42544370889663696,
0.19167885184288025,
0.306746244430542,
0.4428488612174988,
0.8146356344223022,
0.4906958341598511,
-0.05397998169064522,
0.6487821936607361,
-0.10307791084051132,
-0.1375831812620163,
-0.5382013320922852,
-0.39446577429771423,
-0.0032834212761372328,
-0.11929836869239807,
0.793458878993988,
-0.6380360126495361,
-0.36554649472236633,
-0.5049757361412048,
0.24155712127685547,
0.4865415394306183,
0.1599046140909195,
0.35837194323539734,
0.7842310667037964,
0.06048063561320305,
0.592441201210022,
0.6902369856834412,
-1.142055630683899,
-0.36306777596473694,
-0.6360580921173096,
0.2528725266456604,
0.06561871618032455,
-0.21331441402435303,
0.23228590190410614,
0.11902494728565216,
-0.39558911323547363,
0.06031731888651848,
0.10608946532011032,
0.5258727073669434,
0.2913333475589752,
0.4362740218639374,
0.11805430054664612,
0.05950808897614479,
0.3993648588657379,
-0.46003422141075134,
-0.23132145404815674,
-0.4458480179309845,
-0.25061163306236267,
-0.11784350872039795,
0.0399913564324379,
-0.09034205973148346,
-0.7770302891731262,
0.04638868197798729,
-0.24797984957695007,
-0.03254278749227524,
-0.05556277558207512,
0.30457809567451477,
-0.2703360617160797,
-1.0344370603561401,
-0.4054652154445648,
0.0352681465446949,
-0.3970962464809418,
0.8640366196632385,
-0.6937928199768066,
0.47544175386428833,
-0.7147156000137329,
0.5747409462928772,
0.1879754513502121,
0.9009013175964355,
-0.31970736384391785,
-0.40414363145828247,
0.8890533447265625,
0.9130154252052307,
-0.05725838616490364,
-0.34143027663230896,
-0.20978252589702606,
-0.25588375329971313,
0.7709726095199585,
0.5964463949203491,
-0.5392693877220154,
0.049902066588401794,
-0.8988573551177979,
-0.5376797914505005,
-0.8764374852180481,
-0.12569668889045715,
-0.03723954036831856,
-0.12156593799591064,
0.2763810455799103,
-0.5459100604057312,
-0.18475981056690216,
-0.41319069266319275,
0.6800780296325684,
-0.024969670921564102,
-0.9294130206108093,
0.08504200726747513,
-0.022503482177853584,
0.3305763602256775,
0.5848643183708191,
-0.3494952619075775,
0.6215052008628845,
0.08734744787216187,
0.34691283106803894,
-0.20225584506988525,
-0.8916810154914856,
0.46388354897499084,
0.11666401475667953,
-0.03056301735341549,
-0.1791508048772812,
-0.16888685524463654,
-0.3419822156429291,
-0.17509725689888,
-0.45575037598609924,
-0.4980904161930084,
0.05275821313261986,
-0.6055155992507935,
0.24530243873596191,
0.4186032712459564,
0.44207054376602173,
-0.01434052363038063,
-0.04333839938044548,
-0.16955523192882538,
-0.4237029552459717,
0.34636861085891724,
0.7124631404876709,
0.197642982006073,
-0.35164520144462585,
0.21901088953018188,
0.3268900215625763,
-0.18025289475917816,
0.046497099101543427,
-0.08865570276975632,
-0.4867425262928009,
-0.8372875452041626,
0.7902307510375977,
-0.535994827747345,
1.3790619373321533,
0.6990159153938293,
-0.517927348613739,
0.45843425393104553,
-0.3265915811061859,
0.19556233286857605,
-0.2235475331544876,
0.2705622911453247,
-0.16063514351844788,
0.136834055185318,
-0.02503765933215618,
0.022767286747694016,
0.0009230025461874902,
0.06814290583133698,
-0.16920901834964752,
0.6161882281303406,
0.5836228132247925,
-0.41871145367622375,
0.5550227165222168,
-0.05221767723560333,
-0.04924563691020012,
-0.5424399375915527,
-0.44436490535736084,
0.26081281900405884,
-0.2183658927679062,
-0.3281233310699463,
0.7862535715103149,
0.3998458981513977,
-0.012708093971014023,
0.4359109103679657,
0.407266765832901,
0.6202989816665649,
0.0973374992609024,
-0.1040298268198967,
-0.3608393967151642,
-0.09190519154071808,
0.7779584527015686,
0.26260635256767273,
0.14013715088367462,
-0.28967177867889404,
-0.00533800944685936,
0.14479583501815796,
-0.3128546178340912,
-0.3677138388156891,
0.24452243745326996,
-0.49657633900642395,
0.678080141544342,
0.2717602849006653,
-0.9315608143806458,
0.296382337808609,
0.042642951011657715,
-0.13393431901931763,
-0.12380482256412506,
0.10364138334989548,
-0.3051908314228058,
-0.22559501230716705,
0.42073073983192444,
0.30279308557510376,
-0.01673188991844654,
-0.3573020100593567,
-0.01657194085419178,
-0.31910941004753113,
0.11206623911857605,
-0.3474186360836029,
0.11110716313123703,
-0.17975850403308868,
-0.1360529214143753,
-0.5173439979553223,
0.5243707299232483,
0.3316197395324707,
-0.17476315796375275,
-0.7887862920761108,
-0.13832832872867584,
-0.6764869689941406,
0.14819274842739105,
0.37856221199035645,
0.42560866475105286,
-0.18601635098457336,
-0.3444455862045288,
-0.055385664105415344,
-0.2526754140853882,
-0.7846035361289978,
-0.595421314239502,
0.4575291872024536,
-1.075839877128601,
-0.14560288190841675,
0.5110437273979187,
0.6543102264404297,
0.04668781906366348,
-1.2277050018310547,
-0.101976677775383,
0.1974235475063324,
0.3107588291168213,
-0.17099589109420776,
-0.25666606426239014,
0.019684428349137306,
0.08232217282056808,
0.5772879123687744,
-1.1728315353393555,
0.3668343722820282,
-0.026469901204109192,
0.7626068592071533,
-0.18525487184524536,
0.10418066382408142,
0.8978654742240906,
-0.5822426676750183,
-0.6526743769645691,
0.09469425678253174,
-0.41899654269218445,
-0.4172411561012268,
-0.4047948122024536,
-0.40900105237960815,
-0.28375256061553955,
-0.2561030089855194,
-5.094269275665283,
0.011223351582884789,
-0.258268266916275,
-0.20843414962291718,
0.13751818239688873,
0.3248516619205475,
0.014180630445480347,
-0.45704329013824463,
0.4051739275455475,
-0.42634719610214233,
0.6017560958862305,
-0.37848973274230957,
0.010686087422072887,
0.33150672912597656,
0.0013273290824145079,
0.6907582879066467,
0.5822933316230774,
0.3443874418735504,
0.39422667026519775,
-0.46210065484046936,
0.07504615932703018,
-0.27793920040130615,
0.10565245896577835,
-0.15288348495960236,
0.2860317826271057,
-0.34026047587394714,
-0.45860838890075684,
0.2836410105228424,
-0.9054349660873413,
-0.6493411660194397,
-0.04655780643224716,
-0.36206570267677307,
0.25063320994377136,
-0.19187532365322113,
0.3040764629840851,
-0.2554067075252533,
0.9356680512428284,
0.3780364990234375,
-0.15284062922000885,
0.08418580889701843,
-0.09334956854581833,
0.7316954135894775,
-0.5940853357315063,
-0.3322506248950958,
0.7221291065216064,
-0.11484190076589584,
-0.7447729110717773,
0.22570578753948212,
-0.555354654788971,
0.853450357913971,
0.8259548544883728,
-0.0737607330083847,
0.4186864197254181,
0.3079068064689636,
0.14684608578681946,
-0.36109670996665955,
0.08398902416229248,
-0.00691240793094039,
-0.0011802667286247015,
0.18849177658557892,
0.22355464100837708,
0.12994736433029175,
0.24212346971035004,
-0.5143082141876221,
-0.5051925778388977,
-0.14725126326084137,
-0.02594844624400139,
-0.4396929144859314,
0.11369892954826355,
-0.21247245371341705,
-0.16384612023830414,
1.0605427026748657,
0.6098137497901917,
-0.8026934862136841,
0.18498577177524567,
-0.9385152459144592,
-0.019176119938492775,
-0.7139649391174316,
-0.03421347960829735,
0.020129334181547165,
0.25585123896598816,
-0.4868522882461548,
-0.4860396385192871,
0.4452528655529022,
0.939128577709198,
0.402080774307251,
-0.33799535036087036,
-0.038654498755931854,
-0.203084796667099,
0.18208160996437073,
0.29963210225105286,
-0.434956431388855,
0.29226022958755493,
0.5259324908256531,
-0.8320380449295044,
0.21920667588710785,
-0.4362063705921173,
0.363858699798584,
0.5408893823623657,
-0.07434996217489243,
0.5132147669792175,
-0.20265984535217285,
-0.7675167322158813,
-0.004051707219332457,
0.18452143669128418,
0.18155249953269958,
0.26112836599349976,
-0.20182496309280396,
0.660480797290802,
0.11837196350097656,
0.3457742929458618,
-0.14862623810768127,
-0.2673528790473938,
-0.3543497323989868,
0.6626697182655334,
-0.8076971173286438,
-0.8034010529518127,
0.5466713309288025,
-0.1767358034849167,
-0.08356954157352448,
0.13870954513549805,
0.04729049652814865,
0.3117770850658417,
-0.92710942029953,
-0.4829637408256531,
0.061304088681936264,
-0.09075269103050232,
0.2685644328594208,
-0.08852707594633102,
0.388750284910202,
-0.48836013674736023,
0.7075077891349792,
-0.0194960068911314,
0.10702978819608688,
-0.013814322650432587,
-0.39129024744033813,
-0.6519665718078613,
-0.19752228260040283,
0.43964606523513794,
-0.2491331398487091,
0.14706848561763763,
0.3629415035247803,
-0.014996472746133804,
-0.2631344497203827,
0.3861515522003174,
1.1113859415054321,
0.2628636360168457,
-0.201938197016716,
-0.4954381585121155,
0.5830576419830322,
0.20103178918361664,
-0.20112338662147522,
0.1032283678650856,
-0.5051412582397461,
-0.5471770167350769,
0.03889789804816246,
0.3731399178504944,
0.7601937055587769,
-0.2682192623615265,
-0.594182550907135,
0.5797870755195618,
0.11466123163700104,
-0.5063037276268005,
-0.17118218541145325,
-0.08526257425546646,
-0.11573772132396698,
-0.2708076238632202,
0.039864521473646164,
-0.702863872051239,
0.1623837649822235,
0.070311039686203,
-0.18438123166561127,
-0.72449791431427,
0.32752642035484314,
0.3714351952075958,
0.3231991231441498,
-0.29013532400131226,
-0.27379998564720154,
-0.34604331851005554,
0.1266912817955017,
-0.4062894880771637,
0.3206769824028015,
-0.5875701904296875,
0.327792763710022,
0.18174627423286438,
-0.3313756585121155,
-0.4502253532409668,
-0.24912381172180176,
-0.6294766664505005,
-0.4197540879249573,
0.24460934102535248,
-0.41588684916496277,
0.8669683933258057,
0.6681021451950073,
-0.30386611819267273,
-1.3189921379089355,
-0.16247671842575073,
-0.19713662564754486,
-0.1672315001487732,
-0.6625345945358276,
0.003975134342908859,
0.79780113697052,
-0.5881339311599731,
0.47928863763809204,
0.034736696630716324,
-0.4981059432029724,
0.22986236214637756,
0.13444946706295013,
0.22386832535266876,
0.7785678505897522,
-1.1717679500579834,
-0.9368153214454651,
0.16365648806095123,
0.8115704655647278,
-0.8212184309959412,
0.23421625792980194,
0.634578287601471,
-0.06844696402549744,
-0.5561007261276245,
0.2890631854534149,
-0.3626329004764557,
-0.004185585305094719,
-0.7740874886512756,
-0.2648037374019623,
-1.3615283966064453,
1.0738379955291748,
0.07066740095615387,
-0.3733154535293579,
-0.0052101449109613895,
-0.5822127461433411,
-0.07963493466377258,
0.20006221532821655,
0.09772402048110962,
-0.2356567084789276,
0.32374492287635803,
0.06419861316680908,
0.03753645345568657,
0.3950517475605011,
0.48433786630630493,
0.3347398340702057,
0.5429173111915588,
1.1669508218765259,
0.24231839179992676,
-0.43690192699432373,
0.28388816118240356,
0.3276105225086212,
0.7228246927261353,
-0.13960598409175873,
-0.5408607125282288,
0.00408194400370121,
-0.4437061548233032,
-0.2893045246601105,
-0.7699376940727234,
-0.052022140473127365,
1.0006098747253418,
-0.45300355553627014,
-0.35258641839027405,
0.38181373476982117,
-0.10739175230264664,
-0.1106242686510086,
-0.2773319482803345,
0.8217639923095703,
-0.37539318203926086,
-0.14663352072238922,
-0.0777478739619255,
0.9393041729927063,
-0.8255460858345032,
-0.5364002585411072,
0.3233361542224884,
-0.08428695052862167,
0.08078182488679886,
0.5070730447769165,
0.0681925117969513,
0.16750119626522064,
0.568544328212738,
0.19635824859142303,
-0.00971232820302248,
-0.5999424457550049,
0.02942661941051483,
-0.029774127528071404,
-0.8079413175582886,
-0.03895470127463341,
0.836560070514679,
-0.7025996446609497,
-0.4705412983894348,
-0.6163894534111023,
-0.3771299421787262,
-0.05502203106880188,
-0.6714303493499756,
0.24109642207622528,
-0.02000986784696579,
-0.099529929459095,
-0.7955760359764099,
0.48819461464881897,
-0.26063022017478943,
0.5285632610321045,
0.02177252247929573,
-0.11099887639284134,
0.07898782193660736,
0.1867140382528305,
-0.6294188499450684,
0.11136851459741592,
-0.5013031363487244,
0.048140451312065125,
0.20871274173259735,
0.3466264605522156,
0.24196147918701172,
-0.1985669732093811,
-0.11567194759845734,
0.14626070857048035,
0.46508339047431946,
-0.9255856871604919,
-0.7064699530601501,
0.7367694973945618,
-0.7046293020248413,
0.12495522946119308,
0.607321560382843,
-0.2815684974193573,
0.22774189710617065,
0.4133981466293335,
0.21727818250656128,
-0.05306422337889671,
0.5594504475593567,
0.022441335022449493,
-0.49146661162376404,
0.6498969197273254,
-0.10742666572332382,
0.2813875675201416,
-0.10843434184789658,
0.312901109457016,
0.24514323472976685,
-0.2291736751794815,
-0.26768261194229126,
0.729496419429779,
-0.001571836182847619,
0.24529209733009338,
0.05533295124769211,
-0.047536760568618774,
-0.5551813244819641,
0.5803220868110657,
-0.06541185081005096,
0.5552719235420227,
-0.19003930687904358,
-0.5191441774368286,
-0.04371362924575806,
0.4062192440032959,
-0.36612287163734436,
0.33949026465415955,
0.5001497864723206,
0.07648223638534546,
0.4513687193393707,
-0.004661037586629391,
0.4297749698162079,
0.3927675485610962,
-0.14478038251399994,
0.39282333850860596,
1.0062041282653809,
-0.15837343037128448,
0.6080823540687561,
0.7505664229393005,
0.27764683961868286,
-0.2394905686378479,
0.29319411516189575,
0.10986477136611938,
-0.5886411666870117,
-0.16482816636562347,
-0.7993337512016296,
-0.6865533590316772,
-0.2376936972141266,
-0.2940668761730194,
-0.11973252892494202,
-0.7881030440330505,
0.11917029321193695,
0.09857957065105438,
-0.2682340741157532,
0.13991522789001465,
0.9264495968818665,
0.013936059549450874,
0.14848549664020538,
0.3362187147140503,
-0.4209545850753784,
0.7006624341011047,
0.17386175692081451,
-0.314805269241333,
-0.08463633805513382,
-0.07395806908607483,
-0.5253081917762756,
-0.15295062959194183,
0.5283936262130737,
-0.3087272644042969,
-0.06213858723640442,
-0.8414821028709412,
-0.3219233751296997,
0.05841134116053581,
-0.5817604660987854,
-0.07228394597768784,
-0.31608790159225464,
0.4598391056060791,
0.04341736435890198,
-0.5795809626579285,
-0.34793543815612793,
0.4612593948841095,
-0.25784608721733093,
0.6545589566230774,
0.008927321061491966,
0.3567376434803009,
-0.6356123089790344,
0.7135546803474426,
0.13654375076293945,
1.1743730306625366,
-0.2669585943222046,
0.19651111960411072,
-0.0866924449801445,
0.4112698435783386,
0.06026727706193924,
-0.5956291556358337,
0.37953537702560425,
-0.8899822235107422,
-0.1653910130262375,
0.3386516869068146,
0.29347702860832214,
-0.40608468651771545,
0.10292746871709824,
-0.48046886920928955,
0.05546697974205017,
-0.20400327444076538,
0.27762025594711304,
-0.08840496093034744,
0.058058302849531174,
0.8846858143806458,
0.03208080306649208,
0.39289507269859314,
-0.6835805177688599,
-0.40979090332984924,
-0.8201975226402283,
0.01594756729900837,
0.2544521391391754,
0.9258032441139221,
0.7104367613792419,
-0.21924985945224762,
0.6063641309738159,
-0.40390098094940186,
0.3322281539440155,
0.07156577706336975,
0.9015154242515564,
0.040692418813705444,
0.2723368704319,
-0.18534968793392181,
-0.6713553667068481,
0.7362629175186157,
-0.23932187259197235,
-0.08753584325313568,
0.7065958976745605,
-0.5463380813598633,
0.012028672732412815,
0.4569663405418396,
-0.05662079527974129,
-0.5341883301734924,
0.6873780488967896,
-0.2451799064874649
] |
241601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustan%20Aeronautics%20Limited | Hindustan Aeronautics Limited | Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is an Indian state-owned aerospace and defence company, headquartered in Bengaluru, India. Established on 23 December 1940, HAL is one of the oldest and largest aerospace and defence manufacturers in the world today. HAL began aircraft manufacturing as early as 1942 with licensed production of Harlow PC-5, Curtiss P-36 Hawk and Vultee A-31 Vengeance for the Indian Air Force. HAL currently have 11 dedicated Research and development (R&D) centers and 21 manufacturing divisions under 4 production units spread across India. HAL is managed by a Board of Directors appointed by the President of India through the Ministry of Defence, Government of India. HAL is currently involved in designing and manufacturing of fighter jets, helicopters, jet engine and marine gas turbine engine, avionics, software development, spare supply, overhauling and upgrading of Indian military aircraft.
The HAL HF-24 Marut fighter-bomber was the first indigenous fighter aircraft made in India.
History
HAL was established as Hindustan Aircraft Limited in Bangalore on 23 December 1940 by Walchand Hirachand in association with the then Kingdom of Mysore. Walchand Hirachand became Chairman of the company. The company's office was opened at a bungalow called "Eventide" on Domlur Road.
The organisation and equipment for the factory at Bangalore was set up by William D. Pawley of the Intercontinental Aircraft Corporation of New York. Pawley obtained a large number of machine-tools and equipment from the United States.
The Indian Government bought a one-third stake in the company and by April 1941 by investing ₹25 lakh as it believed this to be a strategic imperative. The decision by the government was primarily motivated to boost British military hardware supplies in Asia to counter the increasing threat posed by Imperial Japan during Second World War. The Kingdom of Mysore supplied two directors, Air Marshal John Higgins was resident director. The first aircraft built was a Harlow PC-5 On 2 April 1942, the government announced that the company had been nationalised when it had bought out the stakes of Seth Walchand Hirachand and other promoters so that it could act freely. The Mysore Kingdom refused to sell its stake in the company but yielded the management control over to the British Indian Government.
In 1943 the Bangalore factory was handed over to the United States Army Air Forces but still using Hindustan Aircraft management. The factory expanded rapidly and became the centre for major overhaul and repair of American aircraft and was known as the 84th Air Depot. The first aircraft to be overhauled was a Consolidated PBY Catalina followed by every type of aircraft operated in India and Burma. When returned to Indian control two years later the factory had become one of the largest overhaul and repair organisations in the East. In the post war reorganisation the company built railway carriages as an interim activity.
After India gained independence in 1947, the management of the company was passed over to the Government of India.
The total number of broad- gauge coaches manufactured by the Hindustan Aircraft Limited during the year 1954 is 158.
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) was formed on 1 October 1964 when Hindustan Aircraft Limited joined the consortium formed in June by the IAF Aircraft Manufacturing Depot, Kanpur (at the time manufacturing HS748 under licence) and the group recently set up to manufacture MiG-21 under licence, with its new factories planned in Koraput, Nasik and Hyderabad. Though HAL was not used actively for developing newer models of fighter jets, except for the HF-24 Marut, the company has played a crucial role in modernisation of the Indian Air Force. In 1957 company started manufacturing Bristol Siddeley Orpheus jet engines under licence at new factory located in Bangalore.
During the 1980s, HAL's operations saw a rapid increase which resulted in the development of new indigenous aircraft such as the HAL Tejas and HAL Dhruv. HAL also developed an advanced version of the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21, known as MiG-21 Bison, which increased its life-span by more than 20 years. HAL has also obtained several multimillion-dollar contracts from leading international aerospace firms such as Airbus, Boeing and Honeywell to manufacture aircraft spare parts and engines.
By 2012, HAL was reportedly bogged down in the details of production and has been slipping on its schedules. On 1 April 2015, HAL reconstituted its Board with TS Raju as CMD, S Subrahmanyan as Director (Operations), VM Chamola as Director (HR), CA Ramana Rao as Director (Finance) and D K Venkatesh as Director (Engineering & R&D). There are two government nominees in the board and six independent directors.
In March 2017, HAL Chairman and Managing Director T Suvarna Raju announced that the company had finalised plans for an indigenisation drive. The company plans to produce nearly 1, 000 military helicopters, including Kamov 226, LCH (Light Combat Helicopter) ALH (Advanced Light Helicopter), and over 100 planes over the next 10 years. HAL will manufacture the Kamov 226T helicopter under a joint venture agreement with Russian defence manufacturers. The Kamov 226T will replace the country's fleet of Cheetah and Chetak helicopters. Over the next 5 years, HAL will carry out major upgrade of almost the entire fighter fleet of Indian Air Force including Su-30MKI, Jaguars, Mirage and Hawk jets to make them "more lethal". The company will also deliver 123 Tejas Light Combat Aircraft to the IAF from 2018–19, at a rate of 16 jets per year. LCH production will now take place in a newly built Light Combat Helicopter Production Hangar at Helicopter Division in HAL Complex.
In view of Make in India policy and to increase the share of defence exports to achieve the target of $5 billion dollars by 2025, HAL is planning to setup logistic bases in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam with priority target for Southeast Asia, West Asia and North African markets. It would not only help to promote HAL products but also act as service centre for Soviet/Russian origin equipment.
Operations
One of the largest aerospace companies in Asia, HAL has annual turnover of over 2 billion. More than 40% of HAL's revenues come from international deals to manufacture aircraft engines, spare parts, and other aircraft materials. A partial list of major operations undertaken by HAL includes the following:
International agreements
US$1 billion contract to manufacture aircraft parts for Boeing.
120 RD-33MK turbofan engines to be manufactured for MiG-29K by HAL for US$250 million.
Contract to manufacture 1, 000 TPE331 aircraft engines for Honeywell worth US$200, 000 each (estimates put total value of deal at US$200 million).
US$120 million deal to manufacture Dornier 228 for RUAG of Switzerland.
Manufacture of aircraft parts for Airbus SAS worth US$150 million.
US$100 million contract to export composite materials to Israel Aircraft Industries.
US$65 million joint-research facility with Honeywell and planned production of Garrett TPE331 engines.
US$50.7 million contract to supply Advanced Light Helicopter to Ecuadorian Air Force. HAL will also open a maintenance base in the country.
US$30 million contract to supply avionics for Malaysian Su-30MKM.
US$20 million contract to supply ambulance version of HAL Dhruv to Peru.
Contract of 3 HAL Dhruv helicopters from Turkey worth US$20 million.
US$10 million order from Namibia for HAL Chetak and Cheetah helicopters.
Supply of HAL Dhruv helicopters to Mauritius' National Police in a deal worth US$7 million.
Unmanned helicopter development project with Israel Aircraft Industries.
US$15 million contract for supplying steel and nickel alloy forgings to GE Aviation for its global military and commercial engine programmes.
Domestic agreements
221 Sukhoi Su-30MKI being manufactured at HAL's facilities in Nasik, Koraput and Bangalore. The total contract, which also involves Russia's Sukhoi Aerospace, is worth 3.2 billion.
200 HAL Light Combat Helicopters for the Indian Air Force and 500 HAL Dhruv helicopters worth US$5.83 billion.
US$900 million aerospace hub in Shamshabad, Telangana.
US$57 million upgrade of SEPECAT Jaguar fleet of the Indian Air Force.
US$55 million helicopter simulator training facility in Bangalore in collaboration with Canada's CAE.
64 MiG-29s to be upgraded by HAL and Russia's MiG Corporation in a programme worth US$960 million.
Licensed production of 82 BAE Hawk 132.
Indigenous products
Over the years, HAL has designed and developed several platforms like the HF-24 Marut, the Dhruv, the LUH, and the LCH. HAL also manufactures indigenous products with technology transferred from the DRDO, in association with Bharat Electronics for its avionics and Indian Ordnance Factories for the on-board weapons systems and ammunition.
HAL supplies ISRO, the integrated L-40 stages for GSLV Mk II, propellant tanks, feed lines of PSLV, GSLV MKII and GSLV MKIII launch vehicles and structures of various satellites.
Agricultural aircraft
HA-31 Basant
Fighter aircraft
HF-24 Marut — (retired) Mk.1 and Mk.1T (200+ built)
HAL HF-73 — (cancelled)
HAL Ajeet — (retired) a derivative of the British Folland Gnat, 89 built
Tejas — (in production) Mk.1 (40+ built)
Tejas MK2 (MWF) — Medium weight fighter (under development) 2023 first flight expected.
AMCA — Fifth generation stealth fighter (under development).
TEDBF — Twin Engine Deck Based Fighter is 4.5 generation fighter for Indian Navy's aircraft carrier (under development)
ORCA — Air Force variant derived from TEDBF.
Trainer aircraft
HT-2 — First company design to enter production.
HAL-26 Pushpak — Basic trainer, based on Aeronca Chief
HPT-32 Deepak — Basic trainer in service for more than three decades.
HJT-16 Kiran — Mk1, Mk1A and Mk2 - Turbojet trainers scheduled to be replaced with HJT-36 Sitara.
HTT-34 — Turboprop version of HPT-32 Deepak
HTT-35 — Proposed replacement for HPT-32 basic trainer in the early 1990s; not pursued
HJT-36 Sitara — Intermediate jet trainer (under development)
HTT-40 — Basic trainer (in production) first prototype flew its first flight on 31 May 2016. (106 ordered)
HJT 39 / CAT — Advanced jet trainer (proposal)
Passenger, transport and utility aircraft
Saras — (in production) of 14-19 seater capacity multi-purpose civilian light transport aircraft jointly developed with NAL.
Indian Regional Jet (IRJ) — (under development) of 70-100 seater capacity regional airliner to be jointly developed with NAL.
Helicopters
Dhruv — (in production) Advanced light helicopter (350+ built)
Rudra — (in production) Armed and reconnaissance version of Dhruv (90+ built)
Light Combat Helicopter — (in production) Light attack helicopter (10+ built)
Light Utility Helicopter — (in limited series production) Light utility helicopter
Indian Multi-role Helicopter — (under development) medium multi-role helicopter
Observation and reconnaissance aircraft
HAOP-27 Krishak — Based on HAL-26 Pushpak
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
PTA Lakshya -UAV
PTA Lakshya 2 -UAV
NRUAV
DRDO Nishant -UAV
Rustom H - Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UCAV Tejas - Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle (under development)
HAL Combat Air Teaming System (CATS)
CATS Mothership for Air teaming Exploitation (MAX) - based on Tejas Mark 1A
CATS Warrior
CATS Air Launched Flexible Assets (ALFA) - Unmanned carrier and launcher of weaponized swarm drone ALPHA-S.
CATS Hunter - Modular multi-purpose weapon carrying system
CATS Infinity - High altitude solar powered atmospheric satellite
Gliders
G-1 — HAL's first original design, dating from 1941. Only one was built.
RG-1 Rohini
Ardhra — training glider
Engines
CE-7.5 — cryogenic rocket engine
CE-20 — cryogenic rocket engine
PTAE-7 — For indigenously designed Lakshya PTA
GTSU-110 — for starting main engine GE404 or Kaveri of LCA Tejas (under development)
Shakti — a turboshaft engine for HAL Dhruv Helicopter, co-developed with Safran Helicopter Engines based on Safran Ardiden 1
GTX-35VS Kaveri — a turbofan engine can be used in HAL-developed Tejas and AMCA, co-developed with GTRE of (DRDO) and Safran Aircraft Engines (under development or initial stage)
HTFE-25 — a turbofan engine can be used in single engine trainer jets, business jets and UAVs weighing up to 5 tonnes and in twin engine configuration for same weighing up to 9 tonnes (under development)
HTSE-1200 — a turboshaft engine can be used as engine alternatives for the HAL-developed LUH, Dhruv, Rudra and LCH helicopters (under development)
Licensed production
Vampire — first combat jet manufactured by HAL, 250+ FB.52, 60 T.55 models
Harlow PC-5 — first aircraft assembled by HAL
Percival Prentice — 66 built by HAL
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 — FL, M, Bis and Bison upgrades variants 660 built by HAL
Folland Gnat
Ajeet — improved version of the Folland Gnat
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-27 — M variant
SEPECAT Jaguar— IS, IB and IM variants
BAE Hawk Mk 132 — scheduled production run of 42 aircraft
Sukhoi Su-30MKI — a derivative of the Sukhoi Su-30
HS 748 Avro — modified for military usage, includes Series 2M variant with large freight door
Dornier 228 — 117 built + fuselage, wings and tail unit for production of the upgraded Dornier 228 NG variant
Aerospatiale SA 315B Lama — HAL Cheetah, Lancer, Cheetal Variants
Aerospatiale SA 316B Alouette III — HAL Chetak, Chetan Variants
Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour Mk 811 — Engine for SEPECAT Jaguar, under license produced
Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour Mk 871 — Engine for BAE Hawk Mk 132, under license produced
Garrett TPE331-5 — Engine for Dornier 228, under license produced
Saturn AL-31FP — Engine for Sukhoi Su-30MKI, under license produced
Turbomeca TM 333 — Engine for HAL Dhruv Helicopter, under license produced
Notable people
Kota Harinarayana
Kurt Tank
Roddam Narasimha
Vishnu Madav Ghatage
See also
HAL Aerospace Museum
Pragati Aerospace Museum
Defence Research and Development Organisation
HAL Airport
Indian Space Research Organisation
Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited SC
National Aerospace Laboratories
Mahindra Aerospace
Tata Advanced Systems
Aeronautical Development Agency
References
External links
Ready to roll: HAL offers its light combat helicopter to Indian Air Force
Aircraft manufacturers of India
Defence companies of India
Aerospace companies of India
Aircraft engine manufacturers of India
Gas turbine manufacturers
Indian Air Force
Science and technology in Karnataka
Manufacturing companies based in Bangalore
Government-owned companies of India
Walchand Group
Companies nationalised by the Government of India
Technology companies established in 1940
Indian companies established in 1940
Unmanned aerial vehicle manufacturers
Science and technology in Bangalore
Indian brands
Engine manufacturers of India
Companies listed on the National Stock Exchange of India
Companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange | [
0.4204842746257782,
0.18081536889076233,
0.27958184480667114,
-0.003614462912082672,
0.08772898465394974,
0.26451078057289124,
-0.4852965176105499,
0.007761843036860228,
-0.05613921955227852,
0.4784994423389435,
-0.503229558467865,
0.15011171996593475,
-0.19199450314044952,
0.3704545199871063,
-0.10785632580518723,
0.3622836470603943,
0.15726789832115173,
0.30904021859169006,
0.11853949725627899,
-0.030770009383559227,
-0.4033077657222748,
0.31870004534721375,
0.5573379993438721,
-0.0524984709918499,
0.4190375804901123,
-0.14571551978588104,
0.3481883406639099,
0.6111069917678833,
-0.2390078902244568,
0.43962469696998596,
0.5776472091674805,
0.48663410544395447,
-0.5830668210983276,
-0.12379145622253418,
-0.014494490809738636,
0.007615548092871904,
0.09667642414569855,
0.2607692778110504,
-0.3062571883201599,
-0.7510659098625183,
-0.5344235897064209,
-0.16775940358638763,
0.23390626907348633,
-0.016060486435890198,
-0.15432685613632202,
-0.3012080192565918,
-0.8895197510719299,
0.5305909514427185,
-0.30096152424812317,
0.42154163122177124,
-0.48444682359695435,
0.00808378029614687,
0.04317021369934082,
0.05502196401357651,
0.2457980364561081,
0.3461822271347046,
-0.22015133500099182,
0.36546847224235535,
-0.300690621137619,
-0.341712087392807,
1.0773226022720337,
-0.12919946014881134,
0.30862101912498474,
-0.08994299173355103,
0.6578682661056519,
0.3446190059185028,
0.13460184633731842,
-0.5331238508224487,
0.05611385032534599,
0.30134493112564087,
0.030873527750372887,
-0.1567021906375885,
-0.42660585045814514,
0.8501245379447937,
-0.28794756531715393,
-0.5872374773025513,
-0.12581828236579895,
-0.3732370436191559,
0.14451391994953156,
0.3418462574481964,
0.5295607447624207,
0.35366150736808777,
0.7993319034576416,
0.37385913729667664,
0.12057657539844513,
0.10777708142995834,
-0.5556014180183411,
-0.1993655562400818,
-0.38978275656700134,
0.2883424162864685,
0.07732169330120087,
0.09210521727800369,
0.48483556509017944,
0.5030466318130493,
-0.4595964252948761,
-0.2907216250896454,
0.7053155899047852,
-0.5558117032051086,
0.2463599145412445,
-0.01749022677540779,
-0.06352929025888443,
0.3176804184913635,
-0.3538258969783783,
-0.5351981520652771,
-0.17525935173034668,
-0.005506689660251141,
-0.306711882352829,
0.10586121678352356,
-0.2258254885673523,
0.3296416997909546,
-0.9119887948036194,
-0.11742067337036133,
0.13453572988510132,
0.09172195941209793,
-0.5287784934043884,
0.3701966106891632,
-0.13845868408679962,
-0.4294055104255676,
0.40916091203689575,
0.15842999517917633,
0.33864548802375793,
1.0951038599014282,
-0.15040165185928345,
0.35458168387413025,
-0.13414834439754486,
0.6425859928131104,
0.8743228316307068,
0.20244601368904114,
-0.43881678581237793,
0.4747768044471741,
0.29778799414634705,
0.31039583683013916,
-0.6493791937828064,
-0.16060912609100342,
-0.30129510164260864,
-0.4177291989326477,
0.6722930669784546,
-0.06905917823314667,
0.3401305377483368,
0.19055238366127014,
-0.9241986274719238,
-0.35519564151763916,
-0.5234683156013489,
-0.6141602396965027,
0.0020329004619270563,
-0.21034972369670868,
0.38550373911857605,
-0.5695701837539673,
-0.82549649477005,
-0.28610682487487793,
-0.14332062005996704,
0.2288818657398224,
-1.1531493663787842,
-0.03638259693980217,
-0.31833651661872864,
-0.023114940151572227,
0.8553391098976135,
-0.15454284846782684,
0.4934331476688385,
0.6483323574066162,
0.16783900558948517,
-0.3000499904155731,
-0.2595730721950531,
-0.23725852370262146,
-0.4423017203807831,
-0.07737161219120026,
0.5148269534111023,
0.3602043688297272,
0.35911011695861816,
-0.3128923773765564,
-0.3754132390022278,
-0.3516775965690613,
0.2840924859046936,
-0.10164471715688705,
-0.11660229414701462,
0.06000743806362152,
0.1930662989616394,
-0.19148193299770355,
0.04824533313512802,
0.3547495901584625,
-0.7985070943832397,
0.4304138123989105,
0.19865594804286957,
0.6545707583427429,
0.07059606164693832,
0.12332990765571594,
0.13939602673053741,
0.012438276782631874,
0.5467473864555359,
-0.33685773611068726,
-0.46442434191703796,
-0.5714718699455261,
0.16508035361766815,
-0.6395556926727295,
1.0276787281036377,
0.06022482365369797,
0.0025511677376925945,
0.9754389524459839,
-0.30306920409202576,
0.5406444072723389,
-0.1419149786233902,
0.5172739028930664,
-0.07436438649892807,
-0.30170542001724243,
-0.15985964238643646,
-0.029298946261405945,
-0.08247951418161392,
0.2552536725997925,
0.2379688024520874,
0.35241490602493286,
0.3963324725627899,
-0.574567973613739,
0.17764322459697723,
-0.36228305101394653,
0.437969833612442,
-0.6803331971168518,
-0.7068724036216736,
0.6570919156074524,
0.16861797869205475,
0.022553354501724243,
1.2635031938552856,
0.11724261194467545,
-0.2125047743320465,
0.7656179666519165,
0.31522297859191895,
0.8904364109039307,
0.347359836101532,
-0.04523290693759918,
0.018750431016087532,
-0.16008193790912628,
0.3903796672821045,
-0.4612851142883301,
-0.44316792488098145,
-0.12034385651350021,
-0.152511328458786,
0.16967689990997314,
-0.4477243423461914,
-0.27580446004867554,
0.6937229037284851,
-0.1168900802731514,
-0.037885475903749466,
0.6821889877319336,
-0.3035067021846771,
0.3144778907299042,
0.08445816487073898,
-0.3686399757862091,
-0.2336757928133011,
-0.7733230590820312,
-0.09913427382707596,
0.19228960573673248,
-0.6730944514274597,
-0.08436350524425507,
-0.157317116856575,
0.12350033223628998,
-0.11164528876543045,
0.007142070215195417,
-0.18700213730335236,
0.3446885943412781,
-0.09122848510742188,
-0.377367228269577,
-0.010974563658237457,
-0.2428445965051651,
0.355852872133255,
0.3389452397823334,
-0.3299509882926941,
-0.5555344223976135,
0.1808340698480606,
-0.3679822087287903,
0.46631306409835815,
0.3584598898887634,
0.4237833619117737,
-0.18207283318042755,
0.29022619128227234,
-0.03788509592413902,
-0.3631327152252197,
-0.7007014751434326,
-0.09266572445631027,
0.542345404624939,
-0.8916913866996765,
0.08475880324840546,
0.7054969668388367,
0.23001264035701752,
0.08324892818927765,
-0.763009250164032,
-0.3364943265914917,
0.4982259273529053,
0.412369042634964,
-0.977867066860199,
-0.38299497961997986,
0.6546486020088196,
0.1770901381969452,
-0.235588937997818,
-0.41244006156921387,
0.19969023764133453,
-0.37357938289642334,
0.191128209233284,
0.25027838349342346,
0.018376484513282776,
0.07078200578689575,
-1.0151604413986206,
-0.8321869969367981,
0.5133808255195618,
-0.7971166968345642,
-0.21167485415935516,
-0.05132373049855232,
-0.17110055685043335,
-0.36379802227020264,
-0.45340630412101746,
-5.624029159545898,
0.2070191353559494,
-0.5088096261024475,
-0.33347073197364807,
0.5976542234420776,
0.3901508152484894,
0.07650892436504364,
-0.2658681869506836,
0.13217662274837494,
0.09463351219892502,
0.2558635473251343,
-0.05516740307211876,
-0.004028740338981152,
-0.16730526089668274,
-0.31567564606666565,
0.478230357170105,
0.30718621611595154,
0.42418617010116577,
0.35548272728919983,
-0.09999008476734161,
-0.1532638818025589,
-0.4030596911907196,
-0.0035753389820456505,
0.4039948582649231,
0.35233014822006226,
0.1672346442937851,
-0.5946794152259827,
-0.19724920392036438,
-0.43099445104599,
-0.22943714261054993,
-0.21686910092830658,
-0.12384671717882156,
-0.04632037132978439,
0.22056064009666443,
-0.1909952014684677,
-0.4053915739059448,
0.23591995239257812,
0.2426542490720749,
0.23731490969657898,
0.07915512472391129,
0.07310368865728378,
0.1811726987361908,
-0.11835428327322006,
-0.32279640436172485,
0.16499900817871094,
-0.9555110335350037,
-0.6098533272743225,
0.5221379995346069,
0.0004502781084738672,
0.5585299134254456,
-0.33204421401023865,
0.0663844645023346,
-0.03392120823264122,
-0.007747615221887827,
-0.44581887125968933,
-0.2981100082397461,
-0.10367505997419357,
-0.23924465477466583,
-0.11907856166362762,
0.22581912577152252,
-0.05450797453522682,
0.24304503202438354,
-0.05200716480612755,
-0.5384315252304077,
-0.34274402260780334,
0.22435180842876434,
0.3218536972999573,
-0.9931303858757019,
0.15331336855888367,
-0.27656078338623047,
-0.6010253429412842,
0.5260988473892212,
-0.06419562548398972,
-0.9156526327133179,
0.42278486490249634,
-0.9368422031402588,
0.5587444305419922,
0.14026768505573273,
-0.3900283873081207,
0.29944390058517456,
0.2635756731033325,
-0.21883653104305267,
0.17559795081615448,
-0.11837227642536163,
0.002417703391984105,
-0.15549036860466003,
-0.14198043942451477,
-0.7430881857872009,
0.6771295666694641,
-0.01521863229572773,
1.4511281251907349,
-0.7937707901000977,
0.6003647446632385,
0.25668394565582275,
0.573126494884491,
0.02154424600303173,
-0.12487833201885223,
0.345241904258728,
0.5494187474250793,
-0.6135823726654053,
0.20969443023204803,
0.22799378633499146,
-0.37248337268829346,
-0.359109491109848,
-0.3765770196914673,
-0.3848359286785126,
0.18507066369056702,
-0.47900068759918213,
0.8045036196708679,
-0.5613553524017334,
0.30328017473220825,
-0.3063147962093353,
-0.3721183240413666,
-0.10473902523517609,
0.347842276096344,
-0.6707086563110352,
-0.26760441064834595,
0.4707343876361847,
-0.13441351056098938,
0.1355457305908203,
-0.004495535045862198,
-0.2881354093551636,
0.42446887493133545,
-0.2093891054391861,
-0.21499015390872955,
-0.23766666650772095,
-0.3018227517604828,
0.3795126974582672,
0.19428519904613495,
-0.2026573121547699,
0.1844903975725174,
0.5574929714202881,
0.23957011103630066,
0.257547527551651,
-0.22064757347106934,
-0.034025441855192184,
-0.5599098801612854,
-0.05581130087375641,
0.176103413105011,
0.21385595202445984,
0.5475935935974121,
0.3599330484867096,
-0.07277525216341019,
0.2152681201696396,
0.767946183681488,
0.23297859728336334,
0.042594701051712036,
-0.2377355992794037,
0.1871214509010315,
0.3140101432800293,
0.1419529914855957,
-0.5382494330406189,
0.40296265482902527,
-0.3370523154735565,
-0.5612858533859253,
-0.30731937289237976,
0.6337594389915466,
0.5321617722511292,
-0.46641579270362854,
-0.07280078530311584,
0.20542509853839874,
0.35887086391448975,
-0.7250702381134033,
-0.0940229520201683,
0.3598312437534332,
-0.5559639930725098,
-0.543470025062561,
-0.43259263038635254,
0.24965699017047882,
0.09951513260602951,
0.4726071357727051,
-0.1817040741443634,
-0.3137813210487366,
-0.41333910822868347,
-0.01827557384967804,
0.19552616775035858,
-0.22649921476840973,
-0.1442377269268036,
0.04219157621264458,
0.12384479492902756,
0.0248254481703043,
-0.15109169483184814,
-1.0059082508087158,
0.5275193452835083,
0.19625121355056763,
-0.7084947824478149,
0.1428511142730713,
-0.7254493236541748,
0.19852790236473083,
0.049665771424770355,
0.6143116354942322,
-0.3216248154640198,
0.45559704303741455,
-0.06413505226373672,
0.3531174957752228,
-1.0034115314483643,
-0.009995040483772755,
0.45761990547180176,
-0.4297061264514923,
-1.1665713787078857,
-0.02564968727529049,
0.17629890143871307,
-0.5124571919441223,
0.21053390204906464,
-0.0064262570813298225,
-0.6820067763328552,
0.6151975989341736,
0.35282403230667114,
0.26769527792930603,
0.2861560583114624,
-0.8359705209732056,
-0.8900071382522583,
0.5564907193183899,
0.13121263682842255,
-0.5269452333450317,
0.34436899423599243,
-0.21003639698028564,
-0.1509505957365036,
-0.2615249752998352,
-0.6842595934867859,
-0.1979324072599411,
-0.12330259382724762,
0.09443039447069168,
-0.16416750848293304,
-1.0458848476409912,
0.24415169656276703,
0.2974584102630615,
-0.25066307187080383,
-0.1637565791606903,
-0.8225127458572388,
-0.3310434818267822,
0.13674356043338776,
-0.23912560939788818,
0.47298967838287354,
-0.013990109786391258,
0.20644168555736542,
-0.6138738393783569,
-0.0852167159318924,
0.6724934577941895,
0.3531510829925537,
-0.11118029057979584,
0.4672996699810028,
0.10498056560754776,
-0.16869983077049255,
-0.19516482949256897,
0.07957399636507034,
0.5100156664848328,
-0.02470439486205578,
-0.6375877261161804,
0.20837906002998352,
0.3454616069793701,
-0.2933163344860077,
-0.38090360164642334,
0.11801417171955109,
0.6771177649497986,
0.2224038541316986,
0.0870170071721077,
0.04048758000135422,
-0.5023008584976196,
-0.07114458084106445,
-0.5412328243255615,
-0.0878719612956047,
-0.4805954396724701,
-0.23577673733234406,
-0.29494747519493103,
-0.1701413244009018,
-0.6411115527153015,
-0.932293176651001,
0.37581780552864075,
-0.39957401156425476,
0.03733500838279724,
-0.03687863051891327,
0.9000119566917419,
-0.19467037916183472,
0.26518896222114563,
-0.26318368315696716,
0.2878311276435852,
-0.040608882904052734,
-0.20096443593502045,
0.04893318936228752,
-0.321004718542099,
-0.21806608140468597,
0.5918998122215271,
-0.21799705922603607,
0.0726800262928009,
-0.8279590606689453,
0.5867588520050049,
0.18533694744110107,
-0.09829524159431458,
0.04001963883638382,
-0.18442344665527344,
0.08260736614465714,
0.006775143090635538,
0.29243195056915283,
-0.5852313041687012,
-0.19661471247673035,
0.27172109484672546,
0.8010880351066589,
0.13672691583633423,
-0.04393213614821434,
-0.2302057147026062,
0.158377543091774,
0.19919925928115845,
-0.12929202616214752,
-0.06158645451068878,
0.27813759446144104,
0.4359962046146393,
-0.1492370069026947,
0.13231436908245087,
-0.04751826822757721,
0.5332536101341248,
-0.17363564670085907,
-0.011960761621594429,
0.8349440693855286,
-0.5930177569389343,
-0.08410897105932236,
-0.036023758351802826,
-0.7104206085205078,
0.5196962356567383,
-0.0320928730070591,
-0.019739413633942604,
0.04407268017530441,
0.553767204284668,
-0.15242858231067657,
-0.4985561966896057,
0.591961145401001,
-0.341733455657959,
0.6207361221313477,
0.204092338681221,
0.4865938127040863,
0.16454876959323883,
-0.27663224935531616,
-0.34088650345802307,
-0.2036946713924408,
0.42904695868492126,
-0.32807457447052,
0.3398455083370209,
-0.33062803745269775,
-0.6113913655281067,
0.47323012351989746,
0.8850559592247009,
0.4045407474040985,
-0.0021367562003433704,
-0.388057142496109,
-0.04397996515035629,
0.541831910610199,
0.60210782289505,
1.0383089780807495,
-0.34043821692466736,
0.27092280983924866,
-0.5004364848136902,
0.19568873941898346,
0.14668117463588715,
0.06308223307132721,
0.15812619030475616,
-0.19098512828350067,
0.09058477729558945,
-0.26714783906936646,
0.7277000546455383,
0.228583425283432,
0.05217529833316803,
0.27808600664138794,
0.944857656955719,
0.8479089140892029,
-0.1314985752105713,
-0.08635509014129639,
0.12321045249700546,
-0.7958901524543762,
0.5583221912384033,
-0.32516512274742126,
-0.318191260099411,
0.10188493132591248,
-0.4297396242618561,
0.6842932105064392,
-0.1786084622144699,
0.29587578773498535,
0.036271486431360245,
0.17784668505191803,
0.31088051199913025,
0.42171862721443176,
-0.5854158997535706,
0.10098464041948318,
0.24677106738090515,
-0.4879600405693054,
0.25873854756355286,
-0.33310699462890625,
-0.17703352868556976,
0.24147707223892212,
0.1644316464662552,
0.14992240071296692,
0.05625082179903984,
-0.29897114634513855,
0.045033544301986694,
0.36777523159980774,
-0.3860003650188446,
0.039975062012672424,
-0.05656426027417183,
0.1586977243423462,
0.4627651572227478,
0.20499703288078308,
0.06129053607583046,
0.5450544953346252,
0.61423659324646,
-0.031172918155789375,
-0.1871030628681183,
-0.38204649090766907,
-0.5860576033592224,
0.28829920291900635,
-0.398866206407547,
-0.1002381294965744,
-0.43485912680625916,
-0.1330133080482483,
0.2401246875524521,
-0.23241741955280304,
-0.26416531205177307,
-0.2879621684551239,
0.11660872399806976,
-0.24609476327896118,
0.025143975391983986,
0.15350180864334106,
0.05648797005414963,
-0.40469610691070557,
-0.2564609944820404,
-0.03127620741724968,
0.02353186160326004,
-0.42190197110176086,
0.7485104203224182,
0.5012737512588501,
-0.32038262486457825,
0.712491512298584,
0.02134871482849121,
0.09592268615961075,
-0.6494703888893127,
0.25632160902023315,
-0.2896195352077484,
-0.5789170861244202,
-0.35634294152259827,
0.4818870723247528,
0.3243858218193054,
-0.3590296804904938,
0.32271766662597656,
0.27433666586875916,
0.04500909149646759,
-0.252927303314209,
0.6581018567085266,
-0.259270578622818,
-0.5508976578712463,
-0.23308567702770233,
-0.7000330090522766,
1.3319106101989746,
-0.03768831118941307,
-0.39283108711242676,
0.9858331680297852,
-0.27207234501838684,
0.40341857075691223,
-0.2106866091489792,
-0.06456860154867172,
-0.4546576738357544,
0.6100374460220337,
-0.22628962993621826
] |
241602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blister | Blister | A blister is a small pocket of body fluid (lymph, serum, plasma, blood, or pus) within the upper layers of the skin, usually caused by forceful rubbing (friction), burning, freezing, chemical exposure or infection. Most blisters are filled with a clear fluid, either serum or plasma. However, blisters can be filled with blood (known as "blood blisters") or with pus (for instance, if they become infected).
The word "blister" entered English in the 14th century. It came from the Middle Dutch and was a modification of the Old French , which meant a leprous nodule—a rise in the skin due to leprosy. In dermatology today, the words vesicle and bulla refer to blisters of smaller or greater size, respectively.
To heal properly, a blister should not be popped unless medically necessary. If popped, the excess skin should not be removed because the skin underneath needs the top layer to heal properly.
Causes
A blister may form when the skin has been damaged by friction or rubbing, heat, cold or chemical exposure. Fluid collects between the upper layers of skin (the epidermis) and the layers below (the dermis). This fluid cushions the tissue underneath, protecting it from further damage and allowing it to heal.
Friction
Intense rubbing can cause a blister, as can any friction on the skin if continued long enough. This kind of blister is most common after walking long distances or by wearing old or poorly fitting shoes. Blisters are most common on the hands and feet, as these extremities are susceptible while walking, running, or performing repetitive motions, such as joystick manipulation whilst playing certain video games, certain sports (e.g., baseball pitching), digging with a shovel, playing guitar or bass, etc. Blisters form more easily on damp skin than on dry or soaked skin, and are more common in warm conditions. Less-aggressive rubbing over long periods of time may cause calluses to form rather than a blister. Both blisters and calluses can lead to more serious complications, such as foot ulceration and infection, particularly when sensation or circulation is impaired, as in the case of diabetes, neuropathy or peripheral artery disease (PAD).
Burning
This type of blistering is one of the tools used to determine the degree of burns sustained. First and second degree burns may result in blistered skin; however, it is characteristic of second degree burns to blister immediately, whereas first degree burns can have blisters after a couple of days. Sunburn can also result in blisters.
Blisters can also form on the hands and feet as a result of tissue damage incurred by frostbite.
Chemical exposure
Sometimes, the skin will blister when it comes into contact with a cosmetic, detergent, solvent, or other chemical such as nickel sulfate, Balsam of Peru, or urushiol (poison ivy, poison oak, poison sumac). This is known as contact dermatitis. Blisters can also develop as a result of an allergic reaction to an insect bite or sting. Some chemical warfare agents, known as blister agents or vesicants, cause large, painful blisters wherever they contact skin; an example is mustard gas.
Blood blister
A blood blister usually forms when a minute blood vessel close to
the surface of the skin ruptures (breaks), and blood leaks into a tear between the layers of skin. This can happen if the skin is crushed, pinched or aggressively squeezed.
Medical conditions
There are also a number of medical conditions that cause blisters. The most common are chickenpox, herpes, impetigo, and a form of eczema called dyshidrosis. Other, much rarer conditions that cause blisters include:
Bullous pemphigoid: a skin disease that causes large, tightly filled blisters to develop, usually affecting people over the age of 60.
Pemphigus: a serious skin disease in which blisters develop if pressure is applied to the skin; the blisters burst easily, leaving raw areas that can become infected.
Dermatitis herpetiformis: a skin disease that causes intensely itchy blisters, usually on the elbows, knees, back and buttocks. The blisters usually develop in patches of the same shape and size on both sides of the body.
Chronic bullous dermatosis: a disease that causes clusters of blisters on the face, mouth or genitals.
Cutaneous radiation syndrome
Epidermolysis bullosa
Pathophysiology
Friction blisters
Friction blisters are caused by excess shear stress between the bottom and surface of the skin and the body. The strata of skin around the stratum spinosum are most susceptible to shear. As the stratum spinosum tears away from the connecting tissues below, plasma from the cells diffuses out. This plasma solution helps new cells divide and grow into new connective tissues and epidermal layers.
The clear fluid will be reabsorbed as new cells develop and the swollen appearance will subside. Painful blisters located on hands (palmar surface) and feet (plantar surface) are due to tissue shearing deeper in the epidermis, near nerve endings. Lower tissues are more susceptible to infection.
Prevention
Friction blisters
Friction blisters, caused by rubbing against the skin, can be prevented by reducing the friction to a level where blisters will not form. This can be accomplished in a variety of ways.
Blisters on the feet can be prevented by wearing comfortable, well-fitting shoes and clean socks. Inherently ill-fitting or stiffer shoes, such as high heels and dress shoes, present a larger risk of blistering. Blisters are more likely to develop on skin that is moist, so socks that manage moisture or frequent sock changes will aid those with particularly sweaty feet. While exercising or playing sports, special sports socks can help keep feet drier and reduce the chance of blisters. Before going for a long walk, it is also important to ensure that shoes or hiking boots have been properly broken in.
Even before a "hot" or irritated area on the foot is felt, taping a protective layer of padding or a friction-reducing interface between the affected area and the footwear can prevent the formation of a blister. Bandages, moleskin and tapes generally must be applied to the foot daily, and most have a very high coefficient of friction (COF), but a friction-management patch applied to the shoe will remain in place much longer, throughout many changes of socks and insoles. This type of intervention may be used with footwear that is worn daily, with specialty shoes and boots like hockey skates, ice skates, inline skates, ski boots and cleats, or even with orthotic braces and splints. For periods of sustained use such as hiking and trail running, especially where water ingress or moisture build up in the shoe or boot can occur, moisture wicking liner socks can provide the required friction protection.
To avoid friction blisters on the hands, gloves should be worn when using tools such as a shovel or pickaxe, doing manual work such as gardening, or using sports equipment like golf clubs or baseball bats. Oars used for competitive rowing are known for causing frequent blisters on the hands of oarsmen. Weightlifters are also prone to blisters as are gymnasts from the friction developed by the rubbing against the bars. To further reduce the occurrence one can tape the hands, and there are also a number of products on the market that claim to reduce the occurrence of blisters. These are all intended to be worn as a liner underneath a glove. The majority of these offerings simply add padding, and create a layer that reduces the coefficient of friction between the skin and the glove.
A lubricant, typically talcum powder, can be used to reduce friction between skin and apparel in the short term. People put talcum powder inside gloves or shoes for this purpose, although this type of lubricant can actually increase the friction in the long term as it absorbs moisture. Increased friction makes blisters more likely.
Other
Sunscreen and protective clothing should also be used during the hottest part of the day to avoid blisters from sunburn. Avoiding sunlight during midday is the best way to avoid blisters from sunburn. Protective gloves should be worn when handling detergents, cleaning products, solvents and other chemicals.
