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242936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Watson%20Dixon | Richard Watson Dixon | Richard Watson Dixon (5 May 1833 – 23 January 1900), English poet and divine, son of Dr James Dixon, a Wesleyan minister.
Biography
He was the eldest son of Dr. James Dixon, a distinguished Wesleyan preacher, by Mary, only daughter of the Rev. Richard Watson.
In the biography he wrote of his father, Dixon describes his mother as 'an excellent Latin and Greek scholar, a perfect French and a sufficient Italian linguist, and an exquisite musician;' and of his grandmother, Mrs. Watson, who made a home with her daughter, he retained an affectionate recollection as of a very good and clever woman.
Both the Watsons and Dixons belonged to the early school of Methodists, who did not renounce their membership in the church of England, so that there was no feeling that Dixon had been disloyal to their communion when he prepared for orders in the church.
He was born on 5 May 1833 at Islington, and educated, under Dr. Gifford, at King Edward's School, Birmingham, where he had for school friends Edwin Hatch and Edward Burne-Jones.
In June 1851, he matriculated at Pembroke College, Oxford, and when in the Christmas term of the same year Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris came up to Exeter College, they, with William Fulford, Charles Faulkner, Cormell Price, and a few more, formed a close brotherhood.
An excellent account of these Oxford days was contributed by Dixon to Mr. J. W. Mackail's Life of Morris.
He says ‘Jones and Morris were both meant for holy orders, and the same may be said of the rest of us except Faulkner; but the bond of alliance was poetry and indefinite artistic and literary aspirations.
We all had the notion of doing great things for men according to our own will and bent.’
With Morris, Dixon projected The Oxford and Cambridge Magazine, and had a hand, under Rossetti's direction, in the amateur distempering of the walls of Woodward's new debating hall at the Oxford Union with frescoes from the Arthurian Romances, now almost completely obliterated.
Dixon did not in after life pursue painting as a study—a single canvas, a wedding-scene from Chaucer, is, it is believed, the only picture of his that survives —but he always retained his interest, and a visit to the old masters in the National Gallery was a regular incident of any visit to London.
At Oxford Dixon read for the ordinary classical schools, and graduated B.A. in 1857.
The next year he won the Arnold historical prize for an essay on ‘The Close of the Tenth Century of the Christian Era,’ and in 1863 Oxford's Sacred Poem Prize, the subject being ‘St. John in Patmos.’
The poem is in the heroic couplet, and is a very dignified and impressive piece of writing. His first published volume of poems, called ‘Christ's Company,’ had already appeared in 1861, and a second, ‘Historical Odes,’ followed in 1863.
These early poems of Dixon were distinguished by not a little of the colour and imagination, and also by something of the eccentricity, that marked the early efforts of the Pre-Raphaelite school.
The poems of the first volume, though largely upon religious subjects, are not strictly religious poetry; they are works of picturesque imagination rather than of devotional feeling. The ‘Historical Odes’ show an advance in simplicity, and a power, that Dixon afterwards carried further, of ode construction. The odes upon Wellington and Marlborough contain much good writing, and deserve more attention than they have received.
After leaving Oxford, Dixon lodged for a time with Morris and Burne-Jones in Red Lion Square. In 1858, he was ordained to the curacy of St. Mary-the-Less, Lambeth, Mr. Gregory, the present dean of St. Paul's, giving him his title.
In 1861, he moved to the curacy of St. Mary, Newington Butts, and became an assistant master at Highgate School, where his pupils included Gerard Manley Hopkins.
From 1863 to 1868 he was second master at Carlisle High School, and from 1868 to 1875 minor canon and honorary librarian of Carlisle Cathedral.
After that he was for eight years vicar of Hayton, in Cumberland, and was then presented by the bishop of Carlisle to the vicarage of Warkworth in Northumberland, which he held till his death.
Besides these small livings, Dixon received no preferment in the church, although the best years of his life were devoted to writing a church history, which took rank from the first moment of its appearance as a standard authority.
His friends would have greatly valued for him the increase of leisure and opportunities for study which a cathedral stall would have afforded; but it was not to be.
The distinctions which he received after the appearance of the first volume of his history, in 1877, were such as to reduce the already scanty leisure of a hardworked parish clergyman.
In 1874, he had been made honorary canon of Carlisle; in 1879 he became rural dean of Brampton; in 1884 rural dean of Alnwick; and in 1891 examining chaplain to the bishop of Newcastle.
He was chaplain to the high sheriff of Cumberland in 1883, and from 1890 to 1894 was a proctor in convocation.
He was always singularly modest as to his claims upon recognition; but it gave him genuine pleasure when in the last year of his life his university conferred upon him an honorary doctor's degree in divinity, and his college made him an honorary fellow.
In 1885, he stood for the professorship of poetry at Oxford, but withdrew his candidature before the election.
The short preface to 'Eudocia and her Brothers' upon the use of the heroic couplet shows that he possessed keen critical powers and a faculty of lucid exposition.
Dixon was briefly considered for Poet Laureate when Alfred Tennyson died in 1892.
In December 1891 Dixon had a severe attack of influenza, which for some long time diminished his power of writing, but he ultimately recovered; a second attack in January 1900 carried him off after a few days' illness.
Family
On 9 April 1861, he married the widow of William Thomson of Haddingtonshire (née Maria Sturgeon).
His first wife having died in 1876, Dixon married in 1882 Matilda, eldest daughter of George Routledge.
He had no children by either marriage; but he proved an affectionate step-father to the daughters of his first wife.
Bibliography
"The Rivals", "The Barrier Kingdoms", and "Prospects of Peace", entries in The Oxford and Cambridge Magazine (1856)
The Close of the Tenth Century of the Christian Era (1858)
Christ's Company and Other Poems (1861)
Historical Odes and Other Poems (1864)
The Life of James Dixon (1874)
Essay on the Maintenance of the Church of England (1875)
History of the Church of England from the Abolition of the Roman Jurisdiction (1877-1890)
Mano: a Poetical History (1883)
Odes and Eclogues (1884)
Lyrical Poems (1885)
"The Bible Birthday Book (1887)
The Story of Eudocia and Her Brothers, a Narrative Poem (1887)
Songs and Odes (1896)
Notes
References
James Sambrook: A poet hidden : the life of Richard Watson Dixon, 1833 - 1900, London : Athlone Press, 1962
External links
Mano: a Poetical History at Internet Archive
'The Rivals' at The Rossetti Archive.
1833 births
1900 deaths
People from Islington (district)
People educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham
Alumni of Pembroke College, Oxford
English male poets
19th-century English poets
19th-century English male writers | [
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242937 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space%20Needle | Space Needle | The Space Needle is an observation tower in Seattle, Washington, United States. Considered to be an icon of the city, it has been designated a Seattle landmark. Located in the Lower Queen Anne neighborhood, it was built in the Seattle Center for the 1962 World's Fair, which drew over 2.3 million visitors.
The Space Needle was once the tallest structure west of the Mississippi River, standing at . The tower is wide, weighs , and is built to withstand winds of up to and earthquakes of up to 9.0 magnitude, as strong as the 1700 Cascadia earthquake.
The Space Needle features an observation deck above ground, providing views of the downtown Seattle skyline, the Olympic and Cascade Mountains, Mount Rainier, Mount Baker, Elliott Bay, and various islands in Puget Sound. Visitors can reach the top of the Space Needle by elevators. It takes 41 seconds to reach the top in the elevators. On April 19, 1999, the city's Landmarks Preservation Board designated the tower a historic landmark.
Architecture
The architecture of the Space Needle is the result of a compromise between the designs of two people, Edward E. Carlson and John Graham, Jr. The two leading ideas for the World Fair involved businessman Edward E. Carlson's sketch (on a napkin) of a giant balloon tethered to the ground (the gently sloping base) and architect John Graham's concept of a flying saucer (the halo that houses the restaurant and observation deck). Victor Steinbrueck introduced the hourglass profile of the tower. The Space Needle was built to withstand wind speeds of , double the requirements in the building code of 1962. The 6.8 Nisqually earthquake jolted the Needle enough in 2001 for water to slosh out of the toilets in the restrooms. The Space Needle will not sustain serious structural damage during earthquakes of magnitudes below 9.1. Also made to withstand Category 5 hurricane-force winds, the Space Needle sways only per of wind speed.
For decades, the hovering disk of the Space Needle was a home to two restaurants above the ground: called the Space Needle Restaurant, which was originally named Eye of the Needle, and Emerald Suite. These were closed in 2000 to make way for SkyCity, a larger restaurant that features Pacific Northwest cuisine. In 1993, the elevators were replaced with new computerized versions. The new elevators descend at a rate of .
On December 31, 1999, a powerful beam of light was unveiled for the first time. Called the Legacy Light or Skybeam, it is powered by lamps that total 85 million candela shining skyward from the top of the Space Needle to honor national holidays and special occasions in Seattle. The concept of this beam was derived from the official 1962 World's Fair poster, which depicted such a light source although none was incorporated into the original design. It is somewhat controversial because of the light pollution it creates. Originally planned to be turned on 75 nights per year, it has generally been used fewer than a dozen times per year. It did remain lit for eleven days in a row from September 11, 2001, to September 22, 2001, in response to the September 11, 2001, attacks.
A 1962 Seattle World's Fair poster showed a grand spiral entryway leading to the elevator that was ultimately omitted from final building plans. The main stairwell has 848 steps from the basement to the top of the observation deck.
At approximately , the Space Needle was the tallest building west of the Mississippi River at the time it was built by Howard S. Wright Construction Co., but is now dwarfed by other structures along the Seattle skyline, among them the Columbia Center, at . Unlike many other similar structures, such as the CN Tower in Toronto, the Space Needle is not used for broadcasting purposes.
History
Construction
Edward E. Carlson, chairman of the 1962 World's Fair in Seattle, had an idea for erecting a tower with a restaurant at the World's Fair. Carlson was president of a hotel company and was not recognized in art or design, but he was inspired by a recent visit to the Stuttgart Tower of Germany. Local architect John Graham soon became involved as a result of his success in designing Northgate Mall. Graham's first move was to alter the restaurant's original design to a revolving restaurant, similar to his previous design of the La Ronde tower restaurant at the Ala Moana Shopping Center in Hawaii.
The proposed Space Needle had no pre-selected site. Since it was not financed by the city, land had to be purchased within the fairgrounds. The investors had been unable to find suitable land and the search for a site was nearly dead when, in 1961, they discovered a lot, , containing switching equipment for the fire and police alarm systems. The land sold for $75,000. At this point, only one year remained before the World's Fair would begin. The Needle was privately financed and built by the Pentagram Corporation, consisting of Bagley Wright, contractor Howard S. Wright, architect John Graham, Ned Skinner, and Norton Clapp. In 1977 Bagley, Skinner and Clapp sold their interest to Howard Wright who now controls it under the name of Space Needle Corporation.
The earthquake stability of the Space Needle was ensured when a hole was dug deep and across, and 467 concrete trucks took one full day to fill it. The foundation weighs (including of reinforcing steel), the same as the above-ground structure. The structure is bolted to the foundation with 72 bolts, each one long.
With time an issue, the construction team worked around the clock. The domed top, housing the top five levels (including the restaurants and observation deck), was perfectly balanced so that the restaurant could rotate with the help of one tiny electric motor, originally , later replaced with a motor. With paint colors named Orbital Olive for the body, Astronaut White for the legs, Re-entry Red for the saucer, and Galaxy Gold for the roof, the Space Needle was finished in less than one year. It was completed in April 1962 at a cost of $4.5 million. The last elevator car was installed the day before the Fair opened on April 21. During the course of the Fair nearly 20,000 people a day rode the elevators to the Observation Deck. Upon completion, the Space Needle was the tallest building in the western United States, replacing the Smith Tower in downtown Seattle as the tallest building west of the Mississippi since 1914.
The revolving restaurant was operated by Western International Hotels, of which Carlson was President, under a 20-year contract from April 1, 1962, to April 1, 1982.
Carillon
An imitation carillon (using recordings of bells, rather than live bells) was installed in the Space Needle, and played several times a day during the World's Fair. The instrument, built by the Schulmerich Bells Company of Hatfield, Pennsylvania under the name "Carillon Americana," recreated the sounds of 538 bells and was the largest in the world, until eclipsed by a 732 bell instrument at the 1964 New York World's Fair. The operator's console was located in the base of the Space Needle, completely enclosed in glass to allow observation of the musician playing the instrument. It was also capable of being played from a roll, like a player piano. The forty-four stentors (speakers) of the carillon were located underneath the Needle's disc at the level, and were audible over the entire fairgrounds and up to away. The carillon was disassembled after the fair's close.
The Carillon Americana was featured on a 12-track LP record called "Bells On High-Fi" (catalog number AR-8, produced by Americana Records, of Sellersville, Pennsylvania). These studio recordings were performed by noted carilloneur John Klein (1915-1981).
After the Fair
A radio broadcast studio was built on the observation level of the Space Needle in 1963. It was used for morning broadcasts by Radio KING and its sister TV station KING-TV from July 1963 to May 1966, and KIRO Radio from 1966 to 1974. Disc jockey Bobby Wooten of country music station KAYO-AM lived in an apartment built adjacent to the Space Needle's broadcast studio for six months in 1974, which required a permit variance from the city government.
On March 27, 1964, the restaurant atop the Space Needle stopped rotating as a result of the 9.2 earthquake in Alaska.
In 1974, author Stephen Cosgrove's children's book Wheedle on the Needle imagined a furry creature called the Wheedle who lived on top of the Space Needle and caused its light to flash. Its closing quatrain is: There's a Wheedle on the Needle / I know just what you're thinking / But if you look up late at night / You'll see his red nose blinking. The Wheedle has since become a fixture of Seattle. It became the mascot of the Seattle SuperSonics National Basketball Association (NBA) franchise, who played in nearby KeyArena (originally known as the Seattle Center Coliseum, now known as Climate Pledge Arena). The SuperSonics moved to Oklahoma City on July 3, 2008.
In 1982, the SkyLine level was added at the height of . While this level had been part of the original plans for the Space Needle, it was not built until this time. Today, the SkyLine Banquet Facility can accommodate groups of 20–360 people.
Renovations were completed in 2000 at a cost ($21 million) approximately the same in inflated dollars as the original construction price. Renovations between 1999 and 2000 included the SkyCity restaurant, SpaceBase retail store, Skybeam installation, Observation Deck overhaul, lighting additions and repainting.
Every year on New Year's Eve, the Space Needle celebrates with a fireworks show at midnight that is synchronized to music. Alberto Navarro, a fireworks artist from Bellevue, is the lead architect of the show, which is viewed by thousands from the Seattle Center grounds. In 2000, public celebrations were canceled because of perceived terror threats against the structure after investigations into the foiled millennium bombing plots, but the fireworks show was still performed. The 2020 fireworks display was canceled because of high winds, with a laser light show being used at midnight instead. The show was cancelled in 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and replaced by a broadcast-only augmented reality presentation on KING-TV. The fireworks show will still be held for 2022, but the Seattle Center grounds will be closed to the public as the state proof of vaccination mandate cannot be reasonably enforced in this environment; spectators will be directed to official viewing parties where proof of vaccination can be enforced, and to watch the official broadcast which will be enhanced with AR effects.
In 2002, a real estate consultant in Bellevue proposed the construction of five smaller replicas of the Space Needle around the city to promote tourism, though official plans to build the proposed structures have not yet materialized.
On May 19, 2007, the Space Needle welcomed its 45 millionth visitor, Greg Novoa from California, who received a free trip for two to Paris.
In May 2008, the Space Needle received its first professional deep cleaning since the opening of the 1962 World's Fair. The monument was pressure washed by Kärcher with water at a pressure of almost and a temperature of approximately . The cleaning was only done at night so that the Space Needle could stay open to the public. No detergents were used in consideration of the Seattle Center and the nearby Experience Music Project.
As part of the celebration of its 50th anniversary in April 2012, the Needle was painted "Galaxy Gold", which is more of an orangish color in practice. This is the same color used when the needle was originally constructed for the 1962 World's Fair. This temporary makeover, intended to last through the summer, is not the Needle's first: it had the University of Washington (UW) Huskies football team logo painted after the team won the 1992 Rose Bowl. When the game show Wheel of Fortune taped episodes in Seattle in 1995, it was painted to resemble the titular wheel as part of an intro sequence with Vanna White, It was painted crimson after Washington State won the Apple Cup, was painted red, white, and blue for Memorial Day in 2003, and has been seen with the Seattle SuperSonics and Seattle Mariners colors and logos.
A renovation of the top of the Space Needle began in the summer of 2017, to add an all-glass floor to the restaurant, and replace the observation platform windows with floor-to-ceiling glass panels to more closely match the 1962 original concept sketches, as well as upgrades and updates to the internal systems. Called the Century Project, the work was scheduled to finish by June 2018, at a cost of $100 million in private funds provided by the Wright family, who own the Space Needle. The designer is Olson Kundig Architects and the general contractor is Hoffman Construction Company. The rotating restaurant's motor was replaced, the elevator capacity was increased by adding elevators, or double-stacking them, and the energy efficiency of the building was improved with the aim of achieving LEED Gold Certification. The temporary scaffold's , platform under the top structure was assembled on the ground, and then lifted by cables from the ground to the underside of the structure, controlled by 12 operators standing on the platform as it was raised. The platform was made by Safway Services, a company specializing in unique construction scaffolding. One-sixth of the observation deck was closed at a time, so that the Space Needle was never completely shut down to the public.
The space reopened in August 2018 as the Loupe, an indoor observation deck with a revolving glass floor. It takes 45 minutes for the observation deck to do a full rotation. Two sets of stairs called the Oculus Stairs were added to connect the two new additional levels. They were named after the glass oculus at the base of the stairs where the Space Needle elevators can be seen ascending and descending. A café, wine bar, more restrooms, and an additional accessibility elevator to the top observation deck were also added.
Jumping incidents
Six parachutists have leaped from the tower since its opening, in a sport known as BASE jumping. This activity is legal only with prior authorization. Four of them were part of an authorized promotion in 1996, and one of the jumpers got injured and broke a bone in her back while attempting the stunt. The other two jumped illegally and were arrested.
Paul D. Baker was the first person to jump from the Space Needle, committing suicide on March 4, 1974. Mary Lucille Wolf also jumped from the tower that year, on May 25. Following the two 1974 suicides, netting beneath and improved fencing around the observation deck were installed. In spite of the barrier additions, however, another suicide by Dixie Reeder occurred on July 5, 1978.
Appearances in TV and film
As a symbol of Seattle, the Space Needle has made numerous appearances in films, TV shows, and other works of fiction. The Space Needle is often used in establishing shots as an economical means to tell the audience the setting is Seattle. Examples include the TV shows Frasier, Grey's Anatomy, Dark Angel, Bill Nye the Science Guy, and films It Happened at the World's Fair (1962) and The Parallax View (1974) where it was used as a filming location, and Sleepless in Seattle (1993), Chronicle (2012). In the 1999 film Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me made an absurdist visual gag conflating another icon of Seattle, Starbucks, with the tower, showing the coffee chains's name written across the Space Needle's saucer placing the villain Doctor Evil's base of operations there after his henchman Number 2 shifted the organization's resources toward the coffee company. As a visual symbol of Seattle, the Space Needle has been incorporated into the logos of NBA, WNBA, MLS, and NHL professional sports teams.
The Space Needle has been involved in practical jokes, especially those on April Fools' Day. In 1989, KING-TV's Almost Live! reported that the Space Needle had collapsed, causing panicked people to call emergency services and forcing the station to apologize afterwards; the incident was compared to the 1938 radio broadcast of The War of the Worlds, which caused nationwide panic. In 2015, public radio station KPLU 88.5 FM reported in the news story "Proposed Development To 'Assimilate' Seattle's Landmark Space Needle?" that a permit application (Notice of Proposed Land Use Action) had been submitted "to construct a 666 unit cube to assimilate" the landmark.
Other TV appearances include The History Channel's Life After People, in which the tower collapses after 200 years because of corrosion. The tower was also destroyed in the TV miniseries 10.5 when a 7.9 earthquake hits Seattle. The miniseries mistakenly portrays the Needle as crumbling concrete, though the structure is actually made of steel and designed to withstand up to a 9.0 earthquake.
Gallery
See also
Näsinneula, a similar-look tower in Tampere, Finland
Sydney Tower, a similar-look tower in Sydney, Australia
List of tallest buildings in Seattle
List of towers
References
Further reading
Lost and Found Films: Building the Space Needle, 1961
External links
Century 21 Exposition design plans for the 1962 Seattle World's Fair – Architecture of the Pacific Northwest Database from the University of Washington
Entry at site of Howard S. Wright Construction Co.
Video of scaffold platform lifted 500 feet at night:
Towers completed in 1961
Googie architecture
Buildings and structures in Seattle
Towers with revolving restaurants
Landmarks in Seattle
Seattle Center
Observation towers in the United States
Towers in Washington (state)
Tourist attractions in Seattle
World's fair architecture in Seattle
Century 21 Exposition
1961 establishments in Washington (state)
Symbols of Washington (state) | [
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242941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1%20vlast | Má vlast | Má vlast (), also known as My Fatherland, is a set of six symphonic poems composed between 1874 and 1879 by the Czech composer Bedřich Smetana. The six pieces, conceived as individual works, are often presented and recorded as a single work in six movements. They premiered separately between 1875 and 1880. The complete set premiered on 5 November 1882 in Žofín Palace, Prague, under Adolf Čech.
Má vlast combines the symphonic poem form, pioneered by Franz Liszt, with the ideals of nationalistic music of the late nineteenth century. Each poem depicts an aspect of Bohemia's countryside, history, or legends.
The works have opened the Prague Spring International Music Festival, on the 12 May anniversary of the death of their composer, since 1952.
Structure
Má vlast consists of six pieces:
Vyšehrad (The High Castle)
Vltava (The Moldau)
Šárka
Z českých luhů a hájů (From Bohemia's Woods and Fields)
Tábor
Blaník
Vyšehrad
The first poem, Vyšehrad (The High Castle), composed between the end of September and 18 November 1874 and premiered on 14 March 1875 at the [Prague] Philharmonic, describes the Vyšehrad castle in Prague which was the seat of the earliest Czech kings. During the summer of 1874, Smetana began to lose his hearing, and total deafness soon followed; he described the gradual, but rapid loss of his hearing in a letter of resignation to the director of the Royal Provincial Czech Theatre, Antonín Čížek. In July 1874 he began hearing anomalous noise and then a permanent buzzing. Not long after the onset he was unable to distinguish individual sounds. At the beginning of October he lost all hearing in his right ear, and finally on 20 October in his left. His treatment was based on maintaining isolation from all sounds, but was unsuccessful.
The poem begins with the sounds of the harp of the mythical singer Lumír, and then crosses over into the tones of the castle's arsenal. This section of the music introduces the main motifs, which are used in other parts of the cycle. A four note motif (B–E–D–B) represents the castle of Vyšehrad; this is heard again at the end of 'Vltava' and once more, to round the whole cycle off, at the conclusion of 'Blaník'.
In the score two harps are required to perform the opening arpeggios. After a dominant seventh chord, the winds take up the theme, followed by the strings, before the whole orchestra is employed to reach a climax. In the next part, Smetana recalls the story of the castle, using a faster tempo which becomes a march. A seemingly triumphant climax is cut short by a descending passage depicting the collapse of the castle, and the music falls quiet. Then the opening harp material is heard again and the music reminds again of the beauty of the castle, now in ruins. The music ends quietly, depicting the River Vltava flowing below the castle.
Conceived between 1872 and 1874, it is the only piece in the cycle to be mostly completed before Smetana began to go noticeably deaf in the summer of 1874. Most performances last approximately fifteen minutes in duration.
Vltava
Vltava, also known by its English title , and the German , was composed between 20 November and 8 December 1874 and was premiered on 4 April 1875 under Adolf Čech. It is about 13 minutes long, and is in the key of E minor.
In this piece, Smetana uses tone painting to evoke the sounds of one of Bohemia's great rivers. In his own words:
The composition describes the course of the Vltava, starting from the two small springs, the Cold and Warm Vltava, to the unification of both streams into a single current, the course of the Vltava through woods and meadows, through landscapes where a farmer's wedding is celebrated, the round dance of the mermaids in the night's moonshine: on the nearby rocks loom proud castles, palaces and ruins aloft. The Vltava swirls into the St John's Rapids; then it widens and flows toward Prague, past the Vyšehrad, and then majestically vanishes into the distance, ending at the Labe (or Elbe, in German).
Vltava contains Smetana's most famous tune. It is an adaptation of the melody La Mantovana, attributed to the Italian renaissance tenor, Giuseppe Cenci, which, in a borrowed Romanian form, was also the basis for the Israeli national anthem, Hatikvah. The tune also appears in an old Czech folk song, Kočka leze dírou ("The Cat Crawls Through the Hole"); Hanns Eisler used it for his "Song of the Moldau"; and Stan Getz performed it as "Dear Old Stockholm" (possibly through another derivative of the original tune, "Ack Värmeland du sköna").
The piece is featured in the 2011 American movie The Tree of Life and in Don Hertzfeldt's Everything Will Be OK.
Šárka
The third poem was finished on 20 February 1875 and is named for the female warrior Šárka, a central figure in the ancient Czech legend of The Maidens' War. Šárka ties herself to a tree as bait and waits to be saved by the princely knight Ctirad, deceiving him into believing that she is an unwilling captive of the rebelling women. Once released by Ctirad, who has quickly fallen in love with her, Šárka serves him and his comrades with drugged mead and once they have fallen asleep she sounds a hunting horn: an agreed signal to the other women. The poem ends with the warrior maidens falling upon and murdering the sleeping men. It was first performed under the baton of Adolf Čech (sources disagree whether this was on 10 December 1876 or 17 March 1877).
Z českých luhů a hájů
Smetana finished composing this piece, commonly translated as "From Bohemia's Woods and Fields" or "From Bohemian Fields and Groves", on 18 October 1875, and it received its first public performance nearly eight weeks later, on 10 December. A depiction of the beauty of the Czech countryside and its people, the tone poem tells no real story. The first part is dedicated to the grandeur of the forest with a surprising fugue in the strings, interrupted by a soft woodland melody of the horns, which is later taken over by the whole orchestra. In the second part, a village festival is depicted in full swing. This tone poem was originally written to be the finale of Má vlast.
Tábor
This piece, which was finished on 13 December 1878 and premiered on 4 January 1880, is named for the city of Tábor in the south of Bohemia founded by the Hussites and serving as their center during the Hussite Wars. The theme for the piece is quoted from the first two lines of the Hussite hymn, "Ktož jsú boží bojovníci" ("Ye Who Are Warriors of God").
Blaník
Blaník was finished on 9 March 1879 and premiered on 4 January 1880. It is named for the mountain Blaník inside which a legend says that a huge army of knights led by St. Wenceslas sleep. The knights will awake and help the country in its gravest hour (sometimes described as four hostile armies attacking from all cardinal directions).
Musically, Blaník begins exactly as Tábor ends, "hammering" out the motto which was left unresolved, but now continuing on, as if in the aftermath of the battle. Thus these last two tone poems of the cycle form a cohesive pair, as do the first two; the High Castle's theme returns as the Vltava's river journey triumphantly reaches that same destination, and again returns triumphantly at the end of Blaník. Once again, the Hussite hymn used in Tábor is quoted, though this time it is the third line which rings out in the march at the end of the piece. The original lyrics to this line in the hymn are "so that finally with Him you will always be victorious", a reference to the eventual victorious rise of the Czech state.
Instrumentation
The work is scored for piccolo, two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, four French horns, two trumpets, three trombones, tuba, timpani, bass drum, triangle, cymbals, two harps, and strings.
References
Notes
Sources
External links
A symphonic poem to the nation Czech Radio programme in English by Christian Falvey
Full score of the second poem Vltava
Sheet music of piano duet version (arranged by the composer)
Ates Orga Má vlast (comparative CD review, 2006)
Compositions by Bedřich Smetana
Symphonic poems
1874 compositions
1875 compositions
1878 compositions
1879 compositions | [
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242947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Martinique | Music of Martinique | The music of Martinique has a heritage which is intertwined with that of its sister island, Guadeloupe. Despite their small size, the islands have created a large popular music industry, which gained in international renown after the success of zouk music in the later 20th century. Zouk's popularity was particularly intense in France, where the genre became an important symbol of identity for Martinique and Guadeloupe. Zouk's origins are in the folk music of Martinique and Guadeloupe, especially Martinican chouval bwa, and Guadeloupan gwo ka. There's also notable influence of the pan-Caribbean calypso tradition and Haitian kompa.
Folk music
Carnival is a very important festival, known as Vaval on Martinique. Music plays a vital role, with Martinican big bands marching across the island. Vaval declined following World War II, bouncing back with new band formats and new traditions only in the 1980s. Like Guadeloupe, Martinique features participatory, call-and-response style songs during its Vaval celebrations.
In the early 20th century on Martinique, Creole bands travelled on trucks or small carts during Vaval, playing a music known as biguine vidé (or just videé). After the decline of Vaval in World War II, the tradition began anew in the 1980s, when large marching bands of fifty or more people became common, including a number of horn players, percussionists and dancers. These large bands, known as groups à pied, are each identified with a neighborhood.
Biguine vidé
Biguine vidé is an up-tempo version of the biguine rhythm, combining other carnival elements. It participatory music, with the bandleader singing a verse and the audience responding. Modern instrumentation includes a variety of improvised drums made from containers of all kinds, plastic plumbing, bells, tanbou débonda, bélé chacha, tibwa and bélé drums. Aside from the biguine vidé bands, Vaval includes song and costume contests, masquerading and zouk parties.
Bélé
The bel air (or bélé) is a legacy of the slave music tradition. The bélé itself is a huge tambour drum that players ride as though it was a horse. It is characterized, in its rhythm, by the "tibwa" (two wooden sticks) played on a length of bamboo mounted on a stand to the tambour bélé, and is often accompanied by a chacha (a maracas). The tibwa rhythm plays a basic pattern and the drum comes to mark the highlights and introduce percussion improvisations.
It is organized in a certain way, the first entry of the singer ( lavwa ) and choir ( lavwa Deye or "answer"). Then the "Bwatè" (player ti bwa) sets the pace, followed by bélé drum. Finally, the dancers take the stage. A dialogue is created between the dancers and the "tanbouyè" (drummer). The "answer" play opposite the singer, the audience can also participate. As a family, together singers, dancers, musicians and audiences are lured by its mesmerizing rhythms. The bélé song-dances include, bélé dous, bélé pitjè, biguine bélé, bélé belya, and gran bélé
The bélé is the origin of several important Martiniquan popular styles, including chouval bwa and biguine, and also exerted an influence on zouk.
Edmond Mondesir is a popular bélé musician from Martinique.
Chouval bwa
Chouval bwa is a kind of Martinican traditional music, featuring percussion, bamboo flute, accordion, and comb and paper-type kazoo. The music originated among rural Martinicans, as a form of celebratory holiday music played to accompany a dance called the manege (which translates as merry-go-round; chouval bwa is a Creole version of cheval bois, which refers to the wooden horses seen on merry-go-rounds). Chouval bwa percussion is played by a drummer on the tanbour drum and the ti bwa, a percussion instrument made out of a piece of bamboo laid horizontally and beaten with sticks; the most traditional ensembles also use accordions, chacha (a rattle) and the bel-air, a bass version of the tanbour.
Quadrille
In French Caribbean culture, especially of the Lesser Antilles, the term kwadril is a Creole term referring to a folk dance derived from the quadrille. kwadril dances are in sets consisting of proper quadrilles, plus creolized versions of 19th-century couple dances: biguines, mazouks and valses Créoles.
Instrumentation consists of variable combinations of accordion, guitar, violin, tanbou dibas, chacha (either a single metal cylinder as in Martinique, or calabash without a handle, held in both hands), malakach (maracas), triangle, bwa (tibwa) and syak, a bamboo rasp one metre long, grooved on both top and bottom, held with one end on the belly and the other on a door or wall and scraped with both hands.
Popular music
Though Martinique and Guadeloupe are most frequently known only for the internationally renowned zouk style, the islands have also produced popular musicians in various updated styles of traditional biguine, chouval bwa and gwo ka. The world-famous zouk band Kassav' remains easily the most famous performers from the island. Chouval bwa has been popularized by Claude Germany, Tumpak, Dédé Saint-Prix, and Pakatak.
Martinique is also the birthplace of the Gibson Brothers who achieved significant chart success worldwide, most notably with their single "Cuba".
Biguine
Biguine is a Martinican form of clarinet and trombone music which can be divided into two distinct types:
bidgin bélè or drum biguine – originates in slave bèlè dances and characterized by the use of bélè drums and tibwa rhythm sticks, along with call and response, nasal vocals and improvised instrumental solos; has its roots in West African ritual dances, though ceremonial components do not survive in Haitian biguine.
orchestrated biguine – originates in Saint-Pierre in the 18th century, highly influenced by French music though vocals are usually in creole.
Evolving out of string band music, biguine spread to mainland France in the 1920s. Early stars like Alexandre Stellio and Sam Castandet became popular. Its popularity abroad died relatively quickly, but it lasted as a major force in popular music on Martinique until Haitian compas took over in the 1950s and mini-jazz artists like Les Gentlemen and Les Vikings de Guadeloupe became popular in the late 1960s. In the later part of the 20th century, biguine musicians like clarinet virtuoso Michel Godzom helped revolutionize the genre.
Cadence (Kadans)/Compas
In the 1970s, a wave of Haitian, mostly musicians, to Dominica and the French Antilles (Guadeloupe and Martinique) brought with them the kadans (another word named for the genre compas), a sophisticated form of music that quickly swept the island and helped unite all the former French colonies of the Caribbean by combining their cultural influences. These Haitians drew upon previous success from mini-jazz artists like Les Gentlemen, Les Leopards, and Les Vikings de Guadeloupe.
Later in the decade and into the 1980s, the French Antilles became home to a style of cadence music called cadence-lypso. Gordon Henderson's Exile One innovated this style, as well as turned the mini-jazz combos into guitar-dominated big bands with a full-horn section and the newly arrived synthesizers, paving the way for the success of large groups like Grammacks, Experience 7, among others. Drawing on these influences, the supergroup Kassav' invented zouk and popularized it with hit songs like "Zouk-La-Se Sel Medikaman Nou Ni". Kassav' formed from Paris in 1978.
Mini-jazz
Mini-jazz was formed in the mid-60s characterized by the rock bands formula of two guitars, one bass, drum-conga-cowbell, some use an alto sax or a full horn section, others use a keyboard, accordion or lead guitar. However, all these small jazz or bands had their guitars with sophisticated styles. The 1970s were dominated by mini-jazz, which still used a variant of the méringue style. One of the mini-jazz groups, Tabou Combo, became the most popular ensemble of Haiti. From Haiti the mini-jazz formula replicated in the French Antilles in the 1970s.
Cadence-lypso
The most influential figure in the promotion of Cadence-lypso was the Dominican group Exile One (based on the island of Guadeloupe) that featured mostly the cadence rampa of Haiti and calypso music from the English speaking caribbean. It was pushed in the 1970s by groups from Dominica, and was the first style of Dominican music to find international acclaim.
Dominica cadence music has evolved under the influence of Dominican and Caribbean/Latin rhythms, as well as rock and roll, soul, and funk music from the United States.
By the end of the 1970s, Gordon Henderson defined Cadence-lypso as "a synthesis of Caribbean and African musical patterns fusing the traditional with the contemporary".
Aside from Exile One, other bands included the Grammacks, Black Roots, Black Machine, Naked Feet, Belles Combo, Mantra, Black Affairs, Liquid Ice, Wafrikai, Midnighte Groovers and Milestone, while the most famous singers included Bill Thomas, Chubby Marc, Gordon Henderson, Linford John, Janet Azouz, Sinky Rabess, Tony Valmond, Jeff Joseph, Mike Moreau, Anthony Gussie and Ophelia Marie.
Zouk
The inspiration for Zouk's style of rhythmic music comes from the Haitian compas, as well as music called cadence-lypso - Dominica cadence popularized by Grammacks and Exile One. Elements of gwo ka, tambour, ti bwa and biguine vidé are prominent in zouk. Though there are many diverse styles of zouk, some commonalities exist. The French Creole tongue of Martinique and Guadeloupe is an important element, and are a distinctive part of the music. Generally, zouk is based around star singers, with little attention given to instrumentalists, and is based almost entirely around studio recordings.
Music authors Charles De Ledesma and Gene Scaramuzzo trace zouk's development to the Guadeloupean gwo ka and Martinican bèlè (tambour and ti bwa)
folk traditions. Ethnomusicologist Jocelyn Guilbault, however, describes zouk as a synthesis of Caribbean popular styles, especially Dominica cadence-lypso, Haitian cadence, Guadeloupean biguine. Zouk arose in the late 1970s and early 1980s, using elements of previous styles of Antillean music, as well as imported genres.
Zouk-love
Zouk Love is the French Antilles cadence or compas, characterized by a slow, soft and sexual rhythm. The lyrics of the songs often speak of love and sentimental problems.
The music cabo-love from Cape Verde are also derivative of this French Antillean compas style, which sounds basically the same, although there are notable differences once you become more familiar with these genre. A main exponent of this subgenre is Ophelia Marie. Other Zouk Love artists come from the French West Indies, the Netherlands, and Africa.
Popular artists include French West Indian artists Edith Lefel and Nichols, or like Netherlands based Suzanna Lubrano and Gil Semedo, the African artist Kaysha.
Bouyon (Jump up)
Bouyon (Boo-Yon) is a form of popular music of Dominica. Bouyon was developed in the 1980s by bands like WCK, combining elements of kadans (or cadence-lypso), lapo kabwit drumming, the folk style jing-ping, and a quick-paced electronic drum pattern. More recently, deejays with raggamuffin-style vocals have moved to the fore, updating the sound for the New Generation.
In Guadeloupe and Martinique, "Jump up" refers generally to bouyon music.
French Antilles hip hop
The French Antilles hip hop is a style of hip hop music originating from the French departments of Guadeloupe and Martinique in the Caribbean. Usually in French and Antillean creole, the French Antilles hip hop is most popular in the French Antilles and France.
Music festivals
Two large, international music festivals have further bolstered Martinique's music scene. Jazz à la Martinique and Carrefour Mondial de Guitare alternate years. The country's best jazz musicians are featured during Jazz à la Martinique, but major worldwide players like Branford Marsalis also perform. Honoring the guitar, Carrefour Mondial de Guitare celebrates a wide range of guitar genres, including flamenco, blues, jazz, rock, and pop. Both festivals last approximately a week, with concerts in various locations throughout Martinique. Recently, Franck Nicolas presented "Bélé-Jazz", a style of jazz using the bélé rhythms as its basis.
See also
Canboulay
Notes
References
Gerstin, Julian (2000). "French West Indies". In New Grove Dictionary of Music, 2nd edition. Ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan (2001). Article available online at
Ledesma, Charles de and Gene Scaramuzzo (2000). "Dance Funk Creole Style". In , pp. 289–303.
Further reading
Desroches, Monique (1996). "Musical Tradition in Martinique: Between the Local and the Global". Revista Transcultural de Música (Transcultural Music Review), 2 (1996) . (Translated from French by Sharon Berman and Catherine Potter). | [
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242948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Guadeloupe | Music of Guadeloupe | The music of Guadeloupe encompasses a large popular music industry, which gained in international renown after the success of zouk music in the later 20th century. Zouk's popularity was particularly intense in France, where the genre became an important symbol of identity for Guadeloupe and Martinique. Zouk's origins are in the folk music of Guadeloupe and Martinique, especially Guadeloupan gwo ka and Martinican chouval bwa, and the pan-Caribbean calypso tradition.
Folk music
Carnival is a very important festival in Guadeloupe and Martinique. Music plays a vital role, with Guadeloupean gwo ka ensembles, zouk music and guadeloupean big bands marching across the island, and travelling and performing music known as C (or just videé) in a manner akin to Brazilian samba schools. Carnival in both islands declined following World War II, bouncing back with new band formats and new traditions only in the 1980s. Both islands feature participatory, call-and-response style songs during their Carnival celebrations.
Biguine vidé
Biguine vidé is an up tempo version of the biguine rhythm, combining other carnival elements. It is participatory music, with the bandleader singing a verse and the audience responding. It allows one to grab an improvised percussion instrument and join in. Traditionally, Carnival includes dances of African origin, including laghia, haut-taille, grage, calinda and bel-air. Traditional instruments include the chacha, tibwa, maké, boula, tanbou chan and tanbou bas drums. Aside from the biguine vidé bands, Vaval includes song and costume contests, masquerading and zouk parties.
Gwo ka
Gwo ka is a family of hand drums used to create a form of folk music from Guadeloupe. There are seven basic rhythms in gwo ka, and multiple variations on each. Different sizes of drums establish the foundation and its flourishes, with the largest, the boula, playing the central rhythm and the smaller, markeur (or maké) drums embellishes upon it and interplays with the dancers, audience or singer. Gwo ka singing is usually guttural, nasal and rough, though it can also be bright and smooth, and is accompanied by uplifting and complex harmonies and melodies.
Rural Guadeloupans still use gwo ka drums in communal experiences called lewozes; this is the most traditional manifestation of gwo ka in modern Guadeloupe. Gwo ka is also played at Carnival and other celebrations. A modernized and popularized form of gwo ka is well-known on the islands; it is known as gwo ka moderne.
Balakadri
Guadeloupean balakadri persisted into the 20th century and, despite disruption after World War II, made a comeback in the 1980s. The Guadeloupean-administered island of Marie-Galante has also had a vital and well-documented balakadri tradition. As in Martinique (and the Creole-speaking islands of Saint Lucia and Dominica), kwadril dances are in sets consisting of proper quadrilles, plus creolized versions of 19th-century couple dances: biguines, mazouks and valses Créoles.
Popular music
Though Guadeloupe and Martinique are most frequently known only for the internationally renowned zouk style, the islands have also produced popular musicians in various updated styles of traditional biguine, chouval bwa and gwo ka. The world-famous zouk band Kassav' remains easily the most famous performers from the island, while the Guadeloupan Carnival band Akiyo has become the only group in that style to record commercially.
Cadence (Kadans)/Compas
In the 1970s, a wave of Haitian, mostly musicians, to Dominica and the French Antilles (Guadeloupe and Martinique) brought with them the kadans, a sophisticated form of music that quickly swept the island and helped unite all the former French colonies of the Caribbean by combining their cultural influences. These Haitians drew upon previous success from mini-jazz artists like Les Gentlemen, Les Leopards, and Les Vikings de Guadeloupe.
Later in the decade and into the 1980s, the French Antilles became home to a style of cadence music called cadence-lypso. Gordon Henderson's Exile One innovated this style, as well as turned the mini-jazz combos into guitar-dominated big bands with a full-horn section and the newly arrived synthesizers, paving the way for the success of large groups like Grammacks, Experience 7, among others. Drawing on these influences, the supergroup Kassav' invented zouk and popularized it with hit songs like "Zouk-La-Se Sel Medikaman Nou Ni". Kassav' formed from Paris in 1978.
Mini-jazz
Mini-jazz was formed in the mid-60s characterized by the rock bands formula of two guitars, one bass, drum-conga-cowbell, some use an alto sax or a full horn section, others use a keyboard, accordion or lead guitar. However, all these small jazz or bands had their guitars with sophisticated styles. The 1970s were dominated by mini-jazz, which still used a variant of the méringue style. One of the mini-jazz groups, Tabou Combo, became the most popular ensemble of Haiti. From Haiti the mini-jazz formula replicated in the French Antilles in the 1970s.
Cadence-lypso
The most influential figure in the promotion of Cadence-lypso was the Dominican group Exile One (based on the island of Guadeloupe) that featured mostly the cadence rampa of Haiti and calypso music from the English speaking caribbean. It was pushed in the 1970s by groups from Dominica, and was the first style of Dominican music to find international acclaim.
Dominica cadence music has evolved under the influence of Dominican and Caribbean/Latin rhythms, as well as rock and roll, soul, and funk music from the United States.
By the end of the 1970s, Gordon Henderson defined Cadence-lypso as "a synthesis of Caribbean and African musical patterns fusing the traditional with the contemporary".
Aside from Exile One, other bands included the Grammacks, Black Roots, Black Machine, Naked Feet, Belles Combo, Mantra, Black Affairs, Liquid Ice, Wafrikai, Midnighte Groovers and Milestone, while the most famous singers included Bill Thomas, Chubby Marc, Gordon Henderson, Linford John, Janet Azouz, Sinky Rabess, Tony Valmond, Jeff Joseph, Mike Moreau, Anthony Gussie and Ophelia Marie.
Zouk
The inspiration for Zouk's style of rhythmic music comes from the Haitian compas, as well as music called cadence-lypso - Dominica cadence popularized by Grammacks and Exile One. Elements of gwo ka, tambour, ti bwa and biguine vidé are prominent in zouk. Though there are many diverse styles of zouk, some commonalities exist. The French Creole tongue of Martinique and Guadeloupe is an important element, and are a distinctive part of the music. Generally, zouk is based around star singers, with little attention given to instrumentalists, and is based almost entirely around studio recordings.
Music authors Charles De Ledesma and Gene Scaramuzzo trace zouk's development to the Guadeloupean gwo ka and Martinican bèlè (tambour and ti bwa)
folk traditions. Ethnomusicologist Jocelyn Guilbault, however, describes zouk as a synthesis of Caribbean popular styles, especially Dominica cadence-lypso, Haitian cadence, Guadeloupean biguine. Zouk arose in the late 1970s and early 1980s, using elements of previous styles of Antillean music, as well as imported genres.
Zouk-love
Zouk Love is the French Antilles cadence or compas, characterized by a slow, soft and sexual rhythm. The lyrics of the songs often speak of love and sentimental problems.
The music kizomba from Angola and cabo-love from Cape Verde are also derivatives of this French Antillean compas style, which sounds basically the same, although there are notable differences once you become more familiar with these genres. A main exponent of this subgenre is Ophelia Marie. Other Zouk Love artists come from the French West Indies, the Netherlands, and Africa.
Popular artists include French West Indian artists Edith Lefel and Nichols, or like Netherlands based Suzanna Lubrano and Gil Semedo, the African artist Kaysha.
Gwo ka moderne
A more modernized version of gwo ka is gwo ka moderne, which adds new instruments ranging from conga or djembe drums and chimes to electric bass guitar. At root, however, these styles all use the same fundamental seven rhythms as folk gwo ka. Zouk legends Kassav' played an important role in the modernization of gwo ka, giving urban credibility to a style that was seen as backward and unsophisticated; they initially played in a gro ka format, using songs from the gwo ka Carnival tradition of mas a St. Jean and even placing an homage to traditionalist drumming legend Velo on their earlier albums.
Gwo ka moderne artists include Pakala Percussion, Van Lévé and Poukoutan'n, alongside more pop-influenced musicians like Marcel Magnat and Ti Celeste, while Gerard Hubert and others have fused gwo ka with zouk. The most famous modern gwo ka performer, however, is William Flessel, whose Message Ka in 1994 became an international hit.
Bouyon gwada
Bouyon (Boo-Yon) is a form of popular music of Dominica, also known as jump up music in Guadeloupe and Martinique. The best-known band in the genre is Windward Caribbean Kulture (WCK), who originated the style in 1988 by experimenting with a fusion of cadence-lypso, jing ping and other traditional dances.
Due to the popularity of Triple K International, Ncore, and the New generation of bouyon bands who toured the French Antilles, a popular offshoot of bouyon from Guadeloupe is called bouyon gwada.
The jump up had its heyday from the 90s with songs such as Met Veye WCK, but remained stamped background music or carnival. Over the years, thanks to inter-trade with the Dominicans and the mass participation of Guadeloupe at the World Creole Music Festival, the flagship group as Triple kay and MFR band began to democratize and local artists were inducted including the remix Allo Triple kay with Daly and "Big Ting Poppin 'Daly alone.
A popular offshoot within the bouyon gwada is called bouyon hardcore, a style characterized by its lewd and violent lyrics. Popular Bouyon gwada musicians include, Wee Low, Suppa, Doc J, Yellow gaza, etc.
French Antilles hip hop
The French Antilles hip hop is a style of hip hop music originating from the French departments of Guadeloupe and Martinique in the Caribbean. Usually in French and Antillean creole, the French Antilles hip hop is most popular in the French Antilles and France.'
Sidney Duteil (born Patrick Duteil in 1955 in Argenteuil, Val-d'Oise), better known as Sidney, is a French musician, rapper, DJ, television and radio host, and occasional actor of Guadeloupean origin. He is well known in France for his connection with the beginnings of the French hip hop scene.
See also
Music of France#Overseas music
References
- "Dance Funk Creole Style" by Charles de Ledesma and Gene Scaramuzzo, pgs. 289-303
Notes
Further reading
Articles containing video clips | [
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242958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Corigliano | John Corigliano | John Paul Corigliano (born February 16, 1938) is an American composer of contemporary classical music. His scores, now numbering over one hundred, have won him the Pulitzer Prize, five Grammy Awards, Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition, and an Oscar. He is a distinguished professor of music at Lehman College and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York and on the composition faculty at the Juilliard School. Corigliano is best known for his Symphony No. 1, a response to the AIDS epidemic, and his film score for François Girard's The Red Violin (1997), which was subsequently adapted as a Violin Concerto (2003) for Joshua Bell.
Biography
Before 1964
The Italian-American Corigliano was born in New York City to a musical family. His father, John Paul Corigliano Sr., was concertmaster of the New York Philharmonic for 23 years. Corigliano's mother, Rose Buzen, was Jewish and an accomplished educator and pianist. Corigliano attended P.S. 241 and Midwood High School in Brooklyn. He studied composition at Columbia University (BA 1959) and at the Manhattan School of Music. He studied with Otto Luening, Vittorio Giannini, and Paul Creston. Before achieving success as a composer, Corigliano worked as assistant to the producer on the Leonard Bernstein Young People's Concerts and as a session producer for classical artists such as André Watts. He was also music director for New York's listener-sponsored radio station WBAI.
1964–1987
Corigliano first came to prominence in 1964 at the age of 26 when his Sonata for Violin and Piano (1963) was the only winner of the chamber-music competition of the Spoleto Festival in Italy. In 1970, Corigliano teamed up with David Hess to create The Naked Carmen. In a recent communication with David Hess, Hess acknowledged that The Naked Carmen was originally conceived by Corigliano and himself as a way to update the most popular opera of our time (Carmen). Mercury Records wanted the classical and popular divisions to work together and after a meeting with Joe Bott, Scott Mampe and Bob Reno, it was decided to proceed with the project. In Hess's own words, the project was "a collective decision".
After he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship, Corigliano began teaching at the Manhattan School of Music and became a music faculty member at Lehman College. He credits his first two concerti for solo wind for both changing his art and his career. It was during the composition of his Oboe Concerto (1975) and especially his Clarinet Concerto (1977) that he first used an "architectural" method of composing.
In 1974, he wrote his first film score for the documentary A Williamsburg Sampler. He later wrote the score for Altered States (1980) and his third film score for Revolution (1985). The award-winning score for Revolution is one of Corigliano's most impressive creations, although it is less known, as it was never released in any recorded format; it has existed in a bootleg form until Varèse Sarabande officially released the score for a limited time in December 2009 through their CD club, and then as a regular release in 2010. Corigliano later used portions of the score in his first symphony.
For flutist James Galway, he composed his third wind concerto, titled Pied Piper Fantasy, which premiered with the Los Angeles Philharmonic (1982). In 1984, he became Distinguished Professor of Music at Lehman College and left his position at Manhattan School of Music in 1986.
1987–present
In 1987, Corigliano was the first composer ever to serve as Composer-in-Residence for the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. During his residency, he composed his first symphony, which was inspired by the AIDS epidemic and to honor the friends he lost. His first symphony won him the University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition in 1991 and his first Grammy Award for Best Classical Contemporary Composition in 1992.
Corigliano's first opera, The Ghosts of Versailles, was the Metropolitan Opera's first commission in nearly three decades, celebrating the company's 100th anniversary. The opera was a huge success at the premiere and received the International Classic Music Awards Composition of the Year award in 1992. In 1991, Corigliano became faculty member at the Juilliard School. In 1995, he was commissioned to write String Quartet (1995) by Lincoln Center for the Cleveland Quartet, which won him his second Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Classical Composition. Corigliano's fourth film score was for François Girard's The Red Violin (1997) which won him his second Academy Award nomination and the 1999 Oscar for best film score. Portions of the score were used in his violin concerto (2003), written for Joshua Bell, who premiered it on September 19, 2003, with the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra. In 2001, he received the Pulitzer Prize for his Symphony No. 2 (2001).
In 2011, Corigliano's song cycle One Sweet Morning premiered at Avery Fisher Hall by mezzo-soprano Stephanie Blythe and the New York Philharmonic, to commemorate the 10th anniversary of the September 11 attacks. Other important commissions have been Chiaroscuro (1997) for two pianos tuned a quarter tone apart for The Dranoff International Two Piano Foundation, Vocalise (1999) for the New York Philharmonic, Mr. Tambourine Man: Seven Poems of Bob Dylan (2003) which earned him his third Grammy Award, Symphony No. 3 Circus Maximus (2004) for the University of Texas Wind Ensemble, STOMP (2011) written for the 2011 Tchaikovsky Competition in Russia, and Conjurer (2008) commissioned by an international consortium of six orchestras for Evelyn Glennie and winning him his fifth Grammy Award.
Among Corigliano's students are David Sampson, Eric Whitacre, Elliot Goldenthal, Edward Knight, Nico Muhly, Roger Bergs, Gary Kulesha, Scott Glasgow, John Mackey, Michael Bacon, Avner Dorman, Mason Bates, Steven Bryant, Jefferson Friedman, Jamie Howarth, Dinuk Wijeratne and David Ludwig. In 1996, The Corigliano Quartet was founded, taking his name in tribute.
Music
Most of Corigliano's work has been for symphony orchestra. He employs a wide variety of styles, sometimes even within the same work, but aims to make his work accessible to a relatively large audience. Many of his works have been performed and recorded by some of the most prominent orchestras, soloists, and chamber musicians in the world. He has written symphonies, as well as works for string orchestra, wind band, concerti, chamber and solo pieces, opera, as well as for film.
Corigliano's most distinguished works include his Clarinet Concerto (1977), Symphony No. 1 (1988), The Ghosts of Versailles (1991), Symphony No. 2 for string orchestra (2000), Mr. Tambourine Man: Seven Poems of Bob Dylan (2000), and his score for the film The Red Violin (1998). His clarinet concerto is the first by an American composer to have entered the standard repertoire since Aaron Copland's clarinet concerto.
Awards
1991 – University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for Symphony No. 1
1991 – Grammy Award for Best Classical Contemporary Composition for Symphony No. 1
1992 - GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Composition for Symphony No 1
1997 – Grammy Award for Best Classical Contemporary Composition for String Quartet
1999 – Academy Award for Original Music Score for The Red Violin
2001 – Pulitzer Prize for Music for Symphony No. 2
2009 – Grammy Award for Best Classical Contemporary Composition for Mr. Tambourine Man: Seven Poems of Bob Dylan
2009 – Grammy Award for Best Classical Vocal Performance for Mr. Tambourine Man: Seven Poems of Bob Dylan
2014 – Grammy Award for Best Classical Instrumental Solo for Conjurer: Concerto For Percussionist & String Orchestra
Personal life
Corigliano has lived in New York City all his life. He currently divides his time between homes in Manhattan and Kent Cliffs (in the Hudson Valley of Upstate New York) with his husband, the composer-librettist Mark Adamo; the two were married in California by the conductor Marin Alsop in August 2008, just prior to the enactment of Proposition 8.
References
External links
Official website of John Corigliano
John Corigliano biography at G. Schirmer
Sony BMG Masterworks' John Corigliano Podcast
Classical Archives Interview
, WNCN-FM, February 16, 1981
Living people
1938 births
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
American male classical composers
American classical composers
Columbia University alumni
Manhattan School of Music alumni
Lehman College faculty
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
Best Original Music Score Academy Award winners
Best Original Score Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners
Grammy Award winners
Jewish American classical composers
Jewish American artists
Pulitzer Prize for Music winners
LGBT musicians from the United States
LGBT classical composers
LGBT classical musicians
LGBT people from New York (state)
American people of Italian descent
People of Calabrian descent
Pupils of Otto Luening
21st-century American composers
Midwood High School alumni
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century American Jews
Cedille Records artists
People from Manhattan
People from Kent, New York
Composers from New York City | [
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242964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My%20Old%20Kentucky%20Home%20%281926%20film%29 | My Old Kentucky Home (1926 film) | My Old Kentucky Home is a short animation film originally released in June 1926, by Max and Dave Fleischer of Fleischer Studios as one of the Song Car-Tunes series. The series, between May 1924 and September 1926, eventually totaled 36 films, of which 19 were made with sound. This cartoon features the original lyrics of "My Old Kentucky Home" (1853) by Stephen Foster, and was recorded in the Lee de Forest Phonofilm sound-on-film system.
My Old Kentucky Home appears to be the first attempt at animated dialogue in cartoon history, as an unnamed dog, an early prototype of future studio mascot Bimbo, in the film mouths the words "Follow the ball, and join in, everybody" in remarkable synchronization though the animation was somewhat limited, making sure that lip-synch was synchronized perfectly. The Fleischers had previously started the follow the bouncing ball gimmick in their Song Car-Tune My Bonnie Lies Over the Ocean (released September 15, 1925).
This film came two years after the Fleischers started the Song Car-Tune series in May 1924.
A clip from the film is used in the opening credits of the Futurama episode "Why Must I Be a Crustacean in Love?"
Reception
Motion Picture News (March 23, 1926): "The old familiar favorite 'My Old Kentucky Home' furnishes the subject for this Max Fleischer Song Car-Tune. The verses are shown in the usual manner and the comedy handling of the chorus shows a darky girl leaping from word to word doing stunts... This should prove one of the most popular of the series."
The Film Daily (March 28, 1926): "Ko-Ko and his quartet render this time the old southern classic 'My Old Kentucky Home', with the help of the audience of course. Fleischer has a new instruction for the opening, showing the quartet as a band marching and playing, and winding up on the stage of the theatre. There is always a humorous touch added to the chorus of the song. This time in the shape of a little pickaninny who dances along on top of the words."
References
External links
My Old Kentucky Home at SilentEra
1926 films
American musical comedy films
1920s musical comedy films
American black-and-white films
1920s American animated films
American films
Phonofilm short films
Fleischer Studios short films
American silent short films
1926 animated films
Short films directed by Dave Fleischer
1926 comedy films
Early sound films
1920s English-language films | [
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242977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radcliffe%20College | Radcliffe College | Radcliffe College was a women's liberal arts college in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and functioned as the female coordinate institution for the all-male Harvard College. Considered founded in 1879, it was one of the Seven Sisters colleges and held the popular reputation of having a particularly intellectual, literary, and independent-minded female student body.
Radcliffe conferred Radcliffe College diplomas on undergraduates and graduate students for approximately the first 70 years of its history. Beginning in 1963, it awarded joint Harvard-Radcliffe diplomas to undergraduates. In 1977 Radcliffe signed a formal "non-merger merger" agreement with Harvard and completed full integration with Harvard in 1999.
Today, within Harvard University, Radcliffe's former administrative campus (Radcliffe Yard) is home to the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study. Former Radcliffe housing at the Radcliffe Quadrangle (Pforzheimer House, Cabot House, and Currier House) has been incorporated into the Harvard College house system. Under the terms of the 1999 consolidation, the Radcliffe Yard and the Radcliffe Quadrangle retain the "Radcliffe" designation in perpetuity.
Early history
The "Harvard Annex," a private program for the instruction of women by Harvard faculty, was founded in 1879 after prolonged efforts by women to gain access to Harvard College. Arthur Gilman, Cambridge resident, banker, philanthropist and writer, was the founder of what became The Annex/Radcliffe. At a time when higher education for women was a sharply controversial topic, Gilman hoped to establish a higher educational opportunity for his daughter that exceeded what was generally available in female seminaries and the new women's colleges such as Vassar and Wellesley. These schools were in their early years and had substantial numbers of faculty who were not university trained.
In conversations with the chair of Harvard's classics department, Gilman outlined a plan to have Harvard faculty deliver instruction to a small group of Cambridge and Boston women. He approached Harvard President Charles William Eliot with the idea, and Eliot approved. Gilman and Eliot recruited a group of prominent and well-connected Cambridge women to manage the plan. These women were Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, Mary H. Cooke, Stella Scott Gilman, Mary B. Greenough, Ellen Hooper Gurney, Alice Mary Longfellow, and Lillian Horsford.
Building upon Gilman's premise, the committee convinced 44 members of the Harvard faculty to consider giving lectures to female students in exchange for extra income paid by the committee. The program came to be known informally as "The Harvard Annex." The course of study for the first year included 51 courses in 13 subject areas, an "impressive curriculum with greater diversity than that of any other women's college at its inception. Courses were offered in Greek, Latin, English, German, French, Italian, and Spanish; philosophy, political economy, history, music, mathematics, physics, and natural history." The first graduation ceremonies took place in the library of Longfellow House on Brattle Street, just above where George Washington's generals had slept a century earlier.
The committee members hoped that by raising an endowment for The Annex, they could persuade Harvard to admit women directly into Harvard College, but the university resisted. In his 1869 inaugural address as president of Harvard, Charles Eliot summed up the official Harvard position toward female students when he said,
"The world knows next to nothing about the capacities of the female sex. Only after generations of civil freedom and social equality will it be possible to obtain the data necessary for an adequate discussion of woman's natural tendencies, tastes, and capabilities...It is not the business of the University to decide this mooted point."
When confronted in 1883 with the notion of females receiving Harvard degrees, the university's treasurer stated, "I have no prejudice in the matter of education of women and am quite willing to see Yale or Columbia take any risks they like, but I feel bound to protect Harvard College from what seems to me a risky experiment."
Some of President Eliot's objections stemmed from 19th-century notions of propriety. He was strongly against co-education, commenting that "The difficulties involved in a common residence of hundreds of young men and women of immature character and marriageable age are very grave. The necessary police regulations are exceedingly burdensome."
The committee persevered despite Eliot's skepticism. The project proved to be a success, attracting a growing number of students. As a result, the Annex was incorporated in 1882 as the Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women, with Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, widow of Harvard professor Louis Agassiz, as president. This society awarded certificates to students but did not have the power to confer academic degrees.
In subsequent years, on-going discussions with Harvard about admitting women directly into the university still came to a dead end. Instead, Harvard and the Annex negotiated the creation of a degree-granting institution, with Harvard professors serving as its faculty and visiting body. This modification of the Annex was chartered by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts as Radcliffe College in 1894. It was named after early Harvard benefactor Lady Ann Mowlson (née Radcliffe). The Boston Globe reported "President of Harvard To Sign Parchments of the Fair Graduates"). Students seeking admission to the new women's college were required to sit for the same entrance examinations required of Harvard College students.
By 1896, the Globe could headline a story: "Sweet Girls. They Graduate in Shoals at Radcliffe. Commencement Exercises at Sanders Theatre. Galleries Filled with Fair Friends and Students. Handsome Mrs. Agassiz Made Fine Address. Pres Eliot Commends the Work of the New Institution." The Globe said, "Eliot stated that the percentage of graduates with distinction is much higher at Radcliffe than at Harvard" and that although "[i]t is to yet to be seen whether the women have the originality and pioneering spirit which will fit them to be leaders, perhaps they will when they have had as many generations of thorough education as men."
In 1904, a popular historian wrote of the college's genesis:
"... it set up housekeeping in two unpretending rooms in the Appian Way, Cambridge. ... Probably in all the history of colleges in America there could not be found a story so full of colour and interest as that of the beginning of this woman's college. The bathroom of the little house was pressed into service as a laboratory for physics, students and instructors alike making the best of all inconveniences. Because the institution was housed with a private family, generous mothering was given to the girls when they needed it."
In the first two decades of the 20th century, Radcliffe championed the beginnings of its own campus, consisting of the Radcliffe Yard and the Radcliffe Quadrangle in Cambridge, Massachusetts, not far from that of Harvard. The original Radcliffe gymnasium and library, and the Bertram, Whitman, Eliot, and Barnard dormitories were constructed during this period. With the 1920s and 1930s, dormitories Briggs Hall (1924) and Cabot Hall (1937) were built on the Quadrangle, and in the Radcliffe Yard, the administrative building Byerly Hall (1932) and the classroom building Longfellow Hall (1930). Mary Almy was the architect.</ref>
Radcliffe's optimistic construction activities during this period belied a somewhat tense relationship with Harvard. Despite – or perhaps more accurately, because of – Radcliffe's success in its early years there were still Harvard faculty who resented the women's institution. English professor Barrett Wendell warned his colleagues about continued cooperation with Radcliffe, saying that Harvard could "suddenly find itself committed to coeducation somewhat as unwary men lay themselves open to actions for breach of promise." In Wendell's view, Harvard needed to remain "purely virile."
As late as the 1930s Harvard president A. Lawrence Lowell still took a dim view of Radcliffe, maintaining that the time Harvard professors spent providing lectures to women distracted the faculty from their scholarship, and providing Radcliffe women access to research facilities and Harvard museums was – in his view – an unnecessary burden on the university's resources. He threatened to scuttle the relationship between the two institutions. Radcliffe was forced to agree to a limitation on the size of its student body, with 750 spaces for undergraduates and 250 for graduate students. A ceiling on enrollment of women when compared to the enrollment of men—renegotiated upward at various points throughout the relationship with Harvard—remained a constant in Radcliffe's operations until the 1977 "non-merger merger."
In 1923 Ada Comstock, a leader in the movement to provide women with higher education, who hailed from the University of Minnesota and Smith College, became the college's third president. She was a key figure in the college's early 20th-century development. Speaking of her, one alumna remembers that "we were in awe of 'Miss Comstock... and knew even then that we had been touched by a vanishing breed of female educator. Ada Comstock had an extraordinary presence—she radiated dignity, strength, and decisiveness." In the early 1940s, she negotiated a new relationship with Harvard that vastly expanded women's access to the full Harvard course catalog.
Harvard Examinations for Women
From 1874 to 1881 Harvard administered the Harvard Examinations for Women to increase women's educational opportunities, after being pressured by the Women's Education Association of Boston. During these seven years, 107 women participated; 36 received certificates. The low number of certificates received by women led Harvard to change the exam in 1881. At the time, women could also be admitted into the "Harvard Annex", the women's version of a college education. The "Harvard Examinations for Women" included subjects such as history; literature of Shakespeare and Chaucer; languages such as Latin, French, and German; botany; and mathematics. These tests were similar to the admittance exam given to men applying to Harvard College. When a woman passed a subject, she would receive a signed certificate from Harvard's president acknowledging her passing mark.
The Harvard Examinations for Women were ended two years after "Harvard Annex" officially became Radcliffe College, the women's equivalent to Harvard College.
Presidents of Radcliffe College
The office of the president was created with the incorporation of the Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women in 1882. The society became Radcliffe College in 1894.
Growth and national prominence
In his history of Radcliffe, David McCord set the college apart from the other Seven Sister institutions, stating that "there is one respect in which Radcliffe differs from her sisters, and this should be made clear. Although she divides with Barnard, Bryn Mawr and Wellesley all advantages of a large city, and enjoys the further privilege of being front-fence neighbor to Harvard University, Radcliffe alone has had from the first the strength of a university faculty. ... Thus, from the beginning, Radcliffe has been a woman's Harvard. It is still a separate institution, with its own corporation, receiving from Harvard no financial aid." Because it had a university – as opposed to "collegiate" – faculty, Radcliffe was unique among the Seven Sisters in being able to provide a graduate program with a wide number of opportunities for students to pursue advanced studies. In fact, M. Carey Thomas, the second president and chief visionary of Bryn Mawr College, had actually lobbied against the conversion of the Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women into Radcliffe College precisely because the Cambridge rival's access to a university faculty competed with Bryn Mawr's own academic ambitions. Between 1890 and 1963, Radcliffe awarded more than 750 PhDs and more than 3000 masters degrees to women. During the 1950s, the school conferred more PhDs to women than any schools other than Columbia and the University of Chicago. In 1955–56, the college produced more female PhDs than any other institution in the United States.
Because Radcliffe's faculty was Harvard's, in the college's first 50 years, professors from Harvard – each under individual contracts with the Radcliffe administration – duplicated lectures, providing them first for men in the Harvard Yard and then crossing the Cambridge Common to provide the same lectures to women in the Radcliffe Yard. Of this experience Professor Elwood Byerly wrote that he "always found the spirit, industry, and ability of the girls admirable—indeed, the average has been higher in my mathematics classes in the Annex than in my classes at the college. High academic achievement – compared to Harvard – came to be viewed as a Radcliffe norm.
The New York Times reported with surprise in 1915 that all of the prizes offered in a playwriting competition at Harvard and Radcliffe that year were won by Radcliffe students. One of the Harvard contributions received honorable mention.
In the early 1960s the newspaper also reported that "taking the same courses and exams as Harvard, 60 percent of Radcliffe's girls [sic] were on the Dean's List as compared with 42 percent of Harvard men [sic]."
However, in the college's early years not all Harvard faculty and administrators took Radcliffe students seriously. The Harvard administration was at best ambivalent about the notion of faculty members cooperating with the women's institution.
Harvard President Eliot in 1888 communicated to a faculty member he intended to hire that "There is no obligation to teach at The Annex. Those professors who on general grounds take an interest in the education of women...feel some obligation but there are many professors who think it their duty NOT to teach there, in which opinion some of the Corporation and Overseers agree."
Dorothy Howells notes that "Allegations were made that Radcliffe was a "vampire" and a "temptress" enticing the teacher from his career-advancing research and publication with the lure of additional income."
Ruth Hubbard, a member of the Harvard faculty from 1974 to 1990 and a member of the Radcliffe class of 1944, noted that "the senior (Harvard) professors were less than thrilled to have to repeat their lectures at Radcliffe. The lower rank faculty members, who were sometimes detailed off to teach the introductory science courses at Radcliffe instead of teaching Harvard students, felt even more declasse."
Marion Cannon Schlesinger, Radcliffe Class of 1934, noted that "there were, to be sure, certain professors who looked with horror at the incursions of women into the sacred precincts of Harvard College, even at the safe distance of the Radcliffe Yard, and would have nothing to do with the academic arrangements by which their colleagues taught the Radcliffe girls. Professor Roger Merriman, for example, the first master of Eliot House and a professor of history, would not have been caught dead teaching a Radcliffe class.".
During World War II, declines in male enrollment at Harvard and heightened sensitivity about the use of resources called for a new, more efficient arrangement concerning faculty time. Under the leadership of President Comstock, Radcliffe and Harvard signed an agreement that for the first time allowed Radcliffe and Harvard students to attend the same classes in the Harvard Yard, officially beginning joint instruction in 1943. Equally significant, the agreement ended the era in which individual faculty members at Harvard could choose whether to enter contracts with Radcliffe.
The agreement instead opened the entire Harvard catalogue to Radcliffe students, in exchange for which Radcliffe made a payment to Harvard of a fixed portion of Radcliffe tuitions. President Comstock noted that the agreement was "the most significant event since our charter was granted in 1894." All Harvard faculty, whether interested or not, had a legal obligation to teach Radcliffe students. (In practice a few holdouts on the Harvard faculty maneuvered around this obligation by announcing that their classes had "limited enrollment" and then limiting enrollment solely to male students.) At the time both Harvard and Radcliffe were adamant in telling the press that this arrangement was "joint instruction" but not "coeducation." Reacting to the agreement, Harvard President James Bryant Conant famously stated that "Harvard was not coeducational in theory, only in practice." Indeed, Radcliffe continued to maintain a separate admissions office which, by general acknowledgment, was more stringent in its academic requirements of applicants than Harvard's. Most extra-curricular activities at the two colleges remained separate.
In the years after WWII, Radcliffe negotiated a higher ceiling on its student enrollment. This success was orchestrated in tandem with additional housing construction. Moors Hall was completed in 1949, Holmes Hall in 1952, the Cronkhite Graduate Center in 1956, and Comstock Hall in 1958. The added dormitory space and national recruiting campaigns led to an increasingly national and international student body.
The Jordan Cooperative Houses – an option for students to engage in more communal living, with student responsibility for shopping for food, preparing meals and housekeeping – were built in 1961, and the college purchased Wolbach Hall, an apartment building also known as 124 Walker Street, in 1964. Radcliffe constructed Hilles Library in 1966 and the Radcliffe Quadrangle Athletic Center in 1982.
1961 was a watershed year in the college's housing arrangements. In that year, President Mary Bunting reorganized the autonomous Radcliffe dormitories into "houses," mirroring Harvard's houses and Yale's residential colleges.
The three houses (North, South, and East) were eventually consolidated into two (North and South), and then in 1970 the college completed construction of Currier House, the first Radcliffe House designed with the "House Plan" in mind. South House eventually was renamed Cabot House in 1984 while North House became Pforzheimer House in 1995.
Bunting felt that the house system would give Radcliffe students an intellectual community comparable to what Harvard students were getting, bringing together faculty and students in a way the free-standing Radcliffe dormitories did not, and allowing all to see with greater clarity the aspirations, capabilities, and interests of undergraduate women. Speaking generally about her philosophy for Radcliffe, President Bunting noted that "part of our special purpose is to convey to our students and through them to others that there is no basic conflict between being intellectual and being feminine."
Bunting also established the Radcliffe Institute in 1961. The institute – a precursor to the current Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study – gave financial support, access to research libraries and facilities, and recognition to scholarly women who had taken time away from intellectual pursuits to focus on home and family. In providing women with a venue to return to academe, Bunting was recognizing that traditional academic institutions were premised on a male life trajectory where a scholar's domestic concerns were taken care of by someone else (usually a wife).
The Radcliffe Institute (later renamed the Bunting Institute) was an institution premised on the needs of a female life trajectory, providing opportunities that might otherwise have been truncated by women's decisions during early adulthood to leave academia to raise children.
Graduate and post-graduate opportunities
Radcliffe staff were invested in assisting women graduates with career planning and placement, as well as providing a number of different programs to provide post-graduate study for women. The Harvard-Radcliffe Program in Business Administration was begun as career training for alums interested in business. It grew to become a vehicle for women to pursue study at Harvard's Business School.
Other post-graduate courses of study at Radcliffe grew as the undergraduate women students became more a part of Harvard University. The Radcliffe Publishing Course offered students experience in editing and other skills needed to enter the field of publishing. The Radcliffe Seminars Program in Landscape Design gave students a chance to study landscape design before it was a course of study at the Harvard Design School, and in a less formal environment.
Radcliffe first granted PhDs starting in 1902. Between 1894 and 1902, multiple students completed all course and thesis requirements for a PhD degree in the department of zoology, working in the Radcliffe Zoological Laboratory, without receiving the title.
Student life and notable extracurricular activities
Beyond the life of the mind, another appeal of Radcliffe was the comparative freedom that its undergraduates enjoyed compared to students at other women's colleges. Cambridge and Boston provided diversions that were denied to women at more geographically isolated institutions. In his history of the College David McCord noted that "the music, theaters and museums were surprisingly close." While students at many women's colleges only had social interactions with men on weekends, Radcliffe students saw men in town and, after 1943, in classes and laboratories on a daily basis while still having their own institution, student organizations and activities, and space. In the 1950s, an era of "in loco parentis" at many postsecondary institutions, it was common at women's colleges for housemothers to keep diligent watch of the time when women returned to their dorms, locking the doors when check-in hour had arrived and punishing women who missed their check-in times. Radcliffe students, by contrast, had their own dormitory keys and filled out sign-in sheets when they arrived in the evening. Their lives were not as cloistered as those of some of their counterparts at the sister schools, and according to an article in Mademoiselle Magazine, "it was the richness and freedom of life at Radcliffe" which left its mark on the student body. One graduate of the class of 1934 noted, "We were getting the best education in the country, and besides, we weren't banished to the sticks to rusticate. Weekends at Yale and Princeton may have been the answer to a maiden's prayer at Vassar, but we did not have to wait for ceremonial weekends for our entertainment: there were those among the Harvard population who recognized our "merits." A student from the early 1960s picked up on this theme, contrasting the Radcliffe experience with that of Smith. "There are smart girls at Smith, all right," she said. "But they don't seem to get much out of them there. Four years later they don't seem to be any brighter. And they have this crazy week-end system. You spend all week in Bermuda shorts, with your hair in curlers, worrying over who's going to take you to Amherst or New Haven Friday night. It seems to me that sort of thing actually retards you in the long run." (Conversely, the greater seclusion of places such as Smith, Vassar and Mt. Holyoke sometimes made these latter institutions more attractive to socially conservative families.)
Reflecting on her time at Radcliffe, writer Alison Lurie stated that "most of the time we were in a mild state of euphoria...our lives were luxurious by modern undergraduate standards...We had private rooms, cleaned and tidied by tolerant Irish maids; a laundry called for our dirty clothes every week and returned them carefully washed and ironed; we ate off of china in our own dining room and sat in drawing rooms that resembled those of a good women's club."
"Pluck" was a quality attributed to some Radcliffe students. Beth Gutcheon of the class of 1967 wrote in a reminiscence that "One night a classmate of mine was leaving the library alone at eleven when somebody jumped her from behind and knocked her to the ground. She yelled, 'Oh, Christ, I don't have time for this. I have an exam tomorrow!' and after a disappointed pause, her attacker got up and went away."
Throughout most of the college's history, residential life and student activities at Radcliffe remained separate from those at Harvard, with separate dormitories and dining facilities (located on the Radcliffe Quadrangle), newspapers (The Radcliffe News, Percussion), radio stations (WRRB and WRAD, a.k.a. Radio Radcliffe), drama society (The Idler), student government (Radcliffe Student Government Association and later, The Radcliffe Union of Students), yearbooks, athletic programs, choral associations (The Radcliffe Choral Society, the Cliffe Clefs, and later the Radcliffe Pitches), etc. (located in the Radcliffe Yard). Radcliffe had greater diversity in housing options than Harvard, with college-owned frame houses, an apartment building, and co-operative housing for students who were not interested in immersion in dormitory life or life within the House System.
Dances were popular features of undergraduate life. "At different times there were class dances, club dances, junior and senior proms, sophomore tea dances, Christmas dances, and spring formals. Dormitory-based dances were known as 'jolly-ups.'" One particularly popular event during the 1950s was the Radcliffe Grant in Aid show, which was sponsored by the student government. The show raised money for scholarships and always ended with a student kick-line in red shorts. Perhaps because of the shorts, Harvard students were particularly drawn to the event.
The Radcliffe Choral Society was a popular and influential student group. Started in 1899 and conducted by Marie Gillison, a German-born singing teacher, the group cultivated an interest in sophisticated classical music at a time when many collegiate choral groups were devoted to college songs and more popular ditties. Archibald Davidson, who took up the reins of conducting the Choral Society after Gillison (he also conducted the Harvard Glee Club), stated, "I sometimes wonder how much, if anything, Harvard realizes that it owes to Radcliffe... Harvard...should not forget that while its Glee Club was slowly progressing toward enlightenment, Radcliffe, just across the Common, had for a long time under Mrs. Gillison's direction set an example of devotion to the best music." Davidson added that "without the early and enthusiastic cooperation of 'the young ladies of Radcliffe' the impressive tradition of college choral singing, which is now nationwide and which is always associated first with Cambridge, would almost certainly have been established much later here or would have originated elsewhere." Arranged by Mrs. Gillison, the 1917 Choral Society concert with the Harvard Glee Club and the Boston Symphony Orchestra was a footnote in music history, the first time a university chorus sang with a major orchestra. The concert became an annual tradition for many years.
The Radcliffe Crew is the oldest women's rowing program in the Ivy League. Even after the merger of Harvard and Radcliffe, the team maintains the Radcliffe name and Radcliffe colors as a sign of respect for the tradition of Radcliffe and the women who fought to establish the rowing program. The crew has a distinguished history. The team won the national championship in 1973 and thus got to represent the United States at the Eastern European Championships in Moscow. In 1974, the Eastern Association of Women's Rowing Colleges (EAWRC) was formed. In both 1974 and 1975, Radcliffe won consecutive Eastern Sprints titles. In 1987, Radcliffe's heavyweight varsity eight completed an undefeated season with a victory at Eastern Sprints and an Ivy championship title. Six of the crew's eight rowers went on to compete in the Olympic Games. In 1989, Radcliffe was also undefeated with a Sprints championship and Ivy title. The season finale was a victory in the Open Eight at the Henley Women's Regatta in England.
Growing consolidation with Harvard
The parallel Radcliffe and Harvard student universes—with formal intersections only in the classroom—continued until the 1960s. At this point, awareness of the comparative benefits of Radcliffe vis-a-vis the other Seven Sisters was increasingly eclipsed by growing sensitivity to the disadvantages that Radcliffe students had vis-a-vis Harvard students. Harvard students lived closer to the Harvard Yard, while Radcliffe students had a longer walk to Yard-based classes from the Radcliffe Quadrangle. Harvard housing was more luxurious than Radcliffe dormitories, and much more of the schools' shared intellectual life took place on the Harvard campus. Financial aid and student prizes at Harvard were larger than those at Radcliffe, even though students from the two schools were enrolled in the same courses. By the late 1950s, the terms of the "joint instruction" agreement still imposed a ceiling on the enrollment of Radcliffe students, with Harvard males getting four times the number of spots in a freshman class that Radcliffe students got. And at the end of four years of study, students at Harvard received a diploma from Harvard while Radcliffe students taking the same courses received a diploma from Radcliffe.
These asymmetries did not bother all students, as some viewed the differences as a matter of course between two different institutions. This perspective was particularly strong with Radcliffe students who graduated before the turbulent 1960s. One alumna from the 1940s mused that at Radcliffe "we were supremely happy in our own environment. For us, Harvard remained 'the other.' Most of us felt no connection to it;...instead, we enjoyed our own collegiate activities and traditions. Another graduate from the class of 1949 noted that she was "having my cake and eating it, too. In addition to my Harvard education, I was enjoying the benefits of a small women's college. The Radcliffe Quadrangle was quiet and peaceful, life in the dormitories was friendly and gracious. ... The women who had chosen to come to Radcliffe all were intelligent, quite independent, and concerned with the world around them." Additionally, Radcliffe offered a cultural advantage over Harvard: even when enrolled in the same courses, Harvard and Radcliffe student took exams separately, as Radcliffe College's honor code necessitated a vastly different exam-taking environment: "Where the men's exam rituals included proctors, dress codes, and a strict requirement of silence, the Radcliffe women took un-proctored exams, relished the chance to wear informal pants instead of skirts, and could enter and exit the building as they wished so long as they did not cheat." Similarly, the Radcliffe honor code provided for more generous library and campus space privileges (for student groups) than the more bureaucratic Harvard systems allowed.
However, some people within the Radcliffe community were less sanguine about the differences between the two schools, seeing the relationship with Harvard as an institutionalized separate but unequal experience for women. Writer Alison Lurie reflected that "for Radcliffe students of my time the salient fact about Harvard was that it so evidently was not ours. Our position was like that of poor relations living just outside the walls of a great estate: patronized by some of our grand relatives, tolerated by others, and snubbed or avoided by the rest."
Famed poet Adrienne Rich, class of 1951, described receiving an "insidious double message" when she was at Radcliffe. Radcliffe students "were told that we were the most privileged college women in America," but "while intellectual and emotional life went on with intensity in all-female dorms, and we had our own newspaper, our own literary magazine, clubs, and student government, we knew that the real power (and money) were invested in Harvard's institutions, from which we were excluded."
Acceptance of the 19th-century rationales for this exclusion was fading, particularly as during the 1960s, a nationwide movement for co-education grew. Reflecting this movement, many Radcliffe students began to insist upon receiving Harvard diplomas for their academic work and upon merging Radcliffe and Harvard extra-curricular activities. Growing budgetary problems at Radcliffe encouraged this insistence. The Radcliffe Graduate School merged with Harvard's in 1963, and from that year onward Radcliffe undergraduates received Harvard University diplomas signed by the presidents of Radcliffe and Harvard. (Harvard students' diplomas were signed only by the president of Harvard.) Many Radcliffe and Harvard student groups combined during the decade and joint commencement exercises between the two institutions began in 1970. In 1971, largely in response to gains made by newly co-ed Princeton and Yale in their respective yields of students admitted to Harvard, Yale and Princeton, and to comparable admissions competition posed by the increasing national popularity of co-ed Stanford, Harvard president Derek Bok reduced the admissions ratio of Harvard students to Radcliffe students from 4:1 to 5:2. That same year, several Harvard and Radcliffe dormitories began swapping students through an experimental program, and in 1972 full co-residence between the two colleges was instituted. The schools' departments of athletics merged shortly thereafter.
By the late 1960s there were open discussions between Radcliffe and Harvard about complete merger of the two institutions—which in truth meant abolition of Radcliffe. However, a merger study committee of the Radcliffe Alumnae Association recommended caution. In a prepared statement, the committee reported that "it would be a mistake to dissolve Radcliffe at this time. Women's self-awareness is increasing as the 'women's liberation movement develops and as moderate groups call attention to the life styles and problems particular to women. This is precisely the wrong time to abolish a prestigious women's college which should be giving leadership to women as they seek to define and enlarge their role in society."
Instead of a complete merger, in 1977 Radcliffe president Matina Horner and Harvard president Derek Bok signed an agreement that, through their admission to Radcliffe, put undergraduate women entirely in Harvard College. The so-called "non-merger merger" combined the Radcliffe and Harvard admissions offices and ended the forced ceiling on female enrollment. In practice most of the energies of Radcliffe (which remained an autonomous institution) were then devoted to the institution's research initiatives and fellowships, rather than to female undergraduates. The Harvard and Radcliffe undergraduate communities and classes came to be known officially as "Harvard and Radcliffe" or "Harvard-Radcliffe", and female students continued to be awarded degrees signed by both presidents. Radcliffe continued to own its campus and provided financial aid, undergraduate prizes, and externship and fellowship opportunities to Radcliffe students, and the college continued to sponsor academic access programs for high school girls and continuing education opportunities for people outside the traditional college age. The college also continued to support programs and workshops targeting female undergraduates.
In practice, though, Radcliffe at this point had minimal impact on the average undergraduate's day to day experiences at the university. This minimal role fueled still more talk about a full merger of the two schools. Conversely, supporters of the "non-merger merger" maintained that the agreement gave Radcliffe students the full benefits of Harvard citizenship while allowing maintenance of the proud Radcliffe identity, an institution with its own mission, programs, financial resources and alumnae network. For this latter camp, women anxious for full merger were analogous to women who were desperate to marry, rushing to take their husbands' names and turning their independent wealth and property over to their husbands to manage as their dowry. In her history of the Seven Sister colleges Liva Baker noted, "It was an old story; marriage for economic security, the sort that can hardly help but result in complete absorption of the weaker by the stronger."
The full merger faction ultimately prevailed. On October 1, 1999, Radcliffe College was fully absorbed into Harvard University; female undergraduates were henceforward members only of Harvard College while Radcliffe College evolved into the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study. The goals of the founders of The Annex had arguably been achieved, as through the merger Harvard College was now admitting women. One pleased alumna noted, "I never thought Radcliffe should exist and I am glad to see it gone."
Radcliffe after the merger
The Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, now a division of Harvard University, carries on many of the research and professional development programs that Radcliffe College pioneered and has introduced other programs to the worldwide community of scholars. The end of Radcliffe's role as an undergraduate institution, however, still has its detractors. "Although I realize the merger was inevitable," a member of the class of 1959 commented, "...I nevertheless regret the loss of my college, which gave me so much. Another noted that she "feels sad that Radcliffe College no longer exists. It, far more than Harvard, defined my college experience. I can't remember a single Harvard classmate, but two of my best friends are fellow Cliffies and I exchange correspondence with about a dozen more." Indeed, many Radcliffe alumnae feel their institution has relinquished its distinguished identity in favor of a male-oriented one that remains steadfastly dismissive of women's concerns. This latter perspective gained some traction when, in a voice reminiscent of Presidents Eliot and Lowell, Harvard's early 21st-century president Lawrence Summers publicly stated that women were not as capable in the sciences as men. Additionally, shortly after full merger of the two schools, Harvard undergraduate women feeling a void in Harvard's support for women's intellectual and personal development started to lobby Harvard to create a women's center. Perhaps not surprisingly, memories of Harvard's historical indifference to women have led many Radcliffe alumnae to maintain primary ties to Radcliffe College and not to Harvard University. "Womenless history has been a Harvard specialty," Laurel Thatcher Ulrich noted. The Annex gained some vindication against Presidents Eliot, Lowell, and Summers when Drew Gilpin Faust, Dean of the Radcliffe Institute, replaced Summers and became Harvard's first female president.
Radcliffe College alumnae continue to press Harvard on the question of the university's commitment to women, and increasing the number of female faculty members at Harvard is a particular alumnae interest. Former Radcliffe president Matina Horner once told the New York Times of her surprise when she first delivered a lecture at Harvard in 1969 and four male students approached her. One of these students told her that they "just wanted to see what it felt like to be lectured by a woman and if a woman could be articulate." Picking up on the perceived common Harvard blind-eye to women's intellectual competence and reflecting on the fact that while at Radcliffe they had had very few female faculty members, in the late 1990s a group of Radcliffe alumnae established the Committee for The Equality of Women at Harvard. The group chose to boycott Harvard's fundraising campaigns and sent letters to all 27,000 Radcliffe alumnae and to 13,000 Harvard alumni asking them to shift their donations to an escrow account until the university stepped up its efforts to add women to its tenured faculty. The group has not established quotas that it wants Harvard to meet. Rather, it has stated that individual Harvard departments should measure their percentage of tenured women faculty against a "realistically available pool" and create a plan to increase the number of women if that percentage falls short. The group also said that when departments do so, the escrow account (now called the Harvard Women's Faculty Fund) will be turned over to Harvard.
In the meantime, enriched by hundreds of millions of dollars that Harvard conferred unto Radcliffe at the time of the full merger, the Radcliffe Institute today awards dozens of annual fellowships to prominent academics. Although it does not focus solely on women returning to academe, it is a major research center within Harvard University. Its Schlesinger Library is one of America's largest repositories of manuscripts and archives relating to the history of women.
Several undergraduate student organizations in Harvard College still refer to Radcliffe in their names, (for example the Radcliffe Union of Students, Harvard's feminist organization; the Radcliffe Choral Society, Harvard's female choir (now one of the Holden Choirs), which has alumnae from both Radcliffe and Harvard and maintains a repertoire of Radcliffiana; the Harvard Radcliffe Orchestra; the Harvard-Radcliffe Gilbert and Sullivan Players; the Radcliffe Pitches, a female a cappella singing group; and the Harvard-Radcliffe Dramatic Club). Two athletic teams still compete under the Radcliffe name: varsity crew, which still rows with Radcliffe's black-and-white oarblades and uniforms instead of Harvard's crimson-and-white (in 1973 the team had been the only varsity team which voted not to adopt the Harvard name); and club rugby union. In addition, the Harvard University Band still plays a Radcliffe fight song.
Notable alumnae
A number of Radcliffe alumnae have gone on to become notable in their respective fields:
Jill Abramson, former executive editor of the New York Times
Alice Adams, novelist
Encarnacion Alzona, National Scientist of the Philippines, first Filipino woman to obtain a PhD
Alice Arlen, screenwriter
Margaret Atwood, author
Deborah Batts, U.S. District Court Judge, Southern District of New York; first openly LGBT African American federal judge
Susan Berresford, Ford Foundation president
Benazir Bhutto, former prime minister of Pakistan
Melissa Block, journalist and host of National Public Radio's All Things Considered
Marita Bonner, poet, essayist and writer associated with the Harlem Renaissance and New Negro Movements
Sylvia Mathews Burwell, Secretary of Health and Human Services
Caroline Walker Bynum, medieval historian
Stockard Channing, actress
Leda Cosmides, psychologist
Lindsay Crouse, actress
Martha Derthick, academic and noted scholar of public administration
Anne d'Harnoncourt, curator and former CEO and director of the Philadelphia Museum of Art
Eva Beatrice Dykes, Ph.D., first black American woman to fulfill the requirements for a doctoral degree
Elizabeth Eisenstein, historian
Barbara Epstein, founder of The New York Review of Books
Mathea Falco, Assistant Secretary of State for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs
Lucy Nettie Fletcher (1886-1918), WWI nurse
Amy Goodman, journalist and host of Democracy Now!
Ellen Goodman, Boston Globe columnist
Jamie Gorelick, Deputy U.S. Attorney General
Linda Greenhouse, Pulitzer Prize-winning reporter.
Lani Guinier, Harvard Law professor and civil rights activist
Amy Gutmann, University of Pennsylvania president
Martha Hackett, actor
Virginia Hall, American spy with the Special Operations Executive during WWII
Elizabeth Holtzman, member of U.S. Congress
Elizabeth Hubbard, actor
Josephine Hull, Oscar-winning stage and film actress
Catharine Sargent Huntington, (class of 1911) actress, producer, director, founder of multiple theater companies, activist
Rona Jaffe, popular novelist
Miriam M. Johnson, sociologist
Roberta Karmel (born 1937), Centennial Professor of Law at Brooklyn Law School, and first female Commissioner of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission.
Helen Keller, deafblind author and activist
Sinah Estelle Kelley, chemist
Caroline Kennedy, U.S. Ambassador to Japan, daughter of President John F. Kennedy and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis
Margaret Kivelson, space physicist and planetary scientist
Maxine Kumin, Pulitzer Prize–winning poet
Ursula Le Guin, author
Henrietta Swan Leavitt, early Harvard College Observatory astronomer
Judith Ledeboer, architect
Ann Lewis, Democratic Party political strategist
Alison Lurie, academic and Pulitzer Prize-winning author
Grace Macurdy, classicist
Pauline Maier, historian at Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Ursula Marvin, Smithsonian geologist who analyzed Sputnik 4; first woman on American research teams to travel to Antarctica
Empress Masako of Japan
Margaret Mayall, astronomer
Laura Meneses, political activist
Ruth Messinger, politician and CEO of American Jewish World Service
Andrea Nye, feminist philosopher and writer
Soledad O'Brien, broadcast journalist
Ursula Oppens, classical pianist
Mary White Ovington, co-founder of the NAACP and women's rights activist
Maud Wood Park, suffragette and women's rights activist
Diane Paulus, artistic director of the American Repertory Theater
Carol Potter, television actress
Eve Troutt Powell, historian, winner of MacArthur Foundation "genius award"
Naomi Quinn, anthropologist
Bonnie Raitt, blues musician
Adrienne Rich, poet and feminist
Christina Schlesinger, painter
Alberta Virginia Scott, first African-American Radcliffe graduate (1898)
Edie Sedgwick, Andy Warhol's superstar of 1965
Carla Shatz, neurobiologist at Stanford University; member of National Academy of Sciences and Institute of Medicine
Elsie Singmaster, author
Anna Deavere Smith, performance artist
Muriel S. Snowden, social worker, founder of Freedom House, MacArthur Foundation "genius award" winner
Gertrude Stein, author
Doris Zemurray Stone, archaeologist and ethnographer
Renee Tajima-Peña, Academy Award-nominated filmmaker and director of Who Killed Vincent Chin? and No más bebés
Frances Euphemia Thompson, art educator
Barbara Tuchman, historian
Marina von Neumann Whitman, economist
Julia Grace Wales, peace activist
Suzy Welch, business writer and former editor of Harvard Business Review
Lally Weymouth, senior associate editor of the Washington Post
In popular culture
Literature
Rona Jaffe's novel Class Reunion and Alice Adams' novel Superior Women both deal with the lives of Radcliffe women in their college years and afterwards.
Love with a Harvard Accent is a 1962 novel written jointly by Bill Bayer and Nancy Jenkin under the pen name Leonie St. John. It tells the stories of three Radcliffe students coming of age along the bridge between the late 50s and early 1960s. The Harvard Crimson reviewed the book when it was published in an article entitled "Radcliffe's New Catalog."
Splendor & Misery is a 1983 novel by Faye Levine that follows the college experience of Sarah Galbreath, a Radcliffe student in Cambridge in the early and mid 1960s.
A Small Circle of Friends is a film set at Harvard and Radcliffe in the Vietnam era. In it Karen Allen plays Jessica Bloom, a Radcliffe student caught up with two Harvard students in the activism and feminist awakening of the time.
Phillip Roth's novel Goodbye, Columbus is set in part at Radcliffe. The movie version was filmed in part at the college.
Tom Miller's fantasy novel The Philosopher's Flight is about a male student at Radcliffe in 1917.
Writing
In 1963, as a Radcliffe undergraduate, Faye Levine wrote an article for the Harvard Crimson that became a classic and thereafter frequently quoted characterization of Radcliffe undergraduates, entitled "The Three Flavors of Radcliffe." The three flavors were peach, chocolate, and lime.
Film
The film and novel versions of Love Story are set partly at Radcliffe and involve a student named Jennifer Cavalleri and her romance with Harvard student Oliver Barrett IV. The movie was filmed in part at Radcliffe.
Katey Miller, the protagonist of Dirty Dancing: Havana Nights, is a star student who aspires to attend Radcliffe.
See also
Radcliffe Choral Society
Radcliffe Pitches
Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study
Schlesinger Library
References
Further reading
Baker, Liva (1976). I'm Radcliffe. Fly Me! The Seven Sisters and the Failure of Women's Education. MacMillan Publishing.
Howells, Dorothy Elia (1978). A Century to Celebrate: Radcliffe College, 1879–1979.
Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz. Alma Mater: Design and Experience in the Women's Colleges from Their Nineteenth-Century Beginnings to the 1930s. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993 (2nd edition).
Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz (1999). The Passion of M. Carey Thomas. University of Illinois Press.
Kendall, Elaine. Peculiar Institutions: An Informal History of the Seven Sister Colleges, G.P. Putnam and Sons, NY, 1975.
McCord, David (1958). An Acre for Education: Being Notes on the History of Radcliffe College. Radclife College.
Salie, Robert Douglas. The Harvard Annex Experiment in the Higher Education of Women: Separate but Equal? Ph.D. dissertation, Emory U. 1976. 399 pp.
Schwager, Sally. "Harvard Women": A History of the Founding of Radcliffe College. Ed.D. diss., Harvard University, 1982.
Sollors, Werner; Titcomb, Caldwell; and Underwood, Thomas A., eds. (1993). Blacks at Harvard: A Documentary History of African-American Experience at Harvard and Radcliffe. 548 pp.
Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher, ed. (2004). Yards and Gates: Gender in Harvard and Radcliffe History. 337 pp.
Books about Radcliffe
Brief text; content is mostly illustrations by John Albert Seaford. Online page images and PDF at Google Books.
External links
1879 establishments in Massachusetts
Defunct private universities and colleges in Massachusetts
Educational institutions established in 1879
Embedded educational institutions
Seven Sister Colleges | [
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242981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20R.%20Vines | John R. Vines | Lieutenant General John Randolph Vines (born June 2, 1949 in Alabama) is the former commander of the U.S. Army's XVIII Airborne Corps and Multi-National Corps – Iraq.
Vines previously commanded the 82nd Airborne Division during the U.S. deployment to Afghanistan. He was responsible for tactical combat missions. Subsequently, Vines replaced Lt. Gen. Dan K. McNeill as the commanding general of U.S. and coalition forces in Afghanistan.
Career
Vines received his BS Degree in Chemistry from the University of Alabama and his MA Degree in National Security and Strategy from the Naval War College.
He was commissioned a Second Lieutenant of Infantry in 1971 through the ROTC program at the University of Alabama.
His previous assignments include the 3rd Infantry Division; U.S. Army Europe and Seventh U.S. Army; Ranger Department, US Army Infantry Center; Company Commander and S3 in the 1st Ranger Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment; and the original Executive Officer of the 3rd Ranger Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment at its activation from 1984 until 1987.
As Lieutenant General, Vines has served in several command and staff assignments within the XVIII Airborne Corps to include joint duty with the Joint Special Operations Command. He served as Commander, 4th Battalion, 325th Airborne Infantry Regiment, during its combat parachute assault in Operation Just Cause and later when the unit was deployed as the first ground combat unit in Operation Desert Shield.
His second tour of joint duty with the Joint Special Operations Command included operations in Somalia; Commander, 2d Brigade, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault); Assistant Division Commander for Operations, 82d Airborne Division; Chief of Staff, XVIII Airborne Corps and Fort Bragg; Chief of Office of Military Cooperation, Cairo, Egypt; Commander, 82d Airborne Division from August 2000 until October 2002; Commander, Coalition Task Force 82, in Afghanistan from 1 September 2002 until 1 May 2003; and then Commander, Combined Joint Task Force 180, Bagram, Afghanistan, until October 2003; Commander, Multi-National Corps – Iraq in Baghdad from January 2005 until January 2006.
After retirement, Vines spent a few months on the board of USFalcon, an information technology and systems engineering firm specializing in defense. He had consulted for the Department of Defense, but does not now have any industry ties. "One of the reasons I chose not to do that is that I felt like I would be taking advantage of a revolving door," he said. "There is a lot of hypocrisy there."
Decorations and badges
Defense Distinguished Service Medal (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
Distinguished Service Medal (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
Defense Superior Service Medal
Legion of Merit (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
Bronze Star (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
Defense Meritorious Service Medal
Meritorious Service Medal (with 2 Oak Leaf Clusters)
Joint Service Commendation Medal
Army Commendation Medal (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
Joint Service Achievement Medal
Army Achievement Medal
Combat Infantryman Badge
Expert Infantryman Badge
Master Parachutist Badge (with Combat Star)
Pathfinder Badge
Air Assault Badge
Ranger Tab
See also
Deaths of Phillip Esposito and Louis Allen
References
External links
http://www.ipsnews.net/2006/04/us-iraq-general-reveals-rift-with-rumsfeld-on-insurgents/
1949 births
Living people
University of Alabama alumni
Military personnel from Alabama
Recipients of the Silver Star
Naval War College alumni
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
United States Army generals
Recipients of the Defense Superior Service Medal
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal | [
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242984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Puerto%20Rico | Music of Puerto Rico | The music of Puerto Rico has evolved as a heterogeneous and dynamic product of diverse cultural resources. The most conspicuous musical sources have been Spain and West Africa, although many aspects of Puerto Rican music reflect origins elsewhere in Europe and the Caribbean. Puerto Rican music culture today comprises a wide and rich variety of genres, ranging from essentially indigenous genres like bomba to recent hybrids like Latin trap and reggaeton. Broadly conceived, the realm of "Puerto Rican music" should naturally comprise the music culture of the millions of people of Puerto Rican descent who have lived in the United States, and especially in New York City. Their music, from salsa to the boleros of Rafael Hernández, cannot be separated from the music culture of Puerto Rico itself.
Traditional, folk and popular music
Early music
Music culture in Puerto Rico during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries is poorly documented. Certainly it included Spanish church music, military band music, and diverse genres of dance music cultivated by the jíbaros and enslaved Africans and their descendants. While these later never constituted more than 11% of the island's population, they contributed some of the island's most dynamic musical features becoming distinct indeed.
In the 19th century Puerto Rican music begins to emerge into historical daylight, with notated genres like danza being naturally better documented than folk genres like jíbaro music and bomba y plena and seis.
The African people of the island used drums made of carved hardwood covered with untreated rawhide on one side, commonly made from goatskin. A popular word derived from creole to describe this drum was shukbwa, that literally means 'trunk of tree'
Folk music
If the term "folk music" is taken to mean music genres that have flourished without elite support, and have evolved independently of the commercial mass media, the realm of Puerto Rican folk music would comprise the primarily Hispanic-derived jíbaro music, the Afro-Puerto Rican bomba, and the essentially "creole" plena. As these three genres evolved in Puerto Rico and are unique to that island, they occupy a respected place in island culture, even if they are not currently as popular as contemporary musics like salsa or reggaeton.
Jíbaro music
Jíbaros are small farmers of primarily Hispanic descent who constituted the overwhelming majority of the Puerto Rican population until the mid-twentieth century. They are traditionally recognized as romantic icons of land cultivation, hard working, self-sufficient, hospitable, and with an innate love of song and dance. Their instruments were relatives of the Spanish vihuela, especially the cuatro — which evolved from four single strings to five pairs of double strings — and the lesser known tiple. A typical jíbaro group nowadays might feature a cuatro, guitar, and percussion instrument such as the güiro scraper and/or bongo. Lyrics to jíbaro music are generally in the décima form, consisting of ten octosyllabic lines in the rhyme scheme abba, accddc. Décima form derives from 16th century Spain. Although it has largely died out in that country (except the Canaries), it took root in various places in Latin America—especially Cuba and Puerto Rico—where it is sung in diverse styles. A sung décima might be pre-composed, derived from a publication by some literati, or ideally, improvised on the spot, especially in the form of a “controversia” in which two singer-poets trade witty insults or argue on some topic. In between the décimas, lively improvisations can be played on the cuatro. This music form is also known as "típica" as well as "trópica".
The décimas are sung to stock melodies, with standardized cuatro accompaniment patterns. About twenty such song-types are in common use. These are grouped into two broad categories, viz., seis (e.g., seis fajardeño, seis chorreao) and aguinaldo (e.g., aguinaldo orocoveño, aguinaldo cayeyano). Traditionally, the seis could accompany dancing, but this tradition has largely died out except in tourist shows and festivals. The aguinaldo is most characteristically sung during the Christmas season, when groups of revelers (parrandas) go from house to house, singing jíbaro songs and partying. The aguinaldo texts are generally not about Christmas, and also unlike Anglo-American Christmas carols, they are generally sung by a solo with the other revelers singing chorus. In general, Christmas season is a time when traditional music—both seis and aguinaldo—is most likely to be heard. Fortunately, many groups of Puerto Ricans are dedicated to preserving traditional music by continued practice.
Jíbaro music came to be marketed on commercial recordings in the twentieth century, and singer-poets like Ramito (Flor Morales Ramos, 1915–90) are well documented. However, jíbaros themselves were becoming an endangered species, as agribusiness and urbanization have drastically reduced the numbers of small farmers on the island. Many jíbaro songs dealt accordingly with the vicissitudes of migration to New York. Jíbaro music has in general declined accordingly, although it retains its place in local culture, especially around Christmas time and special social gatherings, and there are many cuatro players, some of whom have cultivated prodigious virtuosity.
Bomba
Historical references indicate that by the decades around 1800 plantation slaves were cultivating a music and dance genre called bomba. By the mid-twentieth century, when it started to be recorded and filmed, bomba was performed in regional variants in various parts of the island, especially Loíza, Ponce, San Juan, and Mayagüez. It is not possible to reconstruct the history of bomba; various aspects reflect Congolese derivation, though some elements (as suggested by subgenre names like holandés) have clearly come from elsewhere in the Caribbean. French Caribbean elements are particularly evident in the bomba style of Mayagüez, and striking choreographic parallels can be seen with the bélé of Martinique. All of these sources were blended into a unique sound that reflects the life of the Jibaro, the slaves, and the culture of Puerto Rico.
In its call-and-response singing set to ostinato-based rhythms played on two or three squat drums (barriles), bomba resembles other neo-African genres in the Caribbean. Of clear African provenance is its format in which a single person emerges from an informal circle of singers to dance in front of the drummers, engaging the lead drummer in a sort of playful duel; after dancing for a while, that person is then replaced by another. While various such elements can be traced to origins in Africa or elsewhere, bomba must be regarded as a local Afro-Puerto Rican creation. Its rhythms (e.g. seis corrido, yubá, leró, etc.), dance moves, and song lyrics that sometimes mimic farm animals(in Spanish, with some French creole words in eastern Puerto Rico) collectively constitute a unique Puerto Rican genre.
In the 1950s, the dance-band ensemble of Rafael Cortijo and Ismael Rivera performed several songs which they labelled as "bombas"; although these bore some similarities to the sicá style of bomba, in their rhythms and horn arrangements they also borrowed noticeably from the Cuban dance music which had long been popular in the island. Giving rise to Charanga music. As of the 1980s, bomba had declined, although it was taught, in a somewhat formalized fashion, by the Cepeda family in Santurce, San Juan, and was still actively performed informally, though with much vigor, in the Loíza towns, home to then Ayala family dynasty of bomberos. Bomba continues to survive there, and has also experienced something of a revival, being cultivated by folkloric groups such as Son Del Batey, Los Rebuleadores de San Juan, Bomba Evolución, Abrane y La Tribu and many more else where in the island. In New York City with groups such as Los Pleneros de la 21, members of La Casita de Chema, and Alma Moyo. In Chicago Buya, and Afro Caribe have kept the tradition alive and evolving. In California Bomba Liberte, Grupo Aguacero, Bombalele, La Mixta Criolla, Herencia de los Carrillo, and Los Bomberas de la Bahia are all groups that have promoted and preserved the culture. Women have also played a role in its revival, as in the case of the all-female group Yaya, Legacy Woman, Los Bomberas de la Bahia, Grupo Bambula (Originally female group) and Ausuba in Puerto Rico.
There has also been a strong commitment towards Bomba Fusion. Groups such as Los Pleneros de la 21, and Viento De Agua have contributed greatly towards fusing Bomba and Plena with Jazz and other Genres. Yerbabuena has brought a popular cross over appeal. Abrante y La Tribu have made fusions with Hip Hop. Tambores Calientes, Machete Movement, and Ceiba have fused the genres with various forms of Rock and Roll.
The Afro-Puerto Rican bombas, developed in the sugarcane haciendas of Loíza, the northeastern coastal areas, in Guayama and in southern Puerto Rico, utilize barrel drums and tambourines, while the rural version uses stringed instruments to produce music, relating to the bongos. (1) “The bomba is danced in pairs, but there is no contact. The dancers each challenge the drums and musicians with their movements by approaching them and performing a series of fast steps called floretea piquetes, creating a rhythmic discourse. Unlike normal dance routines, the drummers are the ones who follow the performers, and create a beat or rhythm based on their movements. Women who dance bomba often use dresses or scarfs to enhance bodily movements. Unlike normal dance terms, the instruments follow the performer.
Like other such traditions, bomba is now well documented on sites like YouTube, and on a few ethnographic documentary films.
Plena
Around 1900 plena emerged as a humble proletarian folk genre in the lower-class, largely Afro-Puerto Rican urban neighborhoods in San Juan, Ponce, and elsewhere. Plena subsequently came to occupy its niche in island music culture. In its quintessential form, plena is an informal, unpretentious, simple folk-song genre, in which alternating verses and refrains are sung to the accompaniment of round, often homemade frame drums called panderetas (like tambourines without jingles), perhaps supplemented by accordion, guitar, or whatever other instruments might be handy. An advantage of the percussion arrangement is its portability, contributing to the plena's spontaneous appearance at social gatherings. Other instruments commonly heard in plena music are the cuatro, the maracas, and accordions.
The plena rhythm is a simple duple pattern, although a lead pandereta player might add lively syncopations. Plena melodies tend to have an unpretentious, "folksy" simplicity. Some early plena verses commented on barrio anecdotes, such as "Cortarón Elena" (They stabbed Elena) or "Allí vienen las maquinas" (Here come the firetrucks). Many had a decidedly irreverent and satirical flavor, such as "Llegó el obispo" mocking a visiting bishop. Some plenas, such as "Cuando las mujeres quieren a los hombres" and "Santa María," are familiar throughout the island. In 1935 the essayist Tomás Blanco celebrated plena—rather than the outdated and elitist danza—as an expression of the island's fundamentally creole, Taino or mulatto racial and cultural character. Plenas are still commonly performed in various contexts; a group of friends attending a parade or festival may bring a few panderetas and burst into song, or new words will be fitted to the familiar tunes by protesting students or striking workers which has long been a regular form of protest from occupation and slavery. While enthusiasts might on occasion dance to a plena, plena is not characteristically oriented toward dance.
In the 1920s–30s plenas came to be commercially recorded, especially by Manuel "El Canario" Jimenez, who performed old and new songs, supplementing the traditional instruments with piano and horn arrangements. In the 1940s Cesar Concepción popularized a big-band version of plena, lending the genre a new prestige, to some extent at the expense of its proletarian vigor and sauciness. In the 1950s a newly invigorated plena emerged as performed by the smaller band of Rafael Cortijo and vocalist Ismael "Maelo" Rivera, attaining unprecedented popularity and modernizing the plena while recapturing its earthy vitality. Many of Cortijo's plenas present colorful and evocative vignettes of barrio life and lent a new sort of recognition to the dynamic contribution of Afro-Puerto Ricans to the island's culture (and especially music). This period represented the apogee of plena's popularity as a commercial popular music. Unfortunately, Rivera spent much of the 1960s in prison, and the group never regained its former vigor. Nevertheless, the extraordinary massive turnout for Cortijo's funeral in 1981 reflected the beloved singer's enduring popularity. By then, however, plena's popularity had been replaced by that of salsa, although some revivalist groups, such as Plena Libre, continue to perform in their own lively fashion, while "street" plena is also heard on various occasions.
Danza
By the late 1700s the country dance (French contredanse, Spanish contradanza) had come to thrive as a popular recreational dance, both in courtly and festive vernacular forms, throughout much of Europe, replacing dances such as the minuet. By 1800 a creolized form of the genre, called contradanza, was thriving in Cuba, and the genre also appears to have been extant, in similar vernacular forms, in Puerto Rico, Venezuela, and elsewhere, although documentation is scanty. By the 1850s, the Cuban contradanza—increasingly referred to as danza—was flourishing both as a salon piano piece, or as a dance-band item to accompany social dancing, in a style evolving from collective figure dancing (like a square dance) to independent couples dancing ballroom-style (like a waltz, but in duple rather than ternary rhythm). According to local chroniclers, in 1845 a ship arrived from Havana, bearing, among other things, a party of youths who popularized a new style of contradanza/danza, confusingly called "merengue." This style subsequently became wildly popular in Puerto Rico, to the extent that in 1848 it was banned by the priggish Spanish governor Juan de la Pezuela. This prohibition, however, does not seem to have had much lasting effect, and the newly invigorated genre—now more commonly referred to as "danza"—went on to flourish in distinctly local forms. As in Cuba, these forms included the musics played by dance ensembles as well as sophisticated light-classical items for solo piano (some of which could subsequently be interpreted by dance bands). The danza as a solo piano idiom reached its greatest heights in the music of Manuel Gregorio Tavárez (1843–83), whose compositions have a grace and grandeur closely resembling the music of Chopin, his model. Achieving greater popularity were the numerous danzas of his follower, Juan Morel Campos (1857–96), a bandleader and extraordinarily prolific composer who, like Tavárez, died in his youthful prime (but not before having composed over 300 danzas). By Morel Campos' time, the Puerto Rican danza had evolved into a form quite distinct from that of its Cuban (not to mention European) counterparts. Particularly distinctive was its form consisting of an initial paseo, followed by two or three sections (sometimes called "merengues"), which might feature an arpeggio-laden "obbligato" melody played on the tuba-like bombardino (euphonium). Many danzas achieved island-wide popularity, including the piece "La Borinqueña", which is the national anthem of Puerto Rico. Like other Caribbean creole genres such as the Cuban danzón, the danzas featured the insistent ostinato called "cinquillo" (roughly, ONE-two-THREE-FOUR-five-SIX-SEVEN-eight, repeated).
The danza remained vital until the 1920s, but after that decade its appeal came to be limited to the Hispanophilic elite. The danzas of Morel Campos, Tavárez, José Quintón, and a few others are still performed and heard on various occasions, and a few more recent composers have penned their own idiosyncratic forms of danzas, but the genre is no longer a popular social dance idiom. During the first part of dancing danza, to the steady tempo of the music, the couples promenade around the room; during the second, with a lively rhythm, they dance in a closed ballroom position and the orchestra would begin by leading dancers in a "paseo," an elegant walk around the ballroom, giving gentlemen the opportunity to show off their lady's grace and beauty. This romantic introduction ended with a salute by the gentlemen and a curtsey from the ladies in reply. Then, the orchestra would strike up and the couples would dance freely around the ballroom to the rhythm of the music.
Puerto Rican pop
Much music in Puerto Rico falls outside the standard categories of "Latin music" and is better regarded as constituting varieties of "Latin world pop." This category includes, for example, Ricky Martin (who had a #1 Hot 100 hit in the U.S. with "Livin' La Vida Loca" in 1999), the boy-band Menudo (with its changing personnel), Los Chicos, Las Cheris, Salsa Kids and Chayanne. Famous singers include the Despacito singer Luis Fonsi. Also, singer and virtuoso guitarist Jose Feliciano born in Lares, Puerto Rico, became a world pop star in 1968 when his Latin-soul version of "Light My Fire" and the LP Feliciano! became great successes in the American and international rankings and allowed Feliciano to be the first Puerto Rican to win Grammy awards, during that year.
Reggaeton
The roots of reggaetón lie in the 1980s by Puerto Rican rapper Vico C. In the early 1990s reggaeton coalesced as a more definitive genre, using the "Dem Bow" riddim derived from a Shabba Ranks song by that name, and further resembling Jamaican dancehall in its verses sung in simple tunes and stentorian style, and its emphasis—via lyrics, videos, and artist personas—on partying, dancing, boasting, "bling," and sexuality rather than weighty social commentary. While reggaeton may have commenced as a Spanish-language version of Jamaican dancehall, in the hands of performers like Tego Calderón, Daddy Yankee,Don Omar and others, it soon acquired its own distinctive flavor and today might be considered the most popular dance music in the Spanish Caribbean, surpassing even salsa.
Reggaetón is a genre of music, significantly blown up in Puerto Rico and across the world, that combines Latin rhythms, dancehall, and hip-hop and/or rap. Reggaetón is frequently affiliated with “machismo” characteristics, strong or aggressive masculine pride. Since women have joined this genre of music they've been underrepresented and have been fighting to change its image. This inevitably is causing controversy between what the genre was and what it is now. Reggaetón has transformed from being a musical expression with Jamaican and Panamanian roots to being “dembow” a newer style that has changed the game, which is listened to mainly in the Dominican Republic. Despite its success, its constant reputation highlights sexuality in the dancing, its explicit lyrics that have women screaming sexualized phrases in the background, and clothing women are presented in. In the '90s and early 2000s Reggaetón had been targeted and censored in many Latin American countries for its ranchyness nature and truths. Censorship can be seen as the government's way of suppressing the people and ensuring that communication isn't strong amongst the community. Since then, many women have joined Reggaetón in hopes of changing the preconceptions. Many of them have paved the way and have successful careers such as Karol G, and Natti Natasha and others.
Ivy Queen was born as Martha Ivelisse Pesante on March 4, 1972, in Afiasco, Puerto Rico. After writing raps during her youth and competing in an underground nightclub called The Noise, it led to the beginning of her musical career. Many consider her as the “Queen of Reggaeton.” In the beginning of her career, it was very difficult for her to be taken seriously in the reggaeton industry because this genre of music is seen as misogynistic. Recently, there has been controversy regarding how big her female influence has been on the genre. Another reggaeton artist, Anuel AA, questioned her place as the “Queen of Reggaeton” since she had not had a hit in seven years. He also insinuated that his girlfriend, Karol G, should be the queen of reggaeton. Ivy Queen responded saying her career paved the way for female artists to thrive in this genre.
Ivy Queen has had influence on other women like Cardi B and Farina. Even men, such as Bad Bunny, have listed her as an influence for their lyrics. Her ability to compete amongst men who dominated Reggaetón gave hope to other women who had similar interest in the music industry. Her influence and her dominance in the genre has helped other women be able to break through in the reggaetón scene and sparked a place for women empowerment not only for Puerto Rican artist, but for other Latinas who are newer to the game such as Karol G and Natti Natasha, leaving Ivy Queen to crown herself with the title “The Queen”.
Karol G is a Colombian reggaeton singer who has done collaborations with other reggaeton singers, such as J Balvin, Bad Bunny, and Maluma. Throughout her career, Karol G has had troubles in the industry because reggaeton is a genre that is dominated by males. She recounts how when starting her career she noticed that there weren't many opportunities for her in the genre because reggaeton was dominated by male artists. In 2018, Karol G's single "Mi Cama" became very popular and she made a remix with J Balvin and Nicky Jam. The Mi cama remix appeared in the top 10 Hot Latin Songs and number 1 in Latin Airplay charts. This year she has collaborated with Maluma on her song "Creeme" and with Anuel AA in the song "Culpables". The single, "Culpables" has been in the top 10 Hot Latin Songs for 2 consecutive weeks. On May 3, 2019 Karol G was able to release her new album called Ocean.
Natti Natasha is a Dominican reggaeton singer who has also joined the reggeaton industry and has listed Ivy Queen as one of her influences for her music. In 2017 she made a single called "Criminal" that features reggaeton artist, Ozuna. Her single "Criminal" became very popular on YouTube with more than has 1.5 billion views. In 2018 Natti Natasha collaborated with RKM and Ken Y in their single "Tonta". She later also collaborated with Becky G in “Sin Pijama” which made it to the top 10 in Hot Latin songs, Latin Airplay, and Latin Pop Airplay charts. After all the collaborations that Natti Natasha has done she was able to release her album called illumiNatti on February 15, 2019.
Caribbean influences
Bolero
The bolero originally derived from Cuba, but by the 1920s it was being both enjoyed as well as composed and performed by Puerto Ricans, including such outstanding figures as Rafael Hernández and Pedro Flores. There are no distinctively "Puerto Rican" features—such as singing "lelolai" or playing the cuatro—in their boleros, but it would be pointless to go on regarding the bolero solely as a "Cuban" genre; it is, of course, a Cuban genre, but since the 1920s it has also been an international genre, including a Puerto Rican one. The main differences are found in the musical arrangements and subject matter.
Merengue
In the 1990s the most popular dance music in the island was merengue, as performed by visiting Dominican bands and a few locals such as Olga Tañon. Similar disagreements have been voiced about local rock bands, such as Fiel a la Vega, Puya, and Konfrontazion, that flourished in the 1980s and 1990s, and which continue to be very popular. The choreography of the ballroom merengue is a basic side two-step, but with a difficult twist of the hip to the right, which makes it somewhat hard to perform. The two dance partners get into a vals, or waltz-like position. The couple then side steps, which is known as a paso de la empalizada or "stick-fence step," followed by either a clockwise or counter-clockwise turn. During all of the dance steps of the ballroom merengue, the couple never separates. The second kind of merengue is called the Figure Meringue or Merengue de Figura, and the performing couple makes individual turns without releasing the hands of the partner and still keeping the rhythm of the beat.
Guaracha and salsa
Salsa is another genre whose form derived from the Cuban/Puerto Rican melding of genre, especially Cuban dance music of the 1950s—but which in the 1960s-70s became an international genre, cultivated with special zeal and excellence in Puerto Rico and by Puerto Ricans in New York City. Forms such as the Charanga were hugely popular with Puerto Ricans and Nuyoricans who, in effect, rescued this genre which had been stagnating and limited to only Cuba in the 1960s, giving it new life, new social significance, and many new stylistic innovations. Salsa is the name acquired by the modernized form of Cuban/Puerto Rican-style dance music that was cultivated and rearticulated starting in the late 1960s by Puerto Ricans in New York City and, subsequently, in Puerto Rico and elsewhere. While salsa soon became an international phenomenon, thriving in Colombia, Venezuela, and elsewhere, New York and Puerto Rico remained its two epicenters. Particularly prominent in the island were El Gran Combo, Sonora Ponceña, and Willie Rosario, as well as the more pop-oriented "salsa romántica" stars of the 1980s-90s. (For further information see the entry on "salsa music.")
Other popular Nuyorican and Puerto Rican exposers of these genres have been Tito Puente, Tito Rodríguez (guaracha and bolero singer), pianists Eddie Palmieri, Richie Ray and Papo Lucca, conguero Ray Barreto, trombonist and singer Willie Colón, and singers La India, Andy Montañez, Bobby Cruz, Cheo Feliciano, Héctor Lavoe, Ismael Miranda, Ismael Rivera, Tito Nieves, Pete El Conde Rodríguez and Gilberto Santa Rosa.
Classical music
The island hosts two main orchestras, the Orquesta Sinfónica de Puerto Rico and the Orquesta Filarmónica de Puerto Rico. The Casals Festival takes place annually in San Juan, attracting classical musicians from around the world. Since the nineteenth century there have been diverse Puerto Rican composers, including Felipe Gutierrez Espinosa, Manuel Gregorio Tavárez, Juan Morel Campos, Aristides Chavier, Julio C. Arteaga, and Braulio Dueño Colón. At the beginning of the 20th century we find José Ignacio Quintón, Monsita Ferrer and José Enrique Pedreira. Moving to the mid-20th century a new wave of composers appeared, some of them with a significant degree of nationalism. In this group are Amaury Veray, Héctor Campos Parsi, Jack Delano and Luis Antonio Ramírez. With more contemporary languages come to the musical scene Rafael Aponte Led and Luis Manuel Álvarez. From the 1970s on, a fair number of musicians add to the list and, though with different styles, they all had an imposing international flavor. Ernesto Cordero, Carlos Alberto Vázquez, Alfonso Fuentes, Raymond Torres-Santos, Alberto Rodríguez, William Ortiz-Alvarado, José Javier Peña Aguayo, Carlos Carrillo and Roberto Sierra belong to this group.
Hip-Hop
As social conditions and urban decay took its toll in the projects New York City during the 1970s, blacks and Puerto Ricans were equally affected. As a way of coping with the disarray that was taking place in New York, both Puerto Ricans and blacks worked together to collaborate on rap music that would help express their creative art. As Deborah Pacini Hernandez wrote in her article, "Oye Como Va! Hybridity and Identity in Latino Popular Music," many of the ways that blacks and Puerto Ricans coped with their struggles was through, "graffiti, DJing, emceeing, break dancing, and fashion—the cultural elements comprising hip-hop." (56) As hip-hop music rose to prominence, it was clear that Puerto Ricans had an influence on the hip-hop industry, from the break dancing to the sound of the music."To speak of Puerto Ricans in rap means to defy the sense of instant amnesia that engulfs popular cultural expression once it is caught up in the logic of commercial representation. It involves sketching in historical contexts and sequences, tracing traditions and antecedents, and recognizing hip-hop to be more and different than the simulated images, poses, and formulas the public discourse of media entertainment tends to reduce it to. The decade and more of hindsight provided by the Puerto Rican involvement shows that, rather than a new musical genre and its accompanying stylistic trappings, rap constitutes a space for the articulation of social experience. From this perspective, what has emerged as “Latin rap” first took shape as an expression of the cultural turf shared, and contended for, by African Americans and Puerto Ricans over their decades as neighbors, coworkers, and “homies” in the inner-city communities." - Juan Flores, Puerto Rocks: Rap, Roots and AmnesiaDespite the fact that Puerto Ricans had a huge impact on the rise of hip-hop during the late 1970s, they struggled to receive credit as hip-hop was portrayed through the media as a genre that was predominantly black. Instead of switching genres, they had to find other ways to mask their cultural identities. For example, DJ Charlie Chase was one of the first Puerto Rican artists to burst onto the scene with his group, the Cold Crush Brothers, but was the only person in the original group who wasn't black. He said that he knew he had to change his name because if he went out to perform as Carlos Mendes, he might not have gotten the credit or attention that he deserved.
However, rappers such as DJ Charlie Chase set the scene for more mainstream success in the future. Because of the development of Puerto Ricans in hip-hop, artists like Big Pun, Daddy Yankee, Fat Joe, Swizz Beats, Young MA, Calle 13 (band) have become more successful. Lin-Manuel Miranda achieved universal acclaim with his opera-musical Hamilton (musical), which blends rap and classical influences.
Dance
Dance is a performing art related to expressing one's ideas and values. The activity is associated with exercise because of the required movements required to execute specific dance patterns. In Puerto Rico, dance is considered to be a part of the culture that is passed on from generation to generation and practiced at family and community parties and celebrations.
Historical influences
Dance has been influenced by the different cultures of the Taíno natives, the Spaniards, and the African slaves. Since pre-Columbian times, dance has always been part of the culture of Puerto Rico and has evolved according to the social and demographic changes. The earliest dances documented by the early historians were the Taíno areyto dances that were chanted by a chorus, set to music, and led by a guide. They practiced storytelling while the guide indicated the steps and songs that were to be repeated until the story was finished. Dances of European origin also became popular among the country folk and the settlers of the central part of the island and rapidly acquired unique features of rhythm, instrumentation, interpretation, and even fashion.
As the population of the Taíno dwindled, Spanish, African and, from 1898 on, North American dances appeared on the island and took root and developed in the mountains, on the coast, and in thé cities.
After the island was taken over by Spain, the music and the dance of Puerto Rico consisted of a combination of the harmonious musical styles that are borrowed from Spanish, African, and other European cultures, creating Puerto Rico's signature style of Latin dance.
Salsa
It refers to the mixture of different rhythms composed of different Latin, African, and Caribbean dances. Salsa is said to be first created around the 1960s and became popular to the non-Latino world drastically. The salsa dance is similar to the mambo dance.
Salsa dancing is structured in six step patterns phrased on 8 counts of the music. The 8 different steps include 6 moves with 2 pauses. The pattern of the dance is 1,2,3 and pause for 4, move for 5,6,7 and pause for 8. The basic steps are (1) the forward and backward: in this step consist of two rock steps going in and out of the moves. The second step is known as the basic side dance step, it is similar to the first step except for this step, the moves are towards the side. The side to side feels and turns are of the significant aspects of the salsa dance.
Cha Cha Chá
The Cha Cha Chá dance originated in Cuba. Before the dance begins, one know how to count the Cha Cha Chá. The following are the first basic steps: (1) Count the Cha Cha Chá in "rock step, triple step and then rock step". (2) Eventually, count to three "1,2,3 Cha Cha Chá", which brings to the three full beats and two half beats of the dance. The second category is known as the Cha Cha Chá side basic, the most often used basic move of the dance. It is similar to the previous one except for the triple step to the side rather than in place. The third step is known as the "underarm in Cha Cha Chá" ans shows how to do the lady's underarm steps to the right. Based on the previous step, men might not struggle, but women must know the exact turning spot. The dance is named after the scraping sounds that are produced by the feet of the dancers.
See also
Boogaloo
Urbano music
Museo de la Música Puertorriqueña
Latin trap
Cultural diversity in Puerto Rico
History of Puerto Rico
Cachi Cachi music
Latin freestyle
Latin house
Latin American music in the United States
References
Further reading
Barton, Hal. “The challenges of Puerto Rican bomba.” In Caribbean dance from abakuá to zouk, ed. Susanna Sloat. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2014.
Blanco, Tomás. "Elogio de la plena." In Revista del instituto de cultura puertorriqueña 2, 19792 (from Revista ateneo puertorriqueño 1, 1935).
Brau, Salvador. "La danza puertorriqueña." In Ensayos sobre la danza puertorriqueña. San Juan: Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña, 1977a.
Brill, Mark. Music of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2nd Edition, 2018. Taylor & Francis
Díaz Díaz, Edgardo. 2008. “Danza antillana, conjuntos militares, nacionalismo musical e identidad dominicana: retomando los pasos perdidos del merengue.” Latin American Music Review 29(2): 229–259.
Díaz Diaz, Edgardo, and Peter Manuel. “Puerto Rico: The Rise and Fall of the Danza as National Music”. In Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean, edited by Peter Manuel. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009.
Flores, Juan. Divided Borders: Essays on Puerto Rican Identity. Houston: Arte Público Press, 1993.
Flores, Juan. From bomba to hip-hop: Puerto Rican culture and latino identity. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.
Malavet Vega, Pedro. Historia de la canción popular en Puerto Rico (1493-1898). San Juan, 1992.
Manuel, Peter, with Kenneth Bilby and Michael Largey. Caribbean Currents: Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae (2nd edition). Temple University Press, 2006
Manuel, Peter, "Puerto Rican Music and Cultural Identity: Creative Appropriation of Cuban Sources from Danza to Salsa," Ethnomusicology 3/2, Spring/Summer 1994, pp. 249–80.
Quintero Rivera, Angel. "Ponce, the danza and the national question: notes toward a sociology of Puerto Rican music." [trans. of 1986] In Vernon Boggs, Salsiology, Greenwood Press, 1992. and in Thompson, Donald, ed., Music in Puerto Rico: A reader’s anthology. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2002.
Quintero Rivera, Angel. Salsa, sabor y control: sociología de la música tropical. Mexico City: siglo veintiuno, 1998.
Rodríguez Julia, Edgardo. El entierro de Cortijo. San Juan: Ediciones Huracán, 1995.
Stavans, Ilan, Latin Music: Musicians, Genres, and Themes. ABC-CLIO. 2014.
Sweeney, Philip. "Not Quite the 52nd State". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 481–487. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Thompson, Donald, ed. |title=Music in Puerto Rico: A reader's anthology. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2002.
de Thompson, Annie Figueroa, Bibliografía anotada sobre la música en Puerto Rico. San Juan: Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña, 1977.
External links
Puerto Rican Cuatro Project (El Proyecto del cuatro)
La Parranda Puertorriquena: The Music, Symbolism, and Cultural Nationalism of Puerto Rico's Christmas Serenading Tradition
For The Love of Puerto Rico: 10 Great Salsa Tracks by Boricuas
Music Of Puerto Rico — website of songs, artists and other related information
Cultural history of Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico | [
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242989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20the%20Bahamas | Music of the Bahamas | The music of the Bahamas is associated primarily with Junkanoo, a celebration which occurs on Boxing Day and again on New Year's Day. Parades and other celebrations mark the ceremony. Groups like The Baha Men, Ronnie Butler and Kirkland Bodie have gained massive popularity in Japan, the United States and other places. Other popular Bahamian artists include Stileet and Stevie S.
Calypso
Calypso is a style of Afro-Caribbean music which originated in Trinidad and Tobago. This form of music has spread through many parts of the Caribbean, including The Bahamas.
Soca
Soca is a form of dance music which originated from many calypso music in Trinidad and Tobago. It originally combined the melodic lilting sound of calypso with insistent percussion (which is often electronic in recent music) and local chutney music. Soca music has evolved in the last 20 years primarily by musicians from various Anglophone Caribbean countries including Trinidad, Guyana, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Barbados, Grenada, Saint Lucia, Antigua and Barbuda, United States Virgin Islands, The Bahamas, Dominica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Jamaica and Belize.
Junkanoo
The word Junkanoo is said to be derived from a Ghanaian leader, John Connu, or from the Qujo supreme deity (Canno) and ancestral spirits (jannanin). The junkanoo is still practiced in North Carolina and remnants still exist in Belize. It is most well known, though, from Nassau and Freeport. Since the 1950s the influence of American culture has increased, mainly through TV and radio broadcasts from Florida stations, and other Caribbean styles have made inroads: calypso, reggae and soca, from Jamaica, Cuba, Trinidad, and other islands. Tourism has also had an impact, bringing in Japanese, European and North Americans with their attendant forms of cultural expression. In this milieu more traditional Bahamas performers such as Joseph Spence, have still enjoyed successful careers playing junkanoo, Christian hymns and the ant'ems of the local sponge fishermen, which include "Sloop John B", later made famous by The Beach Boys.
Junkane.
In 1973, the year the Bahamas achieved independence from the United Kingdom, black professionals of the middle and upper classes began to dominate junkanoo celebrations. Costuming and competitions became more complex and commonplace, and soon became a tourist draw.
Aside from being a type of drum, goombay is also a percussion music made famous by Alphonso 'Blind Blake' Higgs, who played to tourists arriving at Nassau International Airport for several years. Rake-and-scrape music is a unique type of instrumental music made by bending a saw and scraping with a small object, most typically a screwdriver; it is used to accompany dances derived from European forms like polka and waltz. Rake-and-scrape's popularity has been declining in recent years, but performers like Lassie Do and the Boys continue to keep the tradition alive. Christian rhyming spirituals and the ant'ems of sponge fishermen are now mostly dead traditions, decimated by the arrival of pop music, a 1930s sponge blight and other causes.
E. Clement Bethel's master's thesis on traditional Bahamian music was adapted for the stage by his daughter, Nicolette Bethel and Philip A. Burrows. Music of The Bahamas was first performed at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 1991, and was revived in 2002 for fresh Bahamian audiences. A recording of that show is available for sale from Ringplay Productions.
Rake and scrape
Rake and scrape music is played traditionally with Concertinas, Goombay drums, and a Handsaw. Rake and scrape is believed to have originated on the island of Cat Island but evidence suggest that it was emerging in many places simultaneously. The earliest reference to usage of the accordion by Bahamians is in 1886 in an Article in the Nassau Guardian. The term rake and scrape became the norm in 1969 by Charles Carter although he claims the people of Cat Island were already calling it that when he visited the Island.
Organology of instruments
Membranophones: The Goombay drum is main rhythmic component in rake-n-scrape. It is also referred to a goatskin drum, as the skin of a goat was stretched over a wooden barrel. It is decorated by simple or complex geometric designs in bright colors. The drum is always heated over fire to retain its tone. In 1971, when manufacturers started shipping products in metal barrels, Bahamians switched the drum to metal, slightly changing the tone of the drum.
Idiophones: The main component that makes Rake-N-Scrape unique is the use of the Carpenter's Saw. This instrument is scraped with a nail or butter knife. Bent against the body of the player and flexed, various timbral effects are obtained. In more modern music, the saw is replaced with maracas or a guiro.
Aerophones: The accordion is the component that adds the round form which enables dancers to dance the ring dance. This is of European descent. In more modern bands, it is replaced by an electric guitar or electronic keyboard.
See also
List of Bahamian musicians
References
Kaliss, Jeff. "Junkanoo and Sloop John B.". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 317–324. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Rommen, Timothy. "Come Back Home: Regional Travels, Global Encounters, and Local Nostalgias in Bahamian Popular Musics." Project Muse: Latin American Music Review, Vol 30, Number 2, Fall/Winter 2009. University of Texas Press, 159–183.
Ingraham, Veronica. 2007. "The Bahamas" in An Encyclopedic History: Music in Latin America and the Caribbean, vol. 2, Performing the Caribbean Experience, Ed. By Malena Kuss. Texas: University of Texas Press, 359–376.
http://www.bahamasentertainers.com/
The Bahamas: Islands of song, recorded and produced by Oete Reiniger, with introductory essays by Gail Saunders and Kayla Olubumni Lockhart Edwards. I CD, Smithsonian Folkways SF 40405 (1997).
External links
Audio clips: traditional music of the Bahamas. Musée d'ethnographie de Genève. Accessed 25 November 2010.
Bahamanian conch song. Library of Congress, Florida Folklife from the WPA Collections; performed by Naomi Nelson on 15 January 1940 in Riviera, Florida. Accessed 10 September 2010. | [
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242991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20of%20the%20Republic | President of the Republic | The President of the Republic is a title used for heads of state and/or heads of government in countries having republican form of government.
Designation
In most cases the President of a republic is elected, either:
by direct universal suffrage (by all voters), or
by indirect suffrage, or
by a Parliament or one of its Chambers, or
by an electoral college which may itself be designated.
Republics having Presidents
Africa
: President of Algeria, President of the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria since 1962
: President of Benin, President of the Republic of Benin since 1960
: President of Botswana, President of the Republic of Botswana since 1966
: President of Cameroon, President of the Republic of Cameroon since 1960
Comoros : President of the Comoros, President of the Union of the Comoros since 1975
: President of Egypt, President of the Arab Republic of Egypt since 1953
: President of Ethiopia, President of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia since 1974
: President of Ghana, President of the Republic of Ghana since 1960
: President of Ivory Coast, President of the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire since 1960
: President of the Republic of Liberia since 1848
: President of Senegal since 1960
: President of Seychelles since 1976
: President of Sierra Leone, President of the Republic of Sierra Leone since 1971
: President of Somalia, Madaxaweynaha Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliyeed since 1960
Somaliland: President of Somaliland, since 1991
: President of South Africa, President of the Republic of South Africa since 1994
: President of South Sudan since 2011
: President of Sudan since 1956
: President of Tunisia, President of the Republic of Tunisia since 1957
: President of Uganda, President of the Republic of Uganda since 1967
The Americas
: President of Argentina, Presidente de la Nación Argentina since 1826
: President of Barbados, President of Barbados since 2021
: President of Brazil, Presidente da República Federativa do Brasil since 1889
: President of Colombia, Presidente de la República de Colombia since 1819
: President of Chile, Presidente de la República de Chile since 1826
: President of Costa Rica, Presidente de la República de Costa Rica since 1848
: President of Cuba, Presidente del Consejo de Estado de Cuba since 1902
: President of Ecuador, Presidente de la República del Ecuador since 1830
: President of Guatemala, Presidente de Guatemala since 1839
: President of Guyana, President of the Co-operative Republic of Guyana since 1970
: President of Haiti, Président de la République d'Haïti (French), Prezidan peyi Repiblik Ayiti (Creole) since 1807
: President of Honduras, Presidente de la República de Honduras since 1982
: President of Suriname, President van de Republiek Suriname since 1975
: President of the United States of America since 1789
: President of Uruguay, Presidente de la República Oriental del Uruguay since 1830
: President of Mexico, Presidente de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos 1824 to 1864 and since 1867
Asia
: President of Azerbaijan, President of the Republic of Azerbaijan since 1991
: President of the Republic of China, 中華民國總統 since 1912
: President of the People's Republic of China, 中华人民共和国主席 since 1954, restored in 1982
: President of India, भारत गणराज्य के राष्ट्रपति (in Hindi), President of the Republic of India (English) since 1950
: President of Indonesia, Presiden Republik Indonesia since 1945
: President of Iran, رییسجمهور ایران Rayis Jomhur-e Irān (Persian) since 1980
: President of Iraq, رئيس العراق Rayis aleiraq since 1958
: President of Israel, נשיא מדינת ישראל, President of the State of Israel since 1949
: President of Kazakhstan, Қазақстан Республикасының Президенті, Qazaqstan Respwblïkasınıñ Prezïdenti since 1990
Maldives: President of the Maldives 1953-54 and since 1968
: President of Mongolia, Монгол Улсын Ерөнхийлөгч, Mongol Ulsyn Yerönkhiilögch since 1990
: President of the Philippines, President of the Republic of the Philippines, "Pangulo ng Republika ng Pilipinas" (Filipino) since 1899
: President of South Korea, 대한민국 대통령, President of the Republic of South Korea since 1948
: President of Sri Lanka, ශ්රී ලංකා ජනාධිපති (Sinhalese), இலங்கை சனாதிபதி (Tamil) since 1972
: President of Laos, President of the Lao People's Democratic Republic since 1975
: President of Syria, رئيس سوريا Rayis suria since 1946
: President of Uzbekistan, Oʻzbekiston Respublikasining Prezidenti since 1990
: President of Vietnam, President of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam since 1945
: President of Singapore, President of the Republic of Singapore since 1965
Europe
: President of Albania, Presidenti i Shqipërisë since 1991
: President of Austria, Bundespräsident der Republik Österreich since 1920
: President of Belarus, Прэзідэнт Рэспублікі Беларусь or Президент Республики Беларусь (President of the Republic of Belarus) since 1994
: President of Bulgaria, Президент на Република България since 1990
: President of Croatia Predsjednik Republike Hrvatske since 1990
: President of Cyprus, Πρόεδρος της Κυπριακής Δημοκρατίας or Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti Cumhurbaşkanı (President of the Republic of Cyprus, ) since 1960
: President of Northern Cyprus Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti Cumhurbaşkanı since 1983
: President of Estonia, Eesti Vabariigi President since 1992 (pre Soviet 1938)
: President of Finland, Tasavallan presidentti or Republikens president since 1919
: President of the French Republic, Président de la République Française 1848-52 and since 1870
: President of Georgia, საქართველოს პრეზიდენტი since 1991
: President of the Federal Republic of Germany, Bundespräsident der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Federal President of the Federal Republic of Germany) 1949-90 for West Germany only, and since 1990 for all of Germany
: President of the Czech Republic, Prezident České republiky (President of the Czech Republic) since 1993
: President of the Hellenic Republic, Πρόεδρος της Ελληνικής Δημοκρατίας (President of the Hellenic Republic) since 1973
: President of the Republic of Hungary, Köztársasági elnök since 1989
: President of Iceland, Forseti Íslands since 1944
: President of Dáil Éireann (1919-1922), alternative title President of the Republic used by Éamon de Valera from August 1921 to January 1922
: President of Ireland, Uachtarán na hÉireann since 1938
: President of the Italian Republic, Presidente della Repubblica Italiana since 1948
: President of Poland, Prezydent Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej (President of the Republic of Poland) since 1922
: President of the Portuguese Republic, Presidente da República Portuguesa since 1910
: President of Romania, Președintele României since 1974
: President of Russia, Президент Российской Федерации Prezident Rossiyskoy Federatsii since 1991
: President of Serbia, Председник Републике Србије Predsednik Republike Srbije since 1945
: President of the Slovak Republic, Prezident Slovenskej republiky since 1993
: President of Slovenia, Predsednik Republike Slovenije since 1991
: President of Turkey, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Cumhurbaşkanı (President of the Republic of Turkey) since 1923
: President of Ukraine, Президент України since 1991
Oceania
: President of Fiji, President of the Republic of Fiji since 1987
: President of French Polynesia since 1984
See also
Eternal President of the Republic
Heads of state | [
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243003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Slovenia | Music of Slovenia | In the minds of many foreigners, Slovenian folk music means a form of polka that is still popular today, especially among expatriates and their descendants. However, there are many styles of Slovenian folk music beyond polka and waltz. , , , and are a few of the traditional music styles and dances.
Prehistory
The Divje Babe flute, an artifact found in a cave near Cerkno, Slovenia, is possibly the oldest known musical instrument ever. Its age is estimated at approximately 55,000 years.
The history of modern Slovenian music can be traced back to the 5th century, when Christianity spread in Carantania. Liturgical hymns (kyrie Eleison) were introduced, and became the first plainchant to make a connection to the peoples' language.
Classical music
Medieval
During the medieval era, secular music was as popular as church music, including wandering minnesingers. Jurij Slatkonja, a Carniolan conductor and composer from Novo Mesto, became the director of the Vienna Boys' Choir in 1498. By the time of Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, music was used to proselytize in Carniola. The first Slovenian hymnal, Eni Psalmi, was published in 1567. This period saw the rise of Renaissance musicians like Jacobus Gallus. Italy was an important musical influence of the period, especially in sacred music, such as that of Antonio Tarsia (composer) of Koper, in oratorio and opera. A Commedia was performed in Ljubljana in 1660, and an opera in 1700 in the family palace of the Auerspergs.
Enlightenment
In 1701, Johann Berthold von Höffer (1667–1718), a nobleman and amateur composer from Ljubljana, founded the Academia Philharmonicorum Labacensis based on Italian models. and the Ljubljana branch of the Roman Academy of Arcadia was founded a few years later in 1709. Apart from Höffer, the Cathedral provost Michael Omerza was also noted for his oratorios. The first major Slovenian opera was performed in 1732, Il Tamerlano by abbate Giuseppe Clemente de Bonomi, maestro di Capella, in the palace of the Carniolan vice-regent, the duke Francesco Antonio Sigifrid Della Torre e Valassina.
Beginning in 1768, German theatre companies arrived and became very popular. The 1794 formation of the Philharmonische Gesellschaft was important because it was one of the first such orchestras in Central Europe.
19th century
The 19th century saw the growth of a distinctively Slovenian classical music sound based on romanticism, while the German minority continued to push for a stronger Germanic identity. The Ljubljana opera house (1892) was shared by Slovene and German opera companies.
Composers of Slovenian Lieder and art songs include Emil Adamič (1877–1936), Fran Gerbič (1840–1917), Alojz Geržinič (1915–2008), Benjamin Ipavec (1829–1908), Davorin Jenko (1835–1914), Anton Lajovic (1878–1960), Kamilo Mašek (1831–1859), Josip Pavčič (1870–1949), Zorko Prelovec (1887–1939), and Lucijan Marija Škerjanc (1900–1973).
20th century
In the early 20th century, impressionism was spreading across Slovenia, which soon produced composers Marij Kogoj and Slavko Osterc.
Avant-garde classical music arose in Slovenia in the 1960s, largely due to the work of Uroš Krek, Dane Škerl, Primož Ramovš and Ivo Petrić, who also conducted the Slavko Osterc Ensemble. Jakob Jež, Darijan Božič, Lojze Lebič and Vinko Globokar have since composed enduring works, especially Globokar's L'Armonia, an opera. In the 1950s, Božidar Kantušer was the most progressive of all, by dint of his atonality.
Contemporary
Contemporary classic music composers include Uroš Rojko, Tomaž Svete, Brina Jež-Brezavšček and Aldo Kumar. Kumar's Sonata z igro 12 (A sonata with a play 12), a set of variations on a rising chromatic scale, is particularly notable.
Opera
The Ljubljana Opera House serves as the national opera and ballet house. Mezzo-soprano Marjana Lipovšek was born in Ljubljana.
Film music
The composer of film scores for 170 films was Bojan Adamič (1912–1995).
Folk music
Vocal
Rural Harmony singing is a deep rooted tradition in Slovenia, and is at least three-part singing (four voices), while in some regions even up to eight-part singing (nine voices). Slovenian folk songs, thus, usually resounds soft and harmonious, and are very seldom in minor.
Instrumental
Typical Slovenian folk music is performed on Styrian harmonica (the oldest type of accordion), fiddle, clarinet, zithers, flute, and by brass bands of alpine type. In eastern Slovenia, fiddle and cimbalon bands are called velike goslarije. Traditional Slovenian music include various kinds of musical instruments such as:
Steirische Harmonika
Kontra
Hammered dulcimer
Cimbalon grande
Drone zither
Violin zither
Zither
Tamburica
Fiddle
Carnian fiddle
Cello
Brunkula cello
Gaida
Brass instruments, such as baritone horn
Clarinet
Jaw harp
Clay pot bass
Okarina
Klopotec
Panpipes
Wooden cross flutes of various sizes
Psaltery
Tambourine
Folk music revivalists include Volk Volk, Kurja Koža, Marko Banda, Katice, Bogdana Herman, Ljoba Jenče, Vruja, Trinajsto praše, Šavrinske pupe en ragacone, Musicante Istriani, and Tolovaj Mataj.
One of the best Slovenian diatonic accordionists is Nejc Pačnik who won the accordion world-championship twice, in 2009 and 2015.
Slovenian pop-folk music
From 1952 on, the Slavko Avsenik's band began to appear in broadcasts, movies, and concerts all over the West Germany, inventing the original "Oberkrainer" sound that has become the primary vehicle of ethnic musical expression not only in Slovenia, but also in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and in the Benelux, spawning hundreds of Alpine orchestras in the process. The band produced nearly 1000 original compositions, an integral part of the Slovenian-style polka legacy. Avsenik's most popular instrumental composition is the polka that is titled "Na Golici" (in Slovene), or "Trompetenecho" (in German), and "Trumpet Echoes" (in English). Oberkrainer music, which the Avsenik Ensemble popularized, is always a strong candidate for pop-folk music awards in Slovenia and Austria. Slavko and his brother, Vilko, are usually credited as the pioneers of Slovenian folk music, having solidified its style in the 1950s.
Many musicians followed Avsenik's steps, one of the most famous being Lojze Slak.
Slovenian song festival
A similarly high standing in Slovene culture, like the Sanremo Music Festival has had in Italian culture, was attributed to the coastal Melodies of Sea and Sun (In Slovene: ) and Slovenian song festival (In Slovene: ), dedicated to a specific genre of popular Slovene music.
Popular music
Contemporary music
Among pop, rock, industrial, and indie musicians the most popular in Slovenia include Laibach, an early 1980s industrial music group, and most recently the Slovenian pop a cappella band Perpetuum Jazzile.
Pop, rock, metal, and indie music
With more than 15 million views for the official a cappella "Africa" performance video since its publishing on YouTube in May 2009 until September 2013, that earned them kudos from the song's co-writer, David Paich, Perpetuum Jazzile is the group from Slovenia that is internationally most listened online. Other popular bands, most largely unknown outside the country, include Tabu, ManuElla, Društvo Mrtvih Pesnikov (pop-rock), Siddharta, Rok 'n' Band, Pop Design, Fredi Miler, Terrafolk, Leaf Fat (screamo), Amaya, Šank Rock, Big Foot Mama, Yogurt, Dan D, Zablujena generacija, Katalena, Devil Doll (experimental rock), Negligence (band), Chateau, Čuki, Zaklonišče Prepeva, Psycho-Path, Dekadent (black metal), and Buldožer (progressive rock). The deathcore band Within Destruction have released two-full-length albums and have partaken in several European tours; the band is based in Jesenice.
Singer-songwriters
Slovenian post-WWII singer-songwriters include Frane Milčinski (1914–1988), Tomaž Pengov whose 1973 album Odpotovanja is considered to be the first singer-songwriter album in former Yugoslavia, Tomaž Domicelj, Marko Brecelj, Andrej Šifrer, Eva Sršen, Neca Falk, and Jani Kovačič. After 1990, Adi Smolar, Iztok Mlakar, Vita Mavrič, Vlado Kreslin, Zoran Predin, Peter Lovšin, and Magnifico have been popular in Slovenia, as well.
World music
The 1970s Bratko Bibič's band Begnagrad is considered one of the direct influences on modern world music. Bibič's unique accordion style, often solo, with no accompaniment, has also made him a solo star.
Punk rock
Slovenia was the center for punk rock in the Titoist Yugoslavia. The most famous representatives of this genre were Pankrti, Niet, Lublanski Psi, Kuzle, Čao Pičke, Via Ofenziva, Tožibabe, and Otroci Socializma.
Techno and tech-house
Slovenia has also produced two renowned DJs: DJ Umek and Valentino Kanzyani. Specialising in a frantic brand of party techno and tech-house, the pair co-founded the label Recycled Loops as well as having many releases on labels such as Novamute, Primate, Intec and Bassethound Records.
Neue Slowenische Kunst
Neue Slowenische Kunst (a German phrase meaning "New Slovenian Art"), aka NSK, is a controversial political art collective that announced itself in Slovenia in 1984, when Slovenia was part of Yugoslavia. NSK's name, being German, is compatible with a theme in NSK works: the complicated relationship Slovenes have had with Germans. The name of NSK's music wing, Laibach, is also the German name of the Slovene capital Ljubljana, creating controversy through evoking memories of the Nazi occupation of Slovenia during the Second World War.
Composition
NSK's best-known member is the musical group Laibach. Other NSK member groups include IRWIN (visual art), Noordung (theater; originally named Scipion Nasice Sisters Theatre, also known as Red Pilot), New Collective Studio (graphics; also known as New Collectivism), Retrovision (film and video), and the Department of Pure and Applied Philosophy (theory). The founding groups of the NSK were Laibach, IRWIN, and Scipion Našice Sisters Theater.
Characteristics
NSK art often draws on symbols drawn from totalitarian or extreme nationalist movements, often reappropriating totalitarian kitsch in a visual style reminiscent of Dada. NSK artists often juxtapose symbols from different (and often incompatible) political ideologies. For example, a 1987 NSK-designed poster caused a scandal by winning a competition for the Yugoslavian Youth Day Celebration. The poster appropriated a painting by Nazi artist Richard Klein, replacing the flag of Nazi Germany with the Yugoslav flag and the German eagle with a dove.
Both IRWIN and Laibach are emphatic about their work being collective rather than individual. Laibach's original songs and arrangements are always credited to the group collectively; the individual artists are not named on their album covers; at one point, there were even two separate Laibach groups touring at the same time, both with members of the original group. Similarly, the IRWIN artists never sign their work individually; instead, they are "signed" with a stamp or certificate indicating approval as a work from the IRWIN collective.
The NSK were the subject of a 1996 documentary film written and directed by Michael Benson, entitled Prerokbe Ognja in Slovenian, or Predictions of Fire in English. Among those interviewed in the film is Slovenian intellectual Slavoj Žižek.
NSK State
Since 1991, NSK has claimed to constitute a state, a claim similar to that of micronations. They issue passports, have presented shows of their work in the guise of an embassy or even as a territory of their supposed state, and maintain consulates in several cities including Umag, Croatia. NSK have also issued postage stamps. Laibach, in 2006, recorded (some may say 'remixed') the NSK State National Anthem on the LP "Volk." The "anthem" adopts its melody from another Laibach song, "The Great Seal." Laibach's version of the NSK anthem includes a computer voice reciting an excerpt from Winston Churchill's famous "We shall fight them on the beaches/We shall never surrender" speech. The computer voice is clearly recognisable as the voice synthesiser Macintalk, built into classic Mac OS, and uses the preset voice Ralph.
The NSK passports are an art project and as such are not valid for travel. However, many desperate people have fallen for a scam in which they are issued a NSK passport. Most of these scams originate in Nigeria and Egypt.
Laibach
Laibach is a Slovenian avant-garde music group strongly associated with Nazism, martial, and neo-classical musical styles. Laibach formed 1 June 1980 in Trbovlje, Slovenia (then Yugoslavia). Laibach represents the music wing of the Neue Slowenische Kunst (NSK) art collective, of which it was a founding member in 1984. The name "Laibach" is the German name for Slovenia's capital city, Ljubljana.
See also
Drone zither – type of Slovenian zither
Klopotec – a type of a scarecrow used as a folk instrument
List of radio stations in Slovenia
List of Slovenian musicians
Slovenian rock
Slovenian-style polka
References
Burton, Kim. "The Sound of Austro-Slavs". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 277–278. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Klemenčič, Ivan, Slovenski godalni kvartet. Ljubljana, Musicological Annual XXIV, 1988.
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243011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Croatia | Music of Croatia | The music of Croatia, like the divisions of the country itself, has two major influences: Central European, present in central and northern parts of the country including Slavonia, and Mediterranean, present in coastal regions of Dalmatia and Istria.
In Croatia both pop and rock are popular, as well as pop music influenced by Dalmatian or Slavonian folk elements.
Since the mid-20th century, schlager and chanson-inspired music have formed the backbone of the Croatian popular music.
History of music in Croatia
Medieval
The oldest preserved relics of musical culture in Croatia are sacral in nature and represented by Latin medieval liturgical chant manuscripts (approximately one hundred musical codices and fragments dating from the 11th to the 15th centuries have been preserved to date). They reveal a wealth of various influences and liturgical traditions that converged in this region (Dalmatian liturgy in Benevento script, Northern Gregorian chant, and original Glagolitic chant).
Renaissance and baroque
Early in the 15th century, the ideas of Humanism in Croatia brought about changes to the world of music. Interest in music began to spread outside of monastic and church walls with growing influence of new spiritual tendencies from Central European and particularly Italian cities. Humanists and philosophers promulgated new musical theories and aesthetic ideas: Federik Grisogono, Pavao Skalić, Frane Petrić. The writing down of folk and popular music began in mid-sixteenth century: in the poem Fishing and Fishermen's Talk from 1558, Petar Hektorović ingrained Neoplatonic ideals in popular music; and transcripts of Croatian musical folklore were printed in Venetian anthologies (Giulio Cesare Barbetta 1569, Marco Facoli 1588). Julije Skjavetić from Šibenik published his madrigals (Li madrigali a quattro, et a cinque voci 1562), while his Motetti a cinque et a sei voci, (1564) are characterised by a lavish polyphonic structure under the influence of the Dutch school. Music and dance were a component part of theatrical expression (Mavro Vetranović, Nikola Nalješković, Marin Držić, Marin Benetović), while the function of music and sound effects was under the influence of Italian pastorals.
The most prominent Croatian composers of this period include Ivan Lukačić, Vinko Jelić and Atanazije Jurjević.
New tendencies of early Baroque monody soon found their way into the domestic musical tradition, both sacral and secular. Tomaso Cecchini, from Verona, who spent his entire working life (1603–44) as a choirmaster, organist and composer in Split and Hvar, published his madrigals Armonici concetti, libro primo (1612) as the oldest Baroque collection written for the Croatian milieu. The collection Sacrae cantiones (Venice 1620) by Ivan Lukačić from Šibenik is valuable testimony of sacral music that was performed in Split, and is generally speaking, one of the most significant monuments of old Croatian music altogether. The Franciscans and Paulists cultivated sacral chants, mostly monophonic and without organ accompaniment (the manuscript cantos of Frane Divnić, Bone Razmilović, Filip Vlahović-Kapušvarac, Franjo Vukovarac and Petar Knežević). Also, worth mentioning is Ragusino Vincenzo Comnen, the only representative of the music of the Dubrovnik nobility.
The tradition of the Baroque was more lasting in church/sacral music, which was the musical form that was systematically nurtured in numerous monasteries (especially Franciscan ones) as well as in parish and cathedral churches. The preservation of music manuscripts and prints became a widespread practice in the mid-18th century. Simple vocal-instrumental music for two voices with organ continuo was the form most frequently performed in churches; more prominent individuals active in the sphere of music could be found only in larger urban centres. They were mostly organists and maestri di cappella, skilful composers who had small vocal and/or instrumental ensembles and who frequently acted as music teachers (private or in church schools). The gradual development of the middle class had as one of its consequences the corresponding secular organisation of musical life, particularly in the first decades of the 19th century, a period that saw the establishment of music ensembles, music societies (1827 in Zagreb, then in Varaždin, Rijeka, Osijek etc.) and music schools.
In addition, public balls and other events were organised (music academies, theatre performances) with the participation of local and foreign musicians (from Italy, Austria, Bohemia etc.) including the private collection of music materials for playing music at home. Music became a component part of various festivities, such as the arrival of important political personalities (the new governor or the Habsburg king Frances I, etc.), the feasts of patron saints (St. Blaise in Dubrovnik, St. Domnius in Split, St. Stephen in Hvar and Zagreb etc.), for which so called art music was specifically composed, with the inclusion of popular elements (bourgeois dances, folk music of the peasantry).
Romanticism
Many Italian and domestic musicians worked in Dubrovnik: in the cathedral choir and orchestra, in the Duke's orchestra, at private and public festivities. An excellent early example of pre-classical symphony and chamber music was given by Luka Sorkočević, a nobleman educated in Rome, as well as his son Antun, a historian and diplomat.
Ferdo Livadić (1799–1879) wrote Notturno in F-sharp minor for piano as early as 1822, which is, along with John Field's compositions under the same name, one of the earliest examples of that type of piano miniatures in general.
In the course of the 1830s, as a reflection of such tendencies in Europe, the Illyrian Movement emerged in Croatia which assigned not only to literature but to music as well a particular socio-political role: the forming and guarding of national awareness including the struggle against Hungarization and Germanization. Accordingly, in 1846 Josip Runjanin (1821–1878) put to music Antun Mihanović's 1835 poem "Horvatska domovina" (Croatian Homeland), which later became the Croatian national anthem. In such a setting Vatroslav Lisinski (1819–1954) composed the first Croatian national opera Ljubav i zloba (Love and Malice), which premièred in Zagreb in 1846.
Taking into consideration the presence of folk music, the aspirations of the Illyrians went far beyond the results achieved, something that is also continued in the work of Ivan Zajc (1832–1914) in the second half of the century. His masterpiece, the opera Nikola Šubić Zrinjski, ever since its opening night in Zagreb in 1876, had not lost in popularity, partly because its heroic patriotism functions as a symbol of Croatia's victory. Finally, owing to the founder of Croatian ethno-musicology and musical historiography, Franjo Kuhač (1834–1911), the systematic research of folklore evolved simultaneously with Zajc's endeavours. Finally it should be added that in Zajc's and Kuhač's era, major halls for musical performances and concerts were built: in Zagreb the building of the Croatian Music Institute (1876, 1895) with a concert hall, and the building of the Croatian National Theatre (1895), including the theatre buildings in Rijeka (1885), Split (1893) and Osijek (1907) where, along with the Croatian National Theatre in Zagreb, drama, opera and ballet performances are still played today.
During the 19th century, other instrumentalists and singers won international recognition, for example, the violinist Franjo Krežma (1862–1881), singers, among which Ilma Murska (1834–1889), Matilda Mallinger (1847–1920) who sang at the opening night of Wagner's Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg in 1868, Milka Trnina (1863–1941) and Josip Kašman (1850–1925), the first Croatian singer to appear at the New York Metropolitan Opera.
Folk music
The traditional folk music of Croatia is mostly associated with the following:
Ganga
Ganga is a type of singing which is characterized by a lone singer singing one line of lyrics and then others joining in for what can be best described as a wail. It is a very passionate form of singing, which is one of the reasons it has been limited in popularity to small towns. Even though it is a unique and autochthonous form of singing by Croats, it is very rare to hear this music on Croatian airwaves. However, several popular Croatian musicians have incorporated some ganga into their work. It can also be heard in concert music: the American composer Craig Walsh incorporates a ganga-inspired wailing, sighing, pitch-bending, micro-tonal vocal style in his 'String Quartet No. 1' (2010), a work commissioned for the Sarajevo Chamber Music Festival and the Manhattan String Quartet, the second movement of which is clearly paying homage to ganga style.
Only recently has ganga begun to address political issues, frequently adopting overtly nationalistic overtones and incorporating themes from the Croatian Homeland War. Although both men and women regularly perform ganga, it is extremely unusual for them to perform songs together. It is not unusual at all for both Catholic and Muslim men to perform ganga together.
Klapa
The klapa music is a form of a cappella singing that first appeared in littoral Croatia during the middle of the 19th century. The word klapa is derived from a word in slang Italian spoken in Trieste at the time. It refers to "a group of people" and the singing style traces its roots to liturgical church singing. The motifs, in general, celebrate love, wine (grapes), country (homeland) and sea. The main elements of the music are harmony and melody, with rhythm very rarely being very important.
A klapa group consists of a first tenor, a second tenor, a baritone, and a bass. It is possible to double all the voices apart from the first tenor. Although klapa is a cappella music, on occasion, it is possible to add a gentle guitar and a mandolin.
Klapa singing has become increasingly popular in littoral Croatia. Many young people from Dalmatia treasure klapa and sing it regularly when going out eating/drinking. This music has gained popularity among mainstream audiences in coastal regions of Croatia, with newer klapa formed by younger generations fusing klapa vocals with other music styles, such as klapa Libar's metal cover of "Pusti da ti leut svira" and the pop/klapa song "Kako ću joj reć' da varin" by klapa DVD-a Žrnovnica Sv. Florijan, which won the Split Song Festival in 2010.
Tamburica
Tamburica (diminutive of tambura) music is a form of folk music that involves these and related string instruments. It became increasingly popular in the 1800s, and small bands began to form, paralleling similar developments in Russia, Italy and the Ukraine.
The main themes of tamburitza songs are the common themes of love and happy village life. Tamburitza music is primarily associated with the northern, Pannonian part of the country. It is sometimes said that the first sextet of tambura players was formed by Pajo Kolarić of Osijek in 1847. In 1971 one of the most famous and long lasting tamburitza ensembles Slavonski Bećari was formed led by the legend of tamburitza music Antun Nikolić Tuca.
Traditional tamburitza ensembles are still commonplace, but more professional groups have formed in the last few decades. These include Zlatni dukati and Ex Panonia, the first such groups, Zdenac, Slavonske Lole, Berde Band and the modernized rock and roll-influenced Gazde.
The style of Tambura music played most often in the United States during the latter half of the 20th century was not significantly different from the style played at the turn of the 19th century. Free of the influences of pop music in Jugoslavia and the nascent, independent republics, and without large quantities of immigrants bringing new methods and styles, American-style Tambura music, and to a lesser extent, Canadian-style Tambura music stayed true to its roots.
Today, the most prevalent forms of Tambura music are folk-pop combinations.
Gusle
The gusle music is played on this traditional string instrument. It is primarily rooted in epic poetry with emphasis on important historical or patriotic events. It is the traditional instrument of inland Dalmatia and of Herzegovina, the part of Bosnia and Herzegovina with predominant Croatian population.
Gusle players are known for glorifying outlaws such as hajduks or uskoks of the long gone Turkish reign or exalting the recent heroes of the Croatian War of Independence. Andrija Kačić Miošić, a famous 18th-century author, had also composed verses in form of the traditional folk poetry (deseterac, ten verses). His book Razgovor ugodni naroda slovinskog became Croatian folk Bible which inspired numerous gusle players ever since.
As for contemporary gusle players in Croatia, one person that particularly stands out is Mile Krajina. Krajina is a prolific folk poet and gusle player who gained cult status among some conservative groups. There are also several other prominent Croatian gusle players who often perform at various folk-festivals throughout Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Diple
Diple is a traditional woodwind musical instrument in Croatian music. Sometimes called "Mih", "mjeh", "mjesina" or only "diple", it is played from Istria, Lika, over Dalmatia Islands and Coast to Herzegovina. "Mih" is made of tanned goat or sheep skin and consists of a "dulac" or "kanela" through which the air is blown and "diple" (chanter) on which it is played. Inside the "mih" on the chanter, two single-blade reeds are situated. Unlike bagpipes, "Mih" doesn't have a "trubanj" or "bordun" (drone). Although they are very similar, the "mih" from different parts of Croatia still differ in type of chanter, in the position of holes or in some tiny details (for example ornaments).
Other folk traditions
The folk music of Zagorje, an area north of Zagreb, is known for small orchestras consisting of Violins, Cimbule, Tamburice and Harmonike. The Tamburica (also known as tambura) is the Croatian national string instrument. Although there is a rich pool of folk songs in this region, traditions are not being cherished and most Zagorian folk music available is performed by amateur groups. This is also reflected in the quality of the music, which is mostly reduced to happy upbeat songs.
The folk music of Međimurje, a small but distinct region in northernmost Croatia, with its melancholic and soothing tunes became the most popular form of folk to be used in the modern ethno pop-rock songs. Beside Cimbule and Violins, there is also a tradition of Brass orchestras which used to play an important role in cultural everyday life. On one hand, they were the foundation of every regional celebration or wedding but on the other hand they were also known for playing at funerals or funeral feasts.
In Istria and Kvarner, native instruments like sopila, curla and diple make a distinctive regional sound. It is partially diatonic in nature following the unique Istrian scale.
Events
The Slavonian town Požega hosts a known folk music festival, Zlatne žice Slavonije (Golden strings of Slavonia), which has prompted musicians to compose new songs with far-reaching influences, recently including American bluegrass.
The towns of Vinkovci and Đakovo, also in Slavonia, host yearly folklore festivals (Vinkovačke jeseni and Đakovački vezovi) where folk music is also listened to as part of the tradition.
The town of Slavonski Brod holds an annual festival called Brodfest, where many of the great tamburica bands come together to play.
The Dubrovnik Summer Festival puts on dramatic music and ballet. It was founded in 1950.
The Osor Musical Evenings was founded in 1976 and takes place in July and August. It plays classical Croatian masters.
The Musical Evenings in Donat takes place during the summer in Zadar. It was founded in 1961, and plays old music.
Popular music
Pop
The pop music of Croatia generally resembles the canzone music of Italy, while including elements of the native traditional music. Croatian record companies produce a lot of material each year, if only to populate the numerous music festivals. Of special note is the Split Festival which usually produces the most popular summer hits.
Seasoned pop singers in Croatia include: Meri Cetinić, Mišo Kovač, Ivo Robić, Vice Vukov, Milan Bačić, Arsen Dedić, Vinko Coce, Zdenka Vučković, Darko Domjan, Tereza Kesovija, Gabi Novak, Ivica Šerfezi, Oliver Dragojević, Tomislav Ivčić, Doris Dragović, Radojka Šverko, Maja Blagdan, and many others. Also, the groups Magazin and Grupa 777 have had sustained careers.
In more recent times, younger performers such as Nina Badrić, Severina, Gibonni, Toni Cetinski, Jelena Rozga, Danijela, Lidija Bačić, Antonija Šola, Lana Jurčević and many others have captured the attention of the pop audience. Each of them have successfully blended various influences into their distinct music style. For example, Thompson's songs include traditional epic themes from the Dinaric regions; Severina threads between Croatian pop and a folk sound.
Croatian pop music is fairly often listened to in Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro and North Macedonia due to the union of Yugoslavia that existed until the 1990s. Conversely, Bosnian singers like Dino Merlin and Serbian Đorđe Balašević have an audience in Croatia, as well as some others. More recently the Turbo folk – frowned upon by the establishment some music critics and social commentators – has been popular amongst some sections of Croatian youth. A general resentment to Turbo folk remains as it is not broadcast on state radio and TV. Where on private outlets it may be transmitted, it normally triggers a strong negative reaction from those not liking it. Croatian singers that are using elements of Turbo folk are Severina and Jelena Rozga.
Croatia is a regular contestant on the Eurovision Song Contest. Back in Yugoslavia, Croatian pop group Riva won the contest in 1989. Some of the other Croatians who performed on the ESC include Danijel Popović, Put, Boris Novković and Claudia Beni.
Rock
The most popular rock bands active during the former Yugoslavia included Haustor, Psihomodo Pop, Azra, Prljavo Kazalište and Parni Valjak.
There are several rather popular and long-lasting mainstream rock acts like Parni Valjak, Prljavo Kazalište, Crvena Jabuka, Atomsko Sklonište, Aerodrom, Tutti Frutti Band, Daleka Obala, Đavoli, Stijene, More, Osmi putnik, Metak, etc. They originated in the 1970s and 1980s, and for the better part of their career resorted to a more mellow, mainstream pop-rock sound. Of some note is also the Sarajevo school of pop rock which influenced many of these bands, and which also included singers like Željko Bebek who later worked in Croatia.
However, Croatian new wave (Novi val) movement, which exploded in 1979/80 and lasted throughout the 1980s, is considered by many to be the high-water mark of Croatian rock music, both in terms of quality and commercial success. The most influential and popular bands of Novi val were Azra, Haustor, Film, even early Prljavo Kazalište. Other notable acts were Animatori, Buldožer, Paraf, Patrola etc.
In the late 1980s, the region of Istria became home to a kind of called Ča-val, which often used the Čakavian dialect and elements of traditional music from the regions of Istria and Kvarner.
The new wave scene has collapsed by the end of the eighties, to be replaced by the newcomers like; Tutti Frutti band, Daleka Obala, Majke and Laufer. While Daleka Obala sported a pop-rock sound influenced by Novi val, Croatian pop and even Dalmatian folk, Majke were a back-to-basics, garage-rock act stylistically influenced by bands like the Black Crowes, Led Zeppelin or Black Sabbath, as well as their Serbian counterparts Partibrejkers. Laufer, led by Damir Urban (who later went on to form Urban & 4), were an early nineties alternative rock band taking their cue from the grunge movement.
Let 3 and KUD Idijoti are also prominent rock acts, popular both for their music and their interesting, often controversial, performances and stunts.
Beginning in the late 1980s, folk-rock groups also sprouted across Croatia. The first is said to be Vještice, who combined Međimurje folk music with rock and set the stage for artists like Legen, Lidija Bajuk and Dunja Knebl. At the same time on the other side of Croatia, in Istria, a band called Gustafi started playing their own strange amalgamate of rock and Istrian folk, but it took them more than a decade to reach the nationwide audience.
The Split metal band Osmi Putnik has also been a success in Croatia and still are today and are also popular in other ex-Yugoslav republics
The Sisak surf rock band The Bambi Molesters has in the past years gained sizeable international fame and are often touted as one of the best surf-rock acts in the world today.
Alternative rock/metal band Father have had success with their first album inspirita in countries like the UK, and have toured with bands like Korn, Anthrax and Apocalyptica.
There is also a number of Croatian bands who play modern music in English, most prominent being My Buddy Moose, The orange strips, In-the-go, Kimiko, Cold Snap and Snovi
Dance
Dance music in Croatia was an offspring of the local pop music and more Western influences. It developed during the late 1980s and early 1990s, picking up on the trends such as euro disco and eurodance. It also spawned a wave of electronic music artists, mostly house, techno and trance.
Dino Dvornik is one of the pioneers of electronic music in Croatian.
The singer Vanna rose to prominence through the dance trio E.T., and the music of Vesna Pisarović has a fair bit of dance beat.
Although E.T. still operates, they've changed singers several times and lost in popularity. The band Colonia is perhaps the only one that rode the dance wave of the '90s and today is one of the most popular performers in Croatia.
Lost Sky aka Antun Dugandžić(formerly TULE) is a famous Electronic Musician who has worked on record labels like NoCopyrightSounds. His song Fearless Pt. II (with Chris Linton) released in 2017 is one of his most famous songs in NCS.
Rap
The 1990s were marked by the emergence of Croatian rap music. The Ugly Leaders released the first ever Croatian Hip-Hop album, and gained a strong following in and around Rijeka. In 1991, the Croatian Liberation Front released two widely popular protest singles. The first rap band to gain widespread and lasting acclaim was The Beat Fleet (TBF) from Split, whose members took inspiration from harsh economic and social conditions of war-torn Dalmatia, not that different from American inner cities. Their act was followed by a multitude of artists and groups in Zagreb, taking inspiration from American gangsta rap. The Zagreb rappers Bolesna Braća (also called Sick Rhyme Sayazz) and Tram 11 became particularly popular, and to an extent also the duo Nered & Stoka.
The Croatian rap gained much from the fact Edo Maajka, a Bosnian rapper, signed on to a label in Zagreb. Recently a rapper known as Shorty gained a lot of popularity by having songs with strong regional flavour of his native Vinkovci. The Zagreb band Elemental also burst into the scene featuring one of the few Croatian female rappers.
Other
The tendency to combine different elements also has a long presence in more classical music: the opera Ero s onoga svijeta, written by Jakov Gotovac in the 1930s, blended the traditional music of the Dinaric peoples into a scholarly form and achieved great success.
Classical
Classical musicians and compositions by Croatian composers are generally not well known worldwide despite having produced a huge and interesting contribution over many centuries. Influences of style were often taken from neighbouring influences (Italy, Austria) or settlers (in the Mediterranean Croatia from Italy, and in Panonia (north Croatia) from Germany and Bohemia).
Croatian composers by current relevance in a global framework: (Maybe the order will change in the future, given that 95% of the composition exists as a single copy – the original manuscript, and yet need to be saved from oblivion, and then be performed and recorded on CD, and then presented to the international public)
Vatroslav Lisinski (born as Ignaz Fuchs) considered as the founder of the Croatian nationalist music composed the first Croatian national opera Ljubav i Zloba (Love and Malice) and national opera Porin. Was a composer of great potential, but lived in a wrong time in a wrong place, and was a victim of politically-based intrigues.
Ivan Zajc (born as Giovanni von Zaytz) composed a series of operas in Italian, German and Croatian language. The music bears the features of authentic Italian melodics, since he grew up in a Croatian-Italian town Fiume (present-day Rijeka). His instrumental compositions – and there are a lot of them – are unknown to the public, and yet need to be explored by musicologists and than published.
Josip Hatze is the author of the first Croatian mass (ca. 1895) and the first Croatian cantata (Night on Una, 1902).
Dora Pejačević (born as Theodora Pejacsevich) – one of the composers to introduce the orchestral song to Croatian music. Her Symphony in F-sharp minor is considered by scholars to be the first modern symphony in Croatian Music.
Blagoje Bersa (born as Benito Bersa) is a typical figure of late Romantic stylistic crisis, the author of 'futuristic' opera Der Eisenhammer / Oganj (Zagreb, 1911).
Fran Lhotka (alternative spelling: Franz Lhotka) – ballet The Devil in the Village; Violin Concerto;
Rudolf Matz (alternative spelling: Rudolph Matz) – School for the Violoncello; Concerto for Flute and Strings; Concertino in Modo Antico for Violoncello and Strings;
Božidar Kunc – Piano Concerto; piano sonatas; songs for voice and piano;
Franjo Dugan – works for organ; Violin Sonata;
dr. Božidar Širola – wrote numerous high-quality compositions, some of which were performed just once and then fell into oblivion, probably because of political reasons. The majority – if not all of them – were never given a modern-day performance
Boris Papandopulo
Stjepan Šulek – the symphonies; Sonata for Trombone and Piano 'Vox Gabrieli';
Josip Štolcer Slavenski Sonata for Violin and Piano; Slavonic Dances for Piano;
Drago Kocakov – composed the only Croatian sonata for a classy ensemble made up of two violins – the violin duo
Julije Bajamonti
Julije Skjavetić
Ivan Lukačić
Luka Sorkočević
Modern composers:
Ivo Josipović
Milko Kelemen
Pavel Dešpalj
Ivo Malec
Stanko Horvat
Marko Ruždjak
Dubravko Detoni
Igor Kuljerić
Darko Hajsek
Croatian society of composers (Hrvatsko drustvo skladatelja – HDS) is the main organization promoting modern classical music in Croatia.
Jazz
Jazz appeared in Croatia in the 1920s, and flourished in Zagreb by the late 2000s, making it a regional center for jazz. In 1947, the jazz orchestra of Radio Zagreb was founded, which lives on today as the "HRT Big Band." In 1959, vibraphone player Boško Petrović, who was likely the most famous Croatian jazz musician, founded the Zagreb Jazz Quartet. Today, there is a fair number of active jazz groups in Croatia, and various cities host jazz festivals. Jazz has left its mark on the Croatian pop scene throughout the years, most notably in the works of Drago Diklić and occasionally Josipa Lisac.
Christian music
Croatian Catholic priests of Dalmatia, Istria and Kotor sang in Church Slavonic language during the 9th and 10th centuries, from which formed different forms of individual or choral spiritual music. The first inscription about that kind of singing dates from 1177, when it was sung laudibus and canticis "in eorum sclavica lingua" to Pope Alexander II during his visit in Zadar.
Very famous is repertory of church verses Cithara octochorda, which was published three times (Vienna: 1701, 1723 and Zagreb: 1757). It contains Christian music inheritance of Croats, both Kajkavian and Latin verses. Those verses set to music and adapted to organs famous Croatian church music composers Albe Vidaković, Anđelko Klobučar and others. That arrangement is part of Catholic liturgy in Croatia today. Croatian church composers (Peran, Vidaković, Klobučar) composed so-called Croatian Masses, which also become regular part of liturgy.
EffaTha is the first Croatian Christian metal band.<ref name="Siti">[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cHgrQn6L6-4 Kanal effathaband, YouTube EffaTha, Live, 16.08. 2009, Festival u Siti, Plaža Strožanac, Split, published 6 September 2013, accessed 2 February 2018]</ref> Christian pop is very popular among Croatian Catholic youth, especially bands such as Emmanuel, Božja pobjeda (God's Victory) and Srce Isusovo (Heart of Jesus).
The most famous contemporary Christian music singers and composers are Dragutin Hrastović, Čedo Antolić, Alen Hržica, Husar and Palić sisters. Some pop singers like Nina Badrić and Tajči were also affiliated with Christian music, as much as Meri Cetinić who composed spiritual songs.
See also
List of radio stations in Croatia
Popular music in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
Music of Yugoslavia
Art of Croatia
Gunjac
References
Burton, Kim. "Toe Tapping Tamburicas". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East'', pp 46–48. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. | [
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243019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation%20anxiety%20%28disambiguation%29 | Separation anxiety (disambiguation) | Separation anxiety disorder is a psychological condition in which an individual experiences excessive anxiety regarding separation from home or from people to whom the individual has a strong emotional attachment.
Separation Anxiety may also refer to:
Separation anxiety in dogs, where dogs exhibit distress when separated from their handler
Venom: Separation Anxiety, a comic book series
Spider-Man & Venom: Separation Anxiety, a 1995 SNES video game based on the comics
Separation Anxieties, a 2000 album by 12 Rods
Separation Anxiety, a 2008 film by Kelly Glenn Williams
Separation Anxiety, a 2009 mixtape by Cadence Weapon
"Separation Anxiety", an episode of the sitcom The King of Queens
"Separation Anxiety", an episode of That's So Raven
"Separation Anxiety" (Homeland), a 2015 episode of the TV series Homeland
Separation Anxiety (game show) a game show on the TBS network | [
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243020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20A.%20Johnson | Louis A. Johnson | Louis Arthur Johnson (January 10, 1891April 24, 1966) was an American politician and attorney who served as the second United States Secretary of Defense from 1949 to 1950. He was the Assistant Secretary of War from 1937 to 1940 and the 15th national commander of the American Legion from 1932 to 1933.
Early life
Johnson was born on January 10, 1891, in Roanoke, Virginia, to Marcellus and Catherine (née Arthur) Johnson. He earned a law degree from the University of Virginia. After graduation he practiced law in Clarksburg, West Virginia; his firm, Steptoe & Johnson eventually opened offices in Charleston, West Virginia, and Washington, D.C. Elected to the West Virginia House of Delegates in 1916, he served as majority floor leader and chairman of the Judiciary Committee. During World War I, Johnson saw action as an Army captain in France, where he compiled a long report to the War Department on Army management and materiel requisition practices. After the war he resumed his law practice and was active in veterans' affairs, serving as National Commander of the American Legion.
Assistant Secretary of War, 1937–40
As Assistant Secretary of War from 1937 to 1940, Johnson advocated universal military education and training, rearmament, and expansion of military aviation. He feuded with isolationist Secretary of War Harry Hines Woodring over military aid to Great Britain. In mid-1940, after Woodring's resignation and the fall of France revealed the precarious state of the nation's defenses, Franklin D. Roosevelt bypassed Johnson for the position of Secretary of War, instead choosing Henry Stimson.
Having aspired to the position of Secretary, which he felt he had earned, Johnson felt betrayed by Roosevelt. During the war, Johnson had no major responsibilities within the government involving military matters, though he did agree to participate in the Roosevelt administration's war mobilization of U.S. industry. Later, he served as Alien Property custodian for the American operations of the German chemical giant I. G. Farben. In 1942, Johnson briefly served as the president's personal representative in India, until an intestinal illness caused him to resign his post and return to the United States.
Secretary of Defense
In the 1948 U.S. presidential campaign, Johnson was chief fundraiser for President Truman's election campaign; the money raised by Johnson proved crucial to Truman's come-from-behind victory in the November elections. As a regular visitor to the White House, Johnson not only continued to express an interest in defense matters, but actively campaigned for the post of Secretary of Defense. He was also a staunch supporter of Truman's desire to 'hold the line' on defense spending. After a series of conflicts with Defense Secretary James V. Forrestal over defense budget cutbacks, President Truman asked for Forrestal's resignation, replacing him with Johnson early in 1949.
Defense budget reductions
Secretary Johnson entered office sharing the president's commitment to achieve further military unification and to drastically reduce budget expenditures on defense in favor of other government programs. As one of Truman's staunchest political supporters, Johnson was viewed by Truman as the ideal candidate to push Truman's defense budget economization policy in the face of continued resistance by the Department of Defense and the armed forces.
According to historian Walter LaFeber, Truman was known to approach defense budgetary requests in the abstract, without regard to defense response requirements in the event of conflicts with potential enemies. Truman would begin by subtracting from total receipts the amount needed for domestic needs and recurrent operating costs, with any surplus going to the defense budget for that year. From the beginning, Johnson and Truman assumed that the United States' monopoly on the atomic bomb was adequate protection against any and all external threats. Johnson's unwillingness to budget conventional readiness needs for the Army, Navy, or Marine Corps soon caused fierce controversies within the upper ranks of the armed forces. From fiscal year 1948 onwards, the defense department budget was capped at the amount set in FY 1947 ($14.4 billion), and was progressively reduced in succeeding fiscal years until January 1950, when it was reduced yet again to US $13.5 billion.
Johnson was also an advocate of defense unification, which he saw as a means to further reduce defense spending requirements. At a press conference the day after he took office, Johnson promised a drastic cut in the number of National Military Establishment boards, committees, and commissions, and added, "To the limit the present law allows, I promise you there will be unification as rapidly as the efficiency of the service permits it." Later, in one of his frequent speeches on unification, Johnson stated that "this nation can no longer tolerate the autonomous conduct of any single service ... a waste of the resources of America in spendthrift defense is an invitation to disaster for America."
To ensure congressional approval of proposed DOD budget requests, both President Truman and Secretary Johnson demanded public acquiescence, if not outright support, from the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) and other military department commanders when making public statements or testifying before Congress. In 1948, JCS Chief of Staff General Omar Bradley stated that "the Army of 1948 could not fight its way out of a paper bag." Yet the following year, after becoming Chairman of the JCS under Johnson, Bradley reversed course and publicly supported Johnson's decisions, telling Congress that he would be doing a "disservice to the nation" if he asked for a larger military force. General J. Lawton Collins went even further when testifying before a House Appropriations committee, stating that Truman administration reductions in Army force levels made it more effective.
Johnson promptly began proposing mothballing or scrapping much of the Navy's conventional surface fleet and amphibious forces. Shortly after his appointment, Johnson had a conversation with Admiral Richard L. Conolly, revealing his attitudes towards the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps and any need for non-nuclear forces:
Admiral, the Navy is on its way out. There's no reason for having a Navy and a Marine Corps. General Bradley tells me amphibious operations are a thing of the past. We'll never have any more amphibious operations. That does away with the Marine Corps. And the Air Force can do anything the Navy can do, so that does away with the Navy.
Both Truman and Johnson extended their opposition to the Navy in their treatment of the U.S. Marine Corps. Truman had a well-known dislike of the Marines dating back to his Army service in World War I, and would say in August 1950, "The Marine Corps is the Navy's police force and as long as I am President that is what it will remain. They have a propaganda machine that is almost equal to Stalin's." Johnson exploited this ill feeling of Truman's to reduce or eliminate many Marine Corps' budget requests. Johnson attempted to eliminate Marine Corps aviation by transferring its air assets to other services, and proposed to progressively eliminate the Marine Corps altogether in a series of budget cutbacks and decommissioning of forces. Johnson ordered that the highest-ranking Marine officer, the Commandant of the Marine Corps, be deleted from the official roll of chiefs of service branches authorized a driver and limousine, and for whom a special gun salute was prescribed on ceremonial occasions. He further specified that there would be no future official recognition or celebration of the Marine Corps birthday. More ominously, Johnson barred the Commandant of the Marine Corps from attending Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) meetings in his role of chief of service (including meetings involving Marine readiness or deployments).
Johnson welcomed the passage of the 1949 amendments to the National Security Act of 1947, telling an American Legion convention that he was "happy to report ... that 80 percent of the problems that beset unification immediately disappeared when the President signed the bill increasing the authority and the responsibility of the Secretary of Defense." Believing that the amendments would help him achieve additional budget cuts, Johnson estimated that one year after their passage the Defense Department would be achieving savings at the rate of $1 billion per year (he later claimed that he had attained this goal). One of his slogans was that the taxpayer was going to get "a dollar's worth of defense for every dollar spent" by the Pentagon, an approach that Truman approved.
Johnson did not limit his budget-cutting campaign to the Navy or Marine Corps. Johnson ordered nearly all of the Army inventories of surplus World War II tanks, communications equipment, personnel carriers, and small arms be scrapped or sold off to other countries instead of being shipped to ordnance and storage depots for reconditioning and storage. Johnson even resisted budget requests for reserve stockpiles of small arms and anti-tank ammunition, anti-tank weapons, or amphibious infantry training for the Army's newly acquired ex-Navy landing craft, which promptly began to deteriorate from lack of proper maintenance. Though the Air Force faced fewer program cancellations and cuts, Johnson refused Air Force requests for a doubling of active air groups until the invasion of Korea, and favored reduction of tactical air force readiness in favor of the strategic nuclear bomber forces.
Revolt of the Admirals
Johnson's defense cuts, which began on April 23, 1949, were accelerated after he announced the cancellation of the 65,000-ton flushdeck aircraft carrier . The United States Navy had been planning this ship for several years and construction had already begun. Johnson, supported by a slim majority of the JCS and by President Truman, stressed the need to cut costs. At least by implication, Johnson had scuttled the Navy's hope to participate in strategic nuclear air operations through use of the carrier. Neither the Department of the Navy nor Congress had been consulted in the termination of United States. Abruptly resigning, Secretary of the Navy John L. Sullivan expressed concern about the future of the United States Marine Corps and both Marine and Naval Aviation, and Johnson's determination to eliminate those services through progressive program cuts.
Faced with such large-scale budgetary reductions, competition between the service branches for remaining defense funds grew increasingly acrimonious. The cancellation of the supercarrier precipitated a bitter controversy between the Navy and the United States Air Force (USAF), the so-called "Revolt of the Admirals". In congressional hearings and other public arenas, the Navy reacted angrily to Johnson's action by openly questioning the ability of the Air Force's latest strategic bomber, the Convair B-36, to penetrate Soviet airspace. The Air Force countered with data supporting the B-36, and minimized the importance of a naval role for surface ships in future major conflicts.
Subsequently, declassified material proved the USAF to be technically correct in its immediate assessment of the capabilities of the B-36 at the time of the Revolt of the Admirals. At the time, it was indeed virtually invulnerable to interception due to the great height at which it flew. However, the B-36 was a pre-World War II design and by the time it was actually operational and fully deployed to Air Force active duty bombardment wings and bombardment squadrons, the B-36 was hopelessly vulnerable to modern Soviet MiG-15 jet interceptors, aircraft that would greatly surprise U.S. officials when they later appeared over North Korea. Once engaged in the conflict in Korea that would evolve into the Korean War, the role of U.S. Air Force heavy bombers evolved into an extension of their role during World War II, support of in-theater tactical ground forces. In this instance, the USAF heavy bomber aircraft employed was the B-29 Superfortress of the second World War, while the B-36 would see no combat in Korea.
In the long run, Navy arguments for the supercarrier prevailed, though not for the reasons originally cited. A relative failure as a strategic nuclear deterrent, the large aircraft carrier would prove invaluable as an element of conventional rapid deployment tactical air forces, requiring neither overflight permissions or overseas basing rights with host nations. Ironically, a successor to the canceled supercarrier, the radical new USS Forrestal, and later designs, continue in service with the U.S. Navy into the 21st century, forming the core of its offensive striking power.
However, a more ominous (if less publicized) development than the supercarrier debate was Johnson's steady reduction of force in Navy ships, landing craft, and equipment needed for conventional force readiness. Ship after ship was mothballed from the fleet for lack of operating funds. The United States Navy and Marine Corps, once the world's preeminent amphibious force, lost most of its amphibious capabilities and landing craft which were scrapped or sold as surplus (the remaining craft were reserved solely for Army use in amphibious operations exercises, which did not utilize them in that role).
House investigation
In June 1949, the House Committee on Armed Services launched an investigation into charges, emanating unofficially from Navy sources, of malfeasance in office against Secretary Johnson and Secretary of the Air Force W. Stuart Symington. The hearings also looked into the capability of the B-36, the cancellation of the supercarrier United States and JCS procedures on weapons development, and ultimately examined the whole course of unification. In addition to disparaging the B-36, Navy representatives questioned the current U.S. military plan for immediate use of atomic weapons against large urban areas when a war started. The Navy argued that such an approach would not harm military targets, and that tactical air power, ground troops, and sea power were the elements necessary to defend the United States and Europe against attack. The Air Force countered that atomic weapons and long-range strategic bombers would deter war, but that if war nevertheless broke out, an immediate atomic offensive against the enemy would contribute to the success of surface actions and reduce U.S. casualties. Strategic bombing, the Air Force contended, provided the major counterbalance to the Soviet Union's vastly superior ground forces.
In its final report, the House Armed Services Committee found no substance to the charges relating to Johnson's and Symington's roles in aircraft procurement. It held that evaluation of the B-36's worth was the responsibility of the Weapons Systems Evaluation Group, and that the services jointly should not pass judgment on weapons proposed by one service. On cancellation of the supercarrier, the committee questioned the qualifications of the Army and Air Force chiefs of staff, who had testified in support of Johnson's decision, to determine vessels appropriate for the Navy. The committee, disapproving of Johnson's "summary manner" of terminating the carrier and failure to consult congressional committees before acting, stated that "national defense is not strictly an executive department undertaking; it involves not only the Congress but the American people as a whole speaking through their Congress. The committee can in no way condone this manner of deciding public questions."
The committee expressed solid support for effective unification, but stated that "there is such a thing as seeking too much unification too fast" and observed that "there has been a Navy reluctance in the interservice marriage, an over-ardent Army, a somewhat exuberant Air Force. ... It may well be stated that the committee finds no unification Puritans in the Pentagon."
Finally, the committee condemned the dismissal of Admiral Louis E. Denfeld, the Chief of Naval Operations, who accepted cancellation of the supercarrier but testified critically on defense planning and administration of unification. Secretary of the Navy Francis P. Matthews fired Denfeld on October 27, 1949, explaining that he and Denfeld disagreed widely on strategic policy and unification. The House Armed Services Committee concluded that Denfeld's removal by Matthews was a reprisal because of Denfield's testimony and a challenge to effective representative government. Matthews's perceived vindictiveness towards much of the Navy's uniformed senior leadership during his tenure led to a perception by both the public and the U.S. Congress of the Navy's civilian leadership woes, a perception that also did not go totally unnoticed by the news media of the period. As The Washington Daily News reported at the time, "... Secretary of the Navy Matthews does not have the confidence of the Navy and can not win it ... Moreover, Mr. Matthews has forfeited the confidence of Congress by firing Admiral Denfeld." Matthews resigned as Secretary of the Navy in July 1951 to become Ambassador to Ireland.
Although Johnson emerged from the Revolt of the Admirals with his reputation intact, the controversy weakened his position with the services and probably with the President. Notwithstanding Johnson's emphasis on unification, it was debatable how far it had really progressed, given the bitter recriminations exchanged by the Air Force and the Navy during the controversy, which went far beyond the initial question of the supercarrier to more fundamental issues of strategic doctrine, service roles and missions, and the authority of the secretary of defense. Moreover, Johnson's ill-conceived budget cutbacks on force readiness would soon bear bitter fruit with the coming of the Korean War. Most historians attribute Johnson's efforts to significantly reduce, if not eliminate, U.S. Naval Aviation in both the Navy and Marine Corps as one of the important factors in bringing about the invasion of South Korea, supported by both China and the Soviet Union. After the initial onslaught on to the Korean peninsula by North Korean forces, no air bases on the Korean peninsula were available for the U.S. Air Force to fight back from. As a result, all air support during those disastrous months came from Valley Forge, the only aircraft carrier left in the Western Pacific when South Korea was invaded. Valley Forge was soon joined by the other two aircraft carriers remaining in the Pacific.
The Cold War
Momentous international events that demanded difficult national security decisions also marked Johnson's term. The Berlin Crisis ended in May 1949, when the Russians lifted the blockade. Johnson pointed to the Berlin Airlift as a technological triumph important to the future of air cargo transportation and as an example of the fruits of unification. A week after Johnson took office, the United States and 11 other nations signed the North Atlantic Treaty, creating a regional organization that became the heart of a comprehensive collective security system. After initial reservations, Johnson supported the new alliance and the program of military assistance for NATO and other U.S. allies instituted by the Mutual Defense Assistance Act (1949).
NSC 68
In August 1949, earlier than U.S. intelligence analysts had expected, the Soviet Union tested its first atomic device. This event and the almost concurrent retreat of the Kuomintang regime from mainland China hastened debate within the administration as to whether the United States should develop a hydrogen bomb. Initially, Johnson suspected—despite confirming air samples—that the Soviets had not really tested an atomic device at all. He theorized that perhaps an accidental laboratory explosion had occurred, and that no reassessments of U.S. defense capabilities were needed.
Concluding that the hydrogen bomb was now required as deterrent as well as an offensive weapon, on January 31, 1950, Truman decided to proceed with development; Johnson supported the president's decision. Truman at the same time directed the Secretaries of State and Defense to review and reassess U.S. national security policy in the light of the Soviet atomic explosion, the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, and acquisition of the hydrogen bomb, and to produce a paper based on their new analysis. Johnson went about this task reluctantly, as he had promised Truman he would hold the line on increased defense spending. He was also upset that the State Department had first taken the lead on the policy assessment and had heavily influenced the contents of the resultant report NSC 68.
Truman was less than enthused about the large defense cost projections for NSC 68 and its implications for existing domestic budgetary spending priorities, and initially sent it back without comment to its authors for further analysis. Although Truman took no immediate formal action on NSC 68, the paper gained considerable support when the North Koreans attacked South Korea on June 25, 1950. Johnson's obstinate attitude toward the State Department role in the preparation of this paper adversely affected his relations with both Secretary of State Dean Acheson and Truman. Although Johnson publicly professed belief that "the advance guard in the campaign for peace that America wages today must be the State Department", his disagreements with Acheson and his restrictions on DoD contacts with the State Department persisted until the realities of the Korean War caused his fall from favor with the White House.
Failure in Korea
By 1950, Johnson had established a policy of faithfully following President Truman's defense economization policy, and had aggressively attempted to implement it even in the face of steadily increasing external threats posed by the Soviet Union and its allied Communist regimes. He consequently received much of the blame for the initial setbacks in Korea and the widespread reports of ill-equipped and inadequately trained U.S. military forces. Johnson's failure to adequately plan for U.S. conventional force commitments, to adequately train and equip current forces, or even to budget funds for storage of surplus Army and Navy war-fighting materiel for future use in the event of conflict would prove fateful after war broke out on the Korean Peninsula.
Ironically, only the U.S. Marine Corps, whose commanders had stored and maintained their World War II surplus inventories of equipment and weapons, proved ready for deployment, though they still were woefully under-strength and in need of suitable landing craft to practice amphibious operations (Johnson had transferred most of the remaining craft from the Navy and reserved them for use in training Army units). As U.S. and South Korean forces lacked sufficient armor and artillery to repel the North Korean forces, Army and Marine Corps ground troops were instead committed to a series of costly rearguard actions as the enemy steadily progressed down the Korean peninsula, eventually encircling Busan.
The impact of the Korean War on Johnson's defense planning was glaringly evident in the Defense Department's original and supplemental budgetary requests for FY 1951. For that fiscal year, Johnson had at first supported Truman's recommendation of a $13.3 billion defense budget, but a month after the fighting in Korea started, the secretary hastily proposed a supplemental appropriation request of $10.5 billion, (an increase of 79%), bringing the total requested to $23.8 billion. In making the additional request, Johnson informed a House appropriations subcommittee that "in light of the actual fighting that is now in progress, we have reached the point where the military considerations clearly outweigh the fiscal considerations."
U.S. reverses in Korea and the continued priority accorded to European security resulted in rapid, substantive changes in U.S. defense policies, including a long-term expansion of the armed forces and increased emphasis on military assistance to U.S. allies. In addition, Truman recoiled from Johnson's “inordinate egotistical desire to run the whole government.” Truman later noted how Johnson had “offended every member of the cabinet. . . He never missed an opportunity to say mean things about my personal staff.” Finally, concerned about public criticism of his handling of the Korean War, Truman decided to ask for Johnson's resignation. On September 19, 1950, Johnson resigned as Secretary of Defense, and the president quickly replaced him with General of the Army George C. Marshall.
Later years
His political career at an end, Johnson returned to his law practice, which he pursued until his death from a stroke in 1966 in Washington, D.C. at the age of 75. He is buried at the Elkview Masonic Cemetery in Clarksburg, West Virginia. He was survived by his wife, Ruth Frances Maxwell Johnson and daughters Lillian and Ruth.
In his last speech as Secretary of Defense, the day before he left office, Johnson made a reference to William Shakespeare's Macbeth: "When the hurly burly's done and the battle is won, I trust the historian will find my record of performance creditable, my services honest and faithful commensurate with the trust that was placed in me and in the best interests of peace and our national defense."<ref>Shakespeare, William, Macbeth Act One, Scene One: "When shall we three meet again? In thunder, lightning, or in rain? When the hurly-burly's done. When the battle's lost and won. That will be ere the set of sun ... Fair is foul, and foul is fair. Hover through the fog and filthy air."</ref>
On December 7, 1950, The Louis A. Johnson VA Medical Center was dedicated in honor of Louis A. Johnson. The medical center rests on a 16-acre site adjacent to the Veterans Memorial Park and the West Virginia State Nursing Home in the city of Clarksburg, West Virginia. This medical center has been an active teaching facility since 1960 by participating in residency and academic affiliations with West Virginia University, Fairmont State University, Alderson-Broaddus College and other nearby institutions of higher education.
See also
List of members of the American Legion
List of Secretaries of Defense
Notes
Further reading
Blair, Clay, The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950-1953, Naval Institute Press (2003)
Davis, Vincent, The Post-imperial Presidency, New Brunswick: Transaction Press (1980)
Krulak, Victor H. (Lt. Gen.), First to Fight: An Inside View of the U.S. Marine Corps, Naval Institute Press (1999)
LaFeber, Walter, America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945-1980, 7th edition New York: McGraw-Hill (1993)
Lane, Peter J., Steel for Bodies: Ammunition Readiness During the Korean War, Master's Thesis: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College (2003)
McFarland, Keith D. and Roll, David L., Louis Johnson And the Arming of America: The Roosevelt And Truman Years (2005) full text online
McFarland, Keith. "The 1949 Revolt of the Admirals" Parameters: Journal of the US Army War College Quarterly (1980) 11#2 : 53–63. online
Summers, Harry G. (Lt. Col.), "The Korean War: A Fresh Perspective" (1996). Military History. Volume 17, Number 2, June 2000
Wolk, Herman S., "The Blueprint for Cold War Defense", Air Force Magazine (March 2000)
External links
Louis A. Johnson at The Political Graveyard''
Louis A. Johnson VA Medical Center
1891 births
1966 deaths
20th-century American politicians
American Episcopalians
United States Army personnel of World War I
American people of the Korean War
Burials in West Virginia
Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur
Medal for Merit recipients
Members of the West Virginia House of Delegates
Military personnel from West Virginia
National Commanders of the American Legion
Politicians from Roanoke, Virginia
Truman administration cabinet members
United States Army officers
United States Assistant Secretaries of War
United States Secretaries of Defense
University of Virginia School of Law alumni
West Virginia Democrats
West Virginia lawyers
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243022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Algeria | Music of Algeria | Algerian music is virtually synonymous with Raï among foreigners; the musical genre has achieved great popularity in France, Spain and other parts of Europe. For several centuries, Algerian music was dominated by styles inherited from Al-Andalus, eventually forming a unique North African twist on these poetic forms. Algerian music came to include suites called nuubaat (singular nuuba). Later derivatives include rabaab and hawzii.
Genres
Music in Algeria offers a rich diversity of genre: popular music (Chaabi), various genres of Andalusian classical music such as Sana'a, Gharnati music, Ma'luf, as well as classical Arabic, Bedouin, Berber music (Staifi, Raï, Kabyle, Shawi, Tuareg, Gnawa, etc.),
Andalusian music is particularly well developed in Algeria, and is considered the most sophisticated by musical scholars - there exist three schools, the greatest number in the Maghreb region, and the performers invited to festivals across the Maghreb are usually of Algerian origin.
Famous performers include Beihdja Rahal, Brahim Hadj Kacem, Nouri Koufi and Leila Borsali.
Haouzi music is another style of Algerian music. It took the melodies of Andalusian music and modernized them. Haouzi music is most often played at weddings and ceremonies.
Khaled known as Cheb Khaled, is considered as the King of Rai music, has achieved international fame,
as Rai music is very popular in Algeria, Morocco France, Tunisia, Turkey, Libya, and
Egypt.
Staifi is a genre of music which began in Eu-eulma City, and is mostly played at weddings and celebrations, primarily featuring lyrics which symbolize purity and love.
Chaabi refers to a style of recent urban popular music, inherited from the older Andalusian repertoire, of which the best known performer was El Hajj Muhammad El Anka, considered to be the Grand Master of Andalusian classical music. True styles of folk music include hofii, a form of female vocal music, and zindalii, from Constantine.
Raï is a creative outlet to express love and romance; a mix between Western music and Bedouin music.
Ma'luf is a genre of Andalusian classical music from Constantine which has survived because of the efforts of the Tunisian government and a few private individuals. Malouf is still performed in public, especially at weddings and circumcision ceremonies, though recordings are relatively rare.
Important musicians
See: List of Algerian musicians
See also
Berber music
References
Bibliography
Morgan, Andy. "Music Under Fire". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 413–424. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Morgan, Andy. "Bards of Immigritude". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 425–427. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
La Chanson de l'exil ; les voix natales (1939–1969), Rachid Mokhtari, Alger, Casbah Éditions, 2001
Chants kabyles de la guerre d'indépendance, Mehenna Mahfoufi, Éditions Séguier, 2002.
Les grands maîtres algériens du cha’bi et du hawzi, diwan arabe-kabyle, textes transcrits, traduits et annotés sous la direction de Rachid Aous, Éditions El Ouns/Unesco, Paris, 1996.
Bezza Mazouzi La musique algérienne et la question raï, Richard-Masse, Paris, 1990.
External links
BBC Radio 3 Audio (90 minutes): Rai music in Oran and the Kasbah of Algiers. Accessed November 25, 2010.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (90 minutes): Rachid Taha and the Kabilian mountains.. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clips - music of Algeria. French National Library. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clip: traditional Algerian music. Musée d'ethnographie de Genève. Accessed November 25, 2010. | [
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243023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Palladium | London Palladium | The London Palladium () is a Grade II* West End theatre located on Argyll Street, London, in the famous area of Soho. The theatre holds 2,286 seats. Of the roster of stars who have played there, many have televised performances. Between 1955 and 1969 Sunday Night at the London Palladium was held at the venue, which was produced for the ITV network. The show included a performance by The Beatles on 13 October 1963. One national paper's headlines in the following days coined the term "Beatlemania" to describe the increasingly hysterical interest in the band.
While the theatre has a resident show, it is also able to host one-off performances, such as concerts, TV specials and Christmas pantomimes. It has hosted the Royal Variety Performance 43 times, most recently in 2019. In March 2020, the venue closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic's effect on the theatre industry, but reopened over four months later on 1 August 2020.
Architecture
Walter Gibbons, an early moving-pictures manager, built the Palladium in 1910 to compete with Sir Edward Moss's London Hippodrome and Sir Oswald Stoll's London Coliseum. The facade (on the site of Argyll House, demolished in the 1860s, from which the pub opposite took the name The Argyll Arms), dates back to the 19th century. Formerly it was a temporary wooden building called Corinthian Bazaar, which featured an aviary and aimed to attract customers from the recently closed Pantheon Bazaar (now the site of Marks & Spencers) in Oxford Street. The theatre was rebuilt a year later by Fredrick Hengler, the son of a tightrope walker, as a circus arena for entertainments that included promenade concerts, pantomimes and an aquatic display in a flooded ring. It then became the National Skating Palace – a skating rink with real ice. However, the rink failed and the Palladium was redesigned by Frank Matcham, a famous theatrical architect who also designed the Coliseum, on the site that had previously housed Hengler's Circus.
The theatre retains many of its original features and was Grade II* listed in September 1960. The building now carries Heritage Foundation commemorative plaques honouring Lew Grade and Frankie Vaughan.
The Palladium had its own telephone system so the occupants of boxes could call one another. It also had a revolving stage.
History
1910 to 1928
The theatre started out as The Palladium, a premier venue for variety performances. Pantomimes were also featured there. In 1926, the pantomime starred Lennie Dean as Cinderella, footage of which remains to this day. The theatre is especially linked to the Royal Variety Performances, where many were, and still are, held. In 1928, for three months the Palladium also ran as a cinema. Following this 'Cine-Variety' episode the theatre fell dark for a short period in the autumn of 1928.
The George Black era
From 3 September 1928, the Palladium reopened under the directorship of the impresario/producer George Black as part of the General Theatre Corporation (GTC). When Black took control the theatre was close to bankruptcy. He revived its fortunes by returning to the original ethos of the Palladium by staging large variety shows, with a capital 'V' – and as well as headlining Britain's homegrown acts he brought over big American stars such as Duke Ellington and his Orchestra (on June 12, 1933, his first ever concert hall performance), Adelaide Hall, Louis Armstrong and Ethel Waters for two-week engagements. Before too long, under Black's management the Palladium was soon gaining praise again as 'The World's Leading Variety Theatre'. In 1935, Black initiated the Crazy Gang revues at the Palladium (for which he is chiefly remembered) with Life Begins at Oxford Circus. The revues continued at the Palladium as an annual event until they transferred to the Victoria Palace theatre in 1940. Black managed the Palladium until his death in 1945.
The climax of the 1935 Alfred Hitchcock spy thriller The 39 Steps was filmed at the Palladium.
Second World War
The theatre was hit by an unexploded German parachute mine on 11 May 1941. The device had fallen through the roof, becoming lodged over the stage. A Royal Navy bomb disposal team was sent to deal with it. After the mine was located, the fuse locking ring had to be turned to allow access to the fuse itself. Rather disconcertingly, the fuse began ticking as soon as it was touched. This caused a rapid evacuation of the immediate area, but the mine did not detonate. The two team members cautiously returned, extracted the fuse and removed other hazardous components, rendering the mine 'safe'. It was then lowered to the stage and disposed of. The George Medal for gallantry and undaunted devotion to duty was given to Sub Lieutenant Graham Maurice Wright for his action in the Palladium on that night. He was later killed, on 19 Aug 1941, while en route for Gibraltar on board the torpedoed troopship .
The Val Parnell era
Val Parnell took over as managing director after George Black's death in 1945. He adopted a controversial, but very successful, policy of presenting high-priced, big-name American acts at the top of the bill. Among many, the list included Carmen Miranda, Judy Garland, Sophie Tucker, Bing Crosby, Danny Kaye, Rosemary Clooney, Channing Pollock, the Andrews Sisters with Vic Schoen and his orchestra, Bob Hope, Liza Minnelli, Lena Horne, Ella Fitzgerald, Peggy Lee, Frank Sinatra, Sammy Davis Jr., Frankie Laine and Johnnie Ray, freezing out many British stars of the day, who were relegated to second-billing.
From 1955 to 1967, the theatre was the setting for the top-rated ITV variety show Sunday Night at the London Palladium hosted first by Tommy Trinder, followed by Bruce Forsyth, Norman Vaughan, and Jimmy Tarbuck. The programme was broadcast live every week by ATV, which was owned by the famous theatrical impresario Lew Grade. Production was by Val Parnell. Six programmes aired as special episodes in the United States between May and August 1966 on NBC. British stars on the show included Cliff Richard and the Shadows, Petula Clark, the Beatles and the Rolling Stones. The Beatles' publicist Tony Barrow said that after the band's first appearance on the show on 13 October 1963, Beatlemania took off in the UK. Their performance was watched by 15 million viewers. One national paper's headlines in the following days coined the term "Beatlemania" to describe the phenomenal and increasingly hysterical interest in the Beatles – and it stuck.
Parnell became associated with a property development company and began to sell Moss Empires' theatres for redevelopment. When it became known in 1966 that this fate awaited the London Palladium, The Victoria Palace and even the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, Prince Littler organised a take-over to save the theatres and Val Parnell retired to live in France. The new managing director of Stoll-Moss was Louis Benjamin, who took on the role while continuing as MD of Pye Records within the ATV Group.
By 1965, the Wine Society was operating out of a cellar under the Palladium. Additionally, it was also using one at Joiner Street under London Bridge Station and one at St James's Bond in Rotherhithe (which flooded at high tide). In 1968, Sammy Davis Jr. starred in Golden Boy, the first book musical to be produced in the venue. A Johnny Cash album was recorded there in 1968, but Columbia Records never released it. Bootlegs of the performance are in circulation. Jose Feliciano also recorded a hit USA gold status double LP for RCA records called "Alive Alive O!" in April 1969
Post-Parnell
On 6 December 1970 Dorothy Squires gave a concert at the Palladium, recorded for an LP release the following year.
In January 1973, glam rock band Slade played a gig in the theatre which resulted in the venue's balcony nearly collapsing.
In July 1974, singer Cass Elliott performed for two weeks. 48 hours after her final performance she died in her sleep in her rented flat in Mayfair. Also in 1974, Josephine Baker performed in the Royal Variety Performance. The 1991 film The Josephine Baker Story implied that, like Cass Elliott, she died after a show there, but this is not true. She actually died in Paris four days after a show there.
Bing Crosby performed for two weeks at the Palladium starting on June 21, 1976. The resulting live album Bing Crosby Live at the London Palladium reached No. 9 in the UK album charts in November 1977.
In October 1976, Marvin Gaye recorded a live concert at the venue. The performance documented on the resulting double LP, entitled Live at the London Palladium and released in 1977.
In 1981, the cellars of the Palladium housed a waxworks museum, aptly called "The Palladium Cellars", headlined by a Yul Bryner live projection automaton, as the cowboy Gunslinger from Westworld.
In the late 1980s, the Palladium was once again the setting for the popular ITV1 variety show, Live From the Palladium, compered by Jimmy Tarbuck. During this time, the theatre was under the ownership of the Stoll Moss Theatres Group, and the management of Margaret and David Locke, who were both major shareholders of Stoll Moss at the time.
In 1988, the Edinburgh Gang Show appeared as part of the British Musical Hall Society's Silver Jubilee.
In 1991, a new production of the Tim Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber musical Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat opened starring Jason Donovan in the title role with Linzi Hateley as the Narrator. Phillip Schofield later replaced Donovan in the title role.
In 1994, Cameron Mackintosh produced a new revival of Lionel Bart's musical Oliver!, directed by Sam Mendes. It starred Jonathan Pryce as Fagin and Sally Dexter as Nancy.
In 1998, Arlene Phillips directed and choreographed a stage musical adaptation of Saturday Night Fever starring Adam Garcia and Ben Richards.
The 21st Century & the Really Useful Group
In 2000, ownership of the theatre changed once again when Stoll Moss was acquired by Andrew Lloyd Webber's Really Useful Group. From 3 May 2000 to 5 January 2002, the Palladium played The King and I starring Elaine Paige and Jason Scott Lee. This production was a West End transfer of the hugely successful 1996 Broadway production. Before the opening, the box office had already taken in excess of £7 million in ticket sales. This version of the show was a lavish affair, with new dialogue and music added, while the original material was updated. During the run, Josie Lawrence played the role of Anna and Paul Nakauchi and Keo Woolford played the role of the King, respectively. After the production closed, the famous (but outdated) revolving stage was removed to make way for more modern technology.
From April 2002 to 4 September 2005, the Palladium played host to a theatrical version of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang with songscore by the Sherman Brothers as a successor to The King & I. Throughout its three and a half year run at the venue, the production starred many celebrities (see below). This show proved to be the most successful in the theatre's long history and reunited, 50 years later, the show's choreographer Gillian Lynne, with the theatre in which she had appeared as the Palladium's Star Dancer during the early 50s. On 1 November 2004 and 22 November singer-songwriter Jackson Browne performed two concerts during his solo acoustic tour. For Christmas 2005–06, the venue staged Bill Kenwright's production of Scrooge – The Musical which closed on 14 January 2006. The show starred Tommy Steele, making a return to the Palladium. From February 2006, the theatre played host to a new musical production entitled Sinatra At The London Palladium, which featured a live band, large screen projections and dancers performing Frank Sinatra's greatest hits.
Lloyd Webber and David Ian's production of The Sound of Music opened at the Palladium in November 2006. The production ran for just over two years, before closing on 21 February 2009. It starred Connie Fisher and Summer Strallen as Maria, Simon Shepherd, Alexander Hanson and Simon MacCorkindale as Captain Von Trapp and Lesley Garrett and Margaret Preece as the Mother Abbess. A production of Sister Act the Musical opened on 2 June 2009, starring Patina Miller as Deloris, Sheila Hancock as Mother Superior, Ian Lavender as Monsignor Howard, Chris Jarman as Shank, Ako Mitchell as Eddie, Katie Rowley Jones as Sister Mary Robert, Claire Greenway as Sister Mary Patrick and Julia Sutton as Sister Mary Lazarus.
Rufus Wainwright held two sold out Judy Garland tribute concerts at the theatre on 18 and 25 February 2007. On 20 May 2007 the London Palladium hosted the 2007 BAFTA awards, which were broadcast on BBC television, and in 2010 the BAFTA Television Awards returned to the Palladium. While the Theatre has a resident show, it is still able to have one-off performances; this is enabled by the scenery of the resident show being designed to be easily removed. For example, the set of Sister Act was able to be hoisted completely above the stage out of view in an area called the Fly Loft.
The London Palladium turned 100 years old on Boxing Day 2010, and a one-hour television special entitled '100 Years of the Palladium' aired on BBC Two on 31 December 2010. Sir Elton John performed at the venue in September 2013 in a special show where he was presented with the Brit Awards Icon, subsequently broadcast on ITV1. Robbie Williams promoted his new album Swings Both Ways, the UK's 1000th No. 1 album, with a one-night performance on 8 November 2013 that was filmed for television broadcast (BBC One). He was joined by members of the cast of The Muppet Show (Kermit the Frog, Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Gonzo, Statler and Waldorf), Lily Allen, Rufus Wainwright, his father, a children's choir and a 30-piece orchestra. Invited guests included Adele and One Direction.
Since 2013, excluding 2014, 2015 and 2016, Britain's Got Talent have held Judges' auditions at the Palladium as one part of their audition tour which usually lasts from mid-January to late-February.
In 2014, Really Useful Group split in two, and the entity owning the theatre became the Really Useful Theatres Group.
In 2018, Sir Bruce Forsyth's ashes were laid to rest under the Palladium's stage, with a blue plaque commemorating him on a nearby wall, featuring the description "Without question the UK's greatest entertainer, he rests in peace within the sound of music, laughter and dancing… exactly where he would want to be."
Between 26 June and 8 September 2019, the Palladium staged the 50th Anniversary production of Andrew Lloyd Webber's and Tim Rice’ Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat. It was a whole new production with Sheridan Smith starring as the Narrator and Jason Donovan as the Pharaoh and introducing Jac Yarrow in the title role. In 2022, the Palladium will serve as the venue for the limited West End revival of Beauty and the Beast.
Christmas pantomimes
In December 2016, pantomime returned to the Palladium for the first time in nearly three decades with Cinderella produced by Qdos Entertainment and directed by Michael Harrison. It starred Julian Clary, Paul O'Grady, Amanda Holden, Paul Zerdin, Nigel Havers, Lee Mead, Count Arthur Strong and Natasha Barnes.
For the Christmas 2017 season, the pantomime returned with Dick Whittington starring Clary, Zerdin and Havers returning, joined by Elaine Paige, Gary Wilmot, Ashley Banjo & Diversity and Charlie Stemp. The production won the 2018 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Entertainment and Family.
For Christmas 2018, the pantomime returned with Snow White with Clary, Zerdin, Havers, Wilmot and Stemp returning joined by Dawn French, Danielle Hope and Vincent Simone and Flavia Cacace.
For Christmas 2019, the pantomime returned with Goldilocks and the Three Bears, with Clary, Zerdin, Havers and Wilmot returning, joined by Paul O'Grady, Matt Baker, Janine Duvitski, Sophie Isaacs and Lauren Stroud.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, in December 2020 the pantomime returned with Pantoland at the Palladium to a socially distanced audience. Clary, Zerdin, Havers and Wilmot returned and joined by Elaine Paige, Beverley Knight, Charlie Stemp, Jac Yarrow and Ashley Banjo & Diversity. The production opened 12 December, however due to the Government's tier 3 restrictions, the production closed on 15 December 2020.
The pantomime returned for Christmas 2021 to a full capacity with Pantoland at the Palladium with Clary, Zerdin, Havers, Wilmot and Yarrow returning alongside Donny Osmond and Sophie Isaacs.
In February 2022, it was announced that Dawn French along with Clary, Havers, Wilmot and Zerdin, would headline the newest Palladium Pantomime, Jack and the Beanstalk, with tickets on sale from March 2022, and further casting to be announced later in the year. The show will run for six weeks, from 10 December to 15 January.
Notable recent and present productions
1991: Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat – Steven Pimlott's reworking of the Andrew Lloyd Webber/Tim Rice musical, starring Jason Donovan and Linzi Hateley
1994-98: Oliver! – Cameron Mackintosh's revival directed by Sam Mendes. Originally starring Jonathan Pryce, Sally Dexter and Miles Anderson.
1998-2000: Saturday Night Fever directed and choreographed by Arlene Phillips, starring Adam Garcia and Ben Richards
2000-02: The King and I directed by Christopher Renshaw. A transfer of the acclaimed 1996 Broadway revival, this version starred Elaine Paige and Jason Scott Lee
2002-05: Chitty Chitty Bang Bang directed by Adrian Noble and choreographed by Gillian Lynne. The original cast included Michael Ball, Emma Williams, Anton Rodgers, Nichola McAuliffe, Brian Blessed and Richard O'Brien.
2005: Scrooge – The Musical, by Leslie Bricusse, starring Tommy Steele
2006-09: The Sound of Music directed by Jeremy Sams, produced by Andrew Lloyd Webber, starring BBC How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria? winner Connie Fisher, Alexander Hanson, Lesley Garrett
2009-10: Sister Act the Musical, starring Patina Miller, Sheila Hancock and Ian Lavender
2011-12: The Wizard of Oz, directed by Jeremy Sams, produced by Andrew Lloyd Webber, starring BBC Over the Rainbow winner Danielle Hope and Michael Crawford
2014-15: Cats starring Nicole Scherzinger and later Beverley Knight.
2016: Eugenius! by Ben Adams and Chris Wilkins, world premiere concert performance on 29 June. Produced by and starred Warwick Davis
2016-2017: Cinderella, return of the Palladium pantomime, starring Paul O'Grady, Julian Clary, Amanda Holden, Nigel Havers, Paul Zerdin, Lee Mead and Count Arthur Strong
2017: The Wind in the Willows starring Rufus Hound, Simon Lipkin, Neil McDermott, Gary Wilmot and Denise Welch
2017-2018: Dick Whittington, starring Julian Clary, Elaine Paige, Ashley Banjo & Diversity, Paul Zerdin, Nigel Havers, Gary Wilmot and Charlie Stemp
2018: The King and I directed by Bartlett Sher. A transfer of the 2015 Broadway revival starring Kelli O'Hara and Ken Watanabe
2018-2019: Snow White, starring Dawn French, Julian Clary, Paul Zerdin, Gary Wilmot, Nigel Havers, Charlie Stemp, Vincent & Flavia and The Magnificent Seven.
2019: Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat starring Sheridan Smith, Jac Yarrow and Jason Donovan.
October 19, 2019: Cradle of Filth's 20th Anniversary, playing Cruelty and the Beast in its entirety.
October 29, 2019: Opeth, In Cauda Venenum Tour
2019-2020: Goldilocks and the Three Bears Pantomime, starring Paul O'Grady, Julian Clary, Matt Baker, Paul Zerdin, Nigel Havers and Gary Wilmot.
2020 Jan/Feb: Madame X Tour Madonna.
2020: Pantoland at the Palladium Pantomime*, starring Julian Clary, Elaine Paige, Paul Zerdin, Nigel Havers, Gary Wilmot, Ashley Banjo & Diversity, Charlie Stemp, Beverley Knight and Jac Yarrow.
*This production is a COVID-friendly performance, as the venue introduced new safety measures earlier in the year. The production was disrupted on December 16, 2020, as the theatre cancelled the rest of the pantomime season due to a third lockdown because of the new Covid variant.
2021: Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat revival of summer 2019 production starring Alexandra Burke, Jason Donovan and Jac Yarrow (with Linzi Hateley at certain performances).
2021: Pantoland at the Palladium Pantomime, starring Donny Osmond, Julian Clary, Paul Zerdin, Nigel Havers, Gary Wilmot, Jac Yarrow and Sophie Isaacs
2021: "An Audience with… Adele" was filmed at the Palladium as part of her comeback for her new album 30.
2022: Beauty and the Beast revival, part of the UK tour starring Martin Ball, Gavin Lee, and Sam Bailey.
Notes
References
Guide to British Theatres 1750–1950, John Earl and Michael Sell pp. 122–3 (Theatres Trust, 2000)
External links
The Official London Palladium Site
History of the London Palladium from Television Heaven's Sunday Night at the London Palladium
The Palladium Pantomimes It's Behind You
Building history, Survey of London, vols 31 and 32 (1963)
London Palladium Theatre History with many pictures and original Programmes; Music Hall and Theatre History Site – Dedicated to Arthur Lloyd, 1839 – 1904
Moss Empires' Theatres in the Fifties by Donald Auty, Music Hall and Theatre History Site – Dedicated to Arthur Lloyd, 1839 – 1904
West End theatres
Grade II* listed buildings in the City of Westminster
Theatres completed in 1910
Theatres in the City of Westminster
Edwardian architecture in London | [
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243025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Moveable%20Feast | A Moveable Feast | A Moveable Feast is a 1964 memoir by American author Ernest Hemingway about his years as a struggling expat journalist and writer in Paris during the 1920s. It was published posthumously. The book details Hemingway's first marriage to Hadley Richardson and his associations with other cultural figures of the Lost Generation in Interwar France.
The memoir consists of various personal accounts by Hemingway and involves many notable figures of the time, such as Sylvia Beach, Hilaire Belloc, Bror von Blixen-Finecke, Aleister Crowley, John Dos Passos, F. Scott and Zelda Fitzgerald, Ford Madox Ford, James Joyce, Wyndham Lewis, Pascin, Ezra Pound, Evan Shipman, Gertrude Stein, Alice B. Toklas and Hermann von Wedderkop. The work also references the addresses of specific locations such as bars, cafes, and hotels, many of which can still be found in Paris today.
Ernest Hemingway's suicide in July 1961 delayed the publication of the book due to copyright issues and several edits which were made to the final draft. The memoir was published posthumously in 1964, three years after Hemingway's death, by his fourth wife and widow, Mary Hemingway, based upon his original manuscripts and notes. An edition altered and revised by his grandson, Seán Hemingway, was published in 2009.
Background
In November 1956, Hemingway recovered two small steamer trunks that he had stored in March 1928 in the basement of the Hôtel Ritz Paris. The trunks contained notebooks he had filled during the 1920s. Hemingway's friend and biographer A. E. Hotchner, who was with him in Paris in 1956, later recounted the occasion of Hemingway's recovery of the trunks and notebooks:
Having recovered his trunks, Hemingway had the notebooks transcribed, and then began working them up into the memoir that would eventually become A Moveable Feast. After Hemingway's death in 1961, his widow Mary Hemingway, in her capacity as his literary executor, made final copy-edits to the manuscript prior to its publication in 1964. In a "Note" with which she prefaced the posthumously published 1964 edition of the work, she wrote:
Gerry Brenner, a literary scholar at the University of Montana, and other researchers have examined Hemingway's notes and the initial drafts of A Moveable Feast, which are in the collection of Ernest Hemingway's personal papers opened to the public in 1979, following the completion of the John F. Kennedy Library, where they are held in Boston. In a paper titled "Are We Going to Hemingway's Feast?" (1982), Brenner undertook to document Mary Hemingway's editing process and questioned its validity. He concluded that some of her changes were misguided, and others derived from questionable motives. He also suggested that the changes appeared to contradict Mary's stated policy for her role as executor, which had been to maintain a "hands off" approach. Brenner states that Mary changed the order of the chapters in Hemingway's final draft, apparently to "preserve chronology". This change interrupted the series of juxtaposed character sketches of such individuals as Sylvia Beach, owner of the bookstore Shakespeare and Company, and Gertrude Stein. The chapter titled "Birth of a New School", which Hemingway had dropped from his draft, was reinserted by Mary. Brenner alleges the most serious change was the deletion of Hemingway's lengthy apology to his first wife, Hadley. This apology appeared in various forms in every draft of the book. Brenner suggests that Mary deleted it because it impugned her own role as his wife.