References
External links
Skin conditions resulting from physical factors
Radiation health effects
Hazards of outdoor recreation | [
0.718105137348175,
0.1331344097852707,
-0.20511049032211304,
0.048910435289144516,
0.09479929506778717,
-0.2811609208583832,
0.45664647221565247,
0.353434294462204,
0.01381799578666687,
-0.6549382209777832,
-0.5320612788200378,
-0.1016550287604332,
-0.4306671917438507,
0.39163708686828613,
0.05706508830189705,
0.6448483467102051,
0.25424104928970337,
0.6490516662597656,
0.3164518475532532,
0.6055242419242859,
-0.33951452374458313,
-0.2591317594051361,
-0.20001299679279327,
0.020737357437610626,
0.26282012462615967,
-0.13433894515037537,
-0.06572964787483215,
0.3429511487483978,
-0.23750916123390198,
-0.09363389015197754,
-0.0651334747672081,
0.42419445514678955,
0.08135078847408295,
-0.32464924454689026,
0.2765326201915741,
0.500157356262207,
-0.4487667977809906,
-0.2640894651412964,
-0.4525659680366516,
-0.473808616399765,
-0.46529337763786316,
0.3221879303455353,
0.19276189804077148,
0.2247617095708847,
-0.5009031295776367,
-0.18705762922763824,
-1.2084718942642212,
0.7077299356460571,
-0.6660925149917603,
0.7229308485984802,
0.10202997177839279,
0.5142031311988831,
0.20581459999084473,
0.13638480007648468,
0.08195547759532928,
0.09266157448291779,
-0.33093932271003723,
0.36103400588035583,
0.3206479549407959,
-0.7068294286727905,
0.6939398646354675,
-0.22901085019111633,
0.03374241665005684,
-0.1910765916109085,
0.4249734580516815,
0.33216774463653564,
-0.41611114144325256,
0.4608556628227234,
-0.006307258270680904,
-0.29722028970718384,
-0.14819028973579407,
-0.07593777775764465,
-0.06928835809230804,
-0.04004322737455368,
-0.16711978614330292,
0.28171053528785706,
-0.4075990915298462,
-0.44812116026878357,
-0.03065914660692215,
0.4879802167415619,
-0.547213613986969,
0.2164304107427597,
0.1797640174627304,
0.18024052679538727,
0.5904118418693542,
0.05596114695072174,
-0.491999089717865,
1.0912336111068726,
-0.07057084143161774,
0.22434483468532562,
0.8146278858184814,
0.035520799458026886,
0.6248591542243958,
-0.28142234683036804,
-0.3601140081882477,
-0.9723933935165405,
0.2191302627325058,
-0.3309057056903839,
-0.05511417239904404,
-0.21687562763690948,
-0.1950201541185379,
-0.4235411584377289,
0.3316948711872101,
0.01154552586376667,
0.03798886388540268,
0.08602919429540634,
-0.10124830901622772,
0.17389428615570068,
0.5070074200630188,
-0.21330153942108154,
0.17062021791934967,
0.3620188236236572,
-0.17426741123199463,
0.17495256662368774,
-0.8423585295677185,
0.3497481048107147,
-0.11604476720094681,
0.1351405382156372,
-0.14677168428897858,
-0.1837913542985916,
0.11817870289087296,
-0.07164963334798813,
0.5194169282913208,
-0.4487532079219818,
-0.3782004117965698,
0.2553044855594635,
0.1147773489356041,
0.10445788502693176,
-0.049765925854444504,
0.7974823713302612,
0.23214197158813477,
0.4347187578678131,
-0.3348122239112854,
-0.1780841052532196,
0.07535628229379654,
0.06500239670276642,
0.22173061966896057,
0.11703331023454666,
0.8872169852256775,
0.3747146725654602,
-0.40666377544403076,
-0.2780929207801819,
-0.5247926115989685,
0.016399972140789032,
0.14003311097621918,
-0.7185882329940796,
-0.5101252198219299,
-0.4964924156665802,
-0.177750825881958,
-0.1979663372039795,
-0.01817505806684494,
0.09636686742305756,
0.2824344038963318,
-0.02667805179953575,
-0.4650523066520691,
-0.3135097324848175,
0.3738197386264801,
-0.5788268446922302,
-0.005683927796781063,
0.025474581867456436,
0.3921931982040405,
0.4250580370426178,
-0.299516499042511,
0.10053074359893799,
0.03738328814506531,
0.2147917002439499,
0.4918733835220337,
0.24113517999649048,
0.26984596252441406,
0.8238289952278137,
0.21538087725639343,
0.4821278154850006,
0.47020548582077026,
-0.06265635043382645,
-0.004562790039926767,
0.13296185433864594,
0.09502386301755905,
-0.1508345901966095,
0.49259650707244873,
0.08348367363214493,
-0.7087961435317993,
-0.05448274686932564,
0.1076950877904892,
0.1462090015411377,
-0.3969963788986206,
-0.3832395374774933,
0.4637252390384674,
-0.16955320537090302,
-0.7388567328453064,
-0.09062841534614563,
-0.7860508561134338,
-0.5217360854148865,
0.13171614706516266,
0.2741042375564575,
1.3178062438964844,
-0.7579850554466248,
-0.562340259552002,
0.7009406685829163,
0.22242401540279388,
0.27149727940559387,
-0.30440032482147217,
0.0845315009355545,
0.08149486780166626,
-0.32175347208976746,
-0.6357544660568237,
0.31606075167655945,
0.33233001828193665,
0.19319386780261993,
0.5255898237228394,
-0.2535203993320465,
0.6332366466522217,
-0.34480589628219604,
0.44401440024375916,
-0.49318280816078186,
0.28229013085365295,
-0.2416486293077469,
-0.5632323026657104,
0.4309062957763672,
-0.011638875119388103,
-0.383061021566391,
0.38178032636642456,
-0.3329204320907593,
-0.5326359272003174,
0.3048967719078064,
0.07961657643318176,
0.6445985436439514,
-0.2563862204551697,
-0.3522430658340454,
0.8150561451911926,
-1.4530197381973267,
0.27761632204055786,
-0.20802569389343262,
0.48065871000289917,
-0.5329795479774475,
-1.2434937953948975,
0.1768873929977417,
0.27244386076927185,
-0.4373355209827423,
-0.08471865952014923,
-0.24891303479671478,
-0.1151106059551239,
0.5425347685813904,
-0.35841137170791626,
-0.039843566715717316,
0.07564128190279007,
-0.039254117757081985,
0.3246496319770813,
0.5350533723831177,
-0.26316118240356445,
0.1936446875333786,
-0.06672336161136627,
0.5837327837944031,
-0.7187015414237976,
-0.09365589171648026,
0.4246940612792969,
-0.019389469176530838,
-0.12209201604127884,
0.2803073227405548,
0.5087526440620422,
-0.247781440615654,
-0.1435522735118866,
-0.04021468758583069,
0.2579607367515564,
0.11078400909900665,
-0.32438385486602783,
-0.2596035599708557,
-0.5525649189949036,
-0.011308373883366585,
0.27377817034721375,
0.6776260137557983,
0.8219122886657715,
0.1477433443069458,
-0.6399044394493103,
-0.1600581258535385,
-0.012114937417209148,
-0.5177257061004639,
0.6272377967834473,
0.3424946069717407,
-0.21931156516075134,
0.07062984257936478,
0.06440292298793793,
0.2894194722175598,
0.3512048125267029,
-0.5258299112319946,
-0.08449503034353256,
-0.4074156582355499,
0.21278387308120728,
0.12089625746011734,
-0.16680607199668884,
0.08348501473665237,
-0.8398793339729309,
0.7571833729743958,
0.026695387437939644,
0.4525497555732727,
-0.03000694140791893,
-0.1373658925294876,
0.21851105988025665,
-0.03570488095283508,
0.5587136745452881,
-0.5975305438041687,
-0.6546626687049866,
-0.20556612312793732,
-0.7615296244621277,
-0.24462410807609558,
-0.005824688356369734,
0.05296431854367256,
-0.323268860578537,
-0.17032691836357117,
-5.62395715713501,
0.7450823783874512,
0.09857085347175598,
-0.3305555582046509,
0.4092247188091278,
0.5343751907348633,
0.8544135093688965,
-0.17432884871959686,
-0.2914758622646332,
0.25577259063720703,
-0.12998570501804352,
0.20938806235790253,
-0.0024058250710368156,
0.010412552393972874,
0.15733517706394196,
0.1208161786198616,
-0.06415538489818573,
0.1019267588853836,
-0.28680911660194397,
0.18959300220012665,
-0.41456764936447144,
0.6673369407653809,
0.08467596769332886,
0.8553615212440491,
0.045145489275455475,
0.49399614334106445,
-0.4520132541656494,
0.3411630094051361,
-0.26140838861465454,
0.31962212920188904,
0.4302813410758972,
-0.6668837070465088,
0.44732949137687683,
-0.28897061944007874,
-0.2244386225938797,
0.10015109181404114,
-0.02737005613744259,
-0.2824367880821228,
-0.6680657267570496,
0.13551202416419983,
-0.4975806474685669,
0.6451038718223572,
-0.12690645456314087,
-0.29723384976387024,
0.7352004051208496,
-0.35795167088508606,
-0.16446173191070557,
-0.2568798363208771,
0.13635598123073578,
0.3146568536758423,
0.13861624896526337,
-0.08927154541015625,
-0.12864963710308075,
-0.38508090376853943,
0.24977941811084747,
0.09186944365501404,
0.41829437017440796,
-0.15235131978988647,
-0.703787624835968,
-0.5717982053756714,
-0.40470853447914124,
-0.01873776502907276,
-0.29929211735725403,
0.1290084719657898,
0.8246188759803772,
-0.5739840269088745,
-0.4049045443534851,
-0.324178010225296,
0.992019534111023,
-0.02673235721886158,
0.3821936547756195,
-0.13927651941776276,
-0.08394207805395126,
-1.1104847192764282,
0.13047337532043457,
-0.6737720370292664,
-0.13148660957813263,
-0.5212422609329224,
0.3563929796218872,
-0.40178149938583374,
-0.6717849969863892,
0.4644152820110321,
-0.5652368664741516,
0.4320950210094452,
0.40102332830429077,
-0.35829296708106995,
-0.11839929223060608,
0.1272273063659668,
-0.1933724731206894,
-0.7635848522186279,
1.1582605838775635,
0.03439709171652794,
0.1954573690891266,
0.14491711556911469,
-0.3081607520580292,
0.4970638155937195,
-0.028156349435448647,
0.2800023853778839,
0.17673778533935547,
-0.14242026209831238,
0.8048872351646423,
-0.5700516700744629,
-0.15850356221199036,
-0.8365548849105835,
-0.16390950977802277,
0.320017546415329,
-0.5689820647239685,
0.5245283246040344,
0.48878833651542664,
-0.3170526921749115,
0.15880802273750305,
0.6647047996520996,
-0.13206824660301208,
-0.3659417927265167,
0.3542347550392151,
0.3819577395915985,
-0.3215072751045227,
0.45670777559280396,
0.48986026644706726,
-0.437684565782547,
0.676052987575531,
0.16038712859153748,
-0.6504529118537903,
-0.19672583043575287,
0.12023772299289703,
0.16131694614887238,
0.304598867893219,
-0.14340326189994812,
0.13618630170822144,
-0.3150174021720886,
0.6957109570503235,
-0.08109947293996811,
0.14001047611236572,
0.18014565110206604,
0.11438599228858948,
-0.20632712543010712,
-0.782167911529541,
-0.11174502223730087,
0.09081922471523285,
-0.6891489624977112,
-0.02767585776746273,
-0.1579495221376419,
0.05516502261161804,
0.40336117148399353,
0.779601514339447,
0.2519087493419647,
-0.46192455291748047,
-0.18911677598953247,
-0.23956520855426788,
0.32317912578582764,
0.20970290899276733,
0.4613613784313202,
-0.34403592348098755,
-0.7268305420875549,
-0.18633396923542023,
0.1412578821182251,
0.7346439957618713,
0.3060484826564789,
0.23191668093204498,
-0.6339516043663025,
-0.21536104381084442,
0.3054163157939911,
-1.379834771156311,
0.1305212676525116,
-0.7611101865768433,
-1.1125015020370483,
-0.6073611378669739,
-0.2300346940755844,
-0.3764301538467407,
0.3012952506542206,
-0.3850989043712616,
-0.6217090487480164,
-0.18918082118034363,
0.022010548040270805,
0.07298516482114792,
-0.06002169847488403,
-0.7501608729362488,
0.26134011149406433,
0.0037371674552559853,
-0.18232156336307526,
0.015463370829820633,
0.02717500925064087,
-0.03308005630970001,
0.34131208062171936,
0.7022750377655029,
0.03443482145667076,
-0.2303670048713684,
0.2142864614725113,
-0.09647032618522644,
-0.2070772796869278,
0.42830392718315125,
-0.0859433114528656,
0.12001641094684601,
0.27277329564094543,
-0.5724688172340393,
0.17730583250522614,
-0.4653239846229553,
0.7643665671348572,
-0.3928157091140747,
0.010634850710630417,
-0.12150032818317413,
0.07553612440824509,
-0.9219558238983154,
0.2198205143213272,
0.06465297937393188,
-0.40146949887275696,
0.3773042857646942,
0.34418371319770813,
-0.5491726994514465,
0.43959707021713257,
-0.2662660479545593,
-0.313424676656723,
-0.1987299919128418,
0.8066983222961426,
-0.425599068403244,
0.35857611894607544,
0.012313494458794594,
-0.559820830821991,
0.5045828223228455,
-0.21931079030036926,
0.2419605553150177,
0.1927514523267746,
-0.038688190281391144,
0.12236753851175308,
0.04567786306142807,
-0.1583808809518814,
0.2999851107597351,
-0.2522141635417938,
0.39289596676826477,
-0.1338493376970291,
0.3219296336174011,
0.012101108208298683,
0.15355852246284485,
-0.3305792808532715,
-0.1364307850599289,
0.0847911462187767,
0.21246719360351562,
-0.3414539098739624,
0.8372247815132141,
0.26440319418907166,
0.4053458273410797,
0.2877267599105835,
-0.1292368322610855,
-0.1378186047077179,
0.3300435543060303,
0.4939717948436737,
0.10233583301305771,
-0.8938910365104675,
-0.49509021639823914,
0.685435950756073,
1.0473934412002563,
-0.2304733395576477,
-0.6636912822723389,
0.028118988499045372,
0.34444817900657654,
0.08380014449357986,
0.011257071048021317,
-0.14322715997695923,
-0.15293192863464355,
0.31039556860923767,
-0.030918262898921967,
-0.07325286418199539,
0.25564560294151306,
0.2523128390312195,
0.21058408915996552,
-0.45753970742225647,
-0.20692187547683716,
0.0588221438229084,
-0.0526386983692646,
-0.5003411769866943,
0.19625288248062134,
0.6558049917221069,
0.9820117354393005,
-0.21911722421646118,
-0.012742577120661736,
0.2417035698890686,
0.0022511431016027927,
-0.9326797723770142,
-0.3194302022457123,
0.3599517345428467,
-0.17407266795635223,
-0.668077826499939,
0.3837302327156067,
-0.5445833206176758,
0.27350664138793945,
-0.4846334755420685,
0.30846041440963745,
-0.24119529128074646,
-0.648596465587616,
-0.47930318117141724,
-0.5268903970718384,
-0.37344226241111755,
-0.08869090676307678,
-0.09753970801830292,
0.5137584209442139,
0.05814138054847717,
-0.2809569835662842,
0.4506901800632477,
0.011730552650988102,
0.1395781934261322,
-1.2284995317459106,
0.6146663427352905,
-0.0341874323785305,
-0.37628841400146484,
0.4804125726222992,
-0.2590571343898773,
-0.10548046231269836,
-0.5502698421478271,
0.023770907893776894,
-0.46868017315864563,
0.15523521602153778,
-0.027070151641964912,
-0.07601149380207062,
0.1910620927810669,
-0.35573896765708923,
-0.08361697196960449,
0.02588888630270958,
-0.4539106488227844,
0.07452309876680374,
0.2730143964290619,
0.06773753464221954,
-0.3623909056186676,
0.5215256810188293,
-0.08876938372850418,
0.0562065914273262,
0.4712825417518616,
0.25825631618499756,
0.4290146231651306,
-0.05260806158185005,
0.4241214096546173,
0.8838073015213013,
-0.05006810277700424,
0.17021949589252472,
0.061972107738256454,
-0.11073166131973267,
-0.22062502801418304,
0.3010265827178955,
-0.5222569108009338,
-0.9361717104911804,
0.532442033290863,
-0.10680568963289261,
0.4814472198486328,
0.4671418070793152,
-0.15333519876003265,
-0.4371390640735626,
0.30407577753067017,
0.17402242124080658,
0.2109273374080658,
0.2577414810657501,
-0.2450043261051178,
0.37521475553512573,
-0.5447333455085754,
-0.15080136060714722,
0.006668525747954845,
0.11221188306808472,
-0.3403601050376892,
1.0233627557754517,
-0.6042363047599792,
-0.6837694048881531,
-0.03578025847673416,
-0.530035138130188,
0.2608351707458496,
0.2818591296672821,
0.8316788673400879,
0.16326414048671722,
-0.39432254433631897,
0.05330611765384674,
-0.5064539313316345,
0.014260252006351948,
-0.04994774982333183,
0.39074090123176575,
0.2981858551502228,
-0.44079670310020447,
0.26527658104896545,
0.22453327476978302,
-0.15357644855976105,
0.6415811777114868,
0.33639219403266907,
-0.07981854677200317,
-0.01731777749955654,
-0.4884437322616577,
0.06947053968906403,
-0.6049482822418213,
-0.6356505751609802,
0.21627505123615265,
0.027613047510385513,
-0.433317095041275,
-0.16130013763904572,
-0.16448955237865448,
0.25292015075683594,
-0.08307906240224838,
-0.21639762818813324,
0.3876311182975769,
-0.16973356902599335,
-0.030384227633476257,
0.2000432014465332,
0.5467017292976379,
0.2332085222005844,
-0.08667774498462677,
0.12831711769104004,
-0.230535089969635,
0.18395335972309113,
0.2607666850090027,
-0.04054897651076317,
-0.9880809783935547,
0.9013681411743164,
-0.15286293625831604,
0.6288767457008362,
-0.6765264272689819,
0.22699323296546936,
0.5621745586395264,
0.14129935204982758,
0.2134503275156021,
0.3580808639526367,
0.08261173218488693,
-0.4709300100803375,
0.23626135289669037,
-0.3469543755054474,
-0.000034684435377130285,
-0.31292253732681274,
0.36445778608322144,
-0.6641166806221008,
0.04007861390709877,
0.12100319564342499,
0.06103888154029846,
-0.24475286900997162,
0.3944951295852661,
0.2924492359161377,
-0.07307323068380356,
0.2163078486919403,
-0.7638061046600342,
0.4458954930305481,
-0.26993802189826965,
0.23016473650932312,
-0.2666606605052948,
-0.8614494204521179,
0.14554396271705627,
0.345072865486145,
0.08945907652378082,
-0.20586565136909485,
0.8992811441421509,
-0.4405866265296936,
-0.23064443469047546,
-0.43504583835601807,
-0.04581892117857933,
0.3826998770236969,
-0.09283792972564697,
0.22087298333644867,
-0.6545461416244507,
0.07769685983657837,
0.1547512710094452,
-0.8070250153541565,
0.34306007623672485,
0.24105441570281982,
-0.08407972753047943,
0.014680074527859688,
-0.2815952003002167,
0.03655780106782913,
-0.47105199098587036,
0.766450047492981
] |
241603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin%20Powers%3A%20The%20Spy%20Who%20Shagged%20Me | Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me | Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me is a 1999 American spy comedy film directed by Jay Roach. It is the second installment in the Austin Powers film series, after International Man of Mystery. It stars franchise co-producer and writer Mike Myers as Austin Powers, Dr. Evil and Fat Bastard. The film also stars Heather Graham, Michael York, Robert Wagner, Seth Green, and Elizabeth Hurley. The film's title is a play on the James Bond film The Spy Who Loved Me (1977).
The film grossed around $312 million in worldwide ticket sales, taking more money during its opening weekend than the entire box office proceeds of its predecessor. It was nominated at the 72nd Academy Awards for Best Makeup (Michèle Burke and Mike Smithson). It is followed by Austin Powers in Goldmember (2002).
Plot
In 1999, British spy Austin Powers enjoys his honeymoon with his wife, Vanessa Kensington. It is revealed that Vanessa has always been a fembot controlled by Dr. Evil, after she attempts to kill Powers. Dr. Evil then causes Vanessa to self-destruct. Austin grieves briefly before realizing he is single again and thus can have sex without commitment. A NATO monitoring facility observes the return of Dr. Evil from space, who confronts his son Scott and starts a coup on The Jerry Springer Show. At Dr. Evil's lair in Seattle, he is presented with a one-eighth-size clone of himself, whom he names Mini-Me.
Number 2 reveals their company has purchased Starbucks but Dr. Evil nonetheless unveils his latest plan: he has developed a time machine to go back to the 1960s and steal Austin's mojo, the source of his sexual appeal. Dr. Evil and Mini-Me travel to 1969 and meet a younger Number 2 and Frau Farbissina. An obese "Scottish Guard", Fat Bastard, extracts Austin's mojo from his frozen body at the Ministry of Defence (MOD). British intelligence warns Austin that one of Dr. Evil's agents is after him, and during a photo shoot the wanton Ivana Humpalot seduces him, but at the last moment claims he is too sexy to kill. They have sex, but he discovers he has lost his mojo and is impotent.
The MOD sends Austin to 1969 using a time-travelling Volkswagen New Beetle. Austin arrives at a party in his London pad, and with the assistance of CIA agent Felicity Shagwell escapes an assassination attempt by Dr. Evil's operatives. Austin and Felicity are pursued by Mustafa, another of Dr. Evil's henchmen; when caught he reveals the existence of Dr. Evil's volcano lair. Before he can divulge its location, Mini-Me shoots him with a dart, causing him to fall off a cliff.
Examining photographs from the crime scene, Austin identifies Fat Bastard as the perpetrator of the theft of his mojo. At Dr. Evil's lair, Fat Bastard arrives with Austin's mojo. Dr. Evil drinks some of it and has sex with Frau Farbissina. This results in an awkward situation when Frau reveals she is pregnant before Scott, Dr. Evil's son, arrives through the time portal. Dr. Evil announces his latest plan — to hold the world ransom by threatening to destroy cities using a laser on the Moon. In London, Austin and Felicity get to know each other, but when Felicity tries having sex with him, he turns her down because of his lost mojo.
Under MOD instructions to implant a homing device into Fat Bastard, Felicity seduces him, have sex with him, and allowing her to plant it in his anus. Fat Bastard forces it out of his bowels into a Paddington Station toilet, but a stool sample reveals traces of a vegetable that only grows on one Caribbean island. Austin and Felicity arrive on the island but are apprehended. They are put in a cell with a guard who is overcome when Felicity exposes her breasts. Dr. Evil and Mini-Me leave for the Moon to install the laser pursued by Austin and Felicity on Apollo 11. In Dr. Evil's moon base, Austin battles with Mini-Me, eventually flushing him into space. As Austin confronts Dr. Evil, Dr. Evil gives him a choice: save the world or Felicity, who is locked in a chamber with poison gas.
Felicity tells Austin to save the world and he succeeds, but Felicity dies. Before Austin can kill him, Dr. Evil suggests Austin use the time machine to save both Felicity and the world. Austin travels ten minutes into the past, meeting up with himself and saving the world and Felicity. Dr. Evil initiates the self-destruct mechanism of the moon base and escapes after throwing Austin's mojo into the air. Both Austins fail to catch it and it is destroyed. Felicity points out that all the things Austin has done show that he never lost his mojo. They escape through the time portal to 1999.
At Austin's pad, Fat Bastard makes another attempt to assassinate Austin, but Felicity disarms him. Felicity and Austin throw a party. In 1969, Dr. Evil recovers Mini-Me from space and vows revenge. On The Jerry Springer Show, Scott learns he is the love child of Dr. Evil and Frau Farbissina. Austin returns to his pad to discover Felicity with the past Austin, who claims that since he and Austin are the same person, it is not cheating.
Cast
Mike Myers as Austin Powers, Dr. Evil and Fat Bastard
Heather Graham as Felicity Shagwell
Michael York as Basil Exposition
Robert Wagner as Number 2
Rob Lowe as Young Number 2
Mindy Sterling as Frau Farbissina
Seth Green as Scott Evil
Verne Troyer as Mini-Me
Elizabeth Hurley as Vanessa Kensington
Gia Carides as Robin Spitz-Swallows
Will Ferrell as Mustafa
Oliver Muirhead as British Colonel
Clint Howard as Johnson Ritter
Kristen Johnston as Ivana Humpalot
Jeff Garlin as Cyclops
Michael McDonald as NATO Soldier
Burt Bacharach as Himself
Elvis Costello as Himself
Jerry Springer as Himself (cameo)
Steve Wilkos as Himself (cameo)
Rebecca Romijn as Herself
Woody Harrelson as Himself
Charles Napier as General Hawk
Tim Robbins as Richard Nixon (The President)
Willie Nelson as Himself
Fred Willard as Mission Commander
David Koechner as Co-Pilot
Jaap Stam as Co-Pilot #2
Humberto Tan as Co-Pilot #3
Tony Jay as the Narrator
Rachel Wilson as Woody Harrelson fan
Production
Title censorship
There were two variations of the posters; one of them asterisked out the middle of the offending word "shag". Other posters had named the film as Austin Powers 2. According to the Collins English Dictionary, the use of the word "shag" in the film's title helped to increase the word's acceptability, reducing its shock value and giving it a more jocular, relaxed connotation.
Singapore considered changing the title to The Spy Who Shioked Me (shiok derives from the Malay word, syok, which means, "to feel good").
Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 52% based on 90 reviews, with an average rating of 6/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Provides lots of laughs with Myers at the ; as funny or funnier than the original." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 59 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
Box office
The Spy who Shagged Me was a hit at the box office, landing the top position in its opening weekend grossing $54.9 million, more than the entire gross of its predecessor (the first sequel to achieve this), setting a record for a June opening and the biggest opening ever for a comedy. The film grossed $312 million worldwide.
Soundtrack
The movie's soundtrack contains the 1999 hit "Beautiful Stranger" by Madonna. The song won a Grammy Award in 2000. Mike Myers appears as Austin Powers in the video, directed by Brett Ratner. Another single "Word Up!" by Mel B, was released on June 28, 1999. It peaked at number 13 on the UK Singles Chart.
Dr. Evil also sings a parody of Will Smith's popular 1997 cover of the Grover Washington Jr. classic "Just the Two of Us", referring in this case to his clone Mini-Me. The film's soundtrack had a rating of three stars at AllMusic.
Another single "American Woman" by Lenny Kravitz, was released as a single and was later included in the 1999 reissue of Kravitz's album 5. The cover reached the top 20 in Australia, Finland, Italy, New Zealand, Poland and Spain, as well as number 26 in Canada and number 49 on the US Billboard Hot 100. Kravitz's version is slower and softer than the original, without the signature guitar solo; he later said to Randy Bachman that the reason why he skipped the lead guitar part was "I couldn't get the sound. I couldn't get the tone." The music video (directed by Paul Hunter) featured actress Heather Graham (who starred in The Spy Who Shagged Me); the original political themes of the song were largely replaced by sex appeal. In 1999, Kravitz and his band were joined by The Guess Who for a live performance of "American Woman" at the MuchMusic Video Awards. It was also used as the theme song of the Madusa monster truck in monster jam events.
Track listing
"Beautiful Stranger" – Madonna
"My Generation" – The Who (live at BBC)
"Draggin' the Line" – R.E.M.
"American Woman" – Lenny Kravitz
"Word Up!" – Melanie B (credited as Melanie G)
"Just the Two of Us (Dr. Evil Mix)" – Dr. Evil (Mike Myers)
"Espionage" – Green Day
"Time of the Season" – Big Blue Missile/Scott Weiland
"Buggin'" – The Flaming Lips
"Alright" – The Lucy Nation
"I'll Never Fall in Love Again" – Burt Bacharach/Elvis Costello
"Soul Bossa Nova (Dim's Space-A-Nova)" – Quincy Jones & His Orchestra
The soundtrack sold over one million copies in the United States and was certified Platinum. A second soundtrack was also released, entitled More Music From the Motion Picture.
Certifications
More Music track listing "Dialogue"
"Austin Meets Felicity" – Film Dialogue
Mustafa's Three Question Rule – Film Dialogue
"More Music" track listing
"Am I Sexy?" – Lords of Acid
"I'm a Believer" – The Monkees
"Magic Carpet Ride" – Steppenwolf
"American Woman" – Lenny Kravitz
"Get the Girl" – The Bangles
"Bachelord Pad" (FPM Edit) – Fantastic Plastic Machine
"Let's Get It On" – Marvin Gaye
"Crash!" – Propellerheads
"Time of the Season" – The Zombies
"Dr. Evil" – They Might Be Giants
"The Austin Powers Shagaphonic Medley" – George S. Clinton
"Beautiful Stranger" (Calderone Radio Mix) – Madonna
In addition, a score album featuring cues from both George S. Clinton scores (tracks 1–7 from the first film, track 8 an arrangement of Quincy Jones's "Soul Bossa Nova," and tracks 9–16 from the second) was released.
Chart positions
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
See also
Outline of James Bond
References
External links
2
1999 films
1999 action comedy films
1990s parody films
1990s spy comedy films
American films
American parody films
American robot films
American sequel films
American space adventure films
American spy comedy films
Android (robot) films
1990s English-language films
Films about cloning
Films about time travel
Films directed by Jay Roach
Films produced by Demi Moore
Films scored by George S. Clinton
Films set in 1969
Films set in 1999
Films set in London
Films set in Seattle
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films shot in Washington (state)
Films with screenplays by Michael McCullers
Films with screenplays by Mike Myers
Moon in film
3 Arts Entertainment films
New Line Cinema films
1999 comedy films
Films produced by Suzanne Todd | [
-0.42389973998069763,
0.3161676824092865,
-0.143839493393898,
-0.044474296271800995,
-0.26593291759490967,
0.18625308573246002,
0.3535929024219513,
-0.12122001498937607,
-0.12743650376796722,
0.4212607443332672,
0.49616238474845886,
0.5099316835403442,
0.056970931589603424,
-0.11449562013149261,
0.09533710032701492,
-0.06624658405780792,
0.9662110209465027,
0.2093406617641449,
0.052913956344127655,
-0.5296818017959595,
-0.04826880246400833,
-0.2569837272167206,
0.2261134535074234,
-0.042453352361917496,
-0.45532622933387756,
1.0194494724273682,
-0.03848159685730934,
-0.2522696256637573,
0.4862007796764374,
-0.04090084508061409,
0.17430855333805084,
0.16180825233459473,
0.14213556051254272,
-0.23293669521808624,
-0.1843058466911316,
-0.3521445095539093,
-0.17771321535110474,
-0.10733932256698608,
-0.021295607089996338,
-0.4969359338283539,
-0.012023530900478363,
0.2092745155096054,
0.39197513461112976,
0.30934736132621765,
-0.25778549909591675,
-0.26199984550476074,
-1.6543149948120117,
-0.30769583582878113,
-0.5280952453613281,
-0.625678300857544,
0.05842418596148491,
0.009436454623937607,
0.8786243796348572,
0.02890048362314701,
0.44216424226760864,
0.7063463926315308,
-0.5922271013259888,
-0.4527621567249298,
0.013492684811353683,
0.036078911274671555,
0.3386198878288269,
0.4970942735671997,
0.4173128306865692,
-0.2804942727088928,
0.005644414108246565,
0.47404858469963074,
0.4131222367286682,
0.3669090270996094,
0.28596070408821106,
-0.3218969404697418,
-0.1768779456615448,
-0.1031203493475914,
0.3630872070789337,
0.030828304588794708,
0.3242943286895752,
-0.40405330061912537,
0.9103134274482727,
0.3291340470314026,
0.18620677292346954,
-0.030952515080571175,
-0.2525295913219452,
0.0888199582695961,
0.7074322700500488,
0.5636343955993652,
0.06871522217988968,
0.14668326079845428,
-0.6631760001182556,
0.24870476126670837,
-0.33989089727401733,
0.5403245091438293,
-0.5679787993431091,
-0.22641511261463165,
-0.1758590042591095,
1.0123569965362549,
0.21092908084392548,
-0.2869446873664856,
-0.3461821377277374,
0.019631363451480865,
0.6269370913505554,
0.3379025459289551,
0.34788280725479126,
0.49572017788887024,
0.38599902391433716,
-0.39062660932540894,
-0.5680446028709412,
-0.5835182666778564,
0.0009752024197950959,
-0.6267610192298889,
-0.028448443859815598,
0.1532927304506302,
-0.6221941709518433,
0.7015240788459778,
-0.29592519998550415,
0.09471691399812698,
-0.25257542729377747,
1.244249939918518,
0.6228311061859131,
-0.3393857181072235,
-0.7474592328071594,
0.333580881357193,
-0.30949866771698,
0.647881269454956,
0.21873000264167786,
1.1199907064437866,
-0.015572262927889824,
0.6883723735809326,
0.48592913150787354,
0.5072189569473267,
0.03136439993977547,
0.253692090511322,
-0.1383650153875351,
0.7662963271141052,
0.06994067132472992,
-0.05443267896771431,
-0.46365898847579956,
-0.6045827865600586,
0.866856038570404,
0.39776748418807983,
-0.46699756383895874,
-0.006085799541324377,
-0.2612016499042511,
-0.425712913274765,
-0.5828546285629272,
0.16557960212230682,
0.18889790773391724,
0.09513301402330399,
0.17011168599128723,
-0.13599374890327454,
0.15306130051612854,
-0.06394170969724655,
0.5410423278808594,
-0.09147431701421738,
0.14357532560825348,
-0.2600025236606598,
-0.37143251299858093,
0.6561330556869507,
-0.08433643728494644,
-0.34896624088287354,
0.38732340931892395,
0.41089800000190735,
0.1208447515964508,
-0.19381368160247803,
-0.3711714446544647,
-0.2661322355270386,
0.45976248383522034,
-0.19610929489135742,
0.48199036717414856,
-0.9710976481437683,
0.13198144733905792,
0.7269748449325562,
-0.3624822497367859,
0.9459440112113953,
-0.1972731500864029,
-0.19490982592105865,
0.1771668642759323,
0.17074519395828247,
0.7351707816123962,
0.5995712280273438,
0.11837348341941833,
-0.22259989380836487,
-0.6219415068626404,
-0.03836673125624657,
0.1237957552075386,
-0.4005584418773651,
0.4349130690097809,
0.5420467853546143,
0.38616102933883667,
-0.23099447786808014,
-0.734449565410614,
-0.24376332759857178,
-0.8788394927978516,
-0.5978758931159973,
0.6054902076721191,
-0.1758560687303543,
1.5440231561660767,
0.3069087564945221,
-0.38942575454711914,
-0.5111783742904663,
0.0859186053276062,
0.4657585620880127,
-0.57453453540802,
-0.9419888854026794,
1.0309019088745117,
0.5666176080703735,
-0.6851314306259155,
-0.5661066770553589,
-0.1128639429807663,
0.1073036789894104,
0.39073702692985535,
1.097365140914917,
0.14462976157665253,
-0.12363392114639282,
-0.14920617640018463,
0.0687989667057991,
-0.21224600076675415,
0.4926602244377136,
-0.6747135519981384,
0.39068862795829773,
0.5703504085540771,
-0.07091177254915237,
0.8155212998390198,
-0.05958866700530052,
-0.25218841433525085,
0.5930586457252502,
-0.2713488042354584,
1.264533281326294,
-0.041540324687957764,
0.14897041022777557,
-0.008467067964375019,
-0.1990358680486679,
-0.4070608913898468,
0.3402051627635956,
-0.11447646468877792,
-0.5723808407783508,
-0.19286830723285675,
-0.0037168567068874836,
0.24925188720226288,
-1.0194096565246582,
0.29191142320632935,
-0.48682573437690735,
0.4919315576553345,
-0.1765986531972885,
-0.2731049954891205,
0.6060324907302856,
-0.07283436506986618,
-0.06565701961517334,
0.33327317237854004,
0.27794694900512695,
-0.3462070822715759,
-0.419441819190979,
0.0007627925951965153,
0.5860748291015625,
0.5363084077835083,
-0.5210158824920654,
0.29585275053977966,
0.18539796769618988,
-0.562684953212738,
-0.22348079085350037,
0.4121848940849304,
-0.0575045607984066,
0.24378713965415955,
0.5223219990730286,
0.6126000881195068,
0.5039784908294678,
-0.34957167506217957,
0.2128278911113739,
-0.42151811718940735,
-0.2615855932235718,
-0.2723170220851898,
0.06816747784614563,
0.5971300005912781,
-0.9330306053161621,
-0.25872498750686646,
-0.21197573840618134,
-0.1315412074327469,
-0.17945286631584167,
-0.7022793889045715,
0.10046116262674332,
-0.30361154675483704,
-0.6546538472175598,
0.623031735420227,
1.1667776107788086,
-0.06229348108172417,
0.15945854783058167,
0.07218661159276962,
-0.38045892119407654,
-0.3175124228000641,
-0.2615947723388672,
-0.2834169864654541,
-0.9279525279998779,
0.2662510573863983,
0.4406648278236389,
-0.9442722201347351,
0.053306832909584045,
-0.4949586093425751,
0.2480107843875885,
-0.7333979606628418,
0.4769980311393738,
0.42218875885009766,
-0.01458614319562912,
0.2964836359024048,
0.9433740377426147,
-0.2077745646238327,
-0.030126741155982018,
0.44787415862083435,
-0.7294191718101501,
-0.015147515572607517,
-0.3945252299308777,
-4.971054553985596,
0.3398631513118744,
0.21597833931446075,
0.275770902633667,
0.4065663516521454,
0.018736684694886208,
0.5089749693870544,
-1.1255927085876465,
-0.17940649390220642,
0.3089170455932617,
-0.05157579109072685,
0.18914173543453217,
-0.01437663845717907,
0.03911905735731125,
0.4400091767311096,
-0.008002826012670994,
0.06610675901174545,
-0.6425831913948059,
0.37591683864593506,
0.42394036054611206,
-0.1421843320131302,
0.2089564949274063,
0.030196981504559517,
-0.06137201935052872,
0.1551695317029953,
0.8930553197860718,
-0.40192264318466187,
0.19548830389976501,
-0.5190422534942627,
0.0770483911037445,
-0.26809272170066833,
0.28860488533973694,
-0.3461049795150757,
-0.6982876062393188,
-0.464751660823822,
0.4715184271335602,
0.6829710602760315,
-0.04660759121179581,
0.13585861027240753,
-0.4378936290740967,
-0.31642189621925354,
-0.00710889371111989,
-0.3243989050388336,
0.05486307665705681,
1.4222480058670044,
-0.20932932198047638,
-0.20640750229358673,
-1.2131074666976929,
-0.12114773690700531,
0.3999826908111572,
0.7182410955429077,
-0.21113014221191406,
-0.41974350810050964,
1.0085301399230957,
0.45256903767585754,
-0.6481515765190125,
-0.1406041830778122,
0.4672900438308716,
-0.2604397237300873,
1.0799498558044434,
0.15637876093387604,
-0.4865800440311432,
-0.22625458240509033,
-0.623234748840332,
0.30950409173965454,
-0.3581414520740509,
-0.22727149724960327,
-0.6840388178825378,
-0.009264722466468811,
0.06675174832344055,
0.13550524413585663,
0.16187159717082977,
0.0840744897723198,
-1.0929392576217651,
0.8441335558891296,
0.15495122969150543,
-0.699096143245697,
0.30955183506011963,
-0.15050086379051208,
0.2564080059528351,
0.37713855504989624,
-0.19982057809829712,
-0.17106638848781586,
0.46910154819488525,
-0.004235042724758387,
-0.3899867534637451,
-0.37401407957077026,
-0.12023016065359116,
-0.32275694608688354,
-0.39351987838745117,
0.362756609916687,
-0.3927187919616699,
-0.3416268825531006,
0.6253401041030884,
0.13621786236763,
0.21135079860687256,
0.20109498500823975,
0.4976155757904053,
0.41881680488586426,
-0.5305760502815247,
-0.4300081729888916,
-0.6133845448493958,
0.3380483090877533,
-0.5138943791389465,
0.3139161765575409,
-1.020074486732483,
0.1430886834859848,
0.7439725995063782,
0.42106693983078003,
-0.4500100612640381,
0.0014105612644925714,
-0.49797648191452026,
-0.6883372068405151,
-0.3878597915172577,
0.512923002243042,
-0.25934916734695435,
0.05469021201133728,
0.10246913880109787,
0.3987506330013275,
0.19531340897083282,
-0.39468246698379517,
0.3506362736225128,
0.5678009390830994,
-0.6623881459236145,
-0.9145618677139282,
-0.5173495411872864,
0.22088336944580078,
-0.058842189610004425,
-0.10912077128887177,
0.27007246017456055,
0.04222514107823372,
0.3677752614021301,
-0.18822932243347168,
-0.05345820263028145,
0.18265694379806519,
-0.7850614190101624,
-0.312786340713501,
-0.23334796726703644,
0.09176426380872726,
-0.05873538553714752,
0.1790885329246521,
-0.2408050000667572,
-0.27638545632362366,
0.2501802146434784,
-0.21136122941970825,
-0.06748869270086288,
0.5210497379302979,
-0.5443705320358276,
-0.27920472621917725,
0.4389193654060364,
-0.9686304330825806,
-0.40666815638542175,
0.7419191002845764,
-0.06743895262479782,
0.40294376015663147,
0.7462470531463623,
0.5384252071380615,
0.12611140310764313,
-0.3820245862007141,
-0.2309068888425827,
0.5734657049179077,
-0.4234474003314972,
-0.5412809252738953,
-0.07872696965932846,
0.14874225854873657,
-0.37126684188842773,
-0.8896809220314026,
-0.614183247089386,
-0.19681991636753082,
0.5517259240150452,
0.8066677451133728,
-0.2069733738899231,
-0.4451679289340973,
0.26928240060806274,
0.04156479239463806,
0.4109182059764862,
-0.08035468310117722,
0.19517511129379272,
-0.3772619962692261,
-0.34784021973609924,
0.15356071293354034,
-0.4635847508907318,
-0.3767433762550354,
-0.25120818614959717,
0.39635130763053894,
-0.2192562222480774,
-0.7128797769546509,
-0.5683968663215637,
-0.7591305375099182,
0.22542597353458405,
0.11806602776050568,
0.26411888003349304,
0.4181715250015259,
0.14574316143989563,
-0.9404671788215637,
-0.9936100244522095,
0.021636949852108955,
0.19106833636760712,
-0.058096300810575485,
-0.8779474496841431,
-0.09413125365972519,
0.7423086762428284,
0.1565517783164978,
0.4656383693218231,
0.46574530005455017,
-0.5348805785179138,
0.11955013871192932,
0.6540750861167908,
-0.34890440106391907,
0.7988254427909851,
0.31432899832725525,
-0.6413050889968872,
-0.5932281017303467,
0.14039745926856995,
-0.10006865113973618,
0.34427809715270996,
0.6704868078231812,
-0.26595309376716614,
-0.40665939450263977,
-0.10857205092906952,
-0.2649271488189697,
-0.6532933712005615,
-1.3289750814437866,
-0.5757476091384888,
-1.6787619590759277,
0.31510472297668457,
0.41526103019714355,
-0.5457506775856018,
0.6146971583366394,
-0.3963799774646759,
-0.23715399205684662,
0.2799074053764343,
0.4078027606010437,
0.6036463975906372,
-0.37719738483428955,
0.228418231010437,
-0.10586892813444138,
0.5504658818244934,
-0.0552109070122242,
0.45360589027404785,
0.4625244736671448,
1.438889503479004,
0.4482577443122864,
-0.04619407653808594,
0.3159007430076599,
0.28821882605552673,
-0.00849346537142992,
-0.12070299685001373,
-0.824362576007843,
-0.5529270768165588,
0.0419573038816452,
0.06866014748811722,
-0.10645243525505066,
-0.34464409947395325,
0.9064024686813354,
-0.7535995244979858,
-0.2534610331058502,
0.10850818455219269,
-0.25097158551216125,
-0.14814038574695587,
-0.5374895930290222,
0.3161107897758484,
-1.016536831855774,
0.3204202353954315,
0.13930724561214447,
0.02548627182841301,
0.720145046710968,
-0.0313580259680748,
-0.00654817558825016,
-0.6043875813484192,
-0.7117817997932434,
-0.7463186979293823,
0.4018513560295105,
0.5873896479606628,
-0.21721847355365753,
-0.2163025587797165,
-0.46118998527526855,
-0.6696375608444214,
-0.012663811445236206,
-0.5826637744903564,
-0.552708089351654,
0.17522017657756805,
-0.2012193500995636,
-0.6759791970252991,
-0.10362473875284195,
-0.44583767652511597,
-0.3421275317668915,
-0.5880249738693237,
-0.2831984758377075,
0.3328777253627777,
-0.37023288011550903,
0.14527647197246552,
-0.691754162311554,
0.13422062993049622,
0.554214358329773,
0.18284164369106293,
-0.22272582352161407,
0.2733614444732666,
-0.5680596232414246,
-0.2474348098039627,
-0.261180579662323,
0.511709988117218,
0.047685932368040085,
-0.26463282108306885,
0.24039418995380402,
0.35890525579452515,
0.19596746563911438,
-0.22404085099697113,
-0.06308885663747787,
0.29471126198768616,
-0.2850319743156433,
-0.7076279520988464,
-0.15389390289783478,
0.17401449382305145,
-0.828956127166748,
-0.24612049758434296,
0.9814667105674744,
-0.07506366819143295,
0.34221962094306946,
0.18551048636436462,
0.2728365957736969,
-0.40463787317276,
1.128596544265747,
-0.01861950382590294,
-0.505284309387207,
0.3672255575656891,
-0.38607075810432434,
0.27348434925079346,
0.4180441200733185,
0.08940277248620987,
0.5289767384529114,
0.2019713819026947,
-0.5392698645591736,
0.699049174785614,
0.5493216514587402,
-0.18766982853412628,
0.3060756027698517,
-0.22457468509674072,
0.02658807300031185,
0.9834448099136353,
-0.2453773021697998,
0.8000356554985046,
-0.1502404510974884,
0.3734786808490753,
-0.44722914695739746,
0.24656832218170166,
0.4606933891773224,
-0.17556403577327728,
0.11206343024969101,
0.07971666008234024,
-0.0944022685289383,
0.9230421781539917,
-0.16478370130062103,
-0.6439850330352783,
0.31008973717689514,
0.13708005845546722,
-0.15395420789718628,
-0.5062643885612488,
-0.09136438369750977,
-0.4560178816318512,
0.029743345454335213,
-0.5429182052612305,
0.10876888036727905,
0.770850419998169,
0.02767276205122471,
0.8776931166648865,
-0.1656656414270401,
-0.008037276566028595,
0.17204564809799194,
0.2279781997203827,
0.1709500104188919,
0.4934433698654175,
0.4376533627510071,
0.06180358678102493,
0.5112527012825012,
0.6117773056030273,
-0.24158290028572083,
-0.3421066701412201,
-0.020349053665995598,
-0.05465763062238693,
-0.13362005352973938,
0.4559122323989868,
-0.6913377642631531,
-0.5112199783325195,
0.25019457936286926,
0.21748311817646027,
-0.21158890426158905,
0.5744085907936096,
0.4485800564289093,
-1.1377081871032715,
0.426043838262558,
-1.0516161918640137,
-0.038380615413188934,
-0.23844893276691437,
-0.592544436454773,
-0.20993556082248688,
-0.12093660980463028,
0.19892650842666626,
0.36206430196762085,
-0.20434854924678802,
-0.28943321108818054,
0.447214275598526,
-0.2736532390117645,
0.7061015963554382,
-0.2878681719303131,
0.7043065428733826,
-1.1827961206436157,
-0.2679046392440796,
-0.7030926942825317,
0.2649972438812256,
-0.26061826944351196,
-0.1957767754793167,
-0.2236778438091278,
-0.08183025568723679,
-0.2533843517303467,
-0.053560033440589905,
0.34854310750961304,
-0.28738853335380554,
-0.6069005727767944,
0.08003660291433334,
-0.20592977106571198,
-0.02140815183520317,
0.4004722833633423,
0.031311895698308945,
-0.07789067178964615,
-0.2531541585922241,
0.7206922769546509,
-0.4388366937637329,
0.1767333447933197,
0.03404136747121811,
-0.31745508313179016,
0.4244191646575928,
-0.24233296513557434,
-0.2639627754688263,
0.06911719590425491,
-0.10615529119968414,
0.9729886651039124,
0.899327278137207,
0.4275970458984375,
-0.08395740389823914,
0.12555021047592163,
-0.6479048132896423,
0.28240862488746643,
0.006836732849478722,
0.056321702897548676,
-0.04162660986185074,
-0.1997298002243042,
-1.1524330377578735,
0.07033177465200424,
0.22740916907787323,
0.18632623553276062,
-0.4448486268520355,
-0.31595781445503235,
-1.2035342454910278,
-0.28640857338905334,
1.1215955018997192,
0.293268084526062,
-0.8595200181007385,
0.25857940316200256,
-0.18571169674396515
] |
241604 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Pickens%20%28congressman%29 | Andrew Pickens (congressman) | Andrew Pickens (September 13, 1739August 11, 1817) was a militia leader in the American Revolution. A slave-owner, he developed his Hopewell plantation on the east side of the Keowee River across from the Cherokee town of Isunigu (Seneca) in western South Carolina. He was elected as a member of the United States House of Representatives from western South Carolina. Several treaties with the Cherokee were negotiated and signed at his plantation of Hopewell.
Early life
Pickens was born in 1739 in Bucks County in the Province of Pennsylvania. He was the son of Scots-Irish immigrants, Presbyterians of primarily Scottish ancestry from Carrickfergus in County Antrim, Ireland (in what is today Northern Ireland.) His parents were Andrew Pickens Sr. and Anne (née Davis). But his paternal great-grandparents were ethnic French Huguenots: Robert Andrew Pickens (Robert André Picon) had migrated to England and Northern Ireland; his wife Esther-Jeanne, widow Bonneau, was from La Rochelle, France and had settled in South Carolina along with other Huguenot refugees fleeing religious persecution as Protestants.
His family traveled the Great Wagon Road in the Shenandoah Valley in hopes of finding a new home. Records show they first settled in the Shenandoah Valley in Virginia. In 1752, his family moved to the Waxhaws on the South Carolina frontier.
Move to frontier South Carolina
Pickens sold his farm there in 1764 and bought land in Abbeville County, South Carolina, near the Georgia border. He married Rebecca Calhoun there and they started a family. In addition to meeting other ethnic Scots-Irish and new immigrants to the area, he became acquainted with his Cherokee neighbors. He built a blockhouse as a base for training.
He established the Hopewell Plantation on the east side of the Keowee River. Several treaty negotiating sessions were held here with the Cherokee. Each resulted in a Treaty of Hopewell. Just across the river was the Cherokee town of Isunigu, also known as "Seneca".
A religious man, Pickens was known as the "Fighting Elder" because of his strong Presbyterian faith.
Military career
Pickens served in the Anglo-Cherokee War in 1760–1761. When the Revolutionary War started, he sided with the rebel militia and was made a captain. He rose to the rank of brigadier general in the South Carolina militia during the war.
He emerged as a military leader in Long Cane, fighting against the Cherokee who had allied with the Loyalists. In the year 1779 Henry Clinton deployed British soldiers to both South Carolina and North Carolina to encourage Loyalist support. On February 14, 1779, Colonel Pickens and his 300-man militia overtook the larger British force of 700–800 men under Colonel Boyd at the Battle of Kettle Creek in Wilkes County, Georgia, just south of the Long Canes. His victory at Kettle Creek slowed the recruitment of the Loyalists. However, when the British defeated the Southern Continental Army in 1780 in the Siege of Charleston, Pickens surrendered a fort in the Ninety-Six District. He, along with his 300 militia men, on parole oath, agreed to sit out the war.
Pickens's parole did not last, however. After Tory raiders destroyed most of his property and frightened his family, he informed the British that they had violated the terms of parole. He rejoined the war. During this period, Pickens joined Francis Marion (known as the Swamp Fox) and Thomas Sumter as the most well-known partisan leaders in the Carolinas. Sumter also resumed fighting under similar circumstances. He saw action at the Battle of Cowpens, Siege of Augusta, Siege of Ninety-Six, and the Battle of Eutaw Springs.
Pickens also led a campaign in north Georgia against the Cherokee late in the war; they had allied with the British in an effort to expel European Americans from their territory. His victorious campaign resulted in the Cherokee ceding significant portions of land between the Savannah and Chattahoochee rivers in the Long Swamp Treaty, signed in what is currently Pickens County, Georgia. Pickens led a detached militia of 25 men to battle against a Cherokee force of an estimated 150 men in what came to be called the "Ring Fight." Pickens gained the respect of these Natives. After the war, he was well-regarded by Native Americans that he dealt with; he was given the name Skyagunsta, "The Wizard Owl," which is reportedly a name based on a well-regarded previous chief of the Cherokee.
Cowpens, South Carolina: January 17, 1781:
At the Battle of Cowpens, Brig. General Daniel Morgan gave Pickens command of the militia, which played a pivotal role in the battle. On the evening of January 16, Morgan personally instructed the militia to hold its ground and then retreat. On the morning of January 17, Pickens and the militia carried out the plan perfectly. The militia fired two rounds before retreating, something not done in previous battles and untypical of a militia. After the second round, they led Lt. Colonel Banastre Tarleton and the British to blindly charge, drawing them into a double envelopment where they were soundly defeated. This battle proved to be a turning point in the war in the South, and following Cowpens, South Carolina Governor John Rutledge promoted Pickens to brigadier general. He was also awarded a sword by Congress.
February to March 1781:
After the death of Brig. Gen. (Pro Tempore) William Lee Davidson on February 1, 1781, the colonels of the Salisbury District Brigade of North Carolina "elected" Pickens to lead them since he was a recently appointed brigadier general in South Carolina with no men to lead. He was active in February and very early March only.
Augusta, Georgia: May 22 – June 5, 1781:
Pickens's militia was soon recalled to defend their own homes, and so he missed the Battle of Guilford Courthouse on March 15, 1781. In April, he raised a regiment of state regulars. In May 1781, Maj. General Nathanael Greene sent Pickens and Lt. Colonel Henry Lee to support Elijah Clarke in operations against Augusta, Georgia. The siege began on May 22 and, after maneuvering, securing outposts and the cutting off of reinforcements by the Patriots, Colonel Thomas Brown surrendered Augusta on June 5, 1781.
Ninety Six, South Carolina: May 22 – June 19, 1781:
Following the surrender of Augusta, Pickens and Lt. Colonel Lee joined General Greene in his siege at Ninety Six, South Carolina. Greene had begun his siege on May 22, 1781, the same day that Augusta had been besieged. On June 11, Greene ordered Pickens and Lt. Colonel William Washington to aid Thomas Sumter in blocking a relief column led by Lord Rawdon. However, Sumter instead moved to Fort Granby, South Carolina, allowing Rawdon to make his way to Ninety Six. On June 19, Greene had to give up the siege and retreat after a failed assault.
Eutaw Springs, Charleston, South Carolina: September 8, 1781:
Under the command of General Nathanael Greene, Pickens led his militia in one of the final major battles in the South. With the aid of Henry Lee and Francis Marion, the Patriots fought the British at the Battle of Eutaw Springs. Although more Patriots died than Loyalists and British, the efforts made by the Patriots forced the British to lose control of the South for the rest of the war.
Political career
At the end of the war, Pickens was elected to public office in the South Carolina House of Representatives from 1781 to 1794. In addition, he was a South Carolina delegate to the Constitutional Convention. Pickens was later elected to the Third Congress, served from 1793 to 1795 as an Anti-Administration member, opposing the policies of US Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton.
Family
Pickens married Rebecca Floride Calhoun in 1765. They had 12 children: Mary Pickens (1766–1836); Ezekiel Pickens (1768–1813), Ann Pickens (1770–1846), son (1772), Jane Pickens (1773–1816); Margaret Pickens (1777–1830); Andrew Pickens, Jr. (1779–1838), son (1782); Rebecca Pickens (1784–1831); Catherine Pickens (1786–1871) and Joseph Pickens (1791–1853). Ezekiel Pickens was elected as lieutenant governor of South Carolina, serving from 1802 to 1804. His younger brother Andrew Pickens, Jr. also went into politics; he was elected as governor of South Carolina, serving 1817–1819. A grandson was Francis Wilkinson Pickens, who was also elected as governor of South Carolina, serving from 1860 to 1862.
Pickens died near Tamassee, South Carolina, in Oconee County, on August 11, 1817. He is buried at Old Stone Church Cemetery in Clemson, South Carolina.
Pickens is an uncle (through his marriage to Rebecca Florida Calhoun) to John C. Calhoun (1782–1850), who was a leading American politician and political theorist from South Carolina during the first half of the 19th century. Calhoun's home, Fort Hill, is now located on the campus of Clemson University in Pickens County, South Carolina. It is a noted historic landmark in the state of South Carolina.
Legacy and memorials
Fort Pickens in Florida is named in his honor. Also named after him are Pickens County in Alabama; Georgia; and South Carolina. There is also a city of Pickens, South Carolina. He is the namesake of Pickens High School.
His Hopewell plantation is now owned and maintained by Clemson University.
Pickens was a 7th great-grandfather of former US senator and 2004 presidential candidate John Edwards.
The Patriot (2000)
Pickens and his actions served as one of the models for the fictional character of Benjamin Martin in The Patriot, a motion picture released in 2000. In a scene prior to the Battle of Cowpens, Benjamin Martin (character) asks the militia for two rounds before they retreat, reminiscent of Daniel Morgan in the Battle of Cowpens.
References
Further reading
online review
External links
Pickens's Congressional Biography
Pickensville, SC, Marker
Website
1739 births
1817 deaths
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
American planters
American slave owners
Huguenot participants in the American Revolution
Burials in South Carolina
Continental Army officers from South Carolina
Members of the United States House of Representatives from South Carolina
Militia generals in the American Revolution
People from Bucks County, Pennsylvania
People from Abbeville County, South Carolina
People of South Carolina in the American Revolution
South Carolina colonial people
South Carolina militiamen in the American Revolution
People of colonial Pennsylvania
Military personnel from Pennsylvania | [
-0.5892679691314697,
0.11201275140047073,
-0.7066329717636108,
-0.055304672569036484,
0.050299905240535736,
0.6030378341674805,
0.978073000907898,
-0.049763839691877365,
-1.0120898485183716,
-0.25079938769340515,
0.000639185425825417,
-0.10925315320491791,
-0.7037952542304993,
0.6232261657714844,
-0.43848079442977905,
0.7344889044761658,
0.09239176660776138,
0.3596358895301819,
-0.29484036564826965,
-0.46051809191703796,
-0.11589333415031433,
-0.06775552034378052,
0.5944830179214478,
0.19604292511940002,
0.17295512557029724,
0.29329466819763184,
-0.19345764815807343,
-0.6297181248664856,
0.21533310413360596,
-0.012269887141883373,
-0.5594993233680725,
0.6456428170204163,
0.6694165468215942,
-0.38927486538887024,
-0.4542006254196167,
-0.252879798412323,
-0.4871178865432739,
-0.06985431909561157,
0.3182109296321869,
0.0838090106844902,
-0.23392125964164734,
-0.2649610638618469,
0.04393400251865387,
0.1373651772737503,
-0.030046023428440094,
-0.5507875680923462,
-1.5261576175689697,
-0.17021112143993378,
-0.5578876733779907,
-0.6868401169776917,
0.2516213357448578,
0.37683066725730896,
0.25484946370124817,
0.3221363127231598,
-0.6370425224304199,
0.26346734166145325,
-0.35731029510498047,
-0.10737216472625732,
0.31753361225128174,
-0.18899217247962952,
0.009156608954071999,
0.2632662057876587,
0.35086628794670105,
-0.09499135613441467,
0.37800005078315735,
-0.183380588889122,
-0.29490578174591064,
0.8317644596099854,
-0.34448930621147156,
-0.06574078649282455,
-0.10329555720090866,
-0.010397172532975674,
0.6469807624816895,
0.6483291983604431,
0.1390954703092575,
-0.3905649781227112,
0.022114939987659454,
0.4884969890117645,
0.12962867319583893,
0.27007120847702026,
-0.005210957024246454,
-0.18642453849315643,
0.9216216206550598,
0.11134721338748932,
0.18850697576999664,
0.4487095773220062,
-0.5441088676452637,
-0.16521495580673218,
0.28824689984321594,
-0.1945071816444397,
-0.24763762950897217,
0.2003822922706604,
0.1642313152551651,
0.46323496103286743,
-0.6040139198303223,
0.05130821093916893,
-0.09096431732177734,
0.11570464819669724,
-0.11316265910863876,
-0.33216163516044617,
-0.23891712725162506,
0.2258392572402954,
0.9258686900138855,
0.4974011480808258,
0.11415521055459976,
0.2058829665184021,
0.12230216711759567,
-0.15369482338428497,
0.058830805122852325,
-0.6555013060569763,
-0.30849066376686096,
0.39164772629737854,
-0.14641261100769043,
-0.2855849266052246,
-0.38827115297317505,
0.6505046486854553,
0.5281456708908081,
-0.9777904748916626,
-0.041021257638931274,
-0.303430438041687,
-0.16131767630577087,
0.9456005096435547,
-0.3267252445220947,
0.42414867877960205,
-0.6211528778076172,
0.22235122323036194,
0.5932719707489014,
0.1101776510477066,
0.04262126609683037,
0.3736128509044647,
0.2541729211807251,
1.0561816692352295,
-0.51702481508255,
-0.01759832538664341,
-0.7543467283248901,
0.10291095823049545,
-0.20467349886894226,
0.3195033371448517,
-0.37364447116851807,
0.15316253900527954,
-0.3294861614704132,
-0.2982946038246155,
-0.3125147223472595,
-0.5461210012435913,
0.294572114944458,
0.00556621327996254,
-0.005579272285103798,
0.3432249128818512,
-0.2737998366355896,
0.12537942826747894,
0.1314150094985962,
-0.02996625378727913,
0.3718015253543854,
0.2141578048467636,
-0.3528212904930115,
0.5523611903190613,
0.3975929915904999,
-0.3169928789138794,
0.5061707496643066,
0.7581862211227417,
-0.4084716737270355,
-0.011325742118060589,
0.26512837409973145,
-0.016750767827033997,
0.1592717170715332,
0.34331998229026794,
0.30525141954421997,
-0.6005846858024597,
-0.45502951741218567,
-0.11205664277076721,
-0.11135051399469376,
0.3911246657371521,
-0.2666068375110626,
-0.39540398120880127,
0.08233866840600967,
-0.17590060830116272,
0.4229249358177185,
0.30772459506988525,
0.11020970344543457,
-0.5438308715820312,
-0.6524233818054199,
0.06293610483407974,
0.3720112442970276,
-0.5451870560646057,
-0.1362493932247162,
0.6701657772064209,
0.38870832324028015,
-0.012743218801915646,
0.7288137674331665,
-0.16019798815250397,
-0.12226343899965286,
-0.9779551029205322,
-0.5347285270690918,
-0.3675016164779663,
1.0505378246307373,
0.17538192868232727,
-0.3847396671772003,
0.5727326273918152,
0.6783965826034546,
0.5571356415748596,
0.20477774739265442,
-0.4656461477279663,
0.11425646394491196,
-0.0919690951704979,
0.03233341872692108,
0.8551111221313477,
0.28698447346687317,
0.03818831592798233,
0.25144898891448975,
0.573208749294281,
0.5918478965759277,
-0.4286244213581085,
-0.11777035146951675,
0.17633144557476044,
-0.047201383858919144,
-0.7151328921318054,
0.059050362557172775,
-0.27827686071395874,
0.36095473170280457,
-0.19242453575134277,
0.2990635633468628,
0.09951376169919968,
0.29592764377593994,
0.9543883800506592,
0.27003827691078186,
0.6548394560813904,
-0.06110251322388649,
0.13468989729881287,
-0.3880999982357025,
-0.892972469329834,
0.19159047305583954,
-0.2614513337612152,
-0.16128957271575928,
-0.8352578282356262,
-0.38963213562965393,
-0.33021795749664307,
-0.11603408306837082,
-0.29504361748695374,
0.17147944867610931,
-0.3682200014591217,
-0.0812532901763916,
0.4592491090297699,
-0.3546663224697113,
-0.32124096155166626,
0.31723329424858093,
0.044462695717811584,
-0.40353864431381226,
-0.5575577616691589,
0.40941059589385986,
-0.576137363910675,
0.3237627446651459,
0.3535679578781128,
0.4911855161190033,
-0.25765565037727356,
0.3618064820766449,
-0.04257412999868393,
-0.184806227684021,
-0.08100839704275131,
-0.09415236860513687,
0.03250144049525261,
-0.3174240291118622,
-0.11651203036308289,
-0.10254205018281937,
-0.0736122652888298,
0.04649527743458748,
-0.09223992377519608,
-0.8801962733268738,
-0.271060585975647,
-0.27251702547073364,
0.003670481964945793,
0.7407016158103943,
-0.5134761929512024,
0.21571430563926697,
-0.028527647256851196,
0.8548662066459656,
-0.4173945486545563,
-0.11691147834062576,
0.5017395615577698,
-1.052430510520935,
-1.0381948947906494,
0.2803637385368347,
0.6097372174263,
-0.5440584421157837,
0.45547786355018616,
-0.29822954535484314,
-0.670310378074646,
0.2870452404022217,
0.43874889612197876,
-0.10622240602970123,
0.38550758361816406,
0.27839624881744385,
-0.108793705701828,
-0.5494296550750732,
0.5184897780418396,
0.25232335925102234,
0.7844885587692261,
0.01536896638572216,
-0.002252614125609398,
0.21482554078102112,
-0.1403816193342209,
-0.8257476687431335,
-0.051144059747457504,
-0.21289022266864777,
-0.16959774494171143,
0.48901283740997314,
-0.8042657971382141,
0.039309170097112656,
-0.24633853137493134,
-5.41209077835083,
-0.02709542028605938,
-0.5340830683708191,
0.007832699455320835,
0.667090654373169,
0.28688982129096985,
0.684423565864563,
-0.08169598132371902,
0.35741910338401794,
0.7068990468978882,
0.45330360531806946,
-0.0006005688337609172,
-0.154083251953125,
0.05643528327345848,
0.6517724990844727,
0.8425697088241577,
1.1064168214797974,
-0.20084905624389648,
0.20130175352096558,
0.16260170936584473,
0.0207113828510046,
-0.06658121198415756,
-0.29933977127075195,
0.17547735571861267,
0.4695214331150055,
0.2764926850795746,
-0.12211289256811142,
0.2661212384700775,
-0.22442059218883514,
-0.22467239201068878,
-0.17470909655094147,
1.0015790462493896,
-0.2663768529891968,
-0.5962193012237549,
0.029411977156996727,
-0.7018361687660217,
0.10538703948259354,
0.291694700717926,
0.07806310802698135,
-0.11770035326480865,
0.15402759611606598,
0.013249539770185947,
-1.039918303489685,
0.11442528665065765,
0.2841334640979767,
-0.34869319200515747,
-0.6011155843734741,
0.18840108811855316,
-0.5335074067115784,
0.45258238911628723,
0.09137145429849625,
0.32095465064048767,
0.6650611162185669,
0.5531572699546814,
0.3404442369937897,
0.012313487008213997,
0.5540904998779297,
0.6287286877632141,
-0.6172522306442261,
0.28163498640060425,
0.4288002848625183,
-0.4529085159301758,
-0.23896364867687225,
-0.11810120940208435,
-0.2831014096736908,
-0.83140629529953,
-0.21849524974822998,
-0.5857758522033691,
0.3247663378715515,
-0.05134446546435356,
0.017816320061683655,
0.6532068848609924,
0.45084670186042786,
-0.8263209462165833,
0.7493869662284851,
-0.027701573446393013,
-0.705836296081543,
0.5083940029144287,
-0.7714694142341614,
-0.13801713287830353,
-0.10178513079881668,
-0.14541536569595337,
0.4764588177204132,
1.2704521417617798,
0.31721702218055725,
0.510532021522522,
-0.33111658692359924,
0.30516546964645386,
-1.0849058628082275,
-0.200644850730896,
-0.2268567979335785,
0.00792027823626995,
-0.36008310317993164,
0.18878531455993652,
0.275572806596756,
0.168120875954628,
-0.04709791764616966,
0.2964404225349426,
0.36006394028663635,
-0.31779274344444275,
-0.12905500829219818,
0.0038197168614715338,
-0.5716147422790527,
-1.0040202140808105,
0.16503453254699707,
-0.020164208486676216,
-0.48781630396842957,
0.5357266664505005,
0.6753343939781189,
0.5799946784973145,
-0.027137495577335358,
-0.40216389298439026,
-0.30964526534080505,
-0.2780945897102356,
-0.05960152670741081,
-0.4370572865009308,
0.41824501752853394,
0.10381590574979782,
0.8588555455207825,
0.3833386301994324,
0.17529217898845673,
0.31947410106658936,
-0.25180286169052124,
-0.3518551290035248,
0.19969144463539124,
-0.33085983991622925,
0.06031583994626999,
-0.49510815739631653,
-0.5938819050788879,
0.07752686738967896,
0.37722399830818176,
0.2644902467727661,
-0.379353404045105,
-0.28006511926651,
-0.05371686816215515,
-0.04935673624277115,
0.4753745496273041,
-0.14766274392604828,
0.11774835735559464,
-0.03872235119342804,
-0.2951414883136749,
-0.7533283233642578,
-0.4697907269001007,
0.19194862246513367,
-0.11234533786773682,
0.21294672787189484,
0.4088346064090729,
0.26832330226898193,
-0.6121612787246704,
0.4016890823841095,
-0.9402163624763489,
-0.7700523734092712,
0.19083541631698608,
-0.041627105325460434,
0.3194558620452881,
-0.3570699393749237,
0.10829918086528778,
-0.314455509185791,
0.0848596915602684,
-0.2700417935848236,
-0.23593832552433014,
0.5493929386138916,
-1.0332436561584473,
-0.2225252091884613,
0.09556016325950623,
-0.045696921646595,
-0.5500368475914001,
0.14858825504779816,
-0.3100554943084717,
0.7914873957633972,
0.21115218102931976,
-0.3788202106952667,
-0.4788510203361511,
0.41375732421875,
0.21746787428855896,
-0.12616337835788727,
0.23475484549999237,
0.4706456959247589,
0.34208428859710693,
0.017686212435364723,
0.10796814411878586,
0.16378360986709595,
-0.48257917165756226,
-0.0885697603225708,
0.4650493264198303,
-0.3189895749092102,
-0.21728961169719696,
-0.3252222239971161,
-0.19815318286418915,
-0.06973396241664886,
-0.2713637948036194,
-0.38964200019836426,
0.07429078221321106,
0.5164918303489685,
-0.07514966279268265,
0.06795570999383926,
0.01593148149549961,
-0.10508085042238235,
-0.002820422872900963,
-0.7628273963928223,
0.2099895179271698,
0.05278780683875084,
-0.09499678015708923,
0.05283177271485329,
-0.6683942079544067,
-0.6315892338752747,
-0.2583828866481781,
0.2876591980457306,
0.07289569079875946,
0.8198375701904297,
0.21790435910224915,
-0.5514010787010193,
-0.050646279007196426,
0.21781933307647705,
-0.02821018546819687,
0.1417556256055832,
0.5483521819114685,
0.3500938415527344,
-0.28196513652801514,
-0.7265470027923584,
-0.7332311272621155,
-0.0432104617357254,
-0.655884325504303,
-0.4272686243057251,
-0.1482284665107727,
0.40090832114219666,
0.27162429690361023,
-0.26827746629714966,
1.0054012537002563,
-0.1377141773700714,
-1.2449854612350464,
-0.4965086877346039,
-0.08550925552845001,
0.28707006573677063,
-0.05971492826938629,
0.30854517221450806,
0.18460743129253387,
0.4267863631248474,
-0.49302712082862854,
0.2198629528284073,
0.11185465008020401,
1.191056251525879,
0.4720340073108673,
-0.518201470375061,
-0.30066317319869995,
0.3157098591327667,
0.46473538875579834,
-0.017200186848640442,
-0.29230958223342896,
0.12760698795318604,
0.49078425765037537,
-0.2397409975528717,
-0.7274109125137329,
0.001648624544031918,
1.1637639999389648,
-0.14829197525978088,
0.06632339209318161,
0.6639300584793091,
0.3261268138885498,
0.0016448606038466096,
-0.04239809140563011,
-0.04656702280044556,
-0.4649651348590851,
-0.09083618223667145,
-0.08038304001092911,
-0.27136653661727905,
-0.3702385425567627,
-0.13184522092342377,
0.3781227767467499,
-0.8554357886314392,
-0.9780576229095459,
-0.15543954074382782,
-0.4898800253868103,
0.5962542295455933,
0.085001140832901,
-0.05190151557326317,
0.3188822269439697,
-0.35997045040130615,
0.35678866505622864,
-0.3236997723579407,
-0.8077917098999023,
-0.17178696393966675,
-0.3719976544380188,
-0.3559701442718506,
0.27615731954574585,
-0.6739197373390198,
-0.5529048442840576,
-0.11972546577453613,
-0.02126847207546234,
-0.3728192150592804,
-0.6206896901130676,
0.37978222966194153,
-0.6949350237846375,
-0.21587158739566803,
-0.6377819180488586,
0.10081019252538681,
-0.40717560052871704,
0.43558281660079956,
0.23452128469944,
0.11245724558830261,
-1.085798978805542,
0.7383318543434143,
0.3195283114910126,
0.044579923152923584,
-0.25319552421569824,
0.06710416823625565,
0.04748357832431793,
-0.02993091195821762,
-0.1882694661617279,
0.14970992505550385,
0.13216446340084076,
-0.39174884557724,
0.7452978491783142,
-0.15766842663288116,
-0.5085166096687317,
-0.24306681752204895,
1.1001791954040527,
-0.3555741608142853,
-0.3065149486064911,
0.15606112778186798,
-0.16853149235248566,
-0.05443471297621727,
0.33938589692115784,
0.046167533844709396,
0.5911950469017029,
0.9360185265541077,
-0.4288162589073181,
0.30742430686950684,
0.1483580768108368,
0.11459940671920776,
-0.32760781049728394,
-0.04774013161659241,
-0.9725369811058044,
0.4293230473995209,
0.021434947848320007,
0.4470392167568207,
-0.13238531351089478,
-0.4567186236381531,
-0.40979111194610596,
0.5987017154693604,
0.21348655223846436,
0.7955775260925293,
-0.08027929812669754,
0.06447513401508331,
-0.028136417269706726,
-0.1013236865401268,
0.05071548372507095,
-0.13679413497447968,
0.2283743917942047,
-0.1434437334537506,
0.04145153611898422,
0.5011451244354248,
0.2852534353733063,
-0.5853226780891418,
-0.1593133956193924,
-0.2192210704088211,
0.49933192133903503,
-0.27095624804496765,
-0.32829010486602783,
-0.5970154404640198,
0.41060277819633484,
-0.620330274105072,
0.7743722796440125,
-0.1471671164035797,
-0.2529703974723816,
0.042027637362480164,
0.2799602150917053,
-0.13336925208568573,
-0.4455675482749939,
0.5444411039352417,
0.43897774815559387,
-0.3875046372413635,
0.1423177868127823,
0.2530447244644165,
0.429698646068573,
0.2719112038612366,
0.9923201203346252,
-0.059192683547735214,
-0.3547675907611847,
-0.13123290240764618,
-0.07106137275695801,
0.20923978090286255,
-0.2873944044113159,
-0.2945820987224579,
-0.08539687097072601,
0.026343798264861107,
-0.204621359705925,
0.12176201492547989,
-0.15272457897663116,
-0.7404587268829346,
0.3240864872932434,
-0.22547751665115356,
-0.539044201374054,
0.33863604068756104,
-0.3566325008869171,
0.4847722053527832,
-0.13029833137989044,
1.2704893350601196,
0.3682210147380829,
0.6891499161720276,
-0.1098519042134285,
-0.1597708910703659,
-0.39113762974739075,
-0.010984434746205807,
-0.12777525186538696,
0.5965062975883484,
-0.5008397102355957,
0.3899955451488495,
-0.4191893935203552,
0.6038338541984558,
-0.01028894167393446,
0.35739418864250183,
-0.5154932141304016,
0.32144269347190857,
0.08112220466136932,
-0.07799571752548218,
0.9678284525871277,
-0.716140866279602,
-0.5122108459472656,
-0.41162148118019104,
0.19592905044555664,
-0.10252401232719421,
-0.0663018524646759,
0.17401832342147827,
-0.2876134514808655,
-0.5730177760124207,
0.38552019000053406,
-0.10588489472866058,
-0.14799849689006805,
0.4191380739212036,
0.33163323998451233,
-0.9927889108657837,
-0.03613293170928955,
-0.22844387590885162,
0.061054445803165436,
-0.11993381381034851,
0.1882518082857132,
1.1580290794372559,
0.747156023979187,
-0.1378794014453888,
0.3535686731338501,
-0.342570960521698,
0.24631322920322418,
-0.1809748113155365,
-0.22568771243095398,
0.18542233109474182,
0.057659246027469635,
-0.6007212400436401,
0.4777851104736328,
0.7272759079933167,
-0.2819821238517761,
-0.42792022228240967,
0.14938153326511383,
-0.11745817214250565,
0.7381642460823059,
0.12125660479068756,
-0.16190414130687714,
-0.29471322894096375,
0.25962138175964355,
-0.1608828753232956
] |
241607 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandicoot | Bandicoot | Bandicoots are a group of more than 20 species of small to medium-sized, terrestrial, largely nocturnal marsupial omnivores in the order Peramelemorphia. They are endemic to the Australia–New Guinea region, including the Bismarck Archipelago to the east and Seram and Halmahera to the west.