In contrast, Hotchner has said that he received a near final draft of A Moveable Feast in 1959, and that the version Mary Hemingway published is essentially the draft he had read then. In his view, the original 1964 publication is the version that Hemingway intended, and Mary Hemingway did not revise or add chapters on her own initiative, but simply carried out Ernest's intentions. Hotchner describes Hemingway's memoir as "a serious work", that Hemingway "certainly intended it for publication", and contends: "Because Mary was busy with matters relating to Ernest’s estate, she had little involvement with the book.... What I read on the plane coming back from Cuba [in 1959] was essentially what was published. There was no extra chapter created by Mary.
Source of title
The title of A Moveable Feast (a play on words for the term used for a holy day for which the date is not fixed) was suggested by Hemingway's friend and biographer A. E. Hotchner, who remembered Hemingway using the term in 1950. Hotchner's recollection of what Hemingway had said became the source of the epigraph on the title page for the posthumously published work in 1964.
The term had also been used earlier out of its traditional religious context by Albert Camus in his novel The Stranger (1942): "Masson remarked that we'd had a very early lunch, but really lunch was a movable feast, one had it when one felt like it."
Chapters
The 1964 edition of Hemingway's Paris memoir consists of a "Preface" by Hemingway (pg. ix), a "Note" by his widow (pg. xi), and 20 chapters, or individual parts or sections. Each of the chapters can be read as a stand-alone piece or entity, not dependent upon the context of the whole work, nor necessarily arranged in any chronological order—with titles descriptive of the subject matter of each, as follows:
"A Good Café on the Place St.-Michel"
"Miss Stein Instructs"
"Une Génération Perdue"
"Shakespeare and Company"
"People of the Seine"
"A False Spring"
"The End of an Avocation"
"Hunger Was Good Discipline"
"Ford Madox Ford and the Devil's Disciple"
"Birth of a New School"
"With Pascin at the Dôme"
"Ezra Pound and His Bel Esprit"
"A Strange Enough Ending"
"The Man Who Was Marked for Death"
"Evan Shipman at the Lilas"
"An Agent of Evil"
"Scott Fitzgerald"
"Hawks Do Not Share"
"A Matter of Measurements"
"There Is Never Any End to Paris"
Publishing history
The first published edition was edited from Hemingway's manuscripts and notes by his fourth wife and widow, Mary Hemingway, and published posthumously in 1964, three years after Hemingway's death.
In 2009 a new edition, titled the "Restored Edition", was published by Seán Hemingway, assistant curator at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and grandson of Hemingway and Pauline Pfeiffer. He made numerous changes:
The previous introductory letter by Hemingway, pieced together from various fragments by Mary Hemingway, was removed.
The chapter called "Birth of a New School" and large sections of "Ezra Pound and the Measuring Worm" and "There is Never Any End to Paris" (which has been renamed as "Winter in Schruns" and moved to chapter 16) had sections previously left out that have been re-added. The unpublished "The Pilot Fish and the Rich" has been added.
Chapter 7 ("Shakespeare and Company") has been moved to be chapter 3, and chapter 16 ("Nada y Pues Nada") has been moved to the end of the book as an "Additional Paris Sketch".
Hemingway's use of the second person has been restored in many places, a change which Seán asserts "brings the reader into the story".
From the new foreword by Patrick Hemingway:
"[H]ere is the last bit of professional writing by my father, the true foreword to A Moveable Feast: 'This book contains material from the remises of my memory and of my heart. Even if the one has been tampered with and the other does not exist'."
Reception
Preserved video of two critical reactions from 1964
The basic cable channel GSN has rebroadcast the kinescope of an appearance that Sheilah Graham made on the American television show What's My Line? 23 years after the death of her boyfriend F. Scott Fitzgerald. She appeared on an episode that was telecast live on CBS on June 7, 1964, when A Moveable Feast was on bestseller lists. Graham appeared on the show to promote a book she had written, and she did not bring up A Moveable Feast.
Bennett Cerf, the head of Random House publishing who was also a regular panelist on the network television series, initiated talk of Hemingway's new bestselling book. Cerf, who was two years younger than Fitzgerald and one year older than Hemingway, had the following exchange with Graham, according to the kinescope of the telecast that is available for viewing on YouTube.
Reactions to the 2009 edition
A.E. Hotchner alleged, among his other criticisms of the 2009 edition, that Seán Hemingway had edited it, in part, to exclude references to his grandmother (Hemingway's second wife Pauline Pfeiffer) that he found less than flattering. As Hotchner's over-all assessment of the 2009 edition, he wrote: "Ernest was very protective of the words he wrote, words that gave the literary world a new style of writing. Surely he has the right to have these words protected against frivolous incursion, like this reworked volume that should be called “A Moveable Book”.
Other critics also have found fault with some of Seán Hemingway's editorial changes. Irene Gammel writes about the new edition: "Ethically and pragmatically, restoring an author's original intent is a slippery slope when the published text has stood the test of time and when edits have been approved by authors or their legal representatives." Pointing to the complexity of authorship, she concludes: “Mary's version should be considered the definitive one, while the 'restored' version provides access to important unpublished contextual sources that illuminate the evolution of the 1964 edition.”
Legacy
Adaptations
On September 15, 2009, Variety reported that Mariel Hemingway, a granddaughter of Ernest Hemingway and his first wife, had acquired the film and television rights to the memoir with American film producer John Goldstone. In 2019, it was reported that a television series was being developed through Village Roadshow Entertainment Group, but there was no planned release date.
Cultural references
In films
The comedy film The Moderns (1988) brings the characters of The Moveable Feast to life while spoofing the pretense of the Lost Generation.
The book is featured in the movie, City of Angels (1998), during an exchange between Nicolas Cage and Meg Ryan.
Woody Allen's 2011 film Midnight in Paris is set in the Paris of the 1920s as portrayed in Hemingway's book, and the movie features the Owen Wilson character interacting with the likes of Hemingway, Gertrude Stein, and F. Scott and Zelda Fitzgerald, and uses the phrase "a moveable feast" in two instances.
The Words (2012) uses an excerpt from A Moveable Feast to represent a book manuscript found in an old messenger bag.
In the American superhero film, Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), one of the books on the shelf in the character Steve Rogers' apartment is Hemingway's A Moveable Feast.
In the American film, French Postcards (1979), a character quotes the epigraph from the book in order to convince a fellow American student who is studying in France with him to not only study, but enjoy life in Paris.
In the American comedy film, Harold & Kumar Escape from Guantanamo Bay (2008), a stripper named Tits Hemingway says she got the latter part of her name because her favorite novel is A Moveable Feast.
In literature
The writer Enrique Vila-Matas named his book Never Any End to Paris (2003) after the final chapter of Hemingway's work.
In stage performances
In his early stand-up performances in the late 1960s, Woody Allen performed a routine wherein he riffed the feel of the then recently published book while describing imaginary times spent with Hemingway, the Fitzgeralds, and Gertrude Stein with the repeated punch line: "And Hemingway punched me in the mouth."
Revival in France
Following the November 13, 2015, terrorist attacks in Paris, A Moveable Feast became a bestseller in France. In the context of the attacks, the book's French-language title, Paris est une fête, was a potent symbol of defiance and celebration. Bookstore sales of the volume surged, and copies of the book became a common fixture among the flowers and candles in makeshift memorials created by Parisians across the city to honor victims of the attacks.
Hemingway's Wine
In his memoir, A Moveable Feast, Hemingway shows what life was like for aspiring writers in Paris. He talks about his friendships with Scott Fitzgerald and Gertrude Stein, his first marriage and their life in the Latin Quarter, and his writing routine in Parisian cafes. His love of good wine shines through as he never fails to mention which wine he enjoyed with his friends and what they ate with it. Wine was entirely entwined with the writer's lifestyle in Paris.
Sancerre: A False Spring, "Another day later that year when we had come back from one of our voyages and had good luck at some track again we stopped at Prunier's on the way home, going in to sit at the bar after looking at the clearly priced wonders in the window. We had oysters and crab mexicane with glasses of Sancerre."
Mâcon: Scott Fitzgerald, "We had a marvellous lunch from the hotel at Lyon, an excellent truffled roast chicken, delicious bread and white Mâcon wine and Scott was very happy when we drank the white Maconnais at each of our stops. At Mâcon I had bought four more bottles of excellent wine which I uncorked as we needed them."
Corsican: With Pascin at the Dôme, "At home, over the sawmill, we had a Corsican wine that had a great authority and a low price. It was a very Corsican wine and you could dilute it by half with water and still receive its message."
Cahors: With Pascin at the Dôme, "At the Negre de Toulouse we drank the good Cahors wine from the quarter, the half or the full carafe, usually diluting it about one-third with water.[...] In Paris, then, you could live very well on almost nothing and by skipping meals occasionally and never buying any new clothes, you could save and have luxuries."
In September 2020, Chiswick Book Festival featured a wine and literature event celebrating Hemingway's Wine in A Moveable Feast presented by Victoria Daskal.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
[This review's online title is "Hemingway's libidinous feast"]
External links
Timeless Hemingway website
1964 non-fiction books
Books by Ernest Hemingway
Books published posthumously
Cultural depictions of Ezra Pound
Cultural depictions of F. Scott Fitzgerald
Cultural depictions of Gertrude Stein
Ford Madox Ford
Literary memoirs | [
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243031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerry%20Hannah | Gerry Hannah | Gerald Richard Hannah (also known as Gerry Useless) was the bass player for the Canadian punk rock group The Subhumans and was also a member of the armed revolutionary group Direct Action, also known as the Squamish Five (in the mainstream press) and the Vancouver Five (in the alternative press).
Squamish Five carried out a political campaign of "direct actions", including the Litton Industries bombing, Litton Industries being the manufacturer of guidance systems for American nuclear cruise missiles. Hannah was convicted of conspiracy to rob an armoured car and possession of a stolen weapon, for which he received a ten-year prison sentence in Matsqui Prison. He was released on parole in 1988 after serving five years of his sentence.
Hannah was a member of the Vancouver-based punk rock band, The Subhumans, from 1978 to 1981. He reunited with his ex-bandmates for a few shows in the 1990s and again between 2005 and 2010. The Subhumans were best known for their 1980 album Incorrect Thoughts. Hannah penned at least three classics of the punk genre, "Slave to my Dick", "Oh Canaduh", and "Fuck You". The Subhumans released New Dark Age Parade in 2006 and Death was too Kind in 2008. Same Thoughts, Different Day, a re-recorded version of Incorrect Thoughts, came out in 2010.
In December 2014, Hannah released a solo indie folk-rock record Coming Home. The album is a re-recording of selected tracks from Songs from Underground with some additional material. Most of the songs were written during his time with Direct Action and his imprisonment.
In 2004, Vancouver filmmaker, Glen Sanford, made a documentary movie about Gerry Hannah, called Useless. Hannah was also one of the interview subjects in Bloodied But Unbowed, Susanne Tabata's 2011 documentary about Vancouver's early punk scene.
References
External links
Garry Hannah at Bandcamp
Canadian anarchists
Anarcho-punk musicians
Living people
Canadian punk rock bass guitarists
Canadian indie rock musicians
Subhumans (Canadian band) members
Year of birth missing (living people) | [
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243032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s%20Highway | King's Highway | King's Highway or Kings Highway may refer to:
Roads
Australia
Kings Highway (Australia), connecting Queanbeyan to Batemans Bay
Canada
King's Highways, an alternative designation for the primary provincial highway system in Ontario
King's Highway (French: Chemin du Roy), part of Route 138 in Quebec
United States
Kings Highway (Brooklyn), a broad avenue passing through mostly commercial areas in the southern part of Brooklyn
King's Highway (Charleston to Boston), United States
(Old) King's Highway (Massachusetts Route 6A), Cape Cod, MA
Old King's Highway Historic District, Barnstable, MA
Brewster Old King's Highway Historic District, Brewster, MA
Kings Highway (Dupont Avenue), Minneapolis, MN
Kings Highway (Virginia State Route 3), central Virginia
Kings Highway (Virginia State Route 125), Suffolk, Virginia
Kings Highway (New Jersey Route 27), northern New Jersey
Kings Highway (today County Route 13 (Rockland County, New York)), a major route through Valley Cottage, New York
Kings Highway (today Farm to Market Road 989), in Bowie County, Texas
Kings Highway (today Pennsylvania Route 143), in eastern Pennsylvania
Kings Highway (today U.S. Route 61), the trail following the Mississippi River northward from New Orleans, Louisiana, through New Madrid, Sikeston, Cape Girardeau, Perryville, and St. Louis, Missouri
Historical roads
King's Highway (ancient), an ancient trade route from Egypt to Syria mentioned in the Bible
El Camino Real (California) (lit. "the King's Road"), a commemorative route
Places
Kings Highway Conservation District, Dallas, Texas, a neighborhood
Railway stations
New York City Subway stations:
Kings Highway (BMT Brighton Line) at East 16th Street; serving the
Kings Highway (IND Culver Line) at McDonald Avenue; serving the
Kings Highway (BMT Sea Beach Line) at West 8th Street; serving the
Church Street station (MBTA), known as Kings Highway during planning
Films and songs
The King's Highway, a 1927 British film
"Kings Highway," a song on Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers' album Into the Great Wide Open
"King's Highway," a song by Kenny Wayne Shepherd album Trouble Is...
See also
King's Road (disambiguation)
Royal Road (disambiguation)
El Camino Real (disambiguation)
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243033 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cry%20%28disambiguation%29 | Cry (disambiguation) | To cry is to shed tears.
Cry, The Cry or Cries may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Films
The Cry (1957 film), a 1957 Italian black-and-white film
The Cry (1964 film), a 1964 Czech film
The Cry (2007 film), a 2007 horror film
Television
The Cry (2002 TV series), a 2002 British TV series
The Cry (2018 TV series), a 2018 Australian-British TV series
Music
Albums
Cry (Alastair Galbraith album), 2000
Cry (Cigarettes After Sex album), 2019
Cry (Faith Hill album), 2002
Cry (Lynn Anderson album), 1972
Cry (Ronnie Dove album), 1967
Cry (Simple Minds album), 2002
The Cry (Steve Lacy album), recorded in 1988 and released in 1999
The Cry!, a 1963 jazz album by Prince Lasha Quintet featuring Sonny Simmons
Songs
"Cry" (Alex Parks song), 2004
"Cry" (Ashnikko song), 2020
"Cry" (Churchill Kohlman song), 1951, covered by Johnnie Ray and The Four Lads, Ronnie Dove, and others
"Cry" (Dotter song), 2017 song by Swedish singer Dotter
"Cry" (Dragon song), 1984 song by New Zealand-Australian rock band Dragon
"Cry" (Faith Hill song), by Angie Aparo, 1999
"Cry" (Godley & Creme song), 1985
"Cry" (Just a Little), 2011 song by Dutch dance duo Bingo Players
"Cry" (Kelly Clarkson song), 2010
"Cry" (Kym Marsh song), 2003
"Cry" (LL Cool J song), 2008
"Cry" (Mandy Moore song), 2002
"Cry" (The Mavis's song), 1998
"Cry" (Michael Jackson song), 2001
"Cry" (Sigma song), 2016
"Cry" (The Sundays song), 1997
"Cry" (Stellar single), 2016
"Cry" (The Used song), 2014 song by American rock band The Used
"Cry" (Waterfront song), 1988
"Cry", a song by Conception, from their fourth studio album Flow (1997)
"Cry", a song by Hilary Duff from her self-titled album (2004)
"Cry", a song by James Blunt from Back to Bedlam (2004)
"Cry", a song by Jay Sean from My Own Way (2008)
"Cry.", a song by Mariah Carey from Me. I Am Mariah... The Elusive Chanteuse (2014)
"Cry", a song by Mika from My Name Is Michael Holbrook (2019)
"Cry", a song by Pharaoh from the album Bury the Light (2012)
"Cry", a song by Reba McEntire from All the Women I Am (2010)
"Cry", a song by Rihanna from the UK version of the album Good Girl Gone Bad (2007)
"Cry", a song by Simple Minds from the album Cry (2002)
"Cry", a song by System F from the album Out of the Blue (2001)
"Cry", a song by That Handsome Devil from A City Dressed in Dynamite (2008)
"Cry", a song by Anne-Marie from Speak Your Mind (2018)
"Cry", a song by Carly Rae Jepsen from the EP Emotion: Side B (2016)
Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
The Cry (book), a 1754 satirical novel
The Cry or The Scream, an 1893 painting by Edvard Munch
Organizations
Cardiac Risk in the Young, a charitable organization, based in the UK
Child Rights and You, a worldwide non-profit organization
CRY America, a non-profit organization in the United States
Science
Cry protein, a delta-endotoxin produced by the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis
CRY1 and CRY2, Cryptochrome proteins in plants and animals
Other uses
Cry, Yonne, a commune in France
Crayford railway station, London, England (National Rail station code)
See also
Cry, the Beloved Country (disambiguation)
Cry Cry Cry (disambiguation)
"cryo-", meaning "cold" or "freeze": see
I Cry (disambiguation)
I Cried (disambiguation)
Crying (disambiguation)
Cray, an American supercomputer manufacturer
Krai, a Russian administrative district
Kray (disambiguation) | [
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243040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20California | Music of California | In the United States, California is commonly associated with the film, music, and arts industries; there are numerous world-famous Californian musicians. Hardcore punk, hip hop, country, and heavy metal have all appeared in California. Furthermore, new genres of music, such as surf rock and third wave ska, have their origins in California.
Official symbols
The official state song of California is "I Love You, California", written by F. B. Silverwood and composed by Alfred F. Frankenstein of the Los Angeles Symphony Orchestra. It was designated the state song in 1951. Other songs, including "California, Here I Come", have also been candidates for additional state songs since 1951, but in 1988 the official standing of "I Love You, California" was confirmed.
California also has an official fife and drum band, the California Consolidated Drum Band, which was so designated in 1997.
The state's official folk dance is the square dance, which has been found in California since at least the Gold Rush.
Indigenous music
Many groups of Indigenous peoples of California lived and continue to live within the current geographic boundaries of California, before and since colonization by Europe.
In the late 19th century, American Indian music began to be incorporated by classical composers throughout the country, known as the Indianist movement. In San Francisco, Carlos Troyer published compositions like Apache Chief Geronimo's Own Medicine song, with a piano accompaniment by Troyer.
Early foreign influences
The earliest Spanish and English explorers in California encountered Native Americans and established missions to convert them to Christianity. Chanted prayers and hymns were often used, and choirs were eventually formed; many missions formed Native American choirs among recent converts.
As California's European, Asian, and African population increased in the 19th century, the state became the earliest West Coast territory admitted to the United States. As on the East Coast, music at the time was dominated by popular minstrel shows and the sale of sheet music. Performers included the Sacramento-born Hyers Sisters and Black Patti.
Chinese immigrants came to California to work on the transcontinental railroad and soon became a large minority in the state; the San Francisco Chinese Opera House was built in 1880. However, two years later the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed in order to prevent more immigration. The visit of King Kalakaua of Hawaii in 1874 saw the Hawaiian national anthem, "Hawaii Ponoi" (written by the king) set to music by Henri Berger. In the 1880s, Carlos Troyer became a prominent composer, incorporating Spanish and Zuni influences. Polish composer Anton de Kontski's "Polish Patrol" and "Awakening the Lion" were also quite popular.
Spanish and Mexican influence
The state's large Mexican population brought traditional folk guitar to California, including virtuoso Luis T. Romero. The Spanish missions in California brought European music to the area. From the late 18th century to the late 19th century, many visitors to California remarked on the uniqueness of the Spanish language music in California. This music was distinctively Californian, different from both Mexican and Spanish music of the time (though many elements are found throughout these traditions).
With the arrival of many Americans from the East Coast, as well as immigrants from as far away as China, however, Spanish folk music began to dwindle in popularity in California. Charles Fletcher Lummis, himself an immigrant to California, recorded many kinds of Spanish and Native American folk music for the Southwest Society of the Archaeological Institute of America. Later in the 20th century, other revivalists like Gabriel Eulogius Ruiz and Al Pill helped keep Spanish-California traditions alive.
Mexican and Latin American music in California today
Because of its historical and cultural connections to Mexico and strong Hispanic influences, California hosts numerous Spanish language radio stations, variety music shows and local based Mariachi and Mexican folk music bands. Popular music such as Ranchera, Norteño, son music can be heard on many radio stations across the state from the San Francisco Bay Area and Sacramento to the southern end of the Central Valley and down to San Diego.
Southern California has been home to Spanish language singers and musicians for over 100 years. La Pena Cultural Center in Berkeley has worked promote Salsa and traditional Latin American music to encourage a strong cultural connection between Californians and Latin Americans.
Mexican American musical artists from California vary widely in musical genre, from traditional Mexican music to Alternative Metal; among the most celebrated are Zack de la Rocha (of Rage Against the Machine), Chris Montez, Chino Moreno (of the Deftones), Ozomatli, Jenni Rivera, Los Tigres del Norte, Robert Trujillo (of Metallica, Suicidal Tendencies, and Infectious Grooves), La Santa Cecilia, Carlos Santana, and Ritchie Valens.
1930s and 40s
Sidney Robertson Cowell, an ethnographer from San Francisco, collected a trove of American folk songs for the WPA Northern California Folk Music Project (1938–1940), which she initiated.
West Coast blues
Western swing
1950s and 60s
Bakersfield sound
In the 1950s and early 1960s, country music was dominated by the slick Nashville sound that stripped the genre of its gritty roots. The town of Bakersfield saw the rise of the Bakersfield sound as a reaction against Nashville, led by people such as Buck Owens and future star Merle Haggard.
Folk
California was an important part of the American folk music revival of the late 1950s and early 1960s, led by the San Francisco Bay Area group the Kingston Trio. Their first hit, the 1958 single "Tom Dooley" (a Billboard #1 Hot 100 hit), sold more than 3 million copies and inspired the addition of a "folk" category to the Grammy awards the following year. The Trio's success inspired many pop-folk groups (recognizable by the performance of traditional or traditional-sounding music and use of acoustic rather than electric guitars), including California-based The Limeliters. California venues like the Hungry i promoted the genre and several major albums were recorded there. Folk music faded in popularity after the mid-1960s British Invasion, but merged with the British sound to create folk rock, pioneered by the Los Angeles band the Byrds.
R&B
R&B group the Robins formed in San Francisco and helped establish the doo-wop sound. Members of the Robins went on to form the Coasters in Los Angeles, alongside the Platters, the Penguins, the Flairs, the Cadets, the Hollywood Flames, and the Blossoms. Johnny Otis was born in Vallejo. Etta James was born in Los Angeles.
Chicano rock
Chicano artists Ritchie Valens, the Champs, Cannibal & the Headhunters, thee Midniters, the Premiers, the Blendells, and El Chicano emerged from southern California in this period.
Pop
Vocal group the Lennon Sisters formed in Venice.
The Walker Brothers, formed in Los Angeles in 1964, achieved success in the United Kingdom during the British Invasion.
Surf rock, sunshine pop, and the California Sound
In the early 1960s, youth in southern California became enamored with surf rock groups, many instrumental, like the Beach Boys, Jan and Dean, the Chantays, Royale Monarchs, the Honeys, the Bel-Airs, the Challengers, and the Surfaris. Surf rock is said to have been invented by Dick Dale with his 1961 (see 1961 in music) album Let's Go Trippin'. Surf rock's popularity ended in the mid-1960s with the coming of psychedelic music, however bands like Papa Doo Run Run have continued to perform and tour for the last 40 years.
Garage rock
The Standells, the Seeds, the Leaves, and the Music Machine formed in the Los Angeles area. Count Five, Syndicate of Sound, and the Chocolate Watchband formed in San Jose.
Psychedelic rock
The late 1960s saw San Francisco rise as the center for psychedelic rock and a mecca for hippies. Haight-Ashbury became a countercultural capital, and bands like Jefferson Airplane, Loading Zone, Quicksilver Messenger Service, the Ace of Cups, Country Joe and the Fish, Santana, the Charlatans, Big Brother & the Holding Company, and the Grateful Dead helped to launch the blues- and folk-rock scene; other bands, like Moby Grape and the Flamin' Groovies used a more country-influenced sound, while Cold Blood and Sons of Champlin incorporated R&B and Orkustra played a sort of free-form psychedelia. Of all these bands, the Grateful Dead were undoubtedly the longest-lasting of all. They continued recording and performing for several decades under the leadership of Jerry Garcia, experimenting with a wide variety of folk, country, and bluegrass, and becoming a part of the jam band phenomenon.
Hollywood's Sunset Strip area produced bands like the Byrds, the Doors, Love, Buffalo Springfield, Strawberry Alarm Clock, and the Seeds. The Byrds went on to become a major folk-rock act, helping to popularize some of Bob Dylan's compositions and eventually launching the careers of folk-rockers like David Crosby and country-rock fusionist Gram Parsons.
Frank Zappa and Captain Beefheart, both from Antelope Valley, started their aggressively experimental music careers during the late 1960s.
The band Iron Butterfly is another noted California psychedelic band, coming out of San Diego.
San Francisco psychedelic scene
This era began in about 1965, when The Matrix, the first folk club in San Francisco, opened; Jefferson Airplane, then a newly formed and unknown band, performed that night. Later that year, a band known as the Warlocks became the Grateful Dead, performing at The Fillmore, which was to become a major musical venue in the area. Jefferson Airplane became the first San Francisco psychedelic band signed to a major label, followed soon after by Sopwith Camel. In 1966, the first acid test was held, and the use of the drug LSD became a more prominent part of psychedelic rock, and music in general. One of the first albums from the scene was Country Joe and the Fish's Electric Music for the Mind and Body (1967). A year later, the band Blue Cheer released Vincebus Eruptum, which launched a national hit with a cover of Eddie Cochran's "Summertime Blues"; Blue Cheer is now regarded as a progenitor of heavy metal.
Experimental
The San Francisco Tape Music Center was founded in 1962 by composers Morton Subotnick, born in Los Angeles, and Ramon Sender. Under a commission, synthesizer pioneer Don Buchla, born in South Gate, created his first modular synthesizer in 1963 and started Buchla Electronic Musical Instruments.
1970s and 80s
The early part of this era was dominated by country rock acts such as the Eagles and Poco, and singer-songwriters such as Jackson Browne and Joni Mitchell. There were also funk acts that were prominent such as War from the South Central (now South) district of Los Angeles, Sly and the Family Stone and Tower of Power from Oakland. Santana blended rock, jazz, funk and Latin music. Latin R&B band Tierra formed in Los Angeles in this period. This period also saw a number of difficult to classify acts arising who did not sell many records, but proved to be very influential on things to come, such as Kim Fowley, Captain Beefheart, Sparks, and Fanny, all from Los Angeles, who had been active in the 1960s but reached their artistic peaks during this era. Fowley would go on to manage and produce the all-female punk-metal group, the Runaways. The Los Angeles scene of this period also produced the Go-Go's and the Motels. Boundary-stretching singer-songwriters such as Rickie Lee Jones and Warren Zevon (both originally from Chicago but whose careers developed in California) emerged to great critical acclaim.
The Tubes, who mixed progressive rock with wild theatricality, and Journey, formed from among some of Carlos Santana's sidemen and eventually experiencing a peak as one of the most popular AOR acts in the United States, were virtually the only acts from San Francisco to gain any sort of fame in the mid-1970s. During the 1980s, Journey found further success, as did Huey Lewis and the News who combined elements of pub rock with doo-wop and soul, and Starship which formed from its earlier incarnation of Jefferson Starship.
Californians Stevie Nicks and Lindsey Buckingham joined Fleetwood Mac in the 1970s and were a key part of the band's multi-platinum success.
Punk rock in California
Los Angeles
Los Angeles' original late 1970s punk scene received less press attention than their counterparts in New York or London, but it included cult bands the Screamers, the Germs, the Weirdos, the Dils, the Bags, 45 Grave (founded by Paul B. Cutler), Nervous Gender, and X.
Other Los Angeles-area punk and hardcore groups of the era include Wasted Youth, T.S.O.L., L7, Los Illegals, the Plugz, Cruzados, the Brat, the Controllers, the Hollywood Squares, Super Heroines, the Pandoras, the Droogs, Catholic Discipline, the Mau-Mau's, VOM, Dr. Know (featuring former child star Brandon Cruz), Legal Weapon, Claw Hammer, the Mentors (originally from Seattle), along with future underground stars NOFX.
South Bay
In the Los Angeles South Bay, American hardcore punk was born with bands like Black Flag, Circle Jerks, Minutemen and Youth Brigade, who formed in the mid-1970s to early 1980s. SST Records was started by Greg Ginn of Black Flag in Long Beach in 1978. San Pedro, Hermosa Beach, Wilmington, Manhattan Beach, and Hawthorne spawned more locally famous acts like Red Cross (who would later incorporate garage rock, power pop, and glam influences into their sound and change their name to Redd Kross), the Last, Circle Jerks, Saint Vitus, the Descendents, and Saccharine Trust. The famous movie about the hardcore scene, The Decline of Western Civilization, was shot in this area, largely in an abandoned church in Hermosa called the Creative Craft Center. The movement fell out of popularity around the mid 1980s. The late 1980s/early 1990s saw a revival in the South Bay punk scene with punk bands like Bad Religion, Down by Law, NOFX, the Offspring, Pennywise, and Ten Foot Pole under the Epitaph Records label.
San Fernando Valley
Youth Brigade founded BYO Records in 1982 in Sun Valley. Also of note is the band Bad Religion, who hailed from the western San Fernando Valley and were only marginally associated with hardcore punk rock from the South Bay area. The punk scene in the eastern San Fernando Valley was closely tied in with that of nearby Hollywood and produced bands such as the Dickies, Fear, and the Angry Samoans. The bands Iconoclast and Public Nuisance also hailed from this area. Numerous punks shows in the 1980s, including shows by Circle Jerks and Black Flag, took place in a warehouse on the old site of Devonshire Downs in Northridge.
Orange County
In Orange County, the band Middle Class, from Santa Ana, was probably the most influential; their "Out of Vogue" is sometimes considered the first hardcore recording. The original hardcore bands in Orange County came from the Fullerton area, where the Adolescents, Agent Orange, Social Distortion, and D.I. formed. Social Distortion would later incorporate blues, country, and early rock influences into their sound and become one of America's premier roots rock bands. Farther south, Huntington Beach was also an influential center of hardcore, and is known as the origin of slam dancing. Huntington band T.S.O.L. had a reputation for being aggressive and sometimes violent, while Uniform Choice became known as a prominent straight edge band from the West Coast. Another Orange County band of note is the U.S. Bombs fronted by Duane Peters. True Sounds of Liberty (TSOL) was perhaps the most infamous for violence, and for an abrupt and unpopular change towards proto-Gothic rock and, much later, Aerosmith-style heavy metal as the scene developed; future underground stars the Vandals evolved from TSOL's eventual breakdown. Other Orange County bands included Channel 3 (CH3), White Mice, the Offspring, Big Drill Car, Guttermouth, Suicidal Tendencies (who were from Venice but were associated with Orange County hardcore), China White and Shattered Faith. The Dils were originally from Orange County but later relocated to San Francisco.
The area had a big hand in the third wave ska scene with this region giving rise to Save Ferris, Reel Big Fish, and the scenes' most well-known act the Gwen Stefani-fronted No Doubt who would go on to pop super-stardom.
San Diego
The Zeros formed in Chula Vista in 1976. The Neutrons gained limited success, eventually changing their name to Battalion of Saints. The Donkey Show was a ska band that saw some notoriety during the late 1980s, helping to establish the genre known as third wave ska.
San Francisco
Outside of New York, London, Detroit, Cleveland, and Boston, San Francisco probably had the earliest punk scene, at least as far back as 1976. The scene was aided by San Francisco's famously laid back attitude towards alternative lifestyles, and the legendary record label Alternative Tentacles. Crime and the Nuns were first, followed by Chrome, the Mutants, the Units, the Contractions, Angst, the Sleepers, Pop-O-Pies, Frightwig, Crucifix, Negative Trend, the Avengers, Toiling Midgets, Flipper and Romeo Void. The most influential San Francisco hardcore band was Dead Kennedys, whose frontman, Jello Biafra, became a noted social activist. Many hardcore bands moved to San Francisco, including legends MDC, as well as D.R.I., Tales of Terror (from Sacramento, who made Kurt Cobain's Top 50 list of favorite bands and essential listening), the Dicks, and Rhythm Pigs (all from Texas).
Berkeley
Berkeley experienced a hardcore boom led by Fang. Berkeley also saw hardcore fusing with heavy metal to form thrash metal and bands like Possessed, Faith No More, Metallica, and Exodus.
Also in the mid-late 1980s hardcore, pop punk, and ska punk bands gained a following with bands such as Operation Ivy, Crimpshrine, The Mr. T Experience, the Lookouts, Isocracy, Green Day, Blatz, and Plaid Retina. These bands played at the infamous Gilman Street Project and released records on Lookout! Records.
San Jose
San Jose's most famous hardcore band was the Faction, who played with local bands such as Los Olvidados. It is also from where some members of Rancid hailed. Punk rock band No Use for a Name is also from San Jose.
As the punk rock drought in San Jose left the area thirsty, 2005 spawned from its sewers the gutter punk outfit Medicated Motherfuckers. Quenching the thirst of those in the Bay Area with shameless intoxicated tales of debauchery.
Heavy metal
Glam metal
Glam metal arose along the Sunset Strip in Los Angeles in the 1980s with bands like Quiet Riot, Mötley Crüe, and later Pennsylvania immigrants Poison and quickly became known for anthemic hard rock and power ballads, as well as band members' distinctively feminine make-up, hair, and clothing in spite of the scene's macho posturing. This scene would die out in the 1990s due to grunge.
Thrash metal
The Bay Area thrash scene was centered around Los Angeles and San Francisco in the 1980s and 1990s. Bands associated with this scene include Metallica, Megadeth, Slayer, Exodus, Vio-lence, Suicidal Tendencies, Dark Angel, Death Angel, D.R.I., Testament, Forbidden, Defiance, Evildead, and Holy Terror.
Alternative rock
Kim Gordon of Sonic Youth grew up in Los Angeles, where she attended Otis Art Institute, before moving to New York.
Wall of Voodoo multiple-drum-machine and Farfisa organ laden recordings with wild guitars and clever and desert wise road lyrics out of central Hollywood Boulevard and Selma Avenue wild life started the New wave trend in Southern California late 1970s early 1980s.
The Cretones added power pop guitar riffs and thoughtful lyrics with a touch of humor and sarcasm in the late 1970s early 1980s. They attracted the attention of Linda Ronstadt, who recorded three of their songs on her new wave album Mad Love, titled after the Cretones' song.
At the same time that gothic rock began in the United Kingdom, a parallel death rock scene evolved in Los Angeles out of the punk scene, with bands like 45 Grave and Christian Death.
Inspired by bands like the Gun Club and Ohio transplants the Cramps, cowpunk bands such as Tex & the Horseheads, and Blood on the Saddle arose from Los Angeles in the 1980s.
The Paisley Underground scene would arise out of Los Angeles in the mid-1980s around Redd Kross, The Three O'Clock (originally The Salvation Army), the Bangles, the Dream Syndicate, the Long Ryders, Rain Parade, Opal, Mazzy Star, and others.
Faith No More and Primus formed in San Francisco in the 80s. Los Angeles' Red Hot Chili Peppers steadily built up media attention with their first recordings in the mid-to-late-1980s, and went on to become one of the world's premier rock bands in the following decade. Santa Cruz spawned Camper Van Beethoven in the mid-1980s. Jane's Addiction would arise out of Venice in the late 1980s.
Experimental
The Los Angeles Free Music Society was formed in 1973 and produced the group Smegma.
Hip hop
During the 1980s, hip hop music flourished in Los Angeles and surrounding areas, especially Watts and Compton. Derived from New York City, hip hop drew upon primarily Jamaican and East Coast influences, though early 1970s black nationalist poets the Watts Prophets were also notable. The earliest forms of Los Angeles hip hop were hardcore hip hop artists like Ice-T (whose mid-80s "6 in the Mornin'" is arguably the first West Coast gangsta rap track). Among the most popular electro hop groups was the World Class Wrecking Cru, which included future star Dr. Dre, DJ Yela, and others and also featured singer Michel'le, an early pioneer in combining soulful R&B singing with hip-hop beats. In 1988, Dr. Dre, along with Eazy-E and Ice Cube, released Straight Outta Compton under the name N.W.A The album took many hip hop fans by surprise, as it single-handedly placed West Coast hip hop on the map and quickly moved gangsta rap into the mainstream. The main gangsta rap and west coast hip hop cities were Long Beach, San Francisco, Oakland, Vallejo, Pittsburg, California Sacramento, Richmond, California, East Palo Alto, Berkeley, Los Angeles, Bakersfield, Fresno, Compton, and Inglewood.
1990s and 2000s
Hip hop
Called "The Golden Age of Hip hop", the 1990s saw the rise of such legendary rappers as 2Pac, Cypress Hill, Dr. Dre, Eazy-E, Ice Cube, Kid Frost, Snoop Dogg, Yo-Yo.
In the 1990s Ice Cube released six albums and the first five albums all went platinum, and the last one, War & Peace, went gold. Cube became an icon for West Coast hip hop for his songs about social and political issues. In 1992, Dr. Dre's solo debut, The Chronic, made West Coast hip hop and Death Row Records the dominant sound in hip hop, drawing primarily upon George Clinton's P-Funk for samples and the general, slow, lazy funk, which G-funk music was founded in Los Angeles and Long Beach. Death Row Records soon acquired Tupac Shakur, Warren G and Snoop Doggy Dogg as a feud developed between the East and West Coasts. In the mid-90s, Shakur and his rival Notorious B.I.G. were both shot and killed. Death Row Records CEO Suge Knight was imprisoned, and most of the label's acts tried to leave. The lack of leadership helped put New York, Atlanta, and New Orleans on the top of the hip hop charts, leaving local would-be legends and underground MC's (emcees) to work under self-financed productions.
In the 1990s, underground hip hop flourished in the San Francisco Bay Area. Early pioneers included Too Short and E-40; their success helped pave the way for new performers like RBL Posse, whose 1992 "Don't Gimme No Bammer" achieved some crossover success. The Bay Area's thriving underground rap scene has produced literally hundreds of artists, some of the better known being Andre Nickatina, the Coup, Michael Franti, the Conscious Daughters, Paris, Blackalicious, Ya Boy, and San Quinn. The Bay Area is also home to the relatively new "Hyphy" subgenre. Mac Dre was one of the notable innovators. San Francisco was very impressive in hip hop, boasting west coast legends Rappin' 4-Tay, RBL Posse, Andre Nickatina, JT The Bigga Figga, Cougnut, and more. San Francisco and Oakland were some of the homes of the late global rapping legend Tupac Shakur. The inner-city of San Francisco's neighborhoods' crime inspired the rap scene of San Francisco.
Madlib and brother Oh No were born in Oxnard. Dilated Peoples, Jurassic 5, and Flying Lotus are from Los Angeles. The Alchemist is from Beverly Hills.
Indie rock
The early 1990s saw the emergence of Pavement, an influential indie rock band from Stockton. In the mid-1990s, Beck came out of the Silver Lake (a neighborhood in Los Angeles) indie rock scene. Queercore bands Tribe 8, Pansy Division, Cypher in the Snow, the Little Deaths, and Sta-Prest formed in San Francisco in the 1990s and recorded for local label Outpunk among others. San Francisco also produced the Trashwomen and Fabulous Disaster. Los Angeles and southern California also produced Longstocking, Best Revenge, Red Aunts, Quetzal, the Muffs, and Emily's Sassy Lime in the 1990s.
The 2000s brought the emergence of Ariel Pink, Black Rebel Motorcycle Club, Or, the Whale, the Aislers Set, the Botticellis, Scissors for Lefty, Deerhoof, Icebird, the Dodos, the Quails, the Curtains, I the Mighty, La Plebe, Erase Errata, the Phantom Limbs, the Donnas, Hunx and His Punx, Shannon and the Clams, Sic Alps, and the Union Trade from the San Francisco Bay Area and the Quarter After, Scarling., Best Coast, Warpaint, Autolux, Two Tears, Giant Drag, Brian Jonestown Massacre, HEALTH, Fool's Gold, No Age, Foot Village, the Warlocks, Silver Daggers, Tearist, Mika Miko, and Ty Segall from Los Angeles. She Wants Revenge formed in the San Fernando Valley. Groups from San Diego include the Album Leaf, Three Mile Pilot, Pinback, Thingy, the Soft Pack, and the Black Heart Procession.
Hardcore punk and metalcore
The early-to-mid 1990s would see the birth of several bands in the San Diego, California music scene, some of which would lead a post-hardcore movement associated with the independent label Gravity Records. This movement would eventually become known as the "San Diego sound". Gravity was founded in 1991 by Matt Anderson, member of the band Heroin, as a means to release the music of his band and of other related San Diego groups, which also included Antioch Arrow and Clikatat Ikatowi. The label's earlier releases are known for the definition of "a new sound in hardcore rooted in tradition but boasting a chaotic sound that showcased a new approach" to the genre. Heroin were known for being innovators of early 1990s hardcore and for making dynamic landscapes "out of one minute blasts of noisy vitriol". These bands were influenced by acts like Fugazi and The Nation of Ulysses, while also helping propagate an offshoot of hardcore that "grafted spastic intensity to willfully experimental dissonance and dynamics". This movement has been associated to the development of the subgenre of screamo, while it also should be noticed that this term has been, as with the case of emo, the subject of controversy. The label also featured releases by non-San Diego bands that included Mohinder (from Cupertino, California), Angel Hair and its subsequent related project The VSS (from Boulder, Colorado), groups that have also been associated with this sound. The VSS was known for their use of synthesizers "vying with post-hardcore's rabid atonality".
Outside the Gravity roster, another band that played an important role in the development of the "San Diego sound" was Drive Like Jehu. This group, founded by former members of Pitchfork, was known, according to Steve Huey, for their lengthy and multisectioned compositions based on the innovations brought by the releases on Dischord, incorporating elements such as "odd time signatures played an important role on its development in spite of the band's music not resembling the sound such term would later signify. In a similar manner, Swing Kids, composed of former members of hardcore bands from the San Diego scene such as Unbroken, Struggle and Spanakorzo, have been described by journalist Zach Baron as the moment in which the "hardcore" sound of bands like Unbroken effectively became "post-hardcore", known for "covering Joy Division songs" and for its sonic "jazz-quoting" and "guitar feedback" experimentation features. They were also one of the first bands released under the independent label Three One G, founded by the band's vocalist Justin Pearson and later known for releasing the works of several other post-hardcore, noise rock, mathcore and grindcore groups.
As metalcore became the popular subgenre of hardcore in the late 1990s to early 2000s, bands such as Avenged Sevenfold, As I Lay Dying, Atreyu, Confide, Dayseeker, Deadseraphim, Death By Stereo, Bleeding Through, Eighteen Visions, In Fear and Faith, In This Moment, Of Mice & Men, Phinehas, Stick to Your Guns, and Throwdown made their mark in Southern California. A Skylit Drive and Jamie's Elsewhere made their mark in Northern California.
Highly influential Post-hardcore luminaries, Drive Like Jehu (and the subsequent band, Hot Snakes) hail from San Diego. Rocket from the Crypt gained notoriety in the 1990s with vocalist and taste-maker John Reis' Swami Records and Swami Sound System radio show being very influential in the area. Hardcore bands Unbroken, Swing Kids, Some Girls, and Over My Dead Body also formed in San Diego during this period.
Pop Rock
New Radicals, known for their hit "You Get What you Give", were formed out of Los Angeles.
Pop punk
Pop punk band Blink-182 formed in Poway. Lit formed in Orange County. Eve 6 formed in La Crescenta-Montrose.
Alternative rock
California has produced many of the most genre-defying music artists/bands. Alternative rock is one of the more broadly defined music genres, more inclusive than others. These are some of the most popular Alternative rock bands from California (in alphanumeric order), Audioslave, Bad Religion, Beck*, Counting Crows, Green Day*, Hole, Jane's Addiction, No Doubt, Rage Against the Machine, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Social Distortion, Stone Temple Pilots, Sublime, Tom Waits*, Weezer (*Grammy winners for Best Alternative Music Album).
Desert rock
Desert Rock was formed by a group of closely related bands and musicians from Palm Desert in Southern California, including San Bernardino, Redlands, Palm Springs, and Indio. Their hard rock sound – which was often described as desert rock – contains elements of psychedelia, blues, heavy metal and other genres, such as hardcore, as well as distinctive repetitive drum beats; typically performed with electric guitar, bass guitar, and a drum kit. The musicians often play in multiple bands simultaneously, and there is a high rate of collaboration between bands. The Palm Desert Scene is also notable for producing stoner rock pioneers Kyuss. The term "stoner rock" is sometimes used interchangeably with "desert rock." However, not all Desert Rock bands are "stoner rock." Notable Desert Rock style acts include Queens of the Stone Age, Kyuss, Sleep, Truckfighters, Eagles of Death Metal, Fatso Jetson, and Fu Manchu.
Nu metal and alternative metal
California was at the forefront for the emergence of these two genres in the 1990s with nu metal bands such as Korn, Linkin Park, Papa Roach and P.O.D all coming from California along with alternative metal bands such as A Perfect Circle, Audioslave, Deftones, Faith No More, Jane's Addiction, Rage Against the Machine, System of a Down, and Tool.
Christian Rock
Southern California saw the rise of Christian hardcore, specifically Spirit-filled hardcore (SFHXC) during the mid-90s including No Innocent Victim, and Unashamed. Jason Dunn of No Innocent Victim started Facedown Records. Switchfoot is a Christian Alternative band based out of San Diego.
Experimental
The Smell, opened in 1998, is an all-ages, punk rock/noise/experimental venue in downtown Los Angeles, home to many of the area's avant-garde performers and artists.
Grouper (Liz Harris) was born in Northern California and grew up around the San Francisco Bay area and in Oregon where she is now based. Holly Herndon, born in Tennessee, is based in San Francisco. Herndon studied electronic music at Mills College in Oakland.
2010s
Hip hop
Experimental hip hop acts Death Grips from Sacramento and clipping. from L.A. formed in 2010.
Kendrick Lamar, from Compton, had his major-label debut and breakout in 2012 with Good Kid, M.A.A.D City. To Pimp a Butterfly followed in 2015 to further acclaim. Lamar won the 2018 Pulitzer Prize for Music for his 2017 album DAMN.
Rock
Los Angeles band Haim garnered much success on both sides of the Atlantic upon the release of their debut album Days Are Gone in 2013. Gemini Syndrome are also based out of Los Angeles and formed in 2010. Being as an Ocean based out of Alpine were formed in 2011.
Jazz in California
Influential jazz musicians from California include Dave Brubeck, Vince Guaraldi, Jimmy Giuffre, Carla Bley, and Cal Tjader, while vocal jazz legends Etta James, Jo Stafford, and Ivie Anderson also call California home. Other California jazz musicians include Larry Bunker, Buddy Collette, Eric Dolphy, Dexter Gordon, Chico Hamilton, Charles Mingus, Britt Woodman, Teddy Edwards, Vi Redd, Leroy Vinnegar, Gerald Wilson, Hampton Hawes, Billy Higgins, Mary Stallings, Butch Morris, David Murray, Joanne Brackeen, Gretchen Parlato, Bobby Hutcherson, Willie Jones III, Joshua Redman, Kamasi Washington, and Yellowjackets.
Los Angeles' Central Avenue is a historically significant place for jazz.
A revival of swing and big band music was led by Big Bad Voodoo Daddy in the 1990s.
Classical music in California
California has a number of established orchestras, including the San Francisco Symphony (1911), Los Angeles Philharmonic Association (1919), San Diego Symphony (1910), Fremont Symphony Orchestra, Oakland East Bay Symphony (formed in 1988 by combining two older organizations), Coachella Valley Symphony, Peninsula Symphony Orchestra (1949), and the Fresno Philharmonic Association (1954).
20th century avant garde composer John Cage was born in Los Angeles. Lou Harrison, a contemporary and sometimes collaborator of Cage's, grew up around San Francisco, where he met William Colvig in 1967, with whom he helped develop American gamelan. Composer Jody Diamond, of Pasadena, founded the American Gamelan Institute in Berkeley in 1981. Other notable composers from California include David Cope, Henry Cowell, Harry Partch, Terry Riley, Terry Jennings, and Harold Budd. See: West Coast school.
Russian-born composer Igor Stravinsky lived in Los Angeles from the 1940s-1960s.
Music festivals and organizations
California hosts many well-known music festivals in a wide variety of fields, including the Stern Grove Festival, the Hootenanny at Irvine Park, Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, Harmony Sweepstakes A Cappella Festival, High Sierra Music Festival, and Facedown Fest. There are multiple jazz festivals including the Monterey Jazz Festival (one of the oldest jazz festivals in the world), the San Jose Jazz Festival, the San Francisco Jazz Festival, and the Playboy Jazz Festival in Los Angeles. The Monterey Pop Festival, held in 1967, is perhaps the most famous concert in California's history; the show launched the international careers of performers like Jimi Hendrix, the Who, Otis Redding, and Janis Joplin.
Music organizations in the state include the Community Arts Music Association. There is also an organization that gives out California Music Awards.
References
Sources
Blush, Steven (2001). American Hardcore: A Tribal History. Feral House.
Nettl, Bruno (1965). Folk and Traditional Music of the Western Continents. Inglewood, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
External links
California Music Awards (formerly the Bammies)
collection of 19th century Californian sheet music
California Worldfest (an annual gathering of world musicians)
WPA recordings of 1930s folk music from California
The California Traditional Music Society
California Association for Music Education
collection of California sheet music
California Music Venues
California culture
California
Musical groups from Chico, California | [
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243053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Camino%20Real%20%28Florida%29 | El Camino Real (Florida) | El Camino Real (The Royal Road) is the name (rough English translation: The King's Highway) that the Spanish gave to a trail they cleared in the 1680s, mostly over the traditional trails of Native Americans, from St. Augustine westward to the Spanish missions in north Florida. Before this time, transpeninsular traffic in La Florida between the western mission settlements and the capital depended on water routes from Apalachee to St. Augustine. Agricultural commodities produced in Apalachee were carried by canoes to the Gulf of Mexico and southward on the coast to the mouth of the Suwanee River, then upriver to a location on the Santa Fe River. There they were loaded onto pack animals or the backs of Indian burderners (porters) for the remainder of the overland trip. Provisions and funds from the real situado were sent on the same route in reverse.
In 1673, the Franciscan Friar Juan Moreno suggested to the Queen Regent Mariana of Spain that the situado, or annual subsidy transferred from the royal treasury of New Spain, should be transported overland from Vera Cruz in Mexico to Apalachee, and from there to St. Augustine. His suggestion was disregarded, since the route he proposed went through the territories of unchristianized Indians who were not always on friendly terms with the Spanish, while the situado, in the form of silver coins, would have to be carried by burderners across the swamps, forests, and sizable bays and rivers of the Gulf of Mexico coast, which barred the passage of wagons or royal mule trains.
According to "El Camino Real", published by the Florida Division of Historical Resources: "In the 1680s, Florida Governor Diego de Quiroga y Losada contracted the services of military engineer Enrique Primo de Rivera to build a formal road across north Florida that was suitable for oxcarts. Although the project was never finished, people and goods continued to flow to and from the capital at St. Augustine, along the main corridor known as the Camino Real."
It could be said that the Spanish had an incomplete "trail" that very loosely connected the province of La Florida in the east to the Spanish settlements in Alta California in the west, through what historians call the Spanish borderlands, but it is a gross exaggeration to describe such a discontinuous pathway, the part on the Gulf of Mexico being merely Indian foot trails running along ridges, interrupted by large bodies of water and unbridged rivers with no ferries, as a "highway".
The Spanish never built an actual road south of St. Augustine. Some unreliable sources claim that they built a road to New Smyrna in 1632, but the place did not exist in 1632. The area at the time was a wilderness uninhabited by Europeans, while the colony of New Smyrna begun and named by the Scottish Dr. Andrew Turnbull was not founded until 1768. The British built the King's Road from Colerain, Georgia to New Smyrna, and the Spanish did use it when they reacquired Florida in 1783, but afterward they were rather lax in maintaining it.
References
Historic trails and roads in the United States
Native American trails in the United States
Historic trails and roads in Florida
Native American history of Florida | [
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243054 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jody%20Scheckter | Jody Scheckter | Jody David Scheckter (born 29 January 1950) is a South African business proprietor and former motor racing driver. He competed in Formula One from 1972 to 1980, winning the Drivers' Championship in with Ferrari. Scheckter remains the only African driver to win the Formula One World Championship.
Career
Scheckter was born in East London, Eastern Cape, and educated at Selborne College and Vincent Primary school.
Formula One
He rapidly ascended to the ranks of Formula One after moving to Britain in 1970. His Formula 1 debut occurred at the US Grand Prix at Watkins Glen in 1972 with McLaren, where he ran as high as third place before spinning and finishing ninth. Immediately becoming a name to watch, he continued his development the following year, winning the 1973 SCCA L&M Championship and racing five times in F1. In France, he almost won in only his third start in F1 before crashing into Emerson Fittipaldi, the reigning World Champion, who said after the crash about Scheckter: "This madman is a menace to himself and everybody else and does not belong in Formula 1." In his next start, the British Grand Prix at Silverstone, Scheckter's spin triggered a major accident which took nearly a dozen cars out of the race. The Grand Prix Drivers Association demanded his immediate banishment, which was only put off when McLaren agreed to rest their driver for four races. Scheckter's McLaren M23 bore the number zero during the Canadian and American Grands Prix of 1973. Scheckter is one of only two F1 drivers to compete under this number, the other being Damon Hill. During the practice for the American event at the Watkins Glen circuit, Frenchman François Cevert, who was due to be Scheckter's Tyrrell teammate for 1974, was killed in an appalling accident at the fast uphill Esses corners. Scheckter was behind Cevert when he crashed, and he stopped his McLaren, got out of his car and attempted to help Cevert out of his destroyed Tyrrell, but the 29-year-old Frenchman had been cut in half by the circuit's poorly installed Armco barriers and was already dead. Witnessing Cevert's dreadful accident left an indelible mark on the South African and caused him to abandon his reckless ways, becoming a more mature and calculating driver as a result.
Tyrrell in 1974 gave him his first full-time drive in F1. Jody rewarded them with a third-place finish in the Drivers' Championship and a pair of wins in Sweden and Britain. During the year, he scored points in eight consecutive races, one of the longer scoring streaks of the time. A slight off-year followed, although he did become the only South African to win the South African Grand Prix, but his third year with the team in 1976 gave him another third-place finish in the Drivers' Championship. In that season, Tyrrell introduced the most radical car in F1 history, the innovative six-wheeled Tyrrell P34. Although he later went on record as saying the car was "a piece of junk", Scheckter gave the six-wheeler its only win on Sweden's Anderstorp circuit and in his twelve races with the car, he scored points ten times. This included a thrilling race-long battle for the lead in the American Grand Prix between himself and his great friend James Hunt.
Scheckter left for Walter Wolf's new team in 1977 and Scheckter gave the team a win in its maiden race. He won twice more with the team and was often on the podium, but finished second on points behind a more dominant Niki Lauda. A seventh-place finish with the team in 1978 followed and he left the team after the season to join Ferrari to partner Gilles Villeneuve in the team's ground effect 312T4 car.Critics felt he would not get along well with the domineering management at Ferrari, but he far surpassed expectations and helped give F1's most recognisable team another Constructors' Championship, while Scheckter's consistent finishes, with three wins among them, gave him the Drivers' Championship in 1979. However, he struggled badly in his 1980 title defence, even failing to qualify for one race. After managing only two points, Scheckter announced his retirement from the team and the sport. Scheckter was the last driver to win a Drivers' Championship for Ferrari until Michael Schumacher twenty-one years later in .
After Formula One
Broadcaster
In 1981, CBS Sports hired Scheckter as a Pit reporter for its F1 coverage.
Scheckter was brought in by ABC's Wide World Of Sports as a Pit reporter for the 1983 Monaco Grand Prix.
Scheckter was a guest commentator for ITV during the 1999 San Marino Grand Prix, replacing Martin Brundle.
Other interests
In 1981, Scheckter won the World Superstars competition in Key Biscayne, Florida. He defeated athletes such as Russ Francis, Renaldo Nehemiah, Peter Müller, Rick Barry, Gaétan Boucher and Andy Ripley. In 1983, he was inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame.
After Scheckter's retirement, he founded FATS Inc, a company which built firearms training simulators for military, law enforcement and security organisations. The sale of the company provided funds to allow Scheckter to help the racing careers of his sons Tomas and Toby. Tomas raced in the Indy Racing League where he won two races. Scheckter's brother, Ian, also raced in F1 for a few years.
In 2004, Scheckter was reunited with his championship-winning Ferrari at the South African two-seater F1x2 Charity Grand Prix at Kyalami in South Africa.
Present
Scheckter now spends his time as a biodynamic farmer, having bought the Laverstoke Park Farm, near Overton, Hampshire, west of London. As an organic farming expert, Scheckter was featured in 2005 on the Visionhealth DVD and TV documentaries "Asthma: An Integrated Approach", "Arthritis: An Integrated Approach" and "Diabetes: An Integrated Approach". On 20 November 2011, he also appeared on the Countryfile television show to make a case for organic food. Laverstoke Park Farm was also featured on BBC's Escape To the Country where Jody showed viewers how Buffalo Mozzarella was made. In December 2009, Scheckter announced his intention to produce a biodynamic sparkling wine by 2012. In 2015, the farm was the setting for ITV's Sugar Free Farm where a group of celebrities had to go sugar free for two weeks whilst working on the farm.
Personal life
He is married and has had six children: two, Toby and Tomas, from his previous wife Pamela; and four, Hugo, Freddie, Ila and Poppy, from his current marriage to Clare.
Daughter Ila died on 17 October 2019, at age 21.
Racing record
Career summary
Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Formula One non-championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)
(Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
See also
List of select Jewish racing drivers
References
1950 births
Living people
Sportspeople from East London, Eastern Cape
South African Jews
White South African people
South African racing drivers
South African Formula One drivers
Ferrari Formula One drivers
McLaren Formula One drivers
Tyrrell Formula One drivers
Wolf Formula One drivers
Formula One World Drivers' Champions
Formula One race winners
European Formula Two Championship drivers
International Race of Champions drivers
Alumni of Selborne College
South African businesspeople
South African farmers
Formula Ford drivers
People from Overton, Hampshire | [
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243055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APA | APA | APA or Apa may refer to:
Entertainment and media
Acolytes Protection Agency, a professional wrestling tag-team
Father (1966 film) ()
Government and politics
Administrative Procedure Act (United States), a statute controlling government agency actions
Advance pricing agreement
Approved Publication Arrangement
Language
APA style, a writing style guide from the American Psychological Association
Americanist phonetic notation or the American phonetic alphabet
Southern Athabaskan languages excluding Navajo (ISO 639 code: apa)
Organizations and businesses
Australia
APA Group (Australia), electricity generation and gas pipeline company
Aborigines Progressive Association
Australian Parkour Association
Australian Progressive Alliance
Japan
Japan Advertising Photographers' Association
APA Group (Japan), a Japanese hotel chain
United Kingdom
All Peoples' Association (1930–1936), a British organisation for international amity
Army Prosecuting Authority, former government body
Association of Publishing Agencies
United States
APA – The Engineered Wood Association, formerly the American Plywood Association
APA Corporation, an energy company
A-P-A Transport Corp., New Jersey
Adirondack Park Agency, New York
Agency for the Performing Arts, a talent and literary agency
Allied Pilots Association, a labor union for American Airlines pilots
American Payroll Association
American Philological Association, devoted to Greek and Roman civilization
American Philosophical Association
American Planning Association, representing the field of city and regional planning
American Polygraph Association
American Poolplayers Association
American Poultry Association
American Protective Association, a former anti-Catholic organization
American Psychiatric Association
American Psychological Association
Anglican Province of America, a church
Austin Peace Academy, an Islamic school in Texas
Elsewhere
Association of Panamerican Athletics
Austria Press Agency (German: )
NSDAP Office of Foreign Affairs (Außenpolitisches Amt der NSDAP), a Nazi Party organization
People
Apa (footballer) (born 2000), Spanish footballer
Apa of Slavonia, 12th-century Hungarian noble
Apa Sherpa, a Nepali Sherpa and famous Mt. Everest mountaineer
KJ Apa (born 1997), New Zealand actor
Places
Asia
Apa, Acıpayam
Upu, a historic region surrounding Damascus (alternative transliteration)
The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts
North America
Apache Railway, Arizona, U.S. (by reporting mark)
Anderson Preparatory Academy, a school in Indiana, United States
Centennial Airport, Colorado, United States (by IATA code)
Other places
Antarctic Protected Area, several types of zone on Antarctica
Apa, Nigeria, a local government area in Benue
Apa, Satu Mare, a commune in Romania
Maritime
Apa (ship) , an Amazonas-class corvette of the Brazilian Navy
Advance provisioning allowance
Auxiliary Personnel, Attack, a US Navy troopship designation
Science and technology
Aldosterone-producing adenoma
All points addressable
Amplified piezoelectric actuator
Atypical polypoid adenomyoma
Apa, a type of Bronze Age sword named after the Romanian village
Other uses
Apa, Coptic form of Ab (Semitic)
Amateur press association, any group of people who self-publish material among themselves
American pale ale
Antarctic Protected Area, several types of place on Antarctica
Asian Pacific American
Asset purchase agreement
Australian Postgraduate Awards | [
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243056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AAAS | AAAS | AAAS may refer to:
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a learned society and center for policy research; the publisher of the journal Dædalus
American Association for the Advancement of Science, an organization that supports scientific collaboration, education, and outreach; the publisher of the journal Science
Association for Asian American Studies, an organization that promotes teaching and research in Asian American studies
Associate of the American Antiquarian Society
AAAS (gene), a human gene responsible for triple-A syndrome (achalasia, adrenocortical insufficiency, alacrimia) | [
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] |
243060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshe%20Katsav | Moshe Katsav | Moshe Katsav (; born 5 December 1945) is an Israeli former politician who was the eighth President of Israel from 2000 to 2007. He was also a leading Likud member of the Israeli Knesset and a minister in its cabinet. He was the second Mizrahi Jew to be elected to presidency.
The end of his presidency was marked by controversy, stemming from allegations of rape of one female subordinate and sexual harassment of others. Katsav resigned the presidency in 2007 as part of a plea bargain. Katsav later rejected the deal with prosecutors and vowed he would prove his innocence in court. In an unprecedented case, on 30 December 2010, Katsav was convicted of two counts of rape, obstruction of justice, and other charges. On 22 March 2011, in a landmark ruling, Katsav was sentenced to seven years in prison. Katsav appealed his conviction to the Supreme Court of Israel. On 10 November 2011, the Supreme Court affirmed Katsav's conviction and punishment.
On 7 December 2011, Katsav arrived at Maasiyahu Prison in Ramla to begin serving his seven-year sentence. He was released from prison, under restrictive conditions, on 21 December 2016, having served five years of his sentence.
Early life
Katsav was born Musa Qassab () in Yazd, Iran, to Persian Jewish parents, Shmuel and Gohar Qassab. His family moved to Tehran when he was a baby, and they emigrated to Israel in 1951. They lived in a tent camp for recent immigrants for several years before the area was developed into the city of Kiryat Malakhi.
After finishing high school, Katsav was drafted into the Israel Defense Forces in 1964, serving in the C4I Corps. He then studied at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in economics and history in 1971. He married Gila Katsav in 1969. They have five children and two grandchildren.
Political career
Katsav joined the Likud Party, and was elected mayor of his home town of Kiryat Malakhi in 1969. He was elected to the Knesset in 1977.
Cabinet minister
Katsav was deputy Minister of Construction and Housing from 1981 to 1983 and Minister of Labor and Welfare from 1984 to 1988. He was Transportation Minister from 1988 to 1992 and Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Tourism from 1996 to 1999.
The public positions filled by Katsav include the following: Chairman of the Iranian Immigrants Organization; Chairman of the commission to determine higher education tuition; and Member of Ben-Gurion University Board of Trustees.
Presidency
After serving as Deputy Prime Minister in Netanyahu's government, Katsav vied for the position of President, running as the opposition candidate against Shimon Peres. In a surprising upset, he defeated Peres to become the president of Israel, being elected by the Knesset on 31 July 2000. He took 63 votes (over 57 for Peres), two more than the required majority of 61, and was sworn in on 1 August. He was the first President of Israel to have been sworn in for a seven-year term, as well as the first Likud member to win the office. Katsav's victory was attributed in part to evidence that Peres planned to use the position to support the increasingly unpopular peace processes of the government of Ehud Barak.
The office of the Israeli President is largely ceremonial, with no executive powers save pardoning prisoners and commuting sentences. Nevertheless, each president emphasizes different aspects of the role during his tenure. In 2003, on a visit to Italy, he demanded that the Vatican restore treasures allegedly brought to Rome after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 AD.
On 8 April 2005, the alphabetic ordering of leaders during the funeral of Pope John Paul II resulted in Katsav sitting near Iranian President Mohammad Khatami who, like Katsav, was born in the Iranian province of Yazd. Katsav told the press that he shook Khatami's hand and spoke to him in Persian. Khatami later denied this.
Rape and sexual harassment case
In July 2006, Katsav complained to the Attorney General of Israel, Menachem Mazuz, that he was being blackmailed by a female employee. The investigation quickly turned against Katsav as the employee, referred to as A. (later identified as Orly Revivo), alleged sexual offences. A, who worked with Katsav when he was Minister of Tourism, claimed that Katsav raped her twice and sexually harassed her in various other ways. Katsav was accused of raping and sexually harassing up to ten women. Police raided his house and seized computers and documents on 22 August. There were calls for him to resign or suspend himself from the presidency. Katsav was questioned under caution on 23 August.
On 7 September, receiving complaints from at least four different women (according to IBA's correspondent for police affairs), the Israel Police determined that they had enough evidence for an indictment. Katsav did not attend the ceremony swearing-in Dorit Beinisch as President of the Israeli Supreme Court. On 13 September, the Knesset House Committee approved Katsav's request for leave of absence. The ceremony, normally held at the president's house, was moved to the Knesset.
Police said that seven women had testified against Katsav and the allegations included "breach of trust, fraud, and involvement in illegal wiretapping." On 18 September, Attorney-General Mazuz stated that the likelihood of Katsav being the victim of a plot was "fairly slim." By 21 September, the number of complaints rose to eight.
On 15 October 2006, police said the complaints of five of the women would not be pursued because the statute of limitations had run out. On 29 October, Attorney-General Menachem Mazuz advised Katsav to step down. While continuing to deny the allegations, he said he would resign if indicted.
Suspension and resignation
On 23 January 2007, Attorney-General Mazuz announced that he would consider charging Katsav with rape, sexual harassment, breach of trust, obstruction of justice, harassment of a witness and fraud. The president is immune from prosecution while in office, and could only be tried after the end of his term in August 2007 or after his resignation. The final decision on indictment would be made after a hearing where Katsav could present his case.
On 24 January 2007, Katsav held a press conference at which he accused journalists of persecuting him and judging him before all the evidence was in. He claimed that the media were hostile to his presidency from the start. He accused Channel 2 of conducting a witch-hunt. Katsav declared his intention to suspend himself temporarily but refused to step down unless indicted. The speech drew shock and condemnation, from journalists, politicians, and legal figures. In a talk scheduled minutes after Katsav's speech, Prime Minister Ehud Olmert called on him to resign from the presidency.
Katsav took a three-month leave of absence approved by the Knesset on 25 January. Knesset Speaker Dalia Itzik assumed the office of president in the interim in a "caretaker" capacity.
On 7 March 2007, an attempt to impeach Katsav failed. In accordance with a plea bargain, Katsav resigned effective on 1 July 2007 (his seven-year term was scheduled to run out constitutionally on 15 July 2007).
In March 2009, Katsav's brother Lior said the decision to indict Katsav was tantamount to a "blood libel".
Plea bargaining and indictment
On 28 June 2007, Katsav's lawyers reached a plea bargain in which Katsav would plead guilty to several counts of sexual harassment and indecent acts and receive a suspended jail sentence. He would pay compensation to two of the victims. The rape charges brought by A. would be dropped, as well as Katsav's charges of blackmail. This led to a public outcry, in particular from women's rights organizations. Opinion polls showed that 70 percent of the public objected to the deal. A protest at Rabin Square in Tel Aviv drew a large crowd. The Attorney-General claimed the agreement would spare humiliation of the presidency. Katsav's attorneys said they accepted to avoid an arduous trial.
On 30 October 2007, the state prosecution told the High Court of Justice that it had changed its mind about the indictment on the basis of evidence from the two key complainants. The prosecution cited a meeting with Katsav's attorneys that highlighted contradictions in their testimony, including an affectionate letter from one of the complainants after the two rapes allegedly occurred. The move garnered harsh criticism from the complainants' attorneys. Katsav called off the plea bargain in April 2008. According to one of his lawyers, Avigdor Feldman, he believed the prosecution did not have enough evidence to convict him.
Trial
In March 2009, Katsav was formally indicted for rape and other sexual offenses in the Tel Aviv District Court. His trial took place between August 2009 and June 2010 before a panel of three judges, consisting of Presiding Judge George Karra and Justices Miriam Sokolov and Yehudit Shevach. Katsav's testimony began in January 2010. The prosecutors were Ronit Amiel and Nissim Merom, of the State Prosecutor's Office Central District Office. Katsav's defense team consisted of attorneys Zion Amir, Avigdor Feldman, and Avraham Lavi. The trial was held behind closed doors (as is customary in trials of sexual offenses) and a media ban was imposed on the details of the trial, witnesses and testimony. The ban was lifted in August 2010, when protocols of the trial were released.
In the absence of forensic evidence, prosecutors built their case almost entirely on witness testimony. According to legal experts, the similarities in the testimonies of the victims, who could not have known one another, would be instrumental in his conviction.
Conviction
On 30 December 2010, the three judges unanimously found Katsav guilty of "rape, sexual harassment, committing an indecent act while using force, harassing a witness and obstruction of justice". Presiding Judge Karra read the verdict which stated that Katsav "engaged in a campaign of vilification against the plaintiffs." Katsav faced a maximum sentence of 49 years. Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said that it was "a sad day for Israel", but that the verdict shows that in Israel "all are equal before the law, and that every woman has exclusive rights to her body." The conviction was described as "landmark" and "unprecedented", and the story featured prominently in the international media. The sentencing phase began on 22 February 2011.
On 22 March 2011, Moshe Katsav was sentenced to seven years in prison and two years' probation for rape, indecent acts, sexual harassment and obstruction of justice, becoming the first former President of Israel to be sentenced to prison. In addition, he was ordered to pay one of the women compensation totaling 100,000 NIS and another a sum of 25,000 NIS. Katsav's lawyer Zion Amir told reporters that the sentence would be appealed to the Supreme Court of Israel.
In July 2011, it was cleared for publication that Katsav was under police investigation on suspicion of using private investigators to harass witnesses and a complainant. Police suspected that the investigators were trying to obtain new evidence to undermine their credibility. It was thought that Katsav hired the investigators after he was found guilty and before the Supreme Court appeal was filed. Katsav, his brothers Lior and Yoram, and his son Noam were questioned for an hour by National Fraud Investigations Unit officers on suspicion of witness harassment, tampering and invasion of privacy.
In May 2011, Supreme Court Justice Yoram Danziger granted Katsav's motion to delay his entrance to prison until the Supreme Court heard his appeal. Deliberations on the appeal began on 7 August 2011, and were conducted by a three-judge panel consisting of Justices Edna Arbel, Miriam Naor, and Salim Joubran. Katsav's attorney suggested that his client actually was sexually involved with one of the alleged victims, but that no rape occurred. He also suggested that the plaintiffs' testimonies were filled with contradictions. When deliberations resumed on 10 August, Katsav's attorney suggested that his client's actions did not constitute anything beyond "an ordinary hug". Deliberations on the appeal adjourned on 11 August. The court delivered its opinion on 10 November, unanimously upholding Katsav's conviction and sentence. The three-judge panel stated that they refrained from assessing the truth of the statements made by the accusers and otherwise rejected possibly exculpatory evidence. Justice Salim Joubran stated that Katsav "fell from the loftiest heights to the deepest depths. Such a senior official should be a role model to his subordinates. Every woman has a right to her own body. A right to dignity. A right to freedom. No one has the liberty to take any of those from her". Katsav was given until 7 December to put his affairs in order.
Prison
Following the decision, Katsav's family turned to a number of politicians, asking that Katsav's home, already surrounded by stone walls put up by Shin Bet's Protective Security Department, be declared a "temporary prison", and that he be allowed to serve his sentence there. In a letter to Public Security Minister Yitzhak Aharonovich, Katsav's brother Lior wrote that while in prison, his brother could be exposed to convicts whose presidential pardon requests he had rejected, and claimed that he had knowledge of state secrets that could be compromised in prison. Aharonovich rejected that request, with sources close to him stating that prisoners were only permitted to serve their sentences at home in extremely rare cases.
Katsav arrived at Maasiyahu Prison in Ramla at 10:08 a.m. on 7 December 2011 to begin serving his sentence. Before departing for prison, he addressed journalists outside his home and maintained his innocence. Dozens of police officers were deployed to the prison to maintain order, and there was a large domestic and foreign media presence. Prison authorities determined that Katsav did not pose a suicide risk, and it was decided that the cameras in his cell would only be activated when his cellmate was absent.
Katsav was Israel Prison Service inmate #1418989. His cell was located in the prison's Torani cellblock, a special bloc for religious prisoners. Though considered less harsh than other blocs, inmates in the Torani bloc have no access to television or newspapers. Prisoners are woken at 4:30 a.m. for morning prayers, pray three times a day, and spend most of the day in two seminaries studying Torah and other sacred Jewish texts. Shlomo Benizri, another former politician who was in prison for corruption, was Katsav's cellmate until his 2012 release.
It was announced on 15 October 2012, that Israel's President Shimon Peres received a formal request to pardon Katsav. The request came from Katsav's wife, Gila.
The prison parole board rejected a request by Moshe Katsav for a conditional early release from prison on 6 April 2016. It is allowed by Israeli law to release a prisoner after serving two thirds of a term. The parole board decided that Katsav, who always maintained he is innocent and never expressed any regret for his actions and also refused to take part in rehabilitation programs, could continue to harass the victims and still posed a risk to women.
Release
On 18 December 2016, the parole board granted Katsav early release, announcing that he had expressed regret for his actions before it, even though he had failed to do so publicly. The parole board delayed his release for a week to allow prosecutors to consider whether to appeal. On 21 December 2016, Katsav was released from prison after the State Attorney decided not to appeal the Parole Board's decision for early release.
Katsav served a total of 5 years and 15 days of his 7-year sentence. The Prisoner Rehabilitation Authority imposed parole restrictions to be followed for the remainder of his 7-year sentence. Under the terms of his parole, he was prohibited from making any statements to the media or leaving the country. He was required to attend rehabilitation and visit a psychologist once a week, attend daily Torah study sessions, and remain at his home under a curfew from 10 PM to 6 AM. He was also forbidden from discussing or defaming his victims or holding any position where women are his subordinates.
In August 2017, President Reuven Rivlin rejected an appeal from Katsav to cancel the conditions of his parole. A parole board rejected a request to lift his nighttime curfew in November 2017. In April 2018, the Lod District Court rejected an appeal to cancel his nighttime curfew.
See also
Iranian Jews in Israel
Yazd
Shaul Mofaz
List of Israeli public officials convicted of crimes or misdemeanors
Iran-Israel relations
References
External links
BBC Profile
1945 births
Living people
21st-century criminals
Deputy ministers of Israel
Heads of government who were later imprisoned
Hebrew University of Jerusalem alumni
Iranian emigrants to Israel
Iranian Jews
Israeli government officials convicted of crimes
Israeli Mizrahi Jews
Israeli people convicted of rape
Israeli people of Iranian-Jewish descent
Israeli politicians convicted of crimes
Israeli politicians of Iranian descent
Israeli prisoners and detainees
Jewish Israeli politicians
Likud politicians
Mayors of places in Israel
Members of the 9th Knesset (1977–1981)
Members of the 10th Knesset (1981–1984)
Members of the 11th Knesset (1984–1988)
Members of the 12th Knesset (1988–1992)
Members of the 13th Knesset (1992–1996)
Members of the 14th Knesset (1996–1999)
Members of the 15th Knesset (1999–2003)
Ministers of Tourism of Israel
Ministers of Transport of Israel
People convicted of obstruction of justice
People from Kiryat Malakhi
People from Yazd
Politicians convicted of sex offences
Presidents of Israel
Prisoners and detainees of Israel
Recipients of the Order of the Golden Fleece (Georgia) | [
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243061 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nivkh%20languages | Nivkh languages | Nivkh (; occasionally also Nivkhic; self-designation: Нивхгу диф, Nivxgu dif, ), or Gilyak (), or Amuric, is a small language family, often portrayed as a language isolate, of two or three mutually unintelligible languages spoken by the Nivkh people in Outer Manchuria, in the basin of the Amgun (a tributary of the Amur), along the lower reaches of the Amur itself, and on the northern half of Sakhalin. "Gilyak" is the Russian rendering of terms derived from the Tungusic "Gileke" and Manchu-Chinese "Gilemi" (Gilimi, Gilyami) for culturally similar peoples of the Amur River region, and was applied principally to the Nivkh in Western literature.
The population of ethnic Nivkhs has been reasonably stable over the past century, with 4,549 Nivkhs counted in 1897 and 4,673 in 1989. However, the number of native speakers of the Nivkh language among these dropped from 100% to 23.3% in the same period, so by the 1989 census there were only 1,079 first-language speakers left. That may have been an overcount, however, as the 2010 census recorded only 198 native speakers, less than 4% of the ethnic population.
Proto-Nivkh(ic), the proto-language ancestral to the modern-day languages, has been reconstructed by Fortescue (2016).
Languages
Nivkh is a dialect continuum. There is a high degree of variability of usage among Nivkhs depending on village, clan, and even the individual speaker. Varieties are traditionally grouped into four geographic clusters. These are the lower-Amur variety, the North Sakhalin variety (spoken on the coasts around the Amur Liman, including the mainland and west Sakhalin), the East Sakhalin variety (including populations around the Tymy River), and the South Sakhalin variety (spoken around the Poronay River). The lexical and phonological differences across these varieties is great enough that specialists describe them as falling into two or three languages, though for purposes of language revival among a small and already divided population, Nivkh is generally presented as a single language, due to fears of the consequences of further division.
Gruzdeva (1998) notes that speakers of East Sakhalin and the lower Amur cannot understand each other, and divides the varieties into two languages, Nivkh proper (including the lower Amur, Northern Sakhalin / Straits and Western Sakhalin varieties) and Nighvng (the East and South Sakhalin varieties). Fortescue (2016) notes that the Amur, East Sakhalin and South Sakhalin varieties have low intelligibility with each other, and considers each of them to constitute a separate language.
Classification
Nivkh is not known to be related to any other language, making it an isolated family. For convenience, it may be included in the geographical group of Paleosiberian languages. Many words in the Nivkh languages bear a certain resemblance to words of similar meaning in other Paleosiberian languages, Ainu, Korean, or Tungusic languages, but no regular sound correspondences have been discovered to systematically account for the vocabularies of these various families, so any lexical similarities are considered to be due to chance or to borrowing.
Michael Fortescue suggested in 1998 that Nivkh might be related to the Mosan languages of North America. Later, in 2011, he argued that Nivkh, which he referred to as an "isolated Amuric language", was related to the Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages, forming a Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric language family. However, Glottolog considers the evidence to be "insufficient".
In 2015, Sergei Nikolaev argued in two papers for a systematic relationship between Nivkh and the Algic languages of North America, and a more distant relationship between these two together and the Wakashan languages of coastal British Columbia.
The Nivkh languages are included in the widely rejected Eurasiatic languages hypothesis by Joseph Greenberg.
An automated computational analysis (ASJP 4) by Müller et al. (2013) found lexical similarities among Nivkh, Mongolic, and Tungusic, likely due to lexical borrowings.
Frederik Kortlandt argued that Nivkh is related to Uralo-Siberian and Indo-Uralic: some evidences for the relationship are: Uralic participle *-pa and Nivkh gerund: *-pa. The pronouns *mi, *ti compared to Nivkh: n´i and či.
Hudson & Robbeets (2020) presumed that Nivkh-like language was once distributed in Korea and became the substratum of Koreanic languages. Kim Bang-han proposed that placename glosses in the Samguk sagi reflect the original language of the Korean peninsula and a component in the formation of both Korean and Japanese. He proposed that this language was related to Nivkh. Juha Janhunen suggests the possibility that similar consonant stop systems in Koreanic and Nivkh may be due to ancient contact.
History
The Nivkh people have lived, by many accounts for thousands of years, on the island of Sakhalin and the Amur River. They maintained trade with the neighboring Ainu, Japanese, and Chinese, until Russian contact, which began in the 17th century. The 19th century shows the first recorded decline of Nivkh numbers, with official estimates dropping from 1856 to 1889. This coincided with smallpox epidemics and the expansion of Sakhalin's prisoner population, as Russia began sending groups of its convicts to Sakhalin in 1873. At this time, reportedly few Nivkh spoke Russian.
The official Russian census reported similar numbers of ethnic Nivkhs in 1897 (4,500) and in 2002 (5,200). However, the number of native speakers among the ethnic Nivkhs dropped from 100% to 23.3% in the same period. All recorded native Nivkh speakers were bilingual in Russian, most of them were born in 1920-1940s, when a significant decline in the number of native Nivkh speakers occurred, due to Stalin's policy of collectivization imposed on indigenous economies, and in many cases, driving Nivkh individuals to hired labor, marking a departure from traditional means of subsistence. Many Nivkh were forcibly displaced from their more widely spread settlements to Nogliki, a small city, in the process of centralization. The traditional Nivkh way of life was gradually and sometimes forcibly converted to a Soviet way of life, as changes in subsistence, diet, dwellings, and education have resulted. In 2010s the Nivkh language is taught in the 1–3 grades in several schools in Sakhalin and Khabarovsk regions. A monthly newspaper "Nivkh dif" (Nivkh language) is published in Sakhalin. Nivkh language books are also regularly published in Russia.
Grammar
Nivkh is an agglutinating synthetic language. It has a developed case system, as well as other grammatical markers, but no grammatical gender. The basic word order of Nivkh is subject–object–verb, the subject being frequently omitted in speech.[9] Nivkh is notable for the high degree of incorporation between words. For example, morphemes that express spatial relationships (prepositions or postpositions in many other languages) are incorporated into the noun to which they relate. Words consist of easily definable roots and productive grammatical morphemes, most of which are suffixes. Nivkh has no adjectives, but rather verbs that describe a state of being. There are two verb tenses: non-future and future. The non-future form may combine with adverbials, as well as context, to indicate a time frame.
As Russian has become the dominant language in all spheres of life, Nivkh grammar has changed in the last century. For example, Nivkh has recently begun to mark plurals on counting nouns and pairs, a change that originated from the grammar rules of Russian. However, it has been postulated that due to the vastly differing grammatical structures of the two tongues, grammatical interference has not been extensive. Simplification has occurred past borrowed Russian structure, though; due to disuse of the language and a changing culture, many of the complex morphological aspects of Nivkh have been simplified or fallen out of use. In a process referred to as obsolescence, things like the distinction between the morpheme for counting sledges and the morpheme for counting fishnets has disappeared, with speakers opting to use more general categories of counting numbers or other descriptors.
Alphabet
Currently Nivkh language use a modified Cyrillic alphabet. The sound values of each letter can be deduced from Omniglot and Tangiku's vocabulary list.
Letters in bold are only used in Russian loan words.
The letters Н and Т stands for two sounds each. When they are followed by a “soft” vowel letter, they produce the palatal consonant; otherwise they product an alveolar consonant. For example, , , , are written as та, тя, тъи, ти respectively. At the beginning of a word, or after Ъ or Ь, letters Ё, Ю, Я stands for , , .
Letters Ӷ, Ў and Чʼ are not used in Amur dialect. By precedence of other letters with apostrophes, Чʼ may stand for some aspirated consonant. However, in Tangiku's book, Ч is already used for aspirated , so it is not sure what Чʼ stands for in Sakhalin dialect.
Phonology
Consonants
The labial fricatives are weakly articulated, and have been described as both bilabial and labiodental . The palatal stops may have some degree of affrication, as . After nasals or , the unaspirated stops become voiced . Unlike consonant alternation, this occurs also within a morpheme. The Amur dialect deletes some word-final nasals, which leads to voiced stops occurring also word-initially.
Nivkh's phonemic distinction between velar and uvular fricatives ( vs. and vs. ) is rare among the world's languages. These sounds do occur in a great deal of languages, but usually they are interchangeable.
Nivkh features a process of consonant alternation not unlike in Celtic languages, in which morpheme-initial stops alternate with fricatives and trills:
This occurs when a morpheme is preceded by another morpheme within the same phrase (e.g. a prefix or an adjunct), unless the preceding morpheme ends itself in a fricative or trill, or in a nasal or .
'soup'
'duck soup'
'kind of seal soup'
but: 'bear soup'
Only the morpheme-initial position is affected: other clusters ending in a stop are possible within a morpheme (e.g. "man").
In some transitive verbs, the process has been noted to apparently run in reverse (fricatives/trills fortiting to stops, with the same distribution). This has been taken a distinct process, but has also been explained to be fundamentally the same, with the citation form of these verbs containing an underlying stop, lenited due to the presence of a former i- prefix (which still survives in the citation form of other verbs, where it causes regular consonant alternation). Initial fricatives in nouns never change.
Vowels
There are these six vowels in Nivkh:
Long vowels are not a phonemic feature of Nivkh but can arise due to sentence prosody, or compensatory lengthening when fricatives are deleted after the vowel.
Stress
Stress can fall on any syllable, but tends to be on the first; there is dialectal variation, and minimal pairs distinguished by stress seem to be rare.
Language contact with the Ainu people
The Ainu appear to have experienced intensive contact with the Nivkhs during the course of their history. It is not known to what extent this has affected the language. Linguists believe the vocabulary shared between the Ainu language and Nivkh (historically spoken in the northern half of Sakhalin and on the Asian mainland facing it) is due to borrowing.
See also
List of Proto-Nivkh reconstructions (Wiktionary)
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
The Nivkhs from The Red Book
Sound Materials of the Nivkh Language The World's Largest Sound Archive of the Nivkh Language on the Web
Nivkh alphabet and language at Omniglot
Nivkh Folk Talkes
Language
Agglutinative languages
Languages of Russia
Manchuria
Paleosiberian languages
Polysynthetic languages
Subject–object–verb languages
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243062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Association%20for%20the%20Advancement%20of%20Science | American Association for the Advancement of Science | The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) is an American international non-profit organization with the stated goals of promoting cooperation among scientists, defending scientific freedom, encouraging scientific responsibility, and supporting scientific education and science outreach for the betterment of all humanity. It is the world's largest general scientific society, with over 120,000 members, and is the publisher of the well-known scientific journal Science.
History
Creation
The American Association for the Advancement of Science was created on September 20, 1848, at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was a reformation of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. The society chose William Charles Redfield as their first president because he had proposed the most comprehensive plans for the organization. According to the first constitution which was agreed to at the September 20 meeting, the goal of the society was to promote scientific dialogue in order to allow for greater scientific collaboration. By doing so the association aimed to use resources to conduct science with increased efficiency and allow for scientific progress at a greater rate. The association also sought to increase the resources available to the scientific community through active advocacy of science. There were only 78 members when the AAAS was formed. As a member of the new scientific body, Matthew Fontaine Maury, USN was one of those who attended the first 1848 meeting.
At a meeting held on Friday afternoon, September 22, 1848, Redfield presided, and Matthew Fontaine Maury gave a full scientific report on his Wind and Current Charts. Maury stated that hundreds of ship navigators were now sending abstract logs of their voyages to the United States Naval Observatory. He added, "Never before was such a corps of observers known." But, he pointed out to his fellow scientists, his critical need was for more "simultaneous observations." "The work," Maury stated, "is not exclusively for the benefit of any nation or age." The minutes of the AAAS meeting reveal that because of the universality of this "view on the subject, it was suggested whether the states of Christendom might not be induced to cooperate with their Navies in the undertaking; at least so far as to cause abstracts of their log-books and sea journals to be furnished to Matthew F. Maury, USN, at the Naval Observatory at Washington."
William Barton Rogers, professor at the University of Virginia and later founder of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, offered a resolution: "Resolved that a Committee of five be appointed to address a memorial to the Secretary of the Navy, requesting his further aid in procuring for Matthew Maury the use of the observations of European and other foreign navigators, for the extension and perfecting of his charts of winds and currents." The resolution was adopted and, in addition to Rogers, the following members of the association were appointed to the committee: Professor Joseph Henry of Washington; Professor Benjamin Peirce of Cambridge, Massachusetts; Professor James H. Coffin of Easton, Pennsylvania, and Professor Stephen Alexander of Princeton, New Jersey. This was scientific cooperation, and Maury went back to Washington with great hopes for the future.
In 1850, the first female members were accepted, they were: astronomer Maria Mitchell, entomologist Margaretta Morris, and science educator Almira Hart Lincoln Phelps.
Growth and Civil War dormancy
By 1860, membership increased to over 2,000. The AAAS became dormant during the American Civil War; their August 1861 meeting in Nashville, Tennessee, was postponed indefinitely after the outbreak of the first major engagement of the war at Bull Run. The AAAS did not become a permanent casualty of the war.
In 1866, Frederick Barnard presided over the first meeting of the resurrected AAAS at a meeting in New York City. Following the revival of the AAAS, the group had considerable growth. The AAAS permitted all people, regardless of scientific credentials, to join. The AAAS did, however, institute a policy of granting the title of "Fellow of the AAAS" to well-respected scientists within the organization. The years of peace brought the development and expansion of other scientific-oriented groups. The AAAS's focus on the unification of many fields of science under a single organization was in contrast to the many new science organizations founded to promote a single discipline. For example, the American Chemical Society, founded in 1876, promotes chemistry.
In 1863, the US Congress established the National Academy of Sciences, another multidisciplinary sciences organization. It elects members based on recommendations from colleagues and the value of published works.
Twentieth century
Advocacy
Alan I. Leshner, AAAS CEO from 2001 until 2015, published many op-ed articles discussing how many people integrate science and religion in their lives. He has opposed the insertion of non-scientific content, such as creationism or intelligent design, into the scientific curriculum of schools.
In December 2006, the AAAS adopted an official statement on climate change, in which they stated, "The scientific evidence is clear: global climate change caused by human activities is occurring now, and it is a growing threat to society....The pace of change and the evidence of harm have increased markedly over the last five years. The time to control greenhouse gas emissions is now."
In February 2007, the AAAS used satellite images to document human rights abuses in Burma. The next year, AAAS launched the Center for Science Diplomacy to advance both science and the broader relationships among partner countries, by promoting science diplomacy and international scientific cooperation.
In 2012, AAAS published op-eds, held events on Capitol Hill and released analyses of the U.S. federal research-and-development budget, to warn that a budget sequestration would have severe consequences for scientific progress.
Sciences
AAAS covers various areas of sciences and engineering. It has twelve sections, each with a committee and its chair. These committees are also entrusted with the annual evaluation and selection of Fellows. The sections are:
Astronomy
Engineering
Anthropology
Education
Medical Sciences
Biological Sciences
Industrial Science and Technology
Geology and Geography
History and Philosophy of Science
Agriculture, Food & Renewable Resources
Linguistics and Language Sciences
General Interest in Science and Engineering
Governance
The most recent Constitution of the AAAS, enacted on January 1, 1973, establishes that the governance of the AAAS is accomplished through four entities: a President, a group of administrative officers, a Council, and a Board of Directors.
Presidents
Individuals elected to the presidency of the AAAS hold a three-year term in a unique way. The first year is spent as president-elect, the second as president and the third as chairperson of the board of directors. In accordance with the convention followed by the AAAS, presidents are referenced by the year in which they left office.
Geraldine Richmond is the president of AAAS for 2015–16; Phillip Sharp is the board chair; and Barbara A. Schaal is the president-elect. Each took office on the last day of the 2015 AAAS Annual Meeting in February 2015. On the last day of the 2016 AAAS Annual Meeting, February 15, 2016, Richmond will become the chair, Schaal will become the president, and a new president-elect will take office.
Past presidents of AAAS have included some of the most important scientific figures of their time. Among them: explorer and geologist John Wesley Powell (1888); astronomer and physicist Edward Charles Pickering (1912); anthropologist Margaret Mead (1975); and biologist Stephen Jay Gould (2000).
Notable presidents of the AAAS, 1848–2005
1849: Joseph Henry
1871: Asa Gray
1877: Simon Newcomb
1880: Joseph Lovering
1882: J. William Dawson
1886: Edward S. Morse
1887: Samuel P. Langley
1888: John Wesley Powell
1927: Arthur Amos Noyes
1929: Robert A. Millikan
1931: Franz Boas
1934: Edward L. Thorndike
1942: Arthur H. Compton
1947: Harlow Shapley
1951: Kirtley F. Mather
1972: Glenn T. Seaborg
1975: Margaret Mead
1992: Leon M. Lederman
2000: Stephen Jay Gould
Administrative officers
There are three classifications of high-level administrative officials that execute the basic, daily functions of the AAAS. These are the executive officer, the treasurer and then each of the AAAS's section secretaries. The current CEO of AAAS and executive publisher of Science magazine is Rush D. Holt.
Sections of the AAAS
The AAAS has 24 "sections" with each section being responsible for a particular concern of the AAAS. There are sections for agriculture, anthropology, astronomy, atmospheric science, biological science, chemistry, dentistry, education, engineering, general interest in science and engineering, geology and geography, the history and philosophy of science, technology, computer science, linguistics, mathematics, medical science, neuroscience, pharmaceutical science, physics, psychology, science and human rights, social and political science, the social impact of science and engineering, and statistics.
Affiliates
AAAS affiliates include 262 societies and academies of science, serving more than 10 million members, from the Acoustical Society of America to the Wildlife Society, as well as non-mainstream groups like the Parapsychological Association.
The Council
The Council is composed of the members of the Board of Directors, the retiring section chairmen, elected delegates and affiliated foreign council members. Among the elected delegates there are always at least two members from the National Academy of Sciences and one from each region of the country. The President of the AAAS serves as the Chairperson of the Council. Members serve the Council for a term of three years.
The council meets annually to discuss matters of importance to the AAAS. They have the power to review all activities of the Association, elect new fellows, adopt resolutions, propose amendments to the Association's constitution and bylaws, create new scientific sections, and organize and aid local chapters of the AAAS. The Council recently has new additions to it from different sections which include many youngsters as well. John Kerry of Chicago is the youngest American in the council and Akhil Ennamsetty of India is the youngest foreign council member.
Board of directors
The board of directors is composed of a chairperson, the president, and the president-elect along with eight elected directors, the executive officer of the association and up to two additional directors appointed by elected officers. Members serve a four-year term except for directors appointed by elected officers, who serve three-year terms.
The current chairman is Gerald Fink, Margaret and Herman Sokol Professor at Whitehead Institute, MIT. Fink will serve in the post until the end of the 2016 AAAS Annual Meeting, 15 February 2016. (The chairperson is always the immediate past-president of AAAS.)
The board of directors has a variety of powers and responsibilities. It is charged with the administration of all association funds, publication of a budget, appointment of administrators, proposition of amendments, and determining the time and place of meetings of the national association. The board may also speak publicly on behalf of the association. The board must also regularly correspond with the council to discuss their actions.
AAAS Fellows
The AAAS council elects every year, its members who are distinguished scientifically, to the grade of fellow (FAAAS). Election to AAAS is an honor bestowed by their peers and elected fellows are presented with a certificate and rosette pin. To limit the effects and tolerance of sexual harassment in the sciences, starting 15 October 2018, a Fellow's status can be revoked "in cases of proven scientific misconduct, serious breaches of professional ethics, or when the Fellow in the view of the AAAS otherwise no longer merits the status of Fellow."
Meetings
Formal meetings of the AAAS are numbered consecutively, starting with the first meeting in 1848. Meetings were not held 1861–1865 during the American Civil War, and also 1942–1943 during World War II. Since 1946, one meeting has occurred annually, now customarily in February.
Awards and fellowships
Each year, the AAAS gives out a number of honorary awards, most of which focus on science communication, journalism, and outreach – sometimes in partnership with other organizations. The awards recognize "scientists, journalists, and public servants for significant contributions to science and to the public's understanding of science". The awards are presented each year at the association's annual meeting.
The AAAS also offers a number of fellowship programs.
Currently active awards include
Award for Science and Diplomacy
Early Career Award for Public Engagement with Science
The Eppendorf & Science Prize for Neurobiology
Kavli Science Journalism Awards – Children's Science News
Kavli Science Journalism Awards – Magazine
Kavli Science Journalism Awards – Newspapers (< 100,000 daily circulation)
Kavli Science Journalism Awards – Newspapers (> 100,000 daily circulation)
Kavli Science Journalism Awards – Online
Kavli Science Journalism Awards – Radio
Kavli Science Journalism Awards – Television
Leadership in Science Education Prize for High School Teachers
Mani L. Bhaumik Award for Public Engagement with Science (previously AAAS Award for Public Understanding of Science and Technology, established 1987)
Mentor Award
Mentor Award for Lifetime Achievement
Newcomb Cleveland Prize
Philip Hauge Abelson Prize
Public Engagement with Science Award
Scientific Freedom and Responsibility Award
John McGovern Lecture
William D. Carey Lecture
Golden Goose Award
Publications
The society's flagship publication is Science, a weekly interdisciplinary scientific journal. Other peer-reviewed journals published by the AAAS are Science Signaling, Science Translational Medicine, Science Immunology, Science Robotics and the interdisciplinary Science Advances. They also publish the non-peer-reviewed Science & Diplomacy. The society previously published the review journal Science Books & Films (SB&F).
EurekAlert!
In 1996, AAAS launched the EurekAlert! website, an editorially independent, non-profit news release distribution service covering all areas of science, medicine and technology. EurekAlert! provides news in English, Spanish, French, German, Portuguese, Japanese, and, from 2007, in Chinese.
Working staff journalists and freelancers who meet eligibility guidelines can access the latest studies before publication and obtain embargoed information in compliance with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission's Regulation Fair Disclosure policy. By early 2018, more than 14,000 reporters from more than 90 countries have registered for free access to embargoed materials. More than 5,000 active public information officers from 2,300 universities, academic journals, government agencies, and medical centers are credentialed to provide new releases to reporters and the public through the system.
In 1998, European science organizations countered Eurekalert! with a press release distribution service AlphaGalileo.
EurekAlert! has fallen under criticism for lack of press release standards and for generating churnalism.
See also
AAAS Award for Scientific Freedom and Responsibility
British Association for the Advancement of Science
EuroScience, the European equivalent of the AAAS
National Postdoctoral Association
National Science Foundation
Renaissance, sculpture outside the AAAS headquarters.
SAGE KE, Science of Aging Knowledge Environment, provided by AAAS
Sciences STKE, Signal Transduction Knowledge Environment, provided by AAAS
:Category:Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
References
External links
Professional associations based in the United States
Scientific supraorganizations
Non-profit organizations based in Washington, D.C.
1848 establishments in Pennsylvania
Scientific organizations established in 1848 | [
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243064 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halloween%20III%3A%20Season%20of%20the%20Witch | Halloween III: Season of the Witch | Halloween III: Season of the Witch is a 1982 American science fiction horror film and the third installment in the Halloween film series. It is the first film to be written and directed by Tommy Lee Wallace. John Carpenter and Debra Hill, the creators of Halloween and Halloween II, return as producers. Halloween III is the only entry in the series that does not feature the series antagonist, Michael Myers. After the film's disappointing reception and box office performance, Michael Myers was brought back six years later in Halloween 4: The Return of Michael Myers.
It departs from the slasher genre, which the rest of the installments were a part of, and instead features a "witchcraft" theme with science fiction aspects. John Carpenter and Debra Hill believed that the Halloween series could have been an anthology series of films that centered around Halloween night, with each sequel containing its own characters, setting, and storyline. Director Wallace stated there were many ideas for Halloween-themed films, some of which could have potentially created any number of their own sequels, and that Season of the Witch was meant to be the first.
The frequency of graphic violence and blood is less than Halloween II. As with the series' other films, suspense and tension are key themes, exploring violence against young children. On a budget of $2.5 million, Halloween III made a profit by grossing $14.4 million at the box office in the US, but it was also the poorest performing film in the Halloween series at the time. Most critics gave the film negative reviews. Despite the reception, re-evaluation in later years has given Halloween III new legions of fans and has established its own reputation as a stand-alone cult film.
It was the last Halloween movie distributed by Universal Pictures until the 2018 film Halloween 36 years later. It is also the final film to star Maidie Norman before her death in 1999
Plot
On October 23, in Northern California, shop owner Harry Grimbridge is pursued by mysterious men in suits, with a jack-o-lantern Halloween mask in his possession. He collapses at the shop of Walter Jones, who calls for help. Harry is taken to a hospital and placed in the care of Dr. Daniel Challis, an alcoholic doctor who has a strained relationship with his ex-wife and two children. Later that night, Harry is murdered by another suited man, who immolates himself in his car. After identifying his body, Harry's daughter Ellie meets Daniel at a bar and reveals that she has discovered suspicious events surrounding Harry's death. To investigate, they travel to the Silver Shamrock factory in Santa Mira, California, where the Halloween masks are made. Upon their arrival, they check into a motel, the manager of which reveals that Conal Cochran and his factory, Silver Shamrock Novelties, producer of the popular Halloween masks, are the source of the town's prosperity. While checking in, Daniel learns that Harry was also a recent motel guest.
Marge Guttman, another motel customer, discovers a microchip on the back of the medallion of one of the masks. The medallion emits a deadly energy beam into her mouth as she picks at it curiously with a hairpin. Her face is left mutilated, and an insect crawls out of her mouth. Shortly after, men in lab coats take Marge's body away in a Silver Shamrock van. Daniel overhears the factory technicians telling Cochran that it was a "misfire". While Daniel and Ellie tour the factory the following morning, Ellie finds her father's car, guarded by more men in suits who stop her from getting closer to it. They flee and call the authorities, but Daniel can't reach anyone outside of town by phone. Ellie is kidnapped and taken to the factory; Daniel follows and is captured by the men in suits, revealed to be androids Cochran created. Meanwhile, Teddy, the hospital assistant coroner Daniel entrusted to investigate the car explosion, is murdered by an android.
Cochran takes Daniel to the "special processing" control room and reveals his plan: the microchips on each mask contain a fragment of a piece of Stonehenge he stole. Upon viewing the "Big Giveaway" commercial, the microchips on the masks will activate, killing whoever is wearing them with fatal brain damage and causing a swarm of insects and snakes to emanate from their bodies, also killing anyone nearby. Cochran locks Daniel in a room with a mask on and explains his intention to resurrect ancient pagan rituals of sacrificing children during the age of Samhain from his native Celtic lands. Daniel escapes his bonds and rescues Ellie. He sneaks into the control room, activates the commercial on the screens, and pours a box of the medallions from a ceiling rafter, killing everyone. Then Cochran is also killed by the Stonehenge rune, leading to a massive fire that destroys the factory. As they flee, Daniel is attacked by Ellie, revealed to be an android duplicate. The struggle leads to a car crash, and he destroys the duplicate Ellie with a tire iron. Daniel flees on foot to Walter's shop, where he frantically calls the various television networks to convince them to terminate the broadcast. Two channels abort, but a third station fails to do so, with Daniel screaming into the telephone, pleading with them to make it stop.
Cast
Production
When approached about creating a third Halloween film, original Halloween writers John Carpenter and Debra Hill were reluctant to pledge commitment. Carpenter and Hill agreed to participate in the new project only if it was not a direct sequel to Halloween II, which meant Michael Myers would not be the focus of the film. Irwin Yablans and Moustapha Akkad, who had produced the first two films, filmed Halloween III on a budget of $2.5 million.
Special effects artist Don Post of Post Studios designed the latex masks in the film which included a glow-in-the-dark skull, a lime-green witch and an orange Day-Glo jack-o'-lantern. Hill told Aljean Harmetz, "We didn't exactly have a whole lot of money for things like props, so we asked Post, who had provided The Shape mask for the earlier 'Halloween' [II] ... , if we could work out a deal." The skull and witch masks were adaptations of standard Post Studios masks, but the jack-o'-lantern was created specifically for Halloween III. Post linked the masks of the film to the popularity of masks in the real world:
Every society in every time has had its masks that suited the mood of the society, from the masked ball to clowns to makeup. People want to act out a feeling inside themselves—angry, sad, happy, old. It may be a sad commentary on present-day America that horror masks are the best sellers.
Most of the filming took place on location in the small coastal town of Loleta, California. Familiar Foods, a milk bottling plant in Loleta, served as the Silver Shamrock Novelties factory, but all special effects involving fire, smoke, and explosions were filmed at Post Studios.
Writing
Producers recruited British science fiction writer Nigel Kneale to write the original screenplay, mostly because Carpenter admired his Quatermass series. Kneale said his script did not include "horror for horror's sake". He adds, "The main story had to do with deception, psychological shocks rather than physical ones." Kneale asserts that movie mogul Dino De Laurentiis, owner of the film's distribution rights, did not care for it and ordered more graphic violence and gore. While much of the plot remained the same, the alterations displeased Kneale, and he requested that his name be removed from the credits. Director Tommy Lee Wallace was then assigned to revise the script. Wallace told Fangoria that he created the title of the film as a reference to "a plot point"—the three masks featured in the film—and an attempt to connect this film with the others in the series. He explained in the interview the direction that Carpenter and Hill wanted to take the Halloween series, stating, "It is our intention to create an anthology out of the series, sort of along the lines of Night Gallery, or The Twilight Zone, only on a much larger scale, of course." Each year, a new film would be released that focused on some aspect of the Halloween season.
Hill told Fangoria that the film was supposed to be "a 'pod' movie, not a 'knife' movie." As such, Wallace drew inspiration from another pod film: Don Siegel's Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956). The fictional town of Santa Mira was originally the setting of Invasion of the Body Snatchers and named as such in Halloween III as an homage to Siegel's film. Aspects of the plot proved very similar as well, such as the "snatching" bodies and replacing them with androids. Halloween III'''s subtitle comes from George A. Romero's second film Season of the Witch (1973)—also known as Hungry Wives—but the plot contains no similarity to Romero's story of a housewife who becomes involved in witchcraft.
Film critics like Jim Harper called Wallace's plot "deeply flawed". Harper argues, "Any plot dependent on stealing a chunk of Stonehenge and shipping it secretly across the Atlantic is going to be shaky from the start." He noted, "there are four time zones across the United States, so the western seaboard has four hours to get the fatal curse-inducing advertisement off the air. Not a great plan." Harper was not the only critic unimpressed by the plot. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times wrote, "What's [Cochran's] plan? Kill the kids and replace them with robots? Why?"
Casting
The cast of Halloween III: Season of the Witch consisted mostly of character actors whose previous acting credits included cameo appearances on various television series. The exceptions were Tom Atkins and veteran actor Dan O'Herlihy. Cast as surgeon Daniel "Dan" Challis, Atkins had appeared in several John Carpenter films prior to Halloween III. Atkins played Nick Castle in The Fog (1980) and Rehme in Escape from New York (1981). Atkins guest starred in television series such as Harry O, The Rockford Files and Lou Grant. Atkins told Fangoria that he liked being the hero. As a veteran horror actor, he added, "I wouldn't mind making a whole career out of being in just horror movies." After Halloween III, Atkins continued to play supporting roles in dozens of films and television series.
Stacey Nelkin co-starred as Ellie Grimbridge, a young woman whose father is murdered by Silver Shamrock. She landed the role after a make-up artist working on the film told her about the auditions. In an interview, Nelkin commented on her character: "Ellie was very spunky and strong-minded. Although I like to think of myself as having these traits, she was written that way in the script." Nelkin considered it an "honor" to be playing Jamie Lee Curtis's successor. According to Roger Ebert, Nelkin's performance was the "one saving grace" in the film. Ebert explained, "She has one of those rich voices that makes you wish she had more to say and in a better role . ... Too bad she plays her last scene without a head." Prior to her role as Grimbridge, Nelkin was one of the main characters in the 1980 Mad Magazine movie Up the Academy, which also starred Ralph Macchio. After Halloween III, Nelkin continued working as a character actress on television.
Veteran Irish actor Dan O'Herlihy was cast as Conal Cochran, the owner of Silver Shamrock and the witch from the film's title (a 3000-year-old demon in Kneale's original script). O'Herlihy had played close to 150 roles before co-starring as the Irish trickster and was nominated for an Academy Award for his performance in The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (1954). He appeared in another twenty films and television series before his death in 2005. O'Herlihy admitted in an interview with Starlog magazine that he was not particularly impressed with the finished film. When asked what he thought of working in the horror film, O'Herlihy responded, "Whenever I use a Cork accent, I'm having a good time, and I used a Cork accent in [Halloween III]. I thoroughly enjoyed the role, but I didn't think it was much of a picture, no." Two members of the supporting cast were not strangers to the Halloween series. Nancy Kyes played Challis's ex-wife Linda; she had appeared in the first two Halloween films as Laurie Strode's promiscuous friend Annie Brackett. Stunt performer Dick Warlock makes a cameo appearance as an android assassin. Warlock had earlier co-starred as Michael Myers in Halloween II. Jamie Lee Curtis also provided uncredited voice work as the Santa Mira curfew announcer and the telephone operator. Tommy Lee Wallace also provided uncredited voice work as the Silver Shamrock Commercial Announcer.
Directing
Joe Dante was originally hired to direct but quit in order to direct a segment of Twilight Zone: The Movie just weeks before principal photography was scheduled to start on April 19, 1982. The film was the directorial debut of Tommy Lee Wallace, although he was not a newcomer to the Halloween series. Wallace had served as art director and production designer for John Carpenter's original Halloween and he had previously declined to direct Halloween II in 1981. After Halloween III, Wallace directed other horror films such as Fright Night Part 2 (1988), Vampires: Los Muertos (2002) and the miniseries It (1990), the television adaptation of the Stephen King novel. Despite disagreements between Wallace and original script writer Nigel Kneale, the actors reported that Wallace was a congenial director to work with. Stacey Nelkin told one interviewer, "The shoot as a whole was fun, smooth and a great group of people to work with. Tommy Lee Wallace was incredibly helpful and open to discussion on dialogue or character issues."
Although the third film departed from the plot of the first two films, Wallace attempted to connect all three films together through certain stylistic themes. The film's opening title features a digitally animated jack-o'-lantern, an obvious reference to the jack-o'-lanterns that appeared in the opening titles of Halloween and Halloween II. Wallace's jack-o'-lantern is also the catalyst in the Silver Shamrock commercials that activates the masks. Another stylistic reference to the original film is found in the scene where Dr. Challis tosses a mask over a security camera, making the image on the monitor seem to be peering through the eye holes. This is a nod to the scene in which a young Michael Myers murders his sister while wearing a clown mask. Finally, the film contains a brief reference to its predecessors by including a few short scenes from Halloween in a television commercial that advertises the airing of the film for that upcoming holiday as a minor story within a story.
Wallace's use of gore served a different purpose than in Halloween II. According to Tom Atkins, "The effects in this [film] aren't bloody. They're more bizarre than gross." Special effects and makeup artist Tom Burman concurred, stating in an interview, "This movie is really not out to disgust people. It's a fun movie with a lot of thrills in it; not a lot of random gratuitous gore." Many of the special effects were meant to emphasize the theme of the practical joke that peppers the plot. New York Times film critic Vincent Canby notes, "The movie features a lot of carefully executed, comically horrible special effects . ... " Canby stood as one of the few critics of the time to praise Wallace's directing: "Mr. Wallace clearly has a fondness for the clichés he is parodying and he does it with style."
Music
The soundtrack was composed by John Carpenter and Alan Howarth, who worked together on the score for Halloween II and several other films. Music remained an important element in establishing the atmosphere of Halloween III. Just as in Halloween and Halloween II, there was no symphonic score. Much of the music was composed to solicit "false startles" from the audience.
The score of Halloween III differed greatly from the familiar main theme of the original and sequel. Carpenter replaced the familiar 10/8 piano melody with an electronic theme (9/16 against a steady 4/4) played on a synthesizer with beeping tonalities. Howarth explains how he and Carpenter composed the music for the third film:
The music style of John Carpenter and myself has further evolved in this film soundtrack by working exclusively with synthesizers to produce our music. This has led to a certain procedural routine. The film is first transferred to a time coded video tape and synchronized to a 24 track master audio recorder; then while watching the film we compose the music to these visual images. The entire process goes quite rapidly and has "instant gratification", allowing us to evaluate the score in synch to the picture. This is quite an invaluable asset.
One of the more memorable aspects of the film's soundtrack was the jingle from the Silver Shamrock Halloween mask commercial. Set to the tune of "London Bridge Is Falling Down", the commercial in the film counts down the number of days until Halloween beginning with day eight followed by an announcer's voice (Tommy Lee Wallace) encouraging children to purchase a Silver Shamrock mask to wear on Halloween night:
ReceptionHalloween III: Season of the Witch received generally negative reviews. The New York Times reviewer Vincent Canby struggled to apply a definite label to the film's content. He remarks, "Halloween III manages the not easy feat of being anti-children, anti-capitalism, anti-television and anti-Irish all at the same time." On the other hand, he says that the film "is probably as good as any cheerful ghoul could ask for." Other critics were far more decisive in their assessments. Roger Ebert wrote that the film was "a low-rent thriller from the first frame. This is one of those Identikit movies, assembled out of familiar parts from other, better movies." However, he did praise Stacey Nelkin's performance. Cinefantastique magazine called the film a "hopelessly jumbled mess". Jason Paul Collum points to the absence of Michael Myers and the film's nihilistic ending as reasons why the film dissatisfied reviewers and audiences alike.
Tom Milne of Time Out offered a more positive review, calling the title "a bit of a cheat, since the indestructible psycho of the first two films plays no part here." Unlike other critics, Milne thought the new plot was refreshing: "With the possibilities of the characters [of the previous Halloween films] well and truly exhausted, Season of the Witch turns more profitably to a marvellously ingenious Nigel Kneale tale of a toymaker and his fiendish plan to restore Halloween to its witch cult origins." Although Milne was unhappy that Kneale's original script was reduced to "a bit of a mess", he still believed the end result was "hugely enjoyable".