Etymology
The bandicoot is a member of the order Peramelemorphia, and the word "bandicoot" is often used informally to refer to any peramelemorph, such as the bilby. The term originally referred to the unrelated Indian bandicoot rat from the Telugu word Pandikokku (పందికొక్కు).
Characteristics
Bandicoots have v-shaped faces, ending with their prominent noses similar to proboscises. These noses make them, along with bilbies, similar in appearance to elephant shrews and extinct leptictids, and they are distantly related to both mammal groups. With their well attuned snouts, and sharp claws, the bandicoot is a fossorial digger. They have small but fine teeth that allow them to easily chew their food.
Like most marsupials, male bandicoots have bifurcated penises.
The embryos of bandicoots have a chorioallantoic placenta that connects them to the uterine wall, in addition to the choriovitelline placenta that is common to all marsupials. However, the chorioallantoic placenta is small compared to those of the Placentalia, and lacks chorionic villi.
Bandicoots may serve as a primary reservoir for Coxiella burnetii. Infection is transmitted among them by ticks. These are then transmitted to domestic animals (cattle, sheep and poultry). The infected domestic animals shed them in urine, faeces, and placental products. It is transmitted to humans causing Q fever by inhalation of aerosols of these materials. Main symptoms may be pneumonia and/or hepatitis.
Bandicoots can reach 11 to 31 inches in length, and 0.4 to 3.5 pounds in weight. Bandicoots have long, pointed snout, large ears, short body and long tail. Their body is covered with fur that can be brown, black, golden, white or gray in color. Bandicoots have strong hind legs designed for jumping.
Classification
Classification within the Peramelemorphia was previously thought to be straightforward, with two families in the order—the short-legged and mostly herbivorous bandicoots, and the longer-legged, nearly carnivorous bilbies. In recent years, however, it has become clear that the situation is more complex. First, the bandicoots of the New Guinean and far-northern Australian rainforests were deemed distinct from all other bandicoots and were grouped together in the separate family Peroryctidae. More recently, the bandicoot families were reunited in Peramelidae, with the New Guinean species split into four genera in two subfamilies, Peroryctinae and Echymiperinae, while the "true bandicoots" occupy the subfamily Peramelidae. The only exception is the now extinct pig-footed bandicoot, which has been given its own family, Chaeropodidae.
Order Peramelemorphia
Superfamily Perameloidea
Unclassified family
Genus †Galadi: 4 species
Genus †Bulungu: 3 species
Genus †Madju: 2 species
Family Thylacomyidae
Genus Macrotis: 2 species
Genus †Ischnodon: 1 species
Genus †Liyamayi: 1 extinct species
Family †Chaeropodidae: Pig-footed bandicoot
Genus †Chaeropus: 1 species
Family Peramelidae
Subfamily Peramelinae
Genus Isoodon: short-nosed bandicoots, 3 species
Genus Perameles: long-nosed bandicoots, 3 extant species
Subfamily Peroryctinae
Genus Peroryctes: New Guinean long-nosed bandicoots, 2 species
Subfamily Echymiperinae
Genus Echymipera: New Guinean spiny bandicoots, 5 species
Genus Microperoryctes: New Guinean mouse bandicoots, 5 species
Genus Rhynchomeles: Seram bandicoot, 1 species
Superfamily †Yaraloidea
Family †Yaralidae
Genus †Yarala: 2 species
Vernacular names
The name bandicoot is an Anglicised version of a word from the Telugu language of South India which translates as 'pig-rat'. What we now call bandicoots are not found in India and bandicoot was originally applied to completely unrelated mammals—several species of large rats (rodents). Today, these species, belonging to the genera Bandicota and Nesokia, are referred to as 'bandicoot rats'. Blust (1982, 1993, 2002, 2009) reconstructs the form *mansar or *mansər 'bandicoot' for Proto-Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian (i.e., the reconstructed most recent common ancestor of the Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages), but the validity of this reconstruction is doubted by Schapper (2011). It is known as aine in the Abinomn language of Papua, Indonesia.
Bandicoots have different names by the indigenous peoples of the Australia-New Guinea region. For example, the Kaurna people refer to the Southern brown bandicoot as the Bung or the Marti.
In popular culture
The character Crash Bandicoot is a mutant eastern barred bandicoot, titular protagonist of the Sony PlayStation game of the same name, chosen in the late 1990s to compete as a mascot with Sega's Sonic the Hedgehog and Nintendo's Mario. Paleontologists have named an extinct Australian Miocene-era bandicoot, Crash bandicoot, after the character. The species name is unusual, being adopted entirely unaltered, with no attempt at returning to Latin or Greek roots.
There are three anthropomorphic bandicoots in the television series Sonic Boom, twin sisters Perci-Staci and Bruce Bandicoot.
In 2006, Australian entertainer Ben Murray played Benny Bandicoot during the fifth series of television series The Wiggles.
In Season 1 Episode 12 of the Australian ABC kid's television show Bluey titled "Bob Bilby" Bingo brings home a puppet named Bob Bilby based off of the Australian marsupial bilby, which is also known also by the name Rabbit Eared Bandicoot.
References
External links
Peramelemorphs
Marsupials of Oceania
Marsupials of Australia
Mammals of Papua New Guinea
Mammals of Western New Guinea
es:Bandicut | [
0.11118179559707642,
-0.10390263795852661,
-0.5379986763000488,
-0.5090373158454895,
0.18390153348445892,
0.22543960809707642,
0.1713273674249649,
0.3974630534648895,
-0.3929832875728607,
-0.4982665777206421,
-0.065656878054142,
0.43901383876800537,
-0.5575236678123474,
-0.33186057209968567,
-0.16262401640415192,
0.7601271271705627,
0.22375047206878662,
0.292373389005661,
0.1860554814338684,
-0.3461109399795532,
-0.2866443991661072,
-0.3753156363964081,
0.14732623100280762,
-0.5793529748916626,
0.6302961111068726,
0.20804661512374878,
0.46268534660339355,
1.159853219985962,
0.6289668679237366,
-0.0905596911907196,
0.2630051076412201,
0.8865339756011963,
0.11484180390834808,
-0.12987186014652252,
0.21023763716220856,
-0.3468179404735565,
-0.41656777262687683,
-0.8371144533157349,
-0.25281545519828796,
-0.686290979385376,
0.24914990365505219,
-0.13203656673431396,
-0.07204873859882355,
0.7072886228561401,
-0.5073761940002441,
0.07953418791294098,
-0.6054837107658386,
0.7906301617622375,
-0.23771308362483978,
0.5455920100212097,
0.058051660656929016,
0.11544739454984665,
0.6400237679481506,
0.6890619993209839,
0.09280090779066086,
0.24078872799873352,
-0.83835369348526,
0.1446789801120758,
-0.15439777076244354,
-0.6373913884162903,
0.18599502742290497,
0.24833203852176666,
0.2989252805709839,
-0.17630474269390106,
-0.14705584943294525,
0.540757417678833,
0.5280694961547852,
0.1813235580921173,
-0.046973347663879395,
0.4187224209308624,
-0.15761402249336243,
-0.623465895652771,
-0.0833183079957962,
0.7269541025161743,
-0.8147633671760559,
-0.2799311876296997,
-0.05403156578540802,
0.17272955179214478,
0.4577955901622772,
0.1562243103981018,
0.24114902317523956,
0.5470726490020752,
0.6149511337280273,
0.026196062564849854,
-0.013641851022839546,
-0.24356654286384583,
-0.4397697448730469,
-0.2254609763622284,
-0.7489263415336609,
-0.014776691794395447,
-0.3881935775279999,
-0.47837531566619873,
0.49113914370536804,
0.1918686181306839,
-0.00039433184429071844,
-0.327173113822937,
-0.1811499148607254,
-0.1220698431134224,
0.663330614566803,
0.3115978538990021,
-0.16767483949661255,
0.028455210849642754,
0.28311267495155334,
-0.03217809274792671,
-1.132645606994629,
0.03351540490984917,
-0.12209881097078323,
-0.5443337559700012,
-0.4321608245372772,
0.32826757431030273,
-0.8796171545982361,
-0.16132596135139465,
0.3207505941390991,
-0.030640000477433205,
0.21317502856254578,
0.5282591581344604,
-0.05835632607340813,
-0.15979844331741333,
-0.21465936303138733,
-0.22673539817333221,
0.12080883234739304,
0.18948258459568024,
0.5069665908813477,
-0.10449669510126114,
-0.10249239206314087,
0.038240887224674225,
0.5005965828895569,
-0.3709675669670105,
-0.43778952956199646,
0.4880121350288391,
0.6248235106468201,
0.5351067781448364,
-0.5098169445991516,
0.11369418352842331,
-0.09839992970228195,
-0.5309738516807556,
-0.055123135447502136,
0.4757668375968933,
0.9352244734764099,
0.347646564245224,
-0.5507358908653259,
-0.052810411900281906,
-0.5146712064743042,
-0.11804427951574326,
0.3762281835079193,
-0.24624735116958618,
0.3489021956920624,
-0.24666687846183777,
-0.39435648918151855,
-0.915905773639679,
-0.32142290472984314,
-0.3995254337787628,
-0.13227619230747223,
0.37117573618888855,
-0.2545580565929413,
-0.4652825891971588,
0.4637434482574463,
-0.3382137417793274,
0.4155662953853607,
-0.1441468447446823,
-0.013143927790224552,
-0.06350813806056976,
-0.10050347447395325,
0.22039732336997986,
0.23823772370815277,
0.18363097310066223,
0.0034965865779668093,
0.3301295340061188,
0.10418099910020828,
0.5847947001457214,
-0.06815360486507416,
0.04643671587109566,
0.24294333159923553,
-0.11959167569875717,
-0.15922464430332184,
0.1212230771780014,
0.11277884989976883,
-0.0676124319434166,
0.150570347905159,
0.1016123816370964,
-0.41565167903900146,
-0.3113023638725281,
0.33979806303977966,
-0.08651312440633774,
-0.2620089650154114,
-0.6663799285888672,
0.38170912861824036,
0.24236303567886353,
0.4914529323577881,
-0.06474252045154572,
-0.365704208612442,
0.16835500299930573,
0.43879517912864685,
-0.1194833517074585,
1.2693241834640503,
-0.21518661081790924,
-0.42619284987449646,
0.3207533359527588,
0.38541826605796814,
-0.09681718051433563,
-0.3580968379974365,
-0.09181617200374603,
0.5803916454315186,
0.13794328272342682,
-1.34135901927948,
-0.08577555418014526,
-0.2643446624279022,
0.15045101940631866,
0.3055201470851898,
-0.03817589953541756,
0.039363645017147064,
-0.30487334728240967,
-0.052053749561309814,
-0.09129598736763,
-0.24479691684246063,
-0.4151061177253723,
-0.4513463079929352,
0.7629252076148987,
-0.11186607927083969,
-0.6470258235931396,
0.5160398483276367,
-0.3245095908641815,
-0.10809529572725296,
0.5341988801956177,
-0.3770309090614319,
0.614309549331665,
0.6758993268013,
-0.20702530443668365,
0.9505616426467896,
-0.3739788234233856,
-0.19550785422325134,
-0.044541362673044205,
0.3608502149581909,
-0.311511367559433,
-0.1028822511434555,
-0.046902090311050415,
0.16431206464767456,
-0.9553518891334534,
-0.13025853037834167,
-0.1441613882780075,
0.26595908403396606,
-0.09150273352861404,
-0.8465529680252075,
-0.1944572478532791,
0.2377263903617859,
-0.34357067942619324,
-0.05049813911318779,
0.32400447130203247,
-0.22122308611869812,
-0.059837065637111664,
-0.02732386626303196,
0.7276155948638916,
0.7933611273765564,
-0.030093466863036156,
-0.018800269812345505,
0.3838616907596588,
0.3277110755443573,
0.04676578566431999,
0.17765630781650543,
-0.1422916054725647,
-0.6635903716087341,
0.018149742856621742,
0.13200128078460693,
0.7774736881256104,
-0.5900143384933472,
-0.9681801199913025,
0.2620612680912018,
-0.2118048369884491,
0.38241714239120483,
1.0080493688583374,
0.8827534317970276,
0.0036463653668761253,
-0.821942925453186,
-0.21289461851119995,
-0.12518945336341858,
-0.23853559792041779,
0.4251580238342285,
-0.24420057237148285,
0.4108058214187622,
-0.6974583268165588,
-0.2313566505908966,
0.4935632050037384,
0.7495442628860474,
-0.4212014377117157,
-0.11930220574140549,
-0.285224974155426,
0.45935431122779846,
-0.19831649959087372,
-0.1682487428188324,
-0.06792671233415604,
-0.397948294878006,
0.1312861144542694,
-0.38391321897506714,
0.18859760463237762,
-0.9725756645202637,
-0.18198685348033905,
-0.11351245641708374,
0.2801342308521271,
0.1474025994539261,
-0.513818621635437,
-0.23699791729450226,
0.09787057340145111,
0.3999173939228058,
0.2075652927160263,
0.20191891491413116,
-0.3264080286026001,
-0.15928280353546143,
0.5895435214042664,
-5.6460161209106445,
0.2022528499364853,
0.14390689134597778,
0.10764288902282715,
0.1776382476091385,
0.5372647643089294,
0.5680456161499023,
-0.4798467755317688,
-0.0256111491471529,
-0.2520885169506073,
-0.1087794229388237,
0.3099174499511719,
0.1159096285700798,
-0.356071412563324,
0.2641308009624481,
0.30567988753318787,
-0.7002219557762146,
0.13709929585456848,
0.17099760472774506,
0.1566806137561798,
-0.31524232029914856,
0.027905456721782684,
-0.0773330107331276,
0.01520936843007803,
-0.26421988010406494,
-0.27470502257347107,
-0.4868626296520233,
-0.6683042645454407,
-0.31220942735671997,
-0.09804118424654007,
-0.05685603246092796,
-0.18830782175064087,
-0.09460463374853134,
-0.30245891213417053,
0.5794377326965332,
0.14589649438858032,
0.665881872177124,
0.06256410479545593,
-0.2518071234226227,
-0.41081833839416504,
-0.10920155048370361,
0.003267852822318673,
0.12850980460643768,
0.007756712380796671,
0.5092501044273376,
0.34966781735420227,
-0.12887436151504517,
-0.13632473349571228,
-0.12324807792901993,
0.7775367498397827,
0.2719731330871582,
0.18823674321174622,
-0.023636406287550926,
0.5197400450706482,
0.40284931659698486,
0.015262627974152565,
-0.026519084349274635,
-0.21684829890727997,
-0.2653888165950775,
0.011119972914457321,
0.7971165776252747,
-0.14623713493347168,
-0.3424166142940521,
-0.08613011986017227,
0.26059654355049133,
0.10923433303833008,
-0.40893927216529846,
0.2311546951532364,
0.8326394557952881,
-0.2823374569416046,
-0.27232661843299866,
-0.2921634018421173,
-0.38422727584838867,
-1.1430542469024658,
0.46084341406822205,
0.012304343283176422,
-0.2084658145904541,
-0.1449635624885559,
0.1129317581653595,
-0.2833254337310791,
0.08369512856006622,
-0.2652800381183624,
-0.19650766253471375,
-0.13466016948223114,
-0.633686363697052,
-1.4525363445281982,
-0.941102921962738,
0.051718585193157196,
-0.5062220692634583,
-0.4311518967151642,
0.5136494040489197,
-0.016113389283418655,
0.5298014283180237,
0.40251392126083374,
0.850874662399292,
0.5610768795013428,
0.40371960401535034,
0.2550320029258728,
0.6750814914703369,
-0.06554719060659409,
1.0024560689926147,
0.20749101042747498,
-0.022318754345178604,
-0.09118087589740753,
-0.646243691444397,
-0.2892509400844574,
0.01644284278154373,
0.33164411783218384,
0.7283874154090881,
-0.2350357621908188,
0.5134549736976624,
-0.28163015842437744,
-0.23508144915103912,
-0.3836866617202759,
0.5113083720207214,
0.11247976869344711,
-0.34838253259658813,
0.010565374977886677,
0.8257989883422852,
-0.020195532590150833,
-0.16174818575382233,
0.11783719807863235,
-0.38460367918014526,
0.21484705805778503,
0.1801418513059616,
0.052621856331825256,
0.17976965010166168,
-0.4928945302963257,
-0.5331964492797852,
-0.3671642541885376,
0.03588388115167618,
-0.10921788960695267,
-0.3231620490550995,
-0.23656009137630463,
-0.07207135856151581,
-0.1443583369255066,
-0.6534641981124878,
-0.1954558938741684,
0.6605566143989563,
-0.4184907078742981,
-0.5731223821640015,
-0.400747150182724,
-0.19594745337963104,
0.25186648964881897,
0.6640377044677734,
-0.07957687228918076,
-0.3548848032951355,
-0.18193359673023224,
0.3635803461074829,
1.0887207984924316,
0.15542371571063995,
0.09159409999847412,
0.2837474048137665,
-0.3837409019470215,
-0.14595083892345428,
-0.22731027007102966,
0.3998480439186096,
0.09797405451536179,
0.29880252480506897,
-0.41109633445739746,
-0.1044369712471962,
-0.4358603060245514,
-0.5682929754257202,
0.30597174167633057,
-0.30837443470954895,
-0.1908370554447174,
-0.5917707681655884,
-0.28277263045310974,
-0.06660570204257965,
-0.18934036791324615,
-0.07987236231565475,
-0.23763345181941986,
-0.29113784432411194,
-0.12351828068494797,
-0.3698597550392151,
-0.5654122829437256,
-0.5753880739212036,
0.51932293176651,
-0.7111085653305054,
0.2143099159002304,
-0.4183046221733093,
0.08355104923248291,
0.06930124759674072,
-0.0204375721514225,
0.874565839767456,
-0.19948366284370422,
0.34623122215270996,
-0.35336434841156006,
0.0003455461992416531,
-0.33622121810913086,
0.3295696973800659,
0.4108431935310364,
0.23163241147994995,
-0.08682040870189667,
-0.47744107246398926,
0.1489705890417099,
-0.051253724843263626,
0.4263761341571808,
-0.4885912835597992,
-0.6780345439910889,
-0.5299214720726013,
-0.17393258213996887,
-0.6652535796165466,
0.40975672006607056,
0.2673681378364563,
-0.09797663986682892,
0.5881186723709106,
-0.7369223237037659,
-0.19883884489536285,
-0.20103947818279266,
-0.32107189297676086,
-0.2758753299713135,
-0.09402362257242203,
0.6674050688743591,
-0.3627949059009552,
0.6451877951622009,
-0.36984285712242126,
-0.39843007922172546,
-0.215312659740448,
0.15401647984981537,
0.028278304263949394,
-0.3067619204521179,
-0.047470178455114365,
-0.07668212056159973,
-0.2003583014011383,
0.7706552743911743,
0.6570192575454712,
-0.49266496300697327,
-0.11193586140871048,
-0.36942335963249207,
-0.19673675298690796,
-0.04248560220003128,
-0.3926909863948822,
-0.2109031230211258,
-0.32486170530319214,
-0.09488841146230698,
0.06029816344380379,
-0.5266619920730591,
0.14613808691501617,
0.7569832801818848,
0.25864630937576294,
0.853773832321167,
-0.13821332156658173,
-0.3670845031738281,
0.16659551858901978,
0.028225092217326164,
0.45107927918434143,
-0.35347121953964233,
-1.1645710468292236,
-0.4320537745952606,
0.5121462345123291,
-0.08889302611351013,
0.4275045692920685,
0.5951224565505981,
0.5151548981666565,
0.02035590074956417,
-0.1511634737253189,
-0.18775662779808044,
-0.15416960418224335,
0.23536886274814606,
-0.004080578684806824,
0.5103933215141296,
-0.3641356825828552,
-0.332966148853302,
-0.000643405073788017,
-0.7210494875907898,
-0.9959906339645386,
-0.11725156009197235,
0.3399028778076172,
-0.17316433787345886,
0.1954265683889389,
0.08481982350349426,
0.6514557003974915,
0.2826654613018036,
0.13340061902999878,
-0.011609580367803574,
0.32916516065597534,
-0.6182555556297302,
0.53602534532547,
0.16180045902729034,
-0.49967411160469055,
0.29965224862098694,
0.14971661567687988,
-0.14166483283042908,
0.7236746549606323,
-0.6733905076980591,
-0.30014097690582275,
0.08803202211856842,
-0.04742596670985222,
-0.7695890665054321,
0.14313030242919922,
-0.12765759229660034,
-0.1748819202184677,
0.6114703416824341,
0.45962953567504883,
0.39756330847740173,
0.541289746761322,
0.002370971953496337,
-0.0037998815532773733,
0.8951194882392883,
-0.469663143157959,
0.6557381749153137,
0.5616096258163452,
-0.5671719908714294,
0.5265452861785889,
-0.1025497317314148,
0.02479708380997181,
-0.2684318423271179,
-0.33856576681137085,
-0.30812373757362366,
0.5027210712432861,
-0.2313602864742279,
-0.10402385890483856,
0.5321934223175049,
-0.4252597689628601,
0.41072243452072144,
0.03858933970332146,
-0.20554286241531372,
0.7639988660812378,
0.6138284206390381,
0.6726439595222473,
0.44820892810821533,
0.046091388911008835,
0.0933755487203598,
-0.013637341558933258,
-0.13035006821155548,
-0.3116767108440399,
0.06721058487892151,
0.6060348153114319,
0.4740401804447174,
1.0111398696899414,
0.07050217688083649,
-0.12383134663105011,
-0.1312052458524704,
-0.32912734150886536,
-0.02861752361059189,
0.03502752259373665,
0.17448699474334717,
-0.2878723740577698,
0.9588757157325745,
0.7708821296691895,
-0.09742268919944763,
-0.2832525968551636,
-0.07394662499427795,
0.22167843580245972,
0.17597763240337372,
0.08263338357210159,
-0.14122460782527924,
0.4005255401134491,
0.3500930666923523,
0.3040402829647064,
-0.10576324909925461,
0.2315407395362854,
0.38212850689888,
0.20993958413600922,
-0.013987397775053978,
0.06119847670197487,
-0.2979007065296173,
-0.4018101394176483,
0.05377672612667084,
0.1276727169752121,
0.1780846118927002,
-0.4327816665172577,
0.6887922286987305,
-0.4591939151287079,
0.40810075402259827,
-0.9513962268829346,
-0.026554938405752182,
-0.2167513519525528,
0.04639582335948944,
0.5366565585136414,
0.5882590413093567,
-0.15611395239830017,
0.14530855417251587,
-0.13811950385570526,
0.010968992486596107,
0.09310362488031387,
0.5270832180976868,
0.2873627245426178,
0.042033519595861435,
-0.6405825018882751,
-0.02406122349202633,
0.228815495967865,
-0.2698238790035248,
0.3422636091709137,
-0.5041956901550293,
-0.413514643907547,
0.3103806674480438,
-0.08414699137210846,
-0.16454723477363586,
0.019954856485128403,
-0.8717972636222839,
0.2857895791530609,
-0.45219919085502625,
-0.2265484780073166,
-0.004142343532294035,
0.48280131816864014,
0.9046362638473511,
0.11779527366161346,
-0.6440231800079346,
-0.043059442192316055,
0.07897447049617767,
-0.33296653628349304,
-0.7220842242240906,
0.07486143708229065,
0.5339642763137817,
-0.26075512170791626,
-0.520470142364502,
-0.9185296893119812,
0.3070593476295471,
0.6986411213874817,
0.11412879079580307,
0.0018109851516783237,
0.2108740508556366,
0.2689197361469269,
0.30559176206588745,
0.3575979471206665,
-0.5051878094673157,
-0.12388089299201965,
-0.368307888507843,
0.3330727517604828,
-0.29912588000297546,
-0.19862690567970276,
0.4153845012187958,
0.12013819813728333,
-0.4889749586582184,
0.23336182534694672,
-0.2074926197528839,
-0.518521785736084,
0.7977258563041687,
0.15567992627620697,
0.029210861772298813,
-0.6549645662307739,
0.08957216888666153,
-0.43467891216278076,
-0.27974987030029297,
0.6220597624778748,
0.46888789534568787,
0.18197345733642578,
-0.09050476551055908,
-0.022305944934487343,
-0.10616815835237503,
-0.030154267325997353,
-0.02410072833299637,
-0.2762414813041687,
0.15542110800743103,
0.34836167097091675,
-0.4007338881492615,
-0.943821370601654,
0.28879281878471375,
0.24812093377113342,
-0.47300848364830017,
-0.026232806965708733,
-0.5556144714355469,
-0.3025375306606293,
0.2313515543937683,
-0.05837034061551094,
0.1071501150727272,
0.05060561001300812,
0.11980307847261429
] |
241610 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgio%20de%20Chirico | Giorgio de Chirico | Giorgio de Chirico ( , ; 10 July 1888 – 20 November 1978) was an Italian artist and writer born in Greece. In the years before World War I, he founded the scuola metafisica art movement, which profoundly influenced the surrealists. His most well-known works often feature Roman arcades, long shadows, mannequins, trains, and illogical perspective. His imagery reflects his affinity for the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer and of Friedrich Nietzsche, and for the mythology of his birthplace.
After 1919, he became a critic of modern art, studied traditional painting techniques, and worked in a neoclassical or neo-Baroque style, while frequently revisiting the metaphysical themes of his earlier work.
Life and works
Giuseppe Maria Alberto Giorgio de Chirico was born in Volos, Greece, as the eldest son of Gemma Cervetto and Evaristo de Chirico. His mother was a baroness of Genoese origins (likely born in Smyrna) and his father a Sicilian barone from a family of Greek descent (the Kyriko or Chirico family was of Greek origin, having moved from Rhodes to Palermo in 1523 together with 4000 other Greek Catholic families). De Chirico's family was in Greece at the time of his birth because his father, an engineer, was in charge of the construction of a railroad. His younger brother, Andrea Francesco Alberto, became a famous writer, painter and composer under the pseudonym Alberto Savinio.
Beginning in 1900, de Chirico studied drawing and painting at Athens Polytechnic—mainly under the guidance of the Greek painters Georgios Roilos and Georgios Jakobides. After Evaristo de Chirico's death in 1905, the family relocated in 1906 to Germany, after first visiting Florence. De Chirico entered the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich, where he studied under Gabriel von Hackl and Carl von Marr and read the writings of the philosophers Friedrich Nietzsche, Arthur Schopenhauer and Otto Weininger. There, he also studied the works of Arnold Böcklin and Max Klinger. The style of his earliest paintings, such as The Dying Centaur (1909), shows the influence of Böcklin.
Metaphysical art
De Chirico returned to Italy in the summer of 1909 and spent six months in Milan. By 1910, he was beginning to paint in a simpler style of flat, anonymous surfaces. At the beginning of 1910, he moved to Florence where he painted the first of his 'Metaphysical Town Square' series, The Enigma of an Autumn Afternoon, after the revelation he felt in Piazza Santa Croce. He also painted The Enigma of the Oracle while in Florence. In July 1911 he spent a few days in Turin on his way to Paris. De Chirico was profoundly moved by what he called the 'metaphysical aspect' of Turin, especially the architecture of its archways and piazzas.
The paintings de Chirico produced between 1909 and 1919, his metaphysical period, are characterized by haunted, brooding moods evoked by their images. At the start of this period, his subjects were motionless cityscapes inspired by the bright daylight of Mediterranean cities, but gradually he turned his attention to studies of cluttered storerooms, sometimes inhabited by mannequin-like hybrid figures.
De Chirico's conception of Metaphysical art was strongly influenced by his reading of Nietzsche, whose style of writing fascinated de Chirico with its suggestions of unseen auguries beneath the appearance of things. De Chirico found inspiration in the unexpected sensations that familiar places or things sometimes produced in him: In a manuscript of 1909 he wrote of the "host of strange, unknown and solitary things that can be translated into painting ... What is required above all is a pronounced sensitivity." Metaphysical art combined everyday reality with mythology, and evoked inexplicable moods of nostalgia, tense expectation, and estrangement. The picture space often featured illogical, contradictory, and drastically receding perspectives. Among de Chirico's most frequent motifs were arcades, of which he wrote: "The Roman arcade is fate ... its voice speaks in riddles which are filled with a peculiarly Roman poetry".
De Chirico moved to Paris in July 1911, where he joined his brother Andrea. Through his brother he met Pierre Laprade, a member of the jury at the Salon d'Automne, where he exhibited three of his works: Enigma of the Oracle, Enigma of an Afternoon and Self-Portrait. During 1913 he exhibited paintings at the Salon des Indépendants and Salon d’Automne; his work was noticed by Pablo Picasso and Guillaume Apollinaire, and he sold his first painting, The Red Tower. His time in Paris also resulted in the production of Chirico's Ariadne. In 1914, through Apollinaire, he met the art dealer Paul Guillaume, with whom he signed a contract for his artistic output.
At the outbreak of World War I, he returned to Italy. Upon his arrival in May 1915, he enlisted in the army, but he was considered unfit for work and assigned to the hospital at Ferrara. The shop windows of that town inspired a series of paintings that feature biscuits, maps, and geometric constructions in indoor settings. In Ferrara he met with Carlo Carrà and together they founded the pittura metafisica movement. He continued to paint, and in 1918, he transferred to Rome. Starting from 1918, his work was exhibited extensively in Europe.
Return to order
In November 1919, de Chirico published an article in Valori plastici entitled "The Return of Craftsmanship", in which he advocated a return to traditional methods and iconography. This article heralded an abrupt change in his artistic orientation, as he adopted a classicizing manner inspired by such old masters as Raphael and Signorelli, and became part of the post-war return to order in the arts. He became an outspoken opponent of modern art.
In the early 1920s, the Surrealist writer André Breton discovered one of de Chirico's metaphysical paintings on display in Guillaume's Paris gallery, and was enthralled. Numerous young artists who were similarly affected by de Chirico's imagery became the core of the Paris Surrealist group centered around Breton. In 1924 de Chirico visited Paris and was accepted into the group, although the surrealists were severely critical of his post-metaphysical work.
De Chirico met and married his first wife, the Russian ballerina Raissa Gurievich (1894-1979) in 1925, and together they moved to Paris. His relationship with the Surrealists grew increasingly contentious, as they publicly disparaged his new work; by 1926 he had come to regard them as "cretinous and hostile". They soon parted ways in acrimony. In 1928 he held his first exhibition in New York City and shortly afterwards, London. He wrote essays on art and other subjects, and in 1929 published a novel entitled Hebdomeros, the Metaphysician. Also in 1929, he made stage designs for Sergei Diaghilev.
Later work
In 1930, de Chirico met his second wife, Isabella Pakszwer Far (1909-1990), a Russian, with whom he would remain for the rest of his life. Together they moved to Italy in 1932 and to the US in 1936, finally settling in Rome in 1944. In 1948 he bought a house near the Spanish Steps; now the Giorgio de Chirico House Museum, a museum dedicated to his work.
In 1939, he adopted a neo-Baroque style influenced by Rubens. De Chirico's later paintings never received the same critical praise as did those from his metaphysical period. He resented this, as he thought his later work was better and more mature. He nevertheless produced backdated "self-forgeries" both to profit from his earlier success, and as an act of revenge—retribution for the critical preference for his early work. He also denounced many paintings attributed to him in public and private collections as forgeries. In 1945, he published his memoirs.
He remained extremely prolific even as he approached his 90th year. During the 1960s, Massimiliano Fuksas worked in his atelier. In 1974 de Chirico was elected to the French Académie des Beaux-Arts. He died in Rome on 20 November 1978. In 1992 his remains were moved to the Roman church of San Francesco a Ripa.
Style
De Chirico's best-known works are the paintings of his metaphysical period. In them he developed a repertoire of motifs—empty arcades, towers, elongated shadows, mannequins, and trains among others—that he arranged to create "images of forlornness and emptiness" that paradoxically also convey a feeling of "power and freedom". According to Sanford Schwartz, de Chirico—whose father was a railroad engineer—painted images that suggest "the way you take in buildings and vistas from the perspective of a train window. His towers, walls, and plazas seem to flash by, and you are made to feel the power that comes from seeing things that way: you feel you know them more intimately than the people do who live with them day by day."
In 1982, Robert Hughes wrote that de Chirico
In this, he resembles his more representational American contemporary, Edward Hopper: their pictures' low sunlight, their deep and often irrational shadows, their empty walkways and portentous silences creating an enigmatic visual poetry.
Legacy
De Chirico won praise for his work almost immediately from the writer Guillaume Apollinaire, who helped to introduce his work to the later Surrealists. De Chirico strongly influenced the Surrealist movement: Yves Tanguy wrote how one day in 1922 he saw one of de Chirico's paintings in an art dealer's window, and was so impressed by it he resolved on the spot to become an artist—although he had never even held a brush. Other Surrealists who acknowledged de Chirico's influence include Max Ernst, Salvador Dalí, and René Magritte, who described his first sighting of de Chirico's The Song of Love as "one of the most moving moments of my life: my eyes saw thought for the first time." Other artists as diverse as Giorgio Morandi, Carlo Carrà, Paul Delvaux, Carel Willink, Harue Koga and Philip Guston were influenced by de Chirico.
De Chirico's style has influenced several filmmakers, particularly in the 1950s through 1970s. The visual style of the French animated film Le Roi et l'oiseau, by Paul Grimault and Jacques Prévert, was influenced by de Chirico's work, primarily via Tanguy, a friend of Prévert. The visual style of Valerio Zurlini's film The Desert of the Tartars (1976) was influenced by de Chirico's work. Michelangelo Antonioni, the Italian film director, also said he was influenced by de Chirico. Some comparison can be made to the long takes in Antonioni's films from the 1960s, in which the camera continues to linger on desolate cityscapes populated by a few distant figures, or none at all, in the absence of the film's protagonists.
In 1958, Riverside Records used a reproduction of de Chirico's 1915 painting The Seer (originally painted as a tribute to French poet Arthur Rimbaud) as the cover art for pianist Thelonious Monk's live album Misterioso. The choice was made to capitalize on Monk's popularity with intellectual and bohemian fans from venues such as the Five Spot Café, where the album had been recorded, but Monk biographer Robin Kelley later observed deeper connections between the painting and the pianist's music; Rimbaud had "called on the artist to be a seer in order to plumb the depths of the unconscious in the quest for clairvoyance ... The one-eyed figure represented the visionary. The architectural forms and the placement of the chalkboard evoked the unity of art and science—a perfect symbol for an artist whose music has been called 'mathematical.'"
Writers who have appreciated de Chirico include John Ashbery, who has called Hebdomeros "probably ... the finest [major work of Surrealist fiction]." Several of Sylvia Plath's poems are influenced by de Chirico. In his book Blizzard of One Mark Strand included a poetic diptych called "Two de Chiricos": "The Philosopher's Conquest" and "The Disquieting Muses".
Gabriele Tinti composed three poems inspired by de Chirico's paintings: The Nostalgia of the Poet (1914), The Uncertainty of the Poet (1913), and Ariadne (1913), works in the Peggy Guggenheim Collection, the Tate, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, respectively. The poems were read by actor Burt Young at the Met in 2016.
The box art for Fumito Ueda's PlayStation 2 game Ico sold in Japan and Europe was strongly influenced by de Chirico. The cover art of New Order's single "Thieves Like Us" is based on de Chirico's painting The Evil Genius of a King.
The music video for the David Bowie song "Loving the Alien" was partly influenced by de Chirico. Bowie was an admirer of his genderless tailors' dummies.
Honours
1958: Member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium.
Académie de France
Selected works
Flight of the Centauri, Enigma of an Autumn Afternoon and Enigma of the Oracle (1909)
Ritratto di Andrea de Chirico (Alias Alberto Savinio) (1909–1910)
The Enigma of the Hour (1911)
The Nostalgia of the Infinite (1911), or 1912–1913
Melanconia, The Enigma of the Arrival and La Matinée Angoissante (1912)
The Soothsayers Recompense, The Red Tower, Ariadne, The Awakening of Ariadne, The Uncertainty of the Poet, La Statua Silenziosa, The Anxious Journey, Melancholy of a Beautiful Day, Le Rêve Transformé, and Self-Portrait (1913)
The Anguish of Departure (begun in 1913), Portrait of Guillaume Apollinaire, The Nostalgia of the Poet, L'Énigme de la fatalité, Gare Montparnasse (The Melancholy of Departure), The Song of Love, The Enigma of a Day, The Philosopher's Conquest, The Child's Brain, The Philosopher and the Poet, Still Life: Turin in Spring, Piazza d'Italia (Autumn Melancholy), and Melancholy and Mystery of a Street (1914)
The Evil Genius of a King (begun in 1914), The Seer (or The Prophet), Piazza d’Italia, The Double Dream of Spring, The Purity of a Dream, Two Sisters (The Jewish Angel) and The Duo (1915)
Andromache, The Melancholy of Departure, The Disquieting Muses, Metaphysical Interior with Biscuits (1916)
Metaphysical Interior with Large Factory and The Faithful Servitor (both began in 1916), The Great Metaphysician, Ettore e Andromaca, Metaphysical Interior, Geometric Composition with Landscape and Factory and Great Metaphysical Interior (1917)
Metaphysical Muses and Hermetic Melancholy (1918)
Still Life with Salami and The Sacred Fish (1919)
Self-portrait (1920)
Italian Piazza, Maschere and Departure of the Argonauts (1921)
The Great Tower (1921)
The Prodigal Son (1922)
Florentine Still Life (c. 1923)
The House with the Green Shutters (1924)
The Great Machine (1925) Honolulu Museum of Art
Au Bord de la Mer, Le Grand Automate, The Terrible Games, Mannequins on the Seashore and The Painter (1925)
La Commedia e la Tragedia (Commedia Romana), The Painter's Family and Cupboards in a Valley (1926)
L’Esprit de Domination, The Eventuality of Destiny (Monumental Figures), Mobili nella valle and The Archaeologists (1927)
Temple et Forêt dans la Chambre (1928)
Gladiatori (began in 1927), The Archaeologists IV (from the series Metamorphosis), The return of the Prodigal son I (from the series Metamorphosis) and Bagnante (Ritratto di Raissa) (1929)
I fuochi sacri (for the Calligrammes) 1929
Illustrations from the book Calligrammes by Guillaume Apollinaire (1930)
I Gladiatori (Combattimento) (1931)
Milan Cathedral, 1932
Cavalos a Beira-Mar (1932–1933)
Cavalli in Riva al Mare (1934)
La Vasca di Bagni Misteriosi (1936)
The Vexations of The Thinker (1937)
Self-portrait (1935–1937)
Archeologi (1940)
Illustrations from the book L’Apocalisse (1941)
Portrait of Clarice Lispector (1945)
Villa Medici – Temple and Statue (1945)
Minerva (1947)
Metaphysical Interior with Workshop (1948)
Venecia, Puente de Rialto
Fiat (1950)
Piazza d'Italia (1952)
The Fall – Via Crucis (1947–54)
Venezia, Isola di San Giorgio (1955)
Salambò su un cavallo impennato (1956)
Metaphysical Interior with Biscuits (1958)
Piazza d'Italia (1962)
Cornipedes, (1963)
La mia mano sinistra, (1963), Chianciano Museum of Art
Manichino (1964)
Ettore e Andromaca (1966)
The Return of Ulysses, Interno Metafisico con Nudo Anatomico and Mysterious Baths – Flight Toward the Sea (1968)
Il rimorso di Oreste, La Biga Invincibile and Solitudine della Gente di Circo (1969)
Orfeo Trovatore Stanco, Intero Metafisico and Muse with Broken Column (1970)
Metaphysical Interior with Setting Sun (1971)
Sole sul cavalletto (1973)
Mobili e rocce in una stanza, La Mattina ai Bagni misteriosi, Piazza d'Italia con Statua Equestre, La mattina ai bagni misteriosi and Ettore e Andromaca (1973)
Pianto d'amore – Ettore e Andromaca and The Sailors' Barracks (1974)
Writings
Hebdomeros (novel), trans. Margaret Crosland (PAJ Publications 1991)
The Memoirs of Giorgio De Chirico, trans. Margaret Crosland (Da Capo Press 1994)
Geometry of Shadows (poems), trans. Stefania Heim (Public Space Books 2019)
Films about
Aenigma Est (1990) – Director: Dimitri Mavrikios; Screenplay: Thomas Moschopoulos, Dimitri Mavrikios
Giorgio de Chirico: Argonaut of the Soul (2010) – documentary film: Directors and screenplay: Kostas Anestis and George Lagdaris
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Baldacci, Paolo & Fagiolo Dell’Arco, Maurizio (1982), Giorgio de Chirico Parigi 1924–1930, Galleria Philippe Daverio, Milano
Brandani, Edoardo (a cura di), Di Genova, Giorgio, Bonfiglioli, Patrizia (1999), Giorgio de Chirico, catalogo dell'opera grafica 1969–1977, Edizioni Bora, Bologna
Bruni, C., Cat. generale di opere di Giorgio de Chirico, Milano 1971–74
Ciranna, A., Giorgio de Chirico. Cat. delle opere grafiche 1921 a 1969, Milano, 1969
Calvesi, Maurizio, & Mori, Gioia (2007), De Chirico, Giunti Editore, Firenze, 1988
de Chirico, gli anni Venti, curated by Maurizio Fagiolo dell’Arco, exhibition catalogue, Galleria dello Scudo, Verona, 1986-1987; Mazzotta, Milan, 1986
Fagiolo Dell’Arco, Maurizio (1999), L'opera completa di de Chirico 1908–1924, Rizzoli, Milano, 1984
Fagiolo Dell’Arco, Maurizio (1991), Giorgio de Chirico carte, Extra Moenia Arte Moderna, Todi
Fagiolo Dell’Arco, Maurizio, & Cavallo, Luigi (1985), De Chirico. Disegni inediti (1929), Edizioni grafiche Tega, Milano
Gimferrer, Pere (1988), De Chirico, 1888–1978, opere scelte, Rizzoli, Milano
de Chirico, gli anni Trenta, curated by Maurizio Fagiolo dell’Arco, exhibition catalogue, Galleria dello Scudo and Museo di Castelvecchio, Verona, 1998-1999; Mazzotta, Milan, 1998
Merjian, Ara H. (2014) Giorgio de Chirico and the Metaphysical City: Nietzsche, Modernism, Paris, New Haven (Yale University Press), 2014
Mori, Gioia (2007), De Chirico metafisico, Giunti, Firenze
Noel-Johnson Victoria, [http://www.fondazionedechirico.org/pubblicazioni/autori/de-chirico-and-the-united-kingdom-c-1916-1978/?lang=en Giorgio de Chirico and the United Kingdom (c. 1916–1978), Maretti Editore, Falciano, 2017. .
Noel-Johnson Victoria, Giorgio de Chirico: The Changing Face of Metaphysical Art, Skira, Milano, 2019.
Noel-Johnson Victoria, De Chirico’s Formation in Florence (1910–1911): The Discovery of the B.N.C.F Library Registers, (Metaphysical Art Journal, n. 11–13), Maretti Editore, Falciano, 2014.
Owen, Maurice (1983) "The Spirits Released: De Chirico and Metaphysical Perspective"
Owen, Maurice (1995) "Railway Stations and Minotaurs: gender in the paintings of Giorgio de Chirico and Pablo Picasso"
Pontiggia, Elena, & Gazzaneo, Giovanni (2012), Giorgio de Chirico. L’Apocalisse e la luce, Silvana Editoriale, Cinisellobalsamo
Soby, J. Th., Giorgio de Chirico, New York, 1955
Schmied, W., Giorgio de Chirico, Catalogue personale, Milano, 1970
External links
Metaphysical Art Archive
Giorgio de Chirico at MoMA, biography and image gallery
Chirico at fondazionedechirico.org
Giorgio de Chirico: Metaphysical Perspective
"Il rapporto tra Giorgio de Chirico e l`Inghilterra". Rai Scuola.
Speranze by Giorgio de Chirico in English translation
1888 births
1978 deaths
20th-century Italian painters
Academy of Fine Arts, Munich alumni
Ballet designers
Italian expatriates in Greece
Italian male painters
Greek artists
20th-century Greek painters
Greek male painters
Members of the Royal Academy of Belgium
People from Volos
People of Ligurian descent
People of Sicilian descent
School of Paris
Surrealist artists
Italian surrealist artists
Greek surrealist artists
Sibling artists
Writers from Volos | [
0.31254279613494873,
0.4458101689815521,
-0.5277788043022156,
0.07729775458574295,
-0.09014539420604706,
0.8267389535903931,
0.1969732940196991,
0.30890709161758423,
-0.23214957118034363,
-0.492717981338501,
-0.7590053081512451,
0.07285582274198532,
-0.32577481865882874,
0.20125031471252441,
0.24126344919204712,
-0.12923866510391235,
-0.2727585434913635,
-0.34420454502105713,
-0.8304628729820251,
-0.3044584393501282,
-0.5702202916145325,
-0.29486724734306335,
-0.03724507987499237,
-0.08964022994041443,
-0.4061203598976135,
0.1609669178724289,
0.07260850816965103,
0.23672211170196533,
0.1727042943239212,
0.0388210155069828,
0.4621974229812622,
0.314761757850647,
-0.30806824564933777,
-0.2923923134803772,
-0.5093790888786316,
0.3301582634449005,
-0.294779509305954,
-0.48457130789756775,
0.29883629083633423,
-0.28399085998535156,
0.08208850026130676,
1.0562772750854492,
0.2647010087966919,
-0.17041976749897003,
0.21899302303791046,
-0.5134207606315613,
-1.3190633058547974,
0.4827136695384979,
-0.5450711250305176,
-0.27096930146217346,
0.0501202791929245,
0.11381541192531586,
0.663624107837677,
0.7004683017730713,
-0.8161662220954895,
0.5915313959121704,
-1.082405686378479,
-0.46186304092407227,
0.23469042778015137,
-0.7471984028816223,
0.5837346315383911,
0.30112481117248535,
0.5538901090621948,
0.16281162202358246,
0.39074546098709106,
0.281509667634964,
-0.03912024945020676,
0.18028073012828827,
0.13636070489883423,
-0.07821831852197647,
0.02371351048350334,
0.7709642052650452,
0.3905470073223114,
-0.23435524106025696,
0.2182181179523468,
-0.7934591174125671,
0.0698135569691658,
-0.17719240486621857,
-0.32196328043937683,
0.18162982165813446,
0.05295364931225777,
0.04023976996541023,
1.018907904624939,
0.46182096004486084,
0.6899725198745728,
0.03742749243974686,
-0.49432891607284546,
0.23095636069774628,
-0.1755867749452591,
-0.17927490174770355,
-0.49708467721939087,
-0.7396928668022156,
0.4786682426929474,
-0.03445662930607796,
0.14072555303573608,
0.28337404131889343,
-0.261134535074234,
0.7363675236701965,
-0.7546714544296265,
0.07634634524583817,
-0.5127284526824951,
0.3150327801704407,
-0.136459082365036,
0.10549262911081314,
-0.37456563115119934,
0.03771468624472618,
-0.4598923921585083,
-0.13182005286216736,
-0.07392292469739914,
0.35684365034103394,
-0.6722657680511475,
-0.46183067560195923,
-0.8193461298942566,
-0.3170832097530365,
0.12177005410194397,
0.12629681825637817,
0.3912029564380646,
-0.26261022686958313,
-0.6497626900672913,
0.1351858526468277,
-0.3221144676208496,
-0.01452108845114708,
-0.14153653383255005,
-0.35608071088790894,
-0.4625976085662842,
-0.14341236650943756,
0.04980739951133728,
0.3239995539188385,
-0.4891802966594696,
0.40215596556663513,
0.23214949667453766,
1.449552059173584,
-0.2382410764694214,
-0.3393273949623108,
0.031777963042259216,
-0.22541220486164093,
0.15815016627311707,
0.2969469726085663,
-0.5103513598442078,
0.397527813911438,
-0.3079437017440796,
-0.24983516335487366,
-0.5260487198829651,
0.13829196989536285,
0.002840570639818907,
-0.7701553702354431,
0.22341854870319366,
-0.012388380244374275,
0.6128536462783813,
-0.3226052522659302,
-0.45564284920692444,
-0.5365380048751831,
-0.11926228553056717,
-0.563468873500824,
-0.35349956154823303,
0.7581672668457031,
0.4876091778278351,
0.5626150369644165,
0.14407646656036377,
-0.23138952255249023,
0.8692835569381714,
-0.21293547749519348,
-0.5410272479057312,
0.10744832456111908,
0.2316449135541916,
-0.5763754844665527,
-0.047526609152555466,
0.38772088289260864,
-0.46377602219581604,
0.40722888708114624,
-0.43352529406547546,
-0.11773469299077988,
-0.11766669899225235,
-0.01622791774570942,
-0.28941014409065247,
0.7397564053535461,
0.6020141243934631,
0.3256824016571045,
-0.16752074658870697,
-0.2950109541416168,
-0.6484882235527039,
-0.1042822077870369,
-0.2882273495197296,
0.2821405827999115,
0.7808310389518738,
-0.04048223793506622,
0.3334715962409973,
-0.2782749533653259,
0.4722304046154022,
-0.5748730301856995,
-0.5254970788955688,
-0.7583500146865845,
0.4291042685508728,
-0.4634709358215332,
1.383426547050476,
0.21011574566364288,
-0.2606797218322754,
0.6112606525421143,
-0.29004940390586853,
0.7492849826812744,
-0.4413980543613434,
-0.15426252782344818,
0.34237533807754517,
-0.09856167435646057,
0.33812272548675537,
0.6071949005126953,
0.5201289057731628,
0.38303902745246887,
0.17811352014541626,
0.6200560331344604,
0.5462595820426941,
-0.4095773696899414,
0.4928869605064392,
0.554814875125885,
-0.1342557817697525,
-0.6504952907562256,
-0.4249197542667389,
-0.05691537261009216,
-0.2315748631954193,
-0.57748943567276,
0.45271265506744385,
0.053865231573581696,
-0.1956043243408203,
1.1361651420593262,
-0.1808909922838211,
0.8311753869056702,
-0.056192293763160706,
0.20178662240505219,
0.5084142088890076,
-0.5503413677215576,
-0.14732912182807922,
0.26620128750801086,
-0.2057165950536728,
-0.10194788873195648,
-0.05661885067820549,
-0.18731997907161713,
0.5670360922813416,
-0.4114843010902405,
0.1796838492155075,
-0.4627169668674469,
0.7454388737678528,
0.6591110229492188,
-0.2847108244895935,
0.14755460619926453,
0.35814613103866577,
0.563804566860199,
-0.1449941098690033,
0.5234827399253845,
-0.009038061834871769,
0.08142517507076263,
0.23467771708965302,
0.6872957944869995,
0.1582362949848175,
-0.2839627265930176,
-0.5745988488197327,
-0.5558660626411438,
0.41935068368911743,
-0.33487987518310547,
0.2477329820394516,
-0.16721560060977936,
0.27118098735809326,
-0.38556477427482605,
0.30156466364860535,
0.2574809193611145,
-0.13675783574581146,
-0.5246871709823608,
0.14138923585414886,
-0.7941302061080933,
0.5062862634658813,
-0.2894847095012665,
0.275105357170105,
0.24291786551475525,
-0.18038198351860046,
0.48844268918037415,
0.032922714948654175,
-0.06876246631145477,
-0.5331708192825317,
-0.03677528351545334,
-0.6758387088775635,
-0.383473664522171,
-0.37095507979393005,
0.7119027972221375,
-0.38196271657943726,
-0.14571434259414673,
0.19793416559696198,
0.4491702914237976,
-0.18039196729660034,
-0.48110464215278625,
0.1234918013215065,
0.2947636842727661,
0.16404569149017334,
0.5221442580223083,
-0.5648915767669678,
-0.09399329870939255,
-0.2823264002799988,
0.3328379988670349,
-0.8064104318618774,
-0.884658932685852,
-0.18559448421001434,
-0.3521385192871094,
-0.7133948802947998,
0.5894724130630493,
0.3297453820705414,
0.4492131173610687,
0.6689570546150208,
0.585517406463623,
-0.21769312024116516,
0.016219373792409897,
-5.482809543609619,
0.4953254461288452,
-0.054715968668460846,
0.2980903685092926,
-0.3908289670944214,
0.14834953844547272,
0.2762150764465332,
0.20756173133850098,
-0.06774213910102844,
-0.42207589745521545,
-0.39889559149742126,
0.049581822007894516,
-0.1092122346162796,
0.9984052181243896,
0.4990110695362091,
0.5083745718002319,
-0.2521369159221649,
-0.12122584879398346,
-0.007606532424688339,
0.2853550612926483,
0.045350413769483566,
0.2321733981370926,
0.2522568106651306,
0.7319027781486511,
0.4090844392776489,
0.11442083865404129,
-0.9388778209686279,
0.1875602900981903,
-1.1031790971755981,
-0.005347729194909334,
-0.11443484574556351,
-0.255124032497406,
-0.3209463357925415,
0.2035914957523346,
0.012603760696947575,
-0.39637434482574463,
0.15547993779182434,
0.3452708125114441,
-0.14038704335689545,
0.2907021641731262,
-0.16152264177799225,
0.2120877504348755,
-0.4024282991886139,
0.07060578465461731,
-0.04924437403678894,
-0.20026785135269165,
-0.9368748664855957,
-0.3013346493244171,
0.027997665107250214,
0.6683430671691895,
-0.19587118923664093,
-0.17343489825725555,
0.06977979838848114,
0.18405255675315857,
0.17469990253448486,
0.36428454518318176,
0.4857023060321808,
-0.20530904829502106,
-0.7287421822547913,
0.32399192452430725,
0.10687892884016037,
-0.15079407393932343,
0.19070680439472198,
-0.6397930383682251,
-0.06600044667720795,
0.11681639403104782,
0.1943049430847168,
-0.17106062173843384,
-0.5804696083068848,
-0.3036542534828186,
-0.4079514443874359,
1.4017744064331055,
-0.13724267482757568,
-1.3575830459594727,
-0.28384312987327576,
0.08684110641479492,
-0.3929591178894043,
-0.17285019159317017,
-0.05574449151754379,
0.33402547240257263,
0.15987829864025116,
-0.6307908892631531,
-0.2769711911678314,
0.7924504280090332,
0.3903689682483673,
0.27829092741012573,
0.12834922969341278,
-0.04864121600985527,
-0.6110047101974487,
-0.18574535846710205,
0.4274718165397644,
-0.2886398434638977,
-0.166724294424057,
-0.03155681863427162,
0.08891120553016663,
0.1247968003153801,
0.08910811692476273,
0.0790814459323883,
0.5006529092788696,
0.05696072056889534,
0.011884723789989948,
-0.17159219086170197,
-0.3248085677623749,
0.07303541153669357,
0.03259695693850517,
-0.44494518637657166,
0.159531831741333,
0.05312260985374451,
0.9335092902183533,
0.10638266801834106,
-0.2755705416202545,
0.31033650040626526,
-0.6683658957481384,
-0.3680594563484192,
0.005070880986750126,
-0.15598662197589874,
0.17741362750530243,
-0.05256814509630203,
0.10151131451129913,
0.09950660914182663,
0.2553040683269501,
-0.06939556449651718,
-0.3001258075237274,
0.14888010919094086,
-0.21518267691135406,
0.2231634259223938,
-0.25594785809516907,
-0.30876579880714417,
0.17944598197937012,
-0.2797333896160126,
-0.6669273972511292,
0.39562293887138367,
-0.0024128383956849575,
0.275275856256485,
0.6569072604179382,
-0.49667876958847046,
-0.6929303407669067,
-0.7482959032058716,
0.33963149785995483,
-0.29872965812683105,
0.4057985246181488,
-0.10527295619249344,
-0.33982643485069275,
0.6720871925354004,
0.07830148935317993,
0.29664215445518494,
-0.5306977033615112,
0.2541479468345642,
-0.492219477891922,
0.5562881231307983,
-0.13816922903060913,
-0.3158860504627228,
0.49217313528060913,
0.18122656643390656,
-0.3503808379173279,
0.23753681778907776,
-0.6495354771614075,
0.5021224021911621,
0.28755712509155273,
0.1749701201915741,
0.27205371856689453,
0.4184345006942749,
-1.2909404039382935,
-0.17203788459300995,
0.21502208709716797,
-0.31097474694252014,
-0.41850414872169495,
-0.4808465242385864,
-0.5982636213302612,
0.31499606370925903,
-0.03865450248122215,
-0.6156354546546936,
-0.22924834489822388,
-0.5230806469917297,
-0.07342033833265305,
-0.5151808857917786,
0.06353486329317093,
0.5422976016998291,
-0.0946585163474083,
0.4949217140674591,
0.40813905000686646,
-0.12186814844608307,
-0.24178223311901093,
-0.06949953734874725,
0.3184153139591217,
-0.2020830512046814,
-0.13572119176387787,
-0.29703831672668457,
-0.4605275094509125,
0.09290279448032379,
0.051308173686265945,
0.21465958654880524,
0.3153175115585327,
0.40827810764312744,
-0.13244079053401947,
-0.5760825872421265,
-0.1415071338415146,
-0.07564166933298111,
-0.4292442798614502,
-0.3588513135910034,
0.0351538248360157,
0.5627778768539429,
0.13212615251541138,
0.022497612982988358,
-0.24510738253593445,
-0.9021040797233582,
0.7160035967826843,
0.12447274476289749,
-0.2450893372297287,
0.6817756295204163,
-0.8565647006034851,
-0.6863426566123962,
0.24072133004665375,
0.2628672122955322,
-0.7038975954055786,
0.40782836079597473,
0.09944871813058853,
-0.045349858701229095,
-0.9775363206863403,
-0.35536208748817444,
-0.513566792011261,
0.051278453320264816,
-0.4803788661956787,
-0.1834450662136078,
-0.3294341266155243,
-0.19189177453517914,
0.6098635792732239,
0.05062048137187958,
0.5109032988548279,
-0.156638503074646,
0.012594024650752544,
-0.03973576799035072,
0.18739798665046692,
0.06928320974111557,
-0.6083336472511292,
-0.08041746914386749,
0.520090639591217,
0.2051362842321396,
-0.4825855493545532,
0.060344573110342026,
0.48496323823928833,
0.5787228345870972,
0.2724727988243103,
0.3898516297340393,
0.267076313495636,
0.6106354594230652,
0.33067139983177185,
0.1967047154903412,
-0.3256007134914398,
-0.03674416244029999,
0.35029271245002747,
0.07674650847911835,
-0.6064868569374084,
-0.9700278043746948,
0.6285790205001831,
-0.14448721706867218,
-0.12552161514759064,
0.7986744046211243,
0.7799963355064392,
0.27294713258743286,
0.09331139922142029,
0.504192590713501,
0.14373625814914703,
-0.041869115084409714,
0.1039014682173729,
0.5735891461372375,
0.1675989031791687,
0.10794834792613983,
0.46158337593078613,
-0.21790285408496857,
0.025713035836815834,
-0.2877204120159149,
-0.19732464849948883,
0.6588183045387268,
-0.39029207825660706,
-0.22242261469364166,
-0.04756111651659012,
-0.3742091953754425,
0.3584192395210266,
-0.5395490527153015,
-0.8887132406234741,
0.2710447907447815,
0.027572132647037506,
-0.044257111847400665,
-0.35358163714408875,
-0.33182963728904724,
0.015102216973900795,
0.4405366778373718,
-0.29990354180336,
0.3323931396007538,
-0.6678701043128967,
0.10305465012788773,
0.16833102703094482,
0.032877180725336075,
0.22459886968135834,
0.5167142748832703,
-1.0768965482711792,
0.3848717212677002,
-0.09004225581884384,
-0.18315982818603516,
-0.4728120267391205,
0.1033543273806572,
0.5337603688240051,
-0.3956509530544281,
0.6826589107513428,
0.1913255751132965,
-0.19442518055438995,
-0.1508508175611496,
-0.1388295292854309,
0.5210874080657959,
0.09876994043588638,
0.027912968769669533,
0.012767947278916836,
0.2269994169473648,
-0.3773166239261627,
-0.19991931319236755,
0.6419901251792908,
-0.2366178035736084,
-0.32456520199775696,
-0.29261326789855957,
0.28938958048820496,
0.529945969581604,
0.5299485921859741,
-0.6966484189033508,
-0.1822732388973236,
0.6054792404174805,
-0.4680003523826599,
0.19556951522827148,
-0.3403604030609131,
0.04221085086464882,
-0.13398227095603943,
0.004040095955133438,
-0.550790548324585,
0.36882078647613525,
0.28249692916870117,
-0.19853608310222626,
0.5056954622268677,
-0.46535632014274597,
0.06884456425905228,
0.029357412829995155,
0.05995219573378563,
0.6873230934143066,
-0.5231235027313232,
0.41028302907943726,
-0.20782315731048584,
0.019292933866381645,
-0.5841744542121887,
0.86533123254776,
-0.25267699360847473,
-0.32064083218574524,
0.7418644428253174,
0.38071149587631226,
0.16877521574497223,
-0.6109786629676819,
0.2732028663158417,
0.02753862924873829,
0.39234885573387146,
0.22431053221225739,
-0.25041645765304565,
0.23923546075820923,
-0.1341710090637207,
0.27450886368751526,
0.878544807434082,
-0.3643453121185303,
0.005692980717867613,
0.34887245297431946,
-0.026664597913622856,
-0.560469925403595,
0.1165340468287468,
0.04712674766778946,
0.11871664971113205,
-0.2720663547515869,
-0.24241499602794647,
0.5799840092658997,
0.3776192367076874,
0.20370511710643768,
0.8647698760032654,
0.8325337767601013,
-0.4513924717903137,
0.307456374168396,
-0.46294105052948,
0.45632654428482056,
-0.10731011629104614,
-0.18412922322750092,
0.6177577376365662,
-0.12875916063785553,
0.28323599696159363,
0.03381161019206047,
0.5890170931816101,
-0.11753865331411362,
-0.10466699302196503,
-0.3913414478302002,
0.10480280220508575,
0.48372867703437805,
-0.4961682856082916,
-0.07976635545492172,
-0.696488082408905,
0.945722222328186,
-0.05072259157896042,
-0.5301731824874878,
-0.11659370362758636,
0.08042054623365402,
-0.338666707277298,
-0.608263373374939,
-0.1504056602716446,
-0.2247622013092041,
-0.11282080411911011,
0.1015688106417656,
-1.2550827264785767,
0.2831433415412903,
-0.11318451166152954,
0.052795685827732086,
-0.3519640564918518,
0.2793440818786621,
-0.2522985339164734,
0.06193725764751434,
0.2107688933610916,
-0.5489593148231506,
-0.07935017347335815,
-0.3681858777999878,
0.24433985352516174,
-0.21448008716106415,
0.19382092356681824,
0.12679587304592133,
-0.3708874583244324,
0.32001814246177673,
0.2724778652191162,
0.010221653617918491,
-0.031059402972459793,
0.1794556826353073,
-0.3496573269367218,
0.5756043791770935,
-0.3883689343929291,
-0.32266688346862793,
-0.07720271497964859,
-0.0760708898305893,
0.5074189901351929,
0.3392125964164734,
0.4509819746017456,
-0.5473452210426331,
1.0113147497177124,
0.21159376204013824,
0.06495951861143112,
-0.21086643636226654,
-0.16966046392917633,
-0.08855107426643372,
-0.8374771475791931,
-0.265605628490448,
0.25877657532691956,
0.09737269580364227,
0.1251222789287567,
0.43917161226272583,
0.41632431745529175,
-0.6007602214813232,
0.27607038617134094,
0.0007191129843704402,
-0.03764401748776436,
-0.47662118077278137,
0.39384138584136963,
0.22907009720802307
] |
241615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue-cheeked%20bee-eater | Blue-cheeked bee-eater | The blue-cheeked bee-eater (Merops persicus) is a near passerine bird in the bee-eater family, Meropidae. The genus name Merops is Ancient Greek for "bee-eater", and persicus is Latin for "Persian".
It breeds in Northern Africa, and the Middle East from eastern Turkey to Kazakhstan and India. It is generally strongly migratory, wintering in tropical Africa, although some populations breed and live year-round in the Sahel. This species occurs as a rare vagrant north of its breeding range, with most vagrants occurring in Italy and Greece.
Taxonomy and systematics
Two subspecies are recognized:
Merops persicus persicus - Breeds in Asia, winters in East and Southern Africa.
Merops persicus chrysocercus - Breeds in North Africa, winters in West Africa.
This species is closely related to blue-tailed bee-eater, M. philippinus of East Asia, and the olive bee-eater of Africa, and has been treated as being the same species (conspecific).
Description
This species, like other bee-eaters, is a richly coloured, slender bird. It is predominantly green; its face has blue sides with a black eye stripe, and a yellow and brown throat; the beak is black. It can reach a length of , with the two elongated central tail feathers adding another . Sexes are mostly alike but the tail-streamers of the female are shorter.
This is a bird which breeds in sub-tropical semi-desert with a few trees, such as acacia. It winters in open woodland or grassland. As the name suggests, bee-eaters predominantly eat insects, especially bees, wasps and hornets, which are caught in the air by sorties from an open perch. However, this species probably takes more dragonflies than any other food item. Its preferred hunting perch is telephone wires if available.
Blue-cheeked bee-eaters may nest solitarily or in loose colonies of up to ten birds. They may also nest in colonies with European bee-eaters. The nests are located in sandy banks, embankments, low cliffs or on the shore of the Caspian Sea. They make a relatively long tunnel of in length in which the four to eight (usually six or seven), spherical white eggs are laid. Both the male and the female take care of the eggs, although the female alone incubates them at night. Incubation takes 23–26 days.
The call sounds 'flatter' and less 'fluty' than the European bee-eater.
References
External links
Blue-cheeked bee-eater - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.
blue-cheeked bee-eater
Birds of North Africa
Birds of West Africa
Birds of Central Asia
Birds of Western Asia
Birds of Afghanistan
Birds of Pakistan
Birds of Africa
blue-cheeked bee-eater
Articles containing video clips | [
-0.47374865412712097,
0.09626730531454086,
-1.1787281036376953,
-0.4307337999343872,
0.3519342839717865,
0.812824547290802,
0.07583700120449066,
1.0089226961135864,
-0.34038245677948,
-0.7050642371177673,
-0.09119506180286407,
-0.15797045826911926,
-0.9429216384887695,
-0.07528293132781982,
-0.42496198415756226,
0.6189624667167664,
0.4047359824180603,
0.19975250959396362,
0.19310380518436432,
-0.17905449867248535,
-0.23498877882957458,
-0.3769913613796234,
0.11987519264221191,
-0.1535322666168213,
0.4515359103679657,
0.27589166164398193,
0.08950472623109818,
0.31746706366539,
0.4052257835865021,
-0.09671900421380997,
-0.20285362005233765,
0.5525407195091248,
0.7921956777572632,
0.11972840130329132,
-0.1569221168756485,
-0.27504730224609375,
-0.7560476064682007,
-0.5777482986450195,
0.03258403763175011,
-0.1834549903869629,
-0.09248317778110504,
-0.16524899005889893,
0.6447266936302185,
-0.13879521191120148,
-0.08371472358703613,
-0.33630040287971497,
-1.5503036975860596,
0.23090004920959473,
-0.3681933581829071,
0.16262973845005035,
0.10026038438081741,
0.5667189955711365,
0.12770089507102966,
0.7319647669792175,
0.14109617471694946,
0.3678451478481293,
-0.65513014793396,
0.14770066738128662,
-0.005634275730699301,
-0.28508928418159485,
-0.23340927064418793,
0.11271918565034866,
0.006079045590013266,
0.11578523367643356,
0.04789968952536583,
0.6877492666244507,
0.33947694301605225,
-0.12529286742210388,
-0.5934974551200867,
0.5776398181915283,
-0.005577099043875933,
-0.6842532753944397,
0.06085833162069321,
0.5507771968841553,
-0.6992928385734558,
-0.09412875026464462,
0.08959680050611496,
-0.14090695977210999,
0.10825463384389877,
-0.010503298602998257,
0.15002872049808502,
0.08473778516054153,
0.8463617563247681,
-0.11200124025344849,
0.07521892338991165,
0.15165145695209503,
-0.8353967666625977,
0.38674837350845337,
-0.3493265211582184,
0.08475092798471451,
-1.000927448272705,
-0.009572317823767662,
0.5883850455284119,
0.2586064338684082,
-0.5660533905029297,
-0.23119869828224182,
-0.4653974175453186,
0.3254406750202179,
0.7678599953651428,
0.30825039744377136,
-0.4558265805244446,
0.2485266774892807,
0.7330129146575928,
0.3765473961830139,
-0.8537225127220154,
0.011472697369754314,
-0.3924378752708435,
-0.16862305998802185,
-0.08958108723163605,
0.5701667666435242,
-0.5339212417602539,
0.386803537607193,
-0.18122419714927673,
0.07192478328943253,
-0.015166472643613815,
0.9621665477752686,
-0.11508860439062119,
-0.4977322518825531,
-0.2629438638687134,
-0.4672405421733856,
0.4106644093990326,
0.7375932335853577,
-0.25918319821357727,
0.7097564935684204,
0.004435031209141016,
0.7559618949890137,
0.4516289532184601,
0.39646944403648376,
-0.09527942538261414,
0.4693810045719147,
0.7742527723312378,
1.1686186790466309,
-0.40453433990478516,
0.13368111848831177,
-0.4091414213180542,
-0.3099575936794281,
-0.08785843849182129,
-0.16672992706298828,
0.18518953025341034,
0.6959343552589417,
-0.9220433831214905,
-0.01577613316476345,
-0.6875349879264832,
-0.16215799748897552,
0.3283520042896271,
0.4110652804374695,
-0.2040315419435501,
-0.34009888768196106,
0.000016454017895739526,
-0.6635566353797913,
0.2573297321796417,
-0.2128811627626419,
0.05135864391922951,
-0.1064118891954422,
-0.4071766138076782,
-0.16542261838912964,
0.14062084257602692,
-0.6469466686248779,
1.1719528436660767,
0.08424641191959381,
-0.34614816308021545,
0.2365960031747818,
-0.3992149531841278,
-0.14565739035606384,
0.07034126669168472,
-0.05426819249987602,
0.13727137446403503,
0.25020259618759155,
-0.04003411531448364,
0.7298209071159363,
-0.19044117629528046,
0.16528744995594025,
0.17776039242744446,
0.05841540917754173,
-0.28496652841567993,
-0.9205602407455444,
0.33301448822021484,
0.14593206346035004,
0.5693448185920715,
-0.22876301407814026,
-0.8163586854934692,
-0.3658261001110077,
-0.453279584646225,
-0.33864763379096985,
-0.14812447130680084,
0.15793673694133759,
0.05485612154006958,
0.007292051799595356,
-0.0010115960612893105,
-0.6083056926727295,
-0.8127337694168091,
-0.06551092118024826,
0.11483583599328995,
0.08724246919155121,
0.42678308486938477,
0.09683927893638611,
-0.24260954558849335,
0.2804710268974304,
-0.14709600806236267,
-0.02306724339723587,
-0.33911433815956116,
-0.09476511180400848,
0.4362049102783203,
-0.09606923162937164,
-0.9531238675117493,
0.4188997447490692,
-0.38572725653648376,
0.2862453758716583,
0.42706143856048584,
0.6921205520629883,
-0.11578170955181122,
0.08198598772287369,
0.12540586292743683,
-0.00984578300267458,
0.022590396925807,
0.113767609000206,
-0.24571149051189423,
-0.16970400512218475,
0.22936443984508514,
-0.4767993688583374,
0.752112090587616,
-0.20319098234176636,
0.002132958499714732,
0.5437673926353455,
0.44599252939224243,
0.5323898196220398,
0.8758281469345093,
-0.019341478124260902,
0.3776625096797943,
0.06672531366348267,
-0.43851447105407715,
-0.07149787992238998,
0.59442538022995,
-0.47628071904182434,
-0.08167055249214172,
0.20399518311023712,
-0.2462674379348755,
-0.9776862263679504,
0.4367750883102417,
0.2395365834236145,
0.28995102643966675,
-0.26557445526123047,
0.2105710655450821,
0.3693724572658539,
0.6305702924728394,
-0.042169466614723206,
-0.3612525761127472,
0.4406871795654297,
-0.13905160129070282,
0.5312488675117493,
0.0851341262459755,
0.9685335755348206,
0.1766335517168045,
-0.7828689217567444,
-0.059414174407720566,
0.8064044117927551,
0.06123483180999756,
0.28121721744537354,
0.3729322850704193,
-0.18236041069030762,
-0.4119158387184143,
0.33955293893814087,
-0.1880682110786438,
0.48345324397087097,
-0.13197611272335052,
0.02244444191455841,
-0.3855002224445343,
0.15501108765602112,
0.4666283130645752,
0.2546934485435486,
0.7640752792358398,
-0.4325734078884125,
-0.732173502445221,
0.31371888518333435,
-0.13443094491958618,
-0.17451761662960052,
-0.5568111538887024,
-0.10943378508090973,
-0.5755375623703003,
-0.4508458971977234,
0.144892618060112,
0.6799596548080444,
-0.10810641944408417,
-0.03890588879585266,
0.005187543109059334,
-0.5165882110595703,
0.8539862632751465,
-0.6861498355865479,
-0.5142446756362915,
-0.9825865626335144,
-0.6212596297264099,
0.5538533926010132,
0.010297870263457298,
0.7672308087348938,
-0.30779096484184265,
-0.06953534483909607,
-0.040560346096754074,
0.9552651047706604,
0.4426937997341156,
-0.9784214496612549,
-0.2186615765094757,
-0.060262005776166916,
0.5069655179977417,
0.387172132730484,
0.23406527936458588,
-0.798535943031311,
0.4483199119567871,
0.6106833219528198,
-5.263254642486572,
0.37856075167655945,
0.3287796378135681,
-0.007013211026787758,
-0.09174620360136032,
0.6725861430168152,
0.06833937764167786,
-0.536352813243866,
-0.0290302112698555,
-0.24144874513149261,
0.6330354809761047,
0.32155734300613403,
-0.16238698363304138,
0.359935998916626,
0.5614345669746399,
0.11235669255256653,
-0.29778385162353516,
-0.33432871103286743,
0.49100565910339355,
-0.2612966001033783,
-0.0026758231688290834,
0.3293512463569641,
0.0065134139731526375,
0.5018032193183899,
-0.03508629649877548,
-0.10249441117048264,
0.13091544806957245,
-0.6258252859115601,
-0.18263715505599976,
-0.4425371289253235,
0.00963094923645258,
-0.2525554299354553,
-0.3876778781414032,
0.23417872190475464,
0.054522283375263214,
-0.3321978449821472,
0.3177875876426697,
0.611844539642334,
0.1849219650030136,
-0.4287107586860657,
-0.46089792251586914,
0.32576584815979004,
-0.2914968430995941,
0.29261475801467896,
0.3601153790950775,
-0.06308437138795853,
-0.2682996094226837,
-0.6848401427268982,
0.06172933802008629,
0.6430053114891052,
-0.13048918545246124,
-0.3453824818134308,
0.1095026507973671,
0.9869170784950256,
0.17295339703559875,
0.08035584539175034,
-0.6279959678649902,
0.01864713989198208,
-0.5435136556625366,
0.2003869265317917,
0.37083742022514343,
-0.23132124543190002,
-0.1428305059671402,
-0.905977189540863,
0.32369178533554077,
0.2127370834350586,
-1.0798646211624146,
0.12246324867010117,
0.7018017768859863,
-0.3598243296146393,
-0.0952402651309967,
-0.019337734207510948,
-0.5050978660583496,
-1.0345964431762695,
0.6437715888023376,
-0.47316640615463257,
-0.4072321653366089,
0.11622407287359238,
-0.6368244886398315,
0.4055017828941345,
0.5515024662017822,
-0.4054144024848938,
0.01152821909636259,
0.27813607454299927,
-0.04131142795085907,
-1.191583514213562,
-0.5223629474639893,
0.042787838727235794,
0.017901111394166946,
-0.5167040228843689,
0.1467699408531189,
-0.0810951516032219,
-0.009365434758365154,
0.05680200457572937,
1.1324849128723145,
0.693541407585144,
-0.051169030368328094,
0.35114526748657227,
0.5934590697288513,
-0.23210090398788452,
0.798429012298584,
-0.1376771479845047,
-0.6360975503921509,
-0.4168552756309509,
0.33183982968330383,
-0.5616680979728699,
0.02804400585591793,
0.2106570452451706,
0.5411615967750549,
-0.7100368142127991,
0.4838676452636719,
-0.9135066270828247,
-0.7577368021011353,
-0.2600390315055847,
0.46749064326286316,
0.0977713093161583,
0.42705288529396057,
-0.2349221259355545,
0.592887282371521,
0.5535094738006592,
-0.06526694446802139,
-0.2682601809501648,
-0.23398593068122864,
-0.09829459339380264,
-0.2930205762386322,
-0.6160529851913452,
-0.11047912389039993,
0.12082449346780777,
-0.7386677861213684,
-0.814384400844574,
0.25154972076416016,
0.16704431176185608,
-0.816920280456543,
0.013347959145903587,
0.20335327088832855,
0.011595731601119041,
-0.2411384880542755,
0.1489904671907425,
0.511404812335968,
0.19911719858646393,
-0.49106305837631226,
-0.396963894367218,
-0.37643861770629883,
-0.24101868271827698,
0.618625819683075,
0.4090937376022339,
-0.5932722687721252,
-0.5975396037101746,
0.004916712641716003,
0.5578920245170593,
-0.024285169318318367,
-0.1658690869808197,
0.16722314059734344,
-0.356467604637146,
0.2744702398777008,
0.21685151755809784,
0.5366263389587402,
0.25828585028648376,
-0.10062137991189957,
-0.2868185341358185,
0.12313789129257202,
-0.792427122592926,
-0.583407461643219,
0.3937121033668518,
0.05278465524315834,
0.0033252714201807976,
-0.5225561857223511,
-0.2592741549015045,
0.32303470373153687,
0.20208784937858582,
0.473619282245636,
0.07376579195261002,
-0.39287248253822327,
0.2904689610004425,
0.01816665381193161,
-0.3880438208580017,
-0.5363518595695496,
0.2742948532104492,
-0.16451634466648102,
-0.26682281494140625,
-0.34463754296302795,
0.07522555440664291,
-0.5878404378890991,
0.1440308839082718,
0.4318094849586487,
-0.4132990837097168,
0.12525318562984467,
0.00768676633015275,
-0.051946837455034256,
-0.23930488526821136,
0.4820803105831146,
0.054770730435848236,
0.23474930226802826,
0.4598655700683594,
-0.08261174708604813,
-0.42765170335769653,
-0.4276469349861145,
0.7318605184555054,
-0.3180815279483795,
-1.0292670726776123,
-0.4052368700504303,
0.020812707021832466,
-0.2931060791015625,
0.2118496149778366,
-0.465353786945343,
-0.19376452267169952,
0.8193689584732056,
-0.07010266184806824,
-1.1355551481246948,
0.3084360361099243,
-0.2567715346813202,
-0.2765114903450012,
-0.07412724196910858,
1.1182550191879272,
-0.454291433095932,
0.5155199766159058,
-0.3953922986984253,
0.5430764555931091,
-0.31731200218200684,
0.1328027993440628,
-0.5087354183197021,
-0.060108039528131485,
0.14955595135688782,
-0.27494701743125916,
-0.7281410694122314,
0.012891523540019989,
0.456264853477478,
-0.1097167581319809,
0.5116323232650757,
-0.4610148072242737,
-0.2607762813568115,
0.012690330855548382,
0.37884262204170227,
-0.27307432889938354,
-0.23828279972076416,
-0.010798425413668156,
0.33895939588546753,
-0.3964998424053192,
-0.009879231452941895,
0.761867880821228,
0.6760964393615723,
0.8796334266662598,
-0.009454443119466305,
-0.20397065579891205,
0.10226872563362122,
0.33503612875938416,
-0.08664792031049728,
-0.13242772221565247,
-0.976980447769165,
-0.4122846722602844,
0.965537428855896,
0.12131933867931366,
-0.18714651465415955,
0.5994623899459839,
0.7763874530792236,
-0.5816900134086609,
-0.35611361265182495,
0.49574920535087585,
-0.2651682198047638,
0.5261179208755493,
0.20464596152305603,
0.1131235808134079,
-0.26509177684783936,
0.40359437465667725,
0.12192569673061371,
-0.43990209698677063,
-0.6414437294006348,
0.12962783873081207,
0.049560435116291046,
-0.4237297475337982,
0.46766382455825806,
-0.20964811742305756,
0.4704575538635254,
0.041203856468200684,
0.12381737679243088,
0.3984692096710205,
-0.017268212512135506,
-0.596575140953064,
-0.3155651092529297,
0.7845875024795532,
-0.2301957607269287,
-0.4483431577682495,
0.0376829095184803,
-0.2255651205778122,
-0.020176919177174568,
-0.4885973036289215,
-0.4694751799106598,
-0.35329389572143555,
0.26652833819389343,
-0.6299731135368347,
-0.5721628665924072,
-0.04109276831150055,
-0.037242233753204346,
0.03906384855508804,
0.060914523899555206,
0.271835595369339,
-0.1613251268863678,
-0.005523387808352709,
0.009836341254413128,
-0.0441415011882782,
-0.8789410591125488,
0.2244313657283783,
0.04079979285597801,
0.09266330301761627,
0.15106089413166046,
-0.08975299447774887,
0.026508480310440063,
-0.18889251351356506,
-0.6720069646835327,
-0.1445799022912979,
0.5593935251235962,
-0.7357295751571655,
-0.20892420411109924,
0.24203436076641083,
-0.427680641412735,
0.6038169860839844,
0.2837485373020172,
-0.27254852652549744,
0.4802892804145813,
0.4732353389263153,
0.11179203540086746,
0.030492009595036507,
0.8379003405570984,
0.721318781375885,
-0.16029392182826996,
0.10702488571405411,
-0.6653590798377991,
-0.08123454451560974,
0.8713926672935486,
0.06173396483063698,
0.6922760009765625,
0.0692155659198761,
-0.04710822179913521,
0.2820235788822174,
0.32244545221328735,
0.4245802164077759,
-0.14702096581459045,
-0.4575667083263397,
-0.5536343455314636,
0.9362070560455322,
0.7336388826370239,
0.19990652799606323,
0.7166154980659485,
0.2495858520269394,
-0.09931574016809464,
0.22657735645771027,
-0.40869417786598206,
-0.05239911749958992,
-0.11348053812980652,
-0.4499894976615906,
-0.05387728288769722,
0.10015378892421722,
-0.34732264280319214,
-0.5932334661483765,
0.4043872654438019,
0.680382490158081,
-0.12093675881624222,
0.03898952156305313,
-0.20710042119026184,
0.6381208300590515,
0.06173127889633179,
0.11673951148986816,
0.12569266557693481,
0.1336352676153183,
-1.2757935523986816,
0.6185530424118042,
-0.9948286414146423,
-0.6495952606201172,
-0.46160390973091125,
0.07328090071678162,
-0.33636778593063354,
-0.41456496715545654,
-0.11067181080579758,
-0.3339921534061432,
0.244992196559906,
0.2585732340812683,
-0.47485092282295227,
0.7595917582511902,
-0.036177679896354675,
0.4018723666667938,
-0.6769906878471375,
0.17662078142166138,
0.5190588235855103,
-0.5950666666030884,
0.34400737285614014,
0.12349152565002441,
-0.5364922881126404,
-0.39742523431777954,
-0.35712626576423645,
-0.06680243462324142,
-0.403984397649765,
-0.6694630980491638,
-0.12502293288707733,
-0.4305643141269684,
0.016402387991547585,
-0.2957562506198883,
0.6964297294616699,
1.1510781049728394,
0.39118409156799316,
-0.003973365295678377,
0.38012534379959106,
-0.0065407222136855125,
-0.278857558965683,
-0.11962055414915085,
-0.13324065506458282,
0.7215584516525269,
-0.887660562992096,
0.29583868384361267,
-0.62420254945755,
0.21131666004657745,
0.6489092111587524,
0.5813365578651428,
-0.24359987676143646,
0.03259112685918808,
0.2034309357404709,
0.7523341178894043,
0.8881312608718872,
0.06717488914728165,
-0.12479937821626663,
-0.47295767068862915,
0.04739432781934738,
-0.2569409906864166,
0.6016003489494324,
0.09029495716094971,
0.7196977138519287,
0.19397151470184326,
0.4465574324131012,
0.11063176393508911,
-0.370602548122406,
0.4872174561023712,
-0.380149781703949,
0.17360395193099976,
-0.4122920334339142,
-0.13434334099292755,
-0.5011904835700989,
-0.5927730202674866,
0.3506900370121002,
0.5213462710380554,
-0.06503404676914215,
-0.11051681637763977,
0.10148532688617706,
-0.16831852495670319,
0.4627641439437866,
-0.4837163984775543,
-0.028475292026996613,
0.00022821547463536263,
0.12258168309926987,
-0.9399288892745972,
-0.5764814615249634,
0.13491468131542206,
0.14701616764068604,
-0.3157086968421936,
0.415424644947052,
0.045179467648267746,
-0.2611667513847351,
0.3798076808452606,
0.057760246098041534,
-0.6583455204963684,
0.17613473534584045,
-0.1893426775932312
] |
241617 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20magic | Black magic | Black magic has traditionally referred to the use of supernatural powers or magic for evil and selfish purposes; or magic associated with the devil or other evil spirits. It is also sometimes referred to as the "left-hand path", (its right-hand path counterpart being benevolent white magic). In modern times, some find that the definition of black magic has been convoluted by people who define magic or ritualistic practices that they disapprove of as black magic.
History
Like its counterpart white magic, the origins of black magic can be traced to the primitive, ritualistic worship of spirits as outlined in Robert M. Place's 2009 book, Magic and Alchemy. Unlike white magic, in which Place sees parallels with primitive shamanistic efforts to achieve closeness with spiritual beings, the rituals that developed into modern black magic were designed to invoke those same spirits to produce beneficial outcomes for the practitioner. Place also provides a broad modern definition of both black and white magic, preferring instead to refer to them as "high magic" (white) and "low magic" (black) based primarily on intentions of the practitioner employing them. He acknowledges, though, that this broader definition (of "high" and "low") suffers from prejudices because good-intentioned folk magic may be considered "low" while ceremonial magic involving expensive or exclusive components may be considered by some as "high magic", regardless of intent.
During the Renaissance, many magical practices and rituals were considered evil or irreligious and by extension, black magic in the broad sense. Witchcraft and non-mainstream esoteric study were prohibited and targeted by the Inquisition. As a result, natural magic developed as a way for thinkers and intellectuals, like Marsilio Ficino, abbot Johannes Trithemius and Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, to advance esoteric and ritualistic study (though still often in secret) without significant persecution.
While "natural magic" became popular among the educated and upper classes of the 16th and 17th century, ritualistic magic and folk magic remained subject to persecution. 20th century author Montague Summers generally rejects the definitions of "white" and "black" magic as "contradictory", though he highlights the extent to which magic in general, regardless of intent, was considered "black" and cites William Perkins posthumous 1608 instructions in that regard:
In particular, though, the term was most commonly reserved for those accused of invoking demons and other evil spirits, those hexing or cursing their neighbours, those using magic to destroy crops, and those capable of leaving their earthly bodies and travelling great distances in spirit (to which the Malleus Maleficarum "devotes one long and important chapter"), usually to engage in devil-worship. Summers also highlights the etymological development of the term nigromancer, in common use from 1200 to approximately 1500, (, black; , divination), broadly "one skilled in the black arts".
In a modern context, the line between white magic and black magic is somewhat clearer and most modern definitions focus on intent rather than practice. There is also an extent to which many modern Wicca and witchcraft practitioners have sought to distance themselves from those intent on practising black magic. Those who seek to do harm or evil are less likely to be accepted into mainstream Wiccan circles or covens in an era where benevolent magic is increasingly associated with new-age beliefs and practices, and self-help spiritualism.
Black shamanism
Black shamanism is a kind of shamanism practiced in Mongolia and Siberia. It is specifically opposed to yellow shamanism, which incorporates rituals and traditions from Buddhism. Black Shamans are usually perceived as working with evil spirits, while white Shamans with spirits of the upper world.
In some areas, there are purported malevolent sorcerers who masquerade as real shamans and who entice tourists to drink ayahuasca in their presence. Shamans believe one of the purposes for this is to steal one's energy and/or power, of which they believe every person has a limited stockpile.
Satanism and devil-worship
The influence of popular culture has allowed other practices to be drawn in under the broad banner of black magic, including the concept of Satanism. While the invocation of demons or spirits is an accepted part of black magic, this practice is distinct from the worship or deification of such spiritual beings. The two are usually combined in medieval beliefs about witchcraft.
Those lines, though, continue to be blurred by the inclusion of spirit rituals from otherwise white magicians in compilations of work related to Satanism. John Dee's sixteenth century rituals, for example, were included in Anton LaVey's The Satanic Bible (1969) and so some of his practises, otherwise considered white magic, have since been associated with black magic. Dee's rituals themselves were designed to contact spirits in general and angels in particular, which he claimed to have been able to do with the assistance of colleague Edward Kelley. LaVey's Bible, however, is a "complete contradiction" of Dee's intentions but offers the same rituals as a means of contact with evil spirits and demons. LaVey's Church of Satan (with LaVey's Bible at its centre), "officially denies the efficacy of occult ritual" but "affirms the subjective, psychological value of ritual practice", drawing a clear distinction between. LaVey himself was more specific:
The latter quote, though, seems to have been directed toward the growing trends of Wicca and neo-paganism at the time.
Voodoo
Voodoo has been associated with modern black magic; drawn together in popular culture and fiction. However, while hexing or cursing may be accepted black magic practices, Voodoo has its own distinct history and traditions that have little to do with the traditions of modern witchcraft that developed with European practitioners like Gerald Gardner and Aleister Crowley.
Voodoo tradition makes its own distinction between black and white magic, with sorcerers like the Bokor known for using magic and rituals of both. But their penchant for magic associated with curses, poisons and zombies means they, and Voodoo in general, are regularly associated with black magic in particular.
Black magic and religion
The links and interaction between black magic and religion are many and varied. Beyond black magic's links to organised Satanism or its historical persecution by Christianity and its inquisitions, there are links between religious and black magic rituals. The Black Mass, for example, is a sacrilegious parody of the Catholic Mass. Likewise, a saining, though primarily a practice of white magic, is a Wiccan ritual analogous to a christening or baptism for an infant. In Islam, the Quran contains Surahs that are recited to protect against black magic.
Seventeenth century priest, Étienne Guibourg, is said to have performed a series of black mass rituals with alleged witch Catherine Monvoisin for Madame de Montespan.
Practices and rituals
During his period of scholarship, A. E. Waite provided a comprehensive account of black magic practices, rituals and traditions in The Book of Black Magic and Ceremonial Magic. Other practitioners have expanded on these ideas and offered their own comprehensive lists of rituals and concepts. Black magic practices and rituals include:
True name spells - the theory that knowing a person's true name allows control over that person, making this wrong for the same reason. This can also be used as a connection to the other person, or to free them from another's a compulsion, so it is in the grey area.
Immortality rituals - from a Taoist perspective, life is finite, and wishing to live beyond one's natural span is not with the flow of nature. Beyond this, there is a major issue with immortality. Because of the need to test the results, the subjects must be killed. Even a spell to extend life may not be entirely good, especially if it draws life energy from another to sustain the spell.
Necromancy – for purposes of usage, this is defined not as general black magic, but as any magic having to do with death itself, either through divination of entrails, or the act of raising the dead body, as opposed to resurrection or CPR.
Curses and hexes – a curse can be as simple as wishing something bad would happen to someone, or as complicated as performing a complex ritual to ensure that someone dies.
In popular culture and fiction
Concepts related to black magic or described, even inaccurately, as black magic are a regular feature of books, films and other popular culture. Examples include:
"Black Magic" – track off the Slayer album Show No Mercy 1983
"Black Magic" – Lead single by British girl group Little Mix released in May 2015, for their third studio album "Get Weird".
The Devil Rides Out – a 1934 novel by Dennis Wheatley – made into a famous film by Hammer Studios in 1968.
Rosemary's Baby – a 1968 horror novel in which black magic is a central theme.
The Craft – a 1996 film featuring four friends who become involved in white witchcraft but turn to black magic rituals for personal gain.
The Harry Potter series – black magic, including various spells and curses, is referred to as "the dark arts" against which students are taught to defend themselves.
Final Fantasy – a video game series in which white and black magic are simply used to distinguish between healing/defensive spells (such as a "cure") and offensive/elemental spells (such as "fire") and do not carry an inherent good or evil connotation.
Charmed – a television series in which black magic is also known as "the black arts", "dark arts", "dark magic" or even "evil magic", and is used by demons and other evil beings.
The Secret Circle – A short-lived television series featuring witches, in which there are two kinds of magic. While traditional magic helps you to connect to the energy around you, more lethal and dangerous dark magic is rooted in the anger, fear and negativity inside you. Only a few born with it can access dark magic and some are inherently stronger than others.
The Power of Five – a series by Anthony Horowitz about black magic and evil sorcerers. The antagonists are all black sorcerers and are all practitioners of black magic; black magic is a means of summoning the Old Ones from their prison, Hell. Black magic often takes the form of mass murder and animation of inanimate objects.
Night Watch – In the Night Watch book (and movie) series the magicians are grouped into two sides "Light Others" and "Dark Others". The dark magicians are more motivated by selfish desires.
Supernatural – The American television series features many events and characters that feature and participate in black magic.
Sherlock Holmes – The first of the three Sherlock Holmes films directed by Guy Ritchie includes elements of black magic although they are later discovered to be false.
Versailles released a short film in 2009 which depicted zombies that were resurrected by Jasmine You through black magic.
Pizza II: Villa – An Indian Tamil suspense supernatural thriller film, written and directed by debutant Deepan Chakravarthy.
The Necromancers: The Best of Black Magic and Witchcraft – A collection of folklores and stories about black magic edited by Peter Haining.
Odiyan – A 2018 Indian Malayalam language film starring Mohanlal. It is based on the legend of Odiyan, who in Kerala folklore are men possessing shape-shifting ability, who can assume animal form and were used to assassinate or scare people in the dark during the pre-electricity period.
See also
Demonology
Gray magic
Gu (poison)
Kulam
Left-hand path and right-hand path
Maleficium (sorcery)
Necromancy
Seiðr
Ya sang
References
Citations
Magic (supernatural)
Left-Hand Path
Mysticism | [
0.676575779914856,
0.2859572470188141,
-0.7469713687896729,
-0.041522469371557236,
-0.2489663064479828,
-0.0683213472366333,
0.9179361462593079,
0.47914552688598633,
-0.13236048817634583,
0.24887320399284363,
-0.3584684133529663,
0.3661637008190155,
-0.4952055513858795,
0.6024270057678223,
-0.3648946285247803,
0.5909296870231628,
0.25142282247543335,
0.46930381655693054,
-0.4310424327850342,
-0.3910004496574402,
-0.2801837921142578,
0.07087461650371552,
0.21742166578769684,
0.06535711139440536,
0.46582168340682983,
-0.25546392798423767,
-0.14098311960697174,
-0.051243655383586884,
-0.38505783677101135,
0.333572655916214,
0.38664329051971436,
0.19097356498241425,
-0.18046815693378448,
-0.3156113624572754,
0.21377889811992645,
0.31546980142593384,
-0.5063620209693909,
-0.5025022625923157,
-0.3514249324798584,
-0.206730917096138,
0.0009065234335139394,
0.1786106824874878,
0.2818441092967987,
0.6361817121505737,
0.023219024762511253,
-0.14925986528396606,
-1.1582003831863403,
0.47204163670539856,
-0.4321762025356293,
0.2070389688014984,
-0.01936778426170349,
0.28115877509117126,
0.26811885833740234,
0.2600504159927368,
0.2112962156534195,
0.5828187465667725,
-0.7762756943702698,
0.47515419125556946,
0.2634195387363434,
-0.674239993095398,
0.5644577145576477,
0.3328292667865753,
-0.017380177974700928,
-0.009382957592606544,
0.18076734244823456,
0.05935441702604294,
0.02743699587881565,
0.3115045726299286,
-0.7909346222877502,
-0.8230420351028442,
-0.11369304358959198,
0.1186685860157013,
-0.4016228914260864,
-0.048686664551496506,
-0.5435411334037781,
-0.27706676721572876,
0.10661909729242325,
-0.38939258456230164,
-0.07933969795703888,
0.3847629427909851,
-0.04307062551379204,
0.43602657318115234,
0.7624270915985107,
0.15743474662303925,
0.6814420819282532,
-0.16432341933250427,
-0.4267672598361969,
0.5852555632591248,
0.3065738081932068,
-0.1210017204284668,
0.38188573718070984,
0.15816400945186615,
0.34082627296447754,
0.3860078752040863,
-0.3334699273109436,
0.11931443959474564,
0.5541571378707886,
-0.4951646625995636,
0.04694397374987602,
-0.07211571931838989,
0.32307183742523193,
-0.6338490843772888,
0.32826584577560425,
-0.23098455369472504,
-0.16871346533298492,
0.30244603753089905,
0.13353098928928375,
-0.31935644149780273,
-0.08496728539466858,
-0.04921998083591461,
-1.0615615844726562,
0.5987515449523926,
-0.2384672611951828,
0.08735916763544083,
-0.3065163493156433,
-0.23132216930389404,
0.1569877415895462,
0.1370355784893036,
0.07726266980171204,
0.28869548439979553,
0.44091129302978516,
0.1945735365152359,
-0.5012109279632568,
0.5810627937316895,
-0.04313667118549347,
0.3031463027000427,
0.630391538143158,
0.823493480682373,
-0.9062086939811707,
-0.166158989071846,
0.972713053226471,
1.241161823272705,
-0.039706017822027206,
-0.3412854075431824,
-0.32206881046295166,
0.13054046034812927,
0.36568498611450195,
0.5081581473350525,
0.22952280938625336,
-0.00429421616718173,
-0.9723422527313232,
-0.6536318063735962,
-0.9211108684539795,
0.04847070202231407,
0.05607275292277336,
-0.5681091547012329,
0.36199769377708435,
-0.18092258274555206,
0.045915860682725906,
0.04216049611568451,
0.01834811083972454,
0.1657659411430359,
-0.29011088609695435,
0.15867267549037933,
-0.1063329428434372,
-0.2429596334695816,
-0.1544000655412674,
-0.47108346223831177,
0.17538541555404663,
-0.3203214406967163,
-0.23549410700798035,
-0.2660592794418335,
-0.161394864320755,
0.08374185115098953,
-0.0061966292560100555,
0.14009615778923035,
-0.157658189535141,
0.2116934061050415,
-0.3687749207019806,
0.3058489263057709,
-0.254880428314209,
0.6006301045417786,
0.18027102947235107,
-0.3315862715244293,
-0.7542930245399475,
0.09345156699419022,
-0.24080561101436615,
0.2468920797109604,
0.45415323972702026,
0.06554283946752548,
-0.5624145269393921,
0.03439314290881157,
0.0052981250919401646,
-0.21490898728370667,
0.09462764859199524,
0.19109025597572327,
-0.1463261842727661,
0.1335611790418625,
-0.03769297152757645,
-0.03410796448588371,
-0.6728407740592957,
0.0632503554224968,
-0.31269627809524536,
-0.5160093307495117,
1.0165283679962158,
-0.3285312056541443,
-0.7116491198539734,
0.8420189023017883,
-0.3747129738330841,
0.2878192067146301,
0.34766706824302673,
-0.2968859374523163,
-0.11796148866415024,
-0.14720797538757324,
-0.7579885125160217,
0.12448599934577942,
0.2463371455669403,
0.5091660022735596,
0.29694032669067383,
0.11043884605169296,
0.3432038128376007,
-0.36662420630455017,
-0.1027461513876915,
-0.3011018931865692,
0.05453108996152878,
0.5385732650756836,
-0.7754480242729187,
0.018049269914627075,
0.27458736300468445,
-0.12247148156166077,
0.35432928800582886,
-0.5210115313529968,
-0.21970929205417633,
-0.1850205957889557,
0.03460850566625595,
0.7234808802604675,
-0.5245845317840576,
-0.054773829877376556,
0.6130421757698059,
-0.8128952980041504,
0.4013935327529907,
0.38844549655914307,
0.24321073293685913,
-0.28097453713417053,
-0.8167435526847839,
-0.10901352763175964,
0.05017126724123955,
-0.26082542538642883,
-0.25694891810417175,
-0.42057740688323975,
0.4846213459968567,
-0.19107037782669067,
-0.44476425647735596,
0.3986679017543793,
0.10282911360263824,
0.20402178168296814,
-0.21651755273342133,
0.06516746431589127,
-0.13155941665172577,
0.1934591829776764,
0.13772620260715485,
0.5717992782592773,
0.12365234643220901,
-0.13114935159683228,
0.41906479001045227,
-0.3799440562725067,
-0.5403159260749817,
-0.24332956969738007,
0.33735138177871704,
-0.25644683837890625,
-0.018606459721922874,
0.029363736510276794,
0.022756794467568398,
-0.26988619565963745,
0.20476384460926056,
-0.6638181805610657,
-0.1002296507358551,
0.2255694568157196,
0.20614618062973022,
0.5304930210113525,
0.31339484453201294,
0.09345265477895737,
-0.6006789803504944,
-0.2825741171836853,
-0.32841864228248596,
-0.3063216209411621,
0.4865468442440033,
0.21411511301994324,
-0.43920043110847473,
-0.09828294068574905,
-0.14225852489471436,
0.17047934234142303,
0.30094167590141296,
-0.6298567056655884,
-0.36873605847358704,
-0.18552277982234955,
-0.1200844869017601,
-0.3491487503051758,
0.09392787516117096,
-0.03305502608418465,
-0.5722753405570984,
0.33292388916015625,
-0.5254012942314148,
-0.0896391049027443,
-0.09015598148107529,
0.11746714264154434,
-0.31259214878082275,
0.7829278111457825,
-0.018750634044408798,
-0.4122048020362854,
0.304516077041626,
-0.05566383898258209,
-0.6303415894508362,
0.13110840320587158,
-0.20023803412914276,
0.13887353241443634,
-0.6503520607948303,
0.09969580918550491,
-5.760736465454102,
0.5878369808197021,
-0.20353788137435913,
-0.12605860829353333,
-0.5076153874397278,
0.39496803283691406,
0.41408732533454895,
0.3588448464870453,
-0.2246069759130478,
-0.34670767188072205,
-0.2266860008239746,
0.36240366101264954,
-0.11849186569452286,
0.29622882604599,
0.259969562292099,
0.631015956401825,
-0.04498985409736633,
-0.5233814716339111,
-0.40329521894454956,
0.370595246553421,
-0.14622828364372253,
0.7263109087944031,
-0.7544061541557312,
0.6413547992706299,
0.14728057384490967,
0.26103514432907104,
-0.2662328779697418,
-0.09802734851837158,
-0.1745174080133438,
-0.041824739426374435,
-0.07994203269481659,
-0.13688287138938904,
-0.08230265229940414,
-0.2235487699508667,
0.18819865584373474,
0.29562368988990784,
0.5755142569541931,
-0.42077913880348206,
-0.19978438317775726,
-0.4058021306991577,
-0.8920633792877197,
0.27162304520606995,
-0.4283531606197357,
-0.006489886902272701,
0.8972964286804199,
-0.31327417492866516,
-0.47023287415504456,
-0.3638898432254791,
-0.5631986856460571,
0.11375242471694946,
-0.745618462562561,
-0.39761269092559814,
-0.15751639008522034,
-0.10587167739868164,
0.28545063734054565,
-0.13297948241233826,
-0.03193136677145958,
0.029672089964151382,
-0.1556621938943863,
0.15063229203224182,
-0.10405520349740982,
-0.11186763644218445,
0.11151444911956787,
-0.002538463333621621,
-0.3372402489185333,
0.283951073884964,
-0.4750828444957733,
-0.79612135887146,
0.8916617035865784,
0.07718152552843094,
0.2746732234954834,
0.30140966176986694,
0.04558205604553223,
-0.750746488571167,
0.11666277050971985,
-0.02732112631201744,
-0.49107033014297485,
0.02286786586046219,
0.15054826438426971,
-0.07784806191921234,
-0.4657517671585083,
0.036015722900629044,
-0.2813112735748291,
-0.0186258926987648,
0.06423206627368927,
-0.12730476260185242,
-0.3065147399902344,
-0.10694482922554016,
-0.9217888116836548,
0.17170320451259613,
1.1398441791534424,
0.16918957233428955,
-0.1038435623049736,
0.5565809607505798,
0.34921807050704956,
0.8525527119636536,
0.22725236415863037,
-0.12035097926855087,
0.6140242218971252,
-0.0008231258834712207,
0.5318007469177246,
-0.4602018892765045,
0.29797008633613586,
-0.5043498873710632,
0.2906385362148285,
-0.08732418715953827,
-0.1745140701532364,
0.4867977201938629,
0.8310697078704834,
-0.33923786878585815,
0.2994696795940399,
0.5978613495826721,
-0.20161780714988708,
0.38254958391189575,
0.7452744841575623,
0.16999521851539612,
0.15596573054790497,
0.7278981804847717,
0.491808146238327,
-0.2596083879470825,
0.43354740738868713,
0.28881916403770447,
-0.06924547255039215,
-0.6932439208030701,
0.028471939265727997,
-0.4211691915988922,
0.07213865965604782,
0.7857795357704163,
-0.017324181273579597,
0.14904649555683136,
0.12712538242340088,
0.44274792075157166,
-0.08000101894140244,
0.15853112936019897,
-0.2030336856842041,
0.0700080543756485,
-0.3201431334018707,
-0.5564625263214111,
-0.25573402643203735,
-0.37021344900131226,
0.2176828384399414,
-0.4690338373184204,
0.1771518886089325,
0.1603187769651413,
0.6790390014648438,
-0.04097137972712517,
-0.1278012990951538,
-0.37218767404556274,
0.0429694838821888,
0.9102470874786377,
-0.16608412563800812,
0.4330012798309326,
0.21224112808704376,
-0.25213003158569336,
-0.4325466454029083,
-0.06301974505186081,
0.6129594445228577,
0.49599456787109375,
0.22231659293174744,
-0.6015158891677856,
0.1339966505765915,
-0.29126158356666565,
-0.9432543516159058,
0.008623853325843811,
-0.23431138694286346,
-0.8879600763320923,
-0.687957763671875,
-0.07410675287246704,
-0.23194682598114014,
0.7754369378089905,
-0.10646156966686249,
-0.3738195598125458,
-0.35823962092399597,
0.1322517693042755,
0.28190597891807556,
0.21542194485664368,
-0.9540287256240845,
0.5818521976470947,
-0.5838438272476196,
-0.3766481280326843,
0.4890259802341461,
-0.5399304032325745,
-0.42846912145614624,
-0.5615488290786743,
0.5332280993461609,
-0.2980143129825592,
0.0028592527378350496,
-0.2769811749458313,
-0.04688876494765282,
-0.1551932394504547,
0.03838489577174187,
-0.0687454491853714,
0.15957754850387573,
0.442343533039093,
-0.09125036746263504,
-0.13574691116809845,
-0.07657811045646667,
0.4340938329696655,
0.21098332107067108,
-0.306639164686203,
0.482289582490921,
0.5722362995147705,
-0.843478262424469,
-0.06872360408306122,
0.10930414497852325,
-0.41118261218070984,
0.4222813546657562,
-0.3051287829875946,
-0.27664807438850403,
0.30591270327568054,
-0.36983364820480347,
0.613101601600647,
-0.330157607793808,
0.7316949367523193,
-0.2108282446861267,
0.23243969678878784,
0.35134366154670715,
-0.33504021167755127,
-0.4990481734275818,
-0.5411631464958191,
0.5828526020050049,
0.029790770262479782,
-0.07271840423345566,
0.2981700897216797,
0.08279792219400406,
-0.457829087972641,
0.6673629879951477,
-0.1828482300043106,
0.23959481716156006,
0.1134585365653038,
0.011931815184652805,
0.3255511224269867,
-0.4382888376712799,
-0.04316231980919838,
0.1231255829334259,
0.199336439371109,
0.22974911332130432,
0.009092033840715885,
0.14985422790050507,
-0.11296040564775467,
0.698314368724823,
0.5103114247322083,
-0.18759886920452118,
-0.16497351229190826,
0.23438003659248352,
0.017315048724412918,
0.09167837351560593,
-0.26048409938812256,
-0.6125308275222778,
-0.6234472393989563,
0.13936549425125122,
-0.5051233768463135,
0.12773749232292175,
-0.45385482907295227,
0.4699755311012268,
-0.2625305950641632,
0.37642577290534973,
-0.05054491385817528,
0.3061889410018921,
0.05129889398813248,
0.33010828495025635,
-0.48225030303001404,
-0.4749540388584137,
-0.16569630801677704,
0.19283170998096466,
-0.15489192306995392,
-0.3682536780834198,
-0.19352993369102478,
0.28585731983184814,
-0.8599210977554321,
0.5215415954589844,
0.3696143627166748,
0.657958984375,
0.2565152049064636,
0.023390118032693863,
0.3064535856246948,
-0.6179758906364441,
-0.6666713953018188,
-0.46140381693840027,
0.09657936543226242,
-0.1946493685245514,
0.07308259606361389,
0.5937579274177551,
-0.38348230719566345,
0.49227240681648254,
-0.36816051602363586,
0.6352036595344543,
-0.2184884399175644,
-0.32950571179389954,
-0.9683486223220825,
-0.4944501519203186,
0.21903078258037567,
0.6247498393058777,
0.25586748123168945,
-0.09807867556810379,
-0.07769545912742615,
-0.3142365515232086,
-0.12355699390172958,
0.7219261527061462,
-0.2891998887062073,
-0.5705282688140869,
0.1613718420267105,
-0.034503430128097534,
-0.11029642075300217,
0.4864741265773773,
-0.1959030032157898,
0.4232957661151886,
0.07128988206386566,
-0.1434992253780365,
-0.3651890754699707,
0.35980167984962463,
-0.175506129860878,
-0.32629019021987915,
0.4586704969406128,
-0.6278122067451477,
0.335793673992157,
0.3669770359992981,
-0.27816668152809143,
0.6767910122871399,
0.04562215134501457,
0.5559492111206055,
-0.1527508944272995,
0.755057692527771,
-0.08176470547914505,
0.41281336545944214,
0.4425167441368103,
-0.3975352942943573,
0.4680114686489105,
0.14696358144283295,
-0.40519940853118896,
0.36482736468315125,
-0.07139060646295547,
-0.08233917504549026,
0.3314548432826996,
0.05468421056866646,
-0.08069257438182831,
0.6126149296760559,
-0.05890292301774025,
-0.5385733246803284,
0.9472163319587708,
0.8707345128059387,
0.09690064936876297,
0.06130582094192505,
-0.00918552652001381,
-0.2056349813938141,
0.7797614932060242,
-0.017927158623933792,
0.02536631189286709,
-0.1542908102273941,
0.2380342334508896,
0.60434490442276,
-0.2401503175497055,
-0.13665281236171722,
-0.2300737351179123,
0.36567288637161255,
-0.2203415483236313,
0.635713517665863,
-0.23688633739948273,
-0.6949791312217712,
-0.17717279493808746,
0.2518562376499176,
0.38554584980010986,
0.48554185032844543,
0.272146999835968,
-0.005383736453950405,
0.498694509267807,
-0.14609642326831818,
-0.6842755675315857,
-0.4477325975894928,
-0.3195349872112274,
0.23801465332508087,
0.06495504826307297,
-0.32969149947166443,
0.4549107253551483,
0.3905811309814453,
-0.16035225987434387,
0.879928708076477,
0.332275390625,
0.28250908851623535,
-0.4189502000808716,
-0.0764225572347641,
-0.4510398507118225,
-0.24856621026992798,
-0.5090574622154236,
0.36619430780410767,
-0.4175363779067993,
-0.08551270514726639,
0.3111647963523865,
-0.2230948656797409,
0.19585469365119934,
0.12911619246006012,
0.061206743121147156,
0.038894444704055786,
0.16106921434402466,
0.08742161095142365,
-0.1965327113866806,
0.17018535733222961,
0.9471024870872498,
-0.6515769958496094,
-0.46894052624702454,
0.2601303160190582,
0.21934860944747925,
0.1734284609556198,
0.8079719543457031,
-0.9494410157203674,
0.1807708889245987,
-1.0255028009414673,
-0.3420585095882416,
-0.598591685295105,
0.7868379950523376,
0.02518121898174286,
-0.38609281182289124,
0.01974239945411682,
-0.21229228377342224,
0.1977684199810028,
-0.09717309474945068,
0.24502936005592346,
-0.18996451795101166,
-0.17201441526412964,
-0.3280849754810333,
0.12552204728126526,
-0.10004826635122299,
0.033662207424640656,
0.2535608112812042,
-0.36527708172798157,
-0.07054028660058975,
0.25139904022216797,
0.0021546620409935713,
0.2162349820137024,
0.0772019624710083,
-0.030060596764087677,
0.199989914894104,
-0.5214924216270447,
0.6151264905929565,
-0.31542450189590454,
-0.4949110150337219,
0.5923444628715515,
0.3974038064479828,
0.15678077936172485,
-0.25714513659477234,
0.03581026941537857,
-0.14369449019432068,
-0.05835813283920288,
-0.30207589268684387,
-0.6679383516311646,
-0.30080100893974304,
0.0514274537563324,
-0.33970433473587036,
0.04640701785683632,
0.502183735370636,
-0.010861780494451523,
-0.5242519974708557,
0.046085841953754425,
0.06390881538391113,
0.1122383177280426,
0.34644925594329834,
0.2899820804595947,
-0.7145260572433472,
-0.4742662012577057,
0.023557594045996666
] |
241625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caravan | Caravan | Caravan or caravans may refer to:
Transport and travel
Caravan (travellers), a group of travellers journeying together
Caravanserai, a place where a caravan could stop
Camel train, a convoy using camels as pack animals
Convoy, a group of vehicles or ships traveling together for mutual support
Caravan (towed trailer), a self-contained trailer based camper or recreational vehicle containing beds, a kitchenette, dining and storage areas; chiefly British usage
Campervan, a type of vehicle
Caravan Tours, an escorted tour company
Central American migrant caravans
Automobile models
Dodge Caravan
Nissan Caravan
Chevrolet Caravan, a two-door station wagon sold by GM do Brasil
Caravan, a station wagon body style (term used by the German manufacturer Opel)
Aeroplane models
Cessna 208 Caravan, a turboprop, high wing, utility airplane produced by Cessna Aircraft Company
Curtiss-Wright C-76 Caravan, an American 1940s medium military transport aircraft
Entertainment
Film and television
Caravan (1934 film), an American musical starring Charles Boyer and Loretta Young
Caravan (1946 film), a British drama starring Stewart Granger
Caravan (1971 film), an Indian film directed by Nasir Hussain
Caravan, working title for the 2019 film Roads, directed by Sebastian Schipper
Caravan (TV series), a Canadian children's television series
Caravans (film), a 1978 film based on the James A. Michener novel
Himalaya (film), a 1999 Nepalese film also known as Caravan
Music
Caravan (band), a progressive rock band and part of the Canterbury scene
Caravan (Thai band), a Thai folk-rock band
Caravan (Caravan album), the 1968 debut album by Caravan
Caravan (Art Blakey album), a 1962 album by jazz musician Art Blakey
"Caravan" (Rush song), a 2010 song by Rush
"Caravan" (Juan Tizol and Duke Ellington song), a 1936 jazz standard
"Caravan" (Van Morrison song), a 1970 song written by Van Morrison
Caravan, a 2000 album by Kronos Quartet
"Caravan", a song by Susumu Hirasawa on the 1995 album Sim City
"Caravan", a song by Inspiral Carpets from their album The Beast Inside
"Caravan", a song by Utopia from their 1980 album Adventures in Utopia
"Caravan Song", a song by Mike Batt recorded by Barbara Dickson
The Caravans, an American gospel music group, founded in 1947
Publishing
Caravan (magazine), a UK monthly consumer magazine for the touring caravan community
Caravan (novel), a 1942 novel by Lady Eleanor Smith
Caravans (novel), a 1963 novel by James A. Michener
Caravan (publishing), an Iranian publishing house
Caravans (Al-Qadim), an accessory for the second edition of the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons fantasy role-playing game
Caravan, a 1975 novel by Stephen Goldin
Video games
Caravan, a playable card game in Fallout: New Vegas
Other
Caravan (Israel), an Israeli term referring to a portable building
Caravan (scouting), a Scout-like organizations in the United States
Caravan or Mudhol Hound, a type of dog breed
See also
Van, a type of road vehicle used for transporting goods or people | [
0.06364909559488297,
0.24884817004203796,
0.21752288937568665,
0.4588111639022827,
-0.13384880125522614,
-0.07539384067058563,
0.1072828471660614,
0.03646710515022278,
-0.7132309079170227,
-0.12689194083213806,
-0.44948333501815796,
0.23926550149917603,
-0.19914710521697998,
0.6171846389770508,
0.1159585565328598,
0.539345383644104,
0.17785924673080444,
0.1634855419397354,
-0.7599151134490967,
-0.34769895672798157,
-0.1528674215078354,
0.0741746574640274,
0.026777280494570732,
-0.4790707230567932,
0.04560018703341484,
0.02401043102145195,
0.3027631342411041,
0.3353027105331421,
-0.3005465865135193,
0.056298982352018356,
0.21740268170833588,
0.29186463356018066,
0.16810020804405212,
0.34201768040657043,
0.1064222902059555,
-0.4385554790496826,
0.1413758397102356,
-0.5847402215003967,
-0.27321162819862366,
-0.7551413774490356,
0.13162240386009216,
-0.25843942165374756,
-0.008875898085534573,
0.27961310744285583,
0.009534860961139202,
-0.3330882787704468,
-1.1120957136154175,
0.2033064216375351,
-0.3706585764884949,
-0.2702537775039673,
-0.23399890959262848,
0.6315597295761108,
0.40597036480903625,
0.4984355568885803,
0.3939143419265747,
0.5695587992668152,
-0.5933250784873962,
-0.4660487771034241,
0.11689022928476334,
-0.8667721152305603,
0.7023187279701233,
0.383765310049057,
0.38269132375717163,
0.41817110776901245,
-0.032655019313097,
-0.1797586977481842,
0.22661583125591278,
0.06486829370260239,
0.1351625621318817,
-0.5396565198898315,
-0.5234020352363586,
-0.4022730886936188,
-0.1383652240037918,
0.3226066827774048,
0.1687370091676712,
-0.4961170554161072,
0.3553445339202881,
-0.49099478125572205,
-0.24501870572566986,
0.18408812582492828,
-0.2316456288099289,
0.12432362139225006,
0.2518797814846039,
0.5767608284950256,
0.1212598979473114,
0.15668119490146637,
-0.2539902627468109,
0.032132137566804886,
-0.33668267726898193,
0.23666827380657196,
-0.08530145138502121,
-0.3816284239292145,
0.4416285455226898,
0.10944738239049911,
-0.21986544132232666,
0.0874028280377388,
0.4400552809238434,
-0.1762121021747589,
0.6829773783683777,
-0.0035814091097563505,
-0.1366385966539383,
-0.03720533475279808,
0.23995867371559143,
-0.11972340196371078,
-0.4793890118598938,
0.09445226192474365,
-0.11547603458166122,
-0.31058424711227417,
0.25504615902900696,
-0.10367460548877716,
-0.06809604912996292,
-0.45382487773895264,
0.3259960114955902,
0.14218461513519287,
0.08253909647464752,
-0.22515031695365906,
-0.4657754898071289,
-0.42479366064071655,
-0.421996533870697,
-0.10425560176372528,
0.05845324322581291,
0.3430034816265106,
0.2382708340883255,
-0.11952325701713562,
0.04712313413619995,
0.5060485601425171,
0.2949659824371338,
0.36080822348594666,
-1.1129109859466553,
0.349068820476532,
0.30199411511421204,
-0.0469188429415226,
-0.5698689222335815,
0.4157061278820038,
-0.5513828992843628,
0.15382671356201172,
0.015071526169776917,
0.07013405859470367,
0.2968466281890869,
-0.07244017720222473,
-1.0921281576156616,
-0.07928743213415146,
-0.25993871688842773,
-0.12979088723659515,
0.5786226987838745,
0.10748983174562454,
0.1451585441827774,
-0.3536871373653412,
-0.7736654281616211,
-0.21755607426166534,
-0.29045915603637695,
-0.04793233051896095,
0.13797350227832794,
-0.30657219886779785,
-0.1710008829832077,
0.43203991651535034,
0.23018349707126617,
-0.20210930705070496,
0.13720747828483582,
-0.3218381702899933,
-0.28191515803337097,
0.5025057196617126,
-0.4479960501194,
0.022822784259915352,
-0.2519928812980652,
0.2139163464307785,
-0.1862872838973999,
0.4898122251033783,
-0.057441797107458115,
0.21978013217449188,
-0.035985175520181656,
0.13551928102970123,
-0.03565714880824089,
-0.2378661334514618,
-0.5899307727813721,
0.4388333857059479,
0.8479313850402832,
0.2502935230731964,
0.2772625982761383,
0.40270066261291504,
-0.6035024523735046,
-0.02976451814174652,
0.2585688531398773,
-0.33586975932121277,
-0.12373649328947067,
-0.4491801857948303,
-0.25156524777412415,
-0.13316570222377777,
-0.48751503229141235,
-0.4457690417766571,
-0.349379301071167,
-0.3989906907081604,
-0.24952401220798492,
-0.4914344847202301,
1.108971118927002,
-0.25272026658058167,
-0.10815592855215073,
0.7497177720069885,
0.1974780261516571,
-0.07113471627235413,
-0.12219774723052979,
0.2714262902736664,
0.1571565866470337,
-0.3259439170360565,
-0.4927428662776947,
0.48924511671066284,
0.014218587428331375,
0.5638271570205688,
-0.05678519234061241,
-0.06057709455490112,
0.03168541565537453,
-0.43674609065055847,
0.11807146668434143,
-0.08873015642166138,
0.44497886300086975,
0.06689933687448502,
-0.4264569878578186,
0.3457825183868408,
-0.06251915544271469,
-0.06632276624441147,
0.4511594772338867,
-0.3514750599861145,
-0.5075365900993347,
0.36640048027038574,
-0.15156573057174683,
0.41241875290870667,
0.21828243136405945,
0.198699951171875,
0.42881858348846436,
-0.15629659593105316,
0.3204098343849182,
0.5760365128517151,
0.12560808658599854,
-0.3556862771511078,
-0.1002068817615509,
0.3881978392601013,
0.6324591636657715,
-0.17467418313026428,
-0.03460819274187088,
0.14833036065101624,
-0.28894636034965515,
0.5733466148376465,
0.03216857463121414,
-0.1079920306801796,
0.17755617201328278,
-0.42389950156211853,
-0.25748372077941895,
-0.00012024430907331407,
0.10517138987779617,
-0.21563845872879028,
0.01912328600883484,
0.3978846073150635,
0.26888060569763184,
-0.28593960404396057,
0.266488254070282,
0.13763129711151123,
-0.24896568059921265,
-0.14612022042274475,
0.2730317711830139,
0.24606987833976746,
-0.14359800517559052,
0.5685022473335266,
-0.14221496880054474,
0.20748549699783325,
-0.14835909008979797,
-0.5493553280830383,
-0.32978755235671997,
-0.19247663021087646,
-0.2897835969924927,
0.8684163093566895,
0.22130346298217773,
0.2581317722797394,
-0.19806025922298431,
0.12559397518634796,
-0.03862868621945381,
-0.1566396802663803,
0.1729065328836441,
0.1290939301252365,
0.297024130821228,
-0.3658560514450073,
-0.24778419733047485,
-0.08305885642766953,
0.9212910532951355,
-0.3444488048553467,
-0.17789329588413239,
-0.14556044340133667,
-0.18614691495895386,
0.17121805250644684,
0.02888699807226658,
-0.15336064994335175,
0.1216849535703659,
0.7290690541267395,
0.3378485441207886,
0.5316224098205566,
0.271771639585495,
0.4683600962162018,
-0.13029032945632935,
0.2008393257856369,
0.261254221200943,
-0.42228594422340393,
-0.7741703391075134,
0.391313374042511,
-0.15341663360595703,
-0.05288354307413101,
0.48934799432754517,
0.11394675076007843,
-0.16856516897678375,
-0.6663762331008911,
-6.040294647216797,
-0.11493721604347229,
-0.6318947076797485,
-0.407932847738266,
0.13588283956050873,
-0.2034037858247757,
0.4838552474975586,
-0.4632967710494995,
-0.11145974695682526,
0.272805392742157,
0.4012957215309143,
0.1451135128736496,
-0.2606605887413025,
0.1309354305267334,
0.4356978237628937,
0.3862289786338806,
0.2892382740974426,
0.698922872543335,
0.08553320169448853,
-0.505088210105896,
0.020220745354890823,
0.08883312344551086,
-0.2353701889514923,
0.5265597105026245,
-0.059700287878513336,
-0.2527550458908081,
-0.3782179057598114,
-0.00942542776465416,
-0.3610518276691437,
0.5499871373176575,
-0.33207783102989197,
0.17103224992752075,
-0.32893431186676025,
0.09347445517778397,
0.09065157175064087,
0.271910160779953,
0.5125219225883484,
-0.085170678794384,
0.066348597407341,
-0.13157020509243011,
-0.1686698943376541,
0.6807204484939575,
0.507003664970398,
-0.2680685520172119,
0.20960497856140137,
-0.39615002274513245,
-0.2288220375776291,
0.08769674599170685,
0.25459539890289307,
0.3725086748600006,
-0.09638368338346481,
0.08846421539783478,
0.35794731974601746,
-0.024125464260578156,
0.30802083015441895,
-0.033142007887363434,
0.22143398225307465,
-0.2432071417570114,
0.034348610788583755,
0.057980991899967194,
0.6416833400726318,
-0.35058116912841797,
-0.08112782984972,
-0.6939054131507874,
-0.4321061074733734,
0.2641696333885193,
-0.2776840627193451,
-0.13569478690624237,
0.8120624423027039,
0.075021892786026,
-0.8406593203544617,
-0.08078630268573761,
0.42765167355537415,
-0.537203848361969,
0.4308088421821594,
-0.6474236845970154,
0.42570430040359497,
0.1145092099905014,
-0.36168113350868225,
0.1844116598367691,
0.17297056317329407,
0.06596718728542328,
0.24718967080116272,
-0.5088783502578735,
-0.03135030344128609,
-0.51226407289505,
-0.2882542014122009,
0.047631774097681046,
-0.12754377722740173,
-0.04313509538769722,
0.9685542583465576,
-0.3492755889892578,
0.2114165872335434,
0.4183697998523712,
0.4909440875053406,
0.29967692494392395,
-0.2807041108608246,
-0.1637699455022812,
0.02577962726354599,
-0.7472183108329773,
0.08160851895809174,
-0.33560729026794434,
-0.02106545865535736,
0.0558566115796566,
-0.510603129863739,
0.1428586095571518,
-0.07321643084287643,
0.2515430450439453,
1.0452269315719604,
0.3859676420688629,
0.4200868010520935,
0.44280439615249634,
-0.08349201083183289,
-0.7992562651634216,
0.30220112204551697,
0.1680852621793747,
-0.19010764360427856,
0.4954867362976074,
0.4879761338233948,
0.273858904838562,
0.08225703984498978,
0.1212737113237381,
-0.8523405194282532,
0.03757837787270546,
0.05812734737992287,
0.3292103111743927,
0.45842087268829346,
-0.03389085456728935,
0.46824023127555847,
-0.07210662961006165,
0.3280796408653259,
0.14654844999313354,
0.25048497319221497,
-0.203468918800354,
0.09898050874471664,
-0.28418081998825073,
-0.22242124378681183,
-0.1667066365480423,
0.1836875081062317,
-0.6452115178108215,
-0.2747546434402466,
-0.4031807780265808,
-0.40411680936813354,
0.18416909873485565,
0.1544194370508194,
0.26137804985046387,
-0.35531479120254517,
0.13148561120033264,
0.057064369320869446,
0.4241292476654053,
-0.022549819201231003,
-0.15278230607509613,
0.10840291529893875,
0.06665684282779694,
-0.3802684247493744,
-0.8332048058509827,
0.12254876643419266,
0.2215690016746521,
-0.04492973908782005,
-0.31260260939598083,
-0.009144132025539875,
-0.04327124357223511,
-0.46795162558555603,
0.07109902054071426,
-0.5425420999526978,
0.09313937276601791,
-0.13646826148033142,
-0.9121764302253723,
0.07109604775905609,
0.5101884007453918,
0.17038224637508392,
-0.5555701851844788,
-0.39617255330085754,
-0.1391230821609497,
0.42998814582824707,
0.5524111390113831,
0.2467767298221588,
0.021783368661999702,
-0.3077355623245239,
0.19875973463058472,
-0.46132808923721313,
0.26107075810432434,
-0.30174174904823303,
-0.09457159042358398,
0.024179181084036827,
-0.29446887969970703,
-0.1448609083890915,
0.149533212184906,
0.16515672206878662,
0.0509704127907753,
0.19473423063755035,
0.5577465295791626,
0.32886645197868347,
0.13244082033634186,
0.14594368636608124,
-0.4859040081501007,
0.045206036418676376,
0.4031318724155426,
-0.27403029799461365,
-0.02359710820019245,
0.4550948739051819,
0.04114130511879921,
-0.5467098951339722,
0.11450037360191345,
-0.020842868834733963,
-0.40509459376335144,
0.4025648534297943,
-0.7114101648330688,
-0.2735508978366852,
0.132905974984169,
-0.5221946835517883,
-0.26536262035369873,
0.27450668811798096,
0.5151334404945374,
-0.3200738728046417,
0.09509273618459702,
-0.028829535469412804,
-0.3450186252593994,
0.06885813176631927,
-0.11586028337478638,
0.06160033866763115,
-0.1542913019657135,
-0.7315675020217896,
-0.16498364508152008,
-0.7273175120353699,
0.5848554968833923,
0.4050431251525879,
-0.8450785279273987,
-0.22280152142047882,
0.08707261830568314,
0.15523234009742737,
-0.4125116467475891,
-0.7521941065788269,
-0.6639617681503296,
-0.24858258664608002,
-0.5206812024116516,
0.07656243443489075,
-0.44752100110054016,
0.6626869440078735,
0.1675422042608261,
0.2530626058578491,
1.0369983911514282,
0.5527786016464233,
-0.716763436794281,
-0.43573206663131714,
0.30883127450942993,
-0.013907080516219139,
-1.1256262063980103,
-0.2053213268518448,
0.304257869720459,
0.21187849342823029,
-0.4736969470977783,
-0.55901700258255,
0.0130871357396245,
0.23646022379398346,
-0.023814084008336067,
-0.6111248135566711,
0.4428371787071228,
0.351349800825119,
0.5433568358421326,
0.4270133674144745,
0.34466323256492615,
-0.6401979923248291,
-0.7997772097587585,
-0.31845059990882874,
0.06021469458937645,
-0.008879388682544231,
-0.05829792097210884,
-0.08702292293310165,
-0.3572665750980377,
0.0772804468870163,
0.15862950682640076,
0.7568076848983765,
0.6602721214294434,
0.6220585107803345,
-0.5692470669746399,
-0.0934038981795311,
-0.46296191215515137,
0.1095774695277214,
0.19034115970134735,
-0.39571413397789,
-0.07868710905313492,
0.12491229176521301,
0.09794284403324127,
0.1620873510837555,
-0.4286918640136719,
0.15083923935890198,
-0.509236752986908,
-0.42992091178894043,
0.030920086428523064,
-0.2831885814666748,
0.09842359274625778,
-0.24416738748550415,
0.8165581822395325,
-0.36776310205459595,
-0.0657411590218544,
1.1344767808914185,
0.40241339802742004,
-0.4323040843009949,
0.7100493311882019,
-0.4040762782096863,
0.4670445919036865,
-0.03801778703927994,
-0.8831765651702881,
0.35184067487716675,
-0.5238395929336548,
0.1068657785654068,
-0.6103273034095764,
0.22818095982074738,
0.02563718520104885,
0.5825667977333069,
-0.5105265378952026,
0.4347919523715973,
0.8067477345466614,
0.2789120078086853,
-0.07429189234972,
0.4199966788291931,
-0.048282865434885025,
0.4487413167953491,
0.11801795661449432,
0.49330899119377136,
0.5219457745552063,
-0.08835973590612411,
-0.25585708022117615,
0.39946842193603516,
-0.05142733454704285,
-0.1772920787334442,
-0.38132795691490173,
0.08398550748825073,
0.39921095967292786,
0.698527991771698,
0.10538022965192795,
0.062385521829128265,
-0.18771770596504211,
-0.06514544039964676,
-0.022465571761131287,
0.07497228682041168,
-0.31896597146987915,
-0.3892672061920166,
0.33654579520225525,
0.07603909075260162,
-0.27235034108161926,
-0.37646016478538513,
-0.389989972114563,
-0.006728278938680887,
0.32089710235595703,
0.5716094374656677,
-0.019562121480703354,
0.3688488304615021,
0.20938128232955933,
0.09163607656955719,
-0.1616404950618744,
0.3555767834186554,
0.056869521737098694,
-0.014831794425845146,
-0.37025779485702515,
0.4301346242427826,
-0.08727309107780457,
-0.06149449199438095,
0.19665810465812683,
0.34944644570350647,
0.3765394985675812,
0.18680058419704437,
0.055686257779598236,
0.26227352023124695,
-0.19781972467899323,
0.23101545870304108,
-0.9979950785636902,
0.39919498562812805,
0.13864654302597046,
0.13122783601284027,
0.6679762005805969,
-0.5150290131568909,
0.5140721797943115,
0.1105232760310173,
-0.1353822499513626,
0.5258472561836243,
0.7575112581253052,
0.2492470145225525,
0.3001488447189331,
-0.24460841715335846,
-0.38981297612190247,
0.23903439939022064,
-0.8629391193389893,
0.13756735622882843,
-0.4455774426460266,
0.004051646683365107,
0.05034035071730614,
-0.2045799046754837,
0.017242679372429848,
0.2576918601989746,
-0.538732647895813,
-0.02995316870510578,
-0.2178017944097519,
-0.41971540451049805,
-0.22280752658843994,
-0.24827729165554047,
0.2775399386882782,
-0.08469314128160477,
-0.07175277173519135,
-0.29603520035743713,
0.4392508864402771,
-0.05979309603571892,
-0.0046710302121937275,
-0.07754388451576233,
-0.4024182856082916,
-0.34772518277168274,
0.05916088446974754,
-0.45160776376724243,
0.5275717377662659,
0.48079049587249756,
-0.486789733171463,
-0.08058509230613708,
-0.0066367569379508495,
0.3308386206626892,
0.20722118020057678,
0.5210583806037903,
-0.22869561612606049,
-0.04888322204351425,
-0.6508901715278625,
0.2609884440898895,
-0.29039981961250305,
0.3648553192615509,
-0.010739350691437721,
-0.06701738387346268,
-0.45957159996032715,
0.5800026059150696,
-0.15782536566257477,
-0.6038100719451904,
1.0257987976074219,
0.11879634112119675,
0.02654208242893219,
-0.8809860348701477,
0.2886959910392761,
0.2919585406780243,
-0.32222941517829895,
0.11729684472084045,
0.5158157348632812,
0.7807274460792542,
0.0854620635509491,
0.43627744913101196,
-0.5503035187721252,
0.12403823435306549,
-0.2002343088388443,
-0.08888660371303558,
0.1495266854763031,
0.07505965977907181,
-0.16928674280643463,
-1.2318158149719238,
0.33231550455093384,
0.414470374584198,
-0.3781728744506836,
-0.07843760401010513,
-0.6650908589363098,
0.20981501042842865,
-0.24052399396896362,
-0.14531491696834564,
-0.5864368677139282,
-0.2823162078857422,
-0.20077817142009735
] |
241627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue-tailed%20bee-eater | Blue-tailed bee-eater | The blue-tailed bee-eater (Merops philippinus) is a near passerine bird in the bee-eater family Meropidae. It is widely distributed across South and Southeast Asia where many populations are strongly migratory, and seen seasonally in many parts but breeding colonially in small areas across their range, mostly in river valleys, where the nest by tunneling into loamy sand banks. They are seen mostly in open habitats close to water.