The film scores 5.0/10 on IMDb. The film holds a 41% approval rating and an average rating of 4.9/10 on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 29 reviews. The site's consensus reads, "Its laudable deviation from series formula not withstanding, Halloween III: Season Of The Witch offers paltry thrills and dubious plotting."PopMatters journalist J. C. Maçek III wrote that the film "features no serial killers or slashers of any kind ... Still, this could have been somewhat interesting, or at least not condemnable, had the film been any good. It's not. Almost every time it starts to get to the point where we might actually become engrossed in the film, director Tommy Lee Wallace throws in something corny like ... oh, like a human decapitation scene that shows just how much the producers invested in latex. Seriously, could the special effects look a little more fake, please? I was just getting to the point where I could almost tell the robots from the real people ... making a real person look faker than Michael Jackson's nose blissfully confuses me all over again."
Academics find the film full of critiques of late 20th-century American society; historian Nicholas Rogers points to an anti-corporate message where an otherwise successful businessman turns "oddly irrational" and seeks to "promote a more robotic future for commerce and manufacture." Cochran's "astrological obsessions or psychotic hatred of children overrode his business sense." Tony Williams argues that the film's plot signified the results of the "victory of patriarchal corporate control." In a similar vein, Martin Harris writes that Halloween III contains "an ongoing, cynical commentary on American consumer culture." Upset over the commercialization of the Halloween holiday, Cochran uses "the very medium he abhors as a weapon against itself." Harris also discusses other big business critiques in the film, including the unemployment of local workers and the declining quality of mass-produced products.
Box officeHalloween III: Season of the Witch opened in 1,297 theaters in the United States on October 22, 1982, and earned $6,333,259 in its opening weekend. Like its predecessor, the film was distributed through Universal by Italian producer Dino De Laurentiis. It grossed a total of $14,400,000 in the United States, but was the worst performing Halloween film at the time. Several other horror films that premiered in 1982 performed far better, including Poltergeist ($76,606,280), Friday the 13th Part III ($34,581,519), and Creepshow ($21,028,755).
Artwork
In 1983, Edd Riveria, designer of the film's theatrical poster, received a Saturn Award nomination from the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films, USA, for Best Poster Art, but lost to John Alvin's E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial (1982) artwork. Riveria's poster art featured a demonic face descending on three trick-or-treaters. His artwork was later featured on the cover of Fangoria in October 1982. The stylized face on the theatrical poster is actually a distorted image of the witch mask which appears in the film. The image of the trick-or-treaters is similar to a shot in the movie that shows children in Phoenix, Arizona walking in silhouette with a red sunset in the background.
Merchandising
As part of a merchandising campaign, the producers requested Don Post to mass-produce the skull, witch, and jack-o'-lantern masks. Producers had given exclusive merchandising rights to Post as part of his contract for working on the film, and Post Studios had already successfully marketed tie-in masks for the classic Universal Monsters, Planet of the Apes (1968), Star Wars (1977), and E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial (1982). Post used the original molds for the masks in the film to mass-produce masks for retail sale. He speculated, "Because the masks are so significant to the movie, they could become a cult item, with fans wanting to wear them when they go to see the movie." Post also gave mask-making demonstrations for a Universal Studio tour in Hollywood. The masks retailed for $25 when they finally appeared in stores. In October 2019, NECA announced that they would be releasing three 8" action figures of The Pumpkin, Witch, and Skull, which were released in March 2020.
Home mediaHalloween III was later released on VHS, Capacitance Electronic Disc, and LaserDisc in 1983 by MCA/Universal Home Video and by Goodtimes Home Video in 1996. DVD versions were distributed by Goodtimes in 1998, Universal in 2002, and as a two-disc "Universal double feature" with Halloween II in 2007. The film was released on Blu-ray for the first time on September 18, 2012 from Shout! Factory, containing the same special features as their collector's edition DVD, which are a commentary, documentary, trailers, and still galleries. Universal released a Blu-ray release of the film on August 11, 2015. An Ultra HD Blu-ray release was released under Shout!'s Scream Factory label on October 05, 2021.
Novelization
The script was adapted as a paperback novelization in 1982 by horror writer Dennis Etchison, who also wrote the novelization of Halloween II, writing under the pseudonym Jack Martin. The book was reissued in 1984. Although Cochran appears to die in the film, the novelization implies that he may have survived, with the magic of Stonehenge transporting him away. While the film leaves open the question of whether Challis was able to get the third network to pull the deadly Silver Shamrock ad, the book conclusively states that he failed as the children die screaming.
Legacy
In the 2011 film Livide, a trio of trick-or-treaters wearing the three mask designs from Halloween III walk past a car in which one passenger sings the Silver Shamrock jingle.
In the 2014 American film The Guest, the final battle takes place inside of a high school decorated for Halloween with some decorations based on the masks from Halloween III hanging up on a wall.
In the 2018 Halloween film, a trio of trick-or-treaters are briefly shown wearing the three mask designs from Halloween III. The masks reappear in Halloween Kills, this time with attached Silver Shamrock medallions visible on the rear of the masks.
The German speed metal group Helloween, which used Halloween-themed imagery, adapted the "Silver Shamrock" ditty from the film, using it e.g. as an introduction in their 1985 album "Walls of Jericho".
References
Further reading
"The Mask Factor" by Michael Gingold, Fangoria magazine #317, October 2012, pages 60–62. Interview of Stacey Nelkin regarding her role in the film, Halloween III: Season of the Witch'', conducted at the 2011 Monster-Mania Con, New Jersey. Three-page article has seven photos, four of Nelkin, one of her taken at the Con.
External links
1980s science fiction horror films
1982 films
1982 horror films
American films
American science fiction horror films
American supernatural horror films
Android (robot) films
Films about mass murder
Films about witchcraft
Films directed by Tommy Lee Wallace
Films produced by Debra Hill
Films produced by John Carpenter
Films scored by John Carpenter
Films set in 1982
Films set in California
Films set in Los Angeles
Films set in Louisiana
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Films set in Ohio
Films set in Phoenix, Arizona
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Films shot in California
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Robot films | [
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243065 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Fitzwilliam%20Stairs | John Fitzwilliam Stairs | John Fitzwilliam Stairs, also known as John Fitz William Stairs (January 19, 1848 – September 26, 1904) was an entrepreneur and statesman, born in Halifax, Nova Scotia, a member of the prominent Stairs family of merchants and shippers founded by William Machin Stairs (1789–1865) that included the Victorian era explorer, William Grant Stairs.
Known as "John F.", he studied at Dalhousie University and then entered the management of the family's vast business empire. He was elected to the Nova Scotia House of Assembly in 1879, resigning in 1882 to successfully run for election to the House of Commons of Canada in Ottawa where he served as a Conservative Party member until 1896.
Stairs was president of many companies, including Nova Scotia Steel, Eastern Trust, Trinidad Electric (B.W.I.) and Royal Securities Corporation. He served as director of the Dartmouth and Halifax Steamboat Company, Nova Scotia Sugar Refining, the Union Bank of Halifax, Consumer Cordage, and during his lifetime, came to dominate the financial elite of the Maritime provinces.
He also employed Max Aitken (later, Lord Beaverbrook) at the beginning of Aitken's business career, hiring him in 1902 when he set up Royal Securities, the first investment firm in Eastern Canada. Max Aitken was at Stairs' bedside when he died in Toronto, Ontario. His remains were sent to Halifax where he was buried in the Fairview Cemetery.
Electoral history
References
Frost, James. Merchant Princes, Halifax's First Family of Finance, Ships and Steel. (2003 - James Lorimer & Co.)
External links
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
1848 births
1904 deaths
Canadian people of American descent
Canadian businesspeople
Stock and commodity market managers
Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) MPs
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Nova Scotia
Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia MLAs
People from Halifax, Nova Scotia
Burials at the Cimetière du Grand Jas
Nova Scotia political party leaders | [
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243066 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanctuary%20%28band%29 | Sanctuary (band) | Sanctuary is an American thrash/power metal band, formed in 1985 in Seattle, Washington. They were broken up from 1992 to 2010. The band consists of Lenny Rutledge (guitar), Joseph Michael (vocals), George Hernandez (bass), and Dave Budbill (drums). The lead vocalist position was held by Warrel Dane until his death in 2017. They have released four studio albums and one live EP.
Despite never reaching mainstream success, Sanctuary is often credited for popularizing the 1980s and early 1990s Seattle hard rock and heavy metal scene, which spawned bands such as Mother Love Bone, Alice in Chains, Soundgarden, Queensrÿche, Metal Church, Fifth Angel, TKO, Culprit, Rail, Forced Entry and Q5.
History
Initial career (1985–1992)
Sanctuary released a well-received demo in 1986, which led them to sign with Epic Records in the following year. They released their debut album, Refuge Denied, in 1988, which was produced by Megadeth frontman Dave Mustaine, and subsequently toured worldwide in support of the album, playing with bands such as Megadeth, Warlock, Savatage, Testament, Nuclear Assault, Flotsam and Jetsam, Vio-lence, Fates Warning, Meliah Rage and Forced Entry.
In 1989, after the Refuge Denied tour ended, Sanctuary entered the studio to record their second studio album, Into the Mirror Black, which was released in 1990. A video clip for the song "Future Tense" was made and received some airplay on MTV's Headbangers Ball. While touring in support of the album (with bands such as Fates Warning, Morbid Angel, Forbidden, Death Angel, Forced Entry and Blitzspeer), guitarist Sean Blosl left the band and was replaced by Jeff Loomis.
Shortly after, pressure from Epic Records to fit in with the flourishing Seattle grunge scene caused disagreements between band members regarding the band's musical direction. In 1992, Sanctuary officially disbanded.
Epic Records was to release a full-length live recording from this final tour, but only a limited number of copies of a promotional live EP ever saw the light of day. It was named Into the Mirror Live.
Refuge Denied and Into the Mirror Black were re-released as a double CD set by IronBird Records on February 22, 2010.
Post-breakup (1992–2010)
After disbanding, Warrel Dane, Jim Sheppard and Jeff Loomis formed the band Nevermore in 1992. Lenny Rutledge became a musical producer, and has his own studio. Additionally, he helped Nevermore on the demo sessions of their 1998 album, Dreaming Neon Black. Nevermore eventually went on hiatus in April 2011 after 19 years and 7 studio albums.
Reunion and The Year the Sun Died (2010–2015)
In 2010, four of the founding Sanctuary members — Warrel Dane, Jim Sheppard, Lenny Rutledge and Dave Budbill — came together for a few select reunion performances. At first, it was just going to be a handful of shows, but the response and chemistry on stage was so overwhelming that they decided to reunite permanently. The band's first shows after included Jeff Loomis as a second guitarist, though he departed simultaneously to his departure from Nevermore. Former Forced Entry guitarist Brad Hull, who had earlier touring experience with the band, became a permanent member shortly after.
A US appearance in 2011 took take place at ProgPower USA in Atlanta on Friday, September 16, 2011. The band also played on the 70000 Tons of Metal festival on board Royal Caribbeans' Majesty of the Seas in January 2011 on the same date as Nevermore. In January 2013 Sanctuary got a deal with Century Media.
Regarding how the reunion came about, Dane told Rock My Monkey TV, "[Sanctuary guitarist Lenny Rutledge and I] always talked to each other, but never really been friends again. And when the whole thing came about, that we were actually friends again, that's when we started talking more about doing it. And it definitely wasn't because Nevermore was imploding ... which it was, at that point ... We all just started talking with each other again. That was kind of the groundwork for it. And then we started saying, 'Well, gosh, let's make music again.' And my god! Lenny is writing some stuff that is so friggin great! Obviously, he's been bottling this up for years, because he really hasn't been doing anything ... Well, he's had bands here and there. But he's really writing some great stuff that's really inspiring me, and making me fall in love with music again, with the creative process ... everything that revolves around that. Really inspiring me to write really evil lyrics."
On the topic of the sound of the comeback album, Dane said, "This record is not going to sound like the other two. It might sound very similar to the second one ('Into The Mirror Black'). It's definitely not going to sound like the first one, because we're all a little bit older and I can't come up with a c-clamp for a scrotum and a helium tank ... It's not going to sound like the old ones ... it's 2011. It's still gonna be that good, I think, and there's gonna be high-pitched screaming. I'm making sure of that. With Nevermore, high-pitched screaming was never really called for. You know, with Sanctuary ... of course it is."
The band's third studio album, The Year the Sun Died, was finished in June 2014 and released on October 14 in North America and October 6 in Europe via Century Media. It was produced by Zeuss. The track listing was revealed in August 2014, artwork and the song "Arise and Purify" made available. A lyric video for "Exitium (Anthem of the Living)" was released shortly thereafter, with the video for single "Frozen" debuting on October 7. Ultimately, three songs on the album did feature Dane's trademark high-pitched vocals, though the majority of the singing was more in line with the baritone and bass vocals that were featured prominently in Nevermore.
In February 2015, Brad Hull's departure was announced, with guitarist Nick Cordle, formerly of Arsis and Arch Enemy, filling in for March and April tour dates. His future status with the band is currently unclear. Warrel Dane said the split with Brad Hull was due to "personal things that happened", that are better not to discuss in public, but said they are still friends. Zeuss [a.k.a. Chris Harris], their producer for "The Year the Sun Died", recruited Nick Cordle for the band when they found out Brad Hull would not be doing the European tour, since canceling the tour was not an option.
Dead Again and Inception (2015–2017)
Asked in October 2015 if Sanctuary had been writing new material for a fourth album, frontman Warrel Dane replied,
Pictures posted on the band's Facebook page on April 22, 2016 included a reference to ex-Panic bassist George Hernandez, who had filled in for Sheppard on tour the previous year, as the band's new permanent bassist.
In another interview by September 2016 Dane revealed Dead Again as a tentative title for the new album. He said that it would come "next year, but late next year". Dane described the material as "way faster and more like old-school thrash metal, but sounding a bit modern and it's f ... cking heavy." He also announced the compilation of old demos and songs named Inception, that could arrive "in a few months".
Death of Warrel Dane and Future (2017–present)
On December 13, 2017, it was reported that Dane had died of a heart attack in São Paulo, Brazil, where he was recording his second solo album.
The band toured North America with Iced Earth in February and March 2018 for the tribute to Dane tour with Witherfall vocalist Joseph Michael filling in on vocals. Current Armageddon guitarist Joey Concepcion of Milford, Connecticut has joined the tour on guitar. The tour was well-received, prompting Rutledge and Michael to begin working on demos to potentially continue the band.
Members
Current members
Lenny Rutledge – guitars (1985–1992, 2010–present)
Dave Budbill – drums (1985–1992, 2010–present)
George Hernandez – bass (2016–present; touring member: 2014–2016)
Joseph Michael – vocals (2018–present)
Former members
Warrel Dane – vocals (1985–1992, 2010–2017) (died 2017)
Jim Sheppard – bass (1985–1992, 2010–2016)
Sean Blosl – guitars (1985–1990)
Jeff Loomis – guitars (1990–1992, 2010–2011)
Brad Hull – guitars (2011–2015)
Nick Cordle – guitars (2015–2016)
Joey Concepcion – guitar (2018–2020)
Touring
Attila Vörös – guitars (2017, 2020)
Discography
Studio albums
Live albums
Compilation
Timeline
References
Musical groups established in 1985
Musical groups disestablished in 1992
Musical groups reestablished in 2010
Heavy metal musical groups from Washington (state)
American power metal musical groups
Musical groups from Seattle
1985 establishments in Washington (state) | [
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243068 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chase%20Field | Chase Field | Chase Field, formerly Bank One Ballpark, is a retractable roof stadium in Downtown Phoenix, Arizona. It is the home of Major League Baseball's Arizona Diamondbacks. It opened in 1998, the year the Diamondbacks debuted as an expansion team. Chase Field was the first stadium built in the United States with a retractable roof over a natural-grass playing surface.
History
The park was built during a wave of new, baseball-only parks in the 1990s. Although nearly all of these parks were open-air, it was taken for granted that a domed stadium was a must for a major-league team to be a viable venture in the Phoenix area. Phoenix is by far the hottest major city in North America; the average high temperature during baseball's regular season is , and game-time temperatures well above are very common during the summer.
Stadium funding controversy
In the spring of 1994, the Maricopa County Board of Supervisors approved a quarter percentage point increase in the county sales tax to pay for their portion of the stadium funding. This came about at a time that the county itself was facing huge budget deficits and lack of funding for other services. The sales tax being levied was very unpopular with local citizens, who were not allowed to vote on the issue of funding a baseball stadium with general sales tax revenue (usage of public subsidies for stadium projects was actually prohibited by a 1989 referendum). The issue was so controversial and divisive that in August 1997, Maricopa County Supervisor Mary Rose Wilcox was shot and injured while leaving a county board meeting by Larry Naman, a homeless man, who attempted to argue in court that her support for the tax justified his attack. In May 1998, Naman was found guilty of attempted first-degree murder.
Costs for the stadium were originally estimated at $279 million in 1995, but cost overruns (in part because of rising prices for steel and other materials) pushed the final price to $364 million. As part of the original stadium deal, the Diamondbacks were responsible for all construction costs above $253 million. These extra expenses, combined with the Diamondbacks and their fellow expansion franchise, the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, not being allowed to share in the national MLB revenue for their first 5 years of operations, left the Diamondbacks in a less-than-desirable financial situation, which would come back to haunt team founder and managing partner Jerry Colangelo and his group later on.
Since 1998
Construction on the park began in 1996, and was finished just before the Diamondbacks' first season began, in 1998. It was the third MLB stadium to have a retractable roof and the first in the United States (at the time, only Toronto's SkyDome (now known as Rogers Centre) and Montreal's Olympic Stadium had them; others are now at Minute Maid Park in Houston, American Family Field in Milwaukee, Globe Life Field in Arlington, T-Mobile Park in Seattle, and LoanDepot Park in Miami). It was also the first ballpark to feature natural grass in a retractable roof stadium.
The stadium hosted Games 1, 2, 6, and 7 of the 2001 World Series between the Arizona Diamondbacks and the New York Yankees. The Diamondbacks won all four home games, winning the world championship in seven games, and thus denying the Yankees a fourth consecutive championship. It was the first time since that the home team won all games of a World Series. The only other instance was , both by the Minnesota Twins.
In March 2006, Chase Field played host to three first-round games of the World Baseball Classic.
Chase Field hosted the Major League Baseball All-Star Game in 2011.
Chase Field hosted the 2017 National League Wild Card Game between the Diamondbacks and Colorado Rockies. This was the D-Backs' first appearance in the postseason as a Wild Card team. The D-Backs won 11–8 and advanced to the 2017 NLDS against the Los Angeles Dodgers but were swept in three games. Game 3 was held at Chase Field, when the D-Backs lost 3–1.
Chase Field also has a swimming pool located in right-center field, which is rented to patrons as a suite holding 35 guests for $3,500 per game during the 2011 season. Mark Grace was the first player to hit a home run into the pool.
Besides baseball, the pool has been used by Monster Jam's Jim Koehler to continue his tradition of swimming after Freestyle. The ballpark also featured a dirt strip between home plate and the pitcher's mound. This dirt strip, sometimes known as the "keyhole", was very common in old-time ballparks up to 1938. The dirt strip was removed when synthetic turf was installed in 2019; today, Comerica Park is the only park to still have this.
The park's foul territory is somewhat larger than is the case for most ballparks built in the 1990s. With 80% of the seats in foul territory, the upper deck is one of the highest in the majors. The park's suites are tucked far under the third deck, which keeps the upper deck closer to the action, with the exception of their Dugout Suites which sit next to the home and visitor's dugouts.
Before the 2008 season began, a brand new HD scoreboard was installed beyond center field, replacing the original. The new scoreboard is high and wide and it cost $14 million. It is the fifth largest HD screen in Major League Baseball behind Kauffman Stadium. The screen at Kauffman is larger by overall area and is square in shape but Chase Field's screen is larger by length and is rectangular.
Premium seating includes 4,400 club seats, 57 suites, 6 party suites, Executive suite, batters box suite, two dugout suites, and a swimming pool.
The Diamondbacks and St. Louis Cardinals game on September 24, 2019 became the longest game in Chase Field's history. The game lasted six hours and 53 minutes in 19 innings.
On October 12, 2018, the Diamondbacks announced that they would be replacing their natural grass surface with a synthetic surface from Shaw Sports Turf for the 2019 season. In 2019, leaked images of a potential new stadium by architectural firm MEIS Architects had a brief life online before being removed shortly thereafter by the firm.
Naming rights
The stadium was originally called Bank One Ballpark when Bank One of Chicago, Illinois, purchased naming rights for $100 million over 30 years. After Bank One merged with New York-based JPMorgan Chase & Co. in 2005, Chase assumed the commitment to the naming deal and the stadium's name was changed to Chase Field.
Notable events
The stadium also hosts occasional concerts and international soccer games. For football and soccer, the field is set up with the end lines perpendicular to the third-base line and temporary bleachers added on the east side.
College sports
The organizers of the Insight.com Bowl elected to move their game from Arizona Stadium in Tucson to Phoenix beginning in 2000, and Chase Field became the game's host. In 2006, the bowl game moved to Sun Devil Stadium, to replace the Fiesta Bowl, which moved to State Farm Stadium in Glendale. The football configuration was notable because of the lack of nets behind the goalposts and the dugout behind the south end zone. The final Insight Bowl played at Chase was between the hometown Arizona State Sun Devils and the Rutgers Scarlet Knights. The bowl, now known as the Guaranteed Rate Bowl, returned to Chase Field in January 2016 due to construction being done at Sun Devil Stadium.
Chase Field has staged nine women's college basketball games. The second game, which was played on December 18, 2006, was shortened by rain with four minutes and 18 seconds remaining and Arizona State leading Texas Tech 61–45. Venue staff closed the roof in an effort to finish the game, but officials deemed the court unsafe. In 2000, ASU played the Tennessee Volunteers at the same facility.
In 2006, Chase Field was the site of the annual "Challenge at Chase", a college baseball game between Arizona State and University of Arizona, but the event occurred for only two years. The Arizona Wildcats won both contests in 2006 and 2007. There were no more “Challenge” games scheduled afterwards.
Concerts
Other events
In February 2006, the Professional Bull Riders hosted a Built Ford Tough Series bull riding event at this venue. Chris Shivers won this event with a total score of 181.5 points (out of a possible 200) on two bulls, including an impressive 93.75 (out of 100) points on Taylor Made bucking bull, Smokeless Wardance, in the short-go round. During the long-go round, the roof was closed, but during the short-go, the roof was opened.
The stadium has hosted Monster Energy Supercross rounds from 1999 to 2015. Monster Jam came to Chase Field every year in late January about two weeks after Monster Energy Supercross. Both events moved to the University of Phoenix Stadium in 2016.
WWE hosted the Royal Rumble at Chase Field on January 27, 2019, marking nearly 16 years that a WWE event was held at a baseball stadium since WrestleMania XIX at Safeco Field in Seattle and the first Royal Rumble to be held outdoors.
International women's soccer matches
Roof and cooling system
Chase Field's roof is opened or closed depending on the game-time temperature. Even when the roof is closed, the park's windows allow enough sunlight to play in true daylight without overheating the stadium.
The roof, which takes just 4½ minutes to open or close at a cost of $2–$3, is closed three hours before game time using two 200-horsepower motors triggered from a control room in the upper deck above left-center field. A massive HVAC system then drops the temperature inside the park to about 78 °F (25.5 °C) by the time the gates open. The chilled water system, which has cooling power equivalent to 2,500 homes of , also serves more than 30 buildings in downtown Phoenix. The cooling plant, located in a separate building right outside the ballpark, freezes water overnight to reduce daytime electricity demand. Originally, the HVAC system didn't cool above row 25 of the upper level, exposing fans in the higher rows to the brunt of Phoenix' oppressive summer heat. Changes since then keep virtually all of the facility in air-conditioned comfort.
Transportation
Chase Field is served by Westbound METRO Rail's Washington at 3rd Street station and Eastbound METRO Rail's Jefferson at 3rd Street station.
Climate
References
External links
Stadium site on MLB.com
Official Site
Stadium picture
Chase Field Page at S&E News
Chase Field Seating Chart
Arizona Diamondbacks stadiums
Baseball venues in Arizona
Sports venues completed in 1998
JPMorgan Chase buildings
Major League Baseball venues
Defunct NCAA bowl game venues
Retractable-roof stadiums in the United States
Soccer venues in Arizona
Sports venues in Phoenix, Arizona
World Baseball Classic venues
Basketball venues in Arizona
1998 establishments in Arizona | [
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243069 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Murder%20of%20Roger%20Ackroyd | The Murder of Roger Ackroyd | The Murder of Roger Ackroyd is a work of detective fiction by British writer Agatha Christie, first published in June 1926 in the United Kingdom by William Collins, Sons and in the United States by Dodd, Mead and Company. It is the third novel to feature Hercule Poirot as the lead detective.
Poirot retires to a village near the home of a friend, Roger Ackroyd, to pursue a project to perfect vegetable marrows. Soon after, Ackroyd is murdered and Poirot must come out of retirement to solve the case.
The novel was well-received from its first publication. In 2013, the British Crime Writers' Association voted it the best crime novel ever. It is one of Christie's best known and most controversial novels, its innovative twist ending having a significant impact on the genre. Howard Haycraft included it in his list of the most influential crime novels ever written. The short biography of Christie which is included in 21st century UK printings of her books calls it her masterpiece.
Plot summary
The book's narrator, Dr James Sheppard, introduces himself and explains these are his memoirs of a murder which happened in his town. In King's Abbot, wealthy widow Mrs Ferrars unexpectedly commits suicide, distressing her fiancé the widower Roger Ackroyd. At dinner that evening in Ackroyd's home of Fernly Park, his guests include his sister-in-law Mrs Cecil Ackroyd and her daughter Flora, big-game hunter Major Blunt, Ackroyd's personal secretary Geoffrey Raymond, and Dr James Sheppard, whom Ackroyd invited earlier that day. During dinner, Flora announces her engagement to Ackroyd's stepson, Ralph Paton. After dinner, Ackroyd reveals to Sheppard in his study that Mrs Ferrars had confided in him that she was being blackmailed over the murder of her husband. He then asks Sheppard to leave, wishing to read a letter from Mrs Ferrars that arrives in the post, containing her suicide note. Once home, Sheppard receives a call and leaves for Fernly Park again, after informing his sister that Parker, Ackroyd's butler, has found Ackroyd murdered. But when Sheppard arrives at Fernly Park, Parker denies making such a call; yet he, Sheppard, Raymond and Blunt find Ackroyd dead in his study, stabbed to death with a weapon from his collection.
Hercule Poirot, living in the village, comes out of retirement at Flora's request. She does not believe Paton killed Ackroyd, despite him disappearing and police finding his footprints on the study's window. Poirot learns a few important facts on the case: all in the household, except parlourmaid Ursula Bourne, have alibis for the murder; while Raymond and Blunt heard Ackroyd talking to someone after Sheppard left, Flora was the last to see him that evening; Sheppard met a stranger on his way home, at Fernly Park's gates; Ackroyd met a representative of a dictaphone company a few days earlier; Parker recalls seeing a chair that had been in an odd position in the study when the body was found, that has since returned to its original position; the letter from Mrs Ferrars has disappeared since the murder. Poirot asks Sheppard for the exact time he met his stranger. He later finds a goose quill and a scrap of starched cambric in the summer house, and a ring with the inscription "From R" in the backyard.
Raymond and Mrs Ackroyd later reveal they are in debt, but Ackroyd's death will resolve this as they stood to gain from his will. Flora admits she never saw her uncle after dinner; she was taking money from his bedroom. Her revelation throws doubts on everyone's alibis, and leaves Raymond and Blunt as the last people to hear Ackroyd alive. Blunt reveals he is secretly in love with Flora. Poirot calls a second meeting, adding Parker, the butler; Miss Russell, the housekeeper; and Ralph Paton, whom he had found. He reveals that the goose quill is a heroin holder belonging to Miss Russell's illegitimate son, the stranger whom Sheppard met on the night of the murder. He also informs everyone that Ursula secretly married Paton, as the ring he found was hers; it was discarded after Paton chastised her for informing his uncle of this fact, which had led to the termination of her employment. Poirot then proceeds to inform all that he knows the killer's identity, confirmed by a telegram received during the meeting. He does not reveal the name; instead he issues a warning to the killer. When Poirot is alone with Sheppard, he reveals that he knows him to be Ackroyd's killer.
Sheppard was Mrs Ferrars' blackmailer and murdered Ackroyd to stop him knowing this; he suspected her suicide note would mention this fact, and so he took it after the murder. He then used a dictaphone Ackroyd had, to make it appear he was still alive when he departed, before looping back to the study's window to plant Paton's footprints; Poirot had noted an inconsistency in the time he mentioned for the meeting at the gates. As he wanted to be on the scene when Ackroyd's body was found, he asked a patient earlier in the day to call him some time after the murder, so as to have an excuse for returning to Fernly Park; Poirot's telegram confirmed this. When no-one was around in the study, Sheppard removed the dictaphone, and returned the chair that concealed it from view to its original place. Poirot tells Sheppard that all this information will be reported to the police in the morning. Dr Sheppard continues writing his report on Poirot's investigation (the novel itself), admitting his guilt and wishing his account was that of Poirot's failure to solve Ackroyd's murder. The novel's epilogue serves as his suicide note.
Characters
Hercule Poirot – retired from his role as a private detective, but resumes his profession when requested to assist in the investigation. He is a friend of the victim.
Dr James Sheppard – the local doctor, Poirot's assistant in his investigations, and the novel's narrator.
Inspector Davis – local inspector for King's Abbot and the investigating officer.
Inspector Raglan – Police Inspector from the nearby larger town of Cranchester.
Colonel Melrose – Chief constable for the county.
Roger Ackroyd – the victim of the case. A wealthy businessman and widower, who is distressed by the recent death of the woman he wished to marry, Mrs Ferrars.
Mrs Ferrars – a widow who was rumoured to have poisoned her husband Ashley Ferrars, a mean alcoholic. Commits suicide at the start of the novel.
Mrs Cecil Ackroyd – widow of Roger's brother Cecil. She and her daughter have been living at Fernly Park for the past two years and are financially dependent on Roger.
Flora Ackroyd – Ackroyd's niece, Cecil's daughter. Requests Poirot's help to investigate her uncle's murder. She is engaged to Ralph at her uncle's request, unaware her fiancé has already married Ursula Bourne.
Captain Ralph Paton – Ackroyd's stepson from his late wife's previous marriage; referred to sometimes as his "adopted" son. Secretly married to Ursula Bourne, and the police's prime suspect in the murder.
Major Hector Blunt – Ackroyd's friend, a big game hunter, a guest of the household. He is secretly in love with Flora. Present when the body was found.
Geoffrey Raymond – Ackroyd's secretary, a young and energetic man in his profession. Present when his employer's body was found.
John Parker – Ackroyd's butler. Claims to have not called out Sheppard to Fernly Park, the night of Ackroyd's murder; is present when the body was found.
Elizabeth Russell – Ackroyd's housekeeper. An attractive woman for her age.
Ursula Bourne – Ackroyd's parlourmaid. A lady of nobility forced into service through poverty. She is secretly married to Ralph and is fired when she tells Ackroyd of this.
Charles Kent – Russell's illegitimate son. A drug addict, recently arrived from Canada. He is encountered at Fernly Park's gates by Sheppard on the night of the murder.
Caroline Sheppard – Dr Sheppard's older, spinster sister. She has a notable gift of staying informed on all activities in the village.
Mrs Folliott - Ursula's older sister, but concealed this fact when providing references for her to become a parlourmaid of Ackroyd's.
Mr Hammond – Ackroyd's lawyer.
Ship steward – an out-of-town, unknown male patient of Dr Sheppard. Later found to have made a telephone call to him from the local train station, which Poirot confirms by a telegram received from their ship.
Narrative voice and structure
The book is set in the fictional village of King's Abbot, England. It is narrated by Dr James Sheppard, who becomes Poirot's assistant, in place of Captain Hastings who has married and settled in the Argentine. The novel includes an unexpected plot twist in the final chapter, where Dr Sheppard reveals he was an unreliable narrator, using literary techniques to conceal his guilt without writing anything untrue (e.g., "I did what little had to be done" at the point where he hid the dictaphone and moved the chair).
Literary significance and reception
The review in the Times Literary Supplement began, "This is a well-written detective story of which the only criticism might perhaps be that there are too many curious incidents not really connected with the crime which have to be elucidated before the true criminal can be discovered". The review concluded, "It is all very puzzling, but the great Hercule Poirot, a retired Belgian detective, solves the mystery. It may safely be asserted that very few readers will do so."
A long review in The New York Times Book Review, read in part:
The Observer had high praise for the novel, especially the character Caroline:
No one is more adroit than Miss Christie in the manipulation of false clues and irrelevances and red herrings; and The Murder of Roger Ackroyd makes breathless reading from first to the unexpected last. It is unfortunate that in two important points – the nature of the solution and the use of the telephone – Miss Christie has been anticipated by another recent novel: the truth is that this particular field is getting so well ploughed that it is hard to find a virgin patch anywhere. But Miss Christie's story is distinguished from most of its class by its coherence, its reasonableness, and the fact that the characters live and move and have their being: the gossip-loving Caroline would be an acquisition to any novel.
The Scotsman found the plot to be clever and original:
When in the last dozen pages of Miss Christie's detective novel, the answer comes to the question, "Who killed Roger Ackroyd?" the reader will feel that he has been fairly, or unfairly, sold up. Up till then he has been kept balancing in his mind from chapter to chapter the probabilities for or against the eight or nine persons at whom suspicion points.... Everybody in the story appears to have a secret of his or her own hidden up the sleeve, the production of which is imperative in fitting into place the pieces in the jigsaw puzzle; and in the end it turns out that the Doctor himself is responsible for the largest bit of reticence. The tale may be recommended as one of the cleverest and most original of its kind.
Howard Haycraft, in his 1941 work, Murder for Pleasure, included the novel in his "cornerstones" list of the most influential crime novels ever written.
Robert Barnard, in A Talent to Deceive: An appreciation of Agatha Christie, wrote that this novel is "Apart—and it is an enormous 'apart'—from the sensational solution, this is a fairly conventional Christie." He concluded that this is "A classic, but there are some better [novels by] Christie."
John Goddard produced a thorough analysis of whether Christie 'cheats' with her sensational solution and concluded that the charge of cheating fails.
Laura Thompson, Christie's biographer, wrote that this is the ultimate detective novel:
The Murder of Roger Ackroyd is the supreme, the ultimate detective novel. It rests upon the most elegant of all twists, the narrator who is revealed to be the murderer. This twist is not merely a function of plot: it puts the whole concept of detective fiction on an armature and sculpts it into a dazzling new shape. It was not an entirely new idea ... nor was it entirely her own idea ... but here, she realised, was an idea worth having. And only she could have pulled it off so completely. Only she had the requisite control, the willingness to absent herself from the authorial scene and let her plot shine clear.
In 1944–1946, the American literary critic Edmund Wilson attacked the entire mystery genre in a set of three columns in The New Yorker. The second, in the 20 January 1945 issue, was titled "Who Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?", though he does no analysis of the novel. He dislikes mystery stories altogether, and chose the famous novel as the title of his piece.
Pierre Bayard, literature professor and author, in Qui a tué Roger Ackroyd? (Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?), re-investigates Agatha Christie's Ackroyd, proposing an alternative solution in another crime novel. He argues in favour of a different murderer – Sheppard's sister, Caroline – and says Christie subconsciously knew who the real culprit is.
In 1990, The Murder of Roger Ackroyd came in at fifth place in The Top 100 Crime Novels of All Time, a ranking by the members (all crime writers) of the Crime Writers' Association in Britain. A similar ranking was made in 1995 by the Mystery Writers of America, putting this novel in twelfth place.
In 1999 the novel was included in Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century published in the French newspaper Le Monde, chosen by readers from a list of 200.
In 2013, the Crime Writers' Association voted this novel as CWA Best Ever Novel. The 600 members of CWA said it was "the finest example of the genre ever penned." It is a cornerstone of crime fiction, which "contains one of the most celebrated plot twists in crime writing history." The poll taken on the 60th anniversary of CWA also honoured Agatha Christie as the best crime novel author ever.
In the "Binge!" article of Entertainment Weekly Issue #1343–44 (26 December 2014 – 3 January 2015), the writers picked The Murder of Roger Ackroyd as an "EW and Christie favorite" on the list of the "Nine Great Christie Novels".
The character of Caroline Sheppard was later acknowledged by Christie as a possible precursor to her famous detective Miss Marple.
Development
Christie revealed in her 1977 autobiography that the basic idea of the novel was given to her by her brother-in-law, James Watts of Abney Hall, who suggested a novel in which the criminal would be a Dr Watson character, which Christie considered to be a "remarkably original thought".
In March 1924 Christie also received an unsolicited letter from Lord Mountbatten. He had been impressed with her previous works and wrote, courtesy of The Sketch magazine (publishers of many of her short stories at that time) with an idea and notes for a story whose basic premise mirrored the Watts suggestion. Christie acknowledged the letter and after some thought, began to write the book but to a plot line of her invention. She also acknowledged taking inspiration from the infamous case of the unsolved death of Charles Bravo, who she thought had been murdered by Dr James Manby Gully.
In December 1969 Mountbatten wrote to Christie again after having seen a performance of The Mousetrap. He mentioned his letter of the 1920s, and Christie replied, acknowledging the part he played in the conception of the book.
Publication history
1926, William Collins and Sons (London), June 1926, Hardback, 312 pp (Seven shillings and sixpence)
1926, Dodd Mead and Company (New York), 19 June 1926, Hardback, 306 pp ($2.00)
1927, William Collins and Sons (Popular Edition), March 1927, Hardback (Three shillings and sixpence)
1928, William Collins and Sons (Cheap Edition), February 1928 (One shilling)
1932, William Collins and Sons, February 1932 (in the Agatha Christie Omnibus of Crime along with The Mystery of the Blue Train, The Seven Dials Mystery, and The Sittaford Mystery), Hardback (Seven shillings and sixpence)
1939, Canterbury Classics (William Collins and Sons), Illustrated hardback, 336 pp
1939, Pocket Books (New York), Paperback (Pocket number 5), 212 pp
1948, Penguin Books, Paperback (Penguin 684), 250 pp
1957, Fontana Books (Imprint of HarperCollins), Paperback, 254 pp
1964, Modern Author series (William Collins and Sons), Hardback, 254 pp
1967, Greenway edition of collected works (William Collins and Sons/Dodd Mead), Hardback, 288 pp
1972, Ulvercroft Large-print Edition, Hardback, 414pp
2006, Poirot Facsimile Edition (Facsimile of 1926 UK First Edition), HarperCollins, 4 September 2006, Hardback
The novel received its first true publication as a fifty-four part serialisation in the London Evening News from Thursday, 16 July, to Wednesday, 16 September 1925, under the title, Who Killed Ackroyd? Like that paper's serialisation of The Man in the Brown Suit, there were minor amendments to the text, mostly to make sense of the openings of an instalment (e.g., changing "He then..." to "Poirot then..."). The main change was that the book has twenty-seven chapters whereas the serialisation has only twenty-four. Chapter Seven of the serialisation is named The Secrets of the Study whereas in the book it is Chapter Eight and named Inspector Raglan is Confident.
In the US, the novel was serialised in four parts in Flynn's Detective Weekly from 19 June (Volume 16, Number 2) to 10 July 1926 (Volume 16, Number 5). The text was heavily abridged and each instalment carried an uncredited illustration.
The Collins first edition of 1926 was Christie's first work placed with that publisher. "The first book that Agatha wrote for Collins was the one that changed her reputation forever; no doubt she knew, as through 1925 she turned the idea over in her mind, that here she had a winner." HarperCollins, the modern successor firm to W. Collins Sons & Co. Ltd., remains the UK publishers of Christie's oeuvre.
By 1928, The Murder of Roger Ackroyd was available in braille through the Royal National Institute for the Blind and was among the first works to be chosen for transfer to Gramophone record for their Books for the Blind library in the autumn of 1935. By 1936 it was listed as one of only eight books available in this form.
Book dedication
Christie's dedication in the book reads:
To Punkie, who likes an orthodox detective story, murder, inquest, and suspicion falling on every one in turn!
"Punkie" was the family nickname of Christie's sister and eldest sibling, Margaret ("Madge") Frary Watts (1879–1950). Despite their eleven-year age gap, the sisters remained close throughout their lives. Christie's mother first suggested to her that she should alleviate the boredom of an illness by writing a story. But soon after, when the sisters had been discussing the recently published classic detective story by Gaston Leroux, The Mystery of the Yellow Room (1908), Christie said she would like to try writing such a story. Margaret challenged her, saying that she would not be able to do it. In 1916, eight years later, Christie remembered this conversation and was inspired to write her first novel, The Mysterious Affair at Styles.
Margaret Watts wrote a play, The Claimant, based on the Tichborne Case, which enjoyed a short run in the West End at the Queen's Theatre from 11 September to 18 October 1924, two years before the book publication of The Murder of Roger Ackroyd.
Dustjacket blurb
The dustjacket blurb read as follows:
M. Poirot, the hero of The Mysterious Affair at Stiles and other brilliant pieces of detective deduction, comes out of his temporary retirement like a giant refreshed, to undertake the investigation of a peculiarly brutal and mysterious murder. Geniuses like Sherlock Holmes often find a use for faithful mediocrities like Dr Watson, and by a coincidence it is the local doctor who follows Poirot round, and himself tells the story. Furthermore, as seldom happens in these cases, he is instrumental in giving Poirot one of the most valuable clues to the mystery.
In popular culture
In the novel The Reptile Room, book 2 of A Series of Unfortunate Events by Lemony Snicket, the character Sunny Baudelaire uses, as part of her baby babble, the interjection "Ackroyd!" as a substitute for the more common "Roger!" to mean "message received and understood."
Gilbert Adair's 2006 locked-room mystery The Act of Roger Murgatroyd was written as "a celebration-cum-critique-cum-parody" of The Murder of Roger Ackroyd.
The novel features as a plot point in the 2008 Doctor Who episode The Unicorn and the Wasp, which featured Agatha Christie as one of the characters.
Adaptations
Stage play
The book formed the basis of the earliest adaptation of any work of Christie's when the play, Alibi, adapted by Michael Morton, opened at the Prince of Wales Theatre in London on 15 May 1928. It ran for 250 performances with Charles Laughton as Poirot. Laughton also starred in the Broadway run of the play, retitled The Fatal Alibi, which opened at the Booth Theatre on 8 February 1932. The American production was not as successful and closed after just 24 performances.
Alibi inspired Christie to write her first stage play, Black Coffee. Christie, with her dog Peter, attended the rehearsals of Alibi and found its "novelty" enjoyable. However, "she was sufficiently irritated by the changes to the original to want to write a play of her own."
Film
The play was turned into the first sound film based on a Christie work. Running 75 minutes, it was released on 28 April 1931, by Twickenham Film Studios and produced by Julius S. Hagan. Austin Trevor played Poirot, a role he reprised later that year in the film adaptation of Christie's 1930 play, Black Coffee.
In 2002, the story was made into a Russian film titled Неудача Пуаро ("Neudacha Puaro" = "Poirot's Failure"). This film version was overall quite faithful to the original story.
Cast:
Konstantin Raikin as Hercule Poirot
Sergei Makovetsky as Dr Sheppard
Lika Nifontova as Caroline Sheppard
Olga Krasko as Flora
Radio
Orson Welles adapted the novel as a one-hour radio play for the 12 November 1939 episode of The Campbell Playhouse. Welles played both Dr Sheppard and Hercule Poirot. The play was adapted by Herman J. Mankiewicz, produced by Welles and John Houseman, and directed by Welles.
Cast:
Orson Welles as Hercule Poirot and Dr Sheppard
Edna May Oliver as Caroline Sheppard
Alan Napier as Roger Ackroyd
Brenda Forbes as Mrs Ackroyd
Mary Taylor as Flora
George Coulouris as Inspector Hamstead
Ray Collins as Mr Raymond
Everett Sloane as Parker
The novel was also adapted as a 1½-hour radio play for BBC Radio 4 first broadcast on 24 December 1987. John Moffatt made the first of his many performances as Poirot. The adaptation was broadcast at 7.45pm and was recorded on 2 November of the same year; it was adapted by Michael Bakewell and produced by Enyd Williams.
Cast:
John Moffatt as Hercule Poirot
John Woodvine as Doctor Sheppard
Laurence Payne as Roger Ackroyd
Diana Olsson as Caroline Sheppard
Eva Stuart as Miss Russell
Peter Gilmore as Raymond
Zelah Clarke as Flora
Simon Cuff as Inspector Davis
Deryck Guyler as Parker
With Richard Tate, Alan Dudley, Joan Matheson, David Goodland, Peter Craze, Karen Archer and Paul Sirr
TelevisionThe Murder of Roger Ackroyd was adapted as a 103-minute drama transmitted in the UK on ITV Sunday 2 January 2000, as a special episode in their series, Agatha Christie's Poirot. In this adaptation Japp – not Sheppard – is Poirot's assistant, leaving Sheppard as just another suspect. However, the device of Dr Sheppard's journal is retained as the supposed source of Poirot's voice-over narration and forms an integral part of the dénouement. The plot strays considerably from the book, including having Sheppard run over Parker numerous times with his car and commit suicide with his gun after a chase through a factory. Ackroyd was changed to a more elderly, stingy man, disliked by many, who owns a chemical factory. Mrs Ackroyd, the sister-in-law of Roger Ackroyd, is also not as zany as in the book version. Location filming took place at Castle Combe in Wiltshire.
Adaptor: Clive Exton
Director: Andrew Grieve
Cast:
David Suchet as Hercule Poirot
Philip Jackson as Chief Inspector Japp
Oliver Ford Davies as Dr Sheppard
Selina Cadell as Caroline Sheppard
Roger Frost as Parker
Malcolm Terris as Roger Ackroyd
Nigel Cooke as Geoffrey Raymond
Daisy Beaumont as Ursula Bourne
Flora Montgomery as Flora Ackroyd
Vivien Heilbron as Mrs Ackroyd
Gregor Truter as Inspector Davis
Jamie Bamber as Ralph Paton
Charles Early as Constable Jones
Rosalind Bailey as Mrs Ferrars
Charles Simon as Hammond
Graham Chinn as Landlord
Clive Brunt as Naval petty officer
Alice Hart as Mary
Philip Wrigley as Postman
Phil Atkinson as Ted
Elizabeth Kettle as Mrs FolliottThe Murder of Roger Ackroyd was adapted as a 190-minute drama transmitted in Japan on Fuji Television on April 14, 2018, as a special drama, under the title "The Murder of Kuroido" (, Kuroido Goroshi).
Adaptor: Koki Mitani
Director: Hidenori Joho
Cast:
Mansai Nomura as Takeru Suguro, based on Hercule Poirot
Yo Oizumi as Heisuke Shiba, based on James Sheppard
Yuki Saito as Kana Shiba, based on Caroline Sheppard
Takashi Fujii as Jiro Hakamada, based on John Parker
Kenichi Endō as Rokusuke Kuroido, based on Roger Ackroyd
Mayu Matsuoka as Hanako Kuroido, based on Flora Ackroyd
Tamiyo Kusakari as Mitsuru Kuroido, based on Cecil Ackroyd
Osamu Mukai as Haruo Hyodo, based on Ralph Paton
Yasufumi Terawaki as Moichi Reizei, based on Geoffrey Raymond
Tomohiko Imai as Goro Rando, based on Hector Blunt
Kimiko Yo as Tsuneko Raisen, based on Elizabeth Russell
Sayaka Akimoto as Asuka Honda, based on Ursula Bourne
Jiro Sato as Koshiro Sodetake, based on Inspector Raglan
Yo Yoshida as Sanako Karatsu, based on Mrs Ferrars
Kazuyuki Asano as Hamose, based on Mr Hammond
Masato Wada as Kenzo Chagawa, based on Charles Kent
Graphic novel The Murder of Roger Ackroyd was released by HarperCollins as a graphic novel adaptation on 20 August 2007, adapted and illustrated by Bruno Lachard (). This was translated from the edition first published in France by Emmanuel Proust éditions in 2004 under the title, Le Meurtre de Roger Ackroyd''.
See also
Le Monde 100 Books of the Century
The Shooting Party (Chekhov novel)
References
Further reading
External links
The Murder of Roger Ackroyd at the official Agatha Christie website
1926 British novels
Hercule Poirot novels
Fiction with unreliable narrators
Novels first published in serial form
Works originally published in The Evening News (London newspaper)
William Collins, Sons books
British novels adapted into films
British novels adapted into television shows
First-person narrative novels | [
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243070 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald%20Merrithew | Gerald Merrithew | Gerald Stairs "Gerry" Merrithew (September 23, 1931 – September 5, 2004), born in Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada, was an educator, provincial and federal politician, and statesman.
Merrithew graduated from the New Brunswick Teachers' College, then obtained his BA and B.Ed degrees from the University of New Brunswick.
With a lifelong interest in the Canadian Forces, he became an Officer Cadet and rose to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. As a High School Principal, he was active not only in the educational field, but the military, recreational fields, as well as cultural affairs that led to his entering politics.
Provincial politics
First elected to the Saint John City Council in 1971 he went into Provincial politics in 1972, winning a by-election for the Provincial Progressive Conservative Party. Re-elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1974, he would be appointed to the Cabinet as Minister of Education then in 1976, Minister of Commerce & Development. After winning re-election again in 1978 and in 1982, he became the Minister of Natural Resources,
Government House Leader, and Deputy Premier.
Federal politics
Gerald Merrithew resigned his provincial seat to run as a Progressive Conservative Party of Canada candidate for the Saint John riding in the 1984 Canadian federal election. Elected to the House of Commons of Canada in Ottawa, and with his party winning the election, Merrithew was immediately appointed Minister of State for Forestry then in 1986 to Forestry & Mines. After winning his seventh consecutive election in 1988, he was appointed Minister for the purpose of the Atlantic Canada Opportunities Agency and Minister of Veterans Affairs.
Retirement
In 1993, Merrithew resigned from Cabinet and did not seek re-election. He and his wife retired to their farm in Springfield, New Brunswick at the head of the Belleisle Bay.
Active with numerous Military and Veterans Associations, Merrithew was a member of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada and also held several directorships including the "26Th Battalion Overseas Association Inc." where in 1995 he was instrumental in publishing the history of the Battalion by S. Douglas MacGowan ().
Death
Gerald Merrithew died of cancer on September 5, 2004, aged 72.
Electoral history
References
Hansard, 1st Session, 38th Parliament, Volume 142, Issue 16
Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick tribute to Gerald Merrithew
1931 births
2004 deaths
Deaths from cancer in New Brunswick
Members of the Executive Council of New Brunswick
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from New Brunswick
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
People of United Empire Loyalist descent
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada MPs
Progressive Conservative Party of New Brunswick MLAs
Saint John, New Brunswick city councillors
Heads of schools in Canada
University of New Brunswick alumni
Members of the 24th Canadian Ministry | [
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243073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAI | FAI | FAI may refer to:
Health and medicine
Feel status minus Actual status Inconsistency
Femoroacetabular impingement
Food Allergy Initiative, an American food allergen research organization
Free androgen index
People
Collins Fai (born 1992), Cameroonian footballer
George Fai (born 1996), Australian rugby league footballer
Sonny Fai (1988–2009), New Zealand rugby league player
Politics
Broad Left Front (Peru) (Spanish: ), a political coalition in Peru
Federación Anarquista Ibérica, the Iberian Anarchist Federation
Informal Anarchist Federation (Italian: ), an insurrectionary anarchist organization
Italian Anarchist Federation (Italian: )
Sport
Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, the world governing body for air sports
Football Association of Ireland, the governing body for association football in the Republic of Ireland
Futsal Association of India
Technology
Friendly artificial intelligence
First article inspection
Fully Automatic Installation
Other uses
FAI armoured car, a Soviet military vehicle of the early 1930s
Fai D. Flowright, a fictional character from Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle
FAI Films, a defunct Australian film production company
FAI Insurance, former Australian insurance company
FAI rent-a-jet, a German airline
Fairbanks International Airport, in Alaska, United States
Faiwol language, spoken in Papua New Guinea
Fatal accident inquiry, in Scotland
Financial Access Initiative, an American research consortium
First article inspection
Fondo per l'Ambiente Italiano, the Italian National Trust, an Italian environmental organization
Forschungs- und Arbeitsgemeinschaft Irland e.V., a German society for Irish philately)
Fai, a character in the anime series Endro! | [
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243074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malic%20acid | Malic acid | Malic acid is an organic compound with the molecular formula . It is a dicarboxylic acid that is made by all living organisms, contributes to the sour taste of fruits, and is used as a food additive. Malic acid has two stereoisomeric forms (L- and D-enantiomers), though only the L-isomer exists naturally. The salts and esters of malic acid are known as malates. The malate anion is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle.
Etymology
The word 'malic' is derived from Latin 'mālum', meaning 'apple'. The related Latin word 'mālus', meaning 'apple tree', is used as the name of the genus Malus, which includes all apples and crabapples; and the origin of other taxonomic classifications such as Maloideae, Malinae, and Maleae.
Biochemistry
L-Malic acid is the naturally occurring form, whereas a mixture of L- and D-malic acid is produced synthetically.
Malate plays an important role in biochemistry. In the C4 carbon fixation process, malate is a source of CO2 in the Calvin cycle. In the citric acid cycle, (S)-malate is an intermediate, formed by the addition of an -OH group on the si face of fumarate. It can also be formed from pyruvate via anaplerotic reactions.
Malate is also synthesized by the carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate in the guard cells of plant leaves. Malate, as a double anion, often accompanies potassium cations during the uptake of solutes into the guard cells in order to maintain electrical balance in the cell. The accumulation of these solutes within the guard cell decreases the solute potential, allowing water to enter the cell and promote aperture of the stomata.
In food
Malic acid was first isolated from apple juice by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1785. Antoine Lavoisier in 1787 proposed the name acide malique, which is derived from the Latin word for apple, mālum—as is its genus name Malus.
In German it is named Äpfelsäure (or Apfelsäure) after plural or singular of a sour thing from the apple fruit, but the salt(s) are called Malat(e).
Malic acid is the main acid in many fruits, including apricots, blackberries, blueberries, cherries, grapes, mirabelles, peaches, pears, plums, and quince and is present in lower concentrations in other fruits, such as citrus. It contributes to the sourness of unripe apples. Sour apples contain high proportions of the acid. It is present in grapes and in most wines with concentrations sometimes as high as 5 g/l. It confers a tart taste to wine; the amount decreases with increasing fruit ripeness. The taste of malic acid is very clear and pure in rhubarb, a plant for which it is the primary flavor. It is also a component of some artificial vinegar flavors, such as "salt and vinegar" flavored potato chips.
In citrus, fruits produced in organic farming contain higher levels of malic acid than fruits produced in conventional agriculture.
The process of malolactic fermentation converts malic acid to much milder lactic acid. Malic acid occurs naturally in all fruits and many vegetables, and is generated in fruit metabolism.
Malic acid, when added to food products, is denoted by E number E296. It is sometimes used with or in place of the less sour citric acid in sour sweets. These sweets are sometimes labeled with a warning stating that excessive consumption can cause irritation of the mouth. It is approved for use as a food additive in the EU, US and Australia and New Zealand (where it is listed by its INS number 296).
Malic acid contains 10 kJ (2.39 kilocalories) of energy per gram.
Production and main reactions
Racemic malic acid is produced industrially by the double hydration of maleic anhydride. In 2000, American production capacity was 5000 tons per year. The enantiomers may be separated by chiral resolution of the racemic mixture. S-Malic acid is obtained by fermentation of fumaric acid.
Self-condensation of malic acid in the presence of fuming sulfuric acid gives the pyrone coumalic acid:
Malic acid was important in the discovery of the Walden inversion and the Walden cycle, in which (−)-malic acid first is converted into (+)-chlorosuccinic acid by action of phosphorus pentachloride. Wet silver oxide then converts the chlorine compound to (+)-malic acid, which then reacts with PCl5 to the (−)-chlorosuccinic acid. The cycle is completed when silver oxide takes this compound back to (−)-malic acid.
Uses
-malic acid is used to resolve α-phenylethylamine, a versatile resolving agent in its own right.
Plant defense
Soil supplementation with molasses increases microbial synthesis of MA. This is thought to occur naturally as part of soil microbe suppression of disease, and so soil amendment with molasses can be used as a crop treatment in horticulture.
Interactive pathway map
See also
Acids in wine
Crassulacean acid metabolism
Malate-aspartate shuttle
Maleic acid, resulting from malic acid dehydration
References
External links
Malic acid MS Spectrum
Calculator: Water and solute activities in aqueous malic acid
Cellular respiration
Citric acid cycle compounds
Cosmetics chemicals
Dicarboxylic acids
Food acidity regulators
Alpha hydroxy acids
Acids in wine
Chelating agents
E-number additives | [
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243087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20A.B.C.%20Murders | The A.B.C. Murders | The A.B.C. Murders is a work of detective fiction by British writer Agatha Christie, featuring her characters Hercule Poirot, Arthur Hastings and Chief Inspector Japp, as they contend with a series of killings by a mysterious murderer known only as "A.B.C.". The book was first published in the UK by the Collins Crime Club on 6 January 1936, sold for seven shillings and sixpence (7/6) while a US edition, published by Dodd, Mead and Company on 14 February of the same year, was priced $2.00.
The form of the novel is unusual, combining first-person narrative and third-person narrative. This approach was previously used by Agatha Christie in The Man in the Brown Suit. In The A.B.C. Murders the third-person narrative is supposedly reconstructed by the first-person narrator of the story, Arthur Hastings.
The initial premise is that a serial killer is murdering people with alliterative names. The murders follow an alphabetical order, starting with a victim whose initials were A. A. The murders appear to lack a motive, yet Poirot suspects that there was a clear motive behind one of the murders.
The novel was well received in the UK and the US when it was published. One reviewer said it was "a baffler of the first water", while another remarked on Christie's ingenuity in the plot. A reviewer in 1990 said it was "a classic, still fresh story, beautifully worked out".
Plot
Returning from South America, Arthur Hastings meets with his old friend, Hercule Poirot, at his new flat in London. Poirot shows him a mysterious letter he has received, signed "A.B.C.", that details a crime that is to be committed very soon, which he suspects will be a murder. Two more letters of the same nature soon arrive at his flat, each before a murder being carried out by A.B.C., and committed in alphabetical order: Alice Ascher, killed in her tobacco shop in Andover; Elizabeth "Betty" Barnard, a flirty waitress killed on the beach at Bexhill; and Sir Carmichael Clarke, a wealthy man, killed at his home in Churston. In each murder, an ABC Rail Guide is left beside the victim.
The police team for the investigation, led by Chief Inspector Japp, includes Inspector Crome, who doubts Poirot's detective abilities, and Dr. Thompson, who tries to profile the killer. Poirot forms a "Legion" of relatives of the deceased to uncover new information: Franklin Clarke, Sir Carmichael's brother; Mary Drower, Ascher's niece; Donald Fraser, Betty's fiancé; Megan Barnard, Betty's elder sister, and Thora Grey, Sir Carmichael's young assistant. Following a meeting with the third victim's widow, Lady Clarke, one key similarity between the murders is established – on the day of each murder, a man selling silk stockings has appeared at or near each crime scene. Despite this information, Poirot wonders why the letters were sent to him, rather than the police or the newspapers, and why the third letter misspelled Poirot's address, causing a delay in his receipt of it. Soon, A.B.C. sends his next letter, directing everybody to Doncaster, where it is suspected that the next murder will occur at the St. Leger Stakes race meeting that day. However, the murderer strikes at a cinema instead, and the victim's name does not match the alphabetical pattern of the other killings.
The police soon get a tip-off about the man linked to the murders – Alexander Bonaparte Cust, an epileptic travelling salesman, who suffers from memory blackouts and constant agonizing headaches as the result of a head injury during the First World War. Cust flees his apartment but collapses upon arriving at the Andover police station, where he is taken into custody. Apart from claiming that a stocking firm hired him, he lacks any memory of committing the murders but believes he must be guilty of them – he had been at the cinema when the last murder occurred and found blood on his sleeve and a knife in his pocket after he had left. The police learn that the firm in question never hired Cust. Their search of his room turns up an unopened box of ABC railway guides and the typewriter and fine paper used in A.B.C.'s letters, while the knife is discovered in the hallway outside his room where he dropped it. Poirot doubts Cust's guilt because of his memory blackouts, and especially because he had a solid alibi for the Bexhill murder.
Calling a Legion meeting, Poirot exposes one of its members, Franklin Clarke, as the A.B.C. murderer. His motive was simple – Lady Clarke is slowly dying from cancer, and upon her death, Carmichael would probably marry his assistant. Franklin feared a possible second marriage, as he wants all of his brother's wealth, so he chose to murder his brother while Lady Clarke was still alive. A chance encounter with Cust at a pub gave Franklin the idea for the murder plot – he would disguise his crime as part of a serial killing. Having created the letters Poirot would receive, Franklin set up Cust with his job, giving him the typewriter and other items Franklin would use to frame him for the murders. A suggestion by Hastings makes clear that the third letter was misaddressed intentionally because Franklin wanted no chance of the police interrupting that murder. Franklin then followed Cust to the cinema, committed the last murder, and planted the knife on him as he left.
Franklin laughs off Poirot's theory but panics when he is told that his fingerprint has been found on Cust's typewriter key and that Milly Higley, a co-worker of Betty Barnard, saw him in her company. Franklin attempts to end his life with his own gun, only to find that Poirot has emptied it with the help of a pickpocket. With the case solved, Poirot pairs off Donald with Megan. Later, Cust tells Poirot that the press has made him an offer for his story; Poirot suggests that he demand a higher price for it and that his headaches may have arisen from his spectacles. Once alone, Poirot tells Hastings that the claim of the fingerprint on the typewriter was a bluff but is pleased that the pair "went hunting once more".
Characters
Hercule Poirot – Renowned Belgian detective, involved in investigating the serial killings by A.B.C., due to letters received from him.
Captain Arthur Hastings – Poirot's old friend and companion on the case. He is also the narrator of the novel.
Detective Chief Inspector James Harold Japp – Poirot's old friend in Scotland Yard, and the chief investigating officer into the serial killings.
Inspector Crome – Part of Japp's police team investigating the murders. Initially in charge of the Bexhill murder, and maintains a low opinion of Poirot.
Dr Thompson – Forensic psychologist, assigned to Japp's police team. Focuses on making a profile of the killer.
A.B.C. – The unknown, cold-blooded serial killer of the case. His pattern of murders is done in alphabetical order, with his calling card being an ABC railway guide left at each crime scene.
Alice Ascher – A.B.C.'s first victim. An elderly woman with no children, and the owner of a tobacco shop in Andover.
Betty Barnard – A.B.C.'s second victim. A young, flirtatious part-time waitress in Bexhill.
Sir Carmichael Clarke – A.B.C.'s third victim. A rich, childless old man from Churston.
George Earlsfield – A.B.C.'s fourth victim. A barber by trade, killed at a cinema in Doncaster. Considered illogical to be a victim in the pattern of A.B.C.'s murders.
Franklin Clarke – Sir Carmichael's aggrieved younger brother and his immediate successor. A member of the Legion assisting Poirot in the investigation, responsible for inspiring Poirot to form the group, and the killer of the case.
Mary Drower – Ascher's niece. A member of the Legion assisting Poirot in the investigation.
Megan Barnard – Betty's elder, sensible and comparatively down to earth sister. A member of the Legion assisting Poirot in the investigation.
Donald Fraser – Betty's would-be fiancé, and a temperamental man. Initially a suspect in her murder, he later becomes a member in the Legion.
Thora Grey – Sir Carmichael Clarke's attractive young assistant. A member of the Legion assisting Poirot in the investigation.
Alexander Bonaparte Cust – An epileptic travelling salesman; his condition is the result of a blow to the head during the war, leaving him prone to blackouts and severe headaches. The prime suspect of the case, unknowingly setup by A.B.C.
Franz Ascher – Alice's alcoholic and estranged husband. The initial suspect in his wife's murder.
Milly Higley – A co-worker of Betty.
Charlotte, Lady Clarke – Sir Carmichael's wife, suffering from terminal cancer. Rendered delusional or irritated by the medication she takes.
Roger Downes – School teacher visiting the cinema in Doncaster, and comes across Earlsfield's body after his murder.
Lily Marbury – Daughter of Cust's landlady, who warns him about the police coming after him.
Tom Hartigan – Boyfriend of Lily, who tips-off police to his suspicions about Cust's movements on the day of Earlsfield's murder.
Literary significance and reception
The Times Literary Supplement on 11 January 1936 concluded. with a note of admiration for the plot that, "If Mrs Christie ever deserts fiction for crime, she will be very dangerous: no one but Poirot will catch her."
Isaac Anderson in The New York Times Book Review of 16 February 1936 finished his review by writing, "This story is a baffler of the first water, written in Agatha Christie's best manner. It seems to us the very best thing she has done, not even excepting Roger Ackroyd."
In The Observer'''s issue of 5 January 1936, "Torquemada" (Edward Powys Mathers) wrote, "Ingenuity ... is a mild term for Mrs Christie's gift. In The A.B.C. Murders, rightly chosen by the [crime] club as its book of the month, she has quite altered her method of attack upon the reader, and yet the truth behind this fantastic series of killings is as fairly elusive as any previous truth which Poirot has had to capture for us. The reader adopts two quite different mental attitudes as he reads. At first, and for a great many pages, he is asking himself: "Is Agatha Christie going to let me down? Does she think she can give us this kind of tale as a detective story and get away with it?" Then the conviction comes to him that he has been wronging the authoress, and that he alone is beginning to see through her artifice. In the last chapter he finds, because brilliant circus work with a troop of red horses and one dark herring has diverted his attention from a calm consideration of motive, he has not been wronging, but merely wrong. It is noticeable, by the way, that characters break off at intervals to tell us that we have to do with "a homicidal murderer". We are ready to take this for granted until Mrs Christie (I wouldn't put it past her) gives us one who isn't."
E R Punshon reviewed the novel in 1936, writing that "Some readers are drawn to the detective novel by the sheer interest of watching and perhaps anticipating the logical development of a given theme, others take their pleasure in following the swift succession of events in an exciting story, and yet others find themselves chiefly interested in the psychological reactions caused by crime impinging upon the routine of ordinary life. Skilful and happy is that author who can weave into a unity this triple thread. In Mrs Agatha Christie's new book...the task is attempted with success." He added, "In the second chapter, Mrs Christie shows us what seems to be the maniac himself. But the wise reader, remembering other tales of Mrs Christie's, will murmur to himself 'I trust her not; odds on she is fooling me,' and so will continue to a climax it is not 'odds on' but a dead cert he will not have guessed. To an easy and attractive style and an adequate if not very profound sense of character Mrs Christie adds an extreme and astonishing ingenuity, nor does it very greatly matter that it is quite impossible to accept the groundwork of her tale or to suppose that any stalking-horse would behave so invariably so exactly as required. As at Bexhill, a hitch would always occur. In the smooth and apparently effortless perfection with which she achieves her ends Mrs. Christie reminds one of Noël Coward; she might, indeed, in that respect be called the Noël Coward of the detective novel."
An unnamed reviewer in the Daily Mirror of 16 January 1936 said, "I'm thanking heaven I've got a name that begins with a letter near the end of the alphabet! That's just in case some imitative soul uses this book as a text book for some nice little series of murders." They summed up, "It's Agatha Christie at her best."
Robert Barnard reviewed this novel favorably, calling it "A classic, still fresh story, beautifully worked out." He noted that the plot "differs from the usual pattern in that we seem to be involved in a chase: the series of murders appears to be the work of a maniac. In fact the solution reasserts the classic pattern of a closed circle of suspects, with a logical, well-motivated murder plan. The English detective story cannot embrace the irrational, it seems." His final judgment on this novel is that it was "a total success – but thank God she didn't try taking it through to Z".
In the "Binge!" article of Entertainment Weekly issue #1343–44 (26 December 2014 – 3 January 2015), the writers picked The A.B.C. Murders as an "EW favorite" on the list of the "Nine Great Christie Novels".
References to other works
In Chapter 1, Poirot alludes to a situation in the 1935 novel, Three Act Tragedy. In the same chapter, Poirot mentions his failed attempt at retirement to grow vegetable marrows as depicted in The Murder of Roger Ackroyd.
In Chapter 3, an exchange between Japp and Poirot shows that, in 1935, Christie was already thinking about Poirot's death as later narrated in Curtain: "I shouldn't wonder if you ended by detecting your own death," said Japp, laughing heartily. "That's an idea, that is. Ought to be put in a book." "It will be Hastings who will have to do that," said Poirot, twinkling at me. "Ha ha! That would be a joke, that would," laughed Japp.
Still in Chapter 3, Poirot lays out the plot of what he considers a perfect crime, a crime so challenging that "even he" would find it hard to solve. This exact murder – where someone is murdered by one of four people playing bridge in the same room with him – is the subject of Christie's Cards on the Table, which was published later in the same year.
In Chapter 19, Poirot reflects over his first case in England, where he "brought together two people who loved one another by the simple method of having one of them arrested for murder". This is a reference to the novel The Mysterious Affair at Styles, and the lovers mentioned are John and Mary Cavendish.
References in other works
The plot of The A.B.C. Murders is mentioned by Detective Inspector John Appleby in Michael Innes′ novel Appleby's End (1945).
Chapters 393–397 of Gosho Aoyama's manga Detective Conan feature a case with some similarities as the criminal was inspired by the plot of The A.B.C. Murders. Episodes 325–327 of its anime adaptation also featured the incident. The 1998 anime film Case Closed: The Fourteenth Target is a combination of this story, with a murderer killing based on numbers in names as a ruse to confuse detectives, while also incorporating Christie's And Then There Were None.
A Bengali detective novel of Narayan Sanyal 'O Aa Ka Khuner Kanta' was based on The A.B.C. Murders. Sanyal admitted the inspiration from Christie's novel in the introduction to the book. Here the character P. K. Basu, Bar-at-law, has the role of main protagonist, similar to Poirot.
Film, TV and other adaptations
Film
The first adaptation of the novel was the 1965 film The Alphabet Murders with Tony Randall as Hercule Poirot, a version far more comic than mysterious.
The story of the 2012 Malayalam film Grandmaster written by director B. Unnikrishnan draws inspirations from The A.B.C. Murders. The characterisation of Chandrasekhar in the movie as played by the Indian movie veteran Mohanlal, while inspired by that of the legendary Hercule Poirot, has more to do with the popular established screen persona of Mohanlal in Malayalam.
In fact, B. Unnikrishnan himself had penned a more fleshed out script themed on the ABC Murders for an investigative television series named "Black and White (Season 2)" aired around 2004 in Asianet, starring actor Siddique in the role of the investigator.
Radio
The BBC Radio adaptation Poirot – The ABC Murders starring John Moffatt and Simon Williams. This was first broadcast in 2000. The show is periodically rebroadcast on BBC Radio 4 Extra.
The May 18, 1943 episode of Suspense was an adaptation of The ABC Murders, starring Charles Laughton.
Television
Agatha Christie's Poirot (1992)
In 1992, the novel was adapted for television as part of ITV's Agatha Christie's Poirot, and was first aired in the UK on 5 January 1992. It starred David Suchet as Hercule Poirot, Hugh Fraser as Captain Hastings, and Philip Jackson as Chief Inspector Japp, with its guest stars including Donald Sumpter as Alexander Bonaparte Cust, Donald Douglas as Franklin Clarke, Nicholas Farrell as Donald Fraser, and Pippa Guard as Megan Barnard.
The adaptation, while extremely faithful to the novel's plot, had a number of minor changes:
The characters of Inspector Crome, Dr Thompson, Lily Marbury and Tom Hartigan are omitted.
Police are alerted to Cust's suspected involvement with the murders through his landlady, while the knife used in the fourth murder is found in his room.
Franklin Clarke attempts to escape when he is exposed by Poirot as the killer.
Meitantei Akafuji Takashi (2005)
This Japanese adaptation aired as the first night of a two-night release in December 2005. The second night was an adaptation of The Murder on the Links. The show starred Shirō Itō as Takashi Akafuji, who represents the character of Poirot.
Les Petits Meurtres d'Agatha Christie (2009)
The first aired episode of the French television series Les Petits Meurtres d'Agatha Christie was an adaptation of The A.B.C. Murders. The episode aired in January 2009.
BBC's The ABC Murders (2018)
In 2018, an adaptation of the novel, written by Sarah Phelps, was filmed for the BBC. It was aired as a three-part miniseries over three consecutive days from 26 December that year. It starred John Malkovich as Hercule Poirot, and Rupert Grint as Inspector Crome with guest stars including Eamon Farren as Alexander Bonaparte Cust, Jack Farthing as Donald Fraser, Freya Mavor as Thora Grey, Kevin McNally as Inspector Japp, and Anya Chalotra as Lily Marbury.
The adaptation only loosely followed the novel's plot, and featured considerable changes to both story and character:
Captain Hastings is omitted from the plot.
Japp dies from a heart attack at the start, leaving the investigation to be solely conducted by Inspector Crome.
Poirot's background is explored prior to the outbreak of the First World War; in this adaptation, he was a priest before the war rather than a detective in the Belgian police force.
The first three murders are committed in locations that have some relevance to Poirot; he helped deliver a baby when on a refugee train that stopped in Andover, visited the café where Betty Barnard would later work on a visit to Bexhill, and attended a party at the Clarke house.
More care is taken in planning the D murder; rather than just stabbing a person in a cinema, reasoning that someone with a suitable name would be nearby, the killer intends to murder a ventriloquist at a theatre, but kills another performer on the theatre bill.
A fifth murder is conducted pertaining to the letter E and Cust is present at the scene. The killer is surprised by this and takes this opportunity to implicate Cust by planting the weapon when Cust has a fit.
Cust is pursued by police shortly after murder E. He is caught after he injures himself, rather than passing out at a police station.
There is no reference to Mary Drower, Alice Ascher's niece, within the plot. Thora Grey's character is changed to being manipulated into being Franklin's accomplice by establishing an alibi for him in one of the murders.
Franklin claims, prior to his execution, that he committed the crimes to give Poirot a new cause to live for, considering them friends, although Poirot has nothing but disdain for the man's methods.
Anime
A four-part episode of the anime Agatha Christie's Great Detectives: Poirot and Marple is based on the book.The A.B.C. Murders are also an arc of the anime "Hyouka", or episode 15 "The Jūmonji Case" of Hyōka video series.
Manga
'ABC Satsujin Jiken' (ABC殺人事件, The ABC Murders) is a two volume manga by Yasushi Hoshino loosely based on a mixture of the original novel and Murder in the Mews. Set in Japan, Poirot retains his iconic appearance though is renamed Eikubo while Hastings is renamed Asakura.
Video games
In 2009, DreamCatcher Interactive released a video game version of the novel for the Nintendo DS entitled Agatha Christie: The ABC Murders. The game has players control Captain Hastings and must solve the mystery by inspecting crime scenes and questioning suspects. To appeal to players familiar with the original story, the game also offers the option to play with a different murderer, which results in different clues and testimony throughout the entire game. The game received mediocre reviews, but was commended for its faithful recreation of the source material.
In 2016, a game with the same name was released by Microids for PC (Steam), PS4 and Xbox One.
Publication history
1936, Collins Crime Club (London), 6 January 1936, hardcover, 256 pp
1936, Dodd Mead and Company (New York), 14 February 1936, hardcover, 306 pp
1941, Pocket Books (New York), paperback, (Pocket number 88)
1948, Penguin Books, paperback, (Penguin number 683), 224 pp
1958, Pan Books, paperback (Great Pan 95), 191 pp
1962, Fontana Books (imprint of HarperCollins), paperback, 192 pp
1976, Greenway edition of collected works (William Collins), hardcover, 251 pp;
1978, Greenway edition of collected works (Dodd Mead), hardcover, 251 pp
1979, Pan Books, Paperback, 191 pp
1980, Collins Crime Club (London), Golden Jubilee of Crime Club with introduction by Julian Symons, hardcover, 224 pp;
1980, Ulverscroft large-print edition, hardback;
2006, Poirot Facsimile Edition (Facsimile of 1936 UK First Edition), HarperCollins, 4 September 2006, hardcover;
The first true publication of The A.B.C. Murders occurred in the US with an abridged version appearing in the November 1935 (Volume XCIX, Number 5) issue of Cosmopolitan magazine with illustrations by Frederic Mizen.
The UK serialisation was in sixteen parts in the Daily Express'' from Monday 28 November to Thursday 12 December 1935. All the instalments carried an illustration by Steven Spurrier. This version did not contain any chapter divisions and totally omitted the foreword as well as chapters twenty-six, thirty-two and thirty-five. In addition most of chapters seven and twenty were missing. Combined with other abridgements, this serialisation omitted almost 40% of the text of the published novel.
References
External links
The ABC Murders at the official Agatha Christie website
The ABC Murders at Home of Agatha Christie website
1936 British novels
Hercule Poirot novels
British novels adapted into films
Novels first published in serial form
Works originally published in Cosmopolitan (magazine)
Collins Crime Club books
Novels about serial killers
Novels set in Devon
Novels set in East Sussex
Novels set in Hampshire
Novels set in London
Novels set in Yorkshire
Fratricide in fiction
British novels adapted into television shows
Novels adapted into radio programs | [
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243102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimal%20substructure | Optimal substructure | In computer science, a problem is said to have optimal substructure if an optimal solution can be constructed from optimal solutions of its subproblems. This property is used to determine the usefulness of dynamic programming and greedy algorithms for a problem.
Typically, a greedy algorithm is used to solve a problem with optimal substructure if it can be proven by induction that this is optimal at each step. Otherwise, provided the problem exhibits overlapping subproblems as well, dynamic programming is used. If there are no appropriate greedy algorithms and the problem fails to exhibit overlapping subproblems, often a lengthy but straightforward search of the solution space is the best alternative.
In the application of dynamic programming to mathematical optimization, Richard Bellman's Principle of Optimality is based on the idea that in order to solve a dynamic optimization problem from some starting period t to some ending period T, one implicitly has to solve subproblems starting from later dates s, where t<s<T. This is an example of optimal substructure. The Principle of Optimality is used to derive the Bellman equation, which shows how the value of the problem starting from t is related to the value of the problem starting from s.
Example
Consider finding a shortest path for travelling between two cities by car, as illustrated in Figure 1. Such an example is likely to exhibit optimal substructure. That is, if the shortest route from Seattle to Los Angeles passes through Portland and then Sacramento, then the shortest route from Portland to Los Angeles must pass through Sacramento too. That is, the problem of how to get from Portland to Los Angeles is nested inside the problem of how to get from Seattle to Los Angeles. (The wavy lines in the graph represent solutions to the subproblems.)
As an example of a problem that is unlikely to exhibit optimal substructure, consider the problem of finding the cheapest airline ticket from Buenos Aires to Moscow. Even if that ticket involves stops in Miami and then London, we can't conclude that the cheapest ticket from Miami to Moscow stops in London, because the price at which an airline sells a multi-flight trip is usually not the sum of the prices at which it would sell the individual flights in the trip.
Definition
A slightly more formal definition of optimal substructure can be given. Let a "problem" be a collection of "alternatives", and let each alternative have an associated cost, c(a). The task is to find a set of alternatives that minimizes c(a). Suppose that the alternatives can be partitioned into subsets, i.e. each alternative belongs to only one subset. Suppose each subset has its own cost function. The minima of each of these cost functions can be found, as can the minima of the global cost function, restricted to the same subsets. If these minima match for each subset, then it's almost obvious that a global minimum can be picked not out of the full set of alternatives, but out of only the set that consists of the minima of the smaller, local cost functions we have defined. If minimizing the local functions is a problem of "lower order", and (specifically) if, after a finite number of these reductions, the problem becomes trivial, then the problem has an optimal substructure.
Problems with optimal substructure
Longest common subsequence problem
Longest increasing subsequence
Longest palindromic substring
All-Pairs Shortest Path
Any problem that can be solved by dynamic programming.
Problems without optimal substructure
Longest path problem
Addition-chain exponentiation
Least-cost airline fare. (Using online flight search, we will frequently find that the cheapest flight from airport A to airport B involves a single connection through airport C, but the cheapest flight from airport A to airport C involves a connection through some other airport D.) However, if the problem takes the maximum number of layovers as a parameter, then the problem has optimal substructure: the cheapest flight from A to B involving a single connection is either the direct flight; or a flight from A to some destination C, plus the optimum direct flight from C to B.
See also
Dynamic Programming
Principle of optimality
References
Dynamic programming | [
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] |
243110 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral%20method | Spectral method | Spectral methods are a class of techniques used in applied mathematics and scientific computing to numerically solve certain differential equations, potentially involving the use of the fast Fourier transform. The idea is to write the solution of the differential equation as a sum of certain "basis functions" (for example, as a Fourier series which is a sum of sinusoids) and then to choose the coefficients in the sum in order to satisfy the differential equation as well as possible.
Spectral methods and finite element methods are closely related and built on the same ideas; the main difference between them is that spectral methods use basis functions that are nonzero over the whole domain, while finite element methods use basis functions that are nonzero only on small subdomains. In other words, spectral methods take on a global approach while finite element methods use a local approach. Partially for this reason, spectral methods have excellent error properties, with the so-called "exponential convergence" being the fastest possible, when the solution is smooth. However, there are no known three-dimensional single domain spectral shock capturing results (shock waves are not smooth). In the finite element community, a method where the degree of the elements is very high or increases as the grid parameter h decreases to zero is sometimes called a spectral element method.
Spectral methods can be used to solve ordinary differential equations (ODEs), partial differential equations (PDEs) and eigenvalue problems involving differential equations. When applying spectral methods to time-dependent PDEs, the solution is typically written as a sum of basis functions with time-dependent coefficients; substituting this in the PDE yields a system of ODEs in the coefficients which can be solved using any numerical method for ODEs. Eigenvalue problems for ODEs are similarly converted to matrix eigenvalue problems .
Spectral methods were developed in a long series of papers by Steven Orszag starting in 1969 including, but not limited to, Fourier series methods for periodic geometry problems, polynomial spectral methods for finite and unbounded geometry problems, pseudospectral methods for highly nonlinear problems, and spectral iteration methods for fast solution of steady-state problems. The implementation of the spectral method is normally accomplished either with collocation or a Galerkin or a Tau approach.
Spectral methods are computationally less expensive than finite element methods, but become less accurate for problems with complex geometries and discontinuous coefficients. This increase in error is a consequence of the Gibbs phenomenon.
Examples of spectral methods
A concrete, linear example
Here we presume an understanding of basic multivariate calculus and Fourier series. If is a known, complex-valued function of two real variables, and g is periodic in x and y (that is, ) then we are interested in finding a function f(x,y) so that
where the expression on the left denotes the second partial derivatives of f in x and y, respectively. This is the Poisson equation, and can be physically interpreted as some sort of heat conduction problem, or a problem in potential theory, among other possibilities.
If we write f and g in Fourier series:
and substitute into the differential equation, we obtain this equation:
We have exchanged partial differentiation with an infinite sum, which is legitimate if we assume for instance that f has a continuous second derivative. By the uniqueness theorem for Fourier expansions, we must then equate the Fourier coefficients term by term, giving
(*)
which is an explicit formula for the Fourier coefficients aj,k.
With periodic boundary conditions, the Poisson equation possesses a solution only if b0,0 = 0. Therefore,
we can freely choose a0,0 which will be equal to the mean of the resolution. This corresponds to choosing the
integration constant.
To turn this into an algorithm, only finitely many frequencies are solved for. This introduces an error which can be shown to be proportional to , where and is the highest frequency treated.
Algorithm
Compute the Fourier transform (bj,k) of g.
Compute the Fourier transform (aj,k) of f via the formula (*).
Compute f by taking an inverse Fourier transform of (aj,k).
Since we're only interested in a finite window of frequencies (of size n, say) this can be done using a fast Fourier transform algorithm. Therefore, globally the algorithm runs in
Nonlinear example
We wish to solve the forced, transient, nonlinear Burgers' equation using a spectral approach.
Given on the periodic domain
, find such that
where ρ is the viscosity coefficient. In weak conservative form this becomes
where following inner product notation. Integrating by parts and using periodicity grants
To apply the Fourier-Galerkin method, choose both
and
where . This reduces the problem to finding such that
Using the orthogonality relation where is the Kronecker delta, we simplify the above three terms for each to see
Assemble the three terms for each to obtain
Dividing through by , we finally arrive at
With Fourier transformed initial conditions and forcing , this coupled system of ordinary differential equations may be integrated in time (using, e.g., a Runge Kutta technique) to find a solution. The nonlinear term is a convolution, and there are several transform-based techniques for evaluating it efficiently. See the references by Boyd and Canuto et al. for more details.
A relationship with the spectral element method
One can show that if is infinitely differentiable, then the numerical algorithm using Fast Fourier Transforms will converge faster than any polynomial in the grid size h. That is, for any n>0, there is a such that the error is less than for all sufficiently small values of . We say that the spectral method is of order , for every n>0.
Because a spectral element method is a finite element method of very high order, there is a similarity in the convergence properties. However, whereas the spectral method is based on the eigendecomposition of the particular boundary value problem, the finite element method does not use that information and works for arbitrary elliptic boundary value problems.
See also
Finite element method
Gaussian grid
Pseudo-spectral method
Spectral element method
Galerkin method
Collocation method
References
Bengt Fornberg (1996) A Practical Guide to Pseudospectral Methods. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
Chebyshev and Fourier Spectral Methods by John P. Boyd.
Canuto C., Hussaini M. Y., Quarteroni A., and Zang T.A. (2006) Spectral Methods. Fundamentals in Single Domains. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg
Javier de Frutos, Julia Novo: A Spectral Element Method for the Navier–Stokes Equations with Improved Accuracy
Polynomial Approximation of Differential Equations, by Daniele Funaro, Lecture Notes in Physics, Volume 8, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg 1992
D. Gottlieb and S. Orzag (1977) "Numerical Analysis of Spectral Methods : Theory and Applications", SIAM, Philadelphia, PA
J. Hesthaven, S. Gottlieb and D. Gottlieb (2007) "Spectral methods for time-dependent problems", Cambridge UP, Cambridge, UK
Steven A. Orszag (1969) Numerical Methods for the Simulation of Turbulence, Phys. Fluids Supp. II, 12, 250–257
Jie Shen, Tao Tang and Li-Lian Wang (2011) "Spectral Methods: Algorithms, Analysis and Applications" (Springer Series in Computational Mathematics, V. 41, Springer),
Lloyd N. Trefethen (2000) Spectral Methods in MATLAB. SIAM, Philadelphia, PA
Numerical analysis
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243114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Georg%20Hamann | Johann Georg Hamann | Johann Georg Hamann (; ; 27 August 1730 – 21 June 1788) was a German Lutheran philosopher from Königsberg known as “the Wizard of the North” who was one of the leader figures of post-Kantian philosophy. His work was used by his student J. G. Herder as the main support of the Sturm und Drang movement, and is associated with the Counter-Enlightenment and Romanticism.
He introduced Kant, also from Königsberg, to the works of both Hume – waking him from his "dogmatic slumber" – and Rousseau. Hamann was influenced by Hume, but he used his views to argue for rather than against Christianity.
Goethe and Kierkegaard were among those who considered him to be the finest mind of his time. He was also a key influence on Hegel and Jacobi. Long before the linguistic turn, Hamann believed epistemology should be replaced by the philosophy of language.
Early life
Hamann was born on 27 August 1730 in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia). Initially he studied theology at the University of Königsberg, but became a clerk in a mercantile house and afterward held many small public offices, devoting his leisure to reading philosophy. His first publication was a study in political economy about a dispute on nobility and trade. He wrote under the nom de plume of “the Magus of the North” (). Hamann was a believer in the Enlightenment until a mystical experience in London in 1758.
His translation of David Hume into German is considered by most scholars as the one that Hamann's friend, Immanuel Kant, also from Königsberg, had read and referred to as inspiration for awakening from "dogmatic slumber". Hamann and Kant held each other in mutual respect, although Hamann once declined an invitation by Kant to co-write a physics textbook for children. Hamann also introduced Kant to the work of Rousseau.
Music
Hamann was a lutenist, having studied this instrument with Timofey Belogradsky (a student of Sylvius Leopold Weiss), a Ukrainian virtuoso then living in Königsberg.
Philosophical views
His distrust of autonomous, disembodied reason and the Enlightenment ("I look upon logical proofs the way a well-bred girl looks upon a love letter" was one of his many witticisms) led him to conclude that faith in God was the only solution to the vexing problems of philosophy.
One of Kant's biographers compared him with Hamann:
In Hamann's own terms Kant was a "Platonist" about reason, believing it disembodied, and Hamann an "Aristotelian" who believed it was embodied. Hamann was greatly influenced by Hume. This is most evident in Hamann's conviction that faith and belief, rather than knowledge, determine human actions. Also, Hamann asserted that the efficacy of a concept arises from the habits it reflects rather than any inherent quality it possesses.
Works
Hamann's writings consist of small essays. They display two striking tendencies. The first is their brevity, in comparison with works by his contemporaries. The second is their breadth of allusion and delight in extended analogies. For example, his work Golgotha and Scheblimini! By a Preacher in the Wilderness (1784) was directed against Moses Mendelssohn's Jerusalem, or on Religious Might and Judaism (1782). His work was also significantly reactive; rather than advance a “position” of his own, his principal mode of thinking was to respond to others' work.
Hamann famously used the image of Socrates, who often proclaimed to know nothing, in his Socratic Memorabilia, an essay in which Hamann critiques the Enlightenment's dependence on reason. In Aesthetica in nuce, Hamann counters the Enlightenment by emphasizing the importance of aesthetic experience and the role of genius in intuiting nature.
Editions
Fragments of his writings were published by Cramer, under the title of Sibyllinische Blätter des Magus aus Norden (1819), and a complete edition by Roth (7 vols., 1821–25, with a volume of additions and explanations by Wiener, 1843). Hamann's des Magus in Norden Leben und Schriften, edited by Gildemeister, was published in 5 vols., 1857–68, and a new edition of his Schriften und Briefen, edited by Petri, in 4 vols., 1872-74.
God
Hamann argued that the communicatio idiomatum, namely, the communication of divine messages through material embodiments, applies not just to Christ, but should be generalised to cover all human action: "This communicatio of divine and human idiomatum is a fundamental law and the master-key of all our knowledge and of the whole visible economy." Hamann believed all of creation were signs from God for us to interpret.
Reason is language
His most notable contributions to philosophy were his thoughts on language, which have often been considered as a forerunner to the linguistic turn in analytic philosophy such as Wittgenstein's. He famously said that "Reason is language" ("Vernunft ist Sprache"). Hamann thought the bridge between Kant's noumenal and phenomenal realms was language, with its noumenal meaning and phenomenal letters.
Legacy
Hamann was one of the precipitating forces for the Counter-Enlightenment. He was, moreover, a mentor to Herder and an admired influence on Goethe, Jacobi, Hegel, Kierkegaard, Lessing, and Mendelssohn. Roman Catholic theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar devoted a chapter to Hamann in his volume, Studies in Theological Styles: Lay Styles (Volume III in the English language translation of The Glory of the Lord series). Most recently, Hamann's influence can be found in the work of the theologians Oswald Bayer (Lutheran), John Milbank (Anglican), and David Bentley Hart (Eastern Orthodox). Finally, in Charles Taylor's important summative work, The Language Animal: The Full Shape of the Human Linguistic Capacity (Taylor, 2016), Hamann is given credit, along with Wilhelm von Humboldt and Herder, for inspiring Taylor's "HHH" approach to the philosophy of language, emphasizing the creative power and cultural specificity of language.
However, recent scholarship, such as that by Bayer, contradicts the usual interpretation by people such as historian of ideas Isaiah Berlin, and describes Hamann as a "radical Enlightener" who vigorously opposed dogmatic rationalism in matters of philosophy and faith. Bayer views him as less the proto-Romantic that Herder presented, and more a premodern-postmodern thinker who brought the consequences of Lutheran theology to bear upon the burgeoning Enlightenment and especially in reaction to Kant.
References
Sources
Isaiah Berlin, Three Critics of the Enlightenment: Vico, Hamann, Herder, London and Princeton, 2000,
Dickson, Gwen Griffith, Johann Georg Hamann's Relational Metacriticism (contains English translations of Socratic Memorabilia, Aesthetica in Nuce, a selection of essays on language, Essay of a Sibyl on Marriage and Metacritique of the Purism of Reason), Walter de Gruyter, 1995.
Forster, Michael N., After Herder: Philosophy of Language in the German Tradition, Oxford University Press, 2010, ch. 8–9.
David Bentley Hart, "The Laughter of the Philosophers", First Things. January 2005.
Kenneth Haynes (ed.), Hamann: Writings on Philosophy and Language (Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy), Cambridge University Press, 2007,
James C. O'Flaherty, Unity and Language: A Study in the Philosophy of Hamann, University of North Carolina, 1952;
James C. O'Flaherty, Hamann's Socratic Memorabilia: A Translation and Commentary, Johns Hopkins Press, 1967; Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 67-12424;
James C. O'Flaherty, Johann Georg Hamann, Twayne Publishers, 1979, ;
James C. O'Flaherty, The Quarrel of Reason with Itself: Essays on Hamann, Michaelis, Lessing, Nietzsche, Camden House, 1988,
Further reading
Alkire, Brian (2021). The Last Mask: Hamann's Theater of the Grotesque. Zürich: diaphanes, 2021
Anderson, Lisa Marie (ed.). Hamann and the Tradition. Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 2012
Alexander, W. M. (1966). Johann Georg Hamann: Philosophy and Faith. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
Beiser, Frederick (1987). The Fate of Reason: German Philosophy from Kant to Fichte. Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University Press
Betz, John (2009). After Enlightenment: The Post-Secular Vision of J.G. Hamann. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell
Cattarini, L.S. (2018) Beyond Sartre and Sterility, contains introductory article on Hamann (Magus of the North)
Smith, Ronald Gregor (1960). J.G. Hamann 1730-1788: A Study in Christian Existence. New York: Harper & Brothers.
Sparling, Robert Alan (2011). Johann Georg Hamann and the Enlightenment Project. Toronto: University of Toronto Press
External links
Memoirs of Eminent Teachers and Educators: With Contributions to the History of Education in Germany (1878) Brown & Goss p. 533ff Retrieved May 23, 2012
Notes on international conference on Hamann in March 2009 Retrieved May 18, 2012
Hamann Briefe Letters
Hamann, Nietzsche, and Wittgenstein on the Language of Philosophers - open access post-print version of chapter from Hamann and the Tradition (Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 2012), p. 104-121.
Read online, french transaltion by Henry Corbin (1939) of Aesthetica In Nuce
International Bibliography of works by and on Hamann, on Éditions Ionas website.
1730 births
1788 deaths
18th-century German Protestant theologians
German male non-fiction writers
Continental philosophers
Counter-Enlightenment
German lutenists
German Lutheran theologians
18th-century German philosophers
Hermeneutists
Writers from Königsberg
Philosophers of language
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243134 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hess%27s%20law | Hess's law | Hess's law of constant heat summation, also known simply as Hess' law, is a relationship in physical chemistry named after Germain Hess, a Swiss-born Russian chemist and physician who published it in 1840. The law states that the total enthalpy change during the complete course of a chemical reaction is independent of the sequence of steps taken.
Hess's law is now understood as an expression of the fact that the enthalpy of a chemical process is independent of the path taken from the initial to the final state (i.e. enthalpy is a state function). According to the first law of thermodynamics, the enthalpy change in a system due to a reaction at constant pressure is equal to the heat absorbed (or the negative of the heat released), which can be determined by calorimetry for many reactions. The values are usually stated for reactions with the same initial and final temperatures and pressures (while conditions are allowed to vary during the course of the reactions). Hess's law can be used to determine the overall energy required for a chemical reaction that can be divided into synthetic steps that are individually easier to characterize. This affords the compilation of standard enthalpies of formation, which may be used to predict the enthalpy change in complex syntheses.
Theory
Hess's law states that the change of enthalpy in a chemical reaction is the same regardless of whether the reaction takes place in one step or several steps, provided the initial and final states of the reactions and products are the same.
In other words, if a chemical change takes place by several different routes, the overall enthalpy change is the same, regardless of the route by which the chemical change occurs (provided the initial and final condition are the same). If this were not true, then one could violate the first law of thermodynamics.
Hess's law allows the enthalpy change (ΔH) for a reaction to be calculated even when it cannot be measured directly. This is accomplished by performing basic algebraic operations based on the chemical equations of reactions using previously determined values for the enthalpies of formation.
Combination of chemical equations leads to a net or overall equation. If the enthalpy changes are known for all the equations in the sequence, their sum will be the enthalpy change for the net equation. If the net enthalpy change is negative (ΔHnet < 0), the reaction is exothermic and is more likely to be spontaneous; positive ΔH values correspond to endothermic reactions. (Entropy also plays an important role in determining spontaneity, as some reactions with a positive enthalpy change are nevertheless spontaneous due to an entropy increase in the reaction system.)
Use of enthalpies of formation
Hess's law states that enthalpy changes are additive. Thus the value of ΔH for a single reaction can be calculated from tabulated enthalpies of formation of products and reactants as follows:
Here, the first sum is over all products p and the second over all reactants r, is the stoichiometric coefficient of product p, is the stoichiometric coefficient of reactant r, is the enthalpy of formation of product p, is the enthalpy of formation of reactant r, and the o superscript indicates standard state values. This may be considered as the sum of two (real or fictitious) reactions:
Reactants → Elements (in their standard states)
and Elements → Products
Examples
Cgraphite + O2 → CO2(g) ( ΔH = −393.5 kJ/mol) (direct step)
Cgraphite + 1/2 O2 → CO(g) (ΔH = −110.5 kJ/mol)
CO(g) +1/2 O2 → CO2(g) (ΔH = −283.0 kJ/mol)
Reaction (a) is the sum of reactions (b) and (c), for which the total ΔH = −393.5 kJ/mol, which is equal to ΔH in (a).
Given:
B2O3(s) + 3H2O(g) → 3O2(g) + B2H6(g) (ΔH = 2035 kJ/mol)
H2O(l) → H2O(g) (ΔH = 44 kJ/mol)
H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) → H2O(l) (ΔH = −286 kJ/mol)
2B(s) + 3H2(g) → B2H6(g) (ΔH = 36 kJ/mol)
Find the ΔHf of:
2B(s) + 3/2 O2(g) → B2O3(s)
After multiplying the equations (and their enthalpy changes) by appropriate factors and reversing the direction when necessary, the result is:
B2H6(g) + 3O2(g) → B2O3(s) + 3H2O(g) (ΔH = 2035 × (−1) = −2035 kJ/mol)
3H2O(g) → 3H2O(l) (ΔH = 44 × (−3) = −132 kJ/mol)
3H2O(l) → 3H2(g) + (3/2) O2(g) (ΔH = −286 × (−3) = 858 kJ/mol)
2B(s) + 3H2(g) → B2H6(g) (ΔH = 36 kJ/mol)
Adding these equations and canceling out the common terms on both sides, we obtain
2B(s) + 3/2 O2(g) → B2O3(s) (ΔH = −1273 kJ/mol)
Extension to free energy and entropy
The concepts of Hess's law can be expanded to include changes in entropy and in Gibbs free energy, since these are also state functions. The Bordwell thermodynamic cycle is an example of such an extension that takes advantage of easily measured equilibria and redox potentials to determine experimentally inaccessible Gibbs free energy values. Combining ΔGo values from Bordwell thermodynamic cycles and ΔHo values found with Hess's law can be helpful in determining entropy values that have not been measured directly and therefore need to be calculated through alternative paths.
For the free energy:
For entropy, the situation is a little different. Because entropy can be measured as an absolute value, not relative to those of the elements in their reference states (as with ΔHo and ΔGo), there is no need to use the entropy of formation; one simply uses the absolute entropies for products and reactants:
Applications
Hess's law is useful in the determination of enthalpies of the following:
Heats of formation of unstable intermediates like CO(g) and NO(g).
Heat changes in phase transitions and allotropic transitions.
Lattice energies of ionic substances by constructing Born–Haber cycles if the electron affinity to form the anion is known, or
Electron affinities using a Born–Haber cycle with a theoretical lattice energy.
See also
Thermochemistry
Thermodynamics
References
Further reading
External links
Hess' paper (1840) on which his law is based (at ChemTeam site)
a Hess’ Law experiment
Chemical thermodynamics
Physical chemistry
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243145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Roxy%20Rothafel | Samuel Roxy Rothafel | Samuel Lionel "Roxy" Rothafel (July 9, 1882 – January 13, 1936) was an American theatrical impresario and entrepreneur. He is noted for developing the lavish presentation of silent films in the deluxe movie palace theaters of the 1910s and 1920s.
Life and career
Rothafel (originally Rothapfel, meaning ‘‘Red Apple’’, the modern German spelling is: Rotapfel) was born in Bromberg, Province of Posen, Prussia, Germany, (now Bydgoszcz, Poland), the son of Cecelia (née Schwerzens) and Gustav Rothapfel. In 1886, at the age of three, with his mother, he boarded the S/S Rugia, sailing from Hamburg, and then arriving at the Port of New York, May 24, 1886. before moving to Stillwater, Minnesota. Best known by his nickname, "Roxy", he was the impresario who brought the great New York City movie palaces that he managed to fame and popular success.
He began his show business career in Forest City, Pennsylvania, where he created the "Family Theater", a combination cinema and skating rink. In 1912 he came to New York City, where he would achieve his greatest successes. In New York at different times he managed and produced shows at the Regent, Strand, Rialto, Rivoli, and Capitol theaters.
His greatest achievement was his eponymous Roxy Theatre at Times Square which opened March 11, 1927. He later opened the Radio City Music Hall and the RKO Roxy (later the Center Theatre) in 1932, his last theatrical project. The Music Hall featured the precision dance troupe the Roxyettes (later renamed The Rockettes), which Rothafel brought with him from the Roxy Theatre.
Rothafel has been credited with many movie presentation innovations, including synchronizing orchestral music to movies (in the silent film era) and having multiple projectors to effect seamless reel changes. The book The Best Remaining Seats by Ben M. Hall (1961), gives a good overview of the movie palaces of the 1920s and, specifically, of Roxy himself.
Rothafel had health issues in his later life, mainly angina pectoris. He died of a heart attack in his sleep on January 13, 1936 in New York City aged 53. He is buried in Linden Hill Jewish cemetery in Queens, New York.
His wife was Rosa (Freedman). His son was Arthur Ingram Rothafel, journalist, writer and ski reporter. His daughter, Beta Rothafel, married Lawrence Harold Levy, the son of Samuel Levy, a New York City lawyer, businessman, and public official, who served as Manhattan Borough President. Through Rothafel's granddaughter, Penny (Levy), he is the great-grandfather of actress Amanda Peet.
Radio
Roxy also made a name for himself on network radio, where he began broadcasting in mid-November 1922. Through 1925, live broadcasts of his weekly variety show Roxy and His Gang from the Capitol Theatre in New York became increasingly popular. One estimate from 1924 placed his typical radio audience at about five million listeners, and he was said to receive thousands of pieces of fan mail weekly. After Rothafel left the Capitol, his radio show, now known as The Roxy Hour, was broadcast from the new Roxy Theatre on the NBC Blue network from 1927 to 1932.
References
Further reading
Ken Bloom. Broadway: Its History, People and Places. New York: Routledge, 2004.
Ben M. Hall, The Best Remaining Seats; The Story of the Golden Age of the Movie Palace. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1961.
Ross Melnick, American Showman: Samuel "Roxy" Rothafel and the Birth of the Entertainment Industry, 1908-1935. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012.
Ross Melnick. "Station R-O-X-Y: Roxy and the Radio." Film History, vol. 17, # 2/3, 2005, pp. 217–233.
External links
American Theatre Organ Society website
1882 births
1936 deaths
People from Stillwater, Minnesota | [
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243163 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy%20Ridley | Roy Ridley | Maurice Roy Ridley (25 January 1890, in Orcheston St Mary – 12 June 1969) was a writer and poet, Fellow and Chaplain of Balliol College, Oxford. He was also a visiting professor at Bowdoin under the auspices of the Tallman Foundation, and shortly thereafter.
Career
Ridley was educated at Clifton College and Balliol College, Oxford. From 1920 to 1945 he was a Fellow and Tutor of Balliol. Ridley spent 1930–1 as a visiting professor at Bowdoin College under the auspices of the Tallman Foundation. He was a lecturer at Bedford College, University of London, from 1948. He earned a Doctorate of Humane Letters therein.
In popular culture
Dorothy L. Sayers based the physical description of her fictional character Lord Peter Wimsey (the archetypal British gentleman detective and aristocratic super sleuth extraordinaire) on that of Ridley after seeing him read his Newdigate Prize-winning poem "Oxford" at the Encaenia ceremony in July 1913.
Awards
Newdigate Prize, 1913
Works
References
1890 births
1969 deaths
Bowdoin College faculty
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Fellows of Balliol College, Oxford
20th-century Church of England clergy
Academics of Bedford College, London
Bowdoin College people | [
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243204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caligula%20%28film%29 | Caligula (film) | Caligula () is a 1979 erotic historical drama film focusing on the rise and fall of the eponymous Roman Emperor Caligula. The film stars Malcolm McDowell in the title role, alongside Teresa Ann Savoy, Helen Mirren, Peter O'Toole, John Steiner and John Gielgud. Producer Bob Guccione, the founder of Penthouse magazine, intended to produce an erotic feature film narrative with high production values and name actors.
Gore Vidal originated the idea for a film about the controversial Roman emperor and produced a draft screenplay under the working title Gore Vidal's Caligula. The director, Tinto Brass, extensively altered Vidal's original screenplay, however, leading Vidal to disavow the film. The final screenplay focuses on the idea that "absolute power corrupts absolutely". However, both Brass and Vidal disagreed with Guccione's use of unsimulated sexual content, which Brass refused to film. Because the producers did not allow Brass to edit the film, they changed its tone and style significantly and added hardcore sex scenes not filmed by Brass, thus turning Caligula into an erotic drama featuring Penthouse Pets as extras in unsimulated sex scenes filmed during post-production by Guccione and Giancarlo Lui. This version, released to Italian cinemas in 1979 and American cinemas the following year, disregarded the director's intentions to present the film as a political satire. As a result, Brass also disavowed the film.
Caligulas release was met with legal issues and controversies over its violent and sexual content; multiple cut versions were released worldwide, while its uncut form remains banned in several countries. However, the film is considered to be a cult classic with significant merit for its political content and historical portrayal.
The script was later adapted into a novelisation written by William Johnston under the pseudonym William Howard. In 2018, Penthouse announced that a new Director's Cut of the film was being edited by Alexander Tuschinski, with the approval of Brass's family. No release date for that cut has been confirmed. In 2020, another version of the film was announced to be released in the fall of that year, edited by E. Elias Merhige to follow more closely Gore Vidal's original screenplay instead of Tinto Brass's or Bob Guccione's vision.
Plot
Caligula is the young heir to the throne of his great uncle, the Emperor Tiberius. One morning, a blackbird flies into his room; Caligula considers this a bad omen. Shortly afterward, one of the heads of the Praetorian Guard, Naevius Sutorius Macro, tells Caligula that Tiberius demands his immediate presence at Capri, where the Emperor lives with his close friend Nerva, dim-witted relative Claudius, and Caligula's adopted son (Tiberius's grandson) Gemellus. Fearing assassination, Caligula is afraid to leave but his sister and lover Drusilla persuades him to go.
At Capri, Caligula finds that Tiberius has become depraved, showing signs of advanced venereal diseases, and embittered with Rome and politics. Tiberius enjoys swimming with naked youths and watching degrading sex shows that include deformed people and animals. Caligula observes with fascination and horror. Tensions rise when Tiberius tries to poison Caligula in front of Gemellus. Nerva commits suicide and Caligula tries to kill Tiberius but loses his nerve. Proving his loyalty to Caligula, Macro kills Tiberius instead with Gemellus as a witness.
After Tiberius' death and burial, Caligula is proclaimed the new Emperor, then proclaims Drusilla as his equal, to the apparent disgust of the Roman Senate. Drusilla, fearful of Macro's influence, persuades Caligula to get rid of him. Caligula sets up a mock trial in which Gemellus is intimidated into testifying that Macro murdered Tiberius, then has Macro's wife Ennia banished from Rome. After Macro is executed in a gruesome public game, Caligula appoints Tiberius' former adviser Longinus as his personal assistant while pronouncing the docile Senator Chaerea as the new head of the Praetorian Guard.
Drusilla tries to find Caligula a wife among the priestesses of the goddess Isis, the cult they secretly practise. Caligula wants to marry Drusilla, but she insists they cannot marry because she is his sister. Instead, Caligula marries Caesonia, a priestess and notorious courtesan, after she bears him an heir. Drusilla reluctantly supports their marriage. Meanwhile, despite Caligula's popularity with the masses, the Senate expresses disapproval for what initially seem to be light eccentricities. Darker aspects of Caligula's personality emerge when he rapes a bride and groom on their wedding day in a minor fit of jealousy and orders Gemellus's execution to provoke a reaction from Drusilla.
After discovering that Caesonia is pregnant, Caligula suffers severe fever. Drusilla nurses him back to health. Just as he fully recovers, Caesonia bears him a daughter, Julia Drusilla. During the celebration, Drusilla collapses with the same fever he suffered. Soon afterward, Caligula receives another ill omen in the form of a blackbird. Despite his praying to Isis out of desperation, Drusilla dies from her fever. Initially unable to accept her death, Caligula suffers a nervous breakdown and rampages through the palace, destroying a statue of Isis while clutching Drusilla's body.
Now in a deep depression, Caligula walks the Roman streets disguised as a beggar; he causes a disturbance after watching an amateur performance mocking his relationship with Drusilla. After a brief stay in a city gaol, Caligula proclaims himself a god and becomes determined to destroy the senatorial class, which he has come to loathe. The new reign he leads becomes a series of humiliations against the foundations of Romesenators' wives are forced to work in the service of the state as prostitutes, estates are confiscated, the old religion is desecrated and the army is made to embark on a mock invasion of Britain. Unable to further tolerate his actions, Longinus conspires with Chaerea to assassinate Caligula.
Caligula enters his bedroom where a nervous Caesonia awaits him. Another blackbird appears but only Caesonia is frightened of it. The next morning, after rehearsing an Egyptian play, Caligula and his family are attacked in a coup headed by Chaerea. Caesonia and Julia are murdered, and Chaerea stabs Caligula in the stomach. With his final breath, the Emperor defiantly whimpers "I live!" as Caligula and his family's bodies are thrown down the stadium's steps and their blood is washed off the marble floor. Claudius witnesses the entire ordeal and is horrified even after being proclaimed Emperor by the Praetorian Guard.
Cast
Production
Development
The men's magazine Penthouse had long been involved in film funding, helping invest in films made by other studios, including Chinatown, The Longest Yard and The Day of the Locust, but it had never produced a film on its own. The magazine's founder Bob Guccione wanted to produce an explicit adult film within a feature film narrative that had high production values; he decided to produce a film about the rise and fall of the Roman emperor Caligula. Development began under producer Franco Rossellini, the nephew of filmmaker Roberto Rossellini. A screenplay was written by Lina Wertmüller, but Guccione rejected Wertmüller's script and paid Gore Vidal to write a new screenplay. Vidal's screenplay had a strong focus on homosexuality, leading Guccione to demand rewrites which toned down the homosexual content for wider audience appeal. Guccione was concerned that Vidal's script contained several homosexual sex scenes and only one scene of heterosexual sex, which was between Caligula and his sister Drusilla. Vidal was paid for his screenplay, which was titled Gore Vidal's Caligula.
Elaborate sets were built by production designer Danilo Donati, who also designed the film's costumes, jewelry, hair styles, wigs and makeup. Several mainstream actors were cast, Guccione intending to make a film which he felt, like Citizen Kane, would be a landmark in cinematic history. Guccione offered directing duties to John Huston and Lina Wertmüller, both of whom rejected the film. After viewing scenes from the film Salon Kitty, Guccione agreed to have lunch with that film's director Tinto Brass, believing Brass would be the ideal person to direct Caligula. Brass had a reputation for being difficult to deal with on film sets but Guccione thought the film's epic scope would "keep [Brass] in line" and that Brass understood the concept of the film enough to direct it. Brass described Vidal's screenplay as "the work of an aging arteriosclerotic" and agreed to direct only if he was allowed to rewrite Vidal's screenplay. Brass's screenplay expanded the sexual content to include orgies, decorative phalluses, and much female nudity. Guccione said Brass's rewrites were done out of necessity to the film's visual narrative and did not alter the dialogue or content.
In an interview for Time magazine, Vidal said that in film production, directors were "parasites" and a film's author was its screenwriter; in response, Brass demanded Vidal's removal from the set and Guccione agreed. Guccione considered film to be a "collective effort, involving the input of a great number of artists and craftsmen", and the director to be the leader of a "team effort". Vidal filed a contractual dispute over the film because of Brass's rewrites; Guccione said Vidal had demanded 10% of the film's profits, which Vidal said was not the case. Vidal distanced himself from the production, calling Brass a "megalomaniac". Brass publicly stated, "If I ever really get mad at Gore Vidal, I'll publish his script". Vidal's name was removed from the film's title; the credits were changed to state that the film was "adapted from a screenplay by Gore Vidal", crediting no official screenwriter. Guccione said, "Gore's work was basically done and Tinto's work was about to begin".
Themes and significance
The film's primary theme is "absolute power corrupts absolutely". Vidal's script presented Caligula as a good man driven to madness by absolute power; Brass's screenplay envisioned Caligula as a "born monster". In The Encyclopedia of Epic Films, author Djoymi Baker describes Brass's screenplay as "an antiepic with an antihero, on a path of self-inflicted, antisocial descent". Guccione said this final draft was more violent than sexual, stating, "I maintain the film is actually anti-erotic ... in every one of its scenes you'll find a mixture of gore or violence or some other rather ugly things".
Casting
Orson Welles was initially offered $1 million dollars to star as Tiberius, a figure which would have been his highest ever salary, but he refused on moral grounds when he read the script. Gore Vidal expressed disbelief that this could have ever been the case as he felt that Welles could not have portrayed Tiberius, but then recalled Kenneth Tynan remarking to him at the time that Welles was "upset" by the script. Renowned actors who did accept roles in the film included Malcolm McDowell, Helen Mirren, Peter O'Toole and Sir John Gielgud, with Maria Schneider cast as Caligula's doomed sister Drusilla. Schneider became uncomfortable with appearing nude and in sexual scenes, and left the production, to be replaced by Teresa Ann Savoy, whom Brass had previously worked with on Salon Kitty. Schneider had also apparently angered Brass by sewing up the open tunics she was supposed to wear on camera. Gielgud was also offered the role of Tiberius, which he declined, as he felt Vidal's script was "pornographic"; however, he later accepted the role of Nerva. Director Tinto Brass cast his own acquaintances as senators and noblemen, including ex-convicts, thieves and anarchists. Guccione cast Penthouse Pets as female extras in sexual scenes.