Description
This species, like other bee-eaters, is a richly coloured, slender bird. It is predominantly green; its face has a narrow blue patch with a black eye stripe, and a yellow and brown throat; the tail is blue and the beak is black. The three outer toes are united around their bases. It can reach a length of 23–26 cm, including the two elongated central tail feathers which can just two inches more than the remaining ten feathers. Sexes are alike. This species is usually found near water and like other bee-eaters it predominantly eats flying insects, especially bees (as large as the Xylocopa sp.), wasps and hornets, which are caught in the air by sorties from an open perch. They may also forage in flight over estuaries, backwaters and even over the sea but not far from the coast. This species probably takes bees and dragonflies in roughly equal numbers. The insects that are caught are beaten on the perch to kill and break the exoskeleton. This habit is seen in many other members of the order Coraciiformes. They call mainly in flight with a rolling chirping whistling .
The only confusable species within its range is the blue-cheeked bee-eater which however tends to be found in drier areas. The blue-tailed differs in having the rump and tail blue rather than green and black. The undertail feathers are bluish rather than green in the blue-cheeked. The blue cheek patch is much smaller while the chestnut on the throat and breast darker and covering a larger area.
They breed in April to May in India nesting colonially with closely placed nest holes in a vertical mudbank or even burrowing into gently sloping land. They tend to choose sandy and sandy clay loams but avoid heavier clay loams. They also prefer clear mud banks without any vegetation cover. In Sri Lanka, they have been noted to breed in artificial sand dunes created by dredging of sea sand. The nest tunnel can run nearly 2 metres deep. About 5 to 7 near spherical eggs are laid. Both the male and the female take care of the eggs. The parents guard the nest to prevent intraspecific brood parasitism and extra pair copulation. These birds also feed and roost communally. One or two helpers may join the breeding pair after incubation begins. Although males and females appear similar to the human eye, males tend to have longer central tail feather extensions and UV reflectance studies demonstrate that healthy males had darker chestnut throats and brighter green body plumage while females showed brighter blue rumps and yellow chins.
Taxonomy and systematics
This species has sometimes been considered to be conspecific with the blue-cheeked bee-eater which is a close sister taxon, the two forming a clade with the Madagascan olive bee-eater. In the past the species has been treated variously as M. persicus javanicus, M. superciliosus javanicus, and M. superciliosus philippinus.
Ecological interactions
Based on the presence of spores of Nosema ceranae in the droppings of blue-tailed bee-eaters, it has been suggested that they may be capable of distributing the parasite to bees across a wide geographic range. A species of feather louse, Brueelia superciliosa has been described from hosts of this species in Thailand.
Distribution and movements
The species has a patchy breeding distribution across India, Myanmar, and parts of Southeast Asia. In India they are known to breed in several of the river valleys including those of the Godavari, Kaveri, Tunga Badra and Krishna rivers. They also nest in the eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
Blue-tailed bee-eaters are seasonal in many parts of their range and are known to migrate diurnally en masse at some places like Tanjung Tuan (W. Malaysia) and Promsri Hill (southern Thailand). They are winter visitors in parts of Malaysia and peninsular India. The non-breeding ranges of the blue-cheeked bee-eater and blue-tailed overlap in some parts of Gujarat and western peninsular India.
Status
The Blue-tailed bee-eater is listed as a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
References
blue-tailed bee-eater
Birds of South Asia
Birds of Bangladesh
Birds of South China
Birds of Southeast Asia
Birds of the Philippines
Birds of New Guinea
blue-tailed bee-eater
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
-0.01795658841729164,
0.10671105980873108,
-1.0115512609481812,
-0.27938902378082275,
0.2615700662136078,
0.4952124357223511,
0.3473053574562073,
0.69129478931427,
-0.41661202907562256,
-0.6125175356864929,
0.17011280357837677,
-0.06386946886777878,
-1.111588478088379,
-0.24597875773906708,
-0.6223243474960327,
0.8180705308914185,
0.4614883363246918,
0.2454657256603241,
0.23956331610679626,
-0.2881719172000885,
-0.3817814290523529,
-0.23466193675994873,
0.024776212871074677,
-0.2224828004837036,
0.556456446647644,
0.5554344058036804,
0.1768846958875656,
0.37378278374671936,
0.2178039848804474,
0.12942363321781158,
0.09158936887979507,
0.5249180197715759,
0.781487226486206,
0.3882105052471161,
-0.13034261763095856,
-0.10918176174163818,
-0.5123223066329956,
-0.4200807511806488,
0.21239762008190155,
-0.3483690619468689,
0.02378069795668125,
-0.25628694891929626,
0.3416679799556732,
-0.21171952784061432,
-0.3231390416622162,
-0.33587875962257385,
-1.8767071962356567,
0.2967056334018707,
-0.3233977258205414,
-0.06419625133275986,
-0.10211663693189621,
0.7130244374275208,
-0.1282355934381485,
0.9162017107009888,
0.32526615262031555,
0.18829023838043213,
-0.4748621881008148,
0.09259030222892761,
-0.10102986544370651,
-0.03848404809832573,
-0.31536805629730225,
-0.014880993403494358,
0.00200529582798481,
0.2490214705467224,
-0.015518455766141415,
0.6022615432739258,
0.2636101245880127,
0.09136771410703659,
-0.35147958993911743,
0.5391154289245605,
-0.28138643503189087,
-0.9164746403694153,
-0.10332182049751282,
0.5350021123886108,
-0.4920872449874878,
0.03840774670243263,
0.1657659113407135,
0.00493380893021822,
0.281953901052475,
0.08058430254459381,
0.25114569067955017,
0.3750355541706085,
0.8135363459587097,
-0.05389581248164177,
-0.1550871878862381,
0.30270564556121826,
-0.7806434035301208,
0.496125727891922,
-0.10336388647556305,
0.051770128309726715,
-0.8071171641349792,
0.16595011949539185,
0.6357075572013855,
0.18285992741584778,
-0.6637259125709534,
-0.13180698454380035,
-0.3521151840686798,
0.2386879175901413,
0.9395809173583984,
0.3547082841396332,
-0.30223965644836426,
-0.045524876564741135,
0.8155031204223633,
0.5101905465126038,
-0.8290290236473083,
0.07110579311847687,
-0.3860728442668915,
-0.06604684889316559,
-0.1819186806678772,
0.5020697116851807,
-0.4268607497215271,
0.40188005566596985,
-0.17941969633102417,
-0.056471087038517,
0.14999327063560486,
0.8191604018211365,
0.21982188522815704,
-0.2502381205558777,
-0.31320250034332275,
-0.28849342465400696,
0.4030351936817169,
0.8094504475593567,
-0.38003790378570557,
0.4434666931629181,
0.013934241607785225,
0.7056884765625,
0.36521264910697937,
0.6613742113113403,
-0.16587549448013306,
0.5499627590179443,
0.7445506453514099,
0.9961237907409668,
-0.4212600290775299,
-0.0169864222407341,
-0.5110479593276978,
-0.6106041669845581,
-0.3431493937969208,
-0.039831891655921936,
0.021237865090370178,
0.629298985004425,
-1.051383137702942,
-0.07669518887996674,
-0.5210574865341187,
-0.33342796564102173,
0.1457265168428421,
0.5230190753936768,
-0.07086755335330963,
-0.27623820304870605,
-0.10772275179624557,
-0.1939275860786438,
0.18152984976768494,
-0.20152822136878967,
-0.02253374271094799,
0.08773116767406464,
-0.46499723196029663,
-0.4116593897342682,
0.14382869005203247,
-0.38571083545684814,
1.0745384693145752,
0.1602061539888382,
-0.5264196395874023,
0.25354376435279846,
-0.32233986258506775,
-0.28557729721069336,
0.18181484937667847,
-0.21883249282836914,
-0.09805978834629059,
0.23803560435771942,
-0.09273262321949005,
0.7610642910003662,
0.04114275798201561,
0.07301782816648483,
-0.06370165944099426,
0.297492653131485,
-0.3146423101425171,
-0.9341952800750732,
0.30421820282936096,
0.01641913503408432,
0.4486219882965088,
-0.0020018990617245436,
-0.8061044812202454,
-0.4291243255138397,
-0.2344108670949936,
-0.5803741216659546,
-0.28589293360710144,
0.2928747534751892,
0.13561126589775085,
0.02306400239467621,
0.0633440762758255,
-0.8997849225997925,
-0.6920422911643982,
-0.03255290165543556,
0.01806197501718998,
-0.28962424397468567,
0.24424023926258087,
0.13736329972743988,
-0.3228716552257538,
0.526847243309021,
-0.12804670631885529,
-0.3514358401298523,
0.025189846754074097,
-0.20789507031440735,
0.5165126919746399,
0.029433108866214752,
-0.9341613054275513,
0.40682777762413025,
-0.2840281128883362,
0.2921455502510071,
0.35468921065330505,
0.47054946422576904,
0.02776653692126274,
0.02770388126373291,
-0.13057804107666016,
0.0767035186290741,
0.18380849063396454,
0.14227494597434998,
-0.11560123413801193,
-0.023128435015678406,
0.21178622543811798,
-0.31832003593444824,
0.8188902735710144,
-0.3786579370498657,
-0.2558552324771881,
0.32374146580696106,
0.5478007197380066,
0.6316394209861755,
0.7388477325439453,
-0.2738603353500366,
0.19285787642002106,
0.1188993826508522,
-0.5053337812423706,
-0.07631631940603256,
0.5168789029121399,
-0.5751451849937439,
-0.07119448482990265,
0.16717401146888733,
-0.07369337975978851,
-0.8326359987258911,
0.39919644594192505,
0.16131173074245453,
0.498403936624527,
-0.09903107583522797,
-0.11868281662464142,
0.08688662946224213,
0.5237697958946228,
-0.28640320897102356,
-0.36992886662483215,
0.3802400827407837,
-0.2424646019935608,
0.23339058458805084,
0.3544788360595703,
0.7851004004478455,
0.33964768052101135,
-0.5138629078865051,
0.07483033090829849,
0.6941348910331726,
-0.25449708104133606,
0.3784673511981964,
0.6199632883071899,
-0.2535090744495392,
-0.4540529251098633,
0.23551993072032928,
0.035724982619285583,
0.07040218263864517,
-0.2885715365409851,
-0.07926047593355179,
-0.4269709587097168,
-0.02854374796152115,
0.21977926790714264,
0.3892260491847992,
0.9294567704200745,
-0.33936595916748047,
-0.38147324323654175,
0.2219725251197815,
-0.21210378408432007,
-0.3393981456756592,
-0.06952580064535141,
-0.10651127249002457,
-0.4892386198043823,
-0.5703825354576111,
0.1868724226951599,
0.6280087232589722,
0.11147703975439072,
-0.016960851848125458,
-0.23474709689617157,
-0.6830236315727234,
0.885897696018219,
-0.805415153503418,
-0.460180401802063,
-0.8062455654144287,
-0.5056771636009216,
0.8403745889663696,
-0.30711427330970764,
0.5232422947883606,
-0.36680829524993896,
0.06787959486246109,
-0.16438278555870056,
0.997377872467041,
0.46284225583076477,
-0.9591621160507202,
0.0003575541195459664,
0.26528623700141907,
0.5886502861976624,
0.27850398421287537,
0.4658854603767395,
-0.5448189377784729,
0.4024856984615326,
0.5876039862632751,
-5.211624622344971,
0.6202183961868286,
0.3324093520641327,
-0.3301756680011749,
-0.15463097393512726,
0.7415318489074707,
0.06502019613981247,
-0.39708852767944336,
0.27772223949432373,
-0.025668654590845108,
0.8620322346687317,
0.2482273131608963,
-0.2407122254371643,
-0.09499885141849518,
0.5857731103897095,
-0.017945241183042526,
-0.34244292974472046,
-0.4997464120388031,
0.5729145407676697,
-0.1215323880314827,
0.38303107023239136,
0.5037147998809814,
0.04264076426625252,
0.49775174260139465,
0.08385278284549713,
-0.1484190672636032,
-0.0025403022300451994,
-0.4919433295726776,
-0.12352801859378815,
-0.4233570098876953,
-0.1737133264541626,
-0.22571127116680145,
-0.43941622972488403,
0.01932140626013279,
0.15947973728179932,
-0.33758071064949036,
0.39401131868362427,
0.7108533382415771,
-0.08666913956403732,
-0.2970394194126129,
-0.15620478987693787,
0.10375303775072098,
-0.44061094522476196,
0.32281070947647095,
0.5363752841949463,
0.12265338748693466,
-0.23424452543258667,
-0.7027336955070496,
-0.09270601719617844,
0.5058556199073792,
-0.13044330477714539,
-0.15244629979133606,
0.07305140793323517,
0.8666614890098572,
0.2952609360218048,
0.018437199294567108,
-0.8122897744178772,
0.2984601557254791,
-0.7254525423049927,
0.5659739375114441,
0.3142147660255432,
-0.19547094404697418,
0.03290596604347229,
-0.4335569441318512,
-0.02456752024590969,
0.20510706305503845,
-0.979894757270813,
0.16449914872646332,
0.5031858682632446,
-0.3473750352859497,
-0.155368834733963,
-0.10078777372837067,
-0.2705818712711334,
-0.9539581537246704,
1.037980556488037,
-0.5006473064422607,
-0.47284746170043945,
0.08149152994155884,
-0.4576560854911804,
0.3724445402622223,
0.638455331325531,
-0.4327482581138611,
0.08885584026575089,
0.34982773661613464,
0.15864235162734985,
-0.9609200358390808,
-0.9081681370735168,
-0.12777404487133026,
-0.010790965519845486,
-0.32287532091140747,
0.36036190390586853,
0.033067457377910614,
0.15669012069702148,
0.26229313015937805,
1.3246169090270996,
0.4285219609737396,
0.3095671832561493,
0.003557386342436075,
0.6222485303878784,
-0.19756780564785004,
1.0257817506790161,
0.12485475093126297,
-0.466924786567688,
-0.618242084980011,
0.24216574430465698,
-0.5058370232582092,
0.09087132662534714,
0.3119908571243286,
0.7298409938812256,
-0.6134600043296814,
0.366170734167099,
-0.755221426486969,
-0.600151777267456,
-0.2638261020183563,
0.24871739745140076,
0.0487598292529583,
0.35143131017684937,
-0.28577327728271484,
0.5109832882881165,
0.5592179298400879,
-0.5510031580924988,
-0.2496449500322342,
-0.0949382409453392,
-0.33863887190818787,
-0.05514397472143173,
-0.6757309436798096,
-0.08058450371026993,
0.14171846210956573,
-0.642473042011261,
-0.6819019317626953,
0.3285975456237793,
0.3336758017539978,
-0.8860906958580017,
-0.0994560495018959,
-0.08853933215141296,
0.09730233997106552,
-0.3099360764026642,
0.057993531227111816,
0.7425257563591003,
0.005276382900774479,
-0.6898976564407349,
-0.2895749807357788,
-0.2507036626338959,
0.13445207476615906,
0.5795220136642456,
0.31336191296577454,
-0.4172588586807251,
-0.6973408460617065,
0.03218333050608635,
0.40710771083831787,
0.14214079082012177,
0.1404992938041687,
0.1847103387117386,
-0.16609156131744385,
0.2553759813308716,
0.3429703712463379,
0.865106999874115,
0.287426620721817,
-0.013063986785709858,
-0.6240963339805603,
0.20118838548660278,
-0.7749782204627991,
-0.8592074513435364,
0.4458048343658447,
-0.03746243938803673,
0.1279008537530899,
-0.7667299509048462,
0.0648089274764061,
0.4157167077064514,
0.08347021043300629,
0.7935097217559814,
-0.2909194827079773,
-0.5351209044456482,
0.6191759705543518,
-0.03456166759133339,
-0.29223117232322693,
-0.7539617419242859,
0.19598345458507538,
-0.40568864345550537,
-0.12479335069656372,
-0.36050575971603394,
-0.06984610110521317,
-0.7999477982521057,
0.16521209478378296,
0.46382418274879456,
-0.5315622091293335,
0.34106478095054626,
-0.08182674646377563,
-0.02043120376765728,
0.05613815039396286,
0.7210161685943604,
-0.19086362421512604,
0.22891820967197418,
0.5522129535675049,
-0.0808611661195755,
-0.32693538069725037,
-0.10760223120450974,
0.2557120621204376,
-0.4756695330142975,
-0.9963375926017761,
-0.19783185422420502,
-0.11458297073841095,
-0.23088982701301575,
-0.02018468827009201,
-0.5811760425567627,
-0.21465544402599335,
0.5679281949996948,
-0.2291993647813797,
-0.9766973257064819,
0.3698907792568207,
-0.6051351428031921,
-0.18743515014648438,
0.23507791757583618,
1.1336101293563843,
-0.5673476457595825,
0.465369313955307,
-0.552541196346283,
0.7132763862609863,
-0.1947270631790161,
0.05850287154316902,
-0.30482885241508484,
-0.008986451663076878,
0.28055018186569214,
-0.3279765248298645,
-0.4265376031398773,
0.27770155668258667,
0.24988186359405518,
-0.33384793996810913,
0.6386599540710449,
-0.6209219694137573,
-0.45705166459083557,
0.16377216577529907,
0.05407436192035675,
-0.26049867272377014,
-0.7056163549423218,
0.20326867699623108,
0.05704377219080925,
-0.16694241762161255,
0.3680594861507416,
0.802985429763794,
0.49712085723876953,
1.1718274354934692,
-0.28000378608703613,
-0.3765731155872345,
0.2895922362804413,
0.31570908427238464,
-0.040854066610336304,
-0.19677889347076416,
-0.8072901964187622,
-0.18514706194400787,
0.801334023475647,
0.2978668212890625,
0.20850901305675507,
0.5145469903945923,
0.7262757420539856,
-0.7140499949455261,
-0.4857221841812134,
0.38463035225868225,
-0.2760719358921051,
0.30245548486709595,
0.31471380591392517,
0.15520428121089935,
-0.3477432429790497,
0.40428081154823303,
-0.07032057642936707,
-0.3100634515285492,
-0.5938599109649658,
0.28693529963493347,
0.08227211236953735,
-0.5670102834701538,
0.14051946997642517,
-0.22674570977687836,
0.21769976615905762,
0.28337621688842773,
0.18170589208602905,
0.329523503780365,
-0.029914354905486107,
-0.6855461001396179,
-0.48850882053375244,
0.9353541731834412,
-0.3078058958053589,
-0.5667859315872192,
0.18585620820522308,
-0.4760669469833374,
-0.12186497449874878,
-0.6477741003036499,
-0.4553266763687134,
-0.20232895016670227,
0.0001202502753585577,
-0.4574532210826874,
-0.5535939335823059,
-0.2726816236972809,
0.08929651975631714,
-0.15039169788360596,
-0.11497222632169724,
0.18730445206165314,
-0.054810356348752975,
-0.012419043108820915,
0.08086095750331879,
0.06388194859027863,
-1.1904261112213135,
0.111466184258461,
-0.02421577461063862,
0.1942492127418518,
-0.05864496901631355,
-0.2726133465766907,
0.013850553892552853,
-0.3403495252132416,
-0.48600298166275024,
-0.24811974167823792,
0.15315395593643188,
-0.8109610676765442,
0.05344881862401962,
0.4920245409011841,
-0.6958586573600769,
0.5539553761482239,
0.17473725974559784,
-0.04256366938352585,
0.7043343186378479,
0.4034743309020996,
0.28648078441619873,
0.014882217161357403,
1.0696064233779907,
0.7472851276397705,
-0.3843640387058258,
0.1839471459388733,
-0.4505123794078827,
0.11961376667022705,
0.7807188630104065,
-0.031859103590250015,
0.6530078649520874,
-0.09921418875455856,
-0.03816349059343338,
0.3287178575992584,
0.49890005588531494,
0.33534926176071167,
-0.06226387619972229,
-0.50025874376297,
-0.7282466888427734,
1.0824307203292847,
0.682891845703125,
0.007050857879221439,
0.6719475984573364,
0.3401627242565155,
-0.07104035466909409,
0.059977561235427856,
-0.2865382730960846,
-0.18521924316883087,
0.2627840042114258,
-0.7634341716766357,
-0.10449705272912979,
0.26285290718078613,
-0.33812838792800903,
-0.7519741654396057,
0.3145234286785126,
0.706399142742157,
-0.007705959025770426,
-0.0077951145358383656,
-0.3577406704425812,
0.36460039019584656,
-0.031473349779844284,
0.11876196414232254,
0.014765002764761448,
0.2919102609157562,
-0.9978434443473816,
0.5996017456054688,
-0.7968548536300659,
-0.8032919764518738,
-0.5315221548080444,
-0.11870865523815155,
-0.3373405635356903,
-0.049722570925951004,
-0.1216723695397377,
-0.1102665513753891,
0.10576959699392319,
0.4719826579093933,
-0.38826701045036316,
0.6974397301673889,
0.04858606308698654,
0.33660078048706055,
-0.40911421179771423,
-0.029399489983916283,
0.27944380044937134,
-0.8695723414421082,
0.14415529370307922,
-0.03219802305102348,
-0.5224453210830688,
-0.5216154456138611,
-0.2038726657629013,
-0.03768725320696831,
-0.2845262885093689,
-0.7311806082725525,
-0.19614477455615997,
-0.54705411195755,
0.11113487184047699,
-0.20870564877986908,
0.5780667662620544,
1.3596563339233398,
0.2565470039844513,
0.12387362122535706,
0.33503666520118713,
-0.12790662050247192,
-0.06596790999174118,
-0.31745317578315735,
-0.22547076642513275,
0.45869678258895874,
-0.675839364528656,
0.15937328338623047,
-0.8584140539169312,
0.4691401422023773,
0.6286869645118713,
0.36767053604125977,
-0.13293632864952087,
-0.11135914921760559,
0.4729791581630707,
0.6618467569351196,
0.7554467916488647,
-0.30243533849716187,
-0.27035632729530334,
-0.3770004212856293,
0.05337490141391754,
-0.4879111051559448,
0.41117188334465027,
0.16976909339427948,
0.519432783126831,
0.09793750196695328,
0.5588733553886414,
-0.0015331129543483257,
-0.6451955437660217,
0.4214121997356415,
-0.36811742186546326,
-0.057232774794101715,
-0.37268301844596863,
-0.3647313416004181,
-0.3056434094905853,
-0.8137426972389221,
0.4147849678993225,
0.4327545464038849,
0.008784881792962551,
-0.12318155169487,
0.18610897660255432,
-0.24738973379135132,
0.1358262151479721,
-0.44767820835113525,
0.2933354377746582,
0.2447560429573059,
0.22762762010097504,
-1.0798779726028442,
-0.46581676602363586,
0.15717774629592896,
-0.026888616383075714,
-0.2829473912715912,
0.27487367391586304,
-0.2175169587135315,
-0.17795108258724213,
0.6357424259185791,
0.46258506178855896,
-0.7658053040504456,
0.23441429436206818,
-0.5100260972976685
] |
241629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing%20mix | Marketing mix | The term "marketing mix" is a foundation model for businesses, historically centered around product, price, place, and promotion (also known as the "4 Ps"). The marketing mix has been defined as the "set of marketing tools that the firm uses to pursue its marketing objectives in the target market".
Marketing theory emerged in the early twenty-first century. The contemporary marketing mix which has become the dominant framework for marketing management decisions was first published in 1984. In services marketing, an extended marketing mix is used, typically comprising 7 Ps, made up of the original 4 Ps extended by process, people and physical evidence. Occasionally service marketers will refer to 8 Ps, comprising these 7 Ps plus performance.
In the 1990s, the model of 4 Cs was introduced as a more customer-driven replacement of the 4 Ps.
There are two theories based on 4 Cs: Lauterborn's 4 Cs (consumer, cost, convenience, and communication), and Shimizu's 4 Cs (commodity, cost, channel, and communication).
Given the valuation of customers towards potential product attributes (in any category, e.g. product, promotion, etc.), and the attributes of the products sold by other companies, the problem of selecting the attributes of a product to maximize the number of customers preferring it is a computationally intractable problem.
The correct arrangement of marketing mix by enterprise marketing managers plays an important role in the success of a company's marketing:
develop strengths and avoid weaknesses
strengthen the competitiveness and adaptability of enterprises
ensure the internal departments of the enterprise work closely together
Emergence and growth
The origins of the 4 Ps can be traced to the late 1940s. The first known mention of a mix has been attributed to a Professor of Marketing at Harvard University, Prof. James Culliton. In 1948, Culliton published an article entitled, The Management of Marketing Costs in which Culliton describes marketers as 'mixers of ingredients'. Some years later, Culliton's colleague, Professor Neil Borden, published a retrospective article detailing the early history of the marketing mix in which he claims that he was inspired by Culliton's idea of 'mixers', and credits himself with popularising the concept of the 'marketing mix'. According to Borden's account, he used the term, 'marketing mix' consistently from the late 1940s. For instance, he is known to have used the term 'marketing mix' in his presidential address given to the American Marketing Association in 1953.
Although the idea of marketers as 'mixers of ingredients' caught on, marketers could not reach any real consensus about what elements should be included in the mix until the 1960s. The 4 Ps, in its modern form, was first proposed in 1960 by E. Jerome McCarthy; who presented them within a managerial approach that covered analysis, consumer behavior, market research, market segmentation, and planning. Phillip Kotler, popularised this approach and helped spread the 4 Ps model. McCarthy's 4 Ps have been widely adopted by both marketing academics and practitioners.
The prospect of extending the marketing mix first took hold at the inaugural AMA Conference dedicated to Services Marketing in the early 1980s, and built on earlier theoretical works pointing to many important limitations of the 4 Ps model. Taken collectively, the papers presented at that conference indicate that service marketers were thinking about a revision to the general marketing mix based on an understanding that services were fundamentally different from products, and therefore required different tools and strategies. In 1981, Booms and Bitner proposed a model of 7 Ps, comprising the original 4 Ps extended by process, people and physical evidence, as being more applicable for services marketing.
Since then, there have been a number of different proposals for a service marketing mix (with various numbers of Ps); most notably the 8 Ps, comprising the 7 Ps above, extended by 'performance'.
McCarthy's 4 Ps
The original marketing mix, or 4 Ps, as originally proposed by marketer and academic Philip Kotler & E. Jerome McCarthy, provides a framework for marketing decision-making. McCarthy's marketing mix has since become one of the most enduring and widely accepted frameworks in marketing.
Table 1: Brief Outline of 4 Ps
Product refers to what the business offers for sale and may include products or services. Product decisions include the "quality, features, benefits, style, design, branding, packaging, services, warranties, guarantees, life cycles, investments and returns".
Price refers to decisions surrounding "list pricing, discount pricing, special offer pricing, credit payment or credit terms". Price refers to the total cost to customer to acquire the product, and may involve both monetary and psychological costs such as the time and effort spent in acquisition. Distribution channels are taken into consideration that includes retailer, wholesaler, Business to Business OR Business to Customer .
Place is defined as the "direct or indirect channels to market, geographical distribution, territorial coverage, retail outlet, market location, catalogues, inventory, logistics, and order fulfillment". Place refers either to the physical location where a business carries out business or the distribution channels used to reach markets. Place may refer to a retail outlet, but increasingly refers to virtual stores such as "a mail order catalogue, a telephone call centre or a website. Example, firms that produce luxury goods like Louis Vuitton employ an intensive placement strategy by making their products available at only a few exclusive retailers. In contrast, lower priced consumer goods like toothpaste and shampoo, typically employ an extensive placement strategy by making their products available to as many different retailers as possible."
Promotion refers to "the marketing communication used to make the offer known to potential customers and persuade them to investigate it further". Promotion elements include "advertising, public relations, direct selling and sales promotions."
Modified and expanded marketing mix: "Seven P's"
By the 1980s, a number of theorists were calling for an expanded and modified framework that would be more useful to service marketers. The prospect of expanding or modifying the marketing mix for services was a core discussion topic at the inaugural AMA Conference dedicated to Services Marketing in the early 1980s, and built on earlier theoretical works pointing to many important problems and limitations of the 4 Ps model. Taken collectively, the papers presented at that conference indicate that service marketers were thinking about a revision to the general marketing mix based on an understanding that services were fundamentally different from products, and therefore required different tools and strategies. In 1981, Booms and Bitner proposed a model of 7 Ps, comprising the original 4 Ps plus process, people and physical evidence, as being more applicable for services marketing.
Table 2: Outline of the Modified and Expanded Marketing Mix
People are essential in the marketing of any product or service. Personnel stand for the service. In the professional, financial, or hospitality service industry, people are not producers, but rather the products themselves. When people are the product, they impact public perception of an organization as much as any tangible consumer goods. From a marketing management perspective, it is important to ensure that employees represent the company in alignment with broader messaging strategies. This is easier to ensure when people feel as though they have been treated fairly and earn wages sufficient to support their daily lives.
Process refers to a "set of activities that results in delivery of the product benefits". A process could be a sequential order of tasks that an employee undertakes as a part of their job. It can represent sequential steps taken by a number of various employees while attempting to complete a task. Some people are responsible for managing multiple processes at once. For example, a restaurant manager should monitor the performance of employees, ensuring that processes are followed. They are also expected to supervise while customers are promptly greeted, seated, fed, and led out so that the next customer can begin this process.
Physical evidence refers to the non-human elements of the service encounter, including equipment, furniture and facilities. It may also refer to the more abstract components of the environment in which the service encounter occurs including interior design, colour schemes and layout. Some aspects of physical evidence provide lasting proof that the service has occurred, such as souvenirs, mementos, invoices and other livery of artifacts. According to Booms and Bitner's framework, the physical evidence is "the service delivered and any tangible goods that facilitate the performance and communication of the service". Physical evidence is important to customers because the tangible goods are evidence that the seller has (or has not) provided what the customer was expecting.
Lauterborn's 4 Cs (1990)
Robert F. Lauterborn proposed a 4 Cs classification in 1990. His classification is a more consumer-orientated version of the 4 Ps that attempts to better fit the movement from mass marketing to niche marketing:
Shimizu's 4 Cs: in the 7Cs Compass Model
After Koichi Shimizu proposed a 4 Cs classification in 1973, it was expanded to the 7Cs Compass Model to provide a more complete picture of the nature of marketing in 1979. The 7Cs Compass Model is a framework of co-marketing (commensal marketing or Symbiotic marketing). Also the Co-creative marketing of a company and consumers are contained in the co-marketing. Co-marketing (collaborate marketing) is a marketing practice where two companies cooperate with separate distribution channels, sometimes including profit sharing. It is frequently confused with co-promotion. Also commensal (symbiotic) marketing is a marketing on which both corporation and a corporation, a corporation and a consumer, country and a country, human and nature can live.
The 7Cs Compass Model comprises:
(C1) Corporation – The core of 4 Cs is corporation (company and non profit organization). C-O-S (competitor, organization, stakeholder) within the corporation. The company has to think of compliance and accountability as important. The competition in the areas in which the company competes with other firms in its industry.
The 4 elements in the 7Cs Compass Model are:
A formal approach to this customer-focused marketing mix is known as 4 Cs (commodity, cost, channel, communication) in the 7 Cs Compass Model. The 4 Cs model provides a demand/customer centric version alternative to the well-known 4 Ps supply side model (product, price, place, promotion) of marketing management.
Product → Commodity
Price → Cost
Place → Channel
Promotion → Communication
The compass of consumers and circumstances (environment) are:
(C6) Consumer – (Needle of compass to consumer)
The factors related to consumers can be explained by the first character of four directions marked on the compass model. These can be remembered by the cardinal directions, hence the name compass model:
N = Needs
S = Security
E = Education: (consumer education)
W = Wants
(C7) Circumstances – (Needle of compass to circumstances )
In addition to the consumer, there are various uncontrollable external environmental factors encircling the companies. Here it can also be explained by the first character of the four directions marked on the compass model:
N = National and International (Political, legal and ethical) environment
S = Social and cultural
E = Economic
W = Weather
These can also be remembered by the cardinal directions marked on a compass. The 7 Cs Compass Model is a framework in co-marketing (symbiotic marketing).
It has been criticized for being little more than the 4 Ps with different points of emphasis. In particular, the 7 Cs inclusion of consumers in the marketing mix is criticized, since they are a target of marketing, while the other elements of the marketing mix are tactics. The 7 Cs also include numerous strategies for product development, distribution, and pricing, while assuming that consumers want two-way communications with companies.
An alternative approach has been suggested in a book called Service 7''' by Australian Author, Peter Bowman. Bowman suggests a values based approach to service marketing activities. Bowman suggests implementing seven service marketing principles which include value, business development, reputation, customer service and service design. Service 7 has been widely distributed within Australia.
Digital Marketing MixDigital marketing mix is fundamentally the same as Marketing Mix, which is an adaptation of Product, Price, Place and Promotion into digital marketing aspect. Digital marketing can be commonly explained as 'Achieving marketing objectives through applying digital technologies'.ProductThanks to the interaction and connection of the Internet, Product has been redefined as 'virtual product' in the digital marketing aspect, which is regarded as the combination of tangibility and intangibility. Through the form of digital, a product can be directly sent from manufacturers to customers. For example, customers could buy music in the form of an MP3 rather than buy it in the form of a physical CD. As a result, when a company is making strategy for Internet marketing, it is necessary to understand how to vary their products in the online environment. Here are some indications of adapt the product element on the Internet.
Modifying the core product: In this case, it particularly refers to the products that can be remodeled into digital forms including movies, music, books and other publishing etc. Take Netflix as an example. The wide use of Internet has changed its form of products from selling and renting DVDs through retail stores into selling and renting video online.
Providing digital products: In order to gain market shares in the Internet, companies need to widen its product range. For example, a psychological counseling could offer online consultation via video calls.
Building the whole product: Apart from selling products online, Amazon.com also provides a paid subscription service called Amazon Prime, with which customers could enjoy free delivery and videos on Amazon.
Conducting online research: The Internet offers a low-cost and convenient way of making marketing researches, which is helpful for companies to find out what products or services do customers prefer.PricePrice concerns about the pricing policies or pricing models from a company. Due to the wide use of the Internet, many applications could be found in both consumer's and producer's perspective. From consumers' side, the Internet enables people to make a comparison to real-time prices before they make a consumption decision, which is time-saving and effort-saving for the consumers. As for the suppliers, they can adjust prices in the real-time and provide higher degree of price transparency with customers. Besides, the Internet is more likely to ease the pressure on price because online-producers do not have to put budget on renting a physical store. Hence, making new or adjusting pricing strategies is essential for the company that wants to enter the Internet market.
Pricing strategies and tactics see also: PricingPlaceWith the application of the Internet, place is playing an increasingly important role in promoting consumption since the Internet and the physical channels become virtual. The major contribution from the Internet to the business is not only making it possible to selling products online, but also enabling companies to build relationships with customers. Furthermore, since the convenience of navigating from one site to another, place from the digital marketing perspective is always linked with promotion, which means retailers often use third-party websites such as Google search engine to guide customers to visit their websites.PromotionPromotion''' refers to selecting the target markets, locating and integrating various communication tools in the marketing mix. Unlike the traditional marketing communication tools, tools in digital marketing aim at engaging audiences by putting advertisements and content on the social media, including display ads, pay-per-click (PPC), search engine optimisation (SEO), influencers etc. When creating online marketing campaigns, Chaffey and Smith suggested that they can be separated into six groups:
Search marketing, including search engine optimisation(SEO), pay-per-click(PPC).
Online PR, encouraging positive comments about one's products or services while reducing negative comments.
Online partnerships, building relationships between third-party webs to promote products or services.
Interactive advertising
Opt-in e-mail advertising
Social media marketing, starting and participating in customer to customer, customer to company interaction through social media.
Difficulty of computational methods
Automatically selecting the attributes of a product (in any category, i.e. product, promotion, etc.) to maximize the number of customers preferring the resulting product is a computationally intractable problem. Given some customer profiles (i.e., customers sharing some features such as e.g. gender, age, income, etc.), the valuations they give to each potential product attribute (e.g. females aged 35–45 give a 3 out of 5 valuation to "it is green"; males aged 25–35 give 4/5 to "it can be paid in installments"; etc.), the attributes of the products sold by the other producers, and the attributes each producer can give to its products, the problem of deciding the attributes of our product to maximize the number of customers who will prefer it is Poly-APX-complete. This implies that, under the standard computational assumption, no efficient algorithm can guarantee that the ratio between the number of customers preferring the product returned by the algorithm and the number of customers that would prefer the actual optimal product will always reach some constant, for any constant. Moreover, the problem of finding a strategy such that, for any strategy of the other producers, our product will always reach some minimum average number of customers over some period of time is an EXPTIME-complete problem, meaning that it cannot be efficiently solved. However, heuristic (sub-optimal) solutions to these problems can be found by means of genetic algorithms, particle swarm optimization methods, or minimax algorithms.
See also
Advertising
Co-creation
E. Jerome McCarthy
Marketing
References
Further reading
Four P's, Four C's And The Consumer Revolution
External links
Four P's, Four C's And The Consumer Revolution
What is Intensive Distribution? In Hindi
Marketing techniques | [
0.7048488259315491,
0.3183143734931946,
0.5391703248023987,
0.07007497549057007,
-0.19600781798362732,
0.029345307499170303,
-0.1420915126800537,
-0.04223588854074478,
0.11307450383901596,
-0.4191396236419678,
-0.317457377910614,
0.859725832939148,
0.06561000645160675,
0.10324562340974808,
-0.32868385314941406,
0.10676848888397217,
0.1246776133775711,
0.5350614786148071,
0.23943088948726654,
-0.13624411821365356,
-0.7477238774299622,
-0.07208192348480225,
-0.11203788220882416,
-0.12130721658468246,
0.5055574774742126,
0.3922606110572815,
0.24867986142635345,
-0.02091527171432972,
-0.0854790061712265,
0.1540980190038681,
0.12504807114601135,
0.40529096126556396,
-0.11978986859321594,
0.010699905455112457,
-0.344005823135376,
-0.17617595195770264,
-0.07972176373004913,
0.07168813794851303,
-0.3903430700302124,
-0.7009296417236328,
-0.4606052041053772,
-0.08314712345600128,
0.3023059666156769,
0.05668546259403229,
-0.3210396468639374,
-0.3092708885669708,
-1.7936676740646362,
0.0035056674387305975,
-0.7212646007537842,
-0.1013709232211113,
-0.5690222382545471,
0.10961794853210449,
-0.2942187786102295,
0.409811407327652,
-0.14136800169944763,
0.7091171741485596,
-0.33755433559417725,
-0.05038008838891983,
-0.11416522413492203,
-0.4620627462863922,
0.23071372509002686,
0.12726908922195435,
0.2708292007446289,
-0.09953727573156357,
0.3181753158569336,
-0.5425980687141418,
-0.31935393810272217,
0.6023669838905334,
-0.38566893339157104,
-0.32962170243263245,
-0.4103798270225525,
-0.4555143415927887,
0.028584914281964302,
-0.015575096942484379,
-0.7980079054832458,
0.016061879694461823,
0.05001368373632431,
0.21617406606674194,
-0.02088133804500103,
-0.05716506391763687,
-0.6493551135063171,
0.2334025651216507,
0.14571833610534668,
-0.30173519253730774,
0.6546580791473389,
0.1559096723794937,
0.3743848204612732,
0.27473318576812744,
-0.15074357390403748,
0.761755645275116,
0.3107820749282837,
-0.3315645456314087,
0.7446414232254028,
-0.14845837652683258,
0.19355399906635284,
-0.2871498167514801,
0.3082815408706665,
0.09644875675439835,
0.027542736381292343,
0.2831527590751648,
-0.24429120123386383,
0.3893949091434479,
0.06703411042690277,
0.032369934022426605,
-0.07690183073282242,
-0.12583467364311218,
0.0334995836019516,
-1.0348196029663086,
-0.15598639845848083,
-0.08141420781612396,
-0.20888657867908478,
0.07816440612077713,
-0.12618380784988403,
0.5571792721748352,
-0.2617439031600952,
0.4232122600078583,
-0.13917209208011627,
0.3480450212955475,
-0.3751017153263092,
0.17639119923114777,
0.5238472819328308,
0.7740750312805176,
-0.26758861541748047,
-0.4932335317134857,
0.19780537486076355,
0.1076313778758049,
0.04397157207131386,
0.47168999910354614,
-0.47630634903907776,
-0.09043517708778381,
0.2680318057537079,
0.31920596957206726,
0.024283532053232193,
-0.2415597140789032,
-0.5636928677558899,
-0.18971003592014313,
0.6946980953216553,
-0.08843354880809784,
0.18020902574062347,
-0.2966162860393524,
-0.6032049655914307,
-0.543997585773468,
-0.22561830282211304,
-0.35812345147132874,
0.202314093708992,
-0.2709213197231293,
0.21772873401641846,
-0.7839288115501404,
-0.38228076696395874,
-0.02250388264656067,
0.03403405845165253,
0.3336414396762848,
-0.13342268764972687,
-0.14424757659435272,
0.3625693619251251,
0.7029206156730652,
0.3720189034938812,
-0.4220716953277588,
-0.2182125747203827,
0.07119588553905487,
0.10270234197378159,
-0.03161172941327095,
-0.08170370757579803,
-0.3334408402442932,
0.02519584260880947,
-0.5572369694709778,
0.07478948682546616,
0.46070048213005066,
0.05507953464984894,
0.055403053760528564,
-0.016635991632938385,
0.0401667058467865,
-0.20949961245059967,
0.14297237992286682,
0.5509473085403442,
0.030226096510887146,
0.6657159924507141,
0.4850092828273773,
0.8513613343238831,
-0.01469934917986393,
-0.6743764281272888,
0.24622447788715363,
0.33190757036209106,
-0.7288813591003418,
0.14686265587806702,
-0.41277870535850525,
0.5408679246902466,
-0.364055335521698,
-0.007572549860924482,
0.04316578060388565,
-0.33246514201164246,
-0.42740949988365173,
0.21558654308319092,
-0.837448239326477,
0.9077240824699402,
-0.35394495725631714,
-0.31747084856033325,
0.40933236479759216,
0.16323426365852356,
-0.28894490003585815,
-0.007107351440936327,
0.08146322518587112,
-0.15589332580566406,
-0.33801111578941345,
-0.22104217112064362,
0.35969388484954834,
0.3767032325267792,
-0.04134942218661308,
0.07195859402418137,
0.11447178572416306,
-0.013296671211719513,
-0.1534879207611084,
0.30206283926963806,
-0.6489413976669312,
0.3880169987678528,
-0.07800435274839401,
-0.317955881357193,
0.6629493832588196,
0.049628302454948425,
0.02756538614630699,
0.9778184294700623,
-0.21323463320732117,
-0.41330572962760925,
0.4853803217411041,
-0.07106704264879227,
0.15691927075386047,
0.5491256713867188,
-0.29105228185653687,
0.43152186274528503,
-0.32715359330177307,
0.3403918743133545,
0.14952388405799866,
0.1929011195898056,
-0.563788890838623,
-0.40595024824142456,
0.10501138120889664,
-0.011500915512442589,
-0.06961815804243088,
-0.376497745513916,
-0.40757066011428833,
0.03261962905526161,
0.2529471218585968,
-0.7406225204467773,
0.15905341506004333,
-0.28624042868614197,
0.03412877023220062,
-0.25627225637435913,
0.28296175599098206,
-0.4272468686103821,
0.32657939195632935,
0.12410801649093628,
0.22013460099697113,
0.6506112813949585,
-0.55170077085495,
0.044977858662605286,
-0.08205448091030121,
-0.1873510330915451,
-0.0926411971449852,
0.14844602346420288,
-0.06840243190526962,
-0.04381671920418739,
-0.02642691880464554,
-0.2717137634754181,
0.11725027859210968,
0.19862248003482819,
-0.3383522033691406,
-0.4595225155353546,
0.027113627642393112,
-0.2110368013381958,
0.20989438891410828,
0.5530269742012024,
-0.02097245305776596,
-0.15897105634212494,
-0.06791923195123672,
0.005195350386202335,
-0.9039279222488403,
0.6527655124664307,
-0.3526444435119629,
-0.1626078337430954,
-0.5441750288009644,
-0.02922995574772358,
0.3590635359287262,
0.32036861777305603,
-0.4164409935474396,
0.09114844352006912,
-0.5587927103042603,
-0.03004191443324089,
-0.10767815262079239,
0.16414758563041687,
-0.08252085000276566,
-0.16453543305397034,
0.16405031085014343,
-0.17169849574565887,
-0.04092034325003624,
0.5590343475341797,
0.27411240339279175,
-0.3660036027431488,
0.541463315486908,
0.10486629605293274,
0.13976311683654785,
0.03848777338862419,
0.10733945667743683,
-0.09378726035356522,
-0.2855774760246277,
0.1367321014404297,
-0.23259367048740387,
-0.314579576253891,
0.10310892015695572,
-6.0363311767578125,
-0.2960363030433655,
-0.02564006857573986,
-0.2758471965789795,
0.40015146136283875,
-0.281578004360199,
0.5342720150947571,
-0.11677083373069763,
0.30059054493904114,
0.4091002345085144,
-0.32514795660972595,
-0.13848033547401428,
-0.2693469822406769,
0.2457459568977356,
0.44568324089050293,
0.44912055134773254,
0.6521823406219482,
0.03952008858323097,
0.4965229034423828,
0.49943530559539795,
-0.18185679614543915,
-0.06468610465526581,
0.08188272267580032,
0.8594793081283569,
-0.3145354688167572,
-0.30633780360221863,
-0.5336681604385376,
0.28362223505973816,
-0.49060145020484924,
0.41425222158432007,
-0.029247578233480453,
-0.0396709069609642,
-0.4925033450126648,
0.01900411769747734,
0.17988274991512299,
-0.25440713763237,
0.4972354769706726,
0.044024426490068436,
0.25131988525390625,
-0.3135591447353363,
0.16488434374332428,
0.6267646551132202,
-0.2326604276895523,
-0.1927846223115921,
0.3819277286529541,
-0.347926527261734,
-0.22524960339069366,
-0.27062392234802246,
-0.6881694793701172,
0.33493274450302124,
0.2135932743549347,
-0.08460721373558044,
0.01015328336507082,
-0.44287413358688354,
0.39109310507774353,
-0.15843565762043,
0.9173773527145386,
-0.14029575884342194,
-0.3407042920589447,
0.423934668302536,
0.6887890100479126,
-0.5022059679031372,
-0.11560007184743881,
-0.030921446159482002,
-0.32260119915008545,
-0.017560692504048347,
-0.5664709806442261,
-0.7940143942832947,
0.15258048474788666,
-0.03783303126692772,
-0.2072203904390335,
0.41014808416366577,
-0.1438995748758316,
-0.5725423693656921,
0.22049689292907715,
0.008355318568646908,
0.411795049905777,
0.30020269751548767,
0.8238653540611267,
0.29905253648757935,
-0.009775472804903984,
-0.08975514769554138,
0.182478129863739,
-0.2519294321537018,
-0.08742105960845947,
-0.12260410934686661,
0.10126721113920212,
0.7184900045394897,
-0.18004904687404633,
-0.02244572527706623,
0.5393756628036499,
0.07786695659160614,
0.2137460857629776,
0.5457679033279419,
-0.0342710055410862,
0.15447627007961273,
0.3011767566204071,
0.2631661891937256,
-0.2805601954460144,
-0.6130164861679077,
0.5953185558319092,
-0.3075520694255829,
-0.604785680770874,
-0.1713106632232666,
0.013332580216228962,
-0.15386863052845,
-0.1915377974510193,
0.22674570977687836,
0.6628973484039307,
-0.1821122020483017,
0.3461863696575165,
0.9694716334342957,
-0.6272614598274231,
-0.07607583701610565,
0.5257659554481506,
0.26956501603126526,
-1.0697567462921143,
0.50901859998703,
0.30512186884880066,
0.10700102150440216,
0.16059182584285736,
-0.08283214271068573,
-0.47006914019584656,
0.10991638898849487,
-0.19074486196041107,
-0.6020964980125427,
-0.2604874074459076,
0.34140029549598694,
-0.4153493642807007,
0.09178762882947922,
0.7872242331504822,
-0.004708854481577873,
0.16354937851428986,
-0.33616724610328674,
0.24932703375816345,
-0.15523232519626617,
0.19213901460170746,
0.18832948803901672,
-0.21566706895828247,
-0.7155290842056274,
0.2848208248615265,
0.25904884934425354,
0.354765385389328,
0.09111339598894119,
0.3956599235534668,
0.1287148892879486,
-0.7554895281791687,
0.057477936148643494,
0.07398466020822525,
-0.14488081634044647,
0.09623401612043381,
0.13675042986869812,
0.11062397807836533,
-0.32547256350517273,
-0.10513903200626373,
-0.15858645737171173,
0.1675005704164505,
-0.0405648835003376,
0.129545196890831,
-0.726525068283081,
0.2524834871292114,
-0.2878042161464691,
-1.4042505025863647,
0.16520465910434723,
-0.037791501730680466,
0.2587791681289673,
-0.6618600487709045,
-0.16614492237567902,
0.22694997489452362,
0.3050041198730469,
0.38222536444664,
-0.5424044132232666,
-0.7675535082817078,
-0.6790751218795776,
0.14765726029872894,
-0.010587302036583424,
0.514701783657074,
-0.1893143206834793,
0.1773899495601654,
-0.1617092341184616,
-0.06728173792362213,
-0.7208329439163208,
-0.5528255701065063,
-0.012188667431473732,
0.04592391848564148,
0.0064058369025588036,
-0.2978077530860901,
0.34758248925209045,
-0.5646031498908997,
-0.22236622869968414,
-0.1933514028787613,
0.11729272454977036,
0.6000983119010925,
0.369591623544693,
-0.07001496106386185,
-0.6818471550941467,
0.0259441789239645,
0.475564181804657,
-0.39979287981987,
-0.5962705612182617,
-0.0510515496134758,
0.6107832789421082,
-0.5914753675460815,
-0.048633359372615814,
0.5711068511009216,
-0.3417899012565613,
0.18330375850200653,
0.3446580469608307,
-0.15923437476158142,
0.20041443407535553,
-0.09975769370794296,
-0.27224311232566833,
-1.0507348775863647,
-0.06417921185493469,
-0.1919238120317459,
-0.4644424319267273,
-0.16311319172382355,
-0.29140445590019226,
0.14465799927711487,
0.07124347239732742,
0.6455109715461731,
-0.34555551409721375,
-0.8317060470581055,
0.32185426354408264,
-0.22855988144874573,
0.34142646193504333,
0.1700512170791626,
-0.24606633186340332,
0.003981797490268946,
-0.01188250444829464,
0.1174691766500473,
0.009942588396370411,
-0.12594576179981232,
0.6514069437980652,
0.007468399126082659,
-0.16780398786067963,
-0.5489251613616943,
0.8052707314491272,
0.21452374756336212,
-0.48227497935295105,
-0.6737596392631531,
0.4057726562023163,
0.09911096096038818,
-0.2710626721382141,
0.11239416897296906,
0.39155933260917664,
0.20355993509292603,
-0.45071491599082947,
-0.652630627155304,
0.10416010767221451,
0.07492590695619583,
-0.5735611915588379,
-0.3122762143611908,
0.1391785442829132,
0.5041311979293823,
-0.3004872500896454,
-0.3385578989982605,
-0.2607135474681854,
-0.12834365665912628,
0.3464915156364441,
-0.08709689974784851,
0.33658596873283386,
-0.44488126039505005,
-0.02719706855714321,
0.592880368232727,
0.39908263087272644,
-0.28399887681007385,
-0.18840773403644562,
-0.3422238230705261,
-0.44225871562957764,
0.49001941084861755,
0.07275280356407166,
0.38390880823135376,
1.1802059412002563,
0.935655415058136,
0.022349994629621506,
0.09697043150663376,
-0.2376152127981186,
-0.09473026543855667,
-0.09828420728445053,
-0.13499149680137634,
-0.38030460476875305,
0.25118744373321533,
-0.09384068846702576,
0.7399217486381531,
-0.7599168419837952,
0.10414941608905792,
-0.1424744427204132,
-0.3719203770160675,
0.00007208638271549717,
-0.356965571641922,
0.4930717945098877,
0.10198602825403214,
-0.03905677795410156,
-0.7069609761238098,
-0.1166752278804779,
0.4635763168334961,
-0.3082667589187622,
-0.028552666306495667,
0.46866169571876526,
0.09690697491168976,
0.5180241465568542,
0.08331941068172455,
-0.4509526491165161,
0.6468551754951477,
0.340251624584198,
-0.17845629155635834,
-0.7180356979370117,
-0.06521579623222351,
-0.40171757340431213,
-0.12117210030555725,
-0.1301811933517456,
0.24382269382476807,
0.2897626757621765,
-0.3043891191482544,
0.05565881356596947,
0.5120120048522949,
-0.5945208668708801,
0.8411126732826233,
0.5125200152397156,
-0.01090802438557148,
-0.0458373948931694,
0.5102398991584778,
-0.3058253228664398,
0.1794148087501526,
0.18199031054973602,
-0.12849554419517517,
-0.09793103486299515,
0.25930553674697876,
-0.09114973992109299,
0.36559802293777466,
0.5249504446983337,
-0.42167937755584717,
0.36019253730773926,
-0.03312740474939346,
-0.2168634533882141,
0.1626502126455307,
-0.4771261215209961,
-0.08680831640958786,
0.5635185837745667,
0.4327743351459503,
0.4538135528564453,
0.33216771483421326,
0.18689222633838654,
-0.0787690207362175,
-0.03060121275484562,
0.31347137689590454,
0.040680158883333206,
-0.5865309238433838,
0.6970885396003723,
-0.2683928310871124,
-0.37766459584236145,
0.19946444034576416,
-0.42548638582229614,
-0.0728393942117691,
-0.47318270802497864,
0.2950373888015747,
0.24159739911556244,
0.09637963026762009,
-0.12822474539279938,
0.5075187087059021,
0.4586835205554962,
0.11318230628967285,
-0.26750990748405457,
0.2732030749320984,
-0.09754746407270432,
0.3839327394962311,
-0.22603002190589905,
0.04530613496899605,
0.9160512089729309,
-0.3345177471637726,
0.4049597382545471,
-0.17483164370059967,
0.54322350025177,
0.02526903711259365,
0.250527948141098,
0.4319528043270111,
0.24784640967845917,
0.03967967629432678,
0.4567825496196747,
-0.09441404789686203,
0.1342858374118805,
-0.22882802784442902,
0.032468970865011215,
-0.046758368611335754,
0.17221984267234802,
-0.41891881823539734,
0.1845923662185669,
-0.1402597576379776,
0.11874527484178543,
-0.052014101296663284,
-0.3200346827507019,
0.1914256066083908,
0.12524628639221191,
-0.1252620965242386,
0.32543161511421204,
-0.0780978724360466,
0.5920263528823853,
0.10105344653129578,
-0.12458597868680954,
-0.19104047119617462,
0.5026971101760864,
-0.2407492846250534,
0.2078694850206375,
-0.07594416290521622,
0.033663976937532425,
-0.5470749735832214,
-0.010827440768480301,
-0.21208742260932922,
0.29883578419685364,
0.3487878739833832,
-0.4735688269138336,
-0.17124062776565552,
-0.1652836799621582,
0.006638864986598492,
0.2705937325954437,
0.5944109559059143,
-0.10890469700098038,
-0.01157964114099741,
-0.38455772399902344,
0.14842525124549866,
0.12534600496292114,
0.07454991340637207,
0.1509178727865219,
-0.13083478808403015,
0.5368094444274902,
0.05670527368783951,
0.06311112642288208,
-0.6304090023040771,
0.48492032289505005,
-0.33018958568573,
-0.2130519449710846,
-0.6878783702850342,
0.4199022352695465,
-0.305956095457077,
-0.17515194416046143,
-0.004454007372260094,
0.33473914861679077,
0.3726513087749481,
-0.23488233983516693,
0.20206470787525177,
-0.061915311962366104,
0.013030650094151497,
-0.13675610721111298,
-1.1192528009414673,
0.46819552779197693,
0.37233591079711914,
0.018534516915678978,
-0.424248069524765,
0.6481703519821167,
0.25078463554382324,
-0.8191594481468201,
-0.3036545515060425,
0.1582929641008377,
-0.1375000774860382,
0.40637490153312683,
-0.040410351008176804,
-0.7398229837417603,
-0.12395605444908142,
0.2281554639339447
] |
241636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao%20Cao | Cao Cao | Cao Cao (; ; ; 155 – 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde (), was a Chinese poet, statesman, and warlord. He was the penultimate grand chancellor of the Eastern Han dynasty who rose to great power in the final years of the dynasty. As one of the central figures of the Three Kingdoms period, he laid the foundations for what was to become the state of Cao Wei and was posthumously honoured as "Emperor Wu of Wei" although he never officially claimed the title Emperor of China or proclaimed himself "Son of Heaven" during his lifetime. He remains a controversial historical figure, and is often portrayed as a cruel and merciless tyrant in subsequent literature; however, he has also been praised as a brilliant ruler, military genius, and great poet with unrivalled charisma who treated his subordinates like his family.
During the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty, Cao Cao was able to secure most of Northern China - the most populated and developed part of China. Cao Cao was also very successful in restoring public order and rebuilding the economy as the grand chancellor; however his manipulation of Emperor Xian as a puppet and figurehead was heavily criticised, with state affairs effectively being controlled by Cao Cao instead of the emperor himself. Opposition directly gathered around warlords Liu Bei and Sun Quan, whom Cao Cao was unable to quell.
Cao Cao was also skilled in poetry, calligraphy and martial arts and wrote many war journals including remarks added to The Art of War written by Sun Tzu.
Early life
Cao Cao was born in Qiao, Principality of Pei (present-day Bozhou, Anhui), in 155. His father Cao Song was a foster son of Cao Teng, who in turn was one of the favourite eunuchs of Emperor Huan. Some historical records, including the Biography of Cao Man, claim that Cao Song's original family name was Xiahou and that he was thus a relative of Xiahou Dun.
Cao was known for his craftiness as an adolescent. According to the Biography of Cao Man, Cao Cao's uncle complained to Cao Song about Cao Cao's indulgence in hunting and music with Yuan Shao. In retaliation, Cao Cao feigned a fit before his uncle, who immediately rushed to inform Cao Song. When Cao Song went to see his son, Cao Cao behaved normally. When asked, Cao Cao replied, "I have never had a fit, but I lost the love of my uncle, and therefore he deceived you." Afterwards, Cao Song ceased to believe his brother regarding Cao Cao, and thus Cao Cao became even more blatant and insistent in his wayward pursuits.
At that time, there was a man named Xu Shao who lived in Runan and was famous for his ability to evaluate a person's potentials and talents. Cao Cao paid him a visit in hopes of receiving an evaluation that would help him politically. At first, Xu Shao refused to make a statement; however, under persistent questioning, he finally said, "You would be a capable minister in peaceful times and an unscrupulous hero in chaotic times." Cao Cao laughed and left. There are two other versions of this comment in other unofficial historical records.
Early career and Yellow Turban Rebellion (175–188)
At the age of 20, Cao Cao was appointed district captain of Luoyang. Upon taking up the post, he placed rows of multicolored stakes outside his office and ordered his deputies to flog those who violated the law, regardless of their status. An uncle of Jian Shuo, one of the most powerful and influential eunuchs under Emperor Ling, was caught walking in the city after the evening curfew by Cao Cao's men and was flogged. This prompted Jian Shuo and other higher authorities to ostensibly promote Cao Cao to the post of governor of Dunqiu County while actually moving him out of the imperial capital. Cao Cao remained in this position for little more than a year, being dismissed from office in 178 for his distant family ties with the disgraced Empress Song. Around 180, Cao Cao returned to court as a Consultant () and presented two memoranda against the eunuchs' influence in court and government corruption during his tenure, to limited effect.
When the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in 184, Cao Cao was recalled to Luoyang and appointed Captain of the Cavalry () and sent to Yingchuan in Yu Province to suppress the rebels. He was successful and was sent to Jinan as Chancellor () to prevent the spread of Yellow Turban influence there. In Jinan, Cao Cao aggressively enforced the ban on unorthodox cults, destroyed shrines, and supported state Confucianism. He offended the local leading families in the process, and resigned on grounds of poor health around 187, fearing that he had put his family in danger. He was offered the post of Administrator of Dong Commandery (), but he declined and returned to his home in Pei County. Around that time, Wang Fen () tried to recruit Cao Cao to join his coup to replace Emperor Ling with the Marquis of Hefei, but Cao Cao refused. The plot came to nothing, and Wang Fen killed himself.
Alliance against Dong Zhuo (189–191)
After 18 months in retirement, Cao Cao returned to the capital Luoyang in 188. That year, he was appointed Colonel Who Arranges the Army (), fourth of eight heads of a newly established imperial army, the Army of the Western Garden. The effectiveness of this new force was never tested, since it was disbanded the very next year.
In 189, Emperor Ling died and was succeeded by his eldest son (Emperor Shao), although state power was mainly controlled by Empress Dowager He and her advisors. The empress dowager's brother, General-in-Chief He Jin, plotted with Yuan Shao to eliminate the Ten Attendants (a group of influential eunuchs in the imperial court). He Jin summoned Dong Zhuo, a seasoned general of Liang Province, to lead an army into Luoyang to pressure the empress dowager to surrender power, braving accusations of Dong's "infamy". But before Dong Zhuo arrived, He Jin was assassinated by the eunuchs and Luoyang was thrown into chaos as Yuan Shao's supporters fought the eunuchs. Dong Zhuo's army easily rid the palace grounds of opposition. After he deposed Emperor Shao, Dong Zhuo placed the puppet Emperor Xian on the throne, since he deemed that Emperor Xian was more capable than the original puppet Emperor Shao.
After rejecting Dong Zhuo's offer of appointment, Cao Cao left Luoyang for Chenliu (southeast of present-day Kaifeng, Henan, Cao's hometown), where he built an army. The next year, regional warlords formed a military alliance under Yuan Shao against Dong. Cao Cao joined them, becoming one of the few active fighting members of the coalition. Although the warlords liberated the capital of Luoyang, Dong Zhuo's court managed to flee westwards to the former capital of Chang'an, abducting Emperor Xian. The coalition fell apart after months of inactivity, and China fell into civil war while Dong Zhuo was killed in 192 by Lü Bu.
Carving a territory (191–199)
Conquest of Yan Province (191–195)
Through short-term and regional-scale wars, Cao Cao continued to expand his power. In 191, Cao Cao was appointed Administrator of Dong commandery (Dongjun) in Chenliu. This happened after he successfully fought against the bandit chieftain Bo Rao, and Yuan Shao named him Administrator in the stead of the ineffectual Wang Hong. He cleared Dong of bandits, and when the Inspector of Yan Province Liu Dai died the following year, he was invited by Bao Xin and other officers to become the Governor of Yan Province, and deal with an uprising of Yellow Turbans in Qing Province who raided Yan. Despite several setbacks, Cao Cao managed to subdue the rebels by the end of 192, likely through negotiations, and added their 30,000 troops to his army. In early 193, Cao Cao and Yuan Shao fought against the latter's cousin Yuan Shu in several battles such as Fengqiu, driving him away to the River Huai.
Cao Cao's father Cao Song was killed in autumn 193 by troops of Tao Qian, governor of Xu Province (who claimed to be innocent, and that Cao Song's murderers had been mutineers). Enraged, Cao Cao massacred thousands of civilians in Xu during two punitive expeditions in 193 and 194, to avenge his father. Because he took the bulk of his soldiers to Xu Province in order to defeat Tao Qian, most of his territory was left undefended. A number of discontented officers led by Chen Gong and Zhang Chao plotted to rebel. They convinced Zhang Miao (Zhang Chao's brother) to be their leader, and to ask Lü Bu to come with reinforcements. Chen Gong invited Lü Bu to be the new Inspector of Yan province. Lü Bu accepted this invitation and led his soldiers into the province. Since Cao Cao's army was away, many of the local commanders figured that fighting would be a lost cause and surrendered to Lü Bu as soon as he arrived. However three counties – Juancheng, Dong'a, and Fan, remained loyal to Cao Cao and when Cao Cao returned, he gathered his own forces at Juancheng.
Throughout 194 and 195, Cao Cao and Lü Bu fought several battles of some size for the control of Yan Province. Though Lü Bu initially did well in holding Puyang, Cao Cao won almost every engagement outside of Puyang. Cao Cao's decisive victory came in a battle near Dongming. Lü Bu and Chen Gong led a large army to assault Cao Cao's forces. At that time, Cao Cao was out with a small army, harvesting grain. Seeing Lü Bu and Chen Gong approaching, Cao Cao hid his soldiers in some woods and behind a dam. He then sent a small force ahead to skirmish with Lü Bu's army. Once the two forces were committed, he unleashed his hidden soldiers. Lü Bu's army was devastated by this attack and many of his soldiers fled.
Lü Bu and Chen Gong both fled after that battle. Since Xu province was now under Liu Bei's command and Liu Bei had been Cao Cao's enemy in the past, they fled to Xu for safety. Cao Cao decided not to pursue them and instead set about crushing Lü Bu's loyalists in Yan, consolidating his hold over that province. Eighteen months after the rebellion started, Cao had destroyed Zhang Miao and his family, and regained Yan Province by the end of 195.
Securing the emperor (196)
Cao Cao moved his headquarters in early 196 from Puyang to Xu City (許, present-day Xuchang), where he built military agricultural colonies for the settlement of refugees and supply of food for his troops.
Around August 196, Emperor Xian returned to Luoyang under the escort of Yang Feng and Dong Cheng. Cao Cao joined Emperor Xian in autumn 196 and convinced him to move the capital to Xu City as suggested by Xun Yu and other advisors, as Luoyang was ruined by war and Chang'an was not under Cao's military control. He was appointed Minister of Works (after negotiating with his nominal superior Yuan Shao), and Director of Retainers (司隸 Sīlì), granting him nominal control over Sili Province. Furthermore, he became General-in-Chief (大將軍) and Marquis of Wuping (武平侯), though both titles had little practical application. While some viewed the emperor as a puppet under Cao Cao's control, Cao adhered to a strict personal code until his death that he would not usurp the throne. When he was approached by his advisors to overthrow the Han dynasty and start his own dynasty, he replied, "If heaven bestows such a fate upon me, let me be King Wen of Zhou."
To maintain a good relationship with Yuan Shao, who had become the most powerful warlord in China when he united the northern four provinces, Cao Cao lobbied to have Yuan appointed Minister of Works. However, this had the opposite effect, as Yuan Shao believed that Cao Cao was trying to humiliate him, since Minister of Works technically ranked lower than General-in-Chief, and therefore refused to accept the title. To pacify Yuan Shao, Cao Cao offered his own position to him, while becoming Minister of Works himself. While this temporarily resolved the conflict, it was the catalyst for the Battle of Guandu later.
Battling Zhang Xiu, Yuan Shu, and Lü Bu (197–198)
Liu Biao was a major power at that time, holding all of Jing province. Jing had always been prosperous, but it had grown in size because many people fled from the northern wars and sought refuge there. Therefore, Liu Biao constituted a danger to Cao Cao. Zhang Xiu commanded Liu Biao's territory on the border with Cao Cao, so Cao Cao went to attack him. In early 197 Zhang Xiu surrendered to Cao Cao, but later attacked his camp in the night (the Battle of Wancheng), killing many people, including Cao Cao's son Cao Ang, and forcing Cao Cao to flee.
After taking a few months to recover, Cao Cao turned his attention to Yuan Shu, who had recently proclaimed himself emperor of his new Zhong dynasty. In the name of restoring the Han dynasty, Cao Cao and other warlords formed a coalition against Yuan Shu, and Cao Cao seized all Yuan Shu's holdings north of the Huai River in the autumn of 197, while the latter's remaining territory suffered drought and a bad harvest, further decreasing his power.
Later in 197, Cao Cao returned south to attack Liu Biao/Zhang Xiu once more. This time, Cao Cao was very successful and greatly damaged their army. Cao Cao attacked Zhang Xiu again in 198 leading to the Battle of Rangcheng and was again victorious. He ultimately retreated from this campaign because he received word that Yuan Shao was planning to march on Xu, though this report turned out to be in error.
In April 198, Cao Cao sent envoys to incite the western warlords to attack Chang'an, still controlled by Dong Zhuo's successor Li Jue. One of Li Jue's subordinates, Duan Wei (), mutinied and killed Li Jue along with his family in the summer of 198. Duan Wei sent Li Jue's head to Xu City (as a token of his submission to Cao Cao).
Meanwhile, Lü Bu was growing more aggressive. He drove Liu Bei (who fled to Cao Cao) out of his territory again and allied with Yuan Shu. Since Zhang Xiu had recently been crushed, he was in no position to be a threat in the south, so Cao Cao went east to deal with Lü Bu.
Conquest of Xu and Yu Provinces (199)
Cao Cao defeated Lü Bu in numerous battles and eventually surrounded him at Xiapi. Lü Bu tried to break free but could not do so. Ultimately, many of his officers and soldiers defected to Cao Cao. Some were kidnapped by defectors. Lü Bu grew disheartened and surrendered to Cao Cao, who executed him on 7 February 199. By eliminating Lü Bu, Cao had obtained effective control of Xu Province.
With Lü Bu gone, Cao Cao set about dealing with Yuan Shu. He sent Liu Bei and Zhu Ling south to attack Yuan Shu. However, the rebel emperor died in the summer of 199 before Liu Bei and the others arrived. This meant Cao Cao had no major opponents in the Huai River region (Yu Province) anymore either. Meanwhile, in March 199 Yuan Shao had finally finished his war with Gongsun Zan at the Battle of Yijing, and was now planning to move south to defeat Cao Cao. Seeing this, Cao Cao set about preparing his defenses, intending to make his stand at Guandu. On the advice of Jia Xu, Zhang Xiu surrendered to Cao Cao and his forces were integrated into Cao Cao's army after they rejected an envoy from Yuan Shao to ally.
Uniting northern China (200–207)
Liu Bei's betrayal and defeat
Near the end of the year 199, Liu Bei betrayed Cao Cao and killed his commanders in Xu Province, claiming to own the province. Cao Cao wanted to attack Liu Bei quickly so as to not get into a two-front war. While some in the court were worried that Yuan Shao would attack them soon if the main army were east, Guo Jia assured Cao Cao that Yuan Shao would be slow to react, and that Cao Cao could handle Liu Bei if he did it quickly. So on Guo Jia's advice, Cao Cao attacked Liu Bei and utterly defeated him in Xu Province, capturing Guan Yu as well as Liu Bei's family members at the start of 200. Liu Bei himself fled to Yuan Shao, who only sent a part of his army to make an attack on Cao Cao. This incursion was stopped by Yu Jin at the Battle of Dushi Ford in February 200, marking the outbreak of open warfare between Cao and Yuan.
War with the Yuan clan
The Guandu campaign
In 200, Yuan Shao marched southwards on Xu City in the name of rescuing the emperor. He had amassed more than 110,000 troops, including 10,000 heavy cavalry, while Cao Cao gathered around 40,000 men, most of which he concentrated at Guandu, a strategic point on the Yellow River. Cao's army repeatedly repulsed Yuan's attacks and won tactical victories at Dushi Ford (February), Boma (March–May) and Yan Ford (May–August). The two armies came to a standstill at the Battle of Guandu (September–November), as neither side was able to make much progress. Cao Cao's lack of men did not allow him to make significant attacks, and Yuan Shao's pride forced him to meet Cao's force head-on. Despite his overwhelming advantage in terms of manpower, Yuan Shao was unable to make full use of his resources because of his indecisive leadership and Cao Cao's position.
Besides the middle battleground of Guandu, two lines of battle were present. The eastern line with Yuan Tan of Yuan Shao's army against Zang Ba of Cao Cao's army was a one-sided battle in favour of Cao, as Yuan Tan's poor leadership was no match for Zang's local knowledge of the landscape and his hit-and-run tactics. On the western front, Yuan Shao's nephew, Gao Gan, performed better against Cao Cao's army and forced several reinforcements from Cao's main camp to maintain the western battle. Liu Bei, then a guest in Yuan Shao's army, suggested that he instigate rebellion in Cao Cao's territories as many followers of Yuan were in Cao's lands. The tactic was initially successful but Man Chong's diplomatic skills helped to resolve the conflict almost immediately. Man Chong had been placed as an official there for this specific reason, as Cao Cao had foreseen the possibility of insurrection prior to the battle. A Cao raid destroying the Yuan supply depot at the village of Gushi forced Yuan Shao to set up an emergency supply depot at Wuchao. Finally in the 10th month, a defector from Yuan Shao's army, Xu You, informed Cao Cao of the location of Yuan's new supply depot. Cao Cao broke the stalemate by sending a special group of soldiers to Wuchao burn all the supplies of Yuan Shao's army, heavily demoralising it. Yuan performed a final, costly and ultimately failed storming of Guandu, and the next morning Cao launched a devastating surprise attack on the retreating enemy army, thus winning a decisive and seemingly impossible victory. In a report to Emperor Xian, Cao Cao claimed to have killed more than 70,000 of Yuan Shao's original 110,000 troops; he later ordered most captured enemy soldiers to be buried alive. A few months later, in May or June 201, Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shao again in the Battle of Cangting, eliminating the latter's last units south of the Yellow River.
Conquest of the north
Yuan Shao fell ill shortly after the defeat, and died in June 202, leaving three sons and no formally appointed successor. Although he seems to have favoured his youngest son Yuan Shang (controlling Ji Province) as his heir, his oldest son Yuan Tan (governor of Qing Province) challenged him and the two brothers entered into a war of succession, as they fought Cao Cao. Cao Cao used the internal conflict within the Yuan clan to his advantage, and during the Battle of Liyang (October 202 – June 203), he drove the Yuans back to their stronghold at Ye (under Yuan Shang's control). He then withdrew, consolidating his territorial gains rather than completing his conquest; possibly, dissidents at the imperial court in Xu required his attention. Temporarily relieved from Cao Cao's pressure, the fraternal feud escalated and Yuan Shang besieged Yuan Tan's base at Pingyuan (), forcing the latter to conclude a marriage alliance with Cao Cao. The province of Ji fell to Cao Cao in the summer of 204 after the five month long Siege of Ye. Cao Cao paid his respects at Yuan Shao's tomb after conquering Ye, weeping bitterly for his old friend in front of his followers and giving Yuan Shao's family consolatory gifts and a government pension. Yuan Shang fled north to the third son, governor Yuan Xi of You Province, while Gao Gan, governor of Bing Province, defected to Cao Cao. In January and February 205, Cao Cao turned on the disloyal Yuan Tan, defeated and killed him in the Battle of Nanpi, and conquered Qing Province. Gao Gan rebelled in 205, but in 206 Cao Cao defeated and killed him, annexing Bing definitively.
Cao Cao assumed effective rule over all of northern China. Suffering mutiny amongst their own troops, Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi fled to the Wuhuan chieftains for aid. The Wuhuan chieftain Tadun assisted the Yuan brothers and started raiding Cao's territory. In 207, Cao Cao led a daring campaign beyond Chinese borders in hopes of destroying the Yuans once and for all. He fought an alliance of Wuhuan chieftains at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain. Though outnumbered and isolated, Cao Cao emerged victorious due to cleverly engineering his supply lines by digging two new canals and flanking the enemy, killing Tadun and forcing the Yuans to flee once again. This time, they went to Gongsun Kang for help, but he executed them and sent their heads to Cao Cao, granting him nominal control over You Province. Meanwhile, the northern tribes were now terrified of Cao Cao. Most of the remaining Wuhuan submitted to him, along with the Xianbei and Xiongnu.
Red Cliffs and the South campaign (208–210)
Temporary takeover of Jing Province (208)
After Yuan Shao's defeat at Guandu in 200, Cao Cao forced Liu Bei to flee to the governor of Jing Province, Liu Biao, who stationed him at the northern border in Xinye County to keep Cao Cao at bay. An initial Cao attack on Liu Bei was repelled during the Battle of Bowang (202). After completing his conquest of northern China in 207, Cao Cao turned his full attention to Jing Province, where a succession dispute erupted after the death of Liu Biao in August 208. Liu Biao's chosen heir was his younger son Liu Cong, but his elder son Liu Qi challenged him for the governorship, while Sun Quan attacked the eastern territories of Jing, Liu Bei hoped to usurp Jing for himself, and Cao Cao moved to invade Jing from the north with a hastily assembled army in September. Cao Cao's action proved to be decisive: Liu Cong surrendered to him without a fight, while Liu Bei fled south, but was slowed down by a large following of refugees. Cao Cao's 5,000 elite cavalry force caught up with Liu Bei and utterly defeated him at the Battle of Changban in October, capturing the baggage train and refugee column. Liu Bei himself narrowly escaped east with a handful of companions, linked up with Liu Qi at Fankou and sent Zhuge Liang to negotiate an alliance with Sun Quan, who eventually agreed to join forces. Cao Cao gained control of a large portion of the Yangtze river by occupying the Jiangling naval base, and ordered most of his army to sail down the river towards Chibi (Red Cliffs), while the rest marched over land, to defeat the newly forged alliance in one swift stroke.
Battle of Red Cliffs
At the Battle of Red Cliffs in the winter of 208, Cao Cao's forces were defeated by the coalition of Liu Bei and Sun Quan (who later founded the states of Shu Han and Eastern Wu respectively, becoming his arch-rivals in reunifying China). Despite superior numbers, the northern troops were exhausted from marching, prone to sickness in the unfamiliar southern climate and seasick on the river fleet (which they tried to mitigate by chaining the ships together), while especially the Sun soldiers were still fresh and experienced in riverine warfare. Allied general Huang Gai pretended to defect to the northerners, but took advantage of the fact that the Cao ships had been chained together to destroy them with fire ships. Meanwhile, an allied amphibious attack led by Zhou Yu routed Cao Cao's land forces at Wulin ().
Throughout 209 and 210, Cao Cao's commanders were engaged in defensive efforts against Sun Quan. In battles at Jiangling and Yiling, Cao Cao's commanders in northern Jing (such as Cao Ren) fought against Sun Quan. They experienced mixed success, and Cao Cao was able to retain some territory in the north of that province. At the same time, they held off an attack on Hefei and put down a revolt in Lu that Sun Quan's forces tried to assist, keeping Sun Quan from moving to attack Shouchun. However, Cao Cao's commanders in southern Jing, cut off from the rest of Cao Cao's forces, surrendered to Liu Bei. Liu Qi initially succeeded his father as Inspector of Jing Province, but died in 209, after which Sun Quan appointed Liu Bei as Governor of Jing Province, and married off his sister Lady Sun to him to cement the alliance.
Campaigns in the northwest (211–220)
By 211, the situation in the south had stabilized and Cao Cao decided to crush his remaining enemies in the north, to the west of Chang'an (in Zuopingyi Commandery). In Hanzhong commandery on the Han River, in the north of Yi Province, Zhang Lu lived in revolt against the Han dynasty, running his own theocratic state. Cao Cao sent Zhong Yao with an army to force Zhang Lu's surrender. However, this disturbed a number of warlords in the Wei River valley and the wider Liang Province, who united under Han Sui and Ma Chao to oppose Cao Cao, believing that his maneuvers against Zhang Lu were actually directed at them. Cao Cao personally led the army against this alliance, and outmaneuvered the rebel army at every turn in the Battle of Tong Pass. The alliance shattered and many of the leaders were killed. Cao Cao spent the next month or two hunting down some of the leaders, many of whom surrendered to him. He left Xiahou Yuan to clear up affairs in the region and returned home in 212. In 213, he launched an invasion into Sun Quan's territory across the river Huai, but was defeated in the Battle of Ruxu, which confirmed Sun's control of the south.
In 213, Cao Cao received the title "Duke of Wei" () and was given the nine bestowments and a fief of ten cities under his domain, known as Wei. That same year, he marched south and attacked Ruxu. Sun Quan's general Lü Meng held off the attacks for about a month, and Cao Cao had to pull back in the end. In 215, Cao Cao moved into and took over Hanzhong. In 216, Cao Cao was promoted to the status of a vassal king – "King of Wei" (). Over the years, Cao Cao, as well as Liu Bei and Sun Quan, continued to consolidate their power in their respective regions. Through many wars, China became divided into three powers – Wei, Shu and Wu, which fought sporadic battles without the balance tipping significantly in anyone's favour. The only exception was when Liu Bei's forces were able to take Hanzhong from Cao Cao's army after a campaign that took two years.
Death
In 220, Cao Cao died in Luoyang at the age of 65, having failed to unify China under his rule, allegedly of a "head disease". His will instructed that he be buried near Ximen Bao's tomb in Ye without gold and jade treasures, and that his subjects on duty at the frontier were to stay in their posts and not attend the funeral as, in his own words, "the country is still unstable".
Cao Cao's eldest surviving son Cao Pi succeeded him. Within a year, Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate and proclaimed himself the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei. Cao Cao was then posthumously titled "Grand Ancestor Emperor Wu of Wei" ().
Cultural legacy
While historical records indicate Cao Cao as a brilliant ruler, he was represented as a cunning and deceitful man in Chinese opera, where his character is given a white facial makeup to reflect his treacherous personality. When Luo Guanzhong wrote the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, he took much of his inspiration from Chinese opera.
As a result, depictions of Cao Cao as unscrupulous have become much more popular among the common people than his real image. There have been attempts to revise this depiction.
As the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms has been adapted to modern forms of entertainment, so has its portrayal of Cao Cao. Given the source material upon which these adaptations are founded, Cao Cao continues to be characterised as a prominent villain.
Through to modern times, the Chinese equivalent of the English idiom "speak of the Devil" is "speak of Cao Cao and Cao Cao arrives" ().
After the Communists won the Chinese Civil War in 1949, some people in China thought there might be some similarities between Cao Cao and Mao Zedong. In 1959, Peng Dehuai wrote a letter to Mao, in which he compared himself to Zhang Fei: because Mao Zedong compares himself to Cao Cao, Peng's comparison implied that he had an intuitively confrontational relationship with Mao. Mao had the letter widely circulated in order to make Peng's attitude clear to other Party members, and proceeded to purge Peng, eventually ending Peng's career.
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a historical novel composed by Luo Guanzhong in the 14th century (11 centuries after Cao Cao's death), was a romanticisation of the events that occurred in the late Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period. While adhering to historical facts most of the time, the novel inevitably reshaped Cao Cao to some extent, so as to portray him as a cruel and suspicious villain. In some chapters, Luo created fictional or semi-fictional events involving Cao Cao.
See the following for some fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms involving Cao Cao:
Lü Boshe
Agriculture and education
While waging military campaigns against his enemies, Cao Cao did not forget the basis of society – agriculture and education.
In 194, a locust plague caused a major famine across China. The people resorted to cannibalism out of desperation. Without food, many armies were defeated without fighting. From this experience, Cao Cao saw the importance of an ample food supply in building a strong military. He began a series of agricultural programs in cities such as Xu City and Chenliu. Refugees were recruited and given wasteland to cultivate. Later, encampments not faced with imminent danger of war were also made to farm. This system was continued and spread to all regions under Cao Cao as his realm expanded. Although Cao Cao's primary intention was to build a powerful army, the agricultural program also improved the living standards of the people, especially war refugees.
By 203, Cao Cao had eliminated most of Yuan Shao's forces. This afforded him more attention on construction within his realm. In autumn of that year, Cao Cao passed an order decreeing the promotion of education throughout the counties and cities within his jurisdiction. An official in charge of education was assigned to each county with more than 500 households. Youngsters with potential and talent were selected for schooling. This prevented a lapse in the training of intellectuals in those years of war, and, in Cao Cao's words, would benefit the people.
Poetry
Cao Cao was an accomplished poet, as were his sons Cao Pi and Cao Zhi. He was also a patron of poets such as Xu Gan. Of Cao Cao's works, only a remnant remain today. His verses, unpretentious yet profound, helped to reshape the poetic style of his time and beyond, eventually contributing to the poetry styles associated with Tang dynasty poetry. Cao Cao, Cao Pi and Cao Zhi are known collectively as the "Three Caos". The Three Caos' poetry, together with additional poets, became known as the Jian'an style, which contributed eventually to Tang and later poetry. Cao Cao also wrote verse in the older four-character per line style characteristic of the Classic of Poetry. Burton Watson describes Cao Cao as: "the only writer of the period who succeeded in infusing the old four-character metre with any vitality, mainly because he discarded the archaic diction associated with it and employed the ordinary poetic language of his time." Cao Cao is also known for his early contributions to the Shanshui poetry genre, with his 4-character-per-line, 14-line poem "View of the Blue Sea" (觀滄海).
Mausoleum
On 27 December 2009, the Henan Provincial Cultural Heritage Bureau reported the discovery of Cao Cao's tomb in Xigaoxue Village, Anyang County, Henan. The tomb, covering an area of 740 square metres, was discovered in December 2008 when workers at a nearby kiln were digging for mud to make bricks. Its discovery was not reported and the local authorities knew of it only when they seized a stone tablet carrying the inscription 'King Wu of Wei' — Cao Cao's posthumous title — from grave robbers who claimed to have stolen it from the tomb. Over the following year, archaeologists recovered more than 250 relics from the tomb. The remains of three persons — a man in his 60s, a woman in her 50s and another woman in her 20s — were also unearthed and are believed to be those of Cao Cao, one of his wives, and a servant.
Since the discovery of the tomb, there have been many skeptics and experts who pointed out problems with it and raised doubts about its authenticity. In January 2010, the State Administration of Cultural Heritage legally endorsed the initial results from research conducted throughout 2009 suggesting that the tomb was Cao Cao's. However, in August 2010, 23 experts and scholars presented evidence at a forum held in Suzhou, Jiangsu to argue that the findings and the artifacts of the tomb were fake. In September 2010, an article published in an archaeology magazine claimed that the tomb and the adjacent one actually belonged to Cao Huan (a grandson of Cao Cao) and his father Cao Yu.
In 2010, the tomb became part of the fifth batch of Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level in China. , it has been announced that the local government in Anyang is constructing a museum on the original site of the tomb which will be named 'Cao Cao Mausoleum Museum' ().
Media reports from 2018 describe the tomb complex as having an outer rammed earth foundation, a spirit way, and structures on the east and south sides. Archaeologists have also noted that the tomb's exterior and perimeter appear to be deliberately left unmarked; there are neither structures above the ground around the tomb nor massive piles of debris in the vicinity. This indirectly confirms historical records that Cao Pi had ordered the monuments on the surface to be systematically dismantled to honour his father's wishes to be buried in a simple manner in a concealed location, as well as to prevent tomb robbers from finding and looting the tomb.
Family
Consorts and Issue:
Furen, of the Ding clan (; d. 219)
Empress Wuxuan, of the Bian clan (; 159–230)
Emperor Wen (; 187–226), second son
Cao Zhang, Prince Wei of Rencheng (; 189–223), third son
Cao Zhi, Prince Si of Chen (; 192–232), fourth son
Cao Xiong, Prince Huai of Xiao ()
Empress Xianmu (; 197–260), personal name Jie (), married Emperor Xian, and had issue (one daughter)
A daughter, personal name Hua (), married Emperor Xian
Furen, of the Liu clan ()
Cao Ang, Prince Min of Feng (; 177–197), first son
Cao Shuo, Prince Shang of Xiang ()
Princess Qinghe (), married Xiahou Mao
Furen, of the Huan clan ()
Cao Chong, Prince Ai of Deng (; 196–208)
Cao Ju, Prince of Pengcheng ()
Cao Yu, Prince of Yan (; d. 278)
Furen, of the Du clan ()
Cao Lin, Prince Mu of Pei (; d. 256)
Cao Gun, Prince Gong of Zhongshan (; d. 235)
Princess Jinxiang (), married He Yan (196–249), and had issue (one son)
Furen, of the Qin clan ()
Cao Xuan, Prince Huai of Jiyang ()
Cao Jun, Prince Gong of Chenliu (; d. 259)
Furen, of the Yin clan ()
Cao Ju, Prince Min of Fanyang ()
Lady, of the Sun clan ()
Cao Shang, Duke Shang of Linyi ()
Cao Biao, Prince of Chu (; 195–251)
Cao Qin, Duke Shang of Gang ()
Lady, of the Li clan ()
Cao Cheng, Duke Shang of Gucheng ()
Cao Zheng, Duke Dai of Mei (; d. 218)
Cao Jing, Duke Shang of Ling ()
Lady, of the Zhou clan ()
Cao Jun, Duke An of Fan (; d. 219)
Lady, of the Chen clan ()
Cao Gan, Prince of Zhao (; 214–261)
Lady, of the Liu clan ()
Cao Ziji, Duke Shang of Guangzong ()
Lady, of the Song clan ()
Cao Hui, Prince Ling of Dongping (; d. 242)
Lady, of the Zhao clan ()
Cao Mao, Prince of Laoling ()
Unknown
A daughter, personal name Xian (), married Emperor Xian
Princess Anyang (), married Xun Yun of Yingchuan (), the first son of Xun Yu, and had issue (two sons)
Ancestry
Cao Cao was a purported descendant of the Western Han dynasty chancellor Cao Shen. In the early 2010s, researchers from Fudan University compared the Y chromosomes collected from a tooth from Cao Cao's granduncle, Cao Ding (), with those of Cao Shen and found them to be significantly different. Therefore, the claim about Cao Cao descending from Cao Shen was not supported by genetic evidence. The researchers also found that the Y chromosomes of Cao Ding match those of self-proclaimed living descendants of Cao Cao who hold lineage records dating back to more than 100 generations ago.
Zhu Ziyan, a history professor from Shanghai University, felt that Cao Ding's tooth alone cannot be used as evidence to determine Cao Cao's ancestry. He was sceptical about whether those who claim to be Cao Cao's descendants are really so, because genealogical records dating from the Song dynasty (960–1279) are already so rare in the present day, much less those dating from the Three Kingdoms era (220–280). Besides, according to historical records, Cao Ding was a younger brother of the eunuch Cao Teng, who adopted Cao Cao's biological father, Cao Song. Therefore, Cao Cao had no known blood relations with Cao Ding. In other words, Cao Ding was not Cao Cao's real granduncle (this assuming that there was no intra-family adoption, which was actually common in China). Zhu Ziyan mentioned that Fudan University's research only proves that those self-proclaimed descendants of Cao Cao are related to Cao Ding; it does not directly relate them to Cao Cao.
In popular culture
His depiction in “The Romance of the Three Kingdoms” led to the common Chinese adage “Speak of Cao-Cao” which is the same as the Western - “speak of the devil, and the devil will appear.”
Film and television
The "Father of Hong Kong cinema", Lai Man-Wai, played Cao Cao in The Witty Sorcerer, a 1931 comedy film based on the story of Zuo Ci playing tricks on Cao Cao. In the Shaw Brothers film The Weird Man, Cao Cao was seen in the beginning of the film with Zuo Ci. Zuo Ci was playing tricks on him by giving him a tangerine with no fruit inside. This was later referenced in another film titled Five Element Ninjas.
Other notable actors who have portrayed Cao Cao in film and television include:
Bao Guo'an, in the 1994 Chinese television series Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Bao won two Best Actor awards at the 1995 Golden Eagle Awards and Flying Apsaras Awards for his performance.
Damian Lau, in the 2008 Hong Kong film Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon.
Zhang Fengyi, in the 2008–09 Chinese film Red Cliff.
Chen Jianbin, in the 2010 Chinese television series Three Kingdoms.
Jiang Wen, in the 2011 Hong Kong film The Lost Bladesman and the 2018 Chinese television series Cao Cao.
Chow Yun-fat, in the 2012 Chinese film The Assassins.
Zhao Lixin, in the 2014 Chinese television series Cao Cao.
Yu Hewei, in the 2017 Chinese television series The Advisors Alliance.
Tse Kwan-ho, in the 2018 Chinese television series Secret of the Three Kingdoms.
Wang Kai, in the upcoming Hong Kong film Dynasty Warriors.
Card games
In the selection of hero cards in the Chinese card game San Guo Sha (), there is also a Cao Cao hero that players can select at the beginning of the game.
Cao Cao is also referenced in Magic: The Gathering, as the card "Cao Cao, Lord of Wei". This card is black, the colour representing ruthlessness and ambition, though not necessarily evil. It was first printed in Portal Three Kingdoms and again in From the Vault: Legends.
Video games
Cao Cao appears in Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms video game series. He is also featured as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi series. He also features in Koei's Kessen II as a playable main character.
Cao Cao also appears in Puzzle & Dragons as part of the Three Kingdoms Gods series.
Cao Cao appears as a Great Person in Civilization IV and later as a Great General in Civilization V.
He is also featured as one of the available warlords that the player can choose from in Creative Assembly's game Total War: Three Kingdoms.
Cao Cao is a major character in Capcom's Tenchi wo Kurau video game series, all of which were based on the manga of the same name.
Cao Cao appears as a Legendary Commander in the mobile game Rise of Kingdoms.
Other appearances
As with most of the other relevant generals of the period, Cao Cao is portrayed as a young female character in the Koihime Musō franchise. He is also the central character in the Japanese manga series Sōten Kōro. Barry Hughart's novel The Story of the Stone mentions the Seven Sacrileges of Tsao Tsao, most of which involve family.
See also
Cao Wei family trees
Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms
Bronze Bird Terrace
Empty Fort Strategy
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Domes, Jurgen. Peng Te-huai: The Man and the Image, London: C. Hurst & Company. 1985. .
Yip, Wai-lim (1997). Chinese Poetry: An Anthology of Major Modes and Genres. (Durham and London: Duke University Press).
External links
Cao Cao – World History Encyclopedia
155 births
220 deaths
3rd-century Chinese poets
3rd-century heads of government
Chinese non-fiction writers
Han dynasty poets
Han dynasty politicians from Anhui
Han dynasty prime ministers
Han dynasty warlords
Poets from Anhui
Politicians from Bozhou
Political office-holders in Hebei
Political office-holders in Shandong
Regents of China | [
-0.5075085163116455,
0.2609215974807739,
-0.9968165159225464,
0.16370640695095062,
-0.15446558594703674,
0.9844231605529785,
0.41790664196014404,
0.07422512024641037,
-0.18805523216724396,
-0.7288423180580139,
-0.28543445467948914,
-0.288688063621521,
-0.46172383427619934,
-0.00791176501661539,
-0.25605180859565735,
-0.0009811996715143323,
0.009955588728189468,
-0.2452140748500824,
-0.26385578513145447,
0.11670708656311035,
-0.6331304311752319,
0.06401649862527847,
-0.14561748504638672,
0.11573763936758041,
-0.014070368371903896,
0.08510163426399231,
-0.04794122651219368,
-0.6444318890571594,
-0.12626902759075165,
-0.5217147469520569,
-0.44932135939598083,
0.4938364326953888,
-0.06452608108520508,
0.18948881328105927,
-0.8740641474723816,
0.23754838109016418,
-0.5873700976371765,
0.3524211645126343,
0.06033110246062279,
0.08763018250465393,
-0.6970494985580444,
-0.1309213787317276,
0.21234305202960968,
0.8793990612030029,
0.38028213381767273,
-0.6979747414588928,
-1.5721571445465088,
0.7041369676589966,
-1.0819101333618164,
-0.7068738341331482,
0.1442280411720276,
1.0390515327453613,
-0.46855777502059937,
0.10039830207824707,
-0.49870869517326355,
0.3545325994491577,
-0.686000406742096,
-0.2079855352640152,
-0.2717902660369873,
-0.2638407051563263,
0.41367286443710327,
0.5254372358322144,
0.5775716304779053,
0.1569671332836151,
0.4162624478340149,
-0.05441145971417427,
0.16248592734336853,
0.442163348197937,
0.16476397216320038,
0.1708591729402542,
0.12753364443778992,
0.8539081811904907,
-0.27250224351882935,
0.36440926790237427,
-0.12095049768686295,
-0.7355727553367615,
0.25337857007980347,
0.15236426889896393,
-0.22556468844413757,
0.16789516806602478,
-0.09448889642953873,
-0.6143865585327148,
0.9904788136482239,
0.33968526124954224,
-0.15665559470653534,
0.17524659633636475,
0.3075294494628906,
0.38615337014198303,
-0.418081670999527,
-0.26654839515686035,
-0.04912983998656273,
-0.30356132984161377,
0.5822117328643799,
-0.34713318943977356,
-0.17015457153320312,
0.2687893807888031,
0.26023250818252563,
0.5168040990829468,
-0.5827543139457703,
-0.7967032194137573,
-0.12043794244527817,
0.5127412676811218,
0.3588959872722626,
-0.25035789608955383,
-0.5456001162528992,
-0.3483871519565582,
0.3668680787086487,
-0.7115776538848877,
0.021392663940787315,
-0.20464786887168884,
-0.04945076256990433,
0.4935205280780792,
-0.5169166922569275,
0.004784337244927883,
0.2559352517127991,
0.7536138296127319,
-0.6087249517440796,
-0.9876371622085571,
-0.25704482197761536,
0.1561127007007599,
-0.07241173833608627,
0.14186929166316986,
0.0713203027844429,
-0.1894172877073288,
0.1383340209722519,
-0.7159761190414429,
0.22837220132350922,
-0.6397370100021362,
-0.4543047547340393,
0.026267150416970253,
0.28838488459587097,
0.9325591325759888,
-0.9601134061813354,
-0.4423128068447113,
-0.3692178726196289,
0.5411766171455383,
0.24028518795967102,
0.6669381260871887,
-0.31768128275871277,
-0.18915167450904846,
-0.7857508063316345,
0.016385521739721298,
-0.22314244508743286,
0.2489132583141327,
0.11994346976280212,
0.5419676303863525,
0.10751041769981384,
-0.39738380908966064,
-0.7219183444976807,
-0.7402238249778748,
-0.45623016357421875,
-0.05325191840529442,
0.32348763942718506,
-0.03862299397587776,
-0.21655772626399994,
1.0018315315246582,
0.5561153292655945,
0.20939487218856812,
0.03849917650222778,
-0.1386892944574356,
0.372531533241272,
-0.06277631223201752,
-0.8361431956291199,
-0.1667167693376541,
0.3611869812011719,
0.39638617634773254,
0.09489841014146805,
0.3312513828277588,
-0.7648058533668518,
-0.4982089698314667,
-0.28312116861343384,
-0.15073218941688538,
0.151344895362854,
-0.5050967931747437,
-0.17627780139446259,
0.8344573974609375,
0.733467161655426,
0.1448814421892166,
0.6237621903419495,
0.44672906398773193,
-0.9505228996276855,
0.44763296842575073,
-0.3293319046497345,
0.5989704728126526,
0.845504641532898,
0.33278316259384155,
0.42289772629737854,
0.15951007604599,
0.461453378200531,
-0.06390711665153503,
-1.110511302947998,
-0.4611499607563019,
-0.6985412836074829,
-0.16313795745372772,
0.8700260519981384,
0.5263311266899109,
0.0501776784658432,
0.9576478004455566,
-0.12926706671714783,
0.39736053347587585,
-0.5781192779541016,
-0.1254817694425583,
0.3404715955257416,
0.2611149847507477,
0.022319890558719635,
-0.014071034267544746,
0.18223778903484344,
0.6675010919570923,
0.5801170468330383,
0.288224458694458,
-0.05397072806954384,
-0.19862833619117737,
0.1376361846923828,
0.36086153984069824,
-0.9549650549888611,
-0.1969851702451706,
-0.7880767583847046,
-0.48341071605682373,
-0.29783424735069275,
-0.5810898542404175,
0.9358869194984436,
-0.24923327565193176,
-0.1654796153306961,
0.9716504216194153,
-0.23683902621269226,
0.7084870934486389,
0.16587215662002563,
0.08508718013763428,
-0.3371469974517822,
-0.3233855366706848,
-0.38179704546928406,
-0.4136061370372772,
0.2686070203781128,
-0.31326326727867126,
-0.19360360503196716,
0.045896511524915695,
0.2569081783294678,
0.028175221756100655,
0.3485959768295288,
-0.8483280539512634,
0.12219691276550293,
0.26415300369262695,
0.10733110457658768,
-0.13963472843170166,
-0.24786995351314545,
0.11512456089258194,
-0.5339546799659729,
-0.0004710336506832391,
0.2204584777355194,
0.02691165916621685,
0.321167916059494,
0.7727528810501099,
0.28374066948890686,
-0.06527534872293472,
0.03998418152332306,
-0.7644093632698059,
0.1575247049331665,
0.17056746780872345,
0.420526385307312,
-0.010166339576244354,
0.18350794911384583,
-0.31891441345214844,
0.21076896786689758,
0.482914000749588,
0.517247200012207,
-0.3366762697696686,
0.7609345316886902,
-0.31778979301452637,
-0.08506979048252106,
0.3204280138015747,
-0.0884544774889946,
-0.5303474068641663,
0.11897707730531693,
-0.33156827092170715,
0.38943302631378174,
-0.5278655290603638,
0.3352482318878174,
0.33360978960990906,
-0.3608303368091583,
-1.3569175004959106,
0.507928729057312,
0.7793141603469849,
-0.38720592856407166,
-0.6557421684265137,
0.027416061609983444,
-0.4877445697784424,
-0.5769627094268799,
-0.01766829937696457,
0.674392580986023,
-0.07312136143445969,
0.17301058769226074,
0.7018442153930664,
-0.41041386127471924,
0.379267156124115,
0.024903416633605957,
0.8469203114509583,
0.30236053466796875,
-0.5014709830284119,
0.7022920250892639,
-0.3137369155883789,
-1.0845953226089478,
-0.7118527293205261,
0.2802801728248596,
0.6254172325134277,
0.9348702430725098,
0.16099733114242554,
0.15305504202842712,
0.2428751289844513,
-5.047671794891357,
-0.07029803842306137,
0.2527220547199249,
-0.24307909607887268,
-0.3265545964241028,
0.6317113041877747,
0.3878457844257355,
-0.12668325006961823,
0.29732397198677063,
-0.3209819197654724,
0.07094167172908783,
0.17473991215229034,
0.02228199504315853,
-0.021901870146393776,
0.06358157098293304,
0.7307264804840088,
0.509824812412262,
0.10109900683164597,
0.0029857433401048183,
0.4043252468109131,
-0.19417840242385864,
0.03907131403684616,
-0.4174678921699524,
0.5117558240890503,
0.4256078004837036,
0.09725489467382431,
-0.44434434175491333,
-0.04117070883512497,
-0.6065194010734558,
0.1521584838628769,
-0.05806153640151024,
-0.1779516637325287,
-0.47495925426483154,
0.2080359309911728,
-0.12662486732006073,
-0.5356348752975464,
0.1627141386270523,
0.3598856031894684,
0.08198124170303345,
0.5886377096176147,
-0.21980105340480804,
-0.19226160645484924,
-0.4362166225910187,
0.5047205686569214,
0.11775889247655869,
-0.4895663857460022,
-0.39494627714157104,
0.30201882123947144,
-0.10130526125431061,
-0.0918329581618309,
-0.14160872995853424,
0.040672410279512405,
-0.1142735704779625,
-0.27799928188323975,
0.7725819945335388,
0.8556456565856934,
-0.7087778449058533,
0.26530519127845764,
-0.9360096454620361,
0.12519396841526031,
0.8990858197212219,
-0.43747103214263916,
-0.7599375247955322,
0.21571867167949677,
0.39998123049736023,
0.12045973539352417,
-0.08784029632806778,
-0.3476921021938324,
-0.5305490493774414,
0.41329413652420044,
-0.15760989487171173,
0.8433889150619507,
-0.3183934688568115,
-1.1750284433364868,
0.3726620674133301,
-0.5378243327140808,
-0.4408564567565918,
0.43365713953971863,
-0.35158640146255493,
-0.16624845564365387,
-0.6029173731803894,
-0.07979129999876022,
0.24687960743904114,
0.9310941100120544,
0.08315736800432205,
0.628896951675415,
0.31658777594566345,
0.4953685402870178,
-0.18031978607177734,
0.37332427501678467,
0.31198248267173767,
-0.22174541652202606,
0.393136590719223,
-0.10036779940128326,
0.31447818875312805,
0.14664781093597412,
-0.49077048897743225,
-0.12408080697059631,
0.546218752861023,
0.10304783284664154,
0.1653931885957718,
0.31283512711524963,
-0.46180519461631775,
-0.350509911775589,
-0.1095636785030365,
0.22870895266532898,
0.3739785850048065,
0.5715399980545044,
1.1371102333068848,
0.2915407717227936,
-0.04504251480102539,
0.4050551950931549,
0.251540869474411,
0.24474401772022247,
0.6730024218559265,
0.29288437962532043,
0.5305932760238647,
0.27503690123558044,
0.22822630405426025,
0.7111497521400452,
-0.06588306277990341,
0.8443911075592041,
-0.7225081920623779,
-1.1190825700759888,
0.027389252558350563,
-0.05409928038716316,
0.20674720406532288,
0.08209455013275146,
-0.0803016871213913,
-0.5368605256080627,
0.8855888843536377,
-0.9331805109977722,
-0.6313732266426086,
0.27983441948890686,
-0.0011121381539851427,
-0.7019637823104858,
-0.23840782046318054,
-0.809009850025177,
-0.11363805085420609,
-0.21247994899749756,
-0.8890840411186218,
-0.11684918403625488,
-0.365706205368042,
-0.1772010624408722,
-0.16950549185276031,
-0.38092532753944397,
-0.22415362298488617,
0.24176965653896332,
0.20484855771064758,
0.7291752099990845,
0.1245105192065239,
-0.26047009229660034,
0.3220638632774353,
-0.36905160546302795,
-0.8629040718078613,
-0.5358046293258667,
-0.3420776426792145,
-0.2966475486755371,
0.7545728087425232,
0.11209718883037567,
-0.11544794589281082,
-0.8686261177062988,
-0.8480424284934998,
-0.550396740436554,
-0.37006014585494995,
-0.36901867389678955,
0.5407395958900452,
-0.2932504117488861,
0.022673115134239197,
0.6863207221031189,
0.4070490598678589,
-0.1481374204158783,
0.25484415888786316,
-0.5780746936798096,
-0.026153873652219772,
0.4635467529296875,
0.2815796136856079,
0.2780612111091614,
-0.6596449017524719,
0.4798496663570404,
-0.8373347520828247,
-0.21061526238918304,
-0.7807079553604126,
-0.33821916580200195,
-0.11922609806060791,
-0.33409371972084045,
0.035192497074604034,
-0.5502806305885315,
-0.6042979955673218,
0.041858550161123276,
-0.1862499862909317,
-0.43109652400016785,
0.34920820593833923,
0.2559061348438263,
-0.31908154487609863,
0.0512734018266201,
0.3203851580619812,
0.2407972663640976,
0.12454668432474136,
0.44375619292259216,
-0.36169981956481934,
0.4857493042945862,
-0.08420293033123016,
-0.34283486008644104,
0.1344342976808548,
-1.0728577375411987,
-0.10951095819473267,
-0.7120296359062195,
0.28108733892440796,
0.7985822558403015,
-0.3639046251773834,
-0.5328671336174011,
-0.4886452555656433,
0.001248390064574778,
0.008120542392134666,
0.11750204116106033,
0.3251155614852905,
-0.5591520667076111,
-0.18938392400741577,
-0.7159162163734436,
-0.7443022727966309,
0.12643937766551971,
-0.6678842902183533,
-0.7084331512451172,
0.003658055095002055,
-0.09883113205432892,
0.2576815187931061,
-0.1679621934890747,
-0.16716937720775604,
-0.4253099858760834,
-0.4837318956851959,
0.006336400751024485,
-0.10953915864229202,
-0.03945823386311531,
0.15942563116550446,
-0.3129965662956238,
0.7872735261917114,
-0.02745727449655533,
-0.04913146793842316,
-0.18330222368240356,
0.0900702252984047,
0.8866133689880371,
0.14137692749500275,
-0.3924691081047058,
0.4239994287490845,
-0.44054344296455383,
0.09899485856294632,
-0.21472905576229095,
0.15109197795391083,
-0.43712714314460754,
0.5559643507003784,
-0.4686082601547241,
-0.9787979125976562,
-0.3260699212551117,
0.45594534277915955,
-0.5486865043640137,
0.4835823178291321,
0.4713554084300995,
0.21856047213077545,
-0.15203368663787842,
-0.2867550551891327,
0.07624238729476929,
0.4140041768550873,
-0.26393938064575195,
-0.22412055730819702,
-0.04352615028619766,
0.31263139843940735,
0.018029896542429924,
0.15535177290439606,
-0.9681347012519836,
0.09293848276138306,
-0.5596776008605957,
-0.4262535572052002,
0.7039031386375427,
-0.48610982298851013,
0.2553938925266266,
-0.04413563758134842,
0.1840418428182602,
0.22035790979862213,
-0.4703463017940521,
-1.139052152633667,
-0.1388300061225891,
-0.4143083095550537,
0.23187075555324554,
0.3963445723056793,
-0.7630664706230164,
0.6558471322059631,
0.25870540738105774,
0.2742161750793457,
0.09485578536987305,
-0.6985421776771545,
0.13348528742790222,
0.35976642370224,
0.0987054705619812,
0.16073398292064667,
0.8099640011787415,
-0.3078053593635559,
0.5799126625061035,
-0.7212977409362793,
-0.5148821473121643,
-0.2792131006717682,
0.21795324981212616,
0.9574769139289856,
-0.1306048035621643,
0.1371038258075714,
-0.7745432257652283,
0.36522892117500305,
-0.13924790918827057,
-0.14083439111709595,
0.49186673760414124,
0.26084664463996887,
-0.5834296345710754,
0.7191835045814514,
0.03497958555817604,
-0.08122214674949646,
-0.3485461473464966,
0.19677716493606567,
-0.34231582283973694,
0.23999136686325073,
-0.8146393299102783,
0.6834655404090881,
-0.43292173743247986,
0.2452058494091034,
0.29897308349609375,
0.43944284319877625,
0.33038339018821716,
-0.8197663426399231,
0.4393726587295532,
-0.5706207156181335,
0.44342684745788574,
0.05990447849035263,
-0.40963760018348694,
-0.04743281006813049,
-0.2338789850473404,
-0.031104154884815216,
-0.5342221856117249,
0.30501678586006165,
0.013072650879621506,
-0.20625969767570496,
-0.23570986092090607,
0.5191909074783325,
0.34954869747161865,
-0.17676110565662384,
0.4857252240180969,
-0.08927667886018753,
0.3930142819881439,
-0.19882738590240479,
0.7649819254875183,
-0.7105292677879333,
-0.35994112491607666,
0.5718018412590027,
0.44570639729499817,
0.046634942293167114,
-0.42426440119743347,
0.2624334394931793,
0.10403075814247131,
0.5344693064689636,
0.35304760932922363,
0.15937553346157074,
-0.012363653630018234,
0.3358105719089508,
0.7015775442123413,
0.8943936228752136,
-0.015005278401076794,
0.42202451825141907,
0.682104229927063,
-0.11342982202768326,
-0.4762416183948517,
-0.11140742897987366,
0.22115786373615265,
-0.07525850087404251,
0.03013021871447563,
0.26857203245162964,
0.8705679774284363,
0.4012214243412018,
-0.3663323223590851,
0.615308403968811,
0.153667151927948,
0.2536928355693817,
0.23633098602294922,
-0.5250586867332458,
-0.2839071750640869,
0.458866685628891,
-0.6915422677993774,
0.7219063639640808,
0.26203227043151855,
0.1305050104856491,
-0.029748177155852318,
-0.1293766349554062,
-0.1570606678724289,
0.31108358502388,
-0.08572806417942047,
-0.4562813937664032,
0.20758400857448578,
-0.04771016538143158,
0.03045603074133396,
-0.3482699692249298,
0.905058741569519,
0.24120041728019714,
-0.21667014062404633,
0.8267940282821655,
-0.09887415915727615,
0.4699164032936096,
0.7987273335456848,
0.12808020412921906,
0.5487923622131348,
-0.41516152024269104,
0.26203373074531555,
-0.8884953856468201,
0.6465896368026733,
-0.10609298199415207,
0.032143380492925644,
-0.03788252919912338,
0.5974606871604919,
-0.27414414286613464,
0.29651251435279846,
0.43497398495674133,
-0.2022264152765274,
0.22745144367218018,
-0.6678205132484436,
-0.24138107895851135,
0.6208566427230835,
0.35305464267730713,
0.30435365438461304,
0.20834685862064362,
0.19252192974090576,
0.13857272267341614,
0.1127525269985199,
-0.22910535335540771,
0.8364906907081604,
-0.6773689389228821,
-0.6138151288032532,
-0.5677232146263123,
-0.14806953072547913,
0.1582859754562378,
-1.0848486423492432,
0.777736485004425,
0.39010998606681824,
-0.15095190703868866,
-0.547922670841217,
0.11037636548280716,
0.27204370498657227,
0.055355045944452286,
0.031854573637247086,
0.258928120136261,
0.021212026476860046,
-0.20188826322555542,
-0.29012441635131836,
-0.6625946164131165,
0.6481388807296753,
0.7206705808639526,
0.04876881092786789,
0.47189638018608093,
-0.7199195027351379,
-0.08608274161815643,
0.22144439816474915,
-0.2871665954589844,
0.03581735119223595,
0.11064224690198898,
0.39492809772491455
] |
241637 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing%20management | Marketing management | Marketing management is the organizational discipline which focuses on the practical application of marketing orientation, techniques and methods inside enterprises and organizations and on the management of a firm's marketing resources and activities.
Structure
Marketing management employs tools from economics and competitive strategy to analyze the industry context in which the firm operates. These include Porter's five forces, analysis of strategic groups of competitors, value chain analysis and others.
In competitor analysis, marketers build detailed profiles of each competitor in the market, focusing on their relative competitive strengths and weaknesses using SWOT analysis. Marketing managers will examine each competitor's cost structure, sources of profits, resources and competencies, competitive positioning and product differentiation, degree of vertical integration, historical responses to industry developments, and other factors.
Marketing management often conduct market research and marketing research to perform marketing analysis. Marketers employ a variety of techniques to conduct market research, but some of the more common include:
Qualitative marketing research, such as focus groups and various types of interviews
Quantitative marketing research, such as statistical surveys
Experimental techniques such as test markets
Observational techniques such as ethnographic (on-site) observation
Marketing managers may also design and oversee various environmental scanning and competitive intelligence processes to help identify trends and inform the company's marketing analysis.
Brand audit
A brand audit is a thorough examination of a brand's current position in an industry compared to its competitors and the examination of its effectiveness. When it comes to brand auditing, six questions should be carefully examined and assessed:
How well the business's current brand strategy is working
What the company's established resource strengths and weaknesses are
What its external opportunities and threats are
How competitive the business's prices and costs are
How strong the business's competitive position in comparison to its competitors is
What strategic issues are facing the business
When a business is conducting a brand audit, the goal is to uncover business's resource strengths, deficiencies, best market opportunities, outside threats, future profitability, and its competitive standing in comparison to existing competitors. A brand audit establishes the strategic elements needed to improve brand position and competitive capabilities within the industry. Once a brand is audited, any business that ends up with a strong financial performance and market position is more likely than not to have a properly conceived and effectively executed brand strategy.
A brand audit examines whether a business's share of the market is increasing, decreasing, or stable. It determines if the company's margin of profit is improving, decreasing, and how much it is in comparison to the profit margin of established competitors. Additionally, a brand audit investigates trends in a business's net profits, the return on existing investments, and its established economic value. It determines whether or not the business's entire financial strength and credit rating is improving or getting worse. This kind of audit also assesses a business's image and reputation with its customers. Furthermore, a brand audit seeks to determine whether or not a business is perceived as an industry leader in technology, offering product or service innovations, along with exceptional customer service, among other relevant issues that customers use to decide on a brand of preference.
A brand audit usually focuses on a business's strengths and resource capabilities because these are the elements that enhance its competitiveness. A business's competitive strengths can exist in several forms. Some of these forms include skilled or pertinent expertise, valuable physical assets, valuable human assets, valuable organizational assets, valuable intangible assets, competitive capabilities, achievements and attributes that position the business into a competitive advantage, and alliances or cooperative ventures.
The basic concept of a brand audit is to determine whether a business's resource strengths are competitive assets or competitive liabilities. This type of audit seeks to ensure that a business maintains a distinctive competence that allows it to build and reinforce its competitive advantage. What's more, a successful brand audit seeks to establish what a business capitalizes on best, its level of expertise, resource strengths, and strongest competitive capabilities, while aiming to identify a business's position and future performance.
Marketing strategy
Two customer segments are often selected as targets because they score highly on two dimensions:
The segment is attractive to serve because it is large, growing, makes frequent purchases, is not price sensitive (i.e. is willing to pay high prices), or other factors; and
The company has the resources and capabilities to compete for the segment's business, can meet their needs better than the competition, and can do so profitably.
A commonly cited definition of marketing is simply "meeting needs profitably".
The implication of selecting target segments is that the business will subsequently allocate more resources to acquire and retain customers in the target segments than it will for other, non-targeted customers. In some cases, the firm may go so far as to turn away customers who are not in its target segment. The doorman at a swanky nightclub, for example, may deny entry to unfashionably dressed individuals because the business has made a strategic decision to target the "high fashion" segment of nightclub patrons.
In conjunction with targeting decisions, marketing managers will identify the desired positioning they want the company, product, or brand to occupy in the target customer's mind. This positioning is often an encapsulation of a key benefit the company's product or service offers that is differentiated and superior to the benefits offered by competitive products. For example, Volvo has traditionally positioned its products in the automobile market in North America in order to be perceived as the leader in "safety", whereas BMW has traditionally positioned its brand to be perceived as the leader in "performance".
Ideally, a firm's positioning can be maintained over a long period of time because the company possesses, or can develop, some form of sustainable competitive advantage. The positioning should also be sufficiently relevant to the target segment such that it will drive the purchasing behavior of target customers.
To sum up, the marketing branch of a company is to deal with the selling and popularity of its products among people and its customers, as the central and eventual goal of a company is customer satisfaction and the return of revenue.
Implementation planning
If the company has obtained an adequate understanding of the customer base and its own competitive position in the industry, marketing managers are able to make their own key strategic decisions and develop a marketing strategy designed to maximize the revenues and profits of the firm. The selected strategy may aim for any of a variety of specific objectives, including optimizing short-term unit margins, revenue growth, market share, long-term profitability, or other goals.
After the firm's strategic objectives have been identified, the target market selected, and the desired positioning for the company, product or brand has been determined, marketing managers focus on how to best implement the chosen strategy. Traditionally, this has involved implementation planning across the "4 Ps": product management, pricing (at what price slot does a producer position a product, e.g. low, medium or high price), place (the place or area where the products are going to be sold, which could be local, regional, countrywide or international) (i.e. sales and distribution channels), and promotion.
Taken together, the company's implementation choices across the 4 P's are often described as the marketing mix, meaning the mix of elements the business will employ to "go to market" and execute the marketing strategy. The overall goal for the marketing mix is to consistently deliver a compelling value proposition that reinforces the firm's chosen positioning, builds customer loyalty and brand equity among target customers, and achieves the firm's marketing and financial objectives.
In many cases, marketing management will develop a marketing plan to specify how the company will execute the chosen strategy and achieve the business's objectives. The content of marketing plans varies for each firm, but commonly includes:
An executive summary
Situation analysis to summarize facts and insights gained from market research and marketing analysis
The company's mission statement or long-term strategic vision
A statement of the company's key objectives, often subdivided into marketing objectives and financial objectives
The marketing strategy the business has chosen, specifying the target segments to be pursued and the competitive positioning to be achieved
Implementation choices for each element of the marketing mix (the 4 P's)
Project, process, and vendor management
More broadly, marketing managers work to design and improve the effectiveness of core marketing processes, such as new product development, brand management, marketing communications, and pricing. Marketers may employ the tools of business process re-engineering to ensure these processes are properly designed, and use a variety of process management techniques to keep them operating smoothly.
Effective execution may require management of both internal resources and a variety of external vendors and service providers, such as the firm's advertising agency. Marketers may therefore coordinate with the company's Purchasing department on the procurement of these services. Under the area of marketing agency management (i.e. working with external marketing agencies and suppliers) are techniques such as agency performance evaluation, scope of work, incentive compensation, ERFx's and storage of agency information in a supplier database.
Reporting, measurement, feedback and control systems
Marketing management employs a variety of metrics to measure progress against objectives. It is the responsibility of marketing managers to ensure that the execution of marketing programs achieves the desired objectives and does so in a cost-efficient manner.
Marketing management therefore often makes use of various organizational control systems, such as sales forecasts, and sales force and reseller incentive programs, sales force management systems, and customer relationship management tools (CRM). Some software vendors have begun using the term customer data platform or marketing resource management to describe systems that facilitate an integrated approach for controlling marketing resources. In some cases, these efforts may be linked to various supply chain management systems, such as enterprise resource planning (ERP), material requirements planning (MRP), efficient consumer response (ECR), and inventory management systems.
International marketing management
Globalization has led some firms to market beyond the borders of their home countries, making international marketing a part of those firms' marketing strategy. Marketing managers are often responsible for influencing the level, timing, and composition of customer demand. In part, this is because the role of a marketing manager (or sometimes called managing marketer in small- and medium-sized enterprises) can vary significantly based on a business's size, corporate culture, and industry context.
For example, in a small- and medium-sized enterprises, the managing marketer may contribute in both managerial and marketing operations roles for the company brands. In a large consumer products company, the marketing manager may act as the overall general manager of his or her assigned product.
To create an effective, cost-efficient marketing management strategy, firms must possess a detailed, objective understanding of their own business and the market in which they operate. In analyzing these issues, the discipline of marketing management often overlaps with the related discipline of strategic planning.
See also
Marketing effectiveness
Predictive analytics
Strategic management
Outline of marketing
References
Further reading
External links
Marketing
Strategic management | [
0.30512768030166626,
0.35297465324401855,
0.045472219586372375,
-0.13160890340805054,
0.0024230044800788164,
0.11963508278131485,
0.060990165919065475,
0.25442713499069214,
-0.19255414605140686,
-0.4948149025440216,
-0.33620885014533997,
1.0224899053573608,
0.2093171328306198,
0.2106950283050537,
-0.2511967420578003,
0.3709902763366699,
0.24228791892528534,
0.27625563740730286,
0.4537266492843628,
-0.25069713592529297,
-0.8477869629859924,
-0.24701936542987823,
0.026561645790934563,
0.01450157817453146,
0.561748206615448,
0.029899604618549347,
0.11877823621034622,
0.35856130719184875,
-0.055986978113651276,
0.05088921636343002,
0.00669678533449769,
-0.0541924312710762,
-0.02633029595017433,
0.09017948061227798,
-0.5517045855522156,
0.18727612495422363,
-0.019450869411230087,
0.16504225134849548,
-0.49883517622947693,
-0.3701961934566498,
-0.26447802782058716,
0.26108893752098083,
-0.04673464968800545,
0.18879005312919617,
-0.06800639629364014,
-0.9601891040802002,
-1.7612248659133911,
-0.09452471137046814,
-0.5127443671226501,
0.26852962374687195,
-0.865371584892273,
0.06304621696472168,
-0.011212832294404507,
-0.11288806051015854,
-0.1638057678937912,
0.5514657497406006,
-0.1726928949356079,
0.05574651435017586,
-0.4596382677555084,
-0.28311392664909363,
0.23300525546073914,
-0.00028465173090808094,
0.2539611756801605,
0.1664714515209198,
0.6201984882354736,
-0.13628150522708893,
-0.18435604870319366,
-0.11052463948726654,
-0.6804041862487793,
-0.5325166583061218,
-0.5874327421188354,
-0.47947776317596436,
-0.35524141788482666,
0.1424359828233719,
-0.7934402227401733,
-0.30188727378845215,
0.25151199102401733,
0.09693872928619385,
-0.42805296182632446,
0.08674376457929611,
-0.21068906784057617,
0.3489547371864319,
0.17452773451805115,
-0.04947655275464058,
0.29552581906318665,
0.38735511898994446,
-0.043162282556295395,
0.5636127591133118,
-0.012393785640597343,
0.6880117058753967,
0.5051917433738708,
-0.5966843962669373,
0.6884170770645142,
-0.22777682542800903,
0.31034401059150696,
-0.13391678035259247,
0.7077010273933411,
0.1974538415670395,
-0.41208767890930176,
0.3555065393447876,
-0.3262631595134735,
0.3054952919483185,
0.2959921061992645,
0.12419307976961136,
0.040350351482629776,
-0.18731211125850677,
0.45713484287261963,
-0.9845297932624817,
-0.3486766219139099,
-0.33900362253189087,
-0.5483326315879822,
0.02581845037639141,
-0.07379425317049026,
0.09095784276723862,
-0.32030725479125977,
0.7879632711410522,
0.12050522118806839,
0.03267532214522362,
-0.22545036673545837,
0.3893859386444092,
0.6314980387687683,
0.40719878673553467,
-0.12782496213912964,
-0.16553127765655518,
-0.27795663475990295,
-0.03211703151464462,
0.41674429178237915,
0.5120715498924255,
-0.460554838180542,
-0.3177449107170105,
-0.020513786002993584,
0.5375381708145142,
-0.28959739208221436,
0.2651432156562805,
-0.48857855796813965,
0.03492426872253418,
1.0021517276763916,
-0.19848978519439697,
0.0021919405553489923,
-0.2432076632976532,
-0.6619385480880737,
-0.226779043674469,
-0.7318428754806519,
-0.5122795701026917,
0.41164126992225647,
-0.3440285325050354,
0.4024759531021118,
-0.7791562080383301,
-0.46756064891815186,
-0.13036741316318512,
-0.14501073956489563,
0.16526268422603607,
-0.3779376149177551,
0.46107807755470276,
0.054857343435287476,
0.48286473751068115,
0.7412418723106384,
-0.35431191325187683,
-0.32371270656585693,
0.11681492626667023,
0.16575200855731964,
-0.34995782375335693,
-0.2147287279367447,
-0.11707210540771484,
-0.16974686086177826,
-0.5498695373535156,
0.23847222328186035,
0.5701703429222107,
0.21176815032958984,
-0.09238950908184052,
-0.10023821145296097,
-0.11237184703350067,
-0.05622449144721031,
-0.4460994303226471,
0.27466869354248047,
0.19206136465072632,
0.06265618652105331,
0.398212194442749,
0.8158636689186096,
0.13209325075149536,
-0.4594670534133911,
0.1429581642150879,
0.16873255372047424,
-0.21494418382644653,
0.32063543796539307,
-0.30899208784103394,
0.33942753076553345,
-0.20718078315258026,
0.05975055322051048,
-0.005464011337608099,
-0.4773613512516022,
-0.4995984733104706,
0.1651301383972168,
-0.5800446271896362,
0.6075063943862915,
-0.18554812669754028,
-0.38726291060447693,
0.8243523240089417,
-0.3316030204296112,
-0.018764806911349297,
-0.09164413064718246,
-0.14159968495368958,
-0.2311965674161911,
-0.3606589436531067,
-0.2844434380531311,
0.5031607747077942,
0.28468382358551025,
0.10039123147726059,
-0.027086183428764343,
0.774437427520752,
0.04335208982229233,
-0.4842812418937683,
0.314039021730423,
-0.7282425761222839,
0.36565980315208435,
0.15098294615745544,
-0.554509699344635,
0.9256457686424255,
-0.09404204785823822,
-0.08947252482175827,
1.0868499279022217,
-0.11176089197397232,
-0.05881388485431671,
0.6055577397346497,
0.07131031900644302,
0.04720008373260498,
0.42520448565483093,
-0.08119240403175354,
0.4590398669242859,
-0.46623343229293823,
0.7697618007659912,
-0.04515041783452034,
0.7370780110359192,
-0.3002343475818634,
-0.6586206555366516,
0.5043855905532837,
-0.3958296477794647,
-0.15028443932533264,
-0.4007338583469391,
-0.5592168569564819,
0.007898390293121338,
0.13700133562088013,
-0.5826084613800049,
0.4488368332386017,
0.05843674764037132,
0.0728549212217331,
-0.47061440348625183,
0.4074711799621582,
-0.437013179063797,
0.13723383843898773,
-0.1531413197517395,
0.35961663722991943,
0.4822118282318115,
-0.53925621509552,
-0.48414453864097595,
-0.3184681236743927,
-0.4122771620750427,
0.22469858825206757,
0.5687565207481384,
-0.04973948746919632,
0.2748124301433563,
0.0714879035949707,
-0.037168215960264206,
0.47187456488609314,
0.16592003405094147,
-0.017203403636813164,
-0.25515350699424744,
0.11671033501625061,
-0.33892562985420227,
0.14706113934516907,
0.7070631384849548,
-0.02012886106967926,
-0.4740368723869324,
-0.3360311985015869,
0.1084974929690361,
-0.9098596572875977,
0.3147798180580139,
-0.08314961194992065,
-0.4716673493385315,
-0.406982958316803,
0.3078731298446655,
0.5192288160324097,
0.4806392788887024,
-0.348163902759552,
-0.3286667764186859,
-0.4882700443267822,
-0.15104207396507263,
-0.19825589656829834,
0.2923399806022644,
0.14193324744701385,
-0.1306827813386917,
0.48209941387176514,
-0.24513085186481476,
-0.20174288749694824,
0.04367319494485855,
0.05842674896121025,
-0.32820549607276917,
0.602949321269989,
0.35934707522392273,
-0.04019920155405998,
-0.19319482147693634,
0.2097025364637375,
-0.17401418089866638,
-0.30229178071022034,
0.08750208467245102,
-0.3637206256389618,
-0.2078128308057785,
-0.10675054043531418,
-5.777426242828369,
-0.6244292259216309,
0.18312017619609833,
-0.3120810389518738,
-0.009090213105082512,
-0.2720005214214325,
0.705000638961792,
-0.20748116075992584,
0.14760129153728485,
-0.0164718609303236,
-0.37935590744018555,
-0.29200437664985657,
0.04790308326482773,
0.3148336708545685,
0.46649593114852905,
0.5177851915359497,
0.7245779633522034,
-0.11385688185691833,
0.5247743725776672,
0.3373662531375885,
0.16201099753379822,
-0.26470258831977844,
-0.09070615470409393,
0.7889391183853149,
-0.13388116657733917,
0.1021852120757103,
-0.571757972240448,
0.6389766335487366,
-0.4379430413246155,
0.14472506940364838,
0.3640698790550232,
-0.11725757271051407,
-0.5804511308670044,
0.01480026263743639,
0.3917749524116516,
-0.022361066192388535,
0.5336398482322693,
0.08774753659963608,
0.2335435152053833,
-0.25065815448760986,
0.7370901107788086,
0.6945458054542542,
-0.44008731842041016,
0.2961801290512085,
0.30729204416275024,
-0.21369153261184692,
-0.5746922492980957,
-0.1653740406036377,
-0.5451985001564026,
0.5445528030395508,
-0.012561959214508533,
0.10883361101150513,
0.3046402037143707,
-0.6981453895568848,
0.40047121047973633,
-0.2844970226287842,
0.7142300605773926,
-0.23213118314743042,
-0.20524078607559204,
0.41227254271507263,
0.650054931640625,
-0.4314383864402771,
-0.06634341925382614,
-0.2700102627277374,
-0.5807413458824158,
0.2298615723848343,
-0.5610818862915039,
-0.9088215231895447,
0.03820726275444031,
-0.06454756110906601,
-0.15865659713745117,
0.6976132988929749,
0.1438017636537552,
-0.5892358422279358,
0.09419268369674683,
-0.4334491193294525,
0.3039941191673279,
0.2564014196395874,
0.7034693956375122,
-0.06823442131280899,
-0.006829824298620224,
-0.15086506307125092,
0.03161942958831787,
-0.2590559422969818,
-0.12738384306430817,
-0.2592860460281372,
0.1382959634065628,
0.47191980481147766,
-0.40543150901794434,
0.12693355977535248,
0.6314715147018433,
0.06734679639339447,
0.42856714129447937,
0.6239923238754272,
0.23678287863731384,
0.2899564504623413,
0.24090807139873505,
0.09746535867452621,
-0.04160309210419655,
-0.7863050699234009,
0.4557620584964752,
-0.1818411946296692,
-0.572868824005127,
-0.3458497226238251,
0.17837779223918915,
0.11845745146274567,
-0.28482750058174133,
-0.10637713223695755,
1.0763213634490967,
-0.3730236887931824,
0.5348300933837891,
0.805387556552887,
-0.5699527859687805,
-0.04552103206515312,
0.19890263676643372,
0.20337554812431335,
-0.8734277486801147,
0.2903410494327545,
0.09716116636991501,
-0.07427458465099335,
-0.02683284319937229,
-0.4969556927680969,
-0.3073183596134186,
0.4207717776298523,
-0.22969385981559753,
-0.38020867109298706,
0.09850090742111206,
0.3391510546207428,
-0.3357231616973877,
0.08293063193559647,
0.9143394231796265,
0.20134669542312622,
-0.056009721010923386,
-0.35224515199661255,
0.5565860271453857,
-0.059588171541690826,
-0.05582797899842262,
0.1261148750782013,
-0.11960168182849884,
-0.6436906456947327,
0.31385350227355957,
0.37841692566871643,
0.43542104959487915,
0.1270189881324768,
0.5256392359733582,
0.15187561511993408,
-0.61995530128479,
0.024963295087218285,
-0.03543390706181526,
0.3833548426628113,
-0.04802305996417999,
0.09713401645421982,
-0.3013834059238434,
-0.05089448019862175,
0.30236366391181946,
-0.3982597887516022,
-0.11915457248687744,
0.013681909069418907,
0.330392062664032,
-0.7460833787918091,
-0.037365008145570755,
0.05999656394124031,
-1.2600873708724976,
0.05512296408414841,
-0.15776020288467407,
0.023098791018128395,
-0.5097130537033081,
-0.05364929884672165,
-0.0695251077413559,
0.5017364025115967,
0.2350633442401886,
-0.7209117412567139,
-0.5653950572013855,
-0.962752640247345,
-0.1333404928445816,
0.025163033977150917,
0.349346399307251,
0.3641594648361206,
-0.49102920293807983,
0.06776458770036697,
0.19484703242778778,
-0.5362809300422668,
-0.5930585861206055,
0.12686774134635925,
0.015160638839006424,
-0.01602841541171074,
-0.19799204170703888,
-0.10940346121788025,
-0.47077101469039917,
-0.23341505229473114,
-0.015098067931830883,
0.13982227444648743,
0.8422127962112427,
0.3109501004219055,
0.2179214358329773,
-0.6271231770515442,
-0.21753093600273132,
-0.043897807598114014,
-0.4209793210029602,
-0.7316362857818604,
0.3816647231578827,
0.5477671027183533,
-0.5553058385848999,
0.21696113049983978,
0.20338407158851624,
-0.4383811056613922,
0.23247186839580536,
0.016039054840803146,
-0.21143725514411926,
0.3668389320373535,
-0.7125570178031921,
-0.1339556723833084,
-0.676762044429779,
0.17063435912132263,
-0.5361197590827942,
-0.30833062529563904,
0.06589321792125702,
-0.15199138224124908,
-0.12614129483699799,
0.16752393543720245,
0.5318683385848999,
-0.1853913515806198,
-0.8111103177070618,
0.06078917905688286,
-0.3611571788787842,
0.18447548151016235,
0.5073340535163879,
-0.13231244683265686,
0.05729976296424866,
-0.14251630008220673,
-0.255267471075058,
-0.21509981155395508,
0.06394769251346588,
0.1584659367799759,
0.10608690977096558,
-0.07504596561193466,
-0.2923864424228668,
0.7783635258674622,
0.04238177463412285,
-0.340756356716156,
-0.8232511281967163,
0.7527231574058533,
-0.2770938575267792,
-0.2903335988521576,
0.21733435988426208,
-0.018497804179787636,
0.3375769257545471,
-0.3776704967021942,
-0.5299588441848755,
0.02030204050242901,
0.1551935374736786,
-0.39103540778160095,
-0.2496456652879715,
0.15788622200489044,
0.4596165418624878,
-0.07677687704563141,
-0.48262616991996765,
0.030291186645627022,
0.15377560257911682,
0.17888779938220978,
0.10154397040605545,
-0.1648648977279663,
-0.39200717210769653,
-0.011112661100924015,
0.33737239241600037,
0.5162410140037537,
-0.5755559206008911,
-0.24614033102989197,
-0.05051467567682266,
-0.4580528438091278,
0.13653776049613953,
-0.11499733477830887,
0.22448375821113586,
0.790195107460022,
0.9778068661689758,
0.06165451183915138,
0.10813301056623459,
-0.48395130038261414,
-0.45564574003219604,
-0.001616002875380218,
0.10512223839759827,
-0.3651888072490692,
0.7378084659576416,
-0.41929012537002563,
0.7393830418586731,
-1.0286335945129395,
0.3563382625579834,
-0.12046008557081223,
-0.514308512210846,
-0.15201233327388763,
-0.4595656991004944,
0.047857582569122314,
-0.23249483108520508,
0.6446959972381592,
-0.9072712659835815,
-0.06164724752306938,
0.48732563853263855,
-0.1920783668756485,
-0.19720084965229034,
0.36219924688339233,
0.21866802871227264,
0.36871662735939026,
-0.09184323251247406,
-0.5801949501037598,
0.5463290810585022,
0.3239438831806183,
-0.18806859850883484,
-0.5853898525238037,
-0.21974070370197296,
-0.5157941579818726,
0.12406770139932632,
-0.29371899366378784,
0.20848388969898224,
0.6008312702178955,
-0.5431891083717346,
0.015976622700691223,
0.18508478999137878,
-0.4762597978115082,
0.8191735148429871,
0.27762147784233093,
-0.07226557284593582,
-0.42281395196914673,
0.7736856341362,
-0.16768497228622437,
0.25872519612312317,
0.3243004083633423,
-0.006438554264605045,
0.342079758644104,
0.5121085047721863,
-0.1449413150548935,
0.2869594693183899,
0.3023242950439453,
0.1207570880651474,
0.6650333404541016,
-0.2827285826206207,
-0.02765851840376854,
0.5416733026504517,
-0.6493204236030579,
-0.11283065378665924,
0.14829117059707642,
0.8167235255241394,
0.5472812056541443,
0.2862014174461365,
0.38925984501838684,
-0.1190987303853035,
-0.006778846960514784,
0.40569326281547546,
0.3299541473388672,
-0.5225197672843933,
0.3637883961200714,
-0.17004109919071198,
-0.29456251859664917,
0.4397445023059845,
-0.22659143805503845,
0.11382805556058884,
-0.5090848803520203,
0.4492604732513428,
0.14690639078617096,
-0.20928311347961426,
-0.1812322586774826,
0.025990216061472893,
0.2767159640789032,
0.2343563735485077,
-0.11069172620773315,
0.3415204882621765,
0.17028363049030304,
0.37130680680274963,
-0.8325031995773315,
0.22017909586429596,
0.753212034702301,
-0.2123280018568039,
0.36868929862976074,
0.022289050742983818,
0.16047798097133636,
0.17875578999519348,
-0.032099079340696335,
0.5969846248626709,
0.16520094871520996,
0.2151060402393341,
0.10800217092037201,
0.07096248120069504,
0.45383286476135254,
-0.1682882010936737,
-0.1393508017063141,
-0.1223490834236145,
0.24078363180160522,
-0.44687947630882263,
0.2997146248817444,
-0.37169530987739563,
-0.10262783616781235,
0.13888542354106903,
-0.06464117020368576,
0.19924336671829224,
0.08940768241882324,
0.18152298033237457,
0.13965949416160583,
0.3287356197834015,
0.46774545311927795,
0.24606823921203613,
-0.25717195868492126,
-0.18191897869110107,
0.3033573031425476,
-0.26096975803375244,
0.4593825042247772,
-0.09479662775993347,
-0.18196457624435425,
-0.4232157766819,
0.5398578643798828,
-0.3686353862285614,
0.2284429967403412,
0.22948908805847168,
-0.32304883003234863,
-0.2637002468109131,
-0.1225464791059494,
0.13095033168792725,
0.5213571190834045,
0.49021294713020325,
-0.27325212955474854,
0.1586104929447174,
-0.21111248433589935,
0.29345208406448364,
0.04547540470957756,
0.17500928044319153,
0.019601844251155853,
-0.10921063274145126,
0.20787248015403748,
-0.07619639486074448,
0.424532026052475,
-0.13444913923740387,
0.35835254192352295,
-0.1116839349269867,
0.022455520927906036,
-0.614495575428009,
0.5095133185386658,
-0.32687094807624817,
-0.198265939950943,
0.18218331038951874,
0.37352946400642395,
0.6857103109359741,
-0.6063665151596069,
0.07614544034004211,
-0.11680055409669876,
0.04726307466626167,
0.0853029415011406,
-1.8848567008972168,
0.35503873229026794,
0.24842585623264313,
-0.3448200821876526,
-0.4946240484714508,
0.4319729208946228,
0.0835120677947998,
-0.8022494316101074,
0.3526986241340637,
-0.1687522977590561,
-0.08199707418680191,
0.11649253219366074,
0.1892024129629135,
-0.9566652774810791,
-0.15511642396450043,
0.32040637731552124
] |
241644 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Washington | William Washington | William Washington (February 28, 1752 – March 6, 1810) was a cavalry officer of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, who held a final rank of brigadier general in the newly created United States after the war. Primarily known as a commander of light dragoons, he led mounted troops in a number of notable battles in the Carolinas during the campaigns of 1780 and 1781.