Filming
Principal photography began in 1976 in Rome. McDowell got along well with Tinto Brass, while Peter O'Toole immediately disliked the director. John Gielgud and Helen Mirren were indifferent to Brass; they ultimately trusted his direction and focused on their own performances. O'Toole had stopped drinking alcohol before filming, but Guccione described O'Toole as being "strung out on something" and said the actor was not sober during the entire filming schedule.
During the film's production, McDowell took members of the production to dinner at an expensive restaurant to celebrate England's win in a football match against the Italian team. He left the choreographer to pay for the meal, saying he had forgotten to bring enough money. At the end of the production, McDowell gave his dresser a pendant bearing her name, but it was misspelled and she gave it back to him. McDowell offered her a signet ring, a prop from the film. She refused because it belonged to the production company.
Brass decided not to focus much on Danilo Donati's elaborate sets, and intentionally kept the Penthouse Pets in the background during sex scenes. He focused instead on women whom Guccione considered to be unattractive. Brass and Guccione disagreed about the film's approach to sexual content; Guccione preferred unsimulated sexual content that Brass did not want to film.
Post-production
Filming concluded on 24 December 1976. Guccione said Brass shot enough film to "make the original version of Ben-Hur about 50 times over". Brass started editing the film but was not allowed to continue after he had edited approximately the first hour of it. His rough-cut was disassembled, and the film was edited by several editors, changing its tone and structure significantly by removing and re-arranging many scenes, using different takes, a slower editing style and music other than Brass intended.
A few weeks after filming had concluded, Guccione and Giancarlo Lui returned to Rome with several Penthouse Pets. Guccione and Lui "hired a skeleton crew, snuck back into the studios at night, raided the prop room" and shot hardcore sex scenes to edit into the film. Brass ultimately disowned the film.
Although there were a number of editors on the film, their names were not credited. Instead, the credit "Editing by the Production" is given during the opening credits.
The film was intended for release in English, but with many of the supporting actors/actresses only speaking Italian, their lines needed to be dubbed.
Peter O'Toole was reluctant to re-record his English dialogue, he stayed away from the film's producers, then finally agreed to re-record his dialogue.
Soundtrack
The film was scored by Bruno Nicolai under the name Paul Clemente. According to Kristopher Spencer, the score "is gloriously dramatic, capturing both the decadent atmosphere of ancient Rome and the twisted tragedy of its true story". The score also featured music by Aram Khachaturian (from Spartacus) and Sergei Prokofiev (from Romeo and Juliet). In November 1980, Guccione formed Penthouse Records to release a double album soundtrack to Caligula. The album featured Nicolai's score and two versions—one in a disco style—of a love theme titled "We Are One", which did not appear in the film.
Track listing
Release
An edited version of the film had a limited run in a small town near Forli, Italy before opening in Rome on Sunday, November 11, 1979. In Rome, it was the highest-grossing film of the weekend, with a gross of $59,950 from 6 theaters. The film was confiscated by Italian police on November 15 with the pubblico ministero calling many scenes in the film "flagrantly obscene".
In the United States, Guccione refused to submit Caligula to the MPAA because he did not want the film to receive a ratingeven Xwhich he considered to be "demeaning". Instead, Guccione applied his own "Mature Audiences" rating to the film, instructing theater owners not to admit anyone under the age of 18. The film premiered in the United States on 1 February 1980, at the Trans Lux East Theatre, which Guccione had rented exclusively to screen the film; he changed the theater's name to Penthouse East.
Rather than leasing prints to exhibitors, the distributor rented theaters that specialized in foreign and art films for the purpose of screening Caligula exclusively in order to keep the film out of theaters that showed pornographic films. In 1981, the Brazilian Board of Censors approved the establishment of special theaters to screen In the Realm of the Senses and Caligula because they were international box office hits.
Caligula grossed at the box office. The film was a financial success in France, Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands and Japan. A 105-minute R-rated version without the explicit sexual material was released in 1981.
The script was adapted into a novelization written by William Johnston under the pseudonym William Howard.
Legal problems
In 1979, when Guccione tried to import the film's footage into the U.S., customs officials seized it. Federal officials did not declare the film to be obscene. When the film was released in New York City, the anti-pornography organization Morality in Media unsuccessfully filed a lawsuit against these federal officials.
In Boston, authorities seized the film. Penthouse took legal action, partly because Guccione thought the legal challenges and moral controversies would provide "the kind of [marketing] coverage money can never buy". Penthouse won the case when a Boston Municipal Court ruled that Caligula had passed the Miller test and was not obscene. While the Boston judge said the film "lacked artistic and scientific value" because of its depiction of sex and considered it to "[appeal] to prurient interests", he said the film's depiction of ancient Rome contained political values which enabled it to pass the Miller test in its depiction of corruption in ancient Rome, which dramatized the political theme that "absolute power corrupts absolutely". A Madison, Wisconsin, district attorney declined an anti-pornography crusader's request to prevent the release of Caligula on the basis that "the most offensive portions of the film are those explicitly depicting violent, and not sexual conduct, which is not in any way prohibited by the criminal law."
Atlanta prosecutors threatened legal action if the film was to be screened in the city, but experts testified in court on behalf of the film, and Atlanta, too, declared that the film was not obscene. Citizens for Decency through Law, a private watchdog group which protested against films which it deemed immoral, sought to prevent the film's exhibition in Fairlawn, Ohio, on the grounds that it would be a "public nuisance", leading Penthouse to withdraw the film from exhibition there to avoid another trial. CDL's lawyer advised against attempting to prosecute Penthouse for obscenity and instead recommended a civil proceeding, because the film would not be placed against the Miller test. The Penthouse attorney described the Fairlawn events as being driven by conservative morality reinforced by Ronald Reagan's presidential victory, stating, "Apparently, these extremists have interpreted a change by administration to mean a clarion call for a mandate to shackle the public's mind again." The uncut film was granted a certificate by the British Board of Film Classification in 2008. The film was banned in Australia, where it continues to be banned in its uncut form .
In 1981, Anneka Di Lorenzo, who played Messalina, sued Guccione, claiming sexual harassment. In 1990, after a protracted litigation, a New York state court awarded her $60,000 in compensatory damages and $4 million in punitive damages. On appeal, court vacated the award, ruling that punitive damages were not allowed by the law governing the case.
Reception
Contemporary reviews
Caligula received generally negative reviews. Roger Ebert gave it zero stars, calling it "sickening, utterly worthless, shameful trash". Ebert wrote, "In the two hours of this film that I saw, there were no scenes of joy, natural pleasure, or good sensual cheer. There was, instead, a nauseating excursion into base and sad fantasies." It is also notable for being one of the few films Ebert ever walked out of—he walked out 2 hours into its 170-minute length after feeling "disgusted and unspeakably depressed". He and Gene Siskel selected the film as one of their "dogs of the year" in a 1980 episode of Sneak Previews. Hank Werba of Variety described the film as a "moral holocaust" in his review. Rex Reed called Caligula "a trough of rotten swill". Jay Scott, reviewing Caligula for The Globe and Mail, said, "Caligula doesn't really work on any level". Scott unfavourably compared Caligula with In the Realm of the Senses, describing the latter film as a better treatment of extreme sexuality. Scott's review went on to say "Rome would seem to be at least as fecund a territory for the cinematic exploration of sex, death and money, as pre-war Japan ... but what's missing from Caligula, which is rife with all three, is any connective tissue (also any point of view, any thought, any meaning)". Scott concluded his review by claiming the whole film's production was "a boondoggle of landmark proportions". New York critic David Denby described the film as "an infinitely degraded version of Fellini Satyricon." Tom Milne (Monthly Film Bulletin) stated that the film was "by no means so awesomely bad as most critics have been pleased to report—but pretty bad all the same" and found the film to be "notable chiefly for the accuracy with which it reflects this anonymity."
Caligula continued to garner negative reception long after its release. It has been reappraised by some critics; review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a negative score of 23% based on 30 reviews, with an average rating of 3.06/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Endlessly perverse and indulgent, Caligula throws in hardcore sex every time the plot threatens to get interesting." Leslie Halliwell said Caligula was "a vile curiosity of interest chiefly to sado-masochists". Time Out London called it "a dreary shambles". Positive criticism of the film came from Moviehole reviewer Clint Morris, who awarded it 3 stars out of 5, calling it "[a] classic in the coolest sense of the word". New Times critic Gregory Weinkauf gave the film 3 out of 5, calling it "Kinda dumb and tacky, but at least it's a real movie". Arkansas Democrat-Gazette reviewer Philip Martin also gave the film 3 out of 5.
Writers for The Hamilton Spectator and St. Louis Post-Dispatch said Caligula was one of the worst films they'd seen. Writing for The A.V. Club, Keith Phipps said, "As a one-of-a-kind marriage of the historical epic and the porn film ... Caligula deserves a look. But it might be better to let Guccione's savagely unpleasant folly fade into the century that spawned it".
Retrospective recognition
Caligula has been described as a "cult classic" by William Hawes in a book about the film. Helen Mirren has defended her involvement with the final product of the film and even described Caligula as "an irresistible mix of art and genitals". In 2005, artist Francesco Vezzoli produced a fake trailer for an alleged remake called Gore Vidal's Caligula as a promotion for Versace's new line of accessories; the remake was to star Helen Mirren as "the Empress Tiberius", Gerard Butler as Chaerea, Milla Jovovich as Drusilla, Courtney Love as Caligula, and Karen Black as Agrippina the Elder and featuring an introduction by Gore Vidal. The fake trailer was screened worldwide, including New York City's Whitney Museum of American Art's 2006 Whitney Biennial. Leonardo DiCaprio has cited the film as an influence on his performance as Jordan Belfort in The Wolf of Wall Street.
Reconstruction attempts
In 2007, Caligula was released on DVD and Blu-ray in an "Imperial Edition", which featured the unrated theatrical release version and a new version featuring alternative sequencing from the original theatrical release and without the explicit sexual content shot by Guccione, marking the first attempt to reconstruct the film into a version closer to Brass's intentions. This edition also includes audio commentaries featuring Malcolm McDowell and Helen Mirren, and interviews with the cast and crew.
In February 2018, Penthouse announced that a new cut of the film was being edited by Alexander Tuschinski. Tuschinski will use 85 minutes of Brass's original workprint and edit the remainder of the film himself. Brass's family supports Tuschinski's effort, but it remains unconfirmed if Brass will be directly involved with the edit. However, the edit is an attempt to realize Brass's original vision for the film.
In July 2018, Alexander Tuschinski released his documentary Mission: Caligula on Vimeo. The film explores his relationship to Caligula, the process of reconstructing Brass's vision and Penthouse CEO Kelly Holland's backing of the project.
In 2020, another version of the film was announced to be released in the fall of that year, edited by E. Elias Merhige to follow more closely Gore Vidal's original screenplay instead of Tinto Brass's or Bob Guccione's vision.
See also
Unsimulated sex
References
External links
Alexander Tuschinski. Reconstruction of the Director's Cut
Alexander Tuschinski. Caligula: Director's Cut (Tinto Brass interview) (YouTube)
Caligula on-set photographs by Mario Tursi, (unit photographer)
Caligula and Italian censorship (in italian)
1979 films
1979 drama films
1970s biographical drama films
1970s erotic drama films
1970s multilingual films
1970s exploitation films
American films
American political drama films
American biographical drama films
Films directed by Tinto Brass
Biographical films about Roman emperors
Depictions of Caligula on film
Cultural depictions of Claudius
Cultural depictions of Messalina
Cultural depictions of Tiberius
Cultural depictions of Agrippina the Younger
Drama films based on actual events
Epic films based on actual events
1970s English-language films
English-language Italian films
American epic films
American multilingual films
American erotic drama films
American drama films
American historical drama films
American independent films
American LGBT-related films
American exploitation films
Films set in ancient Rome
Films set in the Roman Empire
Films set in the 1st century
Films shot in Rome
Incest in film
Italian films
Italian drama films
Italian erotic drama films
Italian independent films
Italian biographical films
Italian epic films
Italian historical drama films
Italian multilingual films
Italian LGBT-related films
LGBT-related controversies in film
Obscenity controversies in film
Rating controversies in film
Penthouse (magazine)
Films based on works by Gore Vidal
Historical epic films
Films scored by Bruno Nicolai
Peplum films
1979 independent films
Cultural depictions of Julia Drusilla | [
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] |
243227 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarjan%27s%20off-line%20lowest%20common%20ancestors%20algorithm | Tarjan's off-line lowest common ancestors algorithm | In computer science, Tarjan's off-line lowest common ancestors algorithm is an algorithm for computing lowest common ancestors for pairs of nodes in a tree, based on the union-find data structure. The lowest common ancestor of two nodes d and e in a rooted tree T is the node g that is an ancestor of both d and e and that has the greatest depth in T. It is named after Robert Tarjan, who discovered the technique in 1979. Tarjan's algorithm is an offline algorithm; that is, unlike other lowest common ancestor algorithms, it requires that all pairs of nodes for which the lowest common ancestor is desired must be specified in advance. The simplest version of the algorithm uses the union-find data structure, which unlike other lowest common ancestor data structures can take more than constant time per operation when the number of pairs of nodes is similar in magnitude to the number of nodes. A later refinement by speeds the algorithm up to linear time.
Pseudocode
The pseudocode below determines the lowest common ancestor of each pair in P, given the root r of a tree in which the children of node n are in the set n.children. For this offline algorithm, the set P must be specified in advance. It uses the MakeSet, Find, and Union functions of a disjoint-set forest. MakeSet(u) removes u to a singleton set, Find(u) returns the standard representative of the set containing u, and Union(u,v) merges the set containing u with the set containing v.
TarjanOLCA(r) is first called on the root r.
function TarjanOLCA(u) is
MakeSet(u)
u.ancestor := u
for each v in u.children do
TarjanOLCA(v)
Union(u, v)
Find(u).ancestor := u
u.color := black
for each v such that {u, v} in P do
if v.color == black then
print "Tarjan's Lowest Common Ancestor of " + u +
" and " + v + " is " + Find(v).ancestor + "."
Each node is initially white, and is colored black after it and all its children have been visited.
For each node pair {u,v} to be investigated:
When v is already black (viz. when v comes before u in a post-order traversal of the tree): After u is colored black, the lowest common ancestor of this pair is available as Find(v).ancestor, but only while the LCA of u and v is not colored black.
Otherwise: Once v is colored black, the LCA will be available as Find(u).ancestor, while the LCA is not colored black.
For reference, here are optimized versions of MakeSet, Find, and Union for a disjoint-set forest:
function MakeSet(x) is
x.parent := x
x.rank := 1
function Union(x, y) is
xRoot := Find(x)
yRoot := Find(y)
if xRoot.rank > yRoot.rank then
yRoot.parent := xRoot
else if xRoot.rank < yRoot.rank then
xRoot.parent := yRoot
else if xRoot.rank == yRoot.rank then
yRoot.parent := xRoot
xRoot.rank := xRoot.rank + 1
function Find(x) is
if x.parent != x then
x.parent := Find(x.parent)
return x.parent
References
.
.
Graph algorithms
Articles with example pseudocode | [
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243235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius%20Valerius%20Poplicola%20Potitus | Lucius Valerius Poplicola Potitus | Lucius Valerius Poplicola Potitus ( 450–449 BC) was a patrician who, together with Marcus Horatius Barbatus, opposed the second decemvirate in 449 BC when that body showed despotic tendencies. In honor of their efforts, the pair were elected consuls for the remainder of that year.
Potitus and the Decemvirate
The two men were patricians who stood up when a plebeian was being abused by the despotic second decemvirate, spoke critically of the decemviri and showed sympathy towards the plebeians. When the plebeians rebelled in the second plebeian secession they were chosen as negotiators because their previous actions had put them in a favourable light in the eyes of the plebeians, who felt that they were trustworthy. When the demands of the plebeians were met and the secession was called off, both men were elected as consuls. They passed the Valerio-Horatian Laws (Leges Veleriae-Horatiae). The first law established that the resolutions (plebiscites) of the Plebeian Council were binding on whole people, including the patricians. The second law restored the right of appeal to the people which had been suspended during the two decemvirates and added the provision that no official exempt from the right of appeal was to be appointed and in the case of such an appointment anyone could lawfully kill him. The third law put the principle of the inviolability (sacrosanctity) of the plebeian tribunes (the representatives of the plebeians) into the statutes. Previously, this principle was only enshrined in the religious sanction of the lex sacrata.
Both the story of the first and the second decemvirates have been questioned by some modern historians who think that the second decemvirate was a fiction. This would put into question the historicity of the second plebeian secession, the consulship of Lucius Valerius and his colleague and the Valerio-Horatian Laws. Mommsen and Cornell are among the historians who defend the historicity of at least the core of the story. The Valerio-Horatian Laws have also been questioned. Regarding the law on the right of appeal, there were two other such laws by consuls from the Valeria family (dated 509 BC and 300 BC) and the argument is that only the last one is historical. Regarding the law of the resolution of the Plebeian Council, there were two other laws with the same provision, the Lex Publilia of 339 BC and the Lex Hortensia of 287 BC. Again, it is argued that only the last law is historical. Other historians have defended the historicity of these laws.
Quaestorship
Three years after his consulship, in 446 BC, Valerius was elected Quaestor together with Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus. They were, according to Tacitus, the first elected quaestors of the Republic.
References
5th-century BC Roman consuls
Roman triumphators
Poplicola Potitus, Lucius | [
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243274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus%20Valerius%20Corvus | Marcus Valerius Corvus | Marcus Valerius Corvus (c. 370–270 BC) was a military commander and politician from the early-to-middle period of the Roman Republic. During his career he was elected consul six times, first at the unusual age of 23. He was appointed dictator two times and led the armies of the Republic in the First Samnite War. He occupied the curule chair a total of twenty-one times throughout his career. According to tradition, he lived to the age of one hundred.
Early career
A member of the patrician gens Valeria, Valerius first came to prominence in 349 BC when he served as a military tribune under the consul Lucius Furius Camillus, who was on campaign against the Gauls of northern Italy. According to tradition, prior to one battle a huge Gallic warrior challenged any Roman to single combat. Valerius, who asked for and gained the consul's permission, accepted. As the two approached each other, a raven settled on Valerius's helmet and distracted the enemy by flying at his face, allowing Valerius to kill his enemy. The two armies then fought, resulting in a rout of the Gallic forces and a victory for the Romans. As a reward for his courage, Valerius received a gift of ten oxen and a golden crown, as well as the agnomen Corvus (the Latin word for "raven").
Regardless of the story's veracity, after this victory Corvus’ popularity soared. He was elected consul in absentia in 348 BC at the unusually young age of 22. During his tenure, a treaty was made between Rome and Carthage. In the subsequent year Corvus was likely elected to the office of praetor, followed by his second consulship in 346 BC. On campaign he defeated the Antiates and the Volsci, sacking and destroying the town of Satricum apart from the temple of Mater Matuta. For these victories, the Senate awarded Corvus his first triumph.
First and Second Samnite Wars
Corvus served as curule aedile in 345 BC before his outstanding military abilities saw his election to the consulship for the third time in 343 BC. This year saw the outbreak of the First Samnite War, in which Corvus won victories at the Battle of Mount Gaurus and the Battle of Suessula. After the latter victory, Corvus had some 40,000 shields and 170 enemy standards piled up before him on the battlefield. Corvus then returned to Rome to celebrate his second triumph, reportedly the most impressive that the Romans had yet witnessed. After this he returned to the southern warfront in wintertime to protect Campania from Samnite incursions.
The year 342 BC was one of crisis for the Roman state, with the Roman legions stationed around Capua, as well as the surrounding Campanian towns, rebelling and marching on Rome. In response, Corvus was appointed dictator to deal with the mutineers. Meeting them at the head of an army some eight miles outside of Rome, he decided to negotiate instead of fighting a battle. Using his past association with the army to gain their trust, he successfully reached an agreement. Corvus pushed through laws (the ne cui militum fraudi secessio fuit) which granted the mutinous soldiers immunity from prosecution, prevented the removal of a soldier's name from the roll of service without his consent, and prohibited any military tribune being demoted down to the rank of centurion. He however refused to agree to the lowering of the rate of pay for the cavalrymen, and to the immediate execution of the decemviri. It was also alleged that, during the troubles that brought about the passage of the leges genuciae, Corvus suggested that the Senate agree to the plebeian demands for the abolition of all debts; this was rejected out of hand. Historians such as Gary Forsythe and S. P. Oakley consider the alleged events of the mutiny to be later literary inventions, although the laws passed in this year are accurate.
Corvus was elected consul for a fourth time in 335 BC, once again in response to an escalating military situation in Italy. The Sidicini had formed an alliance with the Ausones of Cales, and the Senate intended to send out someone with a proven military record. In a break with tradition, the consuls did not cast lots for their provinces; the Senate instead assigned the area around Cales directly to Corvus. He successfully besieged and stormed the town; after its capture, the Romans established a colony there of 2,500 men. For this victory, Corvus was granted a third triumph, and the honor of carrying the agnomen Calenus.
In 332 BC, Corvus was appointed as interrex, a function he again fulfilled in 320 BC. He may also have served as legate under the dictator Lucius Papirius Cursor in 325 BC during the Second Samnite War. In 313 BC he was appointed as one of the triumviri coloniae deducendae, who were given the authority to establish a Latin colony at Saticula. Then in 310 BC he was again named a legate under Lucius Papirius Cursor, and fought in a major battle at Longulae against the Samnites. In 308 BC he was elected praetor for the fourth time as a reward for his services at Longulae.
Later career
Corvus was appointed dictator for the second time in 302 BC, in response to the revolt of the Marsi at Arretium and Carseoli. Corvus managed not only to defeat the Marsi in battle, but also to take the fortified towns of Milionia, Plestina and Fresilia. The Marsi sued for peace, and for his victories over them Corvus was awarded his fourth triumph. He was again appointed dictator in 301 BC, this time to engage in operations against the Etruscans. While Corvus was in Rome taking the auspices, his magister equitum (probably Marcus Aemilius Paullus) was ambushed by the enemy and forced to retreat to his camp, losing a portion of his army. Corvus, quickly coming to his rescue, engaged and defeated the Etruscans in battle, earning an additional triumph.
300 BC saw Corvus elected consul for the fifth time. During his year in office he defeated some rebel Aequians and was involved in the passage of two laws. The first was the Lex Ogulnia, which resulted in the opening up of the College of Pontifices and the College of Augurs to the Plebeians. The second, which he legislated himself, was the expansion of the provocatio, or right of appeal to the people, which now made illegal the use of severe force (specifically killing or lashing by the higher magistrates) within the city of Rome. Then in the following year (299 BC), after the Senate considered appointing him dictator for the fourth time, Corvus was elected suffect consul after the death of Titus Manlius Torquatus, who was in command of the war with the Etruscans. With Corvus' arrival the Etruscans refused to give battle, but remained closed up within their fortified towns. Although Corvus set entire villages on fire to draw them out, the Etruscans refused to engage him.
After his sixth consulship Corvus retired from public life. He died at the age of 100, around the year 270 BC.
Character and reputation
A man with considerable military talents, Corvus also possessed a kind and amicable nature. Very popular with the soldiers he led into battle and with whom he shared camps, he reportedly competed with them in the athletic games which they played during their leisure time. He was also an enthusiastic supporter of reform, siding with the plebeians during the ongoing Conflict of the Orders. He held that the changing needs of an expanding state required a readjustment of the opportunities provided to plebeians, for the good of Rome.
To later Roman writers, he served as a memorable example of the favors bestowed by Fortuna. A statue of Corvus stood in the Forum of Augustus alongside the statues of other Roman heroes. Nevertheless, annalist Valerius Antias may have exaggerated his list of accomplishments.
Footnotes
Sources
Ancient
Livy, History of Rome
Modern
Oakley, S. P., A Commentary on Livy, Books 6-10 Vol. IV (2007)
Forsythe, Gary, A Critical History of Early Rome from Prehistory to the First Punic War (2005)
Broughton, T. Robert S., The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol I (1951)
Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Vol I (1867).
Arnold, Thomas, History of Rome, Vol. II (1840)
References
370s BC births
270s BC deaths
4th-century BC Roman consuls
3rd-century BC Roman consuls
Men centenarians
Ancient Roman centenarians
Ancient Roman dictators
Ancient Roman generals
Roman patricians
Corvus, Marcus
Year of birth uncertain
Year of death uncertain | [
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243281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamann | Hamann | People with the German surname Hamann include:
Politicians and military personnel
A. P. Hamann (1909–1977), American politician
Adolf Hamann (1885–1945), German Nazi general executed for war crimes
Joachim Hamann (1913–1945), Nazi officer, Holocaust perpetrator
Karl Hamann (1903–1973), Liberal politician in the Communist German Democratic Republic
Authors and media people
Brigitte Hamann (1940–2016), German-Austrian historian
Evelyn Hamann (1942–2007), German actress
Hilary Thayer Hamann (born 1962), American author
Ilene Hamann (born 1984), South African actress and model
Jack Hamann (born 1954), American television correspondent and author
Johann Georg Hamann (1730–1788), German philosopher
Richard Hamann (1879–1961), German art historian
Sportspeople
Association football
Dietmar Hamann (born 1973), German footballer, coach and pundit
Erich Hamann (born 1944), East German footballer and manager
Matthias Hamann (born 1968), German footballer
Basketball
Steffen Hamann (born 1981), German basketball player
Ray Hamann (1911–2005), American basketball player, mostly for the Oshkosh All-Stars
Other sports
Birgit Hamann (born 1969), German hurdler
Conny Hamann (born 1969), Danish handball player
Doc Hamann (1900–1973), baseball player
Helmut Hamann (1912–1941), German 400 metres runner
Lars Hamann (born 1989), German javelin thrower
Monika Hamann (born 1954), East German sprinter
Svend Hamann (born 1940), Danish chess master
Other
Christel Hamann (1847–1948), German inventor of mechanical calculators etc.
Johanna Hamann (1954–2017), Peruvian sculptor
Stephan Hamann, American psychology professor
See also
Hamann Motorsport
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] |
243300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWC | SWC | SWC may refer to:
Education
Sir Winston Churchill Secondary School (disambiguation)
Sir Winston Churchill High School
Sir Winston Churchill Collegiate & Vocational Institute
Sisseton Wahpeton College
Southwestern College (disambiguation)
Sport
South West Conference, a High School Sports Conference in southern Connecticut
Southwest Conference, a former College Sports Conference
Southwestern Conference (Ohio), a High School Sports Conference in northern Ohio
Speedway World Cup
Other uses
Sarah Wayne Callies, American actress
Semiwadcutter, a common shape of ammunition
Single Wire Controller–area network
Simon Wiesenthal Center
Solar Wind Composition Experiment
Space Warfare Center of the United States military
Republic of Korea Army Special Warfare Command
Star Wars Celebration
Star Wars Combine, an online game
Steering Wheel Controls (often referring to audio controls)
Stillwater Mining Company, which trades on the New York Stock Exchange under symbol SWC
Storage World Conference
Strangers with Candy, television series
Siemens Westinghouse Competition
Adobe SWC file, archive file for Adobe Flex components
The Southwest Chief, a daily passenger train operated by Amtrak between Chicago, Illinois and Los Angeles, California. | [
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243313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio%20Sanchez | Antonio Sanchez | Anthony Sanchez, Antonio Sanchez or Tony Sanchez may refer to:
Sports
Antón (footballer) (1914–2005), Spanish footballer born Antonio Sánchez Valdés
Antonio Sánchez (boxer) (1905–?), Spanish boxer
Antonio Sánchez (footballer, born 1997), Spanish footballer
Antonio Sánchez (sprinter) (born 1963), Spanish sprinter
Tony Sanchez (American football) (born 1974), American football coach
Toni Sánchez (born 1985), Spanish footballer
Tony Sanchez (baseball) (born 1988), American baseball player
Music
Antonio Sánchez Pecino (1908–1994), Spanish guitarist
Antonio Sánchez (drummer) (born 1971), Mexican drummer
Tony Sánchez-Ohlsson (born 1974), Spanish music producer
Antonio José Sánchez Mazuecos (born 1995), Spanish singer
Politics
Antonio Sánchez de Bustamante y Sirven (1865–1951), Cuban politician and lawyer
Tony Sanchez Jr. (born 1943), American businessman and former gubernatorial candidate
Antonio Sanchez (politician) (born 1946), Filipino mayor involved in a rape-murder
Antonio Sánchez Díaz de Rivera (born 1953), Mexican politician
Other
Antonio Sanchez Araujo (1887–1946), Cuban painter
Antonio Sánchez (Puerto Rican host) (born 1961), Puerto Rican radio and television personality
Antonio Sanchez (politician) (1949–2021), former mayor of Calauan, Laguna
Tony Sanchez (photographer) (died 2000), English photographer | [
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243316 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous%20coordinates | Homogeneous coordinates | In mathematics, homogeneous coordinates or projective coordinates, introduced by August Ferdinand Möbius in his 1827 work Der barycentrische Calcul, are a system of coordinates used in projective geometry, as Cartesian coordinates are used in Euclidean geometry. They have the advantage that the coordinates of points, including points at infinity, can be represented using finite coordinates. Formulas involving homogeneous coordinates are often simpler and more symmetric than their Cartesian counterparts. Homogeneous coordinates have a range of applications, including computer graphics and 3D computer vision, where they allow affine transformations and, in general, projective transformations to be easily represented by a matrix.
If homogeneous coordinates of a point are multiplied by a non-zero scalar then the resulting coordinates represent the same point. Since homogeneous coordinates are also given to points at infinity, the number of coordinates required to allow this extension is one more than the dimension of the projective space being considered. For example, two homogeneous coordinates are required to specify a point on the projective line and three homogeneous coordinates are required to specify a point in the projective plane.
Introduction
The real projective plane can be thought of as the Euclidean plane with additional points added, which are called points at infinity, and are considered to lie on a new line, the line at infinity. There is a point at infinity corresponding to each direction (numerically given by the slope of a line), informally defined as the limit of a point that moves in that direction away from the origin. Parallel lines in the Euclidean plane are said to intersect at a point at infinity corresponding to their common direction. Given a point on the Euclidean plane, for any non-zero real number Z, the triple is called a set of homogeneous coordinates for the point. By this definition, multiplying the three homogeneous coordinates by a common, non-zero factor gives a new set of homogeneous coordinates for the same point. In particular, is such a system of homogeneous coordinates for the point .
For example, the Cartesian point can be represented in homogeneous coordinates as or . The original Cartesian coordinates are recovered by dividing the first two positions by the third. Thus unlike Cartesian coordinates, a single point can be represented by infinitely many homogeneous coordinates.
The equation of a line through the origin may be written where n and m are not both 0. In parametric form this can be written . Let Z = 1/t, so the coordinates of a point on the line may be written . In homogeneous coordinates this becomes . In the limit, as t approaches infinity, in other words, as the point moves away from the origin, Z approaches 0 and the homogeneous coordinates of the point become . Thus we define as the homogeneous coordinates of the point at infinity corresponding to the direction of the line . As any line of the Euclidean plane is parallel to a line passing through the origin, and since parallel lines have the same point at infinity, the infinite point on every line of the Euclidean plane has been given homogeneous coordinates.
To summarize:
Any point in the projective plane is represented by a triple , called homogeneous coordinates or projective coordinates of the point, where X, Y and Z are not all 0.
The point represented by a given set of homogeneous coordinates is unchanged if the coordinates are multiplied by a common factor.
Conversely, two sets of homogeneous coordinates represent the same point if and only if one is obtained from the other by multiplying all the coordinates by the same non-zero constant.
When Z is not 0 the point represented is the point in the Euclidean plane.
When Z is 0 the point represented is a point at infinity.
The triple is omitted and does not represent any point. The origin of the Euclidean plane is represented by .
Notation
Some authors use different notations for homogeneous coordinates which help distinguish them from Cartesian coordinates. The use of colons instead of commas, for example (x:y:z) instead of , emphasizes that the coordinates are to be considered ratios. Square brackets, as in emphasize that multiple sets of coordinates are associated with a single point. Some authors use a combination of colons and square brackets, as in [x:y:z].
Other dimensions
The discussion in the preceding section applies analogously to projective spaces other than the plane. So the points on the projective line may be represented by pairs of coordinates , not both zero. In this case, the point at infinity is . Similarly the points in projective n-space are represented by (n + 1)-tuples.
Other projective spaces
The use of real numbers gives homogeneous coordinates of points in the classical case of the real projective spaces, however any field may be used, in particular, the complex numbers may be used for complex projective space. For example, the complex projective line uses two homogeneous complex coordinates and is known as the Riemann sphere. Other fields, including finite fields, can be used.
Homogeneous coordinates for projective spaces can also be created with elements from a division ring (a skew field). However, in this case, care must be taken to account for the fact that multiplication may not be commutative.
For the general ring A, a projective line over A can be defined with homogeneous factors acting on the left and the projective linear group acting on the right.
Alternative definition
Another definition of the real projective plane can be given in terms of equivalence classes. For non-zero elements of R3, define to mean there is a non-zero λ so that . Then ~ is an equivalence relation and the projective plane can be defined as the equivalence classes of If is one of the elements of the equivalence class p then these are taken to be homogeneous coordinates of p.
Lines in this space are defined to be sets of solutions of equations of the form where not all of a, b and c are zero. Satisfaction of the condition depends only on the equivalence class of so the equation defines a set of points in the projective plane. The mapping defines an inclusion from the Euclidean plane to the projective plane and the complement of the image is the set of points with . The equation is an equation of a line in the projective plane (see definition of a line in the projective plane), and is called the line at infinity.
The equivalence classes, p, are the lines through the origin with the origin removed. The origin does not really play an essential part in the previous discussion so it can be added back in without changing the properties of the projective plane. This produces a variation on the definition, namely the projective plane is defined as the set of lines in R3 that pass through the origin and the coordinates of a non-zero element of a line are taken to be homogeneous coordinates of the line. These lines are now interpreted as points in the projective plane.
Again, this discussion applies analogously to other dimensions. So the projective space of dimension n can be defined as the set of lines through the origin in Rn+1.
Homogeneity
Homogeneous coordinates are not uniquely determined by a point, so a function defined on the coordinates, say , does not determine a function defined on points as with Cartesian coordinates. But a condition defined on the coordinates, as might be used to describe a curve, determines a condition on points if the function is homogeneous. Specifically, suppose there is a k such that
If a set of coordinates represents the same point as then it can be written for some non-zero value of λ. Then
A polynomial of degree k can be turned into a homogeneous polynomial by replacing x with x/z, y with y/z and multiplying by zk, in other words by defining
The resulting function f is a polynomial, so it makes sense to extend its domain to triples where . The process can be reversed by setting , or
The equation can then be thought of as the homogeneous form of and it defines the same curve when restricted to the Euclidean plane. For example, the homogeneous form of the equation of the line is
Line coordinates and duality
The equation of a line in the projective plane may be given as where s, t and u are constants. Each triple determines a line, the line determined is unchanged if it is multiplied by a non-zero scalar, and at least one of s, t and u must be non-zero. So the triple may be taken to be homogeneous coordinates of a line in the projective plane, that is line coordinates as opposed to point coordinates. If in sx + ty + uz = 0 the letters s, t and u are taken as variables and x, y and z are taken as constants then the equation becomes an equation of a set of lines in the space of all lines in the plane. Geometrically it represents the set of lines that pass through the point and may be interpreted as the equation of the point in line-coordinates. In the same way, planes in 3-space may be given sets of four homogeneous coordinates, and so on for higher dimensions.
The same relation, , may be regarded as either the equation of a line or the equation of a point. In general, there is no difference either algebraically or logically between homogeneous coordinates of points and lines. So plane geometry with points as the fundamental elements and plane geometry with lines as the fundamental elements are equivalent except for interpretation. This leads to the concept of duality in projective geometry, the principle that the roles of points and lines can be interchanged in a theorem in projective geometry and the result will also be a theorem. Analogously, the theory of points in projective 3-space is dual to the theory of planes in projective 3-space, and so on for higher dimensions.
Plücker coordinates
Assigning coordinates to lines in projective 3-space is more complicated since it would seem that a total of 8 coordinates, either the coordinates of two points which lie on the line or two planes whose intersection is the line, are required. A useful method, due to Julius Plücker, creates a set of six coordinates as the determinants from the homogeneous coordinates of two points and on the line. The Plücker embedding is the generalization of this to create homogeneous coordinates of elements of any dimension m in a projective space of dimension n.
Application to Bézout's theorem
Bézout's theorem predicts that the number of points of intersection of two curves is equal to the product of their degrees (assuming an algebraically closed field and with certain conventions followed for counting intersection multiplicities). Bézout's theorem predicts there is one point of intersection of two lines and in general this is true, but when the lines are parallel the point of intersection is infinite. Homogeneous coordinates are used to locate the point of intersection in this case. Similarly, Bézout's theorem predicts that a line will intersect a conic at two points, but in some cases one or both of the points is infinite and homogeneous coordinates must be used to locate them. For example, and have only one point of intersection in the finite (affine) plane. To find the other point of intersection, convert the equations into homogeneous form, and . This produces and, assuming not all of x, y and z are 0, the solutions are and . This first solution is the point in Cartesian coordinates, the finite point of intersection. The second solution gives the homogeneous coordinates which corresponds to the direction of the y-axis. For the equations and there are no finite points of intersection. Converting the equations into homogeneous form gives and . Solving produces the equation which has a double root at . From the original equation, , so since at least one coordinate must be non-zero. Therefore, is the point of intersection counted with multiplicity 2 in agreement with the theorem.
Circular points
The homogeneous form for the equation of a circle in the real or complex projective plane is . The intersection of this curve with the line at infinity can be found by setting . This produces the equation which has two solutions over the complex numbers, giving rise to the points with homogeneous coordinates and in the complex projective plane. These points are called the circular points at infinity and can be regarded as the common points of intersection of all circles. This can be generalized to curves of higher order as circular algebraic curves.
Change of coordinate systems
Just as the selection of axes in the Cartesian coordinate system is somewhat arbitrary, the selection of a single system of homogeneous coordinates out of all possible systems is somewhat arbitrary. Therefore, it is useful to know how the different systems are related to each other.
Let be homogeneous coordinates of a point in the projective plane. A fixed matrix
with nonzero determinant, defines a new system of coordinates by the equation
Multiplication of by a scalar results in the multiplication of by the same scalar, and X, Y and Z cannot be all 0 unless x, y and z are all zero since A is nonsingular. So are a new system of homogeneous coordinates for the same point of the projective plane.
Barycentric coordinates
Möbius's original formulation of homogeneous coordinates specified the position of a point as the center of mass (or barycenter) of a system of three point masses placed at the vertices of a fixed triangle. Points within the triangle are represented by positive masses and points outside the triangle are represented by allowing negative masses. Multiplying the masses in the system by a scalar does not affect the center of mass, so this is a special case of a system of homogeneous coordinates.
Trilinear coordinates
Let l, m, n be three lines in the plane and define a set of coordinates X, Y and Z of a point p as the signed distances from p to these three lines. These are called the trilinear coordinates of p with respect to the triangle whose vertices are the pairwise intersections of the lines. Strictly speaking these are not homogeneous, since the values of X, Y and Z are determined exactly, not just up to proportionality. There is a linear relationship between them however, so these coordinates can be made homogeneous by allowing multiples of to represent the same point. More generally, X, Y and Z can be defined as constants p, r and q times the distances to l, m and n, resulting in a different system of homogeneous coordinates with the same triangle of reference. This is, in fact, the most general type of system of homogeneous coordinates for points in the plane if none of the lines is the line at infinity.
Use in computer graphics and computer vision
Homogeneous coordinates are ubiquitous in computer graphics because they allow common vector operations such as translation, rotation, scaling and perspective projection to be represented as a matrix by which the vector is multiplied. By the chain rule, any sequence of such operations can be multiplied out into a single matrix, allowing simple and efficient processing. By contrast, using Cartesian coordinates, translations and perspective projection cannot be expressed as matrix multiplications, though other operations can. Modern OpenGL and Direct3D graphics cards take advantage of homogeneous coordinates to implement a vertex shader efficiently using vector processors with 4-element registers.
For example, in perspective projection, a position in space is associated with the line from it to a fixed point called the center of projection. The point is then mapped to a plane by finding the point of intersection of that plane and the line. This produces an accurate representation of how a three-dimensional object appears to the eye. In the simplest situation, the center of projection is the origin and points are mapped to the plane , working for the moment in Cartesian coordinates. For a given point in space, , the point where the line and the plane intersect is . Dropping the now superfluous z coordinate, this becomes . In homogeneous coordinates, the point is represented by and the point it maps to on the plane is represented by , so projection can be represented in matrix form as
Matrices representing other geometric transformations can be combined with this and each other by matrix multiplication. As a result, any perspective projection of space can be represented as a single matrix.
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Jules Bloomenthal and Jon Rokne, Homogeneous coordinates
Ching-Kuang Shene, Homogeneous coordinates
Wolfram MathWorld
Linear algebra
Projective geometry
1827 in science | [
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243320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KTM | KTM | KTM AG (Kraftfahrzeug Trunkenpolz Mattighofen, formerly KTM Sportmotorcycle AG) is an Austrian bicycle, motorcycle and sports car manufacturer owned by Pierer Mobility AG & Indian manufacturer Bajaj Auto International Holdings BV. It was formed in 1992 but traces its foundation to as early as 1934. Today, KTM AG is the parent company of the KTM Group, consisting of a number of motorcycle brands.
KTM is known for its off-road motorcycles (enduro, motocross and supermoto). Since the late 1990s, it has expanded into street motorcycle production and developing sports cars – namely the X-Bow. In 2015, KTM sold almost as many street as off-road bikes.
From 2012, KTM was the largest motorcycle manufacturer in Europe for four consecutive years. Globally, the company is among the leading off-road motorcycle manufacturers. In 2016, KTM sold 203,423 motor vehicles worldwide.
History
Early years
In 1934, an Austrian engineer Johann (Hans) Trunkenpolz set up a fitter's and car repair shop in Mattighofen. In 1937, he started selling DKW motorcycles, and Opel cars the following year. His shop was known as Kraftfahrzeug Trunkenpolz Mattighofen, but the name was unregistered. During the Second World War, his wife took care of the business which was thriving mainly on account of diesel engine repairs.
After the war, demand for repair works fell sharply and Trunkenpolz started thinking about producing his own motorcycles. The prototype of his first motorcycle, the R100, was built in 1951. The components of the motorcycle were produced in house, except for the Rotax engines which were made by Fichtel & Sachs. Serial production of the R100 started in 1953. With just 20 employees, motorcycles were built at a rate of three per day.
KTM 1953–1991
In 1953, businessman Ernst Kronreif became a major shareholder of the company, which was renamed and registered as Kronreif & Trunkenpolz Mattighofen. In 1954, the R125 Tourist was introduced, followed by the Grand Tourist and the scooter Mirabell in 1955.
The company secured its first racing title in the 1954 Austrian 125cc national championship. In 1956, KTM made its appearance at the International Six Days Trials, where Egon Dornauer won a gold medal on a KTM machine.
In 1957, KTM built its first sports motorcycle, the Trophy 125cc. KTM's first moped, named Mecky, was launched in 1957, followed by Ponny I in 1960 and Ponny II in 1962 and Comet in 1963. The 1960s also saw the beginning of bicycle production in Mattighofen.
Ernst Kronreif died in 1960. Two years later in 1962, Hans Trunkenpolz also died of a heart attack. His son Erich Trunkenpolz took charge of the company's management.
As the company continued to expand, the workforce totalled 400 in 1971, and forty years after it was founded, KTM was offering 42 different models. Additionally, KTM was able to produce motorcycles for the racing industry. During the 1970s and 80s, KTM also started to develop and produce engines and radiators. Radiators sold to European car manufacturers constituted a sizable part of the company's business in the 1980s.
In 1978, US subsidiary KTM North America Inc. was founded in Lorain, Ohio.
In 1980, the company was renamed KTM Motor-Fahrzeugbau KG. One year later, KTM had about 700 employees and a turnover of 750m. Schilling (about 54.5m. euros). International business then amounted to 76% of the company's turnover.
However, scooter and moped turnover sank rapidly, and production had to be halted in 1988. Erich Trunkenpolz died in 1989. Takeover of a 51% interest in the company by the Austrian investment trust GIT Trust Holding controlled by Austrian politician Josef Taus in 1989 was followed by unsuccessful attempts to turn the indebted company around, and in 1991, management of KTM was transferred to a consortium of creditor banks.
KTM after 1991
In 1992, the company was split into four new entities: KTM Sportmotorcycle GmbH (motorcycles division), KTM Fahrrad GmbH (bicycles division), KTM Kühler GmbH (radiators division) and KTM Werkzeugbau GmbH (tooling division).
Now owned by KTM Motorradholding GmbH, which was formed by Cross Holding (a Cross Industries daughter), and other investors, KTM Sportmotorcycle GmbH started operation in 1992 and later took over the sibling tooling division KTM Werkzeugbau. In the following years, while steadily increasing production and turnover, investing in new production and R&D facilities, introducing new models and successfully sponsoring and taking part in various sports racing events, the company underwent a series of restructurings and stakeholder changes guided by KTM's managing director and Cross Industries owner Stefan Pierer.
In 1994, KTM started production of the Duke series of road motorcycles, in 1996, KTM motocross machines were first decked out in KTM's signature orange color, and 1997 saw the introduction of liquid-cooled two-cylinder Supermoto and Adventure motorcycles. In 2007, the company debuted the KTM X-Bow sports car.
In 1995, KTM Motorradholding GmbH acquired Swedish motorcycle maker Husaberg AB and took control of the Dutch company White Power Suspension.
In 2007, Indian motorcycle manufacturer Bajaj Auto bought a 14.5% stake in KTM Power Sports AG. By 2013, Bajaj Auto held a 47.97% interest in the company.
In 2013, KTM acquired the formerly Swedish motorcycle maker Husqvarna Motorcycles from its prior owner BMW Motorrad AG. The same year, KTM re-integrated the brand Husaberg into Husqvarna Motorcycles from which it had spun off in the 1990s when Husqvarna was sold to the Italian company Cagiva.
As the final result of the restructuring process, KTM Motorradholding GmbH had become KTM AG in 2012. In 2015, KTM generated a turnover of over 1 billion Euro and employed 2515 people by the end of that year. Of the four separate companies left after the 1992 split, three were now again part of the KTM Group: KTM Sportmotorcycle GmbH, KTM Werkzeugbau GmbH and KTM Kühler GmbH (today WP Radiators). KTM Fahrrad GmbH (KTM Bike Industries) remains an independent company and is owned by Chinese investors. KTM-Group today contains the brands KTM, Husqvarna Motorcycles and GasGas Motorcycles.
In 2021 Bajaj Auto sold 46.5% of its shares to Pierer Mobility AG in exchange for 49% shares in the latter company.
Corporate structure
Ownership
KTM AG is presently owned by Pierer Mobility. AG (51.7%) and Bajaj Auto Limited International Holdings B.V. (48%). Pierer Mobility AG is majority owned by Pierer Industrie AG (60.87%).
Subsidiaries
As of 2020, KTM AG has the following subsidiaries:
KTM Racing AG (Switzerland, 100%)
KTM Sportmotorcycle GmbH (100%, distribution of motorcycles and parts)
KTM Sportcar GmbH (100%, production and distribution of the KTM X-Bow)
KTM Immobilien GmbH (99%, owner of all property and buildings of the KTM Group)
Husqvarna Motorcycles GmbH (100%, distribution of motorcycles and parts)
GASGAS Motorcycles GmbH (Spain, 60%)
WP Suspension GmbH (100%, production of motorcycle suspension components)
W Verwaltungs AG (100%)
Furthermore, KTM Sportmotorcycle GmbH and Husqvarna Motorcycles GmbH operate 24 and 8 distribution subsidiaries worldwide, respectively, most of them in European and Asian countries and in the US.
Joint ventures
KTM started exporting their GS model to the US in 1968 through an American importer, John Penton under the Penton brand. This joint venture lasted until KTM established KTM America Inc. in Ohio in 1978.
In 2005, KTM-Sportmotocycle began a partnership with ATV manufacturer Polaris Industries with the goal of shared research, and more importantly shared distribution networks. This partnership was a two-year trial arrangement, at the end of which both parties had the option of merging the two companies into one.
In 2006, KTM announced that the partnership with Polaris had been downgraded, and would instead only supply their 450cc and 510cc RFS engines to Polaris.
In January 2008, Bajaj announced that it would jointly develop two new 125cc and 200cc bikes for Europe and the Far East. The bikes would be badged KTM. In January 2012, Bajaj launched the Duke 200 model in India.
Motorsports
KTM entered motorsports competing in motocross racing. KTM won its first championship in 1974 when Guennady Moisseev claimed the 250cc Motocross World Championship. By the end of 2016, KTM had won more than 260 world championship titles, making the company one of the most successful brands in motorsports. KTM has claimed 96 MXGP, MX1 and MX2 world titles since 1974 and 114 E1, E2, E3 and Super Enduro world titles since 1990. With Ryan Dungey's 2015, 2016 and 2017 victories in the supercross world championship, KTM gained a successful presence in supercross racing as well. In 1994, a KTM factory team debuted at the Dakar Rally. In 1998, KTM riders won second to twelfth place. With consecutive wins from 2001 to 2019, the manufacturer has dominated the rally for 18 years now. KTM teams successfully compete in other rally raid events like the Atlas Rally or the Rallye du Maroc. KTM has won 37 cross country rallies world titles since 2003 and has won the FIM Cross-Country Rallies World Championship 15 times, most recently in 2015.
In 2003, KTM started sponsoring and supporting road racing in various capacities, with the most successful results stemming from their supermoto efforts. From 2003 to 2009, a KTM factory team competed in the 125 cc class of the motorcycle Grands Prix, and between 2005 and 2008 in the 250 cc class. Notable successes in the 125 cc class were the second and third place in the overall ranking scored in 2005 by KTM riders Mika Kallio and Gábor Talmácsi, the second place in 2006 by Mika Kallio, the third place in 2007 by Tomoyoshi Koyama and the 2005 KTM victory in the 125 cc constructor's championship. In the 250 cc class, Mika Kallio won third place in 2008. Since the first Rookies Cup season in 2007, KTM has supplied the bike for the Red Bull MotoGP Rookies Cup. In 2009, KTM announced their withdrawal from Grand Prix motorcycle racing in all classes, and did not return until 2012 in the new Moto3 class.
In 2012, KTM won the Moto3 manufacturers' championship. During the next season, KTM riders prevailed in every race of the Moto3 class and won the world title as well as second and third place, making KTM the obvious victor of the manufacturers' standing. KTM won the manufacturer title in the 2014 and 2016 as well as the world title in 2016 in the Moto3 class. Starting in 2017, KTM fields bikes in both MotoGP and Moto2 classes as well. The main class team features Bradley Smith and Pol Espargaró as full-season riders, and Mika Kallio as wildcard rider. The Moto2 KTM Ajo team features Miguel Oliveira and Brad Binder.
Steadfastly independent and confident of their company's abilities, KTM chose to use a steel trellis frame where all other manufacturers used aluminum. In addition, KTM insisted on developing their own racing suspension through their WP subsidiary (all other manufacturers used Öhlins). KTM demonstrated their prowess in doing things their own way by winning their first Moto GP premier class race on August 9, 2020, with rookie Brad Binder crossing the finish line in first place.
From 2009 to 2011, KTM teams competed in the IDM, the Superbike International German Championships. There were speculations about a possible KTM foray into the superbike world championship. Due to the company's focus shifting away from the RC8 and generally superbike design, these plans are off the table for the foreseeable future.
KTM's official company/team colours are orange, black and silver. To create a strong brand identity, all competition-ready KTMs come from the factory with bright orange plastic with "KTM" emblazoned on the side of the radiator shrouds. All KTM bikes also come from the factory with a Motorex sticker on the outside of the motor. All first fills of oil come from Motorex as well. Some official KTM teams use different colors for their bikes, most noticeably in the Dakar Rally.
Moto3 results
Products
Off-road motorcycles
KTM manufactures a wide range of off-road motorcycles. Not all of their models are available in every country. The following section lists bikes that are sold in the US.
Motocross – The current Motocross line designated by SX includes 50, 65, 85, 105, 125, 150 and 250 cc single-cylinder two-stroke models (the 50 SX, 65 SX and 85 SX models are kids' and youth bikes), and 250, 350 and 450 cc single-cylinder four-stroke models (SX-F). In 2005 KTM released the new 250SX-F to the general public. Since 2007, the SX-F's have been KTM's new racing motocross range. Current versions of the KTM SX-F line have a dual overhead camshaft engine dubbed the “RC4”.
Cross-Country – The current cross-country line designated by XC includes 150, 250 and 300 cc two-stroke models and 250, 350 and 450 cc four-stroke models. The two-stroke XC machines except the 150 cc model are available with either wide-ratio or close-ratio transmission (when switching gears, there is a more or less pronounced rpm change). The four-stroke models are fitted with a semi-close ratio gearbox. Most models are equipped with an electric starter.
The very lightweight XC bikes are competition bikes only; they do not meet homologation regulations.
Enduro – The street-legal EXC enduro versions of KTM's XC cross-country bikes are supplied with plusher non-linkage suspensions, a wider-ratio gear box and lights.
The current line available in the US consists of 250, 350, 450 and 500 (actually 510 cc) four-stroke EXC models and the 690 cc Enduro R dual-sport motorcycle.
Free Ride – A KTM original class of off-road motorcycle that could be described as a cross between Enduro and trials bikes. The Freeride 250R is powered by a lighter, modified version of the 250 EXC Enduro engine and has a specially developed six-speed gearbox with close transmission ratios in the lower gears and a wide ratio for the sixth gear. A four-stroke 350 cc free ride model with similar characteristics, and the all-electric single-speed models Freeride E-SX, Freeride E-XC as well as their street version Freeride E-SM are available in Europe.
Two-stroke development
In the 1990s, AMA rule changes put the cheaper, simpler two-stroke machines at a disadvantage to four-stroke bikes in motocross competitions by limiting two-stroke displacement at 125 cc for the 250 cc class and 250 cc for the 450 cc class. While other manufacturers have decided to discontinue their two-stroke models, KTM has continued with creating and improving their two-stroke engines and has consequently taken up a very high proportion of the two-stroke bike market.
New European emission laws have increased the pressure on two-stroke bikes, as their engines are less fuel efficient and produce more pollution than four-stroke engines. However, with newer advances in technology, two-strokes have begun to burn cleaner and pass stricter environmental standards. Starting in 2017, all newly registered motorcycles must conform with the Euro 4 regulations for emissions management. In May 2017, KTM unveiled a new two-stroke engine with direct fuel injection. By pressure-injecting an electronically controlled amount of fuel into the transfer port of the cylinder, the new TPI (transfer port injection) engines will be more fuel efficient and cleaner than classic carburetor two-stroke engines, albeit more complex and expensive. By 2018, 250 and 300 EXC TPI enduro models will be powered by the new engine.
Street bikes
The first KTM street bike was the Duke 620 in 1994.
Supermoto – KTM was the first manufacturer to offer a competition-ready supermoto bike to the public. However, the company has stopped supermoto production in 2016, selling only stock 690 SMC R machines. For the 2019 Model year, the 690 SMC R model was completely renewed. The bike now has the latest version of the single cylinder LC4 power unit, introduced for the MY2016 Duke. The previous supermoto models included the 625 SMC and the race version 560 SMR. The 141 kg light 690 SMC R model has a 48 kW liquid-cooled one-cylinder four-stroke motor (LC4) and a hydraulically actuated APTC slipper clutch.
Adventure tourers – KTM currently produces the 1090 Adventure, 790 Adventure, and 1290 Super Adventure dual-sport adventure bikes in versions with different seat height, wheels and suspensions that endow the machines with a road (S), off-road (R – for rally) or touring (T) bias. Not all versions are available on the US market.
The 1090 Adventure and 1290 Super Adventure bikes are powered by 75 degree V-twin four-stroke motors (LC8). The 790 Adventure is powered by the new LC8c parallel twin four-stroke motor. All 3 feature a slipper clutch, electronically controlled riding modes (sport, street and rain) with the 1290 and 790 featuring a TFT display and the 1090 featuring a twin (analog plus LCD) display.
Sports tourer – The KTM sports tourer 1290 Superduke GT (Gran Turismo) is a version of the 1290 Superduke R naked bike that has been modified for more touring comfort with a longer and more robust frame, modified handlebar, larger fuel tank and modified 75 degree V-twin four-stroke LC8 motor. Like the 1290 Super Adventure, the 1290 Superduke GT features three electronically controlled riding modes.
Naked bikes – With the Duke and Superduke models, KTM currently offers naked bikes with 125, 200, 250, 390, 690, 790, 890 and 1290 cc displacement. The 125 (not available in the US), 200, 250, 390 and 690 and 690 R Duke models have a single-cylinder four-stroke LC4 motor. The 790, 890 Duke use a new twin-parallel engine. The 1290 R Superduke model is equipped with a 75 degree V-twin four-stroke motor (LC8).
200, 250 and 390 Duke models are currently produced by Bajaj Auto in Pune, India.The 250 is only available in Asia, with only the Duke 390 and Duke 200 being exported to European countries and North America. The Duke 200 2020 model is now available in the United States and has a new redesigned 200 cc displacement engine.
Supersport – KTM sport bikes currently offered in the supersport category include the RC 125 (not available in the US) and the RC 390. Both are street-legal versions of bikes that compete in street races. With the RC16, KTM has presented a 1000 cc sport bike that will race in the MotoGP class of the 2017 Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix. Whether there will be a street-legal production version of the RC16 at a later point in time is yet unclear.
In Asia, KTM also markets RC 200 and RC 250 street bikes.
Superbike – Currently, KTM has retired from superbike production and competitions. From 2008 to 2015, the company produced the 1190 RC8 superbike, a light, powerful homologated (street-legal) bike for superbike competitions with an LC8 motor and without any of the electronic driving aids that the otherwise comparable Superduke and Super Adventure models offer.
Design
Since 1992, KTM motorcycles have been designed by KISKA, a Salzburg-based design firm. KISKA also designed four versions of the X-Bow and is responsible for the overall branding for KTM and Husqvarna.
Parts and Wear
Under the Powerparts label, KTM sells tuning and styling parts for its street and off-road motorcycles and the X-Bow. The Powerwear label offers race gear and equipment, clothing, accessories and merchandise articles.
X-Bow
The KTM X-Bow (pronounced cross-bow) is a series of lightweight, two-seater sports cars known as the X-Bow R, the X-Bow RR, the X-Bow GT and the X-BOW GT4. The R and GT versions of the X-Bow are street-legal in Europe, North America, China and Australia. It uses an Audi engine and a carbon fibre chassis developed in cooperation with Italian racing car manufacturer Dallara, making it the world's first street-legal car with a full carbon fibre monocoque.
References
External links
KTM International website
KTM Bicycles website
Austrian brands
Austrian companies established in 1934
Bajaj Group
British GT Championship teams
Car brands
Car manufacturers of Austria
Cycle manufacturers of Austria
Economy of Upper Austria
Motorcycle manufacturers of Austria
Motorcycles by brand
Mountain bike manufacturers
Multinational companies headquartered in Austria
Sports car manufacturers
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1934 | [
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243321 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oculomotor%20nerve | Oculomotor nerve | The oculomotor nerve is the third cranial nerve (CN III). It enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure and innervates extraocular muscles that enable most movements of the eye and that raise the eyelid. The nerve also contains fibers that innervate the intrinsic eye muscles that enable pupillary constriction and accommodation (ability to focus on near objects as in reading). The oculomotor nerve is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic midbrain. Cranial nerves IV and VI also participate in control of eye movement.
Structure
The oculomotor nerve originates from the third nerve nucleus at the level of the superior colliculus in the midbrain.
The third nerve nucleus is located ventral to the cerebral aqueduct, on the pre-aqueductal grey matter. The fibers from the two third nerve nuclei located laterally on either side of the cerebral aqueduct then pass through the red nucleus. From the red nucleus fibers then pass via the substantia nigra exiting through the interpeduncular fossa.
On emerging from the brainstem, the nerve is invested with a sheath of pia mater, and enclosed in a prolongation from the arachnoid. It passes between the superior cerebellar (below) and posterior cerebral arteries (above), and then pierces the dura mater anterior and lateral to the posterior clinoid process, passing between the free and attached borders of the tentorium cerebelli.
It traverses the cavernous sinus, above the other orbital nerves receiving in its course one or two filaments from the cavernous plexus of the sympathetic nervous system, and a communicating branch from the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve. As the oculomotor nerve enters the orbit via the superior orbital fissure it then divides into a superior and an inferior branch.
Superior branch
The superior branch of the oculomotor nerve or the superior division, the smaller, passes medially over the optic nerve. It supplies the superior rectus and levator palpebrae superioris.
Inferior branch
The inferior branch of the oculomotor nerve or the inferior division, the larger, divides into three branches.
One passes beneath the optic nerve to the medial rectus.
Another, to the inferior rectus.
The third and longest runs forward between the inferior recti and lateralis to the inferior oblique.
From the third one, a short thick branch is given off to the lower part of the ciliary ganglion, and forms its short root.
All these branches enter the muscles on their ocular surfaces, with the exception of the nerve to the inferior oblique, which enters the muscle at its posterior border.
Nuclei
The oculomotor nerve (CN III) arises from the anterior aspect of mesencephalon (midbrain). There are two nuclei for the oculomotor nerve:
The oculomotor nucleus originates at the level of the superior colliculus. The muscles it controls are the striated muscle in levator palpebrae superioris and other extraocular muscles except for the superior oblique muscle and the lateral rectus muscle.
The Edinger-Westphal nucleus supplies parasympathetic fibers to the eye via the ciliary ganglion, and thus controls the sphincter pupillae muscle (affecting pupil constriction) and the ciliary muscle (affecting accommodation).
Sympathetic postganglionic fibres also join the nerve from the plexus on the internal carotid artery in the wall of the cavernous sinus and are distributed through the nerve, e.g., to the smooth muscle of superior tarsal (Mueller's) muscle.
Function
The oculomotor nerve include axons of type GSE, general somatic efferent, which innervate skeletal muscle of the levator palpebrae superioris, superior rectus, medial rectus, inferior rectus, and inferior oblique muscles.(innervates all the extrinsic muscles except superior oblique and lateral rectus.)
The nerve also includes axons of type GVE, general visceral efferent, which provide preganglionic parasympathetics to the ciliary ganglion. From the ciliary ganglion post ganglionic fibers pass through the short ciliary nerve to the constrictor pupillae of the iris and the cilliary muscles.
Clinical significance
Disease
Paralysis of the oculomotor nerve, i.e., oculomotor nerve palsy, can arise due to:
direct trauma,
demyelinating diseases (e.g., multiple sclerosis),
increased intracranial pressure (leading to uncal herniation)
due to a space-occupying lesion (e.g., brain cancer) or a
spontaneous subarachnoid haemorrhage (e.g., berry aneurysm), and
microvascular disease, e.g., diabetes.
In people with diabetes and older than 50 years of age, an oculomotor nerve palsy, in the classical sense, occurs with sparing (or preservation) of the pupillary reflex. This is thought to arise due to the anatomical arrangement of the nerve fibers in the oculomotor nerve; fibers controlling the pupillary function are superficial and spared from ischemic injuries typical of diabetes. On the converse, an aneurysm which leads to compression of the oculomotor nerve affects the superficial fibers and manifests as a third nerve palsy with loss of the pupillary reflex (in fact, this third nerve finding is considered to represent an aneurysm—until proven otherwise—and should be investigated).
Examination
Eye muscles
Cranial nerves III, IV, and VI are usually tested together as part of the cranial nerve examination. The examiner typically instructs the patient to hold his head still and follow only with the eyes a finger or penlight that circumscribes a large "H" in front of the patient. By observing the eye movement and eyelids, the examiner is able to obtain more information about the extraocular muscles, the levator palpebrae superioris muscle, and cranial nerves III, IV, and VI. Loss of function of any of the eye muscles results in ophthalmoparesis.
Since the oculomotor nerve controls most of the eye muscles, it may be easier to detect damage to it. Damage to this nerve, termed oculomotor nerve palsy, is known by its down and out symptoms, because of the position of the affected eye (lateral, downward deviation of gaze).
Pupillary reflex
The oculomotor nerve also controls the constriction of the pupils and thickening of the lens of the eye. This can be tested in two main ways. By moving a finger toward a person's face to induce accommodation, their pupils should constrict.
Shining a light into one eye should result in equal constriction of the other eye. Fibers from the optic nerves cross over in the optic chiasm with some fibers passing to the contralateral optic nerve tract. This is the basis of the "swinging-flashlight test".
Loss of accommodation and continued pupillary dilation can indicate the presence of a lesion on the oculomotor nerve.
Additional images
See also
Anisocoria
Cranial nerve
Oculomotor nucleus
References
External links
- "Oculomotor nerve palsy"
Animations of extraocular cranial nerve and muscle function and damage (University of Liverpool)
()
Cranial nerves
Visual system | [
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243323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trochlear%20nerve | Trochlear nerve | The trochlear nerve (), also called the fourth cranial nerve or CN IV, is a motor nerve (a somatic efferent nerve) that innervates just one muscle: the superior oblique muscle of the eye, which operates through the pulley-like trochlea.
The trochlear nerve is unique among the cranial nerves in several respects:
It is the smallest nerve in terms of the number of axons it contains.
It has the greatest intracranial length.
It is the only cranial nerve that exits from the dorsal (rear) aspect of the brainstem.
It innervates a muscle, the superior oblique muscle, on the opposite side (contralateral) from its nucleus. The trochlear nerve decussates within the brainstem before emerging on the contralateral side of the brainstem (at the level of the inferior colliculus). An injury to the trochlear nucleus in the brainstem will result in an contralateral superior oblique muscle palsy, whereas an injury to the trochlear nerve (after it has emerged from the brainstem) results in an ipsilateral superior oblique muscle palsy.
Homologous trochlear nerves are found in all jawed vertebrates. The unique features of the trochlear nerve, including its dorsal exit from the brainstem and its contralateral innervation, are seen in the primitive brains of sharks.
The human trochlear nerve is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic midbrain. The words trochlea and trochlear (, ) come from Ancient Greek trokhiléa, “pulley; block-and-tackle equipment”.
Structure
The trochlear nerve emerges from the back (dorsal) brainstem, just below the inferior colliculus. It circles from behind around the brainstem and runs forward toward the eye in the subarachnoid space. It passes between the posterior cerebral artery and the superior cerebellar artery, and then pierces the dura just under free margin of the tentorium cerebelli, close to the crossing of the attached margin of the tentorium and within millimeters of the posterior clinoid process. It runs on the outer wall of the cavernous sinus. Finally, it enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure and supplies the superior oblique muscle.
Nucleus
The nucleus of the trochlear nerve is located in the caudal mesencephalon beneath the cerebral aqueduct. It is immediately below the nucleus of the oculomotor nerve (III) in the rostral mesencephalon.
The trochlear nucleus is unique in that its axons run dorsally and cross the midline before emerging from the brainstem posteriorly. Thus a lesion of the trochlear nucleus affects the contralateral eye. Lesions of all other cranial nuclei affect the ipsilateral side.
Function
The trochlear nerve provides motor supply to the superior oblique muscle of the eye,
The trochlear nerve carries axons of type GSE, general somatic efferent, which innervate skeletal muscle of the superior oblique muscle.
The superior oblique muscle ends in a tendon that passes through a fibrous loop, the trochlea, located anteriorly on the medial aspect of the orbit. Trochlea means “pulley” in Latin; the fourth nerve is named after this structure.
Actions of the superior oblique muscle
In order to understand the actions of the superior oblique muscle, it is useful to imagine the eyeball as a sphere that is constrained—like the trackball of a computer mouse—in such a way that only certain rotational movements are possible. Allowable movements for the superior oblique are (1) rotation in a vertical plane—looking down and up (depression and elevation of the eyeball) and (2) rotation in the plane of the face (intorsion and extorsion of the eyeball).
The body of the superior oblique muscle is located behind the eyeball, but the tendon (which is redirected by the trochlea) approaches the eyeball from the front. The tendon attaches to the top (superior aspect) of the eyeball at an angle of 51 degrees with respect to the primary position of the eye (looking straight forward). The force of the tendon's pull therefore has two components: a forward component that tends to pull the eyeball downward (depression), and a medial component that tends to rotate the top of the eyeball toward the nose (intorsion).
The relative strength of these two forces depends on which way the eye is looking. When the eye is adducted (looking toward the nose), the force of depression increases. When the eye is abducted (looking away from the nose), the force of intorsion increases, while the force of depression decreases. When the eye is in the primary position (looking straight ahead), contraction of the superior oblique produces depression and intorsion in roughly equal amounts.
To summarize, the actions of the superior oblique muscle are (1) depression of the eyeball, especially when the eye is adducted; and (2) intorsion of the eyeball, especially when the eye is abducted. The clinical consequences of weakness in the superior oblique (caused, for example, by fourth nerve palsies) are discussed below.
This summary of the superior oblique muscle describes its most important functions. However, it is an oversimplification of the actual situation. For example, the tendon of the superior oblique inserts behind the equator of the eyeball in the frontal plane, so contraction of the muscle also tends to abduct the eyeball (turn it outward). In fact, each of the six extraocular muscles exerts rotational forces in all three planes (elevation-depression, adduction-abduction, intorsion-extorsion) to varying degrees, depending on which way the eye is looking. The relative forces change every time the eyeball moves—every time the direction of gaze changes. The central control of this process, which involves the continuous, precise adjustment of forces on twelve different tendons in order to point both eyes in exactly the same direction, is truly remarkable.
The recent discovery of soft tissue pulleys in the orbit—similar to the trochlea, but anatomically more subtle and previously missed—has completely changed and greatly simplified our understanding of the actions of the extraocular muscles. Perhaps the most important finding is that a two-dimensional representation of the visual field is sufficient for most purposes.
Clinical significance
Vertical diplopia
Injury to the trochlear nerve cause weakness of downward eye movement with consequent vertical diplopia (double vision). The affected eye drifts upward relative to the normal eye, due to the unopposed actions of the remaining extraocular muscles. The patient sees two visual fields (one from each eye), separated vertically. To compensate for this, patients learn to tilt the head forward (tuck the chin in) in order to bring the fields back together—to fuse the two images into a single visual field. This accounts for the “dejected” appearance of patients with “pathetic nerve” palsies.
Torsional diplopia
Trochlear nerve palsy also affects torsion (rotation of the eyeball in the plane of the face). Torsion is a normal response to tilting the head sideways. The eyes automatically rotate in an equal and opposite direction, so that the orientation of the environment remains unchanged—vertical things remain vertical.
Weakness of intorsion results in torsional diplopia, in which two different visual fields, tilted with respect to each other, are seen at the same time. To compensate for this, patients with trochlear nerve palsies tilt their heads to the opposite side, in order to fuse the two images into a single visual field.
The characteristic appearance of patients with fourth nerve palsies (head tilted to one side, chin tucked in) suggests the diagnosis, but other causes must be ruled out. For example, torticollis can produce a similar appearance.
Causes
The clinical syndromes can originate from both peripheral and central lesions.
Peripheral lesion
A peripheral lesion is damage to the bundle of nerves, in contrast to a central lesion, which is damage to the trochlear nucleus. Acute symptoms are probably a result of trauma or disease, while chronic symptoms probably are congenital.
Acute palsy
The most common cause of acute fourth nerve palsy is head trauma. Even relatively minor trauma can transiently stretch the fourth nerve (by transiently displacing the brainstem relative to the posterior clinoid process). Patients with minor damage to the fourth nerve will complain of “blurry” vision. Patients with more extensive damage will notice frank diplopia and rotational (torsional) disturbances of the visual fields. The usual clinical course is complete recovery within weeks to months.
Isolated injury to the fourth nerve can be caused by any process that stretches or compresses the nerve. A generalized increase in intracranial pressure—hydrocephalus, pseudotumor cerebri, hemorrhage, edema—will affect the fourth nerve, but the abducens nerve (VI) is usually affected first (producing horizontal diplopia, not vertical diplopia). Infections (meningitis, herpes zoster), demyelination (multiple sclerosis), diabetic neuropathy and cavernous sinus disease can affect the fourth nerve, as can orbital tumors and Tolosa–Hunt syndrome. In general, these diseases affect other cranial nerves as well. Isolated damage to the fourth nerve is uncommon in these settings.
Chronic palsy
The most common cause of chronic fourth nerve palsy is a congenital defect, in which the development of the fourth nerve (or its nucleus) is abnormal or incomplete. Congenital defects may be noticed in childhood, but minor defects may not become evident until adult life, when compensatory mechanisms begin to fail. Congenital fourth nerve palsies are amenable to surgical treatment.
Central lesion
Central damage is damage to the trochlear nucleus. It affects the contralateral eye. The nuclei of other cranial nerves generally affect ipsilateral structures (for example, the optic nerves - cranial nerves II - innervate both eyes).
The trochlear nucleus and its axons within the brainstem can be damaged by infarctions, hemorrhage, arteriovenous malformations, tumors and demyelination. Collateral damage to other structures will usually dominate the clinical picture.
The fourth nerve is one of the final common pathways for cortical systems that control eye movement in general. Cortical control of eye movement (saccades, smooth pursuit, accommodation) involves conjugate gaze, not unilateral eye movement.
Examination
The trochlear nerve is tested by examining the action of its muscle, the superior oblique. When acting on its own this muscle depresses and abducts the eyeball. However, movements of the eye by the extraocular muscles are synergistic (working together). Therefore, the trochlear nerve is tested by asking the patient to look 'down and in' as the contribution of the superior oblique is greatest in this motion. Common activities requiring this type of convergent gaze are reading the newspaper and walking down stairs. Diplopia associated with these activities may be the initial symptom of a fourth nerve palsy.
Alfred Bielschowsky's head tilt test is a test for palsy of the superior oblique muscle caused by damage to cranial nerve IV (trochlear nerve).
History
See also
References
Bibliography
Blumenfeld H. Neuroanatomy Through Clinical Cases. Sinauer Associates, 2002
Brodal A. Neurological Anatomy in Relation to Clinical Medicine, 3rd ed. Oxford University Press, 1981
Brodal P. The Central Nervous System, 3rded. Oxford University Press, 2004
Butler AB, Hodos W. Comparative Vertebrate Neuroanatomy, 2nd ed. Wiley-Interscience, 2005
Carpenter MB. Core Text of Neuroanatomy, 4th ed. Williams & Wilkins, 1991
Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM. Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2000
Martin JH. Neuroanatomy Text and Atlas, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, 2003
Patten J. Neurological Differential Diagnosis, 2nd ed. Springer, 1996
Ropper, AH, Brown RH. Victor's Principles of Neurology, 8th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2005
Standring S (ed.) Gray's Anatomy, 39th edition. Elsevier Churchill Livingstone, 2005
Wilson-Pauwels L, Akesson EJ, Stewart PA. Cranial Nerves: Anatomy and Clinical Comments. Decker, 1998
Additional images
External links
- "Trochlear Nerve Palsy"
()
()
Animations of extraocular cranial nerve and muscle function and damage (University of Liverpool)
Trochlear nerve at Neurolex
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243325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigeminal%20nerve | Trigeminal nerve | The trigeminal nerve (the fifth cranial nerve, or simply CN V) is a nerve responsible for sensation in the face and motor functions such as biting and chewing; it is the most complex of the cranial nerves. Its name ("trigeminal" = tri-, or three, and - geminus, or twin: so "three-born, triplet") derives from each of the two nerves (one on each side of the pons) having three major branches: the ophthalmic nerve (V1), the maxillary nerve (V2), and the mandibular nerve (V3). The ophthalmic and maxillary nerves are purely sensory, whereas the mandibular nerve supplies motor as well as sensory (or "cutaneous") functions. Adding to the complexity of this nerve is that autonomic nerve fibers as well as special sensory fibers (taste) are contained within it.
The motor division of the trigeminal nerve derives from the basal plate of the embryonic pons, and the sensory division originates in the cranial neural crest. Sensory information from the face and body is processed by parallel pathways in the central nervous system.
Structure
The three major branches of the trigeminal nerve—the ophthalmic nerve (V1), the maxillary nerve (V2) and the mandibular nerve (V3)—converge on the trigeminal ganglion (also called the semilunar ganglion or gasserian ganglion), located within Meckel's cave and containing the cell bodies of incoming sensory-nerve fibers. The trigeminal ganglion is analogous to the dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord, which contain the cell bodies of incoming sensory fibers from the rest of the body.
From the trigeminal ganglion, a single, large sensory root (portio major) enters the brainstem at the level of the pons. Immediately adjacent to the sensory root, a smaller motor root (portio minor) emerges from the pons at the same level. Motor fibers pass through the trigeminal ganglion without synapsing on their way to peripheral muscles, but their cell bodies are located in the nucleus of the fifth nerve, deep within the pons.
The areas of cutaneous distribution (dermatomes) of the three sensory branches of the trigeminal nerve have sharp borders with relatively little overlap (unlike dermatomes in the rest of the body, which have considerable overlap). The injection of a local anesthetic, such as lidocaine, results in the complete loss of sensation from well-defined areas of the face and mouth. For example, teeth on one side of the jaw can be numbed by injecting the mandibular nerve. Occasionally, injury or disease processes may affect two (or all three) branches of the trigeminal nerve; in these cases, the involved branches may be termed:
V1/V2 distribution – Referring to the ophthalmic and maxillary branches
V2/V3 distribution – Referring to the maxillary and mandibular branches
V1-V3 distribution – Referring to all three branches
Nerves on the left side of the jaw slightly outnumber the nerves on the right side of the jaw.
Sensory branches
The ophthalmic, maxillary and mandibular branches leave the skull through three separate foramina: the superior orbital fissure, the foramen rotundum and the foramen ovale, respectively. The ophthalmic nerve (V1) carries sensory information from the scalp and forehead, the upper eyelid, the conjunctiva and cornea of the eye, the nose (including the tip of the nose, except alae nasi), the nasal mucosa, the frontal sinuses and parts of the meninges (the dura and blood vessels). The maxillary nerve (V2) carries sensory information from the lower eyelid and cheek, the nares and upper lip, the upper teeth and gums, the nasal mucosa, the palate and roof of the pharynx, the maxillary, ethmoid and sphenoid sinuses and parts of the meninges. The mandibular nerve (V3) carries sensory information from the lower lip, the lower teeth and gums, the chin and jaw (except the angle of the jaw, which is supplied by C2-C3), parts of the external ear and parts of the meninges. The mandibular nerve carries touch-position and pain-temperature sensations from the mouth. Although it does not carry taste sensation (the chorda tympani is responsible for taste), one of its branches—the lingual nerve—carries sensation from the tongue.
The peripheral processes of mesencephalic nucleus of V neurons run in the motor root of the trigeminal nerve and terminate in the muscle spindles in the muscles of mastication. They are proprioceptive fibers, conveying information regarding the location of the masticatory muscles. The central processes of mesencephalic V neurons synapse in the motor nucleus V.
Function
The sensory function of the trigeminal nerve is to provide tactile, proprioceptive, and nociceptive afference to the face and mouth. Its motor function activates the muscles of mastication, the tensor tympani, tensor veli palatini, mylohyoid and the anterior belly of the digastric.
The trigeminal nerve carries general somatic afferent fibers (GSA), which innervate the skin of the face via ophthalmic (V1), maxillary (V2) and mandibular (V3) divisions. The trigeminal nerve also carries special visceral efferent (SVE) axons, which innervate the muscles of mastication via the mandibular (V3) division.
Muscles
The motor component of the mandibular division (V3) of the trigeminal nerve controls the movement of eight muscles, including the four muscles of mastication: the masseter, the temporal muscle, and the medial and lateral pterygoids. The other four muscles are the tensor veli palatini, the mylohyoid, the anterior belly of the digastric and the tensor tympani. A useful mnemonic for remembering these muscles is "My Tensors Dig Ants 4 MoM" (Mylohyoid—Tensor Tympani + Tensor Veli Palatini—Digastric (Anterior) – 4 Muscles of Mastication (Temporalis, Masseter, Medial and Lateral Pterygoids))
With the exception of the tensor tympani, all these muscles are involved in biting, chewing and swallowing and all have bilateral cortical representation. A unilateral central lesion (for example, a stroke), no matter how large, is unlikely to produce an observable deficit. Injury to a peripheral nerve can cause paralysis of muscles on one side of the jaw, with the jaw deviating towards the paralyzed side when it opens. This direction of the mandible is due to the action of the functioning pterygoids on the opposite side.
Sensation
The two basic types of sensation are touch-position and pain-temperature. Touch-position input comes to attention immediately, but pain-temperature input reaches the level of consciousness after a delay; when a person steps on a pin, the awareness of stepping on something is immediate but the pain associated with it is delayed.
Touch-position information is generally carried by myelinated (fast-conducting) nerve fibers, and pain-temperature information by unmyelinated (slow-conducting) fibers. The primary sensory receptors for touch-position (Meissner’s corpuscles, Merkel's receptors, Pacinian corpuscles, Ruffini’s corpuscles, hair receptors, muscle spindle organs and Golgi tendon organs) are structurally more complex than those for pain-temperature, which are nerve endings.
Sensation in this context refers to the conscious perception of touch-position and pain-temperature information, rather than the special senses (smell, sight, taste, hearing and balance) processed by different cranial nerves and sent to the cerebral cortex through different pathways. The perception of magnetic fields, electrical fields, low-frequency vibrations and infrared radiation by some nonhuman vertebrates is processed by their equivalent of the fifth cranial nerve.
Touch in this context refers to the perception of detailed, localized tactile information, such as two-point discrimination (the difference between touching one point and two closely spaced points) or the difference between coarse, medium or fine sandpaper. People without touch-position perception can feel the surface of their bodies and perceive touch in a broad sense, but they lack perceptual detail.
Position, in this context, refers to conscious proprioception. Proprioceptors (muscle spindle and Golgi tendon organs) provide information about joint position and muscle movement. Although much of this information is processed at an unconscious level (primarily by the cerebellum and the vestibular nuclei), some is available at a conscious level.
Touch-position and pain-temperature sensations are processed by different pathways in the central nervous system. This hard-wired distinction is maintained up to the cerebral cortex. Within the cerebral cortex, sensations are linked with other cortical areas.
Sensory pathways
Sensory pathways from the periphery to the cortex are separate for touch-position and pain-temperature sensations. All sensory information is sent to specific nuclei in the thalamus. Thalamic nuclei, in turn, send information to specific areas in the cerebral cortex. Each pathway consists of three bundles of nerve fibers connected in series:
The secondary neurons in each pathway decussate (cross the spinal cord or brainstem), because the spinal cord develops in segments. Decussated fibers later reach and connect these segments with the higher centers. The optic chiasm is the primary cause of decussation; nasal fibers of the optic nerve cross (so each cerebral hemisphere receives contralateral—opposite—vision) to keep the interneuronal connections responsible for processing information short. All sensory and motor pathways converge and diverge to the contralateral hemisphere.
Although sensory pathways are often depicted as chains of individual neurons connected in series, this is an oversimplification. Sensory information is processed and modified at each level in the chain by interneurons and input from other areas of the nervous system. For example, cells in the main trigeminal nucleus (Main V in the diagram below) receive input from the reticular formation and cerebral cortex. This information contributes to the final output of the cells in Main V to the thalamus.
Touch-position information from the body is carried to the thalamus by the medial lemniscus, and from the face by the trigeminal lemniscus (both the anterior and posterior trigeminothalamic tracts). Pain-temperature information from the body is carried to the thalamus by the spinothalamic tract, and from the face by the anterior division of the trigeminal lemniscus (also called the anterior trigeminothalamic tract).
Pathways for touch-position and pain-temperature sensations from the face and body merge in the brainstem, and touch-position and pain-temperature sensory maps of the entire body are projected onto the thalamus. From the thalamus, touch-position and pain-temperature information is projected onto the cerebral cortex.
Summary
The complex processing of pain-temperature information in the thalamus and cerebral cortex (as opposed to the relatively simple, straightforward processing of touch-position information) reflects a phylogenetically older, more primitive sensory system. The detailed information received from peripheral touch-position receptors is superimposed on a background of awareness, memory and emotions partially set by peripheral pain-temperature receptors.
Although thresholds for touch-position perception are relatively easy to measure, those for pain-temperature perception are difficult to define and measure. "Touch" is an objective sensation, but "pain" is an individualized sensation which varies among different people and is conditioned by memory and emotion. Anatomical differences between the pathways for touch-position perception and pain-temperature sensation help explain why pain, especially chronic pain, is difficult to manage.
Trigeminal nucleus
All sensory information from the face, both touch-position and pain-temperature, is sent to the trigeminal nucleus. In classical anatomy most sensory information from the face is carried by the fifth nerve, but sensation from parts of the mouth, parts of the ear and parts of the meninges is carried by general somatic afferent fibers in cranial nerves VII (the facial nerve), IX (the glossopharyngeal nerve) and X (the vagus nerve).
All sensory fibers from these nerves terminate in the trigeminal nucleus. On entering the brainstem, sensory fibers from V, VII, IX and X are sorted and sent to the trigeminal nucleus (which contains a sensory map of the face and mouth). The spinal counterparts of the trigeminal nucleus (cells in the dorsal horn and dorsal column nuclei of the spinal cord) contain a sensory map of the rest of the body.
The trigeminal nucleus extends throughout the brainstem, from the midbrain to the medulla, continuing into the cervical cord (where it merges with the dorsal horn cells of the spinal cord). The nucleus is divided into three parts, visible in microscopic sections of the brainstem. From caudal to rostral (ascending from the medulla to the midbrain), they are the spinal trigeminal, the principal sensory and the mesencephalic nuclei. The parts of the trigeminal nucleus receive different types of sensory information; the spinal trigeminal nucleus receives pain-temperature fibers, the principal sensory nucleus receives touch-position fibers and the mesencephalic nucleus receives proprioceptor and mechanoreceptor fibers from the jaws and teeth.
Spinal trigeminal nucleus
The spinal trigeminal nucleus represents pain-temperature sensation from the face. Pain-temperature fibers from peripheral nociceptors are carried in cranial nerves V, VII, IX and X. On entering the brainstem, sensory fibers are grouped and sent to the spinal trigeminal nucleus. This bundle of incoming fibers can be identified in cross-sections of the pons and medulla as the spinal tract of the trigeminal nucleus, which parallels the spinal trigeminal nucleus. The spinal tract of V is analogous to, and continuous with, Lissauer's tract in the spinal cord.
The spinal trigeminal nucleus contains a pain-temperature sensory map of the face and mouth. From the spinal trigeminal nucleus, secondary fibers cross the midline and ascend in the trigeminothalamic (quintothalamic) tract to the contralateral thalamus. Pain-temperature fibers are sent to multiple thalamic nuclei. The central processing of pain-temperature information differs from the processing of touch-position information.
Somatotopic representation
Exactly how pain-temperature fibers from the face are distributed to the spinal trigeminal nucleus is disputed. The present general understanding is that pain-temperature information from all areas of the human body is represented in the spinal cord and brainstem in an ascending, caudal-to-rostral fashion. Information from the lower extremities is represented in the lumbar cord, and that from the upper extremities in the thoracic cord. Information from the neck and the back of the head is represented in the cervical cord, and that from the face and mouth in the spinal trigeminal nucleus.
Within the spinal trigeminal nucleus, information is represented in a layered, or "onion-skin" fashion. The lowest levels of the nucleus (in the upper cervical cord and lower medulla) represent peripheral areas of the face (the scalp, ears and chin). Higher levels (in the upper medulla) represent central areas (nose, cheeks and lips). The highest levels (in the pons) represent the mouth, teeth and pharyngeal cavity.
The onion skin distribution differs from the dermatome distribution of the peripheral branches of the fifth nerve. Lesions which destroy lower areas of the spinal trigeminal nucleus (but spare higher areas) preserve pain-temperature sensation in the nose (V1), upper lip (V2) and mouth (V3) and remove pain-temperature sensation from the forehead (V1), cheeks (V2) and chin (V3). Although analgesia in this distribution is "nonphysiologic" in the traditional sense (because it crosses several dermatomes), this analgesia is found in humans after surgical sectioning of the spinal tract of the trigeminal nucleus.
The spinal trigeminal nucleus sends pain-temperature information to the thalamus and sends information to the mesencephalon and the reticular formation of the brainstem. The latter pathways are analogous to the spinomesencephalic and spinoreticular tracts of the spinal cord, which send pain-temperature information from the rest of the body to the same areas. The mesencephalon modulates painful input before it reaches the level of consciousness. The reticular formation is responsible for the automatic (unconscious) orientation of the body to painful stimuli. Incidentally, Sulfur-containing compounds found in plants in the onion family stimulate receptors found in trigeminal ganglia, bypassing the olfactory system.
Principal nucleus
The principal nucleus represents touch-pressure sensation from the face. It is located in the pons, near the entrance for the fifth nerve. Fibers carrying touch-position information from the face and mouth via cranial nerves V, VII, IX, and X are sent to this nucleus when they enter the brainstem.
The principal nucleus contains a touch-position sensory map of the face and mouth, just as the spinal trigeminal nucleus contains a complete pain-temperature map. This nucleus is analogous to the dorsal column nuclei (the gracile and cuneate nuclei) of the spinal cord, which contain a touch-position map of the rest of the body.
From the principal nucleus, secondary fibers cross the midline and ascend in the ventral trigeminothalamic tract to the contralateral thalamus. The ventral trigeminothalamic tract runs parallel to the medial lemniscus, which carries touch-position information from the rest of the body to the thalamus.
Some sensory information from the teeth and jaws is sent from the principal nucleus to the ipsilateral thalamus via the small dorsal trigeminal tract. Touch-position information from the teeth and jaws of one side of the face is represented bilaterally in the thalamus and cortex.
Mesencephalic nucleus
The mesencephalic nucleus is not a true nucleus; it is a sensory ganglion (like the trigeminal ganglion) embedded in the brainstem and the sole exception to the rule that sensory information passes through peripheral sensory ganglia before entering the central nervous system. It has been found in all vertebrates except lampreys and hagfishes. They are the only vertebrates without jaws and have specific cells in their brainstems. These "internal ganglion" cells were discovered in the late 19th century by medical student Sigmund Freud.
Two types of sensory fibers have cell bodies in the mesencephalic nucleus: proprioceptor fibers from the jaw and mechanoreceptor fibers from the teeth. Some of these incoming fibers go to the motor nucleus of the trigeminal nerve (V), bypassing the pathways for conscious perception. The jaw jerk reflex is an example; tapping the jaw elicits a reflex closure of the jaw in the same way that tapping the knee elicits a reflex kick of the lower leg. Other incoming fibers from the teeth and jaws go to the main nucleus of V. This information is projected bilaterally to the thalamus and available for conscious perception.
Activities such as biting, chewing and swallowing require symmetrical, simultaneous coordination of both sides of the body. They are automatic activities, requiring little conscious attention and involving a sensory component (feedback about touch-position) processed at the unconscious level in the mesencephalic nucleus.
Pathways to the thalamus and cortex
Sensation has been defined as the conscious perception of touch-position and pain-temperature information. With the exception of smell, all sensory input (touch-position, pain-temperature, sight, taste, hearing and balance) is sent to the thalamus and then the cortex. The thalamus is anatomically subdivided into nuclei.
Touch-position sensation
Touch-position information from the body is sent to the ventral posterolateral nucleus (VPL) of the thalamus. Touch-position information from the face is sent to the ventral posteromedial nucleus (VPM) of the thalamus. From the VPL and VPM, information is projected to the primary somatosensory cortex (SI) in the parietal lobe.
The representation of sensory information in the postcentral gyrus is organized somatotopically. Adjacent areas of the body are represented by adjacent areas in the cortex. When body parts are drawn in proportion to the density of their innervation, the result is a "little man": the cortical homunculus.
Many textbooks have reproduced the outdated Penfield-Rasmussen diagram [ref?], with the toes and genitals on the mesial surface of the cortex when they are actually represented on the convexity. The classic diagram implies a single primary sensory map of the body, when there are multiple primary maps. At least four separate, anatomically distinct sensory homunculi have been identified in the postcentral gyrus. They represent combinations of input from surface and deep receptors and rapidly and slowly adapting peripheral receptors; smooth objects will activate certain cells, and rough objects will activate other cells.
Information from all four maps in SI is sent to the secondary sensory cortex (SII) in the parietal lobe. SII contains two more sensory homunculi. Information from one side of the body is generally represented on the opposite side in SI, but on both sides in SII. Functional MRI imaging of a defined stimulus (for example, stroking the skin with a toothbrush) "lights up" a single focus in SI and two foci in SII.
Pain-temperature sensation
Pain-temperature information is sent to the VPL (body) and VPM (face) of the thalamus (the same nuclei which receive touch-position information). From the thalamus, pain-temperature and touch-position information is projected onto SI.
Unlike touch-position information, however, pain-temperature information is also sent to other thalamic nuclei and projected onto additional areas of the cerebral cortex. Some pain-temperature fibers are sent to the medial dorsal thalamic nucleus (MD), which projects to the anterior cingulate cortex. Other fibers are sent to the ventromedial (VM) nucleus of the thalamus, which projects to the insular cortex. Finally, some fibers are sent to the intralaminar nucleus (IL) of the thalamus via the reticular formation. The IL projects diffusely to all parts of the cerebral cortex.
The insular and cingulate cortices are parts of the brain which represent touch-position and pain-temperature in the context of other simultaneous perceptions (sight, smell, taste, hearing and balance) in the context of memory and emotional state. Peripheral pain-temperature information is channeled directly to the brain at a deep level, without prior processing. Touch-position information is handled differently. Diffuse thalamic projections from the IL and other thalamic nuclei are responsible for a given level of consciousness, with the thalamus and reticular formation "activating" the brain; peripheral pain-temperature information also feeds directly into this system.
Clinical significance
Trigeminal neuralgia
Cluster headache
Migraine
Wallenberg syndrome
Wallenberg syndrome (lateral medullary syndrome) is a clinical demonstration of the anatomy of the trigeminal nerve, summarizing how it processes sensory information. A stroke usually affects only one side of the body; loss of sensation due to a stroke will be lateralized to the right or the left side of the body. The only exceptions to this rule are certain spinal-cord lesions and the medullary syndromes, of which Wallenberg syndrome is the best-known example. In this syndrome, a stroke causes a loss of pain-temperature sensation from one side of the face and the other side of the body.
This is explained by the anatomy of the brainstem. In the medulla, the ascending spinothalamic tract (which carries pain-temperature information from the opposite side of the body) is adjacent to the ascending spinal tract of the trigeminal nerve (which carries pain-temperature information from the same side of the face). A stroke which cuts off the blood supply to this area (for example, a clot in the posterior inferior cerebellar artery) destroys both tracts simultaneously. The result is a loss of pain-temperature (but not touch-position) sensation in a "checkerboard" pattern (ipsilateral face, contralateral body), facilitating diagnosis.
Additional images
See also
Trigeminovascular system
References
Sources
Blumenfeld, H. Neuroanatomy Through Clinical Cases. Sinauer Associates, 2002.
Brodal, A. Neurological Anatomy in Relation to Clinical Medicine, 3rd ed. Oxford University Press, 1981.
Brodal, P. The Central Nervous System. Oxford University Press, 2004.
Carpenter, M. B., Sutin, J. Human Neuroanatomy, 8th ed. Williams and Wilkins, 1983.
DeJong, R. N. The Neurologic Examination, 3rd ed. Hoeber, 1970.
Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., Jessell, T. M. Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2000.
Martin, J. H. Neuroanatomy Text and Atlas, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, 2003.
Patten, J. Neurological Differential Diagnosis, 2nd ed. Springer, 1996.
Ropper, A. H., Brown, R. H. Adam’s and Victor’s Principles of Neurology, 8th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2001.
Wilson-Pauwels, L., Akesson, E. J., Stewart, P. A. Cranial Nerves: Anatomy and Clinical Comments. B. C. Decker, 1998.
External links
Pigeons Detect Magnetic Fields An experiment indicating that the trigeminal nerve in Columba livia may be the mechanism through which "homing pigeons" detect magnetic fields
()
Trigeminal nerve anatomy, part 1 and part 2 on YouTube
Trigeminal neuralgia
Cranial nerves
Innervation of the face
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243326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibulocochlear%20nerve | Vestibulocochlear nerve | The vestibulocochlear nerve (auditory vestibular nerve), known as the eighth cranial nerve, transmits sound and equilibrium (balance) information from the inner ear to the brain. Through olivocochlear fibers, it also transmits motor and modulatory information from the superior olivary complex in the brainstem to the cochlea.
Structure
The vestibulocochlear nerve consists mostly of bipolar neurons and splits into two large divisions: the cochlear nerve and the vestibular nerve.
Cranial nerve 8, the vestibulocochlear nerve, goes to the middle portion of the brainstem called the pons, (which then is largely composed of fibers going to the cerebellum).
The 8th cranial nerve runs between the base of the pons (the middle portion of the brainstem) and medulla oblongata (the lower portion of the brainstem). This junction between the pons, medulla, and cerebellum that contains the 8th nerve is called the cerebellopontine angle.
The vestibulocochlear nerve is accompanied by the labyrinthine artery, which usually branches off from the anterior inferior cerebellar artery (AICA) at the cerebellopontine angle, and then goes with the 7th nerve through the internal acoustic meatus to the internal ear.
The cochlear nerve travels away from the cochlea of the inner ear where it starts as the spiral ganglia. Processes from the organ of Corti conduct afferent transmission to the spiral ganglia. It is the inner hair cells of the organ of Corti that are responsible for activation of afferent receptors in response to pressure waves reaching the basilar membrane through the transduction of sound. The exact mechanism by which sound is transmitted by the neurons of the cochlear nerve is uncertain; the two competing theories are place theory and temporal theory.
The vestibular nerve travels from the vestibular system of the inner ear. The vestibular ganglion houses the cell bodies of the bipolar neurons and extends processes to five sensory organs. Three of these are the cristae located in the ampullae of the semicircular canals. Hair cells of the cristae activate afferent receptors in response to rotational acceleration. The other two sensory organs supplied by the vestibular neurons are the maculae of the saccule and utricle. Hair cells of the maculae in the utricle activate afferent receptors in response to linear acceleration while hair cells of the maculae in the saccule respond to vertically directed linear force.
Development
The vestibulocochlear nerve is derived from the embryonic otic placode.
Function
This is the nerve along which the sensory cells (the hair cells) of the inner ear transmit information to the brain. It consists of the cochlear nerve, carrying details about hearing, and the vestibular nerve, carrying information about balance.
It emerges from the pontomedullary junction and exits the inner skull via the internal acoustic meatus (or internal auditory meatus) in the temporal bone.
The vestibulocochlear nerve carries axons of type SSA (special somatic afferent).
Clinical significance
Symptoms of damage
Damage to the vestibulocochlear nerve may cause the following symptoms:
hearing loss
vertigo
false sense of motion
loss of equilibrium (in dark places)
nystagmus
motion sickness
gaze-evoked tinnitus.
Examination
Examinations that can be done include the Rinne test and the Weber test.
Rinne's test involves Rinne's Right Test and Rinne's Left Test since auditory acuity is equal in both ears. If Bone Conduction(BC) is more than Air Conduction(AC) i.e. BC>AC indicates Rinne Test is negative or abnormal. If AC>BC Rinne test is normal or positive. If BC>AC and Weber's test lateralizes to abnormal side then it is Conductive hearing loss. If AC>BC and Weber's test lateralizes to normal side then it concludes Sensorineural hearing loss.
After pure-tone testing, if the AC and BC responses at all frequencies 500–8000 Hz are better than 25 dB HL, meaning 0-24 dB HL, the results are considered normal hearing sensitivity. If the AC and BC are worse than 25 dB HL at any one or more frequency between 500 and 8000 Hz, meaning 25+, and there is a no bigger difference between AC and BC beyond 10 dB at any frequency, there is a sensori-neural hearing loss present. If the BC responses are normal, 0-24 dB HL, and the AC are worse than 25 dB HL, as well as a 10 dB gap between the air and bone responses, a conductive hearing loss is present.
{updated March 2019}
The modified Hughson–Westlake method is used by many audiologists during testing. A battery of (1) otoscopy, to view the ear canal and tympanic membrane, (2) tympanometry, to assess the immittance of the tympanic membrane and how well it moves, (3) otoacoustic emissions, to measure the response of the outer hair cells located in the cochlea, (4) audiobooth pure-tone testing, to obtain thresholds to determine the type, severity, and pathology of the hearing loss present, and (5) speech tests, to measure the patients recognition and ability to repeat the speech heard, is all taken into consideration when diagnosing the pathology of the patient.
History
Etymology
Some older texts call the nerve the acoustic or auditory nerve, but these terms have fallen out of widespread use because they fail to recognize the nerve's role in the vestibular system. Vestibulocochlear nerve is therefore preferred by most.
See also
Auditory system
References
Additional images
External links
()
Cranial nerves | [
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243327 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossopharyngeal%20nerve | Glossopharyngeal nerve | The glossopharyngeal nerve (), known as the ninth cranial nerve (CN IX), is a mixed nerve that carries afferent sensory and efferent motor information. It exits the brainstem out from the sides of the upper medulla, just anterior (closer to the nose) to the vagus nerve. The motor division of the glossopharyngeal nerve is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic medulla oblongata, while the sensory division originates from the cranial neural crest.
Structure
From the anterior portion of the medulla oblongata, the glossopharyngeal nerve passes laterally across or below the flocculus, and leaves the skull through the central part of the jugular foramen. From the superior and inferior ganglia in jugular foramen, it has its own sheath of dura mater. The inferior ganglion on the inferior surface of petrous part of temporal is related with a triangular depression into which the aqueduct of cochlea opens. On the inferior side, the glossopharyngeal nerve is lateral and anterior to the vagus nerve and accessory nerve.
In its passage through the foramen (with X and XI), the glossopharyngeal nerve passes between the internal jugular vein and internal carotid artery. It descends in front of the latter vessel and beneath the styloid process and the muscles connected with it, to the posterior lower border of the stylopharyngeus muscle. It then curves forward, forming an arch on the side of the neck and lying upon the stylopharyngeus and middle pharyngeal constrictor muscle. From there, it passes under cover of the hyoglossus muscle and is finally distributed to the palatine tonsil, the mucous membrane of the fauces and base of the tongue, and the serous glands of the mouth.
Branches
tympanic nerve
stylopharyngeal nerve
tonsillar nerve
carotid sinus nerve
Branches to the posterior third of tongue
lingual branches
A communicating branch to the vagus nerve
Note: The glossopharyngeal nerve contributes in the formation of the pharyngeal plexus along with the vagus nerve.
The glossopharyngeal nerve has five distinct general functions:
Branchial motor (special visceral efferent)supplies the stylopharyngeus muscle.
Visceral motor (general visceral efferent)provides parasympathetic innervation of the parotid gland via the otic ganglion
Visceral sensory (general visceral afferent)carries visceral sensory information from the carotid sinus and carotid body.
General sensory (general somatic afferent)provides general sensory information from inner surface of the tympanic membrane, upper pharynx (GVA), and the posterior one-third of the tongue.
Visceral afferent (special visceral afferent)provides taste sensation from the posterior one-third of the tongue, including circumvallate papillae.
The glossopharyngeal nerve as noted above is a mixed nerve consisting of both sensory and motor nerve fibers. The sensory fibers' origin include the pharynx, middle ear, posterior one-third of the tongue (including taste buds); and the carotid body and sinus. These fibers terminate at the medulla oblongata. The motor fibers' origin is the medulla oblongata, and they terminate at the parotid salivary gland, the glands of the posterior tongue, and the stylopharyngeus muscle (which dilates the pharynx during swallowing).
Overview of branchial motor component
The branchial motor component of CN IX provides voluntary control of the stylopharyngeus muscle, which elevates the pharynx during swallowing and speech.
Origin and central course
The branchial motor component originates from the nucleus ambiguus in the reticular formation of the medulla
Rostral medulla. Fibers leaving the nucleus ambiguus travel anteriorly and laterally to exit the medulla, along with the other components of CN IX, between the olive and the inferior cerebellar peduncle.
Intracranial course
Upon emerging from the lateral aspect of the medulla the branchial motor component joins the other components of CN IX to exit the skull via the jugular foramen. The glossopharyngeal fibers travel just anterior to the cranial nerves X and XI, which also exit the skull via the jugular foramen.
Extra-cranial course and final innervation
Upon exiting the skull the branchial motor fibers descend deep to the temporal styloid process and wrap around the posterior border of the stylopharyngeus muscle before innervating it.
Voluntary control of the stylopharyngeus muscle
Signals for the voluntary movement of stylopharyngeus muscle originate in the pre-motor and motor cortex (in association with other cortical areas) and pass via the corticobulbar tract in the genu of the internal capsule to synapse bilaterally on the ambiguus nuclei in the medulla.
Overview of visceral motor component
Parasympathetic component of the glossopharyngeal nerve that innervates the ipsilateral parotid gland.
Origin and central course
The preganglionic nerve fibers originate in the inferior salivatory nucleus of the rostral medulla and travel anteriorly and laterally to exit the brainstem between the medullary olive and the inferior cerebellar peduncle with the other components of CN IX. Note: These neurons do not form a distinct nucleus visible on cross-section of the brainstem. The position indicated on the diagram is representative of the location of the cell bodies of these fibers.
Intracranial course
Upon emerging from the lateral aspect of the medulla, the visceral motor fibers join the other components of CN IX to enter the jugular foramen. Within the jugular foramen, there are two glossopharyngeal ganglia that contain nerve cell bodies that mediate general, visceral, and special sensation. The visceral motor fibers pass through both ganglia without synapsing and exit the inferior ganglion with CN IX general sensory fibers as the tympanic nerve. Before exiting the jugular foramen, the tympanic nerve enters the petrous portion of the temporal bone and ascends via the inferior tympanic canaliculus to the tympanic cavity. Within the tympanic cavity the tympanic nerve forms a plexus on the surface of the promontory of the middle ear to provide general sensation. The visceral motor fibers pass through this plexus and merge to become the lesser petrosal nerve. The lesser petrosal nerve re-enters and travels through the temporal bone to emerge in the middle cranial fossa just lateral to the greater petrosal nerve. It then proceeds anteriorly to exit the skull via the foramen ovale along with the mandibular nerve component of CN V (V3).
Extra-cranial course and final innervations
Upon exiting the skull, the lesser petrosal nerve synapses in the otic ganglion, which is suspended from the mandibular nerve immediately below the foramen ovale. Postganglionic fibers from the otic ganglion travel with the auriculotemporal branch of CN V3 to enter the substance of the parotid gland.
Hypothalamic Influence
Fibers from the hypothalamus and olfactory system project via the dorsal longitudinal fasciculus to influence the output of the inferior salivatory nucleus. Examples include: 1) dry mouth in response to fear (mediated by the hypothalamus); 2) salivation in response to smelling food (mediated by the olfactory system)
Overview of visceral sensory component
This component of CN IX innervates the baroreceptors of the carotid sinus and chemoreceptors of the carotid body.
Peripheral and intracranial course.
Sensory fibers arise from the carotid sinus and carotid body at the common carotid artery bifurcation, ascend in the carotid sinus nerve, and join the other components of CN IX at the inferior glossopharyngeal ganglion. The cell bodies of these neurons reside in the inferior glossopharyngeal ganglion. The central processes of these neurons enter the skull via the jugular foramen.
Central course – visceral sensory component
Once inside the skull, the visceral sensory fibers enter the lateral medulla between the olive and the inferior cerebellar peduncle and descend in the solitary tract to synapse in the caudal solitary nucleus. From the solitary nucleus, connections are made with several areas in the reticular formation and hypothalamus to mediate cardiovascular and respiratory reflex responses to changes in blood pressure, and serum concentrations of CO2 and O2.
Clinical correlation
The visceral sensory fibers of CN IX mediate the afferent limb of the pharyngeal reflex in which touching the back of the pharynx stimulates the patient to gag (i.e., the gag reflex). The efferent signal to the musculature of the pharynx is carried by the branchial motor fibers of the vagus nerve.
Overview of somatic sensory component
This component of CN IX carries general sensory information (pain, temperature, and touch) from the skin of the external ear, internal surface of the tympanic membrane, the walls of the upper pharynx, and the posterior one-third of the tongue, anterior surface of the epiglottis, vallecula.
Peripheral course
Sensory fibers from the skin of the external ear initially travel with the auricular branch of CN X, while those from the middle ear travel in the tympanic nerve as discussed above (CN IX visceral motor section). General sensory information from the upper pharynx and posterior one-third of the tongue travel via the pharyngeal branches of CN IX. These peripheral processes have their cell body in either the superior or inferior glossopharyngeal ganglion.
Central course
The central processes of the general sensory neurons exit the glossopharyngeal ganglia and pass through the jugular foramen to enter the brainstem at the level of the medulla. Upon entering the medulla these fibers descend in the spinal trigeminal tract and synapse in the caudal spinal nucleus of the trigeminal.
Overview of special sensory component
The special sensory component of CN IX provides taste sensation from the posterior one-third of the tongue.
Peripheral course
Special sensory fibers from the posterior one-third of the tongue travel via the pharyngeal branches of CN IX to the inferior glossopharyngeal ganglion where their cell bodies reside.
Central course – special sensory component
The central processes of these neurons exit the inferior ganglion and pass through the jugular foramen to enter the brainstem at the level of the rostral medulla between the olive and inferior cerebellar peduncle. Upon entering the medulla, these fibers ascend in the tractus solitarius and synapse in the gustatory part of nucleus solitarius. Taste fibers from CN VII and X also ascend and synapse here. Ascending secondary neurons originating in nucleus solitarius project bilaterally to the ventral posteromedial (VPM) nuclei of the thalamus via the central tegmental tract. Tertiary neurons from the thalamus project via the posterior limb of the internal capsule to the inferior one-third of the primary sensory cortex (the gustatory cortex of the parietal lobe).
Associated brainstem nuclei
Solitary nucleus: taste from the posterior 1/3 of the tongue and information from carotid sinus baroreceptors and carotid body chemoreceptors
Spinal nucleus of the trigeminal nerve: Somatic sensory fibers from the internal surface of the tympanic membrane, middle ear, upper part of the pharynx, soft palate and posterior 1/3 of the tongue
Nucleus ambiguus: lower motor neurons for the stylopharyngeus muscle
Inferior salivatory nucleus: preganglionic parasympathetic neurons to the otic ganglion and then to the parotid gland
Functions
It receives general somatic sensory fibers (ventral trigeminothalamic tract) from the tonsils, the pharynx, the middle ear and the posterior 1/3 of the tongue.
It receives special visceral sensory fibers (taste) from the posterior 1/3 of the tongue.
It receives visceral sensory fibers from the carotid bodies, carotid sinus.
It supplies parasympathetic fibers to the parotid gland via the otic ganglion.
It supplies motor fibers to stylopharyngeus muscle, the only motor component of this cranial nerve.
It contributes to the pharyngeal plexus.
Clinical significance
Damage
Damage to the glossopharyngeal nerve can result in loss of taste sensation to the posterior one third of the tongue, and impaired swallowing.
Examination
The clinical tests used to determine if the glossopharyngeal nerve has been damaged include testing the gag reflex of the mouth, asking the patient to swallow or cough, and evaluating for speech impediments. The clinician may also test the posterior one-third of the tongue with bitter and sour substances to evaluate for impairment of taste.
The integrity of the glossopharyngeal nerve may be evaluated by testing the patient's general sensation and that of taste on the posterior third of the tongue. The gag reflex can also be used to evaluate the glossphyaryngeal nerve.
Additional images
References
Saladin, Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function, 6th edition
External links
()
Cranial nerves
Gustatory system
Pharynx | [
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243328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20product | Whole product | In marketing, the whole product concept is an adaptation of the total product concept developed by Ted Levitt, a professor at Harvard Business School. In his book entitled “The Marketing Imagination” Levitt drew attention to the fact that consumers purchase more than the core product itself. Rather, they purchase the core product combined with complimentary attributes, the majority of which are intangible.
The total product was Levitt’s vision of how intangible elements could be added to a physical product, transforming it into an offering that was often more valuable than the physical attributes alone.
Following the insights provided by Ted Levitt, Regis McKenna renamed the total product concept, calling it the "whole product" which he defined as a generic or core product, augmented by everything that is needed for the customer to have a compelling reason to buy.
The total product concept was also refined by Tom Peters. In a 1986 publication entitled "The Eye of the Beholder", Peters proposed an extension to Levitt’s total product concept that describes the discrepancy between insider and customer perceptions in three different types of industries.
Another framework was suggested by Warren Schirtzinger called The Low Risk Recipe. Schirtzinger organizes intangible product attributes into three groups that surround the core innovation, and act to lower the end user's perception of risk and encourage the adoption of a new innovation;
End User Harmony - "product attributes that allow customers to continue using existing systems and methods and minimize change while allowing the exploration and testing of a new innovation"
Category Cooperation - "product attributes that reflect the supplier's credibility and commitment to a market category mostly through adherence to industry standards, complimentary products and intellectual property"
Safety in Numbers - "systems that support product adoption by acting as external safeguards through the establishment of end-user communities and an independent, long-term support infrastructure"
See also
Marketing
Empathic design
Product (business)
References
Product management | [
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243329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accessory%20nerve | Accessory nerve | The accessory nerve is a cranial nerve that supplies the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. It is considered as the eleventh of twelve pairs of cranial nerves, or simply cranial nerve XI, as part of it was formerly believed to originate in the brain. The sternocleidomastoid muscle tilts and rotates the head, while the trapezius muscle, connecting to the scapula, acts to shrug the shoulder.
Traditional descriptions of the accessory nerve divide it into a spinal part and a cranial part. The cranial component rapidly joins the vagus nerve, and there is ongoing debate about whether the cranial part should be considered part of the accessory nerve proper. Consequently, the term "accessory nerve" usually refers only to nerve supplying the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, also called the spinal accessory nerve.
Strength testing of these muscles can be measured during a neurological examination to assess function of the spinal accessory nerve. Poor strength or limited movement are suggestive of damage, which can result from a variety of causes. Injury to the spinal accessory nerve is most commonly caused by medical procedures that involve the head and neck. Injury can cause wasting of the shoulder muscles, winging of the scapula, and weakness of shoulder abduction and external rotation.
The accessory nerve is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic spinal segments C1–C6.
Structure
The fibres of the spinal accessory nerve originate solely in neurons situated in the upper spinal cord, from where the spinal cord begins at the junction with the medulla oblongata, to the level of about C6. These fibres join together to form rootlets, roots, and finally the spinal accessory nerve itself. The formed nerve enters the skull through the foramen magnum, the large opening at the skull's base. The nerve travels along the inner wall of the skull towards the jugular foramen. Leaving the skull, the nerve travels through the jugular foramen with the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves. The spinal accessory nerve is notable for being the only cranial nerve to both enter and exit the skull. This is due to it being unique among the cranial nerves in having neurons in the spinal cord.
After leaving the skull, the cranial component detaches from the spinal component. The spinal accessory nerve continues alone and heads backwards and downwards. In the neck, the accessory nerve crosses the internal jugular vein around the level of the posterior belly of digastric muscle. As it courses downwards, the nerve pierces through the sternocleidomastoid muscle while sending it motor branches, then continues down until it reaches the trapezius muscle to provide motor innervation to its upper part.