Before the war
Born in Stafford County, Virginia, William was the second son of Bailey Washington and Catherine (née Storke) Washington. Correspondence between William and George Washington, first President of the United States, indicates William and George were second cousins. William received an education appropriate to his Southern planter class, including tutoring from Reverend Dr. William Stuart, a Virginia clergyman. William learned the Greek language and may have studied theology for a potential career in the church.
However, in 1775, he established a local Stafford County militia company and soon abandoned his studies and took up arms against the British government during the Revolutionary War. William and his elder brother, Henry, are said to have drawn straws to see who would get to join the Continental Army and who would stay home and manage the family plantations. William won.
Revolutionary War
Washington was elected a captain of Stafford County Minutemen on September 12, 1775, and soon became his militia company was assigned to Hugh Mercer's newly formed militia regiment. That became part of the 3rd Virginia Regiment, Continental Line on February 25, 1776, commanding its 7th Company. His lieutenant and second-in-command was fellow Virginian James Monroe, future fifth US. President. Their first combat was the Battle of Harlem Heights in New York on September 16, 1776, during which he may have been wounded by enemy musket fire. At the Battle of Trenton, under command of Nathanael Greene and after a night of scouting the countryside with Monroe to prevent detection, Washington led a successful assault into the town. His company drove in Hessian pickets, and seized two cannon on King Street, capturing their crews. Washington received wounds to both hands during the action, along with Lt. Monroe who was severely wounded in the shoulder. Both received thanks from Continental Army commander-in-chief George Washington.
On January 27, 1777, William was promoted to the rank of major and assigned to the newly created 4th Continental Light Dragoons. In the fall of 1778, he was assigned to the 3rd Continental Light Dragoons, which was severely mauled in a surprise attack on the night of September 27 at Old Tappan, New Jersey, by a force of British light infantry. Only 55 of the lightly armed dragoons escaped the attack and their commander, Lt. Col. George Baylor, was wounded and captured. Washington was promoted to lieutenant colonel and placed in command of the 3rd Light Dragoons on November 20, 1778. Washington's unit spent the summer of 1779 recruiting and remounting. On November 19, 1779, his unit was transferred to the Southern theatre of war, and marched to join the army of Major General Benjamin Lincoln in Charleston, South Carolina.
On March 10, 1780, Washington's regiment joined forces with the remnants of the 1st Continental Light Dragoons at Bacon's Bridge, South Carolina, to reconnoiter and screen against the advancing British. On March 26, his first encounter with the British Legion, under command of Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton, resulted in a minor victory near Rantowle's Bridge on the Stono River in South Carolina. Afterward, on the Ashley River during the fight at Rutledge's Plantation on March 26, 1780, Lt. Col. Washington again bested a detachment of Tarleton's dragoons and infantry. Tarleton, however, attacked the encampment of General Isaac Huger at Monck's Corner on the night of April 14, 1780, and routed the Continentals, including the 3rd Light Dragoons, which lost 15 dead, 17 wounded, and 100 dragoons captured, along with 83 horses.
Washington and his remaining troops fled across the Santee River to escape capture. The severe attrition of Washington's command forced its amalgamation with the 1st Continental Light Dragoons under Lt. Col. Anthony Walton White. This force was defeated at Lenud's Ferry, waiting to cross the flooded Santee, on May 6, 1780. White was captured and Washington assumed command of the 1st-and-3rd Dragoons. The force withdrew to North Carolina when Lincoln surrendered the southern army and Charleston on May 12.
The reconstituted Southern army, now under General Horatio Gates, was defeated at the Battle of Camden, South Carolina, on August 16, 1780, which opened up the South to British control. Gates was replaced by General Nathanael Greene, who divided his army into two groups, one of which was led by General Daniel Morgan and the other by himself. Washington was placed under the command of General Morgan, for whom he participated in a series of raids in the western part of South Carolina. Two notable successes were the capture of Rugeley's Mill near Camden on December 4, 1780; Washington with 60 troops bluffed 112 Loyalists into surrendering a strongly fortified homestead without firing a shot by use of a "Quaker Gun", mounting a felled tree trunk on wagon axles to resemble a cannon; and the defeat of a Tory partisan unit at Hammond's Old Store in the Little River District on December 27, 1780; Washington routed 250 Georgia Loyalists, killing or wounding 150 and capturing the rest.
These successes led to Tarleton being ordered by Lord Cornwallis to chase down Morgan's "flying corps", leading to the Battle of Cowpens on January 17, 1781. Morgan's battle plans called for Washington's group, 80 Continental dragoons and 45 mounted Georgia infantry, to serve as a defensive and offensive unit as the situation required. Washington's first encounter with the enemy involved the rescue of a South Carolina militia unit as it was reloading behind the front lines of Morgan's left flank and under attack by a unit of Tarleton's dragoons. Crushing the attackers, Washington regrouped and followed with an attack on Tarleton's left flank infantry. After repeated assaults by Washington, they moved through the infantry and attacked a small artillery position behind Tarleton's front lines.
With the main British infantry surrender and during Tarleton's retreat, Washington was in close pursuit and found himself somewhat isolated. He was attacked by the British commander and two of his men. Tarleton was stopped by Washington himself, who attacked him with his sword, calling out, "Where is now the boasting Tarleton?" A cornet of the 17th, Thomas Patterson, rode up to strike Washington but was shot by Washington's orderly trumpeter. Washington survived this assault and in the process wounded Tarleton's right hand with a sabre blow, while Tarleton creased Washington's knee with a pistol shot that also wounded his horse. Washington pursued Tarleton for sixteen miles, but gave up the chase when he came to the plantation of Adam Goudylock near Thicketty Creek. To escape capture by Washington, Tarleton had forced Goudylock to serve as an escape guide. For his valor at Cowpens, Washington received a silver medal awarded by the Continental Congress executed under the direction of Thomas Jefferson. The unique silver medal was designed by French artists Du Pre and De Vivier. (A British version of this duel can be found under Chapter 33 Year 1781.)
After the Battle of Cowpens, Washington's dragoons assisted the retreat of General Nathanael Greene to Dan River in Virginia by rearguard actions against forces commanded by Lord Cornwallis. Afterward, Washington returned to North Carolina to act as vanguard for Greene's army.
On April 25, 1781, at the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, Greene was attacked by British colonel Lord Rawdon. Ordered to attack Rawdon's flank, Washington was unable to complete the maneuver while policing prisoners, forcing Greene to retreat.
On September 8, 1781, the Battle of Eutaw Springs, the last major battle in the Carolinas, was Washington's final action. Midway through the battle, Greene ordered Washington to charge a portion of the British line positioned in a blackjack thicket along Eutaw Creek. The thicket proved impenetrable and British fire repulsed the mounted charges. During the last charge, Washington's mount was shot out from under him, and he was pinned beneath his horse. He was bayoneted and taken prisoner, and held under house arrest in the Charleston area for the remainder of the war.
The British commander in the South, Lord Cornwallis, would later comment that "there could be no more formidable antagonist in a charge, at the head of his cavalry, than Colonel William Washington."
Post-American Revolution
On April 21, 1782, Washington married Jane Elliott of Sandy Hill, South Carolina. Elliott and Washington met when she made his regiment a battle flag that was carried into combat from Cowpens to Eutaw Springs. After the war, the married couple settled near Charleston, South Carolina, on Sandy Hill plantation—originally owned by Jane Elliott—with ownership of other properties in the St. Paul Parish.
On 27 December 1785, the new couple purchased a townhouse at 8 South Battery in Charleston. The couple took up farming (a low-country planter) and raising thoroughbred horses. Washington was elected to the State legislature from 1787 to 1804 but refused to run for State Governor because he, in his words, "was not born a Carolinian." Washington also accepted a post of brigadier general commanding the Seventh Brigade of the South Carolina State Militia in 1794.
During the naval war with France in 1798 former President George Washington was appointed by President Adams' Administration as commander of the American Army. George Washington offered a general's commission and staff position to William Washington, and he accepted the rank of Brigadier General and served on George Washington's staff. He served the United States Army from 1798 to 1800, and concerned himself with the defenses of South Carolina and Georgia.
After a lingering illness, William Washington died on March 6, 1810, at the age of 58. He was buried at Live Oak, a plantation near Sandy Hill. He was survived by his wife, a son, and a daughter. His daughter was married to General Alexander Spotswood, a grandson of Virginia Governor Alexander Spotswood.
In retrospect, William Washington is viewed as a fine officer and premier cavalry commander. He showed skill, bravery, and daring on the battlefield inspiring victory and confidence in the war of American Independence from the British Crown.
References
Further reading
Haller, Stephen. William Washington: Cavalryman of the Revolution. Heritage Books, 2001. .
Lumpkin, Henry. From Savannah to Yorktown: The American Revolution in the South. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1981.
Warley, Felix B. An Oration, Delivered in Saint Michael's Church, in the City of Charleston, South Carolina, on Tuesday, the 19 June 1810, on the Death of the Late Gen. William Washington. Charleston: W. P. Young, 1810.
Military Heritage did a feature on William Washington (Arnold Blumberg, Military Heritage, April 2002, Volume 3, No. 5, p. 12, p. 14, and p. 16). Cavalry Commander William (NMN) Washington of Stafford County has often been confused in name with William Augustine Washington of Westmoreland County.
External links
This article has apparently fallen into the name confusion mentioned above.
As has this one.
1752 births
1810 deaths
American Revolutionary War prisoners of war held by Great Britain
Continental Army officers from Virginia
United States Army generals
Washington family
American people of English descent
People from Stafford County, Virginia
American planters
Burials in South Carolina | [
-0.49990805983543396,
0.16577845811843872,
-0.5403410792350769,
0.16772672533988953,
0.23606613278388977,
0.7018021941184998,
0.9781480431556702,
-0.10307037830352783,
-0.2815452814102173,
-0.5552801489830017,
-0.26624536514282227,
0.225247323513031,
-0.33854418992996216,
0.2607012689113617,
-0.6298638582229614,
0.3416878283023834,
0.2029813826084137,
-0.13453924655914307,
0.08551735430955887,
-0.42917516827583313,
-0.14356739819049835,
0.013126181438565254,
0.16789039969444275,
-0.22855708003044128,
0.14110785722732544,
0.22354543209075928,
-0.013805592432618141,
-0.158418670296669,
0.07873056083917618,
-0.0171278677880764,
-0.46215492486953735,
0.21741299331188202,
0.4424425959587097,
-0.006821732968091965,
-1.1977479457855225,
-0.20883183181285858,
-0.7281472086906433,
-0.07143010944128036,
0.04345620796084404,
0.1985967606306076,
-0.5395536422729492,
-0.32880815863609314,
0.1060878187417984,
-0.3209441006183624,
-0.061166226863861084,
-0.5758766531944275,
-1.2307347059249878,
-0.1857336461544037,
-0.34133410453796387,
-0.79057776927948,
-0.36445140838623047,
-0.050820108503103256,
0.024192601442337036,
0.10157334059476852,
-0.21093860268592834,
-0.2616683542728424,
-0.07006371766328812,
-0.19228889048099518,
-0.13742011785507202,
-0.5528240203857422,
0.38128772377967834,
0.15756481885910034,
0.805027425289154,
-0.26854097843170166,
0.4109762907028198,
-0.23255634307861328,
-0.008864294737577438,
0.42036178708076477,
0.0684797465801239,
0.153569757938385,
0.320893257856369,
0.09710141271352768,
0.4584586024284363,
0.7179554104804993,
-0.032580070197582245,
-0.23153851926326752,
0.42013460397720337,
0.48985883593559265,
0.1890270709991455,
0.30674633383750916,
-0.03041580691933632,
-0.6203073859214783,
1.0227057933807373,
0.06238745152950287,
-0.7401623129844666,
0.6693758368492126,
-0.03580601513385773,
-0.004404548555612564,
-0.13808786869049072,
-0.4836844503879547,
-0.6478620171546936,
-0.0654691681265831,
0.3208008110523224,
0.08593582361936569,
-0.4100630283355713,
0.023038143292069435,
-0.06679676473140717,
-0.09158013015985489,
-0.48870936036109924,
-0.6028826236724854,
-0.17548994719982147,
-0.06315072625875473,
0.4987293481826782,
0.10057441890239716,
-0.3211653232574463,
0.2968211770057678,
0.21851123869419098,
-0.11907407641410828,
-0.02907228097319603,
-0.07854282855987549,
-0.4434271454811096,
0.17932645976543427,
-0.1650756597518921,
-0.3085269629955292,
-0.13290266692638397,
0.5010504126548767,
0.34838443994522095,
-0.4650389850139618,
-0.3692578673362732,
-0.7009153366088867,
-0.2626471519470215,
0.643100917339325,
-0.014689743518829346,
-0.0965857058763504,
-0.2077234834432602,
0.04433514550328255,
0.35308244824409485,
0.09761017560958862,
0.02335868775844574,
0.31024250388145447,
0.19524040818214417,
0.7869033217430115,
-0.4728504717350006,
-0.03337845951318741,
-0.019188527017831802,
-0.32112807035446167,
-0.3953207731246948,
0.041386716067790985,
-0.36089667677879333,
-0.2821402847766876,
-0.489113986492157,
-0.00275995209813118,
-0.22844970226287842,
-0.22511546313762665,
0.021374691277742386,
-0.08147185295820236,
0.3341399133205414,
0.1891823261976242,
-0.3621247708797455,
0.09913968294858932,
0.0414557047188282,
-0.09478151053190231,
0.12613962590694427,
-0.18380206823349,
0.28628861904144287,
0.11058080941438675,
0.5156480073928833,
0.16865628957748413,
0.5120616555213928,
0.42741498351097107,
0.06613785773515701,
0.028349043801426888,
0.046140458434820175,
0.008940699510276318,
0.5900693535804749,
0.27496975660324097,
0.05633203312754631,
-0.2829667329788208,
-0.7289505004882812,
-0.33816853165626526,
0.28432250022888184,
0.07717182487249374,
-0.1144571453332901,
0.36536017060279846,
0.0966724380850792,
0.7407748699188232,
0.4543501138687134,
-0.07290823757648468,
0.1566760241985321,
-0.5021193623542786,
-0.44058382511138916,
0.09921427071094513,
0.8357834219932556,
0.06634071469306946,
0.41422826051712036,
0.42840173840522766,
0.26859861612319946,
-0.3003869950771332,
0.5803894400596619,
-0.26314109563827515,
-0.4200664162635803,
-0.425889253616333,
-0.42371127009391785,
-0.568107545375824,
0.4610142409801483,
0.011199957691133022,
-0.9096816778182983,
0.3972516357898712,
0.3821757435798645,
0.6002166271209717,
0.4240793287754059,
-0.619040310382843,
0.4208143353462219,
-0.30800309777259827,
-0.10933440178632736,
0.3280106782913208,
0.27117443084716797,
0.0781538188457489,
0.7919214963912964,
0.6937796473503113,
0.6930577158927917,
-0.0711476057767868,
-0.37929844856262207,
0.6219361424446106,
0.25194746255874634,
-0.48235300183296204,
0.06145671010017395,
-0.5264281630516052,
0.684449315071106,
-0.18680478632450104,
0.576770007610321,
-0.18194687366485596,
0.09306056797504425,
0.5018325448036194,
0.18377020955085754,
0.42684486508369446,
-0.6031150817871094,
-0.05842648819088936,
-0.42265841364860535,
-0.9556122422218323,
-0.3935646414756775,
-0.06890937685966492,
-0.2731930911540985,
-0.15029539167881012,
0.7169235348701477,
-0.16484829783439636,
0.02133924886584282,
-0.09944014996290207,
0.5828655958175659,
-0.6474131941795349,
0.008261364884674549,
0.4413260817527771,
-0.24963387846946716,
0.2685764729976654,
0.2611951529979706,
0.19014021754264832,
0.24352553486824036,
-0.029501555487513542,
-0.060358330607414246,
-0.6808125972747803,
-0.23561428487300873,
0.4364756643772125,
0.5080137252807617,
-0.12023787945508957,
0.2591599225997925,
-0.17534829676151276,
0.050625141710042953,
-0.18461787700653076,
-0.04003841057419777,
0.32389482855796814,
-0.0910458192229271,
0.4490034878253937,
-0.1474316567182541,
0.5971578359603882,
0.2006736546754837,
-0.039324887096881866,
-0.9022930860519409,
-0.03094174712896347,
0.15216819941997528,
0.054829515516757965,
0.7602021098136902,
-0.5213479995727539,
-0.11091536283493042,
0.29772499203681946,
0.535247266292572,
-0.3314702808856964,
-0.27270063757896423,
0.37262415885925293,
-0.8448595404624939,
-0.809598982334137,
0.7298724055290222,
0.7856881618499756,
0.19964635372161865,
-0.18847590684890747,
-0.2970429062843323,
-0.8638451099395752,
0.12865756452083588,
0.1871684044599533,
0.18691197037696838,
0.36764952540397644,
-0.23323389887809753,
-0.0044904169626533985,
-0.07354611903429031,
0.4269856810569763,
-0.08789563179016113,
0.5150575637817383,
-0.19264008104801178,
-0.03889443725347519,
0.08316244930028915,
0.361741840839386,
-1.131474494934082,
-0.018208781257271767,
0.2976469099521637,
-0.1851557046175003,
0.24295468628406525,
-0.18308663368225098,
0.21893900632858276,
0.06316118687391281,
-5.779977798461914,
-0.07568223029375076,
0.2093212753534317,
-0.12318632751703262,
-0.20741908252239227,
0.25407588481903076,
0.38957226276397705,
-0.12373652309179306,
-0.18223927915096283,
0.22687111794948578,
0.7710416316986084,
0.09994351863861084,
0.3637627065181732,
0.16797904670238495,
0.4122357666492462,
0.24297703802585602,
1.2607519626617432,
-0.13342736661434174,
0.09855854511260986,
0.6442183256149292,
0.20938418805599213,
-0.006244088057428598,
0.027070267125964165,
-0.10345698148012161,
0.3428296446800232,
0.15933384001255035,
-0.16400809586048126,
0.24683398008346558,
-0.4645131826400757,
-0.36855578422546387,
0.38978806138038635,
0.5486007332801819,
0.27177947759628296,
0.2407677322626114,
-0.26283976435661316,
-0.7455432415008545,
-0.2180892527103424,
0.2949122488498688,
0.01913032867014408,
-0.17272724211215973,
0.22544990479946136,
-0.45139384269714355,
-0.9039140939712524,
-0.3832087218761444,
0.4670349061489105,
-0.18764030933380127,
-0.7114757299423218,
0.40953052043914795,
-0.05018477886915207,
0.11686772853136063,
0.3581012487411499,
0.46620309352874756,
0.1463024914264679,
-0.11443289369344711,
-0.04725451394915581,
0.5453766584396362,
0.22680529952049255,
0.3979853391647339,
-0.5012639164924622,
0.4206908047199249,
0.49232178926467896,
-0.45472922921180725,
-0.023258795961737633,
-0.16487443447113037,
-0.0029779670294374228,
-0.24970225989818573,
0.1220301017165184,
-0.36101025342941284,
-0.061322107911109924,
0.17522594332695007,
0.599555253982544,
0.8549010753631592,
0.48779815435409546,
-0.9768025279045105,
0.5781376361846924,
-0.8477268218994141,
-0.20666749775409698,
0.3477180004119873,
-0.5686293840408325,
-0.35782670974731445,
-0.013446573168039322,
-0.3668716251850128,
0.5295985341072083,
0.793398380279541,
0.00869425293058157,
0.41396456956863403,
-0.29509156942367554,
0.30970752239227295,
0.013195062056183815,
-0.2505810856819153,
0.408913254737854,
0.27065378427505493,
0.06343508511781693,
0.03152113035321236,
0.07458238303661346,
-0.06180723384022713,
0.04399596154689789,
0.45870736241340637,
0.3185468316078186,
0.03810570389032364,
-0.23597465455532074,
-0.024428177624940872,
-0.44313302636146545,
-0.9810944199562073,
0.12386878579854965,
0.1419202834367752,
0.1393706053495407,
0.10755164921283722,
1.1525582075119019,
0.2971343994140625,
0.22008036077022552,
-0.18511728942394257,
-0.2725207805633545,
-0.7300929427146912,
-0.04376932978630066,
-0.5484541058540344,
0.4620645046234131,
0.019995447248220444,
1.1306625604629517,
0.21601638197898865,
-0.24276024103164673,
0.4454815983772278,
-0.364471971988678,
-0.5233137011528015,
0.12484195828437805,
-0.10194024443626404,
0.09219959378242493,
-0.43691831827163696,
-0.6544494032859802,
0.08733829855918884,
0.6637727618217468,
0.4986637830734253,
-0.5203337073326111,
0.3242456316947937,
-0.4455491602420807,
-0.19695362448692322,
0.16519133746623993,
-0.4409956634044647,
0.03220583125948906,
0.07973866909742355,
-0.2796449661254883,
-0.002572137163951993,
-0.6491830945014954,
-0.06563941389322281,
0.43742111325263977,
-0.14989614486694336,
0.31415116786956787,
-0.07740043848752975,
-0.23648740351200104,
0.5740428566932678,
-0.11927858740091324,
-0.7548158168792725,
0.44082748889923096,
-0.1444254368543625,
-0.26921460032463074,
-0.1360885351896286,
-0.10831708461046219,
-0.3070090115070343,
-0.3500742018222809,
-0.005894042551517487,
-0.11580678820610046,
0.232004776597023,
-0.503944456577301,
-0.31737804412841797,
0.46519142389297485,
0.15273308753967285,
-0.5282440781593323,
-0.24598561227321625,
-0.27297070622444153,
0.16957277059555054,
0.3037630617618561,
-0.8799636960029602,
-0.21275530755519867,
0.06731203198432922,
-0.038638412952423096,
0.2224911004304886,
-0.07907066494226456,
0.28572535514831543,
0.330864816904068,
-0.32670241594314575,
0.4169112741947174,
0.30995646119117737,
-0.7107909917831421,
-0.21163852512836456,
0.3750603199005127,
0.07330264151096344,
-0.48816484212875366,
-0.19049033522605896,
-0.26923513412475586,
0.3030717670917511,
-0.5778041481971741,
-0.177738755941391,
0.18496672809123993,
0.5812888145446777,
-0.08755373954772949,
0.32973769307136536,
0.0005579347489401698,
-0.15272097289562225,
0.1889483481645584,
-0.44810864329338074,
0.21575510501861572,
-0.03443358093500137,
-0.23552192747592926,
-0.20646779239177704,
-0.2573423385620117,
-0.7749016284942627,
0.10476280748844147,
-0.0019954214803874493,
-0.12533050775527954,
0.3734928369522095,
-0.12547121942043304,
-0.5802761912345886,
-0.25506818294525146,
-0.14889439940452576,
0.08017943799495697,
-0.12401658296585083,
0.19685493409633636,
0.42265620827674866,
-0.10216336697340012,
-0.6033607125282288,
-0.38033461570739746,
-0.3627896010875702,
-0.124784916639328,
0.03287314251065254,
-0.337472140789032,
-0.14069075882434845,
0.2786593437194824,
-0.0028048865497112274,
0.9855867624282837,
-0.2615431249141693,
-1.1001032590866089,
0.1462395191192627,
-0.34709250926971436,
0.6068444848060608,
-0.07521956413984299,
-0.18951302766799927,
0.48550429940223694,
0.06251710653305054,
-0.5768255591392517,
-0.059729624539613724,
0.3626568913459778,
1.2567188739776611,
-0.17999465763568878,
-0.4605405032634735,
-0.07580956071615219,
-0.35047662258148193,
0.25254300236701965,
-0.4023957848548889,
-0.3231707513332367,
-0.05469797924160957,
0.5719447731971741,
-0.48144105076789856,
-0.6965023279190063,
0.04223495349287987,
1.1835644245147705,
-0.20843005180358887,
0.11540090292692184,
0.08094574511051178,
0.15356801450252533,
0.04592018947005272,
0.01966899074614048,
0.21553128957748413,
-0.4988964796066284,
-0.023889021947979927,
0.2393285483121872,
-0.4306688606739044,
-0.2813401520252228,
-0.052393846213817596,
0.27378106117248535,
-0.2987094521522522,
-0.7521630525588989,
-0.31001707911491394,
-0.3667271137237549,
0.5986263155937195,
-0.25281423330307007,
0.30566832423210144,
0.19260233640670776,
-0.15806931257247925,
0.6553966999053955,
-0.03742700442671776,
-0.9010924100875854,
-0.20975901186466217,
-0.36643368005752563,
-0.17577996850013733,
-0.2607526183128357,
-0.6589561104774475,
0.25193193554878235,
-0.07129416614770889,
-0.19585475325584412,
0.05155229568481445,
-0.28169021010398865,
0.3259817957878113,
-0.440944105386734,
-0.37527230381965637,
-0.26702016592025757,
0.1530730128288269,
-0.36640045046806335,
1.0671467781066895,
-0.08180760592222214,
0.24153518676757812,
-0.4144940674304962,
0.5732725858688354,
0.5209641456604004,
-0.1550016701221466,
-0.09964451938867569,
0.10176031291484833,
0.2583727240562439,
-0.26463648676872253,
0.022208986803889275,
-0.25367307662963867,
0.15358678996562958,
-0.2922901213169098,
0.4807121157646179,
-0.10481695085763931,
-0.6359462738037109,
-0.36025139689445496,
0.5755131840705872,
-0.09332326054573059,
-0.31184810400009155,
-0.32916459441185,
-0.06172163039445877,
-0.22485706210136414,
0.3562364876270294,
0.15107734501361847,
-0.02740337699651718,
0.572247326374054,
-0.47048044204711914,
-0.19944514334201813,
0.08697759360074997,
0.19020861387252808,
-0.009691632352769375,
-0.284584641456604,
-0.6229590773582458,
0.4000280201435089,
-0.12594155967235565,
0.10813398659229279,
0.10492002218961716,
-0.3070310950279236,
-0.28392258286476135,
0.5076029896736145,
0.3459705710411072,
0.7602580785751343,
-0.05074338987469673,
0.12604060769081116,
0.16343921422958374,
0.3017861247062683,
0.3603532910346985,
0.11860045045614243,
0.2949466109275818,
-0.17027194797992706,
0.18164390325546265,
0.1292637437582016,
0.5245960354804993,
-0.44159135222435,
-0.126165971159935,
-0.021803876385092735,
0.40979135036468506,
-0.12531861662864685,
-0.35662272572517395,
-0.24423357844352722,
-0.28697502613067627,
-0.8647188544273376,
1.091415524482727,
-0.28843435645103455,
0.009428255259990692,
0.22169804573059082,
-0.2944554090499878,
-0.3056400418281555,
-0.26072248816490173,
0.48384684324264526,
0.37397488951683044,
-0.01718088984489441,
-0.1866416186094284,
-0.29475095868110657,
0.09343227744102478,
0.9169487357139587,
0.6041499972343445,
0.27427685260772705,
-0.07221133261919022,
-0.28419601917266846,
-0.3531922399997711,
-0.12860675156116486,
-0.04923589155077934,
-0.5103906393051147,
0.047435153275728226,
-0.014610913582146168,
-0.1825433373451233,
0.0903913602232933,
-0.5016052722930908,
-0.6484628319740295,
0.5364401340484619,
-0.7816148400306702,
-0.35888198018074036,
-0.008383529260754585,
0.0396406315267086,
0.18556608259677887,
0.5002987384796143,
0.8333842158317566,
0.5164504051208496,
0.23031269013881683,
-0.18011070787906647,
-0.023829733952879906,
-0.07430528849363327,
-0.3229984939098358,
0.09778644144535065,
0.5909439921379089,
-0.029749661684036255,
-0.27034687995910645,
-0.9942891001701355,
0.5808357000350952,
0.11383333057165146,
0.02795632928609848,
-0.484781414270401,
0.31019020080566406,
-0.3028946816921234,
-0.3800032436847687,
0.3370931148529053,
-0.24825668334960938,
-0.2905740439891815,
-0.8532949686050415,
-0.17866642773151398,
-0.07528834789991379,
0.10545991361141205,
0.11434341222047806,
-0.10679148137569427,
-0.3543069064617157,
0.08025965839624405,
0.15039311349391937,
-0.011827600188553333,
0.9352514147758484,
0.25028854608535767,
-0.9100398421287537,
-0.5489633083343506,
-0.16018684208393097,
-0.21195919811725616,
-0.38500896096229553,
0.9952074289321899,
0.628694474697113,
0.01918318308889866,
-0.1596362590789795,
0.28650131821632385,
-0.12847813963890076,
0.4145191013813019,
0.19434531033039093,
0.26564821600914,
-0.08960293978452682,
0.02871078811585903,
-0.3497787117958069,
0.010669228620827198,
0.6907286643981934,
0.14142142236232758,
0.1026458665728569,
0.7073087096214294,
-0.7783191204071045,
0.45496439933776855,
0.4925709366798401,
-0.026412276551127434,
-0.04217752441763878,
-0.18159827589988708,
0.552208662033081
] |
241646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-platform%20interchange | Cross-platform interchange | A cross-platform interchange is a type of interchange between different lines at a metro (or other railway) station. The term originates with the London Underground; such layouts exist in other networks but are not commonly so named. In the United States, it is often referred to as a "cross-platform transfer".
This configuration occurs at a station with island platforms, with a single platform in between the tracks allocated to two directions of travel, or two side platforms between the tracks, connected by level corridors. The benefit of this design is that passengers do not need to use stairs to another platform level for transfer. A cross-platform interchange arrangement may be costly due to the complexity of rail alignment, especially if the railway designers also arrange the track with flyovers (which is typically done to increase efficiency). A common two-directions cross-platform interchange configuration consists of two directions of two different lines sharing an island platform, and the respective return directions of both lines sharing a different island platform in the same station complex. Much rarer is a cross-platform interchange to transfer onto the same single line served by that station as in Kirkby and Ormskirk.
Types
Two separate lines meeting end-on
Kirkby railway station (until 1977) and Ormskirk railway station (until 1970) were double-track railway, when they were converted into single-track railway with the track split in the centre by buffer stops placed back to back. The two ends of the single platform serve different routes, and interchange is by walking along the platform.
Between different lines
Common cross-platform interchanges allow passengers to change trains without changing to another platform. This applies at places where trains of different directions meet in minor and major hubs, but this arrangement is only found at some interchange stations in metro and other rail networks worldwide.
Between different train categories
Some railway lines, usually in more congested areas, also offer cross-platform interchanges between different categories of trains, for example between express and stopping ("local") trains. For instance, this kind of interchange is used at many European railway minor hubs to connect fast trains to local feeder services, as well as surface sections of suburban lines like the RER E in Paris or the Metro North Hudson Line in New York State. However, local–express interchanges are found in only a few metro networks, such as Chicago, Chengdu, London (as in the case of Stratford discussed below), New York City, and Philadelphia. The New York City Subway system has numerous stations facilitating cross-platform transfers between local and express trains, typically using pairs of island platforms, each serving express trains on one side, and local trains on the other side, with both alternatives headed in the same direction.
As express and stopping trains usually head for different directions, cross-platform interchange between different train categories (e.g. interchanges between metros and railways) is commonly combined with cross-platform interchanges between different lines.
Service levels of connections
In some, but not all, cases, the trains are coordinated in the timetable.
Noncoordinated
In the case, the cross-platform infrastructure offers the possibility of easily changing trains, independently from the waiting time for the second train. In metro systems with short headways, waiting time is small, but such an noncoordinated approach could reduce the advantages of stairless cross-platform interchange in railway networks with less dense train traffic.
Coordinated
A more advanced approach involves the coordination of the lines' timetables to reduce the scheduled changing time, either from one line to the other, or, ideally, bidirectionally, between both trains at the same time. This concept is widely used in Dutch, German, and Swiss railway networks, where trains of different lines meet at the same platforms in numerous hubs all over the country.
Optimised, with connection guarantee
Most advanced are coordinated cross-platform interchanges wherein interconnected trains also wait for each other to 'guarantee' scheduled interchanges, even in the event of modest delays. In order to still ensure on-time running across the network, additional waiting time for trains is usually limited to a certain period of time depending on general network performance, further connections to be guaranteed, train category, train line, and a balanced consideration of other factors.
In practice, most railways coordinating cross-platform interchanges define a certain waiting time window for each 'guaranteed' interchange. Some railway operators will briefly delay train departure signals to allow imminently arriving passengers time to interchange. For example, the Vienna U-Bahn metro signals train drivers to wait briefly, by operating a special white light signal triggered by the approach of an interchange train on another track.
Example interchanges
In most cases, only cross-platform interchanges used for both directions of travel are listed, with some exceptions.
Asia
Beijing
Guogongzhuang station offers cross-platform interchange between Line 9 and Fangshan Line. National Library station offers cross-platform interchange between Lines 4 and 9. In addition Nanluoguxiang station (Lines 6 and 8), Zhuxinzhuang station (Changping Line and Line 8), Beijing West railway station (Lines 7 and 9), Yancun East station (Fangshan Line and Yanfang Line) offer cross-platform interchange.
Chengdu
Xipu Station in Chengdu provides cross-platform interchange between Line 2 of Chengdu Metro and Chengdu–Dujiangyan Intercity Railway of the national rail transport system. It is the first implementation of cross-platform interchanges between different train categories in China. Metro-only cross-platform interchanges exist between Lines 2 and 4 at Chengdu University of TCM & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital station, between Lines 5 and 6 at Xibeiqiao station and outbound direction interchanges between Lines 3 and 10 at Taipingyuan station.
Chongqing
Line 5 and Line 6 of the Chongqing Rail Transit offer a paired cross-platform interchange for passengers transferring among 4 directions between the two lines at Ranjiaba and Dalongshan stations. Single direction cross platform interchanges are also provided at Chongqing West railway station between Line 5 and Loop line, Jiangbeicheng station between Line 6 and Line 9, Baoshuigang between Line 4 and Line 9 and Yuelai between Line 6 and Line 10.
Dalian
The Dalian Metro has a cross platform interchange between Line 1 and Line 12 at Hekou Station.
Guangzhou
Guangzhou Metro offers three two way cross-platform interchanges by 2016, between Line 2 and Line 3 at Jiahewanggang station, between Line 8 and the Guangfo Line at Shayuan station and one between both branches of Line 3 at Tiyu Xilu station. At Tiyu Xilu Station the northern section of Line 3 terminates at the center track serving both island platforms connecting to the southern section of Line 3 stopping at the outer tracks. In 2016, a single direction cross platform interchange started operating between the westbound Line 7 and northbound Line 2 trains at Guangzhou South Railway Station.
Hangzhou
Hangzhou Metro's East Railway Station and Pengbu station offer paired cross-platform interchange between Line 1 and Line 4. There is a provision for another paired cross-platform interchange at West Lake Cultural Square and Wulin Square stations between Line 1 and the planned Line 3. Single direction cross-platform interchange is offered between Line 2 and Line 4 at Qianjiang Road station, Coach Center between Line 1 and Line 9, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University station between Lines 4 and Line 6, Xintiandi Street station between Line 3 and Line 4.
Hong Kong
In the Mass Transit Railway (MTR) system, cross-platform interchange stations first appeared at Mong Kok and Prince Edward stations in Kowloon when Tsuen Wan line was opened and took over the southern half of the Modified Initial System. The interchange is two-station long, with inverse cross-platform interchange assigned to Prince Edward and same-directional interchange to Mong Kok as large volumes of traffic had been anticipated in both modes.
Popular with passengers, this design was repeated on Admiralty station when the Island line in Hong Kong was opened to deal with the heavy opposite-directional interchange anticipated. Years later, another interchange spanning Tiu Keng Leng station (same directional) in the New Territories and Yau Tong station (opposite directional) in New Kowloon was built to the same configuration as Mong Kok and Prince Edward.
The Ma On Shan line is specifically designed to follow right-hand traffic rules unlike other railway lines in Hong Kong to enable a single-direction cross-platform interchange at Tai Wai station to the East Rail line while keeping the two southbound platforms connected over ramps.
Another configuration found in Lai King station makes commute in both directions more convenient by aligning both tracks leading towards the city next to each other on one level, and both tracks leading away from city next to each other on the other level. The configuration for North Point station is similar to provide convenience for passengers travelling towards city, although the distance between the two platforms are longer compared to other stations.
Before the MTR–KCR merger in 2007, Nam Cheong station was served by MTR's Tung Chung line and KCR's West Rail line. Due to the different fare system, platforms of southbound Tung Chung Line and northbound West Rail were separated by walls even though they were at the same elevation, with passageways between them and the two are connected with one instead of two sets of ticketing barriers. After the merger, some sections of the wall was demolished in order to provide cross-platform interchange between southbound Tung Chung Line and northbound West Rail line. However, this arrangement does not serve the dominant rush hour passenger flows, which are between New Territories and Hong Kong Island, as well as between Lantau Island and Tsim Sha Tsui.
By connecting East Rail and West Rail lines at Hung Hom without through-running, both lines were in the past terminated there alternating on both East/West Rail platforms to offer cross-platform interchanges.
At Sunny Bay station, passengers on the Tung Chung Line from the city can make a cross-platform interchange to a Disneyland Resort line Train. However, the inverse is not the case, as passengers returning to the city from Hong Kong Disneyland need to use an overpass to catch a Hong Kong-bound train.
Kuala Lumpur
offers cross-platform interchange between Sri Petaling Line (Line 4) and Kelana Jaya Line (Line 5) while offers cross-platform interchange between Ampang Line (Line 3) and Sri Petaling Line (Line 4). Tun Razak Exchange also offers cross-platform interchange between MRT Kajang Line and the upcoming MRT Putrajaya Line.
Kyoto
There is a cross-platform interchange between the Kyoto Municipal Subway Tozai Line and the Keihan Keishin Line at .
Nanjing
Nanjing Metro's Nanjing South Railway Station offers cross-platform interchange between Lines 1 and 3 and single direction cross platform interchange between Line S1 and Line S3. In addition, a cross platform interchange is available at Xiangyulunan Station between Line S1 and Line S9, and Konggangxinchengjiangning Station between Line S1 and Line S7.
Nanning
A paired cross platform interchange is available between Line 1 and Line 2 at Nanning railway station and Chaoyang Square station.
Osaka
The Osaka Metro has a cross-platform interchange between the Midosuji Line and the Yotsubashi Line at Daikokuchō, where the platforms are at the same level.
Kintetsu Railway also has a cross-platform interchange between the Nara Line and the Osaka Line at Tsuruhashi, where the platforms are at the same level.
Hanshin Railway has a same direction cross-platform interchange between the Namba Line and Hanshin Main Line at Amagasaki.
Qingdao
Cross-platform interchange is available between Line 2 and Line 3 at . A provisions for cross platform interchange between Line 3 and Line 8 were made at Qingdao North Railway Station.
Seoul
Seoul Subway Geumjeong Station offers cross-platform transfer between Line 1 local services and all 4 services. Gimpo Airport Station also offers cross-platform transfer between all Line 9 services and AREX local service. Also several Line 1 stations offer cross-platform transfer between trains heading to Incheon or Cheonan/Sinchang.
Shanghai
Oriental Sports Center Station offers cross-platform interchange between Lines 6 and 11. In addition, Hongqiao Railway Station provides cross platform interchange between Lines 2 and 17. While Hongqiao Airport Terminal 2 Station provides a single direction cross-platform interchange between the Line 2 Pudong International Airport bound trains and Line 10 Xinjiangwancheng bound trains.
Shenzhen
Shenzhen metro network includes cross-platform interchanges at Laojie station (Lines 1 and 3) one direction on top of the other and at Huangbeiling station (Lines 2 and 5) with two parallel island platforms. Cross platform interchanges also have started operation in Chegongmiao (Lines 7 and 9), and Hongshuwan South (Lines 9 and 11). reservations have been made for future cross platform interchanges at Huangmugang, Nanyou, Shenzhen World North and Shenzhen World stations. New cross platform interchanges are being constructed at Gangxia North, Universiade, and Stations.
Singapore
The Mass Rapid Transit system in Singapore has a similar two-station transfer arrangement to allow quick transfers between North South and East West lines. Both City Hall MRT station and Raffles Place MRT station have double underground island platforms stacked on top the other, allowing commuters to switch trains to a different line by walking across the same platform at the appropriate station.
Jurong East MRT station has a less complicated arrangement, with the terminating rail for the North South Line aligned between that of the East West Line, allowing commuters to alight and board simultaneously on either side, with an additional rail for the North South Line used during peak hours. Tanah Merah MRT station also has a similar arrangement, with the terminating rail for the East West line Changi Airport Extension aligned between the two the East West line platforms, allowing commuters to alight and board simultaneously on either side too.
The Bayfront MRT station is also a cross-platform interchange with double underground island platforms between the Marina Bay branch of the Circle Line and Downtown Line; the original plans for Promenade MRT station contained a similar arrangement but the existing Circle Line tracks to and from Dhoby Ghaut need to be crossed at the same levels by Downtown Line trains.
Tehran
Sadeghieh metro station of Tehran metro offers cross-platform interchanges between both terminating metro lines 2 and 5; while suburban line 5 uses the outer tail tracks of each platform, metro line 2 uses one platform for alighting and the other for boarding. Line 2 uses platforms 2 and 3, and Line 5 uses platforms 1 and 4. Eram-e Sabz metro station also has a cross-platform interchange. It has a cross platform interchange between Lines 4 and 5. Line 4 uses platforms 1 and 4, and Line 5 uses platforms 2 and 3.
Taipei
The Taipei Metro has four stations for cross-platform interchanges: Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall Station (between the Songshan-Xindian Line and Tamsui-Xinyi Line), Ximen Station (between the Songshan-Xindian Line and Bannan Line), Guting Station (between the Songshan-Xindian Line and the Zhonghe-Xinlu Line) and Dongmen Station (between Zhonghe-Xinlu Line and the Tamsui-Xinyi Line). All these stations have two island platforms on different floors, most of them are same-direction cross-platform configuration except Dongmen Station which has an inverse cross-platform.
Beitou Station allows for cross-platform transfers for southbound trains only due to differing operating routes.
Tokyo
In the Tokyo Metro, Akasaka-mitsuke Station provides cross-platform transfer between Ginza Line and Marunouchi Line.
At Omotesandō Station, transfer between Ginza Line and Hanzōmon Line can be done on its two island platforms at the same level. Shirokane-takanawa Station uses the same way to offer cross-platform interchange between Namboku Line and Mita Line.
At Kudanshita Station, cross-platform interchange is possible between a Shinjuku bound Shinjuku Line train and an Oshiage bound Hanzōmon Line train.
In JR-East commuter network at Shinjuku Station, transfers between Yamanote Line and Chūō-Sōbu Line use directional cross-platform interchange on two parallel island platforms.
Between and , there are cross-platform interchanges between the Yamanote Line and the Keihin-Tohoku Line. At Ochanomizu Station, cross-platform interchange is between Chūō-Sōbu Line and Chūō Rapid Line.
In the Tokyu Railway network at Ōokayama Station, cross platform interchange is provided between the Meguro Line and the Ōimachi Line. In addition Naka-Meguro Station provides cross platform interchange is available between the Tōkyū Tōyoko Line and Tokyo Metro Hibiya Line, and Futako-Tamagawa Station provides a cross platform interchange between the Tōkyū Den-en-toshi Line and Tōkyū Ōimachi Line.
Wuhan
Line 2 and Line 4 of Wuhan Metro's Hongshan Square station and Zhongnan Road station offer paired cross-platform interchange for passengers transferring among 4 directions of the two lines. Two more cross platform interchanges opened in Wuhan at Zhongjiacun station between Line 4 and Line 6, and Hongtu Boulevard station between Line 2 and Line 3.
Zhengzhou
A number of cross platform interchanges are reserved across the system with Shibalihe station reserving same direction cross-platform interchange between Line 2 and Line 9 (Chengjiao line), Zhengzhou East Railway Station reserves same direction cross-platform interchange between Line 5 and Line 8, Zhangjiacun station reserves same direction cross-platform interchange between Line 4 and Line 7 and Yaozhuang station reserves same direction cross-platform interchange between Line 4 and Line 16.
Europe
Amsterdam
Amsterdam metro network includes cross-platform interchanges at Van der Madeweg station between metro lines 50 and 53 and at Amsterdam South station between metro lines 50 and 52. Further, cross-platform connections are offered at Amstel station between metro lines 51, 53, 54 and suburban and intercity services of Netherlands Railways.
Barcelona
By 2011, Barcelona metro only offers one cross-platform interchange between metro lines L4 and L11 at Trinitat Nova station where both lines terminate on one track each side of the shared island platform.
Berlin
The Berlin suburban rail network includes cross-platform transfers at Berlin East and at Baumschulenweg / Schöneweide, Bornholmer Straße, Gesundbrunnen, Treptower Park and Wannsee suburban railway stations.
Berlin metro services offer cross-platform connections at Mehringdamm (metro lines U6/U7), Nollendorfplatz (metro line U4 with outbound lines U1/U3) and Wittenbergplatz (metro lines U2/U3, outbound also U1) metro stations.
Additionally, Wuhletal station offers cross-platform interchanges between lines S5 of Berlin suburban rail and U5 of Berlin metro.
Jungfernheide metro station was built for cross-platform interchanges between line U7 and an extended line U5 towards Tegel Airport; the extension plan was abandoned following the decision to replace Tegel Airport with Berlin Brandenburg Airport. A part of one of the U5 tunnels is used by Berlin firefighters for fire and rescue training in a metro tunnel with an original train taken out-of-service. Similar provisions were also made at Schloßstraße metro station for cross-platform interchanges between line U9 and a never realised line U10.
Bochum
In Bochum's light rail and tram network (operated by Bogestra), a cross-platform interchange is offered at Bochum Hauptbahnhof (Bochum Main Railway Station) between light rail line U35 and sub-surface tram lines 302 and 310 on the lower level of the underground light rail station complex. U35 and 302/310 services to the south and southeast, and to the north and north-east stop at the same platforms.
Brussels
Brussels South railway station offers an interesting example of double-level cross-platform interchange, where the goal is to make it easier for passengers to "double back". The metro and premetro lines interweave so that, for example, one can arrive on the metro 2 or 6 from the north-east, walk across the island platform, and catch a tram 3 or 4 going south-east. Passengers making this journey in the opposite direction use the level below. Similar cross-platform interchanges offers Beekkant station between metro lines 1/5 and 2/6; in this area, lines 1/5 run on the right while lines 2/6 run on the left due to historical layout when formerly line 1B between Herrmann Debroux and Roi Baudoin stations branched off line 1B (running between Stockel and Erasme stations) and line 1A needed to change driving direction at Beekkant station. At Brussels North premetro station cross platform interchange is offered between tram lines 25 and 55 coming from Schaerbeek to the premetro lines 3 and 4 towards the city center.
Bucharest
Basarab station of metro lines M1 and M4 is the only cross-platform interchange in the Bucharest metro network where lines cross each other.
Charleroi
Charleroi premetro includes two stations, Beaux-Arts and Waterloo, with possible cross-platform interchanges.
Cologne
The only cross-platform interchange of the Cologne premetro network is Ebertplatz station, where passengers can change easily between high and low floor lines sharing an island platform for each direction.
Copenhagen
The Copenhagen suburban network contains cross-platform interchanges between circle line F and lines B, C, E at Hellerup station.
Duisburg
Duisburg premetro network includes two cross-platform interchange stations, Duisburg Hauptbahnhof (Duisburg Main Railway Station) for same-direction interchange and König-Heinrich-Platz station for opposite-direction interchange.
Düsseldorf
Düsseldorf premetro network contains a four-track route between Düsseldorf Hauptbahnhof (Düsseldorf Main Railway Station) and Heinrich-Heine-Allee station comprising two island platforms for same-direction cross-platform interchange at each station; while at both mentioned stations, the two platforms are located parallel, they are built one above the other at both intermediate stations.
Essen
Essen premetro network includes two stations with cross-platform interchange on two parallel island platforms at Essen Hauptbahnhof (Essen Main Railway Station) and Essen Rathaus station; cross-platform connections at Essen Hauptbahnhof are between standard-gauge premetro lines and metre-gauge sub-surface tram lines.
Frankfurt (Main)
At Konstablerwache station, Frankfurt's suburban train lines S1 to S6, S8 and S9 and Frankfurt premetro lines U6 and U7 share one island platform for each direction, with the suburban railway (inner) side of the platforms being much longer than for the premetro. Also, the premetro station located at Frankfurt (Main) Hauptbahnhof (Frankfurt Main Railway Station) was once designed for cross-platform transfers between different Frankfurt premetro lines but is now only used by premetro lines U4/U5 running along the same corridor.
Hamburg
Hamburg metro offers cross-platform interchanges at Barmbek (between circle and branch of metro line U3), Berliner Tor (between metro lines U2/U4 and U3), Kellinghusenstraße (between metro lines U1 and U3) and Wandsbek-Gartenstadt (between metro lines U1 and U3) metro stations; all cross-platform interchanges are also timetable coordinated to make it as easy and convenient for the passengers as possible.
Another cross-platform interchange is used at the northwestern terminus of metro line U1 at Norderstedt Mitte station where metros use the outer tracks and interconnect with the non-electrified suburban line A2 of AKN private railway company terminating on the center track in between the two island platforms.
Hamburg suburban railway offers cross-platform interchanges at Altona station and Hamburg Hauptbahnhof (Hamburg Main Railway Station) ensuring short connections for four of five branches to both inner city routes.
Hanover
Hanover premetro offers two cross-platform interchanges, one at Hannover Hauptbahnhof (Hanover Main Railway Station) and one at Aegidientorplatz station.
London
In London's deep-level tube network, these usually occur in pairs for both directions of two lines. This allows for extremely quick and convenient interchange. The effect is that the two lines, despite having completely separate operation, can be treated by passengers as branches of a single network.
Examples include:
Several slow and fast services have multiple cross-platform interchanges. Finchley Road offers cross platform transfers between the fast Metropolitan line and slow Jubilee line at surface level before diverging from Wembley Park. Acton Town, Barons Court, Turnham Green and Hammersmith all have cross platform transfers between the fast Piccadilly line and the slow District line.
Mile End has cross platform transfers between the District/Hammersmith & City and Central lines at sub-surface level.
Stratford has cross platform between the Central line and National Rail TfL Rail services.
For the deep-level interchanges the term "same level interchange" is sometimes preferred as there is invariably an intermediate circulating area between the platforms. Convenient same level interchanges feature at various Victoria line stations, including Stockwell with the Northern line and Euston with the Bank branch of the Northern line; Oxford Circus with the Bakerloo line; Finsbury Park with the Piccadilly line; and Highbury and Islington with the Northern City Line. There is also a cross platform interchange at Baker Street between the Bakerloo and Jubilee lines.
Lisbon
The Lisbon Metro has two stations with an island platform and two side platforms (with the island platform being used for single-direction cross-platform interchanges between lines entering downtown Lisbon): Baixa-Chiado (Lisbon Metro) (which has an inbound cross-platform transfer between the Green Line and the Blue Line) and Campo Grande (which has an inbound cross-platform transfer between the Green Line and the Yellow Line). Transfers between trains leaving downtown Lisbon require passengers to change platforms.
Lisbon regional rail has cross-platform interchanges on the belt line within Lisbon as well as on the Sintra line, where Sintra line trains connect with Azambuja line trains.
Liverpool
Kirkby railway station (until 1977) and Ormskirk railway station (until 1970) were double-track railway, when they were converted into single-track railway with cross-platform interchange.
Madrid
Madrid Metro uses cross-platform interchanges mainly for easy transfer between urban and suburban sections operated separately on metro lines 7 (Estadio Olimpico), 9 (Puerta de Arganda) and 10 (Tres Olivos). At Casa de Campo station, metro lines 5 and 10 are interconnected cross-platform with line 5 terminating on center track in between the island platforms shared with line 10. At Principe Pio station, metro lines 6 and 10 share an island platform for each direction. Further applications of cross-platform interchanges connect only one direction of each line, for example at Pinar de Chamartín station between metro lines 1 and 4.
Milan
Cadorna FN station on Milan Metro serves as interchange between M1 and M2 lines (the other one is Loreto). Each line is served by a couple of side platforms located on the same level. This provides a direct link between M1 northbound platform (towards Sesto 1° Maggio) and M2 southbound platform (towards Abbiategrasso or Assago Milanofiori Forum). All the other connections have to be done through the upper level mezzanine.
Moscow
The following stations have cross-platform interchanges in Moscow Metro:
Kitay-gorod has the cross-platform interchanges between Tagansko-Krasnopresnenskaya and Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya lines.
Tretyakovskaya offers passengers to cross between Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya and Kalininsko-Solntsevskaya lines.
Kuntsevskaya has a cross-platform interchange between westbound Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya line platform and termination platform of Filyovskaya line.
Kashirskaya – cross-platform interchange between Zamoskvoretskaya and future Bolshaya Koltsevaya lines.
Park Pobedy, between Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya and Kalininsko-Solntsevskaya lines
Petrovsko-Razumovskaya, between Serpukhovsko-Timiryazevskaya and Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya lines.
Nizhegorodskaya, between Nekrasovskaya and future Bolshaya Koltsevaya lines.
Mülheim (Ruhr)
Mülheim located roughly in the centre of the Rhein-Ruhr premetro network offers selected cross-platform interchanges at Mülheim (Ruhr) Hauptbahnhof (Mülheim Main Railway Station).
Munich
Munich metro offers coordinated cross-platform connections at both Scheidplatz (metro lines U2/U3) and Innsbrucker Ring (metro lines U2/U5) metro stations; all same-direction connections are optimised, so that usually U2 and U3 respectively U5 trains of the same direction arrive, stop and depart at the same time.
Neuperlach Süd is a combined station for Munich metro and Munich suburban rail. Original plans intended cross-platform interchanges in both directions at parallel island platforms. However, Munich suburban rail is still single-track there and offers therefore only cross-platform interchange in the outbound direction and from outbound (terminating) Munich metro U5 services to inbound Munich suburban rail S7 services. Although possible, the arrival and departure times of both lines are not matched together.
Within the Munich S-Bahn (suburban rail) network, Westkreuz, Giesing, Berg am Laim and Besucherpark junction stations offer cross-platform interchanges for transfers between both branches. Under discussion are cross-platform interchanges in the same running direction for connecting the central bypass to the existing trunk route at least at Laim and Leuchtenbergring stations.
At Donnersbergerbrücke suburban station, cross-platform interchanges can be made in the same running direction between the S-Bahn lines along the trunk route and lines S7, S27, BOB; although not interconnected by timetables. However, the S-Bahn lines along the trunk route run frequently during most of the day: every 2 to 6 minutes on lines except S7, and every 2 to 4 minutes including the S7.
At Ostbahnhof, cross-platform interchanges have been possible since 2004 between regional trains from Rosenheim and Mühldorf to S-Bahn lines towards Ebersberg, Erding and Munich Airport (only in these directions).
Further cross-platform interchanges between Munich S-Bahn and regional trains can be made at Freising, Petershausen, Geltendorf, Grafing Bahnhof and Markt Schwaben stations, as Munich S-Bahn partly runs on mainline tracks anyway.
Nuremberg
Nuremberg metro includes one cross-platform interchange between metro lines U1/U11 and U2/U21/U3 at underground Plärrer metro station where the outbound metro platform is located above the inbound.
Nizhny Novgorod
Nizhny Novgorod metro's Moskovskaya station is prepared to offer cross-platform interchanges at a later point of time between both metro lines; before 2012, both lines terminate there and are connected to through running operation eliminating any needs to change trains. After an extension was completed for Line 1 beyond Moskovskaya station, cross-platform interchange was put in use to transfer between both lines.
Paris
Paris Métro has cross-platform interchange at La Motte-Picquet – Grenelle stations between Paris Métro line 8 and line 10, as well as Louis Blanc (Paris Metro) between Paris Metro Line 7 and Paris Metro Line 7bis.
Paris RER suburban network includes cross-platform interchanges between trains of different lines at several major hubs:
Châtelet - Les Halles between lines RER A and RER B
Paris North station between lines RER B and RER D
It also includes cross-platform interchanges between express and local trains at several stations of the RER suburban network:
RER B at Massy - Palaiseau
RER E at Val de Fontenay. Its final station Chelles - Gournay also offers cross-platform interchange between local RER E trains and express Transilien P trains.
Rhine-Ruhr area
The suburban services in the German Rhine-Ruhr area include cross-platform interchanges at Dortmund-Dorstfeld station between lines S2 and S4 (including coordinated timetables), at Düsseldorf Hauptbahnhof and at Essen Hauptbahnhof.
For information about the Rhine-Ruhr Stadtbahn (premetro) network, see among the related cities (Bochum, Dortmund, Düsseldorf, Essen, Mülheim).
St. Petersburg
Tekhnologichesky Institut offers cross-platform interchange between lines 1 and 2.
Sportivnaya will have a cross-platform interchange between lines 5 and 8, but line 8 is not built yet.
Stockholm
Stockholm Metro includes cross-platform interchanges at T-Centralen (Main Railway Station), Gamla stan and Slussen metro stations between red and green metro lines, where T-Centralen (Main Railway Station) offers opposite-direction connections while the latter two make cross-platform connections possible in the same direction. Additionally, passengers between Nockebybanan and green metro lines can change cross-platform at Alvik station. Södertälje Hamn railway station on the Stockholm commuter rail network provides optimised transfer between the J40, J41 and J48 lines.
Vienna
Vienna metro optimised cross-platform connections at Längenfeldgasse station between lines U4 and U6 by demanding trains to wait as soon as the connecting train is approaching in case of delays or during different train intervals operated; this additional functionality is carried out by a special white light signal demanding the driver to wait. Before line U2 was extended from Schottenring further east, U2 trains terminated at (upper) U4 platform level on a center track sharing platforms with U4 trains on both sides; originally, this station level had been used for merging U2 and U4 lines and consisted of 4 tracks with 2 island platforms, but both platforms were merged to a single island platform after U2 extension opened.
North America
Boston
A southbound-only cross-platform transfer is provided between the MBTA Orange Line and Green Line at North Station, additionally there is another interchange at Kenmore so riders can take one of the many different branches.
Chicago
In the Chicago "L" metro network, Howard, Wilson, Belmont and Fullerton stations offer cross-platform interchange in the same direction between different lines.
Jersey City and Newark
The PATH system, serving the New York metropolitan area, contains two cross-platform interchanges in Jersey City and Newark, New Jersey. At Journal Square Transportation Center in Jersey City, there is a cross-platform transfer between terminating Journal Square–33rd Street and Journal Square–33rd Street (via Hoboken) trains, and through Newark–World Trade Center trains. At Pennsylvania Station in Newark, there is a cross-platform interchange between Newark–World Trade Center and NJ Transit trains bound for New York City. Newark Penn Station also contains a cross-platform interchange for NJ Transit trains coming from New York City.
A paid cross-platform connection exists between the Port Authority Trans-Hudson rapid transit system and Amtrak and NJT trains at Newark Penn Station, allowing passengers to switch to trains to the World Trade Center.
Montreal
Two transfer stations in Montreal feature cross-platform interchange. At the Lionel-Groulx station, the upper platforms serve Henri-Bourassa or Montmorency (Orange Line 2) and Honoré-Beaugrand (Green Line 1) trains, entering downtown; the lower platforms serve Côte-Vertu (Orange Line 2) and Angrignon (Green Line 1) trains, leaving downtown. Since most transferring passengers are either entering or leaving downtown, most transfers at this station are cross-platform.
At the Snowdon station, however, the outbound Orange Line platforms are at the same level as the Blue Line terminal platform, with the inbound Orange Line platforms linked to the Blue Line departure platform, reducing efficiency. This is explained because the Blue Line was originally planned to be continued west of the station, in which case this arrangement would have provided the same benefit as the arrangement at Lionel-Groulx.
New York City
The New York City Subway has many three- or four-track lines with local and express service. Cross-platform interchanges are located in numerous locations throughout the system to allow for convenient transfers between express and local trains. In general, express trains run on the inner pair of tracks and bypass local-only stations, while local trains run on the outer pair of tracks and stop at every station. Express stations typically have island platforms between the express and local tracks, allowing passengers to quickly switch between trains heading in the same direction simply by crossing a platform.
In addition to the very common express-local interchanges, the New York City Subway also has several cross-platform interchanges between lines that do not share a three- or four-track right-of-way:
The Queensboro Plaza station contains a same-directional cross-platform transfer between the IRT Flushing Line () and BMT Astoria Line (). The Flushing Line's connection with the Astoria Line is the line's only connection with the rest of the system.
The Hoyt–Schermerhorn Streets and Jay Street–MetroTech stations in Brooklyn allow cross-platform interchanges between the of the IND Crosstown Line with the of the IND Fulton Street Line, the of the IND Culver Line, respectively. The Fulton Street Line does not have any track connections with the Crosstown Line, and the Fulton Street Line's track connection to the Culver Line is rarely used.
At the Seventh Avenue–53rd Street station on the , there are no track connections between the on the IND Queens Boulevard Line and the on the IND Sixth Avenue Line. At Seventh Avenue, there is also a feature unique to the system, as anti-directional cross-platform interchanges can be made here (albeit between trains heading in the same general cardinal direction, due to the track layout near the station).
The DeKalb Avenue and Prospect Park stations on the BMT Brighton Line () in Brooklyn feature cross-platform interchanges to the BMT Fourth Avenue Line () and the BMT Franklin Avenue Line (), respectively.
The Lexington Avenue–63rd Street station in Manhattan has a cross-platform interchange between the two 63rd Street Lines ().
The Jamaica hub station of the Long Island Rail Road features coordinated cross-platform interchanges among the many services that stop there. During peak periods, this is enhanced by having three trains arrive at the same time, and a cross-platform interchange can be done by walking across through the train on the center track, which is waiting with its doors open on both sides. In the absence of this middle train, interchanging passengers must walk to one end of the long platform, walk to another platform, and then walk back in order to move between trains on the outer two tracks.
Philadelphia
The SEPTA Broad Street Line has cross-platform interchanges between local and express trains at Olney Transportation Center, Erie, Girard, Spring Garden, Race-Vine, City Hall, and Walnut-Locust.
San Francisco Bay Area
Three adjacent Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) stations – , , and – have cross-platform transfers between northbound and trains, with 19th Street Oakland as the designated timed transfer point. MacArthur additionally has a southbound timed transfer for the same lines.
A cross-platform transfer also exists at between the northbound Caltrain platform and one of the BART platforms. East of , there is a dedicated transfer platform between the main BART system and eBART.
Vancouver
In December 2016, Lougheed Town Centre station on the Vancouver SkyTrain was expanded to a 3-track, 2-platform station in preparation for the beginning of service on the Evergreen Extension. For the first 18 months of service on the Evergreen Extension, the third platform served eastbound trains while the southern half of the island platform served westbound trains (with Millennium Line trains running left-handed through the station); this measure allowed a same-direction cross-platform transfer between Millennium Line trains headed to VCC–Clark and Expo Line trains headed to Waterfront (via Columbia). On June 25, 2018, normal right-hand running of Millennium Line trains through the station resumed, making it possible to do an anti-directional cross-platform transfer between Expo Line trains headed for Production Way–University and Millennium Line trains headed to Lafarge Lake–Douglas.
Oceania
Auckland
At Newmarket Station, there are three lines serving two island platforms. Western Line services use the centre line (which can serve both platforms) allowing cross-platform interchange with Southern Line services which use the outer lines.
Adelaide
Adelaide Metro offers cross-platform interchanges between the Outer Harbor line and Grange railway line at Woodville for outbound services only.
Brisbane
Cross-platform interchanges are offered between Ipswich and Rosewood services at Ipswich, and between outbound express Gold Coast line and stopping Beenleigh line services at Altandi station.
Melbourne
Melbourne's suburban railway offers cross-platform interchanges along the City Loop according to the operation concept depending on time and day. All three underground stations consist of four tracks and two island platforms one above each other.
Burnley Group passengers can change between Flinders Street direct and City Loop services at Richmond station on weekday mornings, and between stopping and limited express services at Burnley station.
Camberwell station operates as a partial cross-platform interchange off-peak, when Alamein services operate as shuttles from Camberwell. During the day, terminating trains from Alamein drop passengers off (before proceeding to a reversing track west of the station) on platform 2, which connects to a city-bound Belgrave/Lilydale line train on platform 1. At night, trains from Alamein terminate and reverse on platform 1, allowing cross-platform transfers for passengers from the city arriving on platform 2 on a Belgrave/Lilydale service.
Sydney
The Sydney Trains suburban railway system offers cross-platform interchange at Central between express and local trains to/from Strathfield as well as on the four-track section from Westmead to St Marys along the Western Line, each in the same direction. Selected cross-platform interchanges can also be made at Glenfield, Granville, Hornsby, Lidcombe, Redfern, Revesby and Town Hall.
Cross-platform interchange is also available between Sydney Metro and Sydney Trains services at Chatswood.
South America
Buenos Aires
Plaza Miserere provided cross transfer interchange between subway line A and suburban railroad line Sarmiento. There is a never used cross-platform interchange between lines A and D at Plaza de Mayo station and three abandoned cross-platform interchanges: at Primera Junta station between line A and the former tram service towards Lacarra avenue and at San José station on line E between the branch going to Bolívar station and the closed branch to Constitución station where another cross-platform interchange was provided between lines C and E.
Suburban lines Sarmiento, San Martín and Roca offers many cross-platform interchanges between express and local services on their 4 track stretches.
Santiago de Chile
Vicuña Mackenna metro station is the only in the metro network of Santiago de Chile offering cross-platform transfer; the through-running line 4 and its shuttle line 4A are interconnected cross-platform here. Line 4A uses the center track between both island platforms, with line 4 stopping on the outer tracks.
São Paulo
Four stations of São Paulo metro and train network offer cross-platform interchange: Paraíso, between lines 1 (towards Jabaquara) and 2 (towards Vila Madalena), Brás, between lines 10 (towards Rio Grande da Serra) and 11 (towards Luz), Osasco, where line 9 terminates at a center track between two islands platforms serving line 8, and Presidente Altino, also between lines 8 and 9 where the latter uses the inner tracks, the northernmost island platform serves westbound trains (to Itapevi and Osasco), and the southernmost island platform serves eastbound trains (to Júlio Prestes and Grajaú).
At Luz, when "Service 710" is running (single runnings between lines 7 and 10 with no train changing), cross-plataform interchange is also available between alighting-only line 11's trains (which terminates here before relaying) and southbound trains to Rio Grande da Serra. When "Service 710" is not running, cross-platform interchange is done with line 7 southbound trains to Brás, which is also served by line 11 eastbound trains to Estudantes.
References
Rapid transit
Railway platforms | [
0.02294253185391426,
-0.48236486315727234,
-0.0931960791349411,
0.4495783746242523,
0.3452216386795044,
0.0019455748843029141,
0.5567812323570251,
0.42326635122299194,
-0.19409681856632233,
-0.9277729988098145,
-0.7120913863182068,
-0.11489646136760712,
-0.3721935749053955,
0.1459740847349167,
0.07761456072330475,
-0.40317320823669434,
-0.03108792193233967,
-0.07186506688594818,
0.059451911598443985,
-0.061216868460178375,
-0.03243374451994896,
0.060229431837797165,
0.34168893098831177,
-0.5409524440765381,
0.035873591899871826,
-0.5573587417602539,
0.07017611712217331,
0.21097548305988312,
-0.044947974383831024,
-0.17753301560878754,
0.8696269989013672,
0.7620904445648193,
-0.1256745308637619,
-0.15123812854290009,
0.18841983377933502,
-0.5028964877128601,
0.5797968506813049,
-0.9657939672470093,
0.10065451264381409,
-0.6193395853042603,
0.08916022628545761,
-0.34414181113243103,
0.20663365721702576,
0.25542885065078735,
0.38511475920677185,
-0.5690178275108337,
-1.3599475622177124,
-0.06136289983987808,
-0.908610999584198,
-0.10955231636762619,
-0.3399520516395569,
0.3092200756072998,
-0.004592005629092455,
1.0431339740753174,
0.022592218592762947,
0.8576394319534302,
-0.6375346779823303,
-0.05417350307106972,
0.4238625764846802,
-0.5251680016517639,
0.26806217432022095,
0.17617681622505188,
0.025259822607040405,
0.32267969846725464,
0.5105988383293152,
0.1076967790722847,
0.08461536467075348,
0.313752681016922,
-0.09854069352149963,
-0.8289036154747009,
-0.21458913385868073,
-0.6692817211151123,
0.4788656234741211,
0.5009636282920837,
-0.3545989990234375,
-0.2428201287984848,
0.08253183215856552,
-0.47029784321784973,
-0.1574094146490097,
-0.2229519486427307,
-0.6927345395088196,
0.5894168019294739,
0.6449071764945984,
-0.15538205206394196,
0.9506072402000427,
-0.10439416021108627,
-0.7381103038787842,
0.3830205500125885,
-0.6625135540962219,
0.6613374352455139,
0.12058848142623901,
-0.2698017358779907,
0.5021663904190063,
0.38631048798561096,
0.38419413566589355,
-0.12710487842559814,
0.7521253228187561,
0.17617234587669373,
0.26545724272727966,
0.37159019708633423,
-0.037817589938640594,
-0.009998242370784283,
0.2635166645050049,
-0.4583171606063843,
-0.3135213553905487,
-0.94559246301651,
-0.6781713366508484,
-0.44201385974884033,
0.12243229895830154,
-0.32057929039001465,
-0.6248009204864502,
-0.1167386993765831,
-0.0036037384998053312,
0.3022752106189728,
-0.5568661689758301,
-0.19364960491657257,
0.029548246413469315,
0.26227569580078125,
-0.0006212392472662032,
-0.08548551052808762,
0.5474122762680054,
0.2030358463525772,
0.08035620301961899,
-0.014653884805738926,
-0.1998864710330963,
0.19371789693832397,
0.6084359288215637,
0.23658382892608643,
-0.3408539891242981,
0.45564115047454834,
0.2587915360927582,
1.1672160625457764,
0.2107035517692566,
-0.23299409449100494,
-0.23723486065864563,
-0.4881225526332855,
0.13640743494033813,
0.25331801176071167,
0.5922603607177734,
0.27858972549438477,
-0.857583224773407,
-0.27690884470939636,
-0.18858686089515686,
-0.26987019181251526,
0.6336427927017212,
0.20445048809051514,
-0.3947752118110657,
-0.47955042123794556,
0.03322548046708107,
-0.44825783371925354,
-0.1183890700340271,
0.15726540982723236,
-0.6663092374801636,
0.13572077453136444,
-0.29734596610069275,
0.6723084449768066,
0.8290339112281799,
-0.400356650352478,
-0.10096054524183273,
0.11988358199596405,
0.15668520331382751,
0.1847614347934723,
-0.4796504080295563,
-0.1202894002199173,
-0.20316772162914276,
-0.0321597158908844,
-0.16100819408893585,
0.4194883406162262,
0.2899544835090637,
0.202041894197464,
0.046395983546972275,
-0.09364724159240723,
-0.05728348344564438,
-0.6789124608039856,
0.11972478777170181,
-0.2751786708831787,
0.5496115684509277,
0.07017786800861359,
0.6381108164787292,
0.3346187174320221,
-0.6934608817100525,
0.20851272344589233,
0.4303051829338074,
0.20117270946502686,
0.05628840997815132,
-0.3070821762084961,
0.17586761713027954,
0.02419053018093109,
-0.776504397392273,
-0.1500554084777832,
-0.4670598804950714,
-0.5718870162963867,
-0.8560959100723267,
-0.6640889644622803,
0.8882268071174622,
-0.16611947119235992,
-0.43571704626083374,
0.7883708477020264,
0.14422933757305145,
0.35293033719062805,
0.04800567030906677,
-0.05435836687684059,
0.3248048424720764,
0.3602471947669983,
-0.3583473563194275,
0.9515358805656433,
0.43151673674583435,
-0.3460380733013153,
-0.0541066974401474,
0.3240436911582947,
0.6428820490837097,
-0.6585394740104675,
0.13637006282806396,
-0.10952509194612503,
0.5549532175064087,
-0.024614449590444565,
-0.6583435535430908,
0.039278388023376465,
-0.30717745423316956,
0.2433926910161972,
1.0039646625518799,
-0.12944336235523224,
-0.11229456216096878,
0.8312578201293945,
-0.7872260808944702,
-0.12909753620624542,
0.008211884647607803,
1.2279887199401855,
0.5853942036628723,
-0.6050408482551575,
0.23227865993976593,
-0.01739572547376156,
0.05408402904868126,
-0.13222764432430267,
-0.2750265896320343,
-0.20955607295036316,
0.47369375824928284,
-0.2986588776111603,
0.03624706342816353,
-0.09832064062356949,
-0.8235610723495483,
0.5076140761375427,
-0.30685698986053467,
0.5192699432373047,
0.29881414771080017,
-0.09602539986371994,
-0.2465214729309082,
-0.07444553077220917,
-0.2608822286128998,
0.1636391580104828,
0.28290027379989624,
0.44954073429107666,
-0.10774432122707367,
-0.5729153156280518,
0.332938551902771,
-0.09089776873588562,
0.2951017916202545,
-0.3780525326728821,
-0.37454158067703247,
0.2276318222284317,
0.05931181460618973,
-0.1694048047065735,
-0.07077173888683319,
-0.18668662011623383,
-0.4503636062145233,
-0.5726286768913269,
-0.419589102268219,
0.06673912703990936,
0.4060955345630646,
0.4074169397354126,
0.283352255821228,
0.0194186232984066,
-0.544299840927124,
-0.19243530929088593,
-0.5066380500793457,
0.05139094591140747,
-0.2471417337656021,
0.6263895630836487,
-0.21631217002868652,
0.021418344229459763,
-0.05397570878267288,
-0.04019917920231819,
0.31692856550216675,
-0.29014161229133606,
0.11876246333122253,
0.0724339559674263,
0.3773340880870819,
-0.13238798081874847,
-0.3028976023197174,
-0.6483004093170166,
-0.32690542936325073,
0.3568878173828125,
-0.08626212179660797,
0.22262892127037048,
0.3659032881259918,
0.3992946147918701,
-0.06072016805410385,
0.16975414752960205,
0.36511924862861633,
0.01031811535358429,
-0.2369951456785202,
0.09834589064121246,
-0.03664018213748932,
-0.24946634471416473,
-0.15756270289421082,
0.07968270778656006,
-0.4172380864620209,
-0.5162899494171143,
-5.519417762756348,
0.4050329625606537,
-0.30697575211524963,
0.012636956758797169,
0.08054178953170776,
0.046421587467193604,
0.5176092982292175,
-0.4572823941707611,
-0.2922070324420929,
0.14611771702766418,
-0.24764473736286163,
0.06425338238477707,
0.13324710726737976,
0.39160457253456116,
0.08748564124107361,
-0.1603516787290573,
0.3605376183986664,
-0.19341206550598145,
0.3390905559062958,
-0.21793387830257416,
-0.397853821516037,
-0.24651147425174713,
0.29676660895347595,
1.0157390832901,
0.05215191841125488,
-0.009747106581926346,
-0.3636326789855957,
0.009143531322479248,
-0.5294474959373474,
0.10613533854484558,
0.6286933422088623,
0.205842062830925,
-0.4458433985710144,
-0.3837124705314636,
-0.14762800931930542,
0.1633443385362625,
0.7464717030525208,
-0.008806662634015083,
0.36736246943473816,
0.2144612818956375,
-0.01602044515311718,
0.568367600440979,
0.5579406023025513,
-0.3820413053035736,
-0.06473905593156815,
-0.34165677428245544,
-0.7009252905845642,
0.20863491296768188,
-0.39643216133117676,
1.0499261617660522,
0.047169849276542664,
0.5929756760597229,
0.9272553324699402,
0.1790524423122406,
-0.19039498269557953,
-0.04375477507710457,
0.36720898747444153,
-0.5436949133872986,
-0.20448477566242218,
-0.1774539053440094,
0.6698026061058044,
-0.6312158107757568,
-0.5757758021354675,
-0.5206073522567749,
0.27218928933143616,
-0.48300638794898987,
-0.757347583770752,
-0.27802038192749023,
0.9056583046913147,
0.26685619354248047,
-0.599437952041626,
0.1091366782784462,
0.5831149220466614,
-0.6700814962387085,
0.07235448807477951,
-0.3756355345249176,
-0.3239489793777466,
0.16796815395355225,
0.8384716510772705,
-0.16703428328037262,
-0.11911226809024811,
0.21472851932048798,
-0.5142895579338074,
-0.3588324785232544,
0.31976452469825745,
-0.2321680784225464,
-0.24531690776348114,
0.09917677938938141,
-0.06500814110040665,
-0.2497061789035797,
0.5567123889923096,
-0.1733788102865219,
0.1097678393125534,
-0.10791689902544022,
0.020983917638659477,
0.2432307004928589,
-0.0407969206571579,
0.8822288513183594,
0.2210981249809265,
-0.5049775838851929,
0.4775673449039459,
-0.6190094351768494,
-0.21636809408664703,
0.0055213128216564655,
0.010762454941868782,
-0.3036872446537018,
-0.11622758209705353,
0.40347084403038025,
0.12496904283761978,
0.21980586647987366,
-0.37260010838508606,
-0.21368137001991272,
-0.8447723984718323,
-0.49855998158454895,
-0.09448347985744476,
0.6559513211250305,
-0.6796536445617676,
0.676550567150116,
-0.10576321184635162,
-0.13560812175273895,
0.35237932205200195,
-0.17010436952114105,
-0.035154569894075394,
0.2811959981918335,
-0.057968638837337494,
0.1337408721446991,
-0.535276472568512,
0.1665637493133545,
0.6695533990859985,
-0.4441511034965515,
0.46469199657440186,
0.3876493573188782,
-0.22726748883724213,
-0.3892822563648224,
-0.46775540709495544,
-1.1039067506790161,
-0.04005836695432663,
0.299519419670105,
-0.028197232633829117,
-0.1418212503194809,
-0.03830579295754433,
-0.028622299432754517,
-0.46437427401542664,
-0.14022962749004364,
0.38857102394104004,
0.5713162422180176,
-0.44143038988113403,
-0.23722311854362488,
-0.1705516129732132,
-0.009994168765842915,
-0.7984541654586792,
-0.930804967880249,
0.00009668857819633558,
0.05248977616429329,
0.4196518063545227,
-0.11458428204059601,
0.24320267140865326,
0.1150994598865509,
0.25308433175086975,
-0.29524245858192444,
-0.13722647726535797,
-0.09632772207260132,
-0.5623239874839783,
-0.028237320482730865,
-0.09301246702671051,
0.2671773433685303,
0.38507646322250366,
-0.8448678255081177,
-0.5996984243392944,
0.6266686916351318,
-0.4262464940547943,
-0.6591930389404297,
-0.18034997582435608,
-0.3711831867694855,
-0.07566186040639877,
0.24056462943553925,
-0.04792109876871109,
-0.03151147812604904,
0.6416670083999634,
-0.7484443187713623,
0.023855142295360565,
-0.23512913286685944,
-0.10635034739971161,
0.5807864665985107,
0.19624938070774078,
-0.5550854802131653,
-0.21780650317668915,
0.09771589189767838,
0.28222939372062683,
-0.5445926189422607,
0.26493752002716064,
0.3834547996520996,
0.24449467658996582,
-0.030330076813697815,
0.20694391429424286,
-0.9155780076980591,
-0.36985936760902405,
-0.013232044875621796,
-0.6296107172966003,
-0.8380944728851318,
-0.11034192889928818,
0.4949919581413269,
-0.4182164967060089,
0.7237842679023743,
0.6147641539573669,
-0.46501457691192627,
0.516878604888916,
0.49961456656455994,
-0.27011585235595703,
0.07993224263191223,
-0.4770473837852478,
-0.6168428063392639,
0.11209221929311752,
0.27688515186309814,
-0.24588607251644135,
0.3138784170150757,
0.09901023656129837,
-0.5633714199066162,
-0.2677221894264221,
0.13891252875328064,
-0.1674698442220688,
-0.17889872193336487,
-0.8216875195503235,
-0.5099024176597595,
-0.5754417181015015,
0.18218994140625,
0.23513151705265045,
-1.0224236249923706,
0.08535535633563995,
0.23814770579338074,
-0.3242037892341614,
-0.21743518114089966,
0.44364553689956665,
0.8635453581809998,
0.1101730614900589,
0.08366543799638748,
-0.15975713729858398,
-0.34748145937919617,
0.3705529570579529,
-0.23273630440235138,
0.17054541409015656,
0.2028324156999588,
0.32986319065093994,
-0.42605218291282654,
-0.39204344153404236,
0.5726796984672546,
0.37828052043914795,
-0.9087547659873962,
-0.2775598466396332,
-0.29649531841278076,
0.2845984697341919,
-0.8188931345939636,
-0.6477593779563904,
-0.2646314799785614,
0.672796368598938,
0.05459955334663391,
-0.42056265473365784,
0.03417813405394554,
0.42723438143730164,
0.6863224506378174,
-0.22222279012203217,
-0.8847694993019104,
-0.16391661763191223,
0.2985832691192627,
0.26869821548461914,
-0.37838634848594666,
0.34005942940711975,
-0.15773150324821472,
0.11526444554328918,
-0.690546989440918,
0.6231313943862915,
-0.3139628469944,
0.8079934120178223,
-0.15260115265846252,
0.40251362323760986,
-0.5554657578468323,
0.1476014405488968,
-0.7829738259315491,
0.07881858944892883,
-0.38136565685272217,
-0.040541891008615494,
-0.009535147808492184,
-0.3739964962005615,
-0.15424375236034393,
0.3320574462413788,
-0.22211124002933502,
0.14518679678440094,
0.238830104470253,
-0.5376079678535461,
0.11612994968891144,
-0.8268745541572571,
0.10401983559131622,
0.1200966089963913,
0.9220316410064697,
0.1037251278758049,
0.5277679562568665,
0.31369462609291077,
0.3969408869743347,
0.13992875814437866,
-0.3210689127445221,
-0.49759069085121155,
0.9314610958099365,
-0.05379919335246086,
-1.5193921327590942,
0.48320820927619934,
0.28809207677841187,
-0.14770448207855225,
-0.40577074885368347,
0.7009679079055786,
0.18546812236309052,
0.49805620312690735,
0.030983390286564827,
0.06832445412874222,
1.0293842554092407,
0.4101932942867279,
0.31808939576148987,
0.15098802745342255,
-0.5632518529891968,
0.35773932933807373,
0.5294440388679504,
0.22967010736465454,
0.6146174669265747,
0.8598079681396484,
-0.08049040287733078,
-0.24451027810573578,
0.5120584964752197,
0.25983965396881104,
-0.3890104293823242,
0.16487623751163483,
0.5077469348907471,
0.733529806137085,
0.23673559725284576,
0.009164328686892986,
0.04659949615597725,
0.23550254106521606,
-0.9064077138900757,
-0.004873920232057571,
-0.2882139980792999,
0.0878545492887497,
0.07894953340291977,
-0.15424680709838867,
0.5363484025001526,
-0.6094157695770264,
0.46683430671691895,
-0.14851222932338715,
0.16421055793762207,
0.7937347888946533,
0.3406726121902466,
-0.36799031496047974,
0.755099892616272,
0.15215197205543518,
0.6039037704467773,
-0.19674593210220337,
0.366807222366333,
0.38763609528541565,
-0.3726229667663574,
0.20614761114120483,
-0.08275505900382996,
0.0646936446428299,
-0.36394527554512024,
0.44793280959129333,
0.8092034459114075,
0.4041564464569092,
-0.6656590104103088,
0.11825589090585709,
-0.4222729802131653,
0.12259233742952347,
-0.6079650521278381,
0.1654149442911148,
0.138115793466568,
0.018419666215777397,
0.7707331776618958,
-0.4725296199321747,
0.4479992985725403,
0.21480345726013184,
0.14483526349067688,
0.3078814446926117,
0.1394551545381546,
0.022787606343626976,
0.18980121612548828,
-0.11215345561504364,
0.34863147139549255,
-0.4478205144405365,
-0.20124180614948273,
-0.2943311333656311,
-0.10871891677379608,
0.02596701867878437,
0.43360215425491333,
-0.6515547633171082,
-0.06166912242770195,
-0.3334088921546936,
0.2462165802717209,
0.0601138174533844,
0.03074071928858757,
-0.15028396248817444,
-0.1276310384273529,
0.018526293337345123,
0.7506579160690308,
-0.10252874344587326,
0.06748030334711075,
0.13411293923854828,
0.3625994026660919,
0.2166740745306015,
0.11720775067806244,
-0.6505388021469116,
0.45351627469062805,
-0.13913555443286896,
0.10568330436944962,
-0.7066001892089844,
0.2443769872188568,
0.670377790927887,
-0.344610333442688,
0.08571764826774597,
-0.056025661528110504,
0.09408871084451675,
0.44337111711502075,
0.11275799572467804,
-0.29630059003829956,
0.5540057420730591,
-0.3948790431022644,
0.0848492756485939,
-0.21025028824806213,
0.4312027394771576,
-0.024559756740927696,
-0.03624648228287697,
-0.6616021990776062,
0.3882238566875458,
0.4972843825817108,
0.13088566064834595,
0.6879804730415344,
-0.3705550730228424,
-0.18315687775611877,
-0.11203689873218536,
-0.246672585606575,
-0.38244208693504333,
-0.0031961107160896063,
-0.3896285593509674,
0.4798610806465149,
1.117924690246582,
-0.44931143522262573,
0.4708632230758667,
0.03716093674302101,
-0.03792545944452286,
0.19746258854866028,
-0.7158030271530151,
-0.9265696406364441,
-0.41209155321121216,
0.10212594270706177,
-0.5708940625190735,
0.39080870151519775,
0.4855722486972809,
-0.17907723784446716,
0.3991411626338959,
0.012751582078635693,
0.2081131935119629,
-0.0878458023071289,
0.15396267175674438,
-0.5545494556427002,
-0.15268085896968842,
0.2773076891899109
] |
241649 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochlear%20implant | Cochlear implant | A cochlear implant (CI) is a surgically implanted neuroprosthesis that provides a person who has bilateral moderate-to-profound sensorineural hearing loss with sound perception and an opportunity with therapy for improved speech understanding in both quiet and noisy environments. A CI bypasses acoustic hearing by direct electrical stimulation of the auditory nerve. Through everyday listening and auditory training, cochlear implants allow both children and adults to learn to interpret those signals as speech and sound.
The implant has two main components. The outside component is generally worn behind the ear, but could also be attached to clothing, for example, in young children. This component, the sound processor, contains microphones, electronics that include digital signal processor (DSP) chips, battery, and a coil that transmits a signal to the implant across the skin. The inside component, the actual implant, has a coil to receive signals, electronics, and an array of electrodes which is placed into the cochlea, which stimulate the cochlear nerve.
The surgical procedure is performed under general anesthesia. Surgical risks are minimal and most individuals will undergo outpatient surgery and go home the same day. However, some individuals will experience dizziness, and on rare occasions, tinnitus or facial nerve bruising.
From the early days of implants in the 1970s and the 1980s, speech perception via an implant has steadily increased. More than 200,000 people in the United States had received a CI through 2019. Many users of modern implants gain reasonable to good hearing and speech perception skills post-implantation, especially when combined with lipreading. One of the challenges that remain with these implants is that hearing and speech understanding skills after implantation show a wide range of variation across individual implant users. Factors such as age of implantation, parental involvement and education level, duration and cause of hearing loss, how the implant is situated in the cochlea, the overall health of the cochlear nerve, but also individual capabilities of re-learning are considered to contribute to this variation.
History
André Djourno and Charles Eyriès invented the original cochlear implant in 1957. This original design distributed stimulation using a single channel.
William House also invented a cochlear implant in 1961. In 1964, Blair Simmons and Robert J. White implanted a single-channel electrode in a patient's cochlea at Stanford University. However, research indicated that these single-channel cochlear implants were of limited usefulness because they cannot stimulate different areas of the cochlea at different times to allow differentiation between low and mid to high frequencies as required for detecting speech.
NASA engineer Adam Kissiah started working in the mid-1970s on what would become the modern cochlear implant. Kissiah used his knowledge learned while working as an electronics instrumentation engineer at NASA. This work took place over three years, when Kissiah would spend his lunch breaks and evenings in Kennedy's technical library, studying the impact of engineering principles on the inner ear. In 1977, NASA helped Kissiah obtain a patent for the cochlear implant; Kissiah later sold the patent rights.
The modern multi-channel cochlear implant was independently developed and commercialized by two separate teams—one led by Graeme Clark in Australia and another by Ingeborg Hochmair and her future husband, Erwin Hochmair in Austria, with the Hochmairs' device first implanted in a person in December 1977 and Clark's in August 1978.
Parts
Cochlear implants bypass most of the peripheral auditory system which receives sound and converts that sound into movements of hair cells in the cochlea; the deflection of stereocilia causes an influx of potassium ions into the hair cells, and the depolarisation in turn stimulates calcium influx, which increases release of the neurotransmitter, glutamate. Excitation of the cochlear nerve send signals to the brain, which creates the experience of sound. Instead, the devices pick up sound and digitize it, convert that digitized sound into electrical signals, and transmit those signals to electrodes embedded in the cochlea. The electrodes electrically stimulate the cochlear nerve, causing it to send signals to the brain.
There are several systems available, but generally they have the following components:
External:
one or more microphones that pick up sound from the environment
a speech processor which selectively filters sound to prioritize audible speech
a transmitter that sends power and the processed sound signals across the skin to the internal device by radio frequency transmission
Internal:
a receiver/stimulator, which receives signals from the speech processor and converts them into electric impulses
an electrode array embedded in the cochlea
A totally implantable cochlear implant (TICI) is currently in development. This new type of cochlear implant incorporates all the current external components of an audio processor into the internal implant. The lack of external components makes the implant invisible from the outside and also means it is less likely to suffer damage and breakages.
Assistive listening devices
Most modern cochlear implants can be used with a range of assistive listening devices (ALDs), which help people to hear better in challenging listening situations. These situations could include talking on the phone, watching TV or listening to a speaker or teacher. With an ALD, the sound from devices including mobile phones or from an external microphone is sent to the audio processor directly, rather than being picked up by the audio processor’s microphone. This direct transmission improves the sound quality for the user, making it easier to talk on the phone or stream music.
ALDs come in many forms, such as neckloops, pens, and specialist battery pack covers. Modern ALDs are usually able to receive sound from any Bluetooth device, including phones and computers, before transmitting it wirelessly to the audio processor. Most cochlear implants are also compatible with older ALD technology, such as a telecoil.
Surgical procedure
Surgical techniques
Implantation of children and adults can be done safely with few surgical complications and most individuals will undergo outpatient surgery and go home the same day.
Occasionally, the very young, the very old, or patients with a significant number of medical comorbidities may remain for overnight observation in the hospital. The procedure can be performed in an ambulatory surgery center in healthy individuals.
The surgical procedure most often used to implant the device is called mastoidectomy with facial recess approach (MFRA).
The procedure is usually done under general anesthesia. Complications of the procedure are rare, but include mastoiditis, otitis media (acute or with effusion), shifting of the implanted device requiring a second procedure, damage to the facial nerve, damage to the chorda tympani, and wound infections.
Cochlear implantation surgery is considered a clean procedure with an infection rate of less than 3%. Guidelines suggest that routine prophylactic antibiotics are not required. However, the potential cost of a postoperative infection is high (including the possibility of implant loss); therefore, a single preoperative intravenous injection of antibiotics is recommended.
The rate of complications is about 12% for minor complications and 3% for major complications; major complications include infections, facial paralysis, and device failure.
Although up to 20 new cases of post-CI bacterial meningitis occur annually worldwide, data demonstrates a reducing incidence. To avoid the risk of bacterial meningitis, the CDC recommends that adults and children undergoing CI receive age-appropriate vaccines that generate antibodies to Streptococcus pneumoniae.
The rate of transient facial nerve palsy is estimated to be approximately 1%. Device failure requiring reimplantation is estimated to occur 2.5–6% of the time. Up to one-third of people experience disequilibrium, vertigo, or vestibular weakness lasting more than one week after the procedure; in people under 70 these symptoms generally resolve over weeks to months, but in people over 70 the problems tend to persist.
In the past, cochlear implants were only approved for people who were deaf in both ears; a cochlear implant had been used experimentally in some people who had acquired deafness in one ear after they had learned how to speak, and none who were deaf in one ear from birth; clinical studies had been too small to draw generalizations.
Alternative surgical technique
Other approaches, such as going through the suprameatal triangle, are used. A systematic literature review published in 2016 found that studies comparing the two approaches were generally small, not randomized, and retrospective so were not useful for making generalizations; it is not known which approach is safer or more effective.
Endoscopic cochlear implantation
With the increased utilization of endoscopic ear surgery as popularized by professor Tarabichi, there have been multiple published reports on the use of endsocopic technique in cochlear impant surgery. However, this has been motivated by marketing and there is clear indication of increased morbidity associated with this technique as reported by the pioneer of endoscopic ear surgery.
Complications of cochlear implant surgery
As cochlear implant surgical techniques have advanced over the last four decades, the global complication rate for CI surgery in both children and adults has decreased from >35% in 1991 to less than 10% at present. The risk of postoperative facial nerve injury has also decreased over the last several decades to less than 1%, most of which demonstrated complete return of function within six months. The rate of permanent paralysis is approximately 1 per 1,000 surgeries and likely less than that in experienced CI centers.
The majority of complications following CI surgery are minor requiring only conservative medical management or prolongation of hospital stay. Less than 5% of all complications are major resulting in surgical intervention or readmission to the hospital. Reported rates of revision cochlear implant surgery vary in adults and children from 3.8% to 8% with the most common indications being device failure, infection, and migration of the implant or electrode. Disequilibrium and vertigo after CI surgery can occur but the symptoms tend to be mild and short-lived. CI rarely results in significant or persistent adverse effects on the vestibular system when hearing conservation surgical techniques are practiced. Moreover, gait and postural stability may actually improve post-implantation.
Outcomes
Cochlear implant outcomes can be measured using speech recognition ability and functional improvements measured using patient reported outcome measures. While the degree of improvement after cochlear plantation may vary, the majority of patients who receive cochlear implants demonstrate a significant improvement in speech recognition ability compared to their preoperative condition.
Meta-analyses from 2017 and 2018 of the literature showed that CI users have large improvements in quality of life after cochlear implantation. This improvement occurs in many different facets of life that extends beyond communication including improved ability to engage in social activities; decreased mental effort from listening; and improved environmental sound awareness. Deaf adolescents with cochlear implants attending mainstream educational settings report high levels of scholastic self-esteem, friendship self-esteem, and global self-esteem. They also tend to hold mostly positive attitudes towards their cochlear implants, and as a part of their identity, a majority either do "not really think about" their hearing loss, or are "proud of it."
A study by Johns Hopkins University determined that for a three-year-old child who receives them, cochlear implants can save $30,000 to $50,000 in special-education costs for elementary and secondary schools as the child is more likely to be mainstreamed in school and thus use fewer support services than similarly deaf children.
Efficacy
A 2019 study found that bilateral cochlear implantation was widely regarded as the most beneficial hearing intervention for acceptable candidates, although it is more likely to be performed and reimbursed in children than adults. The study also found that the efficacy of bilateral implantation could be improved by enhancing communication between the two implants and by developing sound coding strategies specifically for bilateral users.
Early research reviews found that the ability to communicate in spoken language was better the earlier the implantation was performed. The reviews also found that, overall, while cochlear implants provide open set speech understanding for the majority of implanted profoundly hearing-impaired children, and that it was not possible to accurately predict the specific outcome of the given implanted child. Research since then has reported long-term socio-economic benefits for children as well as audiological outcomes including improved sound localization and speech perception. A consensus statement from the European Bilateral Pediatric Cochlear Implant Forum also confirmed the importance of bilateral cochlear implantation in children. In adults, new research shows that bilateral implantation can improve quality of life and speech intelligibility in quiet and noise.
A 2015 review examined whether CI implantation to treat people with bilateral hearing loss had any effect on tinnitus. This review found the quality of evidence to be poor and the results variable: overall total tinnitus suppression rates for patients who had tinnitus prior to surgery varied from 8% to 45% of people who received CI; decrease of tinnitus was seen in 25% to 72%, of people; for 0% to 36% of the people there was no change; increase of tinnitus occurred in between 0% to 25% of patients; and, in between 0 and 10% of cases, people who did not have tinnitus before the procedure, got it. Further research found that the electrical stimulation of the CI is at least partly responsible for the general reduction in symptoms. A 2019 study found that although tinnitus suppression in patients with CIs is multifactorial, simply having the CI switched on without any audiological input (while standing alone in a soundproof booth) reduced the symptoms of tinnitus. This would suggest that it is the electrical stimulation that explains the decrease in tinnitus symptoms for many patients, and not only the increased access to sound.
A 2015 literature review on the use of CI for people with auditory neuropathy spectrum disorder found that, as of that date, description and diagnosis of the condition was too heterogeneous to make clear claims about whether CI is a safe and effective way to manage it.
The data for cochlear implant outcomes in older adults differs. A 2016 research study found that age at implantation was highly correlated with post-operative speech understanding performance for various test measures. In this study, people who were implanted at age 65 or older performed significantly worse on speech perception testing in quiet and in noisy conditions compared to younger CI users. Other studies have shown different outcomes, with some reporting that adults implanted at the age of 65 and older showed audiological and speech discrimination outcomes similar to younger adults. While cochlear implants demonstrate substantial benefit across all age groups, results will depend on cognitive factors that are ultimately highly age dependent. However, studies have documented the benefit of cochlear implants in octogenarians.
The effects of aging on central auditory processing abilities are thought to play an important role in impacting an individual's speech perception with a cochlear implant. The Lancet reported that untreated hearing loss in adults is the number one modifiable risk factor for dementia. In 2017, a study also reported that adults using a cochlear implant had significantly improved cognitive outcomes including working memory, reaction time, and cognitive flexibility compared to people who were waiting to receive a cochlear implant.
Prolonged duration of deafness is another factor that is thought to have a negative impact on overall speech understanding outcomes for CI users. However, a study found no statistical difference in the speech understanding abilities of CI patients over 65 who had been hearing impaired for 30 years or more prior to implantation. In general, outcomes for CI patients are dependent upon the individual's level of motivation, expectations, exposure to speech stimuli and consistent participation in aural rehabilitation programs.
A 2016 systematic review of CI for people with unilateral hearing loss (UHL) found that of the studies conducted and published, none were randomized, only one evaluated a control group, and no study was blinded. After eliminating multiple uses of the same subjects, the authors found that 137 people with UHL had received a CI. While acknowledging the weakness of the data, the authors found that CI in people with UHL improves sound localization compared with other treatments in people who lost hearing after they learned to speak; in the one study that examined this, CI did improve sound localization in people with UHL who lost hearing before learning to speak. It appeared to improve speech perception and to reduce tinnitus.
In terms of quality of life, several studies have shown that cochlear implants are beneficial in many aspects of quality of life, including communication improvements and positive effects on social, emotional, psychological and physical well-being. A 2017 narrative review also concluded that the quality of life scores of children using cochlear implants were comparable to those of children without hearing loss. Studies involving adults of all ages reported significant improvement in QoL after implantation when compared to adults with hearing aids. This was often independent of audiological performance.
Society and culture
Usage
approximately 188,000 individuals had been fitted with cochlear implants. the same publication cited approximately 324,000 cochlear implant devices having been surgically implanted. In the U.S., roughly 58,000 devices were implanted in adults and 38,000 in children. the Ear Foundation in the United Kingdom, estimates the number of cochlear implant recipients in the world to be about 600,000. The American Cochlear Implant Alliance estimates that 217,000 people received CIs in the United States through the end of 2019.
Cost
Cochlear implantation includes the medical device as well as related services and procedures including pre-operative testing, the surgery, and aftercare that includes audiology and speech language pathology services. These are provided over time by a team of clinicians with specialized training. All of these services, as well as the cochlear implant device and related peripherals, are part of the medical intervention and are typically covered by health insurance in the United States and many areas of the world. These medical services and procedures include candidacy evaluation, hospital services inclusive of supplies and medications used during surgery, surgeon and other physicians such as anesthesiologists, the cochlear implant device and system kit, and programming and (re)habilitation following the surgery. According to the US National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, the estimated total cost is $60,000 per person implanted. In many countries around the world, the cost of cochlear implantation and aftercare is covered by health insurance.
In the USA, as cochlear implants have become more commonplace and accepted as a valuable and cost effective health intervention, insurance coverage has expanded to include private insurance, Medicare, Tricare, the VA System, other federal health plans, and Medicaid. Just as there is with any medical procedure, there are typically co-pays which vary depending upon the insurance plan.
In the United Kingdom, the NHS covers cochlear implants in full, as does Medicare in Australia, and the Department of Health in Ireland, Seguridad Social in Spain, Sécurité Sociale in France and Israel, and the Ministry of Health or ACC (depending on the cause of deafness) in New Zealand. In Germany and Austria, the cost is covered by most health insurance organizations.
Public Health
6.1% of the world population live with hearing loss, and it is predicted that by 2050, more than 900 million people around the globe will have a disabling hearing loss. According to a WHO report, unaddressed hearing loss costs the world 980 billion dollars annually. Particularly hard hit are the healthcare and educational sectors, as well as societal costs. 53% of these costs are attributable to low- and middle-income countries.
The WHO reports that cochlear implants have been shown to be a cost-effective way to mitigate the challenges of hearing loss. In a low-to-middle-income setting, every dollar invested in unilateral cochlear implants has a return on investment of 1.46 dollars. This rises to a return on investment of 4.09 dollars in an upper-middle-income setting. A study in Colombia assessed the lifetime investments made in 68 children who received cochlear implants at an early age. Taking into account the cost of the device and any other medical costs, follow-up, speech therapy, batteries and travel, each child required an average investment of US$99 000 over the course of their life (assuming a life span of 78 years for women and 72 years for men). The study concluded that for every dollar invested in rehabilitation of a child with a cochlear implant, there was a return on investment of US$2.07.
Manufacturers
As of 2021, four cochlear implant devices approved for use in the United States are manufactured by Cochlear Limited, Advanced Bionics, MED-EL, and Oticon Medical.
In Europe, Africa, Asia, South America, and Canada, an additional device manufactured by Neurelec (France, a division of William Demant) was available. A device made by Nurotron (China) was also available in some parts of the world. Each manufacturer has adapted some of the successful innovations of the other companies to its own devices. There is no consensus that any one of these implants is superior to the others. Users of all devices report a wide range of performance after implantation.
Criticism and controversy
Much of the strongest objection to cochlear implants has come from within the Deaf community, some of whom are pre-lingually deaf people whose first language is a sign language. For some in the Deaf community, cochlear implants are an affront to their culture, which, as they view it, is a minority threatened by the hearing majority. This is an old problem for the Deaf community, going back as far as the 18th century with the argument of manualism vs. oralism. This is consistent with medicalisation and the standardisation of the "normal" body in the 19th century when differences between normal and abnormal began to be debated. It is important to consider the sociocultural context, particularly in regards to the Deaf community, which has its own unique language and culture. This accounts for the cochlear implant being seen as an affront to their culture, as many do not believe that deafness is something that needs to be cured. However, it has also been argued that this does not necessarily have to be the case: the cochlear implant can act as a tool deaf people can use to access the "hearing world" without losing their Deaf identity.
Cochlear implants for congenitally deaf children are most effective when implanted at a young age. Evidence shows that Deaf children of Deaf parents (or with fluent signers as daily caregivers) learn signed language as effectively as hearing peers. Some Deaf-community advocates recommend that all Deaf children should learn sign language from birth, but more than 90% of deaf children are born to hearing parents. Since it takes years to become fluent in sign language, deaf children who grow up without amplification such as hearing aids or cochlear implants will not have daily access to fluent language models in households without fluent signers.
Critics of cochlear implants from Deaf cultures also assert that the cochlear implant and the subsequent therapy often become the focus of the child's identity at the expense of language acquisition and ease of communication in sign language and Deaf identity. They believe that measuring a child's success only by their mastery of speech will lead to a poor self-image as "disabled" (because the implants do not produce normal hearing) rather than having the healthy self-concept of a proudly Deaf person. However, these assertions are not supported by research. The first children to receive cochlear implants as infants are only in their 20s (as of 2020), and anecdotal evidence points to a high level of satisfaction in this cohort, most of whom don't consider their deafness their primary identity.
Children with cochlear implants are most likely to be educated with listening and spoken language, without sign language and are often not educated with other Deaf children who use sign language. Cochlear implants have been one of the technological and social factors implicated in the decline of sign languages in the developed world. Some Deaf activists have labeled the widespread implantation of children as a cultural genocide.
As the trend for cochlear implants in children grows, Deaf-community advocates have tried to counter the "either or" formulation of oralism vs. manualism with a "both and" or "bilingual-bicultural" approach; some schools are now successfully integrating cochlear implants with sign language in their educational programs. However, there is no clinical evidence suggesting that sign language supports the development of spoken language, while there is significant clinical evidence suggesting that deaf children (of hearing parents) who use no sign language or very little sign language develop better spoken language skills than those children who use both sign and speech.
See also
3D Printing
Auditory brainstem response
Auditory brainstem implant
Bone-anchored hearing aid
Bone conduction
Brain implant
Ear trumpet
Electric Acoustic Stimulation
Electrophonic hearing
Hearing aid
Neuroprosthetics
Noise health effects
Visual prosthesis
References
Further reading
External links
Cochlear Implants Information from the National Institutes of Health (NIH).
NASA Spinoff article on engineer Adam Kissiah's contribution to cochlear implants beginning in the 1970s.
1979 introductions
1979 in science
Artificial organs
Audiology
Australian inventions
Bionics
Cybernetics
Implants (medicine)
Medical devices
NASA spin-off technologies
Neuroprosthetics
Otology | [
0.3281821608543396,
0.5288788080215454,
-0.4017200767993927,
0.18835310637950897,
0.4988788366317749,
0.49825263023376465,
-0.006020339671522379,
0.32547813653945923,
-0.08486735075712204,
-0.42123445868492126,
-0.33939895033836365,
0.6994464993476868,
0.04485950991511345,
0.24137204885482788,
-0.34202900528907776,
0.06602407246828079,
0.8227062225341797,
0.25831112265586853,
-0.25386324524879456,
0.020659571513533592,
-0.03352104499936104,
-0.4938305616378784,
0.3162108063697815,
-0.04352526366710663,
-0.17820031940937042,
0.00407775491476059,
0.19516323506832123,
-0.12022203207015991,
0.11430171877145767,
-0.14712321758270264,
0.24135246872901917,
0.8120146989822388,
0.03766654431819916,
-0.9596431851387024,
0.173033207654953,
0.40734565258026123,
-0.33198636770248413,
-0.660803496837616,
-0.7209262847900391,
-0.5592081546783447,
0.38673388957977295,
0.10321253538131714,
0.030766822397708893,
0.5510422587394714,
-0.7572318315505981,
-0.25455182790756226,
-1.5694767236709595,
0.2540607750415802,
-0.5084087252616882,
0.3352206349372864,
-0.33636394143104553,
-0.2984960675239563,
0.44068413972854614,
-0.11282534897327423,
0.42257586121559143,
0.3897697925567627,
-0.48329535126686096,
-0.4980267882347107,
0.16128696501255035,
-0.10432543605566025,
-0.22015568614006042,
0.1590804159641266,
-0.4764934182167053,
-0.25236278772354126,
0.10646894574165344,
-0.20908541977405548,
0.040111444890499115,
-0.09847407788038254,
-0.5782047510147095,
-0.36684080958366394,
-0.4199596643447876,
0.10243016481399536,
0.2167925238609314,
0.2760458290576935,
-0.3158862292766571,
-0.02324838750064373,
0.5873836278915405,
-0.35040751099586487,
0.6394752860069275,
-0.09690147638320923,
0.2548811435699463,
0.5806200504302979,
0.6056543588638306,
-0.049373093992471695,
0.23947373032569885,
0.10513131320476532,
-0.9848242402076721,
0.582602858543396,
-0.5592085719108582,
-0.22673657536506653,
-0.15236049890518188,
-0.17885549366474152,
0.5521162748336792,
0.7455275654792786,
0.4516891539096832,
0.15642857551574707,
0.2282668948173523,
0.14235180616378784,
0.13228237628936768,
0.4088727533817291,
0.3733291029930115,
0.3205316364765167,
0.24846556782722473,
0.09679746627807617,
0.06665720045566559,
-0.35405030846595764,
-0.4858631193637848,
-0.48991283774375916,
-0.8632596135139465,
0.13680967688560486,
-0.6373807191848755,
0.018445534631609917,
0.46384987235069275,
0.192376509308815,
-0.5196415781974792,
-0.11942364275455475,
0.617699921131134,
0.9115231037139893,
-0.1097865030169487,
-0.5268421769142151,
0.1125718355178833,
0.7796871662139893,
-0.14840362966060638,
-0.015128044411540031,
-0.19836826622486115,
0.4418359398841858,
0.028422126546502113,
0.6186929941177368,
-0.5234883427619934,
-0.20279604196548462,
-0.38133323192596436,
0.4379684329032898,
0.05495566502213478,
-0.03120671771466732,
0.223195418715477,
-0.16733799874782562,
0.44945746660232544,
-0.30969056487083435,
0.8597264289855957,
0.7152175903320312,
-0.4616968631744385,
-0.5931421518325806,
-0.8060734272003174,
-0.34120798110961914,
0.26564493775367737,
-0.36904942989349365,
-0.219211608171463,
0.3462696075439453,
-0.03427864983677864,
0.2958115041255951,
-0.434457391500473,
-0.05118842050433159,
-0.030511466786265373,
-0.5486946702003479,
-0.2189367562532425,
-0.07525064051151276,
0.17055422067642212,
-0.47547033429145813,
0.43962612748146057,
-0.14338402450084686,
0.631798267364502,
0.1762460619211197,
-0.7296430468559265,
-0.05039449408650398,
-0.3300263285636902,
-0.34742650389671326,
0.3505139946937561,
0.08355466276407242,
0.20295995473861694,
0.5868127346038818,
0.06237010657787323,
0.20402395725250244,
0.10272568464279175,
-0.046820227056741714,
0.09833540767431259,
-0.2315354347229004,
0.692633330821991,
0.4300471246242523,
0.2742781639099121,
0.21440063416957855,
-0.8077006340026855,
0.13468006253242493,
-0.026356166228652,
-0.3524538278579712,
0.1984717845916748,
-0.06082558259367943,
0.2826145589351654,
-0.41828373074531555,
-0.40882056951522827,
-0.035152617841959,
-0.31920573115348816,
-0.4367084801197052,
0.3290407061576843,
-0.344056636095047,
1.4069613218307495,
0.14868248999118805,
-0.226801797747612,
0.25396597385406494,
0.3014967441558838,
0.19562971591949463,
-0.03288590908050537,
-0.07436680048704147,
0.2812485694885254,
0.0584104023873806,
-0.9615718126296997,
0.5163869261741638,
0.5034923553466797,
-0.3853583335876465,
-0.19807466864585876,
0.06340990215539932,
0.8180849552154541,
-0.3871353268623352,
0.5618394613265991,
-0.5168927907943726,
0.059484995901584625,
-0.3108825087547302,
-0.46752315759658813,
0.5756019353866577,
-0.7897153496742249,
-0.182913675904274,
0.4567829966545105,
-0.25937044620513916,
0.14383454620838165,
0.696239173412323,
-0.3805210292339325,
0.9689785242080688,
-0.24895930290222168,
-0.23188157379627228,
0.530439555644989,
-0.3744986653327942,
-0.25153422355651855,
-0.22507640719413757,
-0.4343741536140442,
-0.14685530960559845,
0.03993866965174675,
-0.13757042586803436,
0.13212013244628906,
-0.5410555005073547,
0.39667201042175293,
0.046447742730379105,
-0.32034018635749817,
-0.21822388470172882,
-0.7668529152870178,
0.09191618114709854,
0.15019367635250092,
-0.09004262834787369,
0.11194426566362381,
0.06325395405292511,
0.31358253955841064,
-0.09015752375125885,
0.23300254344940186,
0.054575394839048386,
0.46310871839523315,
-0.08726097643375397,
0.415974885225296,
-0.1563853621482849,
-0.03287406638264656,
-0.3269345164299011,
-0.2794996201992035,
-0.5080713629722595,
-0.023874808102846146,
0.4543246030807495,
0.6645669341087341,
-0.3666960895061493,
-0.3748750388622284,
-0.6834463477134705,
0.5740453004837036,
0.01879926398396492,
0.23842176795005798,
0.11691812425851822,
0.27751612663269043,
0.343862920999527,
-0.26885825395584106,
-0.33264514803886414,
-0.634791374206543,
-0.0418856143951416,
-0.2498108446598053,
0.170114666223526,
-0.6249164342880249,
-0.5382533073425293,
0.4080432951450348,
0.4941293001174927,
0.22004476189613342,
0.0882137194275856,
-0.30481064319610596,
-0.09088502824306488,
-0.5166184902191162,
-0.41534706950187683,
-0.4422779381275177,
-0.6769079566001892,
-0.5091296434402466,
0.0688866674900055,
0.026005644351243973,
0.36222755908966064,
-0.05447256565093994,
0.4124201834201813,
0.0821773037314415,
-0.031451478600502014,
0.5225644111633301,
-0.4510601758956909,
-0.06543327867984772,
0.3660118281841278,
-0.16057220101356506,
0.22800204157829285,
-0.11949113756418228,
0.00978941936045885,
0.40776944160461426,
-0.4178577661514282,
-5.72890567779541,
0.26309946179389954,
-0.14572693407535553,
-0.2182593047618866,
0.42393559217453003,
0.38581931591033936,
0.37287965416908264,
-0.015243935398757458,
-0.3791353404521942,
0.2962876260280609,
-0.44306936860084534,
0.5125812888145447,
-0.12381776422262192,
0.35098960995674133,
0.49160975217819214,
-0.011768132448196411,
-0.5527703166007996,
-0.1259930431842804,
0.015912555158138275,
-0.25789567828178406,
0.5741589069366455,
0.2501268684864044,
-0.11702939122915268,
0.5721206665039062,
-0.04192047566175461,
-0.21932841837406158,
-0.5749523043632507,
0.4359738826751709,
-0.5919422507286072,
-0.01395996380597353,
-0.01564725488424301,
-0.04909912124276161,
-0.30933162569999695,
0.1899029016494751,
0.02333964966237545,
0.6243256330490112,
0.5852103233337402,
0.47971218824386597,
0.21793140470981598,
-0.36875033378601074,
-0.14331048727035522,
0.6130892038345337,
0.4816077649593353,
-0.23490995168685913,
0.7085071206092834,
-0.48641717433929443,
0.09226792305707932,
-0.14870591461658478,
-0.11078476160764694,
0.962214469909668,
-0.23552845418453217,
-0.127299502491951,
0.20842009782791138,
0.7629270553588867,
-0.05034313723444939,
-0.0784098282456398,
0.7591903209686279,
0.05420034006237984,
-0.5696348547935486,
0.3451026678085327,
-0.20552948117256165,
-0.37273964285850525,
-0.6557876467704773,
-1.0647550821304321,
-0.05459599569439888,
-0.30139198899269104,
-0.849696695804596,
-0.27628588676452637,
0.6637288331985474,
0.5103983283042908,
-0.01058939378708601,
0.6874494552612305,
0.04860195517539978,
-0.648181140422821,
0.46550124883651733,
-0.3289688229560852,
0.07321297377347946,
-0.12069641798734665,
-0.06923981755971909,
0.5824983716011047,
-0.5696789622306824,
-0.04269879311323166,
0.10306548327207565,
0.4612896740436554,
-0.10481228679418564,
-0.043020620942115784,
-0.3563019931316376,
0.36261969804763794,
-0.2593192160129547,
0.09318367391824722,
0.6585535407066345,
0.08593860268592834,
-0.35136592388153076,
0.32431358098983765,
-0.17270022630691528,
0.2650672495365143,
0.16223004460334778,
0.5527085065841675,
0.7384212017059326,
0.18006359040737152,
0.47177955508232117,
-0.09599387645721436,
-0.33902427554130554,
-0.34329450130462646,
-0.22614045441150665,
-0.5977374315261841,
-0.46389222145080566,
-0.16168178617954254,
0.9289548397064209,
-0.2476460337638855,
0.005006636027246714,
0.28290408849716187,
-0.07075952738523483,
-0.07206697016954422,
-0.0420670323073864,
0.05995846539735794,
-0.156998872756958,
0.3930152654647827,
0.2930101752281189,
-0.5721293687820435,
0.33112195134162903,
0.12060845643281937,
-0.10157439112663269,
-0.21641798317432404,
-0.2936093211174011,
-0.4584798812866211,
0.005120265297591686,
0.24408534169197083,
-0.49284493923187256,
0.23352597653865814,
-0.004919618368148804,
0.36980584263801575,
-0.05860244855284691,
0.44409453868865967,
-0.32648053765296936,
-0.9562225937843323,
-0.5285975337028503,
0.560286283493042,
-0.3440876603126526,
-0.27108141779899597,
0.514420211315155,
-0.5059989094734192,
0.22060738503932953,
-0.23227398097515106,
0.39749208092689514,
0.3131984770298004,
-0.6270136833190918,
-0.07453855872154236,
-0.42865416407585144,
0.6306538581848145,
-0.008575419895350933,
-0.577587902545929,
-0.13839136064052582,
-0.12552082538604736,
0.44434669613838196,
0.46789324283599854,
0.25008624792099,
0.1333298534154892,
0.36064302921295166,
-0.306114137172699,
0.4759305715560913,
0.36207151412963867,
-0.7246853113174438,
-0.15900343656539917,
0.2807934284210205,
0.08999691158533096,
-0.6214931607246399,
-0.47627002000808716,
-0.4674224257469177,
0.4457816183567047,
0.11939451843500137,
-0.09439019113779068,
-0.7575462460517883,
-0.16828608512878418,
0.46844008564949036,
-0.003508342197164893,
0.24706710875034332,
0.24656222760677338,
-0.4837174415588379,
-0.22098161280155182,
0.41887664794921875,
-0.6497340798377991,
0.09813958406448364,
0.11435992270708084,
0.3910023868083954,
-0.4309519827365875,
-0.20719611644744873,
-0.5531501173973083,
-0.09803184121847153,
-0.635583221912384,
-0.4169934391975403,
0.19868242740631104,
-0.17293627560138702,
-0.07176177948713303,
0.05068129301071167,
-0.01620744727551937,
-0.39223238825798035,
0.5041840076446533,
-0.31849947571754456,
-0.6099106669425964,
-0.3569715619087219,
0.47713783383369446,
-0.44593265652656555,
0.38490572571754456,
0.5930017232894897,
-0.502342939376831,
0.2726718485355377,
-0.16316592693328857,
-0.3786831796169281,
0.5650572776794434,
-0.5347239375114441,
-0.6776208877563477,
0.24811938405036926,
0.2596074640750885,
-0.3114794194698334,
0.22166667878627777,
0.09421242773532867,
-0.1794346123933792,
-0.7264511585235596,
0.18291179835796356,
0.07208351045846939,
-0.41781291365623474,
-0.018884483724832535,
-0.291759729385376,
-0.7319822907447815,
0.09752030670642853,
-0.07425609976053238,
0.12162509560585022,
0.9009612798690796,
-0.17540515959262848,
-0.5448118448257446,
-0.0076123615726828575,
-0.09003887325525284,
0.013792379759252071,
-0.24022340774536133,
0.23479774594306946,
-0.3981105387210846,
0.021477634087204933,
-0.3421742618083954,
0.20872309803962708,
0.8247615694999695,
0.4148901402950287,
-0.32325616478919983,
-0.07390672713518143,
-0.9273630976676941,
0.7492803931236267,
-0.15471793711185455,
-0.3267574608325958,
-0.8541349768638611,
0.18330688774585724,
0.4949758052825928,
-0.3095570504665375,
-0.7030467391014099,
-0.5129729509353638,
0.41334977746009827,
-0.4476155638694763,
-0.22576786577701569,
-0.009954358451068401,
-0.16016770899295807,
0.36225998401641846,
0.03347451984882355,
-0.5074042081832886,
-0.33627238869667053,
0.2339576631784439,
0.3534389138221741,
-0.04029856622219086,
-0.43841448426246643,
-0.32492032647132874,
0.2806633710861206,
-0.4366907477378845,
0.26244041323661804,
-0.0719074234366417,
0.8416925668716431,
0.13886268436908722,
-0.16462191939353943,
-0.04685800150036812,
0.38319164514541626,
0.09387359768152237,
0.4193090796470642,
-0.2323857545852661,
0.5029201507568359,
0.2352297455072403,
0.15943360328674316,
-0.10453351587057114,
0.35248899459838867,
0.03708545118570328,
0.09573179483413696,
-0.554850697517395,
-0.34996822476387024,
-0.12548713386058807,
-0.35974401235580444,
0.2770842909812927,
0.07687250524759293,
0.5614904761314392,
0.37046319246292114,
0.07428070157766342,
0.13964761793613434,
0.40286487340927124,
0.34635451436042786,
0.1375831961631775,
-0.6665186882019043,
0.6227430105209351,
0.492620587348938,
-1.2006103992462158,
0.30644845962524414,
0.18953505158424377,
0.2600416839122772,
-0.5105280876159668,
-0.4317231774330139,
0.036706775426864624,
-0.13416971266269684,
0.06887266039848328,
-0.17815512418746948,
0.7379080653190613,
0.06327632069587708,
-0.1396208256483078,
0.09112230688333511,
-0.15452325344085693,
0.6181973218917847,
0.532668948173523,
-0.2865212857723236,
-0.031198296695947647,
0.2857634723186493,
-0.14019492268562317,
-0.4042121469974518,
-0.056234657764434814,
-0.15355323255062103,
-0.17646251618862152,
0.3453012704849243,
0.4644736349582672,
0.547497570514679,
0.32753634452819824,
0.48726168274879456,
0.715045690536499,
-0.14267964661121368,
-0.8079560995101929,
0.21940793097019196,
-0.46036162972450256,
-0.7565537095069885,
0.7156498432159424,
0.14208799600601196,
0.5370872020721436,
0.09341663122177124,
0.587024450302124,
0.07679387927055359,
0.5758200883865356,
0.10804471373558044,
0.663178563117981,
-0.37050551176071167,
0.3023732602596283,
0.22194887697696686,
-0.16458308696746826,
0.19189631938934326,
-0.2021041065454483,
-0.12857511639595032,
-0.10210010409355164,
0.6432491540908813,
-0.056186337023973465,
0.09888847172260284,
0.35521629452705383,
-0.28906282782554626,
0.40652263164520264,
0.1972101777791977,
-0.2236546277999878,
-0.05499859154224396,
-0.3816789984703064,
0.38236796855926514,
-0.5388857126235962,
0.3777135908603668,
0.23922370374202728,
0.6884255409240723,
0.4904049038887024,
-0.4494757354259491,
0.370147705078125,
-0.1521969735622406,
-0.2846164107322693,
-0.1543092578649521,
0.11218413710594177,
0.22226862609386444,
-0.07326342165470123,
-0.049033273011446,
0.1921735554933548,
-0.2351425439119339,
-0.042348798364400864,
0.056006353348493576,
0.035624194890260696,
-0.04754294455051422,
0.9447518587112427,
0.689859926700592,
0.4565027058124542,
-0.1082204133272171,
-0.4042222797870636,
0.09782924503087997,
-0.5485014319419861,
-0.031089887022972107,
-0.37158340215682983,
-0.018509116023778915,
0.10265251994132996,
-0.35882580280303955,
0.26529034972190857,
-0.20956596732139587,
0.41811951994895935,
0.31366226077079773,
-0.18320532143115997,
0.020892314612865448,
0.44888922572135925,
-0.38063493371009827,
0.5509360432624817,
-0.81464684009552,
0.16434317827224731,
0.2319095879793167,
0.03248574212193489,
-0.4738532304763794,
0.5704629421234131,
0.44014665484428406,
0.6122611165046692,
0.6316412091255188,
-0.21711228787899017,
-0.09130843728780746,
-0.885354220867157,
-0.03345252946019173,
-0.03994579613208771,
0.3556354343891144,
-0.10957349836826324,
-0.0527590773999691,
-0.02545732818543911,
1.0549170970916748,
-0.12776556611061096,
-0.3138982653617859,
0.21132424473762512,
-0.7487101554870605,
0.1756346970796585,
-0.5523893237113953,
0.32441505789756775,
-0.36640095710754395,
-0.837475061416626,
-0.22568877041339874,
0.43689659237861633,
0.35442212224006653,
-0.20874978601932526,
0.06619913130998611,
-0.500166654586792,
-0.3239317238330841,
0.22740484774112701,
-0.7321701049804688,
-0.16180403530597687,
-0.6079928874969482,
-0.2663382589817047,
-0.23951208591461182,
-0.09118112921714783,
-0.07390191406011581,
-0.8106269836425781,
0.006699671503156424,
-0.30591726303100586,
-0.2649379372596741,
-0.012734388932585716,
-0.06380412727594376,
-0.2097761631011963,
-0.26398766040802,
0.3780970871448517
] |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.