Nucleus
The fibres that form the spinal accessory nerve are formed by lower motor neurons located in the upper segments of the spinal cord. This cluster of neurons, called the spinal accessory nucleus, is located in the lateral aspect of the anterior horn of the spinal cord, and stretches from where the spinal cord begins (at the junction with the medulla) through to the level of about C6. The lateral horn of high cervical segments appears to be continuous with the nucleus ambiguus of the medulla oblongata, from which the cranial component of the accessory nerve is derived.
Variation
In the neck, the accessory nerve crosses the internal jugular vein around the level of the posterior belly of digastric muscle, in front of the vein in about 80% of people, and behind it in about 20%, and in one reported case, piercing the vein.
Traditionally, the accessory nerve is described as having a small cranial component that descends from the medulla and briefly connects with the spinal accessory component before branching off of the nerve to join the vagus nerve. A study, published in 2007, of twelve subjects suggests that in the majority of individuals, this cranial component does not make any distinct connection to the spinal component; the roots of these distinct components were separated by a fibrous sheath in all but one subject.
Development
The accessory nerve is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic spinal segments C1–C6.
Function
The spinal component of the accessory nerve provides motor control of the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. The trapezius muscle controls the action of shrugging the shoulders, and the sternocleidomastoid the action of turning the head. Like most muscles, control of the trapezius muscle arises from the opposite side of the brain. Contraction of the upper part of the trapezius muscle elevates the scapula. The nerve fibres supplying sternocleidomastoid, however, are thought to change sides () twice. This means that the sternocleidomastoid is controlled by the brain on the same side of the body. Contraction of the stenocleidomastoid fibres turns the head to the opposite side, the net effect meaning that the head is turned to the side of the brain receiving visual information from that area. The cranial component of the accessory nerve, on the other hand, provides motor control to the muscles of the soft palate, larynx and pharynx.
Classification
Among investigators there is disagreement regarding the terminology used to describe the type of information carried by the accessory nerve. As the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles are derived from the pharyngeal arches, some investigators believe the spinal accessory nerve that innervates them must carry specific special visceral efferent (SVE) information. This is in line with the observation that the spinal accessory nucleus appears to be continuous with the nucleus ambiguus of the medulla. Others consider the spinal accessory nerve to carry general somatic efferent (GSE) information. Still others believe it is reasonable to conclude that the spinal accessory nerve contains both SVE and GSE components.
Clinical significance
Examination
The accessory nerve is tested by evaluating the function of the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles. The trapezius muscle is tested by asking the patient to shrug their shoulders with and without resistance. The sternocleidomastoid muscle is tested by asking the patient to turn their head to the left or right against resistance.
One-sided weakness of the trapezius may indicate injury to the nerve on the same side of an injury to the spinal accessory nerve on the same side () of the body being assessed. Weakness in head-turning suggests injury to the contralateral spinal accessory nerve: a weak leftward turn is indicative of a weak right sternocleidomastoid muscle (and thus right spinal accessory nerve injury), while a weak rightward turn is indicative of a weak left sternocleidomastoid muscle (and thus left spinal accessory nerve).
Hence, weakness of shrug on one side and head-turning on the other side may indicate damage to the accessory nerve on the side of the shrug weakness, or damage along the nerve pathway at the other side of the brain. Causes of damage may include trauma, surgery, tumours, and compression at the jugular foramen. Weakness in both muscles may point to a more general disease process such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Guillain–Barré syndrome or poliomyelitis.
Injury
Injury to the spinal accessory nerve commonly occurs during neck surgery, including neck dissection and lymph node excision. It can also occur as a result of blunt or penetrating trauma, and in some causes spontaneously. Damage at any point along the nerve's course will affect the function of the nerve. The nerve is intentionally removed in "radical" neck dissections, which are attempts at exploring the neck surgically for the presence and extent of cancer. Attempts are made to spare it in other forms of less aggressive dissection.
Injury to the accessory nerve can result in neck pain and weakness of the trapezius muscle. Symptoms will depend on at what point along its length the nerve was severed. Injury to the nerve can result in shoulder girdle depression, atrophy, abnormal movement, a protruding scapula, and weakened abduction. Weakness of the shoulder girdle can lead to traction injury of the brachial plexus. Because diagnosis is difficult, electromyogram or nerve conduction studies may be needed to confirm a suspected injury. Outcomes with surgical treatment appear to be better than conservative management, which entails physiotherapy and pain relief. Surgical management includes neurolysis, nerve end-to-end suturing, and surgical replacement of affected trapezius muscle segments with other muscle groups, such as the Eden-Lange procedure.
Damage to the nerve can cause torticollis.
History
English anatomist Thomas Willis in 1664 first described the accessory nerve, choosing to use "accessory" (described in Latin as nervus accessorius) meaning in association with the vagus nerve.
In 1848, Jones Quain described the nerve as the "spinal nerve accessory to the vagus", recognizing that while a minor component of the nerve joins with the larger vagus nerve, the majority of accessory nerve fibres originate in the spinal cord. In 1893 it was recognised that the heretofore named nerve fibres "accessory" to the vagus originated from the same nucleus in the medulla oblongata, and it came to pass that these fibres were increasingly viewed as part of the vagus nerve itself. Consequently, the term "accessory nerve" was and is increasingly used to denote only fibres from the spinal cord; the fact that only the spinal portion could be tested clinically lent weight to this opinion.
Additional images
References
Books
External links
()
Cranial nerves
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243330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoglossal%20nerve | Hypoglossal nerve | The hypoglossal nerve is the twelfth cranial nerve, or CN XII, and innervates all the extrinsic and intrinsic muscles of the tongue, except for the palatoglossus which is innervated by the vagus nerve. It is a nerve with a solely motor function. The nerve arises from the hypoglossal nucleus in the medulla as a number of small rootlets, passes through the hypoglossal canal and down through the neck, and eventually passes up again over the tongue muscles it supplies into the tongue.
The nerve is involved in controlling tongue movements required for speech and swallowing, including sticking out the tongue and moving it from side to side. Damage to the nerve or the neural pathways which control it can affect the ability of the tongue to move and its appearance, with the most common sources of damage being injury from trauma or surgery, and motor neuron disease. The first recorded description of the nerve is by Herophilos in the third century BC. The name hypoglossus springs from the fact that its passage is below the tongue, from hypo () and glossa ().
Structure
The hypoglossal nerve arises as a number of small rootlets from the front of the medulla, the bottom part of the brainstem, in the anterolateral sulcus which separates the olive and the pyramid. The nerve passes through the subarachnoid space and pierces the dura mater near the hypoglossal canal, an opening in the occipital bone of the skull.
After emerging from the hypoglossal canal, the hypoglossal nerve gives off a meningeal branch and picks up a branch from the anterior ramus of C1. It then travels close to the vagus nerve and spinal division of the accessory nerve, spirals downwards behind the vagus nerve and passes between the internal carotid artery and internal jugular vein lying on the carotid sheath.
At a point at the level of the angle of the mandible, the hypoglossal nerve emerges from behind the posterior belly of the digastric muscle. It then loops around a branch of the occipital artery and travels forward into the region beneath the mandible. The hypoglossal nerve moves forward lateral to the hyoglossus and medial to the stylohyoid muscles and lingual nerve. It continues deep to the genioglossus muscle and continues forward to the tip of the tongue. It distributes branches to the intrinsic and extrinsic muscle of the tongue innervates as it passes in this direction, and supplies several muscles (hyoglossus, genioglossus and styloglossus) that it passes.
The rootlets of the hypoglossal nerve arise from the hypoglossal nucleus near the bottom of the brain stem. The hypoglossal nucleus receives input from both the motor cortices but the contralateral input is dominant; innervation of the tongue is essentially lateralized. Signals from muscle spindles on the tongue travel through the hypoglossal nerve, moving onto the lingual nerve which synapses on the trigeminal mesencephalic nucleus.
Development
The hypoglossal nerve is derived from the first pair of occipital somites, collections of mesoderm that form next to the main axis of an embryo during development. The musculature it supplies develop as the hypoglossal cord from the myotomes of the first four pairs of occipital somites. The nerve is first visible as a series of roots in the fourth week of development, which have formed a single nerve and link to the tongue by the fifth week.
The hypoglossal nucleus is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic medulla oblongata.
Function
The hypoglossal nerve provides motor control of the extrinsic muscles of the tongue: genioglossus, hyoglossus, styloglossus, and the intrinsic muscles of the tongue. These represent all muscles of the tongue except the palatoglossus muscle. The hypoglossal nerve is of a general somatic efferent (GSE) type.
These muscles are involved in moving and manipulating the tongue. The left and right genioglossus muscles in particular are responsible for protruding the tongue. The muscles, attached to the underside of the top and back parts of the tongue, cause the tongue to protrude and deviate towards the opposite side. The hypoglossal nerve also supplies movements including clearing the mouth of saliva and other involuntary activities. The hypoglossal nucleus interacts with the reticular formation, involved in the control of several reflexive or automatic motions, and several corticonuclear originating fibers supply innervation aiding in unconscious movements relating to speech and articulation.
Clinical significance
Damage
Reports of damage to the hypoglossal nerve are rare. The most common causes of injury in one case series were compression by tumours and gunshot wounds. A wide variety of other causes can lead to damage of the nerve. These include surgical damage, medullary stroke, multiple sclerosis, Guillain-Barre syndrome, infection, sarcoidosis, and presence of an ectatic vessel in the hypoglossal canal. Damage can be on one or both sides, which will affect symptoms that the damage causes. Because of the close proximity of the nerve to other structures including nerves, arteries, and veins, it is rare for the nerve to be damaged in isolation. For example, damage to the left and right hypoglossal nerves may occur with damage to the facial and trigeminal nerves as a result of damage from a clot following arteriosclerosis of the vertebrobasilar artery. Such a stroke may result in tight oral musculature, and difficulty speaking, eating and chewing.
Progressive bulbar palsy, a form of motor neuron disease, is associated with combined lesions of the hypoglossal nucleus and nucleus ambiguus with wasting (atrophy) of the motor nerves of the pons and medulla. This may cause difficulty with tongue movements, speech, chewing and swallowing caused by dysfunction of several cranial nerve nuclei. Motor neuron disease is the most common disease affecting the hypoglossal nerve.
Examination
The hypoglossal nerve is tested by examining the tongue and its movements. At rest, if the nerve is injured a tongue may appear to have the appearance of a "bag of worms" (fasciculations) or wasting (atrophy). The nerve is then tested by sticking the tongue out. If there is damage to the nerve or its pathways, the tongue will usually but not always deviate to one side. When the nerve is damaged, the tongue may feel "thick," "heavy," or "clumsy." Weakness of tongue muscles can result in slurred speech, affecting sounds particularly dependent on the tongue for generation (i.e., lateral approximants, dental stops, alveolar stops, velar nasals, rhotic consonants etc.). Tongue strength may be tested by poking the tongue against the inside of their cheek, while an examiner feels or presses from the cheek.
The hypoglossal nerve carries lower motor neurons that synapse with upper motor neurons at the hypoglossal nucleus. Symptoms related to damage will depend on the position of damage in this pathway. If the damage is to the nerve itself (a lower motor neuron lesion), the tongue will curve toward the damaged side, owing to weakness of the genioglossus muscle of affected side which action is to deviate the tongue in the contralateral side . If the damage is to the nerve pathway (an upper motor neuron lesion) the tongue will curve away from the side of damage, due to action of the affected genioglossus muscle, and will occur without fasciculations or wasting, with speech difficulties more evident. Damage to the hypoglossal nucleus will lead to wasting of muscles of the tongue and deviation towards the affected side when it is stuck out. This is because of the weaker genioglossal muscle.
Use in nerve repair
The hypoglossal nerve may be connected (anastomosed) to the facial nerve to attempt to restore function when the facial nerve is damaged. Attempts at repair by either wholly or partially connecting nerve fibres from the hypoglossal nerve to the facial nerve may be used when there is focal facial nerve damage (for example, from trauma or cancer).
History
The first recorded description of the hypoglossal nerve was by Herophilos (335–280 BC), although it was not named at the time. The first use of the name hypoglossal in Latin as nervi hypoglossi externa was used by Winslow in 1733. This was followed though by several different namings including nervi indeterminati, par lingual, par gustatorium, great sub-lingual by different authors, and gustatory nerve and lingual nerve (by Winslow). It was listed in 1778 as nerve hypoglossum magnum by Soemmering. It was then named as the great hypoglossal nerve by Cuvier in 1800 as a translation of Winslow and finally named in English by Knox in 1832.
Other animals
The hypoglossal nerve is one of twelve cranial nerves found in amniotes including reptiles, mammals and birds. As with humans, damage to the nerve or nerve pathway will result in difficulties moving the tongue or lapping water, decreased tongue strength, and generally cause deviation away from the affected side initially, and then to the affected side as contractures develop. The evolutionary origins of the nerve have been explored through studies of the nerve in rodents and reptiles. The nerve is regarded as arising evolutionarily from nerves of the cervical spine, which has been incorporated into a separate nerve over the course of evolution.
The size of the hypoglossal nerve, as measured by the size of the hypoglossal canal, has been hypothesised to be associated with the progress of evolution of primates, with reasoning that larger nerves would be associated with improvements in speech associated with evolutionary changes. This hypothesis has been refuted.
See also
Bulbar palsy
Jugular foramen syndrome
References
Sources
Notes
External links
Cranial nerves
Innervation of the tongue
Motor system | [
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243334 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%27s%20theorem | Green's theorem | In vector calculus, Green's theorem relates a line integral around a simple closed curve to a double integral over the plane region bounded by . It is the two-dimensional special case of Stokes' theorem.
Theorem
Let be a positively oriented, piecewise smooth, simple closed curve in a plane, and let be the region bounded by . If and are functions of defined on an open region containing and having continuous partial derivatives there, then
where the path of integration along is anticlockwise.
In physics, Green's theorem finds many applications. One is solving two-dimensional flow integrals, stating that the sum of fluid outflowing from a volume is equal to the total outflow summed about an enclosing area. In plane geometry, and in particular, area surveying, Green's theorem can be used to determine the area and centroid of plane figures solely by integrating over the perimeter.
Proof when D is a simple region
The following is a proof of half of the theorem for the simplified area D, a type I region where C1 and C3 are curves connected by vertical lines (possibly of zero length). A similar proof exists for the other half of the theorem when D is a type II region where C2 and C4 are curves connected by horizontal lines (again, possibly of zero length). Putting these two parts together, the theorem is thus proven for regions of type III (defined as regions which are both type I and type II). The general case can then be deduced from this special case by decomposing D into a set of type III regions.
If it can be shown that if
and
are true, then Green's theorem follows immediately for the region D. We can prove () easily for regions of type I, and () for regions of type II. Green's theorem then follows for regions of type III.
Assume region D is a type I region and can thus be characterized, as pictured on the right, by
where g1 and g2 are continuous functions on . Compute the double integral in ():
Now compute the line integral in (). C can be rewritten as the union of four curves: C1, C2, C3, C4.
With C1, use the parametric equations: x = x, y = g1(x), a ≤ x ≤ b. Then
With C3, use the parametric equations: x = x, y = g2(x), a ≤ x ≤ b. Then
The integral over C3 is negated because it goes in the negative direction from b to a, as C is oriented positively (anticlockwise). On C2 and C4, x remains constant, meaning
Therefore,
Combining () with (), we get () for regions of type I. A similar treatment yields () for regions of type II. Putting the two together, we get the result for regions of type III.
Proof for rectifiable Jordan curves
We are going to prove the following
We need the following lemmas whose proofs can be found in:
Now we are in position to prove the theorem:
Proof of Theorem. Let be an arbitrary positive real number. By continuity of , and compactness of , given , there exists such that whenever two points of are less than apart, their images under are less than apart. For this , consider the decomposition given by the previous Lemma. We have
Put .
For each , the curve is a positively oriented square, for which Green's formula holds. Hence
Every point of a border region is at a distance no greater than from . Thus, if is the union of all border regions, then ; hence , by Lemma 2. Notice that
This yields
We may as well choose so that the RHS of the last inequality is
The remark in the beginning of this proof implies that the oscillations of and on every border region is at most . We have
By Lemma 1(iii),
Combining these, we finally get
for some . Since this is true for every , we are done.
Validity under different hypotheses
The hypothesis of the last theorem are not the only ones under which Green's formula is true. Another common set of conditions is the following:
The functions are still assumed to be continuous. However, we now require them to be Fréchet-differentiable at every point of . This implies the existence of all directional derivatives, in particular , where, as usual, is the canonical ordered basis of . In addition, we require the function to be Riemann-integrable over .
As a corollary of this, we get the Cauchy Integral Theorem for rectifiable Jordan curves:
Multiply-connected regions
Theorem. Let be positively oriented rectifiable Jordan curves in satisfying
where is the inner region of . Let
Suppose and are continuous functions whose restriction to is Fréchet-differentiable. If the function
is Riemann-integrable over , then
Relationship to Stokes' theorem
Green's theorem is a special case of the Kelvin–Stokes theorem, when applied to a region in the -plane.
We can augment the two-dimensional field into a three-dimensional field with a z component that is always 0. Write F for the vector-valued function . Start with the left side of Green's theorem:
The Kelvin–Stokes theorem:
The surface is just the region in the plane , with the unit normal defined (by convention) to have a positive z component in order to match the "positive orientation" definitions for both theorems.
The expression inside the integral becomes
Thus we get the right side of Green's theorem
Green's theorem is also a straightforward result of the general Stokes' theorem using differential forms and exterior derivatives:
Relationship to the divergence theorem
Considering only two-dimensional vector fields, Green's theorem is equivalent to the two-dimensional version of the divergence theorem:
where is the divergence on the two-dimensional vector field , and is the outward-pointing unit normal vector on the boundary.
To see this, consider the unit normal in the right side of the equation. Since in Green's theorem is a vector pointing tangential along the curve, and the curve C is the positively oriented (i.e. anticlockwise) curve along the boundary, an outward normal would be a vector which points 90° to the right of this; one choice would be . The length of this vector is So
Start with the left side of Green's theorem:
Applying the two-dimensional divergence theorem with , we get the right side of Green's theorem:
Area calculation
Green's theorem can be used to compute area by line integral. The area of a planar region is given by
Choose and such that , the area is given by
Possible formulas for the area of include
History
It is named after George Green, who stated a similar result in an 1828 paper titled An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism. In 1846, Augustin-Louis Cauchy published a paper stating Green's theorem as the penultimate sentence. This is in fact the first printed version of Green's theorem in the form appearing in modern textbooks. Bernhard Riemann gave the first proof of Green's theorem in his doctoral dissertation on the theory of functions of a complex variable.
See also
Method of image charges – A method used in electrostatics that takes advantage of the uniqueness theorem (derived from Green's theorem)
Shoelace formula – A special case of Green's theorem for simple polygons
References
Further reading
External links
Green's Theorem on MathWorld
Theorems in calculus
Articles containing proofs | [
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243343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Green%20%28mathematician%29 | George Green (mathematician) | George Green (14 July 1793 – 31 May 1841) was a British mathematical physicist who wrote An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism in 1828. The essay introduced several important concepts, among them a theorem similar to the modern Green's theorem, the idea of potential functions as currently used in physics, and the concept of what are now called Green's functions. Green was the first person to create a mathematical theory of electricity and magnetism and his theory formed the foundation for the work of other scientists such as James Clerk Maxwell, William Thomson, and others. His work on potential theory ran parallel to that of Carl Friedrich Gauss.
Green's life story is remarkable in that he was almost entirely self-taught. He received only about one year of formal schooling as a child, between the ages of 8 and 9.
Early life
Green was born and lived for most of his life in the English town of Sneinton, Nottinghamshire, now part of the city of Nottingham. His father, also named George, was a baker who had built and owned a brick windmill used to grind grain.
In his youth, Green was described as having a frail constitution and a dislike for doing work in his father's bakery. He had no choice in the matter, however, and as was common for the time he likely began working daily to earn his living at the age of five.
Robert Goodacre's Academy
During this era it was common for only 25–50% of children in Nottingham to receive any schooling. The majority of schools were Sunday schools, run by the Church, and children would typically attend for one or two years only.
Recognizing the young Green's above average intellect, and being in a strong financial situation due to his successful bakery, his father enrolled him in March 1801 at Robert Goodacre's Academy in Upper Parliament Street. Robert Goodacre was a well-known science populariser and educator of the time. He published Essay on the Education of Youth, in which he wrote that he did not "study the interest of the boy but the embryo Man". To a non-specialist, he would have seemed deeply knowledgeable in science and mathematics, but a close inspection of his essay and curriculum revealed that the extent of his mathematical teachings was limited to algebra, trigonometry and logarithms. Thus, Green's later mathematical contributions, which exhibited knowledge of very modern developments in mathematics, could not have resulted from his tenure at the Robert Goodacre Academy. He stayed for only four terms (one school year), and it was speculated by his contemporaries that he had exhausted all they had to teach him.
Move from Nottingham to Sneinton
In 1773 George's father moved to Nottingham, which at the time had a reputation for being a pleasant town with open spaces and wide roads. By 1831, however, the population had increased nearly five times, in part due to the budding industrial revolution, and the city became known as one of the worst slums in England. There were frequent riots by starving workers, often associated with special hostility towards bakers and millers on the suspicion that they were hiding grain to drive up food prices.
For these reasons, in 1807, George Green senior bought a plot of land in Sneinton. On this plot of land he built a "brick wind corn mill", now referred to as Green's Windmill. It was technologically impressive for its time, but required nearly twenty-four-hour maintenance, which was to become Green's burden for the next twenty years.
Adult life
Miller
Just as with baking, Green found the responsibilities of operating the mill annoying and tedious. Grain from the fields was arriving continuously at the mill's doorstep, and the sails of the windmill had to be constantly adjusted to the windspeed, both to prevent damage in high winds, and to maximise rotational speed in low winds. The millstones that would continuously grind against each other, could wear down or cause a fire if they ran out of grain to grind. Every month the stones, which weighed over a ton, would have to be replaced or repaired.
Family life
In 1823 Green formed a relationship with Jane Smith, the daughter of William Smith, hired by Green Senior as mill manager. Although Green and Jane Smith never married, Jane eventually became known as Jane Green and the couple had seven children together; all but the first had Green as a baptismal name. The youngest child was born 13 months before Green's death. Green provided for his common-law wife and children in his will.
Nottingham Subscription Library
When Green was thirty, he became a member of the Nottingham Subscription Library. This library exists today, and was likely the main source of Green's advanced mathematical knowledge. Unlike more conventional libraries, the subscription library was exclusive to a hundred or so subscribers, and the first on the list of subscribers was the Duke of Newcastle. This library catered to requests for specialised books and journals that satisfied the particular interests of their subscribers.
1828 essay
In 1828, Green published An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism, which is the essay he is most famous for today. It was published privately at the author's expense, because he thought it would be presumptuous for a person like himself, with no formal education in mathematics, to submit the paper to an established journal. When Green published his Essay, it was sold on a subscription basis to 51 people, most of whom were friends and probably could not understand it.
The wealthy landowner and mathematician Sir Edward Bromhead bought a copy and encouraged Green to do further work in mathematics. Not believing the offer was sincere, Green did not contact Bromhead for two years.
Mathematician
By the time Green's father died in 1829, the senior Green had become one of the gentry due to his considerable accumulated wealth and land owned, roughly half of which he left to his son and the other half to his daughter. The young Green, now thirty-six years old, consequently was able to use this wealth to abandon his miller duties and pursue mathematical studies.
Cambridge
Members of the Nottingham Subscription Library who knew Green repeatedly insisted that he obtain a proper University education. In particular, one of the library's most prestigious subscribers was Sir Edward Bromhead, with whom Green shared many correspondences; he insisted that Green go to Cambridge.
In 1832, aged nearly forty, Green was admitted as an undergraduate at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. He was particularly insecure about his lack of knowledge of Greek and Latin, which were prerequisites, but it turned out not to be as hard for him to learn these as he had envisaged, as the degree of expected mastery was not as high as he had expected. In the mathematics examinations, he won the first-year mathematical prize. He graduated with a BA in 1838 as a 4th Wrangler (the 4th highest scoring student in his graduating class, coming after James Joseph Sylvester who scored 2nd).
College fellow
Following his graduation, Green was elected a fellow of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Even without his stellar academic standing, the Society had already read and made note of his Essay and three other publications, so Green was welcomed.
The next two years provided an unparalleled opportunity for Green to read, write, and discuss his scientific ideas. In this short time he published an additional six publications with applications to hydrodynamics, sound, and optics.
Final years and posthumous fame
In his final years at Cambridge, Green became rather ill, and in 1840 he returned to Sneinton, only to die a year later. There are rumours that at Cambridge, Green had "succumbed to alcohol", and some of his earlier supporters, such as Sir Edward Bromhead, tried to distance themselves from him.
Green's work was not well known in the mathematical community during his lifetime. Besides Green himself, the first mathematician to quote his 1828 work was the Briton Robert Murphy (1806–1843) in his 1833 work. In 1845, four years after Green's death, Green's work was rediscovered by the young William Thomson (then aged 21), later known as Lord Kelvin, who popularised it for future mathematicians. According to the book "George Green" by D.M. Cannell, William Thomson noticed Murphy's citation of Green's 1828 essay but found it difficult to locate Green's 1828 work; he finally got some copies of Green's 1828 work from William Hopkins in 1845.
In 1871 N. M. Ferrers assembled The Mathematical Papers of the late George Green for publication.
Green's work on the motion of waves in a canal (resulting in what is known as Green's law) anticipates the WKB approximation of quantum mechanics, while his research on light-waves and the properties of the Aether produced what is now known as the Cauchy-Green tensor. Green's theorem and functions were important tools in classical mechanics, and were revised by Schwinger's 1948 work on electrodynamics that led to his 1965 Nobel prize (shared with Feynman and Tomonaga). Green's functions later also proved useful in analysing superconductivity. On a visit to Nottingham in 1930, Albert Einstein commented that Green had been 20 years ahead of his time. The theoretical physicist Julian Schwinger, who used Green's functions in his ground-breaking works, published a tribute entitled "The Greening of Quantum Field Theory: George and I" in 1993.
The George Green Library at the University of Nottingham is named after him, and houses the majority of the university's science and engineering Collection. The George Green Institute for Electromagnetics Research, a research group in the University of Nottingham engineering department, is also named after him. In 1986, Green's Windmill was restored to working order. It now serves both as a working example of a 19th-century windmill and as a museum and science centre dedicated to Green.
Westminster Abbey has a memorial stone for Green in the nave adjoining the graves of Sir Isaac Newton and Lord Kelvin.
His work and influence on 19th-century applied physics had been largely forgotten until the publication of his biography by Mary Cannell in 1993.
Source of knowledge
It is unclear to historians exactly where Green obtained information on current developments in mathematics, as Nottingham had little in the way of intellectual resources. What is even more mysterious is that Green had used "the Mathematical Analysis," a form of calculus derived from Leibniz that was virtually unheard of, or even actively discouraged, in England at the time (due to Leibniz being a contemporary of Newton who had his own methods that were championed in England). This form of calculus, and the developments of mathematicians such as the French mathematicians Laplace, Lacroix and Poisson were not taught even at Cambridge, let alone Nottingham, and yet Green not only had heard of these developments, but improved upon them.
It is speculated that only one person educated in mathematics, John Toplis, headmaster of Nottingham High School 1806–1819, graduate from Cambridge as 11th Wrangler and an enthusiast of French mathematics, lived in Nottingham at the time.
List of publications
An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism. By George Green, Nottingham. Printed for the Author by T. Wheelhouse, Nottingham. 1828. (Quarto, vii + 72 pages.)
Presented 12 November 1832.
Presented 6 May 1833.
Presented 16 December 1833.
Presented 11 December 1837.
Presented 15 May 1837.
Presented 11 December 1837.
Presented 18 February 1839.
Presented 6 May 1839.
Presented 20 May 1839.
Notes
References
Ivor Grattan-Guinness, 'Green, George (1793–1841)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 accessed 26 May 2009
D. M. Cannell, "George Green mathematician and physicist 1793–1841", The Athlone Press, London, 1993.
(Note: This was the first quotation of Green's 1828 work by somebody other than Green himself.)
– An excellent on-line source of George Green information
External links
List of References for George Green
19th-century English mathematicians
English physicists
Mathematical analysts
Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
Fellows of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
People from Sneinton
1793 births
1841 deaths
Tourist attractions in Nottinghamshire
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243345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beinecke%20Rare%20Book%20%26%20Manuscript%20Library | Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library | The Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library () is the rare book library and literary archive of the Yale University Library in New Haven, Connecticut. It is one of the largest buildings in the world dedicated to rare books and manuscripts. Established by a gift of the Beinecke family and given its own financial endowment, the library is financially independent from the university and is co-governed by the University Library and Yale Corporation.
Situated on Yale University's Hewitt Quadrangle, the building was designed by Gordon Bunshaft of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill and completed in 1963.From 2015-16 the library building was closed for 18 months for major renovations, which included replacing the building's HVAC system and expanding teaching and exhibition capabilities.
Architecture
A six-story above-ground glass-enclosed tower of book stacks is encased by a windowless façade, supported by four monolithic piers at the corners of the building. The exterior shell is structurally supported by a steel frame with pylons embedded to bedrock at each corner pier. The façade is constructed of translucent veined marble and granite. The marble is milled to a thickness of and was quarried from Danby, Vermont. On a sunny day the marble transmits filtered daylight to the interior in a subtle golden amber glow, a product of its thin profile. These panels are framed by a hexagonal grid of Vermont Woodbury granite veneer, fastened to a structural steel frame. The outside dimensions have "Platonic" mathematical proportions of 1:2:3 (height: width: length). The building has been called a "jewel box", and also a "laboratory for the humanities". The Modernist structure contains furniture designed by Florence Knoll and Marcel Breuer.
An elevated public exhibition mezzanine surrounds the glass stack tower, and displays among other things, one of the 48 extant copies of the Gutenberg Bible. Two basement floors extend under much of Hewitt Quadrangle. The first sub-grade level, the "Court" level, centers on a sunken courtyard in front of the Beinecke, which features The Garden (Pyramid, Sun, and Cube). These are abstract allegorical sculptures by Isamu Noguchi that are said to represent time (the pyramid), sun (the disc), and chance (the cube). This level also features a secure reading room for visiting researchers, administrative offices, and book storage areas. The level of the building two floors below ground has movable-aisle high-density shelving for books and archives.
The Beinecke is one of the larger buildings in America devoted entirely to rare books and manuscripts. The library has room in the central tower for 180,000 volumes and room for over 1 million volumes in the underground book stacks. The library's collection, which is housed both in the library's main building and at Yale University's Library Shelving Facility in Hamden, Connecticut, totals roughly 1 million volumes and several million manuscripts.
During the 1960s, the Claes Oldenburg sculpture Lipstick on Caterpillar Tracks (Ascending) was displayed in Hewitt Quadrangle. The sculpture has since been moved to the courtyard of Morse College, one of the university's residential dormitories.
The elegance of the Beinecke later inspired the glass-walled structure that protects and displays the original core collection (the books given by King George III and referred to as the King's Library) within the British Library building in Euston, London.
History
In the late 19th century, rare and valuable books of the Library of Yale College were placed on special shelving at the College Library, now known as Dwight Hall. When the university received a multimillion-dollar bequest from John W. Sterling for the construction of Sterling Memorial Library in 1918, the university decided to create a dedicated reading room for its rare books, which became the building's Rare Book Room when the building opened in 1930. Because the bequest did not contain an allowance for books or materials, Yale English professor Chauncey Brewster Tinker petitioned Yale alumni to donate materials that would give the university a collection as monumental as its new building. By the time Sterling opened, Tinker's appeal garnered an impressive collection of rare books, including a Gutenberg Bible from Anna M. Harkness and several major collections from the Beinecke family, most notably its collection on the American West.
By 1958, the library owned more than 130,000 rare volumes and many more manuscripts. The amassed collection proved too large for Sterling's reading room, and the reading room unsuited to their preservation. Having already given significant collections to Yale, Edwin and Frederick W. Beinecke—as well as Johanna Weigle, widow of their brother Walter—gave funds to build a dedicated rare books library building. When the Beinecke Library opened on October 14, 1963, it became the home of the volumes from Rare Book Room, and three special collections: the Collection of American Literature, the Collection of Western Americana, and the Collection of German Literature. Shortly afterward, they were joined by the James Marshall and Marie-Louise Osborn Collection.
Beinecke Library became the repository for books in the Yale collection printed anywhere before 1800, books printed in Latin America before 1751, books printed in North America before 1821, newspapers and broadsides printed in the United States before 1851, European tracts and pamphlets printed before 1801, and Slavic, East European, Near and Middle Eastern books through the eighteenth century, as well as special books outside these categories.
Now, the collection spans through to the present day, including such modern works as limited-edition poetry and artists' books. The library also contains thousands of linear feet of archival material, ranging from ancient papyri and medieval manuscripts to the archived personal papers of modern writers.
Special collections
The library is open to all Yale University students and faculty, and to visiting researchers whose work requires use of its special collections. In order to access materials, there are a few forms and policies that users must read.
The holdings of the Beinecke Library include:
American Children's Literature
John James Audubon
James M. Barrie
John Baskerville
William Thomas Beckford
Sir John Betjeman
John Boswell
Joseph Brodsky
Bryher
Mary Butts
Rachel Carson
Cartography, including the "Vinland Map"
Cary Collection of Playing Cards
Ernst Cassirer
Congregationalism
Joseph Conrad
Walter Crane
Dada
The d'Aulaire Collection (Ingri and Edgar Parin d'Aulaire)
Daniel Defoe
Charles Dickens
Norman Douglas
Lawrence Durrell
Jonathan Edwards
George Eliot
The Elizabethan Club collection
Erasmus and his contemporaries
Faust
Fantasy Magazine Archives
Henry Fielding
Benjamin Franklin
Goethe
George Grosz
Greek and Latin Literature
Thomas Hardy
H.D. Papers
W. Head & Sister, photographers
Langston Hughes
Humanism
Incunabula (over 3100 volumes including the Melk copy of the Gutenberg Bible)
James Weldon Johnson Collection
James Joyce
Judaica
Rudyard Kipling
D. H. Lawrence
Doris Lessing
Sinclair Lewis
Pre-1600 manuscripts
Thomas Mann
F.T. Marinetti
John Masefield
F. O. Matthiessen
The Mellon Collection of Alchemy and the Occult
George Meredith
William J. Minor Horse Racing Papers.
Eugene O'Neill, Jr.
Ornithology
the Papyrus Collection
Polish Literature
Pop-up books and movable books
Ezra Pound Papers
Dorothy Richardson
Rilke
Rochambeau Family
Bruce Rogers
the Romanov Family photo albums
Olga Rudge Papers
John Ruskin
Russian Literature
Schiller
Miriam Schlein
Sixteenth-Century Printed Books
Sporting Books
The Gertrude Stein and Alice B. Toklas Collection
Robert Louis Stevenson
James J. Strang
Alexis de Tocqueville
Vanderbilt Collection
Carl Van Vechten
Paula Vogel
The Voynich manuscript
Rebecca West
Edith Wharton
The Thornton Wilder papers
Kurt Wolff
Exhibitions
In addition to items on permanent display such as the Gutenberg Bible, the Beinecke offers a year-round program of temporary exhibits drawn from its collections. For example, in 2006 the library presented Breaking the Binding: Printing and the Third Dimension, a show of flap books, pop-ups, perspective books, panoramas, and peep-shows in printed form. Display cases are located on the mezzanine level and at the ground floor entry level, and may be freely viewed by the general public whenever the library is open.
The Library celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2013. There were two full-year exhibitions that explored the library's architecture and people as well as a series of showcases of rarely seen manuscripts, printed works, and visual objects from across all curatorial areas.
Security
The Beinecke collection does not circulate; all materials are to be consulted in the reading room. The library hosts almost 10,000 research visits annually, almost half of which are with scholars having no formal affiliation to Yale University.
Security measures were significantly increased after the well-known antiques dealer Edward Forbes Smiley III was caught cutting maps from rare books with an X-acto blade in 2005. Smiley's scheme was discovered when he dropped his concealed tool in the reading room, and he subsequently served several years in prison for thefts of rare documents valued in millions of dollars from the Beinecke and other libraries. The library operates under a closed stack system, and rigorous security rules now allow carefully controlled access to materials under video surveillance.
The glass-enclosed central stacks (not accessible to the public) can be flooded with a mix of Halon 1301 and Inergen fire suppressant gas if fire detectors are triggered. A previous system using carbon dioxide was removed for personnel safety reasons.
After an infestation of the death watch beetle was discovered in 1977, the Beinecke Library helped pioneer the non-toxic method of controlling paper-eating pests by freezing books and documents at for three days. All new acquisitions are given this treatment as a precaution, and the deep freeze method is now widely accepted for pest control in special collections libraries.
In popular culture
In Uncommon Carriers, John McPhee admires a restaurant's display of "a glass tower of recumbent wines that may have been an architectural reference to the glass column of visible books in the Beinecke Library at Yale".
In The Once and Future Spy by Robert Littell, an assassination attempt is made on a CIA analyst at the Beinecke Library.
In The Ninth House, the Beinecke Library is made a site for cult practice by a secret society called the Manuscript.
See also
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 216
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 219
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 276
Voynich manuscript
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Beinecke renovation website
Online Tour of the Beinecke Library Building
African American Studies at Beinecke Library Blog
Beinecke Poetry Blog
Room 26: Cabinet of Curiosities Blog – Blog of visual materials from the Beinecke's collections by Beinecke curatorial staff
Beinecke Library Construction Photographs, 1961–1963
Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library Exhibition Materials. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
Library buildings completed in 1963
Yale University buildings
Yale University Library
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill buildings
Modernist architecture in Connecticut
Literary archives
Rare book libraries
Special collections libraries | [
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243349 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh%E2%80%93Jeans%20law | Rayleigh–Jeans law | In physics, the Rayleigh–Jeans law is an approximation to the spectral radiance of electromagnetic radiation as a function of wavelength from a black body at a given temperature through classical arguments. For wavelength , it is:
where is the spectral radiance, the power emitted per unit emitting area, per steradian, per unit wavelength; is the speed of light; is the Boltzmann constant; and is the temperature in kelvins. For frequency , the expression is instead
The Rayleigh–Jeans law agrees with experimental results at large wavelengths (low frequencies) but strongly disagrees at short wavelengths (high frequencies). This inconsistency between observations and the predictions of classical physics is commonly known as the ultraviolet catastrophe. Its resolution in 1900 with the derivation by Max Planck of Planck's law, which gives the correct radiation at all frequencies, was a foundational aspect of the development of quantum mechanics in the early 20th century.
Historical development
In 1900, the British physicist Lord Rayleigh derived the λ−4 dependence of the Rayleigh–Jeans law based on classical physical arguments and empirical facts. A more complete derivation, which included the proportionality constant, was presented by Rayleigh and Sir James Jeans in 1905. The Rayleigh–Jeans law revealed an important error in physics theory of the time. The law predicted an energy output that diverges towards infinity as wavelength approaches zero (as frequency tends to infinity). Measurements of the spectral emission of actual black bodies revealed that the emission agreed with the Rayleigh–Jeans law at low frequencies but diverged at high frequencies; reaching a maximum and then falling with frequency, so the total energy emitted is finite.
Comparison to Planck's law
In 1900 Max Planck empirically obtained an expression for black-body radiation expressed in terms of wavelength (Planck's law):
where h is the Planck constant and the Boltzmann constant. The Planck's law does not suffer from an ultraviolet catastrophe, and agrees well with the experimental data, but its full significance (which ultimately led to quantum theory) was only appreciated several years later. Since,
then in the limit of high temperatures or long wavelengths, the term in the exponential becomes small, and the exponential is well approximated with the Taylor polynomial's first-order term,
So,
This results in Planck's blackbody formula reducing to
which is identical to the classically derived Rayleigh–Jeans expression.
The same argument can be applied to the blackbody radiation expressed in terms of frequency . In the limit of small frequencies, that is ,
This last expression is the Rayleigh–Jeans law in the limit of small frequencies.
Consistency of frequency and wavelength dependent expressions
When comparing the frequency and wavelength dependent expressions of the Rayleigh–Jeans law it is important to remember that
and
Therefore,
even after substituting the value , because has units of energy emitted per unit time per unit area of emitting surface, per unit solid angle, per unit wavelength, whereas has units of energy emitted per unit time per unit area of emitting surface, per unit solid angle, per unit frequency. To be consistent, we must use the equality
where both sides now have units of power (energy emitted per unit time) per unit area of emitting surface, per unit solid angle.
Starting with the Rayleigh–Jeans law in terms of wavelength we get
where
This leads us to find:
Other forms of Rayleigh–Jeans law
Depending on the application, the Planck function can be expressed in 3 different forms. The first involves energy emitted per unit time per unit area of emitting surface, per unit solid angle, per spectral unit. In this form, the Planck function and associated Rayleigh–Jeans limits are given by
or
Alternatively, Planck's law can be written as an expression for emitted power integrated over all solid angles. In this form, the Planck function and associated Rayleigh–Jeans limits are given by
or
In other cases, Planck's law is written as for energy per unit volume (energy density). In this form, the Planck function and associated Rayleigh–Jeans limits are given by
or
See also
Stefan–Boltzmann law
Wien's displacement law
Sakuma–Hattori equation
References
External links
Derivation at HyperPhysics
Foundational quantum physics
Obsolete theories in physics | [
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243351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin%20Chew | Benjamin Chew | Benjamin Chew (November 19, 1722 – January 20, 1810) was a fifth-generation American, a Quaker-born legal scholar, a prominent and successful Philadelphia lawyer, head of the Pennsylvania Judiciary System under both Colony and Commonwealth, and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Province of Pennsylvania. Chew was well known for his precision and brevity in making legal arguments as well as his excellent memory, judgment, and knowledge of statutory law. His primary allegiance was to the supremacy of law and constitution.
Trained in law at an early age by Andrew Hamilton, Benjamin Chew inherited his mentor's clients, the descendants of William Penn, including Thomas Penn (1702–1775) and his brother Richard Penn Sr. (1706–1771), and their sons Governor John Penn (1729–1795), Richard Penn Jr. (1734–1811), and John Penn (1760–1834). The Penn family was the basis of his private practice, and he represented them for six decades.
He had a lifelong personal friendship with George Washington, who is said to have treated Chew's children "as if they were his own." Chew lived and practiced law in Philadelphia four blocks from the Pennsylvania State House (later Independence Hall), and provided pro bono his knowledge of substantive law to America's Founding Fathers during the creation of the United States Constitution and Bill of Rights.
Early life and education
Benjamin Chew was the son of Samuel Chew, a physician and first Chief Justice of Delaware, and Mary Galloway Chew (1697–1734). He was born in Anne Arundel County, Maryland, at his father's plantation of Maidstone. Benjamin Chew's great-great-grandfather, John Chew (1587–1668), a successful merchant, arrived in Jamestown in 1622 on the ship Charitie; he was granted of land in Charles River (now York) County, Virginia.
The young Chew took an interest in the field of law at an early age. In 1736, when he was 15 years old, he began to read law in the Philadelphia offices of the former Attorney General of Pennsylvania, Andrew Hamilton, then the speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives. The year before, Hamilton had won a landmark case in American jurisprudence by his eloquent pro bono defense of the publisher Peter Zenger. It established the precedent of truth as an absolute defense against charges of libel.
Chew was strongly influenced by Hamilton's ideas about a free press, and also the reading materials which his mentor provided him, especially Sir Francis Bacon's Lawtracts. His understanding of English legal history, and especially the Charter of Liberties, enhanced by his later studies at London's Middle Temple, fostered Chew's enduring commitment to the civil liberties that are guaranteed by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, especially the right to free speech.
After Hamilton's death in August 1741, Chew sailed to London to study law at the Honourable Society of the Middle Temple, one of the four Inns of Court. He began to attend London theatre and read what friends recommended; his journal during these years shows his process of adopting aspects of English refinement expected of gentlemen, which he continued after returning to the colonies. His friend John Dickinson was already studying in London, a frequent destination for aspiring generations of young men from North America. Following his father's death, Chew returned to Pennsylvania in 1744. He began to practice law in Dover, Delaware, while supporting his siblings and stepmother.
Although Chew was raised in a Quaker family, he had first broken with Quaker tradition in 1741, when he agreed with his father, who had instructed a grand jury in New Castle on the lawfulness of resistance to an armed force. In 1747, at age 25, Chew also went against Quaker tradition when he took the Oath of Attorney in Pennsylvania.
Chew moved to Philadelphia in 1754. He continued his legal responsibilities in both Delaware and Pennsylvania for the rest of his life. After early appointments in the Quaker-dominated government, following his second marriage he went into private practice in 1757; the following year joined the Anglican Church. He was taking a separate path to influence outside the Quaker elite.
Marriage and family
Chew wed Mary Galloway (1729–1755), his first cousin, on June 13, 1747, at West River, Maryland. They had five daughters (Mary (1748–1788), Anna Marie (1749–1812), Elizabeth (1751–1815), Sarah (1753–1810), and Henrietta (1755–1756)) before Mary died. From 1754 to 1771, Chew and his family lived on Front Street in Philadelphia.
He married again on September 12, 1757, to Elizabeth Oswald (1732–1819),
daughter of James and Mary (Turner) Oswald. Elizabeth was the niece and heir to the estate of Captain Joseph Turner.
Benjamin and Elizabeth had seven more daughters (Margaret "Peggy" (1760–1824), Juliana (1765–1845), Henrietta (1767–1848), Sophia (1769–1841), Maria (1771–1840), Harriet (1775–1861), and Catherine (1779–1831)), and two sons (Benjamin Jr. (1758–1844) and Joseph (1763–1764)).
In 1758, Chew left the Quakers permanently and joined the Church of England; he and his wife had their son Benjamin baptized that year at Christ Church. They worshipped there with their growing family, and later at St. Peter's Church when they moved out to Germantown. This was part of a process of Anglicization that had begun when he was studying law at the Middle Temple in London.
Chew greatly increased both his wealth and property holdings when he married Elizabeth Oswald. They held numerous slaves to care for the properties and cultivate their commodity crops. In 1760, on the Chew's property "Whitehall" in Delaware, Richard Allen, was born into slavery. In 1768, recognizing the boy's early genius, Chew sold Allen, then eight years old, and all members of his immediate family to Stokley Sturgis, a known abolitionist and owner of a neighboring property in Delaware. Richard Allen later became a preacher in the Methodist Church in Philadelphia, co-founder of the Free African Society, and the founder and first bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, the first African-American denomination in the United States.
Law practice
Mentored by Andrew Hamilton from an early age, Chew was highly effective in defending civil liberties and settling boundary disputes; he represented the descendants of William Penn and their proprietorship, the largest landholders in Pennsylvania, for more than 60 years. In 1757 Chew entered private practice: he derived most of his income from that, managing his second wife's considerable estate, and collecting quit-rents from his various properties. Chew continued the family practice of investing in land in the American colonies until the end of his life, expanding their holdings in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey.
In his early career, Chew often met with other ambitious young men of Philadelphia at the London Coffee House. Together in 1766, they organized the Gloucester Fox Hunting Club, the first in the United States. This adoption of an English sport was part of their becoming gentlemen; they committed to hunting together in the country a couple of times a week.
In 1768, Chew was elected to the revived American Philosophical Society.
Residences
Third Street House
In 1771, Chew purchased the former house of his client, Governor John Penn, on South Third Street; Penn had returned to England to settle his father's (Richard Penn Sr.) estate. For almost five decades, the household on Third Street was filled by Benjamin and Elizabeth Chew, their son Benjamin, and their daughters Anna Marie, Elizabeth, Sarah, Margaret (Peggy), Juliana, Henrietta, Sophia, Maria, Harriet, and Catherine, all of whom were actively engaged in the social, civic, and cultural life of the nation's first capital. Three of the daughters retained ownership of the house until 1828.
The Chews entertained many visiting dignitaries, such as John Penn, Tench Francis Jr., Robert, Thomas, and Samuel Wharton, Thomas Willing, John Cadwalader, Chief Justice William Allen and his wife Margaret, daughter of Andrew Hamilton, Dr. William Smith, Provost of the College of Philadelphia, botanist John Bartram, Edward Shippen III, Edward Shippen IV, and Peggy Shippen, Thomas Mifflin, later to become Governor of Pennsylvania, and Brigadier General Henry Bouquet, hero of the French and Indian War.
Abigail Adams referred to Chews' daughters as part of a "constellation of beauties" in Philadelphia. Margaret Chew (1760–1824) married Maryland Governor John Eager Howard in 1787. Sophia (1769–1841) was invited to attend Martha Washington's first public event in Philadelphia. Harriet (1775–1861) was asked to entertain George Washington while his portrait was being painted. In 1800, she married the only son of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, signer of the Declaration of Independence, who built Homewood for them as a wedding gift. Throughout the Revolutionary War, George Washington aided the transfer of letters between Mr. and Mrs. Chew, during months when they were forced to live apart.
The Chew family's house on Third Street was situated between Spruce and Walnut Streets, next to the house of Samuel Powel, mayor of Philadelphia, and his wife, Elizabeth Willing Powel, who was one of George Washington's closest confidantes. "Led by Mrs. Washington, Mrs. Morris, and 'the dazzling Mrs. Bingham,' as Abigail Adams called her, the city embarked on a lavish program of public and private entertainment patterned on English and French models." Mrs. Adams reports being pleasantly surprised by "an agreeable society and friendliness kept up with all the principal families, who appear to live in great harmony, and we are met at all the parties [with] nearly the same company." After the death of their parents, Henrietta, Maria, and Catherine Chew vacated their house on South Third Street, and moved to a family-owned property on Walnut Street. In 1828, they sold the house on South Third Street, and in 1830, the building was razed.
Cliveden
To protect his family from the diseases that plagued Philadelphia, Chew chose Mennonite master builder, Jacob Knor, to build a summer retreat in Germantown, which he called Cliveden; the house later came to be known as the Chew house. Knor went on to construct several other buildings in Germantown, including the nearby Johnson House in 1768.
On August 4, 1777, when the Executive Committee of the Continental Congress decided to place Chew in preventive detention in New Jersey, his wife and children vacated Cliveden and returned to their Third Street home. With Cliveden vacant, General Howe, the British Commander-in-Chief, quickly seized the house. Protected by its strong walls, he won the Battle of Germantown on October 4.
After Chew was released from parole in May 1778, he decided to move his family to Whitehall, their estate in Delaware, to buffer them from the political turbulence of Philadelphia. Chew sold Cliveden to Blair McClenahan because he was unable to afford the extensive repairs necessary after the Battle of Germantown. While in Delaware, the Chews rented their house on Third Street to Don Juan de Miralles (the Spanish representative to the American government); the Marquis de Chastellux (principal liaison officer between the French Commander-in-Chief and George Washington); and to George and Martha Washington, from November 1781 to March 1782, during the Second Continental Congress.
By 1783, the Chews concluded that the political situation was safe enough for their family to return to Philadelphia. They lived full-time in the house on South Third Street during the formation of the United States: the Constitutional Convention; the Congress of the Confederation; and in 1792, the official adoption of the Bill of Rights by the First United States Congress.
In 1797, Chew bought back Cliveden. It remained under family ownership for another five generations. Cannonballs from the Battle of Germantown were embedded in its walls until 1972, when Chew's descendants donated the house to the National Trust for Historic Preservation. During restoration, most of the cannonballs were removed.
Career
Benjamin Chew was Speaker of the Lower House for the Delaware counties (1753–1758); Attorney General and member of the Council of Pennsylvania (1754–1769); Recorder of Philadelphia City (1755–1774); Master of Rolls (1755–1774; analogous to the Master of the Rolls role in England and Wales); and Provincial Councillor of Pennsylvania (1755).
In 1757 he began private practice, which was his chief pursuit for years, somewhat reducing his political appointments in the Quaker government. That year, he was also elected a trustee of the Academy and College of Philadelphia (the origins of the University of Pennsylvania) and continued as such until 1791. He also taught numerous law students. Foremost among Benjamin Chew's law students were Brigade Major Edward Tilghman and Judge William Tilghman. "These Tilghmans were so successful in the law that they were both offered the post of State Chief Justice in 1805."
He was selected as a Commissioner of Philadelphia (1761); appointed as Register-General of Wills (1765–1777); and as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania (1774–1777). During the American Revolutionary War, the Executive Council governing the new state removed him from office in 1777 and kept him in preventive detention in New Jersey until after the British forces left the Philadelphia region.
After the war, Chew resumed a position of influence in the new society and, eventually, its government. He was appointed as Judge and President of the Pennsylvania High Court of Errors and Appeals (1791–1808), the court of last resort in the Commonwealth.
Mason–Dixon line
By the time he was 29, Chew held a number of offices, both elected and appointed, in the Delaware and Pennsylvanian colonial governments. Appointed as Secretary of the Boundary Commission in 1750, Chew successfully represented the Penn family for the following eighteen years in their boundary dispute with first Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore and then Frederick Calvert, 6th Baron Baltimore of Maryland. The dispute was finally resolved in 1768, when the Boundary Commission oversaw the development and completion of the Mason–Dixon line between Pennsylvania and Maryland.
Albany Conference
On June 19, 1754, the Albany Congress was held in Albany, New York. Twenty-one representatives of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire attended the Congress. Secretaries of each colony represented also attended, including Benjamin Chew of the Pennsylvania delegation. These secretaries helped formulate the plan to unite the colonies as a unified force at the time of threat from France during the Seven Years' War, known in North America as the French and Indian War, which began that year. The Albany Plan of Union was one of the first attempts to unite the British colonies. Benjamin Franklin proposed the plan but, as it greatly exceeded the scope of the congress, it was strongly debated by attendees. Six months later, Chew, aged 32, was appointed as Attorney General of the colony of Pennsylvania.
Easton Conference
In October 1758, The Easton Conference was held in Easton, Pennsylvania, to resolve conflicts created by The Walking Purchase of 1737, which had lasting effects on the relationships between Native Americans and the colonists. As Attorney General of Pennsylvania, Chew attended the negotiations for the Treaty of Easton and documented the proceedings in his "Journal of a Journey to Easton." The conference concluded on October 26, and in November, Governor Denny announced to the Pennsylvania Assembly that "a general peace was secured at Easton."
Attorney General
"From 1755 to 1769 Chew served as Attorney General of Pennsylvania and as the Recorder of Philadelphia, earning a reputation that was second to none." In a letter warning the Crown against enacting the Stamp Act, Attorney General Benjamin Chew described the mood in America: "…it is impossible to say to what length their irritated and turbulent Spirits may carry them." The Stamp Act was repealed two months later.
Supreme Court Chief Justice
"Chew's political views were at all times close to those of his predecessor, William Allen. He supported the Proprietary interests, opposed the Stamp Act and other English abuses, but opposed independence." "The Chew court...was without a question the most professional and formally trained high court to date." "Chew's pro-American views and actions were not enough to save him, but he was not persecuted in the way that some pacifists were, as his record of speaking out against British abuses was well known. It was not until the following year that his liberty was restricted" by the Executive Council of
When he was finally paroled and sent to New Jersey for preventive detention as a suspected Loyalist, "Chew refused to take the action of the Council seriously at first, and thoroughly intimidated the young soldiers from the City Troop who were sent to pick him up. Eventually realizing his predicament he signed a parole...although he insisted that there was no charge against him except that he had held office under the Proprietor."
Post-war: President of the High Court
After the state and national governments had been formed, in 1791, Chew was appointed by Thomas Mifflin, Pennsylvania's first Governor and the former President of the Continental Congress, to preside as the President over Pennsylvania's first High Court of Errors and Appeals. He held the position until he retired in 1808.
Pennsylvania at first made no provision for any appeal from its Supreme Court, but in February 1780 legislation established the Pennsylvania High Court of Errors and Appeals. It was empowered to hear appeals from the Supreme Court and also from the Court of Admiralty and the Register's Courts. Chew received the highest compliment Pennsylvania could pay him: he was appointed by Governor Thomas Mifflin as President of the High Court, despite the fact that he was by then close to seventy.
Political influence
Prior to the American Revolution, Chew was friends with both George Washington and John Adams, and was a strong advocate for the colonies. As a lifelong pacifist, however, Chew believed that protest and reform were necessary to resolve the ongoing American conflicts with the British Parliament. Having been born and reared as a Quaker, he did not support active revolution. He maintained that position although he had left the Quakers and joined the Anglican Church in 1758. Early in the conflict, both the British and colonial sides claimed his allegiance since Chew had such a visible position in the colony and played so many important roles.
Chew was undecided about the correct course to take. "I have stated that an opposition of force of arms to the lawful authority of the king or his ministries…is high treason, but in the moment when the king or his ministries shall exceed the constitutional authority vested in them … submission to their mandates becomes treason." -Benjamin Chew, Chief Justice of Pennsylvania, in an address to the last provincial grand jury, April 10, 1776
On August 4, 1777, when General Howe and the British army were nearing Philadelphia, the Executive Council of the new government "issued a warrant for (Chew's) arrest on grounds of protecting the public safety. When the warrant was served two days later at his home in Philadelphia, Chew demanded to know 'by what authority and for what cause' he was charged." "As a lawyer, [Chew] believed that the warrant infringed on his rights as a free man; moreover, it violated the first principle of justice by prejudging him unheard. This, as he later recorded in notes concerning his arrest, 'struck at the liberties of everyone in the community and [he believed] it was his duty to oppose it and check it, if possible, in its infancy.'"
The Executive Council of the Continental Congress decided at the last minute against allowing Chew to remain at Cliveden. For his own safety, they decided to allow both Chew and the Governor John Penn to be paroled at his wife Elizabeth Chew's house, "Solitude," at the Union Forge Ironworks in High Bridge, New Jersey. Six months later, after the British forces left the region, both men returned to Philadelphia on May 15, 1778.
Post-war years
After the Revolution, Benjamin Chew's broad social circles continued to include representatives of many faiths, as well as friends and politicians with many disparate points of view. Chew continued to participate in the meetings of the Tammany Society, to honor Tamanend, the Lenni-Lenape chief who first negotiated peace agreements with William Penn. "Although Benjamin Chew was not a participant in the Constitutional Convention of 1787...he and his family were part of the city's new social circle that included the Washingtons, the John Adams, the William Binghams, and the Robert Morrises...In large measure this was because Chew's legal perspicacity offered expertise needed by the new government."
After an extended illness, Chew died at Cliveden on January 20, 1810. He is buried at St. Peter's Churchyard, Philadelphia.
Legacy
In 1906 a portrait of Benjamin Chew was dedicated and installed in the Pennsylvania State Capitol building in Harrisburg, honoring his role as Chief Justice.
Chew Avenue in Philadelphia was named in his honor, as was Chew Street in Allentown, Pennsylvania.
In 1942, the Liberty ship, the Benjamin Chew, was built and named in his honor. The ship was constructed at the Bethlehem-Fairfield Shipyards in Baltimore, Maryland.
Chewton, Pennsylvania in Lawrence County was named after Benjamin Chew. As a land speculator, Chew was estimated to own over 30,000 acres in Western Pennsylvania.
See also
Reverend Richard Allen, the founder and first Bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, was a former slave whose parents belonged to Chew. In 1768, Chew sold Richard Allen, along with all members of his family, to his friend, neighbor and early abolitionist, Stokeley Sturgis.
References
External links
The Chew Family Papers, containing an extensive collection of correspondence, documents, financial records and other materials, are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
The Chew Family Papers Whitehall Plantation.
Cliveden of the National Trust
John Penn’s Home Benjamin Chew's former residence.
Political Graveyard
Legends of the Philadelphia Bar: Benjamin Chew
Benjamin Chew at USHistory.org
Biography and portrait at the University of Pennsylvania
This gives the date of Benjamin's return from England as 1743.
Biography at Virtualology.com under his father, Samuel Chew Based on an earlier edition of Appletons', this also gives the date of Benjamin's return from England as 1743.
Mason and Dixon Line Preservation Partnership
Colonial Families of Philadelphia
Benjamin Chew, Esq. A site dedicated to emerging research on Benjamin Chew, Esq.
The Honourable Society of the Middle Temple
1722 births
1810 deaths
Lawyers from Philadelphia
Members of the Pennsylvania Provincial Council
American people of English descent
Converts to Anglicanism from Quakerism
Culture of Philadelphia
Members of the American Philosophical Society
People of colonial Pennsylvania
American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law
Burials at St. Peter's churchyard, Philadelphia
18th-century American judges
19th-century American judges
American slave owners
People of colonial Maryland
19th-century American lawyers | [
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243353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Chew | Samuel Chew | Samuel Chew may refer to:
Samuel Chew (justice) (1693–1743), physician, Chief Justice of colonial Delaware
Samuel Chew (captain) (1750–1778), American officer in the Continental Navy
Samuel Claggett Chew (1888–1960), American literary scholar
Sam Chew Jr., American actor | [
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243355 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germantown%2C%20Philadelphia | Germantown, Philadelphia | Germantown (Pennsylvania German: Deitscheschteddel) is an area in Northwest Philadelphia. Founded by German, Quaker, and Mennonite families in 1683 as an independent borough, it was absorbed into Philadelphia in 1854. The area, which is about six miles northwest from the city center, now consists of two neighborhoods: 'Germantown' and 'East Germantown'.
Germantown has played a significant role in American history; it was the birthplace of the American antislavery movement, the site of a Revolutionary War battle, the temporary residence of George Washington, the location of the first bank of the United States, and the residence of many notable politicians, scholars, artists, and social activists.
Today the area remains rich in historic sites and buildings from the colonial era, some of which are open to the public.
Boundaries
Germantown stretches for about two miles along Germantown Avenue northwest from Windrim and Roberts Avenues. Germantown has been consistently bounded on the southwest by Wissahickon Avenue, on the southeast by Roberts Avenue, and on the east by Wister Street and Stenton Avenue, but its northwest border has expanded and contracted over the years. When first incorporated as a borough in 1689, Germantown was separated from the rural Germantown Township by Washington Lane; later, the border was expanded to Carpenter and East Gorgas Lanes; it was then rolled back to Washington Lane in 1846, and remained there until the borough was absorbed into the city of Philadelphia in 1854.
Today, the western part of the former borough is the neighborhood known simply as 'Germantown' (though is sometimes called 'West Germantown') and the eastern part is the neighborhood of 'East Germantown'. While the boundary between the two neighborhoods is not well-defined and has varied over time, these days 'Germantown' usually refers to the part of the former borough that lies west of Germantown Avenue, up through West Johnson Street, and 'East Germantown' to the part that lies east of Germantown Avenue, up through East Upsal Street.
The neighborhood of Mount Airy lies to the northwest, Ogontz and West Oak Lane to the northeast, Logan to the east, Nicetown–Tioga to the south, and East Falls to the southwest.
The majority of Germantown is covered by the 19144 zip code, but the area north of Chew Avenue falls in the 19138 zip code.
History and demographics
Although the arrival by ship of the later founders of Germantown in Philadelphia on October 6, 1683, was later to provide the date for German-American Day, a holiday in the United States, historical research has shown that nearly all of the first thirteen Quaker and Mennonite families were in fact Dutch rather than Germans. These families, which were mainly Dutch but also included some Swiss, had relocated to Krefeld (near the Dutch border) and Kriegsheim (in Rhineland-Palatinate) some years prior to their emigration to America to avoid persecution of their Mennonite beliefs in the Dutch Republic and Swiss Confederacy. The town was named Germantown by the group's leader Franz Pastorius, a German preacher from Sommerhausen. The towns population remained largely Dutch-speaking until 1709, after which a number of the Dutch families set out west and a series of major German emigrations reached Germantown and Pennsylvania as a whole. Their initial leader, Pastorius, later aligned himself with newer German arrivals and as the only university-trained and legal and literary man among the early settlers, chronicled and stressed the towns German origins. Adding to the assimilating of Dutch culture was the fact that the direct vicinity of the settlement was already inhabited by fifty-four German families who had accompanied Johan Printz to the Swedish settlement on the Delaware several years before 1683 and had resettled themselves.
Francis Daniel Pastorius was the first bailiff. Jacob Telner, Derick Isacks op den Graeff and his brother Abraham Isacks op den Graeff, Reynier Tyson, and Tennis Coender were burgesses, besides six committeemen. They had authority to hold "the general court of the corporation of Germantowne", to make laws for the government of the settlement, and to hold a court of record. This court went into operation in 1690, and continued its services for sixteen years.
In 1688, five years after its founding, Germantown became the birthplace of the anti-slavery movement in America. Pastorius, Gerret Hendericks, Derick Updegraeff and Abraham Opdengraef gathered at Thones Kunders's house and wrote a two-page condemnation of slavery and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church, the Society of Friends. The petition was mainly based upon the Bible's Golden Rule, "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you." Though the Quaker establishment took no immediate action, the 1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery was a clear and forceful argument against slavery and initiated the process of banning slavery in the Society of Friends (1776) and Pennsylvania (1780).
In 1723, Germantown became the site of the first Church of the Brethren congregation in the New World.
When Philadelphia was occupied by the British during the American Revolutionary War, British units were housed in Germantown. In the Battle of Germantown, on October 4, 1777, the Continental Army attacked the garrison. During the battle, a group of civilians fired on the British troops as they marched up the avenue, mortally wounding British officer James Agnew. The Americans withdrew after firing on one another in the confusion of the battle, which resulted in the battle becoming a British victory. The American losses amounted to 673 men and the British losses consisted of 575 men, but along with the American victory at Saratoga on October 17 when John Burgoyne surrendered, the battle led to the official recognition of the Americans by France, which formed an alliance with the Americans afterward.
During his presidency, George Washington and his family lodged at the Deshler-Morris House in Germantown to escape the city and the yellow fever epidemic of 1793. The first bank of the United States was also located here during his administration.
Germantown proper, and the adjacent German Township, were incorporated into the City of Philadelphia in 1854 by the Act of Consolidation.
Italians began settling Germantown in 1880, and comprised an active and vibrant part of the community.
The significant changes that occurred in Philadelphia's demographics at the start of the 20th century caused major shifts in Germantown's ethnic makeup as well. When the first wave of the Great Migration brought more than 140,000 African Americans to the city from the South, long-established Philadelphians started to move to the outskirts. During this time, many German, Scots-Irish, and Irish families moved to Germantown.
During the 1940s, a second mass migration of African Americans from the south to Philadelphia occurred. While the majority of middle-class African American newcomers first settled in North Philadelphia, the housing shortages in this area that followed the end of World War II caused later arrivals to move instead to the Northwest. This led to a wave of new housing construction. To meet the housing needs of the growing numbers of African American families moving into southern Germantown, the Philadelphia Redevelopment Authority allocated $10.6 million for the creation of public housing.
Between 1954 and 1956, Germantown experienced an influx of lower-income African Americans, resulting in a decline in property values and triggering a "white flight" of the majority of white residents to the suburbs. The demographic shift caused a slow but steady decline in central Germantown's upscale shopping district, with the last department store, a J. C. Penney branch, closing in the early 1980s.
The current demographics of Germantown reflects this shift. As of the 2010 US Census, Germantown proper is 77% black, 15% white, 3% non-white Hispanic, and 2% Asian, and East Germantown is 92% black, 3% white, 2% non-white Hispanic, and 2% Asian.
Eugene Stackhouse, a retired former president of the Germantown Historical Society says that the demographic transition of Germantown into a predominantly black neighborhood was the result of the now illegal practice of blockbusting. "It was a great disgrace. Cheap houses would be sold to a black family, then the realtors would go around and tell the neighbors that the blacks are invading", said Stackhouse. The practice was used to trigger panic selling.
Education
Primary and secondary schools
Public schools
Germantown is zoned to the School District of Philadelphia, as is all of Philadelphia. Public schools located in Germantown include the Anna L. Lingelbach School (K–8), the John B. Kelly School (K–6), the John Wister Elementary School (K–6), the Hill Freedman Middle School (6–8), the Theodore Roosevelt Middle School (7–8), the Fitler Academics Plus School (1–8), and the Martin Luther King High School (9–12). The Robert Fulton Elementary School and Germantown High School, a regional public high school located in Germantown, were both closed in 2013.
Charter schools
Mastery Charter Schools operates the Mastery Charter Pickett Campus (7–12, MCPC) in Germantown. The school opened in August 2007. The charter system headquarters is located at Pickett. Germantown Settlement Charter School (5–8), Imani Education Circle Charter school (pre-K to 8), and the Wissahickon Charter School's Awbury Campus (6th–8th) is located in the neighborhood . The Pennsylvania School for the Deaf, a private state-chartered school, occupies the former site of Germantown Academy, which moved to Fort Washington, Pennsylvania in 1965.
Private schools
Germantown's private schools include the DePaul Catholic School (K–8), Waldorf School of Philadelphia (PreK-8), the High Street Christian Academy (K–4), the Germantown Islamic School, the Green Tree School (special education, ages 6–21), and two Quaker schools: Germantown Friends School and Greene Street Friends School.
Nearby private schools include Mount Airy's Revival Hill Christian High School (9–12), Blair Christian Academy (PreK–12), Islamic Day School of Philadelphia (PreK–5), Project Learn School (K–8), Classroom on Carpenter Lane (K-2), and Holy Cross School (K–8), as well as Chestnut Hill's Springside School (PreK–12), Chestnut Hill Academy (K–12), and Crefeld School (7–12). The William Penn Charter School (commonly known as Penn Charter), the oldest Quaker school in the world, is located in nearby East Falls.
Higher education
La Salle University is in both Germantown and historic Belfield. Its west campus is centered on the old Germantown Hospital buildings and property, which it purchased in 2007. Other universities and colleges close to Germantown include Drexel University College of Medicine's Queen Lane Medical Campus, Arcadia University, Chestnut Hill College, The Lutheran Theological Seminary at Philadelphia, Philadelphia University, and Saint Joseph's University.
Other teaching institutions
Settlement Music School, the largest community school of the arts in the United States, operates one of its six branches in Germantown.
Public libraries
Free Library of Philadelphia operates public libraries. The Joseph E. Coleman Northwest Regional Library is located in Germantown. The library was given its current name in 2002, after Joseph E. Coleman, a member of the Philadelphia City Council.
Transportation
The first railroad in Philadelphia was the Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown Railroad, which linked Germantown to a station at 9th and Green Streets in Center City. It opened in 1832, and was initially powered by horses. The inventor Matthias W. Baldwin built his first commissioned steam locomotive for the new railroad. Nicknamed Old Ironsides, it eventually reached a peak speed of 28 mph.
Today two SEPTA Regional Rail lines connect the neighborhood to Center City: the Chestnut Hill West Line with stops at Queen Lane, Chelten Avenue, and Tulpehocken stations; and the Chestnut Hill East Line with stops at Wister, Germantown, and Washington Lane stations.
The neighborhood is also served by bus routes 18, 23 (formerly a trolley line), 26, 53 (formerly a trolley line), 65, H and XH, J, and K.
Parks and recreation areas
Germantown has numerous parks and recreation areas. These include:
Awbury Arboretum, a historic 55-acre arboretum and estate
Carpenter Park
Clifford Park
Cliveden Park
Cloverly Park
East Germantown Recreation Center
Fernhill Park
Germantown Cricket Club (private)
Hansberry Garden and Nature Center
Happy Hollow Playground
Kelly Playground
Loudoun Park
Vernon Park
Waterview Recreation Center
Wissahickon Valley Park (bordering), a 1400-acre park that is part of the Fairmount Park system.
Wister's Woods Park (bordering)
Historic sites
National Historic Landmark Districts
Colonial Germantown Historic District
Rittenhousetown Historic District
National Historic Districts
Awbury Historic District
Tulpehocken Station Historic District
National Historic Landmarks
Cliveden, the estate of Benjamin Chew, an important site during the Battle of Germantown, open to the public
Germantown Cricket Club
John Johnson House, a site on the Underground Railroad, open to the public
Charles Willson Peale House
Wyck House, open to the public
National Register of Historic Places
Other sites listed separately on the NRHP:
Alden Park Manor
Beggarstown School
Conyngham-Hacker House
Delmar Apartments
Deshler-Morris House
Fitler School
Germantown Grammar School
Grumblethorpe
Howell House
Loudoun Mansion
Ebenezer Maxwell House
Mayfair House
Oaks Cloister
Thomas Meehan School
Mennonite Meetinghouse
Charles Schaeffer School
Upsala
Grumblethorpe Tenant House
St. Peter's Episcopal Church of Germantown
William C. Sharpless House
Smyser and English Pharmacy
Sally Watson House
Wyck House
YMCA of Germantown
Gallery of historic houses and architecture
For a more complete gallery of contributing properties in the Colonial Germantown Historic District see here
Other historic buildings, places, and sites
Barron House
Boxwood, 156 W. School House Lane, 1897-98
Concord School House
The Francis Strawbridge House, Wissahickon Avenue, Germantown
The Germantown Boys' Club, 23 W. Penn Street, 1898-1909
Germantown High School, 5901-13 and 5915-41 Germantown Avenue
Gilbert Stuart Studio
Green Tree Tavern (Germantown)
The Jonathan Graham House, 5356 Chew Avenue, Germantown
The King Green House, 5112-14 Germantown Avenue
The Leibert House, 6950 Germantown Avenue, ca.1800-08
Little Wakefield, 1701 Lindley Avenue
Lower Burial Ground (Hood Cemetery)
The Lutheran Theological Seminary Historic District, Mt. Airy
The Connie Mack House
The Methodist Episcopal Church of the Advocate, 5250 Wayne Avenue, Germantown, Philadelphia, PA
St. Michael's Lutheran Church, 6671 Germantown Avenue, Mt. Airy, ca.1728-1897
Mitchell, Fletcher, & Co., Inc., 5708 Germantown Avenue, Germantown, ca.1811-1911
The Upper Burial Ground
Vernon Park
The Wachsmuth-Henry House, 4908 Germantown Avenue, ca.1760
Woodside, The Dorfeuille-Hacker Country Seat, 339 E. Wister Street, ca.1797
In popular culture
The 1946 book, Bright April, written and illustrated by Marguerite de Angeli, features scenes of 1940s Germantown while addressing the divisive issue of racial prejudice experienced by African Americans.
The 2015 novel Loving Day is set in Germantown.
Notable people
Herb Adderly NFL Hall Of Fame Green Bay Packers
Louisa May Alcott, author of the Little Women series of books
M. K. Asante, filmmaker, professor, rapper, author
James Barron, naval hero
Bilal, singer-songwriter
Samuel Blair, second Chaplain of the United States House of Representatives
Anna Richards Brewster, painter
Elaine Brown, Black Panther Party leader
Martin Grove Brumbaugh, Governor of Pennsylvania, 1914–1919
Mary Carr, film actress
George Washington Carpenter, scientist
Benjamin Chew, Chief Justice of Pennsylvania
Clarence Clark, professional tennis player, winner of the U.S. National Championships
Daniel Clark, Delegate from the Territory of Orleans to the U.S. House of Representatives
Walter Leighton Clark, American businessman, inventor, and artist
Joseph Sill Clark, Sr., tennis player
Florence Van Leer Earle Coates, American poet
William M. Colladay, Wisconsin politician
John Conard, member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
Bill Cosby, comedian, actor, musician, author, educator
Charles Darrow, credited inventor of the Monopoly game
Marguerite de Angeli, writer and illustrator of children's books
Amrit Desai, yogi, founder of the Kripalu Center
Byron W. Dickson, college football coach
George Ege, member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
James Engle, speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives
Lola Falana, singer, dancer, and actress
Mantle Fielding, architect
Sidney George Fisher, author
Janet Gaynor, film, stage and television actress and painter
Frederic Gehring, Catholic priest, National Chaplain for the Catholic War Veterans
Henry Gibson, actor
Walter B. Gibson, author known for the pulp fiction character The Shadow
Thomas Godfrey, inventor of the octant
William Newport Goodell, artist, craftsman, and educator
Jacob C. Gottschalk, first Mennonite bishop in America
Abraham op den Graeff, one of the first settlers from Crevelt, Germany who established Germantown and its surrounding Township six miles northwest of Philadelphia, merchant, politician
Nelson Graves, Philadelphian cricketer
Carolyn Green, competition swimmer and two-time Pan American Games gold medalist
Albert M. Greenfield, businessman, political activist, philanthropist; lived in Germantown 1920s–1930s
Rufus Harley, jazz musician
Alfred C. Harmer, member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
Ross Granville Harrison, biologist and anatomist
Charles Hoffner, pro golfer, member of first Ryder Cup team
Bernard Hopkins, professional boxer
Marcus Jastrow, Talmudic scholar
Eve, rapper, actress
Edwin Jellett, writer
Lindley Johnson, Philadelphia architect
Lloyd Jones, Olympic athlete
Florence Kelley, social and political reformer
Khia, rapper, record producer
Florence Kirk, American soprano
Adam Kuhn, physician, professor, and botanist
Maggie Kuhn, activist, founder of the Gray Panthers
Maxine Kumin, poet and author
George Cochran Lambdin, Victorian flower painter
George Landenberger, 23rd Governor of American Samoa
Noyes Leech (1921–2010), law professor at the University of Pennsylvania Law School
George Lippard, novelist, journalist, playwright, social activist, labor organizer
Eric Lobron, German chess champion of American descent
James Logan, statesman
Sarah Logan Wister Starr, humanitarian
John W. Lord, Jr., Pennsylvania State Senator, Philadelphia City Councilman, United States District Judge
Airrion Love, member of the R&B group The Stylistics
G. Love, born Garrett Dutton III, front man of the musical band G. Love & Special Sauce
Alexander Mack, leader of the German Baptists
Connie Mack, the longest-serving manager in Major League Baseball history
Abe Manley, sports executive
J. Howard Marshall, wealthy magnate and husband of Anna Nicole Smith
Logan Marshall, author
John Alden Mason, archaeological anthropologist and linguist
Jimmy McGriff, jazz musician
Robert L. McNeil, Jr., developer of Tylenol and chairman of McNeil Laboratories
Thomas Meehan, botanist and author
Thomas Lynch Montgomery, historian and librarian
George T. Morgan former chief engraver at the United States Mint
James K. Morrow, writer
Eleanor Myers, archaeologist
William Jackson Palmer, founder of Colorado Springs, Colorado
Francis Daniel Pastorius, leader of the Germantown settlement
James DeWolf Perry, Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church
Christian Frederick Post, Moravian Church missionary
Ellen Bernard Thompson Pyle, illustrator known for her Saturday Evening Post covers
Sun Ra, Jazz musician
Edmund Randolph, the first United States Attorney General
Theodore William Richards, recipient of 1914 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
David Rittenhouse, astronomer, mathematician, first director of the United States Mint
William Rittenhouse, founded the first paper mill in the colonies
Owen J. Roberts, Supreme Court Justice
Ralph J. Roberts, co-founder and former CEO of Comcast
Charley Ross, four-year-old kidnapping victim in 1874
Charles Frederick Schaeffer, Lutheran clergyman
Francis Schaeffer, Christian theologian
William I. Schaffer, lawyer, Pennsylvania Attorney General and Supreme Court Justice
J. Barney Sherry, silent film actor
William Shippen, Philadelphia physician, civic and educational leader who represented Pennsylvania in the Continental Congress
Benjamin Shoemaker, mayor of Philadelphia
Ron Sider, founder of Evangelicals for Social Action
Frederick Smith, lawyer, Pennsylvania Attorney General and Pennsylvania Supreme Court Justice
Patti Smith, punk rock singer-songwriter, poet and visual artist
Mike Sojourner, professional basketball player
Christopher Sower the elder, printed the first German-language Bible in America
Christopher Sower the younger, clergyman and printer
Christopher Sower III, loyalist printer
Martin Luther Stoever, Lutheran educator and writer
Witmer Stone, ornithologist and botanist
Gilbert Stuart, portrait artist
Walter Stuempfig, Romantic realism artist
Clyde Summers, lawyer and educator who advocated for labor union democracy
Thomas De Lage Sumter, U.S. Representative from South Carolina
Frederick Winslow Taylor, engineer, management theorist, and consultant
Meldrick Taylor, professional boxer
Russell Thompkins, Jr., songwriter of the R&B group The Stylistics
Bill Tilden, tennis player
Henry van Dyke, author, educator, and clergyman
George Washington, first president of the United States. Lived in Germantown briefly at the Deshler-Morris House
Grover Washington, Jr., saxophonist
Ora Washington, professional tennis player
William Walter Webb, Episcopal bishop
Langhorne Wister, Civil War brevet brigadier general
Owen Wister, author
Sally Wister, Philadelphia campaign diarist
Jeremiah Wright, Black theology pastor
John Zacherle, television host, radio personality and voice actor
PnB Rock, R&B singer, rapper, composer
Image gallery
See also
German American
German-American Day
References
External links
Art by Joseph Ropes (1812–1885), Scene in Germantown, Pa., 1874
Art by William Britton, Market Square, Germantown, c. 1820
Atlas of the Late Borough of Germantown, 22nd Ward, City of Philadelphia, 1871
Chronology of the Political Subdivisions of the County of Philadelphia, 1683–1854
Clickable map of Historic Germantown (Independence Hall Association)
Germantown Historical Society
Germantown general court records, 1691–1701; includes land disputes, apprenticeships, sales of goods, personal matters, etc.
History of Old Germantown (1907), online version
Incorporated District, Boroughs, and Townships in the County of Philadelphia, 1854 By Rudolph J. Walther
Northwest Philadelphia, The Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia
Phillyhistory.org, Historic Photographs of Philadelphia, City Archives
1683 establishments in Pennsylvania
1854 disestablishments in Pennsylvania
German-American culture in Philadelphia
German-American history
Historic districts in Philadelphia
Municipalities in Philadelphia County prior to the Act of Consolidation, 1854
National Register of Historic Places in Philadelphia
Neighborhoods in Philadelphia
Populated places established in 1683 | [
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243360 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel%20College%2C%20Cambridge | Emmanuel College, Cambridge | Emmanuel College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. The college was founded in 1584 by Sir Walter Mildmay, Chancellor of the Exchequer to Elizabeth I. The site on which the college sits was once a priory for Dominican monks, and the College Hall is built on the foundations of the monastery's nave. Emmanuel is one of the 16 "old colleges", which were founded before the 17th century.
Emmanuel today is one of the larger Cambridge colleges; it has around 500 undergraduates, reading almost every subject taught within the University, and over 150 postgraduates. Among Emmanuel's notable alumni are Thomas Young, John Harvard, Graham Chapman and Sebastian Faulks. Three members of Emmanuel College have received Nobel Prizes: Ronald Norrish, George Porter (both Chemistry, 1967) and Frederick Hopkins (Medicine, 1929).
In every year from 1998 until 2016 Emmanuel was among the top five colleges in the Tompkins Table, which ranks colleges according to end-of-year examination results. Emmanuel topped the table five times (2003, 2004, 2006, 2007 and 2010) and placed second six times (2001, 2002, 2008, 2009, 2011 and 2012). Its mean score for 1997–2018 inclusive places it as the second-highest-ranking college after Trinity.
History
The college was founded in 1584 by Sir Walter Mildmay, Chancellor of the Exchequer to Elizabeth I. The site had been occupied by a Dominican friary until the Dissolution of the Monasteries 45 years earlier, after which the Vice-Chancellor petitioned that the place be given over to the University. His request was refused, and, after passing through several hands, the former monastery was purchased to be the site of the new College in June 1583 by Lawrence Chaderton, the Master-elect, and his brother-in-law, Richard Culverwell, for £550, acting on behalf of Mildmay, to whom they conveyed the place on 23 November 1582. Mildmay's foundation made use of the existing buildings. The architect was Ralph Symons, and in 1588 the new building was opened with a dedication festival, which Mildmay attended.
Mildmay, a Puritan, intended Emmanuel to be a centre for the training of Anglican preachers. According to Thomas Fuller, Mildmay, on coming to court after the college was opened, was addressed by the Queen with the words: "Sir Walter, I hear you have erected a puritan foundation", to which Mildmay replied: "No, madam; far be it from me to countenance anything contrary to your established laws; but I have set an acorn, which when it becomes an oak, God alone knows what will be the fruit thereof".
Like all the older Cambridge colleges, Emmanuel originally took only male students. It first admitted female students in 1979.
Buildings and grounds
Under Mildmay's instructions the chapel of the original Dominican Friary was converted into the College's dining hall and the friars' dining hall became a chapel. In the late 17th century the College commissioned a new chapel, one of the three buildings in Cambridge designed by Christopher Wren (1677). After Wren's construction was opened the old chapel became the College library until it outgrew the space. A purpose-built library was completed in 1930.
There is a large fish pond in the grounds, part of the legacy of the friary. The pond is home to a colony of ducks.
The Fellows' Garden contains a swimming pool that was originally the friars' bathing pool, making it one of the oldest bathing pools in Europe and allegedly the oldest outdoor pool in continuous use in the UK. The Garden also contains an Oriental plane tree that is reputed to have lived far longer than is typical for the species.
It has been claimed that the college has the only privately owned subway (underpass) in the UK, connecting the main site to North Court, but in fact Oriel College, Oxford, has its own tunnel beneath Oriel Street linking the Island Site with the main college buildings. The Bodleian Library in Oxford also has its own tunnel beneath Broad Street.
Student life
The Emmanuel College Students Union (ECSU) is the society of all undergraduate students at Emmanuel College. It provides a shop, a bar, a common room, and funding for sports and other societies. ECSU's Executive Committee is elected at the end of Michaelmas Term each year. The ECSU committee is staffed by undergraduates and holds such positions as President, Welfare Officer, and Ents Officer amongst others. The current Ents Officers being Colin and Martha.
The Emmanuel College Middle Combination Room (Emma MCR) is the society of all postgraduate students at Emmanuel College. The Room itself is a comfortable and well-equipped space in the Queen's Building. The MCR committee organises regular social events for graduate students, including well-attended formal dinners in hall every few weeks.
Sports and societies
There are numerous student societies and sports clubs at Emmanuel College. Sports clubs include Tennis, badminton, cricket, squash, rugby, football, hockey and netball. Societies include the Emmanuel College Music Society (ECMS), the Christian Union, the Mountaineering Club, the recently relaunched Emmanuel College Art and Photography Society, the Emmanuel Vegan Society, the Politics and Economics Society, ROAR (the college satirical newspaper) and the Emma A soc. Funding for societies, old and new, comes from the Emmanuel College Students Union (ECSU).
People associated with Emmanuel
Former students
Emmanuel graduates were prominently involved in the settling of British colonies in North America. Of the first 100 university graduates in New England, one third were graduates of Emmanuel. Harvard University, the first college in the United States, was organised on the model of Emmanuel as it was then run. Harvard is named for John Harvard (BA, 1632), an Emmanuel graduate. Emmanuel and Harvard maintain relations via student exchanges such as the Herchel Smith scholarships, the Harvard Scholarship, the Paul Williams Scholarship, and the Gomes lecture and dinner held each February at Emmanuel in honour of the late Peter Gomes, erstwhile minister at Harvard's Memorial Church.
Early Emmanuel graduates included several translators of the 1611 Authorised Version of the Bible, for example Laurence Chaderton and William Branthwaite.
Fictional characters who have been said to have gone to Emmanuel include Jonathan Swift's Lemuel Gulliver. It is implied that Sebastian Faulks's eponymous Engleby and Thomas Richardson also matriculated at Emmanuel. The protagonist in Samuel Butler's novel The Way of All Flesh also went to Emmanuel. The uncompleted Doctor Who serial Shada was also partly filmed in the college, with the character Professor Chronotis having rooms in New Court.
Miscellaneous
College grace
See also
List of Organ Scholars
List of Masters of Emmanuel College
Notes
External links
Emmanuel College website
Emmanuel College May Ball website
Emmanuel College Middle Combination Room (MCR)
Emmanuel College Students' Union
1584 establishments in England
Educational institutions established in the 1580s
Colleges of the University of Cambridge
Christopher Wren buildings
Grade I listed buildings in Cambridge
Grade I listed educational buildings
Grade II* listed parks and gardens in Cambridgeshire | [
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243361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapezium%20%28bone%29 | Trapezium (bone) |
Structure
The trapezium is distinguished by a deep groove on its anterior surface. It is situated at the radial side of the carpus, between the scaphoid and the first metacarpal bone (the metacarpal bone of the thumb). It is homologous with the first distal carpal of reptiles and amphibians.
Surfaces
The trapezium is an irregular-shaped carpal bone found within the hand. The trapezium is found within the distal row of carpal bones, and is directly adjacent to the metacarpal bone of the thumb. On its ulnar surface are found the trapezoid and scaphoid bones.
The superior surface is directed upward and medialward; medially it is smooth, and articulates with the scaphoid; laterally it is rough and continuous with the lateral surface.
The inferior surface is oval, concave from side to side, convex from before backward, so as to form a saddle-shaped surface for articulation with the base of the first metacarpal bone. This saddle-shaped articulation is partially responsible for the thumb's opposable motion.
The dorsal surface is smooth.
The palmar surface is narrow and rough. At its upper part is a deep groove, running from above obliquely downward and medialward; it transmits the tendon of the Flexor carpi radialis, and is bounded laterally by an oblique ridge. This surface gives origin to the Opponens pollicis and to the Abductor and Flexor pollicis brevis; it also affords attachment to the transverse carpal ligament.
The lateral surface is broad and rough, for the attachment of ligaments.
The medial surface presents two facets; the upper, large and concave, articulates with the trapezoid bone; the lower, small and oval, with the base of the second metacarpal.
Tubercle of trapezium
The tubercle of trapezium is a tubercle found on the anterior surface of the bone. It is where sometimes abductor pollicis brevis muscle attaches.
Function
The carpal bones function as a unit to provide a bony superstructure for the hand. The trapezium is the most radial of the bones surrounding the carpal tunnel. It is important in thumb movement.
Clinical relevance
The trapezium is susceptible to arthritis at the joint with the metacarpal bone of the thumb, due to overuse.
History
The etymology derives from the Greek trapezion which means "a little table", from trapeza meaning "table", itself from (te)tra- "four" and pod- "foot". The bone was first documented in 1840.
Additional images
See also
Carpal bone
Finger
Hand
References
Skeletal system
Wrist
Bones of the hand
Carpal bones | [
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243368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lara%20Flynn%20Boyle | Lara Flynn Boyle | Lara Flynn Boyle (born March 24, 1970) is an American actress and producer. She is best known for her role as Donna Hayward in the ABC cult television series Twin Peaks (1990–1991). After portraying Stacy in Penelope Spheeris's comedy Wayne's World (1992), Boyle had a lead role in John Dahl's critically acclaimed neo-noir film Red Rock West (1993), followed by roles in Threesome (1994), Cafe Society (1995), and Happiness (1998). From 1997 to 2003, Boyle portrayed Assistant District Attorney Helen Gamble in the ABC television series The Practice for which she was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series.
Early life
Boyle was born in Davenport, Iowa, the daughter of Sally Flynn, a clerical worker, assistant, and manager, and Michael L. Boyle. Her paternal grandfather was U.S. Representative Charles A. Boyle. She has Irish, German, and Italian ancestry. She is named after a character in Boris Pasternak's novel Doctor Zhivago. Her father left when she was six, causing her and her mother to move to smaller quarters. Around this time, she was diagnosed with dyslexia. She was raised in Chicago, Illinois, and Wisconsin, and graduated from The Chicago Academy for the Arts.
Career
1986–1991: Career beginnings and Twin Peaks
In 1986, Boyle landed a small part in John Hughes's teen comedy film Ferris Bueller's Day Off, which earned her a SAG card, though her scenes were deleted from the final cut of the film. Subsequently, Boyle had a supporting role as Jackie Bradford in the television miniseries Amerika (1987), followed by guest appearances on episodes of the series Jack and Mike (1987) and Sable (1987).
After a string of supporting roles, Boyle landed a lead role in the Gary Sherman horror film Poltergeist III (1988), which was distributed by the media company MGM. Although she was cast as Ginny Danburry in Peter Weir's drama film Dead Poets Society (1989), her scenes were ultimately deleted from the final cut.
In 1989, Boyle rose to international prominence when David Lynch cast her as Donna Hayward in the cult television series Twin Peaks (1990–1991). The series focused on the murder of the high school Homecoming Queen Laura Palmer, with Boyle portraying Laura's best friend. Her main storyline focused on her trying to solve the mystery of who killed Laura.
The series premiered April 8, 1990, on ABC and subsequently became one of the top-rated series of 1990, but a decline in ratings ultimately led to its cancellation after its second season in 1991. Boyle appeared in all 30 episodes.
When discussing Lynch's direction, Boyle stated, "I remember, in the pilot, I did a very long scene that we had to shoot 30 or 40 times. David came up to me and said quietly, in my ear: 'Think of how gently a deer has to move in the snow…' It was strange direction. But that's what I thought of, and it worked. We were at the helm of a piece of heaven on Twin Peaks and we just went where David Lynch told us. That might sound very obscure but it really is true. How he sees the world is how we should all see the world."
In October 1990, while promoting Twin Peaks, Boyle was featured on the cover of Rolling Stone magazine along with her co-stars Mädchen Amick and Sherilyn Fenn. While starring on Twin Peaks, Boyle portrayed Sarah in Clint Eastwood's action film The Rookie (1990), Rosarita in Adam Rifkin's satirical comedy film The Dark Backward (1991), Mara Motes in Michael Karbelnikoff's crime film Mobsters (1991), and Sandra Gladstone in the romantic thriller Eye of the Storm (1991).
Boyle also appeared in the television films Terror on Highway 91 (1989), The Preppie Murder (1989), as well as episodes of The Hidden Room and May Wine.
1992–2003: Red Rock West and early success
Shortly after the cancellation of Twin Peaks, plans were being made for a feature film adaptation. Boyle was asked by Lynch to reprise her role as Donna Hayward in the psychological horror film Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me (1992) but she was unable to commit to the project due to scheduling conflicts with her roles as Heather in Marc Rocco's drama film Where the Day Takes You (alongside her Twin Peaks co-star Kyle MacLachlan), Stacy in Penelope Spheeris's comedy Wayne's World, and Beverly Franks in Alan Rudolph's crime drama Equinox. This led to her being replaced by actress Moira Kelly. In 1993, Boyle starred as Kris Bolin in the thriller film The Temp and portrayed the temptress Suzanne Brown in the neo-noir film Red Rock West alongside Nicolas Cage and Dennis Hopper.
In 1994, Boyle was cast as Alex in the comedy Threesome, Laraine Cotwell in Baby's Day Out, and Ida Muntz in The Road to Wellville. The same year, Boyle appeared in the television films Past Tense and Jacob. In 1995, she was cast as Pat Ward in the mystery film Cafe Society. In 1997, she portrayed Marianne Byron in the film Afterglow. Boyle auditioned for the title role in David E. Kelley's Ally McBeal. Although she lost out to Calista Flockhart, Boyle impressed Kelley enough to cast her the role of Assistant District Attorney Helen Gamble in his other 1997 series, The Practice. The following year, Boyle portrayed Helen Jordan in Todd Solondz’s controversial comedy-drama film Happiness.
She starred on The Practice until 2003, when, in a dramatic attempt to revamp the show and cut costs, she was dismissed along with most of the cast. For her performance as Helen Gamble, she received an Emmy nomination as well as several Screen Actors Guild ensemble cast nominations. Boyle also made a crossover appearance in the role of Helen Gamble in an episode of Ally McBeal, and an uncredited guest appearance on the same show in its final season.
In 2002, Boyle played a lead role in the blockbuster feature film Men in Black II, as the villainous shapeshifting alien Serleena. She also guest-starred on one of the last episodes of Ally McBeal, this time as Tally Cupp, and had a recurring role on several episodes of Huff.
2004–present: Return to television and independent films
In 2005, Boyle joined the cast of Las Vegas for a seven-episode stint as Monica Mancuso, a new hotel owner. She played Barbara Amiel in the television film Shades of Black, about Amiel and her husband, Lord Black. Boyle also guest-starred as an ambitious reporter involved with the suspects in a possible murder in the Law & Order 2008 episode "Submission".
In 2009, Boyle portrayed Mary in Baby on Board. The same year, Boyle was cast as Betty McBain in the independent film Life Is Hot in Cracktown. In 2010, she starred as Kathy in Cougar Hunting. In 2013, Boyle portrayed Witch Agnes in the horror comedy film Hansel & Gretel Get Baked. In 2015, she portrayed Ms. Donley in the film Lucky Dog.
In 2020, after a five-year break, she returned to acting to star as Grace in the film Death in Texas alongside Stephen Lang.
Personal life
Boyle was in a relationship with Twin Peaks co-star Kyle MacLachlan from 1990 to 1992. Boyle has been married twice. Her first husband was John Patrick Dee III, whom she married on August 11, 1996, and divorced two years later. Boyle dated actor David Spade, and later dated Jack Nicholson after he asked Boyle out in front of Spade while they were smoking marijuana. Spade later found out they were together after Nicholson and Boyle were involved in a car crash, covered by paparazzi. They went public with their romance at the 1999 Emmys, and reportedly remained together until the end of 2000. Her second and current husband is Donald Ray Thomas II, a real estate investor, whom she married on December 18, 2006, in San Antonio, Texas.
Filmography
Film
Television
References
External links
1970 births
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Chicago
Actresses from Iowa
Actresses from Wisconsin
American film actresses
American people of German descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Italian descent
American television actresses
Living people
People from Davenport, Iowa | [
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243369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archytas | Archytas | Archytas (; ; 435/410–360/350 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosopher, mathematician, music theorist, astronomer, statesman, and strategist. He was a scientist of the Pythagorean school and famous for being the reputed founder of mathematical mechanics, as well as a good friend of Plato.
Life and work
Archytas was born in Tarentum, Magna Graecia and was the son of Mnesagoras or Hadees. For a while, he was taught by Philolaus, and was a teacher of mathematics to Eudoxus of Cnidus. Archytas and Eudoxus' student was Menaechmus. As a Pythagorean, Archytas believed that only arithmetic, not geometry, could provide a basis for satisfactory proofs.
Archytas is believed to be the founder of mathematical mechanics. As only described in the writings of Aulus Gellius five centuries after him, he was reputed to have designed and built the first artificial, self-propelled flying device, a bird-shaped model propelled by a jet of what was probably steam, said to have actually flown some 200 meters. This machine, which its inventor called The pigeon, may have been suspended on a wire or pivot for its flight. Archytas also wrote some lost works, as he was included by Vitruvius in the list of the twelve authors of works of mechanics. Thomas Nelson Winter presents evidence that the pseudo-Aristotelian Mechanical Problems was actually authored by Archytas and misattributed.
Archytas named the harmonic mean, important much later in projective geometry and number theory, though he did not invent it. According to Eutocius, Archytas solved the problem of doubling the cube (the so-called Delian problem) in his manner (though he believed "that only arithmetic, not geometry", could provide a basis for satisfactory proofs) with a geometric construction. Hippocrates of Chios before, reduced this problem to finding mean proportionals. Archytas' theory of proportions is treated in book VIII of Euclid's Elements, where is the construction for two proportional means, equivalent to the extraction of the cube root. According to Diogenes Laërtius, this demonstration, which uses lines generated by moving figures to construct the two proportionals between magnitudes, was the first in which geometry was studied with concepts of mechanics. The Archytas curve, which he used in his solution of the doubling the cube problem, is named after him.
Politically and militarily, Archytas appears to have been the dominant figure in Tarentum in his generation, somewhat comparable to Pericles in Athens a half-century earlier. The Tarentines elected him strategos, 'general', seven years in a row – a step that required them to violate their own rule against successive appointments. He was allegedly undefeated as a general, in Tarentine campaigns against their southern Italian neighbors. The Seventh Letter of Plato asserts that Archytas attempted to rescue Plato during his difficulties with Dionysius II of Syracuse. In his public career, Archytas had a reputation for virtue as well as efficacy. Some scholars have argued that Archytas may have served as one model for Plato's philosopher king, and that he influenced Plato's political philosophy as expressed in The Republic and other works (i.e., how does a society obtain good rulers like Archytas, instead of bad ones like Dionysius II?).
Archytas may have drowned in a shipwreck in the shore of Mattinata, where his body laid unburied on the shore until a sailor humanely cast a handful of sand on it. Otherwise, he would have had to wander on this side of the Styx for a hundred years, such the virtue of a little dust, munera pulveris, as Horace calls it in Ode 1.28 on which this information on his death is based. The poem, however, is difficult to interpret and it is not certain that the shipwrecked and Archytas are in fact the same person.
The crater Archytas on the Moon is named in his honour.
Archytas curve
The Archytas curve is created by placing a semicircle (with a diameter of d) on the diameter of one of the two circles of a cylinder (which also has a diameter of d) such that the plane of the semicircle is at right angles to the plane of the circle and then rotating the semicircle about one of its ends in the plane of the cylinder's diameter. This rotation will cut out a portion of the cylinder forming the Archytas curve.
Another way of thinking of this construction is that the Archytas curve is basically the result of cutting out a torus formed by rotating a hemisphere of diameter d out of a cylinder also of diameter d. A cone can go through the same procedures also producing the Archytas curve. Archytas used his curve to determine the construction of a cube with a volume double that of a given cube.
Notes
References
Further reading
on line
Huffman, Carl A. Archytas of Tarentum, Cambridge University Press, 2005,
External links
Pseudo-Aristotle, Mechanica – Greek text and English translation
Complete fragments (Greek–Spanish bilingual edition)
Fragments and Life of Archytas
428 BC births
347 BC deaths
4th-century BC philosophers
Ancient Greek generals
Ancient Greek mathematicians
Ancient Greek music theorists
Ancient Greek physicists
Ancient Greek inventors
Ancient Tarantines
Pythagoreans
Pythagoreans of Magna Graecia
5th-century BC mathematicians
4th-century BC mathematicians | [
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36222454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalateh-ye%20Tut | Kalateh-ye Tut | Kalateh-ye Tut (, also Romanized as Kalāteh-ye Tūt; also known as Tūt) is a village in Zangelanlu Rural District, Lotfabad District, Dargaz County, Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 143, in 23 families.
References
Populated places in Dargaz County | [
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243372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale%20Winton | Dale Winton | Dale Jonathan Winton (22 May 1955 – 18 April 2018) was an English radio DJ and television presenter. He presented the shows Dale's Supermarket Sweep from 1993 until 2001 and again in 2007, the National Lottery game show In It to Win It between 2002 and 2016 and the 2008 series of Hole in the Wall. Winton also presented Pets Win Prizes (1995–96) and The Other Half (1997–2002).
Early life
Winton was born on 22 May 1955 to a Jewish father, Gary Winton, and actress Sheree Winton, a Jewish convert. Winton's father died on the day of his bar mitzvah and so he was brought up by his mother. Winton's mother died by suicide in 1976 while suffering from depression.
Career
Radio
Winton started DJing in clubs in Richmond in 1972, where he met Steve Allen, the LBC radio presenter. The two remained friends thereafter, and lived together for a period as well as going on holiday together. From there he had a selection of jobs including selling timeshares. In 1982, Winton moved to London and began his entertainment career on the London club circuit, where he DJ'd at weekends. This led him to the United Biscuits Radio Network where he did a variety of jobs working for Adrian Love, before getting his own morning show. From here he joined Radio Trent in Nottingham, where he presented a weekend show, moving to the weekday mid-morning show, before leaving in 1985, and going on to work at a number of other local radio stations including Chiltern Radio, Beacon Radio (in Wolverhampton, for 3 years) as well as Blue Danube Radio in Vienna, Austria.
In 2000, Winton took over from Alan Freeman to present Pick of the Pops on BBC Radio 2, and hosted the show until 30 October 2010, when Tony Blackburn replaced him. Winton sat in for Steve Wright and Liza Tarbuck on BBC Radio 2, covering the latter's Saturday show in September 2013 and November/December 2016.
Television
Winton began his television career in 1986 on Pet Watch, before working for Channel 4, Lifestyle Channel and ITV. From 1993 to 2000, he hosted Dale's Supermarket Sweep during the daytime TV period on ITV. In 2007, Supermarket Sweep was revived after a -year absence. Winton portrayed himself as an irritating game show presenter in Danny Boyle's 1996 film Trainspotting.
In 1995–96, Winton presented BBC's Saturday night game show Pets Win Prizes. In 1997, he presented the final of The Great British Song Contest, the UK's national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest, due to a tie-in with the lottery programme. Between that year and 2002, he also presented a dating show called The Other Half. In 1999, he appeared on the sitcom Gimme Gimme Gimme with Kathy Burke in the episode Do They Take Sugar?.
In 2000 he presented Barbara Windsor - Hall Of Fame 2000 TV Special, the induction of Barbara Windsor as the first artist to be inducted into the newly created BBC Hall of Fame.
He was the subject of This Is Your Life in 2000 when he was surprised by Michael Aspel. In 2001, he presented Channel 5's endurance show Touch the Truck. In 2002, Winton began presenting the National Lottery game show In It to Win It. In 2003, he appeared in the BBC Three mockumentary, Dale's Wedding, in which he supposedly married the UK celebrity Nell McAndrew.
From 2003–04, he hosted two series of Stars Reunited where the casts of popular British television series were reunited after many years. Between 2004 and 2006, he presented three series of the celebrity weight loss "boot camp" programme, Celebrity Fit Club on ITV.
Winton presented BBC One's Saturday night entertainment programme Hole In The Wall in 2008, based on the Japanese original, where contestants in skin-tight lycra costumes contorted themselves to fit through oddly-shaped holes in a moving wall. The show returned for a second series in 2009 but Anton du Beke replaced Winton as host. Winton began appearing in television advertisements for cashmygold.co.uk in 2010. Winton appeared on Matt Lucas and David Walliams' BBC comedy series Come Fly With Me. He appeared in the last episode of the series, playing himself. In 2012, he hosted one-off ITV game show Dale's Great Getaway and in February 2018, Winton hosted travelogue series Dale Winton's Florida Fly Drive aired on Channel 5.
Personal life and death
In 2002, Winton released his autobiography in which he wrote about his rise to fame and his actress mother's suicide, and came out as homosexual. Winton endorsed US Presidential candidate Donald Trump during the 2016 US Presidential election. On 18 April 2018, Jan Kennedy, Winton's long-term agent, announced that he had died at his home. On 19 April a spokesman for Scotland Yard said that police were treating the death as "unexplained" but did not believe it to be suspicious.
According to his friend Gloria Hunniford: "Dale had a lot of things going wrong, he had pain with arthritis, he had a heart complaint, he had a chest infection, and we all know how the winter affected that. He had asthma as well." The coroner concluded that Winton died of natural causes. Winton had recently moved from a £2.9 million apartment in Regent's Park to a property in Whetstone, North London. Winton's friends celebrated his life with a non-religious humanist funeral ceremony from Humanists UK on 22 May 2018, his birthday. His eulogy was preserved as part of a public historical archive of humanist funerals.
References
External links
Podcast Interview with Dale Winton
Dale Winton at the British Film Institute
1955 births
2018 deaths
English game show hosts
English humanists
English radio DJs
English television presenters
LGBT DJs
LGBT Jews
English gay actors
Male actors from London
BBC Radio 2 presenters
Jewish entertainers
Jewish humanists
People from Marylebone
People educated at Aldenham School
LGBT broadcasters from the United Kingdom
English Jews
English autobiographers
21st-century LGBT people | [
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243373 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leidang | Leidang | The institution known as leiðangr (Old Norse), leidang (Norwegian), leding (Danish), ledung (Swedish), expeditio (Latin) or sometimes lething (English), was a form of conscription (mass levy) to organize coastal fleets for seasonal excursions and in defense of the realm typical for medieval Scandinavians and, later, a public levy of free farmers. In Anglo-Saxon England, a different system was used to achieve similar ends, and was known as the fyrd.
The first recorded instance of a Norse lething is disputed among scholars. There is considerable evidence that substantiates its existence in the late 12th century. However, there are also written sources and archeological evidence which indicate that the lething system was introduced as early as the tenth century, if not earlier.
Origins
The age of the lething is disputed among scholars. The Icelandic sagas link the introduction of the lething to King Haakon I (The Good) of Norway in the tenth century.
The first known lethings are found during the ninth and tenth centuries when Sea Kings could be elected. These rulers were given provisional authority over men who had to assemble for an allotted time to achieve certain limited and pre-agreed goals. The temporary kingships of early Viking society had no power of enforcement over their men as they exercised authority only by consent.
The leidangr of Norway is first mentioned in 985 AD by the Skaldic courtly poets of Jarl Haakon of Western Norway and his son Erik. In each poem, the princes are praised for summoning the ships of the leidangr to the Battle of Hjörungavágr against a Danish fleet. The King of Norway, Harald Hardrada, is later praised by two court Skalds for summoning the leidangr to attack Denmark. Harald is also called king of the leidangr and the latter is termed almenningr, the duty and right of all men. During the 11th century Danish naval forces, though not termed leidangr, are sporadically praised as led by Danish kings (as Knut in his conquest of England). A Danish royal charter from 1085 stipulates that certain people on the lands of the canons of Lund are liable to pay fines for neglecting expeditio.
According to historian Niels Lund, there was no real leiðangr in Denmark until 1170. Historian Sverre Bagge has disputed Lund's interpretation, pointing to earlier references to a leiðangr, saga mentions of leiðangr, and archeological evidence that indicates the presence of considerable military mobilization.
Finland has had some form of ledung system after its conquest by Sweden. It was also used in Denmark as well as in Norway.
Structure
The leiðangr was a system organizing a coastal fleet with the aim of defence, coerced trade, plunderings, and aggressive wars. The leidangs were centered upon a ship. The organizational unit was the ship itself with the men providing their own equipment and provisions for the journey. The ship's company agreed to serve for a certain period of time, normally, the fleet levy was on expeditions for two or three summer months. It was composed of free men that owns farms. The leiðangr differed from conventional feudalism in that the expeditions gathered around leaders based on military merit, rather than noble status.
All free men were obliged to take part in or contribute to the leiðangr. All of the leiðangr were called to arms when invading forces threatened the land. Only a fraction of the ships called to the leiðangr would take part in the expeditions, but as they were often profitable, many prominent magnates and chieftains would vy for the opportunity to join.
At its most basic level, the system relied on each hemman or farm supplying one armed man. The leidang divided the land into districts, ship's crews or ship communities, "skipreiða" (Old Norse), "skipæn" (Danish), "skeppslag" or "roslag" (Swedish), "skipreide" or "skibrede" (modern Norwegian), and required every skipreide to deliver one ship and crew. These skipreide were administrative areas in which residents were assigned to outfit a ship for military use. They were collectively responsible to build, maintain, equip and staff a leidangsskip (coastal defense ship), fully provisioned for two or three months. Skipreide were mainly on the coast, but also extended quite far inland along fjords and deep waterways (“as far inland as the salmon runs”), to safeguard the procurement of timber for building of the warships. If enemy forces attacked the country, fires built on high hills would mobilize the farmers to the skipreide. The number of farms in an area determined the size of a skipreide. It did not usually include the entire parish, nor was it confined to a parish; it could include farms from several parishes.
The farmers of each district had to build and equip a rowed sailing ship. The size of the ships was defined as a standardized number of oars, initially 40 oars, later 24 oars. In Norway, there were 279 such districts in 1277, in Denmark two-three times as many. The head of a district was called styrimaðr or styræsmand, steersman, and he functioned as captain of the ship. The smallest unit was the crew of peasants who had to arm and provide for one oarsman (hafnæ in Danish, hamna in Swedish, manngerð in Old Norse).
In Sweden a hamna was made up of two attung, which was "two eighth parts of a village". One attung seems to have been equal to the land area it took to feed an ordinary family (around 12 acres, see Hide (unit), Virgate and Oxgang for English equivalents). Each attung also regard as having a "share" in the raid, so one who owned two attung had twice as much chance to go on the raid as one who owned only one. Those who owned less than an attung had to team up with others to form a unit of one attung and share the burdens as well as the profit.
According to the Law of Uppland, the hundreds of Uppland provided as many as four ships each (four ships, each with 24 crewmen and a steersman, each equals 100 men), those of Västmanland two ships and those of Roslagen one ship (the name indicate that this was seen as just one ship's crew but they were not part of a hundred and might have had the same rights/function of whole hundred only fewer people).
The older laws regulating the leiðangr (the Norwegian "Older Law of the Gulating" dates to the 11th or 12th century) require every man to, as a minimum, arm himself with an axe or a sword in addition to spear and shield, and for every rowbench (typically of two men) to have a bow and 24 arrows. Later 12th-13th century changes to this law code list more extensive equipment for the more affluent freemen, with helmet, mail hauberk, shield, spear and sword being what the well-to-do farmer or burgher must bring to war.
In 12th-13th-century sources detailing the 11th century, jarls are mentioned as the chieftain of the leiðangr. In the 12th century, a bishop could also be head of the fleet levy, although typically nobles led levies in the 12th to 14th centuries.
During the Baltic Crusades
According to historical register, majority of early Baltic Crusaders in the 12th Century were well-armed. During the 13th and 14th, mounted troops were raised from amongst the aristocracies of the crusading nations, but foot soldiers formed the core of armies raised by the ledung system. Each hundare district should have been able to muster up 100 men and four ships and formed a part of a larger region called Svealand, the core of the Swedish Kingdom and able to muster as 2200 warriors. The vessel, called snäcka, was a technological descendant of the Viking age warship. Ledung allows organizing an army to campaign outside its territory, useful for Baltic crusading.
Equipment
During the Early Medieval Period, the majority of the leidang would have been unarmored. Some of the wealthier men may have worn leather and iron spangenhelms, while the wealthiest might wear mail or possibly leather armour. As the Viking Age began, the leidang slowly began to improve in terms of armor as their areas became richer. By the ninth century, most members of a Leidang would have had helmets of iron or leather construction, either of the spangenhelm or Nasal Helm design. Drengrs would have worn mail, while wealthier freemen may have worn leather or padded cloth. Spears were common to all men, and many would have had short hand axes. Nobles and wealthy freemen would have had swords. Shields were used by all, and were usually round and of wood and leather construction, sometimes with leather or iron binding around the rim. By the 12th century, helmets and padded gambesons were very common, the Kettle hat type of helmet now being used alongside the earlier Nasal Helm and Spangenhelm types. Padded armour and mail were also more common among ordinary men.
Evolution
In parts of the Scandinavian countries, the leiðangr evolved to a tax in the 12th century to 13th century, paid by all (free) farmers until the 19th century, although the ship-levy was frequently called out and used in the 13th–15th centuries, with the Norwegian leiðangr fleet going as far as Scotland in the 1260s. The use of the levy-tax as opposed to the use of maritime forces was more prevalent in Denmark and Sweden than Norway, since the Norwegian kingdom always depended heavily on fleet-based forces rather than land-based ones.
Skipreide, originally a defense system, later assumed other powers, such as to legal authority to pass laws and financial authority to levy taxes. Towards the end of the 13th century, they only existed for these purposes. In about 1660, skipreide were converted into tinglags, court districts that included a bygdeting (community court) or a byting (city court).
England
In Anglo-Saxon times, defences were based on the fyrd. It was a militia called up from the districts threatened with attack. Service in the fyrd was usually of short duration and participants were expected to provide their own arms and provisions. The origins of the fyrd can be traced back to at least the seventh century, and it is likely that the obligation of Englishmen to serve in the fyrd dates from before its earliest appearance in written records.
Alfred the Great is credited with the development of the fyrd system together with the building of "burhs", the development of a cavalry force, and the building of a fleet. Each element of the system was meant to remedy defects in the West Saxon military establishment exposed by the Viking invasions. If, under the existing system, he could not assemble forces quickly enough to intercept mobile Viking raiders, the obvious answer was to have a standing field force. If this entailed transforming the West Saxon fyrd from a sporadic levy of king's men and their retinues into a mounted standing army, so be it. If his kingdom lacked strongpoints to impede the progress of an enemy army, he would build them. If the enemy struck from the sea, he would counter them with his own naval power. Characteristically, all of Alfred's innovations were firmly rooted in traditional West Saxon practice, drawing as they did on the three so-called ‘common burdens' of bridge work, fortress repair and service on the king's campaigns that all holders of bookland and royal loanland owed the Crown. Where Alfred revealed his genius was in designing the field force and burhs to be parts of a coherent military system. Neither Alfred's reformed fyrd nor his burhs alone would have afforded a sufficient defence against the Vikings; together, however, they robbed the Vikings of their major strategic advantages: surprise and mobility.
The fyrd was used heavily by King Harold in 1066, for example in resisting invasion by Harold Hardrada and William of Normandy.
The historian David Sturdy has cautioned about regarding the fyrd as a precursor to a modern national army composed of all ranks of society, describing it as a "ridiculous fantasy":The persistent old belief that peasants and small farmers gathered to form a national army or fyrd is a strange delusion dreamt up by antiquarians in the late eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries to justify universal military conscription.
Henry I of England, the Anglo-Norman king who promised at his coronation to restore the laws of Edward the Confessor and who married a Scottish princess with West Saxon royal forebears, called up the fyrd to supplement his feudal levies, as an army of all England, as Orderic Vitalis reports, to counter the abortive invasions of his brother Robert Curthose, both in the summer of 1101 and in autumn 1102.
See also
Huskarl
Druzhina
Hird
Comitatus
Varangian Guard
German Guard
Thingmen
References
Warfare of the Middle Ages
Early Germanic warfare | [
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243379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward%20contract | Forward contract | In finance, a forward contract or simply a forward is a non-standardized contract between two parties to buy or sell an asset at a specified future time at a price agreed on at the time of conclusion of the contract, making it a type of derivative instrument. The party agreeing to buy the underlying asset in the future assumes a long position, and the party agreeing to sell the asset in the future assumes a short position. The price agreed upon is called the delivery price, which is equal to the forward price at the time the contract is entered into.
The price of the underlying instrument, in whatever form, is paid before control of the instrument changes. This is one of the many forms of buy/sell orders where the time and date of trade is not the same as the value date where the securities themselves are exchanged. Forwards, like other derivative securities, can be used to hedge risk (typically currency or exchange rate risk), as a means of speculation, or to allow a party to take advantage of a quality of the underlying instrument which is time-sensitive.
Payoffs
The value of a forward position at maturity depends on the relationship between the delivery price () and the underlying price () at that time.
For a long position this payoff is:
For a short position, it is:
Since the final value (at maturity) of a forward position depends on the spot price which will then be prevailing, this contract can be viewed, from a purely financial point of view, as "a bet on the future spot price"
How a forward contract works
Suppose that Bob wants to buy a house a year from now. At the same time, suppose that Alice currently owns a $100,000 house that she wishes to sell a year from now. Both parties could enter into a forward contract with each other. Suppose that they both agree on the sale price in one year's time of $104,000 (more below on why the sale price should be this amount). Alice and Bob have entered into a forward contract. Bob, because he is buying the underlying, is said to have entered a long forward contract. Conversely, Alice will have the short forward contract.
At the end of one year, suppose that the current market valuation of Alice's house is $110,000. Then, because Alice is obliged to sell to Bob for only $104,000, Bob will make a profit of $6,000. To see why this is so, one needs only to recognize that Bob can buy from Alice for $104,000 and immediately sell to the market for $110,000. Bob has made the difference in profit. In contrast, Alice has made a potential loss of $6,000, and an actual profit of $4,000.
The similar situation works among currency forwards, in which one party opens a forward contract to buy or sell a currency (e.g. a contract to buy Canadian dollars) to expire/settle at a future date, as they do not wish to be exposed to exchange rate/currency risk over a period of time. As the exchange rate between U.S. dollars and Canadian dollars fluctuates between the trade date and the earlier of the date at which the contract is closed or the expiration date, one party gains and the counterparty loses as one currency strengthens against the other. Sometimes, the buy forward is opened because the investor will actually need Canadian dollars at a future date such as to pay a debt owed that is denominated in Canadian dollars. Other times, the party opening a forward does so, not because they need Canadian dollars nor because they are hedging currency risk, but because they are speculating on the currency, expecting the exchange rate to move favorably to generate a gain on closing the contract.
In a currency forward, the notional amounts of currencies are specified (ex: a contract to buy $100 million Canadian dollars equivalent to, say US$75.2 million at the current rate—these two amounts are called the notional amount(s)). While the notional amount or reference amount may be a large number, the cost or margin requirement to command or open such a contract is considerably less than that amount, which refers to the leverage created, which is typical in derivative contracts.
Example of how forward prices should be agreed upon
Continuing on the example above, suppose now that the initial price of Alice's house is $100,000 and that Bob enters into a forward contract to buy the house one year from today. But since Alice knows that she can immediately sell for $100,000 and place the proceeds in the bank, she wants to be compensated for the delayed sale. Suppose that the risk free rate of return R (the bank rate) for one year is 4%. Then the money in the bank would grow to $104,000, risk free. So Alice would want at least $104,000 one year from now for the contract to be worthwhile for her – the opportunity cost will be covered.
Spot–forward parity
For liquid assets ("tradeables"), spot–forward parity provides the link between the spot market and the forward market. It describes the relationship between the spot and forward price of the underlying asset in a forward contract. While the overall effect can be described as the cost of carry, this effect can be broken down into different components, specifically whether the asset:
pays income, and if so whether this is on a discrete or continuous basis
incurs storage costs
is regarded as
an investment asset, i.e. an asset held primarily for investment purposes (e.g. gold, financial securities);
or a consumption asset, i.e. an asset held primarily for consumption (e.g. oil, iron ore etc.)
Investment assets
For an asset that provides no income, the relationship between the current forward () and spot () prices is
where is the continuously compounded risk free rate of return, and T is the time to maturity. The intuition behind this result is that given you want to own the asset at time T, there should be no difference in a perfect capital market between buying the asset today and holding it and buying the forward contract and taking delivery. Thus, both approaches must cost the same in present value terms. For an arbitrage proof of why this is the case, see Rational pricing below.
For an asset that pays known income, the relationship becomes:
Discrete:
Continuous:
where the present value of the discrete income at time , and is the continuously compounded dividend yield over the life of the contract. The intuition is that when an asset pays income, there is a benefit to holding the asset rather than the forward because you get to receive this income. Hence the income ( or ) must be subtracted to reflect this benefit. An example of an asset which pays discrete income might be a stock, and an example of an asset which pays a continuous yield might be a foreign currency or a stock index.
For investment assets which are commodities, such as gold and silver, storage costs must also be considered. Storage costs can be treated as 'negative income', and like income can be discrete or continuous. Hence with storage costs, the relationship becomes:
Discrete:
Continuous:
where the present value of the discrete storage cost at time , and is the continuously compounded storage cost where it is proportional to the price of the commodity, and is hence a 'negative yield'. The intuition here is that because storage costs make the final price higher, we have to add them to the spot price.
Consumption assets
Consumption assets are typically raw material commodities which are used as a source of energy or in a production process, for example crude oil or iron ore. Users of these consumption commodities may feel that there is a benefit from physically holding the asset in inventory as opposed to holding a forward on the asset. These benefits include the ability to "profit from" (hedge against) temporary shortages and the ability to keep a production process running, and are referred to as the convenience yield. Thus, for consumption assets, the spot-forward relationship is:
Discrete storage costs:
Continuous storage costs:
where is the convenience yield over the life of the contract. Since the convenience yield provides a benefit to the holder of the asset but not the holder of the forward, it can be modelled as a type of 'dividend yield'. However, it is important to note that the convenience yield is a non cash item, but rather reflects the market's expectations concerning future availability of the commodity. If users have low inventories of the commodity, this implies a greater chance of shortage, which means a higher convenience yield. The opposite is true when high inventories exist.
Cost of carry
The relationship between the spot and forward price of an asset reflects the net cost of holding (or carrying) that asset relative to holding the forward. Thus, all of the costs and benefits above can be summarised as the cost of carry, . Hence,
Discrete:
Continuous:
Relationship between the forward price and the expected future spot price
The market's opinion about what the spot price of an asset will be in the future is the expected future spot price. Hence, a key question is whether or not the current forward price actually predicts the respective spot price in the future. There are a number of different hypotheses which try to explain the relationship between the current forward price, and the expected future spot price, .
The economists John Maynard Keynes and John Hicks argued that in general, the natural hedgers of a commodity are those who wish to sell the commodity at a future point in time.J.R. Hicks, Value and Capital, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939 Thus, hedgers will collectively hold a net short position in the forward market. The other side of these contracts are held by speculators, who must therefore hold a net long position. Hedgers are interested in reducing risk, and thus will accept losing money on their forward contracts. Speculators on the other hand, are interested in making a profit, and will hence only enter the contracts if they expect to make money. Thus, if speculators are holding a net long position, it must be the case that the expected future spot price is greater than the forward price.
In other words, the expected payoff to the speculator at maturity is:
, where is the delivery price at maturity
Thus, if the speculators expect to profit,
, as when they enter the contract
This market situation, where , is referred to as normal backwardation. Forward/futures prices converge with the spot price at maturity, as can be seen from the previous relationships by letting T go to 0 (see also basis); then normal backwardation implies that futures prices for a certain maturity are increasing over time. The opposite situation, where , is referred to as contango. Likewise, contango implies that futures prices for a certain maturity are falling over time.
Futures versus Forwards
Forward contracts are very similar to futures contracts, except they are not exchange-traded, or defined on standardized assets. Forwards also typically have no interim partial settlements or "true-ups" in margin requirements like futures, that is the parties do not exchange additional property securing the party at gain and the entire unrealized gain or loss builds up while the contract is open. Therefore forward contracts have a significant counterparty risk which is also the reason why they are not readily available to retail investors. However, being traded over the counter (OTC), forward contracts specification can be customized and may include mark-to-market and daily margin calls.
Having no upfront cashflows is one of the advantages of a forward contract compared to its futures counterpart. Especially when the forward contract is denominated in a foreign currency, not having to post (or receive) daily settlements simplifies cashflow management.
Compared to the futures markets it is very difficult to close out one's position, that is to rescind the forward contract. For instance while being long in a forward contract, entering short into another forward contract might cancel out delivery obligations but adds to credit risk exposure as there are now three parties involved. Closing out a contract almost always involves reaching out to the counterparty.
Compared to their futures counterparts, forwards (especially Forward Rate Agreements) need convexity adjustments, that is a drift term that accounts for future rate changes. In futures contracts, this risk remains constant whereas a forward contract's risk changes when rates change.
Outright versus Premium
Outright prices, as opposed to premium points or forward points, are quoted in absolute price units. Outrights are used in markets where there is no (unitary) spot price or rate for reference, or where the spot price (rate) is not easily accessible.
Conversely, in markets with easily accessible spot prices or basis rates, in particular the Foreign exchange market and OIS market, forwards are usually quoted using premium points or forward points. That is using the spot price or basis rate as reference forwards are quoted as the difference in pips between the outright price and the spot price for FX, or the difference in basis points between the forward rate and the basis rate for interest rate swaps and forward rate agreements.
Note: The term outright is used in the futures markets in a similar way but is contrasted with futures spreads instead of premium points, which is more than just a quoting convention, and in particular involves the simultaneous transaction in two outright futures.
Rational pricing
If is the spot price of an asset at time , and is the continuously compounded rate, then the forward price at a future time must satisfy .
To prove this, suppose not. Then we have two possible cases.Case 1: Suppose that . Then an investor can execute the following trades at time :
go to the bank and get a loan with amount at the continuously compounded rate r;
with this money from the bank, buy one unit of asset for ;
enter into one short forward contract costing 0. A short forward contract means that the investor owes the counterparty the asset at time .
The initial cost of the trades at the initial time sum to zero.
At time the investor can reverse the trades that were executed at time . Specifically, and mirroring the trades 1., 2. and 3. the investor
' repays the loan to the bank. The inflow to the investor is ;
' settles the short forward contract by selling the asset for . The cash inflow to the investor is now because the buyer receives from the investor.
The sum of the inflows in 1.' and 2.' equals , which by hypothesis, is positive. This is an arbitrage profit. Consequently, and assuming that the non-arbitrage condition holds, we have a contradiction. This is called a cash and carry arbitrage because you "carry" the asset until maturity.Case 2:' Suppose that . Then an investor can do the reverse of what he has done above in case 1. This means selling one unit of the asset, investing this money into a bank account and entering a long forward contract costing 0.
Note: if you look at the convenience yield page, you will see that if there are finite assets/inventory, the reverse cash and carry arbitrage is not always possible. It would depend on the elasticity of demand for forward contracts and such like.
Extensions to the forward pricing formula
Suppose that is the time value of cash flows X at the contract expiration time . The forward price is then given by the formula:
The cash flows can be in the form of dividends from the asset, or costs of maintaining the asset.
If these price relationships do not hold, there is an arbitrage opportunity for a riskless profit similar to that discussed above. One implication of this is that the presence of a forward market will force spot prices to reflect current expectations of future prices. As a result, the forward price for nonperishable commodities, securities or currency is no more a predictor of future price than the spot price is - the relationship between forward and spot prices is driven by interest rates. For perishable commodities, arbitrage does not have this
The above forward pricing formula can also be written as:
Where is the time t'' value of all cash flows over the life of the contract.
For more details about pricing, see forward price.
Theories of why a forward contract exists
Allaz and Vila (1993) suggest that there is also a strategic reason (in an imperfect competitive environment) for the existence of forward trading, that is, forward trading can be used even in a world without uncertainty. This is due to firms having Stackelberg incentives to anticipate their production through forward contracts.
See also
Futures contract
Derivative (finance)
Forward exchange market
Forward market
Forward price
Hedging
Option
Swap (finance)
988 transaction
Non-deliverable forward
Other types of trade contracts:
Spot price
Spot market
Footnotes
References
John C. Hull, (2000), Options, Futures and other Derivatives, Prentice-Hall.
Keith Redhead, (31 October 1996), Financial Derivatives: An Introduction to Futures, Forwards, Options and Swaps, Prentice-Hall
Abraham Lioui & Patrice Poncet, (March 30, 2005), Dynamic Asset Allocation with Forwards and Futures, Springer
Forward Contract on Wikinvest
Further reading
Allaz, B. and Vila, J.-L., Cournot competition, futures markets and efficiency, Journal of Economic Theory 59,297-308.
Understanding Derivatives: Markets and Infrastructure Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Financial Markets Group
Forward Contract Definition - Investopedia
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243382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erlangen%20program | Erlangen program | In mathematics, the Erlangen program is a method of characterizing geometries based on group theory and projective geometry. It was published by Felix Klein in 1872 as Vergleichende Betrachtungen über neuere geometrische Forschungen. It is named after the University Erlangen-Nürnberg, where Klein worked.
By 1872, non-Euclidean geometries had emerged, but without a way to determine their hierarchy and relationships. Klein's method was fundamentally innovative in three ways:
Projective geometry was emphasized as the unifying frame for all other geometries considered by him. In particular, Euclidean geometry was more restrictive than affine geometry, which in turn is more restrictive than projective geometry.
Klein proposed that group theory, a branch of mathematics that uses algebraic methods to abstract the idea of symmetry, was the most useful way of organizing geometrical knowledge; at the time it had already been introduced into the theory of equations in the form of Galois theory.
Klein made much more explicit the idea that each geometrical language had its own, appropriate concepts, thus for example projective geometry rightly talked about conic sections, but not about circles or angles because those notions were not invariant under projective transformations (something familiar in geometrical perspective). The way the multiple languages of geometry then came back together could be explained by the way subgroups of a symmetry group related to each other.
Later, Élie Cartan generalized Klein's homogeneous model spaces to Cartan connections on certain principal bundles, which generalized Riemannian geometry.
The problems of nineteenth century geometry
Since Euclid, geometry had meant the geometry of Euclidean space of two dimensions (plane geometry) or of three dimensions (solid geometry). In the first half of the nineteenth century there had been several developments complicating the picture. Mathematical applications required geometry of four or more dimensions; the close scrutiny of the foundations of the traditional Euclidean geometry had revealed the independence of the parallel postulate from the others, and non-Euclidean geometry had been born. Klein proposed an idea that all these new geometries are just special cases of the projective geometry, as already developed by Poncelet, Möbius, Cayley and others. Klein also strongly suggested to mathematical physicists that even a moderate cultivation of the projective purview might bring substantial benefits to them.
With every geometry, Klein associated an underlying group of symmetries. The hierarchy of geometries is thus mathematically represented as a hierarchy of these groups, and hierarchy of their invariants. For example, lengths, angles and areas are preserved with respect to the Euclidean group of symmetries, while only the incidence structure and the cross-ratio are preserved under the most general projective transformations. A concept of parallelism, which is preserved in affine geometry, is not meaningful in projective geometry. Then, by abstracting the underlying groups of symmetries from the geometries, the relationships between them can be re-established at the group level. Since the group of affine geometry is a subgroup of the group of projective geometry, any notion invariant in projective geometry is a priori meaningful in affine geometry; but not the other way round. If you remove required symmetries, you have a more powerful theory but fewer concepts and theorems (which will be deeper and more general).
Homogeneous spaces
In other words, the "traditional spaces" are homogeneous spaces; but not for a uniquely determined group. Changing the group changes the appropriate geometric language.
In today's language, the groups concerned in classical geometry are all very well known as Lie groups: the classical groups. The specific relationships are quite simply described, using technical language.
Examples
For example, the group of projective geometry in n real-valued dimensions is the symmetry group of n-dimensional real projective space (the general linear group of degree , quotiented by scalar matrices). The affine group will be the subgroup respecting (mapping to itself, not fixing pointwise) the chosen hyperplane at infinity. This subgroup has a known structure (semidirect product of the general linear group of degree n with the subgroup of translations). This description then tells us which properties are 'affine'. In Euclidean plane geometry terms, being a parallelogram is affine since affine transformations always take one parallelogram to another one. Being a circle is not affine since an affine shear will take a circle into an ellipse.
To explain accurately the relationship between affine and Euclidean geometry, we now need to pin down the group of Euclidean geometry within the affine group. The Euclidean group is in fact (using the previous description of the affine group) the semi-direct product of the orthogonal (rotation and reflection) group with the translations. (See Klein geometry for more details.)
Influence on later work
The long-term effects of the Erlangen program can be seen all over pure mathematics (see tacit use at congruence (geometry), for example); and the idea of transformations and of synthesis using groups of symmetry has become standard in physics.
When topology is routinely described in terms of properties invariant under homeomorphism, one can see the underlying idea in operation. The groups involved will be infinite-dimensional in almost all cases – and not Lie groups – but the philosophy is the same. Of course this mostly speaks to the pedagogical influence of Klein. Books such as those by H.S.M. Coxeter routinely used the Erlangen program approach to help 'place' geometries. In pedagogic terms, the program became transformation geometry, a mixed blessing in the sense that it builds on stronger intuitions than the style of Euclid, but is less easily converted into a logical system.
In his book Structuralism (1970) Jean Piaget says, "In the eyes of contemporary structuralist mathematicians, like Bourbaki, the Erlangen Program amounts to only a partial victory for structuralism, since they want to subordinate all mathematics, not just geometry, to the idea of structure."
For a geometry and its group, an element of the group is sometimes called a motion of the geometry. For example, one can learn about the Poincaré half-plane model of hyperbolic geometry through a development based on hyperbolic motions. Such a development enables one to methodically prove the ultraparallel theorem by successive motions.
Abstract returns from the Erlangen program
Quite often, it appears there are two or more distinct geometries with isomorphic automorphism groups. There arises the question of reading the Erlangen program from the abstract group, to the geometry.
One example: oriented (i.e., reflections not included) elliptic geometry (i.e., the surface of an n-sphere with opposite points identified) and oriented spherical geometry (the same non-Euclidean geometry, but with opposite points not identified) have isomorphic automorphism group, SO(n+1) for even n. These may appear to be distinct. It turns out, however, that the geometries are very closely related, in a way that can be made precise.
To take another example, elliptic geometries with different radii of curvature have isomorphic automorphism groups. That does not really count as a critique as all such geometries are isomorphic. General Riemannian geometry falls outside the boundaries of the program.
Complex, dual and double (aka split-complex) numbers appear as homogeneous spaces SL(2,R)/H for the group SL(2,R) and its subgroups H=A, N, K. The group SL(2,R) acts on these homogeneous spaces by linear fractional transformations and a large portion of the respective geometries can be obtained in a uniform way from the Erlangen programme.
Some further notable examples have come up in physics.
Firstly, n-dimensional hyperbolic geometry, n-dimensional de Sitter space and (n−1)-dimensional inversive geometry all have isomorphic automorphism groups,
the orthochronous Lorentz group, for . But these are apparently distinct geometries. Here some interesting results enter, from the physics. It has been shown that physics models in each of the three geometries are "dual" for some models.
Again, n-dimensional anti-de Sitter space and (n−1)-dimensional conformal space with "Lorentzian" signature (in contrast with conformal space with "Euclidean" signature, which is identical to inversive geometry, for three dimensions or greater) have isomorphic automorphism groups, but are distinct geometries. Once again, there are models in physics with "dualities" between both spaces. See AdS/CFT for more details.
The covering group of SU(2,2) is isomorphic to the covering group of SO(4,2), which is the symmetry group of a 4D conformal Minkowski space and a 5D anti-de Sitter space and a complex four-dimensional twistor space.
The Erlangen program can therefore still be considered fertile, in relation with dualities in physics.
In the seminal paper which introduced categories, Saunders Mac Lane and Samuel Eilenberg stated: "This may be regarded as a continuation of the Klein Erlanger Program, in the sense that a geometrical space with its group of transformations is generalized to a category with its algebra of mappings."
Relations of the Erlangen program with work of Charles Ehresmann on groupoids in geometry is considered in the article below by Pradines.
In mathematical logic, the Erlangen Program also served as an inspiration for Alfred Tarski in his analysis of logical notions.
References
Klein, Felix (1872) "A comparative review of recent researches in geometry". Complete English Translation is here https://arxiv.org/abs/0807.3161.
Sharpe, Richard W. (1997) Differential geometry: Cartan's generalization of Klein's Erlangen program Vol. 166. Springer.
Heinrich Guggenheimer (1977) Differential Geometry, Dover, New York, .
Covers the work of Lie, Klein and Cartan. On p. 139 Guggenheimer sums up the field by noting, "A Klein geometry is the theory of geometric invariants of a transitive transformation group (Erlangen program, 1872)".
Thomas Hawkins (1984) "The Erlanger Program of Felix Klein: Reflections on Its Place In the History of Mathematics", Historia Mathematica 11:442–70.
Lizhen Ji and Athanase Papadopoulos (editors) (2015) Sophus Lie and Felix Klein: The Erlangen program and its impact in mathematics and physics, IRMA Lectures in Mathematics and Theoretical Physics 23, European Mathematical Society Publishing House, Zürich.
Felix Klein (1872) "Vergleichende Betrachtungen über neuere geometrische Forschungen" ('A comparative review of recent researches in geometry'), Mathematische Annalen, 43 (1893) pp. 63–100 (Also: Gesammelte Abh. Vol. 1, Springer, 1921, pp. 460–497).
An English translation by Mellen Haskell appeared in Bull. N. Y. Math. Soc 2 (1892–1893): 215–249.
The original German text of the Erlangen Program can be viewed at the University of Michigan online collection at , and also at in HTML format.
A central information page on the Erlangen Program maintained by John Baez is at .
Felix Klein (2004) Elementary Mathematics from an Advanced Standpoint: Geometry, Dover, New York,
(translation of Elementarmathematik vom höheren Standpunkte aus, Teil II: Geometrie, pub. 1924 by Springer). Has a section on the Erlangen Program.
Classical geometry
Symmetry
Group theory
Homogeneous spaces
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243387 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disulfiram | Disulfiram | Disulfiram (sold under the trade name Antabuse) is a drug used to support the treatment of alcohol use disorder by producing an acute sensitivity to ethanol (drinking alcohol). Disulfiram works by inhibiting the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, causing many of the effects of a hangover to be felt immediately following alcohol consumption. Disulfiram plus alcohol, even small amounts, produces flushing, throbbing in the head and neck, a throbbing headache, respiratory difficulty, nausea, copious vomiting, sweating, thirst, chest pain, palpitation, dyspnea, hyperventilation, fast heart rate, low blood pressure, fainting, marked uneasiness, weakness, vertigo, blurred vision, and confusion. In severe reactions there may be respiratory depression, cardiovascular collapse, abnormal heart rhythms, heart attack, acute congestive heart failure, unconsciousness, convulsions, and death.
In the body, alcohol is converted to acetaldehyde, which is then broken down by acetaldehyde dehydrogenase. When the dehydrogenase enzyme is inhibited, acetaldehyde builds up, causing unpleasant side effects. Disulfiram should be used in conjunction with counseling and support.
Disulfiram has been studied as a possible treatment for cancer, parasitic infections, and latent HIV infection.
Alcohol use disorder
Disulfiram is used as a second-line treatment, behind acamprosate and naltrexone, for alcohol use disorder.
Under normal metabolism, alcohol is broken down in the liver by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase to acetaldehyde, which is then converted by the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase to a harmless acetic acid derivative (acetyl coenzyme A). Disulfiram blocks this reaction at the intermediate stage by blocking acetaldehyde dehydrogenase. After alcohol intake under the influence of disulfiram, the concentration of acetaldehyde in the blood may be five to 10 times higher than that found during metabolism of the same amount of alcohol alone. As acetaldehyde is one of the major causes of the symptoms of a "hangover", this produces immediate and severe negative reaction to alcohol intake. About 5 to 10 minutes after alcohol intake, the patient may experience the effects of a severe hangover for a period of 30 minutes up to several hours. Symptoms include flushing of the skin, accelerated heart rate, shortness of breath, nausea, vomiting, throbbing headache, visual disturbance, mental confusion, postural syncope, and circulatory collapse.
Disulfiram should not be taken if alcohol has been consumed in the last 12 hours. There is no tolerance to disulfiram: the longer it is taken, the stronger its effects. As disulfiram is absorbed slowly through the digestive tract and eliminated slowly by the body, the effects may last for up to two weeks after the initial intake; consequently, medical ethics dictate that patients must be fully informed about the disulfiram-alcohol reaction.
Disulfiram does not reduce alcohol cravings, so a major problem associated with this drug is extremely poor compliance. Methods to improve compliance include subdermal implants, which release the drug continuously over a period of up to 12 weeks, and supervised administration practices, for example, having the drug regularly administered by one's spouse.
Although disulfiram remained the most common pharmaceutical treatment of alcohol use disorder until the end of the 20th century, today it is often replaced or accompanied with newer drugs, primarily the combination of naltrexone and acamprosate, which directly attempt to address physiological processes in the brain associated with alcohol use disorder.
Side effects in absence of alcohol
The most common side effects in the absence of alcohol are headache, and a metallic or garlic taste in the mouth, though more severe side effects may occur. Tryptophol, a chemical compound that induces sleep in humans, is formed in the liver after disulfiram treatment. Less common side effects include decrease in libido, liver problems, skin rash, and nerve inflammation. Liver toxicity is an uncommon but potentially serious side effect, and risk groups e.g. those with already impaired liver function should be monitored closely. That said, the rate of disulfiram-induced hepatitis are estimated to be in between 1 per 25,000 to 1 in 30,000, and rarely the primary cause for treatment cessation.
Cases of disulfiram neurotoxicity have also occurred, causing extrapyramidal and other symptoms. Disulfiram can produce neuropathy in daily doses of less than the usually recommended 500 mg. Nerve biopsies showed axonal degeneration and the neuropathy is difficult to distinguish from that associated with alcohol use disorder. Disulfiram neuropathy occurs after a variable latent period (mean 5 to 6 months) and progresses steadily. Slow improvement may occur when the drug's use is stopped; often there is complete recovery eventually.
Disulfiram disrupts metabolism of several other compounds, including paracetamol (acetaminophen), theophylline and caffeine. However, in most cases, this disruption is mild and presents itself as a 20–40% increase in the half-life of the compound at typical dosages of disulfiram.
Similarly acting substances
In medicine, the term "disulfiram effect" refers to an adverse effect of a particular medication in causing an unpleasant hypersensitivity to alcohol, similar to the effect caused by disulfiram administration.
Examples:
Antibiotics (nitroimidazoles), e.g. metronidazole
First-generation sulfonylureas, e.g. tolbutamide and chlorpropamide
Several cephalosporin drugs, including cefoperazone, cefamandole and cefotetan, that have a N-methylthio-tetrazole moiety
Griseofulvin, an oral antifungal drug
Procarbazine
Temposil, or citrated calcium carbimide, has the same function as disulfiram, but is weaker and safer.
Coprine, which metabolizes to 1-aminocyclopropanol, a chemical having the same metabolic effects as disulfiram. It occurs naturally in the otherwise edible common ink cap mushroom (Coprinopsis atramentaria), hence its colloquial name "tippler's bane". Similar reactions have been recorded with Clitocybe clavipes and Suillellus luridus, although the agent in those species is unknown.
History
The synthesis of disulfiram, originally known as tetraethylthiuram disulfide, was first reported in 1881. By around 1900, it was introduced to the industrial process of Sulfur vulcanization of rubber and became widely used. In 1937 a rubber factory doctor in the US published a paper noting that workers exposed to disulfiram had negative reactions to alcohol and could be used as a drug for alcohol use disorder; the effects were also noticed in workers at Swedish rubber boot factory.
In the early 1940s it had been tested as a treatment for scabies, a parasitic skin infection, as well as intestinal worms.
Around that time, during the German occupation of Denmark, Erik Jacobsen and Jens Hald at the Danish drug company Medicinalco picked up on that research and began exploring the use of disulfiram to treat intestinal parasites. The company had a group of enthusiastic self-experimenters that called itself the "Death Battalion", and in the course of testing the drug on themselves, accidentally discovered that drinking alcohol while the drug was still in their bodies made them mildly sick.
They made that discovery in 1945, and did nothing with it until two years later, when Jacobsen gave an impromptu talk and mentioned this self-experimental work and Disulframs nausea inducing effects when combined with alcohol, this talk which was discussed afterwards in newspapers at the time, led them to further explore the use of the drug for aversive-reaction based therapy for the treatment of alcohol use disorder. That work included small clinical trials with Oluf Martensen-Larsen, a doctor who worked with alcoholics. They published their work starting in 1948.
The chemists at Medicinalco discovered a new form of disulfiram while trying to purify a batch that had been contaminated with copper. This form turned out to have better pharmacological properties, and the company patented it and used that form for the product that was introduced as Antabus (later anglicized to Antabuse).
This work led to renewed study of the human metabolism of ethanol. It was already known that ethanol was mostly metabolized in the liver, with it being converted first to acetaldehyde and then acetaldehyde to acetic acid and carbon dioxide, but the enzymes involved were not known. By 1950 the work led to the knowledge that ethanol is oxidized to acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde is oxidized to acetic acid by aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH), and that disulfiram works by inhibiting ALDH, leading to a buildup of acetaldehyde, which is what causes the negative effects in the body.
The drug was first marketed in Denmark and as of 2008, Denmark is the country where it is most widely prescribed. It was approved by the FDA in 1951. The FDA later approved other drugs for treatment of alcohol use disorder, namely naltrexone in 1994 and acamprosate in 2004.
Cancer
When disulfiram creates complexes with metals (dithiocarbamate complexes), it is a proteasome inhibitor and as of 2016 it had been studied in in vitro experiments, model animals, and small clinical trials as a possible treatment for liver metastasis, metastatic melanoma, glioblastoma, non-small cell lung cancer, and prostate cancer. Various clinical trials of copper depletion agents have been carried out.
Parasitic infections
In the body, disulfiram is rapidly metabolized to diethyldithiocarbamate (ditiocarb), which binds to metal ions such as zinc or copper to form zinc or copper diethyldithiocarbamate (zinc or copper ditiocarb). The zinc diethyldithiocarbamate (zinc-ditiocarb) metabolite of disulfiram is extremely potent against the diarrhea and liver abscess-causing parasite Entamoeba histolytica and might be active against other deadly parasites.
HIV
Disulfiram has also been identified by systematic high-throughput screening as a potential HIV latency reversing agent (LRA). Reactivation of latent HIV infection in patients is part of an investigational strategy known as "shock and kill" which may be able to reduce or eliminate the HIV reservoir. Recent phase II dose-escalation studies in patients with HIV who are controlled on antiretroviral therapy have observed an increase in cell-associated unspliced HIV RNA with increasing exposure to disulfiram and its metabolites. Disulfiram is also being investigated in combination with vorinostat, another investigational latency reversing agent, to treat HIV.
COVID-19
Disulfiram has been shown to inhibit the papain-like proteases of MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV. It has been examined in a small inconclusive retrospective observational study for its effects on COVID-19 symptoms and is currently in Phase 2 clinical trials.
Occupational safety
Though the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the US has not set a permissible exposure limit (PEL) for disulfiram in the workplace, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 2 mg/m3 and recommended that workers avoid concurrent exposure to ethylene dibromide.
See also
Inky cap, a species of mushroom which produces the compound coprine, which behaves in a similar manner to disulfiram when ingested
Thiram
References
External links
CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase inhibitors
Alcohol and health
Antiprotozoal agents
Danish inventions
Dopamine beta hydroxylase inhibitors
Thiuram disulfides
COVID-19 drug development
Substance-related disorders | [
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243389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte%20Hornets | Charlotte Hornets | The Charlotte Hornets are an American professional basketball team based in Charlotte, North Carolina. The Hornets compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the league's Eastern Conference Southeast Division, and play their home games at the Spectrum Center. The Charlotte Hornets are mainly owned by Basketball Hall of Famer Michael Jordan, who acquired a controlling interest in the team in 2010.
The original Charlotte Hornets franchise was established in 1988 as an expansion team owned by George Shinn. In 2002, Shinn's franchise relocated to New Orleans; two years later, the Charlotte Bobcats were founded in their place as an expansion team. In 2013, the Bobcats announced that they would change their name to the Charlotte Hornets for the 2014–15 season, acquiring the history and records of the original Hornets (spanning from 1988 to 2002), while the New Orleans team would be renamed the Pelicans.
Franchise history
1988–2002: The original Charlotte Hornets
1985–1988: Birth of the Hornets
In 1985, the NBA was planning to expand by three teams by the 1988–89 season, later modified to include a total of four expansion teams. George Shinn, an entrepreneur from Kannapolis, wanted to bring an NBA team to the Charlotte area, and he assembled a group of prominent local businessmen to head the prospective franchise. The Charlotte area had long been a hotbed for college basketball. Charlotte was also one of the fastest-growing cities in the United States, and was previously one of the three in-state regional homes to the American Basketball Association's Carolina Cougars from 1969 to 1974.
Despite doubt from critics, Shinn's ace in the hole was the Charlotte Coliseum, a state-of-the-art arena that would seat almost 24,000 spectators, the largest basketball-specific arena ever to serve as a full-time home for an NBA team. On April 5, 1987, then-NBA Commissioner David Stern called Shinn to tell him his group had been awarded the 24th NBA franchise, to begin play in 1988. Franchises were also granted to Miami, Minneapolis-Saint Paul, and Orlando.
Originally, the new team was going to be called the Charlotte Spirit, but a name-the-team contest yielded "Hornets" as the winning choice. The name originates from British General Cornwallis, who allegedly described the city as "a hornet's nest of rebellion" following the Battle of Charlotte in 1780, though it was first attested in 1819. The team received further attention when it chose teal as its primary color, setting off a sports fashion craze in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The team's uniforms, designed by international designer and North Carolina native Alexander Julian, featured a first for NBA uniforms—pin stripes. Similar designs by other teams followed, as they became a hit.
Shinn hired Carl Scheer as the team's first President and General Manager. Scheer preferred a roster of veteran players, hoping to put together a competitive team as soon as possible. Former college coach and veteran NBA assistant Dick Harter was hired as the team's first head coach. In 1988, the Hornets and the Miami Heat were part of the 1988 NBA Expansion Draft. Unlike many expansion franchises that invest in the future with a team composed entirely of young players, Charlotte stocked its inaugural roster with several veterans in hopes of putting a competitive lineup on the court right away. The team also had three draft picks at the 1988 NBA draft.
1988–1992: Early seasons
The Hornets' first NBA game took place on November 4, 1988, at the Charlotte Coliseum, losing 133–93 to the Cleveland Cavaliers. Four days later, the team notched its first-ever victory over the Los Angeles Clippers, 117–105. On December 23, 1988, the Hornets really gave their fans something to cheer about, beating Michael Jordan and the Chicago Bulls 103–101 in Jordan's first return to North Carolina as a professional. The Hornets finished their inaugural season with a record of 20–62. Scheer left prior to the 1989–90 season.
Despite initial concerns that the Coliseum was too big, the Hornets were a runaway hit, leading the NBA in attendance, a feat they would achieve seven more times in Charlotte. Eventually, the Hornets would sell out 364 consecutive games.
The Hornets' second season was a struggle from start to finish. Members of the team rebelled against Dick Harter's defense-oriented style, and he was replaced mid-season by assistant Gene Littles following an 8–32 start. Despite the change, the team continued to struggle, finishing the season with a disappointing 19–63 record.
The team showed improvement during the following season. They won eight of their first fifteen games, including a 120–105 victory over the Washington Bullets. However, the team went cold, losing their next eleven games. The Hornets, who hosted the 1991 NBA All-Star Game, finished with a 26–56 record. Despite the team's seven-game improvement over the previous season, Gene Littles was fired at the end of the season and replaced by general manager Allan Bristow.
With the first pick in the 1991 NBA draft, the Hornets drafted power forward Larry Johnson from the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Johnson had an impact season, finishing among the league leaders in points and rebounds, and winning the 1992 NBA Rookie of the Year Award. Additionally, Guard Kendall Gill led the club in scoring, averaging over 20 points per game. The team stayed in contention for a playoff spot until March, but finished the year with a 31–51 record.
1992–1995: The Johnson/Mourning era
The Hornets were in the lottery again in 1992 and won the second overall pick in the draft, using it to select Georgetown center Alonzo Mourning. Charlotte now had two 20–10 threats in Johnson and Mourning, who with Kendall Gill, formed perhaps the league's top young trio. The team finished their fifth season at 44–38, their first-ever winning record and good enough for the first playoff berth in franchise history. Finishing fifth in the Eastern Conference, the Hornets upset the Boston Celtics in the first round, with Mourning winning the series with a 20-footer in game four. However, the Hornets lacked the experience and depth to defeat the New York Knicks, falling in five games in the second round.
The Hornets finished the 1993–94 season with a 41–41 record, narrowly missing the playoffs. Despite injuries to both Johnson and Mourning, the two led the team in points-per-game.
In the 1994–95 season, the Hornets finished with a 50–32 record, returning to the playoffs. Johnson and Mourning again led the team in points-per-game, while also leading the club in rebounding. However, Charlotte was bounced from the playoffs in the first round, falling to the Chicago Bulls in four games. Following the season, the Hornets traded Mourning to the Miami Heat for forward Glen Rice, center Matt Geiger, and guard Khalid Reeves.
1995–1998: The Glen Rice era
Glen Rice would make an immediate impact after joining the Hornets, leading the team in scoring and points-per-game during the 1995–96 season. While Rice and Johnson provided high-powered scoring, Geiger tied with Johnson for the team lead in rebounds, and All-Star guard Kenny Anderson ran the point for the injured Muggsy Bogues. The Hornets were competitive but failed to qualify for the playoffs, again finishing with a 41–41 record. Allan Bristow resigned at the end of the season, and was replaced by Dave Cowens.
The 1996 off-season was again marked by vast changes: Anderson declined to re-sign, Johnson was shipped to the Knicks for power forward Anthony Mason, and the team made a trade on draft day 1996, acquiring center Vlade Divac from the Los Angeles Lakers in exchange for the rights to rookie and future Hall of Famer Kobe Bryant, whom the Hornets picked 13th overall. The new-look Hornets were successful, with Divac and Geiger providing the center combination, Mason averaging a double-double, Bogues back at the point, and Rice having the finest season of his career. The team achieved the best season in its history at the time, finishing 54–28, and making it back to the playoffs. Despite the success during the regular season, the Hornets went down rather meekly to the Knicks in three games.
The 1997–98 season was also successful. Muggsy Bogues was traded two games into the season, and the team picked up point guard David Wesley and shooting guard Bobby Phills. With Wesley, Phills, Rice, Mason, and Divac, the Hornets romped through the regular season, finishing with a 51–31 record. The Hornets made it to back-to-back playoffs for the first time in franchise history, advancing to the second round, only to be stopped by the Bulls.
1998–2002: Final years of original personnel
The 1998–99 season was shortened. The season did not start until February, as the lockout shortened the regular season to only 50 games. Additionally, Glen Rice was traded to the Lakers for Eddie Jones and Elden Campbell, and Dave Cowens resigned midway through the season. He was replaced by former Celtics teammate Paul Silas, who became the team's fifth head coach. The team finished with a 26–24 record, but failed to qualify for the playoffs.
The next three seasons (1999–2000, 2000–01 and 2001–02) saw the Hornets in the playoffs each year, reaching the conference semifinals twice. Before the Hornets were eliminated from the 2002 playoffs, the NBA approved a deal for the team to move to New Orleans following the season. The move came mainly because attendance tailed off dramatically, reportedly due to Shinn's declining popularity in the city.
2004–2014: Charlotte Bobcats
Shortly after the relocation of the team to New Orleans, as well as to avoid a Browns-like lawsuit, the NBA opened itself to the possibility of adding a replacement team in Charlotte for the 2004–05 season, given an arena deal could be reached. Several ownership groups, including one led by former Boston Celtics star Larry Bird, made bids for the franchise. On December 18, 2002, a group led by BET founder Robert L. Johnson was awarded the franchise, allowing him to become the first majority African American owner in U.S. major professional sports since the Negro leagues. The franchise with Johnson as its owner was approved by the NBA Board of Governors on January 10, 2003. Hip-hop artist Nelly became a notable co-owner. The owners paid a $300 million expansion fee to enter the league.
In June 2003, the team name was officially announced as the Bobcats. The Charlotte Regional Sports Commission aided the naming process with a "Help Name The Team" effort that drew over 1,250 suggestions, with 'Flight' being the winner. However, it was discarded by Johnson and the team involved in creating the team's identity, being considered abstract and reminiscent of the then-current Iraq War aerial strikes. Given Charlotte was already home to a cat-named team, the Carolina Panthers of the National Football League, designer Chris Weiller made sure to create a logo that would not be similar to the Panthers logo. It has also been speculated that Johnson chose the name "Bobcats" in reference to his own name.
The Bobcats hired Bernie Bickerstaff as the first head coach and general manager in franchise history. A new arena to host the Bobcats in uptown Charlotte began construction in July 2003. The team would play its home games at the Coliseum until the new building was ready.
2004–2007: Return to Charlotte
The Bobcats held their expansion draft on June 22, 2004, picking up youngsters such as Gerald Wallace, Primož Brezec, and Jason Kapono. Shortly after, they traded with the Los Angeles Clippers to acquire the second pick in the 2004 NBA draft, which they used to select center Emeka Okafor from Connecticut. The Bobcats' inaugural game, and the first of their 2004–05 season took place on November 4 at the Charlotte Coliseum, and was a 103–96 loss to the Washington Wizards. Two days later, they won their first game in franchise history over the Orlando Magic, 111–100. On December 14, the Bobcats beat the New Orleans Hornets in overtime in the team's first trip to Charlotte since relocating. The Bobcats finished their inaugural season 18–64. Emeka Okafor, however, won the 2004–05 NBA Rookie of the Year Award.
In the 2005 NBA draft, the Bobcats drafted Raymond Felton and Sean May from North Carolina. In their second season, the Bobcats opened Charlotte Bobcats Arena with an overtime victory over the Celtics. Despite struggling for most of the year, they managed to close out the season with four straight wins to finish with a record of 26–56, an eight-game improvement from the previous season. After the season, the Bobcats announced that NBA legend and North Carolina native Michael Jordan had bought a minority stake in the team. As part of the deal, he became head of basketball operations, though Bickerstaff remained general manager.
The Bobcats showed some improvement during the 2006–07 season, posting a playoff-hopeful record of 22–33 late in February 2007. However, the team went through an eight-game losing streak and dropped their record to 22–41 by early March 2007. Following the slump, Jordan announced that Bickerstaff would not return to coach the following season, but would finish coaching the remainder of the 2006–07 season. The Bobcats won 11 of their last 19 games of Bickerstaff's tenure to finish their third season 33–49. On June 3, 2007, Charlotte Coliseum was demolished, marking a bitter end to the original Hornets era as it was the home of Charlotte's original NBA franchise. The arena was only 19 years old, owned by the city of Charlotte, but was already considered outdated because of a lack of luxury boxes and suites. The arena was designed for college basketball as part of Charlotte's push to maintain their presence in the ACC basketball tournament rotation.
2007–2010: The Larry Brown era
Front office and coaching were key focuses for the Bobcats during the 2007 off-season. Rod Higgins was hired as general manager, and Sam Vincent was hired as the second head coach in franchise history. In the 2007 NBA draft, Brandan Wright was selected by the Bobcats with the eighth pick; he was subsequently traded to Golden State for Jason Richardson. The Bobcats were unable to capitalize on off-season moves, finishing the 2007–08 season with a 32–50 record. The team struggled amid rumors of players clashing with the coach. After a year, during which he struggled with personnel decisions, Sam Vincent was fired in April 2008.
On April 29, 2008, the Bobcats reached an agreement to hire Basketball Hall of Famer Larry Brown as the third head coach in franchise history. In the 2008 NBA draft, the Bobcats selected D. J. Augustin from Texas ninth overall. On December 10, 2008, a little over a month into the season, the Bobcats obtained Boris Diaw and Raja Bell in a trade with Phoenix. The trade turned out to be successful as the team came close to reaching the franchise's first playoff berth, but finished four games out of eighth place with a record of 35–47. Following the season, majority owner Bob Johnson announced he was putting the team up for sale.
2009–2010: Michael Jordan's acquisition of the franchise
During the off-season, the team picked Gerald Henderson from Duke 12th overall in the 2009 NBA draft. The Bobcats traded Emeka Okafor for New Orleans Hornets' center Tyson Chandler, and through more trades acquired Stephen Jackson and Acie Law from the Golden State Warriors. On February 27, 2010, it was announced that Johnson had decided to sell the team to Jordan, allowing Jordan to become the first former NBA player to become majority owner of a franchise.
On April 9, 2010, the Bobcats clinched their first playoff berth since 2002 with a 104–103 road win over the New Orleans Hornets, finishing the 2009–10 season with an overall record of 44–38, their first-ever winning season. Gerald Wallace was a huge factor in the playoff run as he became the Bobcats' first and only NBA All-Star. However, the Bobcats were swept by the Orlando Magic in 4 games.
2010–2014: Final years of the Bobcats
Despite the departures of Raymond Felton and Tyson Chandler, the Bobcats hoped to make the playoffs for a second straight season. Following a dismal 9–19 start, Jordan announced that Larry Brown had stepped down as head coach. Paul Silas was hired as their new head coach the same day. The Bobcats sent Wallace to the Portland Trail Blazers and received two first-round draft picks, Joel Przybilla, Sean Marks, and Dante Cunningham, also acquiring D. J. White and Morris Peterson in a trade with the Thunder. Going down the stretch, injuries to both Stephen Jackson and Tyrus Thomas derailed any chances of Charlotte trying to catch the Indiana Pacers for the eighth spot in the east. In the end, the Bobcats finished the season with a 34–48 record overall, finishing 25–29 under Silas.
On June 13, 2011, the Bobcats made some changes to their front office by hiring former Trail Blazers general manager Rich Cho to the same position and promoting Rod Higgins to President of Basketball Operations. During the 2011 NBA draft the Bobcats sent Jackson, Shaun Livingston, and the 19th pick to Milwaukee and received Corey Maggette and the 7th pick in return. The Bobcats used that pick to draft Bismack Biyombo and with their 9th pick drafted Connecticut's Kemba Walker, the NCAA Basketball Tournament Most Outstanding Player.
In the lockout-shortened 2011–12 season, Charlotte lost often, including their last 23 games. During their season finale against the New York Knicks, the Bobcats recorded yet another loss as their win percentage dropped to .106, setting a new record for the worst season ever by an NBA team (as this season was shortened by the lockout, the 1972–73 Philadelphia 76ers still hold the record for most losses in a season with 73). Overall, the team's record was 7–59. On April 30, 2012, the Bobcats announced that Silas would not return as head coach. St. John's assistant Mike Dunlap was named as his successor.
Despite finishing the season with the worst record in NBA history, the Bobcats received the second overall pick. With the second pick in the 2012 NBA draft, the Bobcats selected Michael Kidd-Gilchrist and selected Jeffery Taylor with the 31st pick. They also added Ben Gordon, Ramon Sessions and Brendan Haywood in free agency. The Bobcats won their first game against the Pacers, snapping their 23-game losing streak. The team seemed to rebound with a 7–5 start to the season. However, they promptly went on an 18-game losing streak from which they never recovered, snapping the streak with a win at Chicago. Charlotte finished 21–61, the second-worst record in the league. Dunlap was fired on April 23, reportedly because the players were turned off by his heavy-handed coaching style. He would be replaced by former Los Angeles Lakers assistant head coach Steve Clifford.
During the 2013 NBA draft, the Bobcats selected power forward/center Cody Zeller 4th overall. The Bobcats would also obtain former Utah Jazz center Al Jefferson in free agency. In February 2014, the team received Gary Neal and Luke Ridnour in a trade with the Bucks. The new players and coaching staff worked as the Bobcats clinched a playoff berth for the second time in franchise history by beating Cleveland on the road. Charlotte finished the regular season 43–39. However, the Bobcats were swept in four games by defending champion Miami in the first round.
2014–present: The Return of the Charlotte Hornets and Struggles into Playoffs
On May 21, 2013, Jordan officially announced the organization had submitted an application to change the name of the franchise to the Charlotte Hornets for the 2014–15 NBA season, pending a majority vote for approval by the NBA Board of Governors at a meeting in Las Vegas on July 18, 2013. The NBA announced, on July 18, 2013, that it had unanimously approved the rebranding, which would begin upon the conclusion of the 2013–14 season.
The Bobcats announced on November 22, they would adopt a modified version of the original Hornets' teal-purple-white color palette, with black, gray and Carolina blue as accents. The team officially unveiled its future logo and identity scheme during halftime of their December 21 game against the Jazz. The team also started the "Buzz City" campaign to hype up the Hornets return. On January 16, 2014, the Bobcats revealed new Hornets shirts, hats and gear.
On May 20, 2014, the Bobcats officially became the second incarnation of the Charlotte Hornets. At a press conference regarding the change, team officials also announced that as part of a deal with the NBA and the Pelicans, the renamed Hornets acquired the history and records of the 1988–2002 Hornets (in a move similar to that of the National Football League's Cleveland Browns return to the league in 1999), while all of the Hornets' records during their time in New Orleans from 2002 to 2013 remained with the Pelicans. The Hornets are now retconned as having suspended operations from 2002 to 2004, while the Pelicans are considered a 2002 expansion team. Charlotte had already been using past footage of the original Hornets as part of the "Buzz City" campaign.
In the 2014 NBA draft, the Hornets had the 9th overall pick from an earlier trade with the Detroit Pistons, which they used to select Noah Vonleh from Indiana. In the same draft they acquired UConn Husky Shabazz Napier, Dwight Powell from Stanford, and Semaj Christon from Xavier in the second round. They later traded Napier to the Heat for P. J. Hairston (formerly from UNC), the rights to the 55th pick, Miami's 2019 second-round pick and cash considerations. The team also picked up Scotty Hopson (whom they would trade to New Orleans) and cash considerations in free agency.
During their first year of free agency as the Hornets, the team signed former Pacers shooting guard Lance Stephenson. The Hornets also signed former Jazz and Atlanta Hawks forward Marvin Williams to a two-year deal. A mostly difficult year led to a 33–49 record overall and a 4th-place finish in the division. Stephenson was traded to the Los Angeles Clippers for Spencer Hawes and Matt Barnes who was later traded to the Memphis Grizzlies for Courtney Lee.
The following year, the team improved to 48–34 overall, following the acquisition of players such as Nicolas Batum, Jeremy Lamb, and Jeremy Lin. It was the best season in franchise history since the original Hornets era. Charlotte returned to the playoffs, where they lost to the Heat in seven games in the first round. Along the way, they defeated the Heat twice at Time Warner Cable Arena, the franchise's first playoff wins since the original Hornets era.
In the off-season, Jeremy Lin would go to sign with the Brooklyn Nets, Al Jefferson to the Indiana Pacers, and Courtney Lee to the New York Knicks, but the Hornets were able to re-sign Nicolas Batum and Marvin Williams, as well as bring in former All-star Roy Hibbert, Marco Belinelli and Ramon Sessions for a second stint. Hibbert would be traded mid-season to the Milwaukee Bucks with Spencer Hawes for center Miles Plumlee. Kemba Walker was named an Eastern Conference All-star as a reserve, the first all-star game of his career. The Hornets would finish the season with a 36–46 record, missing out on the playoffs.
The Hornets had a successful 2017 off-season. They shipped Plumlee and Belinelli and the 41st pick in the 2017 NBA draft to the Atlanta Hawks for former All-star Dwight Howard and the 31st pick in the 2017 draft. The trade reunited Howard with head coach Steve Clifford, both of whom worked together during Howard's time in Orlando and Los Angeles. In the draft, Charlotte selected Malik Monk with the 11th overall pick, as well as Frank Jackson with the 31st pick. They then sent Jackson to the New Orleans Pelicans for cash considerations and swing-man Dwayne Bacon who was drafted 40th overall. Sessions signed with the New York Knicks, and, to replace the backup guard, they brought in former rookie of the year Michael Carter-Williams from the Chicago Bulls.
In the 2017–18 season Kemba Walker was selected for his second NBA All-Star appearance and passed Dell Curry for most three-pointers and the all-time leading scorer. At the end of the 2017–18 season, the Hornets did not renew the contract of general manager Rich Cho. In April 2018, Mitch Kupchak was named as the new president of basketball operations and general manager. On April 13, 2018, the Hornets fired head coach Steve Clifford after five seasons, who coached the team to a 196–214 record total, and named James Borrego as his replacement on May 10.
On July 23, 2018, Tony Parker, who spent the previous 17 years of his career with the San Antonio Spurs, signed with the Hornets. In January 2019 Kemba Walker was named an All-Star Game starter for the Eastern Conference, his first starting role in an All-Star Game, and matched only Glen Rice for his third All-Star Game appearance in his Hornets career. During the 2018–19 season, Charlotte finished the season with a 39–43 record finishing 2nd in the division and 9th in the Eastern Conference.
On June 20, 2019, the Hornets selected P. J. Washington with the twelfth overall pick in the 2019 NBA Draft.
On July 6, 2019, Kemba Walker joined the Boston Celtics through a sign-and-trade deal with the Hornets.
On November 18, 2020, the Hornets selected LaMelo Ball with the third overall pick. The Hornets also drafted Vernon Carey Jr. and Grant Riller in the second round of the 2020 NBA Draft. On November 29, 2020, the Hornets would acquire Gordon Hayward in a sign-and-trade deal with the Boston Celtics. The Hornets finished the 2020–21 season 10th in the East with an 33–39 overall record. On June 16, 2021, Ball was named 2020–21 NBA Rookie of the Year, becoming the third player in franchise history to win the award.
Logos and uniforms
Logos
The Hornets' first logo was a teal and purple anthropomorphic hornet wearing white shoes and gloves dribbling an orange basketball. The words 'Charlotte Hornets' were in teal and curved across the top and bottom of the logo. An alternate logo, used only for the 1988–89 season, featured a large teal letter 'C', with 'Charlotte' in black letters curved upwards underneath. Inside the 'C' was a smaller white letter 'H' outlined in teal, with a black-colored hornet holding a basketball from birds-eye view placed in the center. The 'H' portion of the logo remained on the warm-ups and waistband of the jerseys until the 1991–92 season.
The Bobcats primary logo from 2004 to 2012 consisted of a snarling orange bobcat facing to the right with the indented name 'Bobcats' above in silver on a blue background, with 'Charlotte' (also indented) appearing above it in the same blue color. A change to a less vibrant orange and blue, while retaining the same look, was made in 2007. Further color changes in 2012 made the bobcat gray, extended the blue background up to the 'Charlotte' name, which changed from blue to orange. A Carolina blue outline around the entire logo was also added. In 2007 the Bobcats unveiled a secondary logo, consisting of a snarling bobcat head facing forward with one side shaded orange, and the other blue. A silver basketball was placed behind the right of the head, all encased in an orange-blue-gray circle. During the 2012 rebranding, the colors were changed, with gray and Carolina blue replacing orange on the head and circle outline, respectively, and the basketball changing to orange. This logo would become prominent in the team's marketing and be featured at center court from 2007–08 until 2013–14.
Charlotte's second Hornets logo features a teal and purple forward-facing hornet with the words 'Charlotte Hornets' on its torso. Wings sprout up above the head on both left and right, with teal and purple details. The hornet's stinger is prominently featured; a basketball pattern is above the stinger. Gray fully outlines the logo.
Among the team's different secondary logos includes a hornet facing to the side, its teal and purple body arched in a 'C' shape representing the city of Charlotte, and a modified version of the Hornets original logo (sans the basketball) as the official mascot logo.
Uniforms
Original Hornets
The original Hornets uniforms were designed by international designer and North Carolina native Alexander Julian. The team chose teal and purple as its primary colors and featured a first for NBA uniforms—pinstripes. While most teams feature team names on home jerseys and their home city on away jerseys, the Hornets' uniforms had "Charlotte" on both home and away jerseys. Home uniforms were white with pinstripes in teal, green, blue and purple, while the away jerseys were teal with pinstripes in white, green, blue and purple. The 'Hugo' logo was prominently featured on the shorts' beltline, beginning in early 1992.
In 1994, the Hornets unveiled a purple alternate uniform, with pinstripes in white, green, blue and teal. Likewise, Hugo was featured in the beltline.
From 1997 to 2002, the Hornets made slight changes to their uniforms. Hugo was moved from the beltline to the left leg, while side stripes with pinstripes were added, in purple (away) and teal (home) colors. A tricolor featuring teal, purple and blue was featured on the beltline and the piping.
Bobcats
The Bobcats' first home jerseys were white, reading "Bobcats" in orange with blue and black trimming. The primary away jersey was orange reading "Charlotte" in white with blue and black trimming. In the 2006 off-season, the Bobcats announced a new alternate away jersey which debuted during the 2006–07 season. The alternate jersey is blue, with the name "Bobcats" in white with black, orange and white trimming. Racing Day blue alternates (with an arched 'Charlotte', checkered flag side stripes, and centered numbers) were used to honor Charlotte's NASCAR fanbase.
For the 2009–10 season, the Bobcats sported redesigned uniforms, having a mixture of characteristics from both Hornets and Bobcats uniforms. The home uniforms were white and featured an arched "Bobcats" in blue with orange and white trim. Road uniforms were blue and featured an arched "Charlotte" in white with blue and orange trim. Both designs featured silver pinstripes, similar to what the Hornets wore. The NASCAR uniform was also updated to include the pinstripes. For the 2011–12 season, however, the Bobcats wore their home uniforms on NASCAR night, complete with a racing flag patch.
The Bobcats unveiled Hardwood Classics uniforms honoring the American Basketball Association (ABA)'s Carolina Cougars, which the team wore for select games in 2012.
The Bobcats unveiled new uniforms on June 19, 2012, their second and final change in five years. Overall, they featured less emphasis on orange. The white home uniforms sported the shorter nickname 'Cats' in navy and Carolina blue trim, while the numbers were in Carolina blue and navy trim, with navy side stripes. The navy away uniforms featured 'Charlotte' in white and Carolina blue trim, with the numbers featured the same trim as the city name, with Carolina blue side stripes. In both uniforms, the pinstripes were relegated to the sides. The uniforms bore a close resemblance to the Dallas Mavericks uniforms. The addition of Carolina blue was seen as way to connect owner Michael Jordan's collegiate roots, while the formal adoption of 'Cats' for marketing purposes reflected a popular nickname.
Revived Hornets
The newly renamed Hornets unveiled the team's uniforms on June 19, 2014, consisting of white home and purple road uniforms with the "Hornets" wordmark across the chest. The team also unveiled a teal alternate uniform with the "Charlotte" wordmark across the chest. The teal uniform is planned to be used as an alternate uniform for either home or road games and worn a total of 16–20 times per season.
On June 25, 2015, the Hornets unveiled a black sleeved alternate uniform, featuring their "Buzz City" nickname in front. The team wore the uniform for as many as six games during the 2015–16 NBA season. It was also worn during select games of the 2016 NBA Playoffs.
For the 2017–18 season and beyond, the Hornets have been outfitted by Nike's Air Jordan brand endorsed by franchise owner Michael Jordan. The white "Association" uniform and the teal "Icon" uniform feature the "Hornets" wordmark in front and the silhouetted hornet on the waistband. The purple "Statement" uniform is similar to the "Icon" and "Association" uniforms, but feature the "Charlotte" wordmark in front.
The Hornets revamped their purple "Statement" uniforms prior to the 2019–20 season. The front of the uniform featured the "CHA" acronym in bold white letters with teal trim, while teal "stinger" stripes accentuate the sides. The silhouetted Hornets logo was moved to the sides of the shorts while the partial logo was placed on the beltline.
The Hornets' "City" uniforms were slight updates of Adidas' sleeved "Buzz City" uniforms. The 2017–18 version featured black letters with white trim on a black base and the sides featured a wing pattern of a hornet. The 2018–19 version was slightly tweaked to feature teal lettering and a new logo reminiscent of the original Air Jordan "Wings" logo.
The "City" uniform for the 2019–20 season moved away from the "Buzz City" concept and went with a cool grey base, purple, teal and black piping, "CHA" acronym in purple and white numbers with purple trim. A cell pattern adorned the sides.
Charlotte's "City" uniform for the 2020–21 season paid homage to the city's history as the first to house a U.S. Branch Mint and the Carolina Gold Rush. The base color is mint and letters and numbers are in granite black with metallic gold trim. Pinstripes are in gold. It also brought back the "Buzz City" crest in front.
For the 2021–22 season, the Hornets' "City" uniform visually mixed various elements from previous identities. The cursive "Charlotte" wordmark was inspired by the banners displayed during the franchise's 1988 uniform unveiling. The number placement on the left chest was reminiscent of the Bobcats' original uniforms. The purple cells recalled the court design used at the Charlotte Coliseum, and the teal gradient contained pinstripes, reminiscent of the uniforms worn from 1988 to 1997. The original "Hugo" logo was placed on the left leg, and the script "Hornets" wordmark was added to the right leg. Along the jock tag the Hornets added the "EST. 1988" sign acknowledging the team's inaugural year.
The "Classic" edition featured a revival of the original Hornets pinstriped uniforms in the current Nike template. The teal version was used in the 2017–18 season, followed by a white version in 2018–19, complete with an alternate court marking the 30th anniversary of NBA basketball in Charlotte. For 2019–20, the Hornets wore purple versions of the pinstriped uniforms to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the uniform's unveiling. On August 31, 2020, the Hornets unveiled new uniforms that include double pinstriped jerseys that pay homage to the jerseys worn from 1997 until 2002. These are the first Hornets regular jerseys to include pinstripes since they wore them as the Bobcats from 2009 to 2012.
Season-by-season record
List of the last five seasons completed by the Hornets. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Charlotte Hornets seasons.
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, W–L% = Winning percentage
Arenas
Charlotte Coliseum (1988–2002, 2004–2005)
Spectrum Center (2005–present) (known as Charlotte Bobcats Arena from 2005–2008 and Time Warner Cable Arena from 2008–2016)
The Hornets played their first 15 seasons at the Charlotte Coliseum, which was called "The Hive" by fans. With over 23,000 seats, it was (and still remains) the largest basketball-specific venue in the league by seating capacity. The Coliseum hosted 371 consecutive NBA sell-outs (including seven playoff games) from December 1920 to November 1921. The Hornets would go on to lead the NBA in attendance in eight of its first nine seasons. When Charlotte returned to the NBA as the Bobcats, they temporarily played in the Coliseum in the 2004–05 season while their new arena (the Charlotte Bobcats Arena) was being built. After its completion, the city closed the old Coliseum in the 2005 off-season and opened the new arena with a Rolling Stones concert.
In April 2008, the Bobcats reached a naming rights deal with Time Warner Cable, North Carolina's largest cable television provider. In exchange for the naming rights, Time Warner agreed to tear up the cable television deal that had limited the Bobcats' exposure over the team's first four years (see below). When the Hornets returned to Charlotte, "The Hive" nickname also returned to the arena. In August 2016, the arena was renamed the Spectrum Center after Time Warner's merger with Charter Communications and its Spectrum consumer/business branding.
The Hornets practice at the Novant Health Training Center, located within the Spectrum Center. Previously the team practiced at the Grady Cole Center in the Elizabeth neighborhood before moving to a purpose-built facility in Fort Mill, South Carolina located beside Knights Castle, this facility is now known as The Pointe Arts and Recreation Center.
Players
Roster
Retained draft rights
The Hornets hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player is ostensibly either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
Head coaches
Franchise records, awards and honors
Franchise leaders
Bold denotes still active with team. Italic denotes still active but not with team.
Regular season (as of the end of the 2020–21 season)Individual awardsAll-Rookie First Team Kendall Gill – 1991
Larry Johnson – 1992
Alonzo Mourning – 1993
Emeka Okafor – 2005
LaMelo Ball – 2021All-Rookie Second Team Rex Chapman – 1989
J. R. Reid – 1990
Raymond Felton – 2006
Adam Morrison – 2007
Walter Herrmann – 2007
D. J. Augustin – 2009
Michael Kidd-Gilchrist – 2013
Cody Zeller – 2014
P. J. Washington – 2020All-NBA Second Team Larry Johnson – 1993
Glen Rice – 1997All-NBA Third Team Anthony Mason – 1997
Glen Rice – 1998
Eddie Jones – 2000
Al Jefferson – 2014
Kemba Walker – 2019All-Defensive First Team Gerald Wallace – 2010All-Defensive Second Team Anthony Mason – 1997
Eddie Jones – 1999, 2000
P. J. Brown – 2001Rookie of the Year Larry Johnson – 1992
Emeka Okafor – 2005
LaMelo Ball – 2021Sixth Man of the Year Dell Curry – 1994Executive of the Year Bob Bass – 1997
NBA All-Star WeekendAll-Star Selections Larry Johnson – 1993, 1995
Alonzo Mourning – 1994, 1995
Glen Rice – 1996, 1997, 1998
Eddie Jones – 2000
Baron Davis – 2002
Gerald Wallace – 2010
Kemba Walker – 2017, 2018, 2019
LaMelo Ball – 2022All-Star Most Valuable Player Glen Rice – 1997
Retired numbers
The Charlotte Hornets retired Phills' number on February 9, 2000 after his death in an automobile accident in Charlotte. His jersey hung from the rafters of the Charlotte Coliseum until the franchise relocated in May 2002; it was then displayed in the New Orleans Arena until 2013. On November 1, 2014, Phills' jersey was returned to Charlotte, where it was re-honored and currently hangs in the Spectrum Center.
Basketball Hall of Famers
FIBA Hall of Famers
Mascot and cheerleaders Hugo The Hornet is the current mascot of the franchise, and was retained by the New Orleans Hornets after the Charlotte Hornets departure in 2002, until the New Orleans franchise's rebranding as the Pelicans. Shortly after the news that the Bobcats would get the Hornets name back, at halftime of a December 21, 2013, game between the Bobcats and the Utah Jazz, Hugo was announced to return as the Charlotte Hornets' new mascot for the 2014–15 NBA season.
From 2004 to 2014, Rufus D. Lynx was the mascot of the Bobcats. He first appeared on November 1, 2003, according to his official bio on the Bobcats' website. The name comes from the scientific name of the bobcat, which is Lynx rufus. During the 2012 NBA All-Star Jam Session, Rufus D. Lynx broke a world record along with Coyote, Grizz, Hooper, and Sly the Silver Fox for most "between the legs" basketball dunks. Bleacher Report ranked Rufus as the 8th best mascot in the NBA. Rufus D. Lynx is featured in NBA Jam 2010. Rufus D. Lynx was officially retired following the conclusion of the 2013–14 NBA season, and the Hornets made him a farewell video in May 2014. The updated Hugo''' was unveiled on an around the city tour on June 5, 2014.
The Hornets have an official cheerleading squad known as the Charlotte Honey Bees. The Honey Bees perform sideline dances as well as center-court dances during games. They also represent the Hornets brand as ambassadors to the community and are involved in community service activities and charity functions. When the team was known as the Bobcats, the cheerleaders were called the Lady Cats.
Media coverage
From 1988 to 1992, the Hornets aired most road games, and occasional home games, on a network of stations in North Carolina, South Carolina and Virginia fronted by WCCB in Charlotte. WCCB's longtime owner, Cy Bahakel, was a minority partner in the Hornets' original ownership group. Starting with the 1990–91 season, several games also aired on the original SportSouth, forerunner of Bally Sports South, for customers in North and South Carolina. WJZY became the Hornets' over-the-air flagship in 1992, and remained as such until 1998. From 1995 to 1998, some games aired on WJZY's sister station, WFVT-TV (now WMYT-TV). WAXN-TV became the flagship for the 1998–99 season, and remained as such until the original team departed in 2002. Generally, most home games slated for telecast aired on SportSouth/Fox Sports South.
When the team returned as the Bobcats in 2004, Johnson partnered with Time Warner to create Carolinas Sports Entertainment Television (C-SET), a regional sports network. It aired 60 Bobcats games that also aired on Comporium Cable in the South Carolina portion of the Charlotte market. However, Time Warner placed C-SET on its digital package as an incentive to try to get customers to switch to its digital service, leaving analog customers in the dark. It also refused to allow DirecTV or Dish Network to pick up C-SET on their local feeds. As a result, Time Warner customers without digital cable, as well as western North Carolina and most of South Carolina, were left to rely on radio coverage.
C-SET folded on the day of the 2005 NBA draft, and most games then moved to News 14 Carolina, a cable news channel available on Time Warner Cable's systems in Charlotte, the Triad and the Triangle. However, this still left viewers in most of South Carolina (except for the South Carolina side of the Charlotte area, which saw games on Comporium) as well as eastern and western North Carolina, out in the cold. News 14 was also not available on satellite.
As part of the Time Warner Cable Arena deal, the Bobcats signed over broadcasting rights to Fox Sports South. Starting with the last five games of the 2007–08 season, about 70 games per season were shown on Fox Sports Carolinas (Fox Sports South's new regional feed, now reintegrated to Bally Sports South) and sister network Sportsouth (renamed Fox Sports Southeast in 2015 and later Bally Sports Southeast in 2021) in North and South Carolina. The deal is believed to be the first simultaneous naming rights and broadcast rights deal in the history of North American professional sports. As of the 2020–21 season, Hornets games are carried by Bally Sports Southeast.
For the team's first four seasons after their return to the league, select games also aired on a network of over-the-air stations across North Carolina, South Carolina and Virginia, fronted by WJZY from 2004 to 2006 and WMYT from 2006 to 2008.
The team's radio flagship is all-sports station WFNZ. Before 2010, games had aired on WOLS. WOLS switched its non-sports programming from oldies to Spanish language on January 1, 2009, making Bobcats and Duke basketball the station's only non-Spanish language programming. WBT was the Hornets' radio flagship during the original franchise's entire run.
References
External links
National Basketball Association teams
Basketball teams established in 1988
1988 establishments in North Carolina | [
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243390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propinquity | Propinquity | In social psychology, propinquity (; from Latin propinquitas, "nearness") is one of the main factors leading to interpersonal attraction.
It refers to the physical or psychological proximity between people. Propinquity can mean physical proximity, a kinship between people, or a similarity in nature between things ("like-attracts-like"). Two people living on the same floor of a building, for example, have a higher propinquity than those living on different floors, just as two people with similar political beliefs possess a higher propinquity than those whose beliefs strongly differ. Propinquity is also one of the factors, set out by Jeremy Bentham, used to measure the amount of (utilitarian) pleasure in a method known as felicific calculus.
Propinquity effect
The propinquity effect is the tendency for people to form friendships or romantic relationships with those whom they encounter often, forming a bond between subject and friend. Workplace interactions are frequent and this frequent interaction is often a key indicator as to why close relationships can readily form in this type of environment. In other words, relationships tend to form between those who have a high propinquity. It was first theorized by psychologists Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter, and Kurt Back in what came to be called the Westgate studies conducted at MIT (1950). The typical Euler diagram used to represent the propinquity effect is shown below where U = universe, A = set A, B = set B, and S = similarity:
The sets are basically any relevant subject matter about a person, persons, or non-persons, depending on the context. Propinquity can be more than just physical distance. Residents of an apartment building living near a stairway, for example, tend to have more friends from other floors than those living further from the stairway. The propinquity effect is usually explained by the mere exposure effect, which holds that the more exposure a stimulus gets, the more likeable it becomes. There is a requirement for the mere exposure effect to influence the propinquity effect, and that is that the exposure is positive. If the resident has repeatedly negative experiences with a person then the propinquity effect has a far less chance of happening (Norton, Frost, & Ariely, 2007).
In a study on interpersonal attraction (Piercey and Piercey, 1972), 23 graduate psychology students, all from the same class, underwent 9 hours of sensitivity training in two groups. Students were given pre- and post-tests to rate their positive and negative attitudes toward each class member. Members of the same sensitivity training group rated each other higher in the post-test than they rated members of the other group in both the pre- and post-test, and members of their own group in the pre-test. The results indicated that the 9 hours of sensitivity training increased the exposure of students in the same group to each other, and thus they became more likeable to each other.
Propinquity is one of the effects used to study group dynamics. For example, there was a British study done on immigrant Irish women to observe how they interacted with their new environments (Ryan, 2007). This study showed that there were certain people with whom these women became friends much more easily than others, such as classmates, workplace colleagues, and neighbours as a result of shared interests, common situations, and constant interaction. For women who still felt out of place when they began life in a new place, giving birth to children allowed for different ties to be formed, ones with other mothers. Having slightly older children participating in activities such as school clubs and teams also allowed social networks to widen, giving the women a stronger support base, emotional or otherwise.
Types
Various types of propinquity exist, varying from Industry/Occupational Propinquity, in which similar people working in the same field or job tend to be attracted to one another. Residential Propinquity, in which people living in the same area or within neighborhoods of each other tend to come together. Acquaintance Propinquity, a form of proximity in existence when friends tend to have a special bond of interpersonal attraction. Many studies have been performed in assessing various propinquities and their effect on marriage.
Virtual propinquity
The introduction of instant messaging and video conferencing has reduced the effects of propinquity. Online interactions have facilitated instant and close interactions with people despite a lack of material presence. This allows a notional "virtual propinquity" to work on virtual relationships where people are connected virtually. However, research that came after the development of the internet and email has shown that physical distance is still a powerful predictor of contact, interaction, friendship, and influence.
In popular culture
William Shakespeare's
King Lear, Act 1 Scene 1 Page 5
LEAR:
'Let it be so. Thy truth then be thy dower.
For by the sacred radiance of the sun,
The mysteries of Hecate and the night,
By all the operation of the orbs
From whom we do exist and cease to be—
Here I disclaim all my paternal care,
Propinquity, and property of blood,
And as a stranger to my heart and me
Hold thee from this for ever. The barbarous Scythian,
Or he that makes his generation messes
To gorge his appetite, shall to my bosom
Be as well neighbored, pitied, and relieved
As thou my sometime daughter.'
"Love is a Science", a 1959 short story by humorist Max Shulman, features a girl named Zelda Gilroy assuring her science lab tablemate, Dobie Gillis, that he would eventually come to love her through the influence of propinquity, as their similar last names would put them in proximity throughout school. "Love is a Science" was adapted into a 1959 episode of the Shulman-created TV sitcom The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis, featuring Dobie as its main character and Zelda as a semi-regular, and a 1988 made-for-TV movie based on the series, Bring Me the Head of Dobie Gillis, portrayed Dobie and Zelda as being married.
Propinquity (I've Just Begun To Care) is a song by Mike Nesmith of The Monkees. It was first recorded by the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band on their album Uncle Charlie & His Dog Teddy.
On page 478 of Jonathan Franzen's 2010 novel Freedom, Walter attributes his inability to stop having sex with Lalitha to their "daily propinquity".
On page 150 in Michael Ondaatje's novel The English Patient, "He said later it was propinquity. Propinquity in the desert. It does that here, he said. He loved the word – the propinquity of water, the propinquity of two or three bodies in a car driving the Sand Sea for six hours."
In Ian Fleming's 1957 James Bond novel Diamonds Are Forever, Felix Leiter tells Bond "Nothing propinks like propinquity."
In William Faulkner's 1936 novel Absalom, Absalom!, Rosa, in explaining to Quentin why she agreed to marry Sutpen, states, "I don't plead propinquity: the fact that I, a woman young and at the age for marrying and in a time when most of the young men whom I would have known ordinarily were dead on lost battlefields, that I lived for two years under the same roof with him."
In Ryan North's webcomic Dinosaur Comics, T-Rex discusses propinquity.
In the P. G. Wodehouse novel Right Ho, Jeeves, Bertie asks, "What do you call it when two people of opposite sexes are bunged together in close association in a secluded spot meeting each other every day and seeing a lot of each other?" to which Jeeves replies, "Is 'propinquity' the word you wish, sir?" Bertie: "It is. I stake everything on propinquity, Jeeves."
In Ernest Thompson Seton's short story "Arnaux: the Chronicle of a Homing Pigeon," published in Animal Heroes (1905): "Pigeon marriages are arranged somewhat like those of mankind. Propinquity is the first thing: force the pair together for a time and let nature take its course."
A song on Michael Nesmith's album Nevada Fighter, 1971.
See also
References
External links
Propinquity Effect
Human Mate Selection – An Exploration of Assortive Mating Preferences – (has two pages of propinquity studies)
Interpersonal relationships | [
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243391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge | Knowledge | Knowledge is a familiarity or awareness, of someone or something, such as facts (descriptive knowledge), skills (procedural knowledge), or objects (acquaintance knowledge) contributing to ones understanding. By most accounts, knowledge can be acquired in many different ways and from many sources, including but not limited to perception, reason, memory, testimony, scientific inquiry, education, and practice. The philosophical study of knowledge is called epistemology.
The term "knowledge" can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); formal or informal; systematic or particular. The philosopher Plato argued that there was a distinction between knowledge and true belief in the Theaetetus, leading many to attribute to him a definition of knowledge as "justified true belief". The difficulties with this definition raised by the Gettier problem have been the subject of extensive debate in epistemology for more than half a century.
Theories of knowledge
Knowledge is the primary subject of the field of epistemology, which studies what we know, how we come to know it, and what it means to know something. Defining knowledge is an important aspect of epistemology, because it does not suffice to have a belief; one must also have good reasons for that belief, because otherwise there would be no reason to prefer one belief over another.
The definition of knowledge is a matter of ongoing debate among epistemologists. The classical definition, described but not ultimately endorsed by Plato, specifies that a statement must meet three criteria in order to be considered knowledge: it must be justified, true, and believed. Epistemologists today generally agree that these conditions are not sufficient, as various Gettier cases are thought to demonstrate. There are a number of alternative definitions which have been proposed, including Robert Nozick's proposal that all instances of knowledge must 'track the truth' and Simon Blackburn's proposal that those who have a justified true belief 'through a defect, flaw, or failure' fail to have knowledge. Richard Kirkham suggests that our definition of knowledge requires that the evidence for the belief necessitates its truth.
In contrast to this approach, Ludwig Wittgenstein observed, following Moore's paradox, that one can say "He believes it, but it isn't so," but not "He knows it, but it isn't so." He goes on to argue that these do not correspond to distinct mental states, but rather to distinct ways of talking about conviction. What is different here is not the mental state of the speaker, but the activity in which they are engaged. For example, on this account, to know that the kettle is boiling is not to be in a particular state of mind, but to perform a particular task with the statement that the kettle is boiling. Wittgenstein sought to bypass the difficulty of definition by looking to the way "knowledge" is used in natural languages. He saw knowledge as a case of a family resemblance. Following this idea, "knowledge" has been reconstructed as a cluster concept that points out relevant features but that is not adequately captured by any definition.
Self-knowledge
“Self-knowledge” usually refers to a person's knowledge of their own sensations, thoughts, beliefs, and other mental states. A number of questions regarding self-knowledge have been the subject of extensive debates in philosophy, including whether self-knowledge differs from other types of knowledge, whether we have privileged self-knowledge compared to knowledge of other minds, and the nature of our acquaintance with ourselves. David Hume expressed skepticism about whether we could ever have self-knowledge over and above our immediate awareness of a "bundle of perceptions", which was part of his broader skepticism about personal identity.
The value of knowledge
It is generally assumed that knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief. If so, what is the explanation? A formulation of the value problem in epistemology first occurs in Plato's Meno. Socrates points out to Meno that a man who knew the way to Larissa could lead others there correctly. But so, too, could a man who had true beliefs about how to get there, even if he had not gone there or had any knowledge of Larissa. Socrates says that it seems that both knowledge and true opinion can guide action. Meno then wonders why knowledge is valued more than true belief and why knowledge and true belief are different. Socrates responds that knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief because it is tethered or justified. Justification, or working out the reason for a true belief, locks down true belief.
The problem is to identify what (if anything) makes knowledge more valuable than mere true belief, or that makes knowledge more valuable than a mere minimal conjunction of its components, such as justification, safety, sensitivity, statistical likelihood, and anti-Gettier conditions, on a particular analysis of knowledge that conceives of knowledge as divided into components (to which knowledge-first epistemological theories, which posit knowledge as fundamental, are notable exceptions). The value problem re-emerged in the philosophical literature on epistemology in the twenty-first century following the rise of virtue epistemology in the 1980s, partly because of the obvious link to the concept of value in ethics.
In contemporary philosophy, epistemologists including Ernest Sosa, John Greco, Jonathan Kvanvig, Linda Zagzebski, and Duncan Pritchard have defended virtue epistemology as a solution to the value problem. They argue that epistemology should also evaluate the "properties" of people as epistemic agents (i.e. intellectual virtues), rather than merely the properties of propositions and propositional mental attitudes.
Scientific knowledge
The development of the scientific method has made a significant contribution to how knowledge of the physical world and its phenomena is acquired. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning and experimentation. The scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses. Science, and the nature of scientific knowledge have also become the subject of philosophy. As science itself has developed, scientific knowledge now includes a broader usage in the soft sciences such as biology and the social sciences – discussed elsewhere as meta-epistemology, or genetic epistemology, and to some extent related to "theory of cognitive development". Note that "epistemology" is the study of knowledge and how it is acquired. Science is "the process used everyday to logically complete thoughts through inference of facts determined by calculated experiments." Sir Francis Bacon was critical in the historical development of the scientific method; his works established and popularized an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry. His aphorism, "knowledge is power", is found in the Meditations Sacrae (1597).
Until recent times, at least in the Western tradition, it was simply taken for granted that knowledge was something possessed only by humans – and probably adult humans at that. Sometimes the notion might stretch to Society-as-such, as in (e. g.) "the knowledge possessed by the Coptic culture" (as opposed to its individual members), but that was not assured either. Nor was it usual to consider unconscious knowledge in any systematic way until this approach was popularized by Freud.
Situated knowledge
Situated knowledge is knowledge specific to a particular situation. It was used by Donna Haraway as an extension of the feminist approaches of "successor science" suggested by Sandra Harding, one which "offers a more adequate, richer, better account of a world, in order to live in it well and in critical, reflexive relation to our own as well as others' practices of domination and the unequal parts of privilege and oppression that makes up all positions." This situation partially transforms science into a narrative, which Arturo Escobar explains as, "neither fictions nor supposed facts." This narrative of situation is historical textures woven of fact and fiction, and as Escobar explains further, "even the most neutral scientific domains are narratives in this sense," insisting that rather than a purpose dismissing science as a trivial matter of contingency, "it is to treat (this narrative) in the most serious way, without succumbing to its mystification as 'the truth' or to the ironic skepticism common to many critiques."
Haraway's argument stems from the limitations of the human perception, as well as the overemphasis of the sense of vision in science. According to Haraway, vision in science has been, "used to signify a leap out of the marked body and into a conquering gaze from nowhere." This is the "gaze that mythically inscribes all the marked bodies, that makes the unmarked category claim the power to see and not be seen, to represent while escaping representation." This causes a limitation of views in the position of science itself as a potential player in the creation of knowledge, resulting in a position of "modest witness". This is what Haraway terms a "god trick", or the aforementioned representation while escaping representation. In order to avoid this, "Haraway perpetuates a tradition of thought which emphasizes the importance of the subject in terms of both ethical and political accountability".
Some methods of generating knowledge, such as trial and error, or learning from experience, tend to create highly situational knowledge.
Situational knowledge is often embedded in language, culture, or traditions. This integration of situational knowledge is an allusion to the community, and its attempts at collecting subjective perspectives into an embodiment "of views from somewhere." Knowledge is also said to be related to the capacity of acknowledgement in human beings.
Even though Haraway's arguments are largely based on feminist studies, this idea of different worlds, as well as the skeptic stance of situated knowledge is present in the main arguments of post-structuralism. Fundamentally, both argue the contingency of knowledge on the presence of history; power, and geography, as well as the rejection of universal rules or laws or elementary structures; and the idea of power as an inherited trait of objectification.
Partial knowledge
One discipline of epistemology focuses on partial knowledge. In most cases, it is not possible to understand an information domain exhaustively; our knowledge is always incomplete or partial. Most real problems have to be solved by taking advantage of a partial understanding of the problem context and problem data, unlike the typical math problems one might solve at school, where all data is given and one is given a complete understanding of formulas necessary to solve them (False consensus effect).
This idea is also present in the concept of bounded rationality which assumes that in real-life situations people often have a limited amount of information and make decisions accordingly.
Religious concepts of knowledge
Christianity
In many expressions of Christianity, such as Catholicism and Anglicanism, knowledge is one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.
"The knowledge that comes from the Holy Spirit, however, is not limited to human knowledge; it is a special gift, which leads us to grasp, through creation, the greatness and love of God and his profound relationship with every creature." (Pope Francis, papal audience May 21, 2014)
Gnosticism
In Gnostic beliefs, everyone is said to possess a piece of the highest good or Ultimate God deep within themselves that had fallen from the spiritual world into the bodies of humans, sometimes called a divine spark. It is trapped in their material bodies created by the inferior God or Demiurge unless secret knowledge from the outside universe called gnosis is achieved. The one who brings such knowledge is considered the savior or redeemer.
Hinduism
विद्या दान (Vidya Daan) i.e. knowledge sharing is a major part of Daan, a tenet of all Dharmic Religions.
Hindu Scriptures present two kinds of knowledge, Paroksh Gyan and Prataksh Gyan. Paroksh Gyan (also spelled Paroksha-Jnana) is secondhand knowledge: knowledge obtained from books, hearsay, etc. Pratyaksh Gyan (also spelled Pratyaksha-Jnana) is the knowledge borne of direct experience, i.e., knowledge that one discovers for oneself. Jnana yoga ("path of knowledge") is one of three main types of yoga expounded by Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita. (It is compared and contrasted with Bhakti Yoga and Karma yoga.)
Islam
In Islam, knowledge (Arabic: علم, ʿilm) is given great significance. "The Knowing" (al-ʿAlīm) is one of the 99 names reflecting distinct attributes of God. The Qur'an asserts that knowledge comes from God () and various hadith encourage the acquisition of knowledge. Muhammad is reported to have said "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and "Verily the men of knowledge are the inheritors of the prophets". Islamic scholars, theologians and jurists are often given the title alim, meaning "knowledgeble".
Judaism
In Jewish tradition, knowledge (Hebrew: דעת da'ath) is considered one of the most valuable traits a person can acquire. Observant Jews recite three times a day in the Amidah "Favor us with knowledge, understanding and discretion that come from you. Exalted are you, Existent-One, the gracious giver of knowledge." The Tanakh states, "A wise man gains power, and a man of knowledge maintains power", and "knowledge is chosen above gold".
The Old Testament's tree of the knowledge of good and evil contained the knowledge that separated Man from God: "And the LORD God said, Behold, the man is become as one of us, to know good and evil..." ()
See also
Omniscience
Outline of knowledge – guide to the subject of knowledge presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics.
Outline of human intelligence - list of subtopics in tree structure
Analytic-synthetic distinction
Decolonization of knowledge
Desacralization of knowledge
Descriptive knowledge
Epistemic modal logic
Gnosticism
Inductive inference
Inductive probability
Intelligence
Knowledge transfer
Metaknowledge
Procedural knowledge
Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge
References
External links
Knowledge
Concepts in epistemology
Intelligence
Mental content
Virtue
Main topic articles | [
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243395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectation%20%28epistemic%29 | Expectation (epistemic) | In the case of uncertainty, expectation is event that considered the most likely to happen. An expectation, which is a belief that is centered on the future, may or may not be realistic. A less advantageous result gives rise to the emotion of disappointment. If something happens that is not at all expected, it is a surprise. An expectation about the behavior or performance of another person, expressed to that person, may have the nature of a strong request, or an order; this kind of expectation is called a social norm. The degree to which something is expected to be true can be expressed using fuzzy logic. Anticipation is the emotion corresponding to expectation.
Expectations of well-being
Richard Lazarus asserts that people become accustomed to positive or negative life experiences which lead to favorable or unfavorable expectations of their present and near-future circumstances. Lazarus notes the widely accepted philosophical principle that "happiness depends on the background psychological status of the person...and cannot be well predicted without reference to one's expectations."
With regard to happiness or unhappiness, Lazarus notes that objective conditions of life are those of hardship and deprivation often make a positive assessment of their well-being," while "people who are objectively well off...often make a negative assessment of their well-being." Lazarus argues that "the most sensible explanation of this apparent paradox is that people...develop favorable or unfavorable expectations" that guide such assessments.
Expectations impact on beliefs
Sociologist Robert K. Merton wrote that a person's expectation is directly linked to self-fulfilling prophecy. Whether or not such an expectation is truthful or not, has little or no effect on the outcome. If a person believes what they are told or convinces himself/herself of the fact, chances are this person will see the expectation to its inevitable conclusion. There is an inherent danger in this kind of labeling especially for the educator. Since children are easily convinced of certain tenets especially when told to them by an authority figure like a parent or teacher, they may believe whatever is taught to them even if what is taught has no factual basis. If the student or child were to act on false information, certain positive or negative unintended consequences could result. If overly positive or elevated expectations were used to describe or manipulate a person's self-image and execution falls short, the results could be a total reversal of that person's self-confidence. If thought of in terms of causality or cause and effect, the higher a person's expectation and the lower the execution, the higher the frustration level may become. This in turn could cause a total cessation of effort and motivate the person to quit.
Expectations elicitation
Expectations are a central part of value calculations in economics. For example, calculating the Subjective expected utility of an outcome requires knowing both the value of an outcome and the probability that it will occur. Researchers who elicit (or measure) the expectations of individuals can input these beliefs into the model in place of standard probabilities. The strategy of eliciting individual expectations is now incorporated into many international surveys, including the Health and Retirement Study in the United States.
Expectations elicitation is used in many domains, including survival and educational outcomes, but may be most prominent in financial realms. Expectations are theoretically important for models such as the Efficient-market hypothesis which suggest that all information should be incorporated into the market, as well as for Modern portfolio theory which suggests that investors must be compensated for higher levels of risk through higher (expected) returns. Following these models, empirical research has found that consumers with more optimistic stock market expectations are more likely to hold riskier assets, and acquire stocks in the near future. Given these promising findings, more recent research in psychology has begun to explore what factors drive consumers' expectations by exploring what factors come to mind when forming stock market expectations.
See also
Anticipation
Collective belief
Delusion
Folk psychology
Forward-looking statement
Gettier problem
Observer-expectancy effect
Placebo
Prediction
Propositional attitude
Propositional knowledge
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Subject-expectancy effect
Suggestibility
Syncopation
Thomas theorem
Unintended consequence
References
External links
Thought
Psychological attitude
Concepts in epistemology | [
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243401 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infosys | Infosys | Infosys Limited is an Indian multinational information technology company that provides business consulting, information technology and outsourcing services. The company was founded in Pune and is headquartered in Bangalore. Infosys is the second-largest Indian IT company after Tata Consultancy Services by 2020 revenue figures and the 602nd largest public company in the world according to Forbes Global 2000 ranking. The credit rating of the company is CRISIL AAA / Stable / CRISIL A1+ (rating by CRISIL).
On 24 August 2021, Infosys became the fourth Indian company to cross $100 billion in market capitalization.
History
Infosys was founded by seven engineers in Pune, Maharashtra, India with an initial capital of $250 in 1981. It was registered as Infosys Consultants Private Limited on 2 July 1981. In 1983, it relocated its office to Bangalore, Karnataka, India.
The company changed its name to Infosys Technologies Private Limited in April 1992 and to Infosys Technologies Limited when it became a public limited company in June 1992. It was later renamed to Infosys Limited in June 2011.
An initial public offering (IPO) was floated in February 1993 with an offer price of per share against a book value of per share. The IPO was undersubscribed but it was "bailed out" by US investment bank Morgan Stanley, which picked up a 13% equity stake at the offer price. Its shares were listed in June 1993 with trading opening at per share.
Infosys shares were listed on the Nasdaq stock exchange in 1999 as American depositary receipts. It became the first Indian company to be listed on Nasdaq. The share price surged to by 1999 making it the costliest share on the market at the time. At that time, Infosys was among the 20 biggest companies by market capitalization on the Nasdaq. The ADR listing was shifted from Nasdaq to NYSE Euronext to give European investors better access to the company's shares.
On 28 July 2010, then British Prime Minister David Cameron visited Infosys HQ in Bangalore and addressed Infosys employees.
Its annual revenue reached US$100 million in 1999, US$1 billion in 2004 and US$10 billion in 2017.
In 2012, Infosys announced a new office in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to serve Harley-Davidson, being the 18th international office in the United States. Infosys hired 1,200 United States employees in 2011, and expanded the workforce by an additional 2,000 employees in 2012.
In April 2018, Infosys announced expanding in Indianapolis, Indiana. The development will include more than 120 acres and is expected to result in 3,000 new jobs—1,000 more than previously announced.
In July 2014, Infosys started a product subsidiary called EdgeVerve Systems, focusing on enterprise software products for business operations, customer service, procurement and commerce network domains. In August 2015, the Finacle Global Banking Solutions assets were officially transferred from Infosys and became part of the product company EdgeVerve Systems product portfolio.
Products and services
Infosys provides software development, maintenance and independent validation services to companies in finance, insurance, manufacturing and other domains.
One of its known products is Finacle which is a universal banking solution with various modules for retail and corporate banking.
Its key products and services are:
NIA – Next Generation Integrated AI Platform (formerly known as Mana)
Infosys Consulting – a global management consulting service
Cloud-based enterprise transformation services
Infosys Information Platform (IIP) – Analytics platform
EdgeVerve Systems which includes Finacle, a global banking platform
Panaya Cloud Suite
Skava – now rebranded as Infosys Equinox
Engineering Services
Digital Marketing
Geographical presence
Infosys has 82 sales and marketing offices and 123 development centres across the world as of 31 March 2018, with major presence in India, United States, China, Australia, Japan, Middle East and Europe.
In 2019, 60%, 24%, and 3% of its revenues were derived from projects in North America, Europe, and India, respectively. The remaining 13% of revenues were derived from the rest of the world.
Acquisitions
Listing and shareholding pattern
In India, shares of Infosys are listed on the BSE where it is a part of the BSE SENSEX and the NSE where it is a NIFTY 50 Constituent. Its shares are listed by way of American depositary receipts (ADRs) at the New York Stock Exchange.
Over a period of time, the shareholding of its promoters has gradually reduced, starting from June 1993 when its shares were first listed. The promoters' holdings reduced further when Infosys became the first Indian-registered company to list Employees Stock Options Schemes and ADRs on NASDAQ on 11 March 1999. As of 29 July 2021, the promoter holding was 12.95%, foreign institutional investors (FIIs) hold 33.39%, and domestic institutional investors (DIIs) hold 21.98%.
Employees
Infosys had a total of 259,619 employees (generally known as "Infoscions") as of 2021, out of which 38.6% were women. Out of its total workforce, 229,658 are software professionals and remaining 13,796 work for support and sales. In 2016, 89% of its employees were based in India.
During the financial year 2019, Infosys received 2,333,420 applications from prospective employees, interviewed 180,225 candidates and had a gross addition of 94,324 employees, a 4% hiring rate. These numbers do not include its subsidiaries.
In it's Q3FY22 results in January, Infosys has reported that attrition has risen to 25.5%, from 20.1% in the September quarter. It has announced a profit of Rs 5,809 crore for the third quarter and said it is planning to hire 55,000 freshers for FY22 as part of its global graduate hiring program.
Training Centre in Mysore
As the world's largest corporate university, the Infosys global education centre in the 337 acre campus has 400 instructors and 200+ classrooms, with international benchmarks at its core. Established in 2002, it had trained around 125,000 engineering graduates by June 2015. It can train 14,000 employees at a given point of time on various technologies.
The Infosys Leadership Institute (ILI), based in Mysuru, has 196 rooms and trains about 4,000 trainees annually. Its purpose is to prepare and develop the senior leaders in Infosys for current and future executive leadership roles.
The Infosys Training Centre in Mysuru also provides a number of extracurricular facilities like tennis, badminton, basketball, swimming pool, gym and bowling alley. The bowling alley is cheapest in the world with INR 50 per round. It has an international level cricket ground approved by BCCI.
CEOs
Since its establishment in 1981 till 2014, the CEOs of Infosys were its promoters, with N.R. Narayana Murthy leading the company in its initial 21 years. Dr. Vishal Sikka was the first non-promoter CEO of Infosys who worked for around 3 years. Dr. Vishal Sikka resigned in August 2017. After his resignation, UB Pravin Rao was appointed as Interim CEO and MD of Infosys. Infosys appointed Salil Parekh as chief executive officer (CEO) and managing director (MD) of the company with effect from 2 January 2018.
List of Infosys CEOs
Awards and recognition
In 2021, Infosys was positioned as a leader in the Forrester Wave Application Modernization & Migration Services.
In 2021, Infosys was positioned as a Leader in Gartner Magic Quadrant for Data and Analytics Services.
In 2020, Infosys was ranked No. 1 in the HFS Top 10 Agile Software Development 2020 report.
In 2020, Infosys was recognized as a leader in Retail and CPG Digital Services by Avasant.
In 2019, Infosys was a winner of the United Nations Global Climate Action Award in 'Climate Neutral Now' category.
In 2019, Infosys was ranked as the 3rd Best Regarded Company in the World by Forbes.
In 2017, HfS Research included Infosys in Winner's Circle of HfS Blueprint for Managed Security Services, Industry 4.0 services and Utility Operations.
In 2013, Infosys was ranked 18th largest IT services provider in the world by HfS Research. In the same year, it was ranked 53rd in Forbes list of World's Most Innovative Companies.
In 2012, Infosys was ranked amongst the world's most innovative companies by Forbes. In the same year, Infosys was in the list of top twenty green companies in Newsweek Green Rankings for 2012.
In 2006, Institute of Chartered Accountants of India included Infosys into Hall of Fame for being the winner of Best Presented Accounts for 11 consecutive years.
Financial
Controversies
Settlement of tax fraud in the US
In December 2019, the Attorney General of California, Xavier Becerra announced an $800,000 settlement against Infosys and its BPM (business process management) subsidiary. Close to 500 Infosys employees were working in the state on Infosys-sponsored B-1 visas instead of H-1B visas between 2006 and 2017, as per an official post available on the website of State of California.
This misclassification resulted in Infosys avoiding California payroll taxes such as unemployment insurance, disability insurance, and employment training taxes.
Accusation of visa fraud in the US
In 2011, Infosys was accused of committing visa fraud by using B-1 (visitor) visas for work requiring H-1B (work) visas. The allegations were initially made by an American employee of Infosys in an internal complaint. He subsequently sued the company, claiming that he was harassed and sidelined after speaking out. Although that case was dismissed, it along with another similar case, brought the allegations to the notice of the US authorities – and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and a federal grand jury started investigating.
In October 2013, Infosys agreed to settle the civil suit with US authorities by paying US$34 million. Infosys refused to admit guilt and stressed that it only agreed to pay the fine to avoid the nuisance of "prolonged litigation". In its statement, the company said "As reflected in the settlement, Infosys denies and disputes any claims of systemic visa fraud, misuse of visas for competitive advantage, or immigration abuse. Those claims are assertions that remain unproven".
Displacement of American workers at Southern California Edison and Disney
In 2015, the United States Department of Labor began an investigation of Infosys after claims were made that the company used workers with H-1B visas to replace workers at Disney and Southern California Edison. The investigation did not find any wrongdoing.
Allegations of Financial Irregularities
In 2019, whistle blowers alleged irregularities in the company's financial accounting. Internal investigations conducted by the company concluded that the allegations were without merit. External auditors said that Infosys' approach to revenue recognition was in line with IAS 34 regulations.
See also
List of IT consulting firms
List of IT companies in India
List of acquisitions by Infosys BPO Limited
References
External links
Information technology consulting firms of India
International information technology consulting firms
Software companies of India
Outsourcing companies
Multinational companies headquartered in India
Technology companies established in 1981
Indian companies established in 1981
Information technology companies of Bhubaneswar
Outsourcing in India
BSE SENSEX
NIFTY 50
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Indian brands
Companies based in Bangalore
1981 establishments in Karnataka
Companies listed on the National Stock Exchange of India
Companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange | [
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243402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution%20%28software%20platform%29 | Revolution (software platform) | Revolution is a software development environment/multimedia authoring software in the tradition of HyperCard and is based on the MetaCard engine. Its primary focus is on providing a relatively accessible development tool set and scripting language that enable the creation of software programs that run across multiple platforms with little or no code modifications. The Integrated Development Environment (IDE) included with Revolution is built partly on the models created by Bill Atkinson and the original HyperCard team at Apple and subsequently followed by many other software development products, such as Microsoft's Visual Basic. Revolution includes an English language-like scripting language called Transcript, a full programming language superset of the HyperCard's scripting language, HyperTalk.
The higher-grade versions (see Versions, below), allow applications to be compiled to run on more than one platform, including Macintosh (Classic or Mac OS 9, and Mac OS X), Windows and Unix-like systems including Linux. It can also import HyperCard stacks, which require little or no modification unless they use external functions, which generally do not work in Revolution.
Revolution is designed to be an environment where non-programmers feel at ease and programmers feel not too uncomfortable (after getting used to "non-traditional" programming syntax). Like any programming language or development environment, opinions as to the degree to which those aims have been achieved vary greatly.
Versions
Before Revolution 2, the "Starter Kit" version was available. This was freeware and imposed restrictions on the user, such as not allowing scripts longer than ten lines to be compiled. However, this has since been discontinued and is no longer available for download. The "Dreamcard" version is intended for home users/hobbyists. Applications (called "stacks") built using it require either the "Dreamcard Player" or a full copy of Revolution to run because Dreamcard does not include the Revolution compiler. The "Studio" version is more powerful, and is useful in creating professional binary applications. The Enterprise version is probably too expensive for casual users, but when compared to other similar products such as Borland Delphi or Kylix, is priced competitively. If one wishes to develop programs on non-Microsoft platforms for cross-platform deployment, Revolution is one of a small handful of commercially supported options.
Compatibility
Revolution is derived from MetaCard's engine, so MetaCard stacks are 100% compatible with Revolution. However, the other way around is not necessarily true. HyperCard stacks can be run, but externals will only run on Macs. SuperCard stacks must be run through a converter to be upgraded to Revolution/MetaCard format.
Platforms
Revolution runs on Mac Classic, Mac OS X, Windows 9x/NT/2000/XP, and the following UNIX variants:
FreeBSD or BSD/OS
HP-UX 10.20 or later
SGI IRIX 5.3 or later
Linux Intel 1.2.13 ELF or later
AIX 3.2.3 or later
Solaris (2.5 or later for SPARC and x86; 2.3 and 2.4 SPARC only)
SunOS 4.1.x or later
Standalone applications written in Revolution can run on the above, as well as Windows 3.1 (with limitations).
As of March 2005, the Dreamcard Player runs only on Windows, Mac OS (Classic or X), and Linux.
Interface
On Linux, the user's GNOME/Xfce/GTK+ theme will be used if GTK+ is installed, otherwise, a Motif look will be used. On the Mac, Appearance Manager will be used if available, otherwise the Platinum look will be used. On Windows, the XP theme or standard widgets will be used. Users can preview the Motif, Platinum, and Windows appearance on any platform.
Revolution community
There are many companies and groups which use the Revolution engine. It is mainly used by freelance programmers to make small widgets or libraries, but as one example is used exclusively by the Christa McAuliffe Space Education Center.
External links
Web site
Dynamic programming languages
Dynamically typed programming languages
Scripting languages | [
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243404 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main-Tauber-Kreis | Main-Tauber-Kreis | Main-Tauber-Kreis is a Landkreis (district) in the northeast of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from northwest clockwise) Miltenberg, Main-Spessart, Würzburg, Neustadt (Aisch)-Bad Windsheim and Ansbach (all in Bavaria), and the districts of Schwäbisch Hall, Hohenlohe and Neckar-Odenwald.
History
The district originated in 1973 with the merging of the districts of Bad Mergentheim, Tauberbischofsheim and parts of the district of Buchen. At first called the district of Tauber, it took its current name, the district of Main-Tauber, in 1974. The name comes from the two primary rivers in the district, the Main and the Tauber.
Geography
The Main forms the northern border of the district, while its affluent Tauber flows through the district from southeast to north. The north of the district covers part of the Odenwald mountains, while the southern area is called Bauland.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms show the symbols of the three historical states to which the area of the district belonged. The biggest part of the district was part of the Bishopric of Würzburg until 1803; Würzburg is represented by the red and white field divided by a line with three peaks, which was originally the coat of arms of Franconia. The wheel is the symbol of the Archbishopric of Mainz; the cross is the symbol of the Teutonic Order.
Cities and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German)
Stuttgart (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg | [
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243406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River%20Ness | River Ness | The River Ness (Scottish Gaelic: Abhainn Nis) is a river about long, which flows from the northern end of Loch Ness in Scotland, through Loch Dochfour, north-east to Inverness, with a total fall in height of about before discharging into the Beauly Firth. The river is the origin of the name of Inverness which is from , meaning "Mouth of the Ness".
Etymology
The hydronym Ness is of Pictish origin. The name may be derived from *Nessa, the name of a river goddess. *Nessa preserves an Old Celtic *Nesta, with roots in Indo-European ned, "water", from which the Greek hydronyms Neda and Nestos are descended.
Course
Dochgarroch weir at the downstream end of Loch Dochfour delineates the start of the River Ness. At Carnarc Point on the west bank the river discharges into the eastern end of the Beauly Firth, which is a continuation of the Moray Firth, at Kessock. The northern section of the Caledonian Canal passes partly through the River Ness and partly alongside it. The river Ness is of glacial origin. Although of short length, the River Ness has one of the highest average discharge rates in the UK of .
Ness Catchment
Although the River Ness starts at Dochgarroch weir at the downstream end of Loch Dochfour, it is supplied by Loch Ness, and so all the rivers flowing into Loch Ness are part of the River Ness catchment area:
River Ness
River Farigaig (R) (flows into Loch Ness)
River Enrick (L) (flows into Loch Ness)
River Coiltie (L) (flows into Loch Ness)
River Foyers (R) (flows into Loch Ness)
River Fechlin (L)
Allt Breineag (L)
River E (L) (flows into Loch Mhòr)
River Moriston (L) (flows into Loch Ness)
Allt Bhlaraidh (L)
River Doe (L)
River Loyne (R)
Allt Doe (R) (flows into Loch Ness)
River Tarff (R) (flows into Loch Ness)
River Oich (links Loch Oich to head of Loch Ness at Fort Augustus)
River Garry, Inverness-shire (flows into Loch Oich)
The linear River Ness-Loch Ness-Loch Oich axis follows the Great Glen Fault, with the watershed being in a low depression at Laggan Locks, beyond which Loch Lochy-River Lochy-River Spean continue on this axis to the west coast at Fort William.
Notable buildings
On a hill above the river in Inverness stands Inverness Castle. Next to the castle is the Inverness Museum and Art Gallery. The river is overlooked by the Eden Court Theatre, one of the largest theatres in Scotland. Inverness Cathedral also lies on the banks of the River Ness as does Old High St Stephen's, which stands on a hill known as St Michael's Mount. Inverness draws many tourists and there are hotels along the river.
Bridges
There are several bridges in Inverness which cross the River Ness: the Ness Islands bridges; the Infirmary Bridge, built at Rose Street Foundry, Inverness 1879; Ness Bridge, constructed in 1961 replacing an earlier bridge which itself replaced a bridge of 1685 which collapsed during flooding in 1849. The 1685 bridge was sketched by J. M. W. Turner in 1831 and the sketch belongs to the Tate; Greig Street Bridge; Friar's Bridge; Waterloo Bridge; and the Railway Bridge, which is a steel bridge fabricated in 1989 to replace the earlier stone bridge which was swept away in floods in 1989. The Greig Street Bridge is a picturesque suspension bridge built in Inverness in 1881. The Inverness southern bypass was completed in 2017 with Holm Mills Bridge across the river.
Nature and Parks
Upstream of Inverness city centre lie the Ness Islands which are popular for nature walks and have many fine tree specimens. The river flows through the heart of the City of Inverness, and fishermen in waders can often be seen casting for salmon. The Ness District Salmon Fishery Board is the statutory body responsible for the protection and enhancement of salmon and sea trout fisheries in the Ness District. Common seals and grey seals are often seen, as are grey heron, pipistrelle and Daubenton's bats, housemartins, grey wagtail, great black backed gull, European herring gull, oystercatchers, mallards, dippers, goosander and other diving birds. At certain times of the year Arctic terns can be seen lining the railings along the river banks and rarely eagle owl have been seen and the occasional osprey has been spotted fishing in the river from the Ness Islands. European otter are sometimes spotted. The banks of the river are lined with lime trees.
Near the Ness Islands on the west bank is Bught Park which has facilities for sports and leisure. Here can be found Inverness Sports Centre and Aquadome, the ice rink and Inverness Botanic Gardens formerly known as the Floral Hall and Gardens containing tropical and desert glasshouses and a water cascade. Further upstream from Bught Park is Whin Park which has a boating pond.
In Cavell Gardens near the Infirmary Bridge is Inverness war memorial which commemorates the fallen of the two world wars. The memorial is made of red sandstone and is designed in the form of a Celtic cross.
Flood Alleviation
A major flood alleviation scheme is currently under construction in the city centre side of the river. The £8.5 million contract for this phase is being undertaken by Morgan Sindall.
The Port of Inverness
The Port of Inverness is situated at the mouth of the River Ness where there is also a recently constructed marina offering mooring for private yachts and other vessels.
Miscellanea
The first claimed sighting of the Loch Ness Monster was in the River Ness in AD 565, when Saint Columba is said to have banished a "water monster" back into the river after it tried to attack one of his disciples who was swimming across the river.
According to Adomnán, when Columba visited King Bridei I of Pictland at his house on the River Ness, he met a wizard named Broichan who had an Irish slave-girl that he refused to release even though Columba pleaded with him. Columba went out of Bridei's house and picked up a white pebble from the river. He said that the pebble would be used to heal many sick people in Pictland, and that Broichan was suffering for his sins at that very moment. After he had finished speaking, two messengers came to tell them that Broichan had a seizure and they wanted Columba to help them. Columba gave them the stone and said to dip it in water to give to Broichan, if he agreed to release the slave-girl. He agreed to do so, and the stone was put in water and it floated on it; the wizard drank from the water and was healed. This stone was kept by King Bridei in the royal treasury for the rest of his life, and anyone who came there for healing would be given water with the stone floating in it, and they would be healed.
See also
Rivers of Scotland
References
Geography of Inverness
Ness
Ness
Loch Ness | [
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243407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caledonian%20Canal | Caledonian Canal | The Caledonian Canal connects the Scottish east coast at Inverness with the west coast at Corpach near Fort William in Scotland. The canal was constructed in the early nineteenth century by Scottish engineer Thomas Telford.
Route
The canal runs some from northeast to southwest and reaches above sea level. Only one third of the entire length is man-made, the rest being formed by Loch Dochfour, Loch Ness, Loch Oich, and Loch Lochy. These lochs are located in the Great Glen, on a geological fault in the Earth's crust. There are 29 locks (including eight at Neptune's Staircase, Banavie), four aqueducts and 10 bridges in the course of the canal.
Names
The canal has several names in Scottish Gaelic including Amar-Uisge/Seòlaid a' Ghlinne Mhòir ("Waterway of the Great Glen"), Sligh'-Uisge na h-Alba ("Waterway of Scotland") and a literal translation (An) Canàl Cailleannach.
History
In 1620, a Highland prophet called the Brahan Seer predicted that full-rigged ships would one day be sailing round the back of Tomnahurick, near Inverness, at a time when the only navigable route near the location was the River Ness, on the other side of Tomnahurick.
Engineers started to look at the feasibility of a canal to connect Loch Linnhe near Fort William to the Moray Firth near Inverness in the 18th century, with Captain Edward Burt rejecting the idea in 1726, as he thought the mountains would channel the wind and make navigation too precarious.
The Commissioners of Forfeited Estates had originally been set up to handle the seizure and sale of land previously owned by those who had been convicted of treason following the Jacobite rising of 1715. By 1773, they had turned their attention to helping the fishing industry, and commissioned the inventor and mechanical engineer James Watt to make a survey of the route. He published a report in 1774, which suggested that a canal from Fort William to Inverness, passing through Loch Lochy, Loch Oich, Loch Ness and Loch Dochfour, would require 32 locks, and could be built for £164,032. He emphasised the benefits to the fishing industry, of a shorter and safer route from the east to the west coast of Scotland, and the potential for supplying the population with cheaper corn, but again, thought that winds on the lochs might be a problem.
Although no action was taken at the time, in 1785 John Knox expounded the benefits of it relieving distress in the Highlands, and preventing ships having to navigate the dangerous Pentland Firth between the Orkney Islands and Caithness. William Fraser, when proposing his own scheme for a canal in 1793, announced that "nature had finished more than half of it already". At the time, much of the Highlands were depressed as a result of the Highland Clearances, which had deprived many of their homes and jobs. Laws had been introduced which sought to eradicate the local culture, including bans on wearing tartan, playing the bagpipes, and speaking Scottish Gaelic. Many emigrated to Canada or elsewhere, or moved to the Scottish Lowlands. The engineer Thomas Telford was asked to investigate the problem of emigration in 1801, and in 1802 published his report, which suggested that the problem was caused by landowners who had previously kept cattle creating vast sheep-farms. Realising that direct government action to confront the issue would be seen as interference, he therefore suggested that a programme of public works, involving roads, bridges, and canals, would be a way to provide jobs for people who had been displaced by the sheep farming, and to stimulate industry, fishery, and agriculture.
Telford consulted widely with shipowners, who favoured a canal instead of the hazardous journey around the north of Scotland via Cape Wrath and the Pentland Firth. He obtained advice from Captain Gwynn of the Royal Navy, who stated that Loch Ness and Loch Lochy were sufficiently deep for any size of boat, and had safe anchorages if winds proved to be a problem, but that Loch Oich would need to be made deeper, as it was shallow in places. He established that Loch Garry, to the west of Invergarry, and Loch Quoich, beyond that, would provide an adequate water supply. He estimated that a canal suitable for ships with a draught of could be built in seven years, and would cost around £350,000 . An additional benefit would be the protection that the canal offered to shipping from attacks by French privateers. Telford also looked at the possibility of a canal to link Loch Eil to Loch Shiel, both to the west of Fort William, but ruled out the scheme because of the depth of cuttings that would have been required.
Construction
On 27 July 1803, an Act of Parliament was passed to authorise the project, and carried the title: An Act for granting to his Majesty the Sum of £20,000, towards defraying the Expense of making an Inland Navigation from the western to the eastern Sea, by Inverness and Fort William; and for taking the necessary steps towards executing the same. The Act appointed Commissioners, to oversee the project, and some funding to enable the work to start. Less than a year later, on 29 June 1804, the Commissioners obtained a second Act of Parliament, which granted them £50,000 per year of government money, payable in two instalments, to fund the ongoing work.
Provision was made for private investors to buy shares in the scheme, for any amount over £50, and as well as building the main line of the canal, the engineers could alter Loch Garry, Loch Quoich and Loch Arkaig, to improve their function as reservoirs. Telford was asked to survey, design and build the waterway. He worked with William Jessop on the survey, and the two men oversaw the construction until Jessop died in 1814. The canal was expected to take seven years to complete, and to cost £474,000, to be funded by the Government, but both estimates were inadequate.
Because of the remoteness of the location, construction was started at both ends, so that completed sections could be used to bring in the materials for the middle sections. As Thomas Telford could only visit the work about twice a year, he appointed Matthew Davidson, like Telford, a Dumfrieshire stonemason, to manage the work at the east end. John Telford, who is thought not to have been related to Thomas, was to manage the difficult western end. The work was to prove a serious challenge to John Telford's health and he died in 1807, to be replaced by Alexander Easton. John Telford was buried in Kilmallie churchyard, where his ornate grave, now in dilapidated condition, can still be seen.
At Corpach, near Fort William, the entrance lock was built on rock, but at the other end, there was of mud below the proposed site of the sea lock. Rock was tipped on top of the mud and was allowed to settle for six months before construction could begin. The ground through which the canal was cut was variable, and further difficulties were experienced with the construction of the locks, the largest ever built at the time. There were also problems with the labour force, with high levels of absence, particularly during and after the potato harvest and the peat cutting season. This led to Telford bringing in Irish navvies to manage the shortfall, which led to further criticism, since one of the main aims of the project was to reduce unemployment in the Highlands. The canal finally opened in 1822, having taken an extra 12 years to complete, and cost £910,000 . Over 3,000 local people had been employed in its construction, but the draught had been reduced from in an effort to save costs. In the meantime, shipbuilding had advanced, with the introduction of steam-powered iron-hulled ships, many of which were by that time too big to use the canal. The Royal Navy did not need to use the canal either, as Napoleon had been defeated at Waterloo in 1815, and the perceived threat to shipping when the canal was started was now gone.
Operation
Before long, defects in some of the materials used became apparent, and part of Corpach double lock collapsed in 1843. This led to a decision to close the canal to allow repairs to be carried out, and the depth was increased to at the same time. The work was designed by Telford's associate James Walker, carried out by Jackson and Bean of Aston, Birmingham and completed between 1843 and 1847 at a cost of £136,089 . However, not all of the traffic expected to return to using the canal did so. Commercially, the venture was not a success, but the dramatic scenery through which it passes led to it becoming a tourist attraction. Queen Victoria took a trip along it in 1873, and the publicity surrounding the trip resulted in a large increase in visitors to the region and the canal. The arrival of the railways at Fort William, Fort Augustus and Inverness did little to harm the canal, as trains were scheduled to connect with steamboat services.
There was an upsurge in commercial traffic during the First World War, when components for the construction of mines were shipped through the canal on their way from America to “U.S. Naval Base 18” (Muirtown Basin, Inverness), and fishing boats used it to avoid possible enemy action on the longer route around the north of Scotland. During this period there was 24-hour operation, facilitated by buoyage and lighting throughout its length. Ownership passed to the Ministry of Transport in 1920, and then to British Waterways in 1962. Improvements were made, with the locks being mechanised between 1964 and 1969. By 1990, the canal was in obvious need of restoration, with lock walls bulging, and it was estimated that repairs would cost £60 million. With no prospect of the Government funding this, British Waterways devised a repair plan, and between 1995 and 2005, sections of the canal were drained each winter. Stainless steel rods were used to tie the double-skinned lock walls together, and over 25,000 tonnes of grout were injected into the lock structures. All of the lock gates were replaced, and the result was a canal whose structures were probably in a better condition than they had ever been. In 1993, British Waterways and Parks Canada agreed to twin the canal with the Rideau Canal in Ontario, Canada.
The canal is now a Scheduled Ancient Monument, and attracts over 500,000 visitors each year. British Waterways, who work with the Highland Council and Forestry and Land Scotland through the Great Glen Ways Initiative, were hoping to increase this number to over 1 million by 2012. There are many ways for tourists to enjoy the canal, such as taking part in the Great Glen Rally, cycling along the tow-paths, or cruising on hotel barges.
Points of interest
See also
Banavie Pier railway station
References
Bibliography
External links
— illustrated description of the Caledonian Canal
Canals opened in 1822
Inverness
Transport in Highland (council area)
Canals in Scotland
Ship canals
Works of Thomas Telford
Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks
1822 establishments in Scotland
Lochaber
Scheduled monuments in Scotland
Scottish Canals
Loch Ness | [
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243410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uname | Uname | uname (short for unix name) is a computer program in Unix and Unix-like computer operating systems that prints the name, version and other details about the current machine and the operating system running on it.
History
The uname system call and command appeared for the first time in PWB/UNIX. Both are specified by POSIX. The GNU version of uname is included in the "sh-utils" or "coreutils" packages. uname itself is not available as a standalone program. The version of uname bundled in GNU coreutils was written by David MacKenzie. The command is available as a separate package for Microsoft Windows as part of the GnuWin32 project and the UnxUtils collection of native Win32 ports of common GNU Unix-like utilities.
Related and similar commands
Some Unix variants, such as AT&T UNIX System V Release 3.0, include the related setname program, used to change the values that uname reports.
The ver command found in operating systems such as DOS, OS/2 and Microsoft Windows is similar to the uname command.
Examples
On a system running Darwin, the output from running uname with the -a command line argument might look like the text below:
$ uname -a
Darwin Roadrunner.local 10.3.0 Darwin Kernel Version 10.3.0: Fri Feb 26 11:58:09 PST 2010; root:xnu-1504.3.12~1/RELEASE_I386 i386
The following table contains examples from various versions of uname on various platforms. Within the bash shell, the variable OSTYPE contains a value similar (but not identical) to the value of .
See also
List of Unix commands
lsb_release
ver (command)
Footnotes
External links
Unix SUS2008 utilities | [
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243411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nan%20province | Nan province | Nan (, ; Northern Thai: ) is one of Thailand's seventy-six provinces (changwat) lies in upper northern Thailand. Neighboring provinces are (from south clockwise): Uttaradit, Phrae, and Phayao. To the north and east it borders Sainyabuli of Laos.
Geography
The province is in the remote Nan River valley, surrounded by forested mountains, the Phlueng Range in the western part and the Luang Prabang Range in the east. The highest mountain is the 2,079 meter high Phu Khe in Bo Kluea District, northeast of the city of Nan towards the border with Laos. The total forest area is or 61.3 percent of provincial area.
Climate
Nan province has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification Aw). Winters are quite dry and very warm. Temperatures rise until April, which is very hot with the average daily maximum at . The monsoon season runs from late April through October, with heavy rain and somewhat cooler temperatures during the day, although nights remain warm.
History
For centuries Nan was an independent kingdom but, due to its remoteness, had few connections to the other kingdoms. The first kingdom around the city Mueang Pua (also known as Varanagara) was created in the late-13th century. Its rulers, the Phukha dynasty, were related to the founders of Vientiane, however it became associated with the Sukhothai Kingdom as it was easier to reach from the south than from the east or west. In the 14th century the capital was moved to its present location at Nan.
In the 15th century, when Sukhothai declined in power, it became vassal of the kingdom of Lannathai. In 1443 King Kaen Thao of Nan plotted to capture neighboring Phayao by asking King Tilokaraj to help him fight against Vietnamese troops attacking Nan, even though there was no such threat. Kaen Thao killed the king of Phayao, however the troops of Tilokaraj then attacked Nan itself, and captured it in 1449.
Between 1560-1785, Nan was colonized by Burma many times. Nan was also the abandoned city without people twice: first from 1704-1706, and later in 1778–1801.
When Lannathai was under Burmese rule, Nan tried to liberate itself many times without success, which finally led to Burmese rule of Nan in 1714. In 1788 the Burmese rulers were finally driven out. Nan had to then accept new rulers from Siam. In 1893 after the Paknam crisis Siam had to give a big part of eastern Nan to French Indochina. In 1899 mueang Nan became part of the circle (Monthon) Tawan Tok Chiang Nuea (northwestern circle). In 1916 the northwestern circle was split and Nan was assigned to the circle Maharat. When the circles were abolished in 1932, the provinces including Nan became top-level subdivisions of Siam.
Before the early-1980s, bandits as well as People's Liberation Army of Thailand (PLAT) guerrillas were a big problem in the province, usually destroying highway construction overnight. With the help of the army and the more stable political system the province improved significantly, but is still a very rural and remote area.
Economy
Agriculture is the province's main industry, but tourism in 2016 contributed an estimated 30% to the provincial GDP. The number of hotel rooms in Nan has doubled to 4,000 in 2016. The Tourism Department says arrivals to Nan rose by 19% to 1.76 million in 2015, of which Thais numbered 1.44 million. Tourism revenue rose by 14% to 4.43 billion baht. The Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT) expects tourist arrivals to Nan will rise by 10% to 1.94 million in 2016 as tourism revenue grows by 10% to 4.88 billion baht. "We want only quality tourists, not a big volume", said a spokesman. In 2018 some 939,240 tourists visited Nan, up 4.4% year-on-year, contributing 2.6 billion baht in tourism income, a gain of 8.3%. Most visitors—97%—are Thais, of whom 62% were repeat visitors. Just 3% were foreign tourists from the US, France, China, Japan, and Laos. In the first eight months of 2019 Nan welcomed 643,129 tourists, up 0.2% year-on-year, generating 1.94 billion baht in income, up 2.1%.
According to the Bangkok Post, the top two attractions in Nan province are Doi Samer Dao and Wat Phumin, a temple with many "local art masterpieces".
Environmental issues
Nan and government forestry officials are concerned about deforestation after hill tribes turned 1.5 million rai of forest land into cornfields. Nan Governor, Mr Suwat, says officials have attempted to persuade hill tribes to grow perennial plants such as cashew nuts and bamboo in the forest legally. "It's impossible to solve the deforestation problem without involving the hill tribes," he says. "We must give them a solution to live in the forest and protect nature at the same time."
Symbols
The provincial seal shows a Usuparatch bull carrying the stupa of Phrathat Chae Haeng. The buffalo dates back to a legend that the rulers of Nan and Phrae were brothers, and met at a mountain to decide about the boundary between their lands. The ruler of Nan went there on a buffalo, while the ruler of Phrae went there on a horse.
The provincial tree and provincial flower is the Orchid Tree (Bauhinia variegata).
Demographics
Hill tribes constitute 10.5 percent of the population. Inhabitants known as the T'in or Mal people speak a Northern Mon-Khmer or Khmuic language, T'in, an unknown language when Gérard Diffloth's classifications were widely cited in a 1974 Encyclopædia Britannica article.
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
The province is divided into 15 districts
(amphoe). These are further divided into 99 subdistricts (tambons) and 848 villages (mubans).
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Nan Provincial Administration Organisation () and 19 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Nan has town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 18 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 80 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations – SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
Gallery
See also
Nan Nakhon Airport.
References
Further reading
Filbeck, D. (1978). T'in: a historical study. Pacific linguistics, no. 49. Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University.
Goodden, Christian. Hinterlands: Sixteen New Do-It-Yourself Jungle Treks in Thailand's Nan & Mae Hong Son Provinces. Halesworth, England: Jungle Books, 2001.
Scholten, J. J., and Wichai Boonyawat. Detailed Reconnaissance Soil Survey of Nan Province. Kingdom of Thailand, Soil Survey Division, 1972.
External links
Tourist Authority of Thailand (TAT): Nan
Golden Jubilee Network province guide
Nan provincial map, coat of arms and postal stamp
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243412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclecticism | Eclecticism | Eclecticism is a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a single paradigm or set of assumptions, but instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights into a subject, or applies different theories in particular cases. However, this is often without conventions or rules dictating how or which theories were combined.
It can sometimes seem inelegant or lacking in simplicity, and eclectics are sometimes criticized for lack of consistency in their thinking. It is, however, common in many fields of study. For example, most psychologists accept certain aspects of behaviorism, but do not attempt to use the theory to explain all aspects of human behavior.
Eclecticism in ethics, philosophy, politics and religion is also known as syncretism.
Origin
Eclecticism was first recorded to have been practiced by a group of ancient Greek and Roman philosophers who attached themselves to no real system, but selected from existing philosophical beliefs those doctrines that seemed most reasonable to them. Out of this collected material they constructed their new system of philosophy. The term comes from the Greek (eklektikos), literally "choosing the best", and that from (eklektos), "picked out, select". Well known eclectics in Greek philosophy were the Stoics Panaetius and Posidonius, and the New Academics Carneades and Philo of Larissa. Among the Romans, Cicero was thoroughly eclectic, as he united the Peripatetic, Stoic, and New Academic doctrines. Philo's successor and Cicero's teacher Antiochus of Ascalon is credited with influencing the Academy so that it finally transitioned from Skepticism to Eclecticism. Other eclectics included Varro and Seneca the Younger.
According to Rošker and Suhadolnik, however, even though eclecticism had a Greek origin, the term was rarely used and it was even given a negative connotation by historians of Greek thought, associating it with the description for impure and unoriginal thinking. Scholars such as Clement of Alexandria maintained that eclecticism had a long history in Greek philosophy and it is underpinned by a deeper metaphysical and theological conviction concerning the absolute/God as the source of all noble thoughts and that all parts of the truth can be found among the various philosophical systems.
Architecture and art
The term eclecticism is used to describe the combination, in a single work, of elements from different historical styles, chiefly in architecture and, by implication, in the fine and decorative arts. The term is sometimes also loosely applied to the general stylistic variety of 19th-century architecture after neoclassicism (), although the revivals of styles in that period have, since the 1970s, generally been referred to as aspects of historicism.
Eclecticism plays an important role in critical discussions and evaluations but is somehow distant from the actual forms of the artifacts to which it is applied, and its meaning is thus rather indistinct. The simplest definition of the term—that every work of art represents the combination of a variety of influences—is so basic as to be of little use. In some ways Eclecticism is reminiscent of Mannerism in that the term was used pejoratively for much of the period of its currency, although, unlike Mannerism, Eclecticism never amounted to a movement or constituted a specific style: it is characterized precisely by the fact that it was not a particular style.
Martial arts
Some martial arts can be described as eclectic in the sense that they borrow techniques from a wide variety of other martial arts.
Philology
In textual criticism, eclecticism is the practice of examining a wide number of text witnesses and selecting the variant that seems best. The result of the process is a text with readings drawn from many witnesses. In a purely eclectic approach, no single witness is theoretically favored. Instead, the critic forms opinions about individual witnesses, relying on both external and internal evidence.
Since the mid-19th century, eclecticism, in which there is no a priori bias to a single manuscript, has been the dominant method of editing the Greek text of the New Testament (currently, the United Bible Society, 4th ed. and Nestle-Åland, 27th ed.). Even so, the oldest manuscripts, being of the Alexandrian text-type, are the most favored, and the critical text has an Alexandrian disposition.
Philosophy
In Hellenistic philosophy, the Eclectics used elements from multiple philosophies, texts, life experiences, and their own philosophical ideas. These ideas include life as connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. This movement is closely associated with Middle Platonism.
Antiochus of Ascalon () was the pupil of Philo of Larissa, and the teacher of Cicero. Through his influence, Platonism transitioned from the Academic Skepticism of the New Academy to Eclecticism. Whereas Philo had adhered to the doctrine that there is nothing absolutely certain, Antiochus abandoned this to support dogmatism. Among his objections to skepticism was the consideration that without firm convictions no rational content of life is possible. Antiochus pointed out that it is a contradiction to assert that nothing can be asserted or to prove that nothing can be proved; that we cannot speak of false ideas and at the same time deny the distinction between false and true. He expounded the Academic, Peripatetic, and Stoic systems in such a way as to show that these three schools deviated from one another only in minor points. Antiochus was chiefly interested in ethics, in which he tried to find a middle way between Zeno of Citium, Aristotle, and Plato. For instance, he said that virtue suffices for eudaimonia, but for the highest grade of happiness, bodily and external goods are necessary as well.
This eclectic tendency was enabled by the fact that most of Plato's works were non-dogmatic. Middle Platonism was promoted by the necessity of considering the main theories of the post-Platonic schools of philosophy, such as the Aristotelian logic and the Stoic psychology and ethics (theory of goods and emotions). On the one hand the Middle Platonists were engaged like the later Peripatetics in scholarly activities such as the exposition of Plato's doctrines and the explanation of his dialogues; on the other hand they attempted to develop the Platonic theories systematically. In so far as it was subject in this to the influence of Neopythagoreanism, it was of considerable importance in preparing the way for Neoplatonism.
In modern philosophy, Victor Cousin was the founder of modern Eclecticism.
Psychology
Eclecticism is recognized in approaches to psychology that see many factors influencing behavior and cognition or psyche. In the 1970s, psychologists started using whichever approaches and techniques that they deemed appropriate for their client. They take multiple perspectives into consideration while identifying, explaining, and changing the behavior of the client.
See also
Eclectic medicine
Eclecticism in architecture
Eclecticism in art
Eclecticism in music
Eclecticism in textual criticism
Pastiche
Perspectivism
Polystylism
References
External links
Metatheory
Philosophical movements | [
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243413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20class%20in%20the%20United%20States | Social class in the United States | Social class in the United States refers to the idea of grouping Americans by some measure of social status, typically economic. However, it could also refer to social status or location. The idea that American society can be divided into social classes is disputed, and there are many competing class systems.
Many Americans believe in a social class system that has three different groups or classes: the American rich, the American middle class, and the American poor. More complex models propose as many as a dozen class levels, including levels such as high upper class, upper class, upper middle class, middle class, lower middle class, lower class and lower lower middle class. while others disagree with the American construct of social class completely. Most definitions of a class structure group its members according to wealth, income, education, type of occupation, and membership within a hierarchy, specific subculture, or social network. Most concepts of American social class do not focus on race or ethnicity as a characteristic within the stratification system, although these factors are closely related.
Sociologists Dennis Gilbert, William Thompson, Joseph Hickey, and James Henslin have proposed class systems with six distinct social classes. These class models feature an upper or capitalist class consisting of the rich and powerful, an upper middle class consisting of highly educated and affluent professionals, a middle class consisting of college-educated individuals employed in white-collar industries, a lower middle class composed of semi-professionals with typically some college education, a working class constituted by clerical and blue collar workers whose work is highly routinized, and a lower class divided between the working poor and the unemployed underclass.
Markers
Some definitions of class look only at numerical measures such as wealth or income. Others take into account qualitative factors, such as education, culture, and social status. There is no consensus on which of these variables is essential and which are merely common correlates. It is also disputed whether sharp lines can be drawn; one point of view in the debate:
Social status
Social class is sometimes presented as a description of how members of the society have sorted themselves along a continuum of positions varying in importance, influence, prestige, and compensation. In these models, certain occupations are considered to be desirable and influential, while others are considered to be menial, repetitive, and unpleasant. (In some cases, non-occupational roles such as a parent or volunteer mentor, are also considered.) Generally, the higher the ranking on such a scale, the higher the skill and education levels required to perform it.
Some sociologists consider the higher income and prestige of higher ranked jobs to simply be incentives to encourage members of society to obtain the skills necessary to perform important work. This is an important mechanism in the economic theory of capitalism, and is compatible with the notion that class is mutable and determined by a combination of choices and opportunities.
In other cases, class or status is inherited. For example, being the son or daughter of a wealthy individual, may carry a higher status and different cultural connotations than being a member of nouveau riche ("new money") or have a planned path of positive freedom. Those taking the functionalist approach to sociology and economics view social classes as components essential for the survival of complex societies such as American society.
Income
Income in the United States is most commonly measured by United States Census Bureau in terms of either household or individual and remains one of the most prominent indicators of class status. As 82% of all households, 16% of those in the top quintiles, had two income earners the discrepancy between household and personal income is quite considerable. In 2005 the top 95% of income earners made $12,500 or more, while 18% of households had incomes over $100,000. Personal income is largely the result of scarcity. As individuals who hold higher status positions tend to possess rare skills or assume positions society deems very essential, have higher incomes. Overall the median household income was $46,326 in 2005 while the median personal income (including only those above the age of 25) was $32,140.
Per capita household income, the income a household is able to allocate to each member of the household is also an important variable in determining a given household's standard of living. A high household income may be offset by a large household size; thus, resulting in a low per capita household income. In 2005, the median household income per capita was $24,672.
In the passage above, Davis and Moore argue that income is one of the most prominent features of social class; it is not one of its causes. In other words, income does not determine the status of an individual or household but rather reflects on that status. Some say that income and prestige are the incentives provided by society in order to fill needed positions with the most qualified and motivated personnel possible.
The New York Times has used income quintiles to define class. It has assigned the quintiles from lowest to highest as lower class, lower middle class, middle class, upper middle class, and upper class. These definitions equate class with income, permitting people to move from class to class as their income changes.
Dual income controversy
Income is one of the most commonly used attributes of a household to determine its class status. The relationship between income, which mostly arises from the scarcity of a certain skill, may however, prove to be more complex than initially perceived. While the idea is that income reflects status, household income may just be the product of two or more incomes.
In 2005, 42% of American households had two or more income earners. The vast majority (77%) of households in the top quintile had two or more income earners. This means that the majority of household income in the top quintile are the result of two income earners pooling their resources, establishing a close link between perceived affluence and the number of income earners in a given household. This raises the question of whether or not the combination of incomes results in higher social status. Of course, there is no definite answer as class is a vague sociological concept.
Sociologist Dennis Gilbert states that it is possible for households to out-earn other households over higher class standing through increasing their number of income earners. He furthermore states that household size also played an essential role, as the standard of living for two persons living off one upper middle class personal income may very well be higher than that of a household with four members living off two working class personal incomes.
The combination of two or more incomes allows for households to increase their income substantially without moving higher on the occupational ladder or attaining higher educational degrees. Thus it is important to remember that the favorable economic position of households in the top two quintiles is in some cases the result of combined income, rather than demand for a single worker.
Education
Tertiary education (or "higher education") is required for many middle-class professions, depending on how the term middle class is to be defined. Tertiary education is rarely free, but the costs vary widely: tuition at elite private colleges often exceeds $200,000 for a four-year program, although financial aid may be significant. On the other hand, public colleges and universities typically charge much less, particularly for state residents.
Also, scholarships offered by universities and government do exist, and low-interest loans are available. Still, the average cost of education, by all accounts, is increasing. The attainment of post-secondary and graduate degrees is the perhaps most important feature of a middle and upper middle class person with the university being regarded as the most essential institution and gatekeeper of the professional middle class. Educational attainment is also directly linked to income.
In 2005, the vast majority of those with doctorate and professional degrees were among the nation's top 15% of income earners. Those with bachelor's degrees had incomes considerably above the national median while the median income for those with some college education remained near the national median. According to United States Census Bureau, 9% of persons aged 25 or older had a graduate degree, 27.9% had a bachelor's degree or more with 53% having attended college.
With 85% of the population having graduated from high school, it becomes apparent that the average American does not have a college degree, but is likely to have attended college for some time and has graduated from high school. Overall, educational attainment serves as the perhaps most essential class feature of most Americans, being directly linked to income and occupation.
Source: United States Census Bureau, 2005
Culture
Broadly speaking, the United States aspires to be an egalitarian country with social mobility; the American Dream includes the idea from the Declaration of Independence that "all men are created equal" and have the "unalienable right" to "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness". The phrase "second-class citizen" has a strong negative connotation in national politics. In practice, socioeconomic mobility in the United States is relatively low compared to Nordic countries and Canada, and income inequality in the United States is relatively high. Educational attainment and income are strongly correlated, but relatively low funding for K-12 schools in poor neighborhoods raises concerns about a cycle of poverty. These apparent contradictions lead to divergent views on whether American society is divided into distinct classes or should be analyzed that way.
In some American subcultures, people considered to be of a particular race, ethnicity, income range, educational background, religion, or gender are a significant majority; for example, hip-hop culture vs. preppy culture or fans of water polo vs. NASCAR. Other subcultures are relatively diverse.
Once defined, social classes can be considered to feature their own sub-cultures, including different ways of socializing children. Due to class mobility individuals may also acculturate to the culture of another class when ascending or descending in the social order. All social classes in the United States, except the upper class, consist of tens of millions of people. Thus social classes form social groups so large that they feature considerable diversity within and any statement regarding a given social class' culture needs to be seen as a broad generalization.
Since 1970, sociologists Paula LeMasters and Melvin Kohl have set out repeatedly to research class-based cultures. Class culture has been shown to have a strong influence on the mundane lives of people, affecting everything from the manner in which they raise their children, initiation and maintenance of romantic relationship to the color in which they paint their houses. The strongest cultural differences seem to run along the professional middle class-working class divide. A recent increase in residential class segregation and the overall tendency of individual to associate mostly with those of equal standing as themselves has further strengthened class differences.
Parental views are perhaps the most essential factor in determining the socialization process which shapes new members of society. The values and standards used in child rearing are commonly closely related to the parent's occupational status. Parents from the professional class tend to raise their children to become curious independent thinkers, while working-class parents raise their children to have a more communal perspective with a strong respect for authority. Middle-class parents tend to emphasize internal standards and values while working-class parents emphasize external values.
Sociologist Dennis Gilbert uses a list of values identified by Melvin Kohn to be typical of the professional middle and working class. Middle-class parents' values for their children and themselves included: "Consideration of Others, Self-Control, Curiosity, Happiness, Honesty, Tolerance of Nonconformity, Open to Innovation…Self-Direction." This contrasted with surveyed working class individuals, who reported: "Manners, Obedience…Neatness, Cleanliness, Strong Punishment of Deviant Behavior, Stock to Old Ways, People not Trustworthy…Strict Leadership" as values for themselves and their children. There is a strong correlation between these values and the occupational activities of the respondents. The job characteristics of middle class respondents included: "Work Independently, Varied Tasks, Work with People or Data," versus working-class parents of reported "Close Supervision and Repetitive Work…"
Gender roles are also viewed differently by those in the higher and lower social classes. Middle class individuals, who were more open towards "nonconformity" and emphasized individual self-direction as well as critical thinking, were also less stringent in their application of gender roles. Working class individuals, on the other hand, emphasized gender roles. While working-class people have more and more assimilated to middle class culture regarding their view and application of gender roles, differences remain. Professional class people are more likely to have an egalitarian distribution of work in their household with both spouses being equals in heterosexual marriages. According to Dennis Gilbert, "College life, generally a prologue to upper-middle class careers, delays marriage and encourages informal, relatively egalitarian association between men and women."
Academic models
The following are reported income-, education-, and occupation-based terms for specific classes commonly used by sociologists.
Upper class
This term is applied to a wide array of elite groups existing in the United States of America. The term commonly includes the so-called "blue bloods" (multi-generational wealth combined with leadership of high society) such as the Astor or Roosevelt families. Twentieth century sociologist W. Lloyd Warner divided the upper class into two sections: the "upper-upper class" (or bourgeoisie) and "lower-upper class" (or "scoobs"). The former includes established upper-class families while the latter includes those with great wealth. As there is no defined lower threshold for the upper class it is difficult, if not outright impossible, to determine the exact number or percentage of American households that could be identified as being members of the upper-class(es).
Income and wealth statistics may serve as a helpful guideline as they can be measured in a more objective manner. In 2005, approximately one and a half percent (1.5%) of households in the United States had incomes exceeding $250,000 with the top 5% having incomes exceeding $157,000. Furthermore, only 2.6% of households held assets (excluding home equity) of more than one-million dollars. One could therefore fall under the assumption that less than five percent of American society are members of rich households. The richest 1% of the American population owns as much as the combined wealth of the bottom 90%, or perhaps even more.
Members of the upper class control and own significant portions of corporate America and may exercise indirect power through the investment of capital. The high salaries and the potential for amassing great wealth through stock options have greatly increased the power and visibility of the "corporate elite". There is disagreement over whether the "nouveau riche" should be included as members of the upper class or whether this term should exclusively be used for established families. Many sociologists and commentators make a distinction between the upper class (in the sense of those in the families of inherited wealth) and the corporate elite. By implication, the upper class is held in lower regard (as inheritors of idle wealth) than the self-made millionaires in prestigious occupations.
Inherited wealth
Yet another important feature of the upper class is that of inherited privilege. While most Americans, including those in the upper-middle class need to actively maintain their status, some upper class persons do not need to work in order to maintain their status. Status tends to be passed on from generation to generation without each generation having to re-certify its status. Overall, the upper class is financially the best compensated and one of the most influential socio-economic classes in American society.
Corporate elite
The high salaries and, especially, the potential wealth through stock options, has supported the term corporate elite or corporate class. Top executives, including Chief Executive Officers, are among the financially best compensated occupations in the United States. The median annual earnings for a CEO in the United States were $140,350 (exceeding the income of more than 90% of United States households). The Wall Street Journal reports the median compensation for CEOs of 350 major corporations was $6,000,000 in 2005 with most of the money coming from stock options.
In New York City in 2005, the median income (including bonuses) of a corporate "chief operating officer" (the No. 2 job) was $377,000. The total compensation for a "top IT officer" in charge of information technology in New York City was $218,000. Thus even below the CEO level of top corporations, financial compensation will usually be sufficient to propel households with a mere one income earner in the top 1%. In 2005 only 1.5% of American households had incomes above $250,000 with many reaching this level only through having two income earners.
Many politically powerful people make money before coming to office, but in general the political power elite have official incomes in the $150,000 to $185,000 range; members of Congress are paid $174,000, and are effectively required to have a residence in their district as well as one in Washington.
Upper middle
The upper middle class consists of highly educated salaried professionals whose work is largely self-directed. Many have advanced graduate degrees and household incomes commonly exceed the high five-figure range. Members of this class commonly value higher education – most holding advanced academic degrees – and are often involved with personal and professional networks including professional organizations. The upper middle class tends to have great influence over the course of society.
Occupations which require high educational attainment are well compensated and are held in high public esteem. Physicians, lawyers, accountants, engineers, scientists and professors are largely considered to be upper middle class. The very well educated are seen as trendsetters; the anti-smoking, pro-fitness, and organic food movements, as well as environmentalism, are largely indigenous to this socio-economic grouping. Education serves as perhaps the most important value and also the most dominant entry barrier of the upper middle class.
Sociologists Dennis Gilbert, Willam Thompson, and Joseph Hickey estimate the upper middle class to constitute roughly 15% of the population (or roughly three in every twenty persons). The hallmark of this class is its high educational attainment.
Middle class
The middle class is perhaps the most vaguely defined of the social classes. The term can be used either to describe a relative elite of professionals and managers – also called the upper middle class – or it can be used to describe those in-between the extremes of wealth, disregarding considerable differences in income, culture, educational attainment, influence, and occupation.
As with all social classes in the United States, there are no definite answers as to what is and what is not middle class. Sociologists such as Dennis Gilbert, James Henslin, William Thompson, and Joseph Hickey have brought forth class models in which the middle class is divided into two sections that combined constitute 47% to 49% of the population. The upper middle or professional class constitutes the upper end of the middle class which consists of highly educated, well-paid professionals with considerable work autonomy. The lower end of the middle class – called either lower middle class or just middle class – consists of semi-professionals, craftsmen, office staff, and sales employees who often have college degrees and are very loosely supervised.
Everyone wants to believe they are middle class. For people on the bottom and the top of the wage scale the phrase connotes a certain Regular Joe cachet. But this eagerness to be part of the group has led the definition to be stretched like a bungee cord.
— Dante Chinni, the Christian Science Monitor
Although income thresholds cannot be determined since social classes lack distinct boundaries and tend to overlap, sociologists and economists have put forward certain income figures they find indicative of middle class households. Sociologist Leonard Beeghley identifies a husband making roughly $57,000 and a wife making roughly $40,000 with a household income of roughly $97,000 as a typical middle-class family.
Sociologists William Thompson and Joseph Hickey identify household incomes between $35,000 and $75,000 as typical for the lower middle and $100,000 or more as typical for the upper middle class. Though it needs to be noted that household income distribution neither reflects standard of living nor class status with complete accuracy.
Traditional middle class
Those households more or less at the center of society may be referred to as being part of the American middle or middle-middle class in vernacular language use. In the academic models featured in this article, however, the middle class does not constitute a strong majority of the population. Those in the middle of the socio-economic strata—the proverbial Average Joe—are commonly in the area where the working and lower middle class overlap.
The most prominent academic models split the middle class into two sections. Yet, it remains common for the term middle class to be applied for anyone in between either extreme of the socio-economic strata. The middle class is then often sub-divided into an upper-middle, middle-middle, and lower-middle class. In colloquial descriptions of the class system the middle-middle class may be described as consisting of those in the middle of the social strata. Politicians and television personalities such as Lou Dobbs can be seen using the term middle class in this manner, especially when discussing the middle-class squeeze. The wide discrepancy between the academic models and public opinions that lump highly educated professionals together in the same class with secretaries may lead to the conclusion that public opinion on the subject has become largely ambiguous.
Lower middle class
The lower middle class is, as the name implies, generally defined as those less privileged than the middle class. People in this class commonly work in supporting occupations.
Sociologists Dennis Gilbert, William Thompson, and Joseph Hickey, however, only divide the middle class into two groups. In their class modes the middle class only consists of an upper and lower middle class. The upper middle class, as described above, constitutes roughly 15% of the population with highly educated white collar professionals who commonly have salaries in the high-5-figure range and household incomes in the low-6-figure range. Semi-professionals with some college degrees constitute the lower middle class. Their class models show the lower middle class positioned slightly above the middle of the socio-economic strata. Those in blue- and pink-collar as well as clerical occupations are referred to as working class in these class models.
Working class
Definitions of the term working class vary greatly. While Lloyd Warner found the vast majority of the American population to be in either the upper-lower class or lower-lower class in 1949, modern-day experts such as Michael Zweig, an economist for Stony Brook University, argue that the working class constitutes most of the population.
Dennis Gilbert places 13% of households among the "working poor" with 12% being in the "underclass". Thompson & Hickey place roughly 17% to 20% of households in the lower classes. The lower classes constituting roughly a fifth to a quarter of American society consists mainly of low-rung retail and service workers as well as the frequently unemployed and those not able to work. Overall, 13% of the population fall below the poverty threshold. Hunger and food insecurity were present in the lives of 3.9% of American households, while roughly twenty-five million Americans (ca. 9%) participated in the food stamp program.
Agriculture
Farm workers
Before industrialization, "yeoman farmers"—self-sufficient, politically independent landowners—made up a large portion of the country's population. Jeffersonian democracy and Jacksonian democracy successfully expanded the political rights of the yeomen, and the geographical extent of the nation to provide them farms. This culminated in the Homestead Act of 1862 which provided hundreds of thousands of free farms. Before 1865 large southern plantations used slaves. After emancipation, a system of sharecropping and tenant farming for both whites and blacks in the South provided a semi-independent status for farmers who did not own their land. In contemporary times, migrant agricultural workers—mostly Mexicans—perform field and packing work.
Farmers
Only 0.7% of the population of the United States is employed in the agricultural sector. Most are proprietors of independent farms. Once the dominant American social class, this group diminished in overall numbers during the 20th century, as farm holdings grew more consolidated, farming operations became more mechanized, and most of the population migrated to urban areas.
Today, the agricultural sector has essentially taken on the characteristics of business and industry generally. In contemporary usage, a "farmer" is someone who owns and operates a farm, which more often than not will be a sizable business enterprise; "agricultural workers" or "farm workers", who perform the actual work associated with farming, typically come out of the lower classes; indeed, they are often near-destitute immigrants or migrant farm workers. In this respect, farming mirrors big business: like any enterprise, a farm has owners (who may be a family or a corporation), salaried managers, supervisors, foremen and workers.
With the number of farms steadily diminishing, the stereotypical humble homestead is increasingly the exception, for viable farming now means agribusiness; the large amounts of capital required to operate a competitive farm require large-scale organization. The large landowners in California's Central Valley, Coachella Valley and Imperial Valley fall squarely within the upper class. Among farmers, "income" in the conventional sense is not an accurate standard of wealth measurement, because farmers typically keep their official income low by placing their assets into farming corporations rather than drawing the money directly. The stereotypical poor, marginal farmer "eking out a living" from the soil, an image deeply ingrained in most Americans' minds by folklore, films, and even history texts, has now been largely displaced by agribusiness, which has bought them out and consolidated their holdings.
Class and health
Income also had a significant impact on health as those with higher incomes had better access to healthcare facilities, higher life expectancy, lower infant mortality rate and increased health consciousness. In 2006, Harvard researchers divided the United States into "eight Americas."
Life expectancy ranges from 84.9 years for Asian-Americans who had an average per capita income of $21,566, to 71.1 years for urban African-Americans with an average per capita income of $14,800.
Furthermore, like other post-industrial nations, the United States saw increased health consciousness among persons of higher social status. Persons of higher status are less likely to smoke, more likely to exercise regularly, and be more conscious of their diet. Additionally, poorer Americans are more likely to consume lower quality, processed foods. One can therefore conclude that low socio-economic status contributes to a person's likelihood of being obese.
Class and politics
Income remains one of the main indicators of class, as it commonly reflects educational attainment as well as occupation. A frequent distinction in political attitudes can be found among individuals residing in households with differing incomes. For example, during the 2000 United States presidential election, voter turnout among those in the top 26% with household incomes exceeding $75,000 was 27% higher than the average.
Inequality and crisp definition of any existent class groupings
Some academics consider American society sociologically and economically fragmented in such a manner that no clear class distinctions can be made. This means that there are no pronounced breaks in socioeconomic strata, which makes class division highly subjective and disputable. Others, such as sociologist Dennis Gilbert, dispute the concept of a well-mixed society, and claim that distinct social networks can be identified for each class. W. Lloyd Warner also asserts the existence of class markers:
Warner asserts that social class is as old as civilization itself and has been present in nearly every society from before the Roman Empire, through medieval times, and to the modern-day United States. He believes that complex societies such as the United States need an equally complex social hierarchy.
In popular culture
The existence of class differences in American society has long been the focus of popular culture, whether in the form of books, films, or plays. Social class, for example, is a theme used in the 1948 production Mister Roberts, in a scene where the ship's captain displays resentment toward the title character, contrasting his own impoverished background to that of Roberts himself:
I think you're a pretty smart boy. I may not talk very good, Mister, but I know how to take care of smart boys. Let me tell you something. Let me tell you a little secret. I hate your guts, you college son-of-a-****! You think you're better than I am! You think you're better because you've had everything handed to you. Let me tell you something, Mister – I've worked since I was ten years old, and all my life I've known you superior bastards. I knew you people when I was a kid in Boston and I worked in eating-places and you ordered me around … "Oh bus-boy! My friend here seems to have thrown up on the table. Clean it up, please!" I started going to sea as a steward and I worked for you then … "Steward, take my magazine out to the deck chair!" … "Steward, I don't like your looks. Please keep out of my way as much as possible!" Well, I took that crap! I took that for years from pimple-faced bastards who weren't good enough to wipe my nose! And now I don't have to take it any more! There's a war on, by God, and I'm the Captain and you can wipe my nose! The worst thing I can do to you is to keep you on this ship! And that's where you're going to stay! Now get out of here.
See also
American gentry
Global elite
Income inequality in the United States
Racial inequality in the United States
Social class in American history
Class: A Guide Through the American Status System
Social stratification
References
Further reading
Leonard Beeghley; The Structure of Social Stratification in the United States Pearson, 2004
Dennis Gilbert; The American Class Structure Wadsworth, 2002
Rhonda Levine; Social Class and Stratification Rowman & Littlefield, 1998
Paul Fussell Class: A Guide Through the American Status System Simon & Schuster, 1992
Michael Zweig; What's Class Got To Do With It? Cornell University Press, 2003
Christopher Beach; Class, Language, and American Film Comedy Cambridge University Press, 2002
Harold J. Bershady ed; Social Class and Democratic Leadership: Essays in Honor of E. Digby Baltzell 1989
Daniel Bertaux, and Paul Thompson; Pathways to Social Class: A Qualitative Approach to Social Mobility Clarendon Press, 1997
Barbara Ehrenreich. Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By in America (2002), author disguises herself as working class
David B. Grusky (Editor) Social Stratification: Class, Race, and Gender in Sociological Perspective (2000)
Alan C. Kerckhoff; Socialization and Social Class 1972, textbook
Jim Lardner, James Lardner, David A. Smith, editors, Inequality Matters: The Growing Economic Divide In America And Its Poisonous Consequences, WW Norton (January 2006), hardcover, 224 pages,
Erik Olin Wright. Classe (1997) – a detailed Marxian guide to define working class/middle class etc.
David Popenoe, Sociology, (ninth edition, Prentice Hall, 1993 ) pb. pp. 232–236,
Wealth, Income, and Power – wealth distribution in the United States from a Power Structure Research perspective
– analysis from Liberal point of view
Kalra, Paul (1996). The American Class System: Divide and Rule. .
Kay Hymowitz / Marriage and Caste in America: Separate and Unequal Families in a Post-Marital Age (2006)
G. William Domhoff (1967). Who Rules America?, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall
Lee D. Baker (2004). Life in America: Identity and Everyday Experience, Blackwell Publishing,
External links
Working Definitions ClassMatters.com
How Class Works, The New York Times
America's Disappearing Middle Class: Implications for Public Policy and Politics by Trevor Beltz, May 2012
Social class in the United States
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243415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis%20Slim | Memphis Slim | Memphis Slim (born John Len Chatman, September 3, 1915 – February 24, 1988) was an American blues pianist, singer, and composer. He led a series of bands that, reflecting the popular appeal of jump blues, included saxophones, bass, drums, and piano. A song he first cut in 1947, "Every Day I Have the Blues", has become a blues standard, recorded by many other artists. He made over 500 recordings.
He was posthumously inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame in 1989.
Biography
Memphis Slim was born John Len Chatman, in Memphis, Tennessee. For his first recordings, for Okeh Records in 1940, he used the name of his father, Peter Chatman (who sang, played piano and guitar, and operated juke joints); it is commonly believed that he did so to honor his father. He started performing under the name "Memphis Slim" later that year but continued to publish songs under the name Peter Chatman.
He spent most of the 1930s performing in honky-tonks, dance halls, and gambling joints in West Memphis, Arkansas, and southeast Missouri. He settled in Chicago in 1939 and began teaming with the guitarist and singer Big Bill Broonzy in clubs soon afterwards. In 1940 and 1941, he recorded two songs for Bluebird Records that became part of his repertoire for decades, "Beer Drinking Woman" and "Grinder Man Blues". These were released under the name "Memphis Slim," given to him by Bluebird's producer, Lester Melrose. Slim became a regular session musician for Bluebird, and his piano talents supported established stars such as John Lee "Sonny Boy" Williamson, Washboard Sam, and Jazz Gillum. Many of Slim's recordings and performances until the mid-1940s were with Broonzy, who had recruited Slim to be his piano player after the death of his accompanist Joshua Altheimer in 1940.
After World War II, Slim began leading bands that generally included saxophones, bass, drums, and piano, reflecting the popular appeal of jump blues. With the decline of blues recording by the major labels, Slim worked with emerging independent labels. Starting in late 1945, he recorded with trios for the small Chicago-based Hy-Tone Records. With a lineup of alto saxophone, tenor sax, piano, and string bass (Willie Dixon played the instrument on the first session), he signed with the Miracle label in the fall of 1946. One of the songs recorded at the first session was the ebullient boogie "Rockin' the House," from which his band would take its name. Slim and the House Rockers recorded mainly for Miracle through 1949, with some commercial success. Among the songs they recorded were "Messin' Around" (which reached number one on the R&B charts in 1948) and "Harlem Bound". In 1947, the day after producing a concert by Slim, Broonzy, and Williamson at New York City's Town Hall, the folklorist Alan Lomax brought the three musicians to the Decca Records studios and recorded with Slim on vocal and piano. Lomax presented sections of this recording on BBC Radio in the early 1950s as a documentary, The Art of the Negro, and later released an expanded version as the LP Blues in the Mississippi Night. In 1949, Slim expanded his combo to a quintet by adding a drummer; the group was now spending most of its time on tour, leading to off-contract recording sessions for King Records in Cincinnati and Peacock Records in Houston.
One of Slim's 1947 recordings for Miracle, released in 1949, was originally titled "Nobody Loves Me". It has become famous as "Every Day I Have the Blues." The song was recorded in 1950 by Lowell Fulson and subsequently by numerous other artists, including B. B. King, Elmore James, T-Bone Walker, Ray Charles, Eric Clapton, Natalie Cole, Ella Fitzgerald, Jimi Hendrix, Mahalia Jackson, Sarah Vaughan, Carlos Santana, John Mayer and Lou Rawls. Joe Williams recorded it in 1952 for Checker Records; his remake from 1956 (included on the album Count Basie Swings, Joe Williams Sings) was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1992.
Early in 1950, Miracle succumbed to financial troubles, but its owners regrouped to form the Premium label, and Slim remained on board until the successor company faltered in the summer of 1951. His February 1951 session for Premium saw two changes in the House Rockers' lineup: Slim started using two tenor saxophones instead of the alto and tenor combination, and he made a trial of adding the guitarist Ike Perkins. His last session for Premium kept the two-tenor lineup but dispensed with the guitar. During his time with Premium, Slim first recorded his song "Mother Earth".
Slim made just one session for King, but the company bought his Hy-Tone sides in 1948 and acquired his Miracle masters after that company failed in 1950. He was never a Chess artist, but Leonard Chess bought most of the Premium masters after the demise of Premium.
After a year with Mercury Records, Slim signed with United Records in Chicago; the A&R man, Lew Simpkins, knew him from Miracle and Premium. The timing was propitious, because he had just added the guitarist Matt "Guitar" Murphy to his group. He remained with United through the end of 1954, when the company began to cut back on blues recording.
After 1954, Slim did not have a steady relationship with a record company until 1958, when he signed with Vee-Jay Records. In 1959 his band, still featuring Murphy, recorded the album Memphis Slim at the Gate of the Horn, which featured a lineup of his best-known songs, including "Mother Earth", "Gotta Find My Baby", "Rockin' the Blues", "Steppin' Out", and "Slim's Blues". In December 1959, Willie Dixon's debut album, Willie's Blues, was released. Memphis Slim was given almost equal credit on the album as Dixon's piano accompanist. Memphis Slim played on all of the tracks, and wrote the two numbers that were not penned by Dixon.
Slim first appeared outside the United States in 1960, touring with Willie Dixon, with whom he returned to Europe in 1962 as a featured artist in the first of the series of American Folk Festival concerts organized by Dixon, which brought many notable blues artists to Europe in the 1960s and 1970s. The duo released several albums together on Folkways Records, including Memphis Slim and Willie Dixon at the Village Gate with Pete Seeger (1962).
In 1962, Slim moved permanently to Paris, and his engaging personality and well-honed presentation of playing, singing, and storytelling about the blues secured his position as one of the most prominent blues artists for nearly three decades. He appeared on television in numerous European countries, acted in several French films and wrote the score for À nous deux France (1970), and performed regularly in Paris, throughout Europe, and on return visits to the United States. In the last years of his life, he teamed up with the respected jazz drummer George Collier. The two toured Europe together and became friends. After Collier died in August 1987, Slim rarely appeared in public, although he reunited with Matt "Guitar" Murphy for a gig at Antone's in Austin, Texas, in 1987.
Two years before his death, Slim was named a Commander in the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of France. In addition, the U.S. Senate honored Slim with the title of Ambassador-at-Large of Good Will.
Memphis Slim died of renal failure on February 24, 1988, in Paris, at the age of 72. He is buried at Galilee Memorial Gardens in Memphis, Tennessee.
He was posthumously inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame in 1989. He was inducted into the Memphis Music Hall of Fame in 2015.
Charting singles
Albums
References
Bibliography
External links
Music Match Memphis Slim
[ Memphis Slim biography and discography] at AllMusic website
Memphis Slim recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
Memphis Slim discography on Folkways Records
Memphis Slim obituary from The New York Times
1915 births
1988 deaths
American blues pianists
American male pianists
American blues singers
Musicians from Memphis, Tennessee
Singers from Tennessee
King Records artists
Vee-Jay Records artists
Chess Records artists
Black Lion Records artists
Black & Blue Records artists
United Records artists
Deaths from kidney failure
20th-century American singers
Blues musicians from Tennessee
20th-century American pianists
20th-century American male musicians | [
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243420 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalanche%20diode | Avalanche diode | In electronics, an avalanche diode is a diode (made from silicon or other semiconductor) that is designed to experience avalanche breakdown at a specified reverse bias voltage. The junction of an avalanche diode is designed to prevent current concentration and resulting hot spots, so that the diode is undamaged by the breakdown. The avalanche breakdown is due to minority carriers accelerated enough to create ionization in the crystal lattice, producing more carriers, which in turn create more ionization. Because the avalanche breakdown is uniform across the whole junction, the breakdown voltage is nearly constant with changing current when compared to a non-avalanche diode.
The Zener diode exhibits an apparently similar effect in addition to Zener breakdown. Both effects are present in any such diode, but one usually dominates the other. Avalanche diodes are optimized for avalanche effect, so they exhibit small but significant voltage drop under breakdown conditions, unlike Zener diodes that always maintain a voltage higher than breakdown. This feature provides better surge protection than a simple Zener diode and acts more like a gas-discharge tube replacement. Avalanche diodes have a small positive temperature coefficient of voltage, whereas diodes relying on the Zener effect have a negative temperature coefficient.
Uses
Voltage reference
The voltage after breakdown varies only slightly with changing current. This makes the avalanche diode useful as a type of voltage reference. Voltage reference diodes rated more than about 6–8 volts are generally avalanche diodes.
Protection
A common application is to protect electronic circuits against damaging high voltages. The avalanche diode is connected to the circuit so that it is reverse-biased. In other words, its cathode is positive with respect to its anode. In this configuration, the diode is non-conducting and does not interfere with the circuit. If the voltage increases beyond the design limit, the diode goes into avalanche breakdown, causing the harmful voltage to be conducted to ground. When used in this fashion, they are often referred to as clamping diodes or transient-voltage suppressors because they fix or "clamp" the maximum voltage to a predetermined level. Avalanche diodes are normally specified for this role by their clamping voltage VBR and the maximum amount of transient energy they can absorb, specified by either energy (in joules) or . Avalanche breakdown is not destructive as long as the diode is prevented from overheating.
Radio-frequency noise generation
Avalanche diodes generate radio-frequency noise. They are commonly used as noise sources in radio equipment and hardware random number generators. For instance, they are often used as a source of RF for antenna analyzer bridges. Avalanche diodes can also be used as white noise generators.
Microwave-frequency generation
If placed into a resonant circuit, avalanche diodes can act as negative-resistance devices. The IMPATT diode is an avalanche diode optimized for frequency generation.
Single-photon avalanche detector
These are made from doped silicon and depend on the avalanche breakdown effect to detect even single photons. The silicon avalanche photodiode is a high-gain photon detector. They are "ideal for use in high-speed, low-light-level applications". The avalanche photodiode is operated with a reverse bias voltage of up to hundreds of volts, slightly below its breakdown voltage. In this regime, electron–hole pairs generated by the incident photons take a large amount of energy from the electric field, which creates more secondary charge carriers. The photocurrent of just one photon can be registered with these electronic devices.
See also
Avalanche transistor
Transient-voltage-suppression diode
References
Diodes
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243421 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclecticism%20in%20art | Eclecticism in art | Eclecticism is a kind of mixed style in the fine arts: "the borrowing of a variety of styles from different sources and combining them" . Significantly, Eclecticism hardly ever constituted a specific style in art: it is characterized by the fact that it was not a particular style. In general, the term describes the combination in a single work of a variety of influences—mainly of elements from different historical styles in architecture, painting, and the graphic and decorative arts. In music the term used may be either eclecticism or polystylism.
In the visual arts
The term eclectic was first used by Johann Joachim Winckelmann to characterize the art of the Carracci, who incorporated in their paintings elements from the Renaissance and classical traditions. Indeed, Agostino, Annibale and Lodovico Carracci had tried to combine in their art Michelangelo's line, Titian's color, Correggio's chiaroscuro, and Raphael's symmetry and grace.
In the 18th century, Sir Joshua Reynolds, head of the Royal Academy of Arts in London, was one of the most influential advocates of eclecticism. In the sixth of his famous academical Discourses (1774), he wrote that the painter may use the work of the ancients as a "magazine of common property, always open to the public, whence every man has a right to take what materials he pleases" .
Western architecture
Early examples of eclectic architecture were built in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, particularly in the Palazzina Cinese in Palermo..
Eclecticism "was an important concept in Western architecture during the mid- and late 19th century, and it reappeared in a new guise in the latter part of the 20th century" .
Sources
Visual arts genres
Architectural styles | [
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] |
243424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl%20of%20Longford | Earl of Longford | Earl of Longford is a title that has been created twice in the Peerage of Ireland.
History
The title was first bestowed upon Francis Aungier, 3rd Baron Aungier of Longford, in 1677, with remainder to his younger brother Ambrose. He had previously represented Surrey in the House of Commons and had already been created Viscount Longford in the Peerage of Ireland in 1675, with similar remainder. He was succeeded according to the special remainder (and, normally, in the barony) by his brother Ambrose, the second Earl. On his death in 1706 all the titles became extinct. The title of Baron Aungier of Longford was created in the Peerage of Ireland in 1621 for the first Earl's grandfather Sir Francis Aungier, Master of the Rolls in Ireland. The latter was succeeded by his eldest son Gerald, the second Baron, who in his turn was succeeded by his nephew, the aforementioned third Baron and first Earl of Longford, the eldest son of Ambrose Aungier, Chancellor of St Patrick's Cathedral, second son of the first Baron. Gerald Aungier, brother of the first Earl, was Governor of Bombay.
Alice Aungier, sister of the first and second Earl of Longford, married Sir James Cuffe, Member of Parliament for County Mayo. Their son Francis Cuffe also represented County Mayo in the Irish Parliament. Francis's son Michael Cuffe sat as Member of Parliament for County Mayo and Longford Borough. Michael's daughter Elizabeth Cuffe married Thomas Pakenham, of Pakenham Hall, just outside Castlepollard, County Westmeath, in 1739. Thomas represented Longford Borough in the Irish House of Commons. In 1756 the Longford title held by his wife's ancestors was revived when he was raised to the Peerage of Ireland as Baron Longford, in the County of Longford. In 1785 the earldom was also revived when Elizabeth was created Countess of Longford in her own right in the Peerage of Ireland. Lord Longford was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Baron. He represented Longford County in the Irish Parliament. He died aged only 49 and was succeeded by his son, the third Baron. In 1794 the third baron also succeeded his grandmother as second Earl of Longford. Lord Longford sat in the British House of Lords as one of the 28 original Irish Representative Peers. In 1821 he was created Baron Silchester, of Silchester in the County of Southampton, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, which gave him and his descendants an automatic seat in the House of Lords.
He was succeeded by his eldest son, the third Earl. He died unmarried and was succeeded by his younger brother, the fourth Earl. He was a Conservative politician and served under the Earl of Derby and Benjamin Disraeli as Under-Secretary of State for War from 1866 to 1868. His son, the fifth Earl, was Lord-Lieutenant of County Longford from 1887 to 1915. Lord Longford was killed in action at Gallipoli in 1915. He was succeeded by his eldest son, the sixth Earl. He was a minor playwright and poet and also sat as a member of Seanad Éireann between 1946 and 1948.
He died childless and was succeeded by his younger brother, the seventh Earl. He was a prominent Labour politician and social activist. In 1945, sixteen years before he succeeded his elder brother, he was raised to the Peerage of the United Kingdom in his own right as Baron Pakenham, of Cowley in the City of Oxford. Lord Longford served in the Labour administrations of Clement Attlee and Harold Wilson as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, First Lord of the Admiralty, Lord Privy Seal, Leader of the House of Lords and Secretary of State for the Colonies. In 1999, at the age of 94 and after the House of Lords Act 1999 removed the automatic right of hereditary peers to sit in the House of Lords, Lord Longford was created a life peer as Baron Pakenham of Cowley, of Cowley in the County of Oxfordshire. He was therefore able to remain a member of the House of Lords until his death in 2001.
the titles (other than that of Baron Pakenham of Cowley, which as a life peerage became extinct in 2001) are held by his eldest son, the eighth Earl. He does not use his title and did not use his courtesy title of Lord Silchester which he was entitled to from 1961 to 2001. Known simply as Thomas Pakenham, he is a writer and historian.
Several other members of the Pakenham family have also gained distinction. Henry Pakenham, great-grandfather of the first Baron, represented Navan in the Irish House of Commons. His son Sir Thomas Pakenham, grandfather of the first Baron, sat as Member of Parliament for Augher. Sir Thomas's son Edward Pakenham, father of the first Baron, represented County Westmeath in the Irish Parliament. The Honourable Sir Thomas Pakenham, third son of the first Baron and the Countess of Longford, was an admiral in the Royal Navy. His fourth son Sir John Pakenham was also an admiral in the Royal Navy while his fifth son Sir Richard Pakenham was a noted diplomat and served as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the United States from 1843 to 1847. The Honourable Sir Edward Pakenham, second son of the second Baron, was a major-general in the army. He served in the Peninsular Wars under his brother-in-law, General Arthur Wellesey, who married his sister Kitty Pakenham in 1806. Sir Edward Pakenham was killed at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815.
The Honourable Sir Hercules Pakenham (1781–1850), third son of the second Baron, was a lieutenant-general in the army and Member of Parliament for Westmeath. He was the father of 1) Edward Pakenham, Member of Parliament for Antrim, and 2) Sir Thomas Pakenham, also a lieutenant-general. The latter's eldest son Hercules Pakenham was an Ulster Unionist Party member of the Senate of Northern Ireland. The Honourable Thomas Alexander Pakenham (1820–1889), third son of the second Earl, was a rear-admiral in the Royal Navy. His second son Sir William Pakenham was an admiral in the Royal Navy. The Honourable Sir Francis Pakenham, seventh son of the second Earl, was a diplomat and notably served as Ambassador to Sweden. Lady Violet Pakenham, daughter of the fifth Earl, was a writer and critic and the wife of the author Anthony Powell. Elizabeth Pakenham (born Harman), Countess of Longford, wife of the seventh Earl, was a writer and social activist. Lady Antonia Fraser and Rachel Billington, daughters of the seventh Earl, are both prominent authors. Lady Judith Kazantzis, daughter of the seventh Earl, is a poet. The Honourable Sir Michael Pakenham, third son of the seventh Earl, is a diplomat.
The ancestral seat of the Pakenham family are Tullynally Castle, County Westmeath. Previously known as Pakenham Hall, it was renamed by the current owner, Thomas Pakenham and North Aston Hall near North Aston, Oxfordshire
Baron Aungier of Longford (1621)
Francis Aungier, 1st Baron Aungier of Longford ( – 1632)
Gerald Aungier, 2nd Baron Aungier of Longford (died 1655)
Francis Aungier, 3rd Baron Aungier of Longford (died 1700) (created Viscount Longford in 1675)
Viscount Longford, first creation (1675)
Francis Aungier, 1st Viscount Longford (died 1700) (created Earl of Longford in 1677)
Earl of Longford, first creation (1677)
Francis Aungier, 1st Earl of Longford (died 1700)
Ambrose Aungier, 2nd Earl of Longford (died 1706)
Viscount Longford, second creation (1713)
Christopher Fleming, 1st Viscount Longford and 17th Baron Slane (1669-1726)
Lord Slane (who had succeeded to the title Baron Slane in 1676) was created Viscount Longford by Queen Anne in 1713. The viscounty became extinct upon his death.
Baron Longford (1756)
Thomas Pakenham, 1st Baron Longford (1713–1766)
Edward Michael Pakenham, 2nd Baron Longford (1743–1792)
Thomas Pakenham, 3rd Baron Longford (1774–1835) (succeeded his grandmother as Earl of Longford in 1794)
Earl of Longford, second creation (1785)
Elizabeth Pakenham, 1st Countess of Longford (1719–1794). Lady Longford was the daughter of Michael Cuffe, Member of Parliament for County Mayo and Longford Borough, by Frances Sandford, daughter of Henry Sandford, of Castlerea, County Mayo. She was the great-granddaughter of Sir James Cuffe by his wife Alice Aungier, sister and heiress of Francis Aungier, 1st Earl of Longford, and Ambrose Aungier, 2nd Earl of Longford, of the first creation. Lady Longford married Thomas Pakenham, son of Edward Pakenham, in 1740. In 1756 the Longford title held by her ancestors was revived when her husband was created Baron Longford in the Peerage of Ireland. In 1785 the earldom was also revived when Lady Longford was created Countess of Longford in the Irish peerage in her own right. Lord Longford died in April 1766, aged 52. Lady Longford survived him by almost thirty years and died in January 1794, aged 74. She was succeeded in the earldom by her grandson, Thomas, her eldest son Edward having predeceased her.
Edward Michael Pakenham, 2nd Baron Longford (1743–1792)
Thomas Pakenham, 2nd Earl of Longford (1774–1835)
Edward Michael Pakenham, 3rd Earl of Longford (1817–1860)
William Lygon Pakenham, 4th Earl of Longford (1819–1887)
William Pakenham, Lord Silchester (1864–1876)
Thomas Pakenham, 5th Earl of Longford (1864–1915)
Edward Arthur Henry Pakenham, 6th Earl of Longford (1902–1961)
Francis Aungier "Frank" Pakenham, 7th Earl of Longford (1905–2001)
Thomas Francis Dermot Pakenham, 8th Earl of Longford (born 1933)
The heir apparent is the present holder's eldest son, Edward Melchior Pakenham, Baron Silchester (born 1970). Lord Silchester is usually known as Ned Silchester or Ned Pakenham.
Line of succession and other titles held by descendants of the 1st Countess
Elizabeth Pakenham, 1st Countess of Longford (1719–1794)
Edward Michael Pakenham, 2nd Baron Longford (1743–1792)
Thomas Pakenham, 2nd Earl of Longford, 1st Baron Silchester (1774–1835)
Edward Michael Pakenham, 3rd Earl of Longford, 2nd Baron Silchester (1817–1860)
William Lygon Pakenham, 4th Earl of Longford, 3rd Baron Silchester (1819–1887)
William Pakenham, Lord Silchester (1864–1876)
Thomas Pakenham, 5th Earl of Longford, 4th Baron Silchester (1864–1915)
Edward Arthur Henry Pakenham, 6th Earl of Longford, 5th Baron Silchester (1902–1961)
Francis Aungier "Frank" Pakenham, 7th Earl of Longford, 6th Baron Silchester, 1st Baron Pakenhamm (1905–2001)
Thomas Pakenham, 8th Earl of Longford, 7th Baron Silchester, 2nd Baron Pakenham (born 1933)
(1) Edward Pakenham, Lord Silchester (born 1970)
(2) Hon. Frederick Pakenham (born 1971)
Hon. Patrick Pakenham (1937–2005)
(3) Richard Pakenham (born 1969)
(4) Guy Pakenham (born 1970)
(5) Harry Pakenham (born 1972)
(6) Hon. Sir Michael Pakenham (born 1943)
Hon. Kevin Pakenham (1947–2020)
(7) Thomas Pakenham (born 1977)
(8) Benjamin Pakenham (born 1983)
(9) Dominic Pakenham (born 1989)
Hon. Edward Pakenham (1866–1937)
Hon. Thomas Pakenham (1820–1889)
Edward Pakenham (1859–1931)
Sir William Pakenham (1861–1933)
Thomas Pakenham (1864–1894)
Hon. Charles Pakenham (1821–1857)
Hon. Henry Pakenham (1822–1856)
Hon. Frederick Pakenham (1823–1901)
Hon. Sir Francis Pakenham (1832–1905)
Hon. Edward Pakenham (1778–1815)
Hon. Sir Hercules Robert Pakenham (1781–1850)
Edward Pakenham (1819–1855)
Arthur Pakenham (1824–1895)
Thomas Pakenham (1826–1913)
Hercules Pakenham (1863–1937)
Hercules Pakenham (1901–1940)
(10) Hercules Pakenham (born 1935)
(11) Dermot Pakenham (born 1961)
(12) Arthur Pakenham (born 1992)
Harry Pakenham (1864–1905)
Robert Pakenham (1834–1857)
Edmund Pakenham (1837–1861)
Charles Pakenham (1840–1873)
Hon. William Pakenham (17XX–1811)
Hon. Henry Pakenham (1787–1863)
Henry Pakenham (1823–1893)
Henry Pakenham (1851–1922)
William Pakenham (1826–1886)
William Pakenham (1857–1942)
William Pakenham (1885–1956)
William Pakenham (1906–1991)
Frederick Pakenham (1859–1950)
Michael Pakenham (1903–1978)
Henry Pakenham (1861–1862)
Francis Pakenham (1865–1957)
Robert Pakenham (1866–1959)
Robert Pakenham (1912–1998)
(13) Clive Pakenham (born 1947)
(14) Daniel Pakenham (born 1973)
(15) Adam Pakenham (born 1978)
Hamilton Pakenham (1867–1957)
Arthur Pakenham (1903–1904)
Richard Pakenham (1906–1993)
(16) Richard Pakenham (born 1949)
(17) John Pakenham (born 1951)
Henry Pakenham (1911–2010)
Edward Pakenham (1950–1951)
(18) Anthony Pakenham (born 1952)
(19) Mark Pakenham (born 1965)
Hamilton Pakenham (1840–1864)
Hon. Robert Pakenham (–1775)
Hon. William Pakenham (1756–1769)
Hon. Sir Thomas Pakenham (1757–1836)
(1)–(9) are in line for the earldom and both the Silchester and the Pakenham baronies.
(10)–(19) are in line for the earldom and the Silchester barony.
References
Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990.
Earldoms in the Peerage of Ireland
Extinct earldoms in the Peerage of Ireland
Earl
1677 establishments in the British Empire
Peerages created with special remainders
Noble titles created in 1677
Noble titles created in 1785
People educated at Belvedere College | [
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243426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20F.%20Phillips | Henry F. Phillips | Henry Frank Phillips (June 4, 1889 – April 13, 1958) was an American businessman from Portland, Oregon. The Phillips-head ("crosshead") screw and screwdriver are named after him.
The importance of the crosshead screw design lies in its self-centering property, useful on automated production lines that use powered screwdrivers. Phillips' major contribution was in driving the crosshead concept forward to the point where it was adopted by screwmakers and automobile companies. The credited inventor of the Phillips screw was John P. Thompson who, in 1932, patented (#1,908,080) a recessed cruciform screw and in 1933, a screwdriver for it.
Biography
After failing to interest manufacturers, Thompson sold his self-centering design to Phillips in 1935. Phillips formed the Phillips Screw Company in 1934. After refining the design (U.S. Patent #2,046,343, U.S. Patents #2,046,837 to 2,046,840) for the American Screw Company of Providence, Rhode Island, Phillips succeeded in bringing the design to industrial manufacturing and promoting its rapid adoption as a machine screw standard. One of the first customers was General Motors who used the innovative design in 1936 for its Cadillac assembly-lines. By 1940, 85% of U.S. screw manufacturers had a license for the design. Due to failing health, Phillips retired in 1945. He died in 1958.
References
1890 births
1958 deaths
Businesspeople from Portland, Oregon
Screws
Benson Polytechnic High School alumni
20th-century American inventors
20th-century American businesspeople | [
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243427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Phillips | Henry Phillips | Henry Phillips may refer to:
Henry Phillips (singer) (1801–1876), English singer
Henry F. Phillips (1890–1958), American businessman for which the Phillips-head screw and screwdriver is named
Henry Myer Phillips (1811–1884), U.S. Representative from Pennsylvania
Sir Henry Phillips (colonial administrator) (1914–2004), British colonial administrator in Nyasaland, later Malawi
Henry D. Phillips (1882–1955), American football player and Episcopal bishop
Henry Phillips (comedian) (born 1969), songwriter and humorist
Henry Phillips (horticulturist) (1779–1840), botanist, horticulturist and writer who worked in and around Brighton, England
Henry Phillips (cricketer) (1844–1919), English cricketer
Henry Wyndham Phillips (1820–1868), British portrait painter
H. D. Phillips (Henry Dominic Phillips, died 1892), British civil servant of the Indian civil service
Henry Phillips (Massachusetts politician) (died 1685), American colonial politician and businessman
Henry Phillips (clergyman), English clergyman who betrayed William Tyndale
Henry Phillips (weightlifter), Panamanian weightlifter
Henry Phillips (author) (1838–1895), Philadelphia numismatist and translator
See also
Harry Phillips (disambiguation) | [
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243432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor%20Goddard | Trevor Goddard | Trevor Joseph Goddard (14 October 1962 – 7 June 2003) was an English actor. He was best known for playing Kano in the martial arts film Mortal Kombat, Lieutenant Commander Mic Brumby in the television series JAG and main villain Keefer in the action film Men of War (with Dolph Lundgren and JAG co-star Catherine Bell).
Early life
Goddard was born in Croydon, London, England, in 1962. Between 1974 and 1979, he attended Ravensbourne School, Hayes Lane, Bromley, London. A punk in 1977, he helped form a band at school called The Belsen Horrors (the name of which came from a Sex Pistols track). First a drummer, then the lead singer, he and his band lasted until 1978. Later, sometime between 1979 and 1980, he was the drummer in another Bromley punk band called The Vamp. This group was led by Wayne Cregan, who was one of the first members of X-Ray Spex. Bromley was closely linked with the early punk movement – first through the Bromley Contingent (the first fans of the Sex Pistols), and three famous punk singers who came from this town: Poly Styrene (X-Ray Spex), Siouxsie Sioux (of Siouxsie and the Banshees) and Billy Idol – who like Trevor, attended Ravensbourne School for Boys.
For much of his career, he claimed to be of Australian descent and often played Australian characters.
Career
He appeared in cameo roles in many television shows prior to 1995. That same year, Goddard played Kano in the film adaptation of Mortal Kombat. His performance as Kano became the source of the character's evolution in the video games.
He would go on to act in other films such as Gone in Sixty Seconds, Men of War (with Dolph Lundgren and future JAG co-star Catherine Bell) and Hollywood Vampyr. He played a short-tempered mercenary in the 1998 film Deep Rising with Treat Williams and Famke Janssen. Goddard played in the television drama series JAG as Lieutenant Commander Mick Brumby and was featured in TV commercials for the Hoover FloorMate.
He made his last on-screen appearance in the 2003 film Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl.
Death
On 7 June 2003, Goddard was found dead in his home in North Hollywood, Los Angeles, California. He was 40 years old. Initial reports indicated that Goddard was in the process of getting a divorce and that suicide was suspected. An autopsy later showed that Goddard died from an accidental drug overdose of heroin, cocaine, temazepam and vicodin.
Filmography
References
External links
Accidental deaths in California
Cocaine-related deaths in California
Deaths by heroin overdose in California
Drug-related deaths in California
English male boxers
English expatriates in the United States
English male film actors
English male television actors
English people of Australian descent
People from Croydon
1962 births
2003 deaths
People educated at Ravensbourne School, Bromley
Boxers from Greater London | [
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243433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%20hostage%20crisis | Iran hostage crisis | On November 4, 1979, 52 United States diplomats and citizens were held hostage after a group of militarized Iranian college students belonging to the Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line, who supported the Iranian Revolution, took over the U.S. Embassy in Tehran and seized hostages. A diplomatic standoff ensued. The hostages were held for 444 days, being released on January 20, 1981.
Western media described the crisis as an "entanglement" of "vengeance and mutual incomprehension". U.S. President Jimmy Carter called the hostage-taking an act of "blackmail" and the hostages "victims of terrorism and anarchy". In Iran, it was widely seen as an act against the U.S. and its influence in Iran, including its perceived attempts to undermine the Iranian Revolution and its longstanding support of the shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was overthrown in 1979. After Shah Pahlavi was overthrown, he was admitted to the U.S. for cancer treatment. Iran demanded his return in order to stand trial for crimes that he was accused of committing during his reign. Specifically, he was accused of committing crimes against Iranian citizens with the help of his secret police. Iran's demands were rejected by the United States, and Iran saw the decision to grant him asylum as American complicity in those atrocities. The Americans saw the hostage-taking as an egregious violation of the principles of international law, such as the Vienna Convention, which granted diplomats immunity from arrest and made diplomatic compounds inviolable. The Shah left the United States in December 1979 and was ultimately granted asylum in Egypt, where he died from complications of cancer at age 60 on July 27, 1980.
Six American diplomats who had evaded capture were rescued by a joint CIA–Canadian effort on January 27, 1980. The crisis reached a climax in early 1980 after diplomatic negotiations failed to win the release of the hostages. Carter ordered the U.S. military to attempt a rescue mission – Operation Eagle Claw – using warships that included and , which were patrolling the waters near Iran. The failed attempt on April 24, 1980, resulted in the death of one Iranian civilian and the accidental deaths of eight American servicemen after one of the helicopters crashed into a transport aircraft. U.S. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance resigned his position following the failure. In September 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, beginning the Iran–Iraq War. These events led the Iranian government to enter negotiations with the U.S., with Algeria acting as a mediator. The crisis is considered a pivotal episode in the history of Iran–United States relations.
Political analysts cited the standoff as a major factor in the continuing downfall of Carter's presidency and his landslide loss in the 1980 presidential election; the hostages were formally released into United States custody the day after the signing of the Algiers Accords, just minutes after American President Ronald Reagan was sworn into office. In Iran, the crisis strengthened the prestige of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and the political power of theocrats who opposed any normalization of relations with the West. The crisis also led to American economic sanctions against Iran, which further weakened ties between the two countries.
Background
1953 coup d'état
During the Second World War, the British and the Soviet governments invaded and occupied Iran, forcing the first Pahlavi monarch, Reza Shah Pahlavi to abdicate in favor of his eldest son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. The two nations claimed they acted preemptively to stop Reza Shah from aligning his petroleum-rich country with Nazi Germany. However the Shah's declaration of neutrality, and refusal to allow Iranian territory to be used to train or supply Soviet troops, were likely the real motives behind the invasion.
The United States did not participate the invasion but did secure Iran's independence after the war ended by applying intense diplomatic pressure on the Soviet to withdraw in 1946.
By the 1950s Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was engaged in a power struggle with Iran's prime minister, Mohammad Mosaddegh, an immediate descendant of the preceding Qajar dynasty. Mosaddegh led a general strike, demanding an increased share of the nation's petroleum revenue from the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company operating in Iran. The UK retaliated by reducing the amount of revenue given the Iranian government received. In 1953, the CIA and MI6 helped Iranian royalists depose Mosaddegh in a military coup d'état codenamed Operation Ajax, allowing the Shah to extend his power. For the next two decades the Shah reigned as an absolute monarch, "disloyal" elements within the state were purged. The U.S. continued to support the Shah after the coup, with the CIA training the Iranian secret police. In the subsequent decades of the Cold War, various economic, cultural, and political issues united Iranian opposition against the Shah and led to his eventual overthrow.
Carter administration
Months before the Iranian Revolution, on New Year's Eve 1977, U.S. President Jimmy Carter further angered anti-Shah Iranians with a televised toast to Pahlavi, claiming that the Shah was "beloved" by his people. After the revolution commenced in February 1979 with the return of the Ayatollah Khomeini, the American Embassy was occupied and its staff held hostage briefly. Rocks and bullets had broken so many of the embassy's front-facing windows that they were replaced with bulletproof glass. The embassy's staff was reduced to just over 60 from a high of nearly one thousand earlier in the decade.
The Carter administration tried to mitigate anti-American feeling by promoting a new relationship with the de facto Iranian government and continuing military cooperation in hopes that the situation would stabilize. However, on October 22, 1979, the United States permitted the Shah, who had lymphoma, to enter New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center for medical treatment. The State Department had discouraged this decision, understanding the political delicacy. But in response to pressure from influential figures including former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and Council on Foreign Relations Chairman David Rockefeller, the Carter administration decided to grant it.
The Shah's admission to the United States intensified Iranian revolutionaries' anti-Americanism and spawned rumors of another U.S.–backed coup that would re-install him. Khomeini, who had been exiled by the shah for 15 years, heightened the rhetoric against the "Great Satan", as he called the U.S, talking of "evidence of American plotting." In addition to ending what they believed was American sabotage of the revolution, the hostage takers hoped to depose the provisional revolutionary government of Prime Minister Mehdi Bazargan, which they believed was plotting to normalize relations with the U.S. and extinguish Islamic revolutionary order in Iran. The occupation of the embassy on November 4, 1979, was also intended as leverage to demand the return of the Shah to stand trial in Iran in exchange for the hostages.
A later study claimed that there had been no American plots to overthrow the revolutionaries, and that a CIA intelligence-gathering mission at the embassy had been "notably ineffectual, gathering little information and hampered by the fact that none of the three officers spoke the local language, Persian." Its work, the study said, was "routine, prudent espionage conducted at diplomatic missions everywhere."
Prelude
First attempt
On the morning of February 14, 1979, the Organization of Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas stormed the U.S. Embassy in Tehran and took a Marine named Kenneth Kraus hostage. Ambassador William H. Sullivan surrendered the embassy to save lives, and with the assistance of Iranian Foreign Minister Ebrahim Yazdi, returned the embassy to U.S. hands within three hours. Kraus was injured in the attack, kidnapped by the militants, tortured, tried, and convicted of murder. He was to be executed, but President Carter and Sullivan secured his release within six days. This incident became known as the Valentine's Day Open House.
Second attempt
The next attempt to seize the American Embassy was planned for September 1979 by Ebrahim Asgharzadeh, a student at the time. He consulted with the heads of the Islamic associations of Tehran's main universities, including the University of Tehran, Sharif University of Technology, Amirkabir University of Technology (Polytechnic of Tehran), and Iran University of Science and Technology. They named their group Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line.
Asgharzadeh later said there were five students at the first meeting, two of whom wanted to target the Soviet Embassy because the USSR was "a Marxist and anti-God regime". Two others, Mohsen Mirdamadi and Habibolah Bitaraf, supported Asgharzadeh's chosen target: the United States. "Our aim was to object against the American government by going to their embassy and occupying it for several hours," Asgharzadeh said. "Announcing our objections from within the occupied compound would carry our message to the world in a much more firm and effective way." Mirdamadi told an interviewer, "We intended to detain the diplomats for a few days, maybe one week, but no more." Masoumeh Ebtekar, the spokeswoman for the Iranian students during the crisis, said that those who rejected Asgharzadeh's plan did not participate in the subsequent events.
The students observed the procedures of the Marine Security Guards from nearby rooftops overlooking the embassy. They also drew on their experiences from the recent revolution, during which the U.S. Embassy grounds were briefly occupied. They enlisted the support of police officers in charge of guarding the embassy and of the Islamic Revolutionary Guards.
According to the group and other sources, Ayatollah Khomeini did not know of the plan beforehand. The students had wanted to inform him, but according to the author Mark Bowden, Ayatollah Mohammad Mousavi Khoeiniha persuaded them not to. Khoeiniha feared that the government would use the police to expel the students as they had the occupiers in February. The provisional government had been appointed by Khomeini, and so Khomeini was likely to go along with the government's request to restore order. On the other hand, Khoeiniha knew that if Khomeini first saw that the occupiers were faithful supporters of him (unlike the leftists in the first occupation) and that large numbers of pious Muslims had gathered outside the embassy to show their support for the takeover, it would be "very hard, perhaps even impossible," for him to oppose the takeover, and this would paralyze the Bazargan administration, which Khoeiniha and the students wanted to eliminate.
Supporters of the takeover stated that their motivation was fear of another American-backed coup against their popular revolution.
Takeover
On November 4, 1979, one of the demonstrations organized by Iranian student unions loyal to Khomeini erupted into an all-out conflict right outside the walled compound housing the U.S. Embassy.
At about 6:30 a.m., the ringleaders gathered between three hundred and five hundred selected students and briefed them on the battle plan. A female student was given a pair of metal cutters to break the chains locking the embassy's gates and hid them beneath her chador.
At first, the students planned a symbolic occupation, in which they would release statements to the press and leave when government security forces came to restore order. This was reflected in placards saying: "Don't be afraid. We just want to sit in." When the embassy guards brandished firearms, the protesters retreated, with one telling the Americans, "We don't mean any harm." But as it became clear that the guards would not use deadly force and that a large, angry crowd had gathered outside the compound to cheer the occupiers and jeer the hostages, the plan changed. According to one embassy staff member, buses full of demonstrators began to appear outside the embassy shortly after the Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line broke through the gates.
As Khomeini's followers had hoped, Khomeini supported the takeover. According to Foreign Minister Yazdi, when he went to Qom to tell Khomeini about it, Khomeini told him to "go and kick them out." But later that evening, back in Tehran, Yazdi heard on the radio that Khomeini had issued a statement supporting the seizure, calling it "the second revolution" and the embassy an "American spy den in Tehran."
The Marines and embassy staff were blindfolded by the occupiers, and then paraded in front of assembled photographers. In the first couple of days, many of the embassy workers who had sneaked out of the compound or had not been there at the time of the takeover were rounded up by Islamists and returned as hostages. Six American diplomats managed to avoid capture and took refuge in the British Embassy before being transferred to the Canadian Embassy. In a joint covert operation known as the Canadian caper, the Canadian government and the CIA managed to smuggle them out of Iran on January 28, 1980, using Canadian passports and a cover story that identified them as a film crew. Others went to the Swedish Embassy in Tehran for three months.
A State Department diplomatic cable of November 8, 1979, details "A Tentative, Incomplete List of U.S. Personnel Being Held in the Embassy Compound."
Motivations
The Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line demanded that Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi return to Iran for trial and execution. The U.S. maintained that the Shah – who was to die less than a year later, in July 1980 – had come to America for medical attention. The group's other demands included that the U.S. government apologize for its interference in the internal affairs of Iran, including the overthrow of Prime Minister Mosaddegh in 1953, and that Iran's frozen assets in the United States be released.
The initial plan was to hold the embassy for only a short time, but this changed after it became apparent how popular the takeover was and that Khomeini had given it his full support. Some attributed the decision not to release the hostages quickly to President Carter's failure to immediately deliver an ultimatum to Iran. His initial response was to appeal for the release of the hostages on humanitarian grounds and to share his hopes for a strategic anti-communist alliance with the Ayatollah. As some of the student leaders had hoped, Iran's moderate prime minister, Bazargan, and his cabinet resigned under pressure just days after the takeover.
The duration of the hostages' captivity has also been attributed to internal Iranian revolutionary politics. As Ayatollah Khomeini told Iran's president:
This has united our people. Our opponents do not dare act against us. We can put the constitution to the people's vote without difficulty, and carry out presidential and parliamentary elections.
Leftist People's Mujahedin of Iran supported the taking of hostages at the US embassy. According to scholar Daniel Pipes, writing in 1980, the Marxist-leaning leftists and the Islamists shared a common antipathy toward market-based reforms under the late Shah, and both subsumed individualism, including the unique identity of women, under conservative, though contrasting, visions of collectivism. Accordingly, both groups favored the Soviet Union over the United States in the early months of the Iranian Revolution. The Soviets, and possibly their allies Cuba, Libya, and East Germany, were suspected of providing indirect assistance to the participants in the takeover of the U.S. embassy in Tehran. The PLO under Yasser Arafat provided personnel, intelligence liaisons, funding, and training for Khomeini's forces before and after the revolution, and was suspected of playing a role in the embassy crisis. Fidel Castro reportedly praised Khomeini as a revolutionary anti-imperialist who could find common cause between revolutionary socialists and anti-American Islamists. Both expressed disdain for modern capitalism and a preference for authoritarian collectivism. Cuba and its socialist ally Venezuela, under Hugo Chávez, would later form ALBA in alliance with the Islamic Republic as a counter to neoliberal American influence.
Revolutionary teams displayed secret documents purportedly taken from the embassy, sometimes painstakingly reconstructed after shredding, to buttress their claim that the U.S. was trying to destabilize the new regime.
By embracing the hostage-taking under the slogan "America can't do a thing," Khomeini rallied support and deflected criticism of his controversial theocratic constitution, which was scheduled for a referendum vote in less than one month. The referendum was successful, and after the vote, both leftists and theocrats continued to use allegations of pro-Americanism to suppress their opponents: relatively moderate political forces that included the Iranian Freedom Movement, the National Front, Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari, and later President Abolhassan Banisadr. In particular, carefully selected diplomatic dispatches and reports discovered at the embassy and released by the hostage-takers led to the disempowerment and resignation of moderate figures such as Bazargan. The failed rescue attempt and the political danger of any move seen as accommodating America delayed a negotiated release of the hostages. After the crisis ended, leftists and theocrats turned on each other, with the stronger theocratic group annihilating the left.
Discovered documents of the American embassy
Supporters of the takeover claimed that in 1953, the American Embassy had acted as a "den of spies" from which the coup was organized. Documents were later found in the embassy suggesting that some staff members had been working with the Central Intelligence Agency. Later, the CIA confirmed its role and that of MI6 in Operation Ajax. After the Shah entered the United States, Ayatollah Khomeini called for street demonstrations.
Revolutionary teams displayed secret documents purportedly taken from the embassy, sometimes painstakingly reconstructed after shredding, to buttress their claim that "the Great Satan" (the U.S.) was trying to destabilize the new regime and that Iranian moderates were in league with the U.S. The documents – including telegrams, correspondence, and reports from the U.S. State Department and CIA – were published in a series of books called Documents from the U.S. Espionage Den (). According to a 1997 Federation of American Scientists bulletin, by 1995, 77 volumes of Documents from the U.S. Espionage Den had been published. Many of these volumes are now available online.
The 444-day crisis
Hostage conditions
The hostage-takers, declaring their solidarity with other "oppressed minorities" and "the special place of women in Islam," released one woman and two African Americans on November 19. Before release, these hostages were required by their captors to hold a press conference in which Kathy Gross and William Quarles praised the revolution's aims, but four further women and six African-Americans were released the following day. According to the then United States Ambassador to Lebanon, John Gunther Dean, the 13 hostages were released with the assistance of the Palestine Liberation Organization, after Yassir Arafat and Abu Jihad personally traveled to Tehran to secure a concession. The only African-American hostage not released that month was Charles A. Jones, Jr. One more hostage, a white man named Richard Queen, was released in July 1980 after he became seriously ill with what was later diagnosed as multiple sclerosis. The remaining 52 hostages were held until January 1981, up to 444 days of captivity.
The hostages were initially held at the embassy, but after the takers took the cue from the failed rescue mission, the detainees were scattered around Iran in order to make a single rescue attempt impossible. Three high-level officials – Bruce Laingen, Victor L. Tomseth, and Mike Howland – were at the Foreign Ministry at the time of the takeover. They stayed there for some months, sleeping in the ministry's formal dining room and washing their socks and underwear in the bathroom. At first, they were treated as diplomats, but after the provisional government fell, their treatment deteriorated. By March, the doors to their living space were kept "chained and padlocked."
By midsummer 1980, the Iranians had moved the hostages to prisons in Tehran to prevent escapes or rescue attempts and to improve the logistics of guard shifts and food delivery. The final holding area, from November 1980 until their release, was the Teymur Bakhtiar mansion in Tehran, where the hostages were finally given tubs, showers, and hot and cold running water. Several foreign diplomats and ambassadors – including former Canadian ambassador Ken Taylor – visited the hostages over the course of the crisis and relayed information back to the U.S. government, including dispatches from Laingen.
Iranian propaganda stated that the hostages were "guests" and were treated with respect. Asgharzadeh, the student leader, described the original plan as a nonviolent and symbolic action in which the "gentle and respectful treatment" of the hostages would dramatize to the world the offended sovereignty and dignity of Iran. In America, an Iranian chargé d'affaires, Ali Agha, stormed out of a meeting with an American official, exclaiming: "We are not mistreating the hostages. They are being very well taken care of in Tehran. They are our guests."
The actual treatment was far different. The hostages described beatings, theft, and fear of bodily harm. Two of them, William Belk and Kathryn Koob, recalled being paraded blindfolded before an angry, chanting crowd outside the embassy. Others reported having their hands bound "day and night" for days or even weeks, long periods of solitary confinement, and months of being forbidden to speak to one another or to stand, walk, or leave their space unless they were going to the bathroom. All of the hostages "were threatened repeatedly with execution, and took it seriously." The hostage-takers played Russian roulette with their victims.
One, Michael Metrinko, was kept in solitary confinement for months. On two occasions, when he expressed his opinion of Ayatollah Khomeini, he was punished severely. The first time, he was kept in handcuffs for two weeks, and the second time, he was beaten and kept alone in a freezing cell for two weeks.
Another hostage, U.S. Army medic Donald Hohman, went on a hunger strike for several weeks, and two hostages attempted suicide. Steve Lauterbach broke a water glass and slashed his wrists after being locked in a dark basement room with his hands tightly bound. He was found by guards and rushed to the hospital. Jerry Miele, a CIA communication technician, smashed his head into the corner of a door, knocking himself unconscious and cutting a deep gash. "Naturally withdrawn" and looking "ill, old, tired, and vulnerable," Miele had become the butt of his guards' jokes, and they had rigged up a mock electric chair to emphasize the fate that awaited him. His fellow hostages applied first aid and raised the alarm, and he was taken to a hospital after a long delay created by the guards.
Other hostages described threats to boil their feet in oil (Alan B. Golacinski), cut their eyes out (Rick Kupke), or kidnap and kill a disabled son in America and "start sending pieces of him to your wife" (David Roeder).
Four hostages tried to escape, and all were punished with stretches of solitary confinement when their attempts were discovered.
Queen, the hostage sent home because of his multiple sclerosis, first developed dizziness and numbness in his left arm six months before his release. His symptoms were misdiagnosed by the Iranians at first as a reaction to drafts of cold air. When warmer confinement did not help, he was told that it was "nothing" and that the symptoms would soon disappear. Over the months, the numbness spread to his right side, and the dizziness worsened until he "was literally flat on his back, unable to move without growing dizzy and throwing up."
The cruelty of the Iranian prison guards became "a form of slow torture." The guards often withheld mail – telling one hostage, Charles W. Scott, "I don't see anything for you, Mr. Scott. Are you sure your wife has not found another man?" – and the hostages' possessions went missing.
As the hostages were taken to the aircraft that would fly them out of Tehran, they were led through a gauntlet of students forming parallel lines and shouting, "Marg bar Amrika" ("death to America"). When the pilot announced that they were out of Iran, the "freed hostages went wild with happiness. Shouting, cheering, crying, clapping, falling into one another's arms."
Impact in the United States
In the United States, the hostage crisis created "a surge of patriotism" and left "the American people more united than they have been on any issue in two decades." The hostage-taking was seen "not just as a diplomatic affront," but as a "declaration of war on diplomacy itself." Television news gave daily updates. In January 1980, the CBS Evening News anchor Walter Cronkite began ending each show by saying how many days the hostages had been captive. President Carter applied economic and diplomatic pressure: Oil imports from Iran were ended on November 12, 1979, and with Executive Order 12170, around US$8 billion of Iranian assets in the United States were frozen by the Office of Foreign Assets Control on November 14.
During the weeks leading up to Christmas in 1979, high school students made cards that were delivered to the hostages. Community groups across the country did the same, resulting in bales of Christmas cards. The National Christmas Tree was left dark except for the top star.
At the time, two Trenton, N.J., newspapers – The Trenton Times and the Trentonian and perhaps others around the country – printed full-page color American flags in their newspapers for readers to cut out and place in the front windows of their homes as support for the hostages until they were brought home safely.
A severe backlash against Iranians in the United States developed. One Iranian American later complained, "I had to hide my Iranian identity not to get beaten up, even at university."
According to Bowden, a pattern emerged in President Carter's attempts to negotiate the hostages' release: "Carter would latch on to a deal proffered by a top Iranian official and grant minor but humiliating concessions, only to have it scotched at the last minute by Khomeini."
Canadian rescue of hostages
On the day the hostages were seized, six American diplomats evaded capture and remained in hiding at the home of the Canadian diplomat John Sheardown, under the protection of the Canadian ambassador, Ken Taylor. In late 1979, the government of Prime Minister Joe Clark secretly issued an Order in Council allowing Canadian passports to be issued to some American citizens so that they could escape. In cooperation with the CIA, which used the cover story of a film project, two CIA agents and the six American diplomats boarded a Swissair flight to Zurich, Switzerland, on January 28, 1980. Their rescue from Iran, known as the Canadian caper, was fictionalized in the 1981 film Escape from Iran: The Canadian Caper and the 2012 film Argo.
Negotiations for release
Rescue attempts
First rescue attempt
Cyrus Vance, the United States Secretary of State, had argued against the push by Zbigniew Brzezinski, the National Security Advisor, for a military solution to the crisis. Vance, struggling with gout, went to Florida on Thursday, April 10, 1980, for a long weekend. On Friday Brzezinski held a newly scheduled meeting of the National Security Council where the president authorized Operation Eagle Claw, a military expedition into Tehran to rescue the hostages. Deputy Secretary Warren Christopher, who attended the meeting in Vance's place, did not inform Vance. Furious, Vance handed in his resignation on principle, calling Brzezinski "evil."
Late in the afternoon of April 24, 1980, eight RH‑53D helicopters flew from the aircraft carrier USS Nimitz to a remote road serving as an airstrip in the Great Salt Desert of Eastern Iran, near Tabas. They encountered severe dust storms that disabled two of the helicopters, which were traveling in complete radio silence. Early the next morning, the remaining six helicopters met up with several waiting Lockheed C-130 Hercules transport aircraft at a landing site and refueling area designated "Desert One".
At this point, a third helicopter was found to be unserviceable, bringing the total below the six deemed vital for the mission. The commander of the operation, Col. Charles Alvin Beckwith, recommended that the mission be aborted, and his recommendation was approved by President Carter. As the helicopters repositioned themselves for refueling, one ran into a C‑130 tanker aircraft and crashed, killing eight U.S. servicemen and injuring several more.
In May 1980, the Joint Chiefs of Staff commissioned a Special Operations review group of six senior military officers, led by Adm. James L. Holloway III, to thoroughly examine all aspects of the rescue attempt. The group identified 23 issues that were significant in the failure of the mission, 11 of which it deemed major. The overriding issue was operational security – that is, keeping the mission secret so that the arrival of the rescue team at the embassy would be a complete surprise. This severed the usual relationship between pilots and weather forecasters; the pilots were not informed about the local dust storms. Another security requirement was that the helicopter pilots come from the same unit. The unit picked for the mission was a U.S. Navy mine-laying unit flying CH-53D Sea Stallions; these helicopters were considered the best suited for the mission because of their long range, large capacity, and compatibility with shipboard operations.
Two hours into the flight, the crew of helicopter No. 6 saw a warning light indicating that a main rotor might be cracked. They landed in the desert, confirmed visually that a crack had started to develop, and stopped flying in accordance with normal operating procedure. Helicopter No. 8 landed to pick up the crew of No. 6, and abandoned No. 6 in the desert without destroying it. The report by Holloway's group pointed out that a cracked helicopter blade could have been used to continue the mission and that its likelihood of catastrophic failure would have been low for many hours, especially at lower flying speeds. The report found that the pilot of No. 6 would have continued the mission if instructed to do so.
When the helicopters encountered two dust storms along the way to the refueling point, the second more severe than the first, the pilot of No. 5 turned back because the mine-laying helicopters were not equipped with terrain-following radar. The report found that the pilot could have continued to the refueling point if he had been told that better weather awaited him there, but because of the command for radio silence, he did not ask about the conditions ahead. The report also concluded that "there were ways to pass the information" between the refueling station and the helicopter force "that would have small likelihood of compromising the mission" – in other words, that the ban on communication had not been necessary at this stage.
Helicopter No. 2 experienced a partial hydraulic system failure but was able to fly on for four hours to the refueling location. There, an inspection showed that a hydraulic fluid leak had damaged a pump and that the helicopter could not be flown safely, nor repaired in time to continue the mission. Six helicopters was thought to be the absolute minimum required for the rescue mission, so with the force reduced to five, the local commander radioed his intention to abort. This request was passed through military channels to President Carter, who agreed.
After the mission and its failure were made known publicly, Khomeini credited divine intervention on behalf of Islam, and his prestige skyrocketed in Iran. Iranian officials who favored release of the hostages, such as President Bani Sadr, were weakened. In America, President Carter's political popularity and prospects for being re-elected in 1980 were further damaged after a television address on April 25 in which he explained the rescue operation and accepted responsibility for its failure.
Planned second attempt
A second rescue attempt, planned but never carried out, would have used highly modified YMC-130H Hercules aircraft. Three aircraft, outfitted with rocket thrusters to allow an extremely short landing and takeoff in the Shahid Shiroudi football stadium near the embassy, were modified under a rushed, top-secret program known as Operation Credible Sport. One crashed during a demonstration at Eglin Air Force Base on October 29, 1980, when its braking rockets were fired too soon. The misfire caused a hard touchdown that tore off the starboard wing and started a fire, but all on board survived. After Carter lost the presidential election in November, the project was abandoned.
The failed rescue attempt led to the creation of the 160th SOAR, a helicopter aviation Special Operations group.
Release
With the completion of negotiations signified by the signing of the Algiers Accords on January 19, 1981, the hostages were released on January 20, 1981. That day, minutes after President Reagan completed his 20‑minute inaugural address after being sworn in, the 52 American hostages were released to U.S. personnel. There are theories and conspiracy theories regarding why Iran postponed the release until that moment. (See also: October Surprise conspiracy theory) They were flown on an Algerian plane from Iran to Algiers, Algeria, where they were formally transferred to Warren M. Christopher, the representative of the United States, as a symbolic gesture of appreciation for the Algerian government's help in resolving the crisis. The flight continued to Rhein-Main Air Base in West Germany and on to an Air Force hospital in Wiesbaden, where former President Carter, acting as emissary, received them. After medical check-ups and debriefings, the hostages made a second flight to a refueling stop in Shannon, Ireland, where they were greeted by a large crowd. The released hostages were then flown to Stewart Air National Guard Base in Newburgh, New York. From Newburgh, they traveled by bus to the United States Military Academy at West Point and stayed at the Thayer Hotel for three days, receiving a heroes' welcome all along the route. Ten days after their release, they were given a ticker tape parade through the Canyon of Heroes in New York City.
Aftermath
Iran–Iraq War
The Iraqi invasion of Iran occurred less than a year after the embassy employees were taken hostage. The journalist Stephen Kinzer argues that the dramatic change in American–Iranian relations, from allies to enemies, helped embolden the Iraqi leader, Saddam Hussein, and that the United States' anger with Iran led it to aid the Iraqis after the war turned against them. The United States supplied Iraq with, among other things, "helicopters and satellite intelligence that was used in selecting bombing targets." This assistance "deepened and widened anti-American feeling in Iran."
Consequences for Iran
The hostage-taking is considered largely unsuccessful for Iran, as the negotiated settlement with the U.S. did not meet any of Iran's original demands. Iran lost international support for its war against Iraq. However, anti-Americanism intensified and the crisis served to benefit those Iranians who had supported it. Politicians such as Khoeiniha and Behzad Nabavi were left in a stronger position, while those associated with – or accused of association with – the U.S. were removed from the political picture. Khomeini biographer, Baqer Moin, described the crisis as "a watershed in Khomeini's life" that transformed him from "a cautious, pragmatic politician" into "a modern revolutionary single-mindedly pursuing a dogma." In Khomeini's statements, imperialism and liberalism were "negative words," while revolution "became a sacred word, sometimes more important than Islam."
The Iranian government commemorates the event every year with a demonstration at the embassy and the burning of an American flag. However, on November 4, 2009, pro-democracy protesters and reformists demonstrated in the streets of Tehran. When the authorities encouraged them to chant "death to America," the protesters instead chanted "death to the dictator" (referring to Iran's Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei) and other anti-government slogans.
Consequences for the United States
Gifts, including lifetime passes to any minor league or Major League Baseball game, were showered on the hostages upon their return to the United States.
In 2000 the hostages and their families tried unsuccessfully to sue Iran under the Antiterrorism Act of 1996. They originally won the case when Iran failed to provide a defense, but the State Department then tried to end the lawsuit, fearing that it would make international relations difficult. As a result, a federal judge ruled that no damages could be awarded to the hostages because of the agreement the United States had made when the hostages were freed.
The former U.S. Embassy building is now used by Iran's government and affiliated groups. Since 2001 it has served as a museum to the revolution. Outside the door, there is a bronze model based on the Statue of Liberty on one side and a statue portraying one of the hostages on the other.
The Guardian reported in 2006 that a group called the Committee for the Commemoration of Martyrs of the Global Islamic Campaign had used the embassy to recruit "martyrdom seekers": volunteers to carry out operations against Western and Israeli targets. Mohammad Samadi, a spokesman for the group, signed up several hundred volunteers in a few days.
Diplomatic relations
The United States and Iran broke off formal diplomatic relations over the hostage crisis. Iran selected Algeria as its protecting power in the United States, transferring the mandate to Pakistan in 1992. The United States selected Switzerland as its protecting power in Iran. Relations are maintained through the Iranian Interests Section of the Pakistani Embassy and the U.S. Interests Section of the Swiss Embassy.
Hostages
There were 66 original captives: 63 taken at the embassy and three captured and held at the Foreign Ministry offices. Three of the hostages were operatives of the CIA. One was a chemical engineering student from URI.
Thirteen hostages were released November 19–20, 1979, and one was released on July 11, 1980.
Diplomats who evaded capture
Robert Anders, 54 – consular officer
Mark J. Lijek, 29 – consular officer
Cora A. Lijek, 25 – consular assistant
Henry L. Schatz, 31 – agriculture attaché
Joseph D. Stafford, 29 – consular officer
Kathleen F. Stafford, 28 – consular assistant
Hostages released November 19, 1979
Kathy Gross, 22 – secretary
Sgt Ladell Maples, USMC, 23 – Marine Corps embassy guard
Sgt William Quarles, USMC, 23 – Marine Corps embassy guard
Hostages released November 20, 1979
Sgt James Hughes, USAF, 30 – Air Force administrative manager
Lillian Johnson, 32 – secretary
Elizabeth Montagne, 42 – secretary
Lloyd Rollins, 40 – administrative officer
Capt Neal (Terry) Robinson, USAF, – Air Force military intelligence officer
Terri Tedford, 24 – secretary
MSgt Joseph Vincent, USAF, 42 – Air Force administrative manager
Sgt David Walker, USMC, 25 – Marine Corps embassy guard
Joan Walsh, 33 – secretary
Cpl Wesley Williams, USMC, 24 – Marine Corps embassy guard
Hostage released July 1980
Richard Queen, 28 – vice consul
Hostages released January 1981
Thomas L. Ahern, Jr. – narcotics control officer (later identified as CIA station chief)
Clair Cortland Barnes, 35 – communications specialist
William E. Belk, 44 – communications and records officer
Robert O. Blucker, 54 – economics officer
Donald J. Cooke, 25 – vice consul
William J. Daugherty, 33 – third secretary of U.S. mission (CIA officer)
LCDR Robert Englemann, USN, 34 – Navy attaché
Sgt William Gallegos, USMC, 22 – Marine Corps guard
Bruce W. German, 44 – budget officer
IS1 Duane L. Gillette, 24 – Navy communications and intelligence specialist
Alan B. Golacinski, 30 – chief of embassy security, regional security officer
John E. Graves, 53 – public affairs officer
CW3 Joseph M. Hall, USA, 32 – Army attaché
Sgt Kevin J. Hermening, USMC, 21 – Marine Corps guard
SFC Donald R. Hohman, USA, 38 – Army medic
COL Leland J. Holland, USA, 53 – military attaché
Michael Howland, 34 – assistant regional security officer
Charles A. Jones, Jr., 40 – communications specialist, teletype operator
Malcolm K. Kalp, 42 – commercial officer
Moorhead C. Kennedy, Jr., 50 – economic and commercial officer
William F. Keough, Jr., 50 – superintendent of the American School in Islamabad (visiting Tehran at time of embassy seizure)
Cpl Steven W. Kirtley, USMC – Marine Corps guard
Kathryn L. Koob, 42 – embassy cultural officer (one of two unreleased female hostages)
Frederick Lee Kupke, 34 – communications officer and electronics specialist
L. Bruce Laingen, 58 – chargé d'affaires
Steven Lauterbach, 29 – administrative officer
Gary E. Lee, 37 – administrative officer
Sgt Paul Edward Lewis, USMC, 23 – Marine Corps guard
John W. Limbert, Jr., 37 – political officer
Sgt James M. Lopez, USMC, 22 – Marine Corps guard
Sgt John D. McKeel, Jr., USMC, 27 – Marine Corps guard
Michael J. Metrinko, 34 – political officer
Jerry J. Miele, 42 – communications officer
SSgt Michael E. Moeller, USMC, 31 – head of Marine Corps guard unit
Bert C. Moore, 45 – administration counselor
Richard Morefield, 51 – consul general
Capt Paul M. Needham, Jr., USAF, 30 – Air Force logistics staff officer
Robert C. Ode, 65 – retired foreign service officer on temporary duty in Tehran
Sgt Gregory A. Persinger, USMC, 23 – Marine Corps guard
Jerry Plotkin, 45 – civilian businessman visiting Tehran
MSG Regis Ragan, USA, 38 – Army soldier, defense attaché's office
Lt Col David M. Roeder, USAF, 41 – deputy Air Force attaché
Barry M. Rosen, 36 – press attaché
William B. Royer, Jr., 49 – assistant director of Iran–American Society
Col Thomas E. Schaefer, USAF, 50 – Air Force attaché
COL Charles W. Scott, USA, 48 – Army attaché
CDR Donald A. Sharer, USN, 40 – Naval attaché
Sgt Rodney V. (Rocky) Sickmann, USMC, 22 – Marine Corps guard
SSG Joseph Subic, Jr., USA, 23 – military police, Army, defense attaché's office
Elizabeth Ann Swift, 40 – deputy head of political section (one of two unreleased female hostages)
Victor L. Tomseth, 39 – counselor for political affairs
Phillip R. Ward, 40 – CIA communications officer
Civilian hostages
A small number of hostages, not captured at the embassy, were taken in Iran during the same time period. All were released by late 1982.
Jerry Plotkin – American Businessman released January 1981.
Mohi Sobhani – Iranian American engineer and member of the Baháʼí Faith. Released February 4, 1981.
Zia Nassry – Afghan American. Released November 1982.
Cynthia Dwyer – American reporter, arrested May 5, 1980, charged with espionage and freed on February 10, 1981.
Paul Chiapparone and Bill Gaylord – Electronic Data Systems (EDS) employees, rescued by team led by retired United States Army Special Forces Colonel "Bull" Simons, funded by EDS owner Ross Perot, in 1979.
Four British missionaries, including John Coleman; his wife, Audrey Coleman; and Jean Waddell; released in late 1981
Hostages honored
All State Department and CIA employees who were taken hostage received the State Department Award for Valor. Political Officer Michael J. Metrinko received two: one for his time as a hostage and another for his daring rescue of Americans who had been jailed in Tabriz months before the embassy takeover.
The U.S. military later awarded the 20 servicemen among the hostages the Defense Meritorious Service Medal. The only hostage serviceman not issued the medal was Staff Sgt Joseph Subic, Jr., who "did not behave under stress the way noncommissioned officers are expected to act" – that is, he cooperated with the hostage-takers, according to other hostages.
The Humanitarian Service Medal was awarded to the servicemen of Joint Task Force 1–79, the planning authority for Operation Rice Bowl/Eagle Claw, who participated in the rescue attempt.
The Air Force Special Operations component of the mission was given the Air Force Outstanding Unit award for performing their part of the mission flawlessly, including evacuating the Desert One refueling site under extreme conditions.
Compensation payments
The Tehran hostages received $50 for each day in captivity after their release. This was paid by the US Government. The deal that freed them reached between the United States and Iran and brokered by Algeria in January 1981 prevented the hostages from claiming any restitution from Iran due to foreign sovereign immunity and an executive agreement known as the Algiers Accords, which barred such lawsuits. After failing in the courts, the former hostages turned to Congress and won support from both Democrats and Republicans, resulting in Congress passing a bill (2015 United States Victims of State Sponsored Terrorism Act [USVSST]) in December 2015 that afforded the hostages compensation from a fund to be financed from fines imposed on companies found guilty of breaking American sanctions against Iran. The bill authorised a payment of US$10,000 for each day in captivity (per hostage) as well as a lump sum of $600,000 in compensation for each of the spouses and children of the Iran hostages. This meant that each hostage would be paid up to US$4.4 million. The first funds into the trust account from which the compensation would be paid came from a part of the $9 billion penalty paid by the Paris-based bank BNP Paribas for violating sanctions against Iran, Cuba and Sudan.
Some of the ex-hostages and their families received payments, but then Justice Department lawyers interpreted the law to allow 9/11 family members to get a judgment against Iran as well and to apply to the USVSST fund. Later, victims of the 1983 Beirut bombings also instituted claims against USVSST fund. Due to depletion of the fund, by February 2019, only 17.8% of the legislated amount had been paid to the freed hostages and their direct families.
Notable hostage-takers, guards, and interrogators
Abbas Abdi – reformist, journalist, self-taught sociologist, and social activist.
Hamid Aboutalebi – former Iranian ambassador to the United Nations.
Ebrahim Asgharzadeh – then a student; later an Iranian political activist and politician, member of Parliament (1989–1993), and chairman of City Council of Tehran (1999–2003).
Mohsen Mirdamadi – member of Parliament (2000–2004), head of Islamic Iran Participation Front.
Masoumeh Ebtekar – interpreter and spokeswoman for the student group that occupied the embassy; later a scientist, journalist, first female Vice President of Iran, and head of Environment Protection Organization of Iran.
Mohammad Mousavi Khoeiniha – spiritual leader of the hostage-takers.
Hossein Sheikholeslam – then a student; later a member of Parliament and Iranian ambassador to Syria, died during the COVID-19 outbreak in 2020.
October Surprise conspiracy theory
The timing of the release of the hostages gave rise to allegations that representatives of Reagan's presidential campaign had conspired with Iran to delay the release until after the 1980 United States presidential election to thwart Carter from pulling off an "October surprise". In 1992, Gary Sick, the former national security adviser to Ford and Carter, presented the strongest accusations in an editorial that appear in The New York Times, and others, including former Iranian president Abolhassan Banisadr, repeated and added to them. This alleged plot to influence the outcome of the 1980 United States presidential election between Carter and Reagan became known as the October Surprise conspiracy theory.
After twelve years of varying media attention, both houses of the United States Congress held separate inquiries and concluded that credible evidence supporting the allegation was absent or insufficient.
In popular culture
Over 80 songs have been released about or referencing the Iran hostage crisis.
Laurie Anderson's surprise 1982 UK #2 hit "O Superman" was a response to the crisis, and to Operation Eagle Claw in particular.
The song "Storm the Embassy" by The Stray Cats is loosely based on the crisis.
The 1980 song "Dance the Ayatollah" by the Dead Ayatollahs rose to Dr. Demento's Funny Five.
The 2012 Hollywood movie Argo, which won the Academy Award for Best Picture, was based on the Canadian Caper rescue.
In the video game campaign of Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War, CIA agents Russell Adler, Frank Woods and Alex Mason are sent to target 2 Iranian diplomats due to their roles in the crisis. They theorize that the KGB spy codenamed Perseus was responsible for the instigation of the crisis.
See also
First US diplomat murdered in Persia: Robert Whitney Imbrie
1979 U.S. embassy burning in Islamabad
2011 attack on the British Embassy in Iran
2016 attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran
Attack on the United States embassy in Baghdad
Avenue of Flags, park in the city of Hermitage in Mercer County, Pennsylvania, United States, erected during the crisis to honor the American diplomats held hostage in Tehran, Iran.
Case Concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran
Lebanon hostage crisis
List of foreign nationals detained in Iran
List of hostage crises
Nightline: This ABC News program named "The Iran Crisis: America Held Hostage" got its start as a method for informing viewers of the latest developments during the crisis. The current title premiered March 24, 1980, with Ted Koppel as anchor.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 457 and 461 (1979) on the hostage crisis
Citations
General references
Bakhash, Shaul (1984). The Reign of the Ayatollahs: Iran and the Islamic Revolution. Basic Books.
Sick, Gary (1991). October Surprise: America's Hostages in Iran and the Election of Ronald Reagan. New York: Random House.
Harris, Les (1997). 444 Days to Freedom: What Really Happened in Iran. DVD UPC 033909253390
Bowden, Mark (2006). Guests of the Ayatollah: The Iran Hostage Crisis: The First Battle in America's War with Militant Islam. New York: Grove Press. .
Ebtekar, Massoumeh; Reed, Fred (2000). Takeover in Tehran: The Inside Story of the 1979 U.S. Embassy Capture. Burnaby, BC: Talonbooks. .
Moin, Baqer (2000). Khomeini: Life of the Ayatollah. Thomas Dunne Books.
Further reading
External links
Recently-published pictures of event tarikhirani.ir
The Memory Hole hosts a gallery of photographs taken from inside the U.S. Embassy during the crisis.
List of hostages and casualties
The Iran Hostages: Efforts to Obtain Compensation Congressional Research Service
Declassified documents
United States
Iran Hostage Crisis page on the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) & Joint Staff FOIA Center site.
United Kingdom
Records of the Prime Minister's Office, Correspondence & Papers; 1979–97 at discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk: IRAN. Internal situation in Iran; Attack on British Embassy; Hostage-taking at US Embassy; Freezing of Iranian Assets; US Mission to release hostages; Relations with US & UK following hostage taking at US Embassy.
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United States Marine Corps in the 20th century | [
